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https://archive.org/details/tropicalagr 


Vol. XXXI= Nos. 


~ INDEX 


TO THE 
( 


TROPICAL AGRICULTURIST AND JUAGAZINE OF THE 6. ft. 


EDITED BY 
J. C. WILLIS, Sc.D., F.L.S. 


Director, Royal Botanic Gardens, Peradeniya. 


Ito VI: 


July to December, 1908. 


A. M. & J. FERGUSON, 
PROPRIETORS AND PUBLISHERS, COLOMBO, CEYLON. 


PaGeE, 
A. 
Aberia—(Ketembilla) Miscellaneous , 
Economic Plants ‘a 339 
‘“‘ Aerator” Garden Plough .. 278 
Africa, re Ce Planting in... 92 
do , Rubber Estates in 511 
Retin of Waste Lands 551 
Agaves and Soil Denudation 123 
Agricultural Apprentices, Madras 480a 
do Banks 71 
do Conference at ‘Ahmedabad 155 
do Implements, Light Ameri- 
can nid 480¢ 
do Industries in Natal 226 
do Instruction in Heenan 
Schools oh 480 
do Sayings in Bengal 272 
do Society, Genera Meeting. 
Minutes : om 70 
do Society of Batticaloa 188 
Agriculture, European, in Nyasaland .. 284 
do and Rats 4 ia 560 
do in peyion, Rural 569 
do in F.M 483 
do in Kalutara District in 1907 86 
do in Southern India Pr 45 
do Literature of Economic 
Botany and aoe 55 
do Literature of Economic ... 51, 162, 
266, 366, 470, 571 
do Native, and Tillage 288 
do Science in 466 
ta) U.S.A Department of #4, 59 
Amazon Rubber .. ... 410, 506 
Amherstia Nobilis 5 284 
Angola, Rubber in 298 
-Annatto, Cultivation and Utilisation of 418 
- Annual Review of the Tea Trade of 1907 99 
Anti-Opium Drug, CombretumSundaicum = 225 
do Plant, The Malayan . 124, 225 
Apiculture, Bami bara Bees 69 
do Bees, Artificial Swarming 0 of 
do Bee Notes I 
do II , 
do Gora: foundations for Mee- 
messa Bar 
do Honey in California “ 
do Some Sounds of the Bee ... 


Apple Trees, Effect of Grass on 
Areca Palm Cultivation in New Guinea 
Argemome Mexicana (Mexican Poppy) 
Arrowroot, A Leaflet on , Bi 
Avocado Pear .. rs 
--Ayapana Oil sn. ve 


Pace 
B. 
Balata Rubber 212 
Bananas, Enzymes in 79 
do and Oranges in Mexico 398 
do in Cuba 524 
do Market of France. 104 
Bassia (see Miscellaneous Economic 
Plants) 423, 
Bengal Flax, A Fortune in. 96 
do Fish Products 604 
do Raw Silk, Production of 190 
Bitter Gourd _... ; 480e 
Blue Stone and Ammonia ... 69 
Board of Agriculture: Minutes 70, 171, 
275, 385, 578 
do Progress Report 171, 375, 578 
Bordeaux Mixture Rs 181 
Borneo, Copra and Oilmaking i in 91 
Botanic Garden in East Java 88 
Botany, Articles on the Literature of 
Economic 51, 162, 266, 366, 470, 571 
Brazil Production of Para Rubber in. 585 
Brinjal, Inedible oe 69 
British Guiana, New Rubber Co. for ... 199 
do do ‘Rubber Experiment 
Station in 84 
do do do Trust 199 
do Malayaasa Field for Investment 94 
do NewGuineaasaPlantingCountry 405 
do North Borneo, Para Trees in 
Government Garden at Tenom 184 
do North Borneo, Tobacco Estate 
Life in AR 501 
Breadfruits of the Tropics ... 428 
do with Seeds p ; 588 
Brucea Sumatrana: Chemical Exami-_ 
nation of be 125 
Budrot of Coconut Trees i in Jamaica Be 181 
do do do in Other Coun- 
tries... 557 
do doin the Philippines... 555 
Bukit Rajah, Rubber Tapping Methodson 285 
Burma, Rubber in 395 
C. 
Cabbages, Manures for Bok 577 
Cacao and Copra from Samoa 96, 293, 447 
do and Rubber Estates Co. of 
Uganda 484. 
do asan Adjunct to Rubber Culture 1 
do Estates, Number of Pods Pro- 
duced by Trees on a ‘ 342 
do Exports, Trinidad .... 31 


ii ore OS INDEX, "Tle 


PaGE, 
Cacao Fermentation, Denteputicne to 


the Knowledge of, .. 340, 531 

do in Dominica ; 530 

do inthe United States 228 

do in the West Indies, Result of 

Recent Experiments with 30 

do Manuring Experiments with ... 530 

do Seeds, Packing 128 

do Shade for 529 

do Uses of Mulch in the Cultiva- 

tion of . 2217 

Cactus for Fodder for Behar Planters. 104 
Calabash Gourds, Possible Market for.. 136 
Camphor Exports from Formosa 491 
do from Foochow, China : 190 

do Japan, and Celluloid Sos 78 
do —_ Low- priced ‘Bc 94 

do nN etre and Synthetic Ae 212 

do ca 115 

do Post, ING 398 
do Prospects rs aos 318 

do Pruning of aD ay 287 
do Trade, The oy ee 85 

do War, The oe oe 292 
Candle-nut Tree (Kekuna) ... 120 
Caravonica Cotton in India... a, 517 
Cardamoms, Ceylon sr aR 282 
Cashew Nuts ar 311 
Cassava as a Famine Food . 390 

do Cultivation in Ceylon 390 

do Hydrocyanic Acid Content of 126 

do  Manioca or Tapioca . 378, 525 

do Starch, ipeneteet Engeperis © of 30 

do Yield o 577 
Castilloa, Coawuletine 408 

do Latex, Mr. Harvey’ s Treat- 
ment of 206 
do New Method of Tapping a 208 
do  ontheIsthmus of Tehuantepec 511 
do Under Shade 26 205 
Caucasian Russian Tea 396 
Ceara or Manicoba Rubber.. 316 

do Rubber inthe Dry Zone of Ceylon 318 
Celluloid and Japan Camphor 78 
Ceylon, Ceara Rubber in the Dry Zone of 318 

do Chamber of Commerce Annual 

Report .. 474 

do Coconut Oil and Soap- “making .. 81 

do do Trade ... 77 

do Essential Oils in 1907 287 

do Hevea Plant, Animals Associated 

with the ee 294 
do Mangoes ... 1.135, 480f 

do Planter, Remeniscences of an Ex- 291 

do Planting Industry ... 208, 282, 298 

do - Rubber Estimates Le 394 

do do Output 394 

do Rural Agriculture in 569 

do ‘Tan-producing Trees 170 

do Tropical Agriculture 303 
Chamber of Commerce: Annual Report 474 
Charcoal Burning in Salem Division, 

Method of ae cio 36 
Chena Cutting ... 159 
Chickens, Food for 577 
Chilli Growing i in Natal 481 
Cinchona and “Tea in Java . 387 

do in Ceylon 282 
Circulation, Oils... 505 
Citrate, Tax on 431 


do West Indian 


_ 67 


ee ere 


:, a. 


PaaE, 
Clean Weeding on Rubber Estates... 489 
Cleanliness of Cultivation +. 313, 381 
Clove Tree of Zanzibar a 490 
Coagulating Castilloa Rubber : “408, 511 
Coca Leaves from Perak ... * 124 
Coconut and Rubber in Kelanban : 76 
do and the Cyclone at Batticaloa. 178 
do Cultivation 129 
do do in the Phili pines 71 

do Desiccated, in Ceylon and N.s. 
W., Manufacture of .. 385, 386 
do Disease in Cochin _... .. 182, 192 
do District, N.W.P., Notes from ... 180 
do Husks, Wasteof.. 58 387 
do in Porto Rico 338 

do Manufacture of Desiccated, 

Ceylon 385 

do Notes on the Sprouting, on 
Copra and on Coconut Oil . 417 
do Oil and Soapmaking in Peye 81 
do do in the States ... 324 
do do Purification of ... a 119, 416 
do do Trade, Ceylon ... 463 77 
do Planting, Territory of Papua ... 335 
do Scientific Study of the ae 228 

do Stem Bleeding Disease, Reme- 
dies and Danger ... ... 178, 182 
do Trees in Jamaica, Budrot of 181 
Coffea Robusta, Java’s New 494 
Coffee Curing in the Malabar Coast 28 
do Sumatra 95 

Combretum Sundaicum (Anti- Opium 
Drug) .. 225 
Congo, Rubber to Date in the 397 
Conservation of Soil Moisture S 463 
Cooch Behar, Tobacco Experiment in 104 
Cookery Notes . 567 
Co-operative Credit Societies, i in India 267 

A do do in Madras 
Presidency 268 

do do do Where 

Flourish 53 
Co-operation, Demonstration Work in 258 
Copra Sy Ben f 2333 
o and Cacao in Samoa... BAS 293 
do and Oilmaking in Borneo Ae 91 
do from Samoa fs 96 
do do do and Cacao 96 

Cotton: British Cotton Growing Asso- 
ciation: 3rd Annual Rena 91 
do Caravonica in India me 517 
do  Growi ing in Siam ... 96 
do in London any 285 
do Sea Island, Yield of by Sage 516 
Cow Dung as Fuel 900 149 
Cowpeas | 249, 351 
Cultivated and Wild Plants, Differences in 51 
Cultivation under Canvas ... 604 


De 
Dairy Practice, Modern 
Department of Agriculture, U.S.A. 
Devil Grass 

Divining Rod: its Local Application .. 
Dryland Farming 

Durian, The 

Dwarf Rubber, New Important 


E. 
-Edible-Garcinia Fruits 


one 


Eggs, Testing of .. 


Eri Silk, Pamphlet on ait 
Essential Oils, Ceylon, in 1907 ies 
Kucalyptus Trees aes 
Experimental Plots : 


do Work at Heeleaka abe 
Extraction of Rubber by Electricity ... 


F. 


Farming in Madras Presidency, Dryland 
Fence Plants: Godakaduru, Walbeli 


and Suriya ... dine 
Fermentation of Tobacco ... es 
Fermentation of Cacao bee oon 


eoualicors, New Nitrogen ... 
anese Compounds as 

Fortilising Folic Plant for Rubber 
and other Estates : 

Fibre, Sida Age LA om 
do Sisal see at ove 
do Useful, in Java as sed 

Field Fruit Culture in Mysore 

Fiji Tropical Products of .. 

Fish Insects 

Fishing Nests of the Kolis of Bandra .. 

Fish Products for Bengal 

Flax in Bengal ... 

Fodder, Prickly Pear as 
do Soy Bean as 

Forestry 
do *, What it has Done. 

Forests and Rainfall 

Formosa Sugar Industry 

French Garden £600 in a 

Fruit Culture in Mysore 

do Edible Garcinia 

do Farm Manure 

do Trees, Root Pruning of 
Fruits, New 


_ Fuel, Use of Cowdung i in India as 


Fungicide, Self-boiled Tans ous 
Mixture as a 

Funtumia Elastica 

Furrow Irrigation 


G. 


Gambier Cultivation in West Sumatra 
Garcinia Fruit, Edib le SPs 
Garden, French, £600 ina ... 

do ’ Notes and Strawberr y Growing 
German Rubber Magnate in Ceylon 
Germination Experiments in Hevea 
Giant Rubber Tree of the East 
Green Manuring for Young Rubber 

do in Tea we 

do Tea, Manufacture of.. 
Grevillea Robusta Gum Br 
Groundnuts (Arachis HM ypoge) Notes 

on the Cultivation of 1 
Guava Jelly bie 
Guavas 
Guayule Situation | 
Sugul .. tr 
Gum of Grevillea Robusta re 


a 
Hana Hemp as a Village Industry 


‘ie Experimental W ork of 


INDEX, i 


Paae. 
278 
56 


PAGE, 
Hevea Brasiliensis Germination, Experi- 
ments in ond 414 
do do See Rubber a 
do do Some Remarks on 
the Tapping of ... 315 
Housefly, The Deadly 453 
Hydrocyanic Acid Content of Cassava 126 
Hypnotism of Insects are a4 47 
I. 
Implements, Light American - [4802 
Incubator one 277 
India, Tropical Agriculture i in ae 303 
Indian Agriculture, Introduction of 
Improvements into ci one 372 
Insect Pest Hypnotism Soe om 47 
Insecticide, Cooper’s V.2 170 
International Conference of Rubber 
Growers ae oo eee 494 
Ipecacuanha dio wis one 224 
Irrigation, Areas dec on 146 
do Furrow ae so 459 
J, 
Jaffna Mangoes ... cx 69 
Jak Trees, The Cultivation of 500 69 
Jamaica, Rats in as 451 
gepen Camphor and Celluloid 78 
Rubber Factories, Combination in 312 
do Tea Export Trade ... Ba 95 
do do Production of, in 1907 seal 88 
do do Trade, Future of the Be 79 
J Byanete Rubber Manufacturing In- 
ustry 0 196 
Java, New “Coffee Robusta” of aut 494. 
do Rubber Canker in... oe 395 
do do —- Cultivation in sais 92 
do do Growing in sie 202 
do Noteson ... ih 595 
do Tea and Cinchona in. so 387 
do do and Sugar a Ae 596 
do Tea in de ... 89, 181, 203, 283 
do Tobacco and Sugar |... was 596 
do Useful Fibres in a 88 
Jebong Rubber Production, Cost of ... 484 
J. 
Joedlite: Wood Preservative aa 601 
K. 

Kekuna—see Candlenut Tree Sap 
Kelantan, Rubber and Coconuts in... 76 
L. 

Lalang, A New Usefor ... one 301 
Lantana Pest, The oi 494, 599, 600 
Latex Coagulation of INR yt 
Lead Arsenate as an Insecticide net 552 
Leaf Manuring in Sovth pater bet 461 
Legumirous Plants pe 104. 
Lime Cultivation, A.B.C. of . 435, 535 
Lime-Sulphur, Self- boiled, as a Fungi- 
cide.. br Gs, 137 
Limes, How to Pack 205 


Literature of Economic aes and 
Agriculture... 55, 162, 266, 366, 470, 571 
Loans to Paddy Cultivators a 568 


iv INDEX 
Pace Paces. 
M. O. 
Madras Experiments in Paspalum Dila- Oil Palm (Elwis Guineensis) Cultivation... 16 
tatum 312 Oils in 1907, Ceylon Essential % 87 
Maize, An Important Tropical Cereal 592 ~ Olive and’ its Cultivation in Ceylon 583 
do Cultivation and Marketing of 550 Olu—See’ Nymphaea Lotus ... 
Malaya, British, asa Field for Invest- Opium Plant, The Malayan Anti- 124 
ment ... 94 Oranges and ‘Bananas in Mexico 398 
do ‘Nigerian Report o1 on 500 Ornamenta! Trees, Some other 256, 582 
do Rubber Exports 2986 Our Circulation 5 505 
do Rubber in 398 : 
Malayan Anti-Upium Plavt_ 124 
do Rubber Estimates... 394 Packing Cacao Seed for Export 128 . 
do do Output 394 do Vanilla for Shipment 127 
do Plantain Fibre... 298 Paddy Cultivation and the Wallage Cul- 
Manganese Compounds as Fertilisers. 54 tivator . ... 128, 369 
Mango Supplies, New 95 do Transplanting : 480e 
do- eevil ; 480e Palm Disease in South India ie 75 
Mangoes in Ceylon “135, 480 ef Papaya 480e 
do Jatina Papua, Coconut Territory i in is 335 
Manicoba, Cultivation, Preparation and Para Grass (Panicum Molle) Sho 430 
Yield of 317 do Rubber by Herbert Wright é 298 
do | or Ceara Rubber 316 do do Cultivation, Weeding in 38 
Manihot, Planting of the New wieperieee! of 106, 209 do do inthe Amazon .. 410, 506 
Manioc or Cassava 525 Paspalum. Dilatatum—Experiments in 
Manioc, Yield of 577 Madras ‘ me 505 312 
Manure:, Artificial vs. Green and Cattle 170 = Passiflora Fetida 265 
do for Orange.Trees ... 170 Penang Rubber Vines 397 
Manuring, Principles of é 189 Pepper i in Sarawak, The Cultivation of 245 
do Effects of Long- continued Peradeniya Experimental Silk Farm ... 85 
Nitrogenous ... 48 Perak, Coca Leaves from ... sar 124 
do Green, for Young Rubber 84 Pests Bill, Straits Destructive 408 
Market Rates for Tropical “Products... 72 Philippines Spirit Industry 63 
Martynia Diandia as a Hemedy, for En oepnetes: Selection of 191 
Snake-bite ; 69 Pickling Wheat 35 
Mexican Poppy ... 578 Pineapple Cultivation in Singapore 284 
Mexico, New Rubber Plant in 498 do Culture, IIT. 231 
do Oranges and Bananas in 398 do do IV. Handling the 
do Poppy 215 Crop 344 
do Something doing in 315 do Juice, Manufacture of 244 
Milo as a Dryland “Grain ( Crop 427 do Manure for ‘ 32 
Miscellaneous Economic Plants—Aberia 339 Plant Pathology in its Relation to 
do do do Bassia 423 other Sciences .. ot 553 
Modern Dairy Practice of 38 Plantain Fibre at Malaya A. HL Show 398 
Mosquitoes, Destruction of.. ... 141, 397 do Meal Manufacture “a 205 
Mozambique, Rubber in 3 396 Plantains, Cooking of heme 567 
Mustard Meal as a Tea Manure 387 Planters and Scientific Advice ae 192 
Mysore, Field Fruit Culture in 97 Planting in B.C. Africa... : 92 
do in British East Africa 407 
do in British New Guinea 405 
N do  inJava and Sumatra BG 391 
‘ do in Nyasaland 99, 400, 408 
Natal, Agricultural Industries of 226 do  inTravancore ... ae 489 
do Chilli Growing in 481 do Industry, Ceylon ... 208 
do Teas from 322 do Reserves on Estates FS 282 
New Fruits 9g Plants, Wild and Cultivated, Differ- 
do Guinea, Planting Prospects in 73 ences between fee 51 
do Mango Supplies i 95  Ploughs, Eastern vs. Western Pap 69 
Nigerian Report on Malaya... 500 Porto Rico, Coconutsin... 338 
Nitrogen Fertilisers, New ... 142 Pounds 600 in a French Garden 165 
N itrogenous Manures, Sources and Useof 4s P reservation of Red Sorrel Fruits : 244 
do Manuring, Effects of 48 Prick] Pear as Fodder as pas 342 
Noiseless London ; Rubber- -paved Streets 513 Prize Hssays on Tea ; 549 
Notes and Queries 69, 170, 277, 380, 480c, 577. Province Wellesley fan its Products a 287 
Noxious Weeds ... ay mts 49 Pruning . on 566 
Nutmeg in the Moluccas 104 Pruning of Camphor tee tee 287 
Nutmegs, the Fats of Indian 217 Pulse of Animals one 170 
Nyande Fibre... 170 Purification of Coconut Oil... ane 416 
Nyasaland, European Agriculture in. 284 aa 
do Rubber, and Planting 399, 400 Q. : 
Nympheea Lotus (Olu), Seed of “a 243 Quinine in India, Demand for ae 484 


PaGeE. 
R. 

Rambong Rubber at the Rubber Exhi- 
bition 3 95 
Ramie in Korea 88 
Rats and Agriculture 560 
do . in Jamaica 451 
Raw Silk, Production of, in ‘Bengal 190 
Reminiscences of an ex- Ceylon Planter 291 
Reserves on Estates, Planting / 282 
Review of the Tea Trade, Annual 99 
Rice .. 1 855 

do Cultivation and Fertilization in 

e U.S. of North 

ene ene 26 
do do by Machinery 99 
do do in.British Guiana 293 
‘do do in Hawaii .. 523 
do do in Siam 300 
Roadside Trees, Preservative Effect of 204 
Root Pruning of Fruit Trees ees 480F 
‘do Rubber in Nyasaland... 400 
Rozelle: Its Culture and Uses 378 
pe ber, A New Important Dwarf 101 
do American View of Planting . 312 

‘do and other Estates, a F ertilizing 

Fodder Plant for uM 77 

do and Coconuts in Kelatan 76 

do andTea . 177, 208 
do and Tillage: Green Manuring 

. and Acacias 86 

do at Para Exhibition 608 

do Balata ... an 212 

do _ British Grown 401 

do Cankerin Java __... 395 

do Castilloa, Coagulating 408 
do . do nag Eide of Tap- 

‘ 208 
do do pping of Cultivated 212 
do do ater 205 

: do Ceara, in the Dry. Zone of Ceylon 318 
do do or Manicoba... 316 
do Clean Weeding and Green 

Manuring for ... 402 
do Coagulation, ‘‘Purub’’—a 
New Method of.. 492 
do do Da Costa Process 608 
do Cultivation in Java 92 
do Culture, Cacao as an Adjunct to ll 
do do the Present Condi- 
tion of . 106 
do District, A Big 492 
do Dry, Returns of F. M. Ss. 207 
do Estates, Clean Weeding on 489 
do do inG. E. Africa 4 511 
do Estimates: Ceylon and Malaya 394 
do Exhibition and Mr. Bamber.. 590 
do Experiment Station in British 
uiana 84 
_ do do with Cuttingsi inBurma 602 
do Exports, Malaya ... 3 286 
r do Extraction by Electricity 208 
do Factories in J ns Combin- 
ation of a 312 
do Factory, Singapore | 197 
do Ficus Elastica from India, 
Analysis of ie 211 

‘do from English Plants co 490 

; do do Penang Rubber Vines ... 397 

a4 do do Trinidad Ee As 507 

hs do Funtumia Elastica .. Bh 412 

eS ' do Future of ay ut 281 


ALND EX. 


y 
Page. 
Rubber Giant, Tree of the East 206 
do Green Manuring for Young 84 
do Growers’ and Hamatacturers 
Banquet .. 496 
do do Association, Malay .. 279 
do do Straits, and Increased 
Freight “a 96 
do Growing in Java 202 
do Guay ule ‘, 200, 411 
do Gitiapertha and “Telegraph 
Works Co. 199 
do Hee ee eae 315 
do i i on, Animals. 
Moastinted with a 294 
do in Angola 298 
do in Bombay ba a 193 
do in British Guiana ... he 196 
do in Burma A 24, 395 
do in Ceylon 91 
do in Fiji . 605 
do in Giayule a Me 103 
do inJdava. an 92, 202, 595 
do in Jebong sh 484 
do in Malaya 398, 488, 491 
do ind Mexico, Me nLOss 205, 393, 492 
do ;do Discovery of New 
Rubber- producing Plant 498 
do in Mozambique 396 
do in North Borneo 184, 207, 484. 
do in Nyasaland, and Planting . 400 
do in do Root-Ceara and 
Para... te 400 
do in Perak Bac ‘, 601, 604 
do in Samoa 392 
do in South Coorg 198 
do in South India is 514 
do in Southern Nigeria -. 200, 501 
do in the Congo—to date 397 
do in the F.M.S., American Report 
oe 96 
do in the Sandwich Islands 290 
do in Travancore My -.. 302, 489 
do Industry, The Eastern ba 485 
do Industry of Trinidad, Pro- 
gress of the 264 “5 2 
do ~ International Conference i 494 
do LatessM Mr. Harvey’s pe eee 
dos 602 
do Magnate, German... 606 
do Manicoba or Ceara 316 
do do; Remarkson the Cul- 
tivation, piobevetion and 
Yield 317 
do  Manchot Glaziovii, “New Spe. 
cies of 106 
do Manufacturing Industry, Jap: 
anese 196 
do Mexico, Something doing i in. 315 
do Notes... 602 
do on the Nile aN 197 
do Output, Ceylon and “Malaya sit 394 
do Para by Herbert Wright : 298 
do do Crops 601 
do do inthe Gold Coast 70 
do do Production in Brazil 585 
do do Root Discases in . 587, 590 
do do Tapping Experiment on 210 
do do Trees in B.N.B 484. 
do do Thumbnail Pruning of .. 103 
do do Uses of Plantation Ss 608 
do .do Weeding in .. . ba 


INDEX, 


e 
Vi 
Pace. 
rae Para State $3 
do Planting in India. Compared. 
with Ceylon i 198 
do Propatalicn of Crude 5, 592 
do Prices ... 586 
do Rambong at the Rubber Exhi- 
bition .. 95 
do do Tapping Experiments 
210 
do Samples from redial ‘Analysis of 211 
do Seed, Size of 285 
do Seeds, packing, for. long Dis- 
tances e. . 205, 606 
do do for Oil urposes oa 591 
do Shipments, Recut teee and Ex- 
ports... as 177 
do BuneRetis Rubber ... 508 
do Tanned Leather _.. 491 

do pape Methods on Bukit Rajah 285 

do New System of .. 591, 607 

do do and Pricking, Basal . 607 

do  Teo-non, Anew Tree from Tonkin 289 

do The Future of 281 

do do World’s Future Supplies of 196 

do Treatment of Latex in the Pre- 

paration of a 300 

do Trees, Big 199 

do do and their Yield 601 

do do in Colombo .. 490 

do pe of British Guiana ; 199 

do anda, and Cacao Hstates Co. 484 

do alcanina:” Artificial Rubber Co. 204 

do ‘sVallambrosa,” Mr. Herbert 

Wright on . a 183 
do Vines, Penang ; wee 397 
do Weeding vs. Grotalaria for... 499, 600 

do do Clean vs. Imperfect 600 

Rural Agriculture in Ceylon and its 
Improvement... tae 569 
Ss. 

Samoa, Cacao and Copra from 96 
do Copra from We 96 
do Rubber in 392 

Samoan Cacao and Copra .. . 293, 447 

Sandmann’s Journey through Ceylon, 

India and Burma 369 
Sandwich Islands, Rubber i in the 299 
Sapodilla Tree, The 551 
Sarawak, Pepper Cultivation in Me 245 
Scholars’ Garden and what was done 

with it ee ie - 153 
School Gardens ... 1, 57, 85 
Science in Agriculture 466 

Scientific Advice and Planters 192 

Sea-Island Cotton, Yield of... 170, 516 

Secret of the Soil, The is 79 

Seed, Influence ot Character on Growth 
of Trees : : 255 

Seeds, Vitality of Garden 50 

Seepage Losses 564 

Siam, Cotton Growing in 96 

Sida Fibre 283 

Silk Farm at Peradeniya, The Experi- 

mental _.. 3? 85 

do , Raw, Production in Bengal of 190 
Beever e, Pineapple Cultivation in ... 284 
Rubber Factory... 197 

Sisal. conv atipn in the Caicos Islands 19 
do Fibre coc ass a 122 


Sisal Fibre in India 
do Hemp in British Guiana 
Soap-making in Ceylon, Coconut Oil and 
Sodium, Value of to Plants.. eae 
Soil Denudation and Agaves 
ao Moisture, Conservation of 

, The Secret of the Re 
a , Water and the 
Sorrel Fruits, Preservation ‘of Red 
South India, ‘Demonstration in Connec- 


tion with 5 bs 
do Rubber in __... ote 
do Palm Diseases om 


Soy Beans as a Forage Crop 

do _ as Food for Man 
Sparrow Destroyer 
Spirit Industry in the Philip) ines 
Strait’s Destructive Pests Ball 
Strawberry Growing and Garden Notes 


Sugarcane, Vinegar toe 
do Wax as a By- product of 
Sugar Industry of Formosa... aa 

do inPerak ... Bod oe 


Sumatra Coffee 


do Mr. Herbert Wright on his 

Recent Tour in 0nG 

do Tobacco one 

Sunflower Oil 3 ven 

do 3 The... om 

Sweet Potatoes 500 

Synthetic Rubber om 
T. 

Tamarind (Zamarindus Indica) 3 

Tanned Leather, Rubber ... ee 


Tan-producing Trees, Teal 

Tapioca, Cultivation of é 

Tapping Experiments on Rambong and 
Para 


vee 210 
do Heveas, ‘Observations on cs 315 
do of Cultivated Castilloa fe 212 
do Rubber on Bukit Rajah mee 285 
Taungya (Chena) Cutting ... wah 159 
Tea and Cinchona in Java ... ee 387 
do and Rubber .. .-. 177, 208 
do do in Java Ak 202 
do and Shot-hole borer 603 
do Brick Making at Hankow 399 
do Chests, The Making of 603 
do Cultivation in Java. 282 
do Culture Manurial Experiments. in 603 
do Export Trage, Japan 403 95 
do from Natal 322 
do Green, Manufacture of... 202 
do in Formosa ... 604 
do in India as 403 
do do, All About ce 403 
do in Java 181, 2038, 595 
do in Nyasaland 3be 492 
do in Travancore hia 489 
do Manufacture, Notes on. ... 201, 396 
do Manuring in Culture ... = 499 
do do with Mustard Meal, 
Results of 902 387 
do Notes Bi 283. 
do Packing and Despatching 289 
do Planting in Java 89 
do Prize Hssays on, Java’s : offer 549 
do Production of Japan in a ay 88 
do Prunings, Burning of . «4 590, 600 


204, 305, 502 


os.” ie. 


INDEX. 


te iPaan. 
Tea onity. in a 54L 
do Russian Caucasian 396 
do Seed, its Selection and Growth 493 
dc Substitute for 207 
do Trade, Annual Review of the 99 
do do , Japan, Future of the 79 
do, Tr uth about 543 
Tehuantepec Castilloa on the Isthmus of 511 
Termite Attacking Young Coconuts 278 
Testing Eggs 278 
Tillage aan Rotation, Principles of... 288 
Tissamaharama Cultivators’ Association, 
Revival of 478 
Tobacco and Clover near Zanzibar 190 
do Cultivation under Canvas 604 
do Estate Life in B. N. Borneo . 501 
do Experiments in Cooch Behar 104. 
do Fermentation of ... : 321 
do Industry of the N.P. 4 187 
do in Cuba, Propagation of .. 439, 538 
do in Bengal, Cultivation of 444 
do Java 596 
do Sumatra 432 
Tomato Cultivaion 71 
do Diseaset 278 
Toxic Substance excreted. by Roots of 
Plants 563 
Transplanting Paddy, Advantages of . 480e 
Travancore, Planting in Es 489 
do Rubber in : 302 
Treatment, of Latex in the Preparation 
of Rubber 300 
do of Unknown Vegetable Products 520 
Trees, and their Uses, some Beautiful 
Tropical 256 
do Growth of, Influence of Charac- 
ter of Seed on is 255 
do Root Pruning of Fruit 4807 
Trinidad Cacao Exports 31 
do Rubber from 507 
Peopical Agueaute, Ceylon and India 303 
Literature of 499 


Vil 
Paar. 
Tropical Bread Fruits 428 
do ——- Products of Fiji 605 
U. 
Uganda Rubber and Cacao Estates... 484 
U.S.A. Department of Agriculture : Its 
Origin, Growth and Present Condition 59 
Vv. 
Valuation of Rubber Estates 490 
Value of Sodium to Plants 577 
Vanillas, acking for Shipment 127 
Vegetable Products, reatment of 
nknown at 520 
Vitality of Garden Seeds 50 
Ww. 
Waste of Coconut Husks 387 
Water Hyacinth 359 
mi and the Soil 457 
Wattle Bark, Production and Utilisa- 
ation of . 419, 602 
Wattle Cultivation in German East 
Africa aA 121 
do Growing.. 219 
Wax as a By- -product of Sugarcane 203 
do Excreting Palms 515 
Weeds, Noxious 49 
West Indian Citrate 67 
West Sumatra, Gambier Cultivation ... 488 
What Forestry has Done 356 
Wheat, Pickling 35 
White Ant Destroyer 277 
do do Exterminator ... 498 
Wild and Cutlivated Plants, Differences 
between ae 51 
Wood Preservation a 459, 601 
Zz. 
Zanzibar Clove Tree, Vitality of 490 


AO Ss Bea ak 


PROPICAL AGRICULTURIST 


AND 


MAGAZINE OF THE 


CEYLON AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY. 


Vou. XXXI. 


COLOMBO, 15tn JULY, 1908, 


No. 1. 


= 


School Gardens, 


The working of School Gardens is now 
going on in almost 150 schools through- 
out the greater part of the island, and 
people who are in any way interested in 
horticulture, agriculture, or the practical 
education of the young, will find much 
to occupy their thoughts and attention 
if they will take the trouble to visit one 
of the better gardens, such, for instance, 
as that at Mirigama (Mugurugampola, 
close to the station), at Alawatugoda) on 
the Kandy-Matale road), at Welimada, or 
at Passara. 

- The general principle upon which these 
gardens are worked is to avoid direct 
and definite teaching of agriculture as 
such to young children, but to pick 
out plants which, though useful or 
ornamental, are not familiar in the neigh- 
bourhood, and to work at these by 
labour of the boys (or girls), under 
‘superintendence of the master, checked 


by the occasional visits of the travelling 
inspector. The boys are given “ nature- 
study” lessons by such masters as are 
capable of giving them, and in any case 
they learn the general principles of 
sowing, watering, weeding, cultivation 
of the soil, &e., just as wellas if they 
worked with crops already familiar in 
the district, and without inviting im- 
mediate criticism or comparison with 
older and more experienced workers. 


Incidentally the scheme is doing much 
good ina small way by introducing all 
kinds of ‘“‘new products” into places 
where they were hitherto unknown. 
Cabbages have been taken up from the 
school gardens all over the island; 
sunflower is grown for oil in the dry 
parts of Uva; radishes have been largely 
taken up, and so on. The scheme 
practically provides an Experimental 
Garden for each village at small cost. 


| 46768 


Gums, Resins, 


GUMS, RESINS, SAPS AND EXUDATIONS. ~ 


PROGRESS OF THE RUBBER 
INDUSTRY IN TRINIDAD. 


By J. H, Hart, F.1L8., 
Superintendent, Royal Botanic Gardens, 
Trinidad. 


At the West Indian Conference of 1901, 
Tread a short paper on the experiments 
carried out by the Botanical Depart- 
ment, Trinidad, in connection with the 
cultivation of various kinds of rubber 
trees. In that paper (published in the 
West Indian Bulletin, Vol. I1., pp. 100-10), 
six different kinds were mentioned, 
viz., Castilloa, Hevea, Manihot, Ficus, 
Landolphia, and Funtumia; to which 
was also added Balata (Mimusops  glo- 
bosa), a native tree affording produce 
similar to that of guttaperchas of the 
Rast. 

CASTILLOA OR CENTRAL AMERICAN 

RUBBER. 

Since 1901, Castilloa planting has 
been steadily continued in Trinidad, and 
some thirty-three estates are now en- 
gaged in the industry, the total number 
of trees planted being estimated at 
some 300,000. Numerous experiments 
have been made with a view to discover- 
ing suitable methods of tapping and pre- 
paring the latex, and the specimens 
secured afford reliable evidence of the 
success achieved. 


tt can now be recorded that the colony 
of Trinidad and Tobago have several 
plantations which, during the past year, 
marketed rubber of fine quality and ob- 
tained satistactory prices. In recent 
account sales, 3s. 3d. was obtained from 
Scrap and 4s. 3d. from Castilloa Sheet rub- 
ber. The samples were identical with 
those presentedat the Conference. In 
Tobago, fine rubber has been produced. 
Scrap realized 4s. per lb., while prepared 
Sheet made Is. tols. 38d. higher. The 
quality of this rubber may be judged 
from the produce kindly loaned by pro- 
prietors, now exhibited. - 


In Mr. de Verteuil’s block rubber we 
havea very fine specimen, and I should 
not be surprised to find rubber prepared 
by this method taking a first place upon 
the market, it being apparently pre- 
ferred to sheet on account ofits oxidizing 
less quickly. 

The specimens of Castilloa prepared by 
the Experiment Station show the result 
of experiments in preparation. 


The first was prepared by creaming in 
three waters:: and:then naturally coa- 


CGP yh 


gulating by placing in blotting paper 
Over atine wire strainer. 


Md 


In preparing the second specimen, the 
rubber latex was washed through a fine 
strainer with about eight. volumes of 
water and then left for six days. The | 
rubber naturally coagulated on the | 
surface in a_ solid mass, and has since : 
been pressed and dried. | 


The third specimen is the creamed 
latex of the first sample pressed between 
blotting paper, the fibre of which has = 

formed a coat upon the surface. This is 
seen to have preserved the specimen i 
from oxidization, except in places where 
it is not covered with the paper fibre. 7 
‘ 
. 


The rubber latex from which these 
specimens were prepared was produced f 
by immature and undersized trees about 
eight and a half years old, which were 
cut out for thinning purposes. The 
rubber is not of first-class quality, but 
the specimen prepared without washing : 
appears to be the best and most elastic. 4 


The ‘Tortuga’ sample is from trees 
some nineteen years old. The ‘Louis 
D’Or’ samgle is from younger trees. : 
The ‘Richmond’ sampleis from trees 
some twelve to fourteen years old; the i 
exact ageof the trees is not stated, but — 
it is mentioned that 4 lb. of dry rubber # 
is expected trom one of the trees for the i 
year 1906. 


The ‘Monte Christo’ sample is from 
one of the first estates planted with 


this kind in Trinidad. The age of the N 
trees which produced it is not stated by ah 
the proprietor, but from certain facts - a 
known to me Iassume it to be nineteen m 
years. } 

Vhe ‘Verdant Vale’ sample is from : 
young trees sevenanda half-yearsold. 
{ft appears that scrap rubber of the f 
quality seen on the table is readily ‘i 
saleable, and as it costs less to prepare, a 
it raises a question whether the price 
realized for sheet rubber is sufficient es 
to cover the cost of extra preparation. By | 


The cost of preparation per lb. has 
been variously estimated. It would 
be unsatisfactory, however, to make a 
definite statement of the cost of tapping 
and preparation ou the present evidence. — 
One large grower states that he prepares 
his sheet rubber by indentured labour, 
at the rate of 15c. per Ib., but whether 
this will prove generally above or below 
the average. is still doubtful. In 
estimates I fix the cost of prepa 
sheet rubber at a somewhat 


i 
I 


AK 
‘ 


So 


ee le 


sep 


a) 
? 


be ee 


~ a a 
~ 


eee ee 


Kew over thirty years ago. 


LY, 1908,] 


; Gane It is to be noted that West Indian 
labour has to be taught first before it 


ean be calculated upon. 


The preparation of ‘scrap’ rubber 
would cost probably one-third less than 
‘sheet.’ 


Castilloa as a rubber has dove well in 
all parts of Trinidad, and appears to 
suit the conditions of soil and climate. 


The supply of seed is so plentiful that 
the sales made by the Department are 
now merely nominal]. Moreover, by birds 
carrying off seed the tree is being dis- 
tributed widely through the natural 


forest, where it grows readily. 


HEVBA, OR PARA RUBBER. 


The progress made in Hevea planting 
has been much encouraged recently by 
the prices obtained for Ceylon produce. 
The demands upou our resources for 
seed and plants is now more than we can 
meet; hence, a considerable number ot 
importations have been made with a 
success varying from 2 per cent. to 60 
percent. Various methods of packing 
have been tried. Krom personal experi- 
ence it appears better to take the chance 
of seed transport rather than to import 
plants, even in Wardian cases. 


Some twelve years ago I advocated 
strongly in the Trinidad Bulletin the 
planting of Hevea. One planter planted 


a considerable number, and to-day his 


trees are seeding freely and he is making 
an excellent returnfor seedand seedlings, 


and has thus provided for a future 


supply of home-grown seed, which will 
probably meet future demands. The 
trees in the lands of the Botanical Depart- 
ment gavea fair supply of seeds, from 
which several thousands of healthy 
plants have been realized. All of these 
have been readily sold. 


Hight or ten estates are now planting 
Hevea, and this number will probably 
be doubled during thecoming year. 


With regard to the ability of Trinidad 
to produce first-class Para rubber, I 


submit to the Conference specimens of 


various forms from the older trees of the 
Botanical Department. These  speci- 


mens have been produced by two trees 


of the fist consignments sent out by 
The first 
tree gives rubber decidedly yellow in 
appearance, while the second tree gives 
rubber which on first coagulation is pure 


white, and probably differs considerably 
_iIn composition from the first. 


~ Two methods of collection have been 


opted. The first is to collect all 


Jates possible and set it to coagulate 


4 


Saps and Eeudations. 


naturally; the second is to roll up the 
remainder of the rubber which dries 
in the cuts to a ball. 


Itis found that asecond and evena 
third flow can be obtained trom the 
same cuts, if the rubber is allowed to dry 
for some eighteen to twenty hours in the 
cut;for when it is removed a new flow 
takes place from those cells, which have 
been prevented from closing by the ad- 
hering rubber. 


That the rubber is of good quality 
is shown by the specimens now sub- 
mitted for examination. The latex 
when set to coagulate is simply strain- 
ed through fine wire gauze with a 
minimum of added water, and then left 
in a soup. plate or glass cell in 
a cool place. Twelve to twenty-four 
hours afterwards there can be removed 
soft sheet rubber perfectly coagulated. 
It may then be pressedinto biscuits, in 
a copying press or by other suitable 
means. Rubber thus treated will dry 
quicker than if left todrain by itself. 


At the Experiment Station, Hevea 
trees eight and a_ half years old do 
not as yet yield rubber in quality or 
quantity to pay for tapping, although 
the trees are some 35 feet high with 
stems 6-9 inches in diameter. Our oldest 
tree has a diameter of 2feet3 inches at 
4 feet from the ground, and gave a crop 
of over 4,000 seeds during the season 1906. 


From our tapping experiments it may 
be estimated that 3 to 4 lb, of rubber 
could readily be taken from this tree3 
but, as it is depended upon for purposes 
of seed, it has been deemed better not to 
hazard productiveness by tapping too 
heavily. 


Two young trees raised from seeds 
brought down by Dr. Bovallius, from the 
interior of South America, are growing 
slowly and appear to be somewhat 
different from the kind first introduced, 
but, as they have not as, yet flowered, it 
is impossible to decide their affinity. 
They are said to be suitable for growth 
at higher elevations or in cooler climates 
than the ordinary varieties of Hevea, 
but this remains to be proved. There is 
no doubt a great future for Hevea plant- 
ing in Trinidad, the only drawback 
being the length of time the trees take 
to reach maturity. This state of matur- 
ity most assuredly will be fixed at 
different ages by individual growers, 
probably gauged by financial reasons. 


Trees can be tapped at an age when 
tapping is sure to injure them, therefore 
cropping must always be conducted 
with greatest care, as serious wounds 
most inevitably prove prejudicial to thg 
life of the tree, 


Gums, Resins, 


The question of the best method of 
tapping is well laid down in Wright’s 
‘Para Rubber,’* but there is always the 
possibility that local circumstances will 
compel the adoption of methods differ- 
ing slightly from those found successful 
in other countries. We see spiral cut- 
ting strongly recommended and illus- 
trated, and have found it a successful 
method with trees growing strictly 
perpendicular, but it is evidently one 
which cannot be used with leaning trees. 


MANIHOT, Ficus, AND LANDOLPHIA. 


These three rubbers, at present, do 
not commend themselves to our culti- 
vators for various reasons. Manihot 
Glaziovii has, however, been tried on one 
or two estates, and one of these, situated 
on a hillside, is reported as doing well. 
Ficus elastuca grows readily and lasts 
for a long time, but is only cultivated as 
individual specimens. Landolphia spp. 
exist in the gardens, and one of them 
affords rubber of fair quality. These 
rubbers are not at present sought by 
planters. 


LaGos SILK RUBBER. 


Funtumia elastica is_ being largely 
planted. Many thousands of seeds have 
been sold during the past year, and 
plants to the number of nearly 50,000 
have been distributed, or stand to order 
from the nurseries at the Experiment 
Station. This tree affords rubber at an 
earlier age than any other rubbers. 


Specimens of rubber taken from trees 
six and ahalf years old were reported 
upon by the Imperial Institute in 1908, 
when 80 per cent. of caoutchouc was 
found, and Professor Dunstan in his 
reportt states that it would be desirable 
to examine specimens from older trees. 


To 1908, this rubber, compared with 
Castilloa from trees over twelve years old, 
was valued by London brokers at 2d. 
to 3d. less per lb. than Castilloa. We 
are not yet in possession of sufficient 
evidence to make astatement as to yield, 
but those persons who have seen it in 
its native forest consider the yieid satis- 
tactory-. 

BaLATA. 

Of balata (the produce of Mimusops 
globosa) there is little to report. The 
tree is indigenous to Trinidad and South 
America and produces fine timber for 
railway work. A considerable number 
of inquiries have been received for 


* Hevea brasiliensis or Para Rubber by Herbert 
Wright, 4.R.C.8., 7.4.8.3 Colombo; Messrs. A. M, 
and J, Ferguson. 

+ Bulletin of the Imperial Institute, 19038, No, 
# PP: 260-7; 


Ras ae) 


* a) 2 he? 

Vinee Lr * 

we Fe. ee 
[Juny, 190s. 


plants at the St. Clair nurseries, and 
plots have been started at St. Clair and 
on the Government estate at Diego 
Martin, Trinidad, so as to havea con- 
venient supply of seed on hand to meet 
future demands. 


At present the forest has to be de- 
pended on for supplies. 


Many applications have been received 
for seed from foreign and colonial estab- 
lishments, which show that cousider- 
able interest is taken in this product. 


Trinidad exports but little of the 
locally grown product, but considerable 
quantities are shipped from Venezuela 
via Trinidad. 


The tree isof slow growth and the 
seeds are difficult to transport. Even 
when fresh they take a long time to 
germinate, periods of twelve months 
having trequently been observed from 
the time of sowing to germination. In 
the St. Clair uarseries the germination 
is hastened by grinding or filing away 
the hard exterior of the seed to allow 
access of moisture. 


CONCLUSION. 


In conclusion, Iam able to state that 
the rubber industry is now well estab- 
lished in Trinidad, and that there isa 
prospect of abundant success. The 
initial difficulties have been met and 
overcome, and it is probable that, with 


further experience in the details of 
manipulation, greater economy and 
profit will follow. 


Estates planted with rubber have 
largely increassd in value, and planters 
are beginning to appreciate the feeling 
of adding to their established industries 
one that promises well for the future.— 
West Indian Bulletin. Vol. VILL, 1907, 

Oo. 2. 


RUBBER IN BRITISH GUIANA. 


The possibilities of the rubberindustry 
in British Guiana are mentioned very 
favourably in the Report for 1906-7 of 
the Lands and Mines Department of that 
colony. 


Reference is made to the fact that 
indigenous rubber trees, notably sapiwm 
Jenmani, are growing luxuriantly in the 
lower reaches of all the rivers in the 
North-West District, as well as on the 
banks and islands of the Hssequebo 
river, and the Commissioner of Lands 
and Mines is strongly of opinion that 
rubber cultivation in the colony should 
receive every encouragement, ‘The low, 


| 
i 
A 


cially adapted 


‘first meeting of the Mexican 


NaS 
ae 


—— duny, 908.3 


flat, alluvial banks of the river are espe- 
for the growth of the 
native species of Sapiwm, and thousands 
of acres of this land might be utilized in 
the cultivation. 


The terms on which land is leased for 
rubber-planting purposes by the Govern- 


ment of British Guiana were summa- 


rized in the Agricultural News (Vol. 


_ VI, p. 409), and they arecertainly favour- 


able enough to encourage men of means 
to test the rubber-producing possibilities 
of the colony. 


During the year 1906-7, 2,563 lb. of 
rubber and 684,222 lb. of balata were 
exported from. British Guiana.—T'he 
Agricultural News, Vol. VII, No. 153, 
March, 1908. 


PREPARATION OF CRUDE RUBBER. 


By Dr. PEHR OLSSON-SEFFER. 
(Extracts from paper read before the 
Rubber 
Planters’ Association on October 10th, 
1907.) 


During the last few years much has 
been done in regard to the progress of 
the preparation. of crude rubber, and 
as we stand at the present day we are 
able to make rubber which is far supe- 
rior to the product placed on the market 
afew yearsago. I will here briefly dis- 
cuss the various methods of collecting 
and preparing rubber such as they have 
been gradually developed. 


TAPPING Toois.—All of you know that 
throughout Central America the native 
machete is used for the purpose of open- 
ing the bark of the rubber tree to permit 
the latex to exude. It stands to reason 
that such a crude method can be greatly 
improved on. Asa matter of fact, trees 
tapped by means of machete incisions 
are badly injured, and as a result they 
are generally attacked by diseases, and, 
after lingering for a longer or shorter 
time, they finally die on account of the 
injury. have seen planted trees in 
Mexico, which, after having been tapped 
with machete for twelve years, are now 
useless, because it is almost impossible 
to tap them as they are so badly scarred 
and cut. 


Rubber planters soon found out that 
they must have a better tool for tapping 
if the industry was to become a perma- 
nent success. Some of the first improve- 
ments in tapping tools were made in 
Central America, where many years ago 
a tool somewhat resembling a farrier’s 
knife was made by turning over the 

point of a machete, and the tool was used 
tor pulling, thus making an incision or 


Saps and Hxudations. 


groovein the bark. A somewhat simi- 
lar idea was developed in a_ tapping 
device, figured in James Collins’ book 
“Report on the Caoutchoue of Com- 
merce,” which was published in 1872. 


In later years other variations of the 
farrier’s knife have been used. Two 
years ago I had a knife made on this 
principle, and this crude sample made 
by a native blacksmith in Chiapas was 
the origin of the so-called Zacualpa 
knife, of which much has been written 
and said, as it was patented by a person 
who happened to see it used. (Samples 
of these knives were exhibited.) 


Knives of this sametype are used in 
Brazil for tapping Mangabeira and 
Ceara rubber, and the various moditica- 
tions of the V-knives are but develop- 
ments of the farrier’s knife. One of 
these V-knives was patented: in Ceylon 
by EF. Holloway, and this knife has been 
widely used also in Mexico. It is evi- 
dent, however, that all these knives 
give a wound, the edges of which are 
more or lese torn, depending upon the 
sharpness of the tool. One needs but 
examine the incision under a microscope 
to find that the cells and vessels of the 
bark are fringed, and not cut through so 
as to leave a clean opening. These 
fringes naturally impede the flow of 
latex, and the result is that we do not 
get the amount we ought to. 


Before discussing the latest develop- 
ment of tapping tools, I wish to draw 
attention to some other knives, built ou 
different principles. Most of these have 
been developed in Ceylon, where the 
number of ‘‘ patented” tapping knives 
is almost as pumerous as that of the 
rubber plantations. The Bowman and 
Northway knives, which have been 
widely advertized, and which are quite 
extensively used for tapping Hevea trees 
in Ceylon, are useless tor Castilloa, as 
they are entirely too weak. One of the 
series of three of these knives is the 
so-called ‘‘ pricker,” which isa kind of 
aspur. The object of thisis to cut the 
latex tubes near the cambium and 
thus increase the flow of latex. The 
objection to this is that it often causes 
abnormal development of tissue, and the 
wound upon healing will not be smooth 
but ‘‘bumpy.” Macadam’s comb-pricker 
is a very formidable looking weapon, 
and doesits workin opening the latex 
tubes, but is unpractical on account of 
the labour it requires. You cav easily 
realize that such a tool is not what we 
want where labour is paid at the rate of 
$1 a day. 


The different nature of the Hevea tree 
has called forth different requirements 


Gums, Resins, 


in regard to tapping tools suitable for 
this tree. The Hevea planter re-opens 
the incision at frequent intervals, and 
his plan is to do this by cutting away as 
small amount as possible of the cortex. 
The paring process is adopted for this 
‘ purpose, and the many different tools 
employed in this connection show a wide 
variation. Among these may be men- 
tioned the Golledge tapping knife, 
which is a modification of a chisel; the 
“V.D.K.” knife, patented by Gustav 
Van den Kerkhove; Dixon’s knife; the 
Para chisel; and various others. (Nearly 
thirty different rubber tapping tools were 
demonstrated.) 


The principal idea in tapping a rubber 
tree is to make it possible to extract the 
maximum amount of latex with the 
minimum injury to the tree, as the ex- 
traction cannot be done without injur- 
ing the tree. This injury need not and 
should not be more than a very tem- 
porary one, and the trees as such should 
not perceptibly suffer. We know that 
the more bark we excise the more time 
is needed by the tree for replacing the 
cortex. We should therefore make a 
| cut which takes away as little bark as 
possible. On the other hand, we must 
make a groove big enough to allow the 
latex to run. If the groove is too narrow, 
the latex clogs and is apt to coagulate 
in the incision. If the grove is too 
shallow the latex is liable to run over the 
edges andis lost. Then, again, if the 
groove or the incision is too deep, we have 
cut, through the bark, the cambium into 
the wood. In this case we have greatly 
injured the tree, as we have disconnected 
the tissue which carries the food mate- 
rials of the tree from roots of the crown 
where they are prepared for the use of 
the plant. It is evident that the tree 
will suffer from such a treatment. The 
more we have cut away of the cambium 
the longer time will it take for the tree 
to recover and for the incision to heal. 
Most of the knives, of the type of the 
tarrier’s knife, lend themselves to too 
deep cutting in the hands of an unskilled 
tapper. Many of these tapping devices 
have some kind or another of gauge to 
determine the depth of the wound, and 
‘theoretically these ‘‘ guides” work well, 
but | have seldom found a tapper who 
did not cut into the wood. 


The latex tubes occur in the layer 
between the cambium and the outer 
bark, but as they originate in the cam- 
bium and are constantly being added to 
from this tissue, it is impossible to draw 
a line of demarcation between these 
tissues. Itis therefore incorrect to talk 
about tapping a tree by cutting through 
the inner bark without touching the 
cambium, Hither we do not cut entirely 


juny, ees 


through the inner bark or we cut into 


the cambium. In the former case we 
do not cut all the latex tubes and there- 
fore do not obtain the maximum amount 
oflatex. Inthe latter case we get all the 
latex, but we injure the cambium. The 
question then arises How are we to get 
all the latex without seriously injuring 
the cambium? Experiments ~— have 
shown that, if we cut through the cam- 
bium witha sharp knife blade, without 
taking away any part of the cambium, 
the cells ot this last tissue that have 
been injured continue in growth and 
the wound begins to heal over within 
24 hours, and takes only a short time to 
heal completely. We should therefore 
have a knife which opens a groove suffi- 
ciently largely to permit the flow of latex, 
but which only penetrates the harder 
part of the cortex. Itshould at the same 
time cut through the softer parts of the 
cortex without making a deep groove, 
and it should, in fact, open all the latex 
tubes. In practice this last can only be 
done by cutting through the cambium. 
To accomplish this the ‘‘ Alpha” knife 
was developed by me, and the first 
sample made showed that the theory 
was sound. The amount of latex ob- 
tained was larger than with any other 
knife tried in the experiments, and they 
number over two dozens. Another 
feature of this ‘‘ Alpha” knifeis that it 
has two handles which gives the operator 
an opportunity to work with both 
hands, thus being able to direct the in- 
cision according to will. The first blade 
of the knife or the ‘‘ groover” makes a 
shallow incision in which the latex runs. 
The second blade or the ‘‘cutter” is 
placed so that it pares off a thin slice of 
the lower side of the groove leaving a 
clean cut, and as it cuts deeper and the 
operator rests on this blade it will cut 
through to the wood. In this way it 
cuts all the latex tubes and at the same 
time the cambium, but itdoes not take 
out any part of the softer tissues. I 
mentioned before that a wound penetrat- 
ing into the cambium, with a single 
knife blade, such as this ‘‘ cutter,” does 
not cause any permanent injury to the 
tree and heals very rapidly. 


This last mentioned tool can be oper- 
ated by a comparatively unskilled work- 
man, and as he can use both hands he is 
able to do much more rapid work than 
with single-handed tools. HKxperiments 
have shown that one man can with this 
tool cut incisions at the rate of over 1,000 
current teet per day. ‘Taking four in- 
cisions of a length of one foot per each 


tree, one man can thus tap 290 trees per — 
The best results obtained in Mex- 


day: 
ico with one-handed tools have been 12) — 
trees per man, while the average is 70, 


x 


“~~. 


Ke 


 dony, 1908,) 


At the present time there is being 
developed here in Mexico a new tapping 
device, which will supersede all knives 
developed so far, and will, in fact, re- 
volutionize rubber tapping all over the 
world, as this device can be used for any 
kind of rubber tree. As this device is 
not yet patented, Iam not at liberty to 
describe it, but so much is certain that 
it is a decided success. It isa mechan- 
ical device, run by hand, foot, or elec- 
tric power. It makesit possible to tap 
the trees to a height of at least 12 feet, 


_ and one man can without any exertion 


tap as many as 500 trees per day or 
about 4,000 running feet. 1 am assured 
that this tapping Cevice will be on the 
market before our next tapping season, 


' STIMULATING THE FLOw.—It has also 
been found that the flow of latex can be 
stimulated by artificial irritation of the 
bark. This can be donein many ways, 
either by application of some chemical to 
the bark or by mechanical irritation. 
This latter can be accomplished with a 
brush, but it is an operation which takes 
some time, and the question is whether it 
would be profitable or not. 


LATEX COLLECTING.— We then come to 
the question of the tatex collecting 
vessels. You all know the primitive 
calabash used by the Indian for this 
purpose. In Ceylon, where plantation 
tapping first became a question of im- 
portance, many different kinds of collect- 
ing cups have been developed. Some of 
these are made of tin sheets, others of 
pressed iron sheet, afterwards tinned, 
and others again of aluminium. Some 
are without a cover, others have covers 
to prevent water ordirtfrom falling into 
the cup. Some are attached by hanging 
them on a nail driven into the tree. 
This method is, on the face of it, quite 
unpractical. 
eral manipulations, it would require a 
large amount of nails on a plantation 
with say, 1,000,000 trees. Further, driv- 
ing nails into the tree causes the develop- 
ment of a diseased spot, generally 
marked by abnormal growth. Anether 
method of attaching the cup to the trunk 
is to push the sharp edge of the cup 
underneath the bark where the cup is 
held. There is one grave objection to 
this, and thatis the development of large 
bumps on the trunk which seriously im- 
pede future tapping. Such a place of 
attachment is turther liable to various 
diseases. On other plantations the prac- 
tice isto place the cup on the ground at the 
bottom on the tree, and to use a spout for 
conducting the latex intothecup. There 
are many objections also to this method. 

The most practical collecting cup seems 
to me to be an ordinary round cup with 
thin edges, one side being bent inwards 


Besides necessitating sev-_ 


Saps and BRwudations. 


so as to approximately fit the trunk of a 
tree. Holes are punched through the 
corners at the beginning of the concavity 
and a piece of string sufficiently long to 
reach round the trunk is tied through 
one hole. At the end of the string a 
small wire hook is fastened, and this 
hook is placed in the other whole, thus 
securing the cup to the trunk. When 
these strings are tied on tothe cup be- 
fore they are taken out in the field, the 
whole operation of fastening the cup 
consists of one single manipulation. In 
the Orient the cups used are very small, 
being sufficient for the small amouut of 
latex exuding from the trees, but in 
tapping Castilloa trees much larger cups 
are needed. ‘I'he smallest serviceable 
cup should hold one quart or half liter. 


TAPPING System.—Of the various 
systems of tapping employed in the 
different parts of the world I first want 
to refer to the one in general use in 
Brazil, which results in short incisions 
more or less horizontal. The Central 
American Indian long ago found by 
experience that diagonal or oblique cuts 
gave the largest amount of latex, and he 
finally reached the method of making 
two incisions forming an angleora V. 
The object of this form of incision is to 
permit the latex from the two cuts on 
each side of the trunk to run together at 
the apex, whence it flows into the cup. 
Most Mexican planters still adhere to 
this method, which, however, has many 
serious objections. The principal one is 
that the apex is very difficult to heal, 
and usually forms a big execrescence or 
bump, which seriously interferes with 
future tappings. Iv further does not 
lend itself to regularity in tapping and 
prevents the trunk from developing 
symmetrically. A continued tapping 
according to this system results in want 
of space for incisions a few years after 
the first tapping, and then it is found 
necessary to cut across the old wounds 
which gives the tree the peculiar criss- 
cross appearance of the wild trees 
tapped by the Indians. 


In Ceylon a number of various systems 
have been developed. One of these 
Ceylon systems which in the beginning 
had a number of advocates is the gso- 
called ‘‘spiral” system. This has been 
tried on some plantations in Mexico, but 
the result is almost invariably the death 
of the tree after the first tapping. There 
is, further, nothing to recommend this 
system. 


The “spiral curves” developed by 
Northway and Bowman in Ceylon con- 
sist of independent ‘“ spiral” incisions 
each ending at the bottom of the tree. 
There are the same objections to this 
system as to the ordinary ‘‘ spiral.” 


Gums, Resins, 


The ‘‘ full-herringbone” system, which 
has been used by the natives in Central 
America and in Africa is a natural 
development of the V incisions such as 
those made in Mexico. The idea was 
simply to connect the apices of the V’s 
by alongitudinal incision, the object of 
which was to serve as a conduit for the 
latex. The objection to this system is 
the same as in regard to the V incision. 
The oblique incision meeting at the apex 
of the angle make a bad wound difficult 
to heal. 


A modification of this last method is 
the ‘‘half-herringbone” system. This 
consists of a longitudinal channel, into 
which the oblique cuts lead from one 
side. Hxperiments have shown that this 
method is the most practical and 
efficient. 


In regard to tapping Castilloa trees, 
I would advise the employment of the 
“ half-herring bone’ system in the follow- 
ing manner :—A rather shallow vertical 
channel is first opened from the height 
to which it is intended to tap the tree. 
At the bottom of this vertical incision 
the collecting cup is attached to the 
trunk in the manner already described. 
The operator now makes an incision on 
the left side of the vertical channel, at 
an angle of 45° to this, and as close to 
the base of the trunk as possible. This 
incision should reach nearly to the 
opposite side of the trunk. The plan is 
to leave approximately two inches of bark 
surface uncut between the end of the 
incision and the second vertical channel 
which will be opened opposite to the 
first one at the next tapping of the tree. 
When this second tapping is done the 
oblique cuts are commenced at the same 
distance, or at about two inches from the 
first vertical channel. This leaves on 
each side of the tree a narrow strip, two 
inches wide, from the base to the top, 
where the cortex has never been injured, 
and the development of the tree can go 
on at all times without interruption. 


Having made the first cut as deseribed, 
the operator makes another oblique in- 
cision about 12-18 inches above the first 
One, and subsequently opens other in- 
cisions at the same distance as high up 
onthe trunk as he can reach. About 
two months later, when the incisions 
made at the first tapping have healed, 
the second series of incisions on the 
opposite side of the trunk is made. 
Two months later, if the seasons permit, 
a third tapping is done, and this time 
the oblique incisions are opened immedi- 
ately below the earlier ones, and as close 
to these as possible. If this policy is 
followed out the surface of the trunk 
will last for a number of years, and re- 


is 1 - 
[Jury, 1908, 


tapping of the old wounds can safely be 
done 8 or 9 years later. The advantage 
of this system is that it permits a 
symmetrical growth of the trunk, and 
no loss of latex is caused by cutting into 
or through old channels, which are likely 
to conduct the latex in the wrong 
direction. 


In tapping operations great care should 
be taken in not wasting latex, which is 
often the case at present. Every drop 
of latex should be well taken care of, as 
neglect in this regard will cause a con- 
siderable loss. All cups and collecting 
cans should be well washsd in cold water, 
and this water used in the coagulation 
process. 


Sometimes it happens that the latex 
coagulates very rapidly, even before it 
has been brought in from the field. This 
is especially the case with the latex from 
young trees. Coagulation can be pre- 
vented by adding a few drops of for- 
maldehyde to each can. 


COAGULATION METHODS.—Many differ- 
ent methodsavein use for the purpose of 
preparing the latex for rubber. One of 
the most primitive used by the Indians 
is to leave the latex alone to coagulate 
by the fermentation process which , 
ultimately takes place. Another one is 
to expose the latex in thin layers to the 
atmosphere allowing evaporation of the 
moisture. This leaves a black and very 
sticky substance which easily deterio- 
rates and becomes tacky. 


Another primitive method of the 
Indians is to use an extract of a morning 


. glory wine, or Ipomeea bona nox, which 


extract is added to the latex and quickly 
causes coagulation. The rubber obtain- 
ed in this way is fairly good, but rather - 
wet and irregular in appearance. 


Of more modern methods we have two 
essentially different types—the chemical 
and the mechanical. 


Coagulation is effected by means of 
many different chemicals. | have made 
experiments, several hundreds in num- 
ber, using different chemicals. The re- 
sults vary greatly, and I cannot here go 
into details, but can only mention that 
the observations made in this connection 
will soon be published. So much has 
been established, that whatever chemical 
is used the resulting rubber is not of as 
good quality, as when coagulation is 
effected by mechanical means, Chemi- 
cally coagulated rubber is usually shorter 
in fibre, and does not last as long as 
mechanically prepared rubber. Some- 
times it may be found necessary to use a 
chemical coagulant, but wherever this 
can be prevented we get a better rubber, 


— 


4 


-the latex passes into 
_ strainer, in which all 


Sub, 1008. 


One Of the first methods of mechani- 
eally preparing rubber was by means of 
centrifugal force. A separator, built on 
somewhat similar lines to those of an 
ordinary cream separator, was used with 
success. 


The latest method of preparing rubber 
on a commercial scale is one which I 
developed after numerous experiments 
at La Zacualpa Botanical Station and 
Rubber Laboratory. I shall here briefly 
describe this system, which has recently 
been patented. (Diagram of a rubber 
factory was shown.) 


I shall here show a diagram of a plant- 
ation rubber washing, drying and press- 


ing plant according to the system re- 


ferred to. Vhe latex, when brought in 
from the field, is weighed on the scales 
P. placed on an elevated platform. It is 
then poured into A, the latex receiving 


tank, where it remains until the coagul- 


ating process remains. If it is necessary 
to keep the latex from coagulating for 
some time. asmall amount of formalde- 


hyde is mixed with the latex. 


From the receiving or storage tank A. 
B., a centrifugal 

mechanical im- 
purities are separated. The latex now 


~ yuns into C,a special coagulating con- 


veyor. This coagulator is provided with 
a steam heated jacket, so that the tem- 
Pee of its contents can be raised. 

he latex is mixed with an equal quan- 
tity of water, and an alcoholic solution 
of creosote is added in order to thorough- 
ly disinfect the resulting rubber, The 
temperature is raised to about 50° C., 
and the latex is-slightly stirred by the 
movement of the conveyor. When the 
rubber commences to coagulate, which 
process begins in about 20 minutes, it is 
forced by the conveyor into the cream- 
ing vats D, and D,, where it is allowed 
to stand fora short while. The latex 
is further diluted with water entering 
underside of these vats. Upon being 
allowed to rest acreaming begins, and 
when separation has taken place some 
of the serum is drawn off from the 
lower part of the vat, and new clean 
water added from below.. This washing 
oft the cream is repeated several times 
in order to separate as much as 
possible of the resins contained in 
the latex, which have been kept in 
a fluid state by the warm water. 
Finally, the cream is allowed to rise, 
and the surface is raised by the in- 
jection of water allowing the cream or 
partly coagulated rubber to run over an 
overflow lip onto tables fixed beneath 
the lips of these vats. The rubber is 
partly worked by hand with small 
wooden spades, and passed to the wash- 
ing machines F. In these the rubber is 


2 


Saps and BLxudations. 


pressed between heavy steel rollers, and 
at the same time it is further washed 
with water. The rubber is put through 
these machines several times until it 
appears in the form of fresh crepe rubber. 


All serum or washing water drawn off 
is passed through aseparator K.in which 
all the rubber contained in the water is 
extracted. 


The strips of crépe referred to are 
placed in the vacuum dryer J. until 
only 6 or7 % of moisture remains. The 
strips of dry rubber are then folded and 
placed in the box of the press G, in which a 
sufficient pressure iS applied. In this 
manner a block of rubber is obtained, 
which contains the maximum amount 
within a minimum of space. In order to 
keep the presses continuously going inter- 
changeable boxes are introduced, and 
by a duplicate bridle arrangement fitted 
with four strong screws the inverted 
name plate for branding the rubber, 
is held down by these screws and easily 
relieved from the foot on the press. The 
press ram screw is then raised, a new 
name inserted, and another box placed 
in position. After pressing, the boxes 
with the rubber still under pressure are 
taken to another stove for ‘fixing,’ and 
then by simply unlocking the hinged base 
the branded and finished block is thrust 
through the bottom. These rubber 
blocks are made of a standard size, and 
packed in suitable standard packing 
cases, well planed on the inside, and 
they are then ready for shipping. 


The complete plant for preparing 
crude rubber, as here described, is made 
by Messrs. David Bridge & Co., of 
Castleton, Manchester, England, and 
costs, complete with boiler, engine, 
shafting, circular saw, planer and ma- 
chinery referred to, about $18,000 Mex. 
Such a plant has acapacity of 300 lbs. 
dry rubber per day. 


QUALITY OF RUBBER.—The rubber pre- 
pared by this method has been _ pro- 
nounced fullyequal to best hard cure 
Para, which, as is well-known, is the 
best rubber on the market. The prices 
offered for this new Uastilloa rubber are 
pane than current prices for ordinary 

ara. 


A general fault previously found with 
Castilloa rubber is the large amount of 
resin which it contains. The percent- 
age of resin in Castilloa rubber has 
varied from 8 to 41%. By this new 
method of preparation the amount of 
resin can be lowered to less than 3 %. 
This new rubber therefore fills the re- 
quirements placed upon rubber articles 
by the British Admiralty. It is curious, 
but a well-known rubber buyer, to 
whom I showed a sample, made ac- 


Gums, Resins, 10 
cording to this new method, claimed 
that it was Para rubber, and another 
manufacturer was highly interested 
thinking that the sample was some new 
rubber of some unknown plant. 


Another point in connection with this 
method of preparing rubber I shall now 
refer to. As you know, the Brazillian 
rubber collector prepares the crude pro- 
duct by dipping a spade-like piece of 
wood into the latex and then drying 
the thin film of latex over the smoke 
from burning palm nuts. When the 
film is solid, another one is added, and 
thus the work goes on, until a large ball 
of rubber has been formed. Each of the 
succeeding films exerts a certain pressure 
on the inner parts, and in this fact we 
have tolook for one of the main rea- 
sons why so-called hard cure Para 
retains its strength so well. Another 
observation is that, if a piece of crude 
rubber is surrounded by twine asin a 
cricket ball, the rubber remains perfectly 
sound for years, while if a piece is ex- 
posed to the atmosphere and is not 
subjected to pressure it will inthe same 
period of time lose many of its physical 
qualities. I attribute the keeping quali- 
ties of Para balls and of therubber in a 
cricket ball to the pressure to which 
it is exposed in either case. Hxperiments 
have shown that pieces of freshly coagu- 
lated rubber which have been subjected 
to very high pressure retain all the 
characteristics of good rubber much 
ionger than pieces not pressed. 


Itis further important to notice that 
hard cure Para rubber is not perfectly 
dry. Experiments have shown that 
rubber containing a slight amount of 
moisture is more ‘‘elastic,” has a high 
resiliency than rubber not containing 
any moisture. Other experiments have 
shown that perfectly dry rubber does 
not keep as long as a rubber containing a 
certain amount of moisture. 


On the other hand, if the amount of 
moisture is too large the rubber is liable 
to deteriorate, as the moisture assists 
bacterial organisms in their destructive 
processes. With these points in view 
the method of drying and pressing rub- 
ber employed in the just described 
system of preparation was developed. 
In drying the strips of crépe rubber 
until they contain about6 or 7 % of mois- 
ture the excess water is extracted and 
the rubber is left with a suitable amount 
of moisture to retain all its physical 
qualities. As I mentioned, the rubber 
is blocked in this condition. The so- 
ealled “fixing” of the block, or its 
rapid drying until the outer part to a 
depth of about 5mm. is perfectly dry, 
results in this outer layer contracting 


and exerting apressure on the inner part. 
When such a block of rubber is eut open, 
it will be noticed that there is a slight 
difference between the outer layer and 
the inner part of the block, the latter 
being superior in quality. 


In regard to Castilloa rubber, it is 
important that as small a surface as 
possible is exposed to the atmosphere, 
as it is very liable to oxidize. From this 
point of view it is evident that the block 
form is the most suitable. For shipping 
BEEDORES the block is also the most handy 

orm. 


TACKINESS OF RUBBER.—The develop- 
ment of tackinessin Castilloa rubber has 
been studied to some extent at La Zacu- 
alpa Laboratory. Many experiments with 
inoculation of bacteria, which cause 
tackiness, have been made, and it has 
been proved that tackiness can be pre- 
vented by the use of one or another dis- 
infectant in the preparation of the crude 
rubber. Following up the cue given - 
by the method of coagulation employed 
in the Amazon district, most experi- 
menters first used creosote as antispetic 
in preparing rubber. It had been found 
that the smoke of the urucuri nuts con- 
taired among other substances, small 
amounts of creosote, acetic acid and 
acetone. My experiments have shown 
that a great number of different chemi- 
cals can be used in asseptizing the latex, 
but an alcoholic solution of creosote 
in small quantites is probably one of 
the best. 


PACKING.—It is of importance that in 
packing rubber blocks for shipping per- 
tectly clean cases be employed, and no 
paper or other substances should he 
placed with the rubber in the cases. It 
is not advisable to make the blocks 
heavier than about 25lbs. Four of these 
blocks can then conveniently be packed 
in one case, which thus contains from 
100 Ibs. to 1 ewt. 


CLEANLINESS.—I may add that, in all 
the processes of rubber preparation the 
strictest cleanliness should be observed. 
The latex factory should be as scrupu- 
lously clean asa-dairy. How different is 
not this idea from the general method 
of rubber making employed at present 
in Mexico. 


STORING RUBBER.—Rubber prepared 
ina proper manner can be stored on 
the plantation for along time. Experi- 
ments have shown that one year of 
storage ina tropical climate does uot 
perceptibly affect the rubber which has 
been prepared well. In passing, I 
may here mention that it is advisable 
to have a store room supplied with 
orange or ruby coloured windows in 


we 


ea ee 


Let us say 


the rains have set in. 


in the tissues after the rains. 


i ie anne Re ne ee 


Ly, 1908.) . 


; udex to prevent the actinic rays of 
daylight from reaching the rubber. 


_ Prices or RuBBER.—Although I do not 
expect the present high prices of rub- 
ber to last, there is very little reason 


to suppose that the prices would go 


duwn to any considerable extent for the 
next few years to come. It now costs 
us approximately 25cts. Mex. to collect, 
prepare and market one pound of 
rubber, while under the old systems 
in this country it has cost in some cases 
as much as 74 cts. The price we can 
get at present for rubber prepared on 
the new system is $2°62 Mex. per lb. 
that the prices go down 
50 %, and we will still find rubber cul- 
ture profitable. 


The goal we must work for is to pre- 
pare as gooda quality of rubber as is 
possible. At the same time we must 
endeavour to decrease the cost of pro- 
duction by employing modern labour- 
saving appliances anda carefully planned 


system of work and management. 


DISCUSSION. 


THe CHAIRMAN said that after such 
an interesting paper he was sure that 
there were some questions to be put to 
Dr. Olsson-Seffer. 


Mr. J. C. HARVEY : I would like to ask 
if there is any special time for tapping 
which you would recommend. Ido not 


think this was mentioned in your paper. | 


Dr. OLSSON-SEFFER said that experi- 
ence had proved that the best time of 
tapping is in the wet season, when a 
greater amount of latex is obtained, 
and the incisions healed quicker. The 
actual time naturally varies with the 
geographical position of the plantation. 
It may be said that as arule tapping 
should begin about 2 or 3 weeks after 
It is necessary to 
give the treea little time after the dry 
season in order to permit the tree to 
accustom itself to receive the larger 
amount of water which always circulates 
The trans- 
piration is always larger immediately 
after tapping, and if the tree is not 
adjusted to a rapid circulation it will 
suffer. It generally takes about two 
months for the incisions to heal, and if 
we follow the plan suggested in tke 
paper not to tap again before the tree has 


_ recuperated, we will be able to tap our 


trees every second month as long as the 
rains last. Ina region with six months’ 
rainy season we thus can tap about three 
times a year. If the trees are tapped 
during the dry season the tree suffers 
considerably, and instead of healing the 
wounds remain open, and on the edges 
an accumulation of cork takes place, 
which makes the bark rough and uneven 


11 Saps and Reudations. 


and greatly hampers future tappings. 
During the rainy season the trees are 
also more immune to the attacks of 
diseases than during the dry season. I 
may here show some larvze which are the 
worst enemies of the rubber planter. He 
knows them well, but does not like to 
talk about them. If the trees have been 
cut badly, fungisettlein the wounds and 
in conjunction with bacteria cause decay, 
the smell of which attracts insects, 
which deposit their eggs in the wounds, 
and sometime afterwards the ravages of 
the borer begin. This as wellas other 
diseases of the rubber tree can be pre- 
vented, and it behoves the planter to be 
on a constant look-out for these enemies. 


Mr. A. ALDASORO, speaking in Spanish, 
said in part: “I have listened with 
pleasure to the address of Dr. Olsson- 
Seffer, and I extend to those in atten- 
dance at this Convention my felicitations 
upon their having so able and scientific 
aman to discuss the subjects in which 
they are interested. I wish the organiza- 
tion which is now being formed all 
success, andI assure youof my ever 
earnest support.” The Under-Secretary 
thereupon leftthe meeting.—Year Book 
of the Kubber Planters’ Association of 
Mexico, 1907-1908. 


CACAO AS AN ADJUNCT TO 
RUBBER CULTURE. 


By J. C. HARVEY. 


(Paper read before the first meeting of 
the Mexican Rubber Planters’ Associa- 
tion on October 9th, 1907.) 


It is not attempted in this brief paper 
to treat exhaustively with the cultivation 
of either rubber or cacao, but to allude 
tentatively to the advantages under 
certain circumstances of the cultivation 
of cacao as an adjunct to rubber grow- 
ing. It should further be clearly under- 
stood that such methods as may be fur- 
ther referred to are only intended to 
apply to the conditions of rainfall, soil 
and temperature which exist in the 
district in which the writer’s conclusions 
have been arrived at. 


From experimental plantings, made by 
the writer at La Buena Ventura, of 
cacao plants set out with rubber grow- 
ing in full sun, there seems to be every 
reason to doubt the success of the plant- 
ings, for the following reasons :—The 
rubber trees must have reached a 
height of from 10 to 15 feet in order to 
provide a proper shade even when the 
rubber trees are in full foliage. This 
would entail, after the planting of the 
rubber, a waiting period of from three 
to five years; then again, the loss of 
foliage of the Castilloatree becomes more 
marked and the periodicity more fixed 


Gums, Resins, 12 


as the tree becomes older, and there 
would be a deficiency of shade for cacao 
during the very period when it required 
it the most, viz., during the hottest and 
the driest months of the year—March, 
April and May,—and still further, the 
more or less frequent occurrence of 
strong south winds, occurring during 
this period, are of serious disadvantage, 
causing the rupture of the tendril of the 
leaf at its point of junction with the 
peduncle. This is tantamount to defolia- 
tion and is a serious check to the tree. 
All of the foregoing does not by any 
means close the question, and my con- 
viction arrived at after several years 
of practical experience is that cacao can 
be grown toa very considerable degree 
of advantageinconnection with Castilloa, 
and provide an income before the Castil- 
loa can in the nature of things be expected 
to produce any appreciable amount of 
rubber. It however involves the accep- 
tance of the system of growing rubber in 
partial shade, and upon this score there 
is such a wide difference cf opinion, 
namely, ‘‘sun versus shade,” that it is 
with some diffidence I bring forward the 
pestion at all. Rubber planting in 
shade, so called, and as applying to soil 
and climatic conditions existing on that 
portion of the Isthmus of Tehuantepec 
familiar to the writer, includes the 
southern part of the State of Vera Cruz 
and a portion of the State of Oaxaca. 
Here the seasons may be divided into 
three meteorological epochs: the dry 
season of March, April and May during 
which in normal years the rainfall is 
insignificant and the heat very consider- 
able; the rainy season proper, which 
includes the months of June, July, 
August, September, and in part the 
month of October, with much sunshine, 
during three quarters of which the 
annual precipitation occurs. This 
season is followed by whatis called the 
season of the northers, whose influence 
carries from the Gulf considerable 
volumes of vapour, usually in the form of 
much cloudiness and more or less mist 
and drizzle. This period comprises the 
months of November, December, Janu- 
ary and February. Observations kept 
by the writer extending over a period of 
eighty years show a total average 
annual precipitation for these months of 
about 12 inches, or a total for the whole 
year of approximately 100 inches—a 
good and sufficient rainfall for any tro- 
pical country where well distributed. 
Continued cloudiness. during these 
months and a relatively mild series of 
temperatures favour any slight evapor- 
ation. Hence, though the rainfall is so 
very much less, the actual humid con- 
es of soil and atmosphere is relatively 
igh. 


[Jony, 1908. 


With the foregoing data I will now 
enter upon the system of planting cacao 
with rubber. 


First, nurseries are prepared in January 
by digging up the soil in any favourable 
locality. Seeds are sown during Febru- 
ary, March and April as they may be 
procurable, and by November of the 
same year the plants are ready for trans- 
planting. Before proceeding further it 
will be necessary to refer to the rubber 
plantings already made. This involves 
the partial clearing of forest in May, 
lining and staking at 14 to 15 feet apart. 
The next step is selecting the trees from 
nurseries established the previous year. 
At this point I cannot refrain from 
alluding to the vital importance of 
having nurseries of Castilloa of such 
quantity in point of number that there 
will be asurplus of at least 50 per cent. 
in excess of actual need, resulting in a 
selection of prime trees of indicated 
constitutional superiority in size and 
development of roots. This constitu- 
tional fixed character is in my opinion 
a pronounced aspect of the Castilla trees, 
more noticeable than in many other eco- 
nomic plants. 


We will therefore be ready for plant- 
ing operations in the month of June 
with the first rains. Following the 
planting of rubber the cacao trees of the 
nurseries of February and March of the 
same year will be ready for planting in 
the November following. While we 
thus make the two plantings in the 
same year, the nurseries are made in 
different years. Rubber in June of the 
preceding year and cacao in February 
and March, ,as already indicated, of the 
same year of planting. All that will be 
required in the preparation of the land 
for the cacao trees will have practically 
been accomplished in its preparation for 
Castilloa, except that toward the end of 
October the centres of each 14 feet square 
of Castilloa should be cleaned, staked and 
made ready for the cacao trees. 


The degree of shade required for this - 
double planting will somewhat depend 
upon the character of the first growth. 
Nice, fairly tall timber of a permanent 
evergreen character, likely to endure 
many years, will prove the best. If 
reasonably lofty, greater advantage is 
likely to result in a greater effect of 
shade with a lesser number of shade 
trees per acre, thus affording the maxi- 
mum of soil for the root development. 


Cacao so planted may be expected to 
come into light bearing in the fifth year, 
and an increasing crop thereafter, while 
Castilloa might be expected to yield some ~ 
return in the eighth year. Now, as the 
above system of planting the rubber is 
in opposition to the more general plan 


Ba ak 5 


eae NY ee hn di 


ty 


Jury, 1908.] 


of felling and burning all timber and 
sowing the rubber seed at stake, it does 
not at first blush commend itself to the 
rubber planter, whose principal issue is 
rubber and not the special value of 
other crops. Since the partial shade 
planting involves a rather greater outlay 
than seed planting at stake, such objec- 
tion is met by the following, namely, 
that an uninterrupted large area of 
rubber without other cultures is a 
direct invitation to the pernicious insects 
and increased risk from fire—in short a 
serious disturbance in the equilibrium 
of nature. As has been remarked in 
Dr. Olssson-Seffer’s paper, a sufficient 
sub-dividing of rubber in blocks with 
strips of primitive forest dividing them, 
for the purpose of not too severely dis- 
turbing the said equilibrium of natural 


conditions, and further as_ affording 
protection against destructive winds 
and fire, is to be recommended. We 


see at once that such forest divisions 
can be ultilized for cacao growing, and 
evenif this were not so, a segregation of 
certain blocks of an estate to be dedicated 


_to growing cacao in comparative light 


shade with rubber would be advisable for 
the reasons stated. Another consider- 
ation of importance becomes appar- 
ent, viz., the constant employ of a 
large force of men, that will inevitably 
be required to conduct tapping _ oper- 
ations on estates of some magnitude. It 
is clear that, if further knowledge 
demonstrates the apparent correctness 
of this practice acquired from such ex- 
perience already had, viz., that tapping 
operations aftord the best results when 
conducted through the cooler months 
of the year, extending through Novem- 
ber, December, January and February, 
that such a force of men can hardly be 
profitably employed during the balance 
of the year, unless the plantation be 
divided in the formation stage, But 
provided all plantings have been made, 
it is then evident that some other crop 
requiring work during other months of 
the year is admirably met with by the 
necessary culture required by cacao. 
When we consider that while rubber is 
purely a silvan or first culture, cacao on 
the contrary «s requiring the best and 
most intelligent of agricultural practice, 
and, further, that the crop season in at 
least that portion of the Republic 
embraced by the writer’s conclusions, 
namely, the State of the Vera Cruz 
and a portion of the State of Oaxaca, 
occurs during the months of March, 
April, and May. Thisisthe dry season, 
when the natural conditions without the 
aid of drying apparatus permit a com- 
plete curing of the crop. 

The following inquiry may now sug- 
gest itself:—What is the return from 


18 Saps and Exudations. 


cacao, planted under favourable condi- 
tions of soiland climate,’ likely “to be? 
Hirst, I must say that cacao requires a 
deep, well-drained soil, as its tap root 
extends to a considerable depth, A poor 
sandy or gravelly soil is unsuitable. 
Mellow loam carrying a good percentage 
of decayed vegetable matter, which 
soil characterizes a goodly portion of the 
districts under consideration, is prefer- 
able. Shallow soils underlaid by trap 
rock, impervious clays or strata of 
gravel too near the surface are especi- 
ally to be avoided, and such soils are 
also unfavourable to the growth of 
Castilloa. Wewmay conclude that cul- 
ture under the conditions described 
promises every hope of success. The 
writer has some 100,000 cacao trees 
growing under his care, a part of which 
are at Buena Ventura and the larger 
portion at La Junta, and, further, actual 
initial crops have been harvested and 
sold. I have therefore not quite the 
same sense of modesty in pressing for- 
ward my viewsas under a purely hypo- 
thetical premise. Returning, however, 
to the question of profit, I will say at 
once that the history of cacao is a 
thoroughly practical one, and one with 
ample precedent, and further that the 
increase of consumption has outgrown 
the supply as indicated by the steady 
rise in value, since three years ago. 
During this period cacao of prime qual- 
ity has advanced in London and Ham- 
burg markets from 60 shillings per cwt. 
to95 shillings and 100. Weatonce find 
food for reflection from these figures, 
and since 225 trees of cacao per acre 
should in good bearing give 24 to 3 Ibs. 
per tree, though commencing with a 
compartively small yield, it will bs: 
sufficient to say that cacao is a success, 
culturally speaking. This is the case in 
Venezuela, Ecuador, and Ceylon, in cer- 
tain parts of West Africa and of the West 
Indian Islands, and the cultivation is 
advancing, as statistics positively show. 
I have, both on the estate in which I am 
financially interested and in the corpor- 
ate property which I am at present 
managing, planted perhaps the largest 
single plantings of cacao yet in exist- 
ence in Vera Cruz during the past eight 
years, and the results so far justify the 
conclusions arrived at. 


Those taking part in the discussion 
following this paper were Mr. W. S. 
Murdock and Dr. P. Olsson-Seffer.— Year 
Book of the Rubber Planters’ Association 
of Mexico, 1907-1908. 


[Cacao is proving to be perhaps the 
best crop to grow with rubberin Ceylon. 
The best average growth we have yet 
measured is on an estate growing these 
two products.—ED. | 


14 


OILS AND FATS. 


NOTES ON THE CULTIVATION OF 
GROUND NUTS, EARTH NUTS, 
MONKEY NUTS (ARACHIS 
HY POG.) 


By Viscount MOUNTMORRES. 


In answer to many enquiries from 
West. African merchants and their 
agents, the following note on the culti- 
vation of the ground nut has been re- 
cently circulated by the Institute :— 


SOI. 


A very light, preferably sandy, soil is 
necessary for the cultivation of ground 
nuts in order that the fruits may be 
easily able to bury themselves cn matur- 
ity. The plant will not succeed in 
clays or evenin heavy damp loam. A 
certain amount of lime appears to be 
necessary for, or atany rate favourable 
to, their successful cultivation. 


PREPARATION OF THE GROUND. 


The ground ought to be well worked 
up to a depth of 10 or 12 inches, and 
then thoroughly harrowed after having 
been exposed for a few days to the action 
of the atmosphere. The ground is next 
ridged up into flat ridges about 4 feet 6 
inches wide, with narrow furrows 
between. 

SOWING. 

The seeds shouid be set at such a time 
that the plant comes to maturity at the 
commencement of the dry season. For 
West Africa this would mean sowing 
about June. The seeds are set two or 
three together in pockets about 33 to 4 
inches deep, at distances of 12 inches 
along the centre of the ridges. It is 
advisable to manure the bottom of the 


pockets before setting the seeds with’ 


any rich available manure. About 100 
lbs. of seed will be required per acre. 


CULTIVATION. 


The ground must be hoed over round 
the pockets at intervals as soon as the 
plant has made its appearance, and just 
when the plant is coming to maturity 
the ground immediately round it should 
be worked up and loosened in order to 
facilitate the fruit burying itself. 
During the growth of the plant it re- 
quires a considerable amount of mois- 
ture, and will want watering if there is 
any sign of drought. But immediately 
any fructification commences it is abso- 
Iutely essential that the plant and 
ground around it be allowed to dry as 
muchas possible. No watering must be 
done. Atter the fruits have appeared, 


they bury themselves in the ground, and 
complete maturity is indicated by the 
stalks and leaves withering and turning 
yellow. ; 


CROPPING. 


The fruit-bearing stems may then be 
pulled up, thoroughly shaken to detach 
the earth, and dried in the sun. The 
nuts should be detached from the stalk 
by hand, and exposed to the sun as long 
as possible to dry them _ thoroughly. 
They can be shipped either in the husks 
or shelled. Both plans are common, 


YIELD. 


The yield of ground nuts is very vari- 
able. Thus, in Senegal, in Cayor, in 
ground prepared simply by the hoe, the 
yield is about half a ton toa ton of the 
fresh gathered nuts per acre, whilst in 
the same districts on lands cultivated by 
the plough and properly prepared, the 
yield is as high as four or five tons per 
acre. 'The average yield on properly 
Prepared ground may be taken, how- 
ever. at about a ton per acre. It addi- 
tion to the ground nut, the vegetation 
of the plant is one of the most. valuable 
forms of fodder, and yields from a ton to 
aton and a half per acre, green, and 
about half this weight dry.—Liverpool 
University Institute of Commercial Re- 
search in the Tropics, Vol, Il, No. 6, 
January, 1908. 


SUNFLOWER OIL. 


A POSSIBLE SUNFLOWER INDUSTRY. 


A considerable amount of attention 
has attracted in India in recent years to 
the cultivation of the sunflower for 
economic purposes. Hitherto the in- 
dustry has been almost entirely confined 
to Russia, where it has attained a posi- 
tion of no little importance. In that 
country the seeds, which are the most 
valuable part of the plant on account of 
the edible kernels, are used largely for 
local consumption. The farmer, it is 
stated, sells them at an equivalent to 
from 4s. to 6s. per pound—but we fancy 
this must be a misprint for the Russian 
weight pood—the purchaser retailing 
them, after being salted, at about double 
that figure, and they are sold atthe 
street corners in provincial towns, like 
chesnuts in France or peanutsin America 
or India, On feast days and holy days 
they are sold in large quantities, roasted, 
under the name of ‘‘Semolchky.” Birds 
of all kinds thrive on the seeds—as the 
cultivator knows to his cost—which are 
specially used for feeding caged biids 


¥ 


are at present employed in 


* 


Jury, 1908.} 


and in fattening fowls for the table, 
whose laying powers are also greatly 
inereased thereby. In America the seeds 
feeding 
poultry, and to some extent, mixed with 


' other fodder, as a cattle food ; otherwise 


rl 
f 

i 
Ng 
; 

F 


in that country the plantis simply rared 
for ornamental purposes. In Russia the 
oil cake is valued higher than maize or 
linseed cake as a cattle food, and is also 
said to act as a “condition powder” for 
horses owing to its easy digestibility 
and highly nutritive properties. Sheep, 
pigs. rabbits, and pigeons as well fatten 
rapidly on the oil cake. 


The oil itself is not a less valuable 
product in Russia, for on account of its 
‘great palatability, when in a pure state, 
itis extensively employed for culinary 
purposes, and as an adulterant of, and a 
substitute for, olive oil. But although 
the cultivation of the sunflower is carried 
on successfully in Russia, and the manu- 
facture of the oilis a long established 
and prosperous undertaking, the pros- 
pects to theagriculturist and the manu- 
facturer in other countries seems to be 
by no means assured; even in America 
the oil is not produced commercially. 


SomME UNSUCCESSFUL HXPERIMENTS. 


Attempts to create a sunflower oil 
industry in India have so far proved dis- 
appointing, if not a pronounced failure. 
In 1896, Sir Frederick Abel arrived at 
the conclusion that there was no like- 
lihood of India competing successfully in 
England with other sources of supply. 
One eminent firm of cilseed crushers at 
home, determined to give the Indian 
product a fair trial, purchased 100 tons 
of seed inthe London Market, but the 
yield was so very unsatisfactory that 
they decided not to touch it again. A 
similar verdict was passed in Marseilles, 
Planters in Behar have tried the seed, 
but obtained no encouragement to go 
beyond the experimental stage. Cultiva- 
tion of the plant was carried on in 
Bangalore for several years, but there 
too it was abandoned as unprofitable. 


‘At the Experimentai Farm in Sibpur, 
Russian seed was tried and it was proved 
that the plant could be grown in Bengal 
with ease, but whether it would pay the 


_eultivator was considered problemetical. 


A plot of one-tenth of an acre was 
planted with Russian seed first as a rain 
crop and a second time in the cold 
weather. The outturn of seed was 8} 


 |bs. in the rains and 474 lbs. in the winter. 
Out of 56 lbs. of seed 50 lbs. were crushed 


and gave 43 lbs. equal to 9 per cent. of 
oil, a yield very iow compared with that 
of other oilseeds in India. The oil, how- 
ever, was clear and agreeable to the 
taste. In ancther experiment at Coimba- 


15 Oils and Fats. 


tore with Russian seed, a yield of about 
31 per cent. of oil was obtained. Of 
several experiments in Behar, the most 
recent, apparently, was one conducted 
by Mr. E. Hudson, of the Rajpore Indigo 
Concern ; some of the best seed was pro- 
cured from Messrs. Sutton & Co., and 
sown in October, 1905. The seed from 
this crop was kept for sowing till the 
following year, so that it might be 
acclimatised. Froma plot of one-tenth 
of an acre 72 lbs. of seed was obtained, 
giving 40 per cent. husks ete. and 60 per 
cent. kernels; and from the kernels 30 
per cent. oil was extracted. This result 
was not considered a success, aS more 
profitable returns were obtained from 
mustard seed and linseed. Lieutenant 
J. F. Pogson, stated to be an authority 
on Indian agriculture a generation ago, 
wrote to the Secretary of the Agri- 
Horticultural Society of India in 1875 
that he looked upon experiments in the 
production of sunflower oil in this 
country as time and money wasted. 
‘he general conclusion seems to be that 
sunflower is an unprofitable crop in 
India, although it can be successfully 
grown over large areas, and the same 
methods of cultivation as those applied 
to Indian corn may be followed. 


THE FUTURE. 


The question of whether the crop may 
be made to pay or not must depend, 
however, on the prices obtainable for 
the products. For example, although 
the oil, owing to its poor drying pro- 
perties as compared with linseed oil and 
poppyseed oil, is of a relatively low 
value for mixing with plants and for 
other purposes, there may be a future 
before it as an edible oil and for culinary 
purposes, also for the production of 
artificial butter, for varnish making, 
even for soap making in a small way. 
Again, although anything like the price 
obtainable in Russia for the oileake— 
about £610s. to £7 10s. per ton—is not to 
be thought of in India, still as the values 
of the various kinds of oileake come to 
be properly appreciated by the Indian 
cultivator, there is little doubt that 
much better rates than are at present 
obtainable will eventually be procured. 
Theexploitation of oil seeds and the oil 
manutacturing industries in India are 
but in their infancy, and sunflower oil 
may yet be found valuable: for other 
purposes than those known at present. 
Most, if not every one, of the expensive 
blends of the various kinds of machinery 
oils that are at present largely imported 
from Hurope could be produced locally, 
as there is little doubt their com- 
ponents—or substitutes as suitable—are 
indigenous, Burma and Assam furnish- 
ing what with few exceptions is the 


Oils ‘and Fats. 


common base,—Capitat.—_|The Indian 
Agriculturisl, Vol. XXXIII, Calcutta, 
Monday, March 2, 1908, No. 3. | 


(The sunflower is already, thanks to 
its introduction by the School Gardens, 
being cultivated as a village crop for oil 
in the Welimada District.—KD. ] 


A SHORT NOTE ON THE 
POSSIBILITIES OF THE OIL PALM 
(4LAIS GUINEESNIs, WILD.) IN 
CULTIVATION. 


By Eric DRABBLE, D SC.,F.L S. 

The oil palm is abundant throughout 
most parts of tropical West Africa. It 
is a palm attaining a height in large 
trees of as much as ninety feet, but it 
is usually considerably smaller, even 
when mature. It flourishes on all kinds 
of soil, whether on steep slopes or on 
the level ground, and from sea level up 
to 3,000 feet, though at these great 
elevations it does not bear fruit so 
abundantly as at lower levels. It grows 
best of allin damp valleys, but will not 
succeed in marshy land, though occa- 
sional floods do not affect it adversely. 
Preuss states that sea breezes do not 
harm the tree, and this appears to be 
perfectly correct for certain localities. 
A. EH. Evans, however, writing of the oil 
palm on the Gold Coast, says that it 
grows in all localities, except those 
directly exposed to the sea breezes. 


In any case, it is a tree that will succeed 
in most soils in tropical West Africa, and 
will bear fruit abundantly except at 
great heights. 


Though truly nativein West Africa, the 
tree is most abundant in the neighbour- 
hood of human habitation, owing to the 
fact that the natives use the oil very 
extensively for cooking and for anoint- 
ing their bodies. The hard shells con- 
taing the seed are thrown away, and 
may germinate, giving rise to new trees. 
Lord Mountmorres states that in some 
parts the natives have been in the habit of 
deliberately cultivating the oil palm 
from apparently quite early times. 
Some of the so-called natural ‘“ palm 
belts” he believes to be plantations, and 
instances one in Western Krobo, Gold 
Coast, which was planted by the then 
Omanhene of the tribe forty years z2g0, 
and is of very large extent. Certain it 
is that even the belts of wild self-sown 
plams are in many cases very carefully 
tended and maintained by re-planting, 


and the ground often weeded and hoed . 


by the natives whodraw their supplies 
from them. 


16 


There can be little doubt that the tree 
would prove remunerative to Europeans 
in cultivation, on one condition, namely, 
the presence of suitable machinery for 
extracting the oil. This will be referred 
to later. It is certainly curious that 
whilst so much energy and capital are 
expended in the introduction and eculti- 
vation of exotic crops, so little attention 
has been given to this, the great staple 
of West Africa. 


FORMATION OF PLANTATION. 


The seeds germinate readily. Indeed 
the heaps of ‘‘nuts” thrown away by 
the natives, after the oily pericarp has 
been removed, are found to become 
covered with the young plarts. Itis 
only necessary to plant the fruits to 
obtain a growth of seedlings very 
quickly. 

The native method is to transplant 
the young plants which spring up 
plentifully around the old trees, and this 
method has advantages over direct 
growth from the seeds. It demands 
more trouble, but the time taken to reap 
a harvest of fruits is lessened ; and hardy, 
likely-looking plants alone need be 
chosen, guaranteeing a high yield per 
acre. 

Though usually set very close together 
by natives, it is probable that the young 
plants should be ata distance of about 
twenty-five feetapart. This gives sixty- 
seven trees to the acre. They begin to 
peoduce fruit very soon, at about the 
third to the fifth year, but are not in 
full bearing until the tenth to the 
fifteenth year. Occasionally trees are 
found which do not begin to bear fruit 
before the fifteenth to the twentieth 
year. Itis possible that this statement 
may refer to a distinct variety, -but this 
has not hitherto been proved. : 


The plant begins to form a trunk at 
about the fifth year under favourable 
conditions, and from that time onwards 
it needs but littie attention. Previously 
to this itis advisable to see that the 
young plants are not choked out oft 
existence by surrounding vegetation. 
Once the crown gets above the other 
plants in the neighbourhood it shoots 
ahead rapidly. 


DISEASES AND PESTS. 


The oil palm seems to be singularly 
free from fungal and insect pests. The 
principal one is Rhynchophor us phenicis, 
whose larva lives in the trunk, but does 
relatively little damage. The mature 
weevil also sucks the juice of the fleshy 
upper portions. 

METHOD OF GATHERING AND EXTRAC- 
TION BY THE NATIVES. — 
The nacives of West Africa climb the 


|. Sioa 
oy Marah 


fy, 


‘and are of a dark 


i 


Jury, 1908.) 


tree by means of rope girdles made of 
palm-leaf fibre. They cut the bunches 
of fruit. In the Cameroons the fruits 
are detached and placed in a boiler, with 
sufficient water to cover them. They 
are then boiled for one and a half or two 
hours. The wateris then poured off, 
the fruits are placed in a wooden or 
metal vessel, and crushed with wooden 
elubs. The hard shells containing the 
seeds—the ‘“‘ nuts ”—are then removed, 
and the pulp is pressed by hand_ to 
extract as much oil as-possible. The 
remaining pulp and the ‘“ nuts” are then 
thrown into a receptacle with cold 
water, and stirred. The‘ nuts” are 
then removed, and the pulp is again 
pressed by hand. The exuding liquid 
runs back into the receptacle, and the 
remaining pulp is thrown away. The 
liquid is thoroughly and continuously 
whisked. A yellow froth forms on the 
surface, which is skimmed off and 
thrown into a boiler and boiled for half 
an hour, and the oil is then ladled off. 
In this way Dr. Preuss finds that from 
60°5 kilograms of fruit 4:062 kilograms of 
oil are obtained. 


Lord Mountmorres thus describes the 
process on the Gold Coast: In the 
preparation of palm oil the fruit clusters 
of the palm are cut off by the natives, 
and the fruits themselves detached from 
the stalk. The first process in the re- 
eovery of the oil consists in heaping the 
fruit up in large masses to the extent of 
several hundredweights, on a flooring 
of loose rods overlying a shallow 
cemented pit. The heap is covered up 
with banana leaves, palm fronds and 
mats, and left for several days, during 
which a kind of fermentation occurs and 
a certain fraction of the oil exudes and 
drips into the pit. The whole mass is 
then transferred to a large saueer-shaped 
cement floor, round the edge of which a 
gutter leads to a small well on one side. 
It is again covered up and left fora few 
days, when the fermentation advances a 
stage further, and more oil issues and is 
collected in the well. Neither this oil 
nor the first fraction are ever exported, 
being retained by the natives for their 
own use, the one for culinary purposes 
and the other as an unguent. Both 
remain liquid at ordinary temperatures, 
amber colour and 
perfectly clear. Subsequently the fruit 
is pounded with logs or trodden by large 
groups of natives standing round the 
heap, water being constantly thrown 
over it to assist in the extraction of 
the oil. This process is repeated for 
some hours daily, sometimes for a fort- 
night, the heap being covered up with 
banana leaves and mats during the 
remainder of the twenty-four hours. As 


3 


17 Saps and Reudations, 


goon as no more oil can be extracted in 
this fashion, the nuts are removed and 
the fruit is boiled in large cauldrons, 
and the oil which rises to the surface 
skimmed off. Finally, the mass of pulp 
is removed from the cauldrons, placed in 
large wicker-work bottles, which are 
squeezed between two logs by leverage 
across a bar over a pit or well. The oil 
collected from these processes is gener- 
ally mixed together for purposes of 
trade, and the oil is boiled to remove 
Wetter: After boiling it sets asa semi- 
solid.” 


It is perfectly evident that by these 
methods a very large percentage of the 
oil is lost, for though no considerable 
quantity is left in the fibrous pericarp, 
during the operations of skimming, ete., 
avery great deal is wasted. Exactly 
what proportion is lost is not quite 
settled, and no doubt it varies according 
to the care exercised by the natives. 
Dr. Preuss is of opinion that in the 
Cameroons about two-thirds is lost. 
Lord Mountmorres estimates the loss on 
the Gold Coast at not over’ one-third 
on the average, and amongst the care- 
ful Krobos at probably much less. 


QUANTITY OF FRUIT PRODUCED 
BY A TRER. 


It is difficult to make any general 
statement, as the number of bunches 
formed per tree varies so widely. Lord 
Mountmorres is inclined to think that 
not more than four should be counted 
upon as an average; while Dr, Preuss, 
speaking for the Cameroons, says ten; 
and Mr. Evans, of the Gold Coast, gives 
four to twelve. 


The size of the bunches varies, but 
about 1,500 fruits per bunchis not an 
outside limit, and bunches with less than 
1,000 are said to be searce. 


The percentage of oil as given per 
fruit is very variable, 


Also the size of the fruits varies. I 
have found volumes :—7:2, 4'0, 5'2, 6°7, 
and 7‘d. ec. respectively, and even with 
simillar sized . fruits the quantity of 
fat-containing pericarp is a variable 
quantity. 

Hence any calculation as to the amount 
of oil to be obtained from one tree is 
hardly worth undertaking, as the 
figures can never be trustworthy, except 
for any given district. 

What is certain, however, is that with 
suitable machinery for ‘crushing the 
pericarp the yield would be materially 
greater than that obtained at present 
by native methods, and, accepting aver- 
age figures, it ought to be safe to count 
upon 83 to 85 Ibs, of oil per tree per 


Gums, Resins,’ 18 


annum, or, at 67 trees peracre, almost 
exactly one ton per acre. 


The kernels contain a rich supply— 
about 47% when fully ripe—of palm 
kernel oil. 


The kernels are in nearly all varieties 
of oil palm enclosed in an exceedingly 
hard shell. This is at presentcracked by 
amost laborious process, each shell being 
individually broken by hand between 
two stones, and though the women who 
do this work acquire an extraordinary 
dexterity at it, there is no doubt but 
that it represents a very great loss of 
valuable labour. Many attempts have 
been made to introduce many mechan- 
ical nut-crackers, to be worked either 
by hand or by steam or water power, 
but so far without much success. For 
various reasons the machines, most of 
which are based on the centrifugal 
principle, invented up to the present, 
have proved unsatisfactory,though there 
are two recent types atleast which give 
some promise of solving this very great 
problem. Most of thekernelsat present 
go to Germany, where the oil is extract- 
ed. Since the establishment of the 
African oil mills in Liverpool, however, 
a considerable quantity come to this 
country. 


In forming a plantation it must be 
remembered that the whole of the oil 
will not be available for export, since 
the natives must be supplied with a 
considerable quantity for their domestic 
purposes. Still this would be only asmall 
drain on the production. 


VARIETIES OF PALM. 


It was noticed by Lord Mountmorres 
that there were several varieties of oil 
palm, differing in their botanical charac- 
ters, andalsointheir yield of oil. Mr. 
Evans of the Gold Coast. following 
up this observation, finds four well- 
marked forms as follows :— 


1. Abetumtum or Yue Yumu, with 
black fruits, yielding 138°7 % of oil. 


2. Abepa or Yue, with 11:2 %. 


8. Abdem or Yue-hlem, with reddish 
yellow fruits, larger than those of 
the outer varieties, and yielding 
11:2 %. 


4. Abobo-be or Yue Wyiam. This 
is the best variety on the Gold 
Coast. The shell of the kernel 
is much thinner than that of the 
other varieties, and is so soft 


that it can be cracked with the 
teeth. The fruits are reddish 
black, and the oil yield is 19°3 %. 


These yields are all poor as compared 


with those found vy me for fruits sent 


from Benin and Calabar, wherelI found 
24°8 % and 29:0 % respectively. 


Attention should be paid to these two 
forms. Seeds can well be taken from 
them to other parts of the Coast, as they 
will retain their power of germinating 
for many months. 


VARIETIES TO BE PLANTED FOR 
CULTIVATION. 


These two last-mentioned forms from 
Calabar and Benin are the best I have 
met with of the ordinary hard-seeded 
palm fruits, from the point of view of 
pericarp oil, and should be planted if 
their quality is found to be general. 
The results obtained were founded on 
only a small sample, and hence too 
much stress should not be laid on them. 


The Abobo-be of the Gold Coast, with 
its thin shell, should also be grown, 
as the shell may not need removing 
before the kernels are crushed. This 
would be a very great saving in labour of 
extracting the kernel oil. 


A form similar to this Abobo-be is 
found in the Cameroons, and was describ- 
ed by Dr. Preuss. He terms it the 
Lissombe or Issombe. It differs from the 
odinary form,and resemblesthe Abobo-be 


of the Gold Coast in possessing a soft 
shell, and should be grown on that 
account, 


It must be remembered that the oil 
palm commences to bear very early, and 
continues to bear for as much as sixty 
years. 


It hence presentsa great advantage 
over crops which need replanting year 
by year, or after a few years. 


It is only necessary that good and 
suitable machinery be forthcoming to 
ensure a very great success from the cul- 
tivation of the oil palm.—Liverpool Uni- 
versity, Institute of Commercial Research 
in the Tropics Journal, Vol. III., No. 6, 
Janury, 1908. 


[Though the oil-palm was not’ much 
taken up in Ceylon in the eighties, and 
only, so far as we know, is to be seen 
conspicuously on one estate at Matale, 
there seems no reason to suppose that it 
might not prove as profitable a crop 
to the natives of Ceylon as to those of 
West Africa.—ED.] 


it 
a 


% 
/ ia 
i 


“Jury, 1908} 


19 


FIBRES. 


SISAL CULTIVATION IN THE 
CAICOS ISLANDS. 


Although the cultivation of sisal hemp 
for economic and export purposes has 
been carried on in the Caicos Islands for 
no more than sixteen or seventeen years, 
yet its rapid extension, and the now 
very considerable annual exports of 
fibre, have made it one of the chief 
mainstays of the dependency, coming 
second in importance only to the ‘salt- 
preparing industry. 


The sisal industry of the Caicos forms 
the subject of a most readable report 
recently prepared by the Commissioner 
of the Islands, the Hon. F. H, Watkins. 
This report contains a good deal of 
interesting and valuable information in 
regard to sisal cultivation and the pre- 
pee on and grading of the resulting 

re. 


The first year in which any sisal fibre 
was exported from the Caicos was in 
1890, when a consignment of the value of 
£50 was shipped. In 1894 the value of 
the exports rose to £420, and three years 
later to £2,539. The year in which the 
greatest shipments have been made, 
so far, was 1899, when the exports 
reached the value of £7,494. This figure 
has been, however, approached on two 
occasions since. In 1906, the quantity of 
fibre extracted was 219,365 lb. and the 
value of the exports £5,605. 


The area under cultivation with sisal 
in the Caicos Islands is estimated at 
about 3,200 acres, while the industry 
gives employment to about 300 people. 
A further area of 1,000 acres in East 
Caicos is to be planted in the near 
future, while it is mentioned that several 
thousand acres, suitable for sisal culti- 
vation, exist in the different islands, but 
are awaiting development. Two com- 
panies were formed at an early stage of 
the industry to carry on planting opera- 
tions. In addition there exists a con- 
siderable number of small growers, 
many of whom are extending their area 
as rapidly as their limited means will 


' allow: 


These figures indicate sufficiently the 
rapid expansion of the industry, and its 
value to the inhabitants of the Depen- 
dency will be realized when it is remem- 
bered that the soil of the Caicos Islands 
is very shallow, that droughts are of 
frequent occurrence, and that the bulk 
of the population were previously en- 
tirely dependent for a precarious liveli- 

_ hood upon salt-raking or sponge col: 
Jecting, 


In regard to the cost of clearing land 
and planting it with sisal, it is stated 
that in some places £1 an acre with an 
additional $d. for each plant set out, 
forms the average expense, but in other 
cases £1 10s. is generally paid for an acre 
fully planted 45 by 45 feet. The average 
daily wages for a man in Kast Caicos are 
2s. 3d., for a youth ls. 6d., and for a 
woman ls. 


The life of the sisal plant in the Caicos 
Islands may be put at about eight years, 
at the end of which period replanting 
must take place. The first crop of leaves 
may be gathered three or four years 
after planting. An acre of land should 
yield an annual average of from 675 to 
900 lb. of fibre.. At an average cost of 6c. 
per lb., or £28 per ton (present price is 
about £32 per ton) this would give a 
return of £10 per acre per annum. 


At the close of his report, Mr. Watkins 
mentions the following three conditions, 
the existence of which is essential to 
profitable results in sisal cultivation :— 


(1) Capital, on account of the some- 
what expensive machinery for extract- 
ing the fibre, and the length of time 
which must elapse before a _ veturn is 
made. 


2) A large area of land, especially 
where the soil is poor, to maintain the 
cultivation in regular succession, 


(8) Anabundant and cheap supply of 
labour.—Agricultural News, Vol. VIL, 
No. 153, March, 1908. 


THE BRITISH COTTON GROWLNG 
ASSOCLATION: 
THIRD ANNUAL REPORT, 


REPORT OF WORK IN THE COLONIES. 


I. INDIA. 


The Council regret to report that the 
experiments carried out through the 
medium of Messrs. Shaw, Wallace, and 
Co. with ‘‘ Tree” and other cottons have 
unfortunately failed. A small quantity 
of cotton has been produced, and possibly 
there may be Some further return, but in 
view of the doubtful possibility of this, 
the whole of the money spent was 
written off in last year’s accounts, 


Similar experiments have been carried 
on by Mr. Spence with tree cottons. 
It is understood that these have been 
rather more successful, but the Associa- 
tion have been unable to take an active 
part in the same, 


Fibres. 20 


The cultivation of Egyptian cotton has 
been continued in Scind with fairly 
satisfactory results. The acreage plant- 
ed and the approximate yield are as 
follows :— 


Acres. Yield. 
1905 1,000 450 bales of 400 lbs. 
1906 5,000 700, a 
1907 6,000 1,800. .; 


99 


An improvement has been made in the 
system of marketing, and the native 
growers have received better prices than 
in the past, but there will be great diffi- 
culty in establishing the cultivation of 
exotic cotton, which requires more care 
and attention than native varieties. The 
Association is unable todo much in this 
direction, but the Government of India 
is giving the matter the most caretul 
attention, and it is hoped that even if it 
be impossible to largely extend the culti- 
vation of Egyptian cotton in Scind, the 
Government, by supplying improved 
and selected strains of indigenous seed, 
will be able to effectan improvement in 
the quality of Indian cotton, not only 
in Scind, but throughout the whole of 
our Indian possessions. It should not 
be forgotten that, however great may be 
the possibilities in other parts of the 
Empire, the largest tracts of land under 
cotton at the present moment are in 
India, and ifit were only possible to 
improve the quality of Indian cotton, 
Lancashire’s dependence on the vagaries 
of the weather in the United States 
would become a question of the past. 
The Associations are, however, powerless 
to do much good in this direction, and 
the difficulty can only be overcome by 
the Government of India. 


Itis most unfortunate that the climatic 
conditions in India during the past 
season have been unfavourable to cotton, 
and it is therefore probable that the 
increase in cultivation which has been 
so marked in recent years will conse- 
quently receive a severe ‘‘set-back.” 
The 1907-8 crop is estimated at 3,056,000 
bales of 400 lbs., as compared with 
4,945,700 bales in 1906-7—a decrease of 
1,889,700 bales, or 88°2 percent. This is 
the more regrettable as it comes at a 
time when the cotton crops inthe United 
States and other parts of the world are 
less than usual, 


The cultivation of long-stapled cotton 
in Ceylon still continues to make great 
progress, and the Council are now 
arranging for the erection of a small 
ginning plant in that colony. 


2, West INDIES, 


The most noticeable event during the 
past year was the cotton expedition 


of the West Indiss on the ‘* Port Kings- 
ton,” under the auspices of the President 
(Sir Alfred Jones), who, with his usual 
generosity, defrayed most of the ex- 
peuses of the same. On reaching Bar- 
bados a most interesting and useful 
conference took place between represen- 
tatives of the Association and planters 
and others. The gold and silver medals 
which the President had offered for 
competition for the best cotton produced 
during the previous season were then 
presented. From Barbados the ‘Port 
Kingston ” proceeded to Jamaica, and 
a number of offcials and planters ac- 
companied the expedition, to take part 
in the Agricultural Conference which 
had been arranged by Sir Daniel 
Morris. Owing to the terrible calamity 
which happened at Kingston on January 
14th, 1907, the proceedings were suddenly 
interrupted, and it was impossible to 
carry out the programme originally 
arranged, Mr. Hutton and Mr. Oliver, 
who had left the steamer at Barbados, 
were, however, able to spend a consider- 
able time at that island and at St. 
Vincent. They visited most of the cotton 
plantations, and had several meetings 
with the officials and planters, and much 
useful work was done, and arrangements 
were made for placing the work of the 
Association, asfar as the West Indies 
are concerned, on a sound business 
footing. 


The progress recorded in the last report 
has been surpassed in 1907. Larger 
quantities of cotton have been grown 
and have been sold at high prices, and 
the industry is now established on a 
permanent basis, so that we can con- 
tidently look to the West Indies for 
sufficient supply of the best long-stapled 
cotton to render us almost absolutely 
independent of the United States. 


Negotiations are now in progress for a 
visit of West Indian cotton growers to 
Lancashire. It is proposed to hold 
meetings in Manchester and Liverpool, 
and arrangements will be made for 
visiting various cotton mills. 


3. WEST AFRICA. 


The Council are glad to be able to con- 
gratulate the shareholders on the con- 
tinuance of the progress made in 1906, 
They have had to face some digappoint- 
ments and failures, particularly in Sierra 
Leone, but these have been more than 
outweighed by the success which hag 
been obtained in other colonies, and 
they are now convinced that Lancashire 
can confidently look to West Africa as 
the great cotton-producing field of the 
future, It is satisfactory to note the 
record shipment of 1,050 bales on one 


steamer in May, 1907, from Lagos along, — 


i 
t 
: 
5 


_ the work in West Africa. 


SuLy, 1908.] 


Arrangements have been made with the 
Government to continue the ‘ grants 
in aid” for a further period of three 
years, expiring on March dist, 1910, as 


follows :— 
Gold Coast Ba Piso £1,500 
Lagos and Southern Nigeria 5,000 
Northern Nigeria ha 1,000 
£7,500 


These grants are, however, given on 
condition that the Association provides 
a similar amount of money, making a 
total of £15,000 to be spent on‘‘ experi- 
mental” and educational workin each 
year. Itis evident, therefore, that until 
the cotton buying and ginning accounts 
show a profit in excess of £7,500, it will 
be impossible for the Association toshow 
a surplus on its transactions in West 
Atrica. 


Arrangements have been entered into 
with the Bank of British West Africa 
for financing the cotton passing through 
the hands of the Association, and had 
it not been for this assistance it would 
have been almost impossibe to carry on 
Hspecial 
thanks are due to Sir Alfred Jones, who, 
in his capacity as Chairman of the Bank, 
has facilitated these arrangements. 


3A. SIERRA LEONE. 


In the last report it was stated that 
the results so far obtained were most 
disappointing. The 1906-7 crop showed 
little improvement on its predecessor, 
and, in view of the limited funds at the 
disposal of the Association, the Council 
decided, in April, 1907, to close up this 
venture, and to concentrate its main 
efforts in West Africa on Lagos and 
Northern Nigeria. The whole of the 
buildings and plant were disposed of, and 
after closing up the accounts there was a 
deficiency of £2,703 12s. 5d., which has 
been written otf in the Balance Sheet. 


3B. GOLD COAST. 


The progress made in this colony, 
though slow, is satisfactory. The gin- 
ning factory at Labolabo is working 
well, and as far as quality is concerned 
there is not much need for improvement 
in Gold Coast cotton, which generally 
obtains a higher price than shipments 
from other parts of West Africa. 


8c. LAGos. 


The progress made in 1906 in Lagos has 
een fully maintained in 1907, as will be 
shown by the following statistics of the 
value of cotton and seed exported from 


_ this colony during the last few years i— 


ff, “bres 

£. 
1902 oe 200 
1903 a} 7,000 
1904 12,000 
1905 28,000 
1906 60,000 
1907 100,000 


The extension of the railway was com- 
pleted as far as Oshogbo (60 miles beyond 
Ibadan) in April, 1907, and it is expected 
that the railway will shortly reach 
Ilorin. It is being extended as far as 
Jebba, on the River Niger; and now 
that the real cotton country has been 
reached, one can confidently look for a 
wuch larger increase in the production 
of cotton during the next few years. 


The Churchill Ginnery at Lafenwa 
was completed early in 1907, and has 
worked most satisfactorily. The Alfred 
Jones Ginnery at Oshogbo was opened 
in February, 1908, These two ginneries 
were recently inspected by Sir Percy 
Girouard and Sir Walter Egerton, and 
both of them were most favourably im- 
pressed. The Council have now decided 
to erect another large ginning factory 
at Ilorin, to be completed early in 1911, in 
time for that season’s crop. It will be 
a similar plant to the Alfred Jones Gin- 
nery, and will contain two batteries of 
four gins each, with pneumatic feed and 
a hydraulic press, and_ will turn out 
12,000 bales per annum. Like the other 
large ginneries at Lafenwa, Ibadan, and 
Oshogbo, it will be protected against 
risk of fire by a sprinkler installation. 


Serious difficulties arose in 1907 owing 
to shortage of railway trucks, and both 
the Association and the merchants 
suffered very great inconvenience in not 
being able to torward cotton and other 
produce. The Association suffered some 
heavy losses through ‘‘country damage” 
to cotton and seed, as it was impossible 
to store under cover all the large stocks 
which were accumulating every day. 
The Government have ordered a large 
number of additional trucks, and it is 
hoped that a trouble of this nature will 
not again be experienced. 


A further difficulty arose in tranship- 
ping cotton at the Lagos terminus. The 
wharf and sidings on Iddo Island were 
barely sufficient for the traffic from the 
first section of the railway from Iddo to 
Ibadan, a distance of 120 miles; but now 
that the raitway has been opened to 
Oshogbo, and is being extended to Ilorin 
and the Niger, they are inadequate for 
dealing with the increased tratftic which 
may be expected. Jifficulties have also 
arisen on the Lagos Bar with the branch 
boats, and two steamers have been lost 
in 1907. The Association’s losses werg 


hte 

iy tare 

PEL hig PING 
e 

{ 


Fibres. 29 (Joy, 1908, 


fully covered by insurance. The whole great difficulty the Association has to 
question is being enquired into by the tace everywhere is to induce the natives 
Government. to grow cotton at all, and in some dis- 
tricts this will require much patience and ; 
perseverance. The experience of 1907 has 
only still more strongly convinced the 


Another difficulty arose owing to the 
silting of the Forcados Bar. All goods 
passing to and from Lagos have to be (Council of the soundness of the opinion 
carried in branch boats a distance of originally formed, viz., that, speaking 
over 100 miles between Lagos and For- generally, throughout the whole world 
cados, there being barely ten feet of cotton must be more or lessa black man’s 
water on the Lagos Bar, and ocean @op, and that therefore the principal 
steamers cannot enter Lagos Harbour, energies of the Association must be devot- 


and the heavy swell prevents tranship- ae ss a 
ment in the offing outside the Bar. eee ecm its cultivation) ass 


The silting of the Forcados Bar may Catone Be § 
be due to the failure of the rains, but 8E. NORTHERN NIGERIA 
the fact remains that ocean steamers 
had te come home only partially loaded 
in order to cross the bar, and conse- 
quently on many occasions large quanti- 


ike Cee ae Sarees RON Shs en rs Government to proceed with the imme- 
diate construction of the railway from 
Dredging operations are now in pro- Baro on the Niger to Kano, the Manches- 
gress in the Lagos Bar, and it is hoped ter of West Africa. ‘he new Governor 
that the deepening of the channel will (Sir Percy Girouard) has had a large 
enable branch steamers to cross the experience of railway construction, more 
same in future in safety. The Associa- especially in the Egyptian Soudan, and 
tion have made very urgent representa- the reports he brings honie are most “ 
tions to the Government that now the encouraging. He fully expects to con- 
Lagos Channel is improved the dredger struct the railway (which is to be 3 ft. 6 in 
should be temporarily transferred to gauge) ata cost of not more than £3,000 
Foreados. per ee i whet is zipet impongaey is eet 
A : iy, yt none of the gradients for the downwar 
The quality of Lagos cotton showsa  trastic will exceed, in 100, so that heavy 
considerable improvement in 1907, and  ¢yain loads can be carried, which means 
is now selling at prices ranging from  jow freights. The Lagos and Gold Coast 
pass” to 50 points on Middling Ameri- jailways have been expensive to con- 
te There | Utena) fount ee ee aa struct, and have sharp curves and bad 
pea eecov ere lts use Ee eae Mae saved, gradients, with the consequence that 
ue shu CONE pau / fo ud cesirec’, freight cannot be carried ata less cost 
aa the Council are ee ie a us fan than 2d. per ton per mile. Sir Percy 
sible to haine of iS 4 Haas se cx ce Girouard, with his usual energy, is push- 
LU gee chen lee x e Arvo anc ing on the work in a most expeditious 
Agege districts for white, clean cotton. manner. The construction of the line 
Owing to the extensions of therailway, was authorised on August 5th, 1907—an 
a large number of new stations are being auspicious day for Lancashire—earth 
opened, and in order to avoid the works wereimmediately commenced,and 
heavy expense of maintaining a buying 18 miles of rails were landed at Baro be- 
centre at each station, the Council have fore the river began to fall. The base has 
entered into a tentative arrangement been completed and sidings laid in order 
with the leading Lagos merchants to buy to enable the 150 miles of rails which are 
for the Association. It is hoped that being shipped next autumn to be landed 
this arrangement will work satisfactorily expeditiously. One hundred miles of 


In previous reports the Council have 
always spoken of Northern Nigeria as 
the country of the future. One can now 
say that it is the country of the imme- 
diate future, thanks to the decision of the 


to both sides. earthworks are nearly completed, and u 
j 150 miles of rail will be laid by the middle s 
3D. SOUTHERN NIGERIA. of 1909; a further 150 miles in 1910; and . 


As mentioned in the last report, the in 1911 Kano, the Mecca of the Lanca- 
Council were considering the question shire spinning trade, will be brought : 
of transferring their headquarters from into economical touch with the rest of 
Onitsha to Ilushi, where it seemed there the world. 
was a greater prospect of success. The es . ht 
whole of the plant has now been removed, In addition to railway transport, Sir 
and a small ginning factory has been Percy Girouard has been studying that 
erected at Illushi. Someexcellentcotton much neglected natural highway, the 
has been grown on the Association’s River Niger. Kvery mile of river from 
plantations, and rather more cotton has the sea to Lokoja was sounded under his 
been produced by native farmers. The supervision, and he is convinced that 


So 


. districts. 


Jury, 1908,] 


with a small expenditure on dredging 
there will be little difficulty in maintain- 
ing a channel of six feet throughout the 
whole year. To use Sir Percy’s own 
words :— 


“The Niger will compare most favour 
ably with the Mississipi, and is the cheap- 
est and best outlet for the trade of 
Northern Nigeria.” 


The Government are now organising a 
public service of steamers from Foreados 
up the Niger and the Benue, and it will 
soon be possible for a merchant to open 
trading in this country without having 
to incur an expenditure of at least £20,000 
on steamers alone. 


In the meantime the Association is 
working in those districts which are 
aceessible by river transport. The qual- 
ity of the cotton is well maintained, and 
is increasing in quantity, and a small 
ginning factory was erected at Ogudu. 
rather over 100 miles above Lokoja up 
the Niger. The operations of the Associ- 
ation have been much facilitated by the 
co-operation of the Niger Company. 


The Local Manager has recently trans- 
versed the country between Lokoja, 
Zaria, and Kano, and he fully confirms 
the previous optimistic reports of the 
possibilities of cotton growing in these 
Sir Perey Girouard was also 
much impressed with the high state of 
agriculture between Zaria and Kano. 
Everywhere one will find large tracts of 
country ploughed or hoed up with as 
long, deep, and straight furrows as one 
would findin England. Thesestatements 
are also confirmed by Mr. C. A. Birtwistle 
(the Commercial Intelligence Officer of 
Southern Nigeria), who read a most inter- 
esting paper on Nigeria at a meeting of 
the Royal Colonial Institute on December 
18th, 1907. 

4. NYASALAND. 


The Councilare glad to report that the 
Government have decided to restore the 
old name of this colony, in place of the 
misleading term British Central Africa. 


The season of 1906-7 has been disappoint- 
ing. Some planters have done well, 
others have done badly, and it is feared 
that the Association may not be able to 
recover all the advances made in 1906. 
It has therefore been decided to take the 
precaution of reserving a further sum of 
£1,000 to meet any possible deficiency. 
Endeavouis are being made, with the 
corporation of the African Lakes 
co-operation, to establish cotton grow- 
ing as a native industry, and a consider- 
able amount of native grown cotton 
was received last year. 


The Shire Highlands Railway is still 
uncompleted, The original contract time 


28 Fibres. 


expired in November, 1906. This was 
extended to December, 1907. The Asso- 
ciationurged that the Government should 
take over the railway, or should not at 
any rate cancel the large concessions of 
land which formed part of the contract. 
The Government have, however, decided 
to grant the Company a further exten- 


‘sion of six months to June, 1908. For 


tle present, Blantyre and the adjacent 
country has stillto depend on altogether 
inadequate means of transport. 


In spite of these difficulties, cotton 
now heads the list of exports, which in 
recent years are as follows, stated in 
bales of 400 lbs :— 


1903 2 bales. 
1904 ae 
1905 Eat Late 
1906 - 1,444 ,, 


5. British Hast AFRICA. 


At the end of 1906 the Association 
were approached by Major Leggett, on 
behalf of certain capitalists who pro- 
posed to interest themselves in East 
Africa. After some negotiations it was 
decided to co-operate with them, and 
the British Hast Africa Corporation was 
formed, to which the Association handed 
over its work, Sir R. Moor, K.C.M.G., 
is the chairman, and the Association is 
further represented on the Board by 
Mr. Crapper and Mr. Hutton. 


An arrangement had been previously 
entered into with the Government to 
spend £2,000 a year on ‘“‘ experimental” 
and educational work, one-half of which 
is paid by the Government and the other 
half by the Association. This obligation 
has been taken over by the Corporation. 


The small ginnery at Kilindini (Mom- 
basa) was taken over and worked by the 
Corporation. <A larger ginnery has been 
erected at Malindi. and two small 
ginneries are now being erected at 
Kisumu (the lake terminus of the Uganda 
Railway) and at Jinga, where the Nlle 
ruas out from Lake Victoria Nyanza. 
Considerably larger quantities of cotton 
are being grown, mostly of the Egyptian 
type, and one can confidently look for- 
ward to British Kast Africa shipping an 
appreciable quantity of long-stapled 
cotton in the immediate future. 

6. UGANDA. 


The most noticeable event during 1907 
was the visit of Mr. Churchill to East 
Afcica and Uganda. One could wish 
that some system could be arranged by 
which most of the officials at the Colonial 
Office should periodically visit those 
countries, the administration of which 
they have to control. Mr. Churchill 
speaks most enthusiastically of the great 
possibilities of Uganda as a_ cotton- 


Fibres. 24 Juny, 1908: in 


producing country. There are 25,000 
square miles of suitable land adjacent to 
the lake, and there are over 1,000,000 
native farmers with considerable know- 
ledge of agriculture. Already large 
quantities of cotton are being produced— 
the exports in 1906 reached 800 bales of 
400 lbs., and it is estimated that in 1907 
over 3,000 bales have been produced. 
Generally speaking, the prospects are 
most encouraging. 


The quality of the cotton is of a type 
most useful to Lancashire, and the 
better grades are worth two pence a 
pound over Middling American. Unfor- 
tunately there has been no expert to 
superintend and advise on the work, 
anda large proportion of the cotton is 
most inferior. Several varieties of seed 
have been given out indiscriminately, 
with the result that the cotton is much 
mixed. A great deal of the lint is also 
badly stained, probably due to careless 
cultivation. It is most unfortunate that, 
owing to lack of funds, the Association 
were unableto take any active part in 
this country, but most urgent represen- 
tations have now been made to the Gov- 
ernment, who have fully realised the 
danger of the situation. 


In this connection it should be noted 
that it is extremely difficult to find agri- 
cultural experts with the necessary 
scientific training and sufficient know- 
ledge of cotton to direct and control the 
establishmentof the industry in a new 
country. The Council have urged the 
Govenment very strongly to inaugurate 
Agricultural Scholarships, to enable 
young men who have had a practical 
and scientific training at home to spend 
two or three years in studying cotton 
and other tropical products in the West 
Indies, Ceylon, Egypt, America, or else- 
where. 


7. RHODESIA. 


The work of the Rhodesia Cotton 
Company in 1907 has not been successful, 
and for various reasons the cotton crop 
on the Company’s plantation isa short 
one. Itis hoped, however, that with 
more favourable weather conditions 
next year’s crop may be more successful, 
and in the meantime more attention is 
being paid to the question of establish- 
ing cotton growing asa native industry. 


8. SoutH AFRICA. 


Some excellent small lots of cotton 
have been producedin various parts of 
South Africa, from the Transvaal down 
to Cape Colony, and if growing good 
‘*samples” was the only criterion, one 
would say that South Africa was an 
ideal cotton growing country. The 
Association has not sufficient capital to 


embark on any enterprise of its own in 
that country, the Council having decided 
to concetrate its efforts and its fundson 
those countries which offered an imme- 
diate prospect of producing large quan- 
tities of cotton, viz., West and East 
Africa and the West Indies. At the 
same time the Council have been willing 
always tohelp planters by advice or in 
marketing their cotton, not only in 
South Africa, but throughout the whole 
world, but for some reason or other no 
planter in South Africa has yet succeed- 
ed in producing any quantity of cotton. 
This is the more disappointing as, with 
the One exception of the West Indies, 
Sonth Africa has sent home better 
samples than any other part of the 
Hmpire. Some small lots of cotton 
recently received from Cape Colony were 
valued at 12d. per pound. 


9. EGYPT AND THE SOUDAN. 


It is a matter of regret to all who are 
interested in Egypt that Lord Cromer 
was unable to continue any longer his 
splendid work, which has been the ad- 
yiration of the whole world. He has, 
however, laid solid foundations for the 
future, and one can confidently trust 
that his able successor (Sir Eldon Gorst) 
will worthily follow in his predecessor’s 
footsteps. 


The Egyptian cotton crop continues 
to show the same want of elasti- 
city, and this is more serious in view 
of the number of new mills which have 
been recently erected in this country 
for spinning fine counts. Some years 
must elapse before new fields can be 
sufficiently developed to produce a really 
appreciable quantity of cotton to supple- 
ment the Egyptian supply. This develop- 
ment is much delayed by the inadequate 
funds at the disposal of the Council, and 
many promising schemes have to be 
‘*pigeonholed” tor want of capital. 


The production of cotton in the Soudan 
continues to progress slowly but surely, 
and the Association is in touch with 
several planters, and recently supplied 
a ginning plant and a hydraulic press 
to one of the leading planters. 


10. GENERAL. 


Efforts are also being made to grow 
cotton in Queensland with some success, 
but beyond assisting in marketing the 
cotton the Association has not been able 
to take any active partin the same. 


During 1907 there has been a consider- 
able increase in the quantities of cotton 
and seed sent to the Association for sale, 
and planters generally are now beginning 
to recognise the value of the Asso- 
ciation’s assistance in this direction. A 


= 


a ULY, 1908.) 


commission is charged, whick covers 


- brokerage, and a large business is being 


built upon a sound commercial basis. In 
many cases the Association has been 
able to arrange for the planters to draw 
for 75 per cent. of thevalue on shipment. 
An increasing business of a remunerative 
nature is being established in supplying 
stores, machinery, ete., on a commission 
basis, which is of mutual advantage, as 
the Association, owing to its large 


25 


Fibres. 


turnover, is able to buy on the best 
terms. Itis hoped that in a short time 
the income arising from this business 
will fully cover the whole of the estab- 
lishment charges in Manchester. 

In conclusion, the Council congratulate 
the shareholders on the progress which 
has been made in all directions during 
the last 16 months.—The British Cotton 
Growing Association's Third Annual 
Report, No. 28, April, 1908. 


EDIBLE PRODUCTS. 


26 


RICE: ITS CULTIVATION AND FER- 
TILIZATION IN THE UNITED 
STATES OF NORTH AMERICA. 


By M. ANDREW. 


The cultivation of rice in the United 
States is chiefly confined to the lowlands, 
more properly speaking those which can 
be irrigated easily. Some upland rice is 
grown in the Southern States, but up- 
land rice culture is not extensively 
practised. In the Carolinas and Georgia 
the cultivation is confined to the alluvial 
soils along the rivers which flow into 
the Atlantic and the Gulf. In Louisiana 
and Texas the cultivation is chiefly 
carried on on the flat prairies, which are 
flooded by means of water pumped from 
the numerous rivers which thread the 
country or by means of water obtained 
from artesian wells. The comparatively 
level nature of this country and the 
vast extent of the prairies enable the 
farmers to produce rice at a distinct 
economic advantage, and the peculiar 
character of the soil, which is underlaid 
by a tenacious clay subsoil, permits the 
use of heavy machinery in harvesting 
the crop. 


The best soil for rice is one containing 
a considerable percentage of loam mixed 
with clay. Soils devoid of humus are 
not satisfactory, as they are likely to 
become too compact when flooded with 
water. On the other hand, open soils, 
especially those of asandy or gravelly 
nature, are not retentive enough of 
water to be useful for rice culture. 
It is, of course, impossible to raise rice 
successfully or profitably under the 
conditions prevailing in this country 
without irrigation. A cheap and abun- 
dant supply of water must always be 
at the command of the planter. When 
this condition obtains the cultivation of 
rice is not a difficult undertaking, though 
care and skill in the cultivation of the 
land and the handling of the crop are 
as essential as in other forms of farming. 


The thorough preparation of the land 
is an important matter. Ploughing 
should be done in the early winter, and 
it should be deep. Cultivation with 
such implements as will reduce the 
surface soil should then be pursued so 
as to secure a fine tilth at seeding time. 
The drainage of the rice fields must be 
carefully looked after, for although rice 
loves water, it gives its best results ona 


soil that is easily aerated. For the past 
few years the cultivation of rice has 
been a comparatively profitable indus- 
try. The virgin prairies were fairly well 
supplied with plant food, and as the 
land was cheap, irrigating waters con- 
venient, and labour-saving machinery 
could be used advantageously, every- 
thing favoured the development of the 
industry on a great commercial scale. 
It is apparent now, however, to some of 
the most thoughtful planters that they 
do not secure as large yields with the 
same ease and regularity that they did 
in former years. To those who have 
given the matter some attention, it’ is 
evident that the constant drain of fertil- 
ity from the soil is having its effect, 
and the subject of fertilization must 
receive more consideration in the imme- 
diate future than has been given it in 
the past. 


Unfortunately, comparatively little 
attention has been paid to the subject 
of rice fertilization, and there is not 
much experimental data available on 
which to base conclusions with reference 
to the special needs of this crop, but 
such facts as can be correlated are pre- 
sented herewith for the consideration 
of the reader. In the first place, the 
ratio of grain to straw in rice varies 
between wide limits. When the ground 
is fertile or an excess of nitrogen- 
ous materials have been applied, the 
quantity of straw is likely to be large. 
Statistics indicate that the amount of 
straw may vary from 1,500 up to 2,500 
lb. per 1,000 lb. of rough rice as it comes 
from the threshing machine. Ofcourse, 
the amount of straw obtained will vary 
with the height at which it is eut. 
Probably afair average of the amount 
of straw to rice is abouttwo toone. On 
this basis a field that would yield twelve 
sacks of rice per acre containing 162 lb. 
would produce 1,944 lb. of rough rice 
and about. 3,888 lb. of straw. One 
thousand pounds of rice contains about 
11°9 lb. of nitrogen, 3°21 lb. of phosphoric 
acid, and 1°68 lb. of potash. One thou- 
sand pounds of rice straw would contain 
about 7°56 lb. of nitrogen, 2°60 lb. of 
phosphoric acid, and 4°20 lb. of potash. 
On this basis a yield of twelve sacks of 
rice per acre with the amount of straw 
indicated above would remove from the 
land through the medium of rough rice 
23°13 lb. of nitrogen, 6:24 Ib. of phos- 
phoric acid, and 3:11 1b. of potash. 
The straw would remove 29°49 lb. of 
nitrogen, 10°09 lb. of phosphoric acid and 
16°31 lb.of potash. The totalcrop would 


; 


remove 52°62 Ib. of nitrogen, 


1 16°33 Ib. 
of phosphoric acid, and 19-42 lb. of 


potash. 
Manured with- 


Unmanured. Competely Manured out Potash. 
per acre. per acre. 
Yield 120]bs. Muriate 600 Ibs, Acid 
per of potash Phosphate 
Acre 600 ,, Acid Phos- 400 lbs. Cotten 
phate Seed meal 
6 bags 420 ,, Cotton Seed 
Meal 
12 bags. 8 bags, 


(The Rice averaged 165 lbs. per bag.) 


Rick EXPERIMENT BY Mr. W. D, 
BEUNET, OF ORANGE, TEXAS. 


Rice has not been considered an ex- 
haustive crop on‘the soil, though it would 
seem from the above figures that when 
the straw is removed or burned, as is 
frequently the case, that the loss of 
nitrogen is very heavy, and that con- 
siderable quantites of phosphates and 
potash are likely to be needed _ to main- 
tain the fertility of the land, for the 
type of soil on which rice grows most 
advantageously often does not contain 
large amounts of either of these very 
important and _ essential mineral ele- 
ments. Unfortunately, there are few, 
if any. analyses of rice soils in the 
United States available, and it is im- 
possible, therefore, to even make deduc- 
tions from a method of estimating the 
value of a soil which is admittedly un- 
satisfactory owing to the fact that 
chemical anlaysis only indicates the total 


amount of plant food and not the _ pro- 


portion, which may be inan available 
form, and hence useful to plants. 


A comparison of the draft made on 
the soil by rice and wheat may serve to 
throw some light on this. subject. 
Wheat, asa rule, yields 1°5 to 2 lb. of 
straw for each pound of grain. Twenty 
bushels of wheat, or 1,200 lb. would 
remove from the land about 28°32 1b. of 
nitrogen, 10°68 lb. of phosphoric acid, and 
7:32 lb. of potash. The 2,000 lb. of 
straw which accompany this yield of 
wheat would remove 12 lb. of nitrogen, 
2°40 lb. of phosphoric acid. and 10°20 lb. 
of potash. The total amount of fertility 
removed by the wheat crop on _ this 


. basis would be 40:32 lb. of nitrogen, 


13:08 lb. of phosphoric acid, and 17°52 lb. 
of potash. From these figures itis ap 
parent that rice, owing to its greater 
yield, will make as heavy or heavier 
draft on the soil than wheat, and it is 
considered necessary by most progressive 
farmers who are cultivating Jand in the 
older sections of the country to fertilize 
wheat quite extensively. 


The figures presented here indicate the 
necessity of applying at least 700 lb. of 
cotton-seed meal to supply the needed 


Edible Products. 


nitrogen and phosphric acid and about 
50 lb. of muriate of potash to supply the 
needed potash. Of course, if nitrogen 
were supplied in other forms, acid phos- 
phate would have to be applied at the 
rate of atleast 100 lbs. per acre. While 
this is a somewhat theoretical con- 
clusion, good husbandry necessitates 
the maintenance of soil fertility. and 
where rice is cultivated on land con- 
tinuously, as is the practice commonly 
pursued on our American farms, it is 
advisable to apply at least 100 to 200 Ib. 
of high-grade acid phosphate and 50 
to 100 lb.. of muriate of potash so as 
to keep the stores of available plant 
food in the land up to the maximum, 
and thus maintain high crop yields, 


With regard tothe question of the 
nitrogen supply, less concern need prob- 
ably be felt by the vice-grower than by 
farmers who are cultivating other crops, 
as the irrigating waters, as a rule, con- 
tain a large quantity of sediment. The 
rainfall also brings some nitrogen to the 
soil, and the constant application of 
water from such streams as the Missis- 
sippi insures the addition of a consider- 
able number of pouxds of nitrogen to 
each acre ofJand. Whether this nitrogen 
is in an available form for the use of the 
rice plant is still an open question, how- 
ever. It has been estimated that where 
irrigating water from the Mississippi is 
used, including the nitrogen brought 
from the rainfall, that as much as 15 lb. 
of this element may be brought to each 
acre of land; where artesian wells are 
used, as much as 9 to 10 lb. Hnglish 
bayou water may bring as much as 20 
or more lb. The artesian water may 
also contain small quantities of phos- 
phorie acid and potash, butit is plain 
that the irrigating waters used cannot 
be deepened upon to supply the needs 
of the rice crop if grown onthe same 
land through a series of years. More- 
over, itis an open question whether the 
soils and the plants absorb the salts 
carried in solution, or whether, on the 
other hand, the water drained away 
trom the field or which leaks from the 
levees does not carry away a greater 
quantity of fertility than is conveyed to 
the field by the waters used in flooding 
the rice. 


It is patent from this resumé that if 
nitrogen is applied to the field it should 
be used in the organic form, of which 
cotton-seed-meal, tankage, dried blood, 
and stable manureare examples. Nitrate 
of soda might, of course, be applied to 
the flood-waters as they enter the field, 
but even then there is a chance of most 
of it being lost. On rice fields, where 
the growth of stem is already vigorous, 
however, little nitrogen need be applied 


Edible Products. 


in any form, and where crop rotations 
can be practised, the needed suply can 
be maintained through turning under 
leguminouscrops. Where the rice straw 
is fed and the farmyard manure return- 
ed to the land, the problem of main- 
taining the nitrogen-supply in rice- farm- 
ing should not be a difficult problem. 


On the other hand, phosphoric acid is 
contained in but small quantities in the 
waters used for the purpose of irrigation. 
This important element is necessary to 
fill out the grain and make a stronger 
and more vigorous plant. It should 
frequently be applied liberally on lands 
that already contain an abundance of 
nitrogen, asthe failure to mature seed 
in such instances is nearly always due 
toa deficiency of available phosphoric 
acid. For the purpose of supplying the 
needs of rice, acid phosphate, ground 
bone and dissolved bone may be used 
with satisfaction. Probably the cheapest 
and most satisfactory form in which to 
apply phosphoric acid would be through 
the medium of acid phosphate, and, as a 
rule, we believe the rice farmer is justi- 
fied in using from 100 lb. to 200 lb. of 
high-grade material. 


It will also be seen that potash, which 
has much to do with the transference of 
starch and with the maintenance of 
vigour, and hence high yielding power 
in the plant is used in considerable 
quantities by rice farmers. It is claimed 
by some that the supply will be main- 
tained through the flood-waters, but 
many analyses of the waters used do 
not indicate this as a possibility or 
probability. It is true that waters 
from some sources contain considerable 
amounts of potash, but, as already 
indicated, it isa question whether the 
rice plants utilize much of the food 
brought to them through the medium of 
the flood waters. It will therefore be 
the part of wisdom and good judgment 
to use some of the potash fertilizers in 
connection with the cultivation of rice; 
at least every farmer should obtain the 
most positive evidence that potash is 
not needed before withholding the appli- 
eation of this important and essential 
element of plant food. We would say 
that at least 50 1b. of muriate of potash 
should be used on the average farm, and 
very often 1001lb. A low grade potash 
fertilizer may be obtained in the form of 
kainit, and, of course, there is no objec- 
tionto the use of sulphate if it can be 
purchased and applied as cheaply as the 
muriate or kainit. The importance of 
applying fertilizers to rice lands is 
further emphasized by the fact thata 
rotation of crops is exceedingly difficult 
to pursue on these soils, as the other 
grops which it is desired to cultivate 


28 


withina given series of years do not 
need to be irrigated, and, in fact, do 
better on soils that are well drained and 
porous. This necessitates opening the 
levees and draining the land, which is 
an expensive proposition, and one that 
does not generally meet with favour on 
the part of the rice planter. 


From the foregoing it would appear 
that the following formule might be 
used with advantage in rice farming; 
2per cent. of nitrogen, 8 per cent. of 
phosphoric acid, and 4 per cent. of 
potash ; 3:2 per cent. of nitrogen, 9°2 per 
cent. of phosphoric acid, and 4 per cent. 
of potash. The former of these formulz# 
way be prepared by mixing 1,600 lb. of 
high-grade acid-phosphate, 300 lb. of 
dried blood, and 169 lb. of muriate of 
potash, and adding sufficient filler to 
bring the total amount up to 2,000 lb. 
The second of these formule may be 
prepared by mixing 900 lb. of high-grade 
acid phosphate, 800 lb. of tankage, and 
169 Ib. of muriate of potash, and sufficient 
filler to bring the total amount up to 
2,000 lb. On those farms where there is 
an abundance of nitrogen, as evidenced 
by the rankness of the growth of stem 
and leaf, this element may be discarded, 
or left out of the mixture. We believe, 
under these conditions, that heavier 
applications of phosphoric acid and 
potash will be justifisd, and will, asa 
rule, be found profitable.— Tropical Life, 
Vol. IV, No, 4, April, 1908. 


COFFEE CURING ON THE MALABAR 
COAST. 


A correspondent, signing himself ‘‘P.,” 
writes in the Madras Mail :—In these 
days of travel many people have visited 
coffee estates in India and are acquainted 
with the growth of coffee from the 
beginning to the time it is sent away 
from the planter. It is the stage inter- 
mediate, between the time when the 
bean has left the estate and until itis 
ready for roasting and grinding for the 
breakfast table, that the public know 
little about, and it is with the period of 
drying, picking and sorting, or in one 
word ‘‘curing,” that it is now proposed 
to deal. 


At Mangalore, Tellicherry, and Calicut, 
on the Malabar Coast, are the most 
important curing works, and there the 
busy season starts about the end of No- 
vember, with the early crops from Coorg 
and the Wynaad, and goes on till nearly 
the end of April, when the later ones, 
from North and South Mysore, are safely 
gatheredin. During those months strings 


of carts arrive at the works, sometimes — 


4 


(Jury, 1908 


3 
4 
¢ 


3 
i 
- 
: 
: 
= 


a 


Jury, 1908.) 29 


fifty or sixty ata time, and await their 


tura for the consignments tobe measured. 
When the bandies are despatched from 
the estate, the coffee, which is sometimes 
packed in bulk and sometimes in sacks, 
is carefully measured, but many things 
may happen to it on route, and the last 
cart of the string particularly is subject 
to burglary. Its driver, often sound 
asleep in front, sees and hears nothing 
of the thieves lying in wait, who swoop 
down, slit open the sacks of the end bandy 
and transfer the cotfee into their own 
baskets and bags. As soon as the carts 
are admitted to the yard the coffee is 
poured out into great heaps, and measured 
off in bushels, one bushel being always 
weighed, to ascertain its weight on arri- 
val, to compare with the weight on des- 
patch. I[t is then put into sacks, labelled 
and stored away in locked godowns, each 
consignment being kept separate through- 
out the whole process it undergoes in the 
works. The yard is enclosed by high 
walls. and consists of barbacues, or 
asphalt platforms slightly sloped from 
the centre and, divided by low cement 
barricades. The godowns, engine house, 
store, sheds, ete., are all arranged in the 
same enclosure and occupy a space of 
about six or seven acres. 


A busy scene is enacted every morning 
in the yard when the Manager appears 
at 8a.m.; then, as soon as the great gates 
are open some 300 to 400 women, who 
have been gathering outside filein. A 
very picturesquescene they make, with 
their glossy dark hair, tair skin and 
spotless white clothes, as they hurry 
off with their baskets over the black 
asphalted barbacues to their work in the 
garbling sheds, and, like the fallof many 
waters, is the noise of their rapid tongues 
as they settle themselves in their various 
places, chattering together in the strange 
Malayalam language. 


The men meanwhile bring the coffee 
out in sacks and it is spread_on the barba- 
cues to dry, each lot being kept to itself 
and designated by a white label with the 
owner’s name on, The beans are then 
slowly turned by coolies with large wood- 
en rakes. t this stage the coffee is 
not of the well-known brown colour but 
a pale buff, andin the distance the barba- 
cues look as if they are covered with 
khaki cloth. The time the coffee takes 
to dry varies. It depends a good deal on 
the state it is in when despatched. If 
fairly dry and the weather fine, one day 


may be sufficient, but in a cloudy season 


when the barbacues get damp and are 
not well heated by the sun two or three 
days are often required. 


Samples of the coffee, after drying, are 
brought up daily for the Manager to 


Edable Products. 


inspect. Ifitis passed dry, it is taken 
in sacks to the Mill, and there the peeler 
undertakes the next process. 


The peeler is a large iron trough, in 
which two fluted wheels with corrugated 
edges are hung, with their weight 
just off the trough. Charges contain- 
ing eighteen bushels ot coffee are fixed 
above on the wooden barricade encircl- 
ing the trough and, as required, are let 
down. The first husk of the bean is there 
broken up and peeled off by the friction of 
the two wheels which are worked round 
and 10undby a compact little engine. 
Placed between the wheels are wooden 
spades, fitted withiron stays and, when 
the beans are peeled, these are dropped, 
and in their turn rotateona pivot and 
force the coffee out through a little trap 
opening into a pit beneath. The trough 
is then cleaned out amidst clouds of 
dust and ready for another charge. 
From the pit the coffee is taken up by 
an elevator, which looks like a miniature 
dredger, and carried to the winnow, 
where the parchment and the silvery 
skin is removed. The coffee bean is now 
quite clean and ready to be sized, so 
is shot into a long perforated zine 
eylinder. The perforations in the 
cylinder are divided into C, B and A, 
smallest, smaller, and big, and as the 
cylinder turns the beans drop through; 
those that do not fall through C, pass on 
to B, and soon. The A. B. and C’s then 
fall down, shoots into the separator, 
where the peaberry, or round bean, is 
divided from the flat one, a little boy 
being in attendance on the separator 
to prevent the holes from becoming 
clogged. 


The beans are then collected from 
their bins and taken cut in bags to the 
garbling sheds, where the women pick 
them over by hand, shaking them up 
in their basket trays as they do their 
rice, the broken, imperfect and discard- 
ed beans being put into the class of 
coffee called ‘triage,’ from the French 
word triage, which means ‘ choosing ” 
or “picking.” In the sheds which are 
hung with tatties to keep the sun from 
bleaching the coffee, the women work 
in little pens, divided from each other 
by low sceens: by this means each lot 
of coffee is still kept separate from that 
of any other estate. When the garbling 
is over, the last process is finished and 
the cotfee is ready to be weighed, for 
when once the parchment is removed 
coffee is reckoned by weight only and 
not by measure. 


The coffee is now ready to be despatch- 
ed. The A’s, B’s, C’s, and peaberry beans 
each being packed separately, tor each 


u Lit # 


Edible Products. 30 (Juny, 1908, 


sells at a different rate, the peaberry 
generally commanding the best price on 
the London market. 


The coffee is sewn up in double sacks, 
printed with the name of the works that 
send it out, and despatched Home in 
one of the many cargo boats‘in which 
exports from the Malabar Coast are 
shipped to other lands across the sea.— 
Indian Agriculturist, Vol. XXXIII., 
No, 4, April, 1908. 


CASSAVA ROOTS AND STARCH 
MANUFACTURE. 


A pamphlet (Bulletin No. 106 of the 
Bureau of Chemistry) has been issued 
by the U.S. Department of Agriculture 
dealing with the properties and uses of 
cassava. 


Apart from food purposes one of the 
chief uses of cassava is in the manufac- 
ture of starch. It will be remembered 
that cassava starch manufacture has 
been on trial in Jamaica for some time 
past (Agricultural News, Vol. V., p. 410), 
and it is now being produced at three 
centres. ‘This starch is of considerable 
value, and if well made, commands a 
price of from £15 to £16 on the English 
market. In tke trials carried out at 
Hope Gardens to ascertain the starch- 
yielding values of different cassavas, a 
return of four tons of starch per acre was 
obtained, after twelve months’ growth, 
from the best varieties. 


Since cassava tubers deteriorate rapid- 
ly on being harvested, it is advisable, 
when intended for starch manufacture, 
that they should be grown as near the 
mill as possible. The grower who lives 
in close proximity to the factory is 
therefore at an advantage as compared 
with the grower who lives at a distance. 
Some practical method of treatment of 
the roots which would do away with 
the necessity of immediate utilization 


would confer a great benefit upon cas-. 


sava cultivators, and experiments of 
this kind undertaken by the U.S. Depart- 
ment of Agriculture, are described in 
the pamphlet. 


Briefly, these experiments consisted of 
grinding the tubers to a fine meal and 
drying inthe sun. The cassava meal so 
prepared is reported to have kept for 
eight months without signs of deterior- 
ation. This means that the product can 
be stored and marketed to much better 
advantage, while owing to the great 
decrease in weight (about 50 per cent.), 
as the result of moisture evaporation on 
drying, the cost of transport is reduced 
by one-half. 


The mill used in grinding the roots 
was of very simple construction, and 
cost complete no more than $10. Sucha 
machine would therefore be within the 
reach of growers producing cassava on 
only a small scale. It ground one ton of 
tubers in one and a half hours. 


The drying trays used in exposing the 
ground cassava to the sun, in order to 
evaporate the moisture, consisted of a 
wooden framework with a canvas bot- 
tom. They were 5 feet long by 24 feet 
broad, and were made very cheaply. 
The cassava meal was _ occasionally 
stirred in the process of drying. 


Should the cassava starch industry of 
Jamaica develop, as it shows every pro- 
mise of doing, the above method of 
preparation and preservation might be 
worthy of adoption by growers in cer- 
tain parts. In the West Indies it would 
be possible to completely dry and bag 
the cassava meal on the same day as 
the roots were ground.—Agricultural 
News, Vol. VIT., No. 154, March 21, 1908. 


RESULTS OF THE RECENT EX- 
PERIMENTS WITH CACAO IN THE 
WEST INDIKS. 


GRENADA. 


The following paper on the results of 
plot experiments with cacao in Grenada 
has been prepared by Mr. R. D. 
Anstead, B.A., Agricultural Superinten- 
dent, Grenada :— 


In Grenada, experiment plots of cacao 
are of two kinds, distinguished for the 
sake of reference, by the terms ‘ experi- 
ment plots’ and ‘experiment stations.’ 


The experiment plots, as was explained 
at the last Agricultural Conference 
(West Indian Bulletin, Vol. VI, p. 66), 
are each about one acre in extent and 
are chusen from land, near the public 
roads, belonging to peasant proprietors. 


The experiments carried out upon 
these plots are conducted by the Im- 
perial Department and are designed to 
run for three years, the cost of them 
being defrayed from Imperial funds. 


One series of these plots has completed 
its three-year course, and at present a 
fresh series, chosen on the plan but in 
different localities, is nearing the end 
of the first year. 


The results obtained by means of 
these plots are highly satisfactory. The 
Agricultural Instructor uses them asa 
rendezvous when he is in the district, 
and as demonstration plots. Here he is 


ike 


stg 
4 


JuLy, 1908.) 


able to meet the peasants and to show 
them how agricultural operations such 
as forking, drainage, and pruning, should 
be carred out, and how manures should 
be applied. 


Considerable interest has been shown 
in the plots by the neighbouring 
peasants, and the operations carried out 
upon them are imitated to an encourag- 
ing extent. The plots are originally 
chosen in poor areas and where trees 
have been considerably neglected, in 
order that the benefits of scientific treat- 
ment may be the more marked. <A good 
crop serves as excellent object-lessons to 
all cultivators of cacao and indicates 
how the most satisfactory results are to 
be obtained. From one plot, of an area 
of one acre this year, for instance, the 
owner has picked two-thirds of the total 
crop derived from five acres of land. 


With regard to the actual results of 
the experiments, figures are kept as ac- 
curately as possible, and published from 
year to year in the Annual Report of 
the Botanic Station ; but from a purely 
experiment point of view, and as means 
of obtaining accurate numerical results, 
the second class of experiments—the 
‘experiment stations’—should afford 
better opportunities than the experi- 
ment plots, since they are on a bigger 
scale and are run more on estate lines. 


These experiment stations are estab- 
lished on large estates and consists of 
not less than tive acres, or one thousand 
trees. The cost of the experiments is 
borne by the owners, the Imperial De- 
partment supplying scientific advice as 
to the experiments and the manner in 
which they should be conducted. These 
stations, of which there are at present 
five, have become very popular, and next 
year a number of others will be started. 


The result of establishing them has 
been to make the larger proprietors take 
a lively interest in scientific experiments 
carried out in their own estates—experi- 
ments designed to answer questions and 
solve problems connected with their 
own soils and conditions. 


It isas yet too early in the history of 
these experiments to be able to give 
with any confidence numerical results, 
but two facts are already apparent; 
firstly, that cacao grown on the heavy 
red clay soils of Grenada _ responds 
quickly and liberally to applications of 
lime ; secondly, that pen manure, when 
applied in heavy dressings and_ tho- 
roughly and deeply forked in, is of con- 
siderable value and give results that 
compare very favourably with mineral 
and chemical fertilizers.— West Indian 
Bulletin: The Journal of the Insperial 
Agricultural Department for the West 
Indes, Vol, VIII,, 1907, No. 2, 


Ba | Edible Products. 


TRINIDAD CACAO EXPORTS. 

Cacao growers in Trinidad are cer- 
tainly experiencing a favourable season 
and good returns for their produce, and 
even if prices drop somewhat before the 
whole of the crop has been gathered in, 
the increased output as compared with 
last year should go far to make ample 
compensation to producers. 


During 1907, a total of 251,755 bags of 
cacao were shipped from Trinidad, of 
which 184,611 went to Europe, 114,749 to 
New York, and 2,888 bags to Canada. 
In January, 1907, the amount of cacao 
shipped was 16,308 bags, while during 
the corresponding month of 1908, the 
export reached 46,139 bags, or very 
nearly trebiec the output for January of 
the previous year.—Agricultural News, 
Vol. VII., No. 153, March, 1908, 


THE DURIAN. 


Durian cultivation, according to an 
Official Season and Crop Report for 
Burma, has very slightly exceeded 10,000 
acres in the past two years, and is almost 
confined to the Tenasserim division, 
Tavoy and Mergui districts growing more 
than three-fourths of the whole area. 
Kuropeans seldom appreciate this fruit 
on first acquaintance, but after a few 
years’ residence many become admirers 
of it. The old traveller Linschott, writ- 
ing in 1599, says: ‘It is of such an 
excellent taste that it surpasses in flavour 
all the other fruits of the world, accord- 
ing to those who have tasted it.” Dr. 
Paludanus adds :—‘: This fruit is of a hot 
and humid nature. To thosenot used toit 
it seems atfirst to smell like rotten onions, 
but immediately they have tasted it they 
prefer it to all other food. The natives 
give it honourable titles, exalt it, and 
make verses on it.” Dr. A. R. Wallace, 
the naturalist, who spent many years in 
the Malay Archipelago, says that when 
brought into a house che smell is often 
so offensive that some persons can never 
bear to taste it. He first tried it in 
Malacca in a house and could not stand it. 
But afterwards finding a ripe fruit on the 
ground in Borneo, and eating it out of 
doors, he at once became a confirmed 
durian eater. The durian grows on a 
large and lofty forest tree, somewhat 
resembling an elm in its general charac- 
ter, but_with a more smooth and scaly 
bark. The fruit is round or slightly oval, 
about the size of a large coconut, of a 
green colour, and covered all over with 
short stout spines, the bases of which 
touch each other and are consequently 
somewhat hexagonal, while the points 
are. very strong and sharp. It is so 
completely armed, that if the stalk is 
broken off itis a difficult matter to lift 


Edible Products. 


one from the ground. The outer rind is 
so thick and rough that from whatever 
height it may fall it is never broken. 
From the base to the apex five very faint 
lines may be traced over which the spines 
wreh a little; those are the sutures of the 
carpels and show where the truit may be 
divided with a heavy knife and a strong 
hand. The five cells are satiny white 
within and are each filled with an oval 
mass of cream-coloured pulp, imbedded 
in which are two or three seeds about the 
size of chestnuts. This pulp is the eatable 
part, and Dr. Wallace deseribes its con- 
sistence and flavour as indescribable. 


A rich, butter like custard highly fla- 
voured withalmonds gives the best general 
idea of it, but intermingled with it come 
watts of favour that call to mind cream- 
cheese, onion sauce, brown sherry, and 
other incongruities. Then there isarich 
glutinous smoothness in the pulp which 
nothing else possesses. but which adds to 
its delicacy. Itisneither acid, norswect, 
nor juicy, yet one feels the want of none 
of these qualities, for it is perfect as it is. 
It produces no nausea or other bad effects. 
and the more you eat of it the less you 
feel inclined to stop. In fact to eat 
durian is, according to. Dr. Wallace, worth 
a voyage to the Kast toexperience. The 
only way to eat durians in perfection is 
to get them ripe as they fall from the 
tree. The smell is then over-powering. 
Inthe Malay Archipelagoripefruit falling 
occasionally strike a man working or 
walking underthetrees. When adurian 
strikes a man in its fall it produces a 
dreadful wound, the stong spines tearing 
open the flesh. Death rarely ensues, the 
copius effusion of blood perhaps prevent- 
ing the inflammation which might other- 
wise take place. At the present time 
durian trees grown in private gardens in 
Kemendine and Kokine are covered with 
fruit promising an early and prolific 
season. Dr. Wallace remarks that poets 
and moralists, judging from English fruit 
trees, have thought that small fruits 
always grew on lofty trees so that their 
fall should be harmless to man, wiilst 
large ones trailed on the ground. Two 
of the largest and heaviest fruits known, 
however, the brazil-nut fruit and durian, 
grow oun lofty forest trees from which 
they fall as soon as they are ripe, and 
often wound or kill the native inhabi- 
tants. From this we learn two things, 
first, not to draw general conclusions 
from a very partial view of nature; and, 
secondly, that trees and fruits, no less 
than the varied productions of the animal 
kingdom, do not appear to be organised 
with exclusive reference to the use and 
convenience of man. [Indian Agricul- 
turist, Vol. XXXIII., No. 4, April 
1, 1908, 


32 


Pe. * 
aay 


: (Jury, 1908, 


MANURES FOR PINE-APPLES., 

The need for the application of large 
quantities of fertilizersin the cultivation 
of pine-apples is emphasized in an article 
in the Florida Agriculturist. This is on 
eccount of the fact that many soils, well 
adapted from the point of view of their 
situation and physical conditions to pine- 
appie culture, contain very little plant 
food. By the provision of the necessary 
constituents, however, the pine-apple 
will live, flourish, and give good crops 
for twelve or fifteen years. 

Organic manures, such as cotton seed 
meal and dried blood, are preferable to 
nitrate of soda or sulphate of ammonia, 
for the supply of nitrogen. A little 
nitrate of soda may be given soon after 
planting, but it is stated, as a conclusion 
drawn trom experiments carried out at 
the Florida Experiment Station, that 
the continued use of nitrate of soda or 
sulphate of ammonia brings about a 
spiky condition of the plants, and results 
in the production of fruits of small size 
and poor keeping quality. 

Basic slag appears to be the best 
phosphetic manure for the pineapple 
crop. Bone meal also gave satisfactory 
results. Superphosphate was an unpro- 
fitable fertilizer, and resulted in an 
unhealthy condition of the plants with 
lessened fruit return. In the Florida 
Experiments, however, it was shown 
that when the application of superphos- 
phate was accompanied with a good 
dressing of lime, much better returns 
were given. This is what would be 
expected in view of the results obtained 
with basie slag. 

A good supply of potash is also 
essential to the proper development and 
fruiting of the pine-apple. Sulphate of 
potash is recommended as the most 
suitable potassic manure, and as likely to 
produce better results than kainit, apart 
from the economy in freight observed 
in purchasing the form2r. The following 
is recommended as a good mixed manure 
suitable for the pine-apple crop: Dried 
blood, 735 lb. ; raw ground bone, 485 lb. ; 
and low grade sulphate of potash, 925 lb. ; 
making a total of 2,095 lb. per acre. 

The above is mentioned as a sufficient 
quantity for the first year’s growth of 
the plants. Sincea greater return of 
fruit will be expected in the second year, 
a heavier application of fertilizing con- 
stituents should be made. The quantity 
applied, in fact, should be in proportion 
to the return of fruit that may reason- 
ably beexpected. Under average cireum- 
stances, however, no more than 3,500 lb, 
to 3,800 lb. of manure can be profitably 
applied each year.—Agricultural News, 

ol. VII, No, 155. April, 1908, ; 


ae 


| 


Jury, 1908} 


LIST OF JUNGLE PRODUCTS USED 
BY THE POOR DURING THE 
FAMINE, 1896-7. 


By T. EH. D. INNEs, 
Agent, Balrampur Estate. 
(Continued from page 548.) 


83. Kumpt (Careya arborea, Roxb., 
Nat. Ord Myrtaceoe).—A large jungle 
tree found in the sub-montane forest. 
The bark or outside of the root is 
removed, pounded, and ground and used 
as flour to make bread. [The patana oak 
of Cey lon. | 


34. AGaAI (Dillenia pentagyna, Roxb., 
Nat. Ord. Dilleniacoe).—A tree with very 
large leaves found in the jungle. The 
flower ard fruit are both eaten, but are 
rather sour. It flowers in March and 
fruits in April. [Other Dillenias in 
Ceylon. | 


35. KHURHUR (Ficus Cunia, Ham., 
Nat. Ord. Urticaceoe).—A big tree found 
in sub-montane forests. The fruit when 
ripe is eaten uncooked and is rather 
sweet. The fruitspringsseemingly from 
the roots of the tree, and is not produced 
on the branches. Fruit ripens about 
July. itis considered most edible, and 


is much sought after by bears. [Other 
Ficuses (banyans) in Ceylon. | 
36. Manua (Bassia latifolia, Roxb., 


Nat. Ord. Sapotaceoe).—A very common 
tree found in the jungle and is also culti- 
vated. The flower is parched, and also 
ground and eaten. The fruit is eaten 
cooked and uncooked, and oil is made 
from the seeds. A most useful tree and 
great food producer. Flowers and fruits 
in March and April. [B. longifolia (Mi or 
Iluppai) in Ceylon. Flowers dried and 
eaten. | 


37. KADAM.—(This is probably Antho- 
cephalus Cadamba, Benth. and Hook., 
Nat. Ord. Rubiaceoe.—Hon. Ed).—A 
jungle tree which is also cultivated. 
The fruit which ripens about September 
and October is eaten uncooked; rather 
sharp to the taste. 


38. PEOROWA OR PiIAR (Buchanania 
latifolia, Roxb., Nat., Ord. Anacardi- 
aceoe.—A large jungle tree. The fruit is 
eaten when ripe and issweet to the taste. 
The kernel of the stone is also eaten. 
Fruit ripens about June andJuly. [B. 
augustifolia in Ceylon. | 


39. JANGLI JAMUN (4ugenia jambo- 
tana, Lamk., Nat. Ord. dlyrtaceoe.)— 
A very common jungle tree, grows on 
damp ground, and produces a kind of 
plum which is much sought after and 


5 


33 Edible Products. 


eaten when ripe. Ripens about July and 
August. [Common in the low country 
(Ma-dan or Naval). Fruit much eaten.] 


40. PAHNAN.—This is Ougenia dalber- 
gioides, Benth., Nat. Ord. Leguminosoe. 
—Hon. Ed).—A jungle tree. The flower 
is gathered and boiled and eaten. The 
fruit is not eatable. Tree flowers in 
March. Much sought after and con- 
sidered most edible. 


41. UmpBar (Ficus glomerata, Roxb., 
Nat. Ord, Urticeoe, Vide No. 21.—Hon. 
Ep).—A forest tree found in the sub- 
montane forest. The flowers and fruit 
both ripe and unripe are eaten either 
cooked or uncooked. Much sought after 
and considered most edible and some- 
times cultivated. [Common in the low- 
country (Attika or Atti), but Trimen 
remarks that the fruit is scarcely edible. ] 


42, SAHINJAN (Moringa pterygosper- 
ma, Goertn., Nat. Ord. Moringeoe).—A 
forest tree. When very small the root 
is eaten like a radish. When the tree is 
big the flower and unripe fruit are boiled 
and eaten, Considered most edible. 
Flowers and fruits about March and 
April. [Much cultivated (Murunga or 
horse-radish tree). | 


43. KucHNAR (Bauhinia variegata, L., 
Nat. Ord. Leguminosoe).—A forest tree, 
and is also cultivated. The buds are 
boiled and eaten as a vegetable. Con- 
sidered most edible. Flowers in March. 
[Other Bauhinias in Ceylon (Petan, 
Mayila). | 


44. PHALSHA (Grewia sp., Nat. Ord. 
Tiliaceoe,) A forest tree and is also 
cultivated. The fruit is eaten when 
ripe and unripe, uncooked. Considered 
most edible, and much sought after. 
Fruits in May and June. The root is 
used medicinally. [Many Grevias in 
Ceylon (Damiriya, Keliya, Tavidai, 
Achchu, &c.,): fruit eaten. | 


45. Kusm (Schleicheratrijuga, Wild., 


Nat. Ord. Sapindaceoe).—A big forest 
tree. The frvit is eaten when ripe, un- 
cooked. Fruits in June. Considered 


most edible, and much sought after- 
Fruits best insub-montane forest. [Kon 
or Ceylon oak. | 


46. MANGO (Mangifera indica, L., Nat. 
Ord, Anacardiaceoe).—Besides the ordin- 
ary fruit, the poor collect the stones, 
and boil or roast the kernels, which they 
also make into bread. Considered most 
edible. [Mango.] 


47. KytaHa (Feronia Klephantum, 
Correa., Nat. Ord. Rutaceoe).—A forest 
tree which is also cultivated. The fruit 
is eaten ripe and unripe, cooked and un- 
cooked. Fruits in June, but edible from 


Edible Products. 


September till April. Considered most 
edible and much sought after. [Diwul, 
Vila, Wood apple ; fruit edible. ] 


48. LAHSOWRA (Vordia mya, L., Nat. 
Ord. Boraginioe.)—A forest tree which 
is also cultivated. The fruit when un- 
ripe is boiled and eaten and when ripe 
eaten uncooked. Fruitsabout April and 
ripens in June. Considered most edible 
and much sought after. [Lolu, Naruvili, 
Vidi, common indry zone. The fruits 
used to be known as sebestens. | 


CREEPERS. 


49. THULWA.—A jungle creeper. The 
root which is generally long and narrow 
is pounded and ground in achakki and 
bread made from the flour produced. It 
seems Ahirs give the pounded root to 
buffaloes, as it is said to improve the 
milk-supply and bestow strength. 


50. MUDLATER.—A junglecreeper. The 
fruit when ripe is eaten uncooked. The 
fruit ripens in January and February. 


51, TEONA (Dioscorea, Sp., Nat. Ord, 
Dioscoreaceve).—A jungle creeper found 
in the sub-montane forest. The root is 
either boiled or roasted and eaten asa 
vegetable. [Several Dioscoreas in Ceylon 
(yams). | 


52. BELRA KAND (Pueraria tuberosa, 
D. C., Nat. Ord. Leguminosoe).—A large 
jungle creeper. The root when small is 
eaten uncooked and has a sweet taste, 
when ‘big it is boiled after removing 
the outside and eaten as a vegetable. 
Each plant has several tuberous roots 
like the potato. The root is also used 


medicinally. 
58. Kanti (Dioscorea sativa, L., Nat. 
Ord. Dioscoreaceoe.)—A jungle creeper. 


The root is parched or boiled after re- 
moving the outside aud eaten. [Panu- 
kondol, common in the lowcountry. | 


54. ARWA Dioscorea Sp.)—A ground 
creeper. The root is parched or boiled, 
after removing the outside and eaten. 
[Cf. 51, 53.] 


55. PAHETULA (Mukia scabrella, Arn., 
Nat. Ord. Cucurbitaceoe).—A kind of 
cucumber which is commonly found in 
juar, kodon or cotton fields. The fruit 
when unripe is boiled and eaten after 
the seeds have been removed, but 
when ripe is eaten uncooked. Fruits in 
August and _ ripens in October. [Hin- 
kekiri, Mochumochukkai, common in 
lowcountry. | 


56. GAINTH.—A jungle creeper. The 
root is rather poisonous, but it is boiled 
and buried in the earth for 2 or 3 days 
by which it seems the poisonous pro- 


eae ae 


34 (Jury, 1908. 


perties are removed. After being dug 
up again the outside is removed and the 
rest eaten as a vegetable. 


57. CHIHAR (Bauhinia Vahli, W. and 
A., Nat. Ord. Leguminosoe).—A jungle 
oreeper which produces a long flat bean- 
likefruit. The seed of the fruit only is 
parched and eaten. [Other Bauhinias in 
Ceylon. ] 


58. GULKI (Asparagus, Sp., Nat. Ord. 
Liliaceoe.)—A small jungle creeper. The 
root is boiled and eaten like a potato. 
[Several Asparagus in Ceylon. | 


59. TaruL.—A creeper found in sub- 
montane forest. The root is boiled and 
eaten ard is considered most edible. It 
is a common article of food amongst 
jungle tribes. 


60. Ban Baswa.—A _ broad leafed 
thorny creeper. The root is pounded, 
ground and bread made of the flour. 
Not very edible. 


61. BIRAHNI.—A jungle creeper. The 
root is parched or boiled and eaten like 
a potato. The fruit which ripens in 
August is boiled and used asa vegetable. 
eae. to be most edible and much sought 
after. 


62. JANGLI SEM (probably Atylosia 
crassa., Prain, Nat. Ord. Leguminosoe.— 
Hon. Kd.).—A jungle creeper which 
produces a kind of bean which is boiled 
and eaten as a vegetable. 


68. PHAL BED (Calamustenwis, Roxb., 
Nat. Ord. Palmoe.)—The common cane 
found in swampy jungles. The fruit . 
which appears about Decemher or 
January is eaten uncooked. [Many 
Calami (we-wel, narawel, kukulu-wel, 
mave-wel, tambotu-wel) in Ceylon. ] 


64. MALKANGANI (Celastrus panicu- 
latus, Willd., Nat. Ord. Celastrineae).— 
A jungle creeper. Fruits about July, 
and ripens in September. When unripe 
the fruit is boiled and eaten as a 
vegetable. When ripe the seed is used 
medicinally. [Duhudu, common in the 
lowcountry.] 

65. KHEKSHI.—A jungle creeper. The 
fruit when unripe is boiled and eaten as 
a vegetable. It is useless when ripe. 
Fruits about July and August, and 
ripens in September. Ccnsidered most 
edible. 

66. AMIRTI.—A jungle creeper. The 
fruit when uuripe is boiled and eaten as 
a vegetable. When ripe is_ useless. 
Fruits in July and August and considered 
most edible. 


67. KUNDARU.—A junglecreeper which 
is also cultivated. ‘Lhe fruit is boiled 
and eaten asa vegetable. Fruits all the 
year round. * 


- Juty, 1908.] 


68. Pore (Basellaalba, L., Nat. Ord. 
Chenopodiaceoe).—A jungle creeper which 
isalso cultivated. The leaves are gather- 
ed mostly during the rainy season, and 
after being boiled are eaten as a vege- 
table. [Niviti, Pasalai, rare in the dry 
zone, but often cultivated as a spinach. | 


69. DoonpuR.—A junglecreeper. The 
fruit when unripe is gathered and boiled 
and eaten as a vegetable. Fruits in July 
and August. 


70. Karetwa (Capparis aphylla, 
Roth., Nat Ord. Capparideoe).—A thorny 
jungle creeper. The flower and fruit are 
both eaten. It flowers in April and 
fruits in June. The flowers and unripe 
fruit are boiled and eaten as a vegetable. 
[Several species of Capparis in Ceylon. | 


71. BAN KARELA.—A creeper fouod in 
sub-montane forest. The unripe fruit is 
gathered, boiled, and eaten as a vege- 
table. Fruits in July and August. 


72. BHERUA.—A creeper found in terai 
jungle. The new shoots and leaves are 
gathered and boiled and eaten as a 
vegetable. New shoots appear about 
July and August. 


73. BEDHARA.—A creeper found in 
terat jungle. The root is roasted or 
boiled and eaten. Considered most 
edible and much sought after. Also 
used medicinally. 


(To be continued.) 


PICKLING WHEAT. 


The following directions to farmers 
are issued by the Department of Agri- 
culture regarding pickling seed wheat, 
oats and barley. Those in doubt regard- 
ing the purity of the bluestone supplied 
to them are invited to submit samples, 
and names of vendor, together with 
price charged, to this Department :— 


Three treatments are in use for pick- 
ling wheat :— 


(1) The seed is treated with hot water, 
which requires careful adjustment in 


5 Edible Products. 


order to maintain it at a temperature of 
133 degrees Fah. The seeds are left 
immersed for ten minutes. The temper- 
ature must not fall below 130 deg. or 
rise above 185 deg. The lower temper- 
ature would not destroy the spores of the 
fungus, while the temperature above 
135 deg. would destroy a percentage of 
the seed. 


(2) The Formalin treatment has been 
much tried lately, though it offers no 
advantage on— 


(8) The Bluestone treatment. A 2 
per cent. solution (orl lb. of bluestone 
to 5 gallons of water) is found by expe- 
rience to be very suitable. 


A weaker solution will do if the seeds 
are steeped for a longer time. 


The grain is placed in bags, or in kero- 
sene tins with small holes in the bottom, 
and immersed in a 2 per cent. solution 
for a minute or so, in order to allow 
every grain to become wetted. It is 
then let drain on a sloping board to 
allow the solution to run back into the 
vessel containing tlie solution. Theseed 
should be placed on a clean floor to dry. 
Itis alsoimportant that the receiving 
bags, drill, ete., with which the grain 
come into contact again does not rein- 
fect the seed. 


The quantity of bluestone mentioned 
will do for three bags of seed, i.e., 1 lb. 
for 5 gallons. After dipping itis a good 
thing to dust the seed with air slaked 
lime, which exerts a chemical action on 
the copper, and converts it from a caus- 
tic toan inert state, thereby reducing 
the proportion of seed that would fail 
to germinate. 


Some prefer to pour slowly a 2 per 
cent. solution of bluestone into lime 
water (1 lb. or 2 lb. to5 gallons), stirring 
for afew minutes, and using this. mix- 
ture instead of the bluestone pickle 
without the addition of lime.—(Kditor, 
Journal of Agriculture.) Journal of 
the Department of Agriculture, West 
Australia, (Vol. XVI., Part4, April, 1908.) 


36 


a 
A a) Ov ut 


(JuLy, 1908. f ee 


TIMBERS. 


METHOD OF CHARCOAL BURNING 
IN SALEM DIVISION. 


By T. S. TIRUVENKATACHARI. 
Range Officer, Salem, Hast. 

On my joining the Harur range in 
South Salem Division, I was called on to 
make some charcoal. Accordingly, I 
collected some coclies, Who knew a rude 
though intelligent form of charcoal burn- 
ing. They made some charcoal which 
was not very gocd. Their kiln was 
rather loosely built and allowed the 
smoke to pass through the top. This 
charcoal fetched a price of Rs. 10 to 
Rs 12-8 per ton locally, being somewhat 
inferior. Then I adopted the following 
form of kiln which is nothing more than 
the parabolloid kiln of Dehra Dun, but 
this one gives better results and is not 
so complicated in working and making. 


Description.—The billets are cut to a 
length of 4 ft. Even while the fuel is 
quite green, the kiln can be arranged 
by using the biggest pieces for the 
innermost ring leaving a vertical hol- 
low of 2 ft. in diameter in the mid- 
dle. This hollow is connected with the 
outer side of the kiln by a channel 
which is made by temporarily placing 
a long straight piece of wood, lead- 
ing from the central hollow to the 
outside. The kiln may be built on any 
level ground and no digging or prepar- 
ation of the site is necessary. Having 
arranged the biggest pieces around the 
firing centre, smaller pieces are arranged 
vertically in concentric outer layers, and 
even the smallest branches and twigs 
are used in the outermost layer. All 
through the interstices between the 
larger billets are filled up by smaller 
pieces in order that the stacking may be 
as tight as possible. The diameter of 
the kiln is from 8 to 12 ft. according to 
the quantity of wood used. Inecovering 
the kiln, a ring 9 in. thick of brushwood 
and branches, like a well crib is sup- 
ported at one foot from the ground by 
props of short forked billets driven into 
the ground. Making a smooth curve 
with this outer ring, leaves and brush- 
wood are thrown over. Then moist is 
put on to thickness of 2 in. and pressed 
down to make it ag airtight as possible. 
The greater part of the weight of 
the cuter covering of leaves and 
earth is supported by the short props 
which hold up the crib-like cing. All 
below this ring is uncovered, allowing 
free access of air. Generally four to six 
tons of wood are used for a kiln, but 
even up to ten tons can be used at a 


time. Smaller kilns, however, are much 
more easily managed than the bigger 
ones of eight or ten tons. The kiln can 
be built at any level place irrespective of 
the distance from water, for six or seven 
buckets will suffice for preparing the 
earth for the covering, and this small 
quantity can be brought from a distance 
if necessary. 


Firing.—A torch is passed through the 
channel-like opening into the central 
space which is filled with dry brush- 
wood. This channel is left open for two 
maar after which it is closed up with 
wood. 


Working of the Kiln.—As soon as the 
kiln has taken fire it has to be watched 
by two or three coolies until the whole 
kiln is burnt. Short pieces of fuel are 
kept ready to fill up hollows which occur 
when the kiln settles on accourt of the 
burning of the inner layers of wood. 
Whenever such hollows occur they are 
easily filled with pieces of fuel; the 
covering is repaired with leaves and 
earth and made airtight once more. 
There is no making of holes for air at 
various heights as in the ordinary para- 
bolloid kiln. The burning continues 
from three to four days according to the 
size of the kiln. Any outside air current 
does not affect this kiln perceptibly, as it 
does when heles are left for controlling 
the burning. When the fire has reached 
the outermost layer and the outer cover- 
ing of leaves is burnt, the bottom one foot 
opening is closed completely and the 
kiln is allowed to cool down for a day, 
after which the charcoal is taken out. 


ADVANTAGES OF THE KILN. 
(1) Water is not required close at 
and 


(2) Outer air currents do notaffect the 
burning. 


(8) The outturn in good charcoal is 
from 25 to 80 percent. of the weight of 
the wood; the minimum is 25 per cent. 


(4) Green fuel may be used in this 
kilo, and no time need be lostin drying 
the wood. Dry wood is adisadvantage, 
and green fuel is particularly advanta- 
geous as it moderates the burning to an 
immense degree. 


(5) Even the smallest branches are 
used, and on opening the kiln it can be 
seen that even leaves sometimes retain 
their form after being carbonised, show- 
ing that as little disturbance as possible 
takes place and burning is moderated 
paactly and automatically by the green 

uel. 


Jury, 1908. | 


(6) The period of burning is compara- 
Byely very short, being only two or three 
ays. 


(7) Control is very easy as_ the coolies 
have only to fill up all newly-formed 
eracks and crevices and nothing else; 
the chances of anything going wrong 
are very limited. 


(8). The charcoal is very good in qual- 
ity, being heavy and metallic and never 
erumbling to pieces. When the kiln is 
opened, the fuel billets all retain their 
full size, even the bark on them being 
converted into charcoal. 


(9) The unburnt pieces are very few, 
being chiefly within one foot of the 
ground and confined only to the bigger 
pieces. These can be subsequently used 
in another kiln. 


Cost oF WORKING. 


The fuel is felled, billetted and stacked 
on the spot. Coolies are paid from two 
to three annas per 561b. or Rs. 5 to 
Rs. 73 per ton according to the den- 
sity of the forest and the avaiiability 
of loose earth for covering the kiln. The 
charcoal sells at an average rate of 
Rs. 20 per ton, which gives a nett profit 
of Rs. 7 to Rs. 8 per ton. 


THE IMPROVEMENTS TO BE AIMED AT IN 
MAKING A CHARCOAL KILN. 


We know that coal is nothing but 
vegetable matter deposited under the 
earth and subjected to the physical con- 
ditions of heat and pressure. The inte- 
rior of the earth is naturally very hot, 
and the weight of the earth above the 
buried vegetable matter tends to increase 
the heat. There is in addition little 
or noair under the earth, especially at 
great depths. The heat acting on the 
wet vegetable matter drives all the 
moisture away in the form of steam, and 
when the temperature becomes very 
high chemical changes also set in result- 
ing in the preparation of marsh gas 
(CH 4) and other hydrocarbons. In this 
way vegetable matter becomes converted 
into coal. Hrom this we can understand 
that the essential condition required for 
obtaining good charcoal is heat, and, 
if possible, pressure and not oxygen. 
Therefore any improvement in the kiln 
must always tend to the exclusion of un- 
necessary air and maintenance of a high 
temperature sufficient to draw out the 
last molecule of moisture, in the shape 


of steam and leave the carbon behind. 


For instance, a piece of wood placed in a 


Tambers. 


vacuum tube and heated with elctricity 
will be converted into charcoal without 
loss of carbon. 


Therefore my modification of the kiln 
consists only in excluding the air as 
much as possible and maintaining a high 
temperature only sufficient to carbvonise 
the wood. Ido not mean my Filn is 
perfect, but it seems to be an im» rove- 
ment. Leaving no holes above and only 
a foot opening underneath, gives a rush 
of air below, but the thorough covering 
outside checks the draft and only allows 
air upwards ina very limited quantity. 
By doing so, there is very little con- 
flagration, but the heat is maintained in 
the following manner :— 


Wuat TAKES PLACE WHEN THIS 
Kitn BurRNSs. 


(1) Steaming; (2) Heat moderation or 
ehecking of conflagration. 


STEAMING. 


As soon as the kiln is set on fire by 
lighting the centre, the burning pro- 
ceeds and the adjoining green pieces of 
wood first part with their water in the 
form of steam which is further heated 
by the flame beneath. This heated 
steam pervades the whole kiln through- 
out the operation, escaping only in small 
quantities through the topmost covering. 
The heated steam parts with its heat to 
the green wood in the outer ring making 
up the loss from the flame beseath. 
Therefore the whole kiln is first subject- 
ed to a steaming process, which takes 
away the main portion of the mois- 
ture. 

HEAT MODERATION. 


(2) The heated steam thus pervading 
the kiln, in evaporating the moisture 
from the green wood, loses its latent 
heat and recoups it from the flame 
beneath. As this latent heat is an 
enormous quantity (537 calories) the 
flame parting with this heat to the 
steam is not able to burn away rapidly 
the dried ring of wood which has given 
off its moisture. However, the burning 
continues slowly up, and this process 
continues to the last. Thus, there's an 
automatic adjustment of burning which 
makes the charcoal superior in quality, 
By this process there is less loss of heat, 
the greater part of it being used in 
charring the wood. This is the result of 
converting the wood while green, and of 
keeping the outer cover as much as 
possible airtight.—Indian Forester, Vol, 
XXXIV, April, 1908, No. 4. 


38 


LIVE STOCK. 


MODERN DAIRY PRACTICE. 


By Loupon M. DouGLas. 


(Paper read at the Thirteenth Ordinary 
Meeting of the Roval Society of Arts on 
Wednesday, March 4, 1908.) 


The dairy industry is on the eve of 
great alteration in consequence of a 
widely-spread propaganda, which has 
been gathering in force during recent 
years. From many quarters attacks 
have been made upon the procedure in 
connection with modern practice, and it 
is only right to say that the majority 
of these attacks have been justified. 
The attitude of the milk producer at the 
present moment may be set down as 
hostile to the recognition of the results 
arrived at by scientific investigation. 
It is stated, for example, in a recent 
paper read before the Farmers’ Club, 
that amongst the causes which contri- 
buted to the great attention at present 
being paid to the milk supply may be 
mentioned ‘ exaggerated statements 
contained in sensational articles appear- 
ing ina section of the press as to the 
conditions under which milk is produced, 
and the dangers attending its consump- 
tion.” Itis only right to say that no 
proof whatever is given of the exag- 
gerated statements referred to, and I 
have been unable to find in any of the 
newspaper articles indicated justifica- 
tion for this statement. On the other 
hand, it has been clearly shown by such 
investigators as Dr. H. C. Schroeder that 
the milk supply is constantly being 
contaminated with tuberculous germs 
derived from cows which to all appear- 
ances are ina healthy condition. It has 
also been found that 91 per cent, of the 
people who die are affected to a more or 
less degree with tuberculosis, although 
that may not be the immediate cause of 
death. Considering, therefore, that 
this disease is so prevalent everywhere, 
and that it may be milk-borne, it seems 
only right that the milk-consuming 
public should get an article which is 
pure. It is no argument to say that 
because certain obsolete methods of 
handling milk have obtained for gener- 
ations, they ought, therefore, to continue. 
On the other hand, when they are shown 
to be wrong, itis quite clear that they 
should be fortwith abolished. 


A great deal of attention has been 
devoted in recent years not only to the 
providing of a _ pure milk supply, but 
also to the breeding of cattle, and, as we 
know, immense improvement has been 


made in that direction. It is rather 
difficult to state what is looked upon as 
the average yield of all the different 
breeds of milking cows, but it is safe to 
say that the quantity ranges between 
300 and 800 gallons, on the average, 
during the period of lactation. In many 
countries, however, it has been shown 
that by careful selection it is possible to 
increase the milk yield to an enormous 
extent, and, bearing in mind the figures 
which I have quoted, it is of interest to 
know that what might be deseribed as 
the world’s champion cow, has been 
authoritatively tested, and has shown 
the gigantic yield of 2,743 gallons, or an 
average daily yield of 74 gallons. The 
name of this cow is worth remembering; 
it is Colantha 4ths Johanna, and the 
Dutch breed, to which this animal be- 
longs, have carried off the bulk of the 
honours in milk yield throughout the 
world for a good many years. 


They are, however, as susceptible as 
other cattle to tuberculosis, and in one 
of the largest byres containing these 
animals which I have visited, at Nasby- 
holm, in the South of Sweden, I was 
told that the owner of this herd started 
in 1895 to apply the tuberculin test, and 
found that out of the first twenty-two, 
twenty-one of them reacted.  Deter- 
mined, however, to provide a tuber- 
culosis-free herd and a_ tuberculosis- 
free milk, the owner steadily continued 
to apply the tuberculin test until he has 
at the present day the distinction which 
few can claim either in his own country 
of Sweden or in any other country, 
namely, that his cattle are quite free 
from this insidious disease. Nearly all 
the milk of this particular herd is sold in 
Malmé, and is retailed in glass bottles 
at the equivalent of about 2d, per pint, 
and I need hardly say is in great demand 
there. 

With regard to other countries, it may 
be said that there are many efforts being 
put forth to realise the ideal of pure 
milk, and to those who were privileged 
to be present at the International Dairy 
Conference held at The Hague in the 
autumn of last year, it must have been 
evident that the euthusiastic study 
which the various milk problems re- 
ceived, not only from the scientific men 
who were present, but from practical 
farmers also, meant much progress in the 
dairy industry in the various countries 
to which they belonged. : 

It will be of interest to quote one or 
two of the findings of this conference, as 
indicating the trend of opinion on these 


JuLy, 1908.] 


matters. Thus it is recorded that the 
Congress was of the opinion that the 
milk destined for consumption in its raw 
state, and especiilly for infants’ food, 
must be supplied from healthy and_ well- 
fed cows which have been milked dry, 
further that it be well cooled after 
milking, and be of normal composition. 
The Congress was also of opinion that 
authorities should endeavour to eradi- 
cate tuberculosis, and for this purpose to 
institute veterinary supervision of the 
cattle, as wellas hygienic supervision of 
the cow-houses, and medical supervision 
of the persons charged with the milking 
and with the treatment of the milk at 
the farms. 


In how far these opinions, which carry 
such weight with them, are likely to 
have an infiuence on the future of dairy- 
ing in this country, it is, at the moment, 
very difficult to say. 


The hygienic conditions under which 
some of the byres in the United King- 
dom are conducted are repulsive in the 
highest degree, and, in many cases, the 
most absolute disregard is paid to the 
primary conditions of cleanliness. 


Milk is the essential food of a large 
portion of the nation, and it has been 
estimated that there are forty-two gal- 
lons per head per annum consnmed iu 
one form or another. Any hidden dan- 
gers, therefore, which may lurk in it 
should be controlled by legal enactment. 
In some countries, such as Holland, there 


is complete control, and the milk is 


looked upon as being a possible vehicle 
in the carrying of disease, and it is 
treated, therefore, by Pasteurisation, 
and in some eases by sterilisation, in 
order to obviateany danger. The Dutch 
practice is of a very interesting nature, 
and more especially can this be seen to 
advantage at a large dairy institution, 
run on co-operative Jines, which exists 
at The Hague. The dairy supply of this 
institution is derived trom thirty-one 
cowkeepers, who are also shareholders, 
and amounts to from 3,100 to 3.300 
gallons per day. The main purpose of 
the dairy is the distribution of milk, 
and that is accomplished in a manner 
which is altogether admirable, not only 
by means of small hand-carts, but also 
by larger vehicles, but in any case itis 
always under control. 


There is, of course, a considerable dif- 
ference between the two aspecis which 
characterise the milk tradé in this 
country, namely, milk selling and milk 
producing, aud in modern practice the 
two buciuesses are kept eutirely separaie. 
In The Hague, as we have seen, this 
method has been abolished, and the 
farmers sell their milk themselves direct 


39 


Live Stoek. 


from their own depots. The advantages 
of such a system lie in the absolute 
control which it gives of the sources of 
supply, as itis quite obvious that vete- 
rinary inspection can be methodically 
carried out in the byres belonging to 
such an organisation as we have in- 
dicated, and it pays to retain the services 
of a bacteriologist and chemists, in order 
to test with accuracy whether the milk 
is pure or not. 


The disastrous effect which an impure 
milk supply may have cannot be too 
greatly commented upon. Inso faras 
the food of children is concerned, the 
records of various institutions which 
have for their object the reduction of 
infantile mortality by means of a pure 
milk supply, show an encouraging state 
of affairs in the saving of lives. Unfor- 
tunately it is difficult in the United 
Kingdom to eliminate from the general 
statistics of infantile mortality what 
may be the percentage of deaths which 
are due to poisoned milk. It is notorious, 
however, that for fifty years in Kngland 
and Wales our vital statistics show on 
the average the large total varying from 
154 per 1,000 births to 139 per 1,000. In 
Scotland, during the last fifty years, 
the numbers per 1,000 have stood at 
about 120. 


IT have said that itis a difficult matter 
to prove conclusively that such milk in- 
stitutions as have been established in 
this country for the supplying of milk, 
either in the raw state orin a modified 
form, have successfully saved the lives 
of many children. There are many 
difficulties in the way of making sucha 
statement, but we have the clear testi- 
mony of the Hon. Nathan Straus, in 
connection with the Infant Asylum at 
Randall’s Island, New York, where, 
after a great deal of effort, he was 
allowed to supply the whole of the milk 
consumed inan institution devoted to 
the care of the waifs picked up in the 
streets of New York. He found the 
death-vate at 4436 per cent. in 1897, and 
offered them to supply the milk to the 
institution, but his offer was declined. 
In 1898 he had his offer accepted, aud the 
following statistics show the result of 
his introduction of clean milk :—In 1897 
the death-rate per cent. out of 1,181 
children was 44:36; in 1898, the year in 
which Mr. Strauss was allowed to instal 
a Pasteurising plant and supply milk 
free, the death-rate fell to 19°80 per cent., 
the number of children treated being 
1,284. In 1903, the death-rate was still 
lower, namely, 1863 per cent. Such a 
gigantic saving of fe is surely much to 
be desired. 

In the townof Rochester, again in 
New York, Dr. George Goler has car- 


a ie eae 
POE NA 5 
“ae 


Live Stock. 40 {Jouy, 1908: 


ried on a splendid work, with the result 
that it has been proved beyond doubt 
that thousands of lives can annually be 
saved by rendering the milk supply 
pure. Briefly stated, his efforts have 
resulted in reducing the mortalisy 
amongst children under five years from 
7,451 for the ten years ending in 1896 
to 4,965 for the ten years ending 
in 1906. This shows a saving of 2,486 
lives, among which were 1,554, or 62°5 
per cent. of children under one year 
old. It is well to mention the latter 
fact as, during the period of life in- 
eluded in one year, milk necessarily 
forms the mostimportant element in the 
food of children. 


Such facts as we have alluded to are 
now beyond any kind of dispute, and it 
comes to this, that dairy farmers must 
either of their own free will or by the 
force of law be compelled to provide 
milk which will stand examination for 
cleanliness, audalso be free from disease 
germs. This will, of course, involve a 
very considerable alteration in the 
practice which has obtained in dairies 
up till now. 


The ideal 


system in the handling 
of milk is 


that it should be pro- 
duced under perfectly hygienic con- 
ditions, where the byres are free 
from dust, and where the milk can be 
cooled to a very low temperature i1m- 
mediately after being drawn from the 
cows. The ideal, however, is next to 
impossible in practice, as the bulk of 
the milk consumed in our large towns is 
necessarily produced at long distances 
from these towns. The conclusion, 
therefore, which the International Dairy 
Congress arrived at, and which we have 
already stated, namely, that milk should 
be cooled immediately after milking, is 
not possible on ordinary dairy practice. 
What, then, is the next best thing to do? 
There is only one possible way by which 
milk can be rendered innocuous, and that 
is by the application of heat, and this 
principle is being recognised to a greater 
extent year by year, and must ulti- 
mately become universal. 


It is long way back to the origin of 
the germ theory, so far back as 1675, 
when Antony van Leeuwenhoek, a poor 
Dutchman, a polisher of lenses, dis- 
covered minute organisms 10 rain water 
and in vegetable and animal infusions. 
Since that time there has been a steady 
progress in the investigation of these 
mysterious organisms, which are only 
visible to the eye by means of powerful 
microscopes. It was left, however, till 
quite within our own day to discover 
that milk forms a most perfect host for 
a great variety of virulent disease germs, 


and we are indebted, as all the world 
knows, to Pasteur for having enunciated 
the law that heat wiil altogether destroy 
these germs, We might say, however, 
that while there are many germs which 
find a lodyment in miik, they are not 
necessarily all of a disease-producing or 
pathogenic charact2r. Many of them are 
quite benign, the principle being, of 
course, lactic acid. The presence of 
lactic acid or ‘‘souring” is due to the 
breaking up of the milk sugar, and this 
constitutes 44 to 5 per cent, of the milk. 
It may, therefore, be argued that if we 
apply heat, as has been suggested, we 
will also destroy the lactic acid bacteria, 
and this would be a danger in itself, inas- 
much asthey act as sentinels in the 
milk. Their presence in fresh milk serve 
to warn the consumer that a period had 
been reached in the age of milk at which 
it may be described as unwholesome. It 
is quite easy, however, to overcome this 
Objection, as lactic acid bacteria can be 
isulated, and after Pasteurisation of the 
miik some of these can be added to the 
milk again, so that they wiil be the only 
bacterial vegetation present. 


This involves, however, refinement of 
dairy practice which can only be 
attained through the education of those 
who practice dairying, and it isin this 
respect that the future practice will differ 
very much from the past, in consequence 
of the admirable training which is now 
available at the various dairy institutes 
and agricultural colleges throughout the 
country in the theory and practice of 
dairying. The hundreds of students 
who are being turned out year by year 
carry With them exact knowledge as to 
the principles which govern the handling 
of milk in a hygienic way, and when 
they come to put these principles into 
practice, we can ouly hope that the effect 
will be to increase enormously the supply 
of hygienicaily pure milk. 


It may be worth while atthis point 
just to mention briefly what the compo- 
sition of milk is, and how it comes to 
pass that a knowledge of its composition 
is so essential. Cows’ milk, which is the 
commodity that we are concerned with ~ 
here, cousists of water, fats, albuminoids, 
or substances containing nitrogen, sugar, 
and ash, each one of these being present 


in pretty constant proportions. The 

percentages may be given as follows :— 

Per cent, 
Water 87°25 
Fat 3°30 
Ca-ein .) veeu 
Albumen ... 483 neal) Oren) 
Sugar ss 060 soe.) | ABO 
Ash wh ae , 0°75 


il eae 
Sou 


‘ 


Jury, 1908.) 


{t is obvious that, in dealing with a 
substance like this, which is very com- 
plex in its character, there should be 
some previous knowledge as to the 
results which may be obtained by any 
particular procedure, and at this point 
it is well to state that the complex 
nature of milk is far from being com- 
pletely understood. As a consequence 
we hear various opinions stated, even 
amongst scientific observers. It is, for 
example, asserted that complete sterili- 
sation means the destruction of the 
food properties which milk contains. It 
has also been stated that the digestive 
enzymes are completely destroyed by 
sterilisation. If that is so, then it is 
surely possible to replace these digestive 
enzymes so as to again restore the diges- 
tive properties. Whether that may be 
attainable or not, however, has not yet 
been determined, but this we do know, 
that we must look upon milk, as indeed 
upon all other dairy products, as belong- 
ing to aclass of foods, in which there 
are no waste substances so far as the 
human economy is concerned, and each 
component part, separately orin com- 


bination, is totally consumed within the 


system. Itis this fact that renders the 
necessity for absolute purity a very real 


one, and hence we come to the conclusion 


that it is not only necessary for the 
modern dairyman to understand the 
composition of milk, but also to under- 
stand its possible dangers, and whatever 
pohods may be available for averting 
these. 


We are indebted to the United States 
of America for the records of much labo- 
rious investigation with regard to milk, 
and it is a pleasing feature of the admin- 
istration of agricultural matters in that 
country that large subsidies are given 
annually to various agricultural insti- 
tutes and experimental stations, whose 
efforts are, to a large extent, devoted to 
the examination of milk and its pro- 
ducts, and the investigation of every 
possible problem which their manipula- 


‘tion may involve. Considering, there- 


fore, that so much is being done else- 
where, it seems a reasonable plea to put 


forward in our own country, namely, 


that there should be State egdowment 
of research into the milk question. 


At the present day there are a certain 
number of advanced milk dealers who 
fully appreciate the value of modern 
methods; but, on the other hand, the 
great majority of dairy farmers object 
to what they consider unnecessary inter- 


ference with their business, and they 


cannot realise the enormous dangers 
which are associated with the milk 
supply. There isa small minority who 


AL Live Stock, 


deliberately attempt to derive profit out 
of the milk supply by means of adulter- 
ation. Such aclass happily is small, but 
their relative strength may be gauged 
from the fact that the milk of London is 
reported to be adulterated to the extent 
of 12'8 per cent., and the butter to 10 per 
cent. There is, of course, no other way 
of dealing with these people except by 
the rigid enforcement of laws against 
adulteration, and the imposition of such 
punishments as will retard others from 
following these particular methods. 


The dairyman who would conduct his 
business so as to satisfy the require- 
ments of modern science must Pasteur- 
ize all his milk, and as this is a process 
which is capable of being misunderstood, 
I think that the best way toarrive at 
a knowledge of the matter will be 
simply to describe what takes place in 
an up-to-date dairy. 


If we assume that milk has to be deli- 
vered ina town where there are either 
very few or no cow-sheds, then we must 
proceed to the farm where the milk is 
produced. Here much trouble may be 
avoided by the proper attention to hy- 
gienic conditions, as prevention is better 
than cure in this matter, perhaps more 
than in most others. The milk should be 
drawn from the cow by attendants who 
are cleanly in their habits, and the udders 
should be cleansed before milking. In 
some cases, even brushing of theanimals’ 
hides is resorted to, and in the Swedish 
dairy to which we referred at the begin- 
ning, which is tuberculosis-free, it is 
necessary for anyone going into the 
dairy to render their boots sterile by 
dipping them into a solution of anti- 
septic before proceeding inside. When 
the milk is drawn, the first should, of 
course, be either entirely rejected, or 
should be dealt with separately, as it has 
been shown that the first drawn milk is 
teeming with bacteria. The milk, on the 
other hand, in the interior of the udder 
is perfectly sterile, and this even may be 
the case, we admit, when an animal is 
suffering from generalised tuberculosis. 
If the milk is drawn under the condi- 
tions suggested, and cooled at once by 
means of refrigerating plant, then there 
is little liability of its becoming dan- 
gerous within a reasonable period. The 
difficulty, however, is that in our large 
cities the milk supply has to be obtained 
from along distance, and this involves 
keeping the milk cool during transit: 
That also is quite attainable by means of 
refrigerated waggons, but the difficulty 
then arises as to the cost of transport 
under such conditions. The railway 
companies naturally object to any 
method of transport which will increase 
their expenditure, and if such wagons 


42 


were cooled by either ice or travelling 
refrigerating machines, there is no doubt 
that a considerable addition would be 
made to the cost of carrying. It is, 
therefore, evident that in a great 
number of cases when milk arrives at a 
town’s dairy it arrives in a condition 
when it is charged with bacteria, which 
have been taken up from the air, dust, 
or general surroundings, during the 
journey. We have already emphasised 
the fact that it does not necessarily 
follow that these bacteria are injurious. 
On the other hand, it is quite possible 
that they may be harmful, as the 
methods of ascertaining the presence of 
disease in cows are not of a very perfect 
character, and, as general inspection of 
country byres is not complete, then we 
are bound to assume that the milk as it 
arrives in a town iscontaminated. The 
mere fact that there is a possibility of 
tuberculosis of the udder existing is in 
itself a hidden. danger which must be 
dealt with. The number of cows sub- 
ject to tuberculosis of the udder has 
been variously stated, but it is clear 
that no absolute figure can be arrived at 
in such amatter, except through labor- 
ious inquiry. Taking, however, the 
evidence derivable from our abattoirs it 
may be stated that the number is rec- 
koned at anything between one and 
two per cent. If there should be one 
animal ina herd suffering from tuber- 
culosis of the udder, then it it quite 
plain that the whole supply from such a 
source constitutes a danger. Hence, on 
arrival in a town, it must be dealt with 
soasto destroy these and any other 
germs, such as the organisms of measles, 
diphtheria, fever, and others which may 
be milk-borne, and to which milk pre- 
sents a ready means of transmission and 
propagation. 


In a modern dairy the milk is received, 
and is then run through a strainer, of 
which there are many designs in exist- 
ence. From the strainer the milk falls 
into a receiving tank, where the total 
bulk is all mixed together up to the 
capacity of the tank. From this tank it 
falls into the receiver of a Pasteuriser, in 
which it is heated toa temperature of 
176° Fahr., which isa temperature be- 
yond the thermal death point of patho- 
genic germs. It is necessary, however, 
to observe that this heating must be 
done quickly, otherwise a certain taste 
is imparted to the milk which is objec- 
tionable. The taste may be due to the 
caramelisation of the milk-sugar, and to 
many palates this fact may render 
the milk objectionable. | Pasteurisers, 
therefore, are made so that the milk 
flows in at the bottom, and is elevat- 
ed by means of rotating arms, which 
cause the milk to run over a heated 


, Inve Stock. 


fe ULY, 1908. 


paroboloid surface, and is then dis- 
charged at the top, and at once is 
passed overa cooler. In modern dairy 
practice 1t has been found desirable to 
take advantage of the cooling effect of 
water as a primary cooling agent, it 
being quite obvious that where water is 
available it is necessarily the cheapest 
cooling medium. Itis, therefore, wise 
to provide what is termed a ‘primary 
cooler,” in which water is circulated, and 
over which the milk flows after being 
discharged from the Pasteuriser. If the 
water passing through the cooler is at a 
temperature of 52° Fahr., which is the 
average temperature of well water in 
the United Kingdom, then it is found 
that by using certain forms of cooler, 
the milk from the Pasteuriser can be 
cooled to within 4° Fahr, of the water 
temperature, that is to say 56° Fahr. 
This end is best attained by means of a 
conical cooler, as the milk falls upon the 
upper flutingsin a certain volume, and 
asit reaches the bottom it broadens, 
and thus a finer film is formed, which is 
more easily cooled. Passing from the 
primary cooler we then have a _ secon- 
dary cooler, which is attached to the 
refrigerating machine. The refrigerat- 
ing machine is used to cool an unfreez- 
able brine, which is circulated through 
the secondary cooler at a temperature 
approaching freezing point. The same 
effect is obtained as with the water, 
namely, that the milk flowing from the 
primary cooler is at once cooled to with- 
in 4° Fahr. of the circulating brine. 
Thus, if we have brine circulating ata 
temperature of 36° Fahr., we will geta 
milk cooled down to 45° Fahr. At such 
a degree milk is entirely inert, that is to 
say, if there are any species of germs 
present they will not develop, and if the 
milk can be maintained at or about that 
temperature there can be no doubt that 
it will be ina pure condition, and practi- 
cally germ free. Briefly speaking, that 
is the description of the Pasteurising 
process. As we see itis simple enough, 
and is capable of large variation ; thus, 
it may be worth while to interpose 
what is described as a “regenerative 
heater” between the Pasteuriser and the 
cooler by which the excess of heat in 
the Pasteurised milk is used to heat in- 
coming fresh milk up to a_ certain 
degree, and thus save fuel. I have not 
found, however, that this particular — 
appliance has been received with much 
favour. It certainly possesses advant- — 
ages which are incontestable, but it adds 
tothe plant necessary ina dairy, and ~ 
that is always an objection. 

The principal plant, as we see, in 
connection with the production of germ- 
free milk consists of steam and motive 
power, a Pasteuriser, water supply for 


) at Fs 


JULY, 1908,] 


cooling the primary cooler, anda re- 
frigerating machine for cooling the 
secondary cooler. 


Modern dairying, however, has gone 
beyond the mere idea of Pasteurising, 
and there is a considerable body of 
opinion which inclines to think that 
Pasteurising and the selling of milk in 
the open state isnot sufficient. Pasteur- 
isation and the distribution of the milk 
in bottles may be sufficient, and asa 
matter of tact is very considerably 
practised, but there are many who 
think that the sterilisation or the heat- 
ing of milk in bottles, tu a very high 
temperature, say 212° Fahr,, is absolutely 
necessary to obtain immunity from all 
possible disease. I am not inclined to 
support that view, and 1 should be dis- 
posed to say that the lower the degree 
at which effective destruction of disease 
organisms can take place in milk, the 
better will it be for the ultimate 
consumer. Again, in all our milk 
depots which have been started for the 
supply of germ-free milk with a view to 
the reduction of infantile mortality, 
it has been customary to adapt the milk 
to the various ages of the children sup- 
plied. That seems only a_ reasonable 
proposition when it is considered that 
cows’ milk is not the natural food of 
children at all, and that in its principal 
characteristics it differs entirely from 
human milk. Itis, therefore, necessary 
to consider the problem of how to ap- 
proximate as nearly as possible to the 
natural food which children ought to 
have. Thisisa matter, however, which 
is yet waiting for investigation. It has 
been shown that benefits have been 
scattered amongst the poorer population 
by the supply of milk from such depots. 
On the other hand, we have also to con- 
sider that none of these depots have 
been a commercial success. They have 
indeed all been run at a considerable 
loss to the community, and there are 
many ratepayers who consider that 
they are entitled to protest against the 
use of their money in indiscriminate 
charity, under the administration of 
the local medical officer of health. The 
other point of view is, of course, that 
the burden on the rates is very trifling 
in connection with these institutions, 
and if they became universal, it would be 
of enormous national advantage, and that 
hundreds of thousands of infant lives 
which are now deliberately wasted 
would be saved to the nation. 


There are other phases of modern 
dairying which the same principle of 
the application of heat becomes the 
prime factor, asitisin the handling of 
fresh milk. In  butter-making, it is 


43 


Live Stock. 


necessary to utilise not only heatin the 
destruction of free and dangerous 
bacteria, but it is necessary also to 
eliminate and isolate such bacteria as go 
to assist in healthy fermentation. It 
has been shown that the best butter is 
obtainable from cream which has been 
Pasteurised to a high temperature, and 
in which some of the germs have been 
destroyed. 


In abutter factory the appliances are 
somewhat more elaborate than in an 
ordinary town’s dairy, but the principal 
rule isthe same, Thus the milk is re- 
ceived and passed through a strainer, 
and is all mixed together in a general 
containing tank, after which it is Pasteur- 
ised, and is then partially cooled to a 
degree at which effective separation of 
the milk and cream take place. The 
whole milk is then allowed to flow into 
a centrifugal separator, and is divided 
up into its main constituent parts of 
cream and separated milk. The cream 
is again, in the most modern places, 
Pasteurised, and is cooled down to a 
temperature of between 50° and 60° Fahr. 
At that temperature a pure culture of 
lactic bacteria is added, and the ferment- 
ation of the cream takes place, so that 
in a matter of about one day’s duration 
the cream is sufficiently fermented to be 
at once churned, and made into butter. 
The fermenting process, it is curious to 
relate, is accompanied by an increase in 
temperature of the cream about 10°, and 
it has been proved that the best agegre- 
gation of the fat globules takes place 
when the cream has been reduced to some- 
thing over 50° Fahr. before it is placed 
in thechurn,. The churning causes the 
fat globules to go together, and butter 
is the result. 


We do not describe in detail the pro- 
cess of butter-making here; it would 
take too long to do that, but enough has 
been said to show that in a butter 
factory the principal factors are heat 
and cold. The heat is derived from the 
ordinary steam suppply of a factory, 
and is used to destroy germs, and the 
cold may be derived from a refrigerating 
machine, and is used to reduce the tem- 
perature of the cream in a mechanical 
way so as to arrive at the best granular 
appearance of the butter, which is the 
main article of produce. 


There are a large number of accessory 
appliances in a modern creamery, and 
instead of these being reduced in num- 
ber, many improvements have been in- 
troduced of late years, which have their 
merits, and some of {them, perhaps, de- 
merits. In any ease, the number of 
appliances which are considered neces- 
sary toa modern creamery is consider- 


Live Stock. 


able, asmay be inferred from the fact 
that a creamery to deal with the milk 
from 500 cows per day, with a view to 
making butter therefrom, would cost 
for mechanical appliances alone some- 
where about £1,000. 


There are many other developments 
of modern dairying, such as the produc- 
tion of special milk as Kumiss, carbon- 
ated milk, which may yet have a future 
before it when the effect of the carbonic 
acid on the lactic fermentation has been 
fully investigated. There is also, as is 
well known, condensed milk, which is 
really not milk at all, but whichis a 
manufactured article which has as its 
basis cow’s milk. It is an astonishing 
thing to find that there are the equiva- 
lent of 250,000,000 gallons, or the product 
of 500,000 cows, imported annually into 
this country under the name of con- 
densed milk, and that this business is 
earried on without any control what- 
ever as to the sources of supply. There 
is alsoa lot of milk being brought into 
this country in the frozen condition, and 
even during recent months whole milk 
in the ordinary way, but so far without 
any attempt at examination of the 
sources of supply. This seems to be an 
anomalous state of affairs when we 
consider that there is so much talk of 
rigid control of dairying in this country, 
and when matters have reached sucha 
stage that the Minister responsible for 
the control of the milk supply has 
announced a very drastic measure in 
connection with that business. Doubt- 
less there will be some examination of 
milk at the port of landing, but that, 
under the circumstances, seems hardly 
sufficient. There seems every likelihood 
that the cowsheds’ and milk-shops’ 
orders will be revised. The fact that 
tnberculosis is capable of being trans- 
mitted through milk will also be re- 
cognised, and various proceedings will 
be legalised, such as sampling the milk 
at railway stations, and the visiting of 
farms in the county, and the exten- 
sion of wide powers to the county 
councils in connection with the control 
of dairies. Legal control is then the 
only remedy for the dangers to which 
milk is subject, and we find that 
in many countries this stage has been 
arrived at long ago. Take, for ex- 
ample, Denmark, in which it is com- 
pulsory to Pasteurise milk; then again 
we have Holland, where a_ splendid 
system of control is in operation, 
‘not only in connection with the milk 
supply, but in connection with the 
butter produce. There can indeed be 
nothing finer in the way of control 
stations than these admirable institu- 
tions which exist at various towns 


am (5 a ae 


je! 
pO, 
a 


[Jony, 1908, 


thoughout the Netherlands, and which 
exercise the functions of control stations 
so as to ensure that butter produced in ‘; 
the dairies of Holland will reach a ! 
certain standard, and be free from r 
adulteration. Such institutions exist at 
eight different centres in that small 
country, and are equipped ina manner 
which reflects the greatest possible 
credit upon the Dutch Government. 
Unfortunately, there isso far no com- 
pulsory reference to these institutions, 
but they have so well warranted their 
establishment that there seems every 
likelihood that they will be soon placed 
in a position to control the total dairy- 
ing and butter industry of the country. 


In butter control, indeed, there are 
many lessons to be learned from Other 
countries. In this country we are un- 
happy buyers of foreign butter to an 
enormous extent, and we have made it 
pretty clear that what is wanted here is 
butter which is beyond suspicion. 
Hence we have compelled butter-pro- 
ducing countries to institute such sys- 
tems of inspection and methods of exami- 
nation as will ensure our getting what we 
want. The fact, however, that from 
time to time we get prosecutions show- 
ing that butter, which we import, is 
impure, demonstrates the fact that no 
system which can be adopted anywhere 
can be perfect. It would be, however, of 
immense advantage if control stations 
were instituted in the United Kingdom, 
and if the dairying industry generally 
was treated in a more handsome way 
than it is at present. There ought to be 
some system of reterence to such institu- 
tions in connection with dairy produce, 
and it would pay’ the country to increase 
the subsidies which are at present given 
to a few agricultural colleges and some 
county councils, in order to provide 
competent instructors to proceed from 
one centre to another demonstrating 
what is the best practice in connection 
with the dairy. 


As we have already shown, the whole 
industry is in course of being revolution- 
ised, and whatis likely to occur when 
the threatened legislation is brought 
into force it is difficult to foresee. It is 
likely that there will be a considerable 
elimination of existing members of the 
trade, not only in London, but elsewhere, 
and the emall distributor will be put out © 
of the business. That may seem a dis- 
advantage and a cruel proceeding, but it 
is impossible to conceive of any general - 
laws which can be inaugurated without 
hurting someone. Let us hope, however, 
that whatever may be the effect of the 
contemplated laws, there will be general 
co-operation amongst the members of the 


pe aa eR Se 


ee ts ee 


Jury, 1908.] 


dairy industry throughout the country 
to, as far as possible. bring their busi- 
ness into line with modern scientific 
thought.— Agricultural Journal of the 
Cape of Good Hope, Vol. XXXII., No. 
4, April, 1908. 


APICULTURE IN SOUTH INDIA. 


The honey and wax industry of India 
has a great future before it. It is an 
industry so well suited to a pastoral 
people like the Indians that there is no 
reason for supposing that. it could not 
be worked here quite as successfully as 
anywhere in the Western countries. 
There is a great demand for honey and 
wax, and it is most necessary that in the 
interests of the industrial development 
of the country, greater attention shouid 
be devoted to it. There is good reason 
to believe that this industry could be 
worked with a fair measure of success 
in the woodlands of Southern India, 
where a considerable quantity of honey 
and bees’ wax is generally found. These 
productions are now collected by hill- 
men in a haphazard fashion. Large 
quantities of wax and honey are_pro- 
duced in the hills of the Madras Presi- 
dency, where these products form a 
part of ‘‘ Miscellaneous Forest Revenue.” 
The hilly regions from Ganjam to Tinne- 
velly on the Hastern Coast, and the 
Western Ghauts of Southern Canara, 
Malabar and Travancore are, we find, 
the abodes of wild bees of the Apis 
family, whose combs are gathered by 
the hill-tribes called Vettars and Kanik- 
kars. Coimbatore is another important 
centre of the wax trade in South India. 
The hills on the North, South, and 
West of Coimbatore are the homes of 
various kinds of bees. The hill tribes of 
South Coimbatore—/rulars, Maduvars 
and Kaders—are doing some business in 
wax and honey, though they have never 
been able to appreciate at its real worth 
the importance of this industry. To a 
small extent, however, the domestica- 
tion of beesis carried on, weare told, 
by certain hillmen in the eastern side of 
Mangapatti as well, the contrivance used 
to hive them being of a primitive nature. 
Small mud houses a foot square, on 
earthen chutties or pots placed mouth 
downward, with a few holes made in 
the bottom, are generally used. 


Of course, as we have already men- 
tioned, Apiculture, as an industry, does 
not exist on any large scale in Southern 
India. Here and there some attempts 
have been made at Apiculture by Euro- 
peans in the Nilgiris where they want 


5 Inve Stock. 


to introduce Cyprus and [nglish bees in 
the hills. Evidently there is no real 
necessity to introduce foreign varieties. 
There are many species of bees to be 
found in India, the principal kinds being 
four in number, viz :— 


(1) Apis Dorsata, the Tamil name 
of which is Maleteni. 

(2) Apis indica, Tamil Kosumtheni. 

(3) Apis Florea, Tamil Kombeetheni. 

(4) Apis Melopenit, Tamil Nasritheni. 

It is saidthat the European bee can 


be more easily domesticated than the 
Indian bee. We should, however, think 
that with proper care, attention and 
training, the Indian bee may also be 
expected to prove itself amenable to 
decipline and yield a good quantity and 
quality of honey. 


Apis Melifica is the name of the hive 
bee of Hurope. It is not generally found 
in Southern India. We have already 
mentioned the four principal species of 
bees which are generally found in India. 
They are known to plant their combs on 
trees in the clefts of rocks and even in 
the buildings, especially those that have 
fallen into ruins. apis Indica (Kosum- 
theni) and Apis Florea (Kombeetheni) 
are migratory, and ar2 always inclined 
to choose for their new habitats locali- 
ties in which plantsof the Strobilanthes 
genus of Hacenthacece are in full blos- 
som. The former is known asthe ‘tree 
bee’ from its tendency to prefer the 
plains and iow hill ranges. It is also 
met with, though not in large numbers, 
in the Nilgiri hills. The bees of this 
species generally deposit their combs in 
the branches of trees or in the hollows 
of tree trunks. Apis Florea commonly 
known as the ‘flower bee’ is largely 
found in the Wynaad plateau. There 
isthe other variety known as Apis Meli- 
pontor mosquito bee. It issocalled trom 
the litheness of its body. It is of a stay- 
at-home nature, sticking to any one local- 
ity allthe yearround. There isa large 
size of the same variety. It is said to 
be a denizen of the low rocky hills and 
plains of this country. The difference 
between the two is that the former 
builds its nest in the walls and other 
crevices of human habitations, and the 
latter in the crevices of rocks, hollows of 
trees and ruined buildings. Then comes 
the fourth species called Apis Dorsata, 
known in Tamil as Maleteni. It is the 
hill-bee and is found among low hills 
and forests. It settles down in branches 
of forest trees, always clinging to 
favourable haunts free from man’s 
intrusion. It is twice the size of the 
tree-bee, and is not of a migratory 
temperament. It seldom leaves its 


Live Stock. 


haunt even when its honey is removed. 
It is very furious in nature. and is said 
to attack men and animals most merci- 
lessly. The comb deposited by the 
species is usually several feet loug and 
over one inch in thickness. In spite 
of its wild and aggressive habits, its 
honey is largely collected by the _ hill- 
tribes during the most favourable 
seasons. 


There are three kinds of honey and 
wax recognised by these hill-men and 
jungle tribes. The first variety is called 
‘Rock Honey’ made by large insects 
and found in holes and hollows of rocks. 
It is of very coarse quality, and both 
the honey and wax are dark in colour. 
The honey made by the middlc-sized 
bees is lighter than that found in the 
rocks. It is generally found in the hol- 
lows of trees, and this may be put down 
as the second variety. The third and 
best is that made by the mosquito bees. 
The wax also is very fine and excep- 
tionally white. The ‘rock honey’ at 
times turns to be very poisonous, the 
large-sized bees having collected the 
honey from the blossoms of Sapium 
Indicum, which is a very poisonous 
flower, 


Bees generally collect honey from a 
variety of flowers. The honey derived 
from the Strobilanthes species and Mis- 
naferrea is considered particularly good, 
while that collected from the prickly 
pear is not. We are told of a kind of 
honey found in certain forests in the 
North of Madras Presidency. It does 
not remain in a liquid state in the comb. 
Tt has the appearance of small cells, hard 
and candied, dropping out like sugar 
plums. These bees are said to be a small 
sized variety feeding on the flowers and 
sweetish bitter fruit of the Meimusop 
Hexandra, commonly known in the 
eastern parts as monkey faced Panlay. 
Generally some bees gather their honey 
from the flowers of Vengai (one of the 
species of which yields the Kino of 


commerce). There are other flowers 
also, Cassia Fistula, Albizzia Shorea, 


Jassamine, etc., from which they largely 
gather their nectar. Bees, except of 
the migratory variety, are prone to 
build their nests over and over again 
on the same rocks or branches of trees, 
their colonisation depending on the 
richness of flowers within the range of 
their colony. The following rough calcu- 
lation arrived at regarding the yield of 
honey and wax seems to be instructive. 
In the case of ‘rock honey,’ ordinarily 
from ten to fifteen combs on each rock, 
yielding about 150 measures of honey, 
and about ten maunds of wax, while in 
the case of the combs found in the hol- 
lows of trees. where the bees of the Apis 


46 [Jury, 190 


Dorsata species deposit their comb, each 
yields about one measure of honey and 
two pounds of wax. Inthe case of the 
mosquito bee, which gives the finest 
wax and the best honey, the largest 
comb does not yield more than about a 
quarter measure of. honey and about 
half a pound of wax. : 


We have given a general account of 
the bees met with in Southern India and 
their habits. We shall now make a few 
remarks on bee culture. In Southern 
India, honey bees are met with in abund- 
ance, both in forest areas and in tracts 
of human habitations. Bee farming as 
understood in Western countries, is not 
known here; and in certain places where 
the people have taken to the domesti- 
cation of bees on a small scale, the 
methods they follow are of a very simple 
nature, as has already been mentioned 
in the early portion of this article. 
They have no idea of these intelligent 
Western contrivances known as frame- 
hives, queen cages, honey extractors and 
smokers. They have only avery limited 
knowledge of the habits and character- 
istics of bees, and they do not know how 
to so train the bees as to make them dis- 
criminate between injurious and harm- 
less flowers. Then again very little 
attention is paid tosuch details as the 
food of the insects. The successful domes- 
tication of bees has been found to 
depend mainly on the attention we pay to 
such minor details as the feeding of the in- 
sects, regular supplies of water, protec- 
tion against parasites, and prudent dis- 
tribution of hives. A good deal depends 
on the attention we pay in the matter of 
properly distributing the hives. Bees 
are very quarrelsome insects, and the 
chances of their inadvertently getting 
into strange hives should as far as pos- 
sible be lessened, lest tierce encounters 
might ensue between the _ different 
swarms and lead to the complete destruc 
tion of the whole bee farm. Two things 
have to be particularly noted in connec- 
tion with this. The hives should be so 
arranged asto face in different direc- 
tions; and again in hiving regard should 
be had to the temperature of the hives, 
as there is the greatest danger of bees 
deserting the prepared hives placed in 
ene hot sun and entering the wrong 

ives. 


It is said that the South Indian bees do 
not store much honey on account of 
their migratory habits. Some of the 
swarms are in the habit of frequently 
leaving the parent hive to found new 
colonies amidst other congenial surround- 
ings where they may have within easy 
reach good flowers in abundance. We 
read that the apiarists in Western coun- 
tries have found out that the young 


. 


JULY, 1908.) 


queen bees are more inclined to travel 
out than others, and they avoid this by 
getting rid of the superfluous queen bees. 

hese precautions may be undertaken 
with advantage in regard to bee-culture 
in thiscountry. It would also_ be useful 
to import European queen bees from 
Italy, asit has been tound that their 
domestication with Indian bees tends to 
increase the yield of honey. The bees in 
this country are known to have two 
working seasons when they make them- 
selves very busy in storing honey—one 
in June and July, and the other from 
September to November. These two 
seasons correspond with the two mon- 
soons, and during these two seasons it 
has been found possible to secure a full 
yield of honey from the hives. There is 
also another advantage; the rocks, it 
being the end of the year, generally get 
dry and are not slippery; and conse- 
quently the process of collecting the 
honey is less dangerous. 


We would suggest the advisability of 
rearing the small species (Apis Meleponia.) 
This yields the best honey, though in 
small quantity. These bees in their wild 
state are not very choice in regard to the 
flowers on which they settle. They are 
apt to gather the nectar from all sorts of 
wild blossoms. Great care should be 
taken so to train the bees as to make 
them settle on choice flowers. When 
once they are putin the way they eschew 
indifferent and poisonous’ blossoms, 
always sticking to choice flowers, We 
said that the small sized mosquito bees 
would be easily amenable to home rear- 
ing; and from experiments made here 
and there by amateur apiarists on a 
small scale, we are assured that they can 
be successfully reared on the slopes of 
the hills in Southern India, where it is 
not very difficult to cultivate good varie- 
ties of English flowers from which the 
bees may draw good nectar. 


Bee culture, onthe whole, is a very 
profitable industry. In addition to the 
honey supplied by the bees, there is the 
bees’ wax, the preparation of which does 
not require much skilled labour. The 
honey-combs from which the wax is ex- 
tracted are procurable from the hill tribes 
who collect the honey from trees and 
rocks. The season for wax-making is hot 
weather. There are two parts for the 


AT Live Stock. 


comb—the upper part yields the honey, 
while the lower part holds the eggs or 
brood. Both the parts contain wax, the 
upper part giving a clean white wax, 
and the lower part yielding a dirty- 
coloured variety of the same substance. 
The following is the process of collect- 
ing the wax from the combs. After 
draining off the honey from the combs, 
they should be well squeezed by the 
hands until they are entirely divested 
of the sweet fluid—the combs should be 
washed in cold water. The honey is 
then placed ina pot of water and well 
warmed over an open fire. The wax 
meltsout and can be collected in the 
form of balls or cakes. The wax in its 
first form may contain impurities : it has 
only to be remelted and well strained 
through a coarse cloth and the impuri- 
ties will go. In certain countries in 
manufacturing wax a little turmeric is 
mixed with the finished wax. his is 
done just to give the wax arich golden 
hue. The demand for wax has become 
greater than for honey, especially in the 
Straits Settlements and Java. Apicul- 
ture, it will be seen, has not yet been 
seriously undertaken upon systematic 
lines as a separate industry in any part 
of Southern India, but in view of the 
great demand there is for honey and 
wax, steps ought to be taken to develop 
this industry on a large scale. There is 
a great field for it, and with some enter- 
prisea very profitable industry can be 
easily built up in Southern India.— 
Indian Agriculturist, Vol, XX XIII., No. 
1, January 1, 1908. 


INSECT HYPNOTISM. 


A queen bee can hypnotise her whole 
hive whenever she wants to. She makes 
a curious humming sound and within a 
moment or two every bee in the colony 
will fall into a hypnotic trance. The 
death’s head hawke-moth is also a 
hypnotist of great power. and makes its 
living by hypnotism. Entering a hive, 
it makes a sound not unlike the queen 
bee’s note, and the bees immediately 
sink into slumber, and the intruder then 
proceeds to rob atits leisure.—Journal of 
the Department of Agriculture, Western 
Australia, Vol. XVI., Part 4, April, 1908. 


SCIENTIFIC AGRICULTURE. 


THE EFFECTS OF LONG-CONTINUED 
NITROGENOUS MANURING. 


By Proressor J. B. HARRISON, 
M.A., C.M.G., F-.I.C. 


[From the Progress Report on Agri- 
cultural Hxperiments at the Botanic 
Gardens, 1906-1907. | 


In 1904-1905 attempts were made by 
some persons interested in the sugar- 
industry of the colony but non-resident 
therein, to explain the marked falling 
off in the productive power of some of 
the cane fields which has been noticeable 
of late years by reference to the ex- 
traordinary effects of long-continued 
repeated manurings with sulphate of 
ammonia which have occurred at the 
Woburn Experimental Farm of the 
Royal Agricultural Society, and to a less 
extent on certain of the Experimental 
Fields at Rothamsted. The soil of the 
former place is alight sandy one, but 
the latter is a clay loam. Where 
sulphate of ammonia has been used con- 
tinuously at Woburn for between 20 
and 30 years, the soil has been rendered 
absolutely barren for economic plants, 
whilst the evil effects of the long con- 
tinued manuring (for 50 years and over) 
at Rothamsted with the same salt ‘are 
now perceptible. Both these Experimen- 
tal Farms were visited by me in May 
and June of this year, and their results 
carefully examined. 


Advantage was taken in 1905 of the 
mode in which the experiments have 
been conducted on the northern part of 
South Field to arrange trial-fields for 
examining into the question whether 
the use of sulphate of ammonia from 
1892 to 1905 had been injurious to the 
soil of the experimental field, and whether 
better results would not be obtained by 
the institution, as recommended by the 
non-resident authorities, of nitrate of 
soda for sulphate of ammonia. 


The previous manuring of the field 
allowed the following comparisons to 
be made with three varieties of canes 
on not-limed and on limed land :— 


Sulphate of Ammonia after 
Sulphate of Ammonia 

Sulphate of Ammonia after 
Nitrate of Soda 

Nitrate of Soda after Sulphate 
of Ammonia 

Nitrate of Soda after Nitrate 
of Soda An 


(14 years) 


_ The following were the mean results 
in tons of canes per acre :— 


Mean, 
not-Limed. 
Not Limed. Limed. and Limed. 
No Nitrogen oy A 12°9 115 
Sulphate of Ammonia 
after 
Sulphate of Ammonia... 22°2 24°7 23°56 
Nitrate of Soda (con- 
_ tinuously) ose)! LO'3 197) 19°2 
Nitrate of Soda 
after 
Sulphate of Ammonia... 24°4 20°9 20°7 
Nitrate of Soda (con- 
tinuously) MS aa; 19°] 18°9 


The results of the experiments show 
that the substitution of nitrate of soda 
for sulphate of ammonia on the not- 
limed land continuously manured with 
the latter has been attended by a reduc- 
tion of the increased yield, due to the 
nitrogenous dressing, from 12°] tons to 
10°53 tons, whilst the substitution of 
sulphate of ammonia or nitrate of soda 
on the nitrate fields has increased the 
yield from 8°6 tons to 9:2 tons. 


On the limed land, the substitution of - 


nitrate of soda for sulphate of ammonia 
has reduced the yields due to nitro- 
genous manuring from 11°'8 tons to 8 
tons per acre, whilst the change from 
nitrate of soda to sulphate of ammonia 
on the nitrate fields practically has not 
affected the yield. 


The apparent ill-effects of long-con- 
tinued nitrogenous manurings are far 
more noticeable where nitrate of soda 
has been continuously used than where 
sulphate of ammonia has been, thus the 
mean increase on the fields long-manured 
with the former was 7‘5 tons of canes 
per acre as against 10°6 tons where the 
latter had been similarly applied. On 
the not-limed land the increases were at 
the rates of 8:9 and 11'2 tons respectively, 
whilst on the limed land they were only 
at the rates of 6:2 and 9°9 tons. 


These. are the results of only one 
series of experiments and hence requiré 
confirmation, but in my opinion they 
clearly indicate that on very heavy clay- 
soils, such as that of the Experimental 
Field, and under tropical meteorological 
conditions, the de-flocculation of pud- 
dling caused by long-continued dressings 
of nitrate of soda is likely to prove more 
injurious to the soil than is the souring- 
action of sulphate of ammonia. The 
results also suggest that the injurious 
effects of the nitrate of soda are more 
marked on limed land than on not-limed 
land, and, asit is known that the de- 
flocculation caused by nitrate of soda is 
due to alkali set free from it in the soil, 
this isin accordance with what would 
be expected. 


: 
{ 
. 
f 


Jury, 1908.] 


It must be borne in mind that these 
plots have been continuously manured 
with sulphate of ammonia or with 
nitrate of soda for fourteen years 
only, that the nitrogenous manurings, 
although high, have not been at all 
excessive (60 lbs. of nitrogen equivalent 
to 22 cwts. of sulphate of ammonia per 
acre per annum), and that the alterna- 
tion of the manures has only extended 
over one crop. Where soils, especially 
on the lighter lands of the colony, have 
been manured continuously for from 
thirty to fifty years with sulphate of 
ammonia, its souring-action may have 
become marked, and decreases in the 
yields resulted therefrom. This point is 
worthy of consideration and investiga- 
tion by the planters of the colony. The 
souring is easily ascertained by analysis, 
the cure for it lies in the application of 
lime and not solely in changing the use 
of sulphate of ammonia to one of nitrate 
of soda.—Jouwrnat of the Board of Agri- 
culture of British Guiana, Vol, I., No. 4; 
April, 1908. 


ple), Double Gee, 


Scientific Agriculture. 
NOXIOUS WEEDS. 


Every effort is being made by the 
Department of Agriculture to cope with 
the destruction of noxious weeds in the 
several settled districts of the State. 
Recently, secretaries and members of 
Road Boards were appointed honorary 
inspectors in order to supplement the 
Government’s endeavours to carry out 
the Act. Fettlers on the railways are 
also instructed to report when they dis- 
cover poison plants and noxious weeds. 

The following have been gazetted as 
noxious weeds under the Act throughout 
the State :—Stinkwort, Bathurst Burr, 
Noogourn Burr, Nut Grass, Spanish Rad- 
ish, Prickly Pear, Apple of Sodam, Sweet 
Briar, Wild Bramble, Star Thistle (pur- 
and Water Hyacinth. 

In order to assist persons to recognise 
the above plants, the Department has 
prepared an illustrated Bulletin, which 
will be ready for distribution in a few 
days.—Journal of the Department of 
Agriculture, Western Australia, Vol, 
XVI, Part 4, April, 1908. 


50 


vate Aa 


re 


HORTICULTURE, 


VITALITY OF GARDEN SEEDS. 


The vitality of seeds diminishes 
rapidly with age, and it is therefore 
well to determine their vitality before 
sowing. A cheap and convenient way 
of doing so is the following:—Take two 
earthenware plates of the same size; 
cut out two circular layers of flannel 
somewhat smaller than the plates. Be- 
tween the two layers of flannel place one 
hundred seeds of the variety to be tested. 
Moisten the flannel with all the water 
it will absorb. The two layers of flan- 
nel are placed in one plate and covered 
with the other, and set ir a warm place. 
If the flannel is thin, several pieces should 
be used in order to absorb sufficient 
water. Other kinds of absorbent cloth 
or blotting-paper can be used, but thick 
flannel is more satisfactory. Damp sand 
may also be used as a seed bed with 
success. The dishes should be kept in a 
room which is warm at night. Keep the 
flannel constantly moist. Some _ seeds 
will commence to germinate by the third 
day. Examine the seeds each day, and 
remove and record those which have 
germinated. Two weeks will suffice for 
the test. The results obtained may be 
considered as representing the per cent. 
of vitality under favourable conditions. 
The per cent. germinating in the ground 
is likely to be less. Grass seeds require 
as much as three weeks, and seeds ot 
some trees a still longer time.: 


With very small seedsit may be neces- 
sary to provide for the circulation of 
the air by placing small pieces of wood 
between the layers of cloth among the 
seeds. With most varieties of garden 
plants the majority of seeds should 
germinate within a few days after the 
first sprout appears. If the periodof ger- 
mination extends over a longer period, 
it shows that the vitality of the seed is 
low. Seeds of the carrot family and 


some melon seeds may not show as high 
results in the germinating dishes as 
they do in the ground, 


If you cannot thoroughly soak your 
land in a dry season, it is better to water 
very little and trust to mulch. 


A ‘mulch, ” or “mulching” in gardening 
language, means an extra covering of 
soil, rotten leaves, or manure, either 
separately or combined, placed over the 
roots of plants, either after the latter 
have been newly planted or at any period 
during their growth when it may be 
considered advisable. The advantages 
of mulching may be summed up as 
follows :— 


(a) During the hot and dry summer 
months it prevents excessive evapor- 
ation from the soil, and thus not only pre- 
serves the moisture for the roots to 
absorb, but it also prevents the soil from 
becoming excessively hot by day and 
cold by night, thus maintaining a more 
regular temperature. 


(b) In winter it protects the roots from 
frost, and also keeps the soil warmer. 


(c) When a rich mulch is applied to 
newly planted trees and shrubs, it not 
only has the above advantages, but the 
manurial matters. contained in it are 
washed down into thesoil, and enrich it 
with tood for the benefit of the newly 
formed or forming roots. 


(d) A good mulching of rich manure to 
all plants which have begun to develop 
fruit and seeds is highly beneficial in 
assisting them to swell rapidly and ripen 
more quickly. They make a demand 
upon reserve materials, and, if these are 
not quite sufficient to meet the demand, 
it is easy to conceive that the extra 
food supplied by means of a good mulch- 
ing willsupply the deficiency. Journal of 
the Department of Agriculture, Western 
Australia, Vol. XVi., Part 4, April, 1908. 


hy St) 
; 


[JuLy, 1908. " 


; 
‘ 


ig Joy, 1908.} 


51 


MISCELLANEOUS. 


THE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN 
- AND CULTIVATIED PLANTS, 


WILD 


By R. H. Lock. 


That the cultivated products of Ceylon, or 
indeed of any other tropical country, do not 
exhibit anything like so marked a_ contrast 
with its wild vegetation as would be shown 
by the corresponding plant-life in Kurope or 
North America, is a fact which may be regard- 
ed as a measure of the relative development 
of the art of plant improvement in the two 
regions thus compared. If we were to con- 
sider the products of thetropics generally, the 
contrast between wild and cultivated would 
be still less noticeable than if we confined 
our attention to Ceylon, for the reason that 
so many of the plants cultivated in Ceylon 
are introductions from other tropical coun- 
tries, whilst some have been introduced from 
subtropical and even temperate regions. In 
Ceylon therefore the difference between wild 
and cultivated plants depends rather on the 
latter having been brought from distant 
countries than’ on any inherent character- 
istics of the cultivated plants themselves. 


In any limited tract of country, whether 
temperate or tropical, the presence of intro- 
ductions will naturally affect the character 
of the cultivated vegetation to a more or 
less marked extent; but this feature of cul- 
tivation is not the one to whichI wish to 
draw particular attention at present. - The 
point which it is now desired to discuss 
relates rather to the differences in form and 
structure between wild plants generally on 
the one hand and those of their relatives on 
the other, which have endured man’s modify- 
ing influence for considerable periods of time. 
From this point of view we shall be compelled. 
to draw our examples chiefly from temperate 
agriculture and horticulture, whilst reference 
may be made in passing to the numerous 
excellent instances of an analogous nature 
which are to be found among domestic 
animals. 


One of the best instances which can be 
found of the changes associated with cultiva- 
tion is afforded by the various kinds of 
cabbage, all of which are almost certainly 
descended from one or a few closely allied 
species, none of which show any hint of the 
remarkable features now to be described. 
Odinary cabbages, red and green, have the 
terminal bud developed into an enormous 
fleshy head. In Brussels-sprouts all the buds 
have undergone the same modifications, and 
a number of little heads is the result. 
Broccolis and cauliflowers have most of their 
flowers aborted and incapable of producing 


seed, the whole mass of flowers being swollen 
up into a great edible fleshy mass. Savoy 
cabbages, again, have the leaves very much 
wrinkled. Finally, in the Kohlrabi it is the 
stem which is enlarged and edible. Notice 
that in every case the difference from the 
original wild form is one which is useful 
to man, but highly prejudicial to the plant 
itself from the point of view of its survival 
in a natural habitat. No instance has ever 
been recorded of a cauliflower or a Brussels- 
sprout running wild, or even continuing to 
exist without the gardener’s constant assis- 
tance, 


If now we considera part of the cabbage 
plant which is not made any use of by the 
cultivator, we shall find that it shows scarcely 
any difference from the same part in the 
original wild plant. This is the case fox 
instance with the flowers and seeds. These 
organs in all the different types of vegetable 
enumerated above are almost exactly alike, 
and also scarcely distinguishable from those 
of the wild Brassica oleracea, this being in 
fact the reason for supposing the latter plant 
to be the original ancestor of all of them. 


If we now turn to consider a plant, the 
seeds of which are used as a source of food, 
we shall find the most marked diversity in 
these organs, but very little in other 
parts of the plant. This is the case, for 
instance, with maize or Indian corn. The 
leaves, stems and roots of the different 
varieties of corn show only the slightest 
ditferences, the seeds exhibit an extraordinary 
diversity. Take first the differences in size. 
Among samples of only a dozen kinds which 
I lately recieved from America, I find that 
five grains of a variety of pop-corn are re- 
quired to balance one grain of a variety of 
dent corn. The colourof the grains may be 
white, pale yellow, orange, dark red, violet 
or black, and may be either uniform or 
mottled. The shape may be pointed, rounded, 
indented or wrinkled at the apex. Great 
differences also occur in the hardness, con- 
sistency, and chemical composition. By 
crossing together different varieties any con- 
ceivable combination of the above characters 
can’ be obtained in astable form. Nothing 
remotely approaching this diversity is to be 
found in the seeds or grains of any wild 
plant. In wild plants differences infinitely 
less than these are constantly associated 
with some degree of sterility on crossing, 
whereas all the varieties of maize which f 
have had an opportunity of testing are 
perfectly fertile together. 


A precisely similar state of things is to 
be observed when wild and domesticated 
animals are compared together. Highly 
bred strains of pigs, or sheep, or cattle are 
extraordinarily ill-adapted for existence 


Miscellaneous. 


under natural conditions, and the very points 
which constitute this handicap are those 
in which their utility to mankind is chiefly 
exhibited. Still more notable is the example 
afforded by the different breeds of pigeons— 
fantails, pouters, carriers, tumblers and 
the rest—a score of forms could be named 
which, if submitted to a maker of bird 
species ignorant of their origin, and know- 
ing nothing of their capacity for inter- 
breeding, would be separately catalogued— 
many of them as generically distinct. 


There can be no doubt as to the reason why 
plants of such different types survive in 
natural conditions and under cultivation 
respectively. Many of those features of 
cultivated plants which render them most 
useful to mankind are such as would eftec- 
tually prevent the survival of these plants 
ina state of undisturbed competition with 
the weeds which cultivation removes. This 
ousting of competitors is one of the first and 
most important functions of cultivation, and 
it enables delicate and monstrous plants to 
survive which could not otherwise do so. 
Many other advantages are enjoyed by culti- 
vated plants, Their lot is made easy by 
tillage of the soil and by the addition of 
nutritive substances. Besides the exclusion 
of competitors, insect and fungus diseases are 
kept in check by artificial means, and other 
animal enemies are warned away. In times 
of drought water issupplied, and protection 
may be given from excessive wind or cold 
or sunshine. 


The condition imposed upon the plant in 
return for all these advantages is that it 
should exhibit some feature which may be 
looked upon by human beings as either useful 
or ornamental, or even curious or uncommon. 
Under natural conditions rigorous competi- 
tions prevents the plant from indulging in 
any extensive display of characters which 
are not distinctly useful from the point of 
view of the plant’s own progress in life. 
There is no good reason, however, for suppos- 
ing that deviations from the ordinary type, in 
the form of sports and monstrosities, are 
any less abundantin nature than they are 


under cultivation where such novelties are 
known to appear very frequently. But 
these forms are usually weaker than the 


normal type and quite unable to survive in 
competition with it, whereas under care- 
ful cultivation every seed sown has usually 
plenty of space to develop, and the new form 
will moreover haveeven a better chance of 
survival than the type, if it happens to 
attract favourable attention. It will then be 
selected and may form the starting point of 
anew race or variety, which will survive 
because of its usefulness to man even though 
from the plant’s own point of view its 
distinguishing characters may be highly dis- 
advantageous ones, 


9) 


app es 


[JuLy, 1908, 


The continued existence of the more highly 
modified garden plants is entirely dependent 
upon the constant care and attention of the 
gardener. This is clearly shown by the 
result of relaxing that care, and still more 
conclusively by removing the gardener’s 
attention altogether. Ina garden which is 
allowed to run wild all the finer varieties 
disappear first. If the garden contained rare 
varieties of carnations, for example, a time 
will soon arrive when only the old fashion- 
ed red form of carnation will survive ; among 
poppies the purple type will maintain its 
existence longest—instances not of reversion 
to an ancestral type, but of the survival of 
the fittest. Later on these last survivors 
are themselves exterminated and the weeds 
are left triumphant, Even the ordinary 
garden weeds, many of which are undesiv- 
able aliens introduced long ago with seed 
or in other accidental ways, are dependent 
for their livelihood on the conditions of 
cultivation, The weeds of cultivation are 
unable to maintain their position against the 
inroads of the natural wild plants, so that 
still further changes take place in the erst- 
while garden before a condition of equili- 
brium is finally arrived at—a permanent 
state in which cultivated and artificial are 
entirely replaced by wild and natural. 


In a sense, then, and speaking in general 
terms, cultivated plants are artificial or un- 
natural productions, inasmuch as they 
cannot survive under natural conditions, 
but owe their very means of existence to 
the artifice of man. But they are not arti- 
ficial in every sense of the word, for their 
origin may be, and usually is, a natural 
process. Experiments have indeed recently 
been made with a view to producing sports by 
injecting different chemical substances into 
the reproductive organs, and some measure 
of success has even attended these attempts; 
but, whatever may be the future results of 
this method, no useful strain has so far 
been produced by it. Man does _ not, 
strictly speaking, create new forms of 
plants, although the enthusisatic breeder 
may be pardoned for speaking figuratively of 
some novelty as representing hisown handi- 
work. The function of selection, at any 
vate, is to preserve, not to originate; the 
new forms which ave selected are given us 
by Nature. 


In the case of plants of hybrid origin the 
gardener has considerable justification in 
describing the novelty which he produces as 
a creation, a truly artificial product of his 
own special craft. The combinations pro- 
duced in this way are often such as would 
never arise naturally. The parent species 
may have been brought from widely separat- 
ed regions and may be naturally incapable 
of surviving within range of one another. 
Very frequently the unnatural mating can 


JuLyY, 1908.] 


only be carried out with great difficulty 
after repeated attempts and after exclusion 
of the plants’ own pollen and that of neigh- 
bouring specimens of the same variety. 
Lastly, the new type produced by crossing 
may have constitutional weaknesses similar 
to those exhibited by so many natural sports, 
so that it can only be kept alive by careful 
cultivation. Such weakness, however, is not 
the rule. It is more usual for a hybrid 
plant, once it has been obtained, to possess 
a degree of vigour surpassing that of either 
of its parents. The points to be observed 
is that many cultivated products have arisen 
by a process of hybridisation between plants 
which have never been known to cross 
under natural conditions, and that the new 
varieties thus produced are unlike any 
natural species. 


With close attention there seems to be little 
doubt that it will be possible to find among 
the most recent tropical products sports and 
modifications capable of preservation by the 
methods of cultivation. Even failing these, 
new forms can without question be produced 
by artificial hybridisation. The process of 
modification isa progressive one, for each 
new form may be regarded gs a link ina 
chain of new forms which careful cultivation 
will preserve, each member in the series 
being more different than its predecessor 
from the original species. 


New forms, whether they arise as sports 
oras hybirds, exhibit the greatest possible 
diversity among themselves in appearance 
and constitution. So faras we are aware, 
this variation is not more likely to tend in 
one direction thanin any other. It is pro- 
bable, therefore, that some of the new forms 
will be more useful to the cultivator than 
the original type and others less so, But 
the breeder can please himself as to which 
kinds he allows to remain in existence, and. 
his choice will naturally fall upon the most 
useful. The process of deliberate selection 
thus employed is the main factor in the 
improvement which may reasonably be ex- 
pected to come about as the successive 
generations pass. When we consider the 
enormous advances which have recently been 
made in the theoretical principles which un- 
derlie the breeder’s art, we may reasonably 
suppose that much less time and trouble 
will be required to bring about a condition 
of things in which the difference between 


> cultivated and wild plantsin the tropics will 


be comparable with the corresponding dif- 
ference in temperate regions than was required 
by our forefathers to bring about this latter 
difference. 


More will be said in further numbers of 
the Tropical Agricullurist and Magazine 
of the Ceylon Agricultural Nociety on 
the subjects of variation, hybridization 
and selection. At present it suffices to call 
attention to the much smaller difference 


Miscellan cors, 


between wild and cultivated in tropical, as 
compared with the more advanced tem- 
perate, countries, and to point out that very 
great advantages will accrue to any tropical 


country in which steps are taken to make 
this difference greater, 
WHERE CO-OPERATIVE CREDIT 


FLOURISHES. 

One of the great needs of the artisans and 
cultivators of this country is a supply of loan- 
able capital at a reasonable rate of interest. 
How it has come about that the workers are 
so largely destitute of the means of carrying 
on their industry is a question on which 
opinions differ, but as to the fact there can 
be no dispute. In many occupations the 
process of increasing indebtedness can be 
watched. Mr. J. Hope-Simpson has described 
the manner in which the Benares silk weavers, 
who have been accustomed to work for the 
bazaar and sell their own goods, have gra- 
dually become the virtual bondsmen_ of 
wealthier members of their craft. When 
times are bad the weaver applies to the 
dealer who makes an advance of materials 
at retail prices. When the stuff is ready for 
the market it is brought to the dealer for 
sale, and some months afterwards ‘‘a settle- 
ment of accounts is made, the weaver’s 
account being credited with the amount for 
which the dealer alleges the cloth to have 
been sold (an amount frequently very much 
below the actual price received, if common 
rumour may be trusted) and debit with the 
advance made, plus one anna in the rupee 
per mensem as interest, plus commission on 
the sale at one anna per rupee, plus, in 
many cases, a fixed charge of one anna per 
rupee for temple offerings.” No one needs 
to be told that such a system of credit as 
this means perpetual indebtedness for the 
weaver. “The account runs on from month 
to month, year to year, and generation to 
generation, and the weaver is practically a 
slave.” | A similar description could be 
written of the weaver of Madras, as well as 
of other craftsmen. The agriculturist, as is 
well known, is commonly, over extensive 
areas throughout the country, a chronic 
debtor. For this condition of things the 
only practical remedy which has so far 
been suggested is the Co-operative Credit 
Society ; and it is refreshing to see that, 
thoughthe progress of institutions of this type 
has been disappointingly slow in Lower and 
Kastern Bengal, they have thoroughly estab- 
lished themselves in the United Provinces 
and are rapidly gaining in popularity. The 
annual report recently issued shows that 
there are now in the United Provinces 170 
societies of various kinds, with more than 
44,000 members. The variety of these insti- 
tutions is a point the importance of which 
at once attracts notice, many of them being 
special types which are likely to be exten- 


Miscellaneous. 


sively copied once their merits become 
“known. Thus the successful establishment 
of the Moradabad District Bank was 
followed by the starting of similar banks 
in half adozen other places. In the case 
of Moradabad assistance was granted by 
Government, but in every other instance the 
banks have depended on their own resources. 
This example of the readiness of the people 
to adopt a new ideaisa most encouraging 
sign, and augurs well for the future develop- 
ment of the Co-operative scheme. If every 
responsible zemindar in Bengal, every lead- 
ing man in the principal towns, would make 
it his business to read the story of this move- 
ment in the United Provinces, and en- 
deavour to realise its enormous possibilities 
for Bengal, the benefit to the people would be 
incalculable. Merely as agencies for the in- 
vestment of capital, the Co-operative Societies 
are worthy of consideration. The district 
banks, which finance societies affiliated to 
them, charge interest at the rate of 25 per 
cent. Loans are freely taken on these terms, 
and there is no reason to doubt that in com- 
parison with the amount charged by the 
bania, 123 per cent. isa philanthropic rate of 
interest ; while judging from past experience 
the loans are perfectly safe. **In most 
societies,” says the Report under consider- 
ation, ‘‘ repayments are wonderfully regular.” 
Even in a bad season the repayments to 
the central banks amounted to about 90 
per cent. of the loans issued. It is not claim- 
ed thatthe results achieved in the United 
Provinces are due to the initiative of the 
people themselves. The independence and 
self-government of the societies will be 
attained in course of time, but at present 
the help of public-spirited men is needed 
to train the people in the principles of co- 
operations and to give the initial impetus. In 
some cases, where a movement is being start- 
ed on new lines, a condsiderable time must 
elapse before the services of competent 
directors can be dispensed with. But in ordin- 
ary circumstances the people have been 
quick to learn. Old-established societies 
have become prosperous, and new ones on 
the same lines have been established. The 
effects have been such as to surprise and de- 
light any one who takes an intelligent inter- 
est in the welfare of the community. Money- 
lenders have been paid off, and peasants 
have been enabled to cultivate their land on 
conditions which promise prosperity and 
ultimate freedom from all debt. Artisans 
have been helped to secure their own emanci- 
pation. In short, wherever the societies 
have come into being they have brought 
new life and new hope. Im the light of 
these facts we have no hesitation in 
saying that there are few ways, if any, 
in which an educated native gentleman of 
means can render better service to this 
country than by taking an active partin the 
promotion of co-operative credit; and we 
trust that in Bengal there may be no lack of 


e 4 


such benefactors. It cannot be that the 
United Provinces have a monopoly of men of 
the required type.—Indian Agriculturist, 
Vol. XXXIII., No. 1, January, 1908. 


MANGANESE COMPOUNDS AS 
FERTILISERS. 


By W. F. SUTHERST, PH.D., F.1.C. 


Some years ago reports from Japanese 
experimental stations came out about the 
good effects of manganese on certain crops, 
and latterly in Holland the matter has been 
taken up more thoroughly, and so far the 
results have been most favourable, Man- 
ganese is widely distributed in the soil, and 
most plant ashes contain a good percentage 
of it, especially is this the case in forest trees, 
in which iron is present in about the same 
quantity. 


Whether it occurs in these plants as acci- 
dental or a necessity, and the reason for its 
presence, is not yet fully known. So far it 
has been explained that the good effects are 
more or less of a tonic nature, such as small 
doses of arsenic have been known to exert 
on certain crops. A recent report from the 
Groningen Experimental Station (Holland) 
shows that certain plant diseases have been 
cured by using manganese salts as fertilisers, 
and, in consequence, much larger crop yields 
obtained. So far this is only a theory, and 
needs further work for absolute proof. 


As maize has been spoken of as answering 
best to manganese fertilisers, trials were 
carried out here to see if such effects could 
be obtained under our conditions of climate 
and soil. To be absolutely under control, 
pot experiments were tried, each pot being 
about 3 feet high, with an area of about one 
square yard. A quantity of soil was tho- 
roughly mixed, and each pot filled under like 
conditions; holes were made about 2 in. 
from the bottom, so as to allow excess water 
to drain out; but the 2 in. of soil below 
the holes being constantly wet, kept the pot 
from being absolutely dry in case of great 
evaporation. In pot No. I. 2 grammes (30 
grains) of chloride of manganese were dis- 
solved in water and sprinkled on the soil ; 
in No. II., 5 grammes of the black oxide of 
manganese (pyrolusite) were thoroughly 
mixed with the first 6 inches; in No. I1., 


2 grammes of manganese sulphate; and in 


No. IV. no mangarese was placed. 


In order to get a thoroughly representative 
growth in such a small space, about 20 seeds 
of equal weight were planted in each pot, 
and when a certain size had been reached, 
about ten of irregular growth removed. 
Later on this process was repeated till one 
only remained, and was allowed to reach the 
height when photographed. t 


} 
ct 
i 
b J 
r 


~~ z 


' From the accompanying Plate (not repro- 


duced) it will be seen that pyrolusite, which, 
by the way, occurs in such large quantities 
in South Africa, gave by far the best result, 
a remarkably healthy plant being produced, 
No. I., grown with chloride of manganese, 
also shows considerable improvement in size 
and quality. No. III. did not give such a 
result as expected, but the quality is far 
better than No. IV., containing no manganese. 


Of course, absolute reliance cannot be 
placed in one trial only, but next year the 
work will be repeated on a far larger scale, 
and on the ground itself. 


Note ON MANGANESE COMPOUNDS AS A 
MANURE. 

Although from the experiments of Kata- 
yama, Nagaoko and others, there can be 
little doubt that small additions of man- 
ganese salts to soils often produce a consider- 
able increase in crop, especially in legumin- 
ous ones,* Salomone has shown that large 
amounts are decidedly injurious, and that 
manganic salts are much more injurious than 
manganous. 


Experiments at Woburn have shown con- 
siderable benefit by soaking seed wheat in a 
solution of manganese sulphate containing 
less than 2 per cent, of the salt before sowing, 
while barley obtained no advantage by such 
soaking. Both crops, however, were im- 
proved by the addition to the soil of about 

_ 50 or 60 lb, of manganese sulphate per acre, 


The Japanese experimenter, Nagaoko, 
found that with rice up to 80 or 90 lbs. per 
acre of manganese sulphate was_ beneficial. 
In Dr. Sutherst’s experiment the dressings 
employed would correspond to approxi- 
mately 22 lbs. of manganese chloride and 
manganous sulphate, and about 55 lbs, man- 
ganese dioxide per acre. These quantities 
are apparently somewhat lower than pre- 
vious investigators had found the most bene- 
ficial. With reference to this point, I may 
mention that I have found appreciable quan- 
tities of manganese in several samples of the 
so-called ‘*bats’ guano” from caves in the 
dolomite, 


As to the method by which manganese 
compounds act upon plants, I have little to 
add to what Dr. Sutherst has stated, It 
appears probable that its effects are very 
similar to those of ferrous sulphate (‘‘ green 
vitriol”’), small dressings (say 56 lbs. per acre), 
of which have long been known to have a 
decidedly beneficial effect upon many crops. 

This is apparently due to an increase of 
chlorophyll production in the plant, though 


*In the case of peas the former investigator 
found an increase of 50 per cent. in the straw and 
25 per cent. in the seed by the addition of °015 per 
cent. of manganese sulphate to the soil, while 
with barley the total increase wag only 10 per cent, 


55 


Miscellaneous. 


Griffiths adduced evidence that the iron 
enabled the plants to develop without such 
large amounts of potash compounds as they 
would otherwise require. 


For the present it will be safer to assume 
that manganese exerts a “tonic” action, 
but its application to a soil must not be 
regarded as at allan efficient substitute for 
the plant food required and usually supplied 
in commercial manures. 


In other words, it is probably better re- 
garded as a medicine than as a food. 
HERBERT INGLE, 
Chief Chemist, 
Transvaal Agricultural Department, 
—Transvaal Agricultural Journal, April, 
1908. 


[In the Plate referred to are the following 
notes: No.1, 2 grains manganese chloride ; 
No. 2, 5 grains manganese dioxoide ; No. 3, 
2 grains manganese sulphate; and No. 4, 
No manganese. | 


LITERATURE OF ECONOMIC 
BOTANY AND AGRICULTURE, 
XXXI. 


Rubber Cultivaton. 
METHODS OF CULTIVATION AND TAPPING. 


‘Collecting rubber. Planting Opin. 
10, 2. 1900, p. 100. 


Sur un nouveau procédé d’extraction 
du Caoutchouc. Rev. Cult. Col. 
VI. 1900, p. 304. 


Blatterkautschuk. Preyer 
penpfi. 4. 1900, p. 280. 


The tapping of rubber trees in the 
Charduar rubber plantation, As- 
sam, 1899, ‘‘T. A.” Aug. 1900, p. 82. 

A new method of extracting rubber 
(pounding the bark). ‘T.A.” Sept. 
1900, p. 192. 

The Charduar rubber plantation, 
Assam: results of tapping. ‘‘T.A.” 
Jan. 1901, p. 453. 

Das Schneiden der Kautschuk- 

_biiume. Tropenpfl. 4. 1900, p. 79. 


A new method of extracting rubber. 
Rev. Cult. Col. 5. 2, 1900, Ind. 
Gardening 15. 3. 1900, p. 176, and 29. 
8. 1900, p. 209. 


L’extraction du caoutchouce des ecor- 
ces. Rev. Cult. Col, 6. 1900, p. 104. 

Tapping results in Penang. Singa- 
pore Bot. Gdn, Report 1899, p. 11. 


Vergleichende Zapfversuche mit 
Manihot und Kickxia in Misahéhe 


in Tro- 


(Togo). Tropenpfl. 1906, p. 382. 
De caoutchouc-guds. Ind. Mere. 24. 
9. 1901, p. 722. 


Miscellaneous. 


Experiments on collecting latex. Str. 
Bull. 1. 1902, p. 881. And see many 
papers in this journal of recent 
years. 

Conseils sur la saignée des caou- 
tchoues. Journ. d’Agr. Trop. I., 183. 

La cultivation de l’Hevea en Malaisie-: 
Journ. d’Agri, Trop., July 1903, p: 
198. 


The business of gathering rubber, 
Str. Bull. 1903, p. 97. 

Rubber tapping experiments in the 
Botanic Gardens. Str. Bull. 1903, 
pp- 118, 264. 

Methodes indigenes de recolte et de 
preparation des differents caout- 
choucs du Congo. Rev. Cult. Col. 
11. 1903, p. 269. 

Manuring rubber. Str. Bull. Oct: 
1904, p. 405. 

See Just’s Jahresbericht. 

Measurement of trees. Str. Bull. 1. 
1901, p. 156. 

A new instrument for tapping. do. 
1902, p. 230. 

Quelques observations sur la recolte 
du latex. Journ. d’Agri. Trop. II. 
1902, p. 99. 

Tapioca and rubber. ‘“T.A.” Dec. 
1905, p. 788. 

Rubber tapping methods. Ethering- 
ton in Ind, Rub. Journ. July 1906, 
p. 38. 

And see below under separate kinds 
of rubber trees. 


Rubber Cultivation. 


PREPARATION OF RUBBER. 

Remarks on the coagulation of rub- 
ber. Trin. Bull. Jan. 1901, p. 294. 
La productivité des essences a caou- 
tchoue. Rev. Cult. Col. VI. 1900, 

p. 342. 

Ueber Kautschuk-bereitung. Preyer 
in Tropenpfl. July 1899, p. 327. 

Burgess. Report ona visit to Great 
Britain to investigate the india 
rubber industry in its relation to 
the growth and preparation of raw 
rubber in the Malay Peninsula. 
Str. Bull. 4. p. 458. 

Ueber Rohkautschuk-untersuchung. 
Der Pflanzer 30. 6. 1906, p. 172. 

Plantagen-Kautschuk. Tropenpli. 
1906. p. 17. 

Notes sur les phenomenes généraux 
de coagulation. Bull. Jard. Col. 
III., p. 32. 

Washing of crude rubber. ‘“T.A.” 
Sept. 1903, p. 281. 


Preparation of crude rubber. Pears, 
Str. Bull. 1904, p. 119. 


[juiy, 1008. 


Visite & une usine instituté pour la 
traitment mecanique des écorces 
& caoutchouc. Rev. Cult. Col. 
Sept. 1901, p. 136. 

Formalin in treating rubber fluids. 
Trin. Bull. 1908, p. 598. , 

Researches on the coagulation of the 
latex. Ind. Rub. Journ. 138. 8. 1906, 
p. 196, 

The’ production of  indiarubber. 
“T.A.” Mar. 1907, p. 180. 

The question of moisture in rubber. 
Ind. Rub. Journ. April 1906, p. 451. 

Drying, Smoking, ete. do. p. 403. 

Smoking plantation rubber. ‘‘T.A,” 
Sept. 1906, p. 208. 


The future curing of Ceylon rubber, 
“TA.” May 1906, p. 272. 
Ceylon plantation rubber. do. 277. 


Rubber curing: the use of smoke. ~ 


do. 278. 

Block rubber. Pears. ‘‘T.A” Dec, 
1906, p. 469. 

Plantation-grown rubber. do. Jan. 
1907, p. 14. 

Experiments in creosoting and block- 
ing wetrubber. Willis and Bamber. 
Circ. R. B. G. Perad. JV. I, 1907. 

Sheet versus crepe rubber. ‘T.A.’ 
Nov. 1905, p. 653. 

The value of cultivated rubber to the 
manufacturer. do. p. 657. 

The rubber washing machine of the 
Federated Engineers’ Co. ‘*T.A’ 
Dee. 1905, p. 747. 

Preparation of rubber for the market. 
“TA.” Aug. 1907, p. 36. c 


Les defauts du caoutchoue de plan- 
tation. Journ. d’Agri. Trop. 30. 
8. 07, p. 287. 

Ueber das Coagulations-mittel Coa- 
latex. Der Pflanzer 1907, p, 145. 

A new process for the coagulation of 
atin in bulk. Trop. Life 1908, 
p. 54. 


RUBBER: MANUFACTURE AND TRADE: 


SUBSTITUTES. 

Over het caoutchoue-surrogaat 
Bresk. Ind. Mere. 11. 2. 1899, p. 95. 

Artificial rubber. Tilden. Kew Bull. 
1899, p. 27. 

Corn rubber. Ind. Gard. 11, 1. 1900, 
p. 934. 

Velvril, a new substitute. 
and Drug. 11. 11. 1899, p. 788. 


Three natural rubber substitutes. 
Ind. Agri. Sept, 1899, p. 280. 


Rubber review. Str. Bull. Mar. 1904, 


Recent rubber statistics. Ind. R. 
World, Dec. 1904, p, 92. 


Chem. 


Jury, 1908.) 


Production et consommation mon- 
diales du caoutchouc. Bull. Econ. 
Indoch. 8. p. 785. 

Appareils de mésure, employés pour 
la fabrication de caoutehouc. Le 
Mon. de Caout. Mar. 1906, p. 370. 

Rubber prices and other notes. Str. 
Bull. July 1904, p. 272. 

Substitute for rubber (Synantherea 
sp.) Ind. Gard. 9. 8. 1900, p. 96. 

Imports and exports of raw rubber, 
United Kingdom. Ind. R, Journ. 
July 1906, p. 78. 

Annual review of the Indiarubber 
market, 1906. ‘T.A.” Feb. 1907, 
Dood. 

Warburg. Was lehrt uns die Statis- 
tik des Kautschuks? Tropenpfl. 
1907, p. 65. 

Exports and imports of raw_rubber 


into the United Kingdon, Ind, R. 
Journ. 15. 7. 1907, p. 87. 

The crude rubber field. Ind. R. 
World, Aug. 1907, p. 387. 

Rubber interests in Europe. do. 


p. 3800. 

An apparatus for testing unmanu- 
factured rubber. Str. Bull. July 
1907, p. 201. 

Methods of analysis of raw rubber. 
Journ. L’pool Univer. I. C. R. 1907. 

The art of vuleanisation. Ind. R. 
World, Mar. 1904, p. 187. 

The action of chalk in vulcanised 
rubber. Ind. R. Journ. Aug. 1906, 
p. 246 

The influence of time in cold vulcan- 
isation. do. Sept 1906, p. 283. 


The testing of raw rubber. do. p. 288. 


Vulcanising freshly coagulated latex. 
do. Oct. 1906, p. 405. 

Report on a visit to Great Britain to 
investigate the rubber industry, 
Burgess. Str. Bull. “T.A.” Aug. 
1906, p. 181, Sept. p. 209. 

A revolution in the rubber trade 
(direct export of latex to Hurope). 
‘““T. A.” Feb. 1906, p. 12. 


Rubber Vuleanisation, Bamber. 
“T. A.” Oct. 1906, p. 281. 
Rubber sale system at Antwerp. 


“TA.” Nov. 1905, p. 664. 


A manufacturer’s report on rubber 
samples. ‘‘T.A.” Dec. 1905, p. 745, 


Vulcanisation tests with plantation 
rubber. ‘T.A.” Sept. 1907, p. 67. 


Vulecanisation tests with plantation 
rubbers. Str. Bull. Feb. 1908, p. 54. 


The price of rubber. ‘“T.A.” May 
1908, p. 411. 


8 


Miscellaneous. 


SCHOOL GARDENS. 


In dealing with the subject of Agricul- 
tural Education at the recent Con- 
ference, special attention was drawn to 
the progress made in establishing School 
Gardens in connection with elementary 
schools in the West Indies and British 
Guiana. It was mentioned that at 
Jamaica, fair progress was being made 
in this direction. In 1900, only six 
schools received special grants amount- 
ing to £32. In 1906, the number of 
schools had increased to ninety-two, and 
the special grants to £227. 


At British Guiana, three Government 
school gardens had been established at 
Georgetown. In addition, it was re- 
ported that the managers and teachers 
of over fifty schools had started small 
gardens in the country districts. These 
latter are stated to be earning about 80 
per cent. of the small grant offered under 
the Code Regulations. 


In Trinidad during thelast year 203 
schools were examined in practical agri- 
culture. Steady progress is reported 
from all parts of the island. The forma- 
tion of school gardens is stated to be 
hindered by the want of suitable land, 
and by other difficulties. Five horticul- 
tural school-shows are annually held in 
Trinidad and Tobago. 


At Grenada, agricultural education in 
elementary schools appears to have 
declined during the last two years, and 
nothing worth mentioning is being done 
at present with school gardens. Matters 
are practically at a standstill also in the 
elementary schools at St. Vincent. 
Moderate progress is reported from St, 
Lucia. 


At Barbados, forty-one boys’ schools 
and three girls’ schools presented 
children at the annual examinations in 
object-lessons. About one-third of these 
had school gardens or showed plants 
under cultivation in pots or boxes. It 
is stated that the school gardens are 
decidedly better managed than before, 
and the number has increased to twenty- 
one. The school exhibits atthe Peasant 
Exhibitions reached a higher standard. 


At Montserrat, five school gardens have 
been started, and it is reported that very 
good results have been obtained in the 
cultivation of various kinds of vege- 
tables. Theoretical instruction is also 
given in school hours. 


At Antigua, efforts have been fairly 
successful in introducing and encour- 
aging the teaching of agriculture and the 
formation of school gardens. So far, 


Miscellaneous. 


school gardens have not been successful 
at St. Kitts. On the other hand, at 
Nevis, they have had greater success, 
and at the Agricultural Shows the 
schools have always been well repre- 
sented. 


The Education Committee of the Con- 
ference reported that the evidence avail- 
able from the different colonies testified 
that opposition on the part of the 
parents to their children working in 
garden plots has now practically died 
out. Lack of interest in agricultural 
teaching on the part of the teachers in 
some of the colonies is probably ac- 
counted for by the smallness of the 
grant allotted to this subject. 


With the view of assisting in the 
work of establishing gardens for teach- 
ing purposes, a special pamphlet, en- 
titled ‘‘Hints tor School Gardens” was 
issued by the Imperial Department of 
Agriculture in 1901. In this the hope 
was expressed that the time was not far 
distant when every primary school in 
the West Indies would include elemen- 
tary agriculture in its curriculum, ‘and 
that to all such schools a garden should 
be attached where the pupils might 
learn by actual practice the best way to 
earry on the more important details of 
gardening work. This, it was considered, 
would afford a valuable opportunity of 
training the powers of observation of 
the pupils in a way not attainable by 
mere book learning or even by watching 
the work done by the teacher. 


In cases where a suitable area for a 
school garden was not available, it was 
recommended that the cultivation of 
plants in pots and boxes might be 
adopted as likely to supply, in part, the 
training obtained from school gardens. 


In 1907 a new and enlarged edition of 
“Hints for School Gardens” was pub- 
lished. As showing the considerable 
growth of interest that was taken in 
starting school gardens, this edition was 
exhausted within a few months, and now 
a revised edition (Pamphlet No. 52%), con- 
taining fifty-five pages and a plan is 
placed within the reach of all who are 
interested in the subject. 


In the introduction to the revised 
edition, itis stated that instruction in 
school gardens is not given merely for 
the purpose of showing how to grow 
vegetables, any more than the ordinary 
teaching in schools has for its object the 
winning of prizes. It derives its value 


% «+ Hints for School Gardens,”’ Pamphlet Series, 
No. 52. Price 4d, Free by post, 5d. On sale by all 
Agents of the Imperial Department of Agriculture. 


58 


- u ii 


p. 


from its usefulness in training the in- 
tellectual faculties, especially those of 
observation and correct inference, and 
its power todo this is the best indication 
of its true worth. Knowledge useful to 
the agriculturist is gained incidentally, 
and the material profit arising from the 
produce of the soil may be an incentive 
to painstaking efforts on the part of the 
learner. 


Pupils should be put through a good 
course of box and pot culture, and 
should thoroughly master the principles 
underlying it before they are allowed to 
proceed tothe cultivation of plants in 
plots. The latter is a repetition of the 
elementary work ona large scale, but 
does not serve so well as a means of 
imparting knowledge connected with 
plant life, as its processes are not under 
such immediate control. Its main object 
is to show how the methods adopted in 
practice naturally have their founda- 
tion in_ ideas derived from careful and 
accurate observation and to provide 
exercises in actual agricultural pro- 
cedure. At all stages, the teacher should 
seize every opportunity of demonstrat- 
ing the processes of nature, so that the 
course of instruction may include also 
facts concerning animal life, especially 
that of insects. 


In the revised edition of the pamphlet, 
considerable attention is devoted to pot 
and box cultivation, and details are 
given in regard to the preparation of 
boxes and pots, the manner in which 
seeds are germinated, the necessity of 
water, air, and shade for young seed- 


lings, the effect of the age of seeds on | 


their germination, theuse of plant food 
in the seed to the growing seedling and 
the best means for raising plants from 
leaves and cuttings, the care of orna- 
mental pot plants, and the treatment of 
plants with the object’ of producing 
flowers and fruit. 


With regard to garden plots, full 
particulars are given as to selecting the 
site, preparing the ground, planting 
hedges, laying out plots, and the succes- 


sive operations necessary to establish — 


a well-equipped and successful school 
garden. 


The latter part of the pamphlet is 
taken up in affording special instruction 
in regard to twenty-six of the principal 
vegetable crops grown in the 
Indies. 
simple and useful hints in regard to 


the various processes of budding, graft- — 


ing and training garden plants.—Agri- 


1908, 


f 


cultural News, Vol, VII., No, 155, April, — 


West — 
The concluding pages contain — 


— eS 


PRE aa 


= 


Pet ewe KES 


Suny, 1908.] 


THE UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT 
OF AGRICULTURE: ITS ORIGIN, 
GROWTH AND PRESENT 
CONDITIONS. 


By T. F. MAIN, B.SC., F.H.S., 


Deputy Director of Agriculture, Bombay. 


The Indian Agricultural Departinent 
is but on the threshold of its existence. 
One is naturally inclined to speculate a 
little upon its future and to enquire 
what work it willbe likely to perform, 
and to what extentit will be a real _be- 
nefit to the agriculture of the country. 
If analogy be of any use under these 
circumstances, we have a very interest- 
ing example inthe United States Agri- 
cultural Department. 


In the space at my disposal I shall 
endeavour to show how this department 
was developed, and also refer to some of 
the work accomplished. I am indebted 
chiefly for this information to a histori- 
eal sketch compiled by Charles H. Great- 
house. I have taken numerous quota- 
tions from his Bulletin. The sketch 
explains the objects of the Department 
and its organization, and also describes 
its various divisions. 


Previous to 1860, little attention was 
given to scientific agriculture in the 
United States. The ratent office distri- 
buted seeds, and collected and published 
agricultural information. At this time 
the United States Agricultural Society 
was active in urging the establishment 
of a separate Department of Agriculture. 
In 1862 an Act) was passed which provid- 
ed for an independent department with 
a Commissioner at its head. 


Washington really started the United 
States Agricultural Department and 
Franklin helped its progress by practical 
activity. The former proposed the for- 
mation of a branch of the National Gov- 
ernment to care for the interest of 
farmers. 


The Department asit is now consti- 
tuted embraces many divisions, and its 
gradual growth is a most instructive 
study. The Weather Bureau took its 
origin from the observations of the 
Smithsonians, who devoteda great deal 
of time to the publication of Meteorolo- 
gical data. In 1872 the Government pro- 
vided a Meteorological Department, and 
the Department began to publish Agri- 
cultural Statistics. In 1863 the Depart- 
ment of Statistics was established. In 
1904 a Bureau organization was provided. 


During Commissioner Newton’s time 
the Department Library and Museum 


59 


Miscellaneous. 


were started. This Library was not 
officially recognised tili 1871, when a libra- 
rian was appointed. The first books were 
obtained from the patent office. Addi- 
tions have since been made by exchange 
and purchase. The library now contains 
92,000 volumes, and is probably the best 
separate collection on agriculture and 
allied subjects in the world. 


Although the Agricultural Department 
was separated from the patent office in 
1862, it was not provided with separate 
buildings and other accommodation till 


1867. It comprised at this time the 
Division of Chemistry, Gardens and 
Grounds, Entomology, Statistics and 


Botany. About this time the coutrol 
of quarantine for animals was trans- 
ferred from the Treasury to the Com- 
missioner of Agriculture, and in 1884 the 

ureau of Animal Industry was estab- 
lished by Act of Congress with a grant 
of $150,000 to deal with pleuro-pneumonia 
and other diseases. 


The Hatch Bill became Law in 1887. It 
deals with the form in whichthe results 
of experiments and investigations should 
be recorded, and for this purpose the 


. office of experiment stations was estab- 


lished. 


In_1889 the Department was raised to 
the first rank in the executive branch of 
the Government. Its work was “treated 
slightingly by many Congressmen, and 
was considered merely as a means to 
reach many constituents with -small 
favours by the distribution of seeds and 
books. 'The clerkships and the positions 
in the Department were regarded as 
patronage to be given to political ad- 
herents with little regard for fitness.” 
‘*But Commissioner Le Duc, when ap- 
pointed by President Hayes, took up 
the duties with such earnestness that 
Congressmen were impressed with the 
seriousness of the work for which the 
Commissioner asked appropriations and 
the Department was granted more 
funds.” ‘The head of the Department 
owing to persistent public opinion was 
yiven a place at the President’s Council 

able. 


The Hon’ble Jeremiah M. Rusk was 
selected by President Harrison as_ his 
Secretary of Agriculture in 1889. In re- 
organising the Department he divided 
the work in two main classes: executive, 
under his own immediate charge, and 
scientific, under a specially appointed 
Assistant Secretary who had scientific 
agricultural attainments. 


In 1893 the Howble J. Serling Morton 
became Secretary of Agriculture. He 
developed the Department considerably, 


Miscellaneous: 60 


and gave much time to the extension 
of publications and of the Library. 
He intioduced farmer’s bulletins. The 
Division of Statistics was developed. 
The Division of Agvrostology and an 
agency to obtain new foreign plants 
from all parts of the world were formed. 
The Handbook of grasses of the United 
States was published. The Weather 
Bureau was much extended, a cyclone 
service was established and exchange of 
data with other Governments arranged 
for. The Forestry Division made good 
progress. 


Competitive examinations for service 
in the Agricultural Department were 
introduced. 


Secretary Wilson took office in 1897. 
The Department has advanced exten- 
sively under his direction. The budget 
allotment for the Department in 1907 
was $9,932,940 against $2,448,332 in 1897. 


Since 1897 notable changes have been 
made in the work of the Department, 
particularly as regards enquiries into 
plant diseases, plant breeding, seed and 
‘plaat testing and investigations regard- 
ing fruit growing. A Bureauof Forestry 
has also been established. 


Other branches of the Department 
which have been changed within the 
period indicated from a divisional toa 
Bureau organization with large increase 
of activities are the Bureau of Chemistry, 
Bureau of Soils, Bureau of Entomology, 
Bureau of Statistics and Bureau of 
Biological Survey.” 


The division of Foreign Markets was 
organized separately from the Division 
of Statistics in 1898, anda Solicitor for 
the Department was provided in 1905. 
Secretary Wilson has given much atten- 
tion to the encouragement of home in- 
dustries and sugar, silk and tea industries 
have thereby greatly benefited. ‘ Agri- 
cultural explorations for discovering new 
crops, new _ varieties of old crops, 
new methods of cultivation and farm 
management, new species of desirable 
domestic animals, new modes of combat- 
ing diseases of animals and plants and 
injurious insects, formed important 
features of the period from 1897-1905. 
Great progress has been made in the 
studies of plant breeding and _ soil in- 
vestigation. Special attention has been 
paid to such points as food inspection, 
methods of storage for foreign markets, 
forest development and management, 
and a special point has been made of the 
encouragement of agricultural education 
by school garden work and prize com: 
petition,” 


[Juny, 1908 ae 


One of the most important works done 
by the Department in recent years has 
been the establishment in 1903 of practi- 
cal and direct relations between the 
Department and farmer’s institutes 
through the appointment of a special 
agent of the office of Hxperiment 
Stations to co-operate with the State 
and County officials interested in this 
line of Agricultural Education. ‘‘ Great 


advances have been made in the study of ' 


meteorological phenomena. Instruments 
and apparatus for recording weather 
data were improved and standardised 
and climatic statistics gathered, com- 
pared and used in making forecasts, 
then put in form for future use. The 
number of stations was increased, in- 
cluding points on the Caribbean Sea and 
the Gulf of Mexico, in Bermuda, the 
Bahamas and the Azores, until the real 
direction of important progress has 
changed from practical extension of 
this kind to a study of scientific pro- 
blems, suchas the study of the move- 
ments of the atmosphere at much higher 
altitudes than heretofore commonly 
reached. Kor this purpose the establish- 
ment ofa great National Observatory 
for weather study has been begun at 
Mount Weather, Virginia, a suitable 
point inthe Blue Ridge Mountains, 50 
miles from Washington. The watching 
of storms and floods was continued, and 
efforts were made to render more 
efficient service to sea-faring interests 
and to farmers and business men in over- 
flowed districts. It has been impossible 
of course to prevent losses by floods, ice 
gorges and hurricanes, but the known 
saving effected has exceeded — several 
times over the costof the entire service.” 


““Crop reporting has been continued 
and improved, and the issue of frost 
warnings extended. The function of the 
statistical service of the Department was 
clearly defined as the rendering of assis- 
tance to the farmer in receiving a fair 
price for his products. The reporting 
of crop prospects was improved and the 
spread of the information, when gather- 
ed, studied and printed, was made more 
effective, especially by a system of post- 
ing card announcements of results in 
the 92,000 post offices of the country. 
The study of foreign market was con- 
tinued, and reports of trade relations 
with important nations, based on a 
study and anlayses of Treasury reports 
of exports and imports were publishsed. 
The Crop Reporter, an _ eight-page 
quarto monthly paper, was established 
in 1899 as a means of communication 
between the Bureau and its thousands 
of correspondents. , A special agent was 


maintained in London, chiefly for the 4 
purpose of reporting Huropean crop 


their chosen lines. 


re 


JuLy, 1908,} 


conditions and prospects to this paper. 
Great progress has been made in the 
study of animal and plant diseases and 
likewise in Economic Entomology.” 


The editing, illustrating and publica- 
tion of results reached by the several 
branches of the service grew with the 
extension of the Department’s activities. 
No effort has been spared to_ present 
facts of practical value in actual farming 
in terms perfectly plain to farmers 
of every position in life,so that all 
may receive the benefits paid for by all. 
At the same time statements of progress 
in scientific research have been in techni- 
cal language in limited number for the 
benefit of persons associated more or less 
directly with Department scientists in 
their investigations. The illustration of 
these books was directed to making 
clear the statements of the text. The 
Year-Book Series of the Department, 
which had recently been started when 
Mr. Wilson came into office, was con- 
tinued andimproved. 1t has received the 
commendation of American farmers and 
farm journals as well as Kuropeon autho- 
rities. The distribution of Department 
publications to farmers constituted an 
important feature in connection with 
these publications. Press notices, lists of 
new and of all available publications 
were issued to keep the people informed 
as to what information and aid could be 
obtained. At the same time methods of 
keeping records of where valuable books 
have been sent, as wellas of enquiry as 
to where they are needed, were combin- 
ed to secure the greatest usefulness from 
these books to the farming world. The 
demand tor these publications has 
so far exceeded the supply that it has 
been necessary practically to do away 
with -all free distribution except to 
persons who contribute by service ren- 
dered to the Department work. Sales of 
them have increased notably in recent 
years. Special efforts by indexing were 
made to keep easily inreach of farmers 
and students such information as has 
been secured by the Department.” 


“The Library of the Department 
affords a means for the study by persons 
fitted for independent investigations of 
what has already been done in the lead- 
ing Agricultural problems that is already 
equalled anywhere else in the world.” 


“The need of specially trained assis- 
tants in the Department work and the 
existence of unusual opportunities for 
study joined to make practicable a 


-system of admission of young men and 


women into certain branches of Depart- 
ment work at low salaries with the pur- 
pose of continuing their studies along 
From these student 


61 Miscellaneous. 


assistants, the Department has selected 
a number of capable officials, whose 
service has justified the establishment 
of the system.” 


The investigation of the Cotton Boll- 
worm weevil has resulted in the estab- 
lishment of experimental farms in the 
cotton regions with the consequent wide 
introduction of improved and diversified 
farming. 


Again Congress, through the exertions 
of the Agricultural Department, has 
passed bills for the protection of game, 
and a special survey and study of birds 
and mammals is being conducted. 


As mentioned above, the first special 
buildings for the Department were 
erected in 1867. In that year Congress 
appropriated $100,000 for the construc- 
tion of an office building. This was 
ready for occupancy in 1868; about the 
same time houses for use in the propaga- 
tion of plants for distribution were con- 
structed along with conservatories and a 
grapery for testing foreign grapes. The 
total cost of these buildings was $140,000. 
In 1881 after the Atlanta Exposition, the 
Museum received so many additions that 
it was found necessary to provide more 
room. Accordingly $10,000 were appro- 
pvriated for the construction of a build- 
ing. Various other additional buildings 
were found necessary as the various 
sections of the Department increased, 
but up till 1897 not more than $210,000 
had been spent on buildings. In order 
to keep pace with the rapid development 
of the various departments, buildings 
had to be constantly added from time to 
time, tillin 1903 Congress appropriated 
$1,500,000 for a magnificent building 
which provides accommodation for all 
sections of the Agricultural Department. 
This building is only now approaching 
completion. 


During the last decade numerous ex- 
perimental stations have been estab- 
lished all over the country as well as in 
Hawaii, Porto Rico and the Philippines. 


the development of 
Scientific Agriculture in the United 
States Department of Agriculture. 
Now, let us turn to the work which it 
has accomplished and analyse the value 
of the results obtained in comparison 
with its cost to the nation, The layman 
usually expects results in less time than 
is necessary for accurate investigation. 
Instances of this are common in India, 
and sceptical people in India should 
study American results. The American 
Agricultural Department has been in 
existence for nearly fifty years, and the 
list of work accomplished should influ- 
ence the opinion of those who doubt the 


So much for 


Miscellaneous. 


value of agricultural science. I propose 
to mention briefly some of the more 
striking achievements. 


“The Department up to May Ist, 1906, 
cost $60,110,836, or less than $1,500,000 a 
year. The chief question is what return 
did the nation get for its money. It is 
claimed that the Department has spread 
information which has enabled agricul- 
turists, (1) to}pay their taxes more easily, 
(II) to protect their property, (III) to 
largely increase the value of their 
property.” 


About the time the work of the Depart- 
ment began it was necessary to import 
large quantities of agricultural products. 
This was partly due to careless and 
ignorant methods of culture. Artificial 
fertilizers and even farmyard manure 
were little used and the rotation of crops 
was little practised. 


Certain census figures indicate the 
increasing effectiveness of superior culti- 
vation. In 1839 the production of corn 
(maize) was 23 bushels for each person 
in the United States, in 1899 it»was 34 
bushels. 


This does not, of course. show with 
certainty that there was a corresponding 
increase in the production for each acre 
cultivated, but a comparison of the crop 
of 1879 with that of 1889 justifies that 
inference. The comparison of the pro- 
duction of wheat gives a similar result. 
The quantity raised for each person 
in 1889 was 5'3 bushels: in 1890 it was 7°4 
bushels. 


It is impossible to estimate the mone- 
tary saving to the country of the work 
done, but the saving has been immense. 
The suppression of diseases of cattle and 
sheep has increased the foreign trade 
of the country enormously in export of 
live animals and probably of tinned 
meats. The Division of Chemistry has 
shown the way to a large economical 
increase of production of cane sugar, 
and the introduction of the beet sugar 
industry is flourishing. I could point 
out many other agricultural investi- 
gations which have been profitable to 
the country. This is perhaps unneces- 
sary, but I can say that investi- 
gation regarding plant breeding, inju- 
rious and beneficial insects and plant 
diseases have given results which are 
quite beyond calculation as regards 
profit to the country. The California 
Orange Industry was rescued from anni- 
hilation by the introduction from Aus- 
tralia of the enemy of the Fluted Scale 
Insect; and the establishment of the 
Smyrna fig industry was rendered pos- 
sible by the introduction and culture of 
the Blastophaga insect, whose activities 
are necessary to the production of the 


62 


[Juny, 1908 


finest class of fig. The introduction of 


new varieties of crops and of new agri- 
cultural methods has in many casses 
been immensely successful. 


Specific exemples of money saved 
through the warnings of the Weather 
Bureau are numerous and easily estab- 
lished. Frequently throughout a year 
the services of the Weather Bureau 
cause savings in all sections of the 
country which are far in excess of annual 
expenditure. 


I have only referred toa tithe of the 
advantages of the United States Depart- 
ment of Agriculture. It returns to the 
country full value for its cost.—Agri- 
cultural Journal of India, Vol. Il. Part, 
I., January, 1908. 


EFFECTS OF GRASS ON APPLE 
TREES. 


An experiment was commenced in 1902_ 


at the Harper-Adams Ayricultnral Col- 
lege to compare the growth of trees 
when planted on grass or on cultivated 
ground. The grass upon which the trees 
are planted is manured regularly with 
farmyard and artificial manure, the 
grass mown and removed, while special 
artificial manures are used for each crop 
on the cultivated portion, in addition to 
farmyard manure, thus giving equal 
conditions as to manure for the trees on 
both plots. The difference between the 
trees on grass and those on cultivated 
ground has been very marked, as will 
be seen from the following table, show- 
ing the average diameter in inches of 
the trees at a distance of 44 ft. from the 
ground. 


Average Diameter in inches. 


Grass. Cultivated Ground. 
oe 


meas CUES 
1905. 1906. 1907. 1905. 1906, 1907. 

Bismark Ab 1:08 {1°05 1°18" SSP eee aa 
Bramley’s seedling ... O'78 0°31 1:04 1:20 1°50 1°91 
Cox’s orange pippin.. 0°82 0°85 ‘Ol ll 1°40) 1°83 
The wet season of 1907 benefited the 
trees on grass to a marked extent, for 
while in 1906 the proportionate increase 
was one in the trees on grass to ten in 
the trees on cultivated ground, the 
increase in the past year was four in the 
trees on grass to ten in the trees on 
cultivated ground. Insufficient moisture 
seems, therefore, to be one of the causes 


Variety of Apple. 


of the poor development of trees planted’ 


in grass. 


At the commencement of 1907 the ex- 
periment was modified by removing 
from around the stems of alternate trees 
on grass a square of turf. The surface 
groand laid bare (4 square yards to each 


tree) was forked without disturbing the 


alee i 
hese “ e 


a { 
JuLyY, 1908.] 


roots, and kept free from weeds through- 
out the year. The effect of this treat- 
ment was soon visible, the growth made 
during the summer was strong and 
healthy, and the increase in the thick- 
ness of the main stem was also marked. 
On the whole the growth was nearly 
equal to that_ made by the trees in culti- 
vated ground, and very much greater 
than that made by the trees with grass 
all around the stem.—Journal of the 
Board ef Agriculture, Vol. XV., No. 2, 
May, 1908. 


A REVIEW OF THE PRESENT CON- 
DITIONS OF THE SPIRIT INDUSTRY 
IN THE PHILIPPINES. 


By DANIeEL T. BRown, 


Internal Revenue Agent. 


[The chief source of spirit in the 
Philippines, as will be gathered from a 
perusal of this article, is the Nipa palm, 
better known in Ceylon by its native 
name of Gin-pol and found growing in 
the swamps about Bolgoda, Gintota, 
&e. ‘‘Tuba” is what we call ‘“ toddy.” 
“Banca” isthe name for a river boat (dug- 
Out) such as fisher folk use in river-fish- 
ing. The article would suggest the plant- 
ing up of low brackish land with nipa 
palm to be ‘‘tapped” for toddy. ] 


The manufacture of distilled spirits in 


63 


these Islands is to-day ina healthy and - 


thriving condition. The industry is not 
a big one, noris ita new one. As far 
back as the year 1712 the Governor of 
the Islands, Don Martin de Urzua, we 
find, had a monopoly uf the business of 
distilling spirits from the sap of the nipa 
palm and the sap of the coco palm, and 
farmed it out for the sum of P10,000°00. 
Since these early times there have been 
many steps in its development, the 
latest and greatest stride forward being 
the regulation and control of the in- 
dustry by the present Government, as 
provided by the Internal Revenue Law 
of 1904. This law has put the business 
on a_ stable foundation. During the 
year 1905 there were removed from the 
distilleries for domestic consumption 
over 5,000,000 proof liters; in 1906 over 
7,000,600 proof liters were removed, and 
trom January to June 30 of the present 
year taxes have been paid on 4,380,436 
proof liters by ninety-one of the ninety- 
five registered distillers. 


Three years ago no accurate statement 
could be obtained by the Government, 
not even from the distillers, as to the 


Miscellaneous. 


annual output of spirits, as the law re- 
pealed by the new internal revenue law 
imposed a tax on the capacity of distill- 
ing machines and not upon what was 
produced. By some the output was 
estimated at 50,000,000 proof liters, and 
others, amongst whom were distillers, 
confidently asserted that the normal 
Sue) consumption was 42,000,000 proof 
iters. 


The Government upon investigation 
soon ascertained that the normal annual 
consumption is 10,006,000 proof liters— 
so the present yearis nearly a normal 
one. 


Agriculture in the Islands is closely 
connected with the distilling industry. 
When agriculture has fully regained its 
former prosperity it will show itself on 
the records of distillers, as prosperity in 
European countries and in America is 
felt by brewers and distillers and in the 
national treasuries. The native, before 
he enters his rice fields to wallow in mire 
up 40 his knees, and the hemp strippers, 
before beginning their laborious work, 
like to fortify themselves with a glass of 
vino. A large portion of the liquours 
manufactured in Manila and in the 
provinees is distributed throughout the 
archipelago, and bartered for domestic 
products, chiefly the staples hemp and 
coprax. This business has always been 
lucrative and important. 


The prime materials from which spirits 
are manufactured here are the sap of the 
nipa palm, the sap of the coco palm, 
sugar, corn and rice—by far the most 
valuable and important being the sap 
from the nipa palm, “ tuba” as it is 
called. The butik of the _ spirits is 
now distilled from the nipa-tuba. Tuba 
is much cheaper than sugar, and 
in consequence there is but little 
original distillation from sugar being 
earried on. A good quality of rum is 
taken from sugar in one of the provinces 
in which sugar cane is cultivated, but 
the output is not large. When “tuba” 
is out of season some distillers use sugar 
or molasses to a limited extent for a few 
months each year. Rice and a mixture 
of sugar and boiled rice are used to a 
limited extent, but the total amount of 
spirits manufactured from all grains is 
not large. The coco “tuba” gives a 
quality of spirits resembling closely the 
nipa alcohol, but no distillation on 
a large scale is attempted. Distillation 
from tuba de coco has always been 
carried on by the primitive caua, 
and now the modern caua is being used 
in this branch of the industry as well as 
by owners of small nipa lands, the pro- 
duct being used almost entirely for con- 
sumption as a beverage. 


Miscellaneous. 


The nipa palm regions, called nipales, 
are limited to belts of swamp land along 
the coast where conditions of soil, etc., 
are iavourable. The nipa palm is useful 
for fortifying swamp-land standing in 
salt water and unfit for any other culti- 
vation. The palm is most productive 
when planted on such land. 


The provinces in the order of their 
importance for the nipa palm are as 
follows:—Bulacan, Pangasinan, Pam- 
panga, Cagayan, Capiz, Surigao and 
Samar. The exact area of the nipa lands 
is not yet known. 


Nhe collection of the tuba in the 
nipales is done by means of bamboo 
receptacles attached to the stalk from 
which the fruit has been cut. <A thin 
slice is cut fromthe stalk, the bamboo 
joint fastened and left to receive the 
juice which oozes or drips intoit. These 
are collected twice daily, transported by 
“banca” to the distillery and_ their 
contents allowed to ferment before 
being put into the still. 


A hectare of nipa palms during the 
season produces 4,000 liters of sap or tuba. 
Distillers who own nipa lands manu- 
facture spirits from tuba taken from 
their lands and buy_ from others and 
(under the old methods) from 10 liters of 
tuba obtain one liter of proof spirits. 


Distillation is carried on by stills of 
direct heat antiquated type, and up to 
recently there were in use throughout 
the provinces several hundred small 
primitive stills, called cauas. The 
owners of cauas, however, are gradually 
abandoning their c1ude and expensive 
methods, and are installing a small 
modern apparatus of local invention 
which has been designed specially in the 
interests of the small owners of nipales. 


Over the fireplace, which is built of 
stones and mud, is placed an open boiler 
upon which a hogshead minus the heads 
is seated, and on the upper end of the 
hogshead is another open boiler which 
constitutes the condenser. A piece of 
bamboo leads through the hogshead at a 
short distance below the upper boiler ; 
the part of the bamboo within the 
hhogshead being cut in the form of a 
gutter to receive the spirit as it drops 
from the surface of the condenser. 


By means of the derrick-like arrange- 
ment the hogshead is swung sufficiently 
clear of the boiler to allow introduction 
of the charge of tuba. After being 
replaced the joint is banked with rags 
and clay to retain the steam. The upper 
boiler is filled with cold water and the 
fire started. Wet steam, carrying with 
it,; alcohol, is generated, rises in the 


thee 1 es 


64 ‘Joy, 1908: 


hosgead, strikes the cool surface of the 
upper boiler, condenses and trickles 
down to the middle and dropsinto the 
bamboo gutter and flows to the receiving 
jar outside, This apparatus requires 
that boiling be kept up for two or three 
hours. With a caua [such as that shown 
in the photo], a low proof spiritis pro- 
duced, very little being over 50 per cent. 


Such a process of distillation is waste 
ful. Government control of the manu 
facture of spirits has revolutionized this 
branch of the industry. Methods of 
manufacture and commercial customs in 
the Philippine Islands being radically 
different from the customs in vogue in 
the United States, the systemof excise 
taxation and the regulations for the 
control of the spirit distilling industry 
have been devised to meet conditions. 


By grouping a number of cawas in one 
distillery it has been possible in one or 
two cases tocomply with the regulations, © 
but the 450 cawas which have been in 
operation are disappearing, and their 
owners adopting modern methods, and 
installing the small modern still known 
as the ‘‘modern caua.” Fifty of these 
machines have been installed or are 
being installed in their place in the 
various provinces. 


These modern cauas, with copper coil, 
are madein Manila and are peculiarly 
constructed with a view to retaining the 
weedy taste so popular with the con- 
sumers of vino de nipa and vino de coco. 
These stills have a daily capacity of 
1,000 gauge liters, and from them can be 
obtained 100 per cent. more proof spirits 
than from the cawa. Besides there is > 
great fuel economy. 


Inthe city of Manila there are five 
distilleries which manufacture spirits 
from original distillation. Sugar and 
native corn are the prime materials, but 
no considerable quantities of spirits are 
so produced. It is often the case that 
the Manila distiller manufactures spirits 
from sugar or corn for special purposes 
only. 


The crude alcohol distilled in the pro- 
vinces, which runs in grade from 80 to 
90%, is shipped under bond to Manila in 
large quantities to the distillers, who 
all have rectifying establishments in 
connection with their distilling plants. 
The Manila distiller finds it more pro- 
fitable to use the provincial «alcohol. 
There are also four separate rectifying 
establishments in the city of Manila 
which also use the crude alcohol from 
the provinces. And all of the Manila 
manufacturers engage in the compound- 
ing or mixing of liquors. : 


e 


eee wat Ve 


5 i 


oh Soy, 1908] BS Miscellaneous, 


oy 
1 


; 
rd 
Pint 


ta 


he 
Ne 
i) 


4 


centavos, 


The types of machines used by the 
large manufacturers in the city of Manila 
and in distilleries in the provinces 
are: Savalle Fils (Paris), Revere-Dubois 
(Bruxelles), Egrot, EK. Barbet. 

The alcohol produced by the modern 
caua is consumed asa beverage almost 
entirely, but the bulk of all other spirits 
produced inthe Islands after rectifica- 
tion is used in the manufacture of 
liquors. 


The following are the principal pro- 
ducts of the distilleries :— 


Anisado. Curacao 

_ Gin. Benedictine. 
Carbanchel. Marasquino. 
Blackberry brandy. Créme de Menthe. 
Moscatel. Chartreuse. 
Vermouth. Tinto Seco. 
Sherry.. Tinto Dulce. 
Rum. Anis. 
Punch Unrectified alcohol. 
Cognac Rectified alcohol. 


Industrial alcohol. 

Anisado, 60% proof, the commoa drink, 
is offered by one of the leading distillers 
at the wholesale price of P3.00 per 
arroba of 16 liters; and gin 85% proof at 
P5.20 per arroba. Fine rectified alcohol 
184% proof is being offered at P8.40 per 
arroba, and an arroba of industrial 
alcohol 167% proof may be had at P7.30. 

All of the foregoing imitation liquors 
are inferior to the genuine article im- 


ported from Europe or America, and are 


sold at much lower prices. In the favour 
of the natives anisado is far in the lead, 
due probably to the pleasant odour and 
lasting flavour of the anise seed. The 
essence of the anise is the cheapest and 
most plentiful inthe Orient. The liquor 
is made by mixing sugar and the essence 
with rectified alcohol, the proportion of 
each being a trade secret. Hach manu- 
facturer has his special formula. Anisado 
is put upon the market in grades which 
vary from 50% to75% proof. Large ship- 
ments are made from Manila to all pro- 
vinces, and the business is a most profit- 
able one for manufacturer and dealer. 


Next in popularity is the domestic gin, 


-aliquor superior to anisado and more 


expensive, the cost of production being 


greater, and it is used generally by the 


better classes. 


The excise tax on alcohol is 20 centavos 
per proof liter, a modest tax, and one 


_ which it has been demonstrated the 


industry is able to bear. A liter of 
anisado, sixty proof, paying here 12 
would pay in the United 
States 55 centavos. And compared to 


_ Porto Rico the tax collected here is only 


_ about one-third—Manilla Daily Bulle- 
& tim, November, 3, 1907, 


9 


A LEAFLET ON ARROWROOT. 


By C. DRIEBERG, 
Secretary, Ceylon Agricultural Society. 


INTRODUCTORY. 


The Superintendent of St. Joseph’s 
estate, Weeraketiya, forwarded on April 
15 last asample of West Indian arrow- 
root flour for examination and report. 
The sample was duly submitted to the 
Government Agricultural Chemist, who 
reported on May 27 :—‘‘I have examined 
the sample of arrowroot flour sent with 
your letter No, 581 of the 24th ultimo 
and findit to be quite pure.” He also 
furnished an analysis, which it is 
not necessary to reproduce here, The 
Superintendent of St. Joseph’s, in for- 
warding the arrowroot, stated that it 
was prepared by him in a crude way, and 
asked for instructions as to cultivation 
and manufacture. Hence the present 
leaflet, which may be of use to others 
interested in this product. 


The report of the Agricultural Chemist 
proves that there is no difficulty in pro- 
ducing good arrowroot in Ceylon. In 
fact, this is already being done at quite 
anumber of school gardens (eg., at 
Mugurugampola), and in view of this 
circumstance it seems strange that both 
West Indian and Queensland arrowroot 
should have to be imported from abroad. 
It is to be hoped that the simple instruc- 
tions which follow will induce culti- 
vators to take up the preparation of 
arrowroot, for thelocal market at least, 
as at present arrowroot flour is nearly all 
imported. 

West INDIAN ARROWROOT. 


West Indian arrowroot is the product 
of the rhizomes of Maranta arundinacea 
(called in Sinhalese ‘‘ Hulan-kiriya ”), 


Soil.—A light loam is the most suitable 
soil, but other soils will do, except those 
which are waterlogged or composed of 
heavy clay, *‘cabook,” or gravel. 


Cultivation.—See that your land is 
well drained and worked deep. Mark 
out the land with furrows 6 inches deep 
and 3 feetapart. Put the young shoots 
or sections of the rhizomes 12 inches 
apart in the furrows. Subsequent weed- 
ing and hoeing between the roots are 
all that is necessary. Remove the 
flowers as they appear. April is the 
best month for planting. 


Crop.—The crop will be ready in from 
ten to twelve months, by which time the 
leaves will tend to fall over. Dig up the 
plant with a fork, cut off the leaves, and 
wash the rhizomes. About 7 cwt. is a 
good average return of arrowroot flour, 
reckoning that the tubers yield 15 per 
cent, of farina. 


Miscellaneous. 


Preparation.—For the best flour the 
skin of the zhizmoes should be cleaned 
with a knife and washed a second time. 
Next they should be reduced to a _ pulp. 
Thisis usually done by pounding in a 
lagre wooden mortar. On a large scale, 
however, it is necessary either to pass 
them through a machine with two rollers. 
or grate them by pressing against a 
rapidly revolving wheel overlaid with 
rough tin, like a nutmeg grater. An 
arrangement such as the last is easily 
made. Now wash the pulp thoroughly 
with clean water and strain through 
a sieve which will allow the flour to pass 
through. The flour is allowed to settle 
in avessel, and, after the removal of the 
water, is taken out and washed over and 
overagain till the water left standing 
over it is quiteclear. Now thoroughly 
dry the flour in thesun as soon as pos- 
sible. For keeping, pack in sealed tins. 


QUEENSLAND ARROWROOT. 


Queensland arrowroot is the product of 
Canna edulis, also called ‘‘tois-les-mois ” 
(known in Sinhalese as ‘ But-sarana,” 
the name of ‘Indian shot,” of which it 
is aspecies). It may be distinguished 
from the ordinary garden canna by the 
peculiar shape and colour of the leaves, 
which are inclined to be round and 

-eoloured brown. The small flowers are 
a bright vermillion red. 


The plant is propagated and cultivated 
in thesame way as ordinary arrowroot, 
butthe ‘ sets” are put further apart, 
say 3feet by 3feet. The preparation of 
the flour is done in the same way. 


On account of the larger size of the 
starch grains and their greater solubility 
in boiling water the flour is cousidered 
one of the best starchy foods for 
childern and invalids. 


(For plants or divisions apply to the 
Superintendent of School Gardens, Gov- 
ernment Stock Garden, Colombo.) 


June 20, 1908. C, DRIEBERG. 


SUGAR INDUSTRY OF FORMOSA 


In reply to inquiries of manufacturers 
of machinery and of equipment com- 
panies, Consul Julean H. Arnold, of 
Tamsui, furnishes the following infor- 
mation concerning the sugar industry of 
Formosa and imports of machinery and 
mill supplies thereof :— 


There is much activity in South 
Formosa in the erection of large modern 
sugar mills. Machinery for five mills, 
representing an outlay of several millions 
of dollars, is at present lying on the 
beach in Takao Harbour awaiting trans- 


66 


“ion So oe 


“* oe 


[Juny, 1908, 


portation to the sugar plantations. 
There are ten vessels now engaged in 
discharging or attempting to discharge 
cargoes of sugar machinery and mill 
equipments. The harbour facilities have 
been taxed to such an extent, that large 
demurrage claims have been lodged by 
the shipping companies against consig- 
nees. 


Outside of the Honolulu Iron Works, 
which has secured a contract for the 
erection of three large mills, no other 
American firms have booked any orders 
or appear to be interested in attempting 
to compete with the British and German 
firms, which are at present engaged 
in supplying the great part of the 
machinery for the new mills. 

Experts declare that the soil and 
climatic conditions of Formosa are pecu- 
liarly well adapted to the growing of 
sugar cane. The Formosan Government 
is doing every thing possible to eneourage. 
the growing of cane in the island. 
Furthermore, the Japanese Government 
is determined that Formosa, which at 
present supplies but 20 per cent. of the 
Japanese consumption, shall supply the 
entire consumption, as well as enter the 
markets of Chinaand the rest of the 
Far East. That capitalists in Japan 
have every confidence in the sugar 
industry of Formosa is attested by the 
fact that, in face of a financial stringency 
during the past year, over $10,000,000 
has been subscribed to sugar manufactur- 
ing companies in Formosa. 


There are still a number of mills to be 
contracted for, and future developments 
are bound to require extensions in the 
mills now under course of erection, and 
the native mills, of which there area 
large number, must either amalgamate 
and erect modern mills or be absorbed 
by the larger companies, 


In connection with the erection of the 
yaills at present contracted for, there 
will be a demand for good concrete 
mixers, pumps, and electric fittings. 
Naturally, the large mills all find the 
cane cars a necessity. Already 825 miles 
of sugar trams are contracted for, and 
the little 20-ton locomotives are now 
puffing over the sugar plantations to an 
extent undreamed of a tew years ago. 


One of the larger companies has 
purchased two pairs of steam plough, and 
pronounces the steam plough a necessity 
to the future welfare of the sugar 
industry in Formosa. The country is 


flat and lends itself well to the use of the © 


steam plough. Undoubtedly within a 
few years the steam plough will beas 


common on the lowlands of Formosa as 


the sugar trams. 


q 
| 
q 


ce het ae as y 
Bie at 


i 
i 


JULY, 1908. | 


The Government Sugar Bureau recent- 
ly purchased three American windmills 
for experimental purposes in connection 
with irrigating their experimental sugar 
plantation in South Formosa. Water 
can be found ata depth of from 10 to 20 
feet on the lowlands, and it is quite 
possible that the windmills may be found 
to be profitable in irrigation work. 
Whether windmills prove a success or 
not, the introduction of pumps through- 
out many of the plantations will be a 
necessity. oY 

This office finds that there is much 
ignorance on the part of the American 
business public as to the facilities which 
this island furnishes for the commercial 
traveller. Boats of 2,000 to 2,500 register- 
ed tonnage ply between Formosa and 
Japan on regular three and five day 
schedules. These have good passenger 
accommodations, From Kobe, Japau to 
Kelung, Formosa, about 950 miles is 
covered in three and one-half days. 
The Government railway extends from 
Kelung in the north, to Takao Harbour, 
in the south, about 200 miles. The 
various sugar plantations can be easily 
reached from this railway; in fact, 
many of the mills are being erected 
along the road. A _ splendid modern 
hotel is in course of erection in Taihoku, 
the capital city. Good Japanese hotels 
can be found all along the railway. 
Reports have been published in the 
United States from time to time in 


regard to savage warfare in Formosa 


which would make it appear that the 
island is over-run with head-hunting 
tribes; but savage tribes in Formosa 
are all confined to the heavily timbered 
mountain regions, and one may live on 
the lowlands for years and never see one 


of them. Life and property on the low 
» Jands in Formosa are as safe from the 


attack of savages as they arein Japan. 
The island is remarkably well policed, 
and law and order obtain throughout 
the civilized portions. The American 


‘manufacturer who is looking forward to 


business relations with Kormosa in 
connection with the sugar industry 
would do well to send his representative 
here to study conditions and interview 
prospective buyers personally. He need 
not be told that the catalogue is of little 
use without the man to explain it, 
especially among a people who read but 
little English.—Lowisiana Planter, Vol, 
XXXX-, No. 20, May 16, 1908. 


ARTIFICIAL SWARMING. 


Those of our readers who know some- 
thing of artificial swarming will value a 
note on ‘‘How to make Two Colonies 


~ from One,” by Mr. Frederick Sworder. 


Bees increase in large numbers when 


6 


Miscellaneous. 


there is a good honey flow. The result 
of this is that they make preparations 
to swarm, as their abode is getting 
uncomfortably full. During this period 
they are in an unsettled state, and, 
provided the weather is favourable, 
their owner may lose hisswarm. If we 
desire an increase of stocks an artificial 
swarm can be easily and successfully 
made in the following manner: On a 
fine afternoon, after having taken the 
necessary precautions to subdue the 
bees, open a strong hive, lift out, and 
examine three frames from the centre 
and search for the queen. 


When found, place these frames of 
comb along with her and the hatching 
and adhering bees into another hive 
previously prepared; next cover the 
frames with clothing. Move the remain- 
ing frames of the brood in the old hive 
to its centre, filling up the empty space 
with frames of fouvndation and prefer- 
ably wived. Now move the old hive, 
which is queenless, say, 40 feet away, and 
on the spot where the old hive stood 
place the new hive, carefully covering 
these frames with warm quilting, 
and the operation is finished. By this 
simple method it will be seen that only 
one stock of bees is disturbed, and the 
old bees from the old hive will return to 
the old spot. Further, this hive has 
plenty of female eggs besides hatching 
bees, and is in excellent condition for 
raising a queer. She will be laying in a 
fortnight. Most of the old bees will fly 
back to the old spot and form the swarm. 
Frames of brood foundation must be 
added, as required, to the new hive which 
now possesses the old laying queen. 
—Transvaal Agicultural Journal, No. 
23, Vol. VI., April, 1908. 


WEST INDIAN CITRATE. 


Several weeks ago we referred to the 
progress which the island of Dominica 
has made in developing the lime indus- 
try. Wenow learn that the lime crop 
last year was the largest ever reaped in 
Dominica, being estimated at 245,000 
barrels, or 28,000 barrels more than in 
the previous year; while the value of 
the exports increased from 54,8741. to 
77,407. The manufacture of calcium 
citrate is a department of the industry. 
This was commenced in 1906, when 720 
ewt. of citrate was exported, but last 
year the output was 2,380 ewt., valued at 
7,761l. In addition there was exported 
126,800 gals. of concentrated lime-juice, 
valued at 49,150/., a small increase in 
quantity over 1906, but 11,000/. more in 
value; while of raw lime-jucice the 
exports were 254,238 gals,, valued at 


Miscellaneous. 


8.784l., an inerease of 60,700 gals., and 
2,239l1. over the preceding year. The 
bulk of these products comes to London 
and sells readily. The production of 
West Indian concentrated juice and 
calcium citrate is particularly interest- 
ing at present, in view of the condition 
of the citric-acid market. The West 
Indian juice does not command the price 
compared with Sicilian juice that its 
citric content warrants, it being 3. to 4. 
per hogshead lower than the Sicilian. 
The West Indian juice usually contains 
large quantities of pulp, foreign matter, 
and carbonished matter arising from 
excessive concentration. These objec- 
tionable matters can be avoided, for the 
Hon. J. C. Macintyre, of Dominica, who 
is aregular shipper of juice to London, 
has produced a concentrated juice quite 
equal to the Sicilian; and in reporting 
on samples of a large shipment Messrs. 
Ogston & Moore said: ‘‘ We do not think 
concentrated lime-juice can be better 
made.” Atthe West Indian Conference 
last ‘year Mr. Macintyre told planters 
how they can turn out high-quality con- 
centrated juice, and stated that efforts 
at improvement have usually taken the 
direction of attempts to clear the raw 
juice, and have invariably resulted in 
failure, for the following reasons :— 


1. Raw juice takes long to settle, and 
therefore very large storage capacity is 
necessary, Which is impossible on most 
estates. 


2. Subsidence is never complete, it 
being only possible to draw off as clear 
juice 60 to 65 per cent. of the entire 
quantity, and the residue, a thick mass 
of pulp and oil, defies every effort at 
economical treatment. The best results 
are obtained by distillation, which re- 
moves the oil, and if the juice is then 
run into subsiding vats, the pulp as well 
as a good deal ofthe gummy matter in 
the juice rapidly settles to the bottom 
along with heavier impurities. The 
supernatant liquid can after the lapse of 
a few hours be drawn off perfectly clear, 
and the remaining juice recovered from 
the sludge, with which itis mixed, by 
pressure in brewers’ filters (canvas bags 
enclosed in an outer casing of loosely 
woven twine). 

At Mr. Macintyre’s works the juice is 
pumped from the mill into vats placed 
high up in the boiling-house, thence it 
flows into the still, and from that into 
the subsiding vats, which are fitted with 
taps 8 in. above the bottom for drawing 
off the clear juice, and a _plug-hole in 
the bottom for removal of the sludge. 
After the subsidence the clear juice is 
run into the ‘‘tachye” and the sludge 
thrown up into filter-tanks, from which 
the filtered juice also finds its way to 


68 


(JuLy, 1908 — 
the “‘tachye.” That it pays the planter 

to becareful with his concentration may 

be judged from the fact that one of the 
leading firms of Londonimporters were 
able to obtain 30s. per hogshead more 
for juice which was thin and clear, and 
which contained less than 115 oz. of citric 
acid per gal. This, Mr. Macintyre main- 
tains, would be equal to a net gain of 28s., 
after deducting discount and charges, 
based on the valueof the product. The 
question as to whether planters should 
manufacture calcium citrate or ship the 
concentrated juice is of even great im- 
portance. Citric-acid makers much prefer 

the citrate, and pay more for it pro rata 
than for juice. There is also a con- ~ 
siderable saving in freight. casks, and _ 
loss by leakage, while there is no 
chance whatever of the demand for 
citrate falling off and returning to con- 
centrated juice. It is alsostatedthat ~ 
more citric acid can be saved in mak- 
ing citrate than in making concen- 
trated juice. The consumptionof citrate 
for making citric acid is estimatedat 
about 6,000 tons per annum, valued at 
about half a million sterling. Onthe — 
other hand, the manutacture of citrate — 
demands greater skill than the concen- 
tration of lime-juice. Chalk has to be 
imported, driers erected, and the con- — 
sumption of fuel in drying the citrate is 
considerable; yet inspite of this the 
manufacture is rapidly developing inthe 
West Indies, and now that a successful 
start has been made it is to be hoped _ 
that all the lime juice intended for citric. — 
acid makers will be exported in the form _ 
of citrate. Dr. Francis Watts, the 
Government Chemist, is fully alive to ~ 
the possibilities of the industry for the 
West Indies, and has published much ~ 
information and given valuable advice 
on the manufacture of commercial 
citrate. Much has to be learned in re- 
gard to the marketing of the produce, 
and, although the price may be right 
and the quality uniform, most of the 
shipments come on the market ata time 
which citric-acid makers are in no imme- 
diate need, they having contracted for 
the Sicilian citrate from January to 
April. Moreover, it comes on to the 
market in small lots at irregular periods, 
and the makers only buy it because it is 
cheap. This is a matter that should be 
remedied by the appointment of a 
suitable agent on this side who would 
devote his interests to pushing citrate 
and juice, endeavouring to obtain con-— 
tracts for definite quantities at fixed and 
better prices than are now obtained. 
With regular shipments of uniform high 
quality at the seasonable periods, there 
isnoreason why West Indian citrate 
should not command the same price as 
Sicilian, and in course of time become 


sl Gin 


SR ATE eR aie a ot 


¥ 


Osea texk,: 


fg 5 


alee Se Sh RA i i) i I, 1 Mee 


JULY, 1908.) 


formidable competitor. It may be 
mentioned that the output in Sicily has 


gradually increased in recent years, the 


1907 figures, which have just come to 
hand, showing exports of 6,100 tons of 
citrate, against 5,100 tons in 1906, and 4,100 
tons in 1905, the exact figures in 100 kilos., 
as published by the Board of Trade, being 
61,684, 51,498 and 41.259 respectively. 


After a long period of depression the 
citric-acid market has lately shown signs 
of improvement, prices having advanced 
from 13d. to 2d. per lb. during April, and 
the prospects are for a still further 
advance ; but in view of the disappoint- 
ing course of the market last year the 
placing of contracts has been slower and 
more cautious. In April-May, 1906, the 
English manufacturer’s price for citric 
acid touched 2s. 2d. (the highest point), 
but previously (in March) a large con- 
tract-business for delivery was done at 
about 1s. lld. The consumption of acid 
in the summer fell off remarkably, and 
prices slowly declined from June 
to December, leaving a heavy loss to 
those who contracted for their season’s 
supply. This decline continued through 
the first quarter of 1908 also, English 
make falling to ls. 14d. by April, and 
even at this comparatively low price 
buyers were shy to contract, hoping for 
a shilling market, In this they were 
disappointed, for the reaction came, as 
announced in our issue of April 11, and 
to-day the market isa rising one, and the 
English-makers have this week with- 
drawn from the market, they having 
enough in hand to keep their works full 
up to July.—Uhemist and Druggist, 
No. 1,475, Vol. LX X1I., May, 1908. 


NOTES AND QUERIES. 


By C. DRIEBERG. 

A. DE S.—Jaffna mangoes—not those 
so called in Colombo with a green skin 
even when ripe—are of decidedly good 
quality. They take on the typical 
orange yellow colour of a_ properly 
ripened fruit, and the small variety is 
particularly sweet and well flavoured. 
Propagation isasa rule by grafting or 
‘*Gootie,” and it is doubtful whether 
many seeds could be got to germinate as 
they are almost invariably damaged by 
a weevil which is found inside the stone. 


H. H. C.—Mollison’s and Muke1ji’s works 
on Indian Agriculture treat of all crops 
grown there, and should give you the in- 
formation you want. Youcould, if neces- 
sary, consult the books in the library at 
the Government Stock Garden, Thurston 
Road ; but they cannot be sent to you. 


BLUESTONE.— Both bluestone (sulphate 
of copper) and sulphate of iron are use- 


69 


Miscellaneous. 


ful in fixing ammonia, which, as a rule, is 
lost from manure heaps in the form of 
carbonate of ammonia—a very volatile 
compound. The above salts help to 
produce sulphate of ammonia, which is a 
valuable and expensive fertilizer. So 
that if you have no other use for the 
bluestone, and cannot find a purchaser, 
1 would advise you to have it crushed 
into powder and employ it on your 
estates to mix with manure collected 
from your cattle sheds. 


P. J.—The experiment in the planting 
up of jak trees in the Western Province 
has not proved a success under the 
conditions it was carried out. The 
Forest Department might well take up 
the work since the gradual extermin- 
ation of the jak is steadily progressing. 
Apart from the inconvenience caused by 
the scarcity of the wood, a more serious 
consideration is the threatened dis- 
appearance of a tree which at all times, 
and especially when crops fail, supplies 
wholesome food for the masses (Jak= 
Artocarpus integrvfolia). 


F. D.—The plant you refer to is 
Martynia diandia. The flower is de- 
cidedly pretty, and_ makes the plant 
worth cultivating. The dry seed is a 
good example of mimicry, resembling as 
it does the head of a snake, and for that, 
if not a better, reason reputed as a 
remedy for snake-bite! 


S.—Your informant is correct; there 
is a species of brinjal (egg-plant) of which 
the fruits are inedible owing to their 
extreme bitterness, but the leaves are 
cooked and eaten. 


BEE-KEEPER.—Bambara bees (A pis dor- 
sata) and Danduwel bees (A. florea) only 
build one comb, and that in the open, 
depending from the branch of a tree. 
They are, therefore, very unlikely to 
build parallel combs in a box hive in the 
same way that A. mellifica and A. indica 
do. Youcansee some striking specimens 
of the huge combs built by the Bambara 
about 23 miles from Rambukkana on ~ 
the old Kandy road going towards 
Mawanella. Hanging from a solitary 
tree just below the road, they form very 
conspicuous objects. I do not know of 
any near about Colombo. 


Gorya.—No: it is not expected that 
they should adopt the heavy ploughs of 
the West, but that they should use a 
more effective implement than the so- 
called plough they are so wedded to— 
which is no plough at all, since it does 
not turn a furrow, and, asa “ cultivator,” 
is most unsatisfactory, doing a minimum 
of work and wasting labour (of men and 
cattle) instead of saving both labour 
and time. They willsome day come to 
give it up for something better. 


M iscellaneous. 70 


CEYLON AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY. 


GENERAL MEETING. 


Minutes of a General Meeting of the 
Ceylon Agricultural Society held at the 
Council Chamber at 12 noon on Monday 
the 15th June, 1908. 


His Excellency Sir Henry McCallum 
presided. 


There were also present:—SirS. D. 
Bandaranaike, Dr. J. C. Willis, the Hon. 
Mr. John Ferguson, the Hon. Mr. FE. C. 
Loos, the Hon. Mr. S. C. Obeyesekere, 
the Hon. Mr. A. Kanagasabai, Messrs. 
A. H. Thomas, R. H. Lock, M. Kelway 
Bamber, G. W. Sturgess, J. Harward, 
BE. Cowan, P. Arunachalam, W. Dunu- 
wille, L. W. A. de Soysa, F. Daniel, 
F. M. Mackwood, W. D. Baldwin, M. 
Suppramaniam, T. Cockerill, Jas. Gibson, 
H. J. Peiris, A. N. Galbraith. W.S. D. 
Tudhope, A. EK. Rajapakse. Dr. H. M. 
Fernando, Rev. P. T. Cash, Capt. Curling 
and Dr. KE. Ludovici. 


; re ™ , ‘e 
[JuLY, 1908. 


Minutes of the General Mecha held 
May 25th, 1907, were read and confirmed. 


The Secretary’s Report for the year 
1907-1908 was laid on the table and 
adopted on the motion of the Hon. Mr. 
Ferguson, seconded by Mr. Dunuwille. 


H. EK. the Governor addressed the 
meeting at length with reference to the 
work of the Society as shown in the 
Report, and indicated his own views as 
to the lines on which it should develope. 


Dr. Willis read a paper by Mr. R. W. 
Smith entitled ‘‘ Alkali Soils and Water 
Logging in Irrigated Lands.” 


Mr. R. H. Lock read a paper on 
‘Beautiful Tropical Trees and their 
Uses” by Mr. F. H. Macmillan, 


The meeting terminated with a hearty 
vote of thanks--proposed by Mr. KFer- 
guson—to H. EH. the Governor for pre- 
siding. 

(In the last number the date of meeting 
was given in error as May 15th which 
should read June 15th). 


C. DRIEBERG. 


Correspondence, 


PARA RUBBER IN THE GOLD 
COAST. ; 


Abosso, Gold Coast, 
West Africa, 30th April, 1908. 

Sir,—I enclose you some photos. of 
Para (Hevea Braziliensis) on an estate 
near ‘‘ Axim” onthe sea coast of the 
Gold Coast. The estate is about seven 
miles jinland from Axim—‘‘The Kost 
Development Syndicate, Ltd.” 


(1.) Isa road through the estate show- 
ing the new clearing for rubber and 
road fringed with plantains, 


(2.) Is some Para, 18 feet high and 16 
months old. 


You may care to reproduce these 
photos. in your most excellent Magazine, 
and have my full permission to do so. 
This country from the Coast inland 100 
miles is ideal for Para in most parts, the 
only difficulty is the labour; imported 
labour would have to be used to work 
with any cheapness. The local people 
‘““Rantis” are not only lazy and untrust- 
worthy, but they work in the gold mines 
at Tarquah and other places on this coast, 


and can get higher wages than any 
planter can pay. 
Down the coast. further up round 


‘Accra’ the capital and inland there 
are Cocoa and Kola _ estates, nearly 
allin the hands of natives, who either 
sell to Kuropeans at Accra or ship home 
themselves. The export of cocoa this 


year should reach a tremendous figure,’ 
quite - £250,000 worth, and the cocoa 
is very fine. 
appearing on the trees and no drastic 
remedy being taken to remedy it like 
Ceylon took—‘“‘the knife” and all the 
canker burnt. The export of rubber 
from here in 1906 was valued at £360,000, 
nearly all ‘‘Landolphia” rubber, but it 
is getting less and less every year now, 
and will continue to do so owing to the 
ruthless way the natives continue to col- 
lect it. Imentioned thisin a previous 
article to the “T.A.” last year—about 
July number, I think. 


Yours faithfully, 
K. R. MURPHY. 


AGRICULTURAL BANK: TELIJJA- 
WILA AGRICULTURAL 
SOCIETY. 


Telijjawila, 20th June, 1908. 


Sir,—I have the honour to state that 
this society distributed seed paddy to 
136 persons of this korale for the present 
yala harvest, at 5 per cent, in lieu of the 
prevailing rate of interest recovered by 
private lenders—50 per cent. 


Rs. 350 was spent for the purpose. The 


proceedure adopted was as follows :— 


The Vidana Arachchies of the several 
divisions, pursuant to an order from me 


a 


[, 
‘ 


However, I hear of canker’ 


Sooo 


ee ee ee eS ee 


aire 


i 


‘SHAN, NIVINVIG HLIM GHONIYA GVOY :SONIAVATO AATAOAY ONIMOAS ALVES HODOVHL GVO 
‘LSVOO G109 SHL NI Yaasnd Wud 


eo) 


PARA RUBBER IN THE GOLD COAST. 
Trees 16 Monrus Onn ann 18 Frer. Hice. 


sooo hes papell demise i 
Jury, 1908.] 


submitted a list of small field-owners— 
the most insignificant of owners, holders 
of six kwrunies extent or thereabouts— 
who usually depend on loans for their seed 
paddy. From this list the most helpless 
are selected, and, on appointed days, the 
paddy, which is purchased for them by 
Agents of the Society, is distributed 
at the village market-place or the 
most populous centre in the village, if 
there is no market. The place and time 
of distribution are fixed by me. The 
reason for this is to give the widest publi- 
city possible to the movement. 


The largest. quantity given was twelve 
kurwivies, and the smallest six kuruwnies. 


At Akuressa the distribution took 
place at the Akuressa V.C. Market, at 
Pahalawalakada, at the Paraduwa Boys’ 
School, and so on, 


Measures are in contemplation to very 
considerably extend the area of oper- 
ations in the next yala harvest. It will 
take years for a small body such as ours 
to supersede the present system of 
usury practised by the village money- 
lender. That we could, in the course of 
two seasons, rescue from his rapacity 
over a hundred villagers is by no means 
a small matter. 

Facilities for obtaining seed paddy on 
reasonable terms, and the encouragement 
of transplanting are the important 
factors in the extension and improve- 
ment of paddy cultivation. The lien 
which the money-lender has over the 
crops which supply the staple food of 
the people is the principal deterrent to 

. the cultivation of many an acre of arable 
3 lands. If it is possible to introduce legis- 
( lation to check this scandalous form cf 
; usuary prevalent in the Island, the 
i sooner it is brought into force the better. 
_ I think we may be pardoned for taking 
E some pride to ourselves for having been 
i: the first to initiate a scheme for miti- 
‘i gating what has so long been an unavoid- 
able evil. ’ 
Tam, sir, 
Your most obedient servant, 
JAS. A. WICKREMERATNE, 
Mudaliyar, W. K. 
Hon. Sec., T, A. S. 


COCONUT CULTIVATION IN 
THE PHILIPPINES. 


Wiltshire, Matale, 
19th June, 1908. 
Sirz,—In the May number of the ‘*‘T. A.,” 
page 427,—Article on the Cocount in the 
Philippines (contd.),—there appears the 
following statement with regard to the 
planting of Coconuts : — | 


1 


“The planting ‘pit’ fetish, in such 
common use in India, has nothing to 
commend it.” 


The writer of the article, who I take to 
be an authority on the cultivation, does 
not, however, state what kind of arrange- 
ment in the matter of planting has some- 
thing to commend it. 


AslIam very much interested in the 
planting and cultivation of coconuts, I 
shall be very glad to learn anything 
there is worth learning on this important 
subject. 

Yours faithfully, 


K. GORDON REEVES. 


[If the nuts are not to be planted in 
pits, they are presumably to go upon the 
level. but the whole of the article was 
published.—ED. | 


TOMATO CULTIVATION. 
St. Joseph’s Estate, 
Weeraketiya, 19th July, 1908. 
Sir,—I have the honour to forward for 
your inspection specimens of two varie- 
ties of tomatoes grown on St. Joseph’s 
Kstate at Weeraketiya, as an experiment, 
between coconut plants. 


No. 1. Variety, Tomato ‘‘ Champion” 
aetnias oe 6 ‘*The Peach” 


Calculating their value at 3 cents per 
fruit (local market value), a plant should 
yield about Rs. 1:50 worth of truit on an 
average, so that tomatoes ought to 
prove a remunerative catch crop. 


The district is a dry zone as will appear 
from the statement of the rainfall hereto 
annexed, and I think the result is due to 
eareful cultivation. 


Yours faithully, 
FRANCIS CRUSE, 


RAINFALL. 


1906 ... lst July to 3lst Dec. ... 26:98 in. 
1907 ... lst Jany. to 8lst Dec. ... 48°05 ,, 
1908 ... lst 5, to 30thJune ... 2346 ,, 


[It is quite evident from the samples 
of fruit received that great care has been 
exercised in raising them. The fact is 
also proved that, by proper methods of 
tillage, good crops could be raised with 
the minimum of rainfall, Mr, Cruze 
deserves much eredit for the results 
shown. Not long ago he submitted for 
inspection a specimen of Cuban Queen 
Melon which, on weighing, turned the 
scale at 19 lbs. and was of excellent 
quality and flavour.—Secretary, C.A.S.] 


72 
MARKET RATES FOR TROPICAL PRODUCTS. 
(From Lewis & Peat’s Monthly Price Current, London, 16th, June 1908,) 


' QUALITY. QUOTATIONS. QUALITY. QUOTATIONS. — 
, Soccotrine cwt.|Fair to fine +» /858 a 90s INDIARUBBER.(Contd. : \ 
Gea Hepatic ,, |Common to good ..(20s a 803 Borneo )Common to good 6d a 2s 2d 
ARROWKOOT (Natal) lb.|Fair to fine .)2gd a 4d Java Good to finered — --'Is9d a 2s 6d . 
BEES’ WAX, cewt. Penang low white to prime redils 4d a 2s sd 
Zanzibar Yellow _,, |Slight'y drossy to fair .. |£6 10s a £6 15s Mozambique Fair to fine red Ball ,../2s6d a 3s 4d | 
Bombay bleached ,, |Fair to good £7 12s 6d a £7 15s Sausage, fair to good ..2séda3s4d 
unbleached,, |D: rk to good genuine ../£515s a £6 10s Nyassalana Fair to fine ball 123 :da 284d 
Madagascar », |vark to good palish |£6 1:sa £6 17s 6d Madagascar Fr to fine pe & whitelisi0d a 2s 2d 
CAMPHOR, Fermosa ,, |Crude nom, Majunga & blk coated ..Jis a 1s 6d . 
China ,, |Fair average quality .. |136s Niggers, Jow to good ../6éda2s 1d , 
CARDAMOMS. Malabarlb|Gocd to fine bold 1s 10d a 2s New Guinea Cremany, to fine ball .. 1s 6d a 2s 6d nom 
Middling lean Is 5d a ls 7d INDIGO, E.I. Bengal |Shipping mid to gd violet|3s 5d a 3s lud 
Tellicherry Good to fine bold .|28 a 2s 6d } Consuming mid. to gd.'3s 1d a 3s 4d 
Brownish . {ls 6d als 9d Ordinary to middling |2s 9d a 3s 
Mangalore ,, |Med brown to fair boldjis 9d a 2s9a nom. Oudes Middling to fine [256d a2/8nom 
Ceylon.— Mysore _,, [Smell fair to fine plump /|1s 4da 3s 6d Mid. to good Kurpah 2s 3d a 2s 6d 
“ Malabar .. |Fair to good .. jis 5d a 1s 6d Low to ordinary ls 6d a 28 2d 
Seeds .. [is 6da Is 9d Mid. to fine Madras  |1s da 28 4d 
Long Wild,, |Shelly to good _|6d als 9d MACE, Bombay & Penang Pale sedaishy to fine ls da 1s 10d 
CASTOR OIL, Calcutta,, |Ists and 2nds .. (3d a 3nd per Ib, Ordinary to a : 1s 2d als 6d 
CHILLIES, Zanzibar cwt.|Dull to fine bright ...{408 a 25s Maer ” », g00d pale }isldalsé6d 
~Ib. " aa 
yen ran Crown, Renewed 32d a 7d Madras CoM UG and Coconada 456d a 48 9d 
aay Org. Stem [2d a 6d Bombay Jubblepore 5s a5s 6d 
Red Org. Stem [lid a 44d |Bhimlies 5s a6s 
Renewed 3d a 54d Rhajpore, &c. 439s a 5s 3d 
Root igd a 4d Bengal we Calcutta, ; 53 abs 3d 
CINNAMON, Ceylon dete Common to fine quill gig pisisd NUTMEGS— Ib. prsite ore a 5 ae a Baad 
2uds (dals s zd ¢ 
Beran aed 2 A 6d ais Bombay & Penang », |i¢o's to 115's did a54d 
4ths Ns ij 5d a 83d NUTS, ARECA ewt,|Ordinary to fair fresh |l7s 6d a 20s 
Chips, &¢../Fair to fine bold 23ada 3d NUX VOMICA, Cochin |OTdinary to good 93 a 11s 6d 
CLOVES, Penang Ib.{Dull to fine bright boldj94.a 11d per cwt. Bengal ” i as eal a af 9d 
Amboyna -|Dull to tine ind a 8d MEER) eae heme? Ss oe s 
Ceylon i “i Hy ida 8d OIL OF ANISEED _,, Fair merchantable 4s 6 
Zanzibar Fair and fine’ bright 43d a 54d CASSIA us According to analysis |4s6d a4s 9d 
Stems -lPair 2d LEMONGRASS i Good flavour & colour a ee 
COFFEE NUTMEG pat piaey to Mee ie 2 ae 
Ceylon Plantation ,, |Bold to fine 10s a 116s CINNAMON pramary, 0 oir see 23 a s 
Medium to good sus a 100s OL LLEON ELLE ,, Bright & good flavour  jls 
Native Good ordinary nominal RCHELLA W EED—cewt),,- " 
Tapa plants 7 lecaaied ah faeaton: vexon : Pieced closet fat eae: som mii 
, Ceylon Plant. ,, |Special Marks 783 a 90s Zanzibar. a pee py : 
Coy . Red to good 7zs a 77s 6d Vola wiry Mozambique] ,, 
Native Estate », |Ordinary to red 55s a 70S PEPPER - (Black) Tb; |e ‘ 
Alleppee & Tellicherry;Fair .. [83d 
COLOMBO ROOT » |Middling to good 12s 6d a lis Ceylon ,, Lo fine bold heavy ..|34d a 4d 
CROTON SEEDS,sift.cwt./Dull to fair 273 6d a 32/6nom. Singapore aie 220 oes ne 
cUTCH .» » |Fair to fine dry 21s a25s nom. | Acheen & W. C. Penang|Pull to fine « [8d a 33d 
GINGER, Bengal, rough,, |Fair 30s (White) Singapore ,, |Fair tu fine BA ..jod a8d 
Calicut, Cut A ,, |Small to fine bold 72s 6d a 85s - Siam ;, |Bair 1a) OP aeolian oa 
B&C,, Small and medium 48s a 658 Penang » |Fair Po a 
Cochin Rough ,, |Common to fine bold |35s a 37s PLUMBAGO, lump cwt.|Fair_to tine bright bold|35s a 455 nom. 
,, (Small and D’s 33s a 358 Middling to good small|29s a 403 
Japan > |Unsplit 288 chips Dull to fine bright _ ..|16sa 30s 
@UM AMMONIACUM,, |Sm. blocky to fair clean|25s a 60s dust Ordinary to fine bright i a ae ri 
ANIMI, Zanzibar , |Pale and amber, str. srts.|£16 a £19 SAGO, Pearl, large .../Dull to fine ae .. |l4sa shea ' 
‘ 7" » little red|£13 a £15 medium *.| 4, 7 lds a 1696 
Bean and Pea, size ditto|70s a £14 small eae | a7: Be 14s a 153 
Vuir to good red sorts |£9a £12 SEEDLAC ewt,|Ordinary to gd. soluble |£5 a £6 nom. 


Madagascar 


AP.ABIC E.1. & Aden 
Turkey sorts 
Ghatti 
Kurrachee 
Madras 

ASSAFGTIDA 


KINO 
MYRRH, picked 

Aden sorts 
OLIBANUM, drop 


pickings 
siftings 
INDIA RUBBER lb. 
Ceylon, straits, 
Malay Straits, etc. 


Assam 


Rangoon 


Med. & bold glassy sorts 
Fair to good palish 
e 


”» ATS. me 
Ordinary to good pale 


Sorts to fine pale 
Dark to fine pale 
Fair to fine bright 


Fair to fine pale 
Middling to good 


Middling to fair 
Low to good pale 


Slightly foul to fine 
Fine Para bis. & sheets|4s 


», Ceara ,, 
Fine Block ,, 
Scrap fair to fine 
Plantation 


Fair II to good red No.1|2s a 2s 9d nom.) VERMILLION .. 


2 


Good to fine white 


2» 


Crepe ordinary to fine. 


Reddish to good pale Ait 
Clean fr. to gd. almonds|85s a 100s 
con). stony to good block!25s a 75s 


£6 108 a £7 10s 


SENNA, Tinnevelly 


.. £4 a £8 10s 
£4 a £7 10s 
25s a 82s 6d SHELLS, M. o’PEARL— 
32s 6d.a 60s Egyptian ewt. 
17s a 428 6d Bombay ny 
20s a 380s nom. Mergui 75 
15s a 25s Manilla x 
Banda a 
TAMARINDS, Calcutta... 
6d als per cwt. Madras 
£5 a £6 TORTOISESHELL— 
60s a 748 Zanzibar, & Bombay lb. 
45s a 65s 
40s a 40s TURMERIC, Bengal cwt. 
10s a 20s Madras ,, 
lisa 15s Do. ef 
2d. Cochin ,, 
4s 2d 
.|48 1d ads 3d VANILLOES— Ib. 
.j4s 3d Mauritius... Ists 
2s 6d a 3s Madagascar ... } 2nds 
3s 4d Seychelles .. érd. 


2s 2d a Ys 4d 


WAX, Japan, squares 


Small to bold .. 45s a.£5 10s 

as 60 9s a £6 1Cs 
een Ps ove --|£55s a £7 7s 6d 
‘Fair to good «-|£4 58a £8 2s 6d 
|Sorts a ... 2568 23.8 nom, — 
Mid.to fine bl’k not stony|11s a 12s 
Stony and inferior -|48 a 58 
Small to vold --|88 a 31s 
Fickings -. 68 a 268 


Fair greenish 23d a 4d 
Commonspeckyand small|1éd a 2d 


Fair " 

Finger fair to fine bold|i9s a 22s 
Bulbs [bright|13s a 16s 
Finger . 17s ” 
Bulbs + [188 

Gd cry stallized 3} a8} in|8s a 15s 


Foxy & reddish 34.48 ,,|6s6dalls 


Lean and inferior «(0S 9d a 6s 9d ~ 
Fine, pure, bright . |28 9d wee 
Good white hard «(508 


THE SUPPLEMENT TO THE 


Tropical Agriculturist and Magazine of the 6. A. 8. 


No. 1.] 


ARECA PALM CULTIVATION IN NEW 
GUINEA: AND PLANTING PROSPECTS 
GENERALLY. 


Papua, March 14th. 

. SIR, aevind had the pleasure of reading 
your pamphlet on ‘* All about the Areca Palm,” 
I have (as a resident here, and the owner of 640 
acres which I hope to put under Para Rubber 
and other plants about December next) taken a 
great interest init. In this country there is a 
very large amount of areca-nut grown by the 
natives in their gardens, and used as a masti- 
catory with lime, and a leaf that I do not know, 
but it is not a pepper*. There is also a very 
inferior indigenous areca-nut that grows wild in 
the bush : this grows on the tree in clumps on a 
central stalk completely covering the latter on 
all sides. The clumps are from 6 in. to 12 in, 
long, the nut very small. 


Your pamphlet has made mo believe that the 
village nut might be profitably grown on my 
estate: with this in view, [ am taking the 
liberty of sending you a bag of the best local 
nut, and would ask you to be good enough to 
inform me if it differs in any way from the 
Ceylon variety, or the Mysore and Shriwardun 
nuts. [This bag has not yet come to hand.— 
Ep., C.0.1 

If you could manage to send mea sample of 
Mysore and Shriwardun nuts, with price and 
freight charges, I should be extremely obliged. 

Unfortunately, this country is so poorly sup- 
plied with shipping facilities that freights are 
very heavy and shipping opportunities few and 
far between. Were it otherwise, this country 
(the climate of which is much maligned) offers 
a splendid opening fora planter. Coffee, rub- 
ber and sisal hemp plantations are already in 
existence and promising well. The native 
labour is cheap and good, though the naturally 


* The Betel-nut vine is Pepper Betcl: the leaves to be sent 
by our correspondent may lead to identification,—Ep. 


JULY, 1908. 


10 


[Vor. ITI. 


lazy inhabitants do not care to work for tvo 
long at a time. Some people are taking up 
blocks cf 5,000, 10,000 and even 20,000 acres 
with, I fancy, small hope of immediately de- 
veloping such large areas : principally (I am 
afraid) with a view of floating a Company, get- 
ting a few hundred pounds for themselves by 
so doing, and then turning to something else. 

The Federal tariff in Australia is another 
blow to any industry here: although we are 
now part of the Commonwealth, nothing has 
yet been hvard of a rebate of duty for the 
produce of this country. This is due to the 
fact that we employ coloured labour ; a deadly 
sin in the eyes of the Australian, who imagines 
thereby that we are competing against him! | 
will try and get a few of the different kinds of 
leaves eaten with arecanut, and send them to you. 


Has any machine yet been brought out for 
utilising the areca-nut husk as a fibre producer ? 
There would seem to be a great opening ahead 
for such a machine,—Yours faithfully, 

PLANTER. 

P.S,—Which is the best way to pick the crop ? 
By nuts individually, or to pull off the fibrous 
attachment to which the nuts are attached, and 
then remove the individual nuts ? 

I should be extremely obliged if you would 


answer the following questions for me, I am 
afraid itis rather a long list :— 


(i) Is there yet any machinefor husking nuts? 

[No—so far as we know: coconut fibre is so 
abundant in Ceylon as to supply fibre require- 
ments.—Ep., C.0O.] 

(ii) £ cannot reconcile the different prices as 
given on page 4of pamphlet—-R18 for 2% cwt. 
dried nuts = R7 1-6 per cwt. 

[So quoted by the Agent, Kegalla district, in 
1893.—Ep., C.O.] 


Page 11 of paraphlet—60c por 1,000 or R6 per 
cwt—this is presumably in husk as they are sold 
at the station store (?) 


74 The Supplement to the Tropical Agriculturist 


[At the ‘‘estate store” in an upcountry district 
as quoted by a planter.—Ep., C.0,] 

Page 11 of pamphlet footnote— R22 to R40 
per cwt. !! 

[That is in Bombay for superior kinds—of 
course some years ago.—Eb., (.0.] 

(ili) On page 21 of pamphlet—‘ wholesale 
value at Galle or Colombo is R8 per cwt’: is this 
in the husk ? 


(iv) On same page—‘‘ At Madras and Bom- 
bay Ceylon nuts fetch about R15 per cwt:’— 
is this for dried nuts (?) [Both dried and 
husked of best quality.—Ep., (.0.] 

(v) On page 30, at the bottom, is given the 
recipe for ‘ pandhri’ or white betel-nut. Is this 
the method of preparing all the nuts described 
as white betel-nuts on page 23? If this be so, 
how is it that red betel nut such as ‘ tambdi’ 
and ‘chikni’ (page 30) fetch a lower average 
price than white betel-nuts (see page 23) when 
their proparation is so much more tedious and 
consequently more expensive ? 


(iv) Can you give me any information as to 
shipping and agents’ charges at Bombay (apart 
from freight) ? Also the names of leading betel- 
nut merchants there. PLANTER. 

{Here is some further information from Col- 
ombo native dealers :— 


Arecanut exporters to Bombay from Ceylon 
are :—Three Parsee firms and about two to 
three Borah firms. Nuts are exported without 
husk. They are exported in pieces, too, but 
generally whole. The merchants in Bombay 
who deal in arecanuts are natives, branch firms 
of the Ceylon merchants. The charges in 
Bombay are R2‘50 per cwt.—Eb., C.0.] 


In reply to ‘‘ Planter’s” letter on this subject; 
from New Guinea, Messrs. J. P. William Bros., 
the well-known seed firm of Henaratgoda, say 
that the arecanut crop is gathered when the 
nuts are ripe, the whole bunch or cluster being 
pulled; self-sown nuts are gathered from the 
ground. A man or boy ascends each tree for 
plucking. Itis easy work: one man can pluck 
over a hundred treesa day. The nuts are dried 
in the sun in dry weather and in the wet weather 
by heat or smoke. To further points preferred 
in ‘‘Planter”’s letter, the replies are :— 

1. Nuts are husked by an arecanut cutter: 
* gire” of the Sinhalese and “ pakku vetti” 
of the Tamils—the cost is 4 to 5 cents per 1,000. 

2. Price R7‘15 per cwt for dried and husked 
nuts is for inferior quality, Average price for 
undried nuts in husk is 60 cents per 1,000 at 


estate store. When dried and husked the average 
price is for ordinary RS to R9; ‘‘ Hamban” R10 
to R12 per cwt. Undried, or dried nuts in husk, 
are not sold by the ewt. 

3. The wholesale value KS per cwt is for 
dried and husked nuts, 

4, Madras and Bombay prices R15 per cwt 
is for dried and husked nuts. 

5. It is not advisable to go in for special pre- 
parations ; besides, they are expensive. The mar- 
ket for such kinds is limited in Ceylon. No special 
preparation is made for exporting purposes. 

6. Dried and husked arecanuts are shipped 
in bags to Bombay and other parts of India. 
As regards shipping agency. charges and those 
for selling, they may be ascertained from the 
Mitsui Bussan Kaisha, P.O. Box No. 14, Bombay. 

7. Arecanuts are dried in the sun in dry 
weather and in wet weather by- heat. 

8. The variety called Hamban Puwak is ex- 
tensively grown in Ceylon and found to be more 
profitable than other varieties. 

9. Ordinary, dried and husked, arecanuts are 
now sold in the villages at 874 cents per 1,000; 
Hamban Puwak at R1'124 per 1,000, the latter 
fetches always 25 cents more, a hardy tree, nut 
large, bears more nuts than the ordinary areca. 
Ordinary, dried arecanuts, husked, holds about 
82 to 85 per lb., 1,000 equal to about 11 lb and 
about 10,000 to the cwt. Hamban Puwak, dried 
and husked, holds about 72 to 75 per lb. 

10. Ordinary arecanut crop per tree average 
per annum about 300 to 450. Hamban ditto 
about 400 to 550. 


As regards getting samples of Ceylon nuts, or 
other business arrangements, we would refer 
‘‘Planter” to Messrs. J. P. William Bros., 


Henaratgoda, Ceylon. 
RUBBER-GROWING IN BURMA. 


A PLANTER’S EXPERIENCE. 
Tavoy, Burma, May 29th. 

Sik,—With reference to the leaderette in 
the April Tropical Agricultural on the weeding 
question as regards rubber, will you allow me 
to give my experience. 

I am planting 16 ft. by 15 ft. now, but one 
field of 60 acres is planted 15 ft. by 10 ft. No 
catch crops are grown. Weeding is only done 
in the rubber rows 4 ft. on each side of the tree 
or about 8 ft. in all; the balance of 7 ft. is 
left alone to grow up with secondary jungle 
growth. This secondary growth is not allowed 
to get much more than 10 ft. to 12 ft. high 
so far, so as not to suppress the rubber, and, 


| 
| 


and Magazine of the Ceylon Agricultural Society, 


of course, all lateral growth protruding over 
the cleared rubber lines is cut back. My 
theory is that not only does this strip of jungle 
act as a very efticient windbreak and as partial 
shade from the sun, by lines being run N. and 
S., but also as a ready source of copious mulch, 
and also of surface soi] and dead and rotting 
leaves which will be annually scraped into 
trenches 3 ft. by 2 ft. by 1ft. These will be 
this year dug for the first time between each 

rubber tree in the case, of the field planted 
~ 15 ft. by 10 ft., and 3 ft. or more feet, accord- 
ing to the size of each tree, from each tree 
on the upper side of the hill slope, in the case 
of 15 ft. by 15 ft. areas, 


The weeding of my rubber under the above 
conditions costs on an average 8 annas per acre 
for six months of the year. In December, the 
7th month, and the beginning of our somewhat 
prolonged hot weatber, a very thorough weed- 
ing is done and the ground in tho rubber rows 
thoroughly mulched with branches and leaves 
from the uncut intervals. This weeding costs on 
an average R1'8 per acre. This, though mulch- 
ing, of course, also prevents to a great extent 
weed re-growth. In my case no weeding is 
found necessary, or done, till the succeed- 
ing June although we usually have good 
showers in March, April and May. The total 
cost of weeding then per annum under this 
system is R48 per acre per annum. ‘This 
is done where rubber is grown as its own 
catch crop so to speak, and close planted, and 
no eatch crops are troubled about. In the 
course of 7 or 8 years our rubber, it is hoped, 
will have so covered the ground with its 
canopy as to preclude the necessity of any 
weeding and will also have considerably sup- 
pressed the interspaces grown over with jungle, 
which, as [ have noted above, is at no time 
allowed to exceed more than a foot or two 
in height the rubber in the rows. There is 
the fact that this method tends to run up the 
tubber trees very rapidly ; but this is counter- 
balanced by adopting Mr Wright’s thumbnail 
pruning and topping all trees at 10 feet and 
again the succeeding lateral branches at 2 feet 
or. so more. 


A pure crop of any vegetable growth is 
known to lead to thespread of disease fungoid, 
cankerous, and of insect pests ; and this inter- 
mixing of jungle tree growth suggests itself 
as a possible remedy. [I should say that the 
weeding done is what is generally known as 
‘grass kniying” only; that is, cutting down, 


we 
i) 


as close to the ground as possible, all growth 
in the rows. ‘This is left to lie as a cover to 
the ground and to obviate wash to a great 
extent by preventing the direct impact of the 
torrential rains we get in Lower Burmah for 
4 to 5 months of the year. 


In calculating cost I would ask your readers 
to note that our coolies here get 8 annas per 
day pay. In the first year the cost of weeding 
was rather heavier than the figures I give above, 
but owing to constant grass-kniving, covering 
with subsoil from the trenches, lateral shade, 
and heavy mulching, the cost has been reduced 
and I hope will be even more reduced until 
it reaches, practically, a vanishing point. It 
is, perhaps, unnecessary to point out that if your 
lines run at such an angle (according to your 
latitude) as to get the maximum amount of 
lateral shade from the West sun, also run 
along your hill centres, the interstrips of jung 
would obviate wash to a great extent, and catch 
what little does occur for future re-applica tio 
to the rubber.—I am, Sir, yours truly, 


J. G. F. MARSHALL. 


PALM DISEASE IN S. INDIA. 


How it Is SPRBAD. 


The following information—-says our contem- 
porary’s Tuticorin correspondent-has been circu- 
lated in Travancore and Malabar by the Collector 
of the latter district :—-The ryots in Travancore 
have lost a great deal of money from a new 
disease which has attacked their coconut trees 
lately. The disease is spreading slowly, and may 
appear in other districtsere long. It causes the 
trees gradually to become barren; in some gar- 
dens the best trees, that used to give over a hun- 
dred nuts afew years ago, now only give 10 or 
20 or even sometimes none at all, The first sign 
of this disease is that some or all of the trees turn 
yellow, asif they did not get enough water. Then 
the tips of the leaflets dry up and hang down. 
At the same time the outer leaves bend away 
from the crown and become loosened, so that 
they can easily be torn off the tree. In one or 
two years all the leaves will have turned yellow 
and dried up at the tips. When this happens the 
bunches of nuts get affected. At first some of the 
nuts do not ripen properly, but fall to the 
groundin an immature condition; next year 
there will be fewer and smaller nuts; and 
after four or five years there may be none 
atall, Sometimes the flower spathes are un- 
able to break out from the base of the leaves, 


76 The Supplement to the Tropical Agriculturist 


Usually, however, they are formed, but are 
not strong enough to produce good nuts. 
Such nuts as are given by diseased trees are of 
bad quality, thecopra is hard and gives little 
oil, and the water inside the nut is disagreeable 
in taste and diminished in quantity. Gradually, 
as the palm gets more and mcre weakened, the 
new leaves that are formed are smaller than 
those of healthy trees. Thecentre shoot, that 
stands straight up in the middle of the crown, 
gets shortened and turns yellow or may even 
wither completely. After five or ten years the 
diseased palm will dry up altogether and the 
head falls off. This is fairly common in some 
places asin the Minachil Taluq of Travancore, 
while in others, at Changanachery, very few 
trees have died even though somo of them have 
been barren for many years. 

Areca palms are attacked in the seme way. 
As they are smaller and more delicate they be- 
come: barren more quickly than coconuts, and 
they may be killed in from three or five years, 
though after they remain much longer without 
dying. They are never killed in three months 
as with the koleroga disease which attacks areca 
palms in Mysore. This disease has caused such 
loss in some villages in Travancore that there is 
now only one quarter of the yield of coconuts in 
these places that there used to be some years 
ago. [tis caused bya little ‘‘ fungus” which 
attacks the roots inthe soiland causes them 
to rot. Thisisso small that it cannct be seen 
without great difficulty. It lives and grows in 
the soil, but can only move along underground 
very slowly. It has taken about ten years to 
get from one village to another, only a few miles 
away. If people take soil or cuconut roots from 
a diseased garden and put them into a healthy 
garden, the fungus may be brought along in the 
soil or roots,and may begin toattack healthy trees 
atonce. This must be the way it has spread over 
a large part of North Travancore in the 
last twenty years, for in this manner it can, 
of course, be made to travel quickly. Hence 
people should be very careful not to let any soil 
or roots from a diseased garden into their gar- 
dens. The only way to kill the ‘‘ fungus ” is 
to dig up and burn the roots of diseased trees 
as soon any are noticed. [fall the owners of 
coconut and areca gardens will do this, there 
is a good chance that the disease will not get 
established in Malabar. It will require great 
watchfulness, and all must unite in keeping a 
look-out for cases; for if a few trees are left 
diseased they will serve to harbour the “ fun- 
gus” and enable it to spread in the soil, and 


attack all the palms near by. The trees 
should be dug up and the roots burnt as soon 
as they are noticed to be diseased, as, even 
though the owner may lose a few nuts by dig- 
ging up the palm, the loss will be small, and 
will save his other trees. The palms do not 
ever seem to recover, and it is better to lose 
a little ac once than a great deal later or by 
allowing all the trees to get attacked. 


RUBBER AND COCONUTS IN 
KELANTAN. 


(From Mr W A Graham's latest report on the 
State of Kelantan.) 

A largo number of inquiries concerning land 
for rubber-planting were received during the 
year. These led to further negotiations with 
many parties, some of which resulted in the tak- 
ing up of land while several applications were 
pending at the end of the year. The area of land 
taken up amounted to 14,000 areas of which 
8,000 are situated within the Duff Company’s 
Concession, An arrangement was arrived at by 
which the Duff Company, although all its rights 
as now defined terminate with the year 1904, 
was enabled to enter into negotiations with pos- 
sible rubber planters for long leases, the Govern- 
ment agreeing, under conditions, to recognise 
such leases as may not have expired at the date 
when the Company’s rights cease. The soiland 
climate of Kelantan have been reported on as 
very suitable for rubber planting and land is 
being leased to planters on exceptionally easy 
conditions. Rubber already planted isall doing 
well and the young trees compare favourably 
with those of the other Malay States. The paddy 
crop forthe year 1,324, was an exceptionally good 
one asis fully testified by the large amount of 
paddy exported and the low price of rice which 
has obtained locally since the crop was reaped, 
A large area of new paddy land was opened up 
and it seems that this form of agriculture is 
about to develop extensively under the new con- 
dition of Government. Although more copra 
was manufactured than during last year, the 
coconut crop was not upto the average, and this 
seems to have been the case elsewhere, judginz 
by the high prices which were paid in 
Singapore for copra. The number of young 
coconut trees planted was less than at any time 
during the past three years, available land 
being now all required for rubber. The planting 
of rubber has quite caught the fancy of the 
Malay cultivator. Stories of the large profits 
to be secured from rubber and of the great areas 


and Magazine of the Ceylon Agricultural Society. Vi 


which are being devoted to this form of agri- 
culture in the Federated Malay States, have 
reached Kelantan with the result that every- 
body who has a piece of land lying fallow now 
wishes to see it covered with Para rubber trees as 
soon as possible. For this purpose a considerable 
number of seeds and young plants have been 
imported from Singapore and from the Perak 
State. Seeds were preferred, the plants supplied 
by the rubber estates being too highly priced to 
suit Malay ideas, but lately large numbers of 
young plants have been brought into the State 
for sale by Chinese growers and these being much 
cheaper than the plants formerly obtainable, 
have come very much into demand. What will 
be the outcome of these small plantations it is 
difficult to foretell. The pcssibility is that many 
of them will come to nothing, but it is also clear 
that in a few years’ time there will be a consid- 
erable number of trees in the State of tappable 
size though probably of slightly inferior rubber 
producing quality owing to want of sufficient 
care during the early stages of their growth. 
There should, however, be a regular supply of 
rubber and if the price of the article is main- 
tained there should be a good opening for a 
tubber-buying agency to take the produce of 
the lands off the Malays.—S. IF’, Press, May 29. 


CEYLON COCONUT OIL TRADE. 


Our important staple, Coconut Oil, had been 
for a long time past, since October 1878, declin- 
ing in value; but recent years show great re- 
covery. At the time mentioned, the London 
quotation was £49 with a stock of only 900 tons, 
Cochin oil being then quoted as high as £66. 
During the previous period of scarcity of Coco- 
nut oil in December 1868, the London price was 
£50 against a stock in London of 2,500 tons; and 
going again back to end of 1862 and beginning 
of 1863, we find that the London price of Ceylon 
Cocoriut oil was £53 with stocks in London of 
2,000 tons. We have so far been dealing with 
the minimum stocks of the article and tho 
maximum prices obtained, and it will be re- 
marked that on each recurrence of scarcity the 
price has been lower than on the previous occa- 
sion. We now turn to the period of maximum 
stocks and minimum prices, We find that in 
May 1865 with a stcck of Coconut Oi! in London 
of 15,700 tons, the price then was £40. In Sept., 
1870, with a stock of 8,000 tons, the price was 
£37 to £38, and the lowered value in this instance 
was—be it remarked —at a time when the stock 


was neatly one-half of the quantity. On Oct., 
1573, stocks inLondon had risen to 13,800 tons 
and prices had declined to £32 15. 

Coconut oil remained on amuch lower Jevel 
of value after 1870 than before it. This was 
due to the largely increased production of Palm 
oil aud the competition it has caused since. 
Later on we have another influence at work to 
reduce prices of the staple in Europe. This 
was the increasing production of Copra in the 
South Sea Islands, &c., and the Export of it 
mostly to the Continent of Europe where it is 
manufactured into o1l. The demand for Coco- 
nut oil in recent years has been helped by the 
large increase in its treatment for edible pur- 
poses on the Continent and elsewhere, A turn 
for the better took place during 1901 with 
great demand for soap-making, and prices have 
since beea at a high lovel, more especially in 
1906 and 1907, 

Anything which will benetit Ceylon people 
is of the first importance to us and we herewith 
wish Coconut Growers all the success they 
well deserve. 


Cryton Coconut Ort. 


Stock in Spot Price O.I.F, 
January London of Oil Per Price of 
Tons, Cwt. Copra Per 
Cwt, 
1860 4,629 41/ = 
1865 14,997 36/ by 
1870 6,073 41 / — 
1875 5,886 38/ a 
1880 3,263 37 — 
1885 this — _— —_ 
1890 oy au 24/ 17/6 
1891 A 875 29/ 17/0 
1892 M 1,591 23/3 14/ 
1893 my 618 23/6 16/ 
1894 568 25/6 14/6 
1895 614 24/ — 
1896 594 22/9 —_ 
1900 234 25/6 15/6 
1901 100 25/6 17/6 
1902 200 31/6 18/9 
1903 200 29/ 17/ 
1904 400 25/9 15/9 
1905 200 30/ 19/14 
1906 200 28/6 19/ — 
1907 200 39/3 25/9 
1908 200 30/ 19/6 


A FERTILISING FODDER PLANT FOR 
RUBBER AND OTHER ESTATES. 


Burringbar, Tweed River, N.S.W., May 25th. 

Srr,—Having frequently read of the great 
trouble and expense planters experience in trying 
to maintain the fertility of their lands, would 
you kindly permit me to give a description of 


‘‘ Melilat ” or ‘* Pea Clover.” (Melilotus Offi- 
cinlis.) This plant grows on an Island off bho 


78 The Supplement to the Tropical Agriculturist 


coast of Tasmania and it kas been’ proved by 
Botanists and Agricultural experts, to be a 
nitrogenous plant of the highest order, able 
to grow on poor sandy wastes or rnbbish-ridden 
country, which it rapidly enriches by the 
great amount of nitrogen it absorbs from the 
atmosphere, and conveys to the soil. It has 
proved most useful.as a fodder plant, an 
improver of poor soil, an exterminator of fern 
and scruh, and it is especially good for green 
manuring. It grows from 2 to3 feet high; in 
appearance it resembles lucerne and it yields 
from 30 cwt. to 2 tons of hay per acre. An 
American expert of Botany declares that ‘‘ each 
well-developed plant conveys to the soil fully 
4 lb. of nitrogen’’. I have read recently that 
Mr Carruthers, Director of Agriculture, has 
been searching for a plant for this purpose, and 
so far has succeeded in procuring only a thorny 
species of mimosa which adds only about 
150 1b. of nitrogen to the soil per acre per 
annum. He also writes :—‘‘ The introduction 
of a leguminous plant to take the place of the 
weeds, which grow so vigorously and are so 
expensive, means an automatic manuring of 
the soil, anda conservation of surface soil that 
will otherwise be washed away.” A writer in 
one of our Government Agricultural Journals 
says: ‘‘This seed has been sown in raw white 
sand, and in the course of 5or 6 years it has 
changed it into dark, almost black rich loam. 
We are now growing lucerne (which generally 
requires the best soil) which, had it not been 
for Melilot, would never have grown at all. 


Japan Clover (Lespedeza striata) is an- 
other splendid fertilising fodder plant, and 
in nutritive value it stands at the head of the 
list. It yields from 1 to 3 tons of hay per acre, 
and will grow in almost any class of country. 
It is largely cultivated in the Southern States 
of America, and there are many places in 
India and the Straits Settlements suitable for 
its cultivation, Like the Melilot it is a great 
ameliator and fertiliser. The abundant long 
tap-roots uf both of these plants penetrate to 
a great depth, and decaying annually, render 
the soil porous, and leave therein much_nitro- 
genous material and humus. They release and 
bring up from the sub-soil valuable plant food. 
The analysis of Japan Clover ashes reveals: 40 
per cent. potash, 29°60 oxide lime, 7°82 sulphuric 


acid, 7°54 phosphoric acid—all most valuable 
elements in plant life and growth. Soils are thus 
renovated, slopes prevented from washing, mois- 
ture solicited and retained, and atmospheric fer- 
tilisers gathered and garnered.—Y ours faithfully, 


B. HARRISON. 


JAPAN CAMPHOR AND CELLULOID. 


From various sources we learn that the pro- 
posed company for the manufacture of cellu- 
loid and artificial silk in Japan. has fallen 
through, as originally intended, the foreign 
capitalists not having been able to complete 
their part of the bargain. The enterprise has 
been reconstituted by Japanese alone, the 
capital being 1,200,000 yen. The company was 
created under the augpices of Mr. R Kondo, 
the president of the Nippcn Yusen Kaisha, 
and the Iwasaki family. A second company 
has also been constituted by the Mitsui Com- 
pany with a capital of 2,000,000 yen. The con- 
sumption of celluloid in Japan has greatly 
increased the last few years, and the annual 
import has been of the value of about one 
million yen. As it has to bear a heavy duty, 
there should be a good chance for the home- 
made article in competition with the imported 
commodity, Celluloid is largely composed of 
camphor, which is a native product and has 
no duty to be paid on it. A brilliant future 
is therefore looked forward to by the Japanese 
promoters.—L, & C. Hxpress, May 29. 


APPLE CULTURE AND GRASS. 


The result of an interesting experiment made 
to compare the growth of apple trees planted 
on grass and on cultivated ground is given in 
the May number of The Journal of the Board 
of Agriculture. The growth of three varieties 
of apples was tested, and it was found in each 
case that given equal conditions as to manure, 
the increase in diameter of the stem of a tree 
grown on cultivated ground is much more 
rapid than that of a tree planted on grass. A 
Cox’s orange pippin, one of the examples 
given, planted on grass showed an increase of 
1-25 in. in diameter of the stem in the year 
1906, and another on cultivated ground 3-10 
ip. in the same year, In the wet season. 
of 1907, however, there was not such a 
marked difference in their respective increases, 
which seems to show that insufficient mois- 
ture is one of the causes of the poor deyvel- 
opment of treee planted on grass. The ex- 
periment of removing a square of turf (four . 
square yards) from around the stems of some 
trees resulted in a healthy and strong growth, 
almost equal to that made by trees in culti- 
vated ground, and very much better than that 
made by trees with grass all around the stem. 
—Home paper. 


tind Magazine of the Ceylon Agricultural Society. 79 


ENZYMES IN BANANAS. 


‘When a fruit such as the banana becomes 
ripe, and still more when it reaches the pulpy 
stages of over-ripeness, it might well be sup- 
posed that micro-organisms are at work, and 
that very likely the over-ripe fruit might be 
harmful upon that account. This is not the 
case, however. Dr. Giuseppe Tallarico has dons 
some very elaborate and exhaustive work upon 
the subject, publishing his ful! papers upon 
“Gli Enzimi ideolitici e catalizzanti nel pro- 
cesso di maturazione delle frutta’’ in the 
‘‘ Archivio di Farmacologia sperimentale e 
Scienzeaflini,’’ His main conclusions are two- 
fold ; first, that the pulp of the banana remains 
absolutely free from microbes so long as the 
pericarp is intact; cultivations upon bread, agar, 
gelatine, and so forth remained completely 
sterile, Secondly, that the maturation of 
the fruit is due to  ferments, of 
which there are three main kinds—amylotic, 
invertive, and proteolytic—each of which is 
present in quantity in the ripe banana. It 
is, perhaps, upon this account that the fruit is 
so beneficial in many cases of simple dyspepsia. 
—8S. China MU. Post, May 28. 


FUTURE OF THE JAPAN TEA TRADE. 


As some time ago the Tokyo Keizai Zasshi 
editorially remarked, the future prospect of our 
tea trade solely depends on the authorities’ 
measures for dealing with the trade. At pre- 
sent the bulk of Japanese tea exported abroad 
is green tea. As to 

RED THA 

it isin a state hardly worth mentioning, proba- 
bly owing to the limited amount of its produc- 
tion. The statistics show that the greater 
amount of red tea in this country is made in 
some districts of Kyushu in comparative abund- 
ance, while the remaining small quantity is 
produced in Shizuoka Hyogo and a few other 
prefectures, 

THE PRODUCT FROM CHINA, INDIA AND CEYLON 
is greatly esteemed by westerners for its excel- 
lent quality while the Japanese production is 
in quality by far inferior to the product of those 
climes and so quite unable to suit the taste of 
western people. Lately the Fukuoka Experi- 
mental Farm set about the manufacture of red 
tea with the aid of the state treasury. The 
result is reported to have proved so satisfactory 
that orders are constantly pouring in from 
Russia Having obtained from 


THIS YEAR MORE THAN THE USUAL SUBSIDY FROM 

THE TREASURY 
it intends to make greater efforts in the manu- 
facture with the view to improve the quality 
and to largely extend its sale to Russia and 
other countries. This will probably encourage 
general manufacturers of red tea to put more 
stress on the industry. As regards 

GREEN TEA 
the Minister of Agriculture and Commerce 
recently ordered the Shizuoka Experimental 
Farm to start its manufacture and the cultiva- 
tion of the plant for which purpose a subsidy 
of 1,600 yen has been conferred for the current 
year. Shizuoka is widely known as the impor- 
tant centre of tea manufacture and its produc- 
tion is universally recognised as the best in the 
empire. There is a promise of the industry 
there being improved hereafter. At the same 
time efforts are being made in all other pro- 
vinces for the 

IMPROVEMENT OF THE INDUSTRY 

so that we may be assured of the future deve- 
lopment of the export trade. The total yield 
during last year throughout the country 
amounted to 27,216,564 kin, of which Shizuoka ° 
heads the list with 15,377,954 kin, next coming 
in order :—Miye with 11,422,138 kin; Kyoto 
1,501,319 kin; Fukuoka 749,670 kin; Nara 
745,756 kin ; Shiga 455,140 kin; Hyogo 541,525 
kin and Gifu with 455,140 kin other prefectures 
ranging between 366,€64 kin (Kumamoto) and 
270 kin (Kanagawa).—Japon Times, May 16. 


THE SECRET OF THE SOIL, 


(1) TILTH ; (2) MICROBES, 

When the farmer in Aisop’s fable told his 
sons that he was leaving them treasure buried 
in his fields, which they would find if they dug 
for it, he gave them nearly the sum of the 
knowledge which the modern agriculturist pos- 
sesses of the soil he ploughs, With all the added 
learning of athousand experiments in manuring, 
in irrigating, and in applying the science of 
bacteriology to the cultivation of crops, the con- 
clusion is still the same, Tilth is the essential, 
imperative need. Farmers jhave learnt a great 
deal about the vaiues of different manures for 
different crops, and a great deal, too, as to the 
necessities and possibilities of rotation of one 
crop after another, though the Roman farmer 
had discovered that principle two thousand 
years ago. Virgil’s first Georgic is full of 
advice as to alternating crop and crop—lupins 
before oats, for oxample—which is really the 


8) Lhe Supplement to the 
practical teaching of our modern experiments 
for extracting nitrogen from the air. Varro, 
before Virgil, even came nearer modern prac- 
tice, for he advised the sowing of certain crops, 
not with the immediate hope of harvest, but in 
the knowledge that such crops ploughed in 
would increase the fertility of the soil. That is 
the practical experience of high farming of 
today. Crops are sown to 


CATCH AND DETAIN CHEMICAL ELEMENTS NECES- 
SARY FOR THE CROPS 


to succeed them, and then are ploughed in. But 
the great thing is the mixing and breaking up 
and ventilating the soil, ploughing it to enable 
the frost to do its proper work, pulverising it so 
that the water which is to hold the food for the 
plants’ roots can cling round every tiny particle 
of soil. Then the roots can push free and far 
and find food and drink wherever they push. 
That is the substance of human knowledge of 
the oldest of man’s industries. The soil holds 
all that a plant needs if it can be broken up 
sufficiently small for the plant to get at its food. 

To increase tilth and to decrease manure is 
the main tendency of modern scientific farming. 


An interesting little book, summing up in @ 
condensed form the conclusions of many ex- 
periments in soils and farming generally, has 
just been published by Mr Primrose McConnell, 
a, practical farmer of Southminster, Essex, un- 
der the title ‘‘Soils: their Nature and Treat- 
ment.” How much is there still waiting for the 
farmer to discover, of the soil which Varro 
wrote two thousand years ago, and man had 
been learning for uncounted centuries before 
him? If the need for good tilthstill romains 
the greatest need of all, what have we learnt 
that the Roman farmer did notknow? Of 
. the actual practical work of ploughing and 


sowing probably very little. Of the com- 
position of soils and subsoils perhaps a 
littl more. We know, for instance, what 


he had no opportunity of knowing,—that the 
rule of cultivable soils is pretty nearly the 
same the whole world over. First the top 
layer, some three inches of turf ; under that 
a layer, which may be shallow or deep, but is 
seldom much more than a foot deep of soil; under 
that a subsoil ; under that, a layer of ‘‘brash” or 
rubble ; and, last ofall, the bedrock itself, from 
whose surface all the rest have been rubbed and 
washed and broken by frost and rain and sun and 
clinging plants. The Roman farmer could get a 
practical knowledge of the actual earth which he 
himself worked, but he could not of course, 


Tropical Agricultrist 


compare the geology of five continents, What 
has been reserved for a generation living two 
thousand years after him to discover is that the 
soil is something very different from what Eng- 
lish farmers believed it to be forty or fifty years 
ago. Perhaps the Roman, or the Greek before 
him, knew itinstinctively, for was it not an Eng- 
lishman who first called the earth Mother ? But 
it was not until our day that science established 
the fact that the soil isnot a mass of dead, inert 
matter, to be shovelled here and shifted there, 
merely a fortuitous collection of powdered rocks 
which can bo ‘‘manured,” or worked by the 
hand into different places and various uses; but 
is a teeming world of living creatures; an aggre- 
gate of millions of tons ofso-called ‘‘soil” which 
can bring forth life because it is itself alive ; 
which holds in itsopen, 


ARABLE SURFACE SECRETS OF LIVING ORGANISM 
AND GROWTH AND FERTILITY 


which men who have ploughed it since the begin- 
ning of earning bread only yesterday began tosus- 
pect, only today recognise faintly and perhapsonly 
in the end of things, perhaps never, will fathom. 
The more man learns of other life, the further 
the horizon of hisown life retreats from him, 


The principles of the plainer methods of im- 
proving soils aresimple enough. Wet soil can 
be drained, andso made more capable of hold- 
ing water. It sounds contradictory, but an ill- 
drained soil does not hold water as plants like 
it held,—that is, collected by capillary attrac- 
tion to tiny particles, with room for air next to 
the water. Rather it contains stagnant settle- 
ments of water at which roots will not drink, 
and which need to be drained away. Some 
soils must be drained of water, others cleared 
of stones. Others, again, need to be limed, or 
supplied with a body which acts in various 
ways, nearly invariably beneficially, on various 
soils. Lime stiffens sand, makes clay friable, 
and helps plants whose roots take up nitrogen 
from the air inthe soil in retaining surpluses 
of the gas which otherwise might be too much 
for them. Plants which take up nitrogen some- 
times succeed in choking themselves; and lime, 
as it were, helps them with what they cannot 
manage of their plateful. But the most interest- 
ing, and, regarded from different points of 
view, at once the darkest and best lighted of 
the problems of soil and cultivation, is the 
question of what perhaps may be called bac- 
terial aid to plant-growth. Soil, separated into 
its constituents, consists of some twelve or 
thirteen chemical substances, existing in various 


and Magazine of the Ceylon Agricultural Society, 81 


tompounds, of which the most important are 
seven : nitrogen, phosphoric acid, potash, lime, 
ferric oxide, magnesia, and sulphuric acid. 
Roughly and vaguely speaking, for many of the 
chemical processes which goon in the soil are 
still entirely obscure, of three or four of these 
there is such an abundance that no imaginable 
process of crop-growing could exhaust them. 
Three, or perhaps four—nitrogen, phosphoric 
acid, potash, and lime—might conceivably be 
removed by plant-growth toan extent harmful 
to the soil, and might need to be replaced. Of 
these, lime may be necessary to assist the 
presence of nitrogen, but is very little re- 
quired asadirect manure to the plant itself. 
Potash, again, need be added in comparatively 
few cases. Butnitrogen and phosphoric acid 
are abundantly and perpetually wanted, and 
one ofthem, nitrogen, has been the subject of 
some extraordinarily interesting discoveries. 
Two German chemists, Hellriegal and Willfarth, 
first established in 1886 that on the roots of 
certain leguminous plants, vetches, beans, 
lupins, and so on, there grow little 


NODULES, WHICH ARE THE RESULT OF THE 
GROWTH OF MICROBES 

within them. The microbes extract nitrogen 
from the air in the soil round them, and, as it 
were, build it up into the substance of the root 
of the leguminous plant which is their “host.” 
That discovery was the beginning of a series, of 
which we can only guess the possibilities. To 
it has already been added the discovery that 
seeds can be dressed with cultures of particular 
microbes which feed, and help the plant to 
feed, onnitrogen, and so help it to a vigorous 
growth, and to vigorous growths in other plants 
that are tofollow it in the soil, The almost 
certain induction seams to be that all plants 
have particular microbes which, in feeding 
themselves, help the plant to feed. 

If that is so, the science of ‘‘manuring”’ a soil 
will resolve itself, first, into perfect tilth, sothat 
every particle of the soil can be surrounded with 
its coat of water containing soluble food ; and 
second, into the 


PROVISION OF THE RIGHT KIND OF MICROBE 


in the neighbourhood of the plant that 
needs it. Ofthe four substances known to be 
absolutely necessary to plant life, and alsoliable 
to exhaustion, we still have no better means of 
supplying phosphoric acid than in the form of 
manure. Butisit to be supposed that Science 
has yet made all her discoveries? Mr McConnel 
states, surely a littledogmatically, that phospo- 
ric acid “‘is the one ingredient that is univer- 
sally deficient in the soil that 1shotadded by the 
ordinary farmyard dung of the farm in sufficient 
quantity, and thatcannot be developed or ex- 
tracted from anywhere by any system of crop- 
ping or treatment and must be returned by ex- 
traneous manuring.” Is not that, considering 
that we knew nothing of nitrogen-extracting 
nodules thirty years ago, rather too sweeping ? 
We have not yet heard all the secrets even 
whispered. The secret of the life of the soil is 
not to be dragged from her in thirty years, pos- 
sibly notin three thousand. Our postecity, per- 
haps, will decide that we were little further on 
the road to discovery than was Varro.—Spec- 
tator, May 16. 


SISAL HEMP CULTIVATION PROJECT 
IN BRITISH GUIANA. 


CAPITAL SUBSCRIBED IN New York. 


The news will be received with satisfaction 
in Georgetown that onthe 21st ultimo a wire 
was received from New York, stating that all 
the necessary capital had been subscribed for 
putting into execution the project to extensively 
cultivate sisal hemp in the tract of country com- 
prising some 7,000 acres in the vicinity of 
Bartica granted by the Government for this 
purpose. Mr Viton stated to a representative 
that something like $50,000 will be put into 
circulation in the colony in putting the land into 
cultivation.—Demerara Chronisle, May 1. 


COCONUT OIL AND SOAP—AND SOAP- 
MAKING §N CEYLON. 


‘¢ Cleanliness” being ‘‘ next to godliness,” itis 
a good sign that the consumption of Soap has 
so greatly increased of recent years, not simply 
in Europe, America and Australia; but through- 
out the Asiatic and African continents and the 
Islands of the Sea. But as civilisation and 
Christianity advance, we may be sure, so will the 
demand for soap. That there are great possi- 
bilities of expansion in the trade for many de- 
cades to come cannot be doubted. Every year 
should see an increase in the demand and con- 
sumption and, consequently, in the manufacture, 
Now, as coconut oil is one of the principal in- 
gredionts in soap-making, there is a good pro- 
spect that a‘keon demand for this palm staple 
will keep up for a long time to come. Trus, 
the great soap-making house of ‘‘ Lever ” 
(“Sunlight Soap ”) have gone in for planting 
coconuts in the Solomon and other South Sea 
islands, on their own account. But their pro- 
duction can only be asa fraction of the world’s 
consumption which again must be a constantly 
growing quantity. But what we wish to enquire, 
in connection with this matter, is whether 
something could not be done in Ceylon in Soap 
Manufacture. Many years ago an appreciable 
quantity of soap was made in Hulftsdorp Coco- 
nut Oil Mills, chiefly for export—and largely to 
Mauritius, if we remember rightly, Not very 
much, we believe, was sold locally. ‘‘ Soap ” 
like the proverbial ‘‘ prophet”, perhaps, is not of 
much reputation in its own country ; or, per- 
haps, a sea-voyage improves it? Be that as it 
may, it is a fact that between 1865 and 1892, 
a not inconsiderable export trade in Ceylon 
soap took place. The Customs value in 1865 was 
given at R7,500; but by 1880 it had risen to 
R25,791 ; in 1885 it was R40,005 ; then it fell 
off and in 1890 was R24,140—1891=R14,180; 
—1892=R475 and then the trade and, we sup- 
pose, the local manufacture, stopped. Mean- 
while, soap imported was valued at R58,460 in 
188() and rose steadily to R128,472 in 1890, and 
so on, to R269,338 in 1899 and year by year 
steadily increasing until it reached to R423,670 
in 1906. Last year, the full particulars of the 
importation may be copied from the Customs 
Returns as follows :— 


11 


82 The Supplement to the Tropical Agriculturist 


3 $322 4 | 
. ano so 69 98 
Sat sy aS oss 
ARTICLES. 222 S388 a3 6 
sH Bros > 
on O58 @ 

SOAP, TOILET— Cwt, Cwt Cwt. 
United Kingdom 2611 2647 151635 
British Colonies— 

British India 9 9 609 
New South Wales — _ 23 
South Australia — — 8 
Straits Settlements 2 2 41 
Victoria 21 21 893 
Zanzibar — _— 12 
Foreign Countries— 

Austiia 23 23 1707 
China — _— 10 
Egypt _ = 2 
France 40 45 1069 
Germany 83 85 5421 
Holland — _ 78 
Italy 45 45 1835, 
Japan 148 148 5830 
U. 8., America 21 21 8916 
tussia in Hurope — _ 7 
Switzerland 4 4 217. 

3007 8050 173313 

SOAP, BAR— 

United Kingdom 1887 1823 32846 
British Colonies— 
British India 1056 1056 7397 
Hongkong _ = = 
New South Wales 58 58 649 
Queensland 
South Australia 125 125 1741 
Victoria 11335 11335 135945 
West Australia 2678 2678 30432 
Foreign Countries— 
Austria 15 15 315 
China, _ ae = 
France 2 2 48 
Germany 81 $1 1125 
Russia -- = arr 
17237 17173 210498 


It will be seen that the total value of toilet 
and bar-soap was R383,811 last year, or nearly 
R40,000 less than in 1906; such fluctuations must 
be expected ina trade of this kind. The curi- 
ous fact. however, is that while in 1891 nearly all 
our soap came from India (R70,933) with R37,313 
from the United Kingdom and R15,986 from 
Germany,—in 1907, we find the Australian 
Colony of Victoria supplying us with soap to 
the value of R135,945, and Western Australia 
R30,432, both in ‘‘bar-soap.” while the U.K. is 
represented by R32,846 and India only by R7,397, 
In regard to ‘* toilet soap,” however, R151,635 
came from the U. Kingdom, leaving only R22,000 
to represent what comes chiefly from Japan, 
Germany and the U.S. of America, The trade in 
“toilet” soap can scarcely be disturbed; but surely 
Ceylon could, in the present day, manufacture 
its own “bar” soap, with the advantage 
of a 64 per cent ad valorem import duty, 
considering that it manufactured and ex- 
ported soap so freely twenty years agoP A 
great deal of the raw material—coconut oil 
especially—is available in the island, and, 
indeed, it is a question whether the preparation 
of emollients should not, to some extent, become 
a household industry. We do not know whether 
such has become the case in the West Indies ; 
but we cannot better conclude our present deli- 
verance than with the following extract froma 
West Indian journal of a good many years ago— 
for, the statement has its lesson tor Ceylon ;— 


A tropical country, unless it be pure sand or rock, is 
pretty sure to, it certainly can easily, be a great oil-pro- 
ducer. ‘Lhe best oil-seeds and most of the palms grow there 
and give it oil abundance, and yield it up at slight cost. 
From these we obtain lighting, cooking, salad, and iubricat- 
ing oils, soap, candles, oil meal for stock, and other use- 
ful products. Every cook on board ship has his slush 
bucket, and the grease he saves for the soap makers isa 
perquisite that gives a welcome addition to his wage a 
the end of the voyage. In North America many a thousand 
housewives in clearings remvute from towns, saving the 
grease-offals from their kitchen and the ashes of their 
wood fires (to dissolve out the alkali) make soft soap enough 
for the family washing. Yet, inthis Colony, with a super- 
abundance of material, in various forms, we have put none 
of it to use for soap till now,and none at all for candles ! 
Let the Colonists abjure petty insular. conceit and silly 
pride, and humbly stoop to learn the many things they 
are ignorant of, or—knowing -- have neglected. 

The rude material of wealth, the opportunities of 
industry, are almost boundless in these countries. 
Better a moderate competency at these, with inde- 

endence, than an aching uncertain strugglefor a place 
in the few professions, or be one in a crowd of applicants 
for a vazancy as clerk or salesman, without a trade or 
creative pursuit in arm or brain to fly to in case of 
failure. - é z 
There is a lesson with a decided local ap- 
plication in the above. Another industry 
closely allied to Soap, is Candle-making. 
Of candles, Ceylon imported to the 7alue of 
R96,289 in 1907, For what purpose could we 
have imported last year 30,884 ewt. of Fuller's 


Earth from India? —worth R65,094. 
OPINIONS OF COLOMBO MERCHANTS. 


The subject of the feasibility of soap manu- 
facture in Ceylon has been taken up in one or 
two quarters but is not looked upon with opti- 
mism. A partner in a local firm which did a con- 
siderable business in soap manufacture a little 
over a decade ago, whilst admitting the local 
advantages to the soap factor in Ceylon, looked 
at the matter froma purely compelitiye point 
of view, and on that ground could not support 
its encoursgement. 


‘““We gave up soap manufacture on account 
of the keen competition which we experienced 
from home. Home firms made it quite as 
good as we could, and at a cheaper rate, 
They have all the advantages of machinery, 
chemists, the best perfume treatments, and 
compared with their methods we could do it 
in only a very crude way. Moreover, Ceylon 
is too small for soap manufacture to pay. 
The Colombo market is much too small. Even 
the common soap now-a-days is got up 
with such neatness, such nicety, perfume, &e- 
We could not develop an export trade from 
Ceylon that would be likely to pay, in spite of 
the freight from home. To Singapore it 
would be about R14 for a ton, and it is only 
about 22s 6d from home,” ~ 


Our representative mentioned that it was 
understood there is a wealthy native gentleman 
in Ceylon who is prospecting local soap manu- 
facture on an extensive scale in view of the 
advantages of local coconut oil, ete. 


‘“ Then,’’ was the reply, ‘‘he will not long re- 
main the wealthy native gentleman thathe is.” 


Another member of a Colombo firm ex- 
pressed the opinion that the effect of the climate 
on soap that was stocked locally had mitigated 
against the continuance of its manufacture 
some years ago. ‘‘ Unless it was sold as it 
was produced,” he remarked, ‘‘ it was materially 
affected. I have heard that one of the firms 
in Singapore is ina bad way on this account” 


and Magazine of the Ceylon Agricultural Society. 83 


RUBBER IN PARA STATE. 


THE FALL IN PRICE. 
AFFECTS THE Statx’s FINANCIAL CONDITION, 


The following [is from the] report, dated Ist 
February, on the financial condition affecting 
commercia] interests in Para, received from 
H.M. Consul at Para (Mr C B Rhind) :— 


_ ‘**Since my arrival herein September, 1907, 
reports have been constant of the unsatisfactory 
condition of finances in the commercial circles 
of this market. The most prominent cause of this 
depression 1n local resources is the diminution 
in value of the staple product of the district 
figuring in international trade—rubber. At 31st 
December, 1906, the prices of rubber per kilo 
were as follows: fine rubber, 5650 milreis, 
coarse, 3°450 milreis, Caucho ball, 5°500 milreis ; 
these prices had fallen by 3lst December, 1907, 
to 3°500 milreis, 2°200 milreis and 3°400 milreis 
for the respective qualities, The fall in value 
was thus about 35 per cent. Itis true that 
during 1907 as much as 37,525 tons were placed 
on the market, against only 34,590 tons during 
1906, but the increase in quantity failed to com- 
pensate the great depreciation in value. This 
depreciation, though continuous, was mainly 
confined to the last three months of the year. 
The consensus of opinion associates the depre- 
ciation with the financial crisis in the United 
States, and it is natural that such an influence 
should withdraw from operation much capital 
which, in normal circumstances, would be avail- 
able for speculation in this and other products 
of this district. The 


HIGH RATE OF TAXATION TO WHICH RUBBER 


IS SUBJECTED 


must, however, be borne in mind in con- 
nection with the depreciation in the com- 
mercial value of this product. I here give a 
Schedule of the duties fixed for export from 
this State during the week from 30th December, 
1907, to 5th January, 1908, and I should explain 
that in addition to this list there are in all 
districts of the country municipal taxes on pro- 
ductions of all classes :— 


Value on which 


duties are Export 
Weekly Tariff of Export Duties calculated. Duty. 
from Para: Milreis per kilo, Per cent. 
Rubber, tine 3°900 22 
Rubber, coarse . 2'570 22 
Cocoa, good AB 976 6 
Cocoa, inferior “K 500 6 
Per hectolitre, 
Brazil Nuts 22°200 16 
Per kilo, 
Fish Glue, Gurijuba 2°250 17 
Fish Glue, of other fish 1°v00 17 
Deer Skins, good a 1‘300 17 
Deer Skins, inferior Ri 900 17 
Hides, various qualities 200 to 690 Vv 


‘“These data show that before rubber can 
leave this State it has to pay tributes armounting 
to almost a quarter of its value. It will be 
readily understood that if an article is selling at 
a high price, say, at 65600 milreis a kilo., the 
producer may see no hardship in paying a tax of 
26 per cent, of its value, as he would still receive 
4200 milreis net, yielding a remunerative result; 
but, if the selling’ price were reduced to 3°600 
Pilreis a kilo, and the taxation maintained at 


25 per cent., the net seiling price would be re- 
duced to 2°70 milreis, which might involve him 
in absolute loss: this is practically what is hap- 
pening at present with the owners of rubber 
properties in this district. Jn conjunction with 
the item of taxation, the heavy scale of expendi- 
ture incurred for all services connected with the 
industry, such as 


TRANSPORT AND COST OF LABOUR, 


must also be taken into consideration, none of 
these being reduced in sympathy with the fall 
in the market value of the product 


mM oe wo 


‘‘ There has lately been a slight recovery in 
the value of rubber, and itis said that the col- 
lection of the article has been satisfactory, 
There having been a copious rainfall, I under- 
stand that the Alto Purus and other affluents of 
the Amazon are in good condition for bringing 
supplies to market, but it appears that these 


SUPPLIES ARE BEING RETAINED IN THE HOPE OF 
SECURING HIGHER PRICES, 


‘“¢Projects are also under consideration for 
easing the monetary situation (as affecting the 
circumstances of the owners of rubber pro- 
perties) by the opening of a branch of the Bank 
of Brazil at Para, and tor including in its trans- 
actions the making of advances on rubber in 
deposit, Itis thought, however, that this idea 
can have little success, as advances would pro- 
bably be limited to 50 per cent. of the value, 
whereas, I understand, merchants will advance, 
en produce consigned to them for sale, as much 
as 70 per cent. of the value, It has also to be 
remembered that the rubber while stored would 
ba subjected to warehouse rent and other ex- 
penses, and also that the article dries in keep- 
ing, thereby losing in weight, and in vaiue, 


WARNING TO BRITISH INVESTORS, 


‘‘T am told that there is still a great disposi- 
tion among British capitalists to mvect in the 
acquisition of rubber-producing properties in 
Brazil. Investments of this nature have not 
invariably been successful, and, in my opinion, 
such undertakings should be engaged in with 
the greatest circumspection. I would urge par- 
ticularly that care be exercised in the supervi- 
sion of title deeds, so that security in the 
possession of the property may be assured. Atten- 
tion to these matters is especially to be recom- 
mended in connection with properties in the 
Acre Gistrict, where the change of régime, 
whereby the administration of this territory has 
been constituted in the Federal Government of 
Brazil, may engender disputes should the owner- 
ship of the estates offered for purchase not be 
clearly vested in those representing themselves 
as proprietors. One formality, which I under- 
stand to be indispensable in the 

PROCESS OF PROVING A CLEAR TITLE TO THR 

OWNERSHIP OF PROPERTY, 

perty, is the exhibition of proof that the title 
deeds have been duly registered in the State 
Department charged with the recording of re- 
gistrations of this nature, which I believe to be 
subordinate to the Department of Public 
Works, Land and Communications (Obras Pubs 
ligas, Terras e Viagao), 


84 The Supplement to the Tropical Agriculturist 


‘While dealing with this topic I may also 
refer to the development of rubber cultivation 
in Ceylon, the Straits Settlements and other 
British Possessions, as well as in Africa, Central 
America and Mexico. Up tothis time little im- 
portance has been attached to possible competi- 
tion from these sources, but Brazilian economists 
are beginning to view this matter as fraught 
with more danger to the interests of this country 
than was at first supposed. It has even been 
argued that, in a period of not more than ten 
years, the practical Brazilian monopoly in this 
production may be at an end, Certainly it 
appears to me that, other conditions being 
favourable, the systematic processes observed 
in the countries named, together with the 
greater cheapness of labour, transport, and 
other items affecting the industry, will place those 
CULTIVATORS IN A VASTLY SUPERIOR POSITION TO 

THOSE OF BRAZIL, 
where the expenses in every branch of 
activity connected with the industry are 
on an extremely high scale, and where the 
process of collection seems, more often than 
not, attended with risk to health, if not of more 
serious consequences. 

‘‘{n any case British investors, when consid- 
ering business of this class, should be careful 
not to be impressed by the simple statement of 
the possible production of an estate, without 
considering the very heavy outlay required for 
marketing the article. Another point is, that, 
in my opinion, they should not attempt to work 
such properties with british labour, or to place 
their workers under British working overseers ; 
the best labourers for such properties are the 
natives, Portuguese, Spaniards and Italians, and 
such men do not always agree with and work 
well when held strictiy to British systems. IL 
need not say that these remarks do not apply to 
members oi the superior staff.”—Board of rade 
Journal, May 21. 

GREEN MANURING FOR YOUNG 
LUBBER. 

Pollibetta, June 9.—The Cearas have made 
good growth since the early rains. Many which 
appeared to be dead have thrown out shoots 
which have attained a length of from six inches 
to one foot. The Para planted out last Sept- 
ember-October in the field, though a goodly 
proportion has survived, has not made such 
good growth as the plants that have been 
watered and tended in the nurseries, but they 
ought to put on a spurt after the setting in 
of the monsoon, The question as to whether 
there should or should not be a green cover- 
ing over the soil'in rubber clearings, which 
was discussed by your special planting. corre- 
spondent in the Madras Mail of the 30th May, 
has been settled in these parts by allowing 
grass and weeds—there are some legumes 
amongst them—to overrun rubber openings, 
an occasional grass-knifing being done to keep 
down too exuberant growth. Lantana and 
other thorny jungle stuff are dug out by the 
roots, and a radius of two feet round young 
plants is kept clean to protect them from 

eing choked out, and they are mulched. 
This treatment has had no deleterious effects 
on the Ceara rubber and would apnea the 
rational method to adopt in the case of what is 

ae i 


arobust jungle tree which can easily hold its 
own against puny weeds. Para rubber, too, 
once itis given a start, ought to be well able 
to look after itself with but little atten- 
tion. Deep digging and drainage would pro- 
bably accelerate the growth of both species, 
and there can be objection to a clean digging, 
as the land would soon be covered with a green 
mantle again, but monthly weedings in rubber 
would appear to be useless and unnecessary. 
Your special planting correspondent, I[ see, 
incidentally mentions thatthe Bilwara (Albizzia 
odoratissima) has not been found to be a good 
shade tree for coffee in many estates in Mysore. 
In this district it is taken as an indication 
of good soil where it occurs, and coffee thrives 
and supplies come on very well under it. On 
the other hand, the <Acrocarpus fraxinifolius 
(Can. Howlige) and the Albizzia moluccana when 
they grow old are positively deleterious to 
coffee.—M, Mail, 


THE BRITISH GUIANA RUBBER 
EXPERIMENT STATION. 


Ata meeting on the 22nd ultimo of the British 
Guiana Board of Agriculture held in the Court 
ot Poliey Hall, His Excellency the Governor, 
Sir # M Hodgson, K.C.M.G., presided, and the 
members in attendance were Professor J B 
Harrison, Director of Science and Agriculture, 
Dr. Godfrey, A W Bartlett, Government Bota- 
nist, Secretary, Mr E Christiani, and 10 
others....... 

SALE OF RUBBER PLANTS. 

Professor Harrison said the rubber plants 
sold last year numbered 47,000, yielding $1,487. 
The amount of the vote by the Combined Court 
or the introduction of the seed was $720, and 
the cost of growing was $507 approximately, so 
that there was a profit of $260. 

PROGRESS AT THE RUBBER FARM, 

His Excellency invited Mr Fowler’s opinion 
as to the state of affairs at the rubber farm. 

Mr Fowler said he had visited the farm and 
thought very great progress had been made. 
Mr Mansfield had got between eight and ten 
acres empoldered, there were good dams and a 
good koker, a nice hcuse had been erected, also 
a good range forthelabourers, The cultivation 
looked very flourishing indeed. He was very 
satisfied with what he saw. The experiments 
so far as they had gone were, he thought, 
successful. The people in the district 
were planting up their grants and he was 
glad to see a large number of Heveas 
and Sapiums, and that the people took advan- 
tage of Mr Mansfield’s presence. Mr Mansfield 
advised them as to cultivation and they re- 
alised the assistance he rendered them, The 
experiments so far were very satisfactory. 

His Excellency: How many trees planted ? 
About 8,000 or 4,000? ‘ 

Mr Fowler replied in the affirmative, adding 
that they were varieties, 

His Excellency said the idea was not that 
Mr Mansfield’s attention should be confined to 
rubber cultivation, but that it should be ex- 
tended to other cultivation, x as 

Professor Harrison; We are going to malte 
other experiments,—Demeraria Darby Chronicle, 
May 1, contig 


ie act tom 


| 


and M gazine of the Ceylon Agricultural Society. 85 


SCHOOL-GARDENS. 


are a great feature in the West Indies. We 
read :—At Jamaica in 1900, only six schools 
recelved special grants amounting to £32. In 
1906, the number of schools had increased to 92, 
and the special grants to £227 at British Guiana, 
three Government school gardens had _ been 
established at Georgetown. In addition, it was 
reported that the managers and teachers of over 
50 schools had started small gardens in the 
country districts. These latter are stated to be 
earning about 80 per cent of the small grant 
offered under the Code Regulations, In Trinidad 
during last year, 203 schools were examined in 
practical agriculture. At Barbados, 41 boys’ 
schools and three girls’ schools presented chil- 
dren at the annual examinations in object-les- 
sons. About one-third of these had school 
gardens or showed plants under cultivation in 
“pots or boxes. It is stated that the school 
gardens are decidedly better managed than 
before and the number has increased to 21. The 
school exhibits at the Peasant Hxhibitions 
reached a higher standard. At Montserrat, tive 
school gardens have been started, and it is re- 
ported that very good results have been ob- 
tained in the cultivation of various kinds of 
vegetables. In 1907 a new and enlarged edition 
of * Hints for School Garden’ was published. 
As showing the considerable growth of interest 
that was taken in starting school gardens, this 
edition was exhausted within a few months, and 
now a revised edition(PamphletNo. 52*),contain- 
ing 55 pages and a plan, is placed within the 
reach of all who are interested in the subject. 
Pupils should be put through a good course of 
box and pot culture, and should thoroughly 
master the principles underlying it before they 
are allowed to proceed to the cultivation of 
plants in plots. With regard to garden plots, 
tull particulars are given as to selecting the site, 
preparing the ground, planting hedges, laying 
out plots, and the successive operations neces- 
sary to establish a well-equipped and succesful 
school garden, The latter part of the pamphlet 
is taken up in affording special instruction in 
regard to 26 of the principle vegetable crops 
grown in the West Indies. The concluding 
pages contain simple and useful hints in regard 
to the various processes of budding, grafting and 
training garden plants. 


THE EXPERIMENTAL SILK FARM AT 
PERADENIYA JUNCTION. 


after a fair trial of two years, has _ been 
temporarily closed, it being found that the re- 
sults did not justify the cost of its upkeep 
under existing conditions. The establishment 
was principally designed for the culture of the 
castor oil-feeding ‘‘ Kri Worm ” (Attacus ricint); 
but the land proved to be unsuited to the 
successful cultivation of the castor oil plant, 
which, though a common weed, flourishes only 


F. * ‘Hints for School Gardens,’ Pamphlet Series 
No, 52, Price 4d. Free by post, 5d. On sale 


_by all agents of the Imperial Department of 


‘Agriculture, 


in rich soil. The mulberry plants, which were 
put in at the same time, have established them- 
selves well, and in another year or two should 
show suflicient growth to warrant there-opening 
of the farm for the culture of the more valuable 
mulberry-feeding worm (Bombyx mori). It is 
evident, however, that a small establishment 
of this kind cannot be run ata profit handi- 
capped by the salary of a Kuropean manager. 
With a few notable exceptions, the apathy shown 
by the natives of the country, for whose benefit 
the experiment was started, has been most 
discouraging. Large quantities ofsilkworm seed 
have been distributed, and the Agricultural 
Society has guaranteed the purchase of the 
produce at a price which has since proved to 
be above the market value, with comparatively 
little result. This is the more regrettable, as 
a fow individuals have shown praiseworthy 
enterprise in the preparation and manufacture 
of threaci and woven cloth from locally pro- 
duced cocoons. Some samples of hand-woven 
silk cloth that have been submitted to me com- 
pare very favourably with similar material im- 
ported from India. Credit for progress in this 
branch of the industry is entirely due to the 
intelligent enthusiasm of some of the vernacular 
schoolmasters, encouraged by the Department 
of School Gardens.—E. ErRNrEst GREEN,—Ad- 
minstration Report for 1907. 


THE CAMPHOR TRADE. 


New DEVELOPMENT IN SouTH CHINA. 


Travellers and missionaries have long known 
heat there are many groves of camphor trees on 
the North River and especially throughout the 
Kuk Kong Hsein. As they are needed for mak- 
ing furniture, and boxes, these trees have in 
the past been felled and sawn up into planks, 
though apparently the trade has not been very 
extensive when the number of the trees and 
their age is considered, Some of these groves 
contain many trees of huge growth, and they 
must have been there for centuries. One small 
town is called 


CAMPHOR TREE TOWN. 


Itappears thatthe Board of Agriculture has 
been roused to see that there are considerable 
possibilities inthe situation, and there is amove 
on foot to endeavour to start a trade in camphor 
that shall be useful to the people themselves, 
by giving them employment, and also for the 
purposes of external trade generally. As usual, 
of course, there have been the general official 
notifications issued, and the 


MANDARINS ARE TO HAVE A HOLD ON THE 


MONOPOLY 
of the trade. Already efficient persons 
have been sent up to examine into the 


possibilities and they have reported favour- 
ably. Mcreover, an agent has ‘been sent 
to the Fukien Province to secure the services 
of a hundred workmen who are familiar with the 
way in which camphor is prepared. One of the 
plans before the Board is to lay down plant in 
order to prepare the camphor for the market 
on the spot, 


86 . 
PossIBILITtEs. 


The indications are therefore that there is to 
be developed a new industry, which shall be 
useful to those immediately concerned by pro- 
viding for them a means of subsistence, and 
then turther by increasing the volume of trade. 


As mentioned above, one of the regulations is 
that all the camphor prepared shall ke a mono- 
poly of the mandarins, who, in the notification 
issued have promised to buy all that is prepared 
at a fair price; for those who shall be sent up 
to appraise the value of the camphor shall not 
cheat, nor shall those who have it for sale be 
desirous of seeking to secure more than its mar- 
ket value. Moreover, for a wonder, one of the 
provisions of the new departure is that there 
shall be men employed to plant new trees, so 
that the district shall not be denrded. If things 
turn out as suggested, we may hope to seea 
good trade done.—Stratis Times, June 9. 


RUBBER AND TILLAGE—-GREEN 
MANURING AND ACACIAS. 


Mr. Kelway Bamber is rightly very strong on 
the importance ot keeping up the quality of 
Ceylon rubber. Much has to be done by way 
cf experimenting with latex to prove what 1s 
the best mode of treatment. As to growing trees 
in plantations he thinks ‘ uniformity’ a matter 
requiring the special attention of planters. He 
would have all backward trees helped by tillage 
and a little manure. The object is to present 
trees of uniform growth and tnickness of bark if 
possible, when the tapping age arrives. This 
will make the work of each tapping cooly so 
much easier. 


There is no question now of the value of 
mulching, green manuring, cultivation and 
buying of crotolaria, of the prunings of albizzias, 
dadaps, or of ‘‘acacia decurrens” at a high 
elevation in respect of tea cultivation. Any one 
who doubt what can be done by scientific culti- 
vation in this way, even with very backward and 
unpromising tea, had better visit estates which 
have adopted Mr. Bamber’s mode of treatment, 


There is much mystery still as to why the tea 
of certain plantations commands a higher price 
than some of their neighbours’ whose teas when 
tested in factory are equally good; why prices 
fall off for one place which had 80 good a repu- 
tation that it was supposed to be fully estab- 
lished, and why it has taken another place 15 or 
2U years to make a hame. 


Opinions differ as to acacias in tea: one 
planter condemns acacia melanoxylon trees as 
in undoubted injury to his tea, the roots spread- 
ing whenever tillage or manuring is attempted 
and taking away tbe benetit of the manure from 
the tea. But another says the A. melanoxylons 
do his tea good, and he has Mr. Bamber’s autho- 
rity to back him—the roots developing the 
nodules which absorb and supply nitrogen to 
the soil. Perhaps no other manuring is requisite 
where the “melanoxylons” are plentiful, 


The Suptplement to the Tropical Agriculturist. 


AGRIGULTURE IN KALUTARA 
DISTRICT IN 1907. 


RUBBER. 


The extent of land cleared and planted with 
rubber during 1907 is estimated at 11,300 acres, 
of which 8,732 acres were opened up by planters 
belonging to the Kalutara Planters’ Association. 
This immense work was accomplished by means 
of Sinhalese labour, recruited chiefly from the 
neighbouring villages. It may be noted in 
passing that in this district the villagers freely 
work in the neighbouring estates, tne men at 
clearing jungle, holing, draining, road-making, 
&c., the women and children at weeding, tea 
plucking, &c. The women are, I understand, 
the more satisfactory labourers, being more 
steady in attendance at work. The men, beside 
having to attend to their fields, are asa rule 
averse to prolonged labour on estates. The 
readiness of the villagers to work, even in a 
desultory fashion, mitigates the labour troubles 
of the Kalutara planter, and is mdicative of the 
satisfactory understanding that exists between 
employers and employed. The average daily 
wages paid on estates at the present time are 50 
cents tor a man, 30 cents for a woman, and 18 
cents for a child. In 1907 much higher rates 
were paid. 

Pappy CuLrivaTion.—There was no increase 
iv the acreage under paddy cultivation, but the 
crops were better than those of 1906. Itis 
noteworthy that while the acreage under paddy 
has not changed much since the last decade, the 
average yield has fallen from 9 to 6-fold. This 
decrease in the productiveness of the fields is 
attributable to laxer methods of cultivation and 
the use of inferior kinds of seed paddy. The 
appointment of irrigation headmen to enforce 
the irrigation rules proclaimed in 1906 is begin- 
ning to show favourable resultsin the more 
careful attention now being paid to water- 
courses, ridges, and fencing. New kinds of 
paddy are being introduced into the district by 
the Agricultural Society, assisted by the local 
agricultural associations. 


Coconvuts.—There was an increase of 321 
acres in the area planted with coconuts. Good 
prices for all coconut products ruled throughout 
the year, 


TrzA.—There was no increase in the acreage 
under tea, 


CinnamMon.— There was an increase of five 
acres in the area under cultivation, 


HorticuLtture.— There was a decrease of two 
acres in the area under fruits, and a decrease of 
56 acres in the area under vegetables. This 
slight temporary decline in horticulture was 
due to the superior attractions of estate employ- 
ment at high wages. 


Curna CuLrivarion,—Chena cultivation of 
Crown land is not permitted in this district. 
Forty-nine cases of illicit chena clearing were 
reported during the year. The offenders be- 
longed to Pelenda, Ambegoda, Yataganpitiya, 
and other villages on the eastern boundary of 
Pasdum Korale East, where the extent of land 
suitable for paddy cultivation is rather limited, 
—Mr, J, Conroy's Administration Heporty 9 


and Magazine of the Ceylon Agricultural Society. 87 


CEYLON ESSENTIAL OILS IN 1907. 


CINNAMON OIL. 

We are pleased to say that inthe course of 
last winter we received again regular chip- 
consignments, so that it was not necessary to 
interrupt the distillation. In spite of a con- 
siderable increase in our production, we could 
scarcely accumulate a stock of the distillate, 
and our prices were willingly paid,—a sufficient 
proof that the excellent quality of our oil is 
universally appreciated. Most persons having 

_a knowledge of this article are aware that 
numerous mixtures are met with in commerce 
which are adulterated with cinnamic aldehyde 
and eugenol, often to such 4n extent that they 
are almost unrecognisable. Against such pro- 
ducts we would once more utter the most 
emphatic warning. As we expected, the export- 
figures for cinnamon-chips for last year show 
again a considerable surplus, The quantities 
exported from Ceylon were :— 


in 1907 2,835,936 lb., 
against ,, 19U6 2,531,614 ,, 
b », 19(5 2,325,514 ,, 
yy 1904 2,368,351 ,, 


On the other hand, the export of cinnamon 
oil distilled in Ceylon—which is well-known 
to be of very doubtful quality, and which 
nowadays is only bought in England and tke 
United States,—has fallen off considerably. It 
amounted to 
102,604 oz. in 1907 
158,344 ,, ,, 1906. 
CiTRONELLA OIL, 

The export-figures to the end of 1907 were 
1,312,192 lb. against 1,242,110 lb. in the previous 
year, showing an increase of about 70,000 lb. 
Since our last Report, the prices have declined 
continuously, and atthe beginning of January 
1908 reached their lowest level at about 10 pence 
cif. Recently they have nominally advanced 
again slowly, but it is doubtful whether any 
business worth speaking of has taken place un- 
der the conditions which have prevailed during 
the last six months. At the beginning of March, 
the nominal Ceylon quotations even rose sud- 
denly to 1/2 cif. but at these prices there were no 
buyers, if only for this reason that the stocks 
in London, which are said to come still to some- 
thing like 50 tons, were offered at considerably 
lower prices without rousing the interest of the 
consumers. There appears to be no doubt what- 
ever that the increase in the stocks must be at- 
tributed above all to the fact that the whole- 
sale soap-manufacturers have consumed much 
less than in previous years; and if the quota- 
tions in Ceylon have recently again become 
firmer, this 1s in our opinion only due to the co- 
operation of the native wholesale-merchants, 
which we have already referred to in our last 
Report. It is probable that one of the expor- 
ters has to cover blank sales, and the native 
, syndicate endeavours to take advantage of this. 


We consider it very questionable whether we 
shall have to reckon on higher prices in the 
course of the next few months, because so 
long as stocks have not been cleared, and as 
long as large consumers, such as the soap- 
industry in England and the United States, 
stand aloof from the market, we may 


against 


-is generally uncertain, 


IN ALL PROBABILITY RELY ON CHEAP PRICES, 


The quantity exported in 1908, as far as known 
up to the present, 1s 76,291 lb. up to 17th Feb., 
against 47,041 lb. in the previous year. 


The export of Ceylon citronella oil during the 
last 15 years is shown in the following table :— 


United United Various 

Kingdom. Germany. States. Ports, Total, 
1893 391595 40964 162648 73323 668530 
1894 543364 60559 310995 33553 938471 
1895 1028760 53 573 1645/9 5559 1282251 
1896 923200 55492 1073 8 46111 1132141 
1897 602435 518 3 456954 71625 1182867 
1898 696569 22883 618999 27166 1365917 
1899 766594 1335 667532 43495 1478758 
1900 84800! 41854 463732 55471 1409058 
1991 928908 172984 292946 35330 1430168 
1902 556096 146518 538970 53166 1295750 
1903 343029 96422 554689 63454 1062594 
19:4 514007 72376 48180 88383 1156646 
195 398707 197976 623999 88734 1309416 
1906 484049 97396 563030 97635 1242110 
1907 520331 198109 479024 214728 1312192 


With regard: to the export to Germany, it 
should be borne in mind that a considerable 
portion of the quantities mentioned under the 
United Kingdom, subsequently finds its way to 
Germany. For this reason, the above figures do 
not give a correct representation of the German 
demand. The supplies to our firm alone came 
in 1907 already to about 125,000 lb. 


On the subject of Java citronella oil, nothing 
rew can be reported. In spite of the dullness 
of the Ceylon oil, the producers, spoilt by the 
remunerative prices obtained last year without 
serious efforts, are but rarely inclined to make 
concessions, and they remain firm, saying that 
the cultivation formerly did not pay. For the 
rest, there are signs that the people in Java are 
already accumulating stocks, and we would 
strongly advise the holders not to aim too high, 
so as not to experience bitter disappointment, 
Although the Java oil is far superior to the 
Ceylon oil, itis impossible to obtain prices for 
the former which are out of all proportion to 
the latter. 

Nurmec Ot. 


As frequently no distinction is made in the 
trade between nutmeg oil and mace oil, the 
origin of the oils in the older examinations 
It is accepted that the 
two oils have the same composition, and that 
only the relative quantities of the individual 
constituents differ, but this is by no means proved. 
In connection with a summary of the exami- 
nations of these oils made up to the present, 
F B Power and A H Salway communicate 
the results of a detailed examination of 
genuine nutmeg oil, made with a view to clear- 
ing up the nature of the individual consti- 
tuents, especially of the ‘‘myristicol” dis- 
covered in it by Wright. The existence of 
this body had become extremely doubtful, 
particularly so as Stephan had shown in our 
laboratory that the ‘* myristicol ” which Wright 
had also detected in oil of sweet orange peel, 
was nothing but d-terpineol. 


The examination was made with a colourless 
oil specially distilled for the purpose by Stafford 
Allen & Sons, Ld., London, from Ceylon nut- 
megs of good quality, free from lime, in a 
yield of 6°94 per cent, 


88 The Supplement to the Tropical Agriculturist 


The nutmeg oil contained the following sub- 
stances: eugenol and iso-eugenol (about 0'2 per 
cent), d-pinene and d-camphene (about 80 per 
cent), dipentene (about 8 per cent), d-linalool, 
d-borneol, i-terpineol and geraniol (about 6 per 
cent), small quantities of anew alcohol which 
on oxidation yields a diketone C8 H14 O2, traces 
of a citral-like aldehyde whose B-naphtocincho- 
ninic acid melts at 248°, safrol (about 0°6 per 
cent), myristicin (about 4 per cent), myristic 
acid free (about "3 per cont) and in small quan- 
tity as ester; further, esterified, small quantities 
of formic, acetic, butyric, and octylic acids, and 
a new monocarboxylic acid C13 H18 O3. 

It cannot, of course, be claimed (and Power 
and Salway themselves point this out) that these 
figures are always applicable, as they must be 
subject to considerable fluctuations according to 
the material employed. The very low specific 
gravity and the exceptionally powerful rotation 
of the oil examined by Power and Salway, point 
to the fact that they have worked up an oil 
which was extremely rich in terpenes; in many 
oils of nutmeg the content of oxygenated con- 
stituents is probably larger than indicated above. 

The portion of the oil which has hitherto been 
designated as ‘‘myristicol,” was found to be a 
mixture of alcohols, of which terpineol appears 
to be the principal component. 

As nutmeg possesses narcotic properties, 
Power and Salway intend making also an exami- 
nation of the constituents which are present in 
addition to the essential oil.—Schimmel d: Co,’s 
Semi-Annual Report for April. 


TEA PRODUCTION OF JAPAN IN 19907, 


According to the investigations made by the 
Department of Agriculture and Commerce the 
total output of tea throughout the country 
during last year reached 7,302,684 kwan valued 
at 10,776,509 yen. ‘The figures are classified 
as follows :— 


Quantity. Value. 
Kwan. Yen. 
Pearl Tea 75,138 384,268 
Brick Tea 4,944,086 9,280,478 
Black Tea 24,626 46,871 
Oolong Tea 8,922 11,637 - 
Coarse Tea 2,249,912 § 1,053,055 
Total 7,302,684 


10,776,509 
—Japan Times, May 30. 


AYAPANA OIL. 


A year ago we reported on an ayapana 
which had been distilled in the French island 
Mayotta from ‘‘ Kupatorium triplinerve” Vahl, 
and had been submitted to usas ‘' essence d’aya- 
pana.” In the meantime we received 


FROM CEYLON, 
where the oil, or an infusion of the leaves, is 
employed as a remedy against bodily ailments 
of every kind, a small quantity of leaves from 
that plaut, andin this manner were able to pro- 
duce ourselves an authentic distillate for which 
we determined the following constants: di5 
0,9806, aD + 2°55’, acid no. 5,5, ester no, 5,9, 
soluble in 1,5 and more vol. 90 per cent acohol. 


Tho yield of oi1 amoudted to 1,14 percent. A 
more detailed examination has recently been 
published by Semmler, at whose disposal we 
had_ placed the oil for the purpose, The princi- 
pal constituent of the oil was the dimethyl ether 
of thymohydroquinone, which had been found 
up to the present only in oil of arnica root by 
Sigel.—Schimmel & Co’s., Semi-Annuat Report, 
for April. 


RAMIE IN KOREA. 


Talking on the condition of industrial enter- 
prise in Korea Viscount Sone, Deputy Re- 
sident-General, says: ‘‘ Being convinced of 
the propects of ramie plantation in Korea I 
experimentally caused to be planted a large 
number of young plants along the line of the 
Seoul-Fusan and Seoul-Wiju Railways. The 
object of ramie planting in Korea is not 
intended for the stuff materials of superior 
woven fabrics as they are in Europe but it 
will be enough if the product be fitted for 
raw materials of paper manufacture, It is 
expected that the successful result of the 
plantation will in the long run give birth 
to a large paper-manufacturing enterprise.— 
Japan Times, May 23. 


USEFUL JAVA FIBRES. 


The Java Government has directed inquiries 
to be made into what fibres are produced in 
that island useful in the textiJe industry and 
in paper-making. The Department ot Agricul- 
ture are conducting an investigation to find 
out which of these fibres are suitable for the 
market as export articles. Three experts are 
now busy making these researches from che- 
mical, commercial, and scientific standpoints. 
A fourth expert is coming out from Holland to 
help them from the industrial point of view. 
—Straits Times, May 26. 


A BOTANIC GARDEN IN EAST JAVA. 


We learn from Mr. M Buysman that he has 
succeeded in establishing a botanic gardenin the 
hill country of Java, at a height of about 4,000 feet 
above sea level. The climate is good, except that 
the daily rainfall during the wet season (Novem- 
ber-April) israther trying. Most tropical plants, 
and those from warm temperate zones, flourish 
if they can stand damp, tor the dry season is 
tempered by the abundance of spring. Mr. 
Buysman has already a large collection of plants 
from all parts of the world, and it is of interest 
to note that he finds the Cornspurry and Chick- 
weed (Spergula arvensis and Stellaria media) 
troublesome weeds, even under conditions so 
foreign to their usual conditions of climate. 
Many plants known as annuals of comparatively 
lowly stature with us, reach, in this garden, 4 
considerable height, and become perennial. Thus 
Vicia Faba grows to about 7 ft., and is perennial, 
as also is the Flax. A large number of medi- 
cinal plants are grown, and much may be ex- 
pected from a systematic study of their ‘virtues,’ 
as many of them are held in high esteem by 
natives, although their use is notasyet recognised 
by Europeans.—Gardeners’ Chronicle, June 6. 


and Magazine of the Ceylon Agricultural Society. 


TEA PLANTING IN JAVA, 


We direct attention to the following very 
interesting and important letter from Mr. Noel 
Bingley which enters fully into the present 
condition and prospects of the ‘Tea-planting 
industry in Java. It will be remembered that 
Mr. Tomlinson, a young planter (an English- 
man), sent us (see page 499 Vol. XXX.) the 
wonderful results from what is universally 
admitted to be the richest Tea plantation 
in Java, and he pretty well indicated that 
there were other estates in the neighbour- 
hood nearly as good. Now it is to correct the 
impression such a statement may have made 
that Mr. Bingley writes; and he furnishes 
authentic particulars 
estates, including ‘* Malabar,” and shows how 
immense is the gap between that premier 
property and the next to it in ‘‘nett profits,” 
‘profits and dividend to shareholders.’ Malabar 
’ is in fact, three times as profitable as the best 
of its rivals (although the yield per acre does 
not differ so much) and seven times as rich as the 
average of the eight other properties. Still, Mr. 
Bingley’s figures, especially for the yield of tea 
per acre, are exceptionally interesting and the 
comparisons he makes with Ceylon—which he 
has visited more than once—and on the different 
modes of cultivation, are both suggestive and in- 
structive. It will be seen that leaving out 
Malabar with its abnorma! yield of 1,082 1b. per 
acre and ‘‘ No. 2,” with 992 lb., the crop of 
the other seven estates is very ordinary, the 
maximum being only 549 and the average 476 
lb. per acre. ‘The explanation of dividends 
up to 28 and 18 per cent with such yields 
must be found in cheap labour and an eco- 
nomical system of working in every way, and 
as to this Mr. Bingley’s letter offers important 
explanations. We have next to consider the 
development of the export trade in Java tea. 
This has been from 10,282,206 lb. in 1895 to 
27,595,449 lb. in 1907. Nothing alarming fora 
period covering 13 years, although apparently 
1908 is to show a considerable increase, unless 
the first four months are the best for tea 
cropping, since Mr. Bingley gives 12,194,749 
lb. as shipped for January-April of this year. 
There can be no doubt that with her excep- 
tionally fine soil and abundant labour, Java 
has great advantages both as a tea and rubber 
growing country; and it is no wonder that 
British capital has begun to flow in so freely 
in view of the liberal views of the Dutch 
Government towards foreigiu owners or share- 
holders in such estates, 


Java, June 8th. 


Dear §1z,—Having read with interest Mr. 
Tomlinson’s letter in your Weekly Edition of 
April 30th under above heading, giving the 
figures of the Malabar Tea Estate for 1907 book- 
year, as also your article and a letter signed 
‘‘Planter” in same paper, both referring to 
above figures, I think accompanying table, 
giving comparative figures of nine well-known 
Tea estates in Java, may be of interest to some 
of your readers. 


Lhave omitted from this list several well- 
known estates, where the cultivation of Cin- 
chona is combined with that of Tea, in order to 


fur some nine typical: 


89 


make a better comparison of the results of what 
are purely Tea estates in Java with ditto in 
Ceylon. 

These figures are taken from the latest Annual 
Reports available, and I may acd that’ the first 
six estates on my list would be included in 
any selection of the best ten Tea estates in Java, 
whilst the 3 last are also good average estates, 
and fairly represent the rank and file, 


Especially interesting are the figures of Crop 
per acre, from which will be seen that the 
Malabar figures you published are quite ab- 
normal, even for Java, and that, with the 
exception of estate No. 2, which adjoins it, 
none in this list, or as far as I know in Java, are 
‘‘in the same street,” the average crop per acre 
working out 600 lb. inclusive of No. 1 (Malabar) 
or 480 Ib. exclusive of it, against an average in 
the statement you published of 1,('82 per acre all 
round on Malabar, or 1.559 Ib. for 7 year old 
gardens, which most of the tea on several of the 
estates on this list must certainly be. 


The query expressed in your article on this 
subject as to whether there are, or are ever 
likely to be, many ‘‘ Malabars” in Java, is to the 
point, in spite of the statement in the letter un- 
der review that ‘‘there are many other estates 
run on Dutch lines (in contradistinction to the 
accepted Ceylon method of cultivation and manu- 
facture) which show nearly as wonderful results.” 
If there are, [don’t know them; whilst as regards - 
the suggested comparison in above extract I can 
only say (without in any way wishing to depre- 
ciate or belittle the well-known excellent man- 
agement of '* Malabar’ and, in fact. of the majo- 
rity of the well-known tea estates in Java) that 
if the ‘‘rough and ready ” system of pruning and 
plucking (especially ‘‘tipping’) which were a 
few years ago almost universal, and are siill pre- 
valent on very many of the Java Tea Kstates, 
had been indulged in on the steep and compara- 
tively poor soils of Dikoya and Maskeliya, | 
fancy a large proportion of the Ceylon Estates I 
have in my mind's eye would have ceased to pro- 
duce anything at ail, or return any dividend 
whatever, a long time before this. 


It is not the thousand odd lb. per acre of 
tea grown in Java at 5,000 ft. elevation, from the 
best Assam jats procurable, on what is practi- 
cally a flat eae of the most fertile soil 
to be found even in this country of rich 
soils, that I find deserving of wonder; but 
rather the average crops obtained from many 
estates I know of in Ceylon, planted on steep 
washed land, with a soil that one would not 
consider tea soil at all in Java—aud the same 
applies to the satisfactory, and on the whole 
consistent, dividends which the Companies 
owning such estates seem to be able to pay their 
shareholders. 

This is entirely due to and only possible be- 
cause of the ‘accepted methods of Veylon culti- 
vation,” the absence of which, ‘tin contradis- 
tinction to the methods on estates run on Dutch 
lines,” the letter of your correspondent seems to 
suggest accounts for the results that Malabar 
and other Java estates can shew. 


No one who has ever visited the tea districts 
of Ceylon, and compared the soils and the 
system of cultivation there withthe same in 
Java, could fail, I think, to come tothe same 


2 


90 


couclusion,—and an interesting object lesson is 
to beseen at the moment on one of the largest 
and best known tea estatesin Java, where the 
more rough and ready Java system of cultivation 
has hitherto been de rigueur and (the estate 
being no longer a young one) had begun to tell 
badly on crops and profits alike.—A year ago 
this estate passed under the management of a 
well-known Dutch planter, who has had special 
opportunities during the last few years of study- 
ing the methods and results of the more strin- 
gent Ceylon system of pruning and plucking as 
practised now on some of the ordinary average 
estates in Java. 


The alteration in this short period in appear- 
ance of the gardens is something astounding, 
whilst everything points to the conclusion that 
the difference in the Crops and dividends will be 
equally so. The essential difference in hitherto 
accepted methods of Java and Ceylon ‘‘ Tea 
Cultivation ’”’ lies in the fact that where the 
Java planter has inthe past directed his chief 
attention to “‘ grond bewerking ” (constant dig- 
ging and forking of the ground, quite oblivious 
of the destruction of the root system that this 
cultivation entails if not done with the greatest 
care, and only under exceptional circumstances), 
and considered careful pruning and plucking 
(especially ‘‘tipping” after pruning) as a 
secondary consideration, the Ceylon planter has 

-“‘worked” his bush for all it is worth—and if one 
compares old tea on inferior ground—very otten 
of inferior jat—-in Ceylon, with old tea of the 
same age on tar better soil, and generally supe- 
rior jat, in Java, no possible doubtis left in 
one’s mird as to which ‘‘ accepted method of 
cultivation ” is the best,—and my remembrance 
of conversations with the late Mr Kingsford and 
Mr Kelway Bamber, whom I accompanied on 
some of their visits to Tea estates on the occasion 
of their trip to Java in 1904, when they came 
over here to study Java methods of Tea Culti- 
vation and Manufacture, is that they formed 
much the sameconclusion. Asregards ‘‘accepted 
methods of Manufacture ” there is not much to 
choose or to compare between Ceylon and Java. 
Generally speaking, Java-grown leaf requires 
different treatment in the Factory from that 
usual in Ceylon, and gets it. The fact that’ the 
margin between the Java and Ceylon Averages 
has for the last few years been steadily dimin- 
ishing and seems likely to reach vanishing point, 
shews that Java planters are on the right road 
as far as manufactureis concerned. Knclosed 
list of the exports of tea from Java for the last 
(13) years may interest your readers. The ex- 
tensions in Tea in Java during the last two 
or three years have been comparatively moderate 
whilst the area of good suitable land available for 
Tea in Java is now distinctly limited, chiefly owing 
to the policy of the Governmentin reserving enor- 
mous areas of land for Forest purposes, and for 
present and future requirements of the vast and 
ever-increasing population of this island. 


In view of above figures and facts I think the 
visions of Java output in the immediate future, 
which the ‘‘ Malabar ” figures have conjured up 
in the mind of ‘‘ Planter” will not become 
realised, or offer the competition to Ceylon tea- 
growers—at any rate for many years to come— 


The Supplement lo the Tropical Agriculturist 


that the correspondence that has appeared in 
the Ceylon Observer on ‘Tea in Java ” seems to 
suggest.—I am, dear Sir, ycurs faithfully, 


NOEL BINGLEY. 


P.S.—As I have been promised the Annual 
Reports of several other Java Tea Companies I 
hope to be able to render you in the early 
future a more coniplete statement of Java tea 
results, which may be of interest to some of 
your readers.—N, B. 


aS 
A 5 o a 2 5 Ll T 
Sy ey oe zg 6 o°0 er Meena 
£ 2 S ex S 7 3 
Bol Sane z ere ea) ke 
No it Fi Er rer ib. ae La 
15,000 11th 200,000 2,124 1,682 12:02 30°90 
2 5,000 11th 175,000 525 992 1653 30°74 
3 8,500 11th 200,000 679 473.-««19°07—S 35°88 
4 3,500 22nd 200,000 716 «©6549-2016 = 83742 
5 3,500 13th 200,000 628 465 23°70 37°24 
6 8,500 15th 951,000 887 446 24:09 38°54 
7 3,000 10th 100,000 445 475 99°24 32°02 
175,000 
8 3,500 isth wi 25c00 499 470 2460 30°47 
ebentures 1 
9 2,500 11th z 185,000 787 464 18°98 27°25 

5 =) ; 

g af). 2 Been See 
“8 gs a asa | 
2 5 3a 2 oun Bo & 
a ag 5 bas eS © 
cet n [Sr = aos oo a=} 
g g os 3 OAs Ae > 

= a8 ® ofa Bf 6 

oS am A as n 
No: f: f. ts f, £3 per 

cent, 

413,569'51 145,266°75 316,829°39 1C7,302°76 161,000 804 

2 95,908°83 17,09705 + 78,811°78 29,811°78 49,u00 28 
3 71,459°01 11,459°01 60,000" — 15,000°-- 45,000 224 
4 73,466°53  22,043'45 5 1,423°08 15,423°08 36,000 18 
5 47,374°85  2,975°46 44,399°39 16,399°39 28,000 14 
6 45,805'70 3,986°81 —41,818°89 11,818°89 30,000 15 
7 23,397°04  9,348°32 14,048°72 4,048°72 10,000 10 
8 26,96: *83 1,682°28 19,428°57 5,828°57 13,600 8 
9 26,388'72  26,388°72 — — - — 
[For our private information we have re- 
ceived the names of the estates to which the 


above numbers refer.—Ep., C. O.] 


SraATEMENT oF JAVA TEA SHIPPED FROM 1895 UP 
TO AND INcLUDING APRIL, 1908. 


YEAR, IXILOS. ENGLISH L 
1895 ; 2,673,730 10,282,206 
1896 4 4,554,980 10,029,956 
1897 : 4,794,045 10,546,899 
1898 3 6,328,738 11,723,228 
1899 3 5,771,199 12,709,837 
1900 6,626,358 14,577,987 
1901 7,444,310 16,377,484 
1902 7,386,674 16,250,682 
1903 9,882,204 2',740,848 
1904 11,055, 262 co 24,321,576 
1905 go 11,716,517 oa 25,776,327 
1906 ate 12,151,568 60 26,733,140 
1907 i 12,543,386 27,595,449 
1908 Jan. / April 5,543,168 12,195,740 


——— 


BORNEO COPRA AND OIL MAKING, 


The Resident of Dutch South West Borneo 
calls attention to the flourishing condition of 
the copra trade there, especially with Singa- 
The Government is doing its best to im- 
prove the quality of the copra produced by 
supervising strict 


pore. 


its 


preparation for the 


| 
market. But, for all that, much inferior copra is 
notonly prepared, but it is also sold. The buyers 
readily snap up the article, knowing as they do, 
that any kind of copra finds sale in Singapore 
for oil-making.—Straits Times, June 1. 


and Magazine of the Ceylon Agricullural Society. 1 


RUBBER PLANTING IN CEYLON. 


PLANTERS’ EXPERIENCE IN 
“TAPPING” WITH SOME OF THE 
OLDEST TREES IN THE ISLAND. 


We recently .reproduced an _ interesting 
short contribution from the London Times 
entitled ‘‘ Some impressions of Rubber Planting 
in Ceylon,” evidently from the pen of a visitor. 
The following was the portion relating to 
rubber-tapping :— 

“ Having had no previous experience—most 
of their knowledge has been attained from 
text books—tapping has been wrongly and 
often badly carried out, with the result that 
the trees have been damaged at a time when 
they are extremely susceptible to rough 
usage. In the great planting fever of two and 
three years ago many rushed in and planted 
without any regard to the quality of seed. 
And just as the owners of some tea gardens 
are now regretting having planted a bad jat 
or variety of seed, so in the future planters 
of poor rubber will repent their haste. As far 
as one can judge, the effect of continual tap- 
ping over a long period of time is not fully 
known. It does not follow that, because 
during the first four or five years of tapping 
no apparent injury is done to the trees, the 
same will be the case in 12 or 15 years’ time. 


Much rubber has been tapped badly and too 
soon by the origiral owners of estates in order 
that a large yield per acre may be obtained 
before selling to a Company, and the trees 
have been hacked to pieces regardless of after- 
effects. One cannot too strongly deprecate the 
action of tapping before the trees are ready. 
In one or two cases which have come under 
the writer’s notice and there must be many 
more) this has been carefully guarded agairst, 
the trees having been given anextra year after 
the tappable age has been reached. Such ac- 
tion as this can have but one effect, that of 
increasing the yield in the future,” 


We have thought it well to endeavour to collect 
the experience of practical planters dealing 
with some of the oldest Rubber trees in the 
island. We, accordingly, issued the following 
circular letter to eight plantations which ap- 
peared to us to represent the longest experience 
in tapping :— 

Dear Sir,— Referring to the contribution in the London 
Times {see Observer, June 16th) on some impressions of 
rubber planting in Ceylon, we should be gladif you would 
inform us: 

1. Whatisthe age of the oldest rubber trees on your 
charge, J 

2. Whether any of these trees—regularly tapped since 
they first yielded latex—have ceased to yield any ?—if so, 
for how long and freyuently they have been tapped. 

8. Whether any other rubber trees under your observa- 
tion have been tapped up toa point when they ceased to 
bear at all:—(a) Ageof these: (b) Frequency of tapping. 

4. Were there any apparent or evident reasons why 
the trees in (2) or (3) ceased to give latex ? 

Thanking you very much if you'can spare the time to 
answer these brief questions of general interest to the 
investor and grower, &e: y 

From six of the Managers so addressed we 
have been favoured with replies and although 
only one makes it a condition to omit his name 
and that of estate in publishing his information; 


yet to prevent invidious or unpleasant feeling, 


we number the replies and'zive thom with no 
other indication than location ,'Pho. firsti-"te 
come to hand was from a’ planiatioOa sone ft 
miles South of Colombo and the Manager 
wrote ; — 

In answer to your letter of 16th :— 

(1) Age :—13 or 15 years, 

(2) No trees have ceased to yield latex. They 
have been tapped for over 5 years regularly, and 

(3) No trees have been so tapped. 

(4) Ihave found the flow of latex to increase 
with age of trees. 

Then we have experience from the heart of 
the Kalutara district :— 

The oldest rubber trees on this estate are 28 
years and others at 15 years, they have been re- 
gularly tapped for the past 8 years, and none 
have to date shown any signs of ceasing to yield, 
though a large number of trees were damaged 
by the early primitive methods of tapping. 


From another plantation in the neighbour- 
hood, we have the following :— 

With reference to your letter of 17th inst. re 
yield and age of rubber on this estate, I annex 
replies :— 

(1) Age of oldest trees, 18 to 19 years, 

(2) Regularly tapped since 1900. None have 
ceased to yield. Tapped regularly 10 months 
every year. 

(3) None. 

Yet another and specially interesting report 
from a gentleman who writes :— 

In reference to your letter of 17th inst, :—- 

No. 1. Trees are from 2 to 10 years with the 
exception of one tree about 14 years. 


Nos. 2 & 3. Theold tree was tapped for 12 
months and gave 144 lb. dry rubber; it was then 
given 15 months’ rest, and—tapped for a second 
period of almost a year—it gave 14lb. dry rubber 
again, but some of the cuts ceased to yield and 
I stopped tapping. It has now had a short rest 
of about 2 months, and I noticed this morning 
that the cells are again filling and a small 
quantity flowed, I know of nc apparent reason 
why it should have ceased to yield, except 
perhaps over-tapping. 

I trust these particulars will be of interest. 
On all trees the flow of latex is regulated by the 
state of the weather; it flows much freer in cool, 
damp weather, and in dry it is difficult to get 
the thick latex to flow at all without the appli- 
cation of plenty of water. 


Even fuller is the reply of a Manager who has 
taken a special interest in the topic discussed:— 


Seeing that so few rubber estates are in 
bearing there is little wonder that the majority 
of rubber planters know very little about rub- 
ber tapping or curing. Hence the advantage of 
the inexperienced Superintendent with his 
inexperienced labour starting as early as pos- 
sible, with what trees are available, to pick up 
the work himself and to train his labour, 


Seed should, of course, be good ; but the im- 
portant point is the very best plants at any cost. 
Good seed does not necessarily mean good plants. 


I have no experience of the results obtain- 
able from trees that have been tapped conti- 
nuously for 12—15 years, With the necessary 
care, however, to prevent coming back to the 
renewed bark too quickly there is nothing to 


6 


92, The Supplement to the Tropical Agriculturist. 


show at present that results should not be as 
aahsfaptory in tnefutureas now. With conti- 
nivous" tapping “carried out with care the 
opinion I have arrived at is that we shall kave 
normal yields. 

“* A correspondent ” says he knows of cases 
where trees have been allowed to go an extra 
year ‘‘ after the tappable age has been reached.” 
He does not say what the ‘‘ tappable age” is? 
He then goes on to say ‘‘Such action as this 
ean have but one effect, that of increasing the 
yield in the future. This is a statement which 
without ‘“‘a correspondent’s” arguments and con- 
ditions is difficult to tollow. You can tap say 
anywhere on a tree where the girth is 18” at 
any age and with very great care can, I think, 
do good. Not, however, as in cases I have 
heard of, with a view to getting large returns. 
Latex here is not the primary point, but part 
of the cultivation. 

The only ‘‘upcountry”’—that is, medium 
elevation--report, runs as follows :-- 

In reply to your letter of 17th instant. 

(1). 14-15 years old. 

(2). Periodically, but not permanently. 

(3). No. 

I tap a tree for three months; then give it 
three months’ rest; hence each tree is only tapped 
six months in the year. I have all systems of 
tapping, the V, the spiral and the semi-spiral, 
but I have no figures to show which method 
gives the best results. Most of my tapping is 
on the V system and comparing my yield per 
tree with other places which adopt the 
full or semi-spiral systems, I am in favour of 
the V tapping and for the following reasons :— 

Firstly.—The V cut removes less bark than 
any other methods. 

Secondly.—I get the same yield per acre at 
a smaller cost. The following are my figures 
forthe last seven years. (This is as far as the 
records go back.) 

1901 1,051 Ib., 1902 2,902 lb., 19°3_7,272 Ib., 
1904 20,665 lb., 1905 27,008, 1906 32,156 lb., 1907 
32,254 1b. I will be glad to give you any more 
information on the subject should you require it.” 

Tendering our special thanks to our several 
correspondents we think it will be admitted 
that the tenor of each of the above reports will 
have a decidedly reassuring and_ satisfactory 
effect on the minds ofall interested in the Ceylon 
Rubber Industry. 


RUBBER CULTIVATION IN JAVA. 


TOTAL EXTENT ABOUT 58,000 ACRES. 
SN OMISSION SUPPLIED. 
Java, June 10th. 

DEAR S1R,—With reference to the copy of my 
Notes on Rubber Cultivation sent to H.B.M.’s 
Consul in Batavia and reprinted on page 486 
of your issue of May, [ much regret to inform 
you that owing to an error in typing. 
a line (see words in italics) was missed out 
of the copy which was sent you. The sentence 
commencing on the 19th line from the begin- 
ning of my statement should therefore read :— 


‘‘No statistics are available for the acreage 
not represented at above Congress, but from 
information taken this can be safely put at 


10,000 bowws, giving a tolal acreage in Java under 
Liubber of 33,000 bouws or about 58,000 acres.” 

I much regret that this matter was not re- 
ferred to me again before my notes were put 
into print, but trust that you will see your 
way to make a note of the above correction 
in a future issue of your paper.—I am, dear 


Sir, yours faithfully, 
NOEL BINGLEY. 


[It gives.us special pleasure to insert this. By 
the Knglish mail we have the following :— 


RUBBER IN JAvA.—A good deal of interest 
continues to be shown in the cultivation of rub- 
ber-producing trees throughout Netherlands 
India, and the suitability of the climate and 
soil, togther with the labour advantages which 
Java possesses over most tropical countries, has 
resulted in considerable and increasing Kuro- 
pean capital being put into rubber enterprises 
there. According to statistics lately compiled, 
the capital of British companies interested in 
rubber in the Dutch East Indies, but domiciled 
in the United Kingdom, amounted to nearly 
£1,500,000. This, however, does not include 
the numerous companies formed during the 
last tew years, also with British capital, but 
domiciled in Java, which may be estimated at 
another £250,000. The first conference of rub- 
ber planters was held in October last, at which 
it was resolved to institute an experimental 
station with nurseries, which Mr. Consul Ste- 
wart, repurting upon the trade and commerce 
of the island (Annual Series No. 3991) thinks 
should prove valuable to rubber planters. The 
area at present under cultivation is estimated 
at some 58,000 acres in Java, 25,000 acres in 
Sumatra, and 7,000 acres in Borneo, of which 
most of the older rubber, and nearly all that 
is in bearing (say one-half of the whole acre- 
age) must be Ficus elastica, as the cultivation 
of the Para variety dates only from 195 on- 
wards, At present exports are still inconsider- 
able, but in the course of a few years the Dutch 
East Indies are likely to prove an important 
factor in the rubber markets of Europe. 
Journal of the Royal Society of Arts, June 5. 
—Ep., | 


PLANTING IN B.C. AFRICA, 


NYASSALAND NOT ADVANCING—COFFEE CROPS 
GOOD--COTTON RISKY—TOBACCO GOING 
AHEAD—TEA PROMISING—LABOUR 
CHEAPEST IN WORLD ! 


‘“H.B.’s” letter reprinted hereafter gives some 
interesting information. He advises that tea 
grows well and that land and latour are the 
cheapest in the world.—In connection with this 
part of the world (though by no means so far 
inland) we see thatin a despatch dated December 
17th last the Governor ot East Africa said :— 


There is a growing tendency amongst the 
white settlers in the uplands to keep the Indian, 
not only out of the uplands, but out of the 
country altogether. The spirit is akin to that 
prevailing in Natal and elsewhere, and is due to 
the fact that the white cannot compete in the 
east with the Indian shopkeeper for supplies of 
provisions and articles in daily use, oras a 
petty trader, 


and Magazine of the Ceylon Agricullural Sociely. 98 


By all means let us keep the land in the 
uplands, known asthe white settlement area, 
for whites only ; but outside this I see no reason 
why we should not give small allotments of Jand 
to agricultural Indians—not to Indian traders, 
who would not themselves cultivate—on the 
terms proposed by the Commissioner of Lands. 
I am instructing Col. Montgomery accordingly. 

Lord Elgin, in his concluding despatch ap- 
proves of this view. 

M’lanje, May 24. 

I am glad to see by the grand cld Ubserver 

that Ceylon is going ahead with Railway 


Extensions. Fancy getting into a train for 
Ratnapura and Badulla (and I hope Man- 
nar for the cooly emigrants’ sake in no 


very distant date) instead of the hard tedious 
and wearisome journey by roads as in days of 
old, on horseback, coach, bullock bandy, or 
hackery. I shall never forget some of the jour- 
neys I made between 20 and 35 years ago to those 
out-of-the-way places. 

Tea seems booming again with an average of 
8d. in London. Ceylon planters should be 
cheery, but they are never otherwise seemingly. 
Even rubber dropping to 3/6 per lb. does not seem 
to affect them in the least. You are to beenvied, 
indeed, with such capital at your command, and 
such go-ahead men to utilise it, 


Poor Nyassaland is not advancing as it might 
do and our railway, although completed to 
Blantyre, does not seem to do much for the 
country. It was thought when completed that 
this Protectorate would be boomed a bit; and 
capital and men would turn up to develop the 
resources of this ‘tCinderella of Africa” as Sir 
Harry Johnston calied it. 

Soffee crops are good this year on those 
properties that have any in cultivation, and 
there should be a decent export before the 
end of the year. 

Cotton is now only planted in a few favoured 
lovalities where it has been found that soil and 
climate are favourable, it is a very risky crop 
indeed. An estate near here planted up some 
300 acres last year, and the whole of it was so 
blighted that it might be termed a complete 
failure as it only yielded a few cwts. of cotton. 
Strange to say the same land was planted again 
this year and has a grand crop of cotton, the 
finest I have seen in the country. 


Tobacco is being cultivated to a much 
greater extent than it ever was in the 
country before, as the Imperial Tobacco Co. 
of Great Britain and Ireland have tendered 
their support to planters and are not only 
growing tobacco themselves, but are buyers 
for spot cash. Huge stores and factories are 
being erected at the Railway Terminus Blan- 
tyre for storing, packing, &c., by this Company. 
Prices of tobacco range from 2d to 8d. per lb., 
and as it is an annual crop that never fails, I 
may say there is encouragement for planting 
this weed and money shculd be made out of 
this product by those who have the means to 
go in for it on a large scale, 


Tea gave avery good yield last year, as we 
had a good rainy season. Our total for the 
year was 107 inches well distributed too. The 
growth of tea on young clearings has been very 
satisfactory, too, 


There is a fine chance now here for would-be 
tea planters. Labour is going a-begging every- 
where and land and living, as well as labour, is 
cheaper in Nyassaland than anywhere in the 
world, I may say. Further I do not think 
Ceylon can extend in the tea line very much 
further, neither can India; so the price must 
keep up as consumption has overtaken pro- 
duction, 


H. B. 


COPRA. 


PRODUOING SEASON AND A 


LOW MARKET, 


A BIG 


REMARKABLE EXCESS IN PRODUCE FROM CEYLON 
AND SINGAPORE, 


The remarkably large excess in the shipment 
of copra from Ceylon to Great Britain and 
Europe, during the period between Jan. 1st to 
June 15, thisyear, as compared with the first 
five months of last year, is worth calling 
attention to. The figures are :-- 

January 1 to June 15, 1907 .. candies 108,246 
198 158,640 


..candies 650,394 


” ” ” 


Showing an excess of 


The ruling price today, accerding to our 
Copra expert, is from 50:00 to 50°62 per candy ; 
and the tendency is towards a decline. A few 
years ago the ruling rate was R45 to R46 per 
candy for good estate stuff ; and this rose until 
the record price of RS&S6 was obtained in 
February last year. Such a condition of affairs 
was, of course, abnormal. The South Sea 
Islands, a notabla producing centre, had 
suffered badly from hurricanes, and stocks in 
Europe were low. 

Looking at 

The Singapore Market Report 
also, we tind the same remarkable excess of 


exports :— 
To Great Britain for first 5 months of 
1907 ats ..piculs 12,227 
Do do ido? = of1908..0 5 29,491 
Excess in 1908.. 17,264 


To Continent of Europe in same period 


of 1907 F ..Piculs 163,097 
Do do do of 1998... 5; 317,761 
Excess in 1908 . 154,664 


It will thus be seen that while Ceylon has 
increased by 50 per cent. Singapore has practi- 
cally doubled its exports so far this year; 
providing the contributory factors to the 
decline in present prices and the prevailing 
tendency of the market, Of course, too, the 
big crop season is now ‘‘on”; and with the 
present abundance of nuts on estates there 
is bound to be a further drop in prices. 


According to our copra expert there is just 
now a strong likelihood of another important 
local firm entering the market, which should 
contribute to improved competition. 


Unless some unforeseen calamity takes place, 
such as an unlikely repetition of the South Sea 
disaster in our own, or the Singapore estates, 
there is a likelihood of present rates not being 
reached in the near future, and a low price 
prevailing throughout the coming season, 


oO The Supplement to the Tropical Agriculturist 


‘LOW PRICED CAMPHOR”’ 


Is the heading ofan article in the New York Ov 
Pain tand Drug Reporter, May 25th which tells us 
(inter alia) :—The expression ‘* how low are the 
mighty fallen” may be well applied at the pre- 
sent moment tothevalueof Camphor. Not sovery 
long ago the refined gum sold in this country 
at $1.24 per pound; today the same goods are 
freely offered at 52 cents. Such a sweeping dis- 
parity seem well nigh incomprehensible, It 
certainly appears extraordinary that a staple 
article of commerce like camphor could fluctuate 
between such extreme high and low figures. 
Camphor at one dollar and twenty-four cents 
per pound, wholesale, is changed from a house- 
hold necessity to a luxury which few people 
of moderate means can afford, and its at one 
time almost universal use as an insecticide was 
discontinued except in rare instances, and so 
substitutes have come to find a place so 
well established that it will take considerable 
effort and very low-priced camphor to replace. 
As a result of the Russo-Japanese war and 
from other causes, the natural position of the 
gum became exceptionally strong. Then through 
a series of circumstances the distribution of 
campher in this country became vested in a 
few hands, competition was stifled and prices, 
which were also favoured by natural conditions, 
soared to the unprecedented level quoted in 
the spring of last year. But it is always 
dangerous to the permanent good of an industry 
to force the value of its product to phenomenal 
limits; it attracts too much attention, and 
unless the monopoly is absolute and compete, 
which is seldom (if ever) the case, competition 
in some form or other is bouad to creep in, 
and—when it does—it generally comes to stay. 
Chinese camphor received an extraordinary 
impetus from the high prices of Japan and 
the synthetic product got quite a boom. 
Nothing so stimulates invention as the force 
of necessity, and so the chemists were en- 
couraged to work on the production of artificial 
camphor toan extent which alarmed the Mono- 
poly Bureau of Japan. But after all acomparison 
with the high and low figures of previous years 
does not tend to make the present price of 
52 cents per bulk camphor appear so remarkable. 
In 1898, or ten years ago, camphor sold as low 
as 33 cents and did not exceed 374 cents during 
the entire year. In 1899 it gradually rose to 
51. cents and during the following two years 
fluctuated between this figure and 604 cents. 
It fell again in 1902 to 57 cents, and continued 
close to this price throughout the following 
twelve months. From 1904 to 1907 camphor rose 
gradually but surely, with few set-backs until 
the highly level mark of $1.24 was reached curing 
the early part of last year. It should be 
worthy of notice that the growth of the Chinese 
camphor industry has had much to do in the 
lowering of values. At one time, not very long 
ago, receipts from this source were both light 
in quantity and poor in quality, but of late 
there has been a decided change in both 
opposite directions and in view of the greater 
price inducements offered, it holds at the 
moment a decided advantage. 


‘““BRITISH MALAYA AS A FIELD FOR 
INVESTMENT ”’ 


Is the heading of a paper in’ ‘‘ Chambers’s 
Journat” for June, by Sir Frank A. Swettenham, 
There is nothing very new to our readers and 
there is perhaps too little made of certain draw- 
backs and difficulties attendant on fresh in- 
vestments at the present time of day. The 
cultivation of rubber, Sir Frank mentions, was 
not seriously taken in hand till eight years 
ago when Liberian rubber failed. The rush 
in Ceylon came a little later and yet strange 
to say three if not four editions of our 
“Rubber Planters’ Manual” were taken off 
by Ceylon and Malayan and Java _ planters 


between 1887 and 1903 and before Mr. 
Herbert Wright turned his attention to the 
subject! We read how Penang and Province 


Wellesley have long had staple industries in 
rice and coconuts, as wellassugar. Malacca 
has rice, coconuts and tapioca with rubber of 
recent years. Tin-mining was the great industry 
in the Malay States, until first coffee and then 
rubber planters came on thescene. Sir Frank 
actually recommends ‘‘ sugar” as a catch crop 
for large estates of coconuts or rubber! He 
goes into full detail as to the rubber ‘* boom ” 
and recent if not present depression. — Sir 
Frank has no faith in ‘' synthetic” rubber 
proving a practical success, and he has high 
chemical authority on his side, as we showed 
in 1906 when Mr, Tilden (Professor of Chemistry, 
Royal College of Science, London, F.R.s., and a 
very bigh authority on his subject) at the British 
Association meeting at York, told us that if he 
were a young man in Ceylon he would plant all 
the rubber he could without the slightest fear of 
competition from ‘‘synthetic rubber.” As a speci- 
men of Sir Frank Swettenham’s writing and 
argument, we give the conclusion of his paper 
—a paper that is sure tobe read very widely 
all over English-speaking countries :— 


The planters of Ceylon have earned a well- 
deserved reputation for courage, persistence, 
and resource in adverse circumstances. There 
are many of them in Malaya; and they and there 
colleagues, who have only local experience, must 
recognise the conditions, which fortunately are 
far from adverse, but still need firm and intelli- 
gent treatmert and the undivided .attention of 
each manager to hisown chargé. The fact that 
a considerable proportion of the 1907 produce. 
can only realise a reduced price must affect 
future dividends, but thoughtful shareholders 
willremember that these and previous dividends 
have been earned on the produce of a fraction of 
the planted area of their property, and even 
the tappable trees are all still young and have not 
yet reached anything like the limit of their 
yielding capacity. There is no doubt that even 
with rubber at two shillings and sixpence per 
pound the cultivation of Para will pay well; for 
it can be put on the market at one shilling “and 
sixpence per pound, and itis questionable 
whether the forest rubber of South America 
can be brought to market at that price. With 
proper economy, good management, and no un- 
foreseen calamity, thoughtful planters believe . 
that it may be possible: to reduce the cost of 


and Magazine of the Ceylon Agriculiural Sociely, 5 


production to ove shilling per pound; while 
those who give special attention to uniformity 
and excellence in the preparation of their rub- 
ber will always be rewarded by securing the 
best prices. So far as it is possible to judge 
the future by past results, British Malaya offers 
a good opportunity for sound investment in 
alluvial tin-mining and in the cultivation of 
rubber and coconuts as permanent industries, 
Sugar and tapioca have both been used as catch- 
crops with satisfactory results ; and, in Johore 
especially, Chinese planters have made fortunes 
out of the combined cultivation of gambier and 
pepper, using gambier as the catch-crop. So 
much depends upon good management that suc- 
cess cannot be expected unless that condition is 
secured; with the right men in charge of mine 
and plantation, a property combining these two 
industries might prove a very successful under- 
taking, for the tin-mine should be able to return 
good dividends while the rubber was being plan- 
ted and brought to the producing stage. 


SUMATRA COFFEE. 


Evits of FrE& CuntivatioN DEMONSTRATED, 


The Malay Coffee growers in the Province of 
West Sumatra were relieved lately of the bur- 
den of the compulsory delivery of their pro- 
duce to the Government at a fixed price, which 
was far below the market value, and were 
allowed to sell the berry freely, there being 
no longer any official supervision in the matter. 
The results of this freedom have been disas- 
trous in several districts. The coffee is plucked 
green for the sake of greed. The berries are 
boiled, scraped and dried over a fire. The 
coffee thus treated keeps its colour well fora 
few days, but, afterwards, the berries become 
spotted or whitish in appearance. Yet, such 
is the competition among dealers that this bad 
articlo fetches good prices. With such prac- 
tices, Padang coffee will surely lose its good 
name very soon.—-Straits Times, June 16. 


JAPAN TEA EXPORT TRADE. 


This year’s toa manufacturing industry con- 
tinues to present a good prospoct though 
owing to somewhat stagnant transaction in the 
American market the quotation generally has 
fallen by 10 per cent, compared with last year. 
The situation is considered not to be improved 
_ andconsequently the manufacturers in Shizuoka 
and other tea producing prefectures have 
adopted measures to produce more of middle 
and inferior articles which can be produced at 
less cost and in larger quantity than com- 
paratively unremunerative superior tea. This 
tendency is denounced by some as likely to 
damage the trade. However, reflecting on the 
condition of the general consumers in America, 
this is thought rather unavoidable, as the 
superior Japanese tea is too costly to meet 
the general demand and is no rival to the 
cheap Indian tea, sothat the demand in America 
is naturally in favour of the inforior article. 
A decrease of 10 percent or so is anticipated 
in this year’s crop. In view of the reduction 
of 10 per cent, in the price and the decrease 
of 10 per cent in the production, the total 


~ 


export for this year is estimated as something 
lie 8,000,000 yen, a decrease of 2,000,000 ;yen 
in comparison with last year. The export 
markets in Yokohama and Shizuoka are active 
as both places are making energetic efforts to 
attract the trade to their respective ports. 
This is in truth a very influential factor in main- 
taining the market price of export tea. The 
result of direct export from Shimizu has proven 
a great success, the total amount of export 
during last year reaching 12,633,700 odd cattles. 
This year’s figure is exported to be even greater 
than last year so that it will compete with 
Yokohama as far as the teaexport is concerned, 
—Japan Times. June 6. 


RAMBONG AT THE RUBBER 
EXHIBITION, 


The Dutch Indies’ Display. 

To ensure a representative display of Nether- 
lands India products, a committee has been for- 
med under the presidency of Professor Treub, 
the Head of the Agricultural Department. 
Shipping companies have been written to in 
order to secure freight reductions on rubber 
exhibits by the Syndicate. Planters are urged 
to interest themselves most in Ficus Elastca 
exhibits, on the ground that this kind of rub- 
ber which has been found to be useful for 
varlous purposes needs to have gerater public 
attention focussed upon it. The Syndicate 
dwells upon the merits of the Ficus which is 
better known under the name of getah rambong, 
and the advantages of so preparing the speci- 
mens of it, as to show at a glance the good 


qualities of the article. Success in this 
line will be of enormous benefit to the 
planting community, and to the Colony 


generally. The Ficus is indigenous to Java, 
and thrives there, beside having the addi- 
tional advantages of requiring -but little care 
and attention. The Syndicate points out 
that Para rubber is a foreign plant, the culti- 
vation of which is hampered by diseases costly 
and hard to check, This is not the case with 
Ficus, so that its cultivation is not only remu- 
nerative, butis just the thing for the natives 
because of the httle care needed. 

Planters are urged finally by the Syndicate 
to do their very best to show that Ficus Hevea. 
and other kinds of rubber flourish in Java, 
and that labour thereis cheap. Another point 
dwelt upon is the need for bringing forward 
the claims of Sumatra as a rubber producer. 
There, large stretches of fruitful land are lying 
idle awaiting capital and labour for develop- 
ment, with exceedingly bright prospects of 
fabulous profits.—Malay Mail, June 19. 


NEW MANGO SUPPLIES. 


A correspondent writes that, as the result of 
importing grafts of the famous Alfoos Bombay 
mango into Florida through the United States 
Consul in India, the Florida fruit-tree propa- 
gators claim that in a few years time they will 
he enabled to ship quantities of these fruits 
to London. The great difficulty experienced 
hereafter with the Bombay mangoes consisted 
in the inability of shippers to get the matured 


06 The Supplement to the Tropical Agriculturist 


fruits upon the English markets in quantity. 
The mango is a tender fruit after once it begins 
to ripen. By shipping Bombay Alfoos or 
Alphonso mangoes from Fiorida this difficulty 
will be overcome, as there will be no trouble 
or risk in exporting them with such a shortened 
voyage. ‘he variety named is admittedly the 
finest fruit of its class grown. It is popular 
in the Bombay markets, where it sells freely 
and commends high prices. These latter often 
range from 4d to 6d each fruit. During recent 
years the Florida fruit-raisers have been de- 
voting close attention to the commercial culture 
ot the Bombay Alfoos mango, finding it the 
highest quality variety obtainable for sale. It 
is even said that the flavour and quality of 
the Alphonso are improved through the culture 
of the tree in American soil. Already a great 
demand has sprung up for Bombay mangoes 
in Eastern American cities especially. It 1s 
expected that the first supplies of these man- 
goes in London will realise at least 9d each and 
in quantity wholesale, too.—London Times, 
June 12. 


AMERICAN REPORT ON RUBBER IN 
THE F.M.S. 


An interesting report on the agriculture and 
industries of the Federated Malay States has 
just been issued by Mr. Haynes, the American 
Consul-General at Singapore. We quote the 
following from the report :—‘‘ Rubber is the chief 
agricultural product. At the beginning of the 
past year there were 240 estates, with 10,745,000 
trees, an increase of 4,000,000 over the preced- 
ing year, and a total acreage of 86,000, an in- 
crease of 45,000. The output of dry rubber was 
130 tons in 1905 and 390 tons in 1906, At pre- 
sent there are employed regularly in estate work 
70,000 coolies, of whom 31,000 are Tamils, 4,000 
Javanese, 1,500 Malays and 3,400 Chinese. The 
cultivation of the coconut ranks next in import- 
ance. The area under cultivation at present is 
over 105,000 acres, an increase of 5 per cent 
over that of a year ago. More than one-half 
this area is bearing, and the whole is said by 
the Director of Agriculture ofthe Malay States 
to be worth about £2,240,000. At an average 
of forty nuts per tree, the yield, if converted 
into copra, would amount to over 50,000 tons, 
with a large and valuable stock of fibre for the 
manufacturing of coir matting and rope.—Malay 
Mail, June 17. 


COCOA AND COPRA FROM SAMOA. 


Apia, May 7.—Quite a large shipment of cocoa 
will be going forward by thesteamer ‘‘Atua” this 
trip, the Upolu Cocoa Company alone shipping 
20 tons this month. Mr F Harman, the mana- 
ger now, has his new drier in working order, 
which from all accounts is working splendidly; 
he is now able to dry six tons of cocoa at one 
drying.—There is good prospect of a good copra 
season this year, nuts are lying about in all 
directions. The natives so far have not at- 
tempted to make copra on account of thelow 
prevailing prices.--Fiji Times, May 27. 


STRAITS RUBBER GROWERS AND 
INCREASED FREIGHT. 


With reference to the cable in our issue of the 
13th inst., on the subject of the recent increase 
in freight on rubber from F.M.S. and 8.8. 
ports to Europe—we understand this matter 
has already engaged the attention of the Com- 
mittee of the Selangor Chamber of Commerce, 
who, whilst being in full agreement with the 
protest stated to have been made by the Rubber 
Growers’ Association in London, have taken in- 
dependent action locally.—Malay Mail, June 15. 

Our Ipoh contemporary of Saturday says :— 
The message which reac’ies us today is better 
reading than the recent proposals of the Rubber 
Growers’ Association with regard to Malayan 
estates. ... If the Rubber Growers’ Association 
will confine itself to such questions as this—the 
Imperial Politics of Rubber —it will earn and 
retain the gratitude of all whoin any way de- 
vend upon the industry for their daily bread 
All, whether shareholders of companies or super- 
intendents or assistants on estates, must 
heartily endorse this action of the Association. 
—Pinang Gazette, June 19. 


COTTON-GROWING IN SIAM. 


A Bangkok correspondent, writing on May 7th 
tothe Manchester Guardian, says :—‘‘Some time 
ago I briefly mentioned the fact that the Agri- 
cultural Department of the Siamese Government 
was trying experiments in the growing of cotton, 
with some prospects of success. The Govern- 
ment, [ find, has two plantations now and a 
Siamese nobleman another, in each of which 
cotton plants from different parts of the world, 
as well as the indigenous varieties, are being 
cultivated. An expert cotton planter of 20 
years’ experience, who is in charge of one of the 
plantations, reports that so far the experiments 
have proved a wonderful success, and predicts 
that before many years have elapsed a very large 
area in Lower Siam will be under cotton. He 
says that both Egyptian and Indian varieties 
thrive well, although the plants from American 
seed havenot proved a great success. The native 
cotton of Siam, which grows wild everywhere, 
is at present almost worthless owing to the 
shortness of its staple; but this is a matter 
which it is hoped may be remedied in the future. 
Samples of cotton, I understand, are being sent 
to European experts for their opinions on the 
Siamese product.”—L. & C. Express, June 12. 


A FORTUNE IN FLAX IN BENGAL. 


Mr J Mollison, Inspector-General of Agri- 
culture in India, in the course of a review on 
the report of Mr Em. Vandekerkhove, Flax 
Expert, for the Quarterly Journal of the De- 
partment of Agriculture, Bengal, says that the 
results of the-experiments carried out at 
Dhooria indicate so far that flax is likely to 
become a paying crop ona commercial scale in 
Behar, The net profit from an acre of flax is 
estimated at rather over R74, the outturn being 
worth R140-6-9 and the expenses being put at 
R66.—M. Mail, June 29. 


and Magazine of the Ceylon Agricultural Society. 


THE MYSORE EXHIBITION. 


THIs YEAR'S Prospectus: APPEAL TO 
CEYLON AGRICULTURAL SOCIETIES, 


With the sanction of the Government of H.H. 
the Maharajah of Mysore, the Committee of the 
Mysore Dusserah Industrial and Agricultural 
Exhibition has issued a prospectus in connec- 
tion with the Exhibition of 1908. This year the 
Exhibition will commence on Wednesday, the 
30th September, and close on 14th October. The 
Cattle Show will begin on Tuesday, the 6th 
October, and close on Thursday, the 8th. The 
Committee states that from the experience of 
last year it may be observed that the Show 
offers a good opportunity for people desirous of 
purchasing good specimens of Mysore cattle, 


The primary aim of the Committee is to im- 
part to the Exhibition an educative character 
and to bring together articles, machinery, and 
processes, the use of which it is desirable to 
bring to the notice of the ryot, the artisan and 
the manufacturer, by actual demonstration, But 
as the Exhibition of solitary samples may not 
afford sufficient information and may not be 
attractive to the visiting public, articles intended 
for sale will also be admitted. Articles on a 
large scale sent merely for sale will have 
to be kept in separate stalls and under the 
charge of the exhibitors or their agents. There 
is no objection to the sale of samples, but 
they will not be allowed to be removed from 
the Exhibition grounds till the termination 
of the Show. Articles admitted for purposes 
of sale alone may be removed after purchase, 
but no article will be allowed to leave the 
Exhibition grounds without a gate pass. 


Lectures will be delivered by competent per- 
sons in English and Kanarese on _ subjects 
connected with industry, agriculture, health 
and sanitation, the value of agricultural im- 
plements and machines, their cost, construction 
and repair. Arrangements will also be made 
for holding a competition on the Exhibition 
grounds in ploughing and weaving, and pro- 
cesses connected therewith. The exact time 
and place of the lectures and demonstrations 
will be announced later. The Committee 
would thankfully accept donations for award- 
ing prizes or medals from individuals or Asso- 
ciations desiring to give an impetus to any 
special branch of agriculture or industry. 


The Committee invite exhibits from all the 
Districts in the State, as well as from outside. 
They also appeal to the various Agricultural 
Departments and Associations in other parts of 
India, Burma and Ceylon to help them with 
exhibits and suggestions. Loading ryots and 
non-official gentlemen will be invited to assist 
the Committee in judging the exhibits. An 
admission fee of two annas per head will be 
levied each time a person enters the Exhibition 
buildings. There willbe no season, nor family, 
nor special tickets at half rates for pupils. 

The prize list is divided into four main groups. 
The first includes classes for field produce, plan- 
tation and garden products, vegetables and 
fruits, Cyes, forest products, sugar, honey, b2es- 
wax, etc., dairy products, essential oils, fibres, 
fodder plants end’ manures. Group IL consists 


THE 


97 


of agricultural instruments and machinery. 
Group IIL is the Industrial section ; and Group 
LV live stock. In connection with the last men- 
tioned, a sum of R500 is provided for prizes, 
against R400 awarded last year. In all groups, 
the Committee states that no prizes will be 
awarded unless the exhibits are worthy of them. 

Intending exhibitors are requested to send 
their exhibits soas to reach Mysore on the 10th 
September, from which date the Committee 
will arrange to take charge of them, but no 
exhibits will be received after the 23rd idem. 
These may beadmitted at the discretion of the 
Committee, but will not be allowed to compete 
for prizes. Vegetables, fruits, dairy produce 
and other perishable articles may, however, be 
sent in until 7 p.m. on the 29th September,— 
M. Mail, June 29, 


od 


FIELD FRUIT CULTURE IN MYSORE. 


Bangalore, June 28.—Yesterday, at 5 p.m., 
the Chairman and Members of the Mysore Fruit 
Syndicate, Ltd., were ‘‘At Home” to many 
friends, on the occasion of the first harvesting 
of grapes. Between two and three hundred 
people assembled. The British Resident, the 
Hon. Mr. Stuart Fraser, motored out with the 
First Assistant Resident, Mr. J P Rennie, 
Refreshments were provided for all commu- 
nities, apart from the tasty dishes of fruit with 
which all visitors were to be served. The Band 
of Napier’s Rifles was in attendance. Mr Fraser 
went out while the rain was falling to pick 


THE FIRST BUNCH OF GRAPES 


from a vine that he had planted with his own 
hand some months ago, and he then added 
bunch to bunch as he walked from vine to vine 
until he had proved himself quite an efficient 
“picker.” His reward came when he tasted the 
fruit! Ofits quality everyone spoke in the 
highest terms, anda particular variety of Rose 
Muscatel Grapes elicited special commendation, 
for no one present appeared ever to have tasted 
anything so delicious until the first fruits of the 
Bangalore venture were placed before them. 
Inthe course of the evening, Mr, Paul, the 
Manager of the Fruit Farm, and its originator, 
delivered a very effective speech. It was about 
tivo years since he took up his first block of 
land in Bangalore for fruit-growing, and about 
18 months since, at his request, Mr.Fraser 
had very kindly taken the trouble to plant 


ONE AUSTRALIAN NAVEL ORANGE TREE 


(then hardly 18 inches in height) as well asa 
erapevine, known as Muscat of Alexandria. Mr. 
‘Fraser was present that day in order to harvest 
the first basket of grapes with his own hands, 
from the very vine that he had planted so re- 
cently as eighteen months ago. It was, said 
Mr. Paul, very gratifying, not only to him as 
the Manager, but also to the worthy Chairman 
and shareholders of the Mysore Fruit Syndi- 
cate, Ltd., to welcome those present at a time 
when both Orange tree and the Vine were 
bearing their first fruits. He had no doubt 
that they had already inspected these and 
others ; probably they might have eventouched 
the fruit tosee if it were not tied to the branches. 
(Laughter), It might seem very funny for him 


2 
>) 


98 The Supplement to the Tropical Agriculturist 


to say this, but he could assure them that a few 
months agoa gentleman who was visiting the 
vineyard was so astonished to see 8 months’ old 
plants bearing fruit, that he was actually feeding 
to make sure that the fruit was not tied on to 
the branch! It was certainly a wonderful sight 
to see thousands of vines—some of them with two 
or three bunches of the finest grapes that the world 
can produce—when some of them were planted 
only nine months ago. The first difficulty that 
had to be contended with was 


WHITE ANTS; 


but that destructive pest had been almost got 
rid of. ‘Pardon me,’ exclaimed Mr Paul at 
this point,—‘‘I was nearly forgetting another 
and very funny obstacle that I had to overcome; 
that was, Local Prejudice.” From the very 
beginning he was advised, even cautioned over 
and over again (and this by friends) that his 
scheme wouid be a complete failure in less than 
twelve months, but this was the happiest day 
he had had since his arrival in Bangalore. Not 
because Fortune was smiling on him, but 
because he had overcome the nonsensical Local 
Prejudice. Moreover he proved he was right 
in his estimates, As they all knew, the old 
English saying that the proof of the pudding 
is in the eating, he invited them all to taste 
and prove for themselves the first season’s fruit 
and to see if grapes and fruit can be grown to 
perfection on scientific principles and in open 
fields on ‘‘this land of H. H. the Maharaja of 
Mysore.” He closed by calling for three cheers 
for His Highness. 


The cheers having been given with hearty 
goodwill, the British Resident said a few words 
in response to Mr. Paul’s remarks, Mr. Fraser 
spoke in very high terms of the fruit and of the 
progress of the Syndicate’s venture. He con- 
gratulated Mr. Paul and the Chairman and 
shareholders of the Syndicate on their success. 
He believed that 40,000 tons of dried fruit was 
imported yearly into India, and that the whole 
of that quality, and even more, could be pro- 
duced in the State of Mysore alone. This 
ought to be very gratifying to His Highness 
the Maharaja, and Mr, Paul deserved to be re- 
garded as a benefactor of Mysore. In years to 
come a statue ought indeed to be erected to 
commemorate Mr. Paul’s great work. There 
was a fortune for the Syndicate in this enter— 
prise, and he wished Mr. Paul and them long 
life and prosperity. A large group photograph 
was taken by Mr. Wiele before the assemblage 
dispersed.—Madras Times, June 29, 


‘“NEW FRUITS” 


Mr. Frederick Boyle contributes an interest- 
ing paper under this heading to the latest Corn- 
hill Magazine. He begins :—‘‘ Most of us have 
echoed the cry of Punch’s footman :—‘ It’s high 
time a new animal was invented.’ But a new 
fruit is still more desirable.” It would appear to 
have been found when the ‘‘ cherimoya” was 
introduced to Covent Garden; but the author 
does not think this comes up to its reputation 
of combining the excellence of strawberries and 
cream. The great necessity is to improve existing 


fruits and scientific gardeners say ‘‘hybridisation 
is initsinfancy.” Darwin long ago showed why 
countries occupied by uncivilised man—Aus- 
tralia, South or any part of Africa, &c.—could 
not be expected to yield fruits of any great value. 
It is because the native plants have not been 
improved by continued selection. All the 
familiar fruits of Europe have been cultivated 
and improved for ages unknown. Professor 
Sayce believes there were regular botanical 
gardens at Nineveh. The Greeks and Romans 
did much: ‘Attic figs’ attracted the Per- 
sians. Lucullus first brought cherries to 
Rome from Pontus long betore the Christian 
era and in less than a hundred years they 
had passed into Britain. Turning to tropi- 
cal fruit, the mango has undergone wondrous 
changes in the last hundred years, and improved 
varieties have been so freely distributed that 
“they promise to be universal shortly.” Dr, 
Beccari, a great tropical explorer and high 
authority, states positively :—‘the native land 
of the mangosteen is unknown’; and so also 
with the durian, and yet again with the betel 
nut palm, no wild species can be identified. 
For a long time it was thought the mangosteen 
would not bear transplanting far from the East- 
ern archipelago; but ten years ago the Duke 
of Devonshire sent one of two mangosteens 
grown at Chatsworth to Her Majesty, and 
these two were all the result of 20 years 
of expense and culture—and with a Malay 
gardener, it is said. But mangosteens are 
now getting quite common in the West 
Indies as well as in Ceylon. A great pro- 
blem, but one that should be solved, isto rid 
the durian of the offensive odour peculiar to 
the rind: when this is effected, the rage for the 
durian will be universal.‘ Mr. Boyle thinks 
the 40 species of banana known to the Malays 
and 17 peculiar to the Philippines the finest in 
the world; but what of the 60 varieties said to be 
distinguished by the Sinhalese? Probably the 
very finest will succeed as well as the common 
kinds in the West Indies. Looking across the . 
Atlantic Mr. Boyle asks, ‘who trausformed the 
wooden pinuela into the luscious pineapple’? 
Then as to fruits never seen in Europe, so far, 
we read: In Malay countries are the tarippe, 
most excellent of breadfruits ; the jintewan, as 
large as a big pear, very pleasantly acid—the 
plant is an india-rubber vine and the flesh 
lies in a thick envelope of india-rubber ; also 
the bilimbing (Ceylon. bilimbi?) mandaint, 
lang-sit, loring, rambi, this last in bunches like 
sweet grapes.’ Not one of these, he adds, is 
cultivated and yet cultivation (with cold stor- 
age) might do wonders for the European 
markets, Dr. Beccari found five new species 
of Nephelium in one Borneo village or- 
chard, and all excellent; also a Hicus bearing 
great bunches of fine red fruit agreeably acid ; 
anda new variety of garcinia with acidulated 
pulp not unlike mangosteen. Then a Huphorbia 
(Elatererospermum Tapos) is favoured by the 
Dyaks calling it Buaruppi, and he speaks 
highly of the fruit of the so-called ‘‘ Rain Tree 
Pithecolobium Saman, so well-known in Ceylon 
and India :—‘‘ Its fruit has 6 or 8 seeds em- 
bedded in a sweet pulp which all human beings 
like and some think exquisite,” and he hopes to 
see it freely sold in Covent Garden. Sir Geo, 


and Magazine of the Ceylon Agricultural Society. 99 


Watt in his Dictionary makes no mention of the 
fruit of ‘ P. Saman,” but of another species ‘‘ P. 
bigeminum ” (Calateya in Sinhalese) he says :— 


“¢ Foop.—Mason states that, though the seeds 
are poisonous and sometimes produce disastrous 
consequences, the Burmese and Karens are 
extravagantly fond of them as a condimeht with 
preserved fish. They are said to fetch a high 
price in the bazirs of Burma.” 

And of ‘* P. dulee” (Karkapulli cr Keruka- 
pelte of Tamils) :— 

‘‘Roop—The Fruit, which ripensfrom April to 
June, consists of anumber of large seeds, each 
of which is enveloped in a sweet, wholesome, 
whitish pulp. These are contained in a cylin- 
drical, irregularly swollen pod curled at the 
end. The pulpy aril is eaten by the poorer 
classes, Church states that 100 parts of tke 
bean contain :— Water, 13-5 parts ; albumenoids, 
17°6; starch, 41°4; fat, 17:1: fibre, 7°8, and 
ash, 2°6.’ 

Trimen’s reference isas follows :— 

P. Saman, Benth. (Inga Saman, Willd.), a 
native of Central and Tropical S. America, 
whence it was introduced into Jamaica, where 
it is called ‘Guango,’ has been very much 
planted asa shade-tree by roads and in public 

laces. It was introduced to Ceylon about 
1851, and there are very large trees in Pera- 
deniya planted in that year. ‘The pod is 
straight and indehiscent, with a sweet pulp 
round the seeds, and it scarcely fits well in 
the genus Pithecolobium. It is often called 
the ‘ Rain-tree,’ and grows with great rapidity 
to its full size. 

Who has tried ‘ Pithaya cactus’ of Mexico P— 
fruit ‘sweet, soft, nourishing’; or ‘monstera 
deliciosa,’ fruit 12 to 14 inches long, succulent 
‘with a luscious pineapple flavour.’ Then there 
is ‘Ponteria suavis’ from Uruguay, extremely 
agreeable with remarkable digestive properties. 
There is next the stoneless plum of Japan; the 
Cornell plum in United States and the ‘grape 
fruit’ originally from China as also the persim-— 
mom. ‘hen there is the Navel or Washington 
orange, now causing such a stir that it is super- 
seding all others in America. Dr. Henry, a 
high authority, ‘‘found even the pomegranate 
delicious in some districts of China.” The 
‘Marule’ of South Africa resembles a green, 
gage with a large stone and scarcely any pulp 
the place of which is filled with a sweet liquid, 
‘simply delicious.’ Hast Africa has a kind of 
wild raspberry about 1 inch long, deep yellow, 
tasting more like a mulberry than a raspberry. 
In South Africa there is the ‘ bododo,’ ‘the most 
luscious fruit I ever tasted’ says Chapman, 
Why should not Ceylon do its share in 
procuring, and growing some if not all of these 
new fruits: possibly some in the list may be 
already on trial at Peradeniya or Hakgalla ? 


—_—_— 


RICE CULTIVATION BY MACHINERY. 


One of the long felt needs in agriculture in 
Siam, especially in rice-planting, has advanced 
a step nearer solution with the adoption ofa 
light engine for ploughing purposes. Ploughing 
by steam traction engine as carried on in Eng- 
land and America could have been attempted 
here years ago, if it had been feasible, but 


owing to the difficulty of overcoming the soft- 
ness of the ground when wet with the rains 
it has not been tried, as it was practically 
foredoomed to failure. Experiments have 
recently been made with steam engines but 
have proved disastrous as when the rains came 
on freely the engines sunk into the ground, 
and could no longer be used. 


The ideal machine is one which, while light, 
at the same time furnishes considerable power. 
Such a machine Dr. Adamsen has had working 
on his farm in the Klong Rangsit district for 
some time. It consists of a 4 h.p. oil engine, 
placed on a truck with wheels, and geared down 
to the requisite power and speed. The weight 
of the engine and truck is only two-and-a-half 
tons, and is easily managed by one man. It 
drags two disc ploughs, makes a two foot fur- 
row and can plough two-and-a-half acres a 
day. Under the old arrangement such an 
acreage would take eight men and sixteen 
buffaloes to accomplish. The wet ground will 
bear a little more than the engines at present in 
use, say three-and-a-half tons. This will allow 
additions being made to the number of ploughs 
employed, and it will be possible to provide 
power sufficient to draw five or six disc 
ploughs at once, at aspeed of about two miles 
an hour, ploughing eight or ten acres a day, 
while still requiring the services of only one 
man. Machine ploughing is possible when the 
ground is still hard as well as when the ground 
is wet with the rains. Again atter ploughing is 
finished the engine can by used for pumping and 
irrigating purposes, and when the time of har- 
vest arrives can drive a threshing machine. 
With this style of engine the difficulty of sup- 
plying fuel and water as in the case of a steam 
engine is eliminated. The engine at present in 
use requires only one gallon of kerosine per 
horse power and fifty gallons of water per day. 


Dr. Adamsen invites all interested in the 
question of applying machinery to rice cultiva- 
tion to visit his farm. He has already received 
alot of visitors.—Bangkol: Times, June 17. 


ANNUAL REVIEW OF THE TEA TRADE. 


(By Messrs, Wm, Jas. and Hy, Thompson.) 
38, Mincing Lane, June, 1908. 

In reviewing the history of the past year, we 
feel that the steady maintenance of the trade’s 
general stability and soundness is a most en— 
couraging feature, and we record with particular 
satisfaction that the aggregate profit which the 
industry has given to growers has fully equalled 
that made last season, though it has not been 
evenly distributed but partly diverted into 
different hands, 


With a smaller export from India to the 
United Kingdom, the inexorable law of supply 
and demand has made its mark, and Buyers 
instead of feeling that at any time a superabun-— 
dance of stock could be forced upon them, have 
realised that the monthly offerings would about 
supply their current requirements, but not more 
—the result being that prices for common leaf 
grades have maintained a minimum value of 
about 6d per lb, The total 


100 


VOLUME OF BUSINESS WITH FOREIGN MARKETS, 
done either through London, Calcutta or 
Colombo, continues to expand, and we believe 
that its limit has net yet been reached, but 
that further development will result from the 
combined efforts of the Agentsof the producers 
and of London merchants, by whose enterprise in 
the past, our foreign and colonial trade has been 
built up. 

RUSSIAN BUSINESS LOOKING UP. 


Despite the serious financial crisis that took 
place in America last autumn and the consequent 
crippling of trade for some months throughout 
the world, the improved demand from Russia 
more than made up for any less enquiry from 
elsewhere. This fact in itself perhaps may be 
considered a good omenand a sign of ameliora- 
tion in the condition of that country both 
politically and commercially, in which case the 
improvement noted should not be transient but 
permanent. 


The decision to remit on September Ist 
the surtax of nearly 1d. on British grown 
tea entering Russia at European frontiers, 
should tend to promote more business in our 
roducts, and we understand that some of the 

ondon Export houses are already looking for 
a renewal of orders which were diverted from 
this market whilst the surtax was in force. 


Now though there has been progress, and 
while after a careful study of the various Re- 
ports of the season’s working, it is patent that 
the properties have as a whole gained ground, 
it must be noted in analysing the working 
of the estates that very different results have 
been attained as compared with those of last 
season, which seem to require some explanation. 


It is seen that both Ceylon and Indian gardens 
producing low-priced tea have secured a better 
profit than those which have worked for and 
aimed at producing quality and flavour—that is 
to say Cachar, Sylhet and Dooars have improved 
their average, whilethe districts of Assam and 
Darjeeling have inonly a few instances done as 
well. The same is the case withlow and high 
grown teas in Ceylon—so that the difference of 
value of the crops’ of the districts that 
pluck fine and of those that pluck freely 
has been brought down to a very narrow 
margin—less indeed than the intrinsic quality 
would warrant. 


DISTRIBUTORS NARROWING PRICES, 


Now this narrowing of pricesis mainly due per- 
haps tc the action of distributors who have chosen 
to sell the lowest canister for little or no profit 
in order to compete with their rivals. The 
consequent concentration of demand upon low 
priced tea, coincident with the prospect of 
total supply barely sufficient for requirements, 
has maintained the value of common tea at 
a comparatively high level, though at one which 
with average crops and the natural increase, 
of population, should be considered normal and 
by no means excessive. In addition to the above 
we have to bear in mind that owing to climatic 
causes the teas from Assam, Darjeeling and the 
Dooars have been notably wanting in the dis- 
tinctive flavour and characteristics, which in 
ordinary seasons can be counted on. The June 
pickings, as also the autumn, which latter fre- 


The Supplement to the Tropical Agriculturist 


quently enhance the average of the whole pre- 
vious working, were conspicuous by the want 
of fine flavour, and the quality being of uniform 
level, the preponderance of good medium tea 
from every district has often made buyers 
indifferent whether they dealt in one mark or 
another, ,instead of picking out some special 
brand and following it through the year. 


It will be remembered that once before the 
same causes were at work, and Planters were 
asking themselves whether it would not pay 
better to pluck freely, irrespective ofthe district 
and character of the produce. It seemed at 
the time a reasonable proposition but the follow- 
ing year really choice teas were shipped from 
the districts above alluded to, and realised re- 
munerative prices, showing that the Public can 
and will pay for a first rate article when it can 
be procured, 


It would be well indeed if the Consumer 
could for once and al] be brought to realise that 
cheapness is not true economy, and we feel con- 
vinced that were this principal better known and 
carried into practice, the Public, the Producer, 
and the Distributor would all materially benefit, 


INDIA, 


In recapitulating the result of the various 
crops, we find that India, from Cachar, Sylhet, 
and Southern India, has shipped good all-round 
medium teas ofa character that has doubtless 
helped to promote their use in every canister— 
while Assam proper, as noted elsewhere, the 
most important district of the tea producing 
area, has only been able to forward acrop of 
good medium tea and has been conspicuous by 
the absence of its usual fine invoices which are 
always looked for early and again late in the 
season, Darjeeling and the Dooars too have 
suffered in these respects, occasionally short 
in outturn and lacking the fine flavour for 
which they are so deservedly known end appre- 
ciated. Now while the results from the former 
district are disappointing and the average in 
many instances is less than that of last season— 
when the prices paid for Cachar and Sylhet 
growths showed an all-round advance—it should 
be pointed out that this loss of position is due 
to climatic causes,—labour difficulties and high 
cost of rice,—and not to want of skill in the 
planter’s management as some possibly not con- 
versant with the working of the estates may 
think. The teas received have been well-made 
and finished with the usual care—we may here 
state that the bulking and packing in India 
have been quite satisfactory and it is now but 
very rarely that a parcel has to be rebulked here 
on account of irregularity. There is however 
one point to which we feel attention should be 
drawn—and that is, of late years there has been 
a tendency tocut or mill the leaf teas so that 
they come under the trade term ‘‘Choppy ”; 
the intention of this is no doubt to make the 
common leaf lcok better and to save Blenders 
here the necessity of again ‘‘ Milling ”»—but we 
hardly think this object is gained and there is 
no doubt that shippers generally far prefer 
an even whole leaf tea and pass over as undesir- 
able for the export trace the “ Choppy” broken 
lines ; it must be remembered that all blenders 
have their own ideas as to size. 


and Magazine of the Ceylon Agricultural Society, 


CEYLON, 


Cry1on—has given a crop of good averagequa- 
lity. The teas arrived in excellent condition and 
well-made, giving evidence of care and attention 
in the factories to the various processes therein 
carried on, Rebulking especially seems to be- 
come less necessary year by year. While the 
quality has, as usual, varied more or less from 
climatic conditions, we are glad to note the con- 
tinued absence of very common tea, of which too 
much vsed to be sent. Fine gardens, as last 
year, have not shown the autumn improvement 
to the extent to which we have been accus- 
tomed to look forward, but on the whole we 
think the industry in a thoroughly sound con- 
dition. Probably the grade that has disap- 
pointed managers more than any other is the 
Orange Pekoe made with a wiry attractive leaf. 
At one time it was freely taken by shippers both 
for Russia and America, but of late this demand 
has slackened and as the liquor is frequently no 
better than the Pekoe line in the same invoice, 
the prices realised for both grades have often 
been the same, 

JAVA, 


Java—teas have met with a steady demand 
—their improved character derived from use of 
Assam and Ceylon seed proving acceptable to 
the Buyers. So farthe imports are about the 
same as for some years past, although we hear 
of large extensions suggesting more tea in the 
near future from that island, where heavy yields 
can be secured at a low cost. 


CHINA. 


Cxina,— Although the percentage of China tea 
sent into this market is still only avery small 
one, considerably more was imported during the 
last season—doubtless on account of the high 
the North was not very attractive, and great 
difficulty was experienced in dealing with it— 
many parcels being held over for months, and 
then only realising very much lower prices than 
were offered on arrival. A quantity of very low 
Dusts came here—too low we think for con- 
sumption—thus swelling the stocks of unde- 
sirable tea, The increased delivery of China 
teafor home use, of which much has naturally 
been made by those interested in its sale, is 


mainly due to the fact that.those who 
sell tea at 1s. Od. and 1s. 2d. duty paid 
have been compelled to pass through 


their blending machines something cheaper 
than could be bought from India or Ceylon. 
The difficulty in selling even the small 
quantity of tine China tea available for home 
consumption, except by continually reducing 
its price, seems to negative the idea that more 
of itis being used. Results to importers have, 
indeed, been so discouraging, especially during 
the later months, that a more cautious policy 
should prevail this season: but it is probable 
that the low price of silver will stimulate Uhina’s 
export of tea and all her other commodities. 


Now while it is, of course, impossible to look 
far into the future, it would seem to be quite 
legitimate to endeavour to forecast the possible 
course of the trade for a few mouths at all events. 
There are certain pointe to be noted—and one, 
perbaps, of more importance than some may 
think, is the fact that the sales of Northern 


101 


Indian crop here are virtually closed. This to 
allthe trade, both in London andin the country, 
is of great value. The stocks held, whatever, they 
may be, can be worked off quietly in confidence, 
as the Buyers know that no large supply can be 
placed on the market until after the August 
Bank Holiday—when the usual resumption of 
business may be counted on. In the meantime 
Ceylon ard Southern Indian tea and the spares 
offering of the new Indians are quite sufticiert 
for the daily summer requirements. Importers 
also have a stronger position, knowing that their 
consignments will come to a bare market— 
and at a busy time of year. 

At the risk of repetition we would again re- 
mark what in past years has often been said 
—we feel somewhat concerned lest the re- 
sult of the working of last season may 
tend to make some managers of fine tea gardens 
seriously consider whether to pluck freely, 
instead of in the usual way. It is quite conceiv- 
able that this may be done in view of the price 
of common tea andits prospects—but once it is 
realised how delicate the balance point of supply 
and demand has always shown itself, we hope 
such astep will not be taken,—as it might be 
fraught with no small danger to the entire in- 
dustry. 

Wo. Jas. & Hy. THOMPSON, 


ANEW IMPORTANT DWARF RUBBER. 


YIELDING GOOD LATEX FROM THE 
ROOT. 
ECANDA RUBBER. 
(Raphionacme utilis, Brown & Stapf). 
[By Orto Srapr.] 


In 1906, Mr. C. E. de Mello Geraldes, Profes- 
sor in the Instituto de Agronomia e Veterinaria 
at Lisbon, published in his ‘‘Hstudo sobre os latex 
borrachiferos,” pp. 143-172, an article dealing with 
a new rubber plant known in Benguela as 
‘ Ecanda’ or ‘ Marianga.’ But it was only in 
the summer of the following year that the dis- 
covery became more generally known through a 
short abstract from Prof. Geraldes’ paper pub- 
lished in The India Rubber World (vol. xxxvi., 
p. 300). Aboutthe same time, in July of last 
year, a portion of a tuber was 


SUBMITTED TO KEW FOR IDENTIFICATION, BY 
MR, SPENCER BRETT 


for Messrs. Gow, Wilson & Stanton, Ltd. It was 
stated to yield good rubber, and to have been 
sent ‘‘ from the neighbourhood of Lake Nyasa.” 
The tuber was made out to belong most likely 
to the Asclepiadaceous genus LRaphionacme 
Later on in the year Kew received from the 
Companhia de Mocambique a number of healthy 
specimens of ‘ Bitinga 'fubers’ or ‘' Tubers of 
the plant from which the ‘ Bitinga’ Rubber is 
extracted.” They were evidently identical with 
the tuber communicated by Mr Brett and stated 
to have come from West Africa. The tubers 
have been grown in the Royal Gardens and one 
of them flowered early in March of the present 
year. Although it 1s proposed to figure and 
describe the plant in the Botanical Magazine, 
it seems desirable in this. place to give a preli- 
minary description and a general account of 


102 


THE PLANT AND ITS PROPERTIES. 


The ‘ Bitinga ’ plant agrees very well with the 
description and figures given by Prof. Geraldes, 
of the ‘ Ecanda’ plant, and there is practically 
no doubt that they are identical. It is a new 
species of Raphionacme, nearly allied to R. Wel- 
witschit, Schlechter & Rendle, a native of Central 
Angola, and is described below as Raphionacme 
utilis, Brown and Stapf. It differs from all the rub- 
ber plants already known in so far as it is a dwarf 
herbaceous plant with a fairly large subterres- 
trial tuber abounding in caoutchouc. As prac- 
tically all our knowledge concerning the dis- 
tribution, properties of the plant, and the pro- 
cess of working it, is at present confined to 
what we may learn from Prof. Geraldes’ article, 
a translation of the more important paragraphs 
is given here: 

‘*The interest attaching to the ‘ Ecanda’ or 
‘Marianga’ rests not only on the fact that we 
‘have to deal here with a new species and more- 
over one which is morphologically different 
from all the other known rubber plants, but 
also, and more especially, as I believe, on its 
capacity of producing first-class rubber and 
the facility of working it, in which. respect it 
has no rival. The ‘EKcanda’ is a herbaceous, 
stemless plant with a tuber-shaped root fairly 


LARGE AND RICH 1N LATEX, 


‘‘ From experiments made in the interior of 
Benguela in order to find out the best process 
for the preparation of Hcanda rubber, I came 
to the conclusion that the only rational and 
practical method is by crushing the roots and 
treating the latex thus obtained by one of the 
processes of ‘ lato-borrachificacao externa’ (co- 
agulation of the latex after extraction). It is 
evident that the method of first extracting the 
latex very much simplifies the preparation of 
rubber and clearly results in considerable 
economy. The ‘Kcanda”* or ‘Marianga’* is 
found in the treeless, sandy and _ alluvial 
tracts (anharas) of Bailundo and Bihé and 
the Xdnes (sandy and treeless tracts) of 
the region between the rivers Kwanza and 
Zambese (Ganguellas), the home of the Ota- 
rampa (Carpodinus chylorrhiza).+ Those tracts 
occur locally, asa rule near the headwaters and 
along the banks of the rivers, occupying, some- 
times, vast areas, and it is in their drier parts 
that the ‘ Ecanda’ thrives. The altitude of the 
region where the ‘ Ecanda ’ grows is from 4,000 
feet (Ganguellas) to 5,500 feet (Bihe). 

‘‘ As stated, the laticiferous tubes of the 
‘ Ecanda’ are found spread all over the pulp of 
the root ; at the same time the latex, being very 
concentrated, coagulates rapidly in contact with 
air. Itis therefore 


NOT POSSIBLE TO EXTRACT IT ENTIRELY FROM THE 
ROOTS BY MEANS OF INCISIONS. 

“The extraction of the rubber direct from the 

roots necessitating, as it does, first prolonged 

boiling and then crushing, followed by repeated 


~ “Keanda’ is the name by which the species (which 
occursin Bailundo and Bihe) is known to the Bailundos 
and Bihanos, and it is, I assume, identical with the spe- 
cies known to the Lutxases (Ganguellas) as ‘ Marianga.’ 

+ I suppose that the ‘ Ecanda’ also occurs in the Xana 
of Xifumage (an affluent of the Zambesi which I have 
crossed) a vast, treeless, sand and humus plain to the 
north-east of the district of Benguela. But whenI tra- 
versed it, the natives had set fire toit as they are used 
to;do, and the whole vegetation was destroyed. 


The Supplement to the Tropical Agriculturist 


washing is not practical since, apart from tho 
tediousness of the process, it implies necessarily 
the use of chemical agents in order to secure the 
complete separation of the caoutchouc from the 
pulp by the disorganisation of its tissues. And 
even so, unless dissolvents are used for the puri- 
fication, the rubber remains somewhat impure 
as may be well imagined. 


‘*But to my great satisfaction I made sure 
that it was possible to extract the latex of the 
‘ Keanda’ (although mixed with the sap of the 
roots) with great ease by means of simply 
crushing the roots. To extract the latex pro- 
ceed as follows:—After having washed the 
roots well, cut them into several pieces at a 
right angle to their greatest diameter and 
subject them to a slight pressure in a copying 
press. When the liquid ceases to flow raise the 
top of the press, turn the pulp and subject it 
anew to slight pressure. Repeat these opera- 
tions aslong as the liquid comes out yellowish 
and without streaks of white, that is to the 
point when the latex is completely extracted 
and only root sap continues to flow. 


“To obtain this result it is necessary to 
extract from the roots, on the average, 77°7 per 
cent. (of the weight) of the liquor; hence the 
latex is much diluted (1°5 per cent. of the liquid 
extracted from the roots should on the average 
be pure latex). Having found a practical process 
for extracting the latex, I tried now to deter- 
mine the best method for coagulation. I 
obtained good coagulation with alechol or 
brandy whenever the latex was not very much 
diluted. This process is evidentiy not econo- 
mical as the coagulating agents are dear. . . . 
Acetic acid, sulphate of aluminium and 
potassium, phenol and chlorate of sodium do 
not act on the latex diluted with root sap. 
pas: Other coagulating agents I was not 
able to try. . . It 1s, however, probable 
that coagulation of the latex of ‘ Ecanda’ may 
be obtained with other agents, even when it 
is diluted with root sap. The process of skim- 
ming leaves much to be desired, since, in my 
experiments, I have never succeeded in extract- 
ing by this method more than half of the 
caoutchouc contained in the latex. ile 
also studied. the effect of heat onthe liquid 
obtained by pressing the roots of the ‘ Ecanda. 
‘Tf the liquid is subjected direct to the action 
of fire, a skin forms on the surface, like that 
on boiled milk, consisting of caoutchouc. If 
this skin is removed in the measure as it forms, 
its production ceases after some time, and when 
at length the liquid is completely evaporated, 
a copious yellow and viscous residue is left. By 


SUBSTITUTING A HOT BATH FOR DIRECT FIRE 


and proceeding in the way just described, there 
also remains a yellow and viscous residue, but it 
is less copious. In this way I obtained a greater 
percentage of caoutchouc which was of greater 
elasticity than that produced by coagulating 
direct over fire. ‘‘Thus by using heat as the 
coagulating agent I always obtained beside the 
caoutchouc a more or less copious residue of a 

ellow and viscous substance. Now, it is well 

nown, that generally caoutchouc, if subjected 
to temperatures above 35° C., gradually loses its 
elasticity, and turns viscous, until at 170° ta 


and Magazine of the Ceylon Agriculturist Society. 103 


180°C. it is converted into a thick liquid much 
resembling molasses, Therefore, it might be 
supposed that the residue mentioned above also 
consisted principally of resinified caoutchouc, 


‘“¢My suspicion was confirmed when treating 
the latex by a mixed process of skimming and 
spontaneous desiccation.} 


“ By this method I obtained a much higher 
percentage of rubber and only a small residue, 
consisting likewise of a yellow and viscous 
matter. However, the rubber was less elastic 
than that obtained by coagulation in the hot 
bath. This is not surprising, seeing that the 
rubber prepared by the latter process contains 
all the components of the latex and the root 
sap (excepting the greater part of the water), 
and, besides, I had not been able to strain the 
liquid, having no metal net nor adequate strainer 
with me. 

Percentage of raw 


Loss by 
rubber per cent. 


Processes employed. drying per 


Green. Dry. cont. 

Coagulation over fire ss! 2°90) 1°870 35°50 

i in the hot bath ve 68°54 2°415 33°09 
Skimming and spontaneous 

desiccation ~> 13°00 6°360 51°60 


“‘ In order to determine the 
PERCENTAGE OF PURE CAOUTCHOUC OBTAINED 


by these process, I analysed the samples of 
‘Keanda’ rubber prepared in Benguela, in the 
chemical laboratory of the Instituto de Agro- 
narnia e Veterinaria, with the following re- 
sults :— 


RUBBER OBTAINED BY COAGULATION IN THE 


Hor Bata. 
Caoutchouc ate 3 88°025 per cent, 
Resins Nig BG 4°725 i 
Substances soluble in water .. 1*100° 5 
Ha Fe in alcohol at boil- 

ing point 1°300° ,, 
Water So are 1°082 3 
Impurities not determined A 3°768 * 


RUBBER OBTAINED BY SKIMMING AND Sponva- 
NEoUS DkEsiIccaTION. 


Caoutchouc fe Rie 71°925 per cent. 
Resins an aS 3°300 5 
Substances soluble in water .. 2°950 aH 
- - in alcohol at boil- 
ing point 1°385 * 
Water ate Se 3°154 3 
Impurities not determined .. _ 16'926 


“Thus I obtained by coagulation in the hot 
bath 2°125 per cent of chemically pure caout- 
chouc, calculated from the weight of the fresh 
root, and bythe mixed method of skimming and 
spontaneous desiccation 4°574 per cent of pure 
caoutchouc: that is, I obtained by the latter 
process more than twice the quantity of pure 
caoutchouc than by the first. . 

‘It follows, therefore, that, of the processes 
which I tried, it was the process of skimming 
and spontaneous desiccation by which I ob- 
tained the best result. The great drawbacks 


{ To extract the rubber by this method I proceeded as 
follows :—I poured the liquid obtained by the crushing of 
the ‘Ecanda’ roots into enamelled iron dishes so as to 
form a layer 1cm. thick. After a while in every one of the 
dishes and adhering to their sides a skin of rubber formed on 
surface of the liquid. This skin I removed, and soI went 
on for two days—the duration of the experiment—new 
skins continuing to form, but every time less thick. Then 
the production of skins ceased, But to make sure whether 
the liquid still contained caoutchouc I left it in the dishes 
until the evaporation was complete, which was the case 
five days after the commencement of the experiment. As 
the dishes were exposed to the air, and the latex some- 
what caught the sun, I believe that the little yellow and 
viscous residue which formed consisted to a small extent 


of resinitied rubber. 


inherent in that method are, however, aggra- 
vated when itis applied to the treatment of a 
liquid resulting from the crushing of the Ecanda 
root and that makes it hardly practicable. 


GUAYULE RUBBER INDUSTRY IN" 
MEXICO, 


Adverting to the article on pp. 632-4 of the 
Board of Trade Journal of the 28th March, 1907, 
giving particulars of the Guayule Rubber in- 
dustry of Mexico, H.M. Legation there now 
reports, on the authority of an American expert 
who has been studying the industry, that there 
is only about 400,000 tons of guayule now in 
existence in the Republic, either standing in its 
native soil, or at the extraction plants, or on 
the way to the plants for extraction. The 
scarcity has become so marked that the most 
remote districts are now being searched for the 
plant, and the Bolson de Mapimi district is 
being thoroughly gone over, and the guayule 
gathered and delivered under contract to the 
Continental Rubber Company of Mexico, This 
district, lying between the Sierra Mojada and 
worreon, is practically the last remaining one 
There there is guayule in any quantity, and the 
remainder of the 400,000 tons has long since 
been purchased by various extracting companies 
at from 21. 10s. to 7]. 10s. per ton. The pur- 
chases at the lower prices were made before the 


. landowners realised the value of the shrub or 


were aware of the improbability of the plant 
reproducing itself in a short time. It is a 
practical certainty, according to the expert, that 
with the consumption of the existing supply, 


THE INDUSTRY WILL GO INTO DECAY, 


It had been hoped that experiments would be 
made by persons interested, in the production, 
planting of seed and joining it with some 
kindred plant to accelerate its growth, so that 
a period of but four or five years would be neces- 
sary for the plant to reach the proper size for 
extraction. This, it is said, could be effected by 
grafting the guayule upon some kindred plant, 
the roots of which would furnish the tops with 
a greater flow of sap, and consequently result in 
more rapid growth ; but this has not, to the 
expert’s knowledge, yet been attempted, al- 
though, in his opinion, it is the only hope for 
the future of the industry.—Board of Trade 
Journal, June 11. 


Tavoy, June 28th. 

Duar Six,—I do not quite understand Mr 
W W Bailey’s letter in the last issue of the Tro- 
pical Agriculturist, with reference to ‘tthumb- 
nail” pruning para rubber. One would infer that 
the trees he refers to, and the method adopted in 
Malaya, is to slice off the tops of young saplings. 
This, I take it, is not what Mr Herbert Wright 
recommends, or ever recommended. As thename 
clearly seems to imply, what I suppose should 
be—and is—done is to nip off with the thumb 
and first finger nails the extreme tip of each 
sapling which has reached 10’ or 12’, or such 
other height as the owner fancies is the correct 


‘104 
one, and then again repeat the process to the 
tip of the resulting shoots when they have 
grown 2’ or 80 more. Once more if possible, and 
the sapling can be bent down to do so without 
force, and so left to nature. Weareall still in 
‘the infant school stage as regards cultivated 
rubber ; and whether thumb-nail pruning is ad- 
visable—or not—is a debatable point. 46 initio 
we’ grow rubber under unnatural conditions 
and the proceeding of forcing its growth arti- 
ficially in a desired direction, that of in- 
creased girth, at a younger age, and hence 
earlier tapping, is of considerable importance 
viewed from any point. I quite agree as to be 
abnormally bending over of repeatedly thumb- 
nailed trees ; but I have noticed it in trees dune 
twice only very seldom, and never in those only 
once topped in this manner. 

As long as we tap by girth and not by age, 
and as long as experts, scientific and practical, 
tell us that no harm is done by early tapping, 
and that the quality of rubber is as good as 
from older trees,so long—I suppose—will thumb- 
nail pruning find strong supporters. It ap- 
pears obvious that if this method is resorted 
to, the wider should the spacing of your plan- 
tation be—as the crown of the tree is more in- 
clined to spread itself out, with a consequent 
greater root area. The matter is worthy of dis- 
cussion and careful report as to results and 
the experiences of Ceylon and Malaya planters, 
and I hope that some of them will be induced 
to give us the benefit of their experiments in your 
columns.— Yours faithfully, 

BURMAH. 


TOBACCO EXPERIMENTS IN COOCH 
BEHAR. 


Important experiments with tobacco—one of 
the chief products of the Cooch Bekar State 
—are in progress, and negotiations have been 
entered into with a French Company, that pro- 
poses to start a cigarette factory near Calcutta, 
with the object of securing a market for the 
State tobacco and a school of practical train- 
ing in the industry for such natives as the 
ruler of the State may nominate. Cooch Behar 
cigarettes were imported into Calcutta to the 
value of almost 23 lakhs during 1906-07 and 
there is, therefore, an ample field apparently 
for the operations of the company.—Statesman, 
July 5. 


LEGUMINOUS PLANTS. 


June 24th. 

Dear Sitr,—Some months ago I wrote to 
you that I had read in your columns of a 
soil-renovating leguminous plant and enquired 
whether the Agricultural Society had applied 
for a supply ot seed. Not being able to give 
you the name of the plant, you were not able 
to supply me with the information [ asked for. 

The plant has been brought before the public 
again by Mr. B. Harrison, of Burringher, N.S. W.., 
Australia, and now I can give its name— 
Melilotus Officinalis. I want a_ soil-renovator 
specially for white, sandy soil, and of this it 
is said: ‘This seed has been sown in raw, 
white sand, and in the course of 5 or 6 years, 


The Supplement to the Tropical Agriculturist 


it has changed it into a dark, almost black, 
rich loam.” ‘Each well-developed plant con- 
veys to the soil fully 4 1b. nitrogen.” It is almost 
superfluous to say that the latter is the 
declaration of an American ! 

One drawback, as far as coconut planters 
are concerned, is that it is a fodder plant. 
For this reason the seed will have to be sown 
within a wired enclosure. 

Another leguminous plant is the Japan clover 
(Lespidiya Striata); that, too, is a fodder plant 
and a valuable soil renovator. 

Will the Agricultural Society kindly obtain 
seeds of both the above leguminous plants 
and grow them in the Stock Garden as object 
lessons and report results in the Tropical 
Agriculturist.—Truly yours, z 


THE BANANA MARKET OF FRANCE. 


Paris, June 17.—The trade in bananas, so 
flourishing in the United States and England, 
is only just beginning here, where the imports 
are not over 9,000 tons, although France is 
nearer to the producing countries. The reason 
is that this country 

DOES NOT BUY DIRECT, BUT IN ENGLAND 
and second hand. It is calculated, how- 
ever, that, in buying in this way, a parcel 
of bananas of 66 1b. comes to about 17f. on deli- 
very, while—if imported direct fromthe Azores 
or the Canary Islands—the price would only be 
13f. to 13f. 50c. If not put up in packets for 
shipping, the price would be lower still. Unfor- 
tunately, the consumption is not large enough 
to permit cf buying direct, and it would be 
necessary for such shippers as might make the 
attempt to make up their minds for a certain 
amount of loss at the start in order to increase 
consumption. As to the other oversea fruits, 
their sale in a fresh state is still more limited, 
and all the more so on account of the high price 
to be paid for the reasons mentioned above.— 
London Times. 


NUTMEG IN THE MOLUCCAS. 


Evil times have fallen upon the well-known 
nutmeg plantations at Banda in the Moluccas. 
The Java Bode says that, in consequence of a 
heavy fall in the price of that spice, the planters 
cannot meet thecJaims uponthem. The coolies 
on the estates can get neither wages nor rations. 
The ruined planters have not the means to send 
them back to their homes. Unless the Govern- 
ment affords relief, the consequences will be 
disastrous,—Straits Times, June 30. 


CACTUS FOR FODDER: FOR BEHAR 
PLANTERS. 


The Behar correspondent of the Indian 
Planters’ Gazette (July 4) writes: —‘‘Our enterpris- 
ing Collector, Mr Woodman, is distributing cut- 
tings of Cactus opuntia procured from California 
to neighbouring planters with a view of seeing 
whether this thornless species of the Cactus 
family can be grown successfully in these 
districts and form a useful fodder for cattle.” 
—M. Mail, July 8. é 


Photo by H. F, Macmillan. 


‘“JAFFNA MANGO” IN CEYLON. 
(Vide page 135 for Article.) 


TROPICAL 


Gia S> Be oe 


AGRICULTURIST 


a AND 


MAGAZINE OF THE 


- CEYLON AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY. 


Vou. XXXI. 


COLOMBO, 15tx AUGUST, 1908, 


4, — 


A Sessional Paper (VI. of 1908) has 
just been published, containing the re- 
plies of the Government Agents to an 
- enquiry addressed to them asking fora 
_ report onthe present condition of rice 
cultivation in their provinces, with 
statements of hindrances to it, and re- 
commendations how best to secure its 
- extension. 


Their replies are distinctly discourag- 
- ing to those who hope to see great 
extensions, and indeed it cannot be 
wondered at. Ceylon, with its small areas 
_ of flat land, poor soil, broadcast sowing, 
poor weeding or cultivation, inferior 
% grades, absence of crop-rotation, and 
other disadvantages, to say nothing of 
; any lack of industry of its people, cannot 
hope to compete against Bengal, Burma, 
_ or Indo-China as a_ rice-exporting 
oy. The most that can be hoped for 
is that it should grow its own supply, so 
‘ far as its native (other than immigrant 


Rice Cultivation in Ceylon. 


There are many districts in which the 
continued opening of village tanks is 
recommended for the extension of culti- 
vation, but it must be remembered that 
the people are rarely willing to grow 
any rice for sale, and will often leave 
the land uncultivated for a year or two 
after a good crop. 

Agricultural banks or credit societies, 
and similar societies for the supply 
of seed or manure, are probably the 
most promising direction in which to 
look. We have preached this doctrine 
for several years now, and were con- 
sequently very glad to hear His 
Excellency’s deliverance on the subject 
(cf. T.A. last Vol., p. 578) at the Annual 
Meeting of the Society. ; 

Another feature that comes out 
strongly is the effect of more remuner- 
ative occupation, e.g., on rubber estates, 
upon paddy cultivation. 

Altogether the report is:worth study, 
and we shall probably return to the 
subject. 


106 
GUMS, RESINS, SAPS AND EXUDATIONS. 


PLANTING OF THE NEW SPECIES 
OF MANIHOT. 


It is reported that the Bahia-Kauts- 
chuk-Actiengesellschaft has bought over 
300,000 acres of land in Bahia, on which 
the ‘‘new” Manihots, Hancornia, &c., 
are already abundant, and intends to 
plant it all up with the former. 


So far no British Botanie Garden, not 
even Kew, has been able to obtain any 
of the new Manihots other than M. dicho- 
toma (of which one hundred are grow- 
ing on the Experiment Station at Pera- 
deniya), and it is useless for people to 
apply to the Botanic Gardens for them. 
In any case we could not supply them 
till they had seeded freely. Ina couple 
of years’ time we shall likely be able, for 
instance, to supply a lttle Manihot 
dichotoma, but only a few thousand 
seeds, not the large quantities people are 
already asking for.-——ED. 


i 


THE PRESENT CONDITION OF 
RUBBER CULTURE. 


By Dr. PEHR OLSSON-SEFFER, 


(Paper read before the first meeting of 
the Mexican Rubber Planters’ Associ- 
ation on October 19, 1907.) 


At the present moment, on the date 
of the birth of the Mexican Rubber 
Planters’ Association, it is opportune to 
review in brief the development and the 
present condition of the rubber planting 
industry. 


Universal interest is now manifested 
in regard to thisindustry. The rapid 
increasing demand for rubber, a commo- 
dity so closely connected with electricity 
and many other modern inventions, has 
called forth the question, whether the 
world’s market can be supplied trom the 
natural sources of wild rubber, which 
hitherto have been sufficient, or whether 
cultivation has to be resorted to. 


The concensus of opinion is that 
although there has been a steady growth 
of the output of the raw rubber, and 
although the rate of production so far 
has shown no decline, we are rapidly 
approaching the narrowing limits of 
the natural rubber supply. 

It is generally known thatin Brazil, 


from where the largest amount of rubber 
has been obtained, the rubber collectors 


— Ave@ust, 1908. 


have to go further and further inland 
every year for their supply. With the 
prevailing reckless method of gathering, 
the rubber trees are gradually being ex- 
terminated. Naturally the cost ot collect- 
ing is thus increasing, and it is to be 
observed that the extraordinary high 
prices have not greatly stimulated the 
production. This applies not only to the — 
Amazon valley, but more or less to all 
countries producing wild rubber. Very 
little has been done, and very little can 
be done to stop this destruction of the 
natural rubber forests. The natives can- — 
not be taught to consider the necessity 
of saving the trees for a coming year. — 
Their sole object is to obtain as large an 
amount of rubber as possible for the 
time being. 


= 


In some rubber-producing countries 
Steps have been taken towards replant- 
ing the natural rubber forests. Most 
notable is the decree passed by the Govy- 
ernment of theCongo Free State on the 
5th of January, 1899, in which it is regu- 
lated that :— 


“In all the forests of the territory 
rubber trees shall be planted every year 
toa number not less than 1&0 for every 
ton of rubber gathered during the 
same period. The agents of the State 
in those forests, where the State has 
the private owners and concessionaries — 
of all the forests where the State has 
given it up, whether by decrees of 
October 30th, 1892, or by the granting © 
of special concessions, are expected to — 
form and keep up these plantations — 
conforming tothe conditions specified in — 
the present decree.” 


Three years later the Congo Govern- — 
ment issued a new decree increasing the — 
number of plants to be replanted per ton 
of rubber collected. The production on — 
the Amazon and the Congo has so far 
notgiven any sign of decline, but itis 
certain that the natural supply has not 
increased. We have on the other hand 
instances where a rapid decline in the 
output is taking place. ie 


In Colombia the export of rubber has” 
been diminishing for the last thirty years, 
and from Lagos a marked decrease is 
noticeable for the last decade. F 


We are thus confronted with the 
following situation: while the consump- 
tion of rubber is increasing at an acceler- 
ating rate, the natural supply, although 
enormous, is not augmenting, in spite of | 
the fact that new rubber-producing 
plants are discovered and new fields are 
being exploited. al 


 Aveust, 1908.] 


It seems safe to conclude that the 
requirements of modern life will not 
permit the demand for rubber to become 
diminished. The point is whether the 
supply will be altogether unequal to this 
demand. Varying opinions are ex- 
pressed in this regard. Some maintain 
that the natural propagation of the 


rubber tree is sufficient to keep the 


supply up to its natural limits. There 
ee raver. no evidence at hand to 
show that such a statement was based 
on true facts or ona right understand- 
ing of the situation. Others hold that 
the natural sources of wild rubber are 
rapidly being exhausted. Such an asser- 
tion is more logical, but even here we 
lack sufficient knowledge to be able to 
forma positively correct opinion. It 
may be safer to say that the limit of pro- 
duction will soon be reached, if we are 


not so far already, and if the demand is 


growing in the same proportion as 
hitherto, there must comea shortage in 


the supply. 


The prices have been steadily advanc- 
ing for the last ten years and longer. It 
is possible that some of the rise in value 
is due to the general prosperity, which 
has caused an increase in the value of 
almost all raw material. But it is not 
likely that even a financial or industrial 


_ panic would very materially influence the 


rubber market. 


Ever since Charles Goodyear’s dis- 
covery rendered the rubber of practical 


» use to mankind, the tropical forests have 


been scoured by the natives and by 
white men searching for rubber produc- 
ing trees. In Central America the indi- 
genous rubber tree, Castilloa elastica, 


_Cerv. and related species, have been the 


the sake of profit and 
- reasons. 


object of a diligent search and_subse- 


quent destructive treatment. The des- 


_ truction of the wild tree is usually given 


as the strongest argument in favour of 
rubber culture. I doubt if this is the 
raison d@’etre of rubber cultivation. 

Very few business men go into busi- 
ness from fear. Noris rubber planting 
a matter of philanthropy. We do not 


' plant rubber because we know that the 


supply from previous sources will one 
day become exhausted and humanity 
needs rubber for industrial purposes. 
We plant rubber because we have every 
reason to believe thatit is a profitable 
industry. We plantrubber simply for 
not for other 
Is then rubber culture after all 
a profitable industry? There are many 
ale say no, but those who have investi- 


e Epred the matter, and most of those who 


ave invested in rubber, that has been 
taken care of properly, know for certain 


-thatit is not only profitable but very 


a 
: ee 


107 


Saps and Hxudations. 


profitable. {It has been claimed that it is 
impossible to cultivate the rubber tree. 
There is no necessity to refute such a 
statement, How it has been able to 
gain credence is hard to understand. It 
shows a complete ignorance in regard to 
agriculture. In the history of human 
progress, there is not asingle instance 
where domestication of a plant has not 
been possible. There is, of course, a 
great difference in different plants, but 
by employing proper methods we have 
been able to overcome the greatest diffi- 
culties. As regards the rubber trees, 
there are hardly any plants that are 
better adapted for cultivation. 


The many conflicting statements as to 
the commercial feasibility of rubber 
planting have been cleared up now and 
again by disinterested parties who have 
devoted much time to the study of this 
question in all its details. There are 
still those who are doubtful, either on ac- 
count of personal failure in the undertak- 
ing or because they have entertained pre- 
conceived notions upon the question and 
are not willing to admit that their con- 
clusions are wrong. Observations ex- 
tended over a somewhat wide field 
covering most countries where rubber is 
planted have given me conclusive evi- 
dence that rubber, when cultivated right, 
is not only a possibility but a decided 
commercial success. Anyone who de- 
votes intelligenc attention to this ques- 
tion cannot fail to find that, when he 
acquires more concrete knowledge about 
the matter, there are actual iesults at 
hand which prove to be indisputable, 
and which show beyond a shade of doubt 
that the rubber planting industry is a 
profitable venture. 


The thousands of trees now planted and 
the hundreds of plantations producing 
rubber on a commercial scale demon- 
strate that rubber culture is an industry 
which has come to stay. Fears are ex- 
pressed that we will have ar over- 
production of rubber if the planting 
industry increases at the rate it has 
done for the last few years. This leads 
us into the question of the present and 
the future supply and demand of rubber. 
The annual output of rubber has been 
rapidly increasing, and for the last seven 
years the production and consumption 
are represented by the following figures :— 


Year. Production Consumption: 

Metric tons. Metric tons. 
1900 59,048 ee 48,352 
1901 52,864 ued 51,186 
1902 53,877 fl 51,110 
1903 55,603 52,276 
1904 61,759 59,666 
1905 68,879 65,083 


1906), Howe 67,099... 162.754 


Gums, Resins, 108 


& The visible supply on hand on June 
80th, 1905, of 8,869 metric tons was re- 
duced to 5,852 metric tons by June 380th, 
1906, though the production of the latter 
year was 14,651 metric tons greater than 
that of the former year. 


Comparing the first and the last two 
years, this table shows an increase of 
28°3 per cent. in both production and 
consumption. 


Last year’s output is valued at about 
300,000,000 dollars Mex., and of this 
amount tropical America yielded about 
63 per cent., tropical Africa 34 per cent., 
and Asia 3 per cent., of which Ceylon 
plantation rubber to the amount of 150 
tons. Mexico’s total export of rubber 
during the same period was valued at 
$3,342,000 or 3 per cent. of the world’s 
total output, 


In 1906, the United States imported from 
Mexico 16,993 bales rubber, of which 
about 5,000represented Castilloa. During 
the first seven months of the fiscal year 
1906-7 the value of rubber exported was 
$2,761,873,00 U.S. currency, including 
Guayule. The total value of rubber 
exported in 1906 was $1,671,000 Gold. 


Although Mexico as a rubber-produc- 
ing country does not yet rank very high, 
Mexico was the original country where 
rubber was found by Europeans. The 
oldest data about rubber come from 
Mexico. The earliest historical reference 
to rubber was made in 1525, when an 
Italian writer speaking of the customs 
of the Mexican Indians mentions the 
rubber balls used by them in certain 
games. 


While thus rubber was first discoverd 
in Mexico, the first rubber planting in the 
world was also made in Mexico, not in 
Ceylon as is often claimed. The person 
who first took up the question of plant- 
ing rubber for commercial purposes was 
the Mexican statesman, Sr. Matias 
Romero, a close friend and relative of 
our present President. When he wrote 
his paper on rubber culture in the year 
1872 there were already several rubber 
plantations in existence in this Republic. 
From inquiries in the region where 
Romero started his own rubber plantation 
I have found that rubber was planted as 
early as 1867 in Mexico by Don Jose 
Maria Chacon at Zanjon Seco, in the 
district of Soconusco in Chiapas. During 
the next year plantations were started 
jn Guatemala, and later on in Nicaragua 
and Honduras. These plantations were 
small, but even as regards size they were 
much larger than the first plantations 
begun in Ceylon or India. 


Less than ten years ago American 
capital was attracted towards rubber 


ne" 


ne Ls i 


[AucusT, 1908. fi 


planting in Mexico. Asa result of thiS 
movement we have to-day approximately 
95,000 acres on 118 plantations, entirely 
or partly devoted to rubber, represent- — 
ing an investment of $60,000,000 Mex. 


From data at hand I would consider 
the world’s area of rubber plantations to 
be 355,500 acres, distributed as follows :— 


Mexico My 95,000 
Malay Peninsula 92,000 
Ceylon 85,000 
Africa A 30,000 
Central America 14,000 
Java Boe 10,000 
India 8,2 

Brazil 6,00C 
Venezuela 3,400 
Ecuador ; 3,000 
New Guinea ... 2,500 
Borneo 2,000 
Colombia a 1,800 
West Indies . 1,600 
Other countries 1,000 


As seen from these figures Mexico 
among other countries has still the lead 
in regard to area under rubber. The 
statements published regarding the total 
area of rubber in Ceylon are highly 
misleading on account of the fact that 
rubber is being interplanted between 
tea and cacao. Thus on many estates 
there are not more than 75 rubber 
trees to the acre, but in the esti- 
mates each acre is stated to be under 
rubber. In the statistics the same area 
thus often appears both under tea and 
rubber or under cacao and rubber. One 
of the latest statements was made by 
Mr. Wright, until recently an assistant 
at the Botanic Gardens, Ceylon, who 
estimated the present area under rubber 
in that island to 130,000 acres. Méssrs. 
Ferguson of Ceylon recently stated (ia 
August this year) that the planted 
acreage of rubber in Ceylon is 150,000 
acres, of which they claim that 116,000 
are under rubber alone, and that 52,400 
acres of tea and caoao are interplanted 
with rubber. Data collected by myself 
in Ceylon in the beginning of the present 
year show that, taking 250 trees to the 
acre, the area planted does not exceed 
85,500. Another favourite method inthe — 
East of making upa large acreage isto © 
count in the area ‘' alienated ” for rubber 
culture. That is to say, if a Company 
has alienated from the Government 2,000 — 
acres for a rubber plantation, but — 
planted only. 50 acres, they will speak of — 
their plantation as a 2,000 acres rubber — 
estate. If the same rule was followed in ~~ 
Mexico our acreage would be nearly 
400,000 acres. We have rubber estates _ 
owning as much as 20,000 acres, of which FE | 
itis intended ultimately to plant 50 per 


cent. a 


ai 


Avausr, 1908.] 


Only a few years ago it was stated in 
a Government publication that the 


entire area of land suitable for rubber 


in the island of Ceylon did not exceed 
10,000 acres. That this estimate was in- 
correct isshown by the actual area now 
planted. This area increased between 
the years 1890-1898 at the rate of 50 acres 
per year, and ‘in the last named year 
there were about 750 acres planted. It 
took three years more before the acre- 
age rose to 2,500 acres, but in the last 
few years it has increased very rapidly. 
During the last two years the planting 
has suddenly inereased largely in the 
entire Indo-Malayan region, and it can 
therefore be hoped that in a few years 
hence plantation rubber from the Hast 


will become of some importance on the 


* 


Ry 


- prices. 


world’s market. 


Only quite recently I had a letter from 
London, in which it was pointed out that 
the price of crude rubber was liable to 
decrease very soon, on account of the 
large supply due from the ‘‘vast rubber 
plantations ’ in the Hast. As seen from 
the statistics given above the total area 
is not yet so “ vast” as might be expected 
from the exaggerated statements , issued 
from London headquarters. 


With a total area under rubber at the 
present time of over 855,000 acres, we 
must naturally expect in six or eight 


' years hencea large supply of plantation 


rubber. But admitting that the supply 
of wild rubber would not decrease in 
that time, while on the other hand the 
demand would keep on increasing. there 
is not much to fear from a decline in 


The present output of plantation rub- 
‘ber does not exceed 600 tons. If we con- 
sider that the yield per acre is 300 lbs., 
the supply of plantation rubber from the 
present area planted would twelve years 
hence be tiearly 55,000 tons per annum. 
During the last dozen years the increase 
of the consumption of rubber has been 
on an average 8 per cent. per annum, and 
this average is increasing rather than 
decreasing. If we carry on this increase 
for another dozen years, we find that 
twelve years hence the need for rubber 
would be close to 175,000 tons. We have 
noreason tosuppose that the supply 
of wild rubber twelve years hence would 
be greater than to-day. On the contrary, 
everything tends to show that the pro- 
duction has reached its limit, and will 
decrease instead of augment in the 
future. The present area planted would 
thus not nearly supply the balance of 
the consumption, provided the output 
of wild rubber twelve years hence was 
still 65,000 tons. 


109 Saps and Exudations. 


We need not think that the planting of 
rubber has come to a standstill. Much 
more land will be planted under this crop 
all over the Tropics, but very large plan- 
tations are needed to supply the increased 
demand. It is therefore evident that we 
have not much to fear from over-produc- 
tion for many years to come. 


It is not many years since rubber plant- 
ing was looked upon by the ordinary 
investor as a very hazardous under- 
taking, and those who were spending 
money on rubber planting were con- 
sidered visionaries. At the present time 
many rubber plantations are coming 
into bearing, and are for the first 
time demonstrating the truth of the 
ideas of the pioneers. Plantations in 
Ceylon have already. paid as much as 
40-50 per cent. in annual dividends. 
Some Mexican plantations have been 
able to pay as much as 15 per cent. on 
the invested capital trom rubber obtained 
on the estate. 


The ever-increasing areas under rubber 
indicate that this industry is able to 
draw capital, and this is perhaps the best 
proof that its propects are good, as 
capital is a fairly correct index regard- 
ing such matters. The fact that rubber 
planting has gained much notoriety 
through capital being obtained for the 
ostensible purpose of exploiting rubber 
plantations, but in reality has been 
diverted to the private use of dishonest 
promoters is not proof against the possi- 
bility of cultivating rubber, or against 
the profitableness of rubber culture. The 
public has become suspicious towards all 
rubber planting companies, and many 
legitimate concerns have suffered. 


lf we investigate the causes which have 
produced some of the most disastrous 
and sensational failures of rubber planta- 
tions, we will find that in every case 
such a Company was not promoted as a 
bona fide and legitimate enterprise for 
the purpose of building up a successful 
plantation, but thatthe whole scheme 
was intended to benefit the promoters. 
In some cases the home office expenses 
have exhausted the entire capital, and 
little or nothing has been left for the 
development of the plantation. Some 
of these plantations have been started 
on soil which is in every way unsuitable 
tor the cultivation ofi1ubber. On others 
the development work has been greatly 
overpaid to the benefit of one or ano- 
ther interested person. Very often the 
management has lacked all the experi- 
ence of tropical agriculture, and some of 
the plantations do not show a result 
corresponding to the outlay. 


Gums, Resins, 


The first requirement is the right kind 
of soil and climate, and at the same time 
an honest and competent administration. 
If these conditions are fulfilled, rubber 
planting promises to become the most 
profitable tropical industry. 


The commercial exploitation of various 
rubber-producing plants was naturally 
first taken up by the nations which owned 
tropical colonies or tropical lands. It 
was in these same countries the profitable- 
ness and possibility of rubber culture 
were first realized. There was naturally 
at first a certain hesitation, but of late 
years an increasing faith in rubber is 
evident from the fact that more and 
more capital is being diverted to this 
new tropical industry. 


There are few plants that are better 
adapted to cultivation than the principal 
rubber-producing trees. It has now been 
fully demonstrated that rubber can be 
grown profitably on a commercial scale, 
and that plantation rubber can be pro- 
duced cheaper and better than the 
product of the wild tree. Many mistakes 
are yet made and comparatively little 
knowledge exists regarding cultural 
methods, but with the increased atten- 
tion now being paid to rubber cultivation 
it can be hoped that present defects and 
shortcomings will be corrected in a not 
too distant future, 


Rubber planters in Mexico and Central 
America have been experimenting re- 
garding cultural methods for a good 
many years, and it isonly of late definite 
results have been forthcoming. In many 
special questions no ultimate conclusions 
have yet been arrived at, and we cannot 
say that we are absolutely certain as to 
the best methods in any particular stage 
of the cultivation or preparation of 
Castilloa rubber. 


In regard to soilrequirements Castilloa 
needs an open porous soil, well drained, 
but with sufficient underground water 
supply. The chemical consistency of the 
soil or its relative richness is of little 
importance. Stagnant water or very 
acid soil is detrimental, and thin soil 
with hard impermeable subsoil will grow 
Castilloa for a few years, but when 
the tree reaches 6 or 7 years of age, and 
the roots penetrate deeper and reach 
water, growth ceases and the tree is 
liable to die back. 


The question of shade in Castilloa 
culture has been much debated. In 
Mexico there are still three different 
methods in vogue. The first that was 
used in the early days of rubber culture 
was to plant in shade. Itis based on 
an erroneous observation of nature. 
Castilloa was found in the forests, and 
as it is a comparatively low tree, it 


110 


{Aueust, 1908. 


was supposed that it required shade for 
its successful growth. It was also found 
that, if the seeds were sown in the open 
without any shade, the young seedlings 
often failed, or if they survived the first 
dry season they grew very slowly. On 
the other hand seeds germinated very 
freely when sown in shade, and the 
seedlings grew rapidly, especially in 
height. The observant planter soon Gis- 
covered, however, that the first year’s 
growth was not continued, and as years 
went by he found that shade-grown 
Castilloa developed into fishing rods 
without any increment in trunk growth. 
Moreover, the trees were sickly, often 
attacked by root fungi, and generally 
very liable to disease. There are still 
some planters who persist in keeping 
shade, enjoying the sight of 40-50 feet 
high whip-like trees, 6-7 years old, but 
which never will reach a ‘‘ tapable” size. 


The second system as regards shading 
is to plant in semi-shade, that is, to leave 
a few high trees when clearing, expect- 
ing these to give the rubber trees a 
certain amount of shelter-in the dry 
season, when the Uastilloa has shed its 
leaves and is exposed to the scorching 
sun. This method has been employed 
with a certain amount of suecess on 
some plantations, especially where the 
soil is liable to become hard and baked if 
exposed to the sun. It seems the most 
natural, as Castilloa in its wild state 
always occurs in the vicinity of other 
trees from which it receives shelter and 
shade. To establish such conditions it 
is not, however, necessary to leave 
jungle trees as shade, but by planting 
close the commensalism needed will be. 
obtained. This can easily be overdone, 
atid the planter has to exert consider- 
able judgment in regard to the distance 
at which he should plant. In localities 
where the soil Is very moist or drainage 
imperfect any shade whatsoever may 
prove dangerous to the health of the 
rubber, and it certainly will greatly 
retard the proper development of the 
stand. 

The third method is to plant in the 
open. If theseeds are sown at an unsuit- 
able time, that is, if the soil is not moist 
or if no rain follows for weeks, complete 
failure in germinating may result. If 
the district has a distinct dry season, 
the seedlings will suffer greatly during 
that time, in case they have not had a 
good growth before the rains were over. 
Otherwise there are no objections to 
planting in the open, and if this has 
been done fairly close, so that the 
young plants partly shade each other, 
they have under these conditions the 
best opportunities fora rapid develop- 
ment. a" 


» AUGUST, 1908. | 


Another important question in regard 
to rubber planting is that of dis- 
tance between the trees. Considerable 
difference of opinion exists in this regard, 
and as is the case with Hevea planters, 
distances varying from 6x6 feet to 30x30 
feet have their advocates among planters 
of Castilloa. 


I have concluded from experiments 
conducted with a view towards ascertain- 
ing the relation of distance between the 
trees, and the weekly, monthly and 
annual increment of trunk growth, that 
as soon asthe roots of the trees touch 
and become intermatted the growth of 
the trees isimpaired. But on the other 
hand, we know that if the Castilloa trees 
are planted very far apart their growth 
is stunted, and, when the trees become 
colder, their bark is exposed to the heat 
of the sun and to evaporation caused by 
dry winds passing through the planta- 
tion. The result of this is that the bark 
cracks, the latex vessels shrivel, and no 
latex can be obtained. We then say 
that the trees are ‘‘ sunburned.” 


The question then arises: at what 
distance are we to plant? I decidedly 
condemn too close planting, as it leads to 
a disproportionately whip-like growth 
of the trunk. I wouldalso emphatically 
warn against too open planting. I think 
the error of the latter practice is con- 
elusively proven by the following in- 
stance that has come under my observa- 
tion. Two yearsago I visited a large 
Castilloa plantation on which the trees 
had been planted 21 x 24 feet apart. The 
trees were five years old, and investiga- 
tion disclosed the fact that a great 
percentage of the trees, especially those 
which had been growing on dry knolls 
or exposed places, had a bark very 
rough, scaly and full of longitudinal 
fissures. The inner bark, in which the 
latex vessels are situated, was very dry, 
and the latex in the ducts had coagu- 
lated. In many places_on the bark 
exudation of latex had taken place, and 
big drops or tears of latex had formed 
scrap rubber. The only way in which 
this condition of the trees could be 
remedied, wasto allow the weeds to 
grow up and underbush to develop. 
This vegetation shades the trunk, and in 
due time the bark is formed and the old 
is thrown off. This process takes at 
least two years, and is successful only in 
case the cambium has not been injured. 


In deciding about the distance at 
which to plant we have to take the 
following two primary factors into con- 
sideration. The trees must not stand so 
close as to impede the growth of each 
other, and they must not be far enough 
apart to leave the trunky exposed to sun 
and wind, 


111 


Saps and Hzxudations. 


_From the above we obtain an indica- 
tion pointing towards the method we 
ought to follow, i.e., close planting and 
subsequent gradual thinning, according 
to the requirements of the trees. Be- 
sides fulfilling some of the conditions 
leading to a successful development of 
the rubber stand, the method of close 
planting has other advantages. It 
permits of a thorough system of selec- 
tion which is not possible under the 
method of open planting in permanent 
situations. From a financial point of 
view close planting is decidedly superior 
to any other method. It has been 
proved that by proper management the 
intermediate rubber trees, which are not 
supposed to remain permanently in the 
stand, can be made to produce a suffi- 
cient quantity of rubber to render the 
system very profitable, before the 
permanent trees can be considered pro- 
ductive. By close planting the danger 
of failures in the stand is reduced almost 
to nil, and this is important to the 
planter, as filling up failures in a young 
forest is both expensive and _ precarious. 


There is always a temptation to leave 
too many trees, in order to provide for a 
big side crop, but this should naturally 
be resisted. A heavy thinning comes to 
the assistance of the best specimens of 
growth, and it must on no account be 
omitted or postponed. It is extremely 
difficult to lay down any definite rules 
as to thinning operations, but it has 
been conclusively proved that the 
general rules applied in scientific for- 
estry in regard to silvicultural operations 
are fully applicable to the cultivated 
rubber trees. Rubber planting is 
nothing else than silviculture, and we 
should take our lessons from ordinary 
common sense, and from results obtained 
from the extensive experience of the 
forest planter, naturally with due atten- 
tion paid to the particular condi- 
tions obtained in the Tropics and the 
peculiar nature of the rubber tree, 


The method of propagating Castilloa 
first employed was to sow the seeds in 
nurseries, and when the seedlings were 
four to six months old they were trans- 
planted. Very often, however, trans- 
planting was not done before a year 
after sowing. The plants were , then 
from 5to 12 feet high. The seedlings 
were cut five or six inches below the 
surface, and topped, leaving a pole some 
three feet long. Tied into bundles these 
poles were carried to the field. Witha 
pointed stake, holes were made in the 
ground about one foot deep, and the 
pole placed in the hole and the soil 
pressed close to the stem. When this 
planting was done carefully, and if rain 
fell within the next two or three days, 


Gums, Resins, 


not more than 3 or 4% of failures 
occurred. In places where the soil is 
somewhat sandy the failures were more 
frequent. 


Later experience has proved that the 
cheapest and surest method is to plant 
the seeds at stake. Nearly a year’s 
growth is thus gained, and it does away 
with the expensive replanting, where 
failures occur under the transplanting 
method. The seeds are planted in small 
hills, about seven seeds in each hill, three 
inches between the seeds. The hills are 
at a distance of about seven feet in rows 
twelve feet apart. 


In planting in this manner we allow 
for a high percentage of failures in 
gcrmination; we can give ants, lizards 
and field rats their due amount and we 
still have plants in abundance. This 
method has now been practised for 
several years with success. There ure 
no complete failures in any hills, except 
where planting has been done in ground 
which is too acid. In such places we 
may have to replant in small patches 
after proper drainage has been prepared 
for, and for this purpose we use excess 
plants growing in the neighbourhood. 
During the first few months seedlings 
backward, misshaped, or where crowd- 
ing is observed, should be thinned at 
the time of each weeding. Generally at 
least 50 % of all the seedlings should be 
cut out during the first six months. 
This thinning should be continued 
during subsequent years until at the 
end of the six years from sowing. There 
are approximately 800 trees to the acre. 
The best 400 trees are to remain perma- 
nently, and are not touched before they 
have reached 26 or 28 inches in circum- 
ference at three feet from the ground. 
The intermediate trees are tapped, when 
six years old, very heavily, that is, as 
yuch latex as possible is extracted. A 
few weeks later the trees are inspected. 
Those that have suffered from the 
tapping should be marked and doomed. 
If they still yield latex they are cut up 
with numerous incisions, and a few days 
afterwards the scrap is collected and 
the trees felled. Those trees that pro- 
mise to recuperate should be left un- 
touched for four months, when they are 
again tapped in the regular way. After 
a second inspection they should be 
killed. Exceptional trees which do not 
crowd upon the permanent trees may 
be left to the following or seventh year, 
when they are tapped with an ultimate 
view to their destruction. At the end 
of the seventh year we have 400 trees to 
the acre. 


A most important item in the formation 
of a plantation is an efficient drainage. In 


112 


ee Seiad Yi 


this work every fall of the ground must 
be taken advantage of, and inmany cases 
much may be done by straightening and 
clearing existing water courses. 


The question of draining for rubber 
has been overlooked in the whole of 
Mexico. Most planters claim that it is 
sufficient to have what is called “a good 
natural drainage.” This is a mistake. 
The Eastern planter has fully realized 
this, and even on very sloping land 
drains are made before the rubber is 
planted. I do not remember having 
seen a single rubber plantation in the 
East, where this was not done. 


The object of draining is not only to 
provide an outlet for the surface water, 
but to drain the yround down to a 
certain depth. 


In commencing the work the position 
of the main outlets must first be deter- 
mined. The main drains are next opened 
according to the fall of the ground, and 
minior conduits are formed up and down 
the face of the slope. It is impossible to 
lay down definite rules as to the exact 
method of making the drains. The fault 
of overdraining must be guarded against 
as wellasits opposite extreme. 


Much has been written and said about 
the disease of rubber trees. We have 
been fortunate enough in Mexico not to 
be bothered with any serious outbreak, 
but it is necessary that we be very care- 
ful and keep a constant watch over any 
disease that may appear. In this respect 
the Planters’ Association has a great 
mission by undertaking systematic and 
organized inquiries. We know perfectly 
well that every cultivated plant has 
its enemies and it would be wrong to 
assume, that the rubber tree would be 
the sole exception to this rule. As a 
matter of fact, we know thatthe rubber 
tree is attacked by many various 
enemies. 


Perpetual immunity from disease can- 
not be expected, and every possible step 


to prevent the occurrence of an epidemic 


must be observed. 


The larger the area planted with one. 


particular crop, the greater the danger 
of an outbreak. A single crop system 
is for this reason most unsuitable and 
even disastrous. Ri 


Where no natural enemies exist, the 


changed conditions caused by a large — 


acreage being put under asingle product 
call forth new diseases. 


Special measures have to be taken to — 
meet such an emergency. Where vast — 
continuous areas hnve been planted with — 
one product, it is imperative that protec- — 


At eek 


(Avaust, 1908 


dae Avaust, 1908.] 


tive belts either of jungle or of other 
plants be left to form boundaries. In 
the Federated Malay States the Director 
of Agriculture has prevailed upon the 
Government to declare a certain area of 
forest as reserve, and this divides the 
entire country into two main districts. 
The idea is that if an epidemic appears 
in one district there is every possibility 
of checking its spreading into the other. 


A similar policy is advisable on indivi- 
dual estates. A belt ora strip of forest 
30—50 meters wide is not only an effective 
means of preventing of diseases from 
eprcading, but is also an excellant fire- 
break. 


In regard to diseases of the rubber tree 
we must draw lessons from the serious 
damage which has been done in other 
countries to other agricultural iudus- 
tries. If we take steps and keep any 
pest appearing under control, we need 

have no fear. 


I mentioned the word fire. As you all 
know fire is the rubber planter’s worst 
enemy. We have had the sad experience 
in Mexico of large areas of planted 

rubber being burned in the dry season. 
In some cases this has been an inevitable 
misfortune, but in other cases it would 
_ have been easy to prevent the fire. 


§ One of the most important matters in 
_ this connection is thelaying out of the 
_ plantation. It is not practical to plant 
_ the entire area of say thousands of acres 
- in one continuous block. This for many 
_ reasons. Roads are needed for commu- 
_ nication into the plantation. It is 
further a great advantage to have the 
entire plantation laid off in symmetrical 
blocks for the purpose of controlling the 
_ tapping and other work on the planta- 
_ tion, as well as the number of trees. 


_ Several rubber plantations in various 
_ parts of this country were laid out eight 
_ and nine yearsago on the plan of square 
_ blocks each containing a certain number 
- of trees. Such squares are surrounded 
by roads of more or less width. If these 
_ roads are kept clean, as they should be, 
_ they constitute effective firebreaks, and 
it is possible by means of these to check 
_ afire, and limit same toa certain area, 
instead of having it swept over the 
~ whole plantation. 


_ Hvery now and then we hear of some 
_ writer who claims that some Mexican 
rubber planters have expressed their 
doubt as to the wisdom of planting 
' Castilloa, when Hevea shows such a 
_ decided success in the East. Let me here 
_ draw attention to the fact that, even it 
_ we could successfully grow Hevea here 
__ in Mexico, we could not possibly make it 


me) 15 


113 


Saps and Exudations. 


a paying business. Why, you may ask. 
The nature of the latex-bearing ducts in 
Hevea is such, that at each tapping onlya 
very small amount of latex exudes. For 
this reason a system of multiple tapping 
is employed for this tree. Castilloa, on 
the other hand, gives much more latex 
at each individual tapping, and we know 
that multiple tapping such as employed 
on Hevea is of no avail on our trees. 


With the price of our labour standing 
close to $1 Mex. a day, and as long as it is 
searce at that price, it would be im- 
possible to tap our rubber trees every 
second day, receiving only about one- 
tenth of an ounce per tapping. In Java, 
Federated Malay States and Ceylon they 
pay about 20—80 cts. Mex. to their 
labourers, and this explains why their 
rubber industry is profitable. 


We need not by any means feel dis- 
couraged over Castilloa planting. Do it 
right, and it will pay you as much as 
almost any other tropical crop. We do 
not need to trouble ourselves about the 
many other rubber-producing plants 
which are cultivated elsewhere. 


Although many points have been ad- 
vanced for the profitableness of one or 
another rubber plant in preference to 
others, there can be no doubt that the 
number of rubber plants which can be 
shone with commercial success is very 
small. 


Ofthe many different plants, which 
contain rubber, there is one class that is 
wholly unsuitable for cultivation. We 
refer to the climbers or lianes. These 
plants furnish a great part of the crude 
rubber now available in the market. 
For instance, all the rubber or gutta- 
percha collected in the Philippines 
comes from various climbing plants. 
Similarly most of the African rubber 
hails from lianes. In collecting, these 
have to be cut down, and consequently 
furnish only one crop. When we con- 
sider that it takes several years for one 
of these plants to grow up to its full size, 
and when we further remember that the 
climbers require large trees for support, 
it is evident that cultivation of climbers 
for commercial purposes cannot be a 
success. 


Other rubber-containing plants yield 
rubber in such small quantities, that 
cultivation would not pay, and others 
again do not yield before they have 
reached an age of over 20 years, in which 
ease the returns would not offer induce- 
met enough for starting plantations. 


If we eliminate all the many different 
rubber plants, which for one reason or 
another are not suitable for cultivation, 


Gums, Resins. 


we have four or perhaps five kinds to 
take into consideration. Besides the 
two principal kinds of Para rubber and 
Castilloa, we have the Ceara rubber 
(Manihot Glaziovii, Muell. Arg.) which 
originally was found wild in certain 
mountain districts in Brazil, where it is 
oceasionally gathered by the natives. 
This tree was first considered very suit- 
able for cultivation, and more than 
twenty years ago it was largely planted 
in Ceylon and also in India, but at the 
present day it is hardly considered 
worth collecting. 


The Assam rubber (Ficus elastica) of 
East India has been producing rubber 
for a long time, but it is not likely to 
become planted very widely, as even in 
its native country it does not produce 
rubber profitably before it has reached 
rather advanced age. Both in Java and 
the Malay Peninsula I found that both 
private planters and Government experts 
were discouraging the planting of this 
tree. It is, however, the most long- 
lived of all the rubber trees, and would 
probably go on improving for a century. 
The main trouble with the Ficus is in 
the tapping, which is very difficult. 


The so-called Lagos rubber (funtumia 
elastica) which grows wild on the west 
coast of Africa is being planted in its 
native country, and has been tried 
experimentally in many _ Botanical 
Gardens throughout the Tropics, but it 
is not considered very good. 


In Colombia and in certain parts of 
Central America there occurs in the 
high mountains a rubber tree which 
produces a very good kind of rubber. 
This is Sapium tolimense, which may 
yet prove to be suitable for our tropical 
highlands up to an elevation of 7,000 
feet. Tomy knowledge no experiments 
with this plant have yet been done in 
Mexico, mainly on account of the diffi- 
culty of obtaining true seeds. Over a 
year ago I received and planted seeds, 
which were said to be those of Sapium 
tolimense, but when the plant appeared, 
1 found it to be another species of 
Sapium which does not produce rubber. 


The Hancornia speciosa of Brazil, or 
the Mangabeira rubber is a very slow- 
growing tree, rather difficult to cultivate, 
and I do not think it would be a success 
in Mexico. 


114 


a 


As we have to leave out the Hevea on 
account of the cost in collecting the 
rubber, we find ourselves confined to the 
rubber tree of Mexico growing at our 
very doors in the Tropics. 


Taken as an ordinary cultivated tree, 
the Castilloaisas easy a plant to cultivate 
asany. But we must not for a moment 
believe, as many company promoters 
like to state, that all we have to do is to 
plant the seedsin the ground and wait 
for the crop to appear. We have to 
wait, and the waiting period is, as you all 
know, quite long and costly, but during 
this time we have to keep busy 
looking after our trees and their develop- 
ment. As in regard to other plants 
Castilloa re-acts to good treatment. 
We have so far learnt quite a deal about 
the methods of cultivation, and our 
knowledge of rubber culture to-day is 
quite different from that of five years 
ago. But we have still to find out many 
things in order to get the very best 
results... To reach this end we need 
co-operation between the planters, and 
I trust the new Rubber Planters’ Asso- 
ciation of Mexico will be able to establish 
a system of co-operative experiments in 
different parts of the country under the 
general direction of its Council. 


If we are to progress and keep our 
own, it is necessary that we all co- 
operate, and we must remember that 
the valuable man in any business is the 
man who can and will co-operate with 
other men. It has been fitly said that 
‘“‘the foreman who opposes the introduc- 
tion of a new man into an institution, 
and fights every innovation which he 
himself does not suggest, is doomed to 
a gradual and creeping defeat.” ‘‘Men 
succeed only as they utilize the services 
and ideas of other 
Hubbard. Therefore, let us co-operate. 


In this and in many other regards the 
Planters’ Association has a great mission, 
and we hope that a few years hence, when 
the result of the work of this Association 
is beginning to show what the Mexican 
rubber industry shall be, not a thing to 


be laughed at, but one of the leading agri- — 


cultural industries of this country, and 


one which will have the lead in com- — 
petition with other countries.—Year 
Book of the Rubber Planters’ Association — 


of Mexico, 1907-1908. 


men” says Elbert ~ 


_[Aveust, 1908. zs 


‘ 


: 


Avaust, 1908. | 


llo 


OILS AND FATS. 


CAMPHOR OIL. 


Although the camphor oil market: 
under the influence of the declining 
camphor-quotations, has also during the 
past six months shown a very feeble im- 
print, the prices of crude oil have fallen 
bat little below the levelof October, 1907. 
From certain delays in the shipments it 
would appear that the Japanese have 
undertaken larger contracts for forward 
delivery than they were finally able to 
execute, and to this fact it must be attri- 
buted that but very rarely firm offers 
could be obtained. On the other hand, 
very little desire was manifested to buy, 
and it was a matter of satisfaction to us 
to find that the camphor oil and safrol 
business is becoming more and more con- 
centarted in our hands. For the rest, the 
contract between the Monopoly Board 
and the London firm of Samuel, Samuel 
& Co. expires at the end of March, and 
the Japanese now propose to take the 
salé in their own hands. It is stated 
that for the present it is not intended to 
make any alteration in the sale of 
camphor oil. 


Of light and heavy camphor oil any 
repuired quantity can be supplied prompt- 
ly, and we shall be pleased to submit 
special quotations to firms interested in 
larger parcels. Thanks to our extensive 
production, we are generally ina position, 
in the case of light oil, to meet the 
wishes also with regard to _ specific 


gravity, of those who require larger 


quantities for definite purposes, and in 
such cases shall be happy to receive 
enquires. 


According to an unnamed source in the 
Chemiker Zeitung, the shipments from 
Japan in 1906 amounted to 


Camphor 2,656,581 kin (1596°6 tons), 
value 3,632,785 yen. 


Camphor oil 769,279 kin (462°3 tons), 
value 122,502 yen. 


From the same paper we learn the 
following with regard to the causes 
which have led to the collapse in the 
prices which occurred about the middle 
of last year. Itsays that, according to 


-acommunication which reached a New 


York periodical from a Formosan em- 
ployé, the fall in the prices originated in 
an important change in the sale of cam- 
phor tothe United States. Upto that 
time the consignees of the Monopoly 


- Bureau, Messrs. Samuel, Samuel & Co., 


had supplied the camphor exclusively to 
the American refiners, from whom the 


celluloid-manufacturers were compelled 
to buy. The Committee sent in 1906 by 
the Monopoly Bureau to Europe and 
America for the study of the camphor 
market, reported that owing to this 
indirect trade, the celluloid-industry, the 
principal consumer of camphor, was 
toreed by the high prices demanded by 
the refiners—prices which were twice as 
high as the selling prices of Samuel, 
Samuel & Co.—either to fall upon sub- 
stitutes, or to employ artificial camphor. 
Thereupon the Japanese Government 
made a considerable reduction in the 
quantities to besupplied to the refiners, 
and sold direct to the celluloid-manu- 
facturers. This fact, and also the in- 
creased production in South China, led 
to a fall in the prices which in New York 
amounted to 30 %. 


The same report states, with reference 
to the market-position of synthetic 
camphor that, according to the makers, 
itis not suitable for all purposes, but 
only for articles of inferior quality. Its 
price regulated itself according to that 
of natural camphor, and was usually 10 
to 15 cents per lb. lower. The consumers, 
however, were not satisfied with this 
and desired a greater difference, and 
especially that the price of the synthe- 
tic product should be placed on a footing 
independent of that of Japanese camphor, 
and no longer move up and down with 
the latter. 


Not quite in harmony with the fore 
going reportis the official communica 
tion which the Editor of the Chemist and 
Druggist has received from the Japanese 
Monopoly Bureau. In this, the continued 
difficulties in supplying the world’s 
market with camphor are pointed out, 
andit is stated that, when some of the 
savage tribes in Formosa have been 
subdued, the production here is expected 
to increase. The above communication 
further refers to the increased supplies 
from South China, with the remark that 
the merchants there, after the drop in 
the prices since June, 1907, would hardly 
find the business pay; but it might he 
taken for granted that the production 
in South China would soon come to an 
end, especially in view of the irregular 
manner in which itiscarried on. Finally 
the report denies the statement that the 
contract with Samuel, Samuel & Co. 
would cease to be in force at the end of 
1907. We find in a subsequent notice in 
the same Journal, as already mentioned 
by us above, that the contract expired 
on 38lst March of the present year. 


Oils and Fats. 116 


According to the returns of the 
Camphor Office at Nagasaki which com- 
prises the districts Nagasaki and Saga, 
the annual yield from these districts 
amounts to about 160,000 kin (=100,000 
kilos) and has consequently a capacity 
only inferior to that of the Kagoshima 
department which produces the largest 
amount of camphor in Old Japan. The 
production of Nagasaki is placed on the 
market by the intermediary of the Kobe 
office. The intention is to obtain 
camphor also from the leaves, and also 
to carry on the work, instead of by the 
steam-distillation method, by a ‘‘more 
simple” process, of which, however, 
nothing further is said. 


In connection with this proposal to 
make use of also the leaves of the tree 
for the production of camphor, we com- 
municate acriticism by Cayla, of a work 
on the camphor-production from leaves 
and young branches, which appeared in 
the Agricultural News of 18th July, 1907. 
It is said that the statement made in the 
article referred to, that the camphor 
made from the leaves and from the wood 
is of equal quality, is, according to 
earlier experiments by Hilgard in Cali- 
fornia, not correct; but in this case it 
may have been a question of two 
different varieties. In the data given of 
the yields obtained, viz., 120 lbs. from 
124 acres, Cayla misses an exact calcula- 
tion which would show whether the 
process is remunerative. According to 
experience obtained elsewhere, the pick- 
ing of the leaves requires a good deal of 
expensive labour ; moreover, the removal 
of the foliage has a very unfavourable 
influence on the condition of the trees in 
the next following year. 


An Englishman residing in Formosa 
communicates in Chambers’ Journal the 
impressions gained by him on this island, 
and in the course of his description he 
discusses the camphor-production there. 
The camphor oil distilled on the spot in 
the forests is shipped to Japan for 
further treatment, whilst the crude 
camphor is worked up at Taipeh 
(Tamsui) into the quality brand A, whose 
value on foreign markets is £10 14s. per 
picul. The annual profit to the Japanese 
Treasury amounts to from £300,000 to 
£400,000. The camphor-labourers, whose 
life and limb are in constant peril, 
receive £8 per picul. The narrator 
states that the subjection of the savages 
is progressing, and that the complete 
subjugation of the island is only a 
question of time. 


With regard to the camphor-industry 
in the South of China, we learn from a 
Japanese source that, besides in the 
province Fo-kien, camphor is also ob- 


bam 


Rh 


[Auaust, 


tained in the adjacent provinces of 
Kwang-si, Kwang-tung, Chi-kian Kiang- 
si, and Sze-chwang. 


The exports from Foochow in the first 
half-year of 1907 amounted to 1,350,000 kin 
(about 810 tons). According toa report 
from the British Commercial Attaché in 
China, Sir Alexander Hosie, there are in 
Foochow seventeen Chinese and several 
Japanese refiners in full operation, where 
the natural crude camphor oil produced in 
the interior and put up in old petroleum 
tins is worked up intocamphor. In view 
of the primitive installations deseribed 
by Sir Alexander, it isnot surprising to 
hear that for working out 50 % of cam- 
phor, it is necessary to repeat the dis- 
tillation 16 to 17 times. With regard to 
the production, Sir Alexander makes the 
following statements :— 


The total export from China altogether 
was in 1906, 17,652 ewts. value £215,734; in 
1905, 6,384 ewts., value £54,732. 


For 1907, the Japanese source mentions 
a total export of 4,000,000 kin (in round 
figures 2,400 tons). The export-figures of 
Foochow have been communicated by us 
in our last Report; we add that camphor 
oil was first of all exported via Foochow 
Mt the year 1903, the figures being since 
then :— 


19038 624 cwts., value & 9938 
1904 744 ~—Cy,, by; »» 1,380 
1905 ... 3849 ,, "5 », 600 
1906 oce 3,796 99 3° 59 8,344 


Of the camphor-production of the 
province Kwang-si, 914 cwts. were 
shipped via Woochow to Hong-Kong. 
With regard to the future of the Chinese 
camphor-industry, the British author 
holds the same pessimistic opinion as the 
two Foochow consuls. In view of the 
fluctuations of the camphor-market, the 
British merchants in Foochow have 
preferred not to participate in this busi- 
ness, Which is mainly controlled by — 
Hongkong parsees, who tranship the — 
camphor to India. 


We have again before us a number of 
communications dealing with experi- 
ments in the production of camphor 
outside the present Japano-Chinese pro-- 
ducing districts. For example, S. Naka- 
mura, up to now ‘‘agent” of the afore- 
said camphor-office at Nagasaki, has 
founded a company for the utilisation 
of the camphor-plantations in Kyushyu, 7 
the production of which is to be sold 
to tue Japanese treasury fora suitable 
indemnity. 


As camphor in Old Japan is now for 
many years an article of monopoly, the 
above report, in its present form, is not 
quite clear. ' 


Spiel in Fi a 


tion of camphor-trees, 


Biers 


Avaust, 1908.] 


According to reports from Ceylon. the 
cultivation of camphor trees now extends 
over an area of 900 acres, and if there 
had not been a scarcity of seedlings, the 
area under cultivation would be larger. 


The work by Nock (mentioned on page 
25 of our last Report), on the propaga- 
has now been 
published in The Circulars and Agri- 
cultural Journal of the Royal Botanic 
Gardens, Ueylon, and gives exact details 
on the various methods recommended 
for the propagation. 


With regard to the experiments in the 
cultivation of camphor in the South of 
France and the French Possesions, a 
good deal of information is available. 
In these experiments, which were appa- 
rently undertaken both officially and 
privately, the question was whether the 
trees produce in their new surroundings 
a commercially impurtant quantity of 
camphor. The first trials, made in the 
experimental garden at Algiers and else- 
where in Algeria, had at first a totally 
negative result. In 1895, Trabut suc- 
ceeded in obtaining from the leaves of 
young camphor trees sown by himself, 
a yield of 38g. from 6°6 ]b., equal to 1:27 
per cent., and Battandier was recently 
able to produce camphor in a yield of 
1:05 to 1:40 per cent. from leaves and 
young branches of trees which Trabut 
had planted in 1895. Tarbouriech had 
for his experiments only available the 
single tree, 15 years old, of the botanical 
garden at Montpellier, which had a very 
strong growth, and which put forth long 
branches year by year. But from the 
leaves of this tree only 0,65 per cent. 
camphor could beisolated. Trabut attri- 
butes this unsatisfactory 1esult to the 
fact that the treeis placed in a hot house, 
owing to which the sapin the tree has 
ceased to flow in consequence of the 
smaller quantity of air and light ad- 
mitted. According to Tarbouriech, the 
camphor-question is worthy of full 
attention from official quarters. The 
last-named investigator explains the 
first unsuccessful attempts, in quoting 


_ the work of Trabut and Battandier, in 


this way that at that time a camphor- 
less variety, Camphora inuncta, Hardy, 
had been used for the studies. 


From a compilation by Cayla on the 
same subject, we learn that Beille at 
Bordeaux also obtained camphor from 
the leaves and young branches of a tree 
grown in the botanical garden of that 
town, but here no details are given of 
the yield. From trees grown by grafting 
twigs of the genuine camphor-tree on 
Camphora inuncta, the camphorless 
species, Trabut obtained the same good 


7 


_ per 


Oils and Fats. 


yield as from the tree with genuine roots. 
The fluctuations observed in the yields 
are not due to climatic influences, but 
are explained by differences in the indi- 
vidual species, and possibly also in the 
individual trees. Cayla discusses es- 
pecially in detail the researches of 
Crévost and Lan with regard to the 
occurrence of several camphor-producing 
varieties in Tonquin. From the extra- 
ordinary results obtained by _ these 
scientists it would appear that the true 
camphor-tree, Cinnamomum Camphora, 
is not found among them, Lan mentions 
trees whose leaf-stalks acquire a red 
colour when kept, and others whose 
stalks remain green, and he considers 
the two as different species. This dif- 
ference would show itself by the fact 
that leaves and branches of the red- 
stalked trees yield camphor, those of 
the green-stalked trees oil. A further 
difference, according to Lan, shows 
itself in the odour of the _ fresh 
leaves, and in their appearance after 
drying; the green-stalked leaves, when 
rubbed, produced a distinct odour of 
rancid oil, and when dry had a chavac- 
teristic greasy-oily appearance, whilst 
the red-stalked leaves had a camphor- 
odour, and a dull appearance after dry- 
ing. As neither blossoms nor fruit of 
either species were available, and an 
exact identification was therefore impos- 
sible, Lan concluded from the nervature 
of the two species allied to the cinnamon 
tree, Cinniamomum Zeylanicum, Breyne, 
of which the roots contain camphor, and 
the leaves camphor oil, as was shown by 
Kurz,—a view which is perhaps sup- 
ported by the presence of the above- 
named varieties in the midst of strongly 
growing cinnamon-shrubs. <A third cam- 
phor-producing tree also found in Ton- 
quin, Lan looked upon as either Cinna- 
momum Camphora, or C. Parthenoxylon, 
Meissn. According to Cayla it is for 
practical purposes important, that the 
camphor-trees, as Crévost noticed, do not 
form continuous forests, but are only 
found in the neighbourhood of pagodas. 
This situation would have the effect of 
protecting the old trees, whilst the new 
trees further out were felled and their 
shoots destroyed by bush-fires. In the 
cultivation of the camphor-trees for 
which the preliminary conditions are 
unquestionably better than in Formosa, 
the most important point will be to pro- 
tect them from these bush-fires. A 
number of colonists have already taken 
up the utilisation of the trees, and one 
of them has already obtained from the 
leaves and branches of the _ vred-stalk 
variety a brownish oil which, then sold 
in Hongkong, fetched about 218 frances 

er 10C kilos. Cayla_ concludes that, 
after what has become known up to the 


Oils and Fats. 


present, the prospects of the camphor- 
cultivation in Tonquin are not unfavour- 
able. 


The prospects of the borneol-yielding 
composite Blumea balsamifera, which 
is also found in Indo-China, and which is 
recommended from various quarters for 
the production of camphor, are, how- 
ever, not considered so favourable. We 
refer more fully to this subject under 
Borneol. 


The German Commissioner of Forests, 
Kekert, reports on the experiments in 
the cultivation of camphor in the various 
stations of German Kast Africa, that the 
plants grown from seed, and placed at 
distances of 2 by 2 metres, have through- 
out taken on well. The height of the 
plants now fluctuates between 20 in. 
and 8 feet. For previous and _ inter- 
mediate cultivation it is recommended 
to sow maize. 


An article by Cayla on the production 
and use of camphor oil gives no infor- 
mation which has not already become 
known from time to time, and for this 
reason we only refer toit here for the 
sake of completeness. 


In afraction obtained from camphor 
oil, which had the following constants: 
b. p. 1755 to 177° (763 mm. _ press.) 
415°0°8470, #@D+389°46’,"D20° 1°47583, the 
high rotation gave rise to the suspicion 
that in addition to the dipentene which 
Wallach had already discovered in the 
oil a considerable time ago, there might 
also be present not inconsiderable quan- 
tities of d-limonene. 


From the tetrabromide, obtained by 
brominating, abundant quantities of 
pure dipentene tetrabromide, m.p. 124°, 
could readily be isolated, whilst the pro- 
duction of limonene tetrabromide in the 


118 


eae 
ture i ci > 


(Avaust, 1908. 


pure state was accompanied by difficul- 
ties, although a considerable enrichment 
of this product could be attained by 
fractional crystallisation. For example, 
a mixture of the two _ tetrabromides 
showed a rotation of @D about+12° in 
chloroform solution. 


The undoubted proof of the presence 
of d-limonene in addition to dipentene 
was obtained by us as follows :— 


With due regard to the fact that 
B-limonene nitrosochloride is more diffi- 
cultly soluble in chloroform than the a- 
compound and the two dipentene com- 
pounds, and that the nitrolpiperidides 
which can be formed therefrom show 
different solubilities in petroleum ether, 
the nitrosochloride, which was formed 
from the fraction only in a_ small 
yield, was shaken for a short time at 
ordinary temperature with double the 
quantity of chloroform, and the portion 
which had not entered into solution was 
collected. The chloroform solution of 
this substance melting at 100 to 101°, 
proved to be strongly dextrorotatory. 
The portion of the nitrolpiperidide ob- 
tained by conversion with piperidine, 
which first made its appearance from 
dilute alcohol, was treated with cold pet- 
roleumether. The portion which had not 
dissolved consisted chiefly of dipentene 
nitrolpiperidide, small needles of the 
melting point 150 to 152°; from the solu- 
tion B-limonene nitrolpiperidide crystal- 
lised in coarse crystals of the m.p. 110 
to 111°, the solution of which in chloro- 
form was laevorotatory. 


To the numerous constituents detected 
in camphor oil must therefore still be 
added d-limonene, which represented 
about one-third of the examined frac- 
tion.—Semi-Annual Report of Schimmel 
& Co., April, 1908. 


i 


~ 


Leal 
f 


—, ¥, 


AUGUST, 1908:] 
PURIFICATION OF COCONUT OIL. 


Coconut oil, asit is expressed from sun 
or grill-dried copra, always contains a 
quantity of impurities-organic colouring 
matter, albuminoid bodies and a certain 
characteristic odour, all of which are 
objectionable for particular purposes for 
which the oil is otherwise well suited. 
While it is entirely possible to produce 
a pure oil directly from the nuts if 
special precaution in curing them is 
taken, the demand for highly refined oil 
does not seem to warrant the introduc- 
tion of modern mechanial methods of 
desiccation at the present time, hence 
the numerous patents which are taken 
out from time to time and the frequent 
notices in the literature of new or im- 
proved processes for the production of 
pure coconut oil, refer to some subse- 
quent chemical treatment of the com- 
mercially expressed oil itself. Clarifica- 
tion by filtration, subsidence or heating 
with or without the addition of -coagu- 
lants is simple and economical of applica- 
tion, and, as generally practised, removes 
all of the suspended foreign matter 
and most of the soluble impurities, 
producing a perfectly clear, light, amber 
oil of sufficient purity for soap stock, 
but it falls short of being completely 
free from odour ard colour. Therefore, 
further refining constituents, the only 
known means of producing an odourless 
and colourless product suitable for ali- 
mestal or cosmetic purposes. The 
removal of the last traces of odour and 
colour from coconut oil presents many 
difficulties in the way of subsequent 
clarification and risk of loss of oil, and 
the methods of procedure are _ neces- 
sarily limited to the use of such chemical 
reagents as are harmless or are easily 
removed. In general, refining processes 
may be conveniently divided into (1) 
acid and (2) alkaline treatments; the 
former has not proved applicable for 
the production of oils for edible, cosmetic 
or lubricating purposes, because of the 
poisonous nature and otherwise harmful 
action of mineral acids. The alkaline 
“process makes use of the hydrates or 
carbonates of the fixed alkalies, ammo- 
nia, caustic lime or magnesia, with or 
without the aid of heat. The efficiency 
of an alkaline treatment depends upon 
incomplete saponification, whereby the 
free, volatile, fatty acids, which are 
responsible to a large measure for the 
characteristic odour of coconut oil, are 
first neutralized and precipitated as a 
salt of whichever alkali is employed. 
If the alkali be added in excess of the 
amount necessary to neutralize the free 
acids, and the oilis steamed or otherwise 
heated, then the neutral glycerides—that 


119 


Oils and Fats. 


is, the oil itself—suffers partial decom- 
position and goes to augment the amount 
of soaps formed. Therefore, unless any 
alkaline treatment of a vegetable oil is 
carefully regulated, both as regards the 
amount of alkali used and the temper- 
ature employed, low yields of purified 
oil are obtained. All of the residues 
or ‘‘foots” go to form soap stock, hence the 
advisability is apparent of employing 
this process in conjunction with a mar- 
ket for the by-product, The main points 
to note in connection with refining by 
means of alkalies are, first, the minimum 
quantity of alkali necessary to effect the 
purification, and, second, the right con- 
centration of caustic lye which is un- 
favourable to the formation of emulsions. 
The minimum quantity of alkali can be 
determined accurately by testing the 
acidity of asmall sample of the oil to 
be refined, or by the cut and dried 
methods of practical experience. 


Ordinary commerical grades of coconut 
oil collected on the Manila market con- 
tain from 1 to 10 per cent. of free fatty 
acids, calculated as oleic acid, and these 
percentages require approximately 0°15 
to 1°5 parts, respectively, of caustic soda 
per 100 parts of oil. The caustic soda 
may be added tothe oil either in the 
solid state with subsequent addition of 
water, or better, in the form of a caus- 
tic liquor previously prepared. The 
strouger the caustic liquor used the less 
the tendency to emulsion formation and 
the more rapid and complete the action, 
if proper mechanical devices for tho- 
roughly mixing a strong lye with the oil 
are used. If, after the addition of the 
caustic the oil is gradually heated to the 
boiling point of water, the soap separ- 
ates in a granular condition and is 
easily removed by filtration or sub- 
sidence. The oil may now be steamed 
and washed with hot water until it is 
perfectly clear and neutral, and if the 
above treatment with caustic liquor and 
the subsequent steaming are properly 
conducted, the resulting oil will be 
found perfectly free from the well-de- 
fined odour of the original oil and to pos- 
see ine bland, fatty odour of pure melted 

ard. 


Coconut oil is also’ considerably 
lightened in colour by the above treat- 
ment, but in no sense can it be con- 
sidered as a colourless oil. To remove 
the last traces of colouring matter from a 
vegetable oil is much more difficult than 
the destruction of the rancid odour, and 
in order to accomplish this completely it 
is necessary to subject the refined oil to 
some mild bleaching action which does 
not introduce harmful ingredients which 
would be difficult of subsequent removal. 
Of the many well-known methods of 


Oils and Fats, 


bleaching proposed for general use, hy- 
drogen peroxide seems to be most favour- 
able in this regard as itis easy of appli- 
cation, and at its present price is not 
prohibitive. Sufficient dilute alkali 
should be added to neutralize any 
mineral acid it may contain, and a slight 
excess favours the action of this reagent, 
at the same time having no saponitying 
action. Nextin order of suitability is a 
dilute solution of chloride of lime 
slightly acidified with aceticacid. Ifthe 
addition of acid and the temperature of 
the bleaching are carefully controlled, 
the chance of injury to the oil by free 
chlorine is a minimum, and the result is a 
pure, water-white product.—Philippine 
Journal of Science, Vol. If1., No. 1. 


THE CANDLE-NUT TREE, 

One of the many ornamental trees 
naturalised in many parts of India, writes 
Capital, is the Belgaum or Indian walunt 
or camdle-nut tree (Aleurites moluccana). 
The home of this tree stretches from 
the Pacific Islands through the Malayan 
Archipelago to Further India, and it is 
abundant in New Caledonia, Queensland, 
and New Guinea, It appears to prefer a 
protected situation, hence it is common 
in the woods and especially plentiful in 
narrow valleys and ravines up to an 
altitude of 2,600 feet above sea level. 
Its roundish fruits are about the size of 
a small apple and consists of a thick 
fleshy rind, containing one or two heart- 
shaped seeds, which are very hard- 
shelled and of the size of a horse 
chesnut. The oil, whichis present to the 
extent of over 60 per cent., is almost 
colourless, rather thick and of agree- 
able taste and smell when cool pressed. 
If warm pressed it is brown and dis- 
agreeable in taste. It is a good but 
rather slow drying oil. It is highly 
prized for burning. It also serves asa 
lubricating oil and for soap-making. 

The natives of the Pacific Island take 
the nuts out of the rind and roast them 
over a fire until the shell can be broken 
with the tap of astone. The kernels are 
then threaded ona splinter of bamboo 
or on the midrib of a coconut leaf. 
They then bind round a few strings of 
seeds with barks or leaves and obtain a 
bright burning but sooty and disagree- 
ably smelling torch. This is the origin 
of the word ‘“‘candle-nut tree.” The 
torches, because they burn so brightly, 
are used for fishing at night. The half 
ripe fruits with salt have a delicate 
flavour, but the ripe nuts are unwhole- 
some and only eaten in time of scarcity. 


With regard to commerce, the French 
in Tahiti have tried to place the nuts on 
the European market, but with in- 


120 


se Se 


ug 

ape 

+e 
i 


LAvenaiea 


different results. The difficulty liesin the 
want of an apparatus to shell the fruits 
on the spot. The shelling of fruits 
before shipment is essential, for the nut 
consists of two-third shell and one-third 
kernel, and the method of shelling 
adopted by the islanders is too expensive 
to allow nuts so treated to compete with 
other oil seeds in the European market. 
Occasionally, however, small consign- 
ments of kernels are sent to the west coast 
of America, where the oil is expressed 
and used in soap-making. 


The oilof the candle-nut tree is ex- 
pressed from the kernels by first powder- 
ing them in an ordinary grain mortar, 
and steaming the powder placed in a 
basket, then pressing in a cloth or piece 
of bullock hide. The oil is very drying; 
itis pale yellow witha slightly bitter 
taste. In burning it emitsa great deal 
of black smoke. It is useful in painting 
and in making varnishes. It is not fit 
for edible purposes, because of its 
purgative properties. The oil cake con- 
tains a large quantity of nitrogenous 
material and is consequently suitable for 
manure. 


The Reporter on Economic Products, 
whose avocation it is to inquire into 
indigenous and introduced commodities, 
has been making an inquiry into the 
distribution of the candle-nut tree in 
India and the utilisation of the oil. One 


hundred years ago, in Dr. Roxburgh’s ° 


day, the tree was fairly common in 
Calcutta, and was planted near temples 
in Rungpur. At the present time itis 
not so common in Caleutta, but in 


Dr. Roxburgh’s day the tree was fairly - 


common in Calcutta, and was planted 
near templesin Rungpur. At the present 
time it is not so common in Calcutta, 
butin Rungpur it is still found planted 
on roadsides. It seems to be a very 
desirable tree for forming shady avenues. 


The tree has been planted in the 
Wynaad, Cochin, and Travancore, where 
itis said to thrive. In North Malabar 


the tree has been established and fruits © g 


freely, but no attempts have been made 
to extract the oil from the seeds. 


The tree occurs scattered about in 
Burma. In the Southern Shan States it 
is planted by monks at monasteries, and 
the oil of the seeds is extracted by 
private medicinemen and others on a 
small scale. The oil is used for rubbing 
in with vermillion on the pillars of the 
wats or monasteries, and for mixing with 
lacquer in the manufacture of trays, 
betel boxes, etc. 


from those who own trees. 


008, 


“ 


At present the oil is 
very rarely bought andsold, and those — 
who require it generally beg seeds or oil a 


Se Oe  D 


oe aaa 


Auaust, 1908.] 


The candle-nut tree is nota very im- 
portant tree in this country, but for 
those who would wish to grow it for 
experimental purposes the _ following 
instructions given by Mr. J. Cameron of 
Bangalore will be found useful :—‘‘ Seeds 
germinate in about five weeks, from the 
time of sowing, or a week earlier if 
placed in fermenting litter such as 
leaves and bedstraw. When upwards of 
a foot in height the seedlings should be 
planted out into large square pits at 25-30 
feet apart. Being a gross feeder, the 


121 


Oils and Fats, 


tree requires the exclusive use of deep 
fertile soil, as, when the roots of other 
trees encroach, the Belgaum walnut 
usually suffers and becomes stunted and 
unproductive in consequence,”’—Indian 
Agriculturist, Vol. XX XIII., No. 3. 


[This tree, Aleurites triloba, Forst., is 
common in the West and South of 
Ceylon, where it is known as Tel-kekuna. 
There should be a market for the oil if it 
could be collected from the growers at a 
moderate cost.—HD. | 


DYES AND TANS. 


WATTLE CULTIVATION 1N GER- 
MAN EAST AFRICA. 


Ina note in Der Pflanzer (1907, 3, 252) 
‘it is stated that several samples of 
the bark of Acacia decurrens, grown 
at West Usambara, have been exa- 
mined and reported on with a view 
to ascertaining whether the cultivation 
of wattle can be successfully undertaken 
in German Kast (Africa. Many of the 
barks first examined gave promising 
results, and as a consequence a number 
of plantations have been laid down, 
principally in the neighbourhood of 
‘West Usambara. Some of the samples 
of bark collected recently from these 


plantations have proved to be of poor 
quality, and though barks of better 
quality have also been obtained, this 
inequality in material produced will, 
unless it can be remedied, seriously affect 
the future of the plantations. It is sug- 
gested that the difference in the tannin- 
content of the various samples is due 
to principal causes, viz.. variation in the 
tannin-content of the tree at different 
times of the year, and differences in the 
method of treatment (drying &c.) of 
the bark after stripping. These impor- 
tant questions are receiving close atten- 
tion with a view to the production of a 
wattle-bark of uniform quality.—Bul- 
letin of the Imperial Institute, Vol. 
VI., No, 1., 1908. 


FIBRES, 


SISAL FIBRE IN FOREIGN LANDS’ 


The cultivation of Sisal hemp in Ger- 
man Kast Africa, judging by an article 
which is published in thelast issue of the 
Bulletin of the Imperial Institute, is pro- 
gressing most favourably. The original 
plants, 1,000 in number, were imported 
from Florida in 1898, but of these only 62 
survived. However, propagation from 
them was so carefully attended to that 
by 1898 the number had increased to 
63,000, and by 1904, out of a total of 
1,800,000 plants, 1,300,000 were ripe for 
cutting. From these 624 tons of fibre 
were obtained, which gives a yield of 
about 17 oz. per plant, but in the follow- 
ing year the yield from the same number 
of plants was 887 tons or about 25 oz, 
per plant; and it is calculated that 
the annual crop from an acre planted 
with 800 plants should amount to from 
900 lb. to 1,200 lb. of fibre. Itis to be noted 
also that asit isfound in German Kast 
Africa that cutting can only be carried 
on for two or three years before the 
plant poles, after which it dies, it is 
necessary to insert new plants between 
the old ones in order that the yield may 
be maintained. The progress of the in- 
dustry in the Colony may best’ be 
judged by the quantity of hemp export- 
ed, which in 1908, 7.e., ten years after the 
first plants were introduced, amounted 
to 422 tons of the value of £16,000. In 
1906, however, the quantity of fibre 
exported amounted to 1,836 tons, of the 
value of £66,900. Here is a lesson for 
agriculturistsin India, where the Sisal 
plant thrives admirably, and where there 
are hundreds and thousands of acres 
lying fallow on whichit should succeed 
admirably, 


The machine employed for Sisal hemP 
extractioninthe larger undertakings it 
German East Africa is one which is use 
to some extent in Yucatan, Mexico, and is 
known as the ‘‘ Mola” machine. It costs 
about £650, is capable of treating from 
85,000 to 120,000 leaves in ten hours, and 
needs about 48 h.p. to drive it. The 
bundles of leaves as brought in from the 
plantation are placed by one or two 
workers on a travelling lattice, which 
carries them up toa table in front of 
the machine. Four men are then re- 
quired to open the bundles and lay the 
leaves on the conveyor, which introduces 
them to two raspadors arranged at right- 
angles to oneanother, where they are 
cleaned, one-half of the leaf being strip- 
pedat atime. The fibre on leaving the 


122 


[Avausr, 1908. 


a 


machine slides down on a wooden frame, 
and is then subjected to washing, women — 
being employed for this work. In order 
to keep the machine sufficiently employ- 
ed, a plantation of at least 600,000 plants is 
said to be required. The disadvantages 
of this machine are the ditficulty of 
replacing damaged parts, and the lack of 
durability of the bronze coating with 
which certain portions of it are provided. 


The Sisal fibre industry also bids fair — 
to become well established in Queens- _ 
land, and numbers of interesting parti- 
culars regarding it are to be foundin a 
Bulletin on the subject issued by Mr. 
A. J. Boyd, of the Department of Agri- 
culture and Stock, Brisbane. He states 
that in writing his pamphlet he was 
‘actuated solely by the desire toestablish 
an industry which, in all other countries 
where it has been introduced, has put 
thousands, aye, even millions of pounds 
sterling into the pocket of planters and — 
farmers, besides furnishing a consider- 
able revenue to the countries interested.” 
Mr. Boyd first of all deals with the 
possibility of unremunerative prices 
resulting from increased production, 
regarding which he says :— 


‘‘ These fears may be at once dismissed. 
The Sisal hemp market, for the-past ~ 
twerty years, shows that the demand is 
constantly increasing. The greater the 
production the greater the demand. — 
Phenomenal prices, such as those of 1890, 
when the price ran up to £50 15s. per ton 
have been obtained. ButI would point © 
out that such exceptional prices have — 
been the result of ‘‘Trusts,” and cannot — 
for a moment be regarded as a regular — 
market price. If the planter obtains £25 
per ton for the product, there remains a 
big margin of profit, as I shall presently ~ 
show when dealing with the returns of _ 
plantations in Yucatan, the Bahamas, — 
Florida, Mauritius and other tropical — 
countries. The enormous trade done in — 
these countries and the ever-increasing ~ 
demand with which the production has 
not yet been able to keep pace, the 


reap a rich reward.” 


The Arabs say that he who plants a 
date palm has provided for his old age, so | 
he who plants a field of Sisal provides, 


i 


~ out any hoeing or ploughing. 


accelerate the period of poling. 


BPN Herre ey, > 


Pe 


Avaust, 1908. } 


Mr. Boyd says, not only a living, but a 
most comfortable one for his old age, 
and a_ living which begins to be 
enjoyed within five years of planting. 
As far as profit is concerned, he adds, 
putting the expenses at the extreme 
and the fibre at the lowest price obtain- 
ed in a series of years in New York, the 
principal market for the world’s pro- 
duction of Sisal fibre—viz., 45 cents, or 
2id. per lb.—which is equal to £20 19s. 
8d. per ton, Sisal hemp will give a clear 
profit of from 50 to 70 per cent, 


As regards the best distance ut which 
to plant, Mr. Boyd says authorities differ ; 
it is however largely a question 
of soil. He advocates 12 feet between 
the rows and 6 feet between plants, 
which gives 605 plants per acre; and 
he says that the plant thrives best with- 
Once a 
field is planted, he adds, it may be 
practically left to itself, as there is pro- 


‘hably no plant except the castor oil 


plant which requires less care to bring 
it to perfection, or which grows under 


more apparently adverse circumstances 


than Sisal. There is one trouble in 
Queensland, however, which is the same 
asin India —dearth of plants. In the 
former country, Mr. Boyd says, the 
demand is far in excess of the supply, and 
importations from foregin countries are 
impossible in some cases owing to the 
prohibition against their export. He 


maintains also that the life of the Sisal 


plant is intimately connected with the 
production of the pole, and that it may 
be materially shortened by not cutting 
the leaves at the right age or by over- 
eutting. With careful management no 
pole should appear for ten or even 
twenty years. It isalso believed that 
the root suckers, if allowed to remain 
attached to the mother plant for a long 
period, tend to exhaust the latter and ve 

s 
regards probable returns in Queensland, 
Mr. Boyd remarks :— 


. Allowing 1,000 plants to the acre, each 
plant at four years gives forty leaves a 
year. of a weight of about1201lb. This 


has been shown to be the average 
rate of leaves in Queensland. 


In Yucea- 
tan, the weight averages-about 1b. 15 oz. 


Let us take the lesser weight -as a basis 


a 


for a calculation of returns—that is, 


‘501b. as the weight of forty leaves. Four 


per cent. of this turns into marketable 


125 


Fibres. 


fibre, dried and white, 2 lb. of fibre per 
plant. This gives us 2,000 lb. toan acre. 
The value of the fibre in the Melbourne 
market is at present (1906) £37 10s. per 
ton f.o.b. at Brisbane. We will, however, 
take £35 as the market price. An allow- 
ance for cultivation, preparation, baling 
and carriage to a Queensland port of 
40 per cent. on the value of the fibre 
is considerably in excess of the truth— 
40 per cent on £385 is £14. Deducting 
this from the sale price, the net proceeds 
per acre amount. The planter will, how- 
ever, do well to reckon for a first crop 
upon about half a ton of fibre per acre; 
40 per cent. on the sale price reduces this 
to £10 10s., which represents the net 
profits per acre. Mr. Boyd describes a 
number of machines, and speaks most 
favourably of the respective inveations 
of Mr. T. C. Todd, of New Jersey, U.S. A., 
and of Mr. Thos. Barraclough, of 
Bucklesbury, London. Finnally, he says 
that the Sisal plant has been free from 
disease and insect pests in Queensland, 
where its worst enemy is a hurricane, 
—Indian Agriculturist, Vol. XXXIII,, 
No. 4, April, 1908. 


AGAVES AND SOIL DENUDATION. 

An excellent example of the use of 
vegetation in arresting soil denudation 
is reported from South Africa, where 
there is removal of the soil through the 
agencies of burning, excessive trampling, 
torrential rain, ete. Itis stated, how- 
ever, that a good deal of success has 
attended efforts made to combat this 
evil by planting the American ‘Aloe’ 
(probably Agave americana) on affected 
areas. 


An effective barrier is formed to the 
denuding effects of torrential rain by the 
establishment of lines ot these plants 
across sloping lands, and since the sedi- 
ment washed downis stopped by the 
barrier, periodical terraces tend to be- 
come formed on the hillside in the course 
of a few years. 


Further, shelter is provided for other 
plants which grow up below the lines 
and form an additional mass of vegeta- 
tion, while the young succulent leaves of 
the agave afford a supply of palatable 
food for stock during dry seasons.— 
Agricultural News, Vol. VII, No. 153, 
March, 1908. 


124 


DRUGS AND MEDICINAL PLANTS. 


~ 


[Aveust, 1908. x 


COCA LEAVES FROM PERAK. 

The Imperial Institute has examined a 
sample of coca leaves from Perak, 
Federated Malay States. They found 
them to be similar to the Java descrip- 
tion, but rather browner than a good 
sample of the latter, while the percent- 
age of total alkaloids was 0°64 per cent., 
being quite equal to an average amount 
found in commercial coca from other 
sources. Similar leaves, but of good 
green colour, realise 73d. to 8d. per lb. on 
the London Market.—Chemist and Drug- 
gist, No. 1, 475, Vol. LX XII, May, 1908. 


THE MALAYAN ANTI-OPIUM 
PLANT. 


(Combretum sundaicum, Miq.).—In the 
Kew Bulletin, 1907, p. 198, reference 
was made to the discovery of a plant in 
Malaya, which was reputed to be valu- 
able for the purpose of destroying che 
desire for opium. The plant has been 
identified by Mr. Carruthers as Com- 
bretum sundaicum, Miq., a native of the 
Malayan Peninsula and _ archipelago. 
The history of the discovery of the value 
of the plant is given by Mr. Wray in the 
Journal of the Federated Malay States 
YMuseums, Vol. [I., No. I., December, 
1906, and is as follows :— 


‘““A party of Chinese wood-cutters 
working in the jungle near Seremban, 
in Negri Sembilan, ran out of tea, and, to 
supply its place, took the leaves of a 
jungle climber, dried them and made an 
infusion in the ordinary way. This, 
however. was not successful, as the 
beverage made the men ill with ‘sakit 
perut,.’ (i.e., bowel complaint). The leaves 
were then roasted anda fair substitute 
for tea was obtained, which had no ill- 
effects. Then, for some obscure reason, 
‘tengo’ (opium dross), or the refuse opium 
after being smoked, was mixed with it, 
and the men continued drinking the 
mixture for a week or more in place of 
tea. After this time it was found that 
all desire for opium smoking had been 
lost. Friends of the men were told of 
the discovery, and so the news was 
spread and others were induced to try 
the remedy.” 


With regard to the further history 
of the plant and the spread of the 
knowledge of its properties, Mr. J. G. 
Alexander has been kind enough to 
furnish us with the following parti- 
culars :— 


The young men of the Chinese Y.M. 
C,A., connected with the church of the 


Rev. W.E. Horley, of the Methodist ~ 
Kpiscopal Church, Kuala Lumpur, heard _. 
that in the village of Jelebu, in the 
neighbouring State of Negri Sembilan, a 
cure for the opium habit had _ been 
found, namely, a decoction of the leaves 
of a forest creeper (Combretum sun- 
daicum) which grows abundantly in 
the tropical jungle. They brought the 
matter before Mr. Horley, as they pur- 
posed to devote their leisure to the dis- 
tribution of the medicine if he would 
afford them the _ necessary help. He 
obtained a supply from the Anti-Opium 
Society of Selangor, who undertook to 
pay all expenses on condition that the 
medicine was distributed without charge. 


Inafew weeks the news of the cure 
spread quickly, and after some four 
weeks 500 applicants daily were supplied. 


An applicant brought with him two 
bottles, old brandy or whisky bottles 
which were filled with the decoction, 
and into one of the two he placed—if . 
beginning the cure—his usual quantity of 
opium drops; this is not repeated, and ~ 
he fills up the bottle containing it from 
the other bottle which contains none, so 
that gradually the pioportion of opium 
is reduced tonil. If he came a second 
time no opium was used. 


The somewhat crude method of pre- 
paration of the drug is given in detail 
by Mr. Wray in the article to which 
reference has already been made. With 
regard to its chemical nature nothing 
has as yet been discovered either in the 
leaves or stem of the plant or in the 
decoction of the roasted drug which © 
mould account for its physiological 
value. 


Medical men seem to be strongly in- — 
clined to the view that the plant has no — 
real value, and that it is the effect on the 
mind of the opium consumer which 
helps him to overcome the opium habit. 


In favour of this latter view it appears — 
that in Malaya many of those who were, ~ 
or appeared to be cured, have relapsed 
into the habit, though on the other © 
hand many are still holding their ground © 
after more than a year. 


— 


of the value of the anti-opium plant is 

forthcoming, it seems advisable to pre- 
serve an open mind on the subject. 
Kew Bulletin, No. 5, 1908. ie 


3 Aveust, 1908.] 


CHEMICAL EXAMINATION OF 
BRUCEA SUMATRANA. 


We have received from Messrs. Bur- 
roughs and Welcome’s Laboratories two 
pamphlets by Drs. F. B. Power and A. 
W. Salway, and Mr. W. Thomas, giving 
the results of chemical examination of 
the barks of Brucea sumatrana and 
bark and fruits of B. antidysenterica, 
the latter plant being a native of Africa, 


The bark of B. sumatrana was analy- 
sed by Dr. Thomas, who writes:—‘‘ A 
quantity of the bark of this species of 
Brucea was obtained through the kind- 
ness of Mr. H. N. Ridley, Director of the 
Botanic Gardens of the Straits Settle- 
ments, Singapore. Its collection was 
attended with considerable difficulty, for, 
as stated in a communication from Mr. 
Ridley to Messrs, Burroughs, Welcome & 
Co., of London, the plant is a tender 
shrub, the stems of Which are barely an 
inch in diameter and the bark not 
easily removed. It was also ncted that 
although the bark is distinctly less 
bitter, it is much less so than the fruit, 
and therefore probably contains less of 
the bitter principle. The bark was in 
their strips of a light brown colour ex- 
ternally and paler on the inner surface. 
In the analysis there was found buty- 
ric and formic acid and behenic acid.” 


The author concludes that, in view of the 
difficulty of obtaining any quantity of the 
bark of Brucea sumatrana, and the fact 
that it contains a much smaller propor- 
tion of bitter principles than the fruit, 
it would appear that the latter is to be 
preferred for medicinal use. This would 
certainly be so, asthe bark of the shrub 
is very thin and adheres so closely to the 
wood that it is very troublesome to 
serape it off. 

In examining the fruit of the Abyssi- 
man Brucea antidysenterica, Dr. Power 


125 


Drugs and Medicinal Plants. 


and Dr, Salway find that the constitu- 
ents of this species are very simillar to 
that of Brucea sumatrana,and it may 
consequently be assumed that the two 
Species possess similar medical proper- 
ties.. The bitter principles appear, how- 
ever, to be contained in relatively larger 
amount in the fruit of Brucea swmatrana 
than in that of the Abyssinian species, 
and in view of the difficulty experienced 
in collecting the fruit of the latter it is 
not probable that it will acquire a very 
extended use. 


It may finally be noted that the Phar- 
macopzea Nederlandiea (Editio quarta 
1905) has given official recognition to the 
fruit of Brucea sumatrana, Roxb., which 
is described under the title of Fructus 
Bruceze, and it is there stated that in 
the Dutch East Indies this is known 
among other names as“ biji makasar ” 
and ‘‘tambara maridgi.” 


It seems therefore from these two 
papers that the seed of our local species 
is better either than its bark or the 
fruits of the American one, and fortu- 
nately it is very easy to grow from seed, 
and fruits heavily in a short time. If a 
sufficient demand for the fruits could be 
found, Brucea sumatrana would be an 
excellent catch crop for rubber, The 
seeds need only be planted two or three 
feet apart in situs, andno manuring or 
other cultivation is necessary. When 
the fruit commences to ripen it is 
gathered and simply dried. Hach plant. 
will produce about a pound of dried 
fruit per year. 


H. N. R. 
—Agricultural Bulletin of the Straits 
and Federated Malay States, No. 5, Vol. 


VI, May, 1908. 


[This plant is not uncommon as a weed 
about Kandy, and the seeds are used as 
a remedy in dysentery.—Ep.] 


126 


EDIBLE PRODUCTS. eee 


HY DROCYANIC ACID CONTENT OF 
CASSAVA. 


The question of the danger of poison- 
ing arising from the consumption of im- 
perfectly cooked cassava has formed the 
subject of several notes and articles in 
the Agricultural News (Vols. I, p.5; 
II, p. 102; and III, p. 425), anda leaflet 
(Hints and Information wm regard to 
Cassava Poisoning) dealing with the 
subject was issued some twoor three 
years ago. 


Some investigations in connection with 
the amount of hydrocyanic acid and 
starch present in cassava have recently 
been carried out by the Bureau of 
Chemistry of the U. S, Department of 
Agriculture, and the results are pub- 
lished in Bulletin No. 106 of the Bureau. 
The previous work that has been done in 
relation to this question has chiefly been 
undertaken in Trinidad by Professor 
Carmody and his predecessor in the 
office of Government Analyst, and by 
the Hon. H. H. Cousins in Jamaica. 


Cassava has been divided into sweet 
and bitter varieties, and although sweet 
cassavas are considered to be less poison- 
ous than the bitter varieties, yet it. 
appears that the sweet or _ bitter 
character of cassava is not directly con- 
nected with its content of hydrocyanic 
acid, but is dependent upon the absence 
or presence of some bitter principle. As 
the result of his investigations, made 
some five years ago, Professor Carmody 
reported the mean percentage of hydro- 
cyanic acid in the sweet varieties 
examined as 0:010, and in the bitter 
varieties as 0'022. Itis usually held that 
sweet varieties contain only half as 
much prussic acid as those known to 
have been fatal. 


Varieties of cassava grown in Colum- 
bia, and analysed by the Government 
Analyst of Jamaica showed a mean 
percentage of only 0°001 of hydrocyanic 
acid, the, maximum being only 0-008. 
From this it appears’ that all the 
Columbian cassavas may be practically 
classed as sweet. 


On the other hand, analyses of native 
bitter cassavas made by the same officer 
show percentages of hydrocyanic acid of 
from 0°036 to 0°077. 


Professor Carmody suggets that the 
difference between the two kinds con- 
sists in the hydrocyanic acid being dis- 


~~ 


tributed throughout in the bitter kind, 
whereas in the sweet varieties it exists 
chiefly in the cortex. 


In regard to the proportion of hydro- 
cyanic acid present, this is certainly 
influenced by environment, and the ex- 
periments with cassava that have been in 
progress in Jamaica for some years past 
(Agricultural News, Vol. V1, p- 261) 
would appear to indicate that when a 
variety—usually cultivated in elevated 
districts—is transferred to lower levels 
of country, the proportion of hydro- 
cyanie acid tends to increase. Mr. 
Cousins reports that fourteen varieties 
of cassava, stated to be quite non-poison- 
ous in Columbia, were tested after a 
year’s growth in the Liguanea plains of 
Jamaica, and were found to contain, on 
the average, 0'0034 per cent. of hydro- 
cyaniec acid. Aftera further period of 
four years’ growth inthe same changed 
locality the hydrocyanic acid content 
rose to 0'0124 per cent., or practically 
four-fold. On the other hand, a report 
from Trinidad, dealing with this ques- 
tion, notes that residents of Columbia, 
who have imported bitter varieties from 
Jamaica, find they have become sweet. 


The work referred to as having been 
carried out in the United States was con- 
ducted at Biloni, Mississippi, and at 
Miami, Florida, in 1904 and 1905. Cassava 
isa crop that may be grown inany of 
the Gulf States, and it was felt that the 
great feeding value of the roots, could 
the danger of poisoning be eliminated, 
justified investigation of the  hydro- 
cyanic and starch contents of different 
varieties, and the conditions which 
influenced variation in these constituents. 


Thirty-nine varieties were under trial 
at Biloni and twenty-eight at Miami. 
The whole of those raised at Miami were 
originally obtained from Jamaica, while 
at Biloni twelve varieties from Porto 
Rico were grown in addition to the 
Jamaica kinds. At Biloni, a common — 
native variety, Florida Sweet, was also 
grown. 


It is curious to note that none of the 
imported varieties gave so low a percen- — 
tage of hydrocyanic acid as ‘Florida ~ 
Sweet,’ which contained only 0°002 per — 
cent. Pie de Perdiz and Cenaguera — 
approached nearly, however, with an — 
average content of 0:003. Of the cas- 
savas grown at Biloni, Porto Rico, — 
White top contained the highest pro- — 
portion of hydrocyanic acid, 0°030 per 
cent, This was closely followed by 


 Avaust, 1908.4 


Porto Rico Auntie Grace, with 0:028 per 
cent., and by the Mantera and a Helada 
variety from Jamaica, which contained 
0:026 and 0°022 per cent., respectively. At 
Miami, Florida, the percentage of hydro- 
eyanic acid was, in the great number of 
cases, somewhat lower than a Biloxi. In 
the twenty-eight so-called sweet varie- 
ties grown at Miami, the hydrocyanic 
acid content ranges from 0:005 to 0°016 
per cent,, and more than half the varie- 
ties contained 0:002 per cent. or less. On 
reference to the Biloni results with the 
same varieties, it is seen that two-thirds 
of the samples contained 0°010 per cent. 
or more of hydrocyanic acid. The 
Mantera cassava, for example, which at 
Biloni showed a proportion of 0:026 of 
hydrocyanic acid, contained only an 
average of 0'006 at Miami. Statements 
have in the past been made to the effect 
that varieties of cassava, grown in 
Florida, cease in time to be poisonous, 
and these results certainly give some 


- ground for this theory. 


. sweet cassavas, 


The chief portion of the hydrocyanic 
acid was, in the case of both bitter and 
found to exist in the 
cortex. 


From the observations made, there 
does not appear to be any relationship 
between the starch and the hydrocyanic 
acid content of the cassavas.—-Agricul- 
tural News, Vol. VII, 154, March, 1908. 


PACKING VANILLAS FOR 
SHIPMENT. 


At the May public sales held in London, 
prices realised for this article were 
rather easier than those paid at the 
April auctions. In proportion to the 
rather indifferent quality, due to un- 
scientific curing and packing, prices 
realised, as shown below, were fairly 
good, and ranged from barely steady to 
about 6d. below the sales in April. 


What might have been a nice useful 


- lot of Tahitis, saleable at 2s. 6d. to 2s. 9d. 


per lb., were found on being opened to 
show signs of poor curing and a tendency 
to become mouldy. Shippers’ attention, 
and not only those connected with 
Tahiti, has repeatedly been called to the 
mistaken idea of stuffing vanilla tins as 
full as possible, and then soldering on 
the cover so as to render the inside hope- 
lessly air-tight. No vanillas should be 
packed absolutely air-tight, and least of 
all common and _ insufficiently dried 
Tahitis. The beans swell on the voyage, 
and also sweat copiously; if, therefore, 


the tins are rigidly air-proof, the con- 


127 


Edible Products. 


densed vapour clings to the tin, and 
hangs over the beans. On opening, one 
finds the inside not only dampand rusty, 
but corroded and rough with scales of 
rust, and the excess of moisture can be 
squeezed out of the bundles. The result 
is that almost immediately signs of 
mould appear, and in a week, when 
buyers arrive to inspect the shipment 
the beans are all more or less badly 
moulded, and worth only 4d. per lb. or 
so instead of 2s. 6d. This serious loss is 
entirely due to insufficient drying, pack- 
ingin air-tight soldered tins, and also 
through squeezing into eighty large 
pitch-oil tins nearly 100 ewt. of beans, 
which should have been distributed 
between 100 or even 120 tins, so as to allow 
for aeration and expansion on the 
journey across. 


The ideal method of packing is to use 
tins of about 10 lb. to 15 lb., or rather 
more, each provided with a well-fitted 
turned-over-edge lid that grips the sides. 
Such a tin is all but air-tight, though 
able to allow gases or excess of moisture 
to escape and so prevent any chance of 
the contents becoming damp or even 
mouldy. It is not even necessary to 
paper the lid on to or down to the sides 
of the tin, as that prevents such ventila- 
tion taking place. It isadvisable, in 
order to ensure the lids remaining tight 
down on to the tins, either to solder the 
corners only or else to tie them with 
strong twine, but not to solder all round 
the tin. If the Tahiti shippers find it 
necessary to keep to their well-known 
jarge soldered pitch-oil tins they should 
perhaps make two small punctures at 
the top and bottom of the tins at the 
extreme corners, pack the contents less 
tightly and well dry their beans after 
curing ; it would then be found that the 
outturn would be more satisfactory and 
far less liable to deterioration than with 
present methods, 


Prices realised ruled as follows :— 
Seychelles.—FKair quality, 24 to 8 in., 
ds. 9d. to 7s. 6d. per Ib. t 


Bourbon.—Fair quality, 64 to 7% in., 
8s. per lb; fair quality, 64 in., 7s, 9d. 
per lb. 


Madagascar.—KFair quality, 63d. to 7 in., 
9s. 6d. per lb. ; 6 to 63 in., 7s. 6d. to 9s. 3d. 
per lb. ; 4 to 74 in., 6s. 6d. to 8s. 6d. per lb. 


Zanzibar.—Common cure, brown and 
split, 6s. to 7s. per lb. 


Java.—Common brown, 6s. per lb. 


Ceylon.—A single bin, dry brown, of 
poor flavour, 5 to 7 in,, 2s. per lb.—Tropi- 
cal Life, Vol. TV,, No. 5, May, 1908. 


Edible Products. 


THE VILLAGE CULTIVATOR AND 
PADDY CULTIVATION. 


SOME SUGGESTIONS 
By MUDALIYAR A. DISSANAIKE. 


(Paper read at the Meeting of the 
eae of Agriculture on the 8rd August, 


A great obstacle in the way of the 
paddy cultivator in Ceylon is the pre- 
carious nature of the rainfall and its 
great variation in thedifferent parts of 
the Island. Insome places, such as the 
Tangalle and Jaffna districts, there are 
long seasons of drought without a drop 
of rain. Even in’ places where the 
rainfallis more regular there are some- 
times months without water to enrich 
the soil. The lack of water, therefore, is 
the great drawback to the regular carry- 
ing on of paddy cultivation. In some vil- 
lages or districts this could be remedied 
without depending much on rainwater 
by constructing anicuts or bunds across 
rivers and streams where possible. In 
most of the tracts water could be stored 
ip tanks or reservoirs, put up at the 
upper ends of a range of tracts, to 
collect water coming down from higher 
elevations, aud store it till the next rainy 
season. A tank of this kind covering 
an area of ten acres or so could 
in this way supply water to a number 
of tracts lying below its level. For 
this purpose lands will have to be 
acquired under the Ordinance and bunds 
put up by labour supplied by the 
field-owners or cultivators. It appears 
that during the rule of Sinhalese kings in 
most of the villages there existed a great 
many minor reserviors or tanks which 
proved highly beneficial to paddy culti- 
vation. The names of places indicate 
the existence of such tanks. Abnormal 
droughts on the one hand, and serious 
floods on the other cause great devasta- 
tion. Such being the case it should 
be the care of the people, with the 
help of Government, to devise the 
best means for remedying the _ evils 
arising from these causes. It is unfair to 
talk of laxity on the part of the culti- 
vators when they are often placed 
in such unfavourable circumstances 
and are powerless to do anything with- 
out outside aid. If paddy land- 
Owners are willing to give over a tithe 
of their crops which they once paid 
as royalty, and which the Government 
gave up as an unfair tax on food, this 
may be made use of to forma fund which 
will accumulate to their credit, and by 
means of which a great many neces- 
sary improvements can be effected. 


128 


Another important matter for con- 
sideration is the difficult position in 
which cultivators are generally placed 
owing to want of ready money, especially 
when they arein need of seed paddy, 
bone dust manure, ploughing cattle, &e. 
It is no wonder that these discourage- 
ments have often induced many of the 
goiyas to give up paddy eultivation and 
to go in search of other employment 
which isless irksome and more lucra- 
tive. In this way large numbers of 
villagers have left their homes and 
removed to towns. All this has told 
heavily against the progress of the 
rice industry. If there were a fund 
created for the people, through the 
encouragement of the Government, and 
administered by accredited Committees 
in the different districts of the Island, 
much of the obstacles referred to 
above could be averted, as it would 
afford an opportunity for organizing 
Agricultural Banks for the benefit of 
cultivators, enabling them to get small 
loans on easy terms in times of need. 


It would be easy to raise such a fund 
for the people from the payments of the 
tithe. If the Government considers it” 
expedient, half the fund may be 
reserved for remunerating the head- 
men who willas such be employed in 
supervising paddy cultivations in the 
different districts, and this will to a 
certain extent solve the present vexed 
question of remunerating the minor 
headmen. These officers can be made 
to co-operate with the Branch Agri- 
cultural Societies. The collecting of the 
tithe, the arrangement to give out loans 
to parties who need help, and the 
recovery of such loans might be regulated 
by special rules enacted under the 
Village Communities Ordinance. When 
a cultivator is in want of a loan for any 
agricultural work he can make his 
application to the President of the Village 
Tribunal who. after taking the evidence 
of the headman of the division and two 
or more witnesses, may forward his 
statements to the proper authorities 
with his recommendation. When the 
amounts due are not paid promptly, 
the Village Tribunal can again be 
utilized for their recovery. A system 
such as I have endeavoured to indicate 
in outline would, I feel persuaded, effect a 
revolution inthe present state of agri- 
culture in Ceylon. 


PACKING CACAO SEEDS. 


A method of packing cacao seeds for 


export, which had given good results in ~ 


Samoa, was described in the Agricultural — 
News of October 20, 1906 (Vol. V. p. 331), — 


bt 


[Avaust, 1908, 


EPO LEAS LR RY th. Se 


buat 
bi 


a 


, 
] 


_Aveust, 1908.) 
; 


By this method, ripe seeds, after being 


_ well washed, were gently rubbed with a 


rough towel in order to remove the pulp, 
care being taken not to damage the skin. 
The beans are next placed in a current of 
cool air for twenty-four hours. The 
material with which the seeds are pack- 
ed consists of a mixture of equal parts 
of vegetable mould and finely ground 
charcoal, moistened to resemble earth 
taken froma shady place. A layer of this 
mixture, } inch deep, is spread in the 
bottom of a tin box (8x44 inches), 
and on this rows of seeds are placed, 
another layer of charcoal and mould 
coming above. Thebox is filled in this 
way with alternate layers of seeds and 
packing mixture, and a box of the above 
dimensions will hold about 200 seeds. 
In order to put the above method to the 
test at Kew Gardens, a_ request was 
made to Sir Daniel Morris that a pack- 
age of seeds, put upin the manner des- 


-cribed, should be forwarded to Kew. A 


box containing 200 seeds was accordingly 


sent by parcel post from Dominica, and 


arrived at Kew apparently in good con- 
dition, every one of the seeds having 
germinated on the way. A second supply 
of seeds packed in a similar manner 
was forwarded a tew months later, and 


_ these also arrived in good condition, and 


practically all of them germinated. 


The outline of this packing experiment 
is that cacao beans, selected, prepared, 
and packed as above described, can be 


sent from the West Indies to England, 


_ete., of coconut plantations. 
the points dealt with are worthy of 


and probably much farther, and that 
about 70 per cent. of them are likely to 
produce healthy plants.—Agricultural 
News. Vol. VII., 154, March, 1908. 


COCONUT CULTIVATION. 


The Brazilian journal Hl Hacienda 


recently contained a lengthy article 


dealing with the cultivation, manuring, 
Some of 


_ reproduction, 


In the nursery where the seedlings are 
grown, it is recommended that the seeds 


_ be planted, base uppermost, in raised 
banks of earth, the nuts being placed 


quite close to each other. 


Germination 


_ takes place in about four or five months, 


and transplanting may be carried out 
_when the plants have three or four leaves. 
The young trees are set out at distances 
of from 23 to 28 feet each way. The 


more fertile the soil, the greater the dis- 
tance at which they may be set, since 


_ growth is more rapid. 
a 


The holes dug to receive the coconut 


plants should be about 3 feet in diameter, 
and it is advantageous to half fill the 


me 


129 


Edible Products, 


hole with manure, or earth mixed with 
ashes. Growth is more rapid in a fairly 
loose soil. In dry seasons or dry districts 
it will be necessary to water the plants 
regularly, and indeed the tree is one 
that always repays attention to provide 
a good supply of water. Depth of soil is 
very favourable to good growth of the 
coconut. 

Hor the first two or three years after 
planting, the cultivator may with 
advantage raise other crops, such as 
maize, cassava, ground nuts, ete, be- 
tween the rows of palms. If the last- 
named crop is grown and ploughed in, 
there will be a considerable gain to the 
fertility of the soil. Regular cultivation 
of the land during the early years of 
growth of the coconut trees must be 
undertaken in order to bring about 
development of the plantation at the 
earliest date. Experienced growers as- 
sert that the cost of such operations is 
fully repaid by the enhanced returns 
obtained. 


Some yield of fruit may be given on 
good soil, where the trees have received 
every attention, at the end of five years 
after planting, but a full crop will not 
be obtained until from the seventh to 
the tenth year. 


At the end of the fifth year it is recom- 
mended that the whole of the plantation 
be cleared of other crops, undergrowth, 
etc., and the land receive a fairly good 
ploughing. The soil should not be dis- 
turbed, however, too near the roots of 
the palms. 


As a general rule, the application of 
fertilizers to the coconut crop is repaid 
by an increased yield, but manures 
should not be given until the trees have 
commenced to bear. In fact, unless the 
soil is poor, manuring may be deferred 
until one or two crops have been ob- 
tained. 


Pen manure, and the use of green 
manure, such as ground-nuts (already 
mentioned), cow peas, and velvet beans 
are reported to form excellent dressings 
for ‘coconut plantations. On some 
estates in Ceylonit is stated to be the 
custom to tether cattle to the trunks of 
the trees, allowing them in this way to 
manure the plantation with their drop- 
pings. Inorder to obtain the best results 
the manure should be afterwards worked 
into the soil by cultivation. 


A dressing of manure may occasionally 
be given with advantage, even though 
the plantation shows no sign of falling 
off in condition. The ground should be 
ploughed and the manure worked into 
the soil. As in the case of most other 
fruit trees, it is usually preferable to 


Edible Products. 


dress coconut palms with slow-acting 
manures suchas bone meal, basic slag, 
organic refuse, cotton seed meal, etc., 
instead of using quick-acting manures, 
such as nitrate of soda and superphos- 
phate. In the former case, the results 
are not at once apparent, but they are 
continuous, and spread over a consider- 
able time. Nitrogen and phosphoric acid 
are stated to be the elements chiefly 
necessary, but, except on very heavy 
soils, an occasional dressing of a potas- 
sic manure should certainly also be given, 
since large quantity of potassium salts are 
removed from thesoilbya cropofcoconuts. 


When the husks are removed from the 
nuts on the plantation, these should 
always be buried between the rows of 
palms, since a considerable amount of 
fertilizing matter is returned to the soil 
in this way. 


An average return of nuts is usually 
considered to be about 3,000 per acre, 
and, assuming sixty trees to this area, 
each tree would give about fifty nuts. 
With judicious cultivation and manur- 
ing, however, this return, it is stated, 
is not infrequently increased to seventy 
or eighty nuts per tree, which means a 
total of from 4,200 to 4,800 nuts per acre- 
—Agricultural News, Vol. VII., No. 156, 
April, 1908. 


LIST OF JUNGLE PRODUCTS USED 
BY THE POOR DURING THE 
FAMINE, 1896-7, 


By T. E. D. INNEs, 
Agent, Balrampur Estate. 
(Concluded from page 35.) 


GRASSES. 

74. Buust DHAN (Oryza sativa, L., 
Nat. Ord. Gramineoe).—This is simply 
the husks of the rice, which was ground 
down and made into flour and eaten as 
bread. Not very nutritive. 


75. DHONRA  (Eleusine  coracana, 
Goertn., Nat. Ord. Gramineoe).—A grass 
commonly found in the fields. The seed 
is collected and husked and eaten like 
rice. It ripens about September. I[t has 
the appearance of rice from which _ is 
cannot be easily distinguished, when the 
plants are young and small. [Kurakkan. | 


76, SENWAL (Panicum, sp).—A kind of 
grass very common inall fallow lands 
and along roadsides. It ripens about 
Octber and November, and is collected 
at all times by the very poor, who scrape 
it together on the ground with stiff 
brooms made from thick grass or twigs. 
The seed is collected and husked and 
faten like rice. It was greatly sought 
eater during the famine, and evenin 


NS 


130. 


a) aed 
Bat eta +" 
+ 


[Avaust, i908. a 


ordinary years is collected and used by 
the very poor. [Many species in Ceylon. | 


77. Baurt (Panicum, sp., Nat. Ord. 
Gramineoe.).—A kind of grass which 
grows on high land. The grain is 
gathered, husked, and eaten like rice. 
It ripens in October. 


78. MAKRA GHAS (Setaria glauca, 
Beauv., and Panicum Crusgalli, L., Nat. 
Ord. Gramineoe).—A grass which grows 
in fallow lands, and its seed is collected 
by the poor by scratching it up with 
stiff brooms from the ground. It is 
husked and eaten like rice and is most 
edible. [Common in Ceylon: Kawalu 
and Wel-marukku. | 


79. BANDRI (Setaria glauca, Beauv).— 
A kind of grass which springs up in the 
rains and ripens in September. The 
grain is gathered, husked, and eaten 
like rice. [Common in Ceylon.] 


80. KopRELL (Paspalum _ scrobicu- 
latum 1, Nat. Ord. Gramineoe).—A kind 
of grass found on high ground and 
fallow lands. The seed is collected, 
husked, and eaten like rice. Ripens 
about October and collected by scraping 
the ground with stiff brooms. [Common 
in Ceylon. Amu, Sinh.; Waragu, Tam. 

81. TInNI (Oryza sativa, L., Nat. Ord. 
Gramineoe).—Found in jheels and is a 
kind of wild rice and most edible. It 
ripens about October when it is gathered 


and eaten like other rice. [Rice. ] 
82. PourRsAH! (Hygrorhiza aristata, ~ 
Necr., Nat. Ord. Gramineoe).—A wild 


rice Which is found in jheels, which 
ripens in October and is gathered and 
eaten like other rice. 


83. DAHI.—A commod grass found in ~ 
the jungle. The leaves are boiled and 
used as a vegetable. 


WEEDS. 


84. DANA PETWa (Hibiscus sabdariffa, 
L., Nat. Ord. lalvaceoe).—When the fruit — 
is unripe it is cooked and eaten, and — 
when ripe they are taken and parched, 
and either eaten whole, or ground and _ 
made into sattu. The flower is also 
boiled and eaten as vegetable. A chatni — 
is made of the outside of the ripe fruit. 
Ripens in October. [The rozelle. ] 


85. CHAKWAND (Uassia occidentalis, 
L., Nat. Ord. Legumiosoe).—A_ very 


far as the seeds are concerned, but the 
leaves are innocuous. 
eaten in June and July, and the s 
ripens in October. [Common in Ceylon,] 
Peti-tora, Sinh. | ’ ~ ei 


Avuaust, 1908. } 


86. Kaan Unst (Linum usitatissi- 
mum, L., Nat. Ord. Lineoe).—The refuse 
of the linseed oil mills was pounded, 
ground, and made into bread. 


87. SurRwaRi (Celosia argentea, L., 
Nat. Ord. Amarantaceoe).—A kind_of 
weed which ripens about October. The 
seed is collected, ground, and made into 
bread. The leaves are also used as a 


vegetable after being boiled. ([Kiri- 
henda, Sinh. | 
88. Bun P1azA (Asphodelus tenwi- 


folius, Cav., Nat. Ord. Liiaceoe).—A very 
common weed found on the fields. It 
was boiled and eaten asa vegetable in 
the famine and is not used ordinarily. 


89. GADA PURANAN.—A very common 
weed found everywhere on dry ground. 
It was boiled and used as a vegetable. 
Itisatits best when young during the 
rainy season. 


90. DupHi (fuphorbia sp. (probably). 
—A very common weed found in most 
places and gathered by the poor, boiled 
and eaten as a vegetable. 


91. ANKARA MunMUN (Vicia hirsuta, 
Koch., Nat. Ord. Leguminosoe).—A weed 
found in cultivated lands. The leaves 
are very bitter, but were boiled and 
eaten asavegetable. The grain, which 
ripens about March, is gathered, ground, 
and bread made of it. 


92. GHAS LonI.—A weed which grows 
on high land, and which is boiled and 
eaten as a vegetable. — : 

938. GHAS Bopa.—A weed very much 
like methi found in cultivated lands. It 
is boiled and eaten as a vegetable. It 
is only found in the cold weather. 


94. Musti Suraip (Chlorophytum 
tuberosum, Baker. Nat. Ord. Liliaceoe.)— 
A small weed found in the jungle with 
onion-like leaves. The root is ground 
and eaten like flour. It is also used 


medicinally. 


95. Musi SIAH (Chlorophytum tu- 
berosum, Baker, Nat. Ord. Liliaceoe).— 
A small weed found in the jungle with 
onion-like leaves. The root is black, and 
is ground and eaten like fiour. It is 


: _ also used medicinally. 


96. BARYARA (Sida sp., Nat. Ord. 


 Malavaceoe)—A weed found on high 


ground. The seed known as biuband 
matures in January and Februry, and 
is collected and ground, and used as 
flour. [Many Sidas in Ceylon. | 


97. BAtTHUA (Chenopodium album, L., 


Nat. Ord. Chenopodiaceoe).—A common 


weed found in cultivated lands about 
November, December and January. 


It is collected, boiled and eaten as a 
vegetable, 


#4 
tug’ 
e 
-> 
4a 


181 


. Hdible Products. 


98. GINNI(Alternanthera sessilis, R. Be,, 
Nat. Ord. Amarantaceoe).—A weed found 
in cultivated and falluw lands, which 
is boiled and used as a vegetable. 


99. Ban Mount (Moringa wpterygos- 
perma, Goertn,, Nat. Ord. Moringeoe.— 
There appears to be some mistake here; 
M. pterygosperma is a tree.—Hon. Hd.— 
A jungle plant with a root like a radish, 
which is boiled and eaten like a vege- 


table. It is more or less sour to the 
taste, 
100. BHAR BANDA.—A_ weed which 


springs upin cultivated lands. During 
the cold weather the bark is stripped off 
the stem, which is then boiled and eaten. 
Said to be nutritive. From the seeds of 
the plant oil is extracted which is used 
for burning, 


101. SupA.—A weed which grows on 
damp ground in the jungle. The leaves 
are gathered, boiled, and eaten as a 
vegetable. 


102. JANGLI GUBAN.—A jungly weed, 
the leaves of which are gathered, boiled, 
and eaten as a vegetable. 


103. BAnK.—A weed found in the 
jungle. The root is boiled or roasted 
and eaten. 


104. NuR KacHoor.—A common weed. 
the root of which is boiled and eaten. 
Considered fairly edible and nutritive. 


105. TrpaTTia.—A weed found on 
banks of jheels. The leaves are gathered 
during August and September and boiled 
and used as a vegetable. 


/ WATER PLANTS. 


106. Sirk1 (Nymphea Lotus or N. 
Stellata, Willd., Nat. Ord. Nymphoea- 
ceoe).—This is produced in jheels and is 
aroot. It is either boiled or roasted, 
then the outside removed and the 
remainder eaten. The flower known as 
nilofar is used as a medicine for fever by 
drying it first, then boiling and straining 
it, then mixing some sugar, and again 
boiling it when itis ready. It is found 
all the year round. [Common in Ceylon. 
Olu, Sinh.] 


107. SAG KARMUA. (Flower stalks of 
above.)—This was greatly used during 
the famine. Itis a water plant or weed 
and was boiled before being eaten. It is 
said to remove the poisonous effects of 
an over-dose of opium. Ready to be 
gathered from July till September. 


108. THutTHi Ka JAR (Cyperus escu- 
lentus, L., Nat. Ord. Cyperacec.)—The 
root of a water plant, which grows with 
onion-like tubular leaves, and is very 


Edible Products. 


common in all jheels. The roots are 
parched and eaten after removing the 
outside. Not very nutritive, and was 
only used during famine. Ordinarily 
the mud attached to the root of this 
plant is used asa dye, and produces a 
very permanent black colour. Found 
all the year round. [Many species of 
Cyperus in Ceylon. | 


109. Bonka SmED.—Grows on tanks 
and banks of jheels. The seed is collected 


parched, and made into a kind of sattu. - 


It ripensabout January. Notvery nutri- 
tive, and the leaves are more or less 
poisonous. 


182 


a aie 

110. Buasir (Nelumbiwm speciosum, — 
Willd., Nat, Ord. Nymphoeaceoe).—The — 
root of the purain water lily, found 
more or less in all jheels. It is eaten raw 
like a radish, and is also boiled and eaten 
as a vegetable. The seed of the fruit is 
also eaten uncooked, and was much 
sought after during the famine. _ Flowers 
in July and August, and ripens in 
October. [Common in Ceylon. Nelun, — 
Sinh. ; Tamarai, Tam. | “a 


lll. JHEONI.—A small creeper found 
in jheels. The roots are boiled and 
eaten, and considered most edible and ~ 
nutritive.—Appendix to Indian Forester — 
for February, 1908. 


4 
; 


i 


if 


a ee 


r 

; 
i 
} 
b 
4 
x, 


Avast, 1908. 


ee 


13 


TIMBERS. 


EUCALYPTUS TREES. 


Eucalyptus trees are becoming widely 
known in India, but the virtues of their 
timber are not generally recognised. 
The following extract from Circular No. 
59 of the United States Forest Service 
describes the economic uses of the blue 
gum, the best known spices of eucalypt. 
The circular gives directions as to pro- 
pagation, planting and care of the young 


- tree, and refutes the common idea that 
the propagation of the seed is difficult. 


Reference is made to the fact that 
eucalypts are peculiarly sensitive to 
frost, few being able to survive a tem- 
perature below 20° F. 


The wood of the blue gum is very 
heavy, hard, strong and tough, but it is 
not durable in contact with the soil. It 
is close-grained, and is split with diffi- 
culty after it has dried. Itis less elastic 
than hickory, but it has been demon- 


’ strated by mechanical tests that seasoned 


blue gum timber is very little inferior in 
strength and stiffness to the best second 


- growth hickory. In appearance it closely 


resembles the wood of hickory and ash. 
Blue gum timber is utilized fora great 
variety of purposes in California. The 
wood is excellent for fuel, and in the 


treeless valleys has been the chief fuel 


supply for many years. In Southern 
California the steady demand renders 
commercial planting for fuel very pro- 
fitable. Eucalyptus timber has been 
extensively used in California for wharf 
piling. Blue gum piles are in use in 
nearly every port on the California coast, 
and extended trial has shown that they 
resist the attacks of marine borers which 
destroy timber in sea water longer than 
other species commonly used for piling. 


Blue gum timber has also been used to 


some extent for fence posts and tele- 
phone poles. The wood is not suitable 


_ for this purpose, however, on account of 
its short life in the ground. Seasoned 


posts last a little longer than green posts, 


and timber cut from the heart is more - 


durable than sapwood. Blue gum timber 
has been used to a limited extent to 
determine its value for rail road ties. 
The results thus far obtained indicate 


that it compares favourably with second- 


grade pine tie timber. In case blue gum 
ties gain a place in the market it may be 
profitable to plant the tree for that pur- 
pose. However, if commercial planta- 
tions are to be established for ties, sugar 

um should be used in preference to 

lue gum, on account of its greater 


strength and its greater durability in 
_ contact with the soil. 


STRENGTH AND TOUGHNESS. 


In recent years blue gum has been 
manufactured into lumber, and has come 
into favour for many uses. Its strength 
and toughness have led to its use as a 
material for vehicle construction with 
very satisfactory results. A just appreci- 
ation of the qualities of gum timber will 
encourage extensive commercial planting, 
and so furnish an important source of 
hardwood timber supply for the Pacifie 
coast. The lumber has been extensively 
used for vehicle stock and for the 
wooden parts of agricultural imple- 
ments. It is also made into insu- 
lator pins for electric wiring, and it is 
used for furniture and cabinet work, 
hardwood flooring, trip-hammer beams, 
the levers of windlasses, and the block- 
ing for oiland wine presses, wood paving, 
pulley blocks, and belt wheels. 


The extensive utilization of gum lum- 
ber has hitherto been prevented chiefly 
by the scanty supply of timber of 
merchantable size and by the difficulty 
experienced in seasoning the lumber 
without warping and checking. It is 
believed, however, that in the seasoning 
of gum no greater difficulties will be 
encountered than in the seasoning of 
any other hard wood of similar density 
and strength. 


The esteem in which eucalyptus timber 
is held in California is based upon the 
exclusive use of blue gum. In Aus- 
tralia, however, this species is considered 
inferior in strength and timber value to 
several other eucalypts. Strength of the 
timber of blue gum and other eucalypts 
grown in California have sustained this 
opinion. It is therefore probable that 
eucalypts are destined to. enjoy yet 
great favour when these other species 
become more widely used. 


A product_of considerable importance 
derived from blue gum is the oil distilled 
from the leaves. Eucalyptus oil is recog- 
nised as a valuable drug and is extensive- 
ly used by pharmacists and physicians. 


EUCALYPTUS WINDBREAKS. 


In many valleys of California eucalyp- 
tus windbreaks are considered abso- 
lutely necessary to insure the sucessful 
production of crops. They have been 
most extensively used to safeguard 
citrus orchards from strong and destruc- 
tive winds in Southern California, but 
they are now being established also for 
the protection of vineyards and orchards 
of deciduous fruits, olives and walnuts. 
The blue gum excels other species for 
windbreak purposes on account of its 


Tumbers: 


height and the rapidity of its growth. 
The tall shatts of the trees bend before 
the wind and act as a cushion and deflect 
it upward over an orchard, whereas 
ordinary windbieak trees form a more 
solid wall and the wind draws down- 
ee forming eddies near the leeward 
side. 


Eucalyptus windbreaks planted every 
quarter mile across level country will 
give effective protection. Near the foot- 
hills the belts should be planted closer, 
since winds blowing down from _ the 
mountaius gather’ greater velocity. 
Through orchards they should generally 
be planted at intervals of about 200 feet. 
Where winds are very severe, double or 
treble rows of trees should be planted. 
The best spacing of blue gum trees for 
protective planting is4 feet apart each 
way. Indouble rows the trees of one 
row should be planted opposite the centre 
of the spaces in the other. The most 
effective windbreak protection is secured 
by a combination of Monterey cypress 
and blue gum. The tree of each species 
should be planted in separate rows 
rather than alternated in a single line. 
The cypress row will then form a dense 


Bit 
Avausr, 1908: 


understory, closing up the lower open- 
shed branches of the 


ings left by the 
faster growing eucalyptus. 

Objection is often made to the blue 
gum for protective planting on account 
of its wide rooting habit. It is true that 
a windbreak draws much moisture 
from the soil, so that the adjoining rows 
of orchard are often rendered less 
productive. Wide extension of the roots 
may, however, be _ readily limited 
without injury to the windbreak. Ata 
distance of from 6 to 10-teet from the 
windbreak a trench parallel to the trees 
should be dug toadepth of 3 or 4 feet, 
cutting off the surface roots of the gum 
trees. Such trenches should then be 
refilled, but should be reopened every 
second year.—Indian Trade Journal. 


In the above article no mention is made 
of the valuable properties of the leaves 
of blue gum and other eucalyptas for 
boiler cleaning purposes. 
of leaves is placed in water in the boiler 
and boiled, the decoction wil] soften 
any hard incrustation of lime which may 
have formed, so that it can be readily 


removed.—Hon. Ep.—Indian Forester, 
Vol. XXXIV., April, 1908, No, 4. 


If a quantity — 


GLAS ER GIL.5 TT RI Aetna fines, octets =e aie mtg 


Photo by H. I. Maemillan, 


THE PRINCIPAL TYPES OF MANGOES GROWN IN CEYLON. 


No, Rupee Mango (not full grown). 
Jaffna Mango, 

Baittee or Bombay Mango. 
Parrot Mango. 

Mi-amba (Honey Mango). 
Etamba (Seed Mango). 

(A variety of Etamba). 


NTO om we 


(See Frontispiece for 2nd plate.) 


Aveust, 1908.} 


135 


MISCELLANEOUS PRODUCTS. 


MANGOES IN CEYLON, 
(Illustrated. ) 


By H. F. MacmMILLan. 


The Mango (Mangifera indica) is the 
fruit par excellence of India. It is in 
fact ‘‘The King of Fruits” in the opinion 
of Lady Brassey and others. In India, 
its birth-place, the mango has been culti- 
vated from time immemorial, and it may 
now be met with cultivated or in a semi- 
wild condition in every tropical country. 
Its cultivation extends also to the sub- 
tropics as far as Natal, Florida, Queens- 
land, the Canary Islands, &c. The 
common distribution of the genusina 
wild state may be acounted for largely 
by the fact that many birds are very 

partial to the fruit, and carry the seed 
-eonsiderable distances. The varieties of 
Mango are numerous. and vary in quality 
of flavour, juiciness and succulency of 
the pulp, size and shape of seed, «c. 
Sume have a distinct turpentiney but 
pleasant taste, whilst others are said to 
~**combine the flavour of a peach witha 
dash of pineapple.” The quality also 
largely depends on the absence of fibre, 
and the proportionate size of the stone 
to the amount of pulp surroending it. 
The wilder forms are characterised 
- mainly by a comparatively large oblong 
 flattish stone, a scanty fibrous acid flesh 
anda tough skin. The size and shape 
_ of the fruit are as variableas the flavour. 
In some varieties the fruit is but an 
ounce or twoin weight, whilst in others 
it weighs as much as three or four 
pounds, e.g., the “Rupee Mango” of 
_ Ceylon. 


i ee 


Se ee ee ee ae ae eee 


Sal 
+ 


pe 


In Ceylon there areat least five dis- 
tinct types of mango recognised, viz., 
the‘ Jaffna mango,’ with a large oval 
fruit of excellent quality when well- 
grown (evidently synonymous with the 
* Alphonse” of India); the ‘‘ Rupee 
mango,” a very large and somewhat 
globular fruit (probably synonymous 
with the ‘‘ Inerma mango” of India); 
and the ‘‘ Parrot mango,” whose medium- 
sized fruit is distinguished by a_pro- 
% minent beak; the ‘‘ Baittee” or ‘‘ Bom- 
bay” mango, fruit round, distinctly com- 
_ pressed, usually very juicy, yellowish in 
~ colour when ripe; ‘' Mi-amba” (honey 
- mango), a small roundish fruit of a 
rather tart pleasant flavour, but not 
justifying the signification of the name ; 
“Kt-amba” (seed-mango, signifying the 
small size of the fruit), a small oval fruit 
with scanty, juicy pulp of a tart flavour, 


The last-named varies in size, but is 
usually that of a small hen’s egg. There 
are several sub-varieties of this, one of 
which bears small juicy fruit of the size 
ofa plum. A tree of this in Peradeniya 
Gardens is called by the coolies ‘‘ Maha- 
mudaliyar mango” (a name, one would 
think, which would be more appropriate 
for the Rupee mango), it having been 
presented to the Gardens by the late 
Maha-mudaliyar, Mr, C. P. Dias Bandara- 
naike. 


Of all these there are many sub-varie- 
ties, more especially of the first two 
named. The best forms of our so-called 
“Jaffna mango” (Alphonse) are the 
choicest that [have met within Ceylon. 
lam informed that at Jaffna the name is 
reversed, the fruit being known there 
asthe‘‘Colombo mango.” The‘: Aiphonse” 
is a much-prized fruit in India. Wood- 
row, who has written much about 
mangoes, and is an authority on the 
subject, considers this to be perhaps the 
best of all mangoes. Mr. Oliver, of the 
Fruit Department of the United States 
Department of Agriculture, confirms this 
opinion and considers the ‘‘ Alphonse” 
one of ‘‘ two mangoes which can be eaten 
in polite society,” the other being the 
‘“Mulgoba” mango. There is a variety 
much appreciated in the West Indies by 
the name of the ** Ceylon mango,” which, 
however, isnot knownin Ceylon. Ceylon 
is not an ideal country tor mangoes, 
which generally are adapted toa rather 
dry, hot climate. Thus the northern 
part of Ceylon, especially the Jaffna 
district, can produce much _ better 
mangoes than the moist south-west por- 
tion of the low-country. 


High cultivation of mangoes is seldom 
adopted in Ceylon, and the usual method 
of propagation is by seed. Of late, how- 
ever, grafted plants from India have 
been more generally imported. These 
are preferable to local plants even when 
raised by grafts, if one is sure of obtain- 
ing them from a reliable source. A 
peculiarity of Ceylon mangoes, at any 
rate of those grownin the moist south- 
western districts, is that they always 
retain their green colour even when ripe ; 
in fact a fruit that showsa yellow tint 
may, as a rule, be discarded as bad. 


Mango-growing for market is a very 
profitable undertaking in some parts of 
India, where they are sometimes syste- 
matically cultivated as anindustry. A 
planter from Lower Burma, who has a 
considerable area under mango trees; 


\ 4 OY aay 
Sabbaths: 


Miscellaneous Products. 126 


informed me that the crop yielded him 
a better return than Para rubber, could 
do atis.alb. For good fruit he could 
always find a localand ready sale from 
Rs. 3 to Rs. 5 per 100. A crop averaging 
1,000 fruits per tree (with 100 trees to the 
acre) would thus give a return of 
Rs. 5,000 per acre. 


Oriental people are very partial to 
mangoes; the rich eat only good kinds, 
but the poorer classes will eat or chew 
anything in the shape of a mango. The 
mango fruit enters very largely in the 
preparation of chutneys and _ other 
numerous preserves. As to the economic 
use of the fruit, it has been said that had 
mangoes not been so plentiful in Cuba, 
the Spaniards might still be in posses- 
sion of that colony, for the insurgents 
were able to live on mangoes when there 
was nothing else for them to eat. 

[See Frontispiece for Illustration. ] 


AUSTRALIAN CALABASH. 


AN INTERESTING INDUSTRY. 


The Colonial Botanist of Queensland, 
Mr. F. M. Bailey, lately received from 
Messrs. Field and Villars, of the Aus- 
tralian Calabash Pipe Factory, Pitt 
Street, Sydney, two calabash pipe 
bowls—one, silver-mounted, ready for 
use; and one prepared, ready for mount- 
ing—also a pipe head made of the seed 
capsule of one of the gum-trees Hucalip- 
tus mineata); the latter, however, is, 
as the makers say, not likely to come 
into favour with the public, being too 


| Avcust, 1908, 


clumsy. The calabash pipe is, on the 
contrary, very handsome, looking much 
like a meerschaum, and equally light. 
The firm namedannounced that they 
will buy large quantities of these little 
gourds (Lagenarvia vulgaris) at £12 per 
1,000 f.0. b., Brisbane. A very small plot 


of ground will grow thousands of them, — 


and, on good soil, they thrive as well as 
pumpkins, melons, or chokos in Queens- 
land. They must be without flaw, and, 
when ripe, expossd to the sun until they 
bleach to a very light yellow-colour. 
Whlist growing, the gourd, when possi- 
ble, must be placed with the large end 
downwards, in order to secure the 
shape. After being cut, and during the 
bleaching process, care must be taken 
not to leave them exposed to rain or 
dew. Before shipping the gourds, ,the 
thick end must be eut off, asit is not 
used. If growers send three or four 
gourds to Sydney, they will there be ent 
as required, and returned to the sender 
as a guide. Only the stem portion is 
used for pipe bowls. At present these 
gourds are imported from South Africa. 
Queensland farmers, gardeners, and 
others could easily capture the trade, 
and, seeing with what little trouble the 
gourds can be produced in large quan- 
tities, the price of £12 per 1,000 should be 
very remunerative. Mr. Bailey is of 
opinion that this kind of gourd will do 
best, for pipe-making purposes at least, 
on the tableland from Toowoomba to 
Warick. The warmer coast land, he 
thinks. would produce gourds too large 
for the purpose required,--Journal of _ 
the Department of Agriculture, West Aus- 
tralia, Vol. XVI., Part 4, April, 1908. 


z 


Aveust, 1908.) 


137 


PLANT SANITATION. 


SELF-BOILED LIME-SULPHUR 
MIXTURE AS A PROMISING 
FUNGICIDE. 


INTRODUCTION. 

The well-known toxic action of Bor- 
deaux mixture on peach foliage, which 
renders it practically useless for the cou- 
trol of peach diseases in the growling 
season, led the writer to investigate 
other possible fungicides that might 
prove less caustic. Moreover, Bordeaux 
mixture, although remarkably beneficial 
in the control of fungous diseases, evea 
stimulating the growth of plants in 
addition to its fungicidal effect, is un- 
fortunately often injurious tu the fruit 
and toliage of the apple and some other 
plants. The fruit russeting and foliage 
injury caused by Bordeaux mixture in 
the case of the apple has been the sub- 
ject of much complaint in recent years, 
thus increasing the demand for a fungi- 
cide that can be used in growiny plants 
without danger of injury. 


The investigations of fungicides in 
which various sulphur compounds as 
well as other substances were tested, 
have extended over several years, but no 
satisfactory results were obtained until 
last season, when the self-boiled lime- 
sulphuc wash was tried and proved to 
be sufficiently active to prevent fungous 
diseases without injuring the plauts 
treated. Although the results reported 
are exceedingly encouraging, it should 
be distinctly understood that this fungi- 
cide in the self-boiled form is in its 
experimental stage, and has not been 
sufficiently tested to justify its general 
recommendation. For the present, its 
use is advised for trial only, and the 
object of this preliminary paper is to 
show the rather striking results so far 
obtained and make them available to 
investigators and fruit growersas a basis 
for further experiments, in order that 
the value of the mixture may be more 
speedily determined. The Bureau of 
Plant Industry will continue the investi- 
gations, and itis hoped that at the end 
of another season definite recommenda- 
tions can be made for the use of this 
wash or some modification of itin the 
treatment of orchard diseases. 


A similar self-boiled wash has some 
slight reputation as a dormant treat- 
ment for the San Jose scale, and a few 
fruit growers have used it rather exten- 
sively for this purpose, but it seems to 
have had very little consideration as a 


fungicide and has apparently never been 
recommended for use on plants in 
foliage. Curiously enough, however, as 
early as 1833, before the general use of 
fungicides, Dr. William Kenrick recom- 
mended for mildew on grapes a mixture 
of sulphur (14 pints), quicklime (a piece 
the size of the fist), and boiling water, 
(2 gallons). This mixture, after cooling, 
was diluted with cold water and allowed 
to settle. The clear liquid was then 
drawn off and diluted to make a barrel- 
ful before using. In 1885 William Saun- 
ders also recommended for pear-blight a 
self-boiled lime and sulphur wash con- 
sisting of 8 pounds of sulphur and one- 
half bushel of lime with boiling water; 
the mixture to be applied as a white- 
wash with brushes; and for mildews he 
advised applications of the pure sulphur 
liquid deawn off from this wash and 
greatly diluted. 


SULPHUR AS A FUNGICIDE. 


Sulphur has long been known to have 
fungicidal properties, and has played an 
important part in the treatment of 
several plant diseases, notably the grape 
powdery mildew, rose mildew, and 
asparagus rust. Previous to 1880 it was 
almost the only fungicide in use, and it 
is to-day one of the best remedies for 
various mildews. Intheform of potas- 
sium sulphide it has for years been the 
chief remedy recommended for goose- 
berry mildew and to a less extent for a 
few other diseases. The boiled lime- 
sulphur wash used as a dormant spray 
ranks close to Bordeaux mixture in the 
treatment of the peach leaf-curl and 
the California peach blight (Coryneum 
beyerinckii, Oud.), a Serious disease of 
the peach on the Pacific Coast. On 
account of its caustic effect on the foli- 
age of plants this boiled wash cannot 
be used during the growing season, and 
its usefulness as a Fungicide is therefore 
restricted to diseases that can be reached 
in the dormant period; but the self- 
-boiled mixture used in the experiments 
reported in this paper was entirely 
uninjurious to the foliage and fruit of 
both the peach and the apple. 


THE SELF-BoILED LIME-SULPHUR 
MIXTURE. 


Atintervals during the past several 
years the writer has made experiments 
with sulphur and various sulphur com: 
pounds with the object of finding a 
fungicide that could be used during the 
‘growing period onfruits trees, especially 
the peach, without injury to the foliage 


Plant Sanitation. 


or fruit. The first work was done in 
1901, at the suggestion of Mr. M. B. 
Waite, and consisted of experiments 
with various sulphides, all of which 
proved injurious to peach foliage. Dur- 
ing theseason of 1907 self-boiled lime- 
sulphur mixtures in various proportions 
and strengths were tested on both the 
apple and the peach. 


PREPARATION OF THE MIXTURE. 


The mixture that gave the most pro- 
mising results was composed of 10 lbs. of 
sulphur (flowers or flour) and 15 lbs. of 
fresh stone lime to 50-gallons of water, 
and may be prepared as follows :—- 


Place the lime in a 50-gallon barrel and 
poura 2 or 3-gallon bucket of boiling 
water over it. Immediately add the 
sulphur and another bucket of hot 
water. The heat from the slaking lime 
will boil the mixture violently for 
several minutes. Some stirring is neces- 
sary to prevent burning, and more water 
should be added if the mass gets too 
thick to stir, but the cooking is more 
effectual when the minimum quantity 
of water is used, usually from 6 to 8 
gallons being required. A piece of old 
carpet or gunnysack thrown over the 
top of the barrel helps to keep in the 
heat. The boiling will continue from 
twenty to thirty minutes, depending 
upon the quality of the lime. When the 
boiling ceases, dilute with cold water to 
make 50 gallons, stir thoroughly and 
strain through a seive of about 20 meshes 
tothe inchin order to take out coarse 
particles of lime, but all the sulphur 
should be carefully worked through. 


Iua similar manner, enough for 150 
gallons may be prepared ina barrel by 
using 30 poundsof sulphur and 45 pounds 
of quicklime, with about 20 gallons of 
boiling water, When the boiling ceases, 
the barrel should be filled with cold water 
and diluted with100 gallonsmore when 
transferred to the spray tank. 


In some of the experiments a wash con- 
sisting 5 pounds of sulphur and 10 pounds 
of lime to 50 gallons of water gave 
excellent results. This would indicate 
that a much more dilute mixture than 
the 10-15-50 formula may prove to be 
a satisfactory fungicide. The wash was 
also prepared with cold water instead 
of boiling water, and in some cases a por- 
tion of the lime was at first withheld 
and later added, a small lump ata time, 
in order to prolong the boiling; but the 
experiments have not yet been sufficient 
to determine definitely the correct for- 
mula and the best method of prepar- 
ation. 


+ Should the boiling be very prolonged 
the mixture might become caustic enoug 


138 


{Aueust, 1908, 


to burn foliage, although nu such injury 
developed in the experiments. If it 
should be found in practice that the 
use of hot water dissolves too much ~ 
sulphur, so that the foliage is uninjured, 
cold water may be substituted anda — 
less intense heat thus developed, orthe 
sulphur can be withheld until the lime 
has partly slaked, thus regulating the 
amount of sulphur dissolved. 


_ By this boiling process the sulphur : 
is putin good mechanical condition for 
spraying, and enough of it is dissolved j 
to make the mixture adhesive. Asalarge 
percentage of the sulphur is simply held — 
in mechanical mixture with the lime 
water, it is necessary that the spraying 
outfit be provided with a good agitator, 

so that the mixture may be kept con- : 
stantly stirred, and settling be thus 
avoided. In the treatment of apple 
trees, Paris green may be added for the — 
control of the codling moth in the same 
mar as when Bordeaux mixture is 
used. 


on the apple trees to destroy from 80 
to 90 per cent. of the crop on the 
unsprayed trees, the lime-sulphur mix- 
ture held it down to less than 10 per 
cent. of the crop. Inthis experiment the 
sulphur wash compared favourably with 
Bordeaux mixture, the latter giving 
only slightly better results. The disease 
had a considerable start before the first 
application was made, and this accounts 
for at least a part of the diseased 
fruit on the sprayed trees. Slightly 
better results with both the sulphur 
and the copper treatments could prob- 
ably have been secured had the first 
application been made a week earlier. 


It would appear that the two fungi- 
cides are equally effective against bitter- — 
rot, and that when desired the lime- 
sulphur mixture may be substituted 
for Bordeaux mixture in the treat- — 
ment of this disease. These results — 
show that the self-boiled lime-sulphur ~ 
mixture isan excellent fungicide under ~ 
the conditions attending this experi- ~ 
ment. The only question that remains 
is whether it will maintain this high ~ 
standard under unfavourable condi- — 
tions, such as extremely wet weather. 


So far as the writer could observe, 
absolutely no injury to the fruit or 
foliage developed from the use of this 
wash, and it adhered almost, if not ~ 
quite, as well as Bordeaux mixture. At 
picking time the foliage was still white 
with the mixture and thefruit had a 
good coat of it. Again, however, 
must be remembered that the seasot 
was comparatively dry, the rainfall for 


4s 
« 
i 
Although bitter-rot was severe enough i 
i 


a ee 


me my 

ios 3 

a ae 

_ Aveust, 1908.] 

July being only 0:81 inch and for August 
376 inches. Although the mixture seems 
to be quite adhesive, heavy beating rains 
might take it off the fruit and foliage, 
sothat a large part of its fungicidal 
value would be lost. 


ey Preach BRown-ROT AND SCAB. 


The self-boiled lime-sulphur mixture 
heretofore described did not injure the 
peach foliage or fruit, and proved to be 
astrong fungicide inits effect on both 
brown-rot and peach scab, as_ well as on 
some leaf diseases. Unboiled sulphur 
with milk of lime and pure sulphur 
suspended in water were also used with 
promising results, 


9 eed 


Sulphur, wherever used in this experi- 
ment, whether self-boiled or unboiled, 
_ applied once or oftener, had more or less 
effect on the brown-rot disease. Where 
the self-boiled wash of both full strength 
and half strength was used, nearly 90 
per cent. of the crop came through free 
from the disease. Owing, perhaps, to 
the late spring frosts, some of the peach 
pits cracked, and there was considerable 
proliferation around them which result- 
ed in a cracking of the skin, thus expos- 
ing the fruit even on sprayed trees to 
brown-rot infection. 


Itis not at all surprising that this 
sulphur mixture should be a good fungi- 
cide; the gratifying surprise is that it 
does not injure peach foliage. Under 
different weather conditions or when 
boiled with a more active grade of lime 
- it might prove injurious, and for this 
reason caution should be exercised until 
further knowledge of its action is 
obtained. 


Oe Ae ee Pee Fo a eS ron ye 


¢ 


Niue Ty ead 


oe 


Although occasional rains occurred at 
~ Koshkonlong, Mo., while the experiment 
was in progress, the season would be 
- eonsidered rather dry. The rainfall 
‘there as recorded by the voluntary 
Mr. John W. Hitt, was as 


of brown-rot. During avery wet season, 
however, the treatment might not be so 
successful; in fact, this disease is in- 
fluenced by so many factors that it 
seems doubtful whether an_ entirely 
satisfactory treatment for it will ever be 
found. The plum curculio punctures 
_ the skin of a certain percentage of the 
fruit and thus admits the fungus in 
spite of all spraying that can be done; 
also, some of the leaf-footed plant bugs 
_ feed on the rotting and the sound fruit 
indiscriminately, thus undoubtedly dis- 


139 


Plant Sanitation, 


tributing the fungus. and perhaps even 
with their beaks inserting the spores 
beneath the skin of the fruit. It seems 
quite impossible to protect against such 
infections. 


In the case of peach scab the results 
were very decided. In every plot where 
sulphur was used before infection took 
place, this disease was almost completely 
controlled. Even sulphur suspended in 
water without theaddition of lime seems 
to be sufficient to control this disease. 
As a rule, the scab infections on the 
sprayed fruit were manifested in small 
specks instead of the large spots and 
cracks that were so common on the 
unsprayed fruit. 


A COMBINED FUNGICIDE AND 
INSECTICIDE. 


Self-boiled lime-sulphur washes used in 
the dormant spraying of fruit trees are 
known to have some effect against the 
San Jose seale, and, inorder to avoid the 
expense of cooking-plant, afew growers 
have employed this method of spraying 
the wash. Entomologists have wisely dis- 
couraged the use of self-boiled washes 
because of their inferiority to the boiled 
preparations, but when used as a fungi- 
cide in the growing season a self-boiled 
lime-sulphur wash might be expected to 
aid considerably in the control of the 
San Jose scale and other scale insects by 
the destruction of the crawling lice, and 
would thus perhaps prevent the infesta- 
tion of the fruit, a condition especially 
likely to occur with apples and pears. 
This would give it a decided advantage 
over Bordeaux mixture and make it 
especially useful as acombined fungicide 
and insecticide in the treatment of large 
apple trees on which the scale is so diffi- 
cult to control. Summer applications 
for the prevention of fungus diseases 
would thus supplement the dormant 
treatment of the San Jose scale without 
extra cost. 


Sulphur is also a well-known remedy 
for various mites, and the _ self-boiled 
wash would probably be of considerable 
value in the control of the red spider. 


RANGE OF PossIBLE USEFULNESS. 


_ The fungicide described in these pages 
is only in the experimental stage, and it 
is impossible to predict the extent of its 
usefulness ; but if it will control apple 
bitter-rot, as the results so far obtained 
indicate, it would naturally be expected 
to prevent apple scab. Although no 
positive results were obtained with this 
disease, the indications were that it 
might easily be controlled with the lime- 
sulphur wash and the fruit russeting 
and foliage injury due to theluse of 


Plant Sanitation. 


Bordeaux mixture thus avoided. Except 
the injury following its use in a wet 
season, Bordeaux mixture furnishes an 
entirely satisfactory fungicide for both 
apple scab and bitter-rot, perhaps better 
than can be expected of the lime-sulphur 
wash; but the latter has the advantage 
of being a combined insecticide and fun- 
gicide, and does not injure the fruit or 
foliage, or at least it would so appear 
from these preliminary experiments. 


This self-boiled mixture could reason- 
ably be expected to readily control the 
powdery mildews of fruit, some of which 

ave long been known to be preventable 
by the application of sulphur in some 
form. Owing to its greater adhesive- 
ness, it should perhaps largely supplant 
dry sulphur and liver of sulphur in the 
treatment of various mildews. 


lf the results of last year’s experiments 
are borne out by further tests, the most 
important function of this fungicide 
will doubtless be the control of peach 
diseases. Heretofore, practically no 
known fungicide could be used on peach 
foliage without injurious results, and 
for this reason orchardists have been 
unable to combat some of the more im- 
portant peach diseases and to prevent 
the annual loss of several millions of 
dollars’ worth of fruit caused by them. 


140 


i 


[AUGUST, 1908 


Bordeaux mixture, the standard fungi- 
cide, cannot be used on peach trees 
during the growing season without 
danger of serious injury to the foliage. 
While a weak Bordeaux mixture may be 
used in a dry season without injurious 
results, the same mixture applied in a 
wet season, when most needed, will 
usually defoliate the trees. The other 
forms of copper, such as ammoniacal cop- 
per carbonate and acetate of copper, are 
even more toxicthan Bordeaux mixure. 


It is apparent, then, that an efficient 
cheap fungicide that canbe used on the 
fruit and foliage of the peach without 
injurious results will be of inestimable 
value. The self-boiled lime-sulphur mix- 
ture gives promise of meeting these 
requirements, and itis hoped that the 
results already secured will be substan- 
tiated by further investigations. Under 
some unfavourable weather conditions 
injury to the foliage or fruit might pos- 
sibly develop, and heavy beating rains 
might wash the sulphur away, so that 
its fungicidal effect would be partly lost. 
It seems likely, however, that a lime- 
sulphur mixture, either self-boiled or 
unboiled, will prove to be a safe and 
valuable fungicide for use on fruit trees 
and other plants during the growing 
season.—U. S. Department of Agricul- 
ture, April 18, 1908. 


j 


Avast, 1908.] 


Y 


s 


141 


LIVE STOGK. 


THE DESTRUCTION OF 
MOSQUITOES. 


(To the tditor of the ‘* Times.’’) 

Sir,—Any suggestions or discoveries 
that help towards the destruction of 
mosquitoes and other insect pests in 
their larva stage are of such great im- 
portance that I venture to ask you to 
‘give me a small space in which to record 
some results which have been attained 
in the West Indies. 


It has long been known that Barbados 


- isthe only West Indian island that is 


absolutely free from malaria and from 
the presence of the anopheles mosquito. 


_ Major Hodder, R.8., in his reports to the 
_ War Office three years ago on the drain- 


age works that were then being carried 


out in St. Lucia, came tothe conclusion 


that there was 


the culex was abundant. 


some hitherto undis- 
covered reason why the anopheles failed 
to propagate its kind in Barbados, where 
It appeared 
from this observation that the 
anopheles could, or did, only breed on 


the ground level; none of its larve 


being found in tanks which were raised a 


few feet from the earth, nor even on 


Mae EN 


those which were actually resting on the 
ground. The culex can, on the other 
hand, breed in the gutters onthe roofs 
of high buildings as easily as in the low- 
_ lying swamps and pools. My friend Mr. 
C. Kenrick Gibbons, who had given a 

good deal of attention to the matier, 

pointed out at once that all the pools and 
swamps in this island were stocked with 

swarms of a tiny fish (known locally, 


_ from their vast numbers, as “ millions”), 


and that their favourite food was the 
larvee of the mosquito, It is obvious that 


- any species of that insect which is unable 


_to breed above the ground level must fall 
aprey tothisenemy. The fishhas been 


identified by Mr. Boulenger, F.R.s., of 
the British Museum, as Gwardinus 
pocciloides. Some specimens are success- 
fully got to England, and flourished for 
some time in the insect house at theZoolo- 
gical Society’s Gardens. Mr. Gibbons’ 
suggestion that the ‘‘ millions” sh ould be 
imported into malarial districts in other 
islands has been acted upon, and with 
felicitous results. For instance, the 
Country Health Board of Antigua, 
‘‘being convinced of the useful part 
played by these fish in consuming 
mosquito larvee, have arranged for their 
systematic destruction througbout the 
onds and streams of the islands.” 
Similar news comes from Jamaica, 
whither a consignment of the fish was 
sent in November, 1906. The Secretary 
of the Agricultural Society writes that 
the tanks at the Titchfield Hotel are full 
of them, and that he had been informed 
that ‘‘there has been a marked diminu- 
tion of fever round about, the ‘millions’ 
evidently accounting for the mosquito 
larve.” They have also been sent to 
Colon and British Guiana, One cannot 
help wishing that these useful little fish 
were given a trial in the deadly districts 
of Africa, if, like the material mosquito, 
the insects which convey the terrible 
diseases which are endemic there, pass 
the larvze stage of their existence in 
water. One may add in this connection 
that the Swedish Corsul at Frankfort 
has discovered a small fish (‘‘ the blue- 
eyed”) which feeds on mosquito larve, 
and that, at the request of the Italian 
Government, some are to be, or have 
been, sent to the Campagna, where so 
much has been done in recent years to 
diminish malaria. 


Iam, Sir, your obedient servant, 
T. HERBERT BINDLEY. 
Codrington College, Barbados, March, 1908, 


142 


[Avausn, 1908; ” 


SCIENTIFIC AGRICULTURE. 


NEW NITROGEN FERTILIZERS. 


By L. G. BLACKMAN. 

The principal constituents of plant 
food are present in greater or less pro- 
portion in most soils. As the latter are 
formed by the disintegrating and general 
weathering process of rocks, the com- 
position of a particular soil is dependent 
to a great extent upon the nature of 
the rock from which it has been derived. 
Intermingled with the inorganic decom- 
posed rock there is present in every 
fertilie soil a variable proportion of 
decomposed organic matter, the accu- 
mulation of former generations of 
animal and vegetable growths. It is the 
latter ingredient, termed “humus” 
which gives the soil much of its agricul- 
tural value, and upon which to a great 
extent plants feed, for vegetation, as 
wellas animals, is incapable of support- 
ing life directly from inorganic sub- 
stances alone. 

In anatural state the earth’s successive 
growths of vegetation contribute to the 
accumulation of the soil’s humus. Each 
generation returns to the earth an added 
deposit of matter in a form readily 
available as plant food. The continual 
cultivation of crops and their removal 
from the soil by man, however, depletes 
the soil of much of its valuable plant 
food, and this process being continued, 
atime is soon reached when the land 
becomes so exhausted that it cannot be 
profitably cultivated without artificial 
reinforcement. 


In order that a plant may grow to 
advantage, it is of prime importance that 
a sufficient supply of allthe elements 
of its food be present in an assimilable 
form. At times, although such elements 
are contained in the-soil, they are locked 
up in some chemical combination with 
other elements, which renders them 
unavailable by vegetation, Speaking 
broadly, the main necessary food of 
plants may be said to be carbon, hydro- 
gen, oxygen and nitrogen, and in less 
degree potash, lime, magnesia and 
phosphoric acid. 


The four latter foods (being the 
ingredients of the primitive rock) are 
abundant in most soils, and as the 
supply of carbon, hydrogen and oxy- 
gen is usually fully provided for by 
means of rain and the atmosphere, the 
chief question affecting the well-being - 
of a plant. once the soil has been deplet- 
ed of its natural humus, is a supply 
of available nitrogen. This element 
constitutes the chief bulk of our atmos- 
phere, but plants are unable to assi- 


milate itin a free state, that is, unless 
it is first* chemically combined with 
another element. Although surrounded 
by an inexhaustible supply of this neces- 
sary food, vegetation, therefore, will 
languish, and die unless some means is at 
hand to render it available. This is 
generally accomplished by the chemical 
combination of nitrogen with hydrogen 
in the form of ammonia, or with potash 
or soda inthe form of one of the well- 
known “‘nitrates,” solargely employed 
as artificial fertilizers. 


\Nitrogen is a necessary constituent 
of every organic body. Although it 
plays soimportant a part in the com- 
position of living matter and exists in 
such inexhaustible quantity in the atmos- 
phere, the free nitrogen of the air is not 
drawn upon for plant and animal food, 
becauss it possesses the property of 
refusing, under most circumstances, to 
combine with other substances. This pe- 
culiarity of nitrogen is remarkable when 
we consider the readiness with which 
some other elements combine with one 
another as seen, for instance, in the case 
of oxygen. The slow combination of this 
latter gas with some metalsis exempli- 
fied in the corrosion or rust of iron and 
in the tarnishing of silver. The more 
rapid and energetic combination of oxy- 
gen with other substances produces, as 
is well-known, the phenomenon otf fire. 


So noteworthy is the inertness of. 
nitrogen, that Lavoisier, the emnient 
French chemist, in reference to this 
quality termed it Azote, a name siguifiy- 
ing “without life,” and which is still 
in general use by the French. On ac- 
count of this property the element was 
long regarded as a more or less useless gas 
whose chief function lay in diluting 
the atmospheric oxygen and thus ren- 
dering it suitable for animal respiration. _ 

How comes it then, in view of the 
refusal of nitrogen to enter into com- 
binations with other elements, that 
this element, so extremely insoluble in 
water, plays such an important part in 
the economy of plant life? What subtle 
force is at work which overcomes its 
inert quality and renders it suitable for 


~ 
wee 


RES Taher 


* The distinction between a mechanical and a 
chemical mixture is most important. In a mecha- 
nical mixture the ingredients are simply mixed 
together and no new body is formed, while in a 
chemical mixture an entirely new body is produced. 
The mechanical mixture of hydrogen and oxygen 
is an invisible gas, but their chemical mixture 
produces water. In the air, oxygen and nitrogen 
are mixed mechanically, while if they were in 
chemical combination they would produce suffocat- 
ing ammonia and nitric acid gasses in whic 
nothing now living could exist. 


= 


3 it 


-Avaust, 1008.) 


+ 
‘ 


absorption into the system of the plant ? 


‘The extreme insolubility of nitrogen 
- shows that the agency of water is not 
accountable for the absorption of this 
element even when it is remembered 
that, in order to produce one pound of 
dry vegetation, the enormous quantity 
of four hundred pounds of water is 
necessary.” 


In order to satisfy the difficult question 
of the assimilation of nitrogen by 
plants, many theories have at times 
- been considered. Of these, digestion by 
means of the sap juice cannot be held to 
_ be the cause of the absorption of insolu- 
ble elements, for sucha process would 
_ necessitate the ‘ breaking up’ of nitrogen 
_ into an assimilable form—a process at 
- variance with the elemently constructive 
function of sap. It is now, however, 
- generally held that the appropriation of 
nitrogen by vegetation is due to the 
agency of bacteria, which infest all 
fertile soils and exist upon most plants. 
_ By means of these minute organisms, 
_ the insoluble nitrogen is, as it were, 
- decomposed or predigested, and rendered 
_ assimilable as plant food. 


In the sequence of vegetation growing 
upon soil undergoing the process of 

_ weathering from primitive rocks, until 
- late years, the lichens were considered 
as appearing first. The action of these 

- simple structures after many gener- 
ations prepared the way for mosses, 

_ which again rendered conditions suitable 
for plants of a higher order. 


Itis now known, however, that pre- 
ceding the lichens are the minute bac- 
_ teria to which reference has been made, 
whose function is to render the organic 
_ constituents ot the soil capable of 
- supporting plant food. The origin of 
_ the bacteria themselves is a more pro- 
found question, which has not been 
- solved, but their presence to the agri- 
 culturist appears to be as necessary as 
_ the working of the yeast plant is to the 
brewer. 


\ 


_ This renders the distinction between a 
_ sterile and a fertile soil better under- 
_ stood, for of two soils almost similar in 
_ chemical and physical characteristics, one 
_ may be extremely tertile and the other 
- non-productive. The question of the 
presence of suitable bacteria in a soil is 
therefore a very important one, and 
z= at # og mw eu 
* The same problems affect the absorption by 
the plant of the extremely insoluble elements 
phosphorus and silica, The latter element, inert 
_ alike to the action of water and all acids (except 
hydrofluoric) is first ‘broken up’ and rendered 
_ assimilable by the plant root, and then reconverted 
within the system of some plants where it exists as 
Minute crystals, 
at - i 


y 


143 


Scientific Agriculture. 


ranks equally with those affecting its 
chemical constituents and physical pro- 
perties. 


The action of the beneficial organisms 
referred to, as regards their function of 
supplying plant nutrition is principally 
confined to the nitrogenous matter 
already in the soil, although these 
organisms may possess to a small degree 
the power of tapping the air reservoir 
itself and obtaining a supply of nitrogen 
direct therefrom. 

The conversion of the nitrogenous con- 
stituents of the soil into nitrate 
assimilable by plants is known as nitri- 
fication. In order to bring about this 
little-understood process three conditions 
are necessary, viz., the presence ot 
bacteria, a supply of oxygen, and a 
salifiable base such as lime, soda or 
potash. Nitrification takes place under 
favourable circumstances in all fertile 
soils, and as the bacteria are most active 
at a temperature of from 75 to 100 
degrees, F., itis between these thermal 


points that plant growth is most 
vigorous. At temperatures much below 


that indicated the work of the bacteria 
is retarded, and at a certain degree 
of coldness their operation ceases. 
The economic use, from the _ point 
of plant life of these beneficial organ- 
isms, therefore, is their conversion 
of the nitrogenous organic matter and 
ammonia compounds of the soil and, to 
a less extent of the air, into soluble plant 
food. This is affected by combination 
with such bases as lime and potash 
with which nitrates are formed. From 
these latter compounds plants derive 
most of their nitrogen, and in order to 
support plant life, it is necessary that 
such soluble nitrates be present. 


When the natural supply of nitrates 
in the soil becomes exhausted, it is neces- 
sary that these be removed artificially. 
This opens up the important subject of 
plant fertilization, which is every year 
forcing itself more and more to the 
notice of agriculturists.* As the avail- 


* An additional vagary on the part of the element 
nitrogen also tends to emphasize the importance of 
the diminishing available supply of this important 
vegetable food, for it does not follow the natural 
cycle pursued by most other substances in their 
appropriation by the organic world, Asa rule, the 
constituents of the primitive rocks crumble into 
soil and after assimilation by vegetables and animals, 
are reburned again to the soil, With regard to 
nitrogen, however, such a cycle is not completed, 
for this element, instead of returning to the soil 
passes offinto the atmosphere. There is therefore 
a continual process in operation for the liberation 
of nitrogen from combination with other elements, 
and each generation of life depletes the earth of its 
supply and diminishes the potontiality of our 
planet for sustaining organic life, 


Scientific Agriculture. 


able supply of nitrates is restricted, the 
question of the continued fertilization 
of the soil is an exceedingly urgent one. 
With regard to the supply of animal 
manure (the use of which asa supply of 
plant nitrogen has obtained in all ages, 
although itis only during the last cen- 
tury that the reason of its beneficial 
action was understood), the production 
is diminishing rather than increasing. 
Moreover, with more enlightened know- 
ledge of hygiene, even if this fertilizer 
Were to become available in sufficient 
quantities, it is questionable whether 
for this reason alone its general use for 
agricultural crops would be adopted. 


Among the nitrogenous chemical 
manures, sulphate of ammonia is im- 
portant. The fertilizer is produced by 
the destructive distillation of coal and 
shale, and is a by-product in the manu- 
facture of gas. Although its manu- 
facture is extending, it must always be 
quite insufficient to meet the demand of 
the agriculturists. 


The main supply of nitrogen for ferti- 
lization is at present chiefly obtained 
from natural deposists of nitrates which 
occur in certain countries. With respect 
to this source of plant nitrogen also, the 
available quantity is limited, and in view 
of the enormous extension of cultivated 
areas demanding scientific fertilization, 
the day is not distant when the output 
of this fertilizer will decrease and will 
ultimately become exhausted. Of these 
fertilizers the two best known are the 
nitrates of potash and soda. Both of 
these are found in considerable natural 
deposits, the former in India and Persia, 
and the latter in Chili. Nitrate of soda 
is known as Chili Salpeter, and is used 
very extensively in agriculture. It is 
also largely used in the manufacture of 
nitric acid and of other chemicals, for 
as has been said, the extreme inertness 
of the free gas nitrogen has caused the 
naturally existing supply of the world’s 
nitrates to be resorted to for the forma- 
tion of many new nitrogenous combina- 
tions. In this way the available deposits 
are being rapidly exhausted, and in order 
to insure the continued prosperity of 
many agricultural crops, it is imperative 
that a new supply of nitrates be forth- 
coming. Where then, when the natural 
deposits have disappeared, will agri- 
culturists turn for their new supply of 
nitrogen of fertilizers? The most ready 
means of satisfying this demand which 
suggests itself, is to tap the great air 
reservoir of its nitrogen, and then to 
discover some way of combining it chemi- 
cally with suitable substances. 


The atmosphere may be described as an 
serial ocean surrounding the earth 


144 


{Auausi', 1908, 


From the tinie of Aristotle until less than 
one hundred and fifty years ago it was 
regarded as one of the four elements. 
It is now known to consist almost 
entirely of a mechanical mixture of the 
two gases nitrogen and oxygen, in the 
proportion of about four volumes of the 
former to one of the latter. A graphic 
representation of this proportion may 
be had by inscribing a cirele within a 
square. In such a figure a eirele will — 
represent the nitrogen present in the 
atmosphere and the four spaces at the 
corners of the square, the oxygen. ; 


Besides the nitrogen contained inthe ~ 
atmosphere in chemical mixture with — 
oxygen, there are also present traces of — 
nitrogen in chemical mixture with 
hydrogen, and also with hydrogen and 
oxygen together. Of these latter com- 
pounds ammonia (N.H3) and nitrie acid 
(H.N.O3 ) are the mostimportant to plant 
life, but they occur in infinitesimal 
amounts, varying according to local 
and meterolozical conditions. 


The presence of ammonia in the atmos- 
phere is chiefly dueto the decomposition ~ 
of organic matter. The precipitation of — 
rain brings with it small quantities of its 
compound which is thus rendered avail- 
able for plant use. The occurrence of — 
electrical disturbances in the air pro- — 
duces nitric acid, and in India, where the 
soil has been depleted for courtless 
generations of cultivators, the crops are — 
dependent upon the periodical monsoon 
for their supply of nitrogen. : 


The insulation of nitrogen from the 
atmosphere is a very simple operation. 
A well-known method is by igniting 
phosphorus in a_ receptacle containing 
atmospheric air. The combustion of the 
phosphorus exhausts the oxygen present, — 
and when the burning ceases the result- 
ant gas consists of nitrogenin a fairly — 
pure condition. Another method of 
obtaining this gas is to pass a stream of 
dry air through turnings of red-hot — 
copper. The oxygen of the air remains 
behind and forms oxide of copper. while 
the nitrogen passes away alone. 


Daring the last few years a very 
material advance has been madein the 
discovery of practical methods to com- 


oe"e 


agricultural purposes. 
newest and in some ways most remark- 
able of the scientific industries is in its 
infancy, but it has already passec 
beyond the realms of experiment and 
engaging more and more the attention 
capitalists. The chief obstacle at presen 


 Aveusr, 1908.] 


which the manufacturer of nitrogen com- 
pounds has to face is found in the cost of 
the new product. Although this can be 
marketed at a price below the cost of 
Chili saltpetre and similar fertilizers, the 
margin of profit is as yet not sufficiently 
great to attract the notice of those who 
are looking for an investment to yield an 
extraordinary return. In this, as in all 
new enterprises, those who will benefit 
most are the manufacturers first in the 
field, for in spite of the present conser- 
vative profits to be derived, the methods 
of manufacture of the new products are 
already being cheapened and improved. 
This, taken into conjunction with the 
undoubted facts that the natural supply 
of nitrogen compounds is diminishing, 
- andthe demands of agriculture are in- 
creasing to an unprecedented extent, 
renders it certain that the factories 
which now take control of the supply of 
artificial nitrogen fertilizers will, in a 
very short time, be placed in a most 

_ advantageous position. 


CALCIUM CYANAMIDE. 


The manufacture of the new fertilizer, 
calcium cyanamide, isconducted accord- 
ing tothe Frank and Caro method, an 
- electro-metallurgical process, the Kurope 
rights of which are held by the Societa 
Generale de la Cianamide, of Rome, Italy. 
Already many subsidiary zompanies are 
in operation, chiefly in Italy, France, 
Norway and Switzerland, which are con- 
- ducted on a profit-sharing basis in :con- 
junction with the general Company. The 
manufacture of calcium cyanamide is 
performed on the principal that calcium 
- earbide absorbs nitrogen when heated 
toa sufficiently high temperature. The 
calcium carbide is first produced in the 
_ usual manner by heating lime and coke 
_toatemperature of 2,500 degreee centi- 
grade in electric furnaces of the resis- 
_ tance type. 
in retorts, and at 1,100 degrees (C.), 
- atmospheric nitrogen is introduced and 
absorbed, the new compound being 
known as calcium cyanamide. 


The first plant erected for the manu- 

_ facture of calcium cyanamide was at 
Piano d’Orta, Italy, in 1905. ‘In this 
- factory were installed six furnaces, each 
with five retorts for the absorption of 
nitrogen by the carbide. Each retort 
works off three charges daily, consisting 

_ of 1000 kilograms (2,200 lbs.). ‘I'he absorp- 
_ tion of nitrogen by the carbide increases 
the weight materially, and from each 
charge 125 kilograms (275 lbs.) of calcium 
cyanamide is obtained. The plant has, 
therefore, an annual capacity for the 
conversion of 3,000 tons of carbide into 
8,750 tons of cyanamide. This factory is 

_ Operated by water power, supplied by an 
independent Company. The generating 


(ok, 19 ‘ 


i) 


145 


The carbide is then heated. 


Scientific Agriculture. 


station, where a head of 90 feet, supply- 
ing 8,400 h.p. is available, is more than 
six miles from the cyanamide plant, to 
which the power is transmitted at 6,000 
volts. The factory has proved so success- 
ful, that already an extension to an 
annual 10,000 tons capacity isin progress, 
and other similar plants are projected 
throughout the country. 

In France, the Societé Frangaise des 
Produits Azotes is already in operation, 
and another in Savoy has an annual out- 
put of 3,750 tons. In Germany and 
Hngland the Frauk and Caro process is 
also being actively operated, and in the 
United States the America Cyanamide 
Company of Alabama will have an 
annual capacity of 20,000 tons. 


The method is already being improved, 
and the chemist, Polzeniusz, has dis- 
covered an important modification in 
the manufacture of cyanamide. This 
is brought about by the addition of 
Fuor-spar to the carbide which facili- 
tates the absorption of nitrogen at the 
comparatively low temperature of 400 
degrees (C.), and, moreover, produces a 
product which does not so readily be- 
come moist. The market price of cyana- 
mide is at present regulated by the 
price of the two competing artificial 
manures, ammonium sulphate and_ni- 
trate of soda. Its actual cost of produc- 
tion has been found in Germany to 
average about $40 per ton, which has 
been marked at a little over $50. This 
has been achieved in cases where cheap 
water power was available, but as the 
process improves, the rival fertilizers 
will, without doubt, be eventually driven 
from the market by this and similar new 
products, 

CALCIUM NITRATE. 


Another noteworthy new artificial 
fertilizer, calcium nitrate, is manufac- 
tured by the Birkeland and Hyde pro- 
cess, at Notodden, in Norway. This 
product is obtained on the principal that 
at the extreme heat of 3,000 degrees 
Centrigrade, atmosphoric nitrogen can 
be made to directly combine with oxy- 
gen. Although this fact has long been 
known, the intense temperature required 
has been against the general adoption 
of the process, but by the use of the 
electric are flame it is now operated on a 
large scale. The chemical combination 
of nitrogen and oxygen thus achieved 
produces nitric acid gas. The compound 
is afterwards passed through absorption- 
towers through which water and milk of 
lime flow. The resulting liquid obtained 
is then evaporated and solid nitrate 
of lime (calcium nitrate) is obtained. 

The Notodden plant was established 
in 1903. It possesses. three furnaces, 
each producing 250 tons of nitric acid 


Scientific Agriculture. 


per annum, which yield about 325 tons 
of calcium nitrate. The factory, there- 
fore, turns out approximately one thou- 
sand tons of fertilizer per year, but 
another plant of twenty times this capa- 
city issoon to be erected. Licenses for 
the Birkeland and Eyde process are 
granted by the Aktieselskabet Notod- 
den Salpeterfabric, Christiania, Sweden. 
Many plants are at work in Europe on 
the manufacture of calcium nitrate by 
this patent, although Norway is more 
forward in this respect than other coun- 
tries. At Rjukanfos, a factory is being 
constructed where 250,000 h.p., is avail- 
able from water power. 

In the Birkeland and Eyde process, also, 
a great improvement has lately been 
introduced by which the percenage of 
nitrogen is increased and the hygroscopic 
properties of the product is reduced. 

In the Hawaiian Islands there is with- 
out doubt a splendid opportunity for 
the manufacture of either calcium cya- 
namide or calcium nitrate. The enor- 
nous and growing quantity of fertilizers 
required by the cane fields, the anti- 
cipated reduction of the output of natu- 
ral nitrogenous compounds, and many 
other circumstances hold out to the 
manufacturer of the new products a 
most promising investment. The avail- 
able water supply of the Kauai moun- 
tains naturally would suggest that island 
as the most appropriate site for such an 
enterprise, although there are without 
doubt throughout the islands other 
available sources of water power. In 
the near future we predict the introduc- 
tion tothe Hawaiian Islands of one of 
the processes briefly described, and we 
hope that such an undertakiag will be 
prosecuted with Hawaiian capital. 


The following letter from the United 
States Department of Agriculture was 
recently elicited in response to a request 
by a correspondent in the Islands who 
desired information on this subject :— 


United States Dept. of Agriculture, 
Office of Experiment Stations, 
Washington, D.C., March 26th, 1908. 


DEAR SirR,—Your letter of February 
29, asking information regarding the 
manufacture and use of calcium nitrate 
and calcium cyanamide, has been re- 
ferred to this office for reply, 

The Department has not yet inves- 
tigated the fertilizing value of these 
materials, but from the large number of 
reports of foreign investigations which 
have been reviewed in this office, it seems 
safe to say that the basic calcium nitrate 
prepared by the Birkeland and Eyde 
process is a very valuable fertilizer, 
fully equal, and in some cases superior, 


146 


[AuGusi, 1908, 4 


to nitrate of soda, particularly on soils 
benefited by lime as well as nitrate. 
The results of investigations with regard 
to calcium cyanamide or lime nitrogen 
are, however, not so conclusive. There 
are certain facts relating to the pro- 
perties and changes which this material 
undergoes in the soil which have not yet ~ 
been thoroughly investigated, but which 
have an important bearing upon its _ 
fertilizing value. As faras lean learn — 
neither of the products is yet upon the — 
market as staple fertilizing materials. — 
The processes of manufacture, I believe, 
are all fully covered by patents both in 
this country and abroad, but exact in- 
formation on this point can only be 
obtained by applying to the U.S. Com- 
missioner of Patents. 


| 


Very truly yours, 
A. C. TRUE, 
Director. 
—Hawatian Forester and Agriculturist. 
Vol. V., No 4, April, 1908. 


SMALL IRRIGATION AREAS. 


By W. R. Fry, 
Fruit Inspector, formerly Manager, Moore 
Irrigation Farm. 


The recent copious rainfall throughout 
the State has relieved farmers and stock- 
owners of much immediate anxiety and 
labour. It is to be hoped, however, that 
the experiences in the coastal areas will 
not be forgotten, but that ensilage- 
making and provision for irrigation — 
will receive more attention. 


It is somewhat surprising that more 
irrigation has not been practised in 
mavy places where running streams — 
occur. Certainly the water in permanent — 
streams cannot always be utilised by — 
settlers without infringing on the ripa- © 
rian rights of others. However, when a 
stream rises in a farmer’s paddock and. 
merely creates a swampy patch—from — 
which most of the water is lost by eva- 
poration,—the owner or occupier could — 
justly and profitably irrigate a few acres — 
by gravitation. In streams with suffi-— 
cient fall, part of the water could often — 
be diverted by means of an automatic — 
hydraulic ram. These rams are compara-— 
tively cheap (from £3 upwards accord- 
ing to size), and will effectively raise a 
small supply from 30 to 150 feet high, 
without any cost for fuel or attention. 


Again, suitable spots are frequently 
seen where a valley could be easily 
dammed and a few thousand gallons of 
water impounded, to be gravitated or 
syrhoned on to a cultivation patch a 
required. 


Do pest atone 


-~Avaust, 1908:] 


Several opportunities for these me- 
thods occur in the Moss Vale and other 
districts, but in very few cases have 
they been practised. Possibly the chief 
reason is that the necessity for irriga- 


- tion has never before been so apparent ; 


but in other cases, it may be due to a 
want of knowledge of the advantages or 
practice of irrigation. 

Many people, when the subject_of irri- 
gation is discussed, speak as though it 
required a great expenditure for costly 
pumps, pipes, cement drains, and special 
implements. For large areas, perma- 
nent, and therefore costly, appliances are 
necessary ; but a few acres can often 
be cultivated by the judicious use of 
the plough, with a little fluming of 
the most primitive materials. In the 
Kangaroo Valley, for example, the 
trunks of the cabbage-tree palms are 
frequently used for water fluming, 
whilst hollow logs, and strips of bark, 


- are used in other cases. Withan ordi- 


nary spirit level on pegs or a home-made 
A-level, it will often be found that water 
can be brought on to land apparently 
higher than the stream. Old miners are 
generally expert in constructing water- 
races, and several examples of their 
industry can be seen around Adelong 
and other old mining districts. 


Although to many people’ these 
schemes may appear paltry, they go to 


_ prove the possibilities of more extended 


areas, and provide that practical experi- 
ence which will be necessary when 
larger water supplies are available. 
Settlers should not be above consider- 
ing such methods, even if the irrigable 
area is small, foritis really wonderful 
what an amount of succulent fodder 
ean be obtained from a small area. 
Only two acres planted with sorghum 
will, with watering, produce over 40 
tons of green stuff. This would, lately, 
have been very acceptable on those dairy 
farms where the occupiers were carting 
prickly-pear for miles, or paying pro- 
hibitive prices for hay. Even the over- 
flow from a wind-mill tank could often 
irrigate a small patch, and thus save a 
little of the expensive hay. 


Coming to the actual application of 
water tocrops, the chief object should 
be to ensure aneven supply. This even 
supply of moisture—not too much and too 
little—is absolutely necessary for perfect 
plant development. To quote the words 
of a well-known agricultural lecturer, 
“Plants drink their tood, they don’t 
eat it.” It has been, unfortunately, too 
often demonstrated that the best arti- 
ficial fertilisers or the richest basaltic 
soils are utterly useless without suffi- 
cient moisture. To artificially supply 
this moisture, ‘‘sprinkling” may appear 
the most natural method, butitis seldom 


147 


Scientific Agriculture’ 


practised for farm crops. In the town 
of Picton (which rejoices in a water 
supply at Id, per 1,000 gallons) some 
Chinamen have rented a few acres of 
land from A. H. Antill, Esq., and erected 
tall poles, with outstanding spars to 
carry hoses and sprinklers. The vegeta- 
bles are growing luxuriantly ; but the 
method does not appear an unqualified 
success, and probably the furrow system 
of watering would be just as effective and 
more economical. Surface sprinkling, 
although extensively practised in subur- 
ban gardens, only gives best results when 
the soil is covered with a good mulch 
or heavy foliage of plants. Unless a 
thorough soaking is given, most of the 
moisture is evaporated by the next day’s 
heat. Sprinkling when the sun is scorch- 
ing hot, although often practised, is 
certainly unnatural, and has not nearly 
such a good effect asona dull day or at 
night-time. 

Theoretically, the best time to apply 
water is when the weather appears like 
rain, as the moisture is then received 
under natural conditions of atmospheric 
pressure and evaporation. In practice, 
however, water must be applied when- 
ever the leaves of the plants show that 
the moisture content of the soil is betow 
their requirements. This is one of the 
reasons for the frequent statement that 
‘‘a shower of rain is better than hours 
of sprinkling.” Another reason is that 
the first showers of rain after thunder 
(especially hailstorms) generally contain 
asmall quantity of ammonia and nitric 
acid from the electric disturbances, and 
this hasa stimulating effect as an im- 
mediately available plant food. The 
initial cost of pipes and taps is another 
disadvantage of the hose and sprinkler 
method. which may be dismissed. as 
seldom applicable for farm crops. 


The flooding and check system of 
watering, as practisedin many parts of 
Amevica, has not been generally adopted 
in this State, except for lucerne and per- 
manent pastures. Flooding invariably 
leaves the land very hard and sodden, 
and requires more preparation of the 
land. Grading and levelling is generally 
necessary to prepare any extensive 
irrigation area, but the process is rather 
expensive, and not always easy for the 
average farmer. Where the _ soil is 
shallow, as in most parts of Cumberland 
and Camden, extensive grading oper- 
ations are not practical, for it is evident 
that if 1S inches of the surface soil is 
scraped away, it will be years before the 
bare patch of subsoil will produce pro- 
fitable crops. 


How To IRRIGATE. 


By the furrow system, which is the 
best for most crops, land can be irrigated 


Scientific Agriculture, 


even on a hillside, provided the contour 
of the land is considered when striking 
the drills. The distance apart of these 
furrows depends on the kind of soil and 
the fall. If the newly-sown land is of a 
clayey nature, and very dry, the furrows 
may be6to9 feet apart, as the water 
will spread out ina lateral direction. 
With a steeper tall, or more porous soil, 
the furrows must be closer together. 
The furrows can be made by an ordinary 
plough or a cultivatior, and should be 
parallel. All dead furrows or ‘clean 
outs” should be ploughed in before the 
cross furrows are made. Having suc- 
ceeded in bringing asupply of water to 
the highest pointin the main channel, 
the next object is to get it into the soil. 
To distribute it evenly to each furrow, 
short lengths of pipe or turfs are neces- 
sary. Sluice-boxes or pieces of board, con- 
taining an inch auger hole, are also 
useful. Care must be taken not to rush 
too big a stream down to the furrows at 
first, or the soil may ‘‘slicken,” or become 
puddled, and prevent percolation. In 
watering maize or sorghum, water is best 
applied down every alternate furrow to 
germinate the seed, and then down every 
row when the plants are growing well. 


Frequent surface cultivation is a most 


essential operation after furrow irriga-.- 


tion. The settler who, when asked why 
he did not use more horsehoe and less 
water, replied, ‘I can’t sit down to 
irrigate, but have to walk to cultivate,” 
explained a too common cause of failure 
amongst irrigators. 

When the soil commences to crack 
after irrigation, it is time to eultivate, 
not irrigate. Onclay soils the surface 
may be cracked and yet the subsoil may 
be saturated. For fruit-trees, wait until 
the soil is almost too dry to “hall” 
when squeezed in your hand _ before 
watering again. Surface cultivation des- 
troys the crust, fills up cracks, and by 
preventing undue evaporation ensures 
the necessary even degree of moisture. 
A good rule in irrigating is never to run 
water more than once over the same 
surface. Give a good soaking, and when 
dry enough for horse-work, stir the soil 
weekly. With this treatment a 4-inch 
watering will last two months, whilst 
without cultivation it will only last a 
few weeks. 


‘In all cases where the subsoil is not 
porous, underground drainage is abso- 


148 


| Bf Me ' hh bade i r 


[AuGusT, 1908. | 


—_—- - 


lutely necessary where irrigation is 
practised. A heavy fall of rain falling 
after an irrigation may, in the absence 
of drainage, do considerable harm, as 
the soil becomes waterlogged and air- 
tight. With crops of oats or rape the 
leaves turn red and growth is stunted, 
but with lucerne or fruit-trees more 
disastrous effects follow. The roots 
decay, encouraging the attack of ‘‘ white 
rot,” or ‘‘mal-di-goma,” or the plants — 
may be drowned for want of air. Uuder- — 
ground drains, which may be filled with 
stones, tea-tree, logs, or any available 
material, take up less room than surface 
drains, and, if properly made, are more ~ 
effectual. In many cases where trouble 
has occurred with alkaline salts in the ~ 
soil or water, it has been due toa neg- — 
lect of this important factor. With ; 
underground drainage, a heavy fall of 
rain tends to leach out the excess of 
salts; whereas on undrained, flat clay 
lands the excess moisture has to escape ; 
by evaporation, and the secretion of — 
surface salts is therefore increased. y 
# 
¥ 
A 


On an irrigation area, heavy manur- 
ing, or correct rotation of crops, is neces- 
sary. If an irrigated acre of land pro- — 
duces 20 tons of green-stuff every year, | 
it is evident that it must become ex- 
hausted sooner than land that ocecasion- 
ally misses a crop owing to drought. 
Most agricultural returns are more or 
less affected by the rainfall, but whilst 
rain is often a remote probability, syste-— 
matic irrigation is an absolute certainty. 
Several profitable crops of strawberries 
and cauliflowers could have been ob-— 
tained, and many a milk cheque in- 
creased, by the practice of these methods 
during the past few months. <A dressing 
of lime, in conjunction with drainage 
and watering, will convert many a sour 
swamp into a luxuriant fodder patch, 
and if the feed is not required imme- — 
diately when grown, it can be easily 
converted into ensilage. a 


ass. 9 FR 


The application of water by the furrow ~ 
system followed by frequent cultivation, 
with provision for drainage and rotation _ 
of crops, are the necessary principles o 
‘wet farming,” which must be practised 
by all farmers on any large or small 
irrigation scheme to obtain profitable” 
and permanenc results.—Agricultural 
Gazette of New South Wales, April, 1908, 
Vol. XIX., Part 4. . - 


2) 


: 


a 
u 


4 


é 


“Avavst, 1908, ] 


149 


MISCELLANEOUS. 


USE OF DRIED COW-DUNG AS 
FUEL IN INDIA. 


The common practice among the 
natives of India of using air-dried cow- 
dung as fuel has frequently been con- 
demned on the ground of the loss of the 
nitrogencus constituents which are of 
value as manure, and samples of this 
material have been sent to the Imperial 
Institute recently for examination with 
aview to ascertaining whether or not 
the calorific value of this material is high 
enough to warrant its usein this way 
now that coal is becoming relatively 
cheap in many parts of India. 


The sample consisted of flat cakes of 
air-dried material, containing fragments 
_of dry fibrous vegetable matter and a 
considerable proportion of soil. 

The examination of the sample gave 
the following results :— 
Calorific value 2,045 calories.* 


per cent: 
“46 


Phosphoric anhydride Pez 05 

Lime aut on Ca 0 4°88 
Magnesia... M0 0:94 
Potash K 0O 1:60 
Soda nee Naz 0 0°68 
Nitrogen... Aue N 0:04 
Ash Ae ee nan 52°96 


The calorific value of the dry cow-dung 
is therefore about one-third of that of 


- Indian coal, which generally ranges from 


6,000 to 7,000 calories. 
The manurial value of the cow-dung 


in the condition in which this sample 


was received is very small, and the only 
constituents of manurial value lost by its 
combustion are the small amount of 
nitrogen and the organic matter, since 
the phosphoric acid potash and lime be- 
come concentrated in the ash left after 
burning. 


No information was supplied regarding 
the methods employed in preparing the 


_ dung for fuel, but apparently most of the 


ae Co, 
: thoroughly burned will raise the 
2,045 grams of water from 0° to L° C9, 


manurial constituents have been removed 
either before collection or during the 
process of preparation. Presumably the 
dung is not collected for fuel until it has 
become dry and combustible, by which 


_ time the bulk of the soluble manurial 


matter has probably passed into the soil. 


' *1, calorie is the amount of heat required to 
raise the temperature of one gram of water ()° to 
so that one gram of this material when 
ouemperature of 


It is obvious from the above results 
that, if the sample submitted for examin- 
ation is generally typical of the dried 
cow-dung used as fuel, the utilisation of 
the material in this way entails very 
little loss of manurial matter, and is 
probably the most economical method of 
disposing of it. The ash might be 
employed as a manure.—Bulletin of the 
Imperial Institute, Vol. VI, No. 1, 1908. 


AGRICULTURE IN JAPAN. 

Sir Fredrick Nicholson, the eminent 
Madras civilian, whose careful study of 
agricultural banks on the Continent led 
to the adoption of special measures to 
encourage them in India, has added yet 
another to the cbligations under which 
the Empire lies to him by publishing 
the note on Agriculture in Japan, which 
has recently issued from the Madras 
Government Press. While in some mat- 
ters there are startling contrasts, the 
points of contact between Japanese and 
Indian agriculture are many, and a 
study ‘of the system existing in Japan 
from time immemorial and of the 
measures recently taken to popularise 
new methods to suit the changing condi- 
tions of the country must be of the 
very greatest utility in suggesting im- 
provements in indian practice and ad- 
ministrative measures to further them. 
It is satisfactory, therefore, to see that 
the author proposes at an early date 
to issue arevised note with the addi- 
tions of suggestions for Madras based 
onthe hints and examples derived from 
Japanese experience. Meanwhile, how- 
ever, it will be interesting to discuss 
some of the features of Japanese agri- 
culture as described in the note. 


Japan has a climate favourable to 
agriculture, with regular seasons and a 
considerable rainfall which varies from 
30 to 100 inches. ‘*‘ Drought of any 
duartion or widespread character,” we 
read, “is almost unknown. Owing to 
this regular and considerable rainfall, 
and to the island position of Japan with 
its immense coast outline, the air jis 
nearly humid, especially in hot months, 
June to September, which are the 
period of the heaviest rains, but yet they 
enjoy abundant sunshine, so that rice— 
the mainstay of Japanese food—thrives 
luxuriantly. From March to October 
sun and rain alternate with pleasing 
and fruitful diversity, while late Octo- 
ber and November, when the summer 
harvests are being reaped and the land 
prepared and sown for the spring and 
early summer crops, are among the 


Miscellaneous. 


drier periods of the year.” But if the 
climate is favourable, the same cannot 
be said of the soil. Of the total area of 
the country only 1,353 per cent. is arable 
land, and very little of the remainder 
is fit for cultivation. ‘In the south it 
would seem that almost every foot of 
the valleys has been already levelled 
and cultivated, while the hillsides are 
terraced in little fields often to their 
tops.” All authorities agree that the 
soil is naturally sterile, and that it is 
only through the indefatigable care and 
industry of the peasantry thatit has 
become as fruitful as it tow proves to 
be. The holdings, too, are small aver- 
aging 255 acres each; this small area 
has not only to support the family of the 
peasant, but also to pay very consider- 
able sums in rates and taxes. Taxes are 
paid to the State and rates to the local 
authority. They were originally paid 
in kind. but in recent years have been 
fixed on cash basis. In 1881 the State 
tax and the local rates were fixed at a 
sum calculated to represent about 21 
per cent. of the gross produce. — Since 
that time prices have risen largely, but 
' so have expenses of cultivation, and 
during the Russian war the State land 
tax was raised by 120 per cent. and 
local rates in almost the same _ propor- 
tion. At present the State and local 
taxes together fall at the rate of about 
Rs. 10 per acre on all arable land, and 
there is little likelihood that the exigen- 
cies of the State will allow of the 
reduction of the assessment. In the 
United Provinces the average incidence 
of land revenue and local rates together 
is no more than Rs. 2 per acre 
of cultivation. But this does not mea- 
sure the whole liabilities of the major 
portion of the peasantry of Japan. For 
only one-third of the land is cultivated 
by.iits proprietors, the remaining two- 
thirds being; held by tenants who pay 
competition rents toits owners. These 
rents are exceedingly high, and it is 
stated by ajJapanese writer that in 
some districts no less than four-fifths 
of the crop goes to the owner, leaving 
only one-fitfh for the cost of cultivation 
and, the subsistence of the tenant and 
his family. As yet there has been no 
attempt to regulate these excessive 
rentals. 


Such are the burdens laid upon the 
land. ‘ What, then, are the secrets ?” 
Sir F. Nicholson asks, ‘‘ which have 
enabled a country of petty cultivators, 
poor, isolated, unorganised, ignorant, 
devoid of’ cattle, and usually  rack- 
rented to produce good and _ regular 
crops, and even to increase the fertility 
of the soils. ‘‘The answer,” the author 
goes on to say, ‘‘will be found in the 


0 [ AUGUST, 1908. 


if 


manuring and tillage systems neces- — 
sarily adopted; on the one hand the 
utilisation of all waste both in matter, 
space and time, and on the other persis- 
tent, dogged, strenuous labour ; it is not 
capital or agricultural education, or 
Government aid, or imported food and 
fertilisers, which have hitherto fed 
Japan, but the utilisation of those sub- 
stances and forces which are or may be 
available in greater or less degree to 
every Indian farmer. Professor Bald- 
win long ago said—broadly, of course— | 
that the Irish peasant farmer could in 
general double his produce without extra 
capital,isimply by the use of more labour, 
more diligently and intelligently applied; 
itis this strenuous, intelligent labour— 
intelligent even if only in traditional 
methods—which regards no useful sub- 
stance as abhorrent, avoids no toil that 
may be fruitful which has both fed 
Japan and has educated and stiffened 
its people.” 


Japan possesses but very few cattle. 
Except in some few districts all labour is 
manual, and the chief cultivating tools 
are the spade, the hoe and the fork. 
“There is no slovenly cultivation, no 
carelessly worked areas; all is like one 
vast, well-worked garden. The _ soil, 
generally of dark loam, is absolutely 
clean; weeds are not to be seen at any 
time among the crops, and all stones are 
removed, so that every square inch may 
play its part”; and as in some Indian gar- 
dens where tomatoes are planted beneath 
the shade of rows of peas not yet ripe, 
the ridge system of cultivation allows of 
one crop being sown in upland tracts 
before the crop on the ground is reaped. 
A Japanese writer gives the following 
example of this system; ‘‘ A field is well — 
worked in the autumn and ridged about ~ 
20 inches apart, and winter wheat or — 
barley is drilled in shallow trenches on 
the tops of the ridges. These are care- 
fully maintained, and in April young 
indigo or other plants which have been 
raised in a separate seed bed are planted 
in the space between the ridges. After — 
the harvesting of the winter crop the 
soil occupied by them is worked over 
and manured, and as the plants grow 
the earth is gradually drawn up to them, 
so that what was once a furrow becomes 
aridge. Between the two cuttings cf 
indigo, soya beans are sown in the 
furrows, and after the indigo has been 
pulled uo the farmer turns all his atten- 
tion to his beans which are harvested it 
October, and the field is then deeply 
worked over and ready for the winter 
crop.” Such close and continuous crop 
ping is not, of course, practicable every- 
where, even in Japan, and it is onl 
rendered possible by the system an 


——_—— 


> a ore 


» ~~ 


haan 


Nal ae 


 Avausr, 1908.| 


. 


Ynanure. 


large resources 


- tised. 


eee” 


a“ character of the tillage adopted. The 


careful working of the soil has been 
already noticed, and the second essential 
in a country such as Japan, where plenti- 
ful and regular rainfall obviates the 
necessity for artificial irrigation is the 
application of manure. In most parts 
of the country there areno plough cattle, 
and horses, pigs and goats are very few 
in number, while the use of mineral 
fertilisers has not as yet become general. 
‘As the fields are worked with human 
labour, so they are enriched with human 
From time immemorial this 
material has been the chief source of 
fertilisation. It is carefully preserved 
and treated with a view to utilisation 
in the fields, and isapplied in liquid form 
tothe growing crops in small and fre- 
quent doses as required. Then in the 
homesteads no scrap of other organic 
matter is allowed to goto waste. Allis 
collected with care, piled up under a 


_shed covered with earth, and allowed to 


ferment together in a mass. ‘‘ This is 
occasionally turned over and left till 
the whole has decomposed into a fine, 
rich nutrient earth, which is passed 
through a sieve and used as a fine 
powder, especially at sowing time.” 
The peasantry, too, spend large sums 
every year on fish manure, chiefly 
sardines and herrings dried in the sun, 
and on oil cake. Not only dothey not 
permit the mass of cake produced from 
their oil seeds to leave the country, 
but they import large quantities, 
valued in 1903 at over £1,000,000, 
from China. Then the people have 
in their forests and 
woodland blocks or plantations. Exclud- 
ing the State forests, which cover a 
large proportion of the wild and sparsely 
populated area of North Japan, there is 
an area of about eighteen and a half 
million acres of private woodlands. 
Most of these are in blocks of small area 
attached to agricultural holdings or to 
the communes (which are, as in Conti- 
nental Europe, political corporations self- 
governing and possessing property), so 
that for each acre of cultivation there 
is on the average one anda half acres of 
woodland. These groves and woods, the 
State assessment on which is nominal, 
and for the preservation or replanting 
of which special regulations are made 
by the State, supply not only all the 
timber and firewood necessary for rural 
tracts, but are largely used by the people 
for procuring manure grasses and _ her- 
bage for use in their compost. The 
virtues of green manuring are, of course, 
known, and they are extensively prac- 
In the rice fields, many of which 
grow no second crop, it is a common 


practice to scatter the seeds off astra- 


, 
- 
r 
; np, i 
ae he 


151 


Miscellaneous. 


galus or other leguminous crop on the 
wet ground before the paddy is cut. 


Such are the characteristics of old- 
time Japanese agriculture—economy of 
space, careful tillage and utilisation of 
all available material as manure. It is 
not surprising that the produce is large. 
The average produce of the rice fields is 
given as 3,075 bushels of husked rice 
weighing nearly 2,000 lb., and nearly 
one-third of this land grew a second crop 
of wheat averaging 22 bushels or of 
rape. In the uplands figures of outturn 
are not so instructive as mixed crops, 
and second crops are the rule, but the 
average yield of wheat grown on ridges 
20 inches apart, with another crop be- 
tween them is given as 21°‘8 bushels or 1°77 
lb., which compares well with average 
Indian produce. But Japanese states- 
men for some part have seen that the 
conditions of agriculture must be modi- 
fied to suit the new conditions of the 
country. Population increased between 
1895 and 1905 by 18 per cent., but the 
cultivated area during the same period 
increased only by 35per cent., and but 
little further increase is possible. As 
the author says, ‘‘ methods and practices 
suitable for a stationary population, and 
a self-contained country do not suffice 
for a progressive nation where continued 
and rapid advances are essential if in- 
telligent productivity is to keep pace 
with competitors. The methods adopted 
show that, as usual with these alert 
statesmen, they searched the world for 
the most fruitful ideas on the develop- 
ment both of farmimg and of the farmer ; 
America and Germany, as might be ex- 
pected, seem to have supplied most of 
the new ideas both as regards education, 
State assistance, and organisation. As 
in these countries the Government has 
assisted notin one but in many ways, 
by the establishment of a comprehensive 
and expert Agricultural Department 
under a Minister for Agriculture and 
Commerce, which studies the agriculture 
and agricultural systems of the world, 
and applies the results to Japan through 
its various agencies; by wide and con- 
tinuous inquiry and experiments in ex- 
perimental stations scattered over the 
country ; by the educative examples and 
teaching provided in the farms, gardens, 
libraries, ete., of these stations for the 
adult peasant; by education, through 
the medium of agricultural schools which 
cover the country, and through the 
lectures and teachings liberally provided 
in the villages; by the chain of Agricul- 
tural Associations of every grade from 
the Prefecture to the village, for finance 
education or mutual assistance and sup- 
port; by the support given to financial 


Miscellaneous. 


institutions, such as banks, credit asso- 
ciations, ete. ; by direct financial aid and 
by various legislative and executive 
stimuli.” All these aids are in active 
operation, and their effects are becoming 
obvious in many ways, What lessons 
can we, in India, learn from them? In 
most directions in this country a begin- 
ning has been made, but inevery matter 
we are yet on the threshold of progress. 
In spite of the urgent need for restoring 
to the land the cattle manure now con- 
sumed as fuel, very little has yet been 
done to encourage plantation. Agri- 
cultural education is yet in its infancy. 
Besides the Agricultural School at Cawn- 
pore, lately raised to the status of a Col- 
lege, there is no institution in the 
United Provinces where special instruc- 
tion in agriculture can be obtained. 
The Department of Agriculture is in pro- 
cess of expansion, but is still much too 
weak for the mainfold functions expected 
of it. Till recently there was but one 
agricultural experimental station—also 
at Cawnpore—now there are four, and 
others are in process of being establish- 
ed, and useful experiments are being 
carried on. Measures have been recently 
taken to encourage associations for co- 
operative credit and co-operative supply 
of good seed. Operations in these direc- 
tions will expand, and in course of time 
their influence will be felt, but in every 
country the conservatism of the farmer, 
relying as he does on generations of 
experience, is proverbial, and India is 
no exception to the rule. The cultivator 
is slow to adopt new methods, imple- 
ments and materials even if their 
efficacy is proved. Could not new ideas 
be introduced by agricultural associa- 
tions formed as in Japan for the pro- 
vince, for the district, the tahsil and the 
village, all connected with each other 
and inter-dependent? As Mr. Plunkett 
said in recommending the formation of 
similar associations in Ireland, ‘‘I wish 
to call your attention to another and 
very important aspect of local organisa- 
tion. While people differ as to the 
possible increased production which 
would result from improved husbandry, 
it is generally admitted that the soil of 
Ireland does not produce anything like 
what it ought to produce. An opinion 
prevails that the desired reform in our 
agricultural methods will follow upon 
the establishment of an Agricultural 
Department, of which I shall speak 
presently. NowI havea strong belief, 
based upon a cosiderable amount of 
observation, that no means of improving 
the methods of farmers will beof any 
great utility, so long asacentral body 
tries to work upon unorganised indivi- 
dual farmers. House-to-house work 


152 


: 


[Aveust, 1908, 
with this object is slow, laborious, and 
utterly ineffectual. Habit exercises a 
predominant influence which no amount 
of misson work can overcome. When, 
on the other hand, the iudividuals 
are organised into societies, then the 
latter form an easy channel for the 
dissemination of information and a 
lever for the enforcement of better — 
methods. And, in addition to this fact, ~ 
you will find that in such an association 
the advance thinkers come to the front, 
and that the others follow them—the 
whole process resulting in the triumph 
of intelligence and progressiveness over ; 
habit.” And this is at least as true of — 
India as itis of Ireland. In Japan the 
institution of these associations is an 
accomplished fact. The village associa- 
tion is formed by consent of two-thirds 
of the persons qualified to join it, 7.e., 
all landowners and occupiers, and when 
once formed all persons qualified to join 
must become members. A typical asso- 
ciation is described by the author. It 
has 500 members, and an income of 
Rs. 777. The headman of the village is 
president, and the paid employé isan ~ 
expert on Rs. 180, an assistant expert on _ 
Rs. 60, a secretary on Rs. 45 per annum, ~ 
Some of the work done by it is as — 
follows :—‘ Preparation of statisticaland — 
economic report of the village of which — 
200 copies were printed and distributed; 
the provision of four temporary agri- 4 
cultural classes attended by 33 men, and ~ 
the despatch of a student to learn about 6 
noxious insects, the provision of agri- — 
cultural lectures; the award of honour, ry 
and prizes to successful farmers; the ~ 
grant of rewards to persons, especially — 
school boys most successful in destroying — 
noxious insects; the co-operative pur- — 
chase of manures; the protection of 
useful birds ; the establishment of — 
more compost heaps; distribution of 
seeds, plants and eggs to farmers 
and to school boys; the purchase and — 
distribution of seed, the disinfection of 
silkworm sheds; the establishment of — 
amulberry farm; the award of prizes” 
such as implements, fans, ete., for field” 
competitions (not samples) of four kinds— ~ 


The prefectural 
associations elect deputies who form a 
Standing Committee or Central Agric 
tural Council. There is thus a chain 
associations, the lowest link of which 


ee 


- Avaust, 1908.] 


gets down to the individual cultivator, 
and so the whole country is being per- 
meated with new ideas and stimulated 
to new action. The village associations 
are financed entirely by the cultivators 
themselves. The district associations 
are assisted both by imperial and local 
funds. but the total amount spent on 
them from these sources in 1905 was only 
1:42 lakhs and 3°45 lakhs respectively. 
“The object of Government,” Sir FE. 
Nicholson says, “is gradually to shift 
the work of agricultural development 
from the shoulders of the Government 
to those of the people themselves, recog- 
nising that itis not that which is done 
for the people, but that which is done 
by the people that is truly beneficial, 
and that real progress can come only 
from within. This is a proposition of 
universal application, and more espe- 
cially in India where the tendency of a 
bureaucratic Government is to work 


- Independently of the people, it requires 


to be constantly borne in mind. As yet 
perhaps primary education is not so 
widely diffused in India, nor has it a 
sufficiently practical bent as to admit of 
the general establishment of village 


- associations, but a real attempt might 


be made to found them in some of the 
more advanced districts where the 
spread of primary education among the 
agricultural population affords the best 
hope of success.—Indian Agriculturist, 


Vol. XXXITII., Caleutta, May, 1908 No. 5. 


/ 


THE SCHOLARS’ GARDEN AND 
WHAT WAS DONE WITH IT. 


By A. C. NEATE, 
Late Melbourne Botanic Gardens. 


When visiting the A. N. A. Exhibi- 
tion in February, 1901, we inquired 
into the subject of school gardens in 
Victoria, and were afforded some inter- 
esting information on the matter by 
Mr. Ambrose C. Neate, for many years 
associated with Mr. Guilfoyle, the 
Curator of the Melbourne Botanic Gar- 
dens. Mr. Neate writes, enclosing a 
letter from two young horticulturists, 
“Frank and Florrie,” who appear to 
have profited greatly by his instruction. 
He says :— 


“The accompanying sketch of the 
‘Scholars’ Garden, &c.,” is in the main 
Outcome of a talk—a while back—with a 
large gathering of both lads and lassies of 
from eleven to fourteen years of age, in 
one of the public schools here; and, 
though delivered in this conversational 
form, with a view to eliciting responses 


20 


pars 


153 


Miscellaneous. 


trom the young people, this object was 
the more certainly attained, because the 
writer exhibited during the talk quite a 
score of (Vick’s New York) coloured 
plates of well-formed garden flowers, 
on which also remarks were made and 
questions asked. 


“The interest seemed to be so well 
maintained during the three-quarters of 
an hour’s converse, and proved what has 
long been testified by others, that the 
love of flowers is inherent, and only 
needs a little encouragement to prove 
it a welcome aid to Christian conduct 
with associated education both in the 
public schools and ‘home’ life of our 
boys and girls. 


‘If you would approve further notes, 
they (Part II.) will be sent, say, as 
now, for the perusal of the Queensland 
cousins of ‘Flora’ and ‘Frank,’ as to 
the operations likely to be entered upon 
after the summer heat has vanished, and 
in preparation thereafter until spring 
time approaches. 


* These noteg will be partially sug- 
gestive, or. at any rate, they will be 
perused (in part from my original jot- 
tings) to show sympathy with the young 
people as to gardening pastimes, linked 
with and leading up to their personal 
interests in floriculture generally; and, 
where possible, associated with such 
encouragement as may (will ?) ‘be forth- 
coming in connection with their very 
own school garden. 


“THE SCHOLARS’ GARDEN AND WHAT 
WAS DONE WITH IT. 


Part I. 


‘“ The Character of Our Ground .—It 
comprises the family home, and has a 
garden plot in front and at the side, 
with a spare piece at the back; the soil 
is sandy loam, about 18 inches deep, 
with a clay subsoil. 


‘“My father said that my brother and 
myself might have a piece which is near 
the ferce—about 36 feetlong by 12 feet 
wide, witha partly sunny aspect—buton 
condition that it shall contain not only 
pretty flowering shrubs, but be also 
plentifully stocked with annuals and 
perennials in season, and that it must be 
kept clean and quite free from weeds ; and 
further, that we may have all the spare 
water available for the summer time 
with supplementary helpfrom the hose 
and water taps when necessary. 


‘““Well, about Our Commencement.— 
We had some trouble as to the plan, 
and asked father’s advice. He at once 
marked out the ground for us, and 
gave us a good cheery young gardener 


Miscellaneous. 


for a whole day to dig over the plot, and 
level it just nicely so as to leave us 
but little to do besides putting in the 
plants and seeds; also a good supply of 
cuttings; and as there was still fully 
two hours’ time after digging, the gar- 
dener gave us much useful help and 
guidance as to our little plantation and 
its future possibilities. I must not for- 
get to say we were fortunate in this our 
first garden to have init at regular dis- 
tances—standing well back—a fig tree, an 
apricot, loquat, anda pomegranate, all 
of which are, the gardener says, sure to 
give a nice lot of fruit next season, quite 
as acceptable in their way as the flowers 
of the other plants will be. We then 
planted a number of roses, which father 
gave us, and this proved sufficient for 
our first day’s efforts in our very own 
little garden. Afterwards, during a 
whole week we made quite a large addi- 
tion of plants, which were given to my 
brother or myself by friends of our 
father’s from their pretty gardens at St. 
Kilda and Camberwell. These plants 
were of the following kinds :—Geraniums 
in vaviety, daisies (pretty pink ones), 
carnations, perennial phloxes, violets, 
hydrangeas, echeverias (various kinds). 
and some cuttings of three or four kinds 
of climbing pelargoniums, twelve kinds 
of roses (cuttings), anda good many 
other things, such as veronicas, blue, 
silvery-leaved, and mauve-flowered ; also 
a supply of seeds of asters, phloxes, 
zinnias, and linarias for sowing in the 
spring. 


“The way we put in the roses and 
other shrubby plants was at distances of 
about 4 feet apart, and standing well 
backin the bed; then we _ planted the 
smaller growing (dwarf) plants in the 
front of the border; some of these were 
verbenas, oxalis, cowslips, primroses, and 
here and there a pretty blue pentstemon, 
and a nice little set of a pink-flowered 
plant called by the gardener Heuchera 
sanguinea ; whilst in the front we made— 
it multiplies very quickly-—a pretty moss- 
like edging, rich emerald green, and we 
found it most suitable ; we may add, too, 
that it was much admired by our 
visitors. Its name is, so father told us, 
Spergula pilifera. When one treads on 
this, it is as if the feet would sink in its 
pile carpet-like cushioning. It likes the 
shade to some extent, and stands a 
rather limited supply of sunshine; but 
it must have, we find,a fairamount of 
water put on inthe evening asa matter 
of necessity to save sun-scorching. 


“Tmayadd that, in addition to the 
climbing roses and pelargoniums for the 
fence at the back of our plot, we added 
two or three passion fruit plants, some 
Tecomas (McKenii and Jasminoides), 


154 


also a few of Coboea scandens (which we — 
first raised from seedin a pot). The 
passion fruit climbers we raised from 
seed out of a small purchase of this fruit 
in a Glenferris road produce shop. 


So far as we have gone with our little 
garden, father says, we have made a 
good deal of progress—everything now 
for the past two or three months has 
done very well, indeed; and he added, as 
he kindly tied up some of our climbers 
against the wire netting and trellis work 
that, if we waited patiently, the shelter 
given by the climbers against the strong 
winds both hot and cold would, with our 
care in other respects, give a good show 
of colour as varied as the rainbow from 
the many flowers now growing so well, 
andenable us to not only supply the 
house or a friend now andagain witha ~ 
choice supply of blooms, but also to give — 
us some very practical knowledge, of 
which, as to many plants and flowers, 
both my brother Frank and myself 
(Flora) were quite ignorant at the 
commencement of our pleasant work of 
partnership as amateur horticulturists 
in our spare time, principally either 
before or after school hours. And we 
found that we enjoyed both our meals 
and nightly rest the better, tosay but 
little of the improved interest we took 
in our lessons, and the outcome in every 
way proved satisfactory, so our father 
and mother, also our many friends, tell 
us. Anyway, a good many of our fellow 
scholars come to see the garden fre- 
quently, and we know that some of them 
think of doing their share of flower eul- — 
ture, too, in their own ground, with the 
hope of doing as well or better than we 
did. Of course, we wish them success, 
but they will haveto work hard to do 
even as wellas we have done; at least 
we believe so from our successes, to say 
nothing of our many failures, for which, — 
of course, father says (with a twinkle in — 
his eye) we are at liberty to blame the — 
climate! Well, we think he is right, for — 
the terribly hot summer we have been ~ 
suffering from for many weeks past has © 
also told badly on other gardens than 
ourownall over the suburbs of Melbourne. © 


‘We commenced our little Malvern” 
early last spring (September), and we are 
still enduring our summer (February), 
being thankful that on the whole our 
floral treasures have mostly survived 
and thriven, because (in addition to one 
or two welcome downpours of rain) the 
demand for extra care has not been 
denied our much-loved little garden by 
my ever helpful brother and myself.— 
‘Krank and Flora.’ “ag 


“P.S.—As soon as we can get shade 
enough from the climbers, which wil 


O 


* Avavst, 1908. ] i 

A eartiatty cover the summer house the 
carpenter has made, mother and father, 
ourselves, and friends will often read, 
talk, or rest there in full view of our 
floral success.—‘ F’, and F.’”—Queensland 
Agricultural Journal, Vol. XX,, Part 
4, April, 1908. 


\ 


THE AGRICULTURAL CONFERENCE 
AT AHMEDABAD IN NOVEMBER, 
1907. 
By HarRoup H. Mann, D.Sc., 
Principal, Agricultural College, Poona. 


Provincial Conferences in India for the 
discussion of agricultural matters are 
 eomparatively new and their utility is 
_ disputed. Many believe that they can 
serve no useful purpose and lead to 
little else than impracticable and 
irrelevant talk. The Ahmedabad Con- 
_ ference gave me an opportunity of judg- 
ing whether such an _ opinion could 
usually be justified. 


THE CONFERENCE. 


The Conference was presided over by 
_ the Senior Member of the Governor's 
~ Councilin the Bombay Presidency (Mr. 
_ J. W. P. Muir-Mackenzie), and contained 
representatives from nearly every in- 
terest in the province which had even a 
remote connection with the culture of 
_ the land. It comprised merchants and 
i millowners from Bombay and Ahmeda- 
bad, upon whom a large part of the 
- cotton growers of Western India depend 
for their market; exporters of cotton 
or other produce whose agents penetrate 
- into every corner of the province; land- 
& owners, large and small, from Gujerat, 
- Kathiawar, the Deccan, and even from 
if ‘Kanara and the Southern Mahratta 
i. country; representatives from local 
Agricultural Associations and genuine 
_ agriculturists—actual tillers of the soil. 
’ The agricultural needs of particular 
Es localities were clearly defined, and the 
Bee vion showed what were the real 
difficulties of the cultivators. They, 
_ moreover, indicated many lines in which 
the Department of Agriculture might 
Pe: of direct and immediate use to the 
agricultural interest. I came away 
_ feeling that, for me at any rate, the 
- Conference had furnished much food for 
_ reflection and basis for action. 


In this article I shall merely discuss 
one or two matters that were brought 
_ before the Conference, and indicate some 

conclusions to which I have come, after 
a careful consideration of what passed 
cies combined with independent infor- 
_ mation. I am hopeful that such a 


5 Miscellaneous. 


statement will induce some of those 
who may not be in accord with my con- 
clusions to indicate in a future number 
of the Journal their reasons for coming 
to acontrary opinion. 


COTTON, 


On the first day the very important 
discussion on the improvement of cotton 
completely overshadowed other pro- 
ceedings. It was complained that the 
efforts of the Agricultural Department 
in this direction were painfully slow, 
and that little result had been obtained 
after a good many years of experiment. 
Doubt was expressed, moreover, as to 
the possibility of maintaining the purity 
and hence the quality of any new 
variety or type of seed that may he 
introduced. It was further stated that 
there had been great difficulty in getting 
manufacturers to give a fair price for 
small quantities of an improved staple, 
and that cultivators were, therefore, 
discouraged from growing new kinds. 
The manufacturers complained that they 
had no means of knowing where and 
when improved staples were being 
actually cultivated. 


Round these points the whole discus- 
sion ranged. Mr. Gammie was able to 
give a complete answer to the complaint 
regarding the slowness in the production 
of improved types. In Bombay the 
false method of ‘‘ field to field” selection 
was adopted and proved a failure many 
years ago. This might have been anti- 
cipated, since in many districts the best 
fields then contained, as they do now, 
a very complex mixture of different 
types of cotton, and these types them- 
selves consist of good, bad and indif- 
ferent plants. Mr. Gammie stated that 
he had found it necessary, before even 
beginning the systematic selection and 
crossing of cottons on any large scale, to 
obtain, examine in detail, and define the 
very numerous varieties of cotton in the 
Bombay Presidency. This had taken 
years. Then selection and crossing were 
begun, and now there was a prospect 
that after next year some of the new 
varieties which have been produced 
could be distributed for experiment on a 
fairly large scale. 


Neither Mr. Gammie nor any speaker 
at the Conference mentioned a difficulty 
which must follow as soon as im- 
proved stocks are brought into general 
use. Thisis the necessity for continu- 
ing the selection continually, for if this 
is not done, reversion to the average 
characters of the type from which they 
are produced will inevitably occur. 
Nearly all plants are apt to deteriorate 
in this country. An improved cotton 
hybrid will speedily degenerate unless its 


‘ 
Ss SS 


Sa eS eae an ee ee 


Miscellaneous. 156 


stindard of quality and productiveness 
is maintained or improved by continual 
selection. 


In other countries the difficulty is got 
over, in a measure, by the existence of 
professional seed growers, who are selec- 
tors—in general—to the community. A 
farmer may use his own seed repeatedly, 
but ultimately he goes elsewhere for it, 
and obtains it, directly or indirectly, 
from a special seed merchant, Here in 
India we have no _ professional seed 
growers on a large scale. For exotic 
crops the usual remedy is to import 
fresh seed at frequent intervals. 


For indigenous crops which can be 
easily selected, like Jowar, the culti- 
vators have, in many places, done the 
selection themselves. But for crops like 
eotton, where the seed cannot usually 
be imported every year, and where the 
selection, plant by plant, not only for 
staple, but also for percentage of lint, 
for weight of crop per plant, and so on, 
is difficult, selection is by no means 
generally carried out. 


There are only two remedies so far as 
I can see. One of these is to train 
cultivators in cotton seed selection by 
means of frequent short courses at the 
experimental farms, or similar short 
courses in their own villages; the other 
is for Provincial Governments either to 
organise seed farms themselves on a 
considerable scale, or give expert assis- 
tance to outside capitalists who may be 
induced to become seed growers on a 
commercial scale. The first method is 
admirable as faras it goes. I feel that 
too much cannot be made of its impor- 
tance. But it is slow in action. It is 
necessary not only to teach how to 
select, but to make the cultivators 
realise the importance of selection. 


A number of speakers at the Con- 
ference emphasised the fact that dete- 
rioration of cotton, due to admixture of 
varieties, was largely caused by the ex- 
tension of steam ginning factories. The 
general opinion was that pure types of 
cotton could not be maintained in these 
districts, where mixed types are grown, 
if cultivators depend upon ginning 
factories for their seed. Steam gins are 
usually so arranged, that without very 
elaborate care it is practically impossi- 
ble to give back unmixed to cultivators 
of small holdings their own seed. Large 
cultivators can arrange so that several 
gins and the adjoining floor space ina 
factory can be cleaned out before their 
cotton is put in. Thus, there isa fair 
chance that they can get back their own 
seed reasonably pure. There was a 
decided feeling at the Conference that it 
would be well for the cotton industry of 


[AveusT, 1908, 


any district if we could get back to the 
system of hand-ginning which has almost 
entirely died out, or failing this, if pure 
types of cotton were ginned under the 
direct supervision of officers of the 
Agricultural Department, or by genuine 
seed merchants. 


It seems necessary, therefore, that a 
system ofseed growing and ginning for 
sale must be part of the organisation of 
the cotton industry if real improvement 
is to take place. The same reasoning 
applies equally to any other agricultural 
crop in which selection cannot be made 
with considerable ease. In this article 
it is out of place for me to describe fully 
the requirements for seed growing, but 
alternative methods might be suggested 
as follows :— 


I. Should Government initiate large 
seed farms ? 


If. Should selected cultivators be 
subsidised and their work con- 
trolled or guided by trained men 
of the Agricultural Department ? 


III. Can outside capitalists be in- 
duced to take over such large seed 
farms as are initiated by Govern- 
ment and extend them as a speci- 
alized Indian industry? These 
suggestions demand careful con- 
sideration, and a criticism by 
practical men of their advantages 
or disadvantages would doubtless — 
be welcomed by the Agricultural — 
Department. 


There was a good deal of animated — 
discussion at the Conference as to the 
means of securing a faiv price for im- 
proved cottons. Many of these better 
types are recognised as being more 
difficult to grow; a longer staple usually 
means a longer growing season; often — 
the percentage of lint to seed is lower; 
and it is only if the cotton obtains a 
distinctly higher price in the market — 
that it will pay to grow the better 
variety. On the other hand, it was 
urged on behalf of the manufacturers 
that small quantities, though recognised 
as being superior, were nouse to them. 
Unless at least five bales* are marked 
together, they could not give a better 
price. Now, five bales of cotton are usu 
ally beyond a single cultivator’s power 
to produce. So that till a considerable 
area is under an improved cotton, no 
better price is obtainable. The difficulty 
is considerable. The cultivator says: 
“Unless you give me better price for 
my lint, I cannot grow the improved — 
cotton.” The manufacturer replies; 


*This amount was mentioned as their mini 
mum by the millowners of Ahmedabad, 


~Aveust, 1908: | 


“Unless you give me atleast five bales, 
I cannot give a better price.” 


This difficulty has been got over in 
the case of HKgyptain cotton in Sind, 
by the establishment of a public auction 
at Mirpurkhas, where all the small 
quantities of cotton can be auctioned 
together. The extension of this method 
in other parts where improved cottons 
are introduced, is one way out of the 
difficulty, if it is found feasible. Other- 
wise the only method seems to be for 
Government or others to arrange tem- 
porarily for combined marketing. It 
was also suggested that a fund should 
be raised by the trade, to be aided from 
the money placed in the hands of the 
Government by the British Cotton Grow- 
ing Association, to be given as a bonus 
to cultivators growing improved cotton. 
This might be possible, but I am not 
very sanguine, 


Another proposal came fromthe mill- 
owners of Ahmedabad, that a sample 
room (which they were willing to pro- 
vide) should beopened at Ahmedabad 
where all the improved cottons could 

‘be on view, and data given as to where 
they were being grown. If this infor- 
mation was in their hands, they could 
send their agents to the places where the 
cotton was being grown, and purchase 
various lots themselves on the spot. The 
suggestion appears to be a very practical 
one. The required samples should con- 
sist of at least ten pounds of cotton lint, 
and be renewed as needed, and should be 
freely open to public inspection. If such 
a sample room were opened, and well 
managed, it would at least enable buyers 
to collect from the growers sufficient 

' quantity for practical trade trials. 


Such are the principal points of the dis- 
cussion on the improvement of cotton. 
The questions of the maintenance of an 
improved stock, of the prevention of 
mixture with inferior varieties at the 
gins, and of the marketing of small 
quantities of improved cotton seem to 
have perhaps those of the first impor- 
tance. Whether any of the suggestions 
I have recapitulated or made are suffici- 
ent to deal with, these undoubted 
difficulties can only be decided in the 
future. But they certainly give a basis 
for action, and action of some kind will 
certainly be necessary, by one more of 
the parties concerned, if these very 
real difficulties are to be solved. 


AGRICULTURAL ASSOCIATIONS. 


Just asthe question of the improve- 
ment of cotton was the chief matter for 
discussion on the first day at the Ahme- 
dabad Conference, so on the second day 
the most interesting and profitable time 
was given to the question of the functions 


157 


Miscellaneous: 


and best method of the working of agri- 
cultural associations. 


It may be well to preface an account 
of the principal points in the discussion 
by saying that there are not as yet any 
number of such associations in the Bom- 
bay Preisdency. Three district agri- 
cultural associations exist at present. 
These are at Ahmedabad, Dharwar, and 
Broach, and there are a number of 
smaller associations organised in talukas 
in Gujerat and the Deccan. But, gener- 
ally speaking, the idea has not yet taken 
root, and the work which the associ- 
ations are todo, has not hitherto been 
very clearly understood or defined. 


CO-OPERATIVE BANKS. 


In attempting to consider, in the light 
of what was said at Ahmedabad, the 
probable line of most useful develop- 
ment of what I may call co-operative 
associations for the improvement of 
agricultural methods and practices, it 
was striking to observe how unanimous 
the speakers were as _ to the necessity of 
building up from the smaller units to 
the greater, that is to say, from the 
village association (where possible) to 
that at taluka, and from the latter to one 
extending its services to the whole of a 
district. This position was stated by 
men from Gujerat, from the Deccan, and 
from the south of the Presidency, The 
opinion was, in fact, the echo of what 
has been found in almost all, if not in all, 
efforts of every kind to benefit agricul- 
turists everywhere, including co-oper- 
ative banking. In respect to the latter, 
the most recent writer says :—‘‘ Organise 
downwards from the top, and in such 
matters you are bound to fail. Organise 
upwards from below, and, if only you 
are judicious in your measures, you will 
succeed.” I am confident that this is 
the right method, and that the attempt 
to form a central agricultural association, 
whose existence shall afterwards induce 
the formation of smaller local and village 
associations, is usually bound to fail. 


CONSTITUTION AND FUNCTIONS OF 
DRANCH ASSOCIATIONS. 


_Several speakers insisted on the neces- 
sity of not pressing the formation of 
local associations with any semblance 
of aGovernment order. If local ideas 
are largely inflnenced by official opinion, 
we may have again, at once, all the evil- 
effect of building from above. A body 
of men who unite for any purpose by 
instruction, or even apparently by 
instruction, trom a superior authority, 
will also limit their activity tothe fur- 
ther instruction received. I am con- 
fident again that the speakers were 
right in this matter, and that, unless 
the people feel it is a co-operative and 
not an Cfficial effort, little or no develop- 


Miscellaneous. 


ment of useful functions will take place, 
In this connection, as a result of a con- 
versation I had with the representatives 
of existing associations, I would be in- 
elined to doubt whether the regular 
appointment of a Government officer, 
especially a revenue officer, as chairman, 
is wise if the organisation is to succeed. 
It is all a question of personality. In 
some eases, the Mamlatdar in the case of 
the smaller bodies, or the collector in the 
ease of the larger, will be naturally the 
leader; in others, he will always he sus- 
pected, and the association will be 
still-born. I am aware that the appoint- 
ment of these men as officers to corres- 
pond with the Department of Agricul- 
ture is usually very advantageous. 
They are accustomed to such corres- 
pondence, and their representations are 
more easily understood and perhaps carry 
more weight. But if we really mean the 
local associations to fulfil their primary 
purpose in improving the agriculture of 
the villages, this advantage must, where 
necessary, be at least partly sacrificed. 
A suggestion was made at the Con- 
ference that, where such still existed, 
the village organisation should itself 
become the agricultural association. 
No new name would be imposed, no 
sense of strangeness would be felt, only 
that this organisation would be asked 
to fulfil some extra purposes. “That 
would be a more natural procedure to 
adopt,” said Mr. Wood, *‘ than to create 
some new bodies, impose upon them 
occidental names, and put before them 
long sheets of printed bye-laws.” The 
idea seems an admirable one, but in any 
case, as is at once obvious, ‘‘the long 
sheet of printed bye-laws” would be 
fatal to an agricultural association or 
to anything else in Indian village life. 
There seems a good deal to be said for 


the suggestion, also made at the Con- . 


ference, to let the formation of agri- 
cultural associations follow the intro- 
duction of co-operative credit societies. 
The latter introduce the idea of co-oper- 
ation under a regular inspection, and once 
such a society is successful in a place, 
the people will be ready fora further 
development of the idea. This has been 
even more recently emphasised by Mr. 
Stanley Reed of Bombay in a paper read 
at the Indian Industrial Conference at 
Surat. Hesaid:—‘‘At a recent Con- 
ference at Ahmedabad a decided pre- 
ference was expressed for village, or 
at most taluka, associations. I would 
only say that this is one of those ques- 
tions in which it is desirable to hasten 
slowly, and if it beagreed thata start 
should be made with village societies, 
those villages should be selected where 
theco-operative credit movement has 
taken the firmest root.” 


158 


Oe my 4 


ee 
he 


fAvarst, 1908, 


Regarding the organisation of agri-: — 
cultural associations, we have, then, in 
summary the following points :— 


(1) The unit of organisation should 
be as small as possible, a village by. pre- 
ference, but where this is impossible, a 
taluka. 


(2) The organisation should nut be 
forced, and should have as little as pos- 
sible of the Government order about it. 


(3) While officially patronised, its 
organisation should be essentially popu- 
lar and co-operative. 


(4) Existing villageorganisation should 
be used, wherever possible, rather than 
have the introduction of a new body 
with a new name. 


(5) Co-operative credit societies, firmly 
rooted, are the best introduction to an 
agricultural association. 


Turning now from the organisation to 
the functions of an agricultural asso- - 
ciation, it was universally recognised at 
Ahmedabad that they must be solely — 
agricultural if they are to do their best 
work. The improvement of agricultural 
methods was seen to be as much as an 
association was capable of dealing with. 
And if this be the case, perhaps the most 
important function of the local organisa- 
tion is to keep the central body, which 
stands for the improvement of agricul- 
ture in the whole province, i.e, the 
Department of Agriculture, in touch 
with the actual cultivators in the field. 
Here has been the weak point hitherto 
in the agricultural organisation of many 
Indian provinces, if not in most. One of 
the speakers particularly emphasised the 
présent lack of touch, in Gujerat atany — 
rate, betweenthe Agricultural Depart- — 
ment and the agriculturists. And the 
local agricultural association must he 
the link, if any is to exist. 


But here a difficulty arises. If the © 
local organisations are to be small, as — 
already recommended, the touch cannot — 
be maintained by correspondence: it must — 
be by the personal and frequent presence — 
of thoroughly syiupathetic officers of — 
the Department, who are themselves 
practical agriculturists. If correspon- ~ 
dence can be fully replaced by personal — 
presence, then I shall have better con- 
fidence in the success of agricultural 
associations as a means of agricultural 
development. The men who ean doit 
must be sons of the soil, be well educated 
in the science and practice of agriculture 
and be otherwise well chosen; the areas - 
they have to cover must be compara- 
tively small; they must be very keen on 
their work. Such men already exist in 
Bombay, and more will be producer 


An Rae PS ee TE ETE eee ee ee ‘ 


Ea tL ay 


< 


ea rte ee 


Avéust, 1908. 


_ when the Agricultural College at Poona 
is thoroughly established. Divisional 
Inspectors of the class above described 


will have, as part of their duties, the: 


function of bringing the local associa- 


_ tions into regular touch with the Depart- , 


ment. But ultimately more men than 


_. these will be required if the movement 


ft 


ty 


_ Imay be excused the term. 
must carry from show to show some 


is to be a thorough success, 
SHOWS AND DEMONSTRATIONS. 


Such a man, as I have described, as th® 
adviser of the local people, will, if he is 
the proper man forthe work, give just 
the impetus which is required to make a 
village or talukaassociation an actually 
working body. And with this impetus. 
the next step isto the organisation of 
agricultural shows and demonstrations of 
clearly known improvements. These 
two things should go hand inhand. The 
demonstrations, if successful, as they 


~ must be, would probably be an integral 
- part of the local show. Adequate prizes 


‘could be arranged for produce, for stand- 


- ing crops and for animals, and so givea 
spirit of emulation among the people. 


The special officer of the Department, 
whom I have described, must be present, 
and demonstrate the demonstrations, if 
Further, he 


- machine, within the capacity of a culti- 


vator or a village association, which 


- would, from his own personal and _ inti- 


\ 


They would themselves do 


-_ mate knowledge, be an improvement on 


the system. in vogue on that countryside. 


These shows would be very local, the 


more local the better in many respects. 
good as 
shows, but they would be even better as 


a means of oringing actual improve- 
- ments to the door and notice of the 
cultivators. 
_ Jarger and more elaborate shows at im- 


They would not replace the 
s portant centres, but they would have a 
function, an important function. Of 

them the localagricultural association is, 


_ however, asit were, the foundations tone. 


SPECIFIC IMPROVEMENTS. 


A good many speakers at the Confer- 
ence emphasised the importance of 
short courses in specific improvements 
which should be given at the experi- 
mental farms or elsewhere. It would 
be probably impossible to arrange for 
these directly in connection with samller 


associations, but these latter could and 
would select the men 


who would be 
most likely to profit by them, and send 
them to a centre for the purpose. 
_ Beyond this such local associations 
havea larger number of useful functions, 
many of which were indicated at Ahme- 
dabad. They give (generally through 
‘the Divisional Inspector or the more 
numerous men who will replace him) 


6 


159 


Miscetlaneoris. 


intimation of a plant disease or an insect 
pest, and indicate that they want help. 
They select the best men to whom new 
seed, hew manures, and new implements 
aresentfor demonstration. They report 
difficulties through deterioration of 
land, which can then be closely investi- 
gated. They are the body to whom agri- 
cultural information is sent, whether pub- 
lished in the furm of vernacular leaflets 
or through a vernacular press. And, in 
general, they form, as I have said above, 
the link between the Department and 
the people. 


This, on the whole, is how I interpret 
the trend and meaning of the opinions 
yxpressed at the Ahmedabad Confer- 
ence. There was much enthusiasm, an 
enthusiasm which should, I think. be 
utilised. Many of the suggestions 
demand much elaboration and modifi- 
cation at the hand of the man who 
earries them out. The key, however, 
to a rapid progress of agricultural im- 
provement in Bombay Presidency lies, 
I was made to feel at the Conference, 
in the development of co-operative 
agricultural associations, together with 
the getting together of a body of advisers 
who can go from place to place, are 


thoroughly imbued with a_ belief 
in agricultural development, and 
are keen agriculturists themselves. 


The whole of this must be backed (and I 
think that fact is already realised) by 
consistent and constant scientific investi- 
gation into the difficulties, as they arise. 


In the present paper, I have only indi- 
eated, and more or less inadequately 
discussed, the two principal questions 
which formed the programme at the 
Ahmedabad Conference. Other impor- 
tant matters were raised, but their con- 
sideration was not thorough enough to 
inake it profitable to summarise the 
ideas that were expressed. Their dis- 
cussion on a more satisfactory basis will, 
no doubt, be taken up again at one of 
the future Conferences.—A gricultural 
Journal of India, Vol. III., Part 1, Janu- 
ary, 1908. 


TAUNGYA (CHENA) CUTTING. 


Taungya cutting, as I have seen it, 
would appear to fall roughly into four 
classes. 

The first of these, which is distinct from 
the other three, is the ordinary upland 
cultivation on land where ploughing is 
possible. The cultivator ploughs a piece 
of land, takes one or two crops off it and 
then lets it revert to grass land or scrub 
jungle for another six years or so. 
Except that the patches are not arranged 


Miscellaneous. i60 
systematically, and the period during 
which the land is allowed to lie fallow is 
long, the difference between this method 
of cultivation and agriculture as prac- 
tised in more civilised countries is not so 
striking. 


The growth of weeds is so much more 
rapid in Burma, that I doubt if the agri- 
cultural methods applicable at Home 
could effectually cope with them, so it 
would seem a necessity to allow the land 
to lie fallow for a certain period, so that 
weeds may be killed out bya crop of 
grass or woody plants. 


2. The other three classes comprise 
taungya cultivation where the nature 
of the ground does not admit of plough- 
ing and may be sub-divided as follows :— 


(a) Taungya cultivation where the 
taungya areas are_ fire-protected and 
worked under a fixed rotation. This 
method is largely practised in the Karen 
Hills and in the south-west of the 
Southern Shan States. 


(6) Taungya cultivation where the 
area is not fire-protected but a rotation 
of sorts is observed. 


(c) Taungya cultivation where there 
is neither fire-protection nor rotation, 
ae, taungya cultivation in its most 
primitive form. carried out for the most 
part in virgin forest. 

3. The attitude of the Forest Depart- 
ment is not unnaturally hostile to 
taungya cultivation in any shape or 
form, but the fact remains that, in 
the present state of their agricultural 
knowledge, taungya cultivation of some. 
description must be permitted to 
enable the various people in the 
hilly localities to live, and our various 
proposals to abolish it altogether in 
certain areas are generally viewed rather 
ube thotically by the powers that 

e. 

Till quite recently the efforts of the 
Forest Department to curtail the areas 
used by the taungya cutter were under- 
taken more in the interests of teak than 
with a view to the preservation of the 
forests for climatic reasons. In recent 
years, however, the question of protect- 
ing our forests for climatic reasons 
against the inroads of the taungya cutter 
has come prominently forward, and the 
authorities are less suspicious of our 
efforts in this direction than formerly 
they appeared to be. I would submit, 
however, that the attitude of the Forest 
Department is still too uncompromis- 
ingly hostile to the taungya cultivator. 
We are not inclined to recognise him as 
an evil that has to be tolerated. We 
strive to abolish him rather than to 
regulate his devastations. 


0 oe 


fAvGusi, 1908. 


4. To turn to the classification of 
taungya cultivation given above. The 
chief evilin the case of the first two 


‘groups (upland and _ fire-protected taun- 


gyas) is that the taungya areas, instead 
of being concentrated in one block, are 
scattered in small patches over huge 
areas, each patch being an unnecessarily 
large distance from that of the previous 
year and chosen unsystematically, the 
choice depending on the instinct or 
superstition of the taungya cutter. 
Thus where some 50 acres under a proper 
rotation are required by each individual 
taungya cutter, he probably scatters his 
yatches over ten times this area and 
acks away the intervening forest, 
partly to remove shade from his crops, 
partly on account of his irresistible 
propensity to hack atevery thing tree- 
like. Wereit not for their scattered 
nature upland cultivation and fire-pro- 
tected taungya cultivation would do 
comparatively little harm. 


5. Un-fire-protected taungya cultiva- 
tion, however, falls into a very different 
category from either of the above two 
groups and requires a much greater 
measure of control as much in the 
interests of the taungya cutters them- 
selves where they are confined to a res- 
tricted area as in the interests of the 
forests, where a fixed taungya rotation 
is adopted; if the areas to be cut over 
are not protected from being annually 
burnt, the soil deteriorates from year 
to year, the woody growth which is 
depended on for manure gets scantier 
and fails to protect the soil, so that the 
crops get poorer year by year and pro- 
bably in course of time the taungya 
areas become almost completely sterile. 


Taungya cultivation without a rota- 
tion need not be taken into consider- 
ation. There can be no question but 
that it should be stopped drastically. 


6. To properly regulate taungya culti- 
vation in unclassed areas is beyond the 
power of our present establishment. — 
We may have it stopped in certain areas; 
but this probably results in the areas not 
closed to taungya cutting being merci- 
lessly overworked. We may try to res-— 
trict the use of fire in the areas where 
taungya cutting is permitted by pro-- 
hibitory order; but even if the inhabi-— 
tants themselves were careful in the use 
of fire, the areas would be almost certain — 3 
to be burnt through carelessness of — 
passing wayfarers. 4 

Taungya cultivation in unclassed forest 
can‘in my opinion only be properly regu- 
lated by a settlement which allots to 


‘dl 


taungyas. 
take time and cost money; but the hill 


o 


AUGUST, 1908.] 


and forests and incidentally the people 
themselves, though they would not 
realise it at the time, would be bound to 
benefit by it. At settlement the area 
required by each village could be roughly 
marked out and a few simple rules pres- 
eribed. Above all, the fire-protection of 
the area allotted to each community 
should be insisted on and an endeavour 
should be made to gradually concentrate 
the cuttings of each year. Such areas 
should come under the care of the 
revenue authorities. The Forest Depart- 
ment would have enough on its hands 
looking after the areas of unclassed 
forests which were not subject to 
taungya cultivation. 


7. To turn to the question of areas 
inside reserved forests which are subject 
to taungya privileges, I think we 
could and should do something to re- 
gulate the operations of the taungya 
cutter. Itis the duty of the forester so 
to manage any forest burdened with 
rights, that it may be capable of yielding 
whatever produce the right-holder is 
entitled to, and even if taungya cultiva- 
tion is reckoned a privilege, subject to 
restriction or abolition at the stroke of 
a pen, I would submit that it behoves 
-usto attempt, as far as we can, to keep 
the areas subject to itin as fita state 
for the purpose of taungya cutting as 
possible. I would further submit that 
foresters of other countries would 
adversely criticise our methods if they 
realise that in some, atany rate, of the 
areas subject to taungya_ privileges 
inside our reserved forests taungya cul- 
tivation was allowed to continue in the 
old primeval manner in which it was 
practised in prehistroric times. 


-8. In the settlement proceedings of 
Certain reserves that were settled in 
Lower Burma some twenty or more years 
ago, areas allotted to each village for 
purposes of taungya cultivation were 
determined by multiplying the number 
of taungya cutters in the village by the 
_ average area in acres worked annually 
by each taungya cutter, multiplying the 
figure thus obtained by the average 
taungya rotation, and doubling the result 
to allow for areas unsuited for taungyas. 
The figure thus obtained was taken to 
represent in acres the area required by 
each community. The only restriction 
was that no teak was to be cut or 
injured in the taungya areas. In none 
of the areas, that I have experience of, 
was fire-protection compulsory, though 
of course fire-protection would have 
been insisted on had the fire-protection 
of the rest of the reserve been under- 
taken, and the annual fires have so 
reduced the fertility of the taungya 
areas, that each lorest Officer that visits 
21 


ee 
—— 


161 - Miscellaneous. 


the area has to listen to long grumb- 
lings about the inadequacy of their size. 
Whereas, if these areas were treated 
under any system or even flre-protected 
only, they would in all probability 
suffice to support double the population 
located on them. If certain taungya 
cultivators, such as the Karens in the 
Karen Hills, recognise that fire-protection 
is beneficial to their taungya areas, 
there can be no doubt that it must be 
beneficial. 


9. I would therefore suggest the 
following rules for areas subject to taun- 
gya privileges inside reserved forests :— 


(a) That the privilege-holders fire- 
protect the whole area allotted for 
taungya cultivation. 


(b) That they observe a fixed rotation 
for their taungyas. 


(c) That they gradually concentrate 
von taungyas for each year in one 
ock. 


(d) That when putting in a crop in the 
poorer part of their area where woody 
growth is scarce, they put in at intervals 
some quick-growing woody plants, e.g., 
the common taung kathit (&rythrina 
stricta) seems specially suitable, It 
thrives anywhere and everywhere, and 
has such an extraordinary vitality that 
apy cutting placed anyhow into the 
ground will probably grow. Such woody 
plants if put in wood protect the soiland 
serve asa useful manure at the next 
cutting. 


10. Somesuch regulations seem abso- 


lutely necessary where taungya cultiva- 
tion has to be permitted in reserves 
formed on high hills for the protection 
of the water-supply or for climatic 
reasons. The result of their application 
would cause the taungya areas to resem- 
ble to a certain extent a forest managed 
under a clear cutting system on a short 
rotation. If the areas are fire-protected 
the percentage of the soilexposed at a 
time would be much less than if they 
were not protected from fire, and the 
damage done by the taungya cutter 
would be reduced to a minimum. 


11. To prevent the regulations from 
becoming a dead letter orto enforce a 
taungya rotation on communities that 
have never observed one, the area sub- 
ject to taungya privileges could suitably 
be divided into a number of compart- 
ments of approximately equal area to 
correspond in number with the years of 
proposed taungya rotation, each com- 
perenne being demarcated by rough 

lazing, and the privilege-holders could 
each year choose which block they liked 
for their taungyas, provided they did 


Se ES ce 


i 5 


+2 
— 


ia Pha 5s ee ee 
Se a ek, ee ol 


Miscellaneous. 162 


not return to it till its turn came in the 
second rotation. Departmental fire- 
protection might be undertaken for the 
first few years to teach the people how 
to fire-protect their area. 


12. I have written the abovefor the 
purpose of eliciting information as to 
whether any attempt has ever been 
made to systematise taungya cultivation, 
andalso for favour of any suggestions 
that may be made. I am at present 
assisting at the settlement of an area of 
some 850 square miles with hills running 
to over 7,000 feet that is about to be 
reserved for climatic reasons. This area 
contains some 1,400 Palaungs, a race that 
cannot live at low levels. These Pa- 
laungs have to be provided with taungya 
areas inside this reserve. They have 
already done an incredible amount of 
damage, cutting without a rotation and 
in virgin forest by preference. The 
forests at the high altitudes were mostly 
pine, and taungya cutting has caused 
large patches to become treeless grass 
land which has materially affected the 
water-supply. 


If taungya areas are simply formed in 
the usual way without regulations being 
insisted on, I have little doubt that in at 
most another two decades the Palaungs 
would convert them into unproductive 
wastes incapable of supporting any 


population. 
H, W. A. WATSON, 
Deputy Conservator of Forests. 
Camp, Southern Shan States, 


15th February, 1908. 


—Indian Forester, Vol. XXXIV., No. 5, 
May, 1908. 


LITERATURE OF ECONOMIC 
BOTANY AND AGRICULTURE. 
XXXII. 
Rubber Cultiwation. 
DISEASES. 


Rot on Rubber. Str. Bull. 1903, p. 42. 
Moulds and Rubber. Petch, ‘‘T.A,” 
Jan. 1907, p. 9. 


Two rubber pests. Ridley. Str. Bull. 
Mar. 1908, p. 89. 


Report on diseased rubber trees for- 
warded from Perak. do. p. 90. 
' Rubber, Special, by genera. 


CASTILLOA. 
Morris, Santor Lectures on rubber, 
p. 
do British Honduras pp. 74, 80. 


Hooker and Dyer. Trans. Linn. Soc., 
Aug. 1886 


a J 7. 
1 een 
Ma TX C4 


{Auaust, 1908. 4 


Kew Bulletin, Dec. 1887. 
Seeligmann, Lamy, and Falconnet. 
Le Caoutchouc. 
Foreign Office Report 322 Mis. (Co- 
lombia) 1894. 
Foreign Office Report 885 Mis. (Mex- 
ico) 1895. 
Trinidad Bull. Aug. 1898, p. 115. 
“T.A.” Feb. 1883, Nov. 1884, Mar. 
1885. cay 
Trinidad Bull. Jan. 1899, p. 165. 
R. B. G. Circular. I. 11. 1899. 
Rubber in Guatemala. Ind. Mer., 
Apr. 1899. 
Kew Bull. 1899, p. 159, copied in 
Jam. Bull. 1900. 
Transportation of seeds. ‘‘T.A.” 
June 1900, p. 853. 
Sur un espéece nouvelle de Castilloa 
de Costa Rica. Rev. Cult. Col. VI 
1900, p. 302. 
Castilloa Tunu. Hemsley in Icones 
Plant. 2651, 1900. 
Die verschiedene Castilloa-sorten von 
Costa Rica. Tropenpfil. 5. 1901, 
p- 189. 
Castilloa australis Hemsley. Icones | 
Plant. 2676, 1901. 
Bons et mauvais Castilloas. Journ. 
d’Agr. trop. 1. 1901, pp. 17, 35. 
Kosechny. Die Kultur der Castilloa 
Kautschuk. Beih. zum Tropenpfi. — 
TI. 8. 1901, p. 119. 


Planting Castilloa in open pathways. — 
““T.A.” Nov. 1901, p. 342. 


Pittier. Le Castilloa Tunu: con- — 
tient-il du caoutchouec. Journ. 
d’ Agr. trop. 1. p. 99. & 

Sur ladureé du pouvoir germinatif — 
des graires de Castilloa. Rev. 
Cult. Col. Nov. 1901, p. 841. i 

Rubber planting in Costa Rica. — 
Koschny Trin. Bull. 1902, p. 406. f 

Une ferme a castilloa au Guatemala, 
Journ. d Agr. trop. 1902, p. 78. = 

Sur les caoutchoues au Rio Sinu. © 
Journ. d’Agr. trop. p. 124. ] 

Rendement du Castilloa au Costa — 
Rica. Journ. d’Agr. trop. p. 174. 

Bons et mauvais Castilloas. Hule 
liga du Guatemala. do. p. 190. q 

Seeds of Castilloa (keeping quality). 
Malay Bull. 1902, p. 318. of a 

Yield of Castilloa tree. Ind. Gard. 
16. 5. p. 441, 1908. q 

Cultivation of Castilloa in Java. Str. 
Bull. 1903, p. 105. } 


Yield of Castilloa tree, “T.A.” 1903, 


p. 843. 


‘+! 


‘Caucho and Castilloa Ulei 


AUGUST, 1908. | 


Experiments on the latex and rubber 


from Castilloa. Weber. Ind. For. 
29, p. 123. ‘ 
Growth in Matale district. ‘T.A.’ 


Apr. 19038, p. 698 

Castilloa in Mexico. Ind. Plant. and 
Gard. 1 Aug. 1903, p. 88 

Castilloa in the Kast. 
1904, p. 371. 

Exploring for Castilloa rubber in 
Panama. Ind. World. Dee. 1904— 
Feb, 1905. 

Rubber preparation and Castilloa 
rubber. Trin. Bull. 1904, p. 162, 
“TA.” Jan. 1905, p. 484 and after; 
has several papers. 


“T.A.” Dee. 


Warb. 
Esch in Ind. Journ. Nov. 1905, p. 48. 

Zur Castilloa-kultur. Tropenpfl. 9, 
1905, p. 690. 

Culture et rendement du Castilloa & 
Tacotalpa. Journ. d’Agr. trop. 31.8. 
1905, p. 245. 

Notes on the Castilloa rubber tree’ 
Jamaica Bull. IV. 1906, pp. 97, 172: 

popeciatien of Castilloa rubber. do 

pp. 9 

Die ieeIPnE und Kautschukgewin- 
nung von OCastilloa-arten. Zim- 
mermann. Der Pflanzer 21. 4. 1906, 
p- 81. seq. 

The cultivation of the Castilloa tree. 
Trop. Life, Nov. 1906, p. 163 


Gathering Castilloa rubber in Pana- 
ma. Ind. World, Apr. 1903, p. 238. 

The South American caucho tree 
identified. Ule (transtd.) Ind. 
World, May 1905, p. 259. 

A visit to rubber plantation in Nica- 
ragua. do. July 1905, p. 329 

Notes on the Castilloa rubber tree, 
do. Apr. 1906, p. 217, May, p. 255 

The introduction of Castilloa elastica 
oo the East. “T.A.” Sept. 1906, 

. 206. 

The culture of the Central anoles 
or Castilloa rubber tree. 
Sept. 1905, p. 416. 

The cultivation of the 
rubber tree. ‘T.A.” 
p. 363, July, p. 17. 

A Mexican Castilloa rubber planta- 
tion. “T.A.” Feb. 1906, p. 3. 


Hinige Erfahrungen uber den Anbau 
von Castilloa elastica. Tropenpfi. 
1906, p. 716. 

Castilloa rubber planting in Mexico. 
ee Seffer. Trop. Life 1907 (se- 


Castilloa 
June 1906, 


eS). 
Patera ad Une plantation de Cas- 
tilloa en Colombie. Journ. d’Agr. 
trop. 7, 1907, p. 46. 


163 


MNiscellaneous| 


Growth of Castilloa rubber in Mexico. 
Ind. World, Jan. 1907, p. 116 


Tapping Castilloa. do. 

Coagulation of Castilloa rubber. 
““T,A.” Mar. 1907, p. 185. 

Cultivation of rubber. 


Castilloa 

“TA.” July 1907, p. 3, 

Tapping Castilloa trees. p. 4. 

Castilloa rubber. “‘T.A.” April 1908. 
p. 300. 

Rubber planting in 
Central America. 
Singapore, 1907. 


Mexico and 
Olssun-Seffer, 


CEARA RUBBER.—See Manihot. 
ORYPTOSTEGIA. 


C. grandiflora.—Ind. Plant. 
23. 4, 1804, p. 288. 
Ficus. 
Wiederholte anzapfung von F’ elas- 
Lares Preyer in Tropenpfl. 4. 1900, 
p. 404. 


& Gard. 


Die Kautschukkultur auf der Pama- 
nukan und Tjiasem Landenin Java. 
do. p. 429. 

Les Ficus 4 caoutchoue Re oars Afrique 
du Nord. Rev. Cult. Col. 5. 11. 99. 
Der Milchsaft von F. ie Preyer 
Beih. zum Tropenpfl I. 1900, p. 24. 
Propagation du &. elastica par ‘‘ goo- 
tees.” Rev. Cult, Col. 1900, p. 533. 
Le latex du F. rubiginosa en Algerie. 

do. p. 6382. 

Charduar rubber plantations: result 
of tapping. ‘‘T.A.” 1901, p. 453, 

Le F. elastica en Annam, Bull. 
Indoch. 1901, p. 97. 

Boktorren uit F. elastica. 
mann. 

Pourquoi les Ficus d’Algiers ne don- 


nent pas du caoutchoue. Journ, 
d’ Agr. trop. I. 37. 


Ke 


Zimmer 


Gutta Rambong in Malacca. Str, 
Bull. I. 1901, p. 185. 
A study aa iba planting. “T.A.” 


1903, p. 8 
Der canes liefernde Feigenbaum 
von Neuealedonien (Ff. Schlechteri 
Whbg). Tropenpfl. 1903, p. 581. 
De kultuur van F. elastica. Ind. 
Mere. 6, 12. 1904, p, 829. 


Die kultur von fF. elastica. Tro- 
penpfl. 1905, p. 673. 

F. elasticain Angola. do. p. 581. 

Multiplication du F. elastica par 
semis. Journ. d’Agr. trop. Sept. 
1905, p. 283. 


Le Ff. elastica au Tonkin. Bull. He. 


Indoch, 9, 1906, p. 1104. 


Miscellaneous. 164. 


Bald. The cultivation of 7. elastica. 
Caleutta, 1906. 

Report on tapping of F. elastica at 
Mukkie in Kanoth range, N. Mala- 
bar district. Ind. For. 33. 1907, p. 
279. “'T.A.” Sept. 1907, p. 170. 

Ficus in the East. Ind. Rub, Journ. 
Aug. 12. 1907, p. 200. 

The chemical nature of the albanes 
in the rubber from Ff. Vogelit. 
Liverp. Univ. J, C. R. 1907. 

F. elastica, its growth and propaga- 
tion, Forest Bull. 4. India, 1906. 

Die Kultur und Kautschukgewinnung 
von Ficus-arten Zimmermann. 
Der Pflanzer 1905, p. 321. 

Wie vervielfaltigt man den Karet- 
baum (Ff. elastica) Tropenpfl. 1906, 
p. 505. 

Assam rubber and its commercial 
prospects. Mann. Agr. J. of Ind. 
I. p. 390. 

Het stekken van F. elastica. Korte 
Ber. Buitenzorg. 1908. 


FUNTUMIA. 


West African rubber. Pl. Op. 8. 4. 
18, p.' 2655). TAL vAnor: 1809, p. 


Lagos rubber industry. Kew Bull. 
1899, p. 29. 

Ueber Westafrikanische Kickxia- 
arten. Notizbl. Berl. II. 1899, p. 
358. 

Ueber Kautschuk pflanzen und Kick" 
xia africana in Victoria (Kamerun): 
Tropenpfl. II. 1898. ‘* B.C.” Beih: 
9, 75. 

Kickxia africana. Str. Ball. 1900. 

See Tropenpfl. 4. 1900, pp. 325, 280. 

Quelques mots apropos des Kickxias. 
Rev. Cult. Col. 1900, p. 638. 

Zwei neue Arten des Gattungs Kick- 
xia aus Afrika. Notizbl. Berl. II. 
p. 80, 

Notes sur les espéces africanes du 
genre Kickxia. Rev. Cult. Col. 
1900, p. 748. 

Westatfrikansche Caoutchouec. Ind. 
Mere. 5. 2.1901, p, 78. 

Funtumia elastica Stapf. Hooker’s 
Icones Plant. 2694 et seq. 

A Funtumia pest. Str. Bull. 1903, p. 
355. 


Die Kickxia elastica Preuss und ihre 
kultur. Tropenpfl. 1904, p. 228. 

Vorschlige betreffs der Ausbeutung 
der wilden Kickxia-bestande in 
Kamerun. Tropenpfi. 8 Nov. 1904, 
p. 597. 

Kickxia-ertrage i in Kamerun. do. 10. 
1806, p. 82. 


HANCORNIA. 


HEVEA (PARA RUBBER). 


Fe Gk 


[Avavst, 1908, 


Quelques mots apropos de F. elastica : 


de Viare chain Rev, Cult. Col. 1902, 
p. 74. 

F. elastica. Str. Bull. If. 1903, p, 186 

Der Westafrikanische Kautschuk 
baum F. elastica in Uganda. Tro- 
penpfi 1905, p. 509. 

Die F. elastica in Uganda. do. 1906, 
p- 663. 

Die Ergebnisse des ersten Zapfver- 
suches Hiner Kickxia- piaaaunes 
Warburg. do. 9. 1905, p. 885 

Hine neue Anzapfungs Methode fur 
seers elastica. do. Mar. 1906, p. 

Nochmals die Kickxia-ertrage in 
Kamerun. do. 1906, p. 464. 

Die kultur des Westafrikanische 
Kautschukbaumes K. — elastica 
Preuss. Mitth. Amani 27. 18. 6. 1904. 

Ueber Kickxia-kultur in Kamerun 
Tropenpfi. 1906, p. 701. 

Afri ican tree rubber. Kew Bull. 1907, 
p. 187. 

Analysis of a latex from F. elas- — 
a eee Univ. J. C. R. JI- 


Une arbre a caoutchoue du Congo, 


Bull. Jard. Col. July 1907, p. 4 


Coagulation of F. latex. Ind. Jl. 
Aug. 12. 1907, p, 198. 


Notizie sulla F. elaslica. Bull. — 


Palermo II. 1907, p. 78. 


Latexfrom Funtumia. Liverp. Univ. 


J.C. R. Ji. 1907. 


Anzapfungsversuche mit K. elastica. ¢ 
Zimmermann Der Pflanzer 1907, — 


p. 182 


Lagos silk rubber. Jou “BAe 


Brit. Gui. Jan. 1908, p 


Mangabeira rubber. Kew Bull. 1899, 
p. 185. 


ee rubber. ‘‘T.A.” March 1900, p, — 


Die Mangabeira. B.C. Bei. 8. p. 475. 
Der Mangababaum (H. speciosa) un 
waaeen kultur. Tropenpfi. 1900, p. 


Botany, PLANTING, &e. 


Rubber cultivation in Ceylon. 
R.B.G. Perad. I. 4. Jan. 1898. 


Caoutchoue or Indiarubber. do. I. 12, 
June 1899. j 


Sipapore Botanic Gardens Report 
Para rubber notes. Malay Bull. 1900. 


Rodrigues. As Heveas. Rio de- 


Janeiro, 1900. 


~ 


be 


| 


i 
i 
4 


Le) OL 


-Avavst, 1908.] 


Ule’s expedition. Notizbl. Berlin, 


ITI. 1901, p. 129. ; 

Para rubber in the Straits Settle- 
ments. Straits Bull. I. p. 193. 
“TA.” Feb, 1902, p. 524. 

Growth of Para rubber trees. Str. 
Bull. I. 1902. 
Arden’s Report. Ind. Gard. 7. 2. 1903, 

Dp. L25; 

Notes on Arden’s Report. Str. Bull. 
II. 1903, p. 42. 

Planting in Ceylon and the F.M.S. 
Ind. World, April 1904, p. 225. 

L’Hevea brasiliensis: Sa cultu e et 
son exploitation daus_ le Sud- 
Annam. Bull. Ee. del’ Indcch. 8 


p. 687, 

Collet. L’Hevea asiatique. Bruxelles 
1904. 

Extra-floral nectaries of Hevea. 


Parkin. Ann. Bot. Agr. 1904. 

Two Para Heveas. °'T.A.” Aug. 1904 
p. 126 

Sur les formes d’Hevea dites ‘ blan- 
che” et “noire.” Huber. Journ. 
d’Agr. trop. Dec. 1905, p. 388. 

The nature of the Para rubber tree, 
&e. Wright. “T.A.” Sept, 1906, 
p. 214. 

Ueber Hevea brasiliensis in Singa- 
pore. Schlechter. Tropenpfi. 1907, 
p. 133, 

LT’? Hevea discolor de la region de 
Manaos. Journ. d’Agr. trop. 1907, 
p. 69. 

A non-rubber-yielding Hevea. ‘‘T.A.” 
June 1907, p. 344. 

Abnormalities in the stem of Hevea. 
Ridley. Str. Bull. June 1907, p. 


157. 
Early fruiting of Para rubber do. 
p. 176. 
ee vitality of Hevea. ‘‘T.A.” Aug. 
1907, p. 87. 
Burrs or nodules on Hevea stems. 
do. p. 60 


The Hevea tree. 
Nov. 1907, p. 314. 


Hevea discotor Mull.—Arg. als Lief- 
erant des Kautschuks vom Rio 
neete: Tropenfl. Nov. 1907, p. 
788. 


Variation and selection in Hevea‘ 
Journ d’Agr. trop. July 1907, p. 
195, reviewed by Lock in ‘T.A.” 
Apr. 1908, p. 299. 


Big rubber trees in the Botanic 
Gardens. Str. Bull. July 1908, p. 


Wright. Para Rubber, 3rd. ed, 1908. 


Wickham. ‘‘ T.A.” 


165 Miscellaneous. 


£600 PER ACRE IN A FRENCH 
GARDEN. 


THE GREAT POSSIBILITIES OF THE SOIL. 


Tt is difficult to find a parallel in agri- 
culture or horticulture to the astonish- 
ing growth of interest in the system of 
French gardening since an experimental 
garden in Berkshire was visited by the 
tenant of the Daily Mail farm in March,” 
says Mr. W. Beach Thomas in the Daily 
Mail. ‘‘Itis not only that people of all 
sorts and conditions, including large 
landowners, leading seedsmen, and every 
variety of person whoowns a garden 
have written and made inquiries about 
intensive cultivation; but a considerable 
proportion have begun to make pur- 
chases with a view to starting French 
gardens this autumn, and several French 
gardeners are being engaged. 


THE INTEREST IN FRENCH GARDENING. 


“The reformatory schools, to the 
number of two hundered ana more, have 
already adopted the system. Oxford- 
shire and some other county councils are 
beginning to purchase a few frames and 
bell glasses for purposes of instruction, 
and companies have been started in 
horticultural centres in England for 
providing requisites. I know of cases 
where men have taken land and goneto 
live in the country in order to promote 
the cause of intensive cultivation and 
test the capability of English soil to 
supply English wants. Here and there 
agricultural labourers have managed to 
buy bell glasses and frames, under the 
advice of horticultural schools and 
colleges. 


THe NEED OF A TEXT-BOOK. 


“During the last three months hun- 
dreds of people have written to the 
Daily Mail asking for precise instruc- 
tion, and every post has made manifest 
the fact that an authentic and simple 
text-book giving a diary of work in the 
garden was urgently needed if these 
nundreds of people were to profit by the 
system. Erench gardening flourished in 
England, to some extent and in one form, 
a hundred and fifty years ago, and the 
French learnt a good deal from our 
gardeners. who, they considered, could 
grow certain vegetables—cauliflowers 
especially—much better than they could. 
But since those early days no text-book 
of any authority has been written, and, 
indeed, no book making the due allow- 
ances for English climate as compared 
with French could have been written 
before a complete garden had _ been 
tested in England. 


oo Cag i ee 


Miscellaneous. 


“Mr. McKay, who now makes good the 
deficiency, may be regarded as the 
founder of the French garden in England, 
since he first persuaded English gar- 
deners to go over to Paris to see for 
themselves the wonders of cultivation 
which they would not believe on hear- 
say. His diary and manual of French 
gardening is published to-day, and we 
trust that in continuation of the ac- 
counts of French gardening given and 
about to be giveninthe Daily Mail, it 
will promote, in a practical and health- 
ful manner, this important industry. 


How PRoFITS ARE MULTIPLIED. 
“The prosperity of the English 
countryside depends first and foremost 
onclose or intensive cultivation. The 
growth of machinery has_ greatly bene- 
fited the large farmer, and, indeed, the 


small farmer, but for the moment it | 


made a reduction in the amount of 
labour employed on the land, That was 
the first stage of the new agriculture. 
The second came when science began to 
teach us that personal attention to small 
plots may do even more than mechanical 
attention to ample spaces. With the 
help of a cutter and binder a farmer can 
gather his crops cheaply and neatly. He 
can make, we will say, an average profit 
of £2 an acre where previously he would 
make 30s. anacre. But that advance is 
as nothing to the next. It is now 
proved that aman equipped with scienti- 
fic and practical knowledge of the in- 
finite capacity of the soil may with the 
help of capital now make profit to the 
extent of £100 or £150 an acre, where in 
earlier days it was supposed impossible 
to make £30 or £40. 


PROFITS ON FOUR AND A HALF ACRES. 


“Mr. McKay quotesin this book the 
exact figures from the farm of four and a 
half acres set up at Evesham. From one 
acre gross returns of over £600 were 
procured. A few of the details of the 
sale may be given. ‘From 600 lights Mr. 
Harvey cut 21,600 lettuces, at an average 
of 2s. per dozen. Out of the same lights 
2,400 cauliflowers, atan average of 4s. 
per dozen; again from the same lights 
2.400 dozen turnips and 5,000 dozen 
bunches of carrots at 6d. per dozen, as 
wellas three melons from each light 
occupied with them at 2s. 6d. each. 


“Entirely apart from the question 
how much it may cost to get that result, 
the fact itself is a revelation of the 
power of the soil to produce wealth. It 
means that a man who will work hard, 
and who has the knowledge, can easily 
liveon an acre, and can, at the same 
time, pay high rent for the land and for 
the equipment. The man who goes in 


166 


ee i 


[Avaust, 1908, 


for French gardening on the highest 
scale will need capital and will risk it, 
but the system can be employed by any — 
man, however poor. Itis full of hints 

and suggestions, and applies to the 
greenhouse as to the frame. You can 
begin wih a single frame, and test French’ — 
gardening on a capital of £2. The sup- © 
reme secret is that a piece of land may — 
bear four or even fivecrops in the year 
with very much less cost both of mannre 
and of glass than is involved either in the 
greenhouse artificially heated or in the 
ordinary hot frame of the English 
garden. 


THOSE WHO ARE EXPERIMENTING. 


“FHrom one point of view French 
gardening may be regarded as very 
costly. It involves fencing, protecting, 
levelling, and covering with glass a large ~ 
part of che garden ground, but any other 
system of glass is very much more ex- 
expensive and brings smaller returns. — 

The people who are now beginning to © 
start French gardens’ are the right 
people to start. One class consists of 
professional market gardeners, one of — 
amateurs who have little difficulty in~ 
finding the capital, but who need con-— 
siderable return if their capital is to sup- i 
port them; the third consists chiefly of — 
educational horticulturists, and from 
all these it is to be hoped that the inten-— 
sive science of the Freneh will spread 
throughout the English people, and will 
help them to see that the land, from 
which we all live, ought to be treated 
with such scientific care as we,apply to 
any other industry. For example, the 
best brewers employ the most distin- 
guished botanists they can find and 
send them to study both nature and art 
in many countries. The farmer and 
the market gardener should, like the 
brewer, regard the treatment of the land — 
as essentially a scientific business, and 
the study of the science of the soil will 
give as good returns to intelligent work 
as the ferment of the barley grain. 


The French system may be regarded 
as the natural development of the mar 
ket garden. A man can make £60 an 
acre off an open garden. An_ hotel 
waiter has done this on an indifferent 
gite in his spare hours. i” 


Foop RrrormM. - 


“The establishment of the Fre 
garden coincides witha growing des 
for food reform. The French ha 
learnt to defy the seasons for a hundret 
years or more. So far, we have bee 
content to experiment with a few h 
house fruits, principally grapes 2 
peaches, At much less cost we can pr¢ 
vide for the general use an all-the-ye 


re Roane 


mi 1 fi 
‘ Aveus', 1908.] 


_ round salad and a variety of vegetables 
if we will consent to bring to the study 


of the subject such energy and skill as 
under the ganius of Parisian gardeners 
have brought the value of the land round 


- Paris up toa rent equivalent to £30 and 


tion Work conducted by the 


more an acre.”—Public Opinion, 


26th, 
June. 


DEMONSTRATION WORK IN CO- 
OPERATION WITH SOUTHERN 
FARMERS. 


By S. A. KNAPP. 


INTRODUCTION. 


The Farmers’ Co-operative Demonstra- 
United 
States Department of Agriculture 
through the Bureau of Plant Industry 
was inaugurated under authority of 
Congress in January, 1904, primarily 
because of the depredations of the Mexi- 
can cotton boll weevilin the State of 
Texas. By the rapid spread of this pest 
east and north it had then become evi- 
dent that it would in time invade all of 
the cotton-producing States. This occa- 


_ sioned a general alarm among the cotton 


ing advances 


planters and in the industrial centre of 
the entire country. For a number of 
years prior to 1904 the Mexican boll 
weevil had been steadily encroaching 
upon the cotton-producing lands _ of 
Texas, until it had spread from the Rio 
Grande, to ashort distance beyond the 
eastern boundary of the State and 
threatened the entire cotton industry of 
the South. In sections where cotton 
as the sole catch crop the invasion of 
he weevil and the consequence loss of 
the cotton crop brought disaster to 
every interest and so completely demora- 
lized financial conditions as to produce 
in some sections a panic. 


The cotton crop had been generally 
produced upon a credit system by secur- 
from merchants and 
bankers. Upon the advent of the boll 
weevil, confidence in securing a cotton 
crop was impaired and in some districts 
almost totally destroyed. The usual 


advances were either witheld or limited; 


labour became discontented and sought 
other sections or other States, and, 
tenant-farmers unable to obtain ad- 


~ vances, removed to non-infested districts, 


a marked decline in property values re- 
sulting. 


These circumstances created a demand 
for immediate relief which appealed to 
the entire country, as the loss of the 
cotton crop would beanational calamity. 
In response to this appeal, Congress made 


ah emergency appropriation in January, 


&. 


167 


Miscellaneous. 


1904, which has been continued each 
year, thus affording opportunity for the 
growth and enlargement of the work. 


THE Two BRANCHES OF THE DuMon- 
STRATION WoRK. 


As at present organized and developed 
the Farmers’ Co-operative Demonstra- 
tion Work may be said to consist of two 
divisions: (1) The demonstration of im- 
proved methods of agriculture in the 
weevil-infected districts, which is the 
natural outgrowth of the original plan, 
and (2) the extension of the same prin- 
ciples to other Southern States beyond 
the range of weevil infestation. 


_The territory ccvered by the first divi- 
sion of the work includes eastern and 
northern Texas, southern Arkansas, 
Oklahoma, Louisiana, and a portion of 
Mississippi. The total area thus covered 
is more than 300,000 square miles. The 
work in Arkansas, Oklahoma, and 
Mississippi has been broadly inagurated 
only since October, 1907. 


The second division of the work was 
commenced in Mississippi in March, 1906. 
In co-operation with the General Educa- 
tion Board of New York, this work in 
1907 was conducted ina limited way in 
Alabama and Virginia, and has recently 
been extended, into North Carolina 
South Carolina, and Georgia. The ex. 
penses of this division of the work are 
defrayed by the General Education 
Board, which has appropriated the sum 
of $69,000 for demonstration work during 
the year commencing October 1, 1907. 
The Board has shown deep interest 
hearty co-operation, and avery broad 
philanthropy inthis work of reaching 
ee rural masses and bettering farm con. 

itlons. 


PLAN OF ORGANIZATION. 


The Farmers’ Co-operative De ra 
tion Work is conducted by the wut 
special agent in charge, who reports di- 
rectly to the chief of the Bureau of Plant 
Industry. A corps of field agents, classi- 
fied according to territory in charge 
as State, district, and county agents is 
employed. The county agents ‘are 
appointed mainly on the advice of local 
committees of prominent business men 
and farmers conversant with the ter- 
ritory to be worked. Each agent has in 
charge the practical work in or more 
counties, strictly under such general 
directions as may be issued from the 
central office at Washington, D.C. The 
field agents have been selected With 
special reference to a thorough know- 
ledge of improved agriculture and prac- 
tical experience in farming in the sections 
to which they are appointed. District 


Miscelianeous. 


agents are expected to have not onlya 
knowledge of scientific agriculture, but 
to be practical farmers and to have 
had considerable experience in the 
demonstration work. State agents are 
strong and capable men, who have 
shown their ability to successfully carry 
out the instructions of the central office 
over a large territory, and they are 
specially qualified for the work by the 
possession of the tact necessary to 
influence men. 


The term ‘‘demonstration farm” is 
used to designate a portion of land on a 
farm that is worked strictly according 
to our instructions. This is visited by 
an agent as often as once a month, if 
possible, to see that these instructions 
are carried out and to give any further 
advice necessary. 


A “co-operator” is a farmer who agrees 
to work a part or all of his crop accord- 
ing to our instructions, but a Depart- 
ment agent only visits him in excep- 
tioaal cases, 

During the ensuing year there will be 
employed in the co-operative demon- 
stration work 59 agents paid from Govern- 
ment appropriations, and in the exten- 
sion work 84 agents paid by the General 
Education Board. With this force about 
12,000 demonstration farms had _ been 
established up to February 1, 1908, and 
20,000 farmers had agreed to co-operate 
and make reports as to results. 


SCOPE OF THE DEMONSTRATIONS. 


The Farmers’ Co-operative Demon- 
stration Work is a system by which the 
simple and well-established principles of 
successful farming are directly taught 
to the men on the farms. The men who 
toil on the tarms to produce the food 
that nourishes all the people, and who 
in a large measure provide the resources 
that support our civilization, are as 
justly entitled to a knowledge of the 
best that science and general experience 
have evolved for increase of production 
and for the betterment of agricultural 
conditions as the youth of our country 
are entitled to an education that will fit 
them for a broader critizenship. 

One of the most serious problems in 
the reform of agricultural methods has 
been how to influence the farmer to 
adopt improved practices. It has been 
found that the mere dissemination of 
printed information sometimes does not 
accomplish this result, and therefore the 
method of neighbourhood farm demon- 
strations in co-operation with  pro- 
gressive farmers has_ been evolved. 
The effect of a field demonstration is 
immediate and positive, and reaches all 
classes. 


168 


oa 


[Aveusr, 1908. 


{ 


By actual count, it is determined that 
the number of farmers who annually 
visit each demonstration farm ranges 
from thirty toa hundred. If the average 
is placed as low as thirty the total num- 
ber visiting 12,000 demonstration farms 
in one year would be 360,000. If we are 
the co-operating farmers, the aggregate 
is greatly increased. 

The teaching by object-lessons is more 
effective where itis simple, direct, and 
limited to a few common field crops, 
such as cotton, corn, cowpeas, and oats 
in the South, so that the comparisons 
may be evident and accepted at a glance. 
If general success can be secured with 
these standard crops, further diversifica- 
tion follows as a natural result. 


Briefly stated, the salient features of 
the co-operative farm demonstrations 
are as follows :— 


(1) Better drainage of the soil. 5 


(2) A deeper and more thoroughly ~ 
pulverized seed bed ; deep fall breaking — 
(plowing) with implements that will not — 
bring the subsoil to the surface. t 


(3) The use of seed of the best variety, 
ine eal selected and _ carefully 
stored. 


(4) In cultivated crops, giving the 
rows and the plants in the rows a space — 
suited to the plant, the soil, and climate. — 

(5) Intensive tillage during the grow- 
ing periods of the crops. 


(6) The importance of a high content 
of humus in the soil. The use of legumes, 
barnyard mauure, farm refuse, and com- — 
mercial fertilizers. Fi 


(7) The value of crop rotation and a — 
winter cover crop on southern farms. 


(8) The accomplishing of more work 
in a day on the farm by using more horse- 
power and better implements. 


(9) The importance of increasing the — 
farm stock to the extent of utilizing all 
the waste products and idle lands of the 
farm. ; 

(10) The production of all food re-— 
quired for the men and animals on the 
farm. ; p 

(11) The keeping of an account with 
each farm product, in order to know 
from which the gain or loss arises. 


THE INSTRUCTIONS. 


Our instructions have the following 
advantages :—(1) What the Department 
of Agriculture at Washington knows 
from its vast stores of information 
about the special crop under consider. 
ation; (2) what the State agriculture 


> gh malticks ee ee 


- Avaust, 1908: ] 


experiment stations in the South have 

_demonstrated to be the most advanta- 
geous methods ; (8) what the best farmers 
in the South have tested and proved to 
be the most successful practices upon_the 
farm, and (4) the knowledge obtained by 
the travelling agents of this demonstra- 
tion work, who visit and have personal 

knowledge of the localities in the State 
in which they are stationed. Even then 
the instructions given are along the 
lines of correct principles, leaving many 
details to the good judgment of the 
farmer. 


_ In this co-operative work great stress 
_is laid upon a more thorough preparation 
_ of the soil in the autumn, because in our 

southern climate the frostsdo not pene- 
_ trate the soil sufficiently to open them 

an .4imit air; we musttheretore do by 
- ploughing in the fall and by some winter 
—eultivation what Nature does in the 
colder North. | 


Inthe richest soils there is but little 
food ready prepared for the plant, and 
_Nature’s plan is that this food shall be 
prepared more or less daily by the action 
of the air, the moisture in the soils, and 
the sun. These three agents make 

active the forces that prepare the food, 
so the plant can be properly nourished. 

This cannot be done without ploughing 

and cultivating to admit the air, and the 

earlier this work is commenced before 
the winter, the greater the effect it will 
have upon the crop of the following 

‘season. 


The effect of using good seed is not 
sufficiently appreciated, nor perhaps is it 
understood just what makes good seed. 
It must be the best variety for the pur- 
pose, carefully selected early in the fall 
and stored inadry place. The reasons 
for very frequent cultivation are the 
admission of air, the conservation of 
moisture in the soil, and the prevention 
of a surface crust. 


4 Young plants require excellent culti- 
vation, just as young animals require 
the best food and care. 


_ The judicious use of commercial ferti- 
zers is one of the most important 
matters in modern agriculture, for this 
furnishes plant food directly and in- 
directly tothe young plants. For soil 
improvement we must largely depend 
upon barnyard manure, the compost 
heap, and leguminous plants, such as 
cowpeas. 


The importance of doing more as well 
as better work ina day has not been 
sufficiently impressed upon the southern 


ial 


169 


Miscellaneous, 


farmer. This requires the use of stronger 
teams and better tools. Working three 
acres in a day where one is worked now, 
and working each acre three times as 
well isa problem in profit easily under- 
stood after demonstration. 


How FARMERS ARE INFLUENCED TO 
ADOPT BETTER METHODS. 


In the South nearly all the merchants, 
ankers, and lawvers in the towns and 
smaller cities own farms and are in- 
tensely interested in agriculture. They 
form an effective centre of influence, 
easily convinced of the value of the 
co-operative demonstration plan _ by 
reason of their high intelligence. 
Meetings are called and the work in- 
augurated. No further argument is 
necessary after the demonstrations have 
been made. Facts do the talking. The 
teachers in the public schools are 
generally alert and render most valuable 
assistance, The agricultural colleges 
and agricultural experiment stations 
give hearty co-operation. Thus, general 
interest is aroused in these demon- 
strations, which leads to careful obser- 
vation and study on the part of 
the farmers and of the community. 
Public meetings are held for the discus- 
sion of these plans. In the cotton-pro- 
ducing States the first instructions 
include cotton as the main catch crop, 
corn as the standard food for work 
animals and the basis for more stock on 
the farm, cowpeas for food and for the 
renovation of the soil, oats or wheat as 
a winter cover crop, and the meadow 
and the pasture as the most economical 
source of food for farm stock. When 
the farmer has mastered these crops he 
is ready for diversification in any desired 
direction. 


In districts where cotton is not the 
standard catch crop, instruction is given 
in whatever replaces cotton as a money- 
earning crop. These simple lessons at 
the start gradually made progressive 
until they cover all information neces- 
sary to success in the agriculture of the 
district. 


Asa means of reaching thousands of 
farmers with whom our agents do not 
come in personal contact, systematic use 
is made of the newspapers. Every 
bulletin or letter of instruction sent to 
co-operators is also furnished to about 
2.000 county newspapers, and by most of 
them published in full. The hearty 
co-operation of the press has’ been 
of Chel value to the demonstration 
work. 


(Zo be concluded.) 


Miscellaneous: 170 


NOTES AND QUERIES. 


By C. DRIEBERG. 


G. D.—The principal local tan-produc- 
ing trees are Kadol (Rizophora mucron- 
ata), the common mangrove found at the 
mouths of rivers, Ranawara (Cassia 
auriculata) very common in the dry 
country, and Kahata (Careya arborea) 
the patana ‘“Oak.” The Australian 
wattles, grown upcountry, are the only 
cultivated tan-producing trees. 


“NIYVANDE.’—Referring to this fibre 
(Sanseviera zeylanica), a gentleman resid- 
ing in the Matale District (as he puts it 
“in the midst of Niyande”) does not give 
a satisfactory report. He has his own 
machine of simple design for extracting 
the fibre, but considers it a non-paying 
product at £386 per ton, it is to be 
presumed, delivered inEngland. Every- 
thing, of course, depends on the cost of 
extraction, and £36 does not seem a bad 
price. 


KF, C.—Why don’t you try an artificial 
mixture for your paddy and tobacco, 
such as has been found so satisfactory 
in Bengal? You will, I fancy, find it 
cheaper than cattle manure and green 
manure which you say costs you so much 
to get on to the land. A good many 
members of the Society are using arti- 
ficial mixtures. 


BEE-KEEPER.—The question of secur- 
ing comb-foundation for the mee-messa 
(Apis indica) has been before the Bee- 
Committee for some time, and just now 
there appears to be a fair prospect of 
the matter being brought to a satis- 
factory issue. 


G. DES.—The sample is not limestone 
which can easily be distinguished from 
quartz by the extreme hardness of the 
latter (on trying it with a knife); besides, 
limestone will show effervescence with 
hydrochloric acid. 


SOUTHERNER.—A preparation has just 
been placed on the market by Cooper of 
sheepdip fame. Itis known as the V2 
solution, and, mixed with a hundred 
times its volume of water, is an excellent 
insecticide and preventative of insect 
attack—specially good for scales. I can 
send you a sample bottle for trial. 


CiTRUS.—Here is a good mixture for 
orange trees:—2 lbs. groundnut cake, 
2lbs. bonemeal, 2 lbs. steamed bones, 


[AUGUST, 1908. 


2 lbs. sulphate of potash. Total per 
tree 8 lbs, which might be applied mixed 
with cattle manure. ~ 


B. S.—The following will give you the 
intormation you want: Healthy pulse of 
(1) horse is 30 to 40 beats per minute, (2) 
cow 40 to 50, (3) dog 70 to 80. 


CoTTON GROWER.--6 lbs. per acre is 
the usual estimate for Sea Island. 1 lb. 
contains about 4,000 seeds. If you get 
200 Ibs. of lint per acre, there would also 
be about 700 lbs. seed, which, as you 
will see from the Progress Report (vide 
page 171) is worth a good deal. 


N. P.—Cerbera odallam isthe name of 
the common fence-plant grown round 
paddy fields in the Western Province, 
and known in Sinhalese as gon-kaduru or 
weta-kaduru. The diference between 
suriya (Thespesia populnea) and beli- 
patta (Hibiscus tileaceus) is quite clear. 
It is the latter that is so commonly used 
for forming boundary fences. As a 
shade tree the suriya is going out, 
though one still sees itin dry districts 
like Puttalam. 


THE DIVINING Rop.—A local authority 
qualified to express an opinion writes as 
follows in reply to my query enquiring 
whether he does not think we might find 
the “‘ divining rod” useful in Ceylon :— 
‘*T have no practical experience or know- 
ledge of the ‘‘ Divining Rod” myself. 
I have, however, read a good deal 
about it, and I really think that, so far 
as at present known, it seems about as 
difficult to form an opinion on as the 
question of ghosts or thought-reading. 
One cannot in reason set down all 
these people who give apparently very 
authentic accounts of success as being 
frauds, wilfully or otherwise ; at the same 
time I cannot conceive any possible 
solution—with our present knowledge— 
of the phenomena, if such really exist. 
However, no more can you or Il 
actually give any account of the un- 
doubted phenomena regarding magne- 
tism, e.g., the fact that a common bar of 
iron, without magnetic properties, be- 
comesa magnet if held in the position 
which makes it point to the magnetic 
pole! There is one point, however, on 
which I have very decided opinions, and 
thatis, that I believe all these men who 
use the “diviningrod” have a very shrewd 
appreciation of their surroundings 
coupled with a knowledge of practical 
geology, that is to say, they never go to 
find water in an unlikely place.” | 


_ Avaust, 1908. 


Correspondence. 


“HANA” HEMP: A VILLAGE IN- 
DUSTRY WORTHY OF 
ENCOURAGEMENT. 


On Cireuvit—Hunupolla. 
Kurunegala, 138th August, 1908. 


D#AR Sir.—I am sending you by this post 
some seed of ‘‘ Hana” (Crotalaria juncia) 


that I find is freely grown in this part of 


the Kurunegala District, in the hope that 
something might be done to encourage 
the industry in this excellent hemp. 

It is quite a useful addition to the 
finances of the villagers here, who grow 
it without difficulty, and at small cost. 
The ground is roughly prepared, as for 
hill paddy, just before the S. W. rains 
begin, and the seed is planted broadcast. 
It germinates in three days, and in three 
months the crop is ready. In that time 


it grows to 4ft., and is pulled up by the ’ 


roots. The stems are cut to uniform 
lengths, and tied and put into water for 
about five days, after which the fibre is 
stripped off by hand. 

The next process is sun-drying and 
arranging the dry fibre into ‘‘murukkus” 
or small bundles, and then are sold at 
from 123 to 16 cts. per lb. I find that the 
trade appears to be in the hands of a few 
Moratuwa people, who, [suspect, make a 
very considerable profit out of the sutff. 


Isend you a small sample of hand- 
made string from this hemp, and which 
you will find to be exceedingly strong. 
I think the matter is quite worth atten- 
tion, and I would suggest expert opinion 
being obtained on the value of the fibre, 
as I ean hardly suppose it can be only 
worth so small a sum as 123 cts. a pound. 


Lhave also observed that the “sticks” 
atter the fibre has been removed, are 
very highly inflammable, beside being 
exceedingly light; and it has struck me 
that this ‘‘ bye-product” might be largely 
used for making “spills,” matchwood, 
or even matches, so thatin that way 
something might be done with it. 
Lastly, the lopped-off ends make a good 
green manure, so that all round there 
appears to be scope for developing a 
trade in this little-known product. 

The whole business is so simple, and 
the crop so easily raised, that I can’t but 
think it deserves to be encouraged. 

Isend some seed with the hope that 
you will raise it in Colombo, and satisfy 
yourself as to the ease and readiness 
with which it can be grown. The 
“sticks” I will bring with me on my 
return to Colombo. Yours truly, 


FREDERICK LEWIS. 


171 Miscellaneous. 


CEYLON AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY. 


MINUTES OF THE 4ist MEETING, 


The forty-first meeting of the Board 
of Agriculture was held at the Council 
Chamber at 12 noon on Monday, the 3rd 
August, 1908. 


His Excellency the Governor presided. 


There were also present :—The Hon’ble 
Mr. Hugh Clifford (Colonial Secretary), 


the Hon’ble Mr. W. H. Jackson, the 
Hon’ble Mr. S. C. Obeyesekere, Sir 
Solomon Dias Bandaranaike, Capt. 


Curling, A.D.C., Dr. J. C. Willis, Messrs. 
J. Harward, G. W. Sturgess, R. H. Lock, 
A. F. West, C. J. C. Mee, Francis Daniel, 
Kdward Cowan, M. Suppramaniam, and 
the Secretary. 


BUSINESS. 


(1.) Minutes of the previous meeting 
peld Be May 4th were read and con- 
rmed, 


2.) Progress Report No, 40 was pre- 
sented and adopted. 


(3.) Dr. J. C. Willis presented the 
report of the Special Committee on 
School Gardens and Agricultural Educa- 
tion, which H. EK. the President said he 
would consider when it came before him, 


(4.) The Secretary (in the absence of 
the writer) read a paper by Mr. A. 
Dissanaike Mudaliyar and Retired Pre- 
sident, V. T., Salpiti Korale, entitled 
“The Village Cultivator and Paddy 
Cultivation.” His Excellency spoke at 
length onthe paper, and was followed 
by the Hon’ble the Colonial Secretary 
and Mr. Obeyesekere. 


(5.) Mr. A. EF. West, Acting Govern- 
ment Entomologist, read a paper on 
‘*Vermin Destruction.” 


(6.) The writers of the two papers 
were accorded a vote of thanks. 


PROGRESS REPORT XL, 


Membership.—Since the last ordinary 
meeting held on May 4th, the following 
members have been enrolled :—Alfred Bawa, 
Allan Drieberg, Cecil C, Harding, Clement 
R. Ingleby, C. Sri Kanta, V. S. Kanaisa- 
pillai, the Managing Director of the Lanka 
Agricultural Co., Ltd,, W. Hunter, L. B. 
Fernando, D. Carson, and E, Abdul 
Hamid Didi, 


Miscellaneous: 


Inspection Tours.—On June 25 Dr, Willis 
and the Secretary visited Jaffna in connec- 
tion with the proposed experiment in the 
better growing and curing of tobacco in 
the North. The Jaffna Tobacco Committee 
had already submitted a report setting forth 
their views as to what action Government 
should take in the matter, but His Excel- 
lency the Governor soon after paid a visit to 
the North and announced the conditions on 
which the experiment in question would be 
undertaken. The agricultural officers, acting 
on behalf of the Society’s Tobacco Committee, 
sought a conference with the Jaffna Com- 
mittee with a view to discovering a modus 
vivendi. Their report will be considered at 
a meeting of their Committee fixed for this 
day. 


On July 16 Dr, Willis and the Secretaiy 
visited Chilaw. and Puttalam. A meeting of 
the Puttalam Branch Society was held on 
the 17th, when various agricultural matter's, 
including irrigation of crops, proper method 
of tillage, rotation of crops, and coconut stem 
bleeding disease, came up for discussion. It 
was decided to institute a series of practical 
demonstrations in the continuous cultivation 
of chena land on approved lines in place of 
the present wasteful system of cultivation. 
The services of an Agricultural Instructor 
will be made available for controlling the 
demonstrations, which itis hoped to start 
next October in the Demela_ hatpattu, 
where agriculture is in a very primitive and 
backward state. 


' At the meeting of the Chilaw Society 
held on the 19th afternoon Mr. R. G. 
Saunders, Assistant Government Agent, in 
the Chair—the subjects discussed included 
agricultural banks and distribution of seeds, 
as well as the importance of proper tillage 
and rotation. It was decided to join Puttalam 
in a series of comparative trials on the lines 
already indicated, the sites selected to be 
in Pitigal Korale North. 

A meeting of the coconut planters of 
Chilaw followed, when an interesting con- 
ference on the bleeding and other diseases 
of the coconut took place. It was reported 
that the eradication of the stem disease was 
progressing very satisfactorily. Dr. Willis 
advised those present not to relax their 
vigilance, but to give steady and continuous 
attention to the suppression of the disease 
with a view to bringing it to the same 
position as the canker disease in cacao, which 
is kept well in check by a little extra regular 
expenditure, 

Branch Societies.—The Wellaboda Pattu 
(Galle) Branch held a meeting of the Work- 
ing Committee an June 24. Arrangements 
for the Cattle and Vegetable Fair proposed 
to be held in December were entrusted to a 
Sub-Committee. It was decided, with a view 
of encouraging change of seed paddy, that 
as many members as possible should each 


172 


cde As) 
a, Fra Fd 
1 ae 


19, 


[Aveust, i\ 908, ‘ 


procure atleast two amunams of a suitable 
paddy new to the district and distribute it 
by sale or loan to cultivators. Seven mem- 
bers undertook to carry out the suggestion. 
The question of the establishment of Co- 
operative Credit Banks was also discussed, 
and it was agreed to defer final decision till 
next meeting, when Mr. C. A. D. S. Wickre- 
mesuriya undertook to read a paper on the 
subject, explaining at the same time the lines 
of an experiment now in operation in con- 
nection with coconut crops. 


_ The Wanni Hatpattu Branch held a meet- 
ing on July 15, Among the matters dis- 
cussed was the damage done by the drought 
which prevailed in the district, 'The tobacco 
plantations in several centres were reported 
to be badly affected, the leaves being in 
many cases scorched and their full develop- 
ment invariably retarded, The paddy, too, 
suffered, The present yala cultivation is 
practically a total failure. The Society was 
of opinion that restoration of oldtanks cannot 
be expected to help in contingencies like the 
present without the restoration of storage 
tanks, which have long been lying aban- 
doned since they fell into a state of disrepair. 
The question of extending the cultivation 
of cotton on chena was discussed, and it 
was decided to urge on the Government 
Agent the desirability of granting permits 
for Crown chenas for the purpose. 

Agri-Horticultural Shows.—Shows have 
been arranged to be held in the following 
centres in the North-Western Province on 
August 15, 22, and 29 :— 


On August 15, 1908, at Kuliyapitiya, for 
Katugampola Hatpattu (Medaketiye Korale, 
Yatikaha Korale, Karandapattu Korale, 
Kiniyama Korale, Yagamapattu Korale, Ka- 
tugampola Korale North, Katugampola 
Korale South, Medapattu. Korale West, 
Medapattu Korale East, and Pitigal Korale), 


On August 22, 1908, at Balalla, for Wanni 
Hatpattu(Mi-oyen Egoda Korale, Hatalispaha 
Korale West, Hatalispaha Korale East, 
Pahalawisideke Korale, Gantihe Korale, 
Magul Medagandahaye Korale East and 
West, Magul Otota Korale, and Katuwana 
Korale). 

On August 29, 1908, at Pilessa, for Weuda- 
wili Hatpattu (Madure Korale, Hewa- 
wisse Korale. Weuda Korale, Gannawa 
Korale, Gandahaye Korale, Maha Galboda 
Megoda Korale, Kuda Galboda Korale, and 
Katuwana Korale). t 


Kegalla Agri-Horticultural Show.—It 
has-been decided to hold an Agri-Horti- 
cultural Show at Kegalla onSeptember 25 and 
26. The Catalogue has already been issued, 

Kandy Agri-Horticultural Show.—The 
idea of holding a Show at Kandy this year 
has been abandoned, At a general meeting 


of the Branch Society held on May 23 it was 


resolved to hold a Show in August, 1909. 


, { 


Avevst, 1908.) 


Colombo Show,—The Colombo Agri- 
Hoticultural Society contemplates ornaniz- 
ing an all-Island Show next year. 


Mysore Dassara Industrial and Agri- 
cullural Esxhibition.—Mr. Subba Rau, 
Secretary to above Exhibition, Mysore, has 
forwarded forms of application, rules, Xc., 
of the above Exhibition, requesting that it 
be widely advertised in order to induce 
Ceylon to send exhibits, As there are several 
products depending largely on the Indian 
market, such as tobacco, arecanuts, &c., 
it would be wise to forward exhibits in 


’ order to extend the market for such pro- 


ducts. It is to be hoped that the Secretaries 
of Branch Societies, to whom forms have 
been forwarded, will take the matter up. 
Copies of the prize list are available on appli- 
cation. 


Special Committee on Agricultural In- 
struction.—This Committeeheld three meet- 
ings, and also visited a school garden at 
Mirigama with a view to seeing for them- 
selves how work is there carried on. The 
Committee’s report will be presented at to- 
day’s meeting, 


Hill Paddy in the North.—Mv. 8S. Chel- 
liah, Tamil Agricultural Instructor, reports 
that some of the cultivators in the North 
have agreed to try hill paddy on dry lands 
which are at present entirely cultivated 
with kurakkan. The necessary seed paddy is 
being procured from the North-Western 
Province. 


Moulmein Paddy.—Arrangements are 
being made to obtain a consignment of 
paddy from Moulmein for trial locally. The 
paddyis well spoken of as regards yield 
and quality. 


Manuring Paddy.—An experiment is 
being made in the manuring of paddy under 
the Minneri tank, and _ several individual 
members and Branch Societies are also 
conducting similar experiments. 


Nitro-Bacterine.—The preparation suit- 
able for ground-nuts is being tried at the 
Government Stock Garden, The results of 
the trial will be available when the crop 
is lifted. 


Vegetable Seeds —A large order has 
been placed for vegetable seeds to be supplied 
to applicants who have sent in requisitions. 
The seeds are expected to arrive in time for 
planting during the next rainy season— 
October. 


Coconut Stem Disease.—In addition to 
the five special Inspectors appointed to 
work under the Botanic Department, three 
additional hands have been engaged, and the 
workof eradicating thedisease is being pushed 
on with vigour. From reports received it is 
apparent that the disease has been got well 
under control. 


173i” Miscellaneous, 


Brucea Sumatrana.—Some seeds of this 
plant were received from the Botanic Gar- 
dens, Straits Settlements, and put in nursery 
at the Government Stock Garden. The fruits 
have a considerable reputation as a remedy 
for dysentery. An article on Brucea will 
appear in the August number of the ‘*Tro- 
pical Agyriculturist and Magazine of the 
Ceylon Agricultural Society.” 


Coca Plants and Malabar Pepper Cut- 
tings.—Mr. K. Bandare Beddewela of Mali- 
gatenne, Kandy,is offering coca plants and 
Malabar pepper cuttings. These may be 
had in quantity at reduced rates by members 
applying through the Society. Coca seed is 
also available. 


Votton Seed.—Cultivators will be in- 
terested to learn that there is a ready market 
for cotton seed as well as lint. Messrs. 
Nieland & Wilson, writing on the sub- 
ject, say: ‘*It would be. best to carry it 
(the seed) to the best market which no doubt 
is England. The British Cotton Growing 
Association are only too willing to pay 
anything like £6 per ton c.i.f., Liverpool, 
while there is hardly any local market or 
only little, prices ranging from Rs. 2 to Rs, 3 
per cwt., or even less.” 


Cotton.—Mr. M. Suppramaniam, broker 
of the Ceylon Spinning and Weaving Mills, 
Wellawatta, writing on July 21, reported :— 
*“Kive tons of Sea Island cotton were 
purchased last week, and to-day a sample 
has been received from a Pettah trader, who 
has five tons more in hand. There is every 
prospect of further increased supplies being 
received.” 


Plantain Fibre Machinery.—Iin reply 
to inquiries, Mr. L. H. Dewey, Botanist in 
in charge of Fibre Plants, writing on March 
5, Says i— 


‘<The few specimens of fibre which I have 
exainined from plantain and banana plants 
have been inferiov in strength to the fibre 
produced by abaca (Musa tectilis) in the 
Philippines, I am told that one of the 
species from Africa (Musa ensete) yields a 
fibre which, it is thought, will compare 
favourably with the genuine abaca. The 
best specimens of banana fibre that I have 
seen came from Jamaica, but these fibres 
lacked uniformity. Some of them were 
strong, while others were very weak. I do 
not think that it would be possible to 
prepare the fibre from banana _ plants 
produced in the American tropics at a cost 
that would permit them to enter the 
American market so as to compete with 
abaca and sisal now used by our manu- 
facturers. It might be possible, however, 
with the different labour conditions of India, 
to produce these fibres so as to be used in 
the local market there, and it is also quite 
possible that you have varieties there 


Miscellaneous. 


yielding stronger and more uniform fibres 
than those produced by the common large 
yellow banana of the American tropics. 
Three or four machines have recently been 
used in the Philippines for cleansing abaca 
fibre, and it is quite probable that these 
machines might be used successfully in 
cleaning plantain fibre. It is said that one 
of the most promising of these machines is 
the one invented by Mr. Eugene Behrendt, 
and manufactured by the Watson Machine 
Co. of Paterson, New Jersey. Banana fibre 
may also be cleaned on a machine made by 
the Finigan-Zabriskie Co. at Paterson, New 
Jersey, providing the leaf stalks are first put 
through crushing rollers to break down and 
soften the tissues.” 


Travancore Coconut Disease.—The 
Director of Agriculture, Madras, has trans- 
mitted a copy ofa note on this disease, 
dvawn up by Dr. Butler, the Imperial My- 
cologist. From it is taken the following :— 


«* The first sign of this disease is that some 
or all of the leaves turn yellow asif they did 
not get enough water. Then the tips of the 
leaflets dry up and hang down. At the same 
time the outer leaves bend away from the 
crown and become loosened, so that they can 
easily be torn off from the tree, In one or 
two years all the leaves will have turned 
yellow and dried up at the tips. When this 
happens the bunches of nuts get affected ; 
at first some of the nuts do not ripen 
properly but fall to the ground in an 
immature condition, next year there will be 
fewer and smaller nuts, and after four or five 
year's there may be none at all. Sometimes 
the flower spathes are unable to break out 
from the base of the leaves; usually, however, 
they are formed, but are not strong enough 
to produce good nuts. Such nuts as are 
given by diseased trees are of bad quality, 
the copra is hard and gives little oil, and the 
water inside the nut is disagreeable in taste 
and diminished in quantity. Gradually, as 
the palm gets more and more weakened, the 
new leaves that ave formed ave smaller than 
those of healthy trees. The centre shoot, 
which stands straight up in the middle of the 
crown, gets shortened and turns yellow, or 
may even wither completely. After five or 
ten years the diseased paln may dry up 
altogether and the heads fall off. This is 
fairly common in some places, as in the 
Minachil Taluk of Travancore, while in 
others, as at Changanacherry, very few trees 
have died, even though some have been 
barren for many years. Areca palms are 
attacked in the same way. As they are 
smaller and more delicate they become 
barren more quickly than with coconuts, and 
they may be killed in from three to five 
years, though often they remain barren for 
much longer without dying. They are 
never killed in a few months, as in the 
Koleroga disease, which attacks areca 
palms in Mysore. It is caused by a little 


174 


» 


[Avavsr, 1908, 


‘fungus,’ which attacks the roots in the soil 
and causes them to rot. This is sosmall and 
grows in the soil, but can only move along 
underground very slowly. It has taken 
about ten years to get from one village in 
Travancore to another only a few miles 
away. If people take soil or coconut roots 
from a diseased garden and put them into a 
healthy garden the ‘fungus’ may be brought 
along in the soil or roots, and may begin 
to attack healthy trees at once, This must 
be the way that it has spread overa large 
part of North Travancore in the last twenty 
years, for in this manner it can, of course, 
be made to travel quickly. Hence people 
should be very careful not to let any soil or 
voots from a diseased garden into their 
gardens. Ths only way to kill the ‘fungus’ 
is to dig up and burn the roots of the 
diseased trees as soon as any are noticed.” 


Agricultural Instructors.—In addition 
to the two Instructors working in the 
Sinhalese districts, another Instructor has 
been appointed for service in the Tamil 
districts. These officers are now working 
according to an organized plan, and are 
dealing with the districts in detail. Branch 
Societies are free to apply for their services. 
The services of the Stock Inspectors, who 
are also trained Agricultural Instructors, are 
also available when they can be spared from 
their veterinary duties, 


General Meeting.—The Annual General 
Meeting of the Society was held on June 15, 
when the Secretary presented his report and 
His Excellency the President delivered an 
important address. The proceedings, includ- 
ing His Excellency’s speech, are recorded 
in the magazine of the Society. A paper 
by Mr. H. F.- Macmillan, entitled ‘‘Some 
beautiful Tropical Trees and their uses,” was 
read on that occassion. 


Horetuduwa Gardens.—Another stage 
has been reached in the arrangements for 
opening these gardens, towards which Mr. 
Simon Fernando Siri Chandrasekera, Mudali- 
yar, has gifted a sum of Rs, 2,500, Consider- 


able delay has been caused in the preparation _ 


of the necessary plans and deeds for handing 
over the sites which Mr. Fernando is placing 
at the disposal of the Society. The Secretary 
met the donor and his notary on the spot 
on July 12, and there is now a prospect of the 
land being taken in hand in September next 
and got ready for planting during the 
October rains. 

Seedlings.—The Superintendent of School 
Gardens reports that he has a good stock of 
mangosteen seedlings in bamboo pots avail- 
able. There is still a number of grape fruit 
plants, also in bamboo pots, left over from 


the lot raised from seed supplied by the 


U.S. A. Department of Agriculture. 
Agricultural Implements.—A trial of 

implements was held under the auspices of 

the Society at the Government Dairy pre- 


a 


4 4 “ es 
_ Aveust, 1908. } 175 Miscellaneous. 


mises on June 15, The implements consisted 
on a slightly improved form of the Sinhalese 
plough excellently suitable for paddy-field 
work designed by Mr. A. E. Rajapakse, 
Mudaliyar, Chairman of the Katunayaka 
Branch Society ; another light iron plough, 
locally turned out, the design of Mr, C. 
Drieberg and Mr. P. Samaranayake ; two 
American cultivators shown by Messrs. Brown 
'& Co.; a number of English ploughs (by 
Howard and Ransome) shown by Messrs. 
Walker, Sons & Co.; anda collection of 
labour-saving hand implements exhibited by 
Messrs. Brown & Co. and the Director of the 
Royal Botanic Gardens. These were worked 
in the presence of His Excellency the Pre- 
sident and a _ fairly large gathering of 
members. The Assam plough got over from 
Calcutta by the Secretary is under trial at 
Tissamaharama. 


Messrs. Walker, Sons & Co. have just report- 
ed the arrival of some light iron ploughs 
weighing 28 lb., and priced at Rs. 7°50, 
specially designed for paddy-field work. 


The disc plough recently brought from 
England by Mr. Kelway Bamber is on view 
at the Government Stock Garden. It is hop- 
ed to arrange another demonstration before 
the end of the year on a site better adapted 
for showing the working of different types of 
agricultural implements and appliances. 


Katunayaka.—As the Progress Report is 
going to press comes a copy of the minutes 
of a meeting of this Society held on July 13, 
when there was a full attendance of members. 

A discussion on the possible improvement 
of paddy cultivation took up most of the 
time, and in the end a Sub-Committee was 
appointed to ascertain the views of paddy 
cultivators in the district. <A list of questions 
was also drawn up for the guidance of the 
Sub-Committee. 


It was resolved to undertake the liming of 
certain peaty soil belonging to members with 
a view to their improvement. This will be 
done under the supervision of Mr. A, E. 
Rajapakse, Mudaliyar, the Chairman, about 
September next, soon after the harvest. 


The ‘‘Govikam Sangarawa” Magazine and 
a lot of Jamaica guava seed were distributed 
at the meeting. 


_ The Chairman announced that fruit plants 
in bamboo pots were available to members of 
the local Society on application. 


Indian Market for Ceylon Arecanuts.— 
In answer to enquiries made from India on 
behalf of a member as to what market exists 
there for Ceylon arecanuts, the following 
information has been received through the 
courtesy of the Central Agricultural Com- 
mittee, Madras :—The price of the different 
varities of arecanuts used in Malabar District 
is appended. There is hardly any prospect 
of Ceylon arecanuts finding a favourable 
market here, Enough nuts are produced 
locally to allow of considerable export trade, 
after meeting all demands for consumption, 
Further, there is an impression that Ceylon 
nuts are inferior, 


Price per Tulam 
of 1,000 nuts, 
Rs. 8 to Rs. 8. 8, 0. 


Local Name. 


Lavunga churnul 


Moonuvettu G5 OP er tite 
Krasal doa licen aged ety (0). 
Kati attaka ( boiled 

and dried nuts) ... ,, 7to Rs, 11. 
Green nuts (ordinary) ,, 1 to Re, 1. 8. 0, 
Hzudathalan Annas 8 to 12. 


Ripe nuts (ordinary) Re. 1.8.0. to Rs. 2.8.0, 


Publications.—The annual report sub- 
mitted at the General Meeting held on June 
15 will be found in the ‘Tropical Agriculturist 
and Magazine of the Ceylon Agricultural 
Society” for that month. 


_A leaflet by the Secretary on the cultiva- 
tion and preparation of arrowroot was pub- 
lished and circulated, 


Castration of Cattle.—The Government 
Veterinary Surgeon reports that up to date 
611 cattle have been castrated, the property 
of 516 owners, and that 16 men have been 
trained to do the operation at the different 
centres. 

C, DRIEBERG, 


August 3, 1908, Secretary, 


MARKET RATES FOR TROPICAL PRODUCTS. 


aN 


[Avaosr, 


¥ 


176 


(From Lewis & Peat’s Monthly Price Current, London, 8th, July 1908.) 


eens 


ALOES, Soccotrine cwt- 
Zanzibar & Hepatic ,, 
ARROWRKOOT (Natal) Ib. 
KEES’ WAX, cwt. 

Zanzibar Yellow _,, 
Bombay bleached _,, 

a unbleached ,, 
Madagascar ¥ 
CAMPHOR, Formosa ,, 


China ri 
CARDAMOMS. Malabarlb 
Tellicherry 


Mangalore ,, 
Mysore 
Malabar 


Long Wild ,, 

CASTOR OIL, Calcutta,, 

CHILLIES, Zanzibar cwt. 

SINCHONA BARK.-— Ib. 
Ceylon 


Ceylon. 


” 


Chips, &c. 

CLOVES, Penang Ib 
Amboyna 
Ceylon 

‘ Zanzibar 

Stems 

COFFRE i 

/ Ceylon Plantation ,, 


Native 
Liberian 53 
CUCOA, Ceylon Plant. ., 


Native Estate 


” 


COLOMBO KOOT 


” 


CKOTON SEEDS,sift. cwt, 


cUTCH ” oe 
GINGER, Bengal, rough,, 
Calicut, Cuta ,, 
B&C,, 

Cochin Rough ,, 


Japan 


GUM AMMONIACUM,’ 
ANIMI. Zanzibar ,’ 


Madagascar ,, 

ABABIC F.T. & Aden 
Turkey sorts 
Ghatti 
Kurrachee 
Madras 

ASSAFCHTIDA 


KINO » 

MYRRH, picked ? 
Aden sorts 

OLIBANUM, drop 


pickings ,, 


siftings 
INDIA RUBBEK 
Ceylon, Straits, 
Malay Straits, ete. 


Assam 


Rangoon 


m 


QUALITY. 
Fair to fine oe 
Common to good a 
Fair to fine 4 


Slightly drossy to fair .. 
Fair to good 
Derk to good genuine .. 


q 
; 


QUOTATIONS. QUALITY. QUOTATIONS 

85s a 90s INDIARUBBER.(Contd.) 

20s a 808 Borneo Common to good 6d a 28 2d 

97d a 4d Java Good to fine red --!139d a 2s 6d 
Penang low white to prime red|ls 4d a 2g 2d 

£6 10s a £619s6d| Mozambique Fair to fine red Hall  .../2s6d a 3s 4d 


Sausage, fair to good ..)2s 6d a 3s 4d 


£7 10s a £7 12s 6d . 
Fair to fine ball + (28 :da 284d 


£5 15s a £6 10s Nyassaland 


” ” 


Fair II to good red No,1|2s a 2s 8d | 


Dark to gcoa palish [67s 6d a £6 133s Madagascar Fr to fine pinky & white : 
Crude i nom. if Majunga & blk coated .. i eet * 
Fair average quality .. {142s 6d Niggers, low to good ..léd a 2s 1d 
Good to five bold 1s 10d a 2s New Guinea Ordivary to fine ball ../iséda2s 6d nom 
Middling lean Is 5d a 1s 70 INDIGO, KI. Bengal [Shipping mid to gd violet/3s 5d a 3s 1d 
Good to fine bold .[ag a 28 6d Consuming mid. to gd.|3s 1d a, 3s 4d 
Brownish Is 6d ais 9d Ordinary to middling |2s 9d a 3s 
Med brown to fair bold|is 9d a 2s 9a nom. Oudes Middling to fine 2s 6d a 2/8 nom’ 
SmI) fair to fine plump |is/da 3s 6d Mid. to good Kurpah 95 3d a 2s 6d 
Fair to good » lis 6d a 1s 7d Low to ordinary 1s' 6d a'2s 20 
Seeds . jis 7da1s 10d Mid. to fine Madras [1s 5da 2s 4d 
Shelly to good .|id a is 9 MACE, Bombay & Penang|Pale reddish to fine fis 5d a 1s 10d 
ists and 2nds .. {3d a 34d per Ib. ‘Ordinary to fair ls zd als 6d 
Dull to fine bright ..|-0s a 258 Java, » », good pale jis 1d a 1s6d 
MYRKABOLANES, — ewt 
Crown, | Renewed - !32da 7d Madras UG and Coconada 4s 6d a 4s 9d 
Org. Stem |2d a 6d Bombay Jubblepore 4s 9s a 5d 
Red Org. Stem [19d a 43d Bhimlies 5s a 5s 6d 
Renewed =‘ |8d a 5c Rhajpore, &c. 4s 9s a 5s 
Root lida 4d Bengal Calcutta 5s a5s 3d 
Common to fine quill |73da1s 3d NUTMEGS— Ip. |64’s to 57's 1s 4d a 1s 5d 
Om A 7d a 1s 2d Bombay & Penang ,, |!10’s to 65’s 5ad a 1s 5d 
i bay 6d a 1s ” 1160's to 115’s 4id a 54d 
DENS " 5d a Sid NUTS, ARECA _ cwt,|Urdinary to fair fresh {17s 6d a 20s 
Fair to fine bola da 3d NUX VOMICA, Cochin |Ordinary to goud 93 a 11s 6d 
Dull to tine bright bold|94 a 11d per ewt. Bengal ” ” 7s 6d ais 9d 
{Dull to tine wid a 8d Madras ” ” 7s Oda 9s 
a ay 7da ed OIL OF ANISEED Fair merchantable 43 5d 
Fair and fine bright {47d a 53d CASSIA ° ” laccording to analysis /4s6d a4s 9d 
| Pair 2d LEMONGRASS a |Good flavour & colour j2d 
NUTMEG  |Dingy to white 13d a 2d 
Bold to fine 110s a 116s CINNAMON Ordinary to fair sweet |24d a1s3d 
Medium to good Us a 1003 CITRON ELLE ,, Bright & good flavour {1s 1d 
Good ordinary nominal ORCHELLA WEED—cewt!.. 4 
Fair to bold dus 6d a 458 Ceylon ,, |Mid. to fine not woody.../10s a 12s 6d 
Special Marks 80s a &58 Zanzibar. ’ |Picked clean flat leaf ...Jnom. 
Red to good 71s a 79s Mi ” wiry Mozambique ” 
Ordinary to red 50s a 658 PEPPER-— (Black) Ib. 
sPAw Alleppee & Tellicherry|Fair . (340 
Middling to good 12s al5s Ceylon », Lo fine bold heavy ../3d a 4d 
Dull to fair 27s 6d a 32s 6d Singapore Aa He oe 5 +o [3d 
Fair to fine dry 21s 225s nom, | Acheen & W. C. Penang|Dull to fine + [Bd a 39d L 
Fair 30s (White) Singapore ,, |Fair to fine +  «-(4ada 8d 
Small to fine bold 72s 6d a 8s Siam »» |Fair 06 eee ow (Od 
Small and medium 48s a 658 Penang ,», |Fair Se ton we ASE 
Common to fine bold |35s a 37s PLUMBAGO, lump cwt.|Fair_to fine bright bold|35s a 45s nom. 
Small and D’s 3838 a 358 Middling to good small|25s wa 403 
Unsplit : 283 chips Dull to fine bright ..|153 a 30s 
Sm. blocky to fair clean}25s a 60s dust Ordinary to fine bright|7s,a 15s 
Pale and amber, str. srts.]£16 a £19 10s SAGO, Pearl, large (Dull to fine .. . [14s a 15s 9d 
” 1» little red|£13 a £15 medium ..| ,, oy 148 a 16s6d h, 
Bean and Pea, size ditto|75sa £14 small ...|_,, ‘1 148 a 15s 
ir to good red sorts |£9a £12 | SEEDLAC ewt.|Ordinary to gd. soluble |£5 a£6 nom. 
Med. & bold glassy sorts|/£6 10s a £8 |SKNNA, Tinnevelly Ib. |Good to fine bold green 44d a7d 
Fair to good palish .../£4a£8 10s \Fair greenish 23d a 4d 
” » red .../£4 a £7 10s Commonspeckyand smalJ]|1id a 2d 
Ordinary to good pale|25sa eee 6d SHELLS, M. o’PEARL— 
32s 6d a 5Us Egyptian cwt.|/Small to bold .. 5 
Sorts to fine pale ...|178 a 42s 6d | ombay a) 5 we Oe eet 
Reddish to good pale ...}20s a30s nom. | Mergui 59) ” ” ae + |£558 a £7 73 6d 
Dark to fine pale  ...]15s a 25s Manilla », |Zair to good »-1£4 53a £8 2s 6d 
Clean fr. to gd. almonds|85s a 10's Banda », |sorts on +1258 23:8 nom 
com). stony to good block}z5s a 75s ‘TAMARINDS, Calcutta,,.|Mid.to fine bl’k not stony|j1s a 12s c 
Fair to tine bright 6d als | per cwt. Madras |Stony and inferior --/4g2@ 53 
Fair to fine pale £5 a £6 | TORTOISESH ELL— 
Middling to gooa 60s a 748 |Zanzibar, & Bombay lb. |Small to bold -- 18s a81s 
Good to tine white 453 a 65s Pickings -- [6s a 268 
Middling to fair 30s a 40s 'URMERIC, Bengal ewt.|Fair : 17s 
Low to good pale 10s a 20s uadras ,, |Finger fair to fine bold|i9s a 22s 
Slightly foul to fine llsa 15s Do. _ ,, |Bulbs bright|13s a 163 
Fine Para bis. & sheets|4s 23d Cochin », |Finger - 116s 
», Ceara ,, 4s 2d Bulbs « {138 
Crepe ordinary to fine..|4s ld a4s 8d VANILLOES— Ib. 
Fine Block | ..|48 5d Mauritius...) 1sts|Gd crystallized 3} 84 in|7s a 14s 
Serap fair to fine ..(28 6d_ a 8s Madagascar ... ¢ 2nds|Foxy & reddish 3448 ,,\63 a 16s 
Plantation 3s 4d Seychelles...) 3rd.|Lean and inferior «(5S a 68 


VERMILLION .. 


Fine, pure, bright 
28 2da 2s 4a WAX, Japan, squares Good white hard 


eee 


THE SUPPLEMENT TO THE 


i: Tropical Agriculturist and Magazine of the 6. A. 8. 


No. 2,] 


AUGUST, 1908. 


[Von. ITT. 


RUBBER SHIPMENTS: 


i 


ESTIMATES AND EXPORTS, 


In 1904, Ceylon exported 35 tons of rubber ; 
in 1905 this rose to 75 tons, and in 1906, this 
again was doubled, and we reached 150 tons. 
A year ago we ventured to estimate the export 
of rubber from Ceylon for 1907 at 230 tons. The 
actual shipments aggregated 556,000 lb. or very 
nearly 250 tons, For 1908 our estimate put forth 
in August, 1907, but based on the Directory 
returns of acreage 6 years ago, was 350 tons 
(794,000 \b.), and so far as we can judge at this 
moment, this is likely to be realised. An export 
of between 750,000 and 800,000 1b. ought to 
be safe by December 31st, if we go by the 
Chamber’s returns up to 20th July which gave 
350,897 lb.; because there has usually been at 
considerable progressive increase in the second 
half of the year. 


Now, if we turn to the Malay States, it will 
be seen how rapidly our neighbour has shot 
‘ahead and far outstripped Ceylon in her har- 
vestings and exports. In 1906, the Malay States, 
exported 1,028,792 1b. or 460 tons ; for 1907, the 
shipments were 1,984,285 lb., equal to 885 tons ; 
while the first half of 1908 has given 1,382,158 lb. 
or 617 tons and, therefore, if only the same quan- 
tity be shipped in thecurrent half year as during 
the same period of 1907, the total export will be 
about 1,120 tons; but we may feel pretty sure 
if harvestings go on as usual, the export will not 
fall short of 1,300 tons, We may now contrast the 
exports of the two chief Eastern rubber. growing 

States for some years :— 

Exports or RuBeer 1n Tons. 


From Malay 

FromCeylon, States. Total. 
Tons. Tons. Tons, 

1904 35 _ _ 
1905 75 130 205 
1906 150 460 610 
1907 wae 20 885 1,086 
1908 (Ks.) 350 (His.) 1,300 (Es.) 1,650 


As regards the future, no special increase 
is expected for the next two or three years ; 
but by 1912, what may we expect to see from the 
40,000 acres planted in Ceylon up to1905,and still 
more from the 100,000 acres of rubber planted 
upto 1906 and the 150,000 acres upto 1907 ? Six 
years hence by 1913 or 1914, an export requiring 
five figures in tons mwy surely be expected, with 
avery much larger return for the Malay penin- 
sula. If again, five years later, Southern Asia is 
expected to be producing (or capable of produe- 
ing), ‘‘ plantation rubber” equal in quantity in 
one year to the present consumption of the 
world, itis surely time now to stop planting any 
more rubber, until it is seen what effect on 
prices, largely increasing exports from. the Kast 
from 1911 onwards may produce ? 


————— 


RUBBER AND TEA. 


The question of rubber interplanted in tea 
comes up in an acute form in connection with 
this year’s Directory returns. Last year 41,690 
acres were shown as planted with rubber and 
tea and 10,707 acres of rubber and cacao. It 
was certainly anticipated that there would be 
no addition to these figures,—no further inter- 
planting. But to our great surprise the present 
season's returns from the several estates and 
districts work out to a total of 60,284 acres of 
rubber and tea and 19,718 of rubber and cacao. 
We believe this increase must be accounted for 
by greater precision in rendering the acreage 
under different products on very many estates, 
rather than be due to further planting of rub- 
ber in, or with tea, in old or new clearings 
within the past twelve months. Of courso, 
there may have been a~ few interplanted 
clearings ; but they could only amount to very 
little. Our belief is borne ont by the opinion 
of, probably, the best authority among the 
planting community at the presont time, from 
his wide experience of different districts. Tn 
answer to our enquiry, this gentleman writes ;— 


23 


178 The Supplement to the Tropical Agriculturist 


“*So far as my experience goes, planters have generally 
given up planting rubber through the tea, during the 
last 12 months; but a good deal more has been done 
along roads, ravines, and ridges, in the tea fields, and this 
may partly explain the wide difference in the figures. 
Some men in sending in returns may have included 
this as teajand rubber. Rubber in tea on the other hand is, 
often so very backward to start witb, that on tke tea 
and rubber areas previously, the figures may have been 
emitted, till growth was distinctly apparent. This, I know 
did occur in one or two instances. Invery old tea, or 
where it is poor, the stumps and plants hangfire for two 
years and then start growing freely, after pruning and 
manuring the tea. Till the rubber had stopped growing 
well, men may not have thought it worth while including 
it as rubber in any form.” 

This, we must take to be the explanation 
and, of course, it will bea question next how 
much of this interplanted area should be cre- 
dited to rubber and how much to tea and 
cacao. On this point, our correspondent remarks 
in answer to our decision to take two-thirds 
for the older staple :— 

‘© 40,000 acres, in tea alone, would be a fair proportion 
to allow out of the 60,284 acres rubber and tea, The 
tea will undoubtedly give place eventually to the 
rubber; but it takes a good many years before tea will 
cease to yield profitably with present prices—10 years 
from time of planting the rubber, if the land is 
nmanured, 

““f know of no cases where overtapping of rubber has 
been deliberately done to show a high yield to sell the 
eatate on. No doubt mistakes in the methods adopted 
have been made, but they are being gradually rectified.” 

Of course, a great deal depends on the price 
of rubber keeping up. Should the price, eight 
years hence or so, fall by any chance to a level 
leaving little or no profit, we might expect 
every endeavour to be made to keep on 
the tea, even to the sacrifice of the rub- 
ber. Buti if, as is expected, the latter 
continue to be the more protitable of the two, 
as. the trees come to be tapped and attain 
maturity, the tea is bound to gradually dis- 
appear. Meantime, most of the extra 18,000 inter- 
planted acres—tea-and-cacao-and-rubber—may 
fairly be credited to 1906-07 planting rather 
than, we think, to 1907-08. But of that, planters 
and merchants must judge for themselves. We 
can only give the figures as they work out from 
the Estate and District returns sent in to us. 


COCONUT BLEEDING DISEASE: RE- 
MEDIES AND DANGERS. 


We direct attention to a coconut planter’s 
warning hereafter, and his complaint that 
the cracks caused by the sun after cutting 
out and tarring the parts of a coconut stem 
affected by the bleeding disease, attract the red 
_ beetle. He has come across woodpeckers, too, 


to follow up the traces of the plant-surgeon’s 
knife, or of the disease, and finding these stems 
particularly to their ‘‘ taste.” Can Mr. Petch, 
the Government Mycologist, suggest a practical, 
and not too custly, means of guarding against 
both contingencies ? 


Western Province, July 23rd. 


Dear Sir,—During Mr Petch’s lecture in 
Colombo a few months ago, I pointed out to him 
a danger I experienced by. cutting into the 
stem of young coconut palms. The danger was 
that, after the disease had been cut out and the 
stem tarred, cracks resulted, from the heat of 
the sun, attracting thereby the red-beetle. No 
remedy to keep off the beetle could be suggested 
beyond the expensive one of having the trees 
daily watched and the cracks tarred over as soon 
as they showed themselves. 


This is not the only danger. My attention 
was attracted afew days ago to what looked like 
a cracked stem ona palm which had been oper- 
ated on in the- usual fashion several weeks pre- 
viously, The trunk is about 20 ft. and it had 
to be cut into fora length of 5 ft., reaching tight 
to the crown where the disease was arrested. 
On closer examination, however, it was revealed 
that the wood-pecker (the ordinary black and 
red-plumaged bird) had been at work along the 
stem and eventually madea hole, about 3 inches 
in diameter, at tie summit, right into the stem. 
Fortunately the red-beetle had not entered. This 
is a danger that will have to be guarded against, 
so planters beware !—Yours truly, ' 

A. K, 


COCONUTS AND THE CYCLONE AT 
BATTICALOA. 


The following Report made by the District 
Engineer (Mr. A N Robertson), which we givein 
full, is a very practical and satisfactory one. His 
reckoning is of a total of 300,000 palms blown 
down, of which over 230,00) belong to native 
gardens or emall estates, since the total apper- 
taining to 12 estates mentioned was 66,783— 
but these mean more than (wo-thirds of the 
whole number previously on these same proper. 
ties! This isa terrible loss and that the industry 
altogether in the Eastern Province has suffered 
to the extent of £250,000 is quite evident ; but 
the loss is much more if it is considered how 
long coconuts planted anew must take to come 
into bearing. 


and Magazine of the Ceylon Agricultural Society. 


REPORT ON THE MEASURES TAKEN 
TO DESTROY THE COCONUT TREES IN THE EAS- 
TERN PROVINCE, CEYLON, WHICH FELL DURING 
THE CYCLONE OF MARCH, 1907. 

On March 10, 1907, between the hours of 1 and 
-8o’clock in the morning, a cyclone of terrific 
violence swept over the centre of the Kastern 
Province, 

2. This report is concerned only with the 
damage done thereby to the coconut plantations 
of the district. 

3. The seaboard of the Province is largely 
taken up by coconut plantations, roughly, to a 
width of 5 or 6 miles,’ 

4. The cyclone swept the district from a 
point 20 miles north to a point 48 miles south of 
Batticaloa town } but its force was not intense 

_save between points 5 miles north and 39 miles 
south of Batticaloa. 

5. The total number of trees blown down was 
about 300,000. Of this total, about 250,000 were 
blown down in the district 5 miles to 39 miles 
south of Batticaloa town, 


6. Inthe latter district the total number of 
coconut trees over fifteen years old might have 
been 700,000, so that 43 per cent of the matured 
trees were destroyed. 

7, The following is a list of estates most 
affected, together with the approximate number 
of trees growing before the cyclone in the 
damaged portions of the estates and the number 


destroyed therein :— 


Approximate Number of 


Naime of Hstate. Number of trees trees 
before Cyclone, destroyed. 
Loxton : 15.000 9,000 
Kaster Seaton 26,000 16,881 
Kaluthavelly 1 3,500 1,792 
do p} Bs 3,100 2,525 
do 3 & 5,200 4,753 
Sea View Kalmunai 1,150 1,:27 
Karativoe 16,000 14,578 
Nindoor 4,800 4,564 
Olliville 5,000 4,092 
Addapalam nA 5,000 4,503 
Malcompaddy village .. 480 468 
Senaputney ahs 3,200 2,650 
Hameodiah 2,670 1,850 
Total 9',000 66,783 


8. Mature trees being worth from R10 to R15 
each, the capital loss to the coconut industry in 
the Eastern province may be calculated at 
£250,000 sterling in round numbers. This loss 
is all the more serious when it is remembered 
that trees planted in the same places as the ones 
destroyed, will not bear good crops unless very 
richly manured ; and, moreover, will not bear 
good crops there or elsewhere for a period vary- 
ing from twenty to twenty-five years. 


179 


9. In addition to the measures to alleviate 
distress it became an imperative necessity to 
destroy or remove the trunks of the 300,000 
fallen coconut trees, as their decaying timber 
would breed beetles, in which event the surviv- 
ing trees would be destroyed by these pests, 

10. To meet this emergency Government pro- 
claimed the Pests Ordinance, No. 6 of 1907, in 
the Batticaloa District. A Pests Board was 
established with the Government Agent of the 
Eastern Province as Chairman and composed of 
representatives of the different communities, I 
was seconded from the Public Works Depart- 
ment as its executive officer with a seat on the 
Board, 

11. It being impossible to remove the fallen 
trees, it was proclaimed that they should be 
buried or burnt. 

12. In August, 1907, I was instructed to enu- 
merate and begin work. All estates over 25 
acres in extent were in my sole charge as to 
enumeration and destruction; but on smaller 
estates the enumeration was in charge of the 
local Chief Headman—the Vanniah—and the 
headmen next in rank to him, the Udaiyars, 

13. A sum of 25 cents per tree was paid at the 
local Kachcheri to persons who furnished a’ 
certificate signed or countersigned by me after 
renewed inspection stating that their trees were 
destroyed. The expenses involved were met 
from the Government vote of R100,000 for the 
destruction of fallen trees, 

14, From the outset the European planters, 
as arule, were only too eager to carry out the 
necessary destruction; but the poorer and less 
intelligent natives remained inactive. In some 
cases the latter consented to allow my men to 
destroy the trees on contract, but eventually it 
became necessary for the Chairman of the Pests 
Board to give me right of entry to lands on 
which dead trees lay, and to serve 
NOTICES ON PERSONS DELAYING DESTRUCTION, 

WARNING THEM 

that after a certain date the Board would 
destroy the trees and recover the costs involved 
from the owners. I am glad to say that in no 
single instance was this drastic measure en- 
forced. This was mainly due to the obedience 
of the people to the Chairman as Government 
Agent and to his headmen. 

15. Atthe outset I studied the difficulty in- 
volved in burning damp trees, especially in a 
district where there is little or no fuel. I even- 
tually devised a plan by which the work could 
be done within the reward offered by Govern- 
ment. The trees were cut into lengths of about 


180 The Supplement to the Tropical Agriculturist 


8 feet each and then piled over shallow trenches 
of a definite length in which fuel had been 
placed. Thus, a natural draught was set up, and 
once started the trees burnt themselves out. I 
may mention that Mr John Cotton of Easter 
Seaton estate had also hit on a similar method, 

16. In places where people had already uti- 
lised the leaves of the fallen trees no fuel was 
available, and destruction by burying was re- 
sorted to. 

17. Atdate, to the best of my knowledge, 
all the trees blown down by the cyclone have 
been destroyed, and the Chief Headmen have 
certified, I believe, to the same effect. There 
are still trees dying, however, in small numbers, 
from the severe shaking they got during the 
cyclone or other causes. The danger from 
beeties has thus been avoided, as the destruc- 
tion of the dead trees was effected well within 
the period allowed by the scientists of the 
Royal Botanic Gardens, Peradeniya. 

A. N. RoBERTson, 


District Engineer. 
Kalmunai, June 3, 1908, 


—Sessional Papers LX. of 1908. 


NOTES FROM THE COCONUT Dis- 
TRICT N.-W. PROVINCE. 


THE BLEEDING DISEASE OF COCONUTS. 

The continued dry weather may have arrested 
the growth and spread of the fungus that is the 
cause of this disease, but whatever the cause, 
the spread has beenarrested. Everyone will have 
observed that the course of the disease on the 
stem of a young tree isspiral. Mr Petch told us 
thatthe grain of coconut wood ran spirally, there- 
fore, one could never be sure that remedies applied 
ina hole in the trunk above the affected parts 
would reach and counteract the disease. I have 
old trees here with spiral grooves high up on 
the trunk, which I always thought was due 
to cutting-out of red beetle when the trees 
were young. [am now inclined to think they 
were due to stem disease—contracted, of course 
—as it would not then have been epidemic. 
Well the effect of the grooves on the trunk, 
when they are many in number, is the gradual 
tapering of the trunk. This is always an indica- 
tion of declining health in a coconut tree. As 
the: stem tapers, the fronds get shorter and 
the bearing becomes less. I wish Dr, Willis 


and Mr, Drieberg could have seen these trees ° 


and others I was prepared to show them. If 
Mr. Petch will visit Marawila, as he promised 
he would to the local Association, I will arrange 
to show him all I have to show. 


THE COCONUT STEM DISEASE. 


Wilhelms Ruhe, July 23rd. 


Srz,—Permit me a little space in your journal 
to say a word in grateful acknowledgment of 
the service rendered to coconut planters by the 
Government Mycolcgist. And it is the least 
we can do, remembering that Mr Petch was a 
few months ago subjected to a great deal of 
ungenerous criticism in the Press. 


I have just returned from a visit to several 
coconut estates in the Chilaw District and was 
so happy to observe that the stem disease was 
practically dead. Only one tree could I 
discover which was affected. This shows that 
the treatment prescribed by Mr Petch was very 
effective. No doubt the drought also helped to 
stay the disease. 


In conclusion let me give my observations for 
what they are worth: (1) Where the soil was rich, 
a greater number of trees were affected. (2) 
Excepting two trees the disease had attacked 
only the lower part of the trunk—not more than 
8 feet off the ground. (3) Of a dozen, the estate 
most affected was one on which only cattle 
manure was used.—I am, yours faithfully, 


F. J. DE MEL. 


TAMARIND. 


July 28th. 
Dear Srr,—With reference to a query raised 
in your columns as to the value of the produce 
of this tree, one does not realise what a steady 
demand there is for tamarind pulp. Itis only 
by visiting markets, both in town and country, 
that the fact comes to be known. 


In Government Forests in India, the tree is 
farmed out every year to the highest bidder, and 
the produce constitutes an important item of 
Forest revenue. According to Watt a good tree 
will give about 350 lb. per annum, and this, 
when of good quality, will sell at the wholesale 


rate of R50 per candy of 7 cwt. Watt states that — 


large quantities are shipped to Europe, Persia 
and other countries, The price ,quoted above 
works out about 6 cts. per lb. so that 350 Ib. will 
be worth over R20, It is then quite conceiv- 
able that a more than ordinarily prolific tree 
will fetch, at retail rates, double that amount, 


The percentage of citric acid present in tama- 
rinds is likely to make them an important 


source of that chemical.—Yours truly, iy 


and Magazine of the Ceylon Agricultural Society, 


BUD-ROT OF COCONUT TREES IN 
JAMAICA. 


In further reference to the diseased coconut 
trees on this property, some of which woro 
treated by Mr Cradwick, you will remember. (1) 
by trenching 3ft. by 2ft. 6ins, (2) by spraying 
with Bordeaux Mixture. (3) by dressing with 
Iron Sulphate. 


You may know that I am now of opinion that 
in one or two trees there is a decided increase in 
the number of coconuts holding on the bunches, 
and a stoppage of the dropping of large, 
blighted nuts. I am not yet satisfied, however, 
that this iscaused by the spraying, but as 
the general improvement of the field is so 
great since the breaking ot the drought, it 
is hard to say with certainty whether the 
result has been achieved by the spraying. 
The trenching I cannot yet see has made 
any difference. Some time ago I wrote very 
hopefully of the result of my burning trees that 
were sick, [am sorry to report now that most 
of those trees that had apparently recovered and 
thrown out entirely clean, new leaves, have gone 
back again, Mr Cradwick was good enough to 
visit the fieldagain not long ago and we agreed 
thatI should go through carefully and regularly 
and burn, to check the spread of the disease. I 
propose to keep open the trenches, and when 
Mr Cradwick is able to return, we hopeto try a 
more detailed and larger experiment with the 
spraying. I may say that trees sprayed ona 
neighbouring estate are reported as holding the 
coconuts remarkably better, I may also tell 
‘you that [ heard lately that Mr B C Orgill says 
that some 30 years ago, when he owned a place 
near here, the same coconut disease was ramp- 
ant, and only by constant, regular burning 
did he stamp it out; even then, it returned 
after ten years had elapsed. It (burning) 
would therefore appear to be a preven. 
tiveand not a cure. [ do not, in spite of 
all the learned opinion to that effect, believe 
it is a question only of drainage, as trees die 
in such different soils and position in the same 
walk. I trust you will keep this matter 
moving and before the Instructors, and if you 
could get some scientist to examine the trees 
for bacteria on the spot, it might tend to useful 
results ; it certainly would be a most serious 
calamity, especially to this otherwise resource- 
less district, if the coconut industry were to 
fail us. 


Priestman’s River. Lzo, A, Warns. 


181 


[We are glad to say that the Society’s In- 
structors are also on the look-out for traces 
of bud-rot on the coconut trees in their dis- 
tricts, and they have hitherto, according to 
orthodox, been advising the spraying of Bor- 
deaux mixture for this trouble, as used else- 
where, where the disease is more prevalent 
than here. Burning the tops, is a kill or 
cure method, but it has been shown to be 
effective for many years past, and if carefully 
done, the proportion of ‘‘ kills” should be 
small, We understand that the Instructor 
for St. Mary aud Portland, Mr Cradwick, will be 
able to devote close and continuous attention to 
this disease during the next three years. In next 
month’s Journal we shall publish some further 
information and experiences in this connection. 
Kp.] Jamaica Agricultural Society, for June. 


BORDEAUX MIXTURE. 


Bordeaux mixture may be prepared by dis- 
solving six pounds of copper sulphate (blue 
stone) in 25 gallons of water. Ifthe powdered 
copper sulphate is used,it may be dissolved in an 
hour or so by suspending it ina feed sack just 
under the surface of the water. In another 
vessel, slake four or five pounds of lime in a 
small quantity of water. When slaked, dilute to 
25 gallons and strain through coarse sacking into 
a 50-gallon barrel to remove all the matter that 
might clog the nozzle ofthe spraying machine. 
Pour the copper sulphate solution into the lime 
solution, stirring the mixture vigorously during 
the process and for two or three minutes after- 
ward. Use the mixture at once. An excess of 
copper sulphate in the Bordeaux mixture isinju- 
rious and asa test to ascertain whether the sol- 
ution contains the right proportion of copper 
sulphate and lime, a brightly polished piece of 
iron, for instance a clean knife blade, should be 
inserted in the mixture for one or two minutes. 
If the amount of lime is insutflicient, the surface 
becomes coated with copper and more lime 
should be added until no copper is deposited on 
the iron.—P. J. WxstEeR, Subtropical Labora- 
tory, Miami, Fla. March 30, 1907.—Palm Beach 
Weekly News. 


— 


JAVA TEA. 

Wo see, from our last year’s Directory, it 
was fully expected that Java would export 40 
million lb. of tea by 1910. If Mr. H. Tomlinson’s 
expectation be correct this figure is to be attai- 
ned during the present year : weshallsee. Java 
planters should press their countrymen in Hol- 
land and West Germany to drink more ‘tea, 


182 
COCONUT PALM DISEASE IN COGHIN. 


The following ‘‘ Note” on Coconut Palm 
Disease, prepared by the Superintendent of 
Agriculture, Cochin, should prove of interest to 
coconut planters in Ceylon :— 


‘‘T visited the Methala village in Cranganore 
on the 14th instant and examined the coconut 
palms affected in the ‘‘ Panikan Thuruthu.” On 
the 15th another garden belonging to one 
Muhammadan in the Azhikode village was also 
examined. These are the only two places affected 
so far in the Cochin State, The leaves of about 
halt-a-dozen trees are almost completely eaten 
away in the Methala village and about the same 
number of palms are slightly damaged in the 
Azhikode village. It is probable that a few 
leaflets here and there might have been eaten 
away in some more trees. On the whole there 
is no serious damage yet occurred in the 
Cochin territory. But the case is quite different 
in the ‘Travancore Territory bordering the 
affected area in Cochin. There a good number 
of trees is completely devoid of any leaflet, the 
absence of which seriously tells upon the health 
and growth of the trees. 


‘© It is to be noted that the trees so affected 
are some of those standing along the boundary 
of the garden, facing the affected area in 
Travancore, separated only by a river and 
practically no trees are attacked in the interior 
of the garden. I happened to see about seventeen 
coconut palms so affected in the British terri- 
tory, about amile north of Cranganore. Those 
trees, also standing in aline on a bund border. 
ing a river, are facing the affected area in 
Travancore ata considerable distance. These 
facts go to prove the few moths or butter- 
flies, leaving their company which stopped 
in Cheria Thuruthu and in its neighbourhood 
in the Travancore territory, proceeded to the 
north and perched on the trees that they met 
first. These laid their eggs on them and died, 
causing another cycle of their existence. The 
so-called insects which brought about so much 
damage to the coconut leaves have altogether 
disappeared now, and the peopleare under the 
impression that their destruction, rather I may 
say their temporary 


CESSATION OF DESTRUCTIVE POWER, WAS DUE TO 
CERTAIN ENCHANTMENTS 

resorted to by a certain Muhammedan priest. 

This is a new pest to the coconut palms and it is 

difficult to give outthe true life-history of this 


The Supplement to the Tropical Agriculturist 


pest unless closely watched, and studied... But 
to avoid the misconception of the people, I 
would give the life history of the insects of 
this class in a general way :— 


‘The female moth or butterfly after laying its 
eggs dies away, as has been previously said, 
These eggs open after a while. The insect un- 
dergoes a series of changes. The larva popu- 
Jarly known as caterpillar eats the leavesalmost 


incessantly, laying up in the interior a store of 
fat in which it may sustain its existence during 
its pupal stage. (Those insects found destruc- 
tive to coconut leaves were in their larval stage.) 
The skin of the insect cannot keep pace with 
the growth and therefore splits as soon as its 


expanding properties are exhausted, permitting 
the caterpillar to crawl, when it resumes eat- 
ing with great vigour After some time 
the creature passes the caterpillar or larval 
stage and becomes a pupa or chrysalid 
and remains in that state for a variable time 
without taking food and almost inactive. The 


locality chosen by this creature during this 
strange period of growth is also variable. In 
this particular case I saw their shells, so to 
speak, in clusters horizontally adhering either 
to the’ trunk, leaf stalk, leaflet, spathe or any 
other part of the tree, in which it awaits its 
last stage. At the proper time the pupa skin 
splits and permits the perfect insect to emerge 
as butterfly or moth from its prison. The in- 
sects under reference now reached this stage 
and disappeared. They might have laid their 
eggs either there alone, or they might have left 
the place in search of a fresh locality. At any 
rate, | believe that they would. make their ap- 
pearance again somewhere to commence the 
cycle again. 


“T received some specimens of these insects 
collected and sent by the Diwan Peishkar, in 
their larval stage. But they are rotten and 
decayed except one as they were not properly 
preserved. From what I could see in them, I 
am giving the following description :—It is 
about an inch in length and about 4 of an inch 
in diameter, with four lines of hairs greenish 
yellow in colour. These lines of hairs are 
longitudinally arranged, one on either side in 
contact with the surface on which it crawls or 
rests, and two on either side of its back, These 
hairs are seen in clusters free from each other. 
These lines of hairs are divided from each 
other by a band of greenish blue, Thus 


and Magazine of the Ceylon Agricultural Society. 


there are three such bands, one along the 
middle of its back; and two on _ either 
side. The rest of its body is greenish yellow 
in colour. On its back it has four black spots 
arranged crosswise. When itis free, it brings 
out its head, but when touched, the head is 
drawn in. The band alorg its back, referred 
to above, is not a continuous one, but broken 
in the middle. Two clusters of hairs in front, 
as well as its hind portion, are provided with 
a sharp spiny protuberance in the centre. 
These are the only descriptions 1 could give 
from the insects in hand. — 


‘‘No cocoons are formed in the pupal or 
chrysalis stage, but only rhells. These shells 
are of a reddish-brown colour, oval in shape 
more tapering to the opening, flat at the 
bottom and a little convex at the top. They 
consist of thin and brittle scale-like materials, 
When broken, probably the dust or particles 
of decayed hairs falling on me, it gave intense 
irritation to my hands and face for a number 
of hours. They may not possess any poisonous 
secretion. But the unpleasant and even painful 
effect may be due to the mechanical action of 
the hairs upon the nerves. 


‘© On my enquiry at Narakkal, I was told that 
the same kind of insects damaged some coconut 
trees about thirty years ago in Malipuram 
village and about two years hence the disease 
was again noticed in Thengathara village also, 
So, as was stated before, it is probable that 
the insects might choose a fresh locality for 
further destruction. Now tothe 


METHOD ADOPTED BY THE VILLAGERS TO ARREST 


THE SPREAD OF THE DISEASE. 


It was a very wise policy to have the 
diseased leaf or leaflet cut and burned. But 
the process was anything but satisfactory. In 
some places I saw the diseased leaf cut and 
thrown into a bush where the insects passed 
into their last stage, and in most cases the 
leaves are not cut at all: Ifthey have had taken 
timely precaution and destroyed the insects, 
there could have formed no shells at all on the 
trees from which perfect insects have merged. 
One can see innumerable shells either empty or 
with dead moths inside, This goes to prove 
that the destruction was incomplete. This gave 
them opportunity for further procreation. There 
should be co-operation among all gardeners in 
destroying their pest. In Travancore the garde- 
ners seem to have made no attempt at all to 
stamp out the disease. There is no use of a few 


183 


making a spasmodic attempt, Al! owners of 
gardens should give strict instructions to their 
watchmen to examine every tree, especially in 
the morning, and when they notice any leaflet 
of a tree is eaten it should be minutely examined 
and if any insect is seen, cut the leaflet 
or leaf if the damage is greater, and burn the 
material and reduce it to ashes. If every gardener 
takes this precaution and tries to destroy all or 
most of the insects in their larval stage, there 
will be little fear of their further multiplication 
and damage. The gardeners are ignorant of the 
life-history of these insects, and therefore only 
they do not realise the importance of their 
destruction in their early stage. To enlighten 
them on this subject I am writing a short note 
in Malayalam for publication in the village sheot. 
Since this is a new pest to coconut palms, I do 
know the use of any insecticide, unless the 
experiment is first conducted by myself. For 
this purpose, I request that the Revenue 
Officials of all the Taiuks may be addressed to 
give instructions to the village officials to com- 
municate to me when this pest makes its 
appearanco again anywhere in the State. Fur- 
ther, 1 request that the insects, though rotten, 
and the shells may be sent to the Imperial 
Entomologist, Agriculture Research Institute, 
Pusa, for examination. 


The coconut palms attacked by these insects 
look unhealthy and weak, They begin to send 
off fresh shoots. These coconut trees should be * 
well manured now, not all in one dose, but little 
by little, with rotten cowdung and ash, silt, fish 
manure or oil-cakes. In applying a mixture of 
cattle manure and ashes, it may be supplemented 
with some green leaves also if available, The silt 
may be exposed for some time, whereas the 
other manures may be applied and covered up 


with earth.’ —Tutiicorin Co., July 31. 
MR. HERBERT WRIGHT ON 
‘* VALLAMBROSA’”’ 


Mr H M Darby kindly conducted me over 
every pact cf this property. [had the pleasure 
of seeing the old tapped trees, the young ex- 
tensive clearings which will soon be in bearing, 
and the estate known as Bukit Kraiong recently 
taken over and now being developed by that 
company. [tis remarkabig to see how well the 
bark has been dealt with ; many of the trees 
which have been regularly tapped still possess 


184 


from one-third to one-half of the original pri- 
mary bark below five feet.. There will be no 
neccssity to think of tapping renewed bark on 
Vallambrosa fora long time to come, though 
some of it is already over three years old, and 
fullof rich latex. The various sections have 
been planted at 10 by 10, 10 by 12, 17 by 17, 
20) by 10, and 20 by 12 feet apart ; all the latter 
day clearings are planted 24 by 12 owing to the 
large yields already obtained froma very big 
block planted at that distance. I was informed 
that the trees on that block gave 3 to 41b of rub- 
ber each; the more closely planted estates gave 
about 2 cwt. per acreduring the same period. 


The rate of growth on many clearings is 
phen» menally rapid, and would cause many 
Ceyion planters to ponder. I measured many 
trees, not yet three years old, which were 18 to 
21 inches in~ circumference a yard from 
the ground ; they will be 24 inches long before 
they are four years old. Most of the young 
plants have been thumb-nail pruned at about ten 
feetfrom the ground, and now possess good 
heads of fresh healthy fohage. 


There are now nearly 1,000 acres at the tapp- 
ing stage ; 250,000 lb will probably be obtained 
during the current year. Thisshould be very 
largely exceeded when the young clearings are in 
bearing. —H.W.—India Rubber Journal, June 29. 


PARA RUBBER TREES IN GOVERN- 
MENT GARDEN AT TENOM, 
B.N. BORNEO. 


Report on Tappinc oF Sixty TREES, 

The yield of one and three-quarters pounds of 
rubber per tree in 12 months’ tapping of trees 
between 5 and 6% years old (at the termination 
of these experiments) is extremely satisfactory 
and so isthe work of the tapping coolie who 
took on anaverage 16 cuts to remove one inch 
of bark: most of thistapping was done with an 
ordinary farrier’s knife and some with a ‘‘ safety’ 
tapping knife, both simple instruments devoid 
of adjusting apparatus and so ‘‘ fool proof.” The 
trees were tapped every alternate day for one 
year without any rest except on such days as 
rain fell or the tapper was sick ; they seem none 
the worse for this treatment and have yielded 
20,349 seed as against 11,591 the previous year. 
Wounds from the ‘‘ Y” tapping seem to heal 
much more quickly and evenly than those from 
‘half herring bone” (all were done by the same 
coolie) probably the extra irritation from the 
three cuts of the latter prevented the regular 


The Supplement to the Tropical. Agriculturist. 


healing of the wounds, There is practically no 
difference in yield per tree by either method of 


tapping, but the ‘‘ half herring bone” system 


has required the excision of 189 square inches of 
cortex for each pound of dry rubber obtained 


whereas the ‘‘ Y” system only requires the ex- 


cision of 147 square inches to obtain the same 
amount. This year’s experiment will be the 
comparison of 50 trees tapped on the “‘Y” system 
against 50 trees. tapped on ‘4” system: One 
hundred and fifty five (155) Para rubber trees in 
Government experimental gardens at Tenom 
were planted, not before December, 1900, nor 
a‘ter July, 1902 (exact date is uncertain as no 
records, were kept.) The plants have been 
uncared for and allowed to grow as they liked, 
with the result that about one-quarter of them 
have two or three stems: this lowers consider- 
ably the average girth as-in these calculations 
each separate stem is regarded as a separate 
tree: even then we get an average girth at five 
to six-and-half-years old of twenty-one inches 
at three feet from the ground, and the average 
increase in the girth during the last twelve 
months (ending 3lst July, 1907) is four and 
three-quarter inches (Singapore Botanic Gar- 
den records an average of 34 inches,) 


} herring Sa) Bh 
j bone. Method. 
No. of trees an 30 30 
Average'girth 3 feet from ground .. 24 in. 214 in. 


How often tapped Every alternate day 


for 12 months, 


Yield of dry rubber inl2 months .. 53} 1b, 534 Ib. 
Lb. per tree per annum 13 Ib. 1} Ib. 
‘Average square inches excised per tree 287°4 638° 
do do do 

per tapping : 1°64 2°14 
One lb. of rubber requires excision 

of square inches of cortex 147 189 
Lb. per tree per tapping 0°011 0°0113 * 
No. of tappings in 12 months 159 158 
Total square inches excised 7,834 10,144 
Thickness of each excision 1-15 in. 118 in. 


—FRANK Ki. LEASE, Manager, Sapong Estate. 

[The history of these trees is not without in- 
terest. Some seven or eight years ago MrC H 
Keasberry, at that time District Officer, Tenom, 
and in charge of the Gardens, received by post 
a packet of seeds without any advice or intima- 
tion of their nature. Assuming them to be 
some species of fruit with which’ he was not 
familiar, Mr Keasberry planted the seeds in a 
nursery bed, and in due time planted some of 
them out in the gardens, leaving a large number 
in the nursery bed, where they can still be seen 
growing in a large clump, surrounded by their 
own seedlings. No further attention was paid 
them beyond the ordinary routine weeding by 
the garden coolies, and it was not till the rubber 
‘“‘hoom ” reached Borneo a few years since, 
that they were recognised as Para Rubber.) 
—B. N. B. Herald. 


/ 


tind Magazine of the Ceylon Agricultural Society, 


PROGRAMME OF EXPERIMENTAL 
WORK. 
At HEELEAKA FOR THE SEASON 1908. 


Calcutta, 2nd July, 1908. 


In the Report on the Heeleaka Experimental 
Station for the years 1905 to 1907 a general 
account has. been given of the various manu- 
rial and other experiments carried out there 
during the past three seasons. The present 
report is intended to give some idea of the 
further work which it is hoped to carry on 
in the present and following years :— 


Manvurran Experiments.—It has been 
pointed out in previous reports that the econo- 
mic value of such manures as Superphosphate 
and Sulphate of Potash depends largely upon 
their residual effect, and that their compara- 
tively high price must be counterbalanced by a 
corresponding maintenance of the increased 
yield which they produce. With a view to 
elucidating this point, a system of manurial 
rotation has been instituted, based upon the 
assumption that the amounts of Phosphates 
and Potash originally applied to the plots 
Nos. 4, 5, 6, 7, should be suflicient to meet 
the requirements of the bushes for at least 
three years, whilst Nitrogen, as Nitrate of 
Soda, will be supplied annually. These four 
plots originally received dressings of Phos- 
phatic and Potash manures in the forin of 
Superphosphate (Nos. 4 and 6—3 ecwt. per 
acre), and Basic Slag (Nos. 5 and 7—5 cwt. 
per acre) whilst all four plots received 2 cwt. 
Sulphate of Potash. Nitrate of Soda was 
applied at the rate of 24 cwt. per acre to Nos, 6 
and 7, and the greatly increased yield of these 
two plots was obviously due to its action in com- 
bination with the phosphoric acid and potash, 
its absence in Plots Nos, 4 and 5 producing 
a corresponding diminution of yield as com- 
pared with the former. These applications were 
repeated in the second year, but no manure was 
applied in the third ; and it is now proposed to 
make use of these four plots as the starting 
point of a manurial rotation, in which the origi- 
nal dressings will be depended upon to supply 
phosphates and potash for the next two years, 
the more rapidly exhausted Nitrogen being ap- 
plied annually. In previous publications stress 
as been laid upon the 


VALUE OF A PROPER PROPORTION BETWEEN THE 
VARIOUS INGREDIENTS 


of a manurial mixture, and especially the 
amount of Nitrogen, any excess of which may be 
regarded as injurious. Ina mixture of Super- 
phosphate, Sulphate of Potash, and Nitrate of 
Soda, the two former may be considered as 
coming into action as plant fouds with compara- 
tive slowness, whilst the Nitrogen in the latter 
is already available, so that in a manure of the 
above composition the effective ratio of Nitrogen 
- to Phosphates and Potash varies as the season 
advances, being high at the commencement but 
rapidly becoming less by reason of the great 
solubility of the nitrates in rain water, and the 
inability of the soil to retain them as it does 
phosphoric acid and potash. Thus in supplying 
nitrogenous manures we have two points to 


4 


185 
consider: first, the liability to lose nitrogen in 
drainage water, and secondly, the difticulty 
of maintaining the proper proportion be- 
tween the supply of this element and 
that of the phosphoric acid and potash; 
the importance of preserving this propor- 
tion throughout the year is especially great 
in connection with a leaf crop, the uniform 
quality of which has to be maintained, so far as 
is possible, for some six consecutive months. 
The adoption of the annual small dose of oil- 
cake in preference to the triennial large one is 
an admission and recognition of this state of 
affairs, and it is now proposed to take further 
steps in the same direction by extending the 
principle of the small dose, and applying it not 
only to differentiate annual from triennial ap- 
plications, but to modifying the method of 
manurial treatment throughout the season, The 
method depends upon the assumption that the 
sreater success of the annual small dose of 
manure is principally due to the fact that the 
roots of the tea bush are only able to take up a 
limited amount of nitrate in solution during 
any given period of time, and that any excess 
present in the soil is lost by removal in drainage 
water. Jn order to avoid each loss it would then 
seom necessary tosupply the nitrogenous manure 
in small doses at frequent intervals, and this 
method is now being adopted in the various ex- 
perimental plots receiving nitrogen, whether 
in the form of Oileake, Animal Meal, Nitrate of 
Soda, Sulphate of Ammonia, or Nitrate of 
Potash. The following table shews the arrange- 
ment of the plots and the amounts of the 
manures applied :— 
Table No. 1 


Number of 
Plot No. Manure Rate peracre., doses. 

Be f Ammonium ) ewt, 

es Sulphate f 2 2 
2u do il 1 
3 Nitrate of Soda 23 2 
3a do 14 1 
4 do 1s By 
5 do 1g 3 
6 do 15 3 
i do 1k 8 


In the above series Nos. 4 and 6 originally 
received dressings of Superphosphate (3 cwt. 
per acre); Nos. 5 and 7 being manured with 
Basic Slag (5 cwt. per acre): all four plots 
received sulphate of Potash (2 ewt. per acre) : 
the object of the experiment being to determine 
the residual effect of these minerals in conjunc- 
tion with repeated doses of Nitrate of Soda. 


In order to complete this experiment four 
plots have been arranged as follows, making 
use of the Nos. 3 and? 4 of the Pruning Plots 
which are no longer required for experi- 
mental pruning ; on these plots the relative 
merits of the divided and of the single dose 
it is hoped will be ascertained :— 


Number of 

Plot No. Manure, Per Acre. Applications, 
3 Oilcake 6 mds, 3 of 2 mds, 

3u do Bales Dr cherie, 

4 Animal Meal 3. ,, 3 Aaulu 

4a do Bai A 1 Fe ane 


This method of application will be further 
tested on Plot No, 20 Manurial Series where 
the annual application of Nitrate of Potash on 
both halves of the plot will be subdivided, the 
one receiving its dressing in two doses, the other 


186 


in five doses. Mention has been made in a pre- 
vious report of the apparently rapid action of 
Cattle Manure trenched into’ the soil as com- 
pared with the same manure buried with the 
deep hoe. In order to test this point, cattle 
manure has been applied on plots 17 and 18 at 
the rate of 200 maunds per acre, on No. 17 in 
trenches and on No. 18 with the deep hoe. The 
trenches were cut in every row and were 
approximately eighteen inches deep and five 
inches wide. The deep hoe was at the rate of 
twelve nolls and penetrated to an average depth 
of nine inches. The amount of each constituent 
of these manurial applications has been arranged 
with no previous knowledge of the precise quan- 
tities required by the tea bush under various 
conditions ; it is hoped, however, that the con- 
tinuation of the experiments on these plots in 
the manner indicated above will afford valuable 
information as to the quantities which can be 
applied most economically. To investigate this 
matter thoroughly would involve the laying out 
of a large number of new plots, and it 
has been decided, in accordance with the 
opinion expressed by the local advisory Com- 
mittee, that in view of the difficulty experienced 
in obtaining the necessary labour to work those 
plots already in operation, it would be inadvis- 
able to. undertake any further extensicn at 
present, Certain plots, however, have been set 
out for determining, so far as is possible, the 
amounts of organic manures, such as Oilcakes 
and Animal Meal, which can most economically 
be applied: they are arranged as follows :— 


Table of Quantitative Expeziment on Oilecake and 
Animal Meal. 
Plot No. Manure, Maunds per acre. 
5 7 Animal Meal é 
Z 7a No Manure 
3 8 Animal Meal 5 
4 3a do. do, 7 
5 9 Oilcake 6 
6 9a No Manurg 
7 10 Oilcake 10 
8 10a do. ° 15 


It will be seen that the relative amounts of 
cake and Animal Meal are in the proportion 
of two to one, this being in accordance with 
their relative nitrogen content, and aleo approxi- 
mately with their cost. ‘By the kindness of 
Messrs, Shaw Wallace & Co, [ have been able 
to arrange for the laying out of other experi- 
mental plots on gardens in their agency, in 
Assam, in Sylhet, and in tho Dooars, and it 
is hoped that much valuable information will 
be obtained from these plots as to the varia- 
tions in quantity of manures required by the 
differences of climate and soil obtaining in 
these widely separated districts. 


PotasH SALTS. 


Two plots, Nos. 15 and 16, have been set aside 
for the purpose of determining the value of 
Potash as an ingredient of manurial mixtures. 


No. 15 has received an application of :— 


Superphosphate - 3 cwt. 
Sulphate of Pctash mi) py 
Oilcake : : - 5 maunds. 


No. 16 has been similarly treated, the Potash 
however being omitted. It is probable that 
Potash is an essential constituent of manurial 
applications on all soils with but few exceptions, 
the amount required varying with the compo- 
sition of the soil, being lesson heavy clays than 


The Supplement to the Tropical Agriculturist 


on light sandy soils, and in all probability being 
considerably less than that which has been 
applied in many cases where this manure has 
formed part of a mixture, 


Bont Manvres. 


The value of Bones for manurial purposes in 
tea culture has been a matter of considerable 
doubt, and the absence of reliable statistics 
bearing on this point has made it advisable to 
investigate the question. With this object in 
view a series of plots was laid out at Heeleaka 
in 1907 and kept under observation during the 
following season. The manures ‘were applied 


as follows :— 
Plot No. Manure Rate per acre, 
Np No Manure — 
2. t inch Bones 1/3 ton 
3. Bone Meal V3; j 
4. Dissolved Bones & cwt 8f lb. 
5: Oilcake A asm chee 
6 { Oilcake Ve OLE ee 


: \Superphosphate f 8 ,, 86 ,, 

The amounts of Oilcake and Superphosphate 
were regulated to correspond with the nitrogen 
and phosphate content of the bones. 


Unfortunately the tea solected for this experi- 
ment although apparently even in character, 
has proved on investigation to be situated on 
soil of such variable composition ag to render the 
results obtained from these plots unreliable for 
comparative purposes, on the yield of leaf for 
one season ; it is therefore proposed to continue 
the experiment with a view to obtaining infor- 
mation by observing the variation of each 
individual plot from year to year, noting any 
improvement or otherwise, as compared. with 
the behaviour of the unmanured control plot. 
So far no manurial effect has been observed, 
which is more or less in accord with the 
generally received opinion as to the comparative 
slowness of action of bones as a manure, but 
it is difficult to understand why no increase of 
yield should have occurred on the plot treated 
with Dissolved Bones. 


GREEN MANURES. 


As described in the report on this station for 
1907, the relative merits of five green manuring 
crops have been tested during three consecutive 
seasons (1905 to 1907). It is now intended to 
jeave these plots untreated, in order to ascertain 
the residual effect of the crops grown on them. 
Plot No. 1, originally unmanured, and No. 4 
planted with Crotolaria Striata have now been 
planted with Tephrosia Candida (Boga Medeloa), 
which will be allowed to remain on one plot for 
two seasons and on the other for three, the 
extended use of this plant, and the remarkable 
results obtained by its growth, making it 
advisable to determine its value by careful 
experiment. It is proposed to utilise the 
remaining green manure plots as starting 
points for 

FURTHER EXPERIMENTS 


on manurial rotation. The effect of green 
manures on young plants is being tested in 
the clearance ates out with six months old’ 
seedlings in June, 1906. Tephrosia Candida in 
particular has already produced a marked im- 
provement in the young plants on that portion 
of the clearance interplanted with this bush. 
In addition to the experimeuts described above 
certain problems connected with the culture of 


and Magazine of the Ceylon Agricultural Society. 


tea are now being investigated ; these include 
a series of observations on the chemical and 
other changes which take place in organic matter 
buried in the soil, in the form of green manure, 
prunings, oilcake and cattle manure: the in- 
formation thus obtained it is hoped will help 
to elucidate some important points in connec- 
tion with the practical use of these materials, 
especially with reference to the depth in the 
soil and the time at which they may most 
advantageously be applied. Some data may 
be obtained in this way which will serve as a 
guide inapplying nitrogenous manures through- 
out the growing season. Experiments are being 
carried out, both in the laboratory and in the 
field, in connection with the use of Nitro- 
Bacterine, the bacterial culture prepared by 
Professor. Bottomley; these are at present 
confined to the inoculation of Mati Kalai, 
and it is hoped that by the use of this method 
it may be possible to obtain good crops of this 
plant in soils which hitherto have required pre- 
liminary dressings of manure, The routine 
work of the laboratory will include investigation 
of methods for determining the manurial require- 
ments of tea soils, analyses ofleaf with reference 
to variation of quality, both natural and induced 
and the analyses of soils and manures. Mycolo- 
gical work will include the special investigation 
of the fungus diseases—Thread Blight and Grey 
Blight, and the so-called ‘‘Copper’ Blight, to- 
gether with any other questions which may arise 
in connection with this branch ofenquiry. It may 
~ be pointed out that this part of the work of the 


SCIENTIFIC DEPARTMENT IS SERIOUSLY 
PREJUDICED 


by its necessary relegation to a subordinate posi- 
tion consequent on the pressure of other work 
nor is it possible for the Chief Scientific Ofticer 
to give the time required for the working out of 
the problems involved; the appointment of a 
Botanist to the Staff of the Department would 
remove this difficulty and certainly enable ad- 
vances to be made in our knowledge of the 
fungus (liseases of tea, our very superficial 
acquaintance with which at present restricts us 
to merely palliative measures in dealing with 
them.—C. M. Hutrcuinson, Chief Scientific 
Officer, Indian Tea Association. 


THE TOBACCO INDUSTRY OF THE 
NORTHERN PROVINCE. 


REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE 


appointed at the meeting held on 6th March, 
1908, Jafina Kachcheri, to consider a proposal 
to conduct experimental cultivation of tobacco 
and introduce modern methods of curing :— 


The memorandum of the Government Agent, 
read at the meeting above referred to, re- 
presents the actual condition of the tobacco 
industry of the Northern Province at the pre- 
sent moment, The thanks of the people of 
this Province are due to him for the bene- 


volent interest which he takes in the promo-~ 


tion of this industry which is, as Mr. Price 
rightly remarks, ‘‘the backbone of the Northern 
Province,” 


187 


(2). The Government Agent estimates the 
value of the annual production of tobacco 
here at ‘‘ well over a million rupees.” This 
estimate, the Committee has reason to be- 
lieve, errs on the side of caution, as the chew- 
ing tobacco alone exported to Travancore and 
Cochin was worth in 1906 R915,000. This to- 
bacco consumed in this Province and in all the 
other parts of the island, together with the 
smoking tobacco converted into cigars represent 
avalue not less than that of the tobacco exported 
beyond sea. The value of the total tobacco 
production of the Province can, therefore, be 
safely estimated at about two millions of rupees. 


(3.) That, owing to over-production here and 
less demand for this tobacco in the Indian and 
Ceylon markets which arethe only markets for 
it, there is great depression in the trade and 
consequent loss and suffering to the traders and 
cultivators, are admitted facts. Mr R W Levers, 
late Government Agent of this Province, fore- 
saw this state of affairs and in his administration 
reports advocated the necessity of Government 
appointing a tobacco expert to initiate and 
instruct the people here in the cultivation of new 
varieties of tobacco and curing them. to suit 
foreign markets. The improvement of this in- 
dustry he considered to have been of greater 
importance to this province than any adminis- 
trative or legislative measures, Mr F C Fisher 
and Mr J P Lewis also held similar views, Mr F 
Hi Price, the present Government Agent, not 
only referred to the subject in great detail in 
his last administration report, but has also, 
seeing the gravity of the situation, made a 
special representation to the Government and 
called the meeting in question and laid before 
it hisown views which are embodied in his 
memorandum, The object of the meeting was 
to ascertain whether or not the Jaffna public 
would be able to find the means necessary to 
conduct in this District experimental cultiva- 
tion and curing of tobacco to suit new and 
foreign markets at a cost of R30,000; and this 
Committee was ‘appointed to consider ‘and 
report on this question. 


(4) The Committee, after serious considera- 
tion of the subject, has arrived at the conclusion 
that it would be absolutely impossible to raise 
here that amount for the purpose. The pros- 
perity of this Province in general and of this 
District in particular, depending almost entirely 
on the tobacco industry, and this being a time 
of great depression in the trade, those that are 
directly interested in this industry are not in a 
position to undertake the experiment themselves, 
The cultivators also, having, for centuries, 
followed their own methods of growing and 
curing tobacco are not, generally speaking, en- 
lightened enough to initiate modern methods, 
unless the advantages of such mothods are prac- 
tically demonstrated to their satisfaction, 


(5) The Committee is in possession of reli- 
able information to the offect that, out of the 
tobacco grown here in 1906 and exported to 
Travancore, a quantiby, of the value of about 
R100,000 yet remains unsold; as also almost 
the whole quantity of the tobacco of 1907 
valued at about one million rupees, though by 
this time there should have been not one bale 
of the former in stock, and one-third of the 


188 


latter should have been also sold away. Con- 
sidering that the crop of 1908 is now being 
gathered, the outlook is, indeed, very gloomy 
in regard to the chewing tobacco which is the 
kind grown in the greater part of the Jaffna 
District. Unless some means are adopted to 
relieve the present state of depression which has 
brought on a deadlock, as it were, the con- 
sequence will be disastrous to the interests of 
this District. 

(6) Thos cultivation of smoking tobacco in 
the Province has also suffered owing to the 
introduction here of tobacco from Dumbara, 
Batticaloa and other places, valued at about 
R150,000, for the manufacture of cigars. 
The cigar trade which is confined within the 
limits of this Island is not also in a flourish- 
ing condition, though there is a temporary 
demand here for smoking tobacco. Owing to 
this state of affairs the traders are not ina 
position to meet the demands of the cigar 
rollers to increase their wages corresponding to 
the increase in the cost of living. This recently 
occasioned a strike which continued for some 
months to the great misery of the strikers and 
Joss and inconvenience of traders. 


(7) Inthe opinion of this Committee either 
fresh markets should be found for Jaffna to- 
bacco or some new industry should be intro- 
duced to compensate for the loss caused by the 
present condition of the tobacco industry. It is 
easier and safer to improve the existing industry 
rather than to introduce new ones which would 
involve greater risks and trouble, if not also ex- 
penditure. Seeing, in the existing circums- 
tances, the precarious condition of the tobacco 
industry, the cultivators have now extended in 
their gardens the cultivation of Cassava, But as 
the whole quantity of this root raised here has 
to be consumed in the District itself, its price 
has now considerably gone down. There is not, 
therefore, room or encouragement for further 
extension of this cultivation. 

(8) It isthe opinion of this Committee that 
the improvement of the tobacco industry of this 
Province cannot be effected without Govern- 
ment initiative and aid. As pointed out above, 
this has been the opinion of able and exper- 
ienced Government Agents who have succes- 
sively administered the affairs of the Nor- 
thern Province during the last one decade 
or 80, These high and responsible officials 
would not have ventured to invoke Govern- 
ment aid for the improvement of tobacco 
cultivation, had they not been compelled by the 
exigencies of the situation to do so. Mr Levers’ 
advocacy in his administration report for 1896 
for the appointment of an expert to introduce 
an improved method of growing and curing 
tobacco, to avert, as he considered, an impend- 
ing calamity to this industry, applies with ten- 
fold force now—that calamity having already be- 
fallen. His Excellency Sir Henry Blake promised 
the appointment of a tobacco expert, though 
he subsequently gave up the idea of appointing 
one for the reason that Mr Kelway Bamber 
would perform the duties of that expert. 

9. The Committee respectfully submits that 
this is a case for the interference of Government 
as the disaster that threatens, if it has not 
already befallen, the tobacco industry of this 


The Supplement to the Tropical Agriculturmst 


Province, vitally affects the interests of a very 
large number of His Majesty’s loyal subjects in 
this Island, who are noted for their perseverance 
and industry, The Ceylon Government has 
never failed to afford relief and assistance to 
planters and agriculturists in this Island when 
they have been actually in need of them. To ~ 
cite only one instance out of so many, the 
Committee would point out the vote of R1U0,000 
made last year for the destruction of the 
coconut trees that fell during the cyclone 
in Batticaloa, which, if allowed to remain 
undestroyed, would seriously affect the coco- 
nut industry of that District. The sum now 
required, to conduct experimental cultivation of 
tobacco and introduce modern methods of curing 
with a view to avert a great disaster to the 
chief industry of this Province, is only R30,900. 
Even if the experiment fails, the Government 
can well afford to lose it, as the amount is uot 
large and as it would be spent on a noble venture 
in the interest of a large number of His Maje- 
stv’s loyal subjects. But this cannot be said if 
it is carried on by private individuals. 


10. The experimental cultivation proposed by 
the Government Agent, is, in the opinion of this 
Committee, the only means by which the de- 
pression in the trade could be gradually re- 
moved, Though this would not have the effect 
of affording immediate relief to the chewing to- 
bacco industry, yet as the Government Agent 
tightly observes in his valuable memorandum, 
‘‘in the further future a remedy may be found 
in diverting from chewing tobacco the capital, 
labour and land at present used in its culti- 
vation and by applying them to the cultivation of ° 
smoking tobacco.”—A. SapapaTHy, Secretary. 

Jafina, 9th May, 1908. 


BATTICALOA AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY 

We are very glad to note that the Agent in 
charge of the Hastern Province, Mr. H R 
Freeman has been holding a Committee meeting 
ofthe local (Branch) Agricultural Society, ‘‘pre- 
saging a rivival’’—as the Batticaloa paper ‘he 
Lamp” says, in appealing for the widest interest 
to be shown, by all the Vanniars and many of 
the village farmers. As to an experimental 
garden, we read :— 


‘‘ Thevery place which we previously tried to 
secure is now likely to come to the Society 
through the kindness of the Government Agent 
and ifthings turn out, as we hope they will, 
there willat any rate be land for us to use asan ex- 
perimental garden, loaned to us by Government. 
The advantage of this should be evident to all. 
Again in the matter of paddy cultivation there 
are many things which require to be seen to and 
investigated by such an authority as this: 
amongst these are the introduction of new kinds 
of seed paddy, the determining of the amount 
and kind of manure required for the various 
soils, the introduction of better implements, and 
above all the establishment of an agricultural 
bank to relieve those who have not sufficient 
capital to make paddy cultivation profitable, All - 
this is the legitimate business of the Society. 
There is one other thing we desire to see done 
and that is the holding of an Agri-Horticultural 
Exhibition.” . 


and Magazine of the Ceylon Agivrcultural Society. 


THE PRINCIPLES OF MANURING. 


lt is a philosophical common-place that we 
can only apprehend the extern4l world through 
the medium of thought; indeed, it may be 
maintained that we know nothing of the ex- 
ternal reality, but merely the workings of our 
own minds. But without pushing our scepti- 
cism to such a point, we must recognise in all 
our science, i.e., our attempts to reconstruct 
nature in terms of our mind, a tendency to 
rest content -with explanations which fit in 
with our habits of thought, and to substitute 
simple, compact theories for the very complex 
operations of things in themselves. In other 
words, it is easier to let our minds work on 
straight-forward ‘‘ logical ” lines than to puzzle 
out things as they are. 


These somewhat trite reflections have been 
prompted by reading a receutly-published work 
on manures by Dr. A B Grithths,* the author 
of a long series of communications on ques- 
tions connected with the nutrition and com- 
position of plants, which have not always re- 
ceived a very cordial recognition. In this book 
we find developed at considerable length two 
ideas which we have every reason to consider 
fallacious, but which for the last half-century 
have exercised a powerful influence both on 
agricultural and horticultural practice. These 
two fallacies are, firstly, that the composition 
of a particular plant, as ascertained by an 
analysis of its ash, affords 


A GUIDE TO THE MANURE IT SHOULD RECBIVE ; 


secondly, that the sulphate or other compound 
of iron is a desirable ingredient of a fertiliser, 
because it will give colour to fruit or flowers. 

The first opinion is due to Liebig, who, put- 
ting aside for a moment the question of the sup- 
ply of nitrogen, laid down the general prin- 
ciple that, after ascertaining what a given crop 
is accustomed to take away fromm the soil, it is 
only necessary to add the same materials before- 
hand in order to satisfy all the requirements 
of the plant. Now, such, a point of view is at 
first sight eminently logical; so conformable, 
indeed, to our ways of thinking that it has 
taken 20 or 30 years of experiment and hard 
controversy to demonstrate its insufficiency ; 
in agriculture the idea has practically dis- 
appeared, but in horticultural matters it is 
constantly recurring, owing to the lack of sys- 
tematic experiments on the nutrition of gar- 
den plants, The cardinal defect of Liebig’s 
theory is that it takes no account of the soil ; 
it might be true if one started to grow a plant 
in a pot of pure sand containing no nutriment 
but that which one added to it, but since the 
plant is placed in soil containing enough food 
for at least a hundred crops, though mostly in 
@ more or less dormant condition, manure is 
only really wanted to make good certain defi- 
ciencies which are special to the soil and the 
crop, and these can only be ascertained by 
actual experiment. Different plants have very 
different powers of getting hold of particular 


* Manures for Fruit and other Trees. 
B. Griffiths, Ph.D., pp. 264, xxii, 
Sutton, 1908, 


By A. 
London : 


189 


elements of nutrition, and experience shows 
that the analysis of the ash of the plant does 
not enable one to predict in which direction 
the difficulty will lie. We must 


DRAW OUR EXAMPLES FROM FARM CROPS, 


because itis only in regard to them that there is 
a sufficient weight of experimental evidence, and 
we will simply instance Wheat and Barley 
among cereals and Turnips and Mangolds 
among rootcrops. 1n the growth of Wheat it is 
very rarely that any other manure than a nitro- 
enous one will be required; nitrogen is what 
Ville calls the dominant for Wheat, and all 
field experiments, confirmed by the working ex- 
perience of two generations of farmers, have 
demonstrated that under normal conditions, if 
Wheat be supplied with from one to two hun- 
dredweight of nitrate of soda or sulphate of 
ammonia, no profitable increase of crop will be 
obtained by adding phosphates or potash salts. 
Yet the analysis of the Wheat plant does not 
show that it takes much nitrogen from the 
soil; in fact, it takes more potash ; only under 
the usual conditions of Wheat-growing does 
the plant find a special difficulty in making use 
of the reserves of nitrogen inthe soil. As far 
as the ash goes, Barley has much the same 
composition as Wheat, yet Barley requires much 
less nitrogen than Wheat, and it 1s very de- 
sirable to supply it with some phosphoric acid, 
The analysis of Swede 'Turnips would show that 
the crop takes away from the soil about 100 1b 
per acre of nitrogen, 301b of phosphoric acid, 
and perhaps 1201b of potash ; yet there can- 
not be a shadow of doubt but that the proper 
manuring fora Turnip crop is primarily 60 to 
80 lb of phosphoric acid, then from 10 to 20 
lb, but not more, of nitrogen, and only potash 
in rare cases. Mangolds do not differ greatly 
in composition from Swedes, yet Mangolds 
must be manured with nitrogen and potash, 
phosphoric acid counts for very little, and may 
often be omitted. Now, these are facts which 
have been demonstrated to weariness ; they may 
be paralleled for Clover, for Potatos, for Beans, 
and for all our other farm crops; they form the 
basis of the practice of farmers in every civi- 
lised country. And yet Liebig’s theory—tallacy, 
we prefer to call it—still is supposed to hold 
for garden plants, and Dr. Griftiths’ book is made 
up of a series of analyses of the ash of shrubs— 
clude that an exceptional amount of iron in 
the soil accounted for the  brilliancy of 
colour in its products. But the least exami- 
nation will show how very defective the chain 
of reasoning is, and whatever experimental 
evidence exists is entirely adverse to the view 
that the heightened colour is to be attributed 
to a clirect effect of the iron upon the plant. 
In the first place, however great the part it 
may play, the amonnt of iron taken up from 
the soil is very small, 4 or 5 lb. per acre at 
the utmost, whereas the amount present in 
the soil is enormous, 20,000 to 30,000 Ib. per acre 
in the top 9 inches only of soil, and that, 
too, in forms which could easily be appropriated 
by the plant if it wished to obtain more. 


Secondly, the red soils in question are not, 
in fact, exceptionally rich in iron; most soils 
—and we have the analyses of many scores 
before us—yield from 2 to 3 per cent of oxide 


190 


of iron, but the red soils from the old or new 
red sandstone formations which have come 
under our review, contain rather less than 
analyses which must have cost him endless 
labour--and recommendations of manure mix- 
tures based on those analyses. We will not 
labour the point, we will only repeat that in 
whatever instance the plant itself has been asked 
by systematic experiment what kind of food 
it wants, what elements of nutrition it will 
be grateful for, the answer has borne no re- 
lation to the comparative richness or otherwise 
of its ash in those elements ; hence we conclude 
that an analysis of the plant can afford no 
guide to its appropriate manuring, and that 
Griffiths’ toils are essentially useless for the 
purpose to which he devotes them. 
ow let us turn to 


THE IRON QUESTION ; 


it has always been recognised that the rich, red 
sands and loams of Hereford and neighbour- 
ing counties give rise to highly-coloured fruit 
and brilliant flowers ; Tea Roses, in particu- 
Jar, have been thought to take on a special 
richness of ceclour. As these red soils owe 
their colour to oxides of iron, and as iron 
is known to be essential to the formation 
of chlorophyll and the red material in ani- 
mal blood, it seemed a natural step to con- 
usual. ‘The conspicuous colour may be due 
either to a slight difference in the mode of 
combination of the iron, or to its prominence 
when spread over a somewhat coarse-grained 
soil, which exposes acomparatively small surface. 


Furthermore, we are acquainted with one or 
two soils derived from the marlstone, which 
contain altogether exceptional amounts of iron, 
at least ten times as much as usual ; yet these 
soils give rise to no exceptional colour in fruit 
or flowers. Lastly, there is but little experi- 
mental evidence in support of the connection 
between iron and colour, in tae majority of 
cases at any rate; we have in our mind a 
series of experiments upon dwarf Apple trees 
in large tubs, where, year after year, the Apples 
supplied with sulphate of iron were the greenest 
of the series. There is on record also a series 
of experiments made by Mr. H. H. Cousins 
at Wye College for the National Carnation 
Society, in which the use of sulphate of iron 
made no difference to the colour of yellow- 
ground fancies. There was some evidence that 
a scarlet self did not show white flecks so 
readily in sunshine when they had received 
irou, but the experiments were not pushed far 
enough to exclude a possible secondary cause. 
The action of soluble iron salts upon garden 
plants is, worthy of further investigation, but 
the evidence, as far as it goes, is all adverse 
to the supposition that high colour. is neces- 
sarily or habitually correlated with an abundance 
of iron in the soil. 


We have dwelt at some length on these two 
matters, namely, the relation supposed to exist 
between the ash and the manure appropriate 
to a particular plant, and the supposed con- 
nection of iron with the colour of fruit, for 
we regard the one as a fallacy, and the other as 
an unproyen hypothesis.—Gardeners’ Chronicle, 
June 13, 


The Supplement to the Tropical Agriculturist 


THE PRODUCTION OF RAW SILK 
IN BENGAL 


has been seriously affected by a disease known 
as pebrine, which kills off the worm, ‘The Silk 
Committee has done much to stamp out this 
disease, and good seed is now freely provided 
from its nurseries. Meanwhile, however, man 

poor cultivators are said to have been ruined, 
and it will take a considerable time to rehabili- 
tate the industry. The Maharajah of Cossim- 
bazar, says the Pioneer, is interesting himself 
in the matter, and he proposes to start a central 
nursery, with branches, and to lay out mulberry 
plantations on a large scale at a cost of Ri lakh. 
If the deteriorations of seed-cocoons can be 
thorougly checked, it is likely that sericulture in 
certain districts of Bengal will once more reviv . 


CAMPHOR FROM WUCHOW, CHINA. 


H.M. Consul at Wuchow (Mr. H F King) 
reports that the export of camphor from there 
to Hongkong in 1907 amounted to 506 cwt. 
as compared with 879 ewt. in 1906. Of this 
413 cwt. came down under transit pass from 
Liuchou (38 cwt.), Ching Yuan (49 ewt.) 
Nanning (124 cwt.), Hsunchou (2 cwt.), Posé 
(190 ewt.) and Lungchou (10 ewt.) Mr. King 
remarks thatthe manufacture is in its infancy, 
and that until the camphor can be turned out 
as white and clean as the Formosan pro- 
duct there will not be much demand for it in 
Hongkong.—Soard of Trade Journal, June 25. 


TOBACCO AND GLOVES NEAR 
ZANZIBAR. 


The first Minister, who made an exhaustive 
safari in the Mkokotoni district last week, 
reports very favourably on the state of the hus- 
bandry of the peasant population. The large 
profits which accrue to the cultivation of tobacco, 
has induced the inhabitants in one or two 
centres to plant this commodity to the exclusion 
of food stuffs, to such an extent as to call for 
Government interference. It was computed by 
the natives themselves that the returns ona 
plot of ground planted with tobacco was 800% 
than on the same ground planted with mahogo, 
With such an attractive prospect, the ordinary 
crops have been entirely neglected and the 
people now find that with theold supply ex- 
hausted they are unable to procure the ordinary 
means of sustenance. The Collectorate ncw 
insist that a certain area shall be planted with 
mahogo or other food producing plants. 

General Raikes is only able to corroborate the 
previous reports with reference to the serious 
effect produced on the clove plantations by the 
drought of the last year. It seems no exaggera- 
tion to number the dead trees by hundreds or 
even thousands. A curious feature however, 
and one which may be useful to remember for 
those interested in the cultivation of the clove, 
is that the dead trees are almost without excep- 
tion on the edge of swamps, while the trees on 
the higher ground are quite healthy. It would 
seem from this that clove trees cannot flourish 
in the heavy clay soil, when itis baked hard as 
has been the case during the drought.—Zanzibar 
Gazette, June 24. : 


und Magazine of the Ceylon Agricultural Society. 


ON THE SELECTION OF PHOSPHATES. 


(Reprinted from “ Farm and Home.”’) 


{Printed as a leaflet used in replying to en- 
quiries from farmers and planters as to which 
kind of phosphate would be most suitable for 
their particular kind of soil. We feel sure that 
as to the selection of the three kinds of phosphate 
—superphosphate, basic slag and basic super- 
phosphate—the last is specially suitable to Cey- 
Jon soils which are deficient both in lime and 
vegetable matter.-—-A. M. & J. F.] 


The very general manner inwhich all kinds of manures 
appear to be forced upon the farmer's notice adds very 
considerably to his difficulty in making a selection, It 
would certainly bea convenience if the merits of any parti- 
cular fertiliser were put forth by the sellers in a modified 
and somewhat restricted manner, that fertilisers should 
not be described as suitable for all soils and all crops, but 
rather for certain soils and certain crops, If this were 
done, the future results would be more satisfactory to 
sellers and buyers. With a view of assisting in the selec- 
tion during the coming season, the following remarks are 
offered inregard to the three principal kinds of phosphate 
fertilisers and the particular soils for which they are res- 
pectively adapted. 

SUPERP HOSPHATE 
supplies phosphate oflime in the most soluble form that 
can be obtained, and is specially suitable for all good, 
arable ‘soils containing plenty of lime. When. carefully 
manufactured from high-class mineral phosphates, the per- 
centage of phosphate of lime rendered soluble in water, 
and therefore readily available, varies from 25 per cent. to 
35 per cent., and where carriage is costly, the higher quality 
will be found to be the most economical. In order, however, 
to get the full benefit from this valuable fertiliser, it is 
absolutely necessary that the soil should contain plenty of 
lime—at least 5 per cent.—because the acid phosphate, 
which is harmful to vegetation, requires to be neutralised 
by the alkali lime, and rendered alkaline before it can be 
absorbed by the minute rootlets of the plant. Anyone can 
soon see the injurious effect of throwing superphosphate 
over the leaves of plants, and the minute rootlets are still 
more sensitive. The superior value of water-soluble 
phosphate of lime is due to the fact that its great solubility 
promotes more perfect and extended diffusion through the 
soil, and not, as is sometimes supposed, to the direct 
absorption by the rootlets of the acid phosphate of lime. 
Pure dissolved bones are superior to superphosphate, 
because they supply nitrogenous organic matter, in addi- 
tion to phosphate of lime; but hitherto manufacturers, out 
of deference to the purchaser’s desire to see the bones in 
the manure, have not carried the dissolving process with 
sulphuric acid sufficiently far to render the bones com- 
pletely soluble, as the term dissolved bones would 
naturally lead us to conclude was the case. Consequently, 
as most of the phosphate of lime and nitrogen compounds 
still remain in an insoluble form such so-called dissolved 
bones are naturally more suitable for svils somewhat 
deficient in lime rather than for soils which abound in lime. 


BASIL SLAG (THOMAS’ PHOSPHATE) 


when first introduced as a fertiliser, about the year 1883, 
was little appreciated by scientific men of high authority, 
on account of its origin as a hard, fused, refuse, rock 
like. material from the iron-ore blast furnaces, and its little 
solubility, only about six parts being dissolved by 1('0 parts 
of ordinary water, Farmers, however, in the Midland 
counties were induced to take small quantities for trial, 
chiefly on their old grass land, and as the results on cer- 
tain soils, rich in vegetable matter, but poor in iime, were 
satisfactory, scientific authorities were obliged to admit 
its agricultural value as a fertiliser on certain soils. It 
is important to recognise theifact that basic slag is only suit- 
able for certain kinds of land, such as damp, heavy clay defi- 
cient in lime,but containing plenty of acid vegetable matter, 
which, in the presence of moisture rapidly decomposes 
the powdered slag, and liberates lime as well as phosphoric 
acid in a condition readily available for plant food. Itis 
a mistake to recommend basic slag as being suitable for 
all soils. Farmers know that its application, though most 
beneficial to certain land, has failed to produce any bene- 
ficial results upon other kinds of land. It is more econo- 
mical to adapt the manure to the soil rather than to adapt 
or try to adapt, the soil to the manure. Basic Slag varies 
in its contents of phosphate of lime from 30:per cent. to 40 
per cent., and sometimes 45 per cent., and lime from 40 
per cent. to 50 per cent., also in the fineness of the grind- 
ing, 30 that it is necessary to stipulate for a guarantee as 
to its chemical composition and mechanical condition, 


191 
for the grinding should be such that 80 per cent. to 90 per 
cent. should pass through a sieve of 10,000 holes to the 
squareinch. It has been stated that this material contains 
as much as 20 per cent. of free caustic lime, but this is 
not the case, because any such quantity would indi- 
cate a wasteful method of manufacture, for lime is 
only added in sufficient quantity to remove the phospho- 
rous and silica originally present in the iron ore, The 
actual amount of free caustic lime in ordinary slag does 
not exceed 3 per cent to four per cent. and its mild alka- 
line character, as compared with quicklime, can easily be 
ascertained by putting equal quantities of these materials 
into tumblers of cold water and testing the solution after 
standing and stirring for a few minutes. Most of the lime 
is present in a combined form, such as phosphate of lime 
and basie silicate of lime from which latter compound 
it derives the name of basic slag. In order to dissolve such 
compounds, it is requisite that the soil water should be 
acid, for, asalready pointed out, ordinary water has but a 
very slight dissolving effect uponsuch a hard fused mass, 
however finely ground the powder may be. It will be 
gathered from the foregoing remarks that basic slag, 
though a most useful manure, can only be protitably applied 
to certain kinds of soil, 


BASIC SUPERPHOSPHATE 
consists of superphosphate which has been made alkaline 
by the admixture of finely-ground or lightly-slaked lime 
in sufficient quantity to convert the original monocalcic 
or water-soluble phosphate into di-calcic, or citric-soluble 
phosphate,. with a slight excess of caustic lime. This ferti- 
1iser was introduced in the spring of 1901, and is manu- 
factured by a syndicate consisting of ten of the largest firms 
in England, Scotland and Ireland, so that there should be 
no difficulty in obtaining it anywhere. The material has 
a white appearance, and is in avery light, powdery state, 
occupying fully two-and-a-half times the space of 
slag, and, when sown broadcast by hand, does not fall 
between the fingers before delivery, as in thecase of slag. 
It contains about 35 per cent of lime, and 26 per cent 
of phosphate of lime, which, though notsoluble in water, 
is readily soluble in a very weak solution’ of 
citric acid, containing one part of citric acid in 1,000 
parts of water, which represents an acidity less than that 
possessed by the acid juices of the rootlets of plants, so 
that all the phosphate of lime so dissolved may be fairly 
regarded as available plant food. It combines the valua- 
ble alkaline character of basic slag with the well-known 
solubility of superphosphate, but is free from the defects 
of these opposite manures—namely, the comparative in- 
solubility of slag and the injurious acidity of superphos- 
phate. If one part respectively of basic superphosphate 
and basic slag are separately exhausted with 1,000 parts 
of weak citric acid solution (1 in 1,900) for twenty- 
four hours, with occasional stirring, it will be found that 
90 per cent. of the former has been dissolved, compared with 
40 per cent. of the latter. The new manure is intended to 
occupy an intermediate position between acid superphos- 
phate and alkaline slag, and to be applied for interme- 
diate descriptions of soil. It is not intended to supersede 
the use of superphosphate upon good arable land containing 
plenty of lime, noris it intended to take the place of well- 
ground slag upon sour grass land, damp, heavy clay or rich 
vegetable soils; but it is specially intended for soils de- 
ficient in lime, such as light clay, gravel, granite and 


sandy soils. 
JOHN HUGHES, 


Agricultural Analyst for Herefordshire. 
Analytical Laboratory, 79, Mark Lane, London, E C. 


HONEY iN CALIFORNIA. 


Interesting Consular Report. 


In his report on the trade and commerce of 
the States of California, Nevada, and Utah, and 
the territory of Arizona, just issued Mr Consul- 
General Hearn has some interesting references 
to the honey yield ot California. It was pre- 
dicted during last summer that the output of 
the year would be very small, but in fact it was 
almost double that of 1906, the total being esti- 
mated at 8,700,000 lb. That bee keepers in the 
State consider 100 to 300 hives sufficient for any 
one farm. The honey gathering is usually from 
April to September, depending upon the 
weather and the length of the blooming period 
of the bee forage. The extracting season com- 
mences in May or June and is usually about six 


192 


or eight weeks induration. Ina good season 
California produces about 4,500 tons of honey. 
Much of, this is the famous mountain sage 
honey, which is water-white, and 1s said to be 
the mildest favoured honey in the world. In 
the northern part of California bees gather 
their stores from the bloom of the carpet grass 
and the eucalyptus; in the central countries 
from alpalpa and orange blooms, white, black, 
and purple sage, rosa amoria, sumac, and wild 
buck wheat. ‘The last two givea poor grade of 
sweet, which is usually extracted to be used for 
winter feeding, or, these later stores are left to 
the hives, if the blooming season comes when 
the combs are full. The method of honey ex- 
tracting, as described by Mr Consul-General 
Hearn, is interesting. Details vary in different 
apiaries, but in one called the Model Apiary, 
the process is as follows :— 


With a hand-car, or small truck, the apiarist stops be- 
side a laden hive; this hive is two. stories, sometimes 
three. With a thin-bladed knife he loosens one edge of 
the lid, and thrusts the mouth of the smoker beneath it. 
With quick pressure of the bellows he sends the smoke into 
the chamber, and tha bees hurry below to avoid suffocation. 
tie lifts the combs, and brushes away the stupetied bees. 
If the honey is capped over, cr partially so, he puts the 
comb into wooden-handled baskets made for the purpose, 
and when be has a load the car is pushed to the extracting 
house, to which it runs on a miniature railway, which runs 
its cars through every street of the bee city. Well filled 
comb-hives weigh 8 to 12 lb, accurding to thickness of the 
comb, and specitic gravity of the honey. Inside the ex- 
tracting house, is a deep, tin-lined, uncapping box occupy= 
ing nearly the whole side of the room, and in this box the 
frames are suspended until wanted. Uncapping is largely 
done by women. The frame, containing the comb, is 
balanced on one edge of the uncapping box, and a long 
knife dexterously slices off a thin sheet of wax, thus 
destroying the cell seals. As the combs are uncapped they 
ave placed in the baskets of the contractor, which are 
reversible, and the honey is thrown out by centrifagal 
force. From the bottom of the extractor runs a 3-inch 
pipe on a gentle incline to a tank outside the extracting 
house. JShis tank holds several thousand pounds. Across 
the opening of the pipe where it leaves the extractor is 
fastened a section of wire netting with rather coarse 
ineshes to keep pieces of comb orrefuse from passing into 
it. In the top of the receiving-tank is suspended a white 
flannel bag, 2 feet in length, inthe upper part of which is 
run an iron hoop some 1 foot 3 inches in diameter, which 
first fits the opening,in the tank; this further strains the 
honey. The honey is then drawn into tin cans, holding from 12 
to 60 lb each.—Journal of the Royal Society of Arts, June 26. 


PLANTERS AND SCIENTIFIC ADVICE. 

Planters will read with regret that Mr RL 
Proudlock has resigned his postas Curator of the 
Gardens and Parkson the Nilgiris, for he has 
ever been on the look out foranything new in the 
plant world likely to prove valuable to India. 
To lend a helping hand to the planting com- 
munity in this Presidency, however, seems to 
be no recommendation with the powers that 
be. Dr, Lehmann’s service have been dispensed 
with by the Mysore Government and Mr Proud- 
lock no longer, apparently, finds his billet 
worth retaining, Planters in South India, 
however, have so few scientific friends com- 
pared with their confréres in other countries 
that they can ill afford to lose them. A most 
interesting feature in Mr Proudlock’s Annual 
Reports has been his record of the progress of his 
EXPERIMENTS WITH VARIOUS SPECIES OF RUBBER ; 
it is to be hoped that he will find time to 
publish further details regarding these before 
he goos. He has been especially successful, 
IT hear, in solving the tapping difficulty with 
Ceara rubber. At any rate his trees of this 


The Supplement to the Tropical A griculturist 


variety at Kullar, shows signs ot having 
been heavily tapped, look perfectly healthy in 
spite of it. The secret of Mr Proudlock’s success 
in this direction is, L believe, that he has 
abstained from stripping off the outer bark of 
the tree, its natural protection against insect 
and fungoid enemies. 

This seems to be a period of transition of 
scientists interested in the planting industry 
generally. Beside the foregoing, [ have had to 
chronicle within the past year cr so resignations 
by Mr Stanley L Arden from the service of the 
Government of the Straits Settlements; by Dr. 
Mann from that of the Indian Tea Association; 
and by Mr Herbert Wright from Ceylon. 


GEORGOS, 
—M, Mail, July 13. 


THE COCONUT PALM DISEASE IN 
GOCHIN. 


AND THE IMPROVEMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


H.H. the Rajah of Cochin has ordered to be 
published in the Cochin Gazette the following 
Proclamation regarding the frecautions to be 
taken in the State to prevent the importation 
of the Coconut palm disease :— 

Whereas ithas been brought to Our notice that an in- 
fectious disease of a peculiar nature affecting coconut, 
areca and other palm trees is prevalent in the adjoining 
territory of Travancore, and whereas it is expedient to 
take effective precautionary measures against the possible 
importation of the disease into Our State, it is hereby de- 
clared that no living coconut seedlings, or roots of coco- 
nut, areca, or other palm trees, or soil in which such roots 
are mixed up, shall be imported into Our State from the 
‘Travancore territory, until the said territory is declared 
by competent expart authority to be free from such disease, 
and that such articles will be contraband in the Cochin 
State. 

We are further pleased to authorise Our Dewan to issue 
such ordersas he may deem necessary to give full effect 
to this Our Proclamation, and also to declare that any 
person that may violate this Proclamation shall, on con- 
viction by a Magistrate not below the rank of a second 
class Magistrate, be lable to a tine not exceeding R50. 


The same issue of the Gazette also contains a 
long Memorandum by the Dewan describing the 
agricultural conditions in the state and indicat- 
ing the general lines on which the improve- 
ment of agriculture should proceed. In the 
concluding paragraph the Dewan says :— 


he general policy that will be followed by the Govern- 
mentinthe matter of development of agriculture has been 
Jaid down in the Dewan’s Proceedings dated 5th October, 
1907, Ref: on C No. 79'83. Since then rules have been 
issued to regulate the grant of loans from Sirkar funds for 
improvement of agriculture and arrangements have been 
made to open a Veterinary Dispensary at Trichur from the 
beginning of 1084. A new Superintendent of Agriculture 
has been appointed, and has begun to work. He has been 
ordered to submit proposals for opening depéts in the head 
quarters of all the Valuqs for the exhibition of all kinds of 
agricultural implements of the improved pattern and 
for stocking a suflicient quantity of seed of the different 
varieties of crop for sale. He has already begun to pub- 
lish in the Village sheet of the Government Gazcttc, in 
Malayalam, important and useful information relating 
to agricultural matters. The proposal of the Government 
to open model farms will be given effect to immediately 
and arrangements have already been made for opening 
an experimental and demonstration farm in the old Viy- 
yoor Park near 'lrichur. The improvement of irrigation 
and drainage facilities will also be attended to by the Go- 
vyernment gradually as funds permit. The Government 
cannot reasonably be expected todo very much more than 
this, and it is the duty of all landholders themselves to 
make strenuous endeavours, collectively and individually, 
to improve the agriculture of the country and the Dewan 
hopes that they will show some activity in the matter 
through the Agricultural Association recently formed, the 
representations of which will. at all times, receive the 
Dewan’s earnest attention.—M Mai July 16, 


and Magazine of the Ceylon Agricultural Society. 


RUBBER IN BOMBAY. 


RESULTS OF EXPERIMENTAL 
CULTIVATION. 


The results of the experimental cultivation of 
rubber in the Bombay Presidency are embodied 
in the following correspondence between the 
Conservator of Forests, N.C., and the Secretary 
to Government in the Revenue Department :— 


On May 22, the Conservator, N.C., wrote :— 


I have the honour to refer to Government 
Resolution of the 3rd August, 1907, and to submit 
herewith my report on the result of the ex- 
periments in the cultivation of rubber in the 
Northern Circle, together with copies of three 
reports from the Divisional Forest Officers, 
North, Central and South Thana, respectively. 


The experiments were first started in the 
rains of 1906, by the rearing of plants in boxvus 
in the verandahs of the bungalows, or in the 
gardens of Mr. Gleadow, at that time Con- 
servator of Forests, N.C., and his Divisional 
Forest Officers, Orders for the undertaking of 
experimental plantations in the forests were 
subsequently issued by. Mr. Gleacow to the 
Divisional Forest Officers, North, South and 
Central Thana, in letters which have been printed 
in extenso a8 accompaniments to Government 
Resolution referred to in paragraph 1 above. 
These orders were issued by Mr. Gleadow prior 
to his departure on leave, and it is a distinct 
loss to the Forest Service in Bombay that he 
has since retired on pension. 


The reports which have been submitted by 
the above three Divisional Forest Officers show. 
the extent and results of the rubber plantations 
carried out by them. Copies of these reports 
are appended and whilst allowing them in the 
main to speak for themselves, I beg to sum- 
marise them as follows :— 


North THANA. 


Tho Divisional Forest Officer has reported that 
from various causes his experiments in rearing 
and transplanting rubber plants have met with 
practically no success, Thenet results are6 plants 
of Ceara in fairly flourishing states in the forest 
out of 1,000 seeds experimented with; and no 
Ficus Elastica plants from }]b. of seed sown. The 
Divisional Forest Officer has stated good reasons 
why such poor success attended his efforts, and 
I consider that his Division is not well situated 
for the carrying out of rubber experiments, 
which require constant attention. Under the 
circumstances I do not propose to continue to 
experiment in growing rubber in North Thana. 


CENTRAL THANA, 


The Divisional Forest Officer reports that the 
first experiments made with Para (Hevea 
Elastica) and Indian Rubber (Ficus Elastica) 
seeds were all failures. Subsequently a small 
nursery was started inthe Bassein Range and 
fresh experiments made with 1,000 Ceara 
(Manihot Glaziovii) seeds and } lb. of Ficus 
seeds. The progress of these experiments is 
detailed at length in Mr Gilbert’s interesting 
report. The Ficus seeds failed to germinate at 
all, partly owing to the bad seeds and partly 
perhaps to the proper manner of sowing the 
seeds not having then been understood. The 


193 


net results for the Ceara seeds are 27 healthy 
plants which are well established in the Pelhar 
nursery ; and though this seems a poor result 
from 1,000 seeds, it is largely due to misfortunes 
with the germinating plants. More Ceara seeds 
have since been obtained and the Divisional 
Forest Officer considers that the experimental 
nursery and plantation should be continued, I 
have inspected it and agree with him in this 
opinion. The site selected is poor but the best 
to be found where water is obtainable, within 
convenient distance of the Railway; and the 
cost which is being incurred on the experiment 
is small and includes expenditure upon a well 
which will be of permanent benefit. 


SoutH ‘LHANA, 


Rubber expetiments have been carried on in 
this Division on a very much larger scale and 
with proportionately much more success. The 
Divisional Forest Officer has his head-quarters 
within his Division and was able to finda 
suitable situation for the experimental planta- 
tion in forest at a distance of only 2 or 3 
miles from Thana. Mr Madan, who has taken 
great interest in the experiments, was thus 
able to pay constant attention to the nursery 
and plantation during the rains and further to 
inspect them at fairly regular intervals during 
the camping season. The results have well 
repaid the attention paid to the work and are 
shown at length in Mr Madan’s report. Smaller 
plantations have been made at three other places 
in forests in the neighbourhood of Thana, as 
will be noted in Mr Madan’s report. I propose, 
however, to confine my remarks to 


The Principal Plantation—at Mulund. 
This plantation was first started in Mulund 
forest in the rains of 1906 under Mr Gleadow’s 
direction by the sowing of seeds of Ceara, Cas- 
tilloa, Para and Ficus Indica. By the com- 
mencement of the rains of 1907 the plants, which 
had been successfully reared in the forest nur- 
sery and were ready for planting out were :— 
aeuall 


Ceara. 8 
Castilloa 13 
Para 17 
Ficus Indica 81 

Total 1 1 229 


These plants were planted out over two acres of 
forest land which had been cleared of under- 
growth, and were watered in the manner related 
in the report. With the exception of some half- 
a-dozen, which have died from various causes, 
the plants have flourished and are thriving at 
the present time though varying much in their 
height growth. Since the beginning of the rains 
of 1907 a further number of 1,697 plants have 
been reared from seed in the nursery as follows:— 


Ceara nes pO 
Castilloa oe 878 
Para » 222 


Ficus as) 982 
These plants are healthy and will be removed to 
the plantation in the coming rains, and planted 
out over an additional eight acres of land, thus 
extending the size of the plantation to ten acres, 


The plantation, etc., was inspected by me in 
December, 1907 on my arrival in the Northern 
Circle and a further supply of seeds of Ceara and 
Para had subsequently been obtained by me by 
post from Ceylon and given to Mr Madan. Since 


25 


194 


January, 1908, 5,000 Ceara seeds, 400 Para seeds 
and 41b. of Ficus seeds have been sowed in 
boxes or prepared patches in the nursery, the 
results of which have yet to be seen. 


[It has since been reported that 2,533 Ceara 
seedlings have come up. No Para seeds have 
germinated, the seeds being unsound. } 


A prominent feature in the Mulund nursery 
and plantation has been the success obtained 
with the Ficus seed, partly due to better quality 
of seeds having been obtained; but I consider 
mainly due to the correct medium for promoting 
the germination of the seeds having been worked 
out and employed. Mr Madanhas formed great 
expectations regarding the Ficus plant and con- 
siders it may prove to be the most paying rub- 
ber plant for this part of the country, being 
only delicate in its very early stages, and well 
suited to the climate and soil of Thana. 


The expenses which have been incurred upon 
the Mulund nursery and plantation include a 
considerable sum, viz., R790 on account of capi- 
tal expenditure‘and R1,059 on account of the 
acquisition of land. The latter may be left out 
of the account because even if from any causes 
it should be necessary to abandon this rubber 
experimental plantation, the land will remain as 
an asset of full value. Including the former, 
however, a total sum of R1,393 has been ex- 
pended up to the end of March, 1908, and in view 
of the success which has attended the plantation 
the amount must be considered very small. 


In future, if the plantation is maintained, there 
will be payments to be made to the Bombay 
Municipality for water supplied from the Tansa 
duct. This water will be required for about 
seven months in the year and isto be taken 
at the reasonable charge of four annas per 1,000 
gallons. The expenses on this account will in- 
crease as the plantation is extended and may be 
expected to vary from R15 per month in the 
present year to R45 per month as the probable 
maximum in the future. For the present the 
total annual expenditure on the nursery and 
plantation will probably not exceed R1,000. 


I consider that the result of the experiments 
at Mulund show that all four of the principal 
rubber-yielding plants can be grown successfuily 
in Thana; though it is early yet to say with 
certainty which kind will give the best results, 
and the future growth of the plant must be 
judged, There is every prospect that if con- 
tinued and developed the plantation will prove 
a financial success, and 1 beg strongly to re- 
commend that these rubber growing experi- 
ments should be continued. and the Mulund 
plantation 


MAINTAINED AND EXTENDED ON PRESENT LINES, 


On the above Government has issued the 
following Resolution.—‘‘The Governor in Council 
concurs in the views expressed by the conservator 
of Forests, N.C., in paragraphs 4, 5 and l0of 
his letter, and is satisfied with the success 
attained in South Thana, and the efforts to 
attain it in Central Thana. 


‘¢ His Excellency in Council appreciates the 
action of the Bombay Municipal Corporation 
in supplying water ata low rate for the Mulund 
plantation.”—Bombay Gazette, July 15, 


The Supplement to the Tropical Agriculturist 


THE SEKONG RUBBER CO, 


LATEST BORNEO FLOTATION. 


The capital of this Co., for which the list of 
applications closed on Wednesday, July Ist, is 
£80,000, divided into 80,000 shares of £1 each, 
of which 15,000 will be held im reserve for 
further working capital. The present issue of 
65,000 shares, of which 15,000 are taken by the 
vendors in part payment of the purchase price 
of the property, and 50,000 are now offered for 
subscription at par, 25,000 have been under- 
written, thus ensuring a minimum of £20,000 
for the purposes of the Co. and working capital. 


The Dirgcrors—are :—Thomas Ball Silcoek, 
B.Sec., M.P., Walden, Widcombe Hill, Bath; 
the Hon. Everard Feilding, 320, St. James’ 
Court, London, 8.W. (Chairman of the Kuala 
Lumpur Rubber Co., Ltd.) ; William Edward 
Roberts, 70, Bishopsgate Street, London, H.C. 
(Director of the North Borneo Trading Co., 
Ltd.); Vincent Richard Wickwar, 17, Bucking- 
ham Gate Gardens, London (Chairman of the 
Banteng (Selangor) Rubber Estates, Ltd.); Her- 
bert Wright, F.L.8., Assoc. R.C.S., Amersham, 
Kent, (late Controller Government Experiment 
Station, Peradeniya, Ceylon, and Director of 
the Langkat Sumatra Rubber Co., Ltd), 


The AcEents are :—London.—Messrs Thomas 
Barlow and Brother, 38, Eastcheap, E.C. 
Singapore.—Messrs Barlow & Company. 


The PropucE Brokers: are :—Messrs Gow, 
Wilson & Stanton, Ltd., 13, Rood Lane, E.C. 


The Secretary and ReEGistERED OFFICES (pro 
tem) are:—R Lawrence Spicer, F.C.1.8., 3 and 
4, Great Winchester Street, London, E.C. 


This Company has been formed to acquire, 
work and further develop 8,771 acres selected from 
the Sekong Rubber Estate, which comprises, 
according to the Official Survey, 11,271 acres in 
British North Borneo, held upon a 999 years lease 
from 10th July,1888, direct from the British North 
Borneo (Chartered) Company, free of all rent. 
The estate is exceptionally well situated, being 
within two-and-a-half hours by steam launch 
from the Port of Sandakan, the port of call 
for ocean-going steamers. The cultivation, of 
rubber on this property was commenced by the 
North Borneo Trading Company, Limited, in 
1898, but owing to lack of working capital the 
estate has hitherto only been developed on a 
comparatively small scale. On the area to be 
acquired by this Company over 75,000 para trees 
have been planted (12,500 being now over eight 
years of age), in addition to which there are over 
100,000 strong plants in the nurseries available 
for immediate planting. 


The well-known expert, Mr M Kelway 
Bamber, F.1.C., M.R.A.C., M.R.4.8.Eng., Consult- 
ing Agricultural Chemist, Colombo, Ceylon, 
who has had wide experience with Tropical 
products, writes as follows :— 4 

9, Victoria Street, London, S.W., 20th March, 1908, 

To the Directors of The City Association, Limited. 

Re SEKONG RUBBER ESTATE, 


Dear Sirs,—Having thoroughly studied the reports and 
other documents placed at my disposal, I am now ina 
position to advise you asto the probable yield of rubber 
which in my opinion may, with careful tapping and good 
cultivation, reasonably be expected from the trees now on 
the Estate. 


and Magazine of the Ceylon Agricultural Society, 


In arriving at these figures, I have taken into considera- 
tion allthe factors of soil, climate, age and condition of 
trees, have eliminated backward trees referred to in the 
reports, and have made my calculation upon a conservative 
basis, as, although'the yields upon which my estimates of 
produce are based are sometimes considerably exceeded, it 
is better in my opinion to restrict the output to some 
extent, and so promote permanent vigour and yielding 
properties of the trees. 

I base my calculations of produce as from the 1st July 
in each year. 


Trees planted 


Hevea (Para) Estimated Yield. 


12,500 trees over 8 years 1908-9 25,350 Vb. 
BAS OU yy i! iy) LIBS 1909-10 33,820 ,, 
T0,000,,5,).., Bi tod, 4 , 1910-11 50,320 ,, 
arooue ., =. 2tos —s, 1911-12 93,950 ,, 
46,803 ,, planted July, 1905, 1912-138 119,100 ,, 

to March, 1906, 1913-14 146,200 ,, 
76,352 (including supplies). 


Assuming 30,000 trees to be planted in 1908, and 45,000 
trees in 1909, the yield after 1913/14 should rapidly increase, 
as trees planted now would then come into bearing. With 
regard to the trees mentioned as having had their main 
rootscut down to4or 5inches, and to those that are 
water-logged, it is probable that they are not permanently 
injured, and they should recover when efficient drainage 
has been carried out. From the descriptions of the soil, 
lay of land and climate, and from my experience of Rubber 
plantations in Ceylon, Malay States, Java and Sumatra, 
the Sekong District is evidently well suited for the cultiva- 
tion of Para rubber and other tropical products, some of 
which might be grown as catch crops in new extensions, 
and so reduce cost of opening. Yours faithfully, (Signed) 
M KELWAY BAMBER, F.I.C., M.R.A.C., M-R.A.S.E., ete. 


The rubber from the Sekong Estate has com- 
manded full priceson the London Market tor 
‘Fine Plantation Para,” parcels having been 
sold during 1907 at prices ranging up to 5s 83d 
per lb. At the present price of Fine Plantation 
Rubber (4s perlb.), a nett profit of about 2s 6d 
per lb. should be realised. Six-year-old trees 
in the Government Experimental Gardens at 
Tenom, in Borneo, are stated to have yielded 1% 
Ib. of Rubber a tree ; while common experience 
in neighbouring Rubber growing countries has 
shown that a much larger yield has been ob- 
tained from 8 to 9 year old trees. A fair revenue 
should also be derived from the sale of seeds 
and stumps. The Sekong Estate is and must 
be for some time the only property in North 
Borneo producing seed in any considerable 
quantity. 


As soon as the existing plantation has been 
put into a thoroughly satisfactory condition, 
the Directors contemplate proceeding with the 
opening out of fresh land on as large ascale as 
may be possible, compatible with officient 
management. The ample supply of plants and 
seeds now available on the Company's property 
will greatly assist its easy development, and 
taken in conjunction with the extent, position, 
and compactness of the Estate, and the un- 
doubted richness of the soil, should facilitate 
the formation of subsidiary companies for the 
cultivation of the reserve Forest Land, and in 
such an event, the profit to the Shareholders 
of this Company should be considerable. 


In 1906 the property was thoroughly inspected 
by Mr JMelmore Halliday, whose Report, dated 
25th August, 1906. 


The promoters of this Company desiring to 
have absolutely up-to-date information as to 
the present condition of the estate, sent out 
Mr R Caldicott Wright, an experienced Java 
and Ceylon Rubber Planter, to inspect the pro- 
perty. Mr BR C Wright, in a cabled report, 


195 


stated that Mr Halliday’s report was substan- 
tially correct, and gave the averago girth of the 
eight year old trees, three feet from the ground, 
as 29 inches, some of them having attained a 
circumference of over 60 inches. The following 
are extracts from Mr R C Wright’s written 
report dated the 29th December, 1907, describ- 
ing the present condition of the rubber estate:— 


“The Concession asper Government plan is 11,272 acres, 
I do not think it fair to deduct more than10 per cent. for 
unavailable land, such as swamps and steep sides of 
streams, the soil throughout is very suitable for the growth 
of ‘Hevea,’ and consists of alluvial clay on the flats and 
on the hills of a yellow coloured clay, with laterite soils 
in some places. Ido not thinkat any place the elevation 
rises to 800 feet above mean sea level.” 


CLIMATE.—‘' There has been no weather report kept 
on the estate, but judging from Sandakan, should say the 
rainfall was 120 inches. The dry months are June, July, 
August: From the growth of the Hevea Trees on the 
Estate I should say the climate suited them exactly.” 


EXTENT.—‘‘ There are 280 acres, more or less, under Para 
rubber; 67, acres 8 years and over, 6 acres 5 years 
and over ; 53 acres4 years and over 2years; 155 acres 2} 
years to over 1 year.” 


“The growth of the trees of all ages above 2 years is good 
and, I have no doubt, might ‘have been better had more 
care been taken in the upkeep. The growth of the 155 acres 
is not good, and this is entirelyin my opinion due to want 
of drainage.and the very neglected condition of the upkeep 
at least 45 acres of this clearing requires deep draining. 
‘The plants in this undrained area are water-logged and can 
never do much good untilitis drained. All weeds must be 
Cleared away atleast 3 feet on each side of the line 
of trees.” 


“YT madea careful census of the trees and arrived at 
12,500 being over 8 years old. Icounted a great many rows 
and had the trees measured. There have been 9,248 trees 
tapped over 8 years old and the balance 1s made up of trees 
over 22 inches. ‘The actual number of trees of all ages, Mr 
Ajtman assured me, andi think him reliable, is 76,352, but 
this includes all supplies, of which I am certain 7,000 can- 
not do any good, their mainroot having been cut down to 
4 or 5inches, and onthe topof these there are at least 
another 5,0C0 water-loggec.” 


NURSERIES.—‘ There are 125,000 plantsin the nurseries 3 
of these Leliminated 25,000 as weakly.” 


ROADS AND BRIDGES.—‘‘ There is a swing bridge across 
the Sekong connecting the bungalow and curing establish- 
ment withthe estate, otherwise there are practically no 
roads or bridges on the property.” 


BuILpINnGs.—“ These consist of a good assistant’s house, 
small dairy and curing establishment, store, hospital, one 
new set of lines forsixty Malays, and two temporary lines 
for 50 Chinese.” 


Lasour.—‘‘ Javanese can be obtained in fair numbers,” 


HEALTH.—‘‘ The health on the estate is good, also’ the 
water supply obtained from wells.” 


YIELD.—'' At the date of my visit 3,442} lb of rubber had 
been despatched ; 1,060 1b sheet were in the store; 150 1b 
scrap were in the store ; and 4173 Ib were expected before 
31st December.” 


_ This yield is no criterion of what the trees ought to 
give, 50 per cent of the trees have been only just scratched.” 


Many rubber planting enterprises have paid 
from £3 to £6 an acre for reserve land held 
under leases with rents rising to $4 an acre 
per annum. The Government of British North 
Borneo is now demanding £3 an acre for selected 
rubber land (vide the speech on 23rd July, 1907, 
of Sir Charles J Jessel, Bart., Chairman of the 
British North. Borneo (Chartered) Company), 
The Sekong estate is held Free of Rent. ‘It 
will therefore be seen that this Company 
acquires 1t8 property on very favourable terms, 
The following letter from the Government of 
British North Borneo shows that favourable 
labour facilities now exist for rubber properties 
in North Borneo, and that liberal terms are in 
other respects given to this industry :— 


196 
37, Threadneedle Street, E.C., 


March 10th, 1908. 


The Secretary, The City Association, Limited, 3 and 4 
Great Winchester Street, E.C. 


Dear Sir,—In reply to your letter of the 9th instant, 
addressed to Mr. Cowie, I am to say :—(1).—That any 
number of Javanese Coolies can now be engaged in Java 
on fair terms, for work on North Borneo Rubber and 
Tobacco Hstates. (2).—That no Export Duty will be 
charged on cultivated Rubber for a period of 50 years from 
1st April, 1905. (3).—That Mr. Cowie considers the un- 

- cultivated portion of the Sekong Estate to be worth more 
than £2 an acre.—Yours faithfully, (Signed) HARINGTON 
G FORBES, Secretary, British North Borneo Company. 

As will be seen from the above letter, the im- 
portation of Javanese coolies has now been ar- 
ranged for with the Netherlands Government, 
and judging from the large areas recently 
planted by other Companies in North Borneo 
apparently no difficulty is being exprienced in 
obtaining all the labour required. 


Vatuation.—Mr, R Caldicott Wright, having 
regard to the heavy fallin the price of rubber at 
the end of 1907, valued the cultivated land at 
£22,500. Buildings, nurseries and seeds at 
£675.—£23,175. Mr. Kk C Wright valued the 
Forest Land at what would appear from the 
above Government statements to be the very 
low figure of 25s. per acre. Therefore 8,491 
acres of Reserve land selected from the above, 
at 25s. per acre £10,613.—£33,788. 


June, 29th, 1908. 


ees 


THE WORLD’S FUTURE SUPPLIES 
- OF RUBBER. 


In a few years, if our expectations are 
realised, as we have no doubt they will be, 
Ceylon and British Malaya, with Java and 
Sumatra, will be sending suflicient supplies of 
Para rubber to relieve the British manufacturer 
from all apprehension of arubber famine. The 
production of rubber on a large scale will then 
be distributed over the three most important 
tropical regions of the earth—South America, 
Africa and Asia—and continuity of supply will 
be assured. 


Weare not sure thatthe debt owing by the 
British rubber manufacturer to the planting 
interests and Government Departments which 
have wrought this result is yet fully realised. 
The necessity of widening the area of supplies, 
as well as providing for a larger output of their 
raw material, has been grasped by the cotton 
manufacturers of this country, who have founded 
and endowed the British Cotton Growing Asso- 
ciation to carry out their views. It has also 
been realised by the German rubber manutfac- 
turers, who similarly support the Kolonial Wirt- 
schaftliches Komitee. Onthe other hand, all 
this work has been done for the British rubber 
manufacturer free of cost. ‘ 


It is true, of course, that the product of the 
Eastern plantation industry is, unlike Philip- 
pine hemp and Formosa camphor, free to find 
its own market, and this it is doing with a ven- 
geanve! Of the total exports of rubber from 
Ceylon between Ist January and the Llth May 
this year, viz.,. 225,459 lb., 132,003 Ib. found its 
way to this country, 72,280 lb. went to America, 
10,384 lb, to Australia, and 8,743 lb, to Germany, 
—India Rubber Journal, June 29, 


The Supplement to the Tropical Agriculturist 


JAPANESE RUBBER MANUFACTURING 
INDUSTRY. 


The manufacturing industry of rubber in 
Japan, though of quite recent growth, has made 
striking progress within a few years, The 
domestic product has now attained a a a to 
compete with foreign makes in quality. It is 
now widely used for machinery and also as 
material for various tools, instruments and toys. 
The situation isso thriving that only a small 
portion of the demand is now supplied by foreign 
imports. The only complaint about shortcomings 
of home-made rubber is its weakness and con- 
sequent inability to stand long use. But thisis 
the natural result accompanying a cheap price 
and this was the case of ten years ago when the 
domestic manufacture was in a state of infancy. 
At present it is not difficult to get articles even 
superior to foreign make in stability and dex- 
terity of workmanship if the proper price be 
payable. Some are inclined to conceive that the 
domestic product must be comparatively high 
in price because of the absence of raw materials 
in this country. But they are quite mistaken in 
believing this, for the foreign made articles are 
subject toa heavy tariff of 20-40 per cent. while 
raw materials are not taxed so that the domestic 
product must be cheaper than the foreign made 
articles. There is no article of rubber which 
can not be made in Japan. The mostimportant 
of those articles are rubber tubes, plates, etc., 
used in engineering and _ balls as toys. However, 
the peculiar article made in Japan are rubber 
socks first invented by the Japan Rubber Manu- 
facturing Company. Since their first appearance 
the new socks at once won great popularity 
and became widely used, especially among the 
lower classes, The above mentioned company, 
which is the only establishment of the kind in 
this country of comparative extensive capacity, 
has recently effected the enlargement. of its 
business at the same time increasing its capital, 
being forced to do so as the natural consequence 
of the development of the industry and the 
growing demand for rubber articles. In short 
the future prospect of the industry is very hope- 
ful, and the prevailing inactivity of the general 
industrial circles has very little affected this line, 
The only regret is that the raw materials are not 
found in this country which greatly impedes the 
development of the industry. However, it is 
very pleasing to hear that some time ago a 
special kind of vine plant productive of gum was 
discovered in Formosa where the plants are said 
to be growing in wild abundance in the moun- 
tains and valleys. These plants are now being 
examined and if they prove successful will no 
doubt greatly contribute to the further develop- 


‘ment of the domestic rubber industry.—Japan 


Times, June 138. 


RUBBER IN BRITISH GUIANA. 


Professor Harrison, ¢.M.c., in a recent letter 
to the Imperial Commissioner of Agriculture, 
reports that the various rubber trees planted 
at the Experiment Station and on the farms in 
the North-Western District are doing very well, 
and showing rapid growth. About 120,000 trees | 
have been planted during the past two or three 
years.—W. I, Agricultural News, May.13, 


and Magazine of the Ceylon Agricultural Society. 


SINGAPORE RUBBER FACTORY: AT 
PASIR PANJANG. 


A DUTCH ENTERPRISE. 


The Netherlands Guttapercha Company, 
Limited, can claim to have established the only 
rubber factory East of Suez, and to be develop- 
ing, at Pasir Panjang, an industry that gives 
every promise of being carried to a most 
successful issue. Some four years ago, the old 
guttapercha factory there was being worked at 
a profit until the Marconi system of wireless 
telegraphy threatened to have serious effects 
upon the manufacture of cables, and reduced 
prices to- a minimum. ‘The stagnation in 
cable rates continued in consequence of the 
factories in London advising the guttapercha 
merchants of their decision to suspend, so far 
as possible, for a time, the manufacture of 
cables. Apparently, the Marconi system has 
not. brought about the disaster then expected, 
as the Netherlands Guttapercha Company, 
Limited, have, this week, recommenced work, 
and will shortly be sending to London gutta 
leaf to be refined for use in cables, 


THE CrupE RUBBER. 


Adjoining the building in which their secret 
process of manufacture is conducted are the 
works devoted to the preparation ot rubber for 
the market. The industry is one of particular 
interest, though it is probably the one least 
known tothe public generally. Large quanti- 
ties of raw Para, .in different grades, 
come in from the F.M.S. and the Straits 
Settlements, where, in forms. of biscuits, 
sheets, or scrap it is placed in a_ ware- 
house, dark, cool and dry. Here it is labelled 
distinctly and made ready for preparation. The 
first stage of the biscuits, or round pads of 
crude rubber, is the washing and mastication 
of the lumps of rubber, which are fed into 
heavy serrated rollers upon which cold water is 
sprayed continually. Having been thus ground 
into a pulp, the rubber is passed out in long, 
thin sheets, which are hung on racks ready to 
be placedin the vacuum drying machine. In 
some factories, these sheets are hung for days 
in hot rooms, but the machine has been found 
to answer thoroughly, in every respect, the 
requirements of the manufactures. Rubber can 
be dried at Pasir Panjang in two hours. instead 
ofintwo months, the management, however, 
recognising that the more inferior the quality 
of rubber the longer it takes for the sheets to be 
dried thoroughly. At a _ time, nine plates of 
rubber can be placed in the machine, which has 
a drying area of 150 square feet. 


CoMPOoUNDS. 


An air pup creates the vacuum required, and 
within a couple of hours or so, the moisture, 
which is necessary to prevent air bubbles and 
blisters when the rubber reaches the vulcanising 
stage, has all been extracted. When thoroughly 
dried, workmen take the plates away to the 
laboratory, and the different ingredients are 
added, according to the compound required for 
the article to be manufactured. In some cases, 
it is sulphuret of antimony, in others, sulphur, 
or chalk, red lead; magnesia, and so forth, The 


197 


tray of ingredients is taken to the mixing ma- 
chine, and, after being thoroughly mixed 
into a substance much resembling a_ stiff 


- dough, the compound is rolled, and re-rolled, 


through callendering machines, which have 
very large cylinder rollers of highly tem- 
pered steel, with a surface like glass, The 
compound is fed between rollers adjusted to 
press the rubber into the required thickness. 
When sufficiently mixed, the rubber compound 
is taken to the tables for cutting, moulding, 
weighing, and so forth, and when shaped and 
formed, a batch of goods is sent to the vulcani- 
sers and cured, 
RusBER TyREs. 


At present, the Netherlands Guttapercha Com- 
pany have an extensive business in the manu- 
facture of solid tyres for carriages, motor cars 
and rickshas. Of late, the demand of rubber 
in connection with automobilism has grown 
enormously, while tyres for rickshas are 
being sought after more frequently. Ano- 
ther branch of rubber manufacture to which 
the compariy have devoted much atten- 
tion is in the way of tubing for use on railways, 
such as buffers, brake tubes, cushions and the 
like, while the demand for the manufactured 
articles in many other forms is increasing. 


Space precludes our describing the different 
modes of manufacturing the various articles, 
though the method of making a ricksha tyre is 
especially interesting, and, shortly, is as follows : 


The unvulcanised compound of rubber, on be- 
ing taken from the mixing machine, is cut into a 
strip and re-wound onto a roller. This is adjusted 
to a machine into which the rubber is fed, and 
forced on a spiral screw through a mould of the 
shape required. Along tube of unvulcanised 
rubber is forced out slowly, and laid on frames, 
which are sent to the vulcanising chamber for 
the fina] process. Ordersfor hundreds of feet 
of tyring reach the firm, whose general agents 
for the sale in Southern and Eastern Asia and 
in Australia are Messrs. Hooglandt and Com- 

any, and they ship frequently to Bangkok, 

anila, Bombay and other Eastern ports. 


The factory is under the direct personal 
management of Mr L A van Rijn. This direct | 
management ensures good workmanship, and as 
only the highest grade of material is used, there 
is every possibility of the Singapore Rubber 
Works developing ona large scale and bringing 
considerable reputation to Singapore in the in- 
dustrial rubber world.—Strazs Times, July 7. 


RUBBER EXPERIMENTS ON THE NILE 


The most recent commercial development 
of the Soudan has been the establishment of 
experimental india-rubber farms along the 
Nile, which, according to official information, 
bid fair _to be a very important success, The 
rubber is grown in a wild state from plants 
which resemble creepers more than trees, but 
the southern regions of the White Nile seem 
a saat to tree-growing prospects.—Pioneer, 

wy e 


198 


RUBBER PLANTING IN INDIA COM- 
PARED WITH CEYLON. 


If prospects are hopeful in Ceylon, how much 
more rosy are they on the West Coast of India, 
where the climate seems to be equally suitable 
tothe growth of Para rubber, and the soil 
is admittedly far superior to that of Ceylon ? 
In this connection I observed'a short time ago 
that that usually well-informed person, Mr 
Herbert Wright, expressed the following opi- 
nion on the labour question to an interviewer 
in Colombo, when on his way Home after his 
Eastern tour :—‘t From a labour standpoint I 
think Java stands iu a much more favourable 
position with regard to its native labour 
than any other country I have ever visited. 
Ceylon and South India would come second.” 
Ido not believe Mr. Wright was ever in the 
rubber-planting districts of Southern India. At 
any rate, to include Southern India and Ceylon 
in thesame category from the point of view of 
labour is obviously unfair. I have also read 
an. opinion expressed recently in the Colombo 
papers by Mr. C EK Welldon, a Ceylon planter, 
that on account of the soil and the absence of 
droughts the yield of rubber in Java (especially) 
and the Straits should exceed that of Ceylon 
and South India. Certainly in India we have 
our droughts, but it has yet to be proved to 
what extent they are adisadvantage to Para 
rubber trees. Mr. Welldon also implies that 
as faras soil is concerned, Ceylon and South 
India are in the same class; but any one with 
experience of both countries knows that, gener- 
ally speaking, the soil on the rubber estates in 
Southern India is infinitely better than that of 
those in Ceylon. Allowing, however, that the 
yield ofrubber in India will not exceed that 
obtainable in Ceylon, rubber planters in India 
are bound to score heavily as regards Jabour. 
It is, indeed, doubtful, as Sir Henry Blake 
points out, if Ceylon planters will ever get the 
150,000 extra hands they will require when all 
their trees reach the tapping stage. If they do, 
they will be lucky, and especially so if they can 
get them to work for 35 cents a man per diem. 
This, however, is 30 per cent. more than what is 
paid on most rubber estates in Southern India, 
and the rates are more likely to rise in Ceylon, 
where the necessity will be greater than in India. 
' GEORGOS. 
—M, Mail, July 13. 


RUBBER PLANTING IN SOUTH 
COORG. 


The last Premoneson rain in these parts fell 
on the 28rd May last, since when up to the 
llth June, when the S.-W. monsoon became 
established, there was no precipitation what- 
ever, and the soil became quite hard and un- 
workable. The monsoon current appeared to 
increase in strength on the Ist instant when 
over an inch was gauged, and on the follow- 
ing date we received the heaviest fall so far. 
over 6 inches in the 24 hours having been re- 
corded in parts. The following day, however, 
there was a drop to little over an inch, and 
the current thas appreciably weakened since. 
But, it has been, on the whole, most excellent 


‘plants. 


The Supplement to the Tropical Agriculturist 


planting weather, of which full advantage has 
been taken to push on with the supplying up 
of Ceara clearings and the planting out of Para 
The latter has mostly been quincunxed 
with the Ceara, as there has been but little 
land available for planting them in separate 
blocks. The object is to 

TAP OUT THE CEARA EVENTUALLY IF THE PARA 

COMES ON WELL, 

It could not be otherwise as the ground would 
be overcrowded. On the other hand, if, owing 
to unsuitable climatic conditions, the Para does 
poorly, the Ceara can be retained permanently ; 
and with the tapping difficulty solved, this does 
not present an unfavourable prospect. 

THE CEARA CLEARINGS, 
it is gratifying to note, have proved a grand 
success ; the proportion of vacancies that it 
has been necessary to supply up have’ been 
small, despite the destructiveness of wild pigs, 
porcupines, &c. Many of the plants, which 
looked like dry sticks in the hot weather, have 
thrown out shoots which have made surprising 
growth since. We can only hope that the Para 
will do equally as well. The growth, of course, 
is bound to be slower, but if they are ready 
for tapping at 7 years old it isall that can be 
desired. In the meantime the Cearas will prob- 
ably be yielding rubber. The fact that on 
‘* Hawthorne ” Hstate on the Shevaroy Hills at 
an elevation of 3,500 feet and in a climate having 
anannual average raintall of 50 inches, tree. 
from 5 to7 years old yielded an average of + Ibs 
of dry clean rubber per tree per month is full 
of encouragement. The altitude in these parts 
perhaps in no case exceeds 3,000 feet, and the 
average annual rainfall is about 60—65 inches. 
There is, however, one factor that militates 
against the decreased altitude, and that is the 
greater proximity of these parts to the sea. 
For this reason it has been maintained that an 
elevation of nearly 4,000 feet in places far inland 
like the Nilgirisis equivalent to an elevation of 
3,000 feet near the sea... Perhaps down below 
the ghauts would be anideal place for growing 
Para in Coorg. Labour is, unfortunately, not 
adequate for the needsof both coffeeand rubber; 
and, in consequence, some’ of the seasonable 
works in coffee are in arrears. Every effort is 
being made to get the weeds down and to fill up 
vacancies ; butit is slow work with the require- 
ments of rubber being attended to. Hven with 
the employment of contract labour the work 
is not making any great headway. After the 
rubber clearings have been filled up and’ planted, 
the weeds have got to be cut down and they 
have got to bedug. The latter will have to be 
done entirely by contract labour. Once the plan- 
ting of the Para has been completed, the estate 
hands will be free to be turned on to the coffee. 
—Madras Times, July 15. 


A BRITISH GUIANA RUBBER TRUST. 


Colonel Link proposes shortly to organise the 
entire rubber and balata industry in the colony 
so as to run it economically under one manage- 
ment. Heis purchasing the balata grants of 
Messrs. Thom & Cameron and Messrs. Bugle & 
Co., and is negotiating for those of Messrs. 
Garnett & Co. and Mr, Downer,—Demerara 
Argosy, April 25. ; A 


and Magazine of the Ceylon Agricultuial Society. 


THE BIG RUBBER TREES. 


IN THE SINGAPORE GARDENS. 


In the year 1894, the Forest Inspector J Good- 
enough slanted some rubber seedlings in a wood 
behind his house in the Botanic Gardens, This 
wood is on the slope of a hillrunning down to 
the main road and rather steep. It had been 
planted up by Mr Cantley about 1884 with 
| Abtbigzia moluccana, Hugenia grandis and Pseudo- 
subtilis and other trees and had additions in 
the form of various trees of the character of 
Belukar jungle. The wood was very thick as 
there was a good deal of under-growth too, The 
soil isa stiff clay. The rubber trees were quite 
forgotten for about ten years, aud when found 
were crowded up with other trees, but had made 
surprisingly rapid growth. Three were on the 
top of the hill where it was a little flatter and at 
a distance of 8ft., and 18ft. respectively apart. 
The tallest No. 1277 was measured a few days 
ago. It had grown considerably higher than 
the surrounding trees and was conspicuous from 
afar. Its height wasfound to be no less than 100ft., 
while in girth at 3ft. from the ground it mea- 
sured 72ins. The stem is smooth and straight 
without a branch for a considerable height. ‘I'he 
other two were less tall, one having lost a por- 
tion of the top (No. 1276). It measured at 3ft. 
from the ground 60ins. The third gave a mea- 
surement of 79ins. 


On the slope the trees lessen in girth in pro- 
portion to the steepness of the hill, the slopes 
of which show signs of a strong rush of water 
during rains. The whole wood is full of seed- 
ings from these trees, though for some years past 
it has been the custom for the seed collectors 
to gather up the fallen seeds, 


The usual height given fora full grown Para 
rubber tree is 7(0ft. and the tall tree (No. 
1277) is certainly the record in height, and yot 
it is but 14 years of age, This is a most instruc- 
tive experiment, The trees are grown in a 
thick wood of lofty trees, on a stiff and poor 
elay soil. They have cost nothing more than 
the mere putting of the seedlings into the ground 
except that when they were rediscovered some 
trees which were pressing against them were 
knocked down. They are grown under abso- 
lutely natural conditions, just as one sees them 
in photographs of the trees of the Amazons, and 
they are fully twice as large as trees of the same 
age grown in the open with careful and expen- 
sive felling and clearing and weeding, and are 
prpnaducing themselves naturally, through the 
wood. 


The trees have been tapped, and gave good 
returns of rubber. 


Average growth in girth at 3 ft. from the 
one of big trees infour years 2°06, 2°87, 4:06. 

he ordinary growth in girth of big trees in 
general is about 2ins. a year. Younger trees 
seem to grow faster. 


The second record tree in the gardens is one 
of those which was among the lot first brought 
to Singapore No, 2, Its height is less being 
54ft., its girth at 3 ft. from the ground is 120 


199 


ins. Mr Herbert Wright who lately saw this 
tree and measured it affirms that it is the biggest 
tree in girth recovered, wild or cultivated. Its 
age is 30 years. 


The seven trees first received in 1877, were 
first planted in the Botanic Gardens by Murton, 
and on the founding of the Economie Gardens 
in 1880 by Mr Cantley were transferred to their 
present position. This tree was evidently tapped 
at about 4 ft, from the ground and threw out 
three branches, which are now to great size. It 
is grown in the open in low swampy soil. It 
gave 14lb. of rubber on being tapped by the 
spiral system and would probably have given 
moreunder any other system of tapping.—H. 
N. R. in the Strait Agreultural Bulletin. 


INDIA RULBCR, GUTTA PERCHA, AND 
TELEGRAPH WORKS COMPANY. 


Lower Rubber Prices Promise Well! 

Presiding at the half-yearly general meeting 
held yesterday at the offices, Cannon-street, 
Major Darwin said that the board had no hesi- 
tation in making a recommendation for the dis- 
tribution of an interim dividend of 24 per cent. 
The high prices of raw material had shown 
decided symptoms of a permanent lowering, al- 
though since the beginning of their financial 
year there had been ups and downs, .and even 
at the present moment a slight stiffening had 
taken place. This increase might be dueto the 
present cheapness of money, which certainly 
enable dealers to hold larger stocks at less cost 
than was the case a year ago. But it was quite 
certain that, at least so far as indiarubber was 
concerned, high prices could not be maintained 
without quite abnormal effort. The increasing 
quantities of rubber from the plantations which 
had been springing into existence during the 
last eight or nine years must eventually toll 
their tale, and have their influence on the raw 
rubber market. He moved a resolution ap- 
proving the dividend recommended. The mo- 
tion was passed. At an extraordinary general 
meeting which followed, a resolution was passed 
under which the Directors were empowered to 
issue fresh capital.—London Times, July 1. 


NEW RUBBER CO. FOR BRITISH 
GUIANA. 


Garnerr’s Batata Co., Lrp. (98,377). Re- 
gistered June 16th, with capital £30,000 in 
£1 shares (10,000 preference), to examine, ex- 
plore, clear, re-timber, plant, cultivate, work 
and turn to account any forests, woods, rub- 
ber, coconut, pepper, cotton and other trees 
mines, mineral and dredging rights in British 
Guiana or elsewhere, to adopt an agreement 
with M. Garnett and G. Garnett, etc. No 
initial public issue, The first Directors are 
M. Garnett (Chairman) and G. Garnet (both 
permanent ; special qualification 5,000 shares 
each) and F Grant. Qualification of ordinary 
Directors £100, Remuneration £100 each per 
annum (Chairman £150). Registered by Lawr- 
ence, Webster, Messer and Gaylor, 14, Old J ewry 
Chambers, E,C.—Investors’ Guardian, June.27. 


200 
GUAYULE RUBBER. 


BECOMING UNIMPORTANT. 

In the ‘*Kew Bulletin” No. 7, 1907, p. 285, 
an account was given of the Guayule Rubber 
industry in Mexico, From the following despatch 
from His Majesty’s Minister, Mexico, which has 
been received at Kew through the courtesy 
of the Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs, it 
would appear that the commercial importance of 
the Guayule plant will very shortly be a thing 
of the past:— 

HIS MAJESTY’S MINISTER, MEXICO, TO THE 

SECRETARY OF STATE FOR FOREIGN AFFATRS. 


Mexico, May 19th, 1908. 


Sir,—With reference to my Despatch of this 
Series No 52 of December 3rd, 1906, and to later 
Despatches on the subject of Guayule (rubber) in 
Mexico, I have the honour to report that an 
Americzn expert, who has been spending some 
time in this Republic in an exhaustive study of 
the Guayule industry has made the following 
pronouncement, which I hear from other sources 
is a fairly correct statement :— 

‘‘ Based upon a conservative estimate there 
are only about 400,000 tons of guayule now in 
‘existence, either standing in its native soil, or 
at the plants, oron the way to the plants for 
extraction. 

“This scarcity has become so marked that 
the most remote sections or districts are now 
being scoured and searched for the plant, and 
what appears to be the last place where the 
shrub can be found m any quantity, the Bolson 
de Mapimi district, is being thoroughly gone 
over and the guayule gathered and delivered 
under contract to the Continental Rubber Com- 
pany of Mexico. 

‘¢ This district, which lies between the Sierra 
Mojada and Torreon, is practically the last 
remaining district there is guayule in any con- 
siderable quantity, all the other sections having 
been pretty well cleaned up and the remainder 
of the 400,000 tons has long since been purchased 
by the various extracting companies at prices 
ranging from $25 to $75 per ton (£2 10s to £7 10s). 

‘““The purchases at the lower prices were 
made before the landowners realised the value 
of the shrub, or entertained the slightest sus- 
picion that the plant would not reproduce 
itself in a very short time. 

‘‘Qn account of the extremely slow-growing 
habits of the shrub this has been found to be 
improbable, and it isa practical certainty that 
with the consumption of the existing supply of 
400,000 tons above-mentioned, the guayule in- 
dustry will go into decay. 

‘It had been hoped that experiments would 
be made by parties interested in the production, 
in the planting of seed and joining it with some 
kindred plant to accelerate its growth so that a 
wait of but four or five years would be necessary 
for the plant to obtain the proper size for ex- 
traction. This could be effected by grafting 
the guayule upon some kindred plant the roots 
of hich would furnish the guayule tops with a 
greater flow of sap and consequently a more 
rapid growth than its own roots would furnish. 

nf Whother this can be successfully done or 
not remains to be seen, and has never, so far 
as | know, been attempted. 


The Supplement to the Tropical Agriculturist. 


‘‘In this grafting, however, is the only hope 
for the future of the guayule industry, as it 
is said the opinion of eminent botanists in the 
United States has been that the plants of two 
feet in. height now being extracted have required 
seventy years for their growth. 


‘So far no reports have been made that any 
of the experiments which have been tried hold 
out any encouragement or prospect of success of 
reproduction ; and itis more than likely that 
unless the grafting as described be tried and 
found successful, the end of the industry will 
come when the vresent supply of guayule is 
exhausted. The mills will then be turned to 
some other use and the machinery disman- 
tled or turned to the extraction of fibre or 
other similar uses. 

‘* The flora of Mexico is, however, so varied, 
interesting and so entirely unknown that the un- 
tiring work of the chemist is likely at any time 
to discover possibilities in some of these plants 
that will make the guayule industry appear of 
trifling significance.”—I have, etc., 

(Signed) ReginaLp TowEkR, 
—Kew Butletin, No. 6, 1908. 


RUBBER IN SOUTHERN NIGERIA. 


(a) Rubber.—The total output of rubber for 
1906 (including exports from Northern Nigeria) 
amounted to 3,434,279 lb., valued locally at 
£307,077, as compared with 3,109,707 1lb., valued 
at £249,043, in the previous year.” Experiments 
were made with a view to preparing rubber of a 
better quality with the ordinary appliances 
available to the natives, and it was found that 
with the exercise of a little care as regards 
straining the latex of impurities, washing the 
freshly coagulated latex, and cutting it up into 
thin stripes that can be more easily dried in 
wood smoke, a product was obtained that was 
valued in England at prices ranging from 4s, 6d. 
to 4s. 8d.alb., when best Brazilian Para was 
selling at5s.2d.alb. The latex experimented 
with was that of Funtunvia elastica, and nothing 
but the most simple articles such as demijohns, 
earthen pots, a sieve, and a empty bottle or two, 
were used for preparing the rubber. 


Demonstrations were given to the rangers, 
foresters, forest guards, and pupils in such sim- 
ple methods of preparing the improved produce, 
and itis hoped that the natives generally will 
adopt thesystem. There is not the slightest 
doubt that the price of our best rubbers such as 
that procured from Funtumia elastica, Landol- 
phia Owariensis, and Clitandra elastica can 
be doubled by the exercise of a little care in the 
preparation of the produce. Such efforts, how- 
ever, will not be successful unless a substantially 
higher price is paid to the natives for the 
superior article and the Adulteration of Produce 
Ordinance is simultaneously put into force. 
The two rangers, who were sent to French 
Guinea for the purpose of learning the methods 
employed there in preparing rubber, returned 
to Southern Nigeria towards the end of the year, 
and have since been employed in teaching the 
natives of the rubber yielding districts of the 
Protectorate what they have learnt.—Colonial 
Office Report, 1908. 


and Magazine of the Ceylon Agricultural Society. 


NOTE ON TEA MANUFACTURE. 


The advantages of 


BRINGING THE LEAF IN HOURLY 


to the factory must bedelineated. The pluck, 
ers are all told off into groups of 8—lv—12- 
and a man is allotted to each gang to bring 
their leaf in hourly to the factory where it 1s 
weighed and inspected, under the tea house 
Manager’s supervision and the weight of leaf 
written down to the credit of the gang...... In 
gardens where tram lines run to all parts of 
the estate the outdoor staff supervise weigh- 
ments and quality and trollies run constantly 
with light loads. For 


WITHERING 


we would postulate wide mesh continuous racks 
or cloth-covered platforms. The former for 
the ground fioor areas, as not only affording 
reater facilities for erection, but keeping 
hem more open to inspection and light ; and 
the latter for the upper stories. These wither-— 
ing appliances require great attention, as ib 
must be borne carefully in mind, that well 
withered leaf always gives a darker liquor and 
improved appearance; green rolling should 
only be resorted to when unavoidable and as an 
alternative to the opposite extreme......... Of 


ROLLING 


surfaces undoubtedly wood is the most effective, 
especially the softer grained descriptions, but 
the septic properties of all timbers render them 
unsatisfactory for this purpose. What is required 
is an unevenly wearing surface of material im- 
pervious to water. The most suitable surface 
that has come under our notice was one of equal 
parts of coarse red sand and Portland cement; 
this had been in use for many years, and showed 
no signs of polish, and in fact was as rough as the 
day on which it was constructed owing to the 
uneven wearing properties of its constituents. 
The system of bedding the rolling tables in glass 
has much to commend it in a sanitary aspect and 
is being adopted by gardens aiming at perfection 
in their equipment. The speeds at which rolling 
tables are driven vary on different estates. Hx- 
cess in speed especially in hard rolling tends to 
defeat its own object, and should be avoided— 
as it leads to what is known as polishing, or 
slip; a wide shallow well materially assists in 
arresting this, but the tendency remains. 


It is in rolling that we come to the first vari- 
ation that can be made, affecting the appearance 
and charactor of the resulting teas. After each 
period of rolling the contents of the roller, spoken 
of technically as the roll, are passed through 
or over some form of disintegrator to break up 
the balls formed in that process. Undoubtedly 
the best breaker in vogue for this purpose is the 
short stroke horizontal jigger with baffle boards 
twelve inches apart. ‘he kicker rake seen in 
this combination on some factories, is a distinct 
advantage and should be adopted where feasible, 
Rotatory separation has many disadvantages, 
chief of which is difficulty of access for cleaning. 
In this process of separation a portion of the 
finest constituents of the roll are separated and 
laid aside at once to colour, while the coarser 
portions are put into another roller and the 


201 


process continued. The object of this separa- 
tion is to secure appearance for the fine grades 
of flowery and Broken Orange Pekoes. This 
is sometimes carried on to a great extent, each 
succeeding roll adding its quota tothe fine stock. 
When there is an undoubted shortage of a 
demand for grades of standout appearance, this 
may be of value ; and the teas thus manufac- 
tured may secure an equivalent in price, to 
compensate for the inevitable loss in strength in 
the lower grades. In the coming season there 
seems to be a 


PROMISE OF DEMAND FOR HIGH CLASS SHOWY TEAS 


and should this not be met witha sufficient 
supply prices may reach expectations, and 
equalise the serious impairing of quality 
in Brokens and Souchongs. In separating 
fine grades in this way the fact that it is 
done at asacrifice of the lower grades, should 
not be lost sight of, and when the system of 
hard rolling is resorted to, on a sound and 
simple commercial basis, and a mark established 
on these lines, it would be most unwise to at- 
tempt any alteration. Many gardens might 
make small percentages of fine teas, but few 
gardens can command ninepence up for their 
Souchongs, and after all itis the lower grades 
that make or marthe garden average. A cur- 
sory examination of sale lists will show this at a 
glance. Wenow come tothe 


QUESTION OF COLOUR, 


Rolls coloured in rooms flooded in water, in 
rooms that are quite dry, in dark rooms, in light 
rooms, in rooms subject toa strong current of 
air, and in stilt rooms, are all sgen at the top of 
the London market. The primary object in 
having water at all ina colouring room, durin 

working hours, isthe prevalent idea that the 
presence of moisture means a lowering of the 
temperature, and certainly if this view is correct 
some of the colouring rooms that have come 
under our notice should never exceed a tempe- 
rature of zero Fahrenheit; but this is not the 
case. It does not at all follow that a moisture- 
laden atmosphere isa cold one and the presence 
of saturated cloths, and running water, are nota 
sine qua non of success in the tea markets today. 


Water can only reduce temperature when 
it evaporates or assumes the gaseous form, 
as in so doing,-it must absorb a definite 
amouut of heat from its surroundings, to com- 
pensate for its increased bulk, from water to 
vapour. With this principle in view powerful 
fans are arranged to draw air through wet cloth 
screens; here the action is indirect, what is 
actually done is a reduction of the temperature 
of the screen and indirectly that of the roll, 
What is required is to evaporate the moisture in 
contact with the roll, as it is here that the ob- 
joctionable temperature is created, It is an 
active and tangible attribute of leaf in bulk to 
heat, and part passu this property is inherent 
in each individual leaf, The air passing through 
a colouring room, should be large in quantity, 
low in temperature, and not saturated with 
moisture. The combination of fans drawing air 
through saturated double or treble pigeon- 
holing walls seems best to answer this purpose. 
The air is cooled by contact with the wet 


26 


202 The Supplement to the Tropical Agriculturist 


bricks, is Jargé in quantity, and not sat- 
urated with moisture. In all cases when test- 
ing results the thermometer should be placed 
in contact with the roll and not ona wall in 
the full strength of the inrush of cold air. 
The simple presence or absence of light seems 
to have no appreciable effect on the colouring 
of the leaf and colouring rooms brilliantly 
illuminated with suitably installed electric light 
are as effective as those kept as dark as Hrebus. 


Light generally means heat, and is apt, on 
that account, to be tabooed ; but large double 
panes of glass with a space between, set in 
suitable fames in the walls, amply meots the 
case, and greatly facilitates efliciency of working. 
The outer wall of the colouring room, which is 
used in the process of lowering the teraperature 


of the air, should face as near to 22°5° east, of » 


north; as the direction least exposed to the sun's 
rays and that only when the atmospheric tempe- 
rature islow, viz., early morning. As regards 


DISPOSAL OF THE LEAF, IN THE COLOURING ROOMS, 


itis placed on the floor, on glass, slate, tiles and 
coment ; itis raised off the floor on trays and 
racks. Both these systeras are at the top of 
the London market, so either seems efficacious. 
That the oxygen contained in the atmo- 
sphere is practically the only agent of value 
in colouring the leaf, may be accepted as an 
axiom, the result of modern research and ex- 
periments. Further, it follows that the larger 
the quantity of air passing through the colouring 
room the better; in any case the current of air 
induced bya power fan can in no way be con- 
sidered injurious. Inasmuch as increased pres- 
sure might mean’ a rise in temperature and vice 
versa, we would give the preference to the ex- 
haust fan. A cocl atmosphere being denser 
than a warm one contains ceteris paribus more 
oxygen per cubic foot, and on this ground 
should be more effective. The object in all 
systems seems to be to expose the rollin thin 
layers tu the action of the air (oxygen?)..... 
If by raising the roll off the ground we can 
reduce its temperature, this system would seem 
advisible; on the floor the underside of the roll 
is not exposed. to atmospheric influences at all, 
and here again it might be policy to raise the 
rolls off the ground, and it economises space 
to stack the rolled leaf. The main advantage of 
using the floor as a depository for rolled leaf is 
cleanliness, aud undoubtedly of all surfaces in 
use for this purpose glass takes the palm, but 
the customary disinfection can’ be overdone. 
Disappointing teas have been received on the 
London market which seemed to point to the 


EXCESSIVE USE OF PERMANGANATE OF POTASH 


or other disinfectants. The trays in ordinary use 
in colouring rooms are often dirty, and generally 
inaccessible in detail to the best antiseptic inten- 
tions. The most busineeslike method noticed 
was the use of thick sheet of plate glass set in 
plain oblong teakwood frames painted with cop- 
per-coloured marine paint and kept apart when 
stacked, by transverse battens of suitable size 
and shape; the glass being removable. The 
use of glass was being dispensed with as being 
too fragile, thoughit had much to commend it 


on the score of cleanliness, and brass wire No. 4 
meshing substituted. This had all the appear- 
ance of solving the question satisfactorily, 
being durable and admitting more contact with 
the air.—Indian Planters’ Gazette, July 11. 


THE MANUFACTURE OF GREEN TEA. 


A New. Sirring MAcHINngE. 

Those planters who make a speciality of the 
manufacture of green tea will have been interested 
in the new sifting machine. The inventor claims 
with much reason that it possesses several ad- 
vantages over the older contrivances which have 
been ou the market for some years. |The horror 
of a tea house is a confused mass of belticg and 
exasperating complexity of pulleys. This the 
inventor set himself to avoid and heappears to 
have been remarkably successful. In his new 
machine only one pulley is used and only one 
belt, and the action is so simple that it seems 
impossible for the gear to get out of order. In 
another direction simplicity has been aimed at 
and @ minimisation of risk. The shafting goes 
only a little way into the drum, the bulk of the 
weight being taken up by the two friction pul- 
leys. This is an obvious desideratum. A special 
feature of the outfit which will be very acceptable 
is that one section can be washed out while the 
other is still being used, without changing the 
belt or stopping the whole machine. Hasily 
cleaned and simply worked sums up the prinel- 
ple of an invention which we believe is only to 
be known to be thoroughly appreciated. 
—Calcutta Paper. 


TEA AND RUBBER GROWING 
[NM JAVA, 
RICE AND POOR DISTRICTS ; HEAVY TEA CROP 
EXPECTED THIS YEAR, 


In recently discussing in Batavia their local 
tea industry, we learn that a number of Java 
planters arrived at the conclusion that there 
was not more than 10 per cent of all the estates 
capable of producing 1,000 lb. per acre; but one 
of the planters writes to us: — 


It must not bo forgotten that this 10 
per cent represents new estates run on new 
systeins, whereas the remaining 90 per cent are 
nearly all old estates which have been in eculti- 
vation for years. From this I do no’ wish you 
to gather that the old estates .are worn out; 
but simply that the planters here have gathered 
experience and there is hardly an estate being 
started now which will not give its 1,600 lb. per 
acre. There are agreatmany estates here which 
can put their tea on board for 22d per lb., so 
that on quantity their tea pays splendidly, even 
when the price of common teas is down. I was 
staying at ‘Malabar’ last month and I can 
ovly tell youthat I saw one plain of 6,000 acres 
of tea which last year averaged over 1,000 1b. 
per acreall through. Isaw one garden, which 
had never been pruned, which last year gave 
1,900 lb. per acre over 80 acres. And yet a Ceylon 
man’s. hair would stand on end with horror 
if he saw the methods in use there, 


and Magazine of the Ceylon Agricultural Society. 


“This is going tobe Malabar’s record year, as 
in fact it will be for the whole island, as far as 
tea is concerned. I believe I am correct in 
saying that our production for the first four 
months of 1908 is, roughly, 9,000,000 lb. more 
than for the same period in 1907. I think our 
crop will be about 40,000,000 lb. for the year. 
In some ways we do not trouble to do things 
so very much cheaper than other lands—as, for 
instance, our opening work. Take Bandjarsarie 
the property of the Anglo-Java Rubber Co.—at 
the end of March, 1908, approximately £13,000 
had been spent or say 156,000, less G20,000 pur- 
‘chase price, thus G136,000 on planting 927} 
acres with rubber, of which 4374 acres were 
25/27 months old ; 2624 were about 12 months 
old ; 2274 were just planted. Take Sagga in the 
F. M.S.—according to the last report at 
September 1907, the Assets and Expenditure 
amounted to £14,491—15—7, of which £283—8— 
8 was cash at Bankers, £754—12—7 was 
cash and book debts; £2,400 was purchase price, 
leaving a nett expenditure on the property of 
£11;053—14—4 or say G132, 644/60, for which they 
had 196 acres about 24 years old ; 300 acres about 
14 years old ; and 400 acres 4/5 months old, total 
896 acres, From the above you will see there is 
not somuch in our favour as far as initial capital 
expenditure goes,” 


JAVA AND ITS TEA PRODUCTIVITY. 


July 20th. 

Dear S1x,—Muceh is said in the Tropical Agri- 
culturist (May and June) about the fine qualities 
of Java from a planter’s point of view. It is com- 
forting to see one’s working ground praised, but 
it may be good to rectify and emphasize some 
points. Willyoulet metry? Itis obvious that 
agriculture gives better results here than in 
Ceylon. Cinchona is a great success, Coffee is 
still important here, and tea also on the whole 
seems to give greater profit. Igrant that. But 
not greater fertility of the soil, only, must be 
credited for the fact, I think. 


I should like to speak of ‘‘fresher ” soil, and 
further, beside cheaper labour, to take in ac- 
count the judicious system prevailing here, of 
interesting Managers in the results of their 
work—giving them a good percentage in the pro- 
fits of their estate, guaranteed by contract. It 
may be the last point isnot the least one. You 
coneciis, no doubt, that an estate depends in the 
first place on its Manager. An estate cannot 
flourish without a good Manager ; without any 
other personage, working for the same Company, 
it may do. Directors and Superintendents are 
indispensable for a Company, but it is possible 
to imagine an estate flourishing well with- 
out them, for a time; whereas for the good 
Manager | should not like to assert the same. 
A good Manager is the very essential condition 
for the success of an estate. But, if this be 
correct, it entails that the liveliness and dis- 
position of the Manager must make a great 
difference to the estate. 


And it is only human that for those qualities 
of the Manager it should make a great differ- 
ence whether he be paid a fee, a variable pay- 


208 


ment according to the Superintendont’s views, or 
interested in the result of his daily work in 
the manner as given above, which gives him 
very distinctly a sense of partial ownership in 
his estate. 


Agriculture is a fine and delicate profession 
the soil reacts on sentiment. No doubt most 
sentiment shall be found with the owner of the 
ground; with him the sentiment approaches love. 
And besides, who ever could better economise, 
in the full sense of the word, than the owner 
of ‘the ground? 


As for Java’s competition in the tea market, 
I do not think Ceylon planters need be uneasy 
about that—if it won’t be disturbed by some 
25,000,000 lb. more in addition to our 25,000,000 
of now-a-days. The Pengalengan tea district 
is quite exceptional, and probably Malabar is 
exceptional in it. In that district the soil, and 
shape of ground, and climate, all are equally 
splendid. The soil is much too tine to be described 
by me; it should be done in verse. The district 
is essentially a plateau, and as for the climate, 
sunshine is abundant at an elevation, where 
moisture is its chief characteristic; it could 
not be better. No doubt we will see some 
extension of the culture in this district, in 
some other well-situated ones, and elsewhere, 
but certainly not all districts are half-Penga- 
lengans—and besides, possibilities are limited. 
Appropriate lands are becoming scarce, and 
the price of labour is steadily rising with the 
demand. Government wishes to secure some 
ground for wood culture, and some place for the 
natives in the future, 


Therefore, in my 35,000,000 lb, of increase 
the conversion of other cultures into tea and 
the future improvements in exploitation are’ 
done with, I dare say. I cannot imagine a Java 
production of 60,000,000 lb. for a number of 
years to come, and I see clearly that we will 
gradully lose some of our advantage compared 
with Ceylon, viz., cheap labour and fresh soil. 


DUTCHMAN. 


WAX AS A BY-PRODUCT OF 
SUGAR-CANE. 


=m 


The “Daily Argosy” (Georgetown), British 
Guiana of the 13th June states that a patent has 
been applied for with respect to a process for 
the extraction of wax from the Sugar-cane. It 
seeras that the rind of the cane contains a cer- 
tain proportion of wax which has hitherto, been 
lost with the refuse. Bythe new process this 
wax is now recovered from the filter refuse and 
turned to commercial uses, It is estimated that 
one ton of cane will yield 0-4 kilo, of wax, and 
very similar in its characteristics to beeswax or 
Carnauba wax, and suited to the same purposes 
for which those waxes are utilised. ‘fhe wax in 
question, which resembles that now used very 
largely for making cylinders for so-called talking 
machines is exceedingly hard and capable of 
taking ahigh polish. It is understood that 110 
factories in Java will be using this process dur- 
ing iS present year,—Bourd of Trade Journal, 
July 9, 


204 
CULTIVATION OF TAPIOCA. 


A VauuaBLe CHEaP Foon. 

A paper is issued by the Revenue Department 
dealing with the cultivation of tapioca in the 
Bombay Presidency. It appears that in January 
last Commissioner Booth-Tucker, of the Salva- 
tion Army, asked Government to favour the ex- 
periment of dried tapioca root as cheap food. 
The root, he said, could be boiled or made into 
flour with rice powder and could be delivered in 
Bombay at twenty to twenty-five seers per rupee. 
The Director of Agriculture thought the matter 
worth investigating, and now states :—‘‘ Indica 
tions ‘appear to show that tapioca may prove 
very useful in this Presidency, if not as a 
regular field crop, at any rate in gardens and odd 
corners. It has grown most successfully on the 
Poona and Manjri farms, and I am having it 
tried this year at Dohad, Dhulia and Dharwar 
and in the Ratnagiri District. ILhope next year 
to beable to offer free sets for planting to the 
people in those localities, and to be able to tell 
them what results they may expect to obtain. 
The cultivation of this plant requires very little 
trouble and it seems hkely that the Bhils in 
Khandesh and the Panch Mahals will take kindly 
to it.” 

Anote on the tapioca plant has been.prepared, 
in which it is stated that the best soil for grow- 
ing tapioca is a sandy loam which must be well 
drained, for the roots soon decay in water-logged 
ground. Thesoil must be rich, for tapioca is an 
exhausting crop. The plant thrives best in the 
low-land in the neighbourhood of the sea. In 
the Bombay Presidency it will thrive well in 
the ‘ bhata’ (alluvial) lands of Surat and in the 
regions all along the sea coast. In the coastal 
tracts the rainfall is assured and the crep can 
be successfully grown without any irrigation. 

The root contains a poisonous principle, which 
is however dissipated by boiling, In Travan- 
core, where the plant is acclimatised, the well- 
to-do people boil the tubers three times 
before eating. Each time the water is thrown 
off to remove the poisonous properties, but 
the ordinary people are satisfied with two boil- 
ings, and are apparently not aware of the exist- 
ence of poisonous properties. ‘hey say that 
they boil the root because it then becomes good 
for eating. The sun-dried slices are boiled 
twice and the boiled sun-dried slices are boiled 
once more, and after each boiling the water 
is drained off. The slices are then seasoned 
with chilly powder and other condiments. The 
very poor oat the boiled root without any sea- 
soning. The sun-dried root is also made into 
flour with a rice-pounder. For this purpose the 
ordinary mortar and pestle can be used. It can 
also be ground into flour with an ordinary hand- 
mill. From the flour thus obtained ordinary 
cakes may be made with a mixture of bajri, 
jowari and maize flour, The cakes made of 
tapioca flour alone are palatable but a little 
tough. This toughness, however, does not 
appear in cakes made of mixed flour, 

ts value as food is slightly better than sweet 
potato dried to the same extent. Itis not equal 
to wheat, but about equal to rice. The Collec- 
tor of Panch Mahals reports that it is purchased 
readily and appreciated by Bhils, and has been 
sold at 40 lb, perrupee.—B, Gazette, July 25, 


The Supplement to the Troptcal Agriculturist 


**VALCANINA.”’ 


It is stated in a, Brazilian paper that a 
Company has been organised for the exploit- 
ation of a Brazilian invention known as Vulcani- 
na, whichis a preparation of rubber to be used 
for road paving and other purposes. It is 
further stated thatthe building in which the 
Company will establish its offices has been 
acquired. In this connection I read in an 
account of the new premises of John Dewar and 
Son, Limite, inthe Haymarket, London, that 
‘the floor of the main hall is laid with rubber 
tiles such as are now used in the best offices in 
A merica.” GEOKGOS. 
—M. Mail, July 25. 


PRESERVATIVE EFFECT OF ROAD- 
SIDE TREES. 


In the American Florist we read that in 
answer to enquiries from the United States 
Consul-General Robert P Skinner, of Marseilles, 
furnishes the following information relative to 
the effect of wayside trees on French roads: ‘‘It 
is proposed to plant trees along the roadsides 
of New York State in order tokeep the moisture 
in the road and prevent ravelling, and the ques- 
tion has been raised whether or not the roots of 
such trees may spread cut underneath the road 
surface and eventually create great damage in 
a severe clinate where there are extremes of 
heat and cold. While French roads are not 
always bordered with shade trees, they are so 
very frequently, and my information is that the 
trees are planted not only for furnishing shade, 
but in order to protect the roads themselves 
against the effects of excessive heat and drought. 
lt is believed that the long dry suramer season 
is much more inimical to roads than severe cold. 
The chief officer in charge of the public roads 
in Marseilles is of the opinion that, on the whole, 
New York roads would be’ benefited if bordered 
with trees, suggesting, however, that only such 
should be planted as have vertically descending 
roots.” H Birot, civil engineer and former con- 
ductor of the bureau of bridges and highways, 
expresses himself as follows on the subject: ‘In 
countries where the climate is damp, roadside 
trees are prejudicial to the maintenance of the 
highways, as they prevent the circulation of the 
air and the drying of the soil; in most of the 
southern French regions such plantations are, 
on the other hand, very useful in dry weather, 
as they maintain the roadbed in a state of fresh- 
ness favourable to its conservation. In general, 
trees should be selected with high, spreading 
branches, such as the Poplar, the Elm, and the 
Ash, and they should.be planted generally upon 
the outer edge of the road-box and at distances 
of 10 metres (32.80 feet). Each tree should be 
placed in a hole 1 metre (3.28 feet) deep and 14 
metres (4°92 feet) square, andshould be trimmed 
toa height of 2} metres (8.20 feet) above the 
surface, ‘he earth about newly-planted trees 
should be loosened in March and November 
—iv March only after the third year—and there- 
after until their permanent growth appears 
assured ; small trenches should be directed to- 
ward the foot of the tree, in order to secure the 
benefit of rains. Finally, the tree itself should 
be trimmed annually during the first 10 years,” 
—Gardeners’ Chronicle, July 4, 


and Magazine of the Ceylon Agricultural Society, 


PLANTAIN MEAL MANUFACTURE. 


The potentialities of plantain mealare set forth 
in an interesting article in the last issue of the 
Indian Trade Journal. It is a subject which crops 
up from time to time and then is apparently for- 
gotten. The late Sir H M Stanley, during his 
travels in Central Africa, was so struck with the 
value of this product that he recommended mach- 
inery for its manufacture being erected in Africa, 
A Company for manufacturing plantain meal, 
called “ Bananina”, was formed at Home several 
years ago, but its specialities have not become 
well known. There is, however, no doubt that 
plavtain meal isa vaiuable food, especially to be 
recommended for children and invalids on ac- 
count of its digestibility, and it should form an 
important minor industry in the country. Another 
London Company has offered for sale banana 
flour for bread, banana oats for porridge, banana 
custard powder, banana coeoa, banana cake and 

pastry flour, banana blanc-mange powder, 
banana jelly powder, banana health salts, etc. 
The meal, it is said, has also been manufac- 
tured for several years in Central America and 
the West Indies; and in India there area 
few scattered concerns, e. g., at Saharanpur, 
The average weight of fruit required to pro- 
duce lewt. of flour is 5 cwt., and it is said that 
R360 per ton represents the average cost of 
production in Saharanpur, in Bengal, and at 
Anuradhapura, in Ceylon. For foreign markets 
the cost of packing, freight and shipping charges 
has to be added to this figure,—say, another 
R20 per ton. The total cost should thus not 


exceed R380 per ton, or just under 3 as. per |b.° 


while the retail price in Calcutta is said to be 
Rl per lb., which works out at R2,240 per ton, 
leaving a margin of profit of R1,860 per ton, or 
nearly 50) per cent. In Venezuela, on the other 
hand, the price is said to be only 5 as. per lb. 
and even this should provide a very fair margin 
of protit. 


PACKING RUBBER SEEDS FOR 
LONG DISTANCES. 


The Singapore Botanic Gardens authorities 
have persistently refused to recommend War- 
dian cases for transporting Para seeds on account 
of theexpenseincurred. Mr. Ridley has always 
got good results by packing in burnt rice husks, 
The old rice husks are obtained from the padi 
mills and burnt; the residue consists largely of 
finely-divided charcoal, very light in weight. 
Before the seeds are packed in it, the dust is 
sprinkled with water. One kerosine oil tin holds 
about 600 seeds; the tins are sealed in the ordi- 
nary way, and despatched. Mr. Ridley stated 
that after a journey occupying over four months 
60 per cent of the seeds germinated. Such a 
result is quite good enough, considering the 
slight expense to which the purchaser is put. 
[ was told that over 20,000 Para seeds had just 
been sent for the plantations of the Liberian 
Rubber Corporation in West Africa, from Singa- 


pore. Ee’, 
—India-Rubber Journal, June 29, 


205 


“‘GASTILLOA’’ UNDER SHADE: IN 
MEXICO. 


A distinctive feature of the estates of the 
Chiapas Rubber Plantation Co. (San Francisco) 
property, in the State of Chiapas, Mexico 
shown is that it is a shade-grown plantation : 
that is, the trees are grown in only partial 
clearing, as against total clearing, burning, and 
planting in the sun, in vogue on many planta- 
tions. This method, it is claimed by the Com- 
pany, costs less in the first place, retains all the 
natural richness of the soil, and produces a tree 
with a soft, succulent bark, smooth and shiny 
A recent visitor to the estate says :—‘‘ Most of 
the sun grown trees that J saw had a hard scaly 
bark, very different from the shade protected 
tree.’—India Rubber World, July 1. 


HOW TO PACK LIMES, 


The Assistant Superintendent of the Botani- 
cal Department at Trinidad, in order to deter- 
mine the best method of packing limes, took 
with him to England, at the close of last year 
from the island a few packages of fresh limes, 
These limes were packed in various ways. The 
results were as follows :—(1) Packed in boxes 
with no paper wrappers, the fruit arrived in 
bad condition ; (2) packed in boxes wrapped in 
tissue paper, the fruit arrived in fair condition; 
(3) packed in baskets wrapped in tissue paper, 
the fruit reached in good condition ; (4) packed 
in baskets wrapped in stiff newspaper, the fruit 
when unpacked was found to be in very good 
condition. It would thus appear that when 
limes are exported toa distance they should 
be protected with paper wrappers and the 
stouter tho wrapper the better, as it absorbs 
the moisture. 


RUBBER IN MEXICO. 


Toxa Sues 3,000 Pounpns. 


We and two neighbors are now shipping t 
thousand pounds of rubber and tire anne 
write me this week that our rubber sample sent 
them is finer than we have ever before offered 
and will probably command ninety to ninety- 
five cents a pound when it reaches New York 
This is better than I dared hope three months 
ago. Several of our neighbours, though not all 
will tap again this summer, so Tula’s shipment 
of plantation rubber for the year will pass 5,000 
pounds. Last year’s total was only 700 ! re 

We shall begin tapping again within a fort- 
night to ship the rubber about December when 
we shall start our winter tapping. This arrango- 
raent of two tappings a year has now been Ae 
cessfully followed for two years on the planta- 
tions that I visited in Chiapas and their trees 
are younger than ours. To pay our running i 
pevses from now on itis only necessary thatlone 
trees do as well as theirs; but 1 expect that the 
will do better by continuing to increase ee 
annual yield as they have for four years past 
This will enable us to pay off promptly the fow 
hundred dollars loaned by directors and stock 
holders. Weowe nothing else,—J. H. Kosrr ; 
—Hultar Meriden, July 1. ee rie 


206 


MR. HARVEY’S TREATMENT OF 
‘‘ CASTILLOA”’? LATEX. 


Mr. James C. Harvey. one of the pioneers 
in systematic rubber planting in Mexico, and 
now manager of an important plantation there, 
has written to a friend some notes on the 
treatment of Casti/toa rubber, from which, while 
not meant for publication, the India Rubber 
World is now able to print some extracts :— 


‘My idea with regard to the treatment of 
‘scrap’ isthis: Immediately aftor gathering 
it in baskets, loosely place it on wire racks, 
through which smoke can penetrate easily, and 
of course, a proper house must be constructed 
that will be sufficiently air tight to hold smoke ; 
then have a little furnace quite detached from 
said house, and into which the smoke can be 
driven through a pipe by the action of a very 
simple revolving fan, thus avoiding any great 
increase of temperature in the smoke-house, as 
doubtless you know that a temperature much 
above 100° F. is apt to cause the rubber to 
become sticky. 

This is easily proved by exposing any recently 
prepared scrap or plancha to the action of the 
sun ; then after the scrap is smoked in the man- 
ner described my idea is that it should be press- 
ed into blocks of perhaps of 5 or 10 pounds in 
size. It will be understood that the block isin 
thig manner thoroughly antisepticised through- 
out, and undoubtedly we must find what material 
would be best touse in creating this smoke, as 
certain materials, for a given volume of smoke, 
contain a higher percentage of creosote than 
others. 

With regard to the treatment of the plancha— 
or 1 ought to say, the treatment of the latex in 
orderto prepare plancha—I carried out this year 
the following method: 

‘‘ First, on the receipt of the latex from the 
field it was mixed with an equal volume of water 
to facilitate its passage through a com- 
paratively small or fine meshed sieve, thus 
excluding all extraneous substance, such 
as little pieces of bark, chips, moss, 
lichens and what not. To this 4 additional 
volumes of water were added, and the whole 
placed in a barrel with a faucet exactly ievel with 
the base of the barrel, the barrel beirg stood 
upright. 

“The following morning the latex was found 
to have arisen to the surface, having been com- 
pletely separated during the night from the 
water and other liquids contained in the origi- 
nal latex. The black water was then drawn off 
until the latex appeared. Said latex was then 
in a condition for coagulation, this method being 
carried out : 

‘“‘ First, to every 10 gallons of the creamed 
latex a solution of the vine known here as 
‘= amole’—botanically I pomoea bonanox—is pre- 
pared, employing about 2 pounds of the vine, 
cutting the same into convenient lengths of about 
one foot, and preferably using the more ligneous 
portion of the vine—that is, portion of it nearest 
the ground—and where the bark has assumed a 
brownish colour. It has been found that this 
portion of the vine contains a greater percentage 
of the coagulating agent than the green part, 


The Supplement to the Tropical Agricultavrist 


“The solution is then prepared thus: A dozen 
pieces of the length described are macerated by 
beating with a mallet or wooden ‘truncheon’ 
and rubbed in about 5gallons of water and then 
squeezed out, the process occupying but a few 
rainutes time. ‘The resultant liquor is then 
strained through a very fine sieve and stirred in 
carefully with the creamed latex. - 


‘Coagulation, as a rule, will then take place 
within an hour’s time, when the spongy mass 
can be lifted out carefully and placed upon a 
table or bleck and if coagulated in a vessel of 
about 18 irches in diameter will be found to be 
of about 3inches in thickness. With a sharp 
butcher knife it can then be cut into strips of 
abont 14 inches in thickness and can be run 
backward and forward through an ordinary 
rubber rolled clothes wringer, over which is 
suspended'a vessel containing water which is 
allowed to run in a little stream on the top of 
the wringer while the process is being carried on. 

‘© These strips by the gradual screwing 
down of the rolier can be reduced to about 
4 inch in thickness. The wringer process should 
be carried on until there is no further. eyvi- 
dence of a coloured liquor being expressed from 
the strips or slabs under. operation. 


‘‘It will be seen that two ends have been 
accomplished by this process, a very clean 
product, and practically the minimum of mois- 
ture left in the slab. The strips or slabs 
are then thrown into clean water, rinsed and 
hung up in a dark room to dry, then we 
have found it an excellent plan to suspend 
them on bamboo rods and when reasonably 
dry, yet still containing perhaps a small por- 
tion of water, the identical smoking process 
as applied to scrap rubber can be then ap- 
plied, very soon after which the product will 
be ready for packing. 

‘“ Undoubtedly the application of more 
elaborate machinery appliances would prove 
more economical, yet by employing the pro- 
cess described, two men can easily handle 50 
pounds of dry rubber per day.”—Jndia Rubber 
World, July 1. 


THE GIANT RUBBER TREE 
OF THE EAST. 


I remember giving the sizes of the oldest trees 
in Ceylon in one of my publications, and placing 
the credit to that island for being in possession 
of what I regarded as the biggest Para treé in 
the Kast. This was refuted by Mr. Ridley, and 
I took the opportunity to remind him of the in- 
cident. I was forthwith conducted to one’ of 
the trees planted in 1876 and transplanted Im its 
present position in 1880; this specimen had 
thrown off three branches at a height of four feet 
from the ground, and to this fact can be attri- 
buted the exceptionally large size of the basal 
region. The tree girthed, at a yard from the 
ground, no less than 122} inches, and must there: 
fore stand as the record for the Hast, if not for 
the world. I have no records of a Para tree ex- 
ceeding that size. The tree has been tapped 
onalmost every system known, and has given 
considerably over 30 lb. of rubber, H W. 
—India-Rubber Journal, June 29. 


and Magazine of the Ceylon Agricultural Society. 


F.M.S. DRY RUBBER RETURNS: 


The subjoined statement is sure to interest 
all who are concerned with rubber, either as 
planters, shareholders, salesmen or manutfac- 
turers. It is an instructive statement, anc it 
serves to open up a wide question. A_ high 
authority on rubber, himself one of the most 
successful of planters, has always maintained 
that the real thing of importance to regard in 
connection with rubber estates is the yield of 
dry rubber per acre’; the larger the yield per 
acre from tho Jeast number of trees per acre 
gives the best indications as to ‘the value of an 
estate in bearing. We hear’ so much about the 
number of trees on different properties without 
any regard to the acreage they occupy, which 
is very misleading as to the true value, says 
the Free Press. It is as weil to mention this as 
the great British public seem rather keen on a 
census of trees being given on any properties in 
which they may be interested :— 

Yietps per Acre# or Dry RUBBER FOR VARIOUS 

Puanrine Districts As PER P;A,M. Report 


FOR 1907. 
District. | Acresin Crop 1907 Yield per 
bearing. Ib. acre, lb. 

Johore 610 114,688 188 
P. Wellesley 385 63,896 166 
Perak 1,419 209, 104. 147 
Kapar 812572 465,248 143 
Batu Tiga 2,247 242,256 108 
Kuala Langat 219 32,368 148 
Kuala Selangor 92 11,648 127 
Klang 1,5553 209,804: 135 
N. Sembilan 1,540 187,158 122 
K. Lumpur 1,652 148,456 90 

Total 12;978? 1,684,620 Av.) 130 


—Penang Cazetie, July 24. 

Russer Exrorts—from the Malay States are 
assuming a considerable importance im actual 
quantity, secing that the past half-year gives a 
total of 1,382,158 lb. against 861,525 lb. in Jan.- 
June, 1907, or an increase of 520,633 1b. In the 
past half-year Ceylon’s exports were not much 
above 300,090 lb. The details of the Malay 
States’ figures are of interest :— 

COMPARATIVE STATEMENT OF CULTIVATED RUBBER 

EXPORTED FROM THE F.M.S,, 1908: AND 1907, 


d 


nS 


fits) : ‘S ES y 
lea ibs mise cdo cori & 
Seb) ta winegio lige s 3S 
reqhie =} | ha n 
Fe ao ic. oss pos a 
2s > awa Haws ®O bed 
ee as at eae oak 
Bin) Rae OO BI) Bis = 
BE o ia 
Ib. lb. Ib: Ib: Ib, 
Perak 24,687 164,946 189,633 98,591 91,012 
Selangor 179,240 687,327 866,567 554,824 312,243 
Negri Sembilan 32,147 293,811 825,958 208,610 117,348 
Pahang nil nil 
Total 236,074a 1,146,084 1,882,158 861,525 520,633 


a Excluding Pahang export for June. 


RUBBER CULTIVATION IN NORTH 
BORNEO, 


(Unitep Stares ConsunaAR Report.) 

Tho following information concerning British 
North Borneo estates devoted to the cultivation 
of Para rubber is furnished by Consul Lester 
Maynard, of Sandakan:—The soil of British 


207 


North Borneo equals, if it does not actually 
survass, that of the Federated Malay States 
and is about the same as that of Sumatra. The 
cost of labour is as low as that of any place 
east of Ceylon and the climate is well suited to 
the cultivation of Para rubber, judging by 
growth thereof in such widely different spots 
as Sandakan and the interior. At present, Para 
rubber is cultivated at one place only on the 
Has Coast, at the head of Sandakan Bay and 
here it appears to be doing well. Chinese have 
so far been used on tobacco estates only, where 
they are paidat afixedrate per thousand stalks 
of tobacco delivered in the drying sheds and 
under this system they provide a fine labour 
force, but they would not perhaps do so well 
on daily wages ou a rubber estate. They 
will, however, prove the back-bone of that 
industry as soon as a system of payment 
by result can be introduced. Javanese have 
a contract specifying that they shall fell 
jungle, make buildings, and drain at usual 
local rates, When on daily pay they receive 
from $3.92. to $5.60 (gold) monthly according to 
their abilities. In the Kudat district tobacco 
is planted in five estates, one of which has com- 
menced to plant rubber. The Langkon, worked 
for many years as a tobacco estate, has now 
ceased to plant that product and having been 
recently purchased by a rubber company, is 
being planted with Para rubber, There are 
threes rubber estates now opened on the west 
coast and all these are situated in the neigbour- 
hood of Beaufort. The first opened were the 
Beaufort and the Woodford estates, Some four 
miles down the Padas River, on the Beaufort- 
Weston Railway line, is another estate. All 
these properties are connected with the port of 
Jesselton by the Beaufort-Jesselton Railway: 
These three estates have ample command of 
free labour, Some of the Para rubber trees 
planted there in March, 1906, havenow attained 
a girth of over 9 in, 3 ft. from the ground and 
are from 25 to 30 ft. high. In the interior there 
are two estates, both of which were opened for 
tobacco and one of them still plants this pro- 
duct in addition to Para rubber; the other plants 
Para rubber only, tobacco having bean aban- 
doned after one year’s trial. One of these 
estates is 5 miles by cart road and the other 12 
miles by bridle path from the present Tenom 
terminus of the Jesselton-Tenom Railway. On 
these estates the greater part of the labour force 
isindentured Chinese and Japanese, but it is 
also supplemented by Tuaran Dusuns, Papar 
Dusuns, and Bajaus. The Murut is also of con- 
siderable use to estates, but like the Kudat 
Dusuns, he will not work for more than a fort- 
night ata stretch.—L. d C. Hupress, July 10. 


A TEA SUBSTITUTE. 


A curious kind of tea called ‘t Mayin cha 
sold in the north of Calcutta was submitted 
by Mr. B A Gupte. It consisted of the outer 
bark of a tree used as fuel, and from its 
appearance it resembled that of a mangrove 
(Ceriops candolleana), a tree common in the 
Sundribans.—Mr. D. Hooper, I.C.8,, in Calcutta 
Muscum Leport for 1907-8, 


208 


THE CEYLON PLANTING INDUSTRY: 
MAIN RESULTS FOR JULY, 1908. 
392,000 ACRES THA ; AND 180,000 ACRES 
RUBBER. 


The above figures indicate the main results of 
the present season’s collection of statistics from 
every planting district and nearly every planta- 
tion in the island. The compilation has been 
completed for our Directory, and we hope to 
begin issuing copies of the book to subscribers 
very shortly. Unusual care has been taken in 
the collation, and it is quite evident that planters 
have been much more particular in making up 
their returns. lor, only in this way can we ex- 
plain the fact that ‘“‘ rubber planted in tea,” 
which was represented by 41,690 acres a 
year ago, now stands at 60,299 acres ; while 
rubber in cacao has increased from 10,707 to 
12,804 acres. It is most unlikely—in fact im- 
possible—that there have been new clearings or 
rather interplantings to this extent ; but rather 
it is evident that more discrimination has been 
shown in making up the estate returns. Asa 
consequence, the area of ‘‘ tea alone” is actually 
less by 13,000 acres than'a year ago ; while, even 
allowing two-thirds of the 60,000 acres, we only 
show an advance of 2,000 acres in our staple. 
Practically, indeed, our tea industry has stood 
still for three years back. Indeed, if we are to 
believe the prophets of evil in regard to the fate 
of tea mixed with rubber, we may be said to be 
going back. But itis satisfactory to know that 
a practical planter, whose opinion can be trusted, 
gives tea ten years of fruitful life from the time 
rubber was first planted amongst it. Now, very 
little rubber was put out in tea before 1905 ; for 
5,000 acres covered the return made up in the 
middle of that year. Meantime, with 345,744 
acres of tea alone and 60,299 tea and rubber 
and some more of tea and other products, we 
consider our staple may be safely put down a 
equal to 392,000 acres. 

Of rubber alone, there are 24,000 acres more 
than a year ago, and altogether the increase— 
counting ‘‘interplanted’”—has been put at 30,000 
acres ; but we are convinced that half of this at 
least belongs properly to 1906-07, The equiva- 
lent of 180,000 acres in rubber, and the fact that 
rubber altogether (counting what is amongst tea 
and cacao) and 14 million of trees separately 
rendered, is spread over not less than 212,000 
acres in Ceylon ought to make the boldest and 
most sanguine pause to consider whether any 
more land should be opened with rubber, until 
further experience is gained as to the course of 
the market in the face of yearly increasing sup- 
plies of the plantation product, and the states 
ment that wild rubber must continue to be 
gathered along the Amazon and its tributaries 
as well as in Airica. 


is ee 


EXTRACTION OF INDIARUBBER BY 
ELECTRICITY. 


MR. COCKERILL’S INVENTION, 


The following Specifications have been ac- 
cepted :—No. 1,012 of October 12, 1907. Name: 
—Thomas Cockerill. Title Improvements in 
apparatus for the extraction of indiarubber from 
latex by Electricity, Abstract :—A rotating 


The Supplement to the Tropical Agriculturist 


conducting plate, disk, drum, or cylinder dip- 
ping in the latex and connected to the positive 
pole of a source of electricity forms the anode ; 
or a moving conducting endless belt, on one 
surface of which latex is poured, connected to 
the positive pole of a source of electricity forms 
the anode. In the latter instance, which is the 
one illustrated by drawings the, cathode is a 
fixed adjustable plate extending over the upper 
surface of a horizontal moving belt and the latex 
is poured between. Rubber is deposited on 
that moving belt. by the action of the electric 
current. The deposited rubber and the belt 
passes between rolls to consolidate the rubber. 
The rubber is then guided offthe belt and 
doubled and passes again through rolls to con- 
solidate it. It is then led through hot water to 
heat it and wash it; and it is then led through 
rolls again, which are heated, and the rubber 
is finally consolidated and polished and partially 
dried thereby. The claims include, beside 
the use of a rotating or moving anode, the pro- 
cess for obtaining a continuous sheet of rubber 
by the mechanical arrangements described and 
set forth in the drawings.—G 


NEW METHOD OF TAPPING 
‘* CASTILLOA,”’ 


Mr J Herbert Foster, manager of the 
plantation ‘‘La Meriden,” in Vera Cruz, 
Mexico, reports a now method of tapping their 
cultivated ‘‘ Castilloa’ rubber. He uses the 
same knife as before—a knife brought out by 
Mr Smith, of Chiapas, and described same time 
in this journal—which cutsa U-shaped groove 
in the bark, but making the cuts only about two- 
thirds the former depth ; then with a blade like 
that of a jack knife a deeper cut is made along 
the middle of the first one. This makes certain 
thatthe layer of bark which contains the latex 
is penerated throughout its length, but the cut 
is so narrow as t6 make a comparatively trifling 
wound. It issaid that these cuts are entirely 
healed in two or three months, whereas the 
old style cuts required a year or two to disap- 
pear.-—India Rubber World, July 1. 


TEA AND RUBBER. 


Seeing that there are 60,000 acres of tea and 
rubber intermixed at this time (and 12,000 acres 
of rubber and cacao) and that expert authority 
gives ten years life to the tea from the date of 
the rubber being planted, how soon may we 
expect the tea to disappear. Here is our calcu- 
lation : in the middle of 1905, the interplanted 
area was given at 5,200 acres, We then get,— 

5,000 acres tea dying out by..,1914-15 
13,000 acres more tea dying 


out by... i ... 1915-16 

30,000 acres additional 
dying out by >. 1916-17 

and 12,000 acres additional 
dying out by .- 1917-18 


There is, therefore, ample time for enterprising 
planters who prefer to open fresh tea clearings 
to get their tea into bearing before the final 
collapse of the mixed fields. In the same way 
cacao planters should also be on the alert, 


\ 


GARCINIA MANGOSTANA. /. 
MANGOSTEEN. 


AER EN 


Photo by H, F. Macmillan. 


al 


a 


Es Ol 


TROPICAL AGRICULTURIST 


AND 


MAGAZINE OF THE 


CEYLON AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY. 


Von. XXXII, 


COLOMBO, SEPTEMBER 15rx, 1908, 


No. 3. 


——— > 


Manihot Rubbers. 


Considerable interest has been aroused 
by the papers on the new Manihot 
rubbers, lately published; and, as usual, 
the Department at Peradeniya has been 
asked to book 100,000, 50,000, and other 
numbers of seeds for delivery this or 
next year. It will be well, therefore, to 
make clear that the history will be the 
same as with Para or Ceara rubbers 
long ago. At present we have 100 plants 
of Manthot dichotoma, and may expect 
a few hundred seeds the year after 
next; while we, like other gardens, have 
as yet been totally unable to get either 
M. piawhyensis or M. heptaphylla, the 
two best species. In 1910 we shall be 


able to give would-be experimenters @ 
few seeds of M, dichotoma to try. 


It may also be well to point out that 
the Manihots, though they grow so 
freely for instance at Pallekelle or near 
Kandy, are plants of a dry climate. 
The finest specimens’ of Ceara rubber 
(M, Glaziovii) in Ceylon, so far as we 
know, are near Trincomalie, and the 
tree is growing splendidly on the Ex- 
periment Station at Maha-iluppalama, 
near Anuradhapura. Should the yields 
of the new Manihots turn out to be any- 
thing like as good as stated, we may 
expect some day to see a good deal of 
land cultivated under them in the North 
and Hast. 


\ 


210 


[SEPTEMBER, 


St 


GUMS, RESINS, SAPS AND EXUDATIONS. | 


TAPPING EXPERIMENTS ON RAM- 
BONG AND PARA. . 


Professor Dr. A. Weberbauer records 
in the last December number of the 
‘“Tropenflanzer ” some interesting experi- 
ments he made in Camerun on the tap- 
ping of certain species of rubber-bear- 
ing plants. Weabstract his remarks on 
Ficus elastica (Rambong) and Hevea 
braziliensis (Para). 


In tapping Ficus elastica he used the 
ordinary tapping knife (‘‘die Kaeufli- 
chen Kautschukmesser”). Inthe outer 
layer of bark, which contains little or no 
latex, a groove was cut tothe depth at 
which the first drops of latex show them- 
selves, then with an ordinary penknife a 
deep cut was made in the bottom of the 
groove. The author claims that wounds 
in the cambium, which cannot always be 
avoided, will heal more quickly, if caused 
by the sharp pocket knife than by the 
ordinary coarser tapping knife. 

The weights given are those of well- 
dried rubber. 


In the first experiment two trees with 
stems of about equal girth were taken. 


In (a) a cut of 16 centimetres (about 64 
inches) was made ina sloping direction, 


In (b) the cut was 22 centimetres (about 
8? inches) and parallel with the axis of 
the stem, that is vertical in the case of 
an upright growing tree. The yield 
from (a) was 2'1 grams (1000 grams=2} 
tbs.)from (b) 1:2 gram; so that the 
sloping cut, though shorter than the 
other, yielded nearly twice as much 
rubber. 


In another experiment six cuts were 
made on the same branch and on succeed- 
ing days, except that a clear day inter- 
vened between the second and third. 
All cuts were made at right angles to 
the long axis of the branch, which grew 
horizontally. The time of day,9to 12 
o’clock, was much the same in each case, 
and so was the weather. The first cut 
yielded 12:47 grams ; the second, close to 
but behind No. 1 ou the same side of the 
stem, gave 0°87 grams; the third, on the 
same side as No.2 and about 4 inches 
distant from it, yielded 2°08 grams; the 
fourth was on the same side as No. 3 and 
distant about 8 inches, the yield was 2°25 
grams. The fifth was on the opposite 
side to the previous ones and lay under 
the first: it yielded 3°80 grams. The 
sixth was on the same side of the stem as 
the fitth but 16 inches distant from it: 
yield 2°26 grams. 


The first cut gave more than double as 
much rubber as the three others together 
which were on the same side of the 
branch. The farther the cuts are from 
each other the greater is the yield. On 
the opposite side of the stem, the fifth 
cut gave nearly four times as much latex 
as the sixth, though the distance 
between them was relatively large. 
Therefore if Ficus elastica is tapped 
with sloping cuts, and if a good number 
of these are made in a short time, they 
should, if they lie on the same side of a 
stem ora branch, be made considerable 
distances apart, otherwise there is only 
a useless injuring of the tree. In his 
fifth and sixth experiments the author 
found that if the time between two 
tappings is lengthened (to three weeks or 
a month) the distance between the cuts 
may be lessened. It would, perhaps, 
have been more valuableif more trees 
had been tapped in each experiment. 


The author made 9 number of experi- 
ments on Hevea braziliensis, He applied 
the spiral and the herringbone methods, 
and short sloping separated cuts, but 
none vertical; his object was not so 
much to compare different methods of 
tapping as to see whether Para yielded 
paying quantities of latex in Camerun, 
which has been doubted. 


The sloping cuts gave somewhat the 
best results. The method was as 
follows:—The tapping-knife and pen- 
knife were used exactly as in the Ram- 
bong experiments. 

Six sloping cuts, each 4 inches long, 
were made at equal distances apart (and 
presumably at the same level) round 
the stem. Every cut was parallel with 


and 2 inches from that of the previous — 


day, so that after 28 days the surface of 
the tree exhibited six vertical rows of 
sloping cuts, 28 parallel cuts in each row, 
and the rows separated by six stripes of 
untouched bark. The author does not 
state the width of each groove. Not 
much can be deduced from the figures 
given. Only three. trees, one of each 
method, were experimented on, and the 
periods during which they were tapped 
do not agree. 


There are things against the practica- 
bility of the separated sloping cut. It 
would be interesting to know if less 
bark is used up, and if it renews more 
quickly than is the case with the almost 
universal herringbone method.—A gricul- 
turaliBulletin of the Straits and Feder- 
Ho eae States, No. 4, April, 1908, 

ol. VI. 


4 _ SEPTEMBER, 1908. ] 


ANALYSIS OF RUBBER SAMPLES 
FROM INDIA: FICUS ELASTICA. 


Severalsamples of Ficus elastica rubber 
from India have been examined recently 
at the Imperial Institute, and the results 
obtained are recorded in the following 
account :— 


FIcUS ELASTICA RUBBER FROM ASSAM. 


I'wo specimens of thisrubber from the 
Kulsi Plantation in the Kamrup Divi- 
sion of Assam were submitted for 
analysis and valuation. 


(1) ‘Tree Rubber from Ficus elastica.” 


The specimen conistsed of an irregular 
cake of rubber formed by the aggrega- 
tion of thin strips. The rubber was 
reddish-brown, clean, free from sticki- 
ness, and exhibited good elasticity and 
_ tenacity. 


- A chimical examination furnished the 
following figures :— 


Per cent. 
Moisture O'7 
Caoutchoue Ba 78:0 
Resin Ye At 19°60 
Proteids we dealt 0-9 
Insoluble matter 14 
Ash Ay 0°49 


The rubber was valued at 4s. 3d. to 
4s. 6d, per lb. in London, the current 
price of fine hard Para from South 
America being ds. 2d.'per lb. 


The percentage of resin in this rubber 

is higher than is desirable, but otherwise 
‘itis of satisfactory quality and would 
be readily saleable. 


(2) ‘*Mat Rubber from Ficus elastica.” 

This was a piece of dark-brown rubber 
composed of several thin sheets firmly 
attached together. The rubber was 
soft, sticky, and rather weak. 


The rubber was found to have the 
following composition :— 
Per cent. 
Moisture 21 
Caoutchoue 80:0* 
Resin Aah 16:0 
Insoluble matter 19 
ae 1°94 


sh dé 
*Including proteids, 
The specimen was valued at 2s. to 2s. 
3d, per lb, in London, but would be diffi- 
cult of sale on account of its soft, sticky 
character. 


The sample was too small for complete 
chemical examination, and consequently 
it was not possible to determine the 
amount of proteids present. The per- 
centage of the later constituent is in- 
cluded with the ‘‘ caoutchouc.” 


211 Saps and Hxudations. 
This rubber contains a little less resin 
than “ the tree rubber, ” but on account 
of its weak, sticky character it is much 
inferior in value. The stickiness may 
be due to the plan of placing the mats 
covered with rubber in the sun to dry. 
It would be preferable to effect the dry- 
ing in the shade so as to avoid over-heat- 
ing the rubber. 


FICUS ELASTICA RUBBER FROM INDIA. 


Two specimens from this rubber ob- 
tained at Mukkie in the Kanoth Range 
North Malabar, have also been examined 


(1) Ficus elastica, scrap rubber. 


A cylindrical lump of reddish-brown 
rubber, made up of aggregated shreds 
and weighing 124} oz. The latter was 
ck free from stickiness, but rather 
weak. 


The rubber had the following com- 
position :— 


Per cent. 
Mositure 09 
Caoutchouc 67'°3 
Resin 28°1 
Proteids os 09 
Insoluble mattter 2°8 
Ash 0°47 


The sample was valued at 2s, 11d. per 
lb. in London, with fine hard Para 
quoted at 3s. 53d. per lb. 


This rubber contains an excessive 
amount of resin, which adversely affects 
its physical properties. 

(2) Ficus elastica, ‘‘ biscuit” rubber. 

A large circular biscuit of black rub- 
ber weighing 8 oz. 
free from stickiness, but deficient 
elasticity and tenacity. 


in 


A chemical examination gave the fol- 
lowing results .— 


Per cent. 
Moisture 4-0 
Caoutchouc 71°2 
Resin 2277 
Proteids Hn 1:0 
Insoluble matter 11 
Ash 1°68 


The specimen was valued at 2s.5d. per 
lb. in London, with fine hard Para from 
South America quoted at 3s. 54d. per lb. 


This sample contains a little less resin 
than the preceding specimen, but on 
account of its dark colour it would not 
realise such a good price-—Bulletin of 
bie Eneeme! Institute, Vol. VI., No. 1. 


The rubber was clean, | 


Gums, Resins, 


THE TAPPING OF CULTIVATED 
CASTILLOA. 


(ABSTRACTED By R. H. Lock.) 
(Journal d’ Agriculture Tropicale, May 
1908, p. 142.) 


Whilst the area under Hevea has been 
rapidly increasing in Indo-Malaya, Castil- 
loa has been taking an important place 
in the plantation of Mexico and Central 
America, and it has also been tried in 
several of the West Indian Islands. In 
German West Africa, New Guinea and 
Samoa this cultivation has been less 
successful. 


The structure of the laticiferous tubes 
of Castilloa renders necessary a different 
method of tapping from that employed 
in the case of Hevea, the former being 
tapped much less frequently in order to 
obtain the best results. 


Three tapping knives, specially de- 
signed for theuse with Castilioa, are des- 
cribed in the present article, and two 
of them are figured. A feature common 
to all three is the U-shaped blade, dif- 
fering in the three cases in radius of 
the curve and angle of attachment to 
the handle, 

The knives are the inventions of Dr. 
Strunk, Dr. Preuss, and Mr. V. Smith, 
a planter of Soconusco, respectively. 

With regard to systems of tapping it 
is admitted that the ideal method has 
not yet been evolved. In Mexico the 
system adopted is to make 3 or4 V cuts 
on each tree. The limbs of the V do not 
quite meet at the base, but a space of 
two or three inches of bark is left intact 
and two partial spirals are traced upon 
the bark. The first V is made as near 
the base of the trunk as possible, and 
others at successive distances of two feet 
above it. The trees are first tapped 
when they have arrived at an age of six 
or seven years and a circumference ‘of 
2 feet a yard from the ground. 


Various other methods, 
slightly from the above are enumerated, 
as well as several different modes ot 
collecting the latex; also estimates of 
the yield, which are admittedly some- 
what vague. 


CAMPHOR: NATURAL AND 
SYNTHETIC. 

P. A. HovsEMAN in Science Progress 

o. 9, July, 1908: Abstracted by J. C. 
WILLIS. ] 

The author is the chemist to the 
British Camphor Co., and starts by 
assuming that no cultivated camphor 
need be considered, as it cannot yield 
till 50 years old! Hethen describes the 


212 


differing © 


(SEPTEMBER, 1908, of 


process of preparation of synthetic 
camphor, and ends, ‘‘Assuming a good 
supply of turpentine at moderate price, 
there is little doubt that synthetic cam- 
phor, which is quite equal in all respects 
to its Oriental rival, has a good future 
before it, and will be able to compete 
successfully with Japanese camphor,”’— 


BALATA. 

The exports of balata from Ciudad 
Bolivar during 1907 amounted to 1,456 
tons, valued at £224,414, against 1,232 
tons, valued at £176,039., in 1906. Last 
year the figures reached the highest 
total ever known in one year. The 
prospects of this industry, however, are 
not favourable for the future, as the 
consequences of the fatal system of 
felling the trees to obtain the gum are 
now beginning to be felt as the more 
accessible forests become exhausted. 
The season for 1908 has also set in very 
dry, and it is therefore probable that the 
balata shipments during the current 
year will show a decline. The Para and 
Caura rubber shipments show an in- 
crease for 1907. ‘Lhe system followed in 
the Caura district for collecting rubber 
includes also the felling of the trees. 
Lately, regalations have been issued 
by the Government forbidding this 
practice.—Chemist and Druggist, No. 1, 
475, Vol. LXXII., May, 1908. ' 


LAC-PRODUCTS IN INDIA. 

A recent number of the ‘Indian Trade. 
Journal” contains an article discussing 
the possibility of manufacturing lac- 
products in India, and suggests the 
desirablity of an inquiry as to the faci- 
lities that exist for the manufacture of 
cheap spirit. Itis pointed out that the 
chief lac-bearing country is also the 
country where the mahua-tree is abun- 
dant, and the mahua-flower is as cheap. 
a spirit-base as any. Another possible 
source of cheap spirit-supply is the wood- 
spirit so largely made and used in 
America, and it is suggested that the 
manufacture of this might well be 
combined with that of acetone, for 
which there is a large demand at the 
cordite-factory. A third possible source 
might be found in’the refuse of the 
sugar-factories now being rapidly extend- 
ed in Bengal and elsewhere, and it is 
believed there is little doubt that India 
could in a short time become self- 
supplying in respect to industrial spirit, 
and could carry the manufacture of lac- 
products several stages further than is 
done at present, with much profit to the 
country.—Chemist and Druggist, No. 1. 
475. Vol, LXXII., May, 1908. ; iy 


~ pee marin 


213 


OILS AND FATS. 


THE SUNFLOWER. 


A USEFUL PLANT. 


In 1906 we produced, in Natal, 1,186 
muids of sunflower seeds, from a total 
area of 191 acres, Of these 1,186 muids 
212 were produced in the Lower Umzim- 
kulu Division, 233 in the Division of 
Alexandra, and 160 in the Upper Um- 
komanzi Division, the balance being 
scattered generally over most of the 
remaining Magisterial Divisions of the 
Colony. The sunflower grows fairly 
well in most parts of the Colony, the 
conditions essential for its successful 
cultivation being, generally speaking, 
very similar to those required by maize. 
It is, however, not regarded as a staple 
or major crop; itis, nevertheless, found 
a useful accessory in mixed farming. 


Very little has so far been done, so far 
as our observations go, in the cultivation 
of the sunflower in Natal on a commer- 
cial scale. Here,in our very midst, a 
market exists for large quantities of the 
seed for the expression of its oil for 
soap-making and other purposes, so that 
the systematic cultivation of the plant 
could be made a considerable source of 
revenue. 


BOTANY AND HABITAT. 


The sunflower (Helianthus annwus) is 
said to bea native of Mexico and Peru, 
and was introduced into Europe at the 
end of the sixteenth century. It is 
largely cultivated in Russia, Germany, 
Italy, and France, and also in China and 
Tartary, as well as in the United States. 
It is an annual herb, bearing large, flat, 
circular flower heads. The seed is the 
most useful portion of the plant, and 
this is commonly eaten raw or cooked 
or used for the extraction of oil. The 
oil-cake after expression forms a valu- 
able cattle-food and a condition powder 
for horses. The leaves and the stalk 
have distinct food values, aud when 
reduced toa sufficient state of fineness 
possess nutritive qualities of a high 
order. The sunflower stem has rather 
strong bast fibres, and the plant has 
often been suggested as a source of cellu- 
lose for paper mills, The amount of 
cellulose is generally comparatively high, 
The fibre is too weak and brittle, how- 
ever, to Je of value for cordage or textile 
purposes, and perhaps its highest value 
lies in its’ use for fuel, the ash being rich 
in potash, 


CULTIVATION. 


The method of cultivating sunflowers 
for commercial purposes is best described 
by Dr. H. W. Wiley from the results of 
their growth in the United States: ‘As 
a rule the soils which are best suited for 
the growth of Indian corn (mealies) pro- 
duce the best crop of sunflowers. If the 
soil is not naturally fertile, liberal ferti- 
lisation must be practised in order to 
secure large crops. The character of the 
fertilisation depends upon the nature of 
the soil and the deficiencies of the plant 
food therein. The kind of fertilisation - 
necessary to produce a good crop of 
maize will be found suitable for the 
sunflower. The soil should be prepared 
by careful ploughing, and the surface of 
the ploughed soil should be reduced to 
good tilth by the use of the harrow. 
Sunflowers are best planted by a drill 
in rows from 8 to 3} feet apart. In order 
to secure a good stand the seeds may be 
placed by the drill 2 or 3 inches apart; 
but should they all grow, at least halt 
of them should be cut out when the 
plants are thinned. The seeds should 
be planted deep enough to secure abun- 
dant moisture to germinate them; from 
2to 3 inchesin depth when the soil is 


- not too heavy will be found the best. 


With heavy, stiff soils, which are likely 
to become very hard on the surface after 
heavy rains, it is better not to plant the 
seeds so deep. The seeds should be 
planted as early as possible in the spring, 
as they endure very well a slight degree 
of cold. After the plants are well formed 
they should be thinned so as_ to stand at 
a distance of from 12 to 18 inches in 
the row. The cultivation should be of 
the ordinary kind, mostly superficial, 
and sufficient to prevent the weeds from 
growing and preserve the moisture 
during periods of drought. When the 
production of seed is sought, the best 
results are secured by limiting the 
number of seed heads on each plant toa 
very few. The superfluous heads when 
formed should be removed. No special 
directions need be given for the cultiva- 
tion, since it is so much like maize as to 
be practically the same.” 


As this crop is sensitive to frost, it 
should not be sown until all danger of 
this sortis past. Dr. Kric A. Nobb says 
(Cape Agricultural Journal, Jan., 1908) 
that in Cape Colony seed sown about 
September or October has given the 
best results. He adds that the most 
suitable climate is one which is warm 
aud sunny, and not subject to unseason- 
able frost, The sunflower takes from 3 


Oils and Fats. 


to 4 months to mature, according to the 
variety of climate and soil. 


Whilst the sunflower is susceptible to 
frost, it is singularly free from other 
diseases. Damage is sometimes reported 
by small birds and by suriace cater- 
pillars. The plant withstands drought 
well. 


THE SEEDS. 


There are three principal varieties now 
cultivated in Russia, known by the 
shape and size of the fruits (Achenes), 
conventionally called seeds: one with 
large white seeds which are said to 
yield the Jargest amount of oil; one 
with small black seeds which are sweeter 
and regarded as best for eating; and an 
intermediate from with striped seeds, 
used both for eating and the production 
of oil. 


The yield varies according to the 
variety and the method of planting and 
cultivation. In America the yield is 
from 30 to 50 bushels—900 lbs. to 1,500 Ibs. 
—to the acre. Inthe Cape Colony a yield 
of 3,250 Ibs. to the acre has been obtained. 
Tn Natal in 1906 the average yield for the 
whole Colony was 5 muids peracre. The 
average yields of the more important 
Magisterial Divisions of the Colony were 
as follows :—Lower Umzimkulu, 6:5; Alex- 
andra, 4'S; Inanda, 7:0; Ixopo, 4°6; Um- 
geni, 3:0; New Hanover, 40; Upper 
Tugela, 80; Estcourt, 37; Weenen, 4°3; 
Klip River, 4°38; Dundee, 3°6; Utrecht, 4'0; 
Paulpietersburg, 75; Eshowe, 6:0. 


The heads should be harvested before 
the seeds are quite ripe, to avoid shatter- 
ing and loss. The sunflowers may be cut 
with a sickle or bill-hook, such as is used 
for cutting up prickly pears or aloes. 
After drying, the seeds can be thrashed 
out or beaten with a flail, or, where 
large quantities have to be treated, they 
may be easily removed from the heads 
by pressing the latter against a revolv- 
ing wooden cylinder into which nails 
have been partly driveu, the projecting 
heads serving the purpose of teeth on 
the cylinder of an ordinary threshing 
machine (Nobbs). The seeds should be 
stored in bags in a dry place to prevent 
mould. 


USES OF THE SEEDS. 


The seeds are the most valuable part 
of the plant on account of their edible 
kernels and of the superior quality of 
the oil prepared from them. In Russia 
the seeds are used largely for local con- 
sumption, where they are parched and 
eaten in the same way as “ Monkey- 
nuts” or earth-nuts in other parts of the 
world. Birds of all kinds thrive upon 


214 


them, and they are specially employed in 
feeding caged birds and in fattenin 

fowls for the table, and the diet is sai 

to increase their laying powers. In 
America the seeds are at present employ- 
ed in feeding poultry, and to some extent 
mixed with other fodder as a cattle food. 
In Natal there is a demand for the seeds 
for use in the local soap and oil factories. 


The oil-cake left after the expression 
of the oil forms a valuable cattle food, 
being, it is said, superior in this respect 
to maize or linseed cake, while it is 
also said toact asa natural ‘‘ Condition 
powder” for horses owing to its easy 
digestibility and its great nutritive pro- 
perty. Sheep, pigs, rabbits and pigeons 
also fatten rapidly on the oil-cake. 


CHEMICAL COMPOSITION. 


Dr. J. Koenig* gives the average com- 
position of five samples of whole seeds 
and of four kernels. An analysis of 
the shells or hulls is added for com- 
parison :— 


CHEMICAL COMPOSITION, 


Seeds. Kernels. Shells. 
Oil ie 31°32 44°31 517 
Albuminoids 13°67 26:28 5°16 
Carbohydrates 18:08 16°44 23°92 
Fibre : 25°35 2°81 54:95 
Ash 3°05 3°46 1:78 
Water 8°58 6:70 9°02 

100°00 100:00 


100:00 


Dr. H. W. Wiley gives, in Bulletin 
No. 60, Division of Chemistry, U. S, 
Department of Agriculture, the follow- 
ing composition of sunflower seeds grown 


in the United States :— 
Per cent. 

Oil hs 27:08 
Albuminoids Bt: pe 14:97 
Carbohydrates... AR 20:94 
Fibre bap ne 29°17 
Ash 3°41 
Water 4°43 

100-00 


According to Mr. D. Hooper, in the | 


Indian Agricultural Ledger, European 
sunflower seed from which the hulls have 
been removed contains :— 


German. Russian. 
Oil pst 33°48 34°25 
Organic substances... 54°04 54°39 
(including Protein) 14°12 18°80) 
sh ak An 2°86 3°56 
Water 9°62 7°80 
100°00 100°00 


*Quoted by Mr, David Hooper, F.0.S., F.L.S., in 
the Agricultural Ledger, India. 


SEPTEMBER, 1908.) 


pees Ae) 


The cake left after expression of the 
oil has, according to the same authority, 
the following composition :— 


per cent. 

(070 ee i AA 8°94. 
Albuminoids 21°68 
Carbohydrates ... eo 1905 
Fibre ... .. = 83°00 
*Ash ).. 9°33 
Water 8°00 

10000 


* Containing sand, 1°37 per cent. 


Tap OIL. 


The oil obtained by expression from 
the seeds is the most important product 
of the sunflower, and is valuable for 
many purposes. In its pure state the 
oil is said, on account of its palatability 
and sweetness, to be excellent for table 
use, for frying fish, and for other culi- 
nary purposes; indeed, it is much used 
in Russia as an adulterant of and substi- 
tute for olive oil for all domestic pur- 
poses. It may also be used for woollen 
dressing, lighting, and varnish and soap 
making. For the last mentioned pur- 
pose it is said to be superior to most oils. 
It has also been substituted recently for 
other fixed oils in the making of mar- 
garine. 


OTHER UsEs oF THE PLANT. 


As already stated, the stalks of the 
plant yield a fibre, which is, however, 
too brittle to be of much value for tex- 
tile purposes. The stalks are, however, 
said to be useful for both fuel and manu- 
rial purposes. Both the leaves and stalk 
make a valuable manure, either directly 
ploughed in or after being used as cattle 
litter. 


Smith observes that the sunflower is 
an excellent plant for bees, large quanti- 
ties of honey and wax being obtained 
from the flowers. 


According to Balfour, the blossoms 
yield a brilliant, lasting and useful dye. 
Crookes states that the petals are pecu- 
liarly rich in the amphorphous resinous 
substance, Xanthin, the base of the yel- 
low pigment from which they derive 
their colour. The seeds yield “ helian- 
thie acid,” which, when treated with 
hydrochloric acid in acurrent of hydro- 
gen, is resolved into glucose and a violet 
dye.—Natal Agricultural Journal, No. 4, 
Vol,, XI. April, 1908. 


215 Oils and Fats | 


ARGEMONE MEXICANA. 


(MEXICAN Poppy.) 


The present Agricultural Ledger brings 
together the latest information on the 
uses, composition and commercial pros- 
pects of the seeds and oil of an American 
weed naturalized all over India and 
other parts of the world. The Mexican 
Poppy or Gamboge Thistle (Argemone 
Mexicana) grows in desert Jand and 
saliferous soils of the United Provinces 
and the Punjab, sometimes where few 
other plants persist. The plant yields 
an abumdant crop of seed which is very 
oleaginous, and. considering the demand 
for oil seeds at the present time, sugges- 
tions are made for utilising the oil and 
cake in the arts and agriculture. The 
Ledger owes its inception to observations 
on the extensive use, in Behar, of oil of 
the seeds, which were made by the 
Reporter on Economie Products to the 
Government of India. The uses are 
two: one is as a remedy for skin 
diseases, the body being smeared with 
the oil ; the other is for burning. Under 
normal conditions, it seems that not 
very much of the oil is burnt, but that 
it is quite a regular practice in the dis- 
tricts of Patna, Darbhanga and Mozuffer- 
pur to put bya supply to serve as a 
remedy in skin troubles; but in the 
current year bad crops had led to a 
considerable amount of want, and many 
people were turning their hands to 
unusual avocations, among them the 
gathering of an amount of the seed of 
this plant far beyond what is customary. 
Everywhere in the districts named, in 
April, May and June last, women with a 
clumsy pair of tweezers were busy 
plucking the prickly pods just before 
they were ready to open and to scatter 
their seeds. The tweezers are made of 
two pieces of a split bamboo or of a bent 
piece ot hoop iron. The morning’s 
gathering is spread outin the midday sun 
for the pods to open, and theseed that is 
obtained is crushed in the ordinary oil 
press. In Chota Nagpur it has been 
observed that the seeds are sometimes 
collected into little heaps by ants, thus 
lightening the labour of women and 


children, whose duty it is to gather 
them. 


The Reporter on Economic Products 
collected at Dalsingh Sarai and Barh 
the samples of oil, which have been 
examined in part by Lieutenant-Colonel 
D. St. J. Grant, I.M.S., Chemical 
Hixaminer to the Government of the 
Punjab, and partly by myself, for the 
purpose of this account of the plant as 
one yielding an oil seed, 


Oils and Fats, 


The Mexican Poppy is known by the 
following vernacular names :— 


Bharbhand, kutaila, kutila, kantala, 
Hind.; Shiel kanta, Beng.; Feringi, or 
pila dhatura, Dec.; Dalturi, Can.; Bir- 
ama dandu, Tam.; Daruri, Kandew, Mar. 


The plant is at once recognised by its 
yellow flowers, prickly leaves with white 
veins, and the yellow juice that exudes 
when the plant is broken. 


Aabitat.—The Mexican poppy is a 
native of Jamaica, the Carribean Islands 
and Mexico, from which last country 
the Spaniards brought it to Europe 
under the name of Fico-del-inferno or 
Fig-of-hell. It was introduced into 
India about three centuries ago, pre- 
sumably as ballast from abroad, and is 
now found all over the country in every 
nullak and abandoned rubbish heap. 
Being an annual it springs up from seed 
in the cold season, spreads as a weed in 
waste ground and on newly turned soil, 
ascending tv 5,000 feet in the Himalayas. 
In Sind it is found among field crops 
and about a mile inward along the 
Indus, and in some places, as Kotri, may 
be seen to cover large tracts. In the 
Punjab it has been introduced within 
recent years and is slowly extending. It 
has not been noticed as occurring much 
to the West of Lahore. In 1854, Edge- 
worth observed that it had not reached 
Multan, but in 1866, it was seen in the 
extreme south-west of that district near 
the junctlon cf the Chenab with the 
Sutlej. It is abundant near Delhi, where 
an oil is extracted, and it is a typical 
plant of the nitre region of Hissar and 
Hansi. Itis one of the principal plants 
forming the vegetation of Lakhimpur, 
Assam, and is an invading foreigner in 
Manipur. In many parts of the country 
the plantis so abundant as to become 
a source of anxiety to the cultivator, 
and it was found to be doing so much 
harm to the young growth of Sadnani 
Forest in Sind in 1899 that the depart- 
ment were compelled to take steps to 
suppress it. 

USES OF SEED AND OIL. 


Argemone has long been used in India 
in medicine. Ainslie informs us that the 
Hakims employed the oil as an external 
application in such headaches as are 
caused by the sun, and the Vythians 
recommend itas aliniment for a scald 
head. Dr. Irvine of Patna says the oil 
stimulates indolent ulcers and eruptions, 
and others have applied it in cases of 
itch, ringworm and cutaneous diseases, 
with beneficial results. 

The seeds are emetic, cathartic and 


acrid. The acrid and purgative proper- 
ties of the seeds are contained in the 


216 


% 


MI Bie vy 
Pi 1908, 


oil. Opinions regarding the efficacy of 
the oil have differed in the past, but the 
balance of recent medical opinion is that 
in small doses of 10 to 80 minims it con- 
stitutes an active cathartic. This has 
recently been confirmed by Colonel 
Grant. It has been noticed that freshly- 
prepared oil is more energetic and uni- 
form in its operation than that which 
has been kept for some time. 


The oil is used for burning in the lamps 
in the Konkan and other parts of India. 
In South America the expressed oil is 
employed by painters and for giving a 
shining appearance to wood; it is pro- 
bable, too, that the acridity of the oil 
will prevent the attacks of white ants 
and borers. It saponifies readily and 
gives a hard soap with soda. 


[SBPTE 


It is not likely to take the place of 
castor oil in general practice, but the 
smallness of the dose is an advantage 
which is calculated to recommend it in 
some quarters. 


The seeds are poisonous if taken in 
quantity. In 1878, a case occurred in 
Bombay in which a number of people 
suffered from vomiting and purging 
after using sweet oil which had been 
adulterated with Argemone oil. The 
adulteration may be detected by the 
rich orange-red colour developed when 
strong nitric acid is added to the oil or 
mixtures containing it. In the same 
year samples of oil were received by the 
Punjab Chemical Examiner from Amrit- 
sar, Simla, and other towns which were 
said to possess irritant properties, caus- 
ing purging and vomiting. The oil was 
stated to have been imported from the 
United Provinces and to have been made 
from Siyal kanta (Jackal’s thorn) the 
vernacular name for Argemone Mexicana. 


CHEMICAL COMPOSITION. 


The seeds are small, round, black, and 
roughish from pitted depressions; they 
are about the size of rape seed. 


They contain in one hundred’ parts, 
36 parts of oil, 49 parts of carbohydrates, 
albuminoids and tibre, 9 of moisture and 
6o0fash. W.H. Bloemendal, examining 
ten samples of the seeds of Argemone 
from Curacao and other countries, col- 
lected in the Haarlem Colonial Museum, 
found the yield of oil to vary from 35 to 
38°7 per cent., or an average of 37 per 
cent. (Pharm. Weekblad., 1906, 14). By 
ordinary pressure the seeds yield from 
25 to 30 per cent. of oil, a quantity equal 
to that obtained from rape secd. 


It has been stated that the narcotic 
property of the sceds is due to the pre- | 


sence of morphine, and Gragendorff iso- 


lated an alkaloid from them in 1868, and 


} ti > 


Ay 


mx, | 


Bi i moe 


ee 2 eh 


eS et 
ya 


ee 
Fe Dig .- ay 


2a 
— 


> 


wpe Seed —2 ee 


* 


hol: 


ti Peckolt in 1878 separated argemonine. 


In 1902 J. O. Schlotterbeck (Journ. Am. 


Ohem. Soc. 24, 288) investigated the seeds 


and proved that morphine was entirely 
absent. Hefound two alkaloids present ; 
one berberine and the other protopine. 
Peckolt’s argemonine was identified 
with the latter base. The presence of 
notable quantities of potassium nitrate 


among the inorganic salts was indicated. 


The oil has a light yellow colour, 
nauseous and acrid taste and a raw 
odour. O. Frolich (1871) obtained from 
the oil a hard soap with soda, and found 
in the soap liquor butyric, valerianic, 
acetic and a little benzoic acid. Accord- 
ing to Fliickiger (1871) the oil has the 
specific gravity of ‘919 at 16°5°C., dries 
slowly and incompletely, and is not 
soluble in 6 volumes of 90 per cent. alco- 
On keeping, the ‘acid value in- 
creases, and the oil becomes more solu- 
ble in alcohol. It gives with nitric acid 
an orange-red colour which distinguishes 
it from other fixed oils. 


The following constants have been 


recorded :— 
Specific Gravity Acid value. Saponitication 
at 15? value, 
"9247 Crossley and 60 Crossley and 190°3 Crossley and 
Le Sueur, Le Sueur, Le Sueur. 
9435 Bloemendal 200 Bloemendal, 
"924 Grant Grant. 


19 
Todine value. Oleo-refractomer Refractive Index. 
at 352 


122°5 Crossley and °65 Grant 
Le Sueur. 
113°3 Bloemendal 


113 
11 


The oil afforded 95°07 per cent. of fatty 
acids melting at 22.° 


14675 Crossley and 
Le at 35° Sueur. 
1452 Grant, 


Grant 
J 


The oil dries to a hard jelly, gaining 
during the process 8 per cent. of its 
weight, an amount which corresponds 
with that absorbed by poppy seed oil. 
It then ceases to give a red colour with 
nitric acid. 


CONCLUSIONS. 

The properties of Argemone oil as 
shown in the foregoing remarks and 
chemical reactions somewhat restrict it 
for general employment. Its acrid taste 
and active therapeutic action preclude 
its use foc edible and culinary purposes. 
Although not so siccati as linseed oil, it 
has_ distinctly drying properties and 
could be used for paints and for caulking 
timber and boats when it is required to 
keep out damp and destructive insects. 
If obtainable at a sufficiently low price it 
would be most serviceable for soap mak- 
ing. The seed is said to sell in North 
Arcot for Rs. 1-4 to Rs. 2-1 per maund of 
25 1b., and in Northern India the price 
should be lower. The cake is unsuitable 


28 


217 


Oils and Fats. 


as a cattle food, but from its compo- 
sition it would form an excellent bulk 
manure for cultivating exhausted soil. 
Large quantities of the seed are occa- 
sionally brought to the markets, but at 
present there is not much demand for it. 
The oil seed is not one that would be 
attractive to Huropean commerce, but 
there are many ways in which the oil 
could be made serviceable in this 
country. The plant is so abundant that 
an unlimited amount of oil would be 
available should a demand arise.—Agri- 
cultural Ledger, 1907, No. 57, Vegetable 
Product Series, No. 104. 


—— 


THE FATS OF INDIAN NOTMEGS. 


By Davip HoopER, F.¢.S. 


Wild nutmeg seeds are occasionally 
imported into Kngland under the name 
of ‘‘oil nuts,” and are supplied from 
Africa and South America where they 
are said to be available in large quanti- 
ties. In view of theconstant and increas- 
ing demand for oil seedsin Hurope it 
would seem desirable to examine the 
seeds of wild nutmeg trees of India to 
learn particulars of the amount and 
quality of the fat they contain. It has 
been known for many years that these 
seeds are oleaginous, but no special in- 
vestigation has been made ofthem. The 
subject has been re-opened by the receipt 
from Mr. . Latham, District Forest 
Officer, South Kanara, of a sample of the 
seeds of Myristica canarica, with the 
interesting information that they are 
used by the villagers in making candles. 
The seeds and candles were exhibited at 
a meeting of the Asiatic Society of Ben- 
gal held in December, 1906. They point 
to asource of oil for illuminating and 
other domestic purposes, and if obtain- 
able in sufficient quantity would doubt- 
loss form a minor forest product of some 
value. 


Further quantities of the seeds of 
M. canarica have been received, and 
they have been examined with those of 
M. malabarica, which are already an 
article of commerce in Bombay. The 
results of the chemical examination of 
the seeds and fat of these two indigenous 
nutmegs are given in the following 
pages, and their composition is compared 
with that of wild nutmegs from other 
countries. 


MUyristica Fragrans, Houtt.—Culti- 
vated in Penang, Malay Islands and 
Zanzibar. The true nutmeg. 


The origin of the nutmeg and mace of 
commerce is alluded toin this place in 
order to draw attention to the fat which 
is sometimes sould, The expressed oil of 


Oils and Fats. 


nutmegs was formely imported into 
India from Banda, and was known as 
Jawitri-ka-tel or oil of mace. It was 
brought into Kuropean commerce via 
Holland, in oblong cakes having nearly 
the form of common bricks, but some- 
what smaller and packed in monocoty- 
ledonous leaves, commonly called ‘tig 
leaves.” Atthe present time much of 
the oil ismanufactured in Europe, and 
put up in the same shape, but packed in 
paper. When discolured and hardened 
by age, the oilis called “Banda soap.” 
Oil of mace is manufactured by exposing 
imperfect and broken nutmegs, reduced 
to a paste and enclosed ina bag to steam, 
and then pressing the bag between 
heated iron plates. The yield is about 
20 to 30 per cent. 


Nutmeg butter is used in Europe in the 
manufacture of scented oils, perfumes 
and soaps, andasa flavouring agent in 
cooking and confectionery. <A great 
pointin its favour is that it does not 
turn rancid, even after long storage. on 


ie x“ he i 


\ 


» 


218 [SuPTEMBER, 1908, 


account of the small quantity of essen- 
tial oil combined with it. ; 


A few references will now be made to 
the foreign nutmegs that have been 
utilised for their fat. 

CONCLUSION. 


These few notes show that the wild 
nutmegs of India, like the wild nutmegs 
of foreign countries and the cultivated 
nutmegs of Malaya, yield a fat of con- 
siderable value to soap and candle 
makers. The question to be solved is in 
regard to the quantity of the material 
available. If the seeds of Myristica 
canarica could be obtained in large quan- 
tities when the tree fruits, there would 
be a ready market for them, since they 
compare favourably with seeds obtained 
from the same natural family in other 
parts of the world. The seeds and mace 
of the M. malabarica have also a certain 
economic value which it appears most 
desirable to extend.—-Agricultural Led- 
ger ret No. 3. Vegetable Product Series 

o. 102. 


< 
} 
¥ 
» 


SEPTEMBER, 1908.] 


219 


DYES AND TANS. 


WATTLE GROWING. 


By A. TATHAM, GISBORNE. 


Wherever the black wattle (Acacia 
decurrens) grows naturally in Victoria, 
it is possible to cultivate it. On most 
properties there is always an acre or 
two of land that for some reason or 
other yields no return, and there is no 
reason why they should not be made to 
do so through wattles. 


CULTIVATION. 


It would be difficult to find a soil in 
Victoria that would not grow this tree, 
provided moisture was sufficient. But 
if any can be specially selected perhaps 
the granite country would gain first 
place. Those soils that are rich in humus 
are most favoured, and often in granite 
localities, where the soil surface is made 
fairly free by the disintegration of the 
rocks, a dense vegetation of low-growing 
species, especially bracken fern, is found, 
causing an annual deposit of decaying 
vegetable matter. The wattle in its 
young state is tolerant of shade, and in 
fact thrives well in partial shade. or 
under a high-leaf canopy. But to beat 
its best as far as bark production is con- 
cerned, it should have no overhead shade, 
but plenty of undergrowth. Its natural 
locality isa valley, but where the rain- 
fall is 30 inches and over it is found 
growing well on ridges. 


The wattle seeds profusely once in 
three years. To collect the seeds, the 
pods should be gathered just as they 
ripen, but before they open, as they 
will do on a hot day, and so shed the 
seed. The pods can be laid on sacks or 
rick cloth inthe sun, where they get 
brittle or split; place all in a sack and 
beat it briskly with a stout stick, and 
the seed will be threshed out. If the 
sack is held up, and gently bounced on 
the ground it will be found that the 
seeds sink to the bottom and can easily 
be collected. 


The area having been selected, the 
seed can be sown any time in the early 
autumn. The cheapest and easiest way 


- todo this is to strive to get a locality 


that has trees growing on it; if bracken 
fern exists all the better. Do not 
attempt to remove any rubblish in the 
shape of logs or dead. limbs, leave all 
alone—it is an excellent site for wattles. 
Before the autumn rains, throw the seed 
broadcast over the area; it requires no 
previous preparation, if plenty of dry 


vegetation is present. Half-a-pound of 
seed isample for an acre, in fact a 
quarter of a pound will suffice, but is 
difficult to sow, except it is mixed with 
a bucket of sand or earth. On a favour- 
able day, and with due regard for your- 
self and vour neighbours, set fire to the 
block. The heat of the fire will assist 
germination, and the resulting ashes are 
sufficient cover for the seeds; injurious 
insects are destroyed, and the vegeta- 
tion is burnt sufficiently to allow the 
young wattles to get a fair start in life, 
before they have to struggle through 
the quick growth of grass, &c., which 
will follow in the spring. In two years 
the young wattles will be 2 to3 feet 
high and beyond all interference from 
undergrowth. 


So far the expense has been very 
slight. But as stock will greedily devour 
wattles, the plantation must be fenced 
until such time as the young trees are 
too high for them, which ought to be in 
their fourth year. The style of fence 
need only be temporary and cheap, but 
effective. 


If this style of plantation cannot be 
arranged, then more expensive methods 
must be resorted to. The next cheapest 
is to run disc cultivators over the area 
where possible, throw on the seed broad- 
east, and then brush-harrow it in or 
rollit. But the seed needs preparation ; 
quick germination cannot be hoped for, 
unless it has been subjected to heat, soak- 
age, or fermentation. To heat seed, 
place it ina hot oven, and as soon as it 
gets fairly hot remove it; this will keep 
for some time should rain not fall. 
Soaked seed is too tender to handle 
much and is only of use in seed beds, and 
should rain not fall after sowing it would 
perish. If land that has been broken up 
by ploughing can be secured it generally 
grows good wattles. Even ploughed-in 
seed has resulted ina good plantation, 
but is expensive. 


It is almost useless to grow wattles in 
plain country where trees have not pre- 
viously grown, as they will require 
attention of an expensive nature to 
insure success. Above all, strive to grow 
them in scrubby areas, do not ring or 
destroy the natural growth except 
where it greatly interferes with young 
trees. As a rule wattles grown in 
the open suffer severely from insect 
pests and blight, and the want of suffi- 
cient humus in the soil checks their 
growth. These trees are as a rule 
of low growth, thin and hard in 


Dyes and Tans. 


the bark, and as often as not cannot be 
stripped. The only way toremedy this 
evil, if the soil is hard, is to break it up 
previous to sowing. On no account over- 
crowd the trees; the object to be aimed 
atis marketable bark and as much of it 
as possible. The only way to get this is 
by having large stemmed and big branch- 
ed trees. If the trees are crowded they 
will only grow lanky and thin, and thin- 
ning operations will have to be resorted 
to. If this is not done carefully the 
remaining trees will, through the weight 
of their crowns, often bend over and 
even get torn out of the ground; they 
are so weak that a gale of wind will 
level them. From the first, keep them 
wellapart, and the after-results will well 
repay this precaution, besides saving the 
cost of thinning. 


Lopping of branches may be restorted 
to, but no tree under six feet high needs 
it. It is after this height has been 
attained that a few branches may be 
removed ; do not lop right up, rest con- 
tent to removea few only atatime, It 
is advisable not to lop a tree higher 
than 10 feet; the branches that grow 
beyond this are needed and will of 
themselves produce both quality and 
quantity of bark. Above all cut close 
to the stem, do not leave a stub sticking 
out. It is necessary that the wound 
should heal quickly, in order to prevent 
the inroads of borers or fungus disease ; 
it cannot heal properly as long as the 
dead bit of branch sticks there. Then, 
again, when stripping takes place these 
stubs are a cause of trouble and annoy- 
ance, preventing the easy removal of the 
bark. An acre of well-grown wattle 
trees ought not to number more than 
150, and, if grown in scrub, probably 
half this number. Itisa great mistake 
to suppose that more trees willreturn a 


better profit. Itis more than probable | 


that an acre of 150 trees will produce 
more bark, and distinctly better quality, 
than an acre of 500 whipsticks that can 
only produce thin, inferior bark. 


The greatestenemy to wattle is fire; 
at no period of their lives can they be 
considered safe, should this element 
attack them. In most cases it kills 
them, and, if not, so injures them that 
the bark is useless for stripping; there- 
fore beware of fire. 


HARVESTING THE BARK. 


At what age a tree is fit to strip 
depends on alot of circumstances; but 
it can be taken as a rough guide, that 
with favourable seasons and growth 6 
to 8 years will be the youngest age 
conudcive to a decent bark yield. It is 
possible to strip at4 years, but the return 


220 


is a poor one compared to what would 
result if the tree was left another couple 
of seasons. 


There is a time when the marketable 
bark reaches its maximum thickness ; 
this is probably between 8 and 10 years 
in a normally grown tree, it may be even 
alittle later. After this stage has been 
reached, the green bark will never get 
thicker, any increase in thickness will 
only be due to the accumulation of dead 
bark that adheres to the stem and 
covers the live bark, or marketable 
commodity. Now it stands to reason a 
purchaser is not going to buy dead bark, 
and to market such rubbish would be 
folly. Therefore as soon as the bark 
of a tree shows signs of external creak- 
ing and dying, no .time should be lost 
in stripping it, for it will never improve, 
but only recede in value. 


There are 
stripping bark, but whatever method is 
adopted, the object in view should not 
be most bark with least trouble and 
time, but most bark and best sample. If 
a tree is carefully worked, it is surpris- 
ing what alot of good quality material 
it yields. But the best bark is ofter ruin- 
ed by carelessness. HKven inferior bark 
can be made to appear good, with alittle 
eare. It should be cut to one length, not 
doubled over in the bundles, because che 
bent bark takes up more room, is very 
prone to spring and loosen the ties, and 
looks slovenly. After the bark is strip- 
ped great care must be taken to prevent 
it getting wet ora great loss of tannin 
will result. Freshly peeled bark suffers 
more in this way than dry bark. But 
when dry bark gets damp, especially 
when bundled, it is liable to be attacked 
by mildew. This is often hard to detect 
till perhaps great injury is caused; mil- 
dewed bark is practically valueless. 
Therefore do not bundle any but dry 
bark, and if stored be careful it gets 
plenty of air, but no damp. Above all 
keep the bark clean; good appearance 
goes along way towards a good price. 


RETURNS. 


It would be difficult to state here what 
the probable cost per acre, or of market- 
ing per ton, might be. Some acres 
would require little outlay until strip- 
ping, others might be a long way from 


a market. But if the probable returns: 


can be arrived at, then the question 
simplifies itself to those who wish to 
give ita trial. From calculations based 
on some years’ stripping, it has been 


found that 30 trees supposed to be bet- — 
ween 6 and 8 years old produced a ton of 
dry bark. The trees were naturally 
grown, in bushcountry, Therefore an ’ 


at Salm ee 
Ba bh a 
of, aR 


[SePTEMBER, 1908. 


many different ways of: 


of 
f « 


a 
z 
y 
ay 
” 

F 

fe 

i 
i 


acre of 150 trees S years old and fairly 
grown ought to produce five tons. Now, 
taking the average price of bark in 
Melbourne at £6 per ton, an acre would 
yield £30 in 8 years. Allowing only two 


tons to the acre the return of £12 would 


be satisfactory, as the land in its natural 
state as a grazing area would only be 
worth about 2s. peracre perannum. It 
cannot be denied that £80 per acre at 
the end of 8 years, even though it be 
reduced by half to cover cost of all works 
connected with the plantation, is better 
than 16s. per acre as a grazing area. 


Dyes and Tans. 


There are many blocks of suitable 
land lying idlein Victoria to-day that 
could be made to return a good income 
from this source, with absolutely no 
more cost than sowing the seed and 
harvesting the bark. South Africa is 
planting large areas of wattle. Why is 
it neglected in the country of its origin? 
--Journal of the Department of Agricul- 


ture of Victoria, July 8th, 1907, Vol. V., 
Part 7, pp. 482-4. 


222 


SRC 


[SEPTEMBER, 1908. 


FIBRES. 


THE FISHING NETS OF THE KOLIS 
OF BANDRA, BOMBAY 
PRESIDENCY. 


By V. P. RIBEIRO. 


Extra Assistant Conservato1 of Forests, 
Hyderabad (Sind). 
Kouis. 


[The Kolis are a race of the West 
Coast of India divided into a large 
number of tribes. Their settlen:ents 
stretch from the deserts north of Gujarat 
to Ratnagiri. inland by Pandharpur in 
the south of Puona as far east as the 
Mahadev or Balaghat hills in the Nizam’s 
Dominions and through the Central Pro- 
vinces and Berar, north to Khandesh.* 
They are found in every village in 
Gujarat, the Konkan and the Deccan. 
They are skilful husbandmen and raise 
the finest kinds of rice. One tribe settled 
just north of Bombay is that of the 
Mata or Dungari Kolis and consists of 
fishermen who use among their nets 
those here described.—ED. | 


CROTALARIA JUNCEA. VERNACULAR 
NAMES. 


The nets used by Kolis are made 
from the fibre of Crotalaria juncea 
(vernacular name “‘ 7'ag”’), and are of 3 or 
4 distinct shapes adapted to different 
depths of water, and to different fish. 


A net, known among the Kolis as 
“‘dowl” or ‘‘dole” is considered to be 
the best, and is used invariably for deep- 
sea fishing and for all kinds of fish. 
When spread into the sea, it assumes a 
pyramidal or conical shape, as shown in 
the accompanying rough sketch. 


The length of this net, from apex A to 
base B. is 162 feet. Each side of the 
base or mouth BB,’ BC, B’C’ and © C’ 
measures 72 feet, 7.e., the whole measure- 
ment round the base is 288 feet. 


The apex A is tied with a string, when 
the net is spread, and can be opened 
when it is necessary, to remove the fish. 
Its base or mouth B B,’ C C’ is open, and 
astrong rope passes round it. In the 
accompanying sketch b and b’ are two 
buoys or empty casks about 72 feet 
apart, floating inthe sea, and kept in 
position by the anchors D and D’ to 


* Dr. T, Wilson held that the name was Kuli or 
clansmen, that they were the aboriginals of the 
plains while the Bhils were the aboriginals of 
the hills.—Bombay Gazetteer, Thana, Vol. XIIL, 
Part I.) 


which they are fastened by two strong 
ropes or hawsers. The two corners 
and B’ of the net are attached to the 
two buoys band b.’ The other two 
corners C andC’ of the net are fixed to 
the two anchors by a pair of strong 
ropes C Dand C’ D’. 


When the net is full, the thin ropes 
beandb’ ce are pulled, so as to raise the 
corners Cand C’to Band B.’ This has 
the effect of closing the mouth of the 
net. The net is then detached from the 
buoys and anchors, and hauled into a 
boat alongside of it, and the fish removed 
by unfastening of apex of the net. The 
buoys and anchors with ropes remain 
permanently in the sea. 


Tn fair weather the anchors and casks 
are sometimes dispensed with, and the 
netis fixed to two masts (preferably of 
Adina cordifolia, it being very durable 
under water) sunk upright in the sea 
from 70 to 80 feet apart. The working - 
we the net under these conditions will be 
clear. 


PLACING OF NETS. 


In this case the cornersC and C’ have 
lead weights attached and they (the 
corners C and C’) are raised (when necess- 
ary to close the mouth of the net) by 
ropes and pulleys at the top of the masts 
(as shown in figure 2 in the accompany- 
ing diagram). 


VALUE OF NET. 


The value of this net (of the size given 
above) is Rs. 250/ and it costs about Rs. 8 
a month for tanning; The meshes of the 
“dowl” net vary from 63 inches to z 
inch. The size of the mesh near the 
mouth is 6} inches and it gradually 
decreases to+ inch towards the apex. 
For regulating the size of mesh, the net 
is divided into 5 parts which are named 
as follows :— 

Khola=a length of 18 feet from A apex 
with at inch mesh. 

Mazola=36 feet from K to M with a 
3 inch mesh, 

Chiret—36 feet from N to P with a 
mesh from 13 to 3 inches. 

Mowr=36 feet P B’ with a mesh of 3 to 

4 inches. 

Nets similar ia shape and make as the 
above, but of smaller dimensions (80 feet 
long and 27 feet in circumference), are 
called ‘‘boksha”, and can be had for 
Rs. 10. 


Fig. /.: P 


bog B ae : = i : 
(= TTSNENRRY : : : : 
Z RAN =} = 
SS SESS ‘ 
(OSES UNUDS i 
4 : — 


ATR. Saude 
NW e 
pe 


SSSSSSsss 


as Ga Gs we ‘af TN/ ww ) 
SQ SSS 
LDS AN SSSI 


Bb 


RUy 
IG 
SI, 


SUNN-HEMP FISHING NETS. 


A M kK 
: Jest seft seft zeft zee 


aaa ihe “yf i 


eee 


Prec hy 


) 
y 


SEPTEMBER, 1908. | 228 


Another kind of net is the‘ Jahal”; the 
mesh of this netis2} inches. It is 240 feet 
long and 24 feet broad and has very 
small wooden floats attached longitudi- 
nally, 10 feet apart along one edge of 
the net, and a stronger rope passes along 
the other edge. It is used in moderate- 
ly deep water, for pomfrets and other 
similar fish. Such a net costs from 8 to9 
rupees. 


“ Airkhund” is anet of smaller dimen- 
sions (36 X 18’) and may be characterised 
as asweepnet. It is used in shallow 
water on the coast or in creeks. I[t is 
dragged over the fishing ground by men 
in boats or wading in water. Its mesh 
is $ inch. 


Another class of nets consists of the 
* Pagh” and “Assu.” The first is circular 
He shape, the diameter being about 18 
feet. 


Fibres, 


To its circumference are attached lead 
weights, atshort intervals. It may be 
called the ‘‘ Casting out” net, and is used 
in shallow water, to catch small fish and 
prawns. The mesh of the Pagh is $ 
to ; inch. 


The ‘‘Assu” isa hand net similar to 
the ‘‘dow!” net but witha wooden rim 
(6 feet in diameter), and is employed on 
the sandy coast for catching prawns 
only. It may be called a dredge net. 
ane mesh of this varies from} to } 
inch. 


Traps and spears are not used among 
Koli fishermen. The hooks used are of 
the ordinary Gescription. The lines are 
niade of the fibre of Caryota wrens and 
that of Crotalaria juncea. The Agri- 
cultural Ledger. 1905—No. 7. (Industrial 
Series, No. 5.) 


224° 


(SEPTEMBER, 1908, 


DRUGS AND MEDICINAL PLANTS. 


IPECACUANHA. 

A good deal of interest has been from 
time to time raised by the question of 
the possibility of the cultivation of the 
Ipecacuanha plant in this country. The 
drug is an expensive one and there is a 
steady demand for it. being as itis, one 
of the few knownremedies for dysentery. 
Kor many years it has been cultivated 
with some success by Mr. W. W. Bailey, 
formerly at Pengerang Hstate, Johor, and 
later in Highlands and Lowlands estate 
in Selangor. No oneelse seems to have 
been very successful with itin any part 
of the world. 


In cultivation it is by no means an easy 
plant to deal with, and though it has 
been often tried at the Botanic Gardens, 
Singapore, it never seems to thrive well, 
probably on account of the dampness of 
the Island. I have found it very sensi- 
tive to rapid changes of weather. In hot 
dry weather it suffers much from the 
dryness of the air, and heat and heavy 
rainstorms are also fatal to it. 


An article on Johor Ipecacuanha has 
recently been published by Mr. E. M. 
Holmes in the Pharmaceutical Journal 
(January 18th, 1908) p. 54, which is of con- 
siderable interest and from which I 
quote. ‘‘ For many years past Ipeca- 
cuanha root has been cultivated in the 
Malay States and imported into this 
couutry under the name of Johor Ipeca- 
cuanha, but the exact form of the plant 
under cultivation and the particular 
district in which it is grown are not 
stated in text books. Some of the Johor 
root was examined by Mr. F. Ransom 
and reported to be practically as rich in 
alkaloid as that received from Brazil. 
As the attempts to grow Ipecacuanha in 
India and elsewhere on a commercial 
scale faited it became a point of some 
interest to determine the particular form 
or variety cf the plant that succeeded so 
well in the Straits Settlements.” Speci- 
mens of the plant were received by Mr. 
Holmes from Mr. Wray and Mr. Pfenning- 
werth. Mr. Holmes goes on to point out 
that two forms of the plant were known 
in 1871 when Prof. J. M. Balfour, in an 
article read before the Botanical Society 
of Edinburgh, described them as culti- 
vated in Edinburgh Botanic Gardens. 
One, originally sent by Mr. Mackay of 
Liege to Sir W. Hooker, hada shrubby 
stem, firm leaves not undulated at the 
edge, with a short style. The other sent 
from Rio de Janeiro, was herbaceous, 
with thinner leaves undulated and 


The flowers were not 
seen but were probably long styled. 
The Selangor plant has firm leaves, 
oblong lanceolate (rather than oval as in 
Mackay’s plant) slightly scabrous, and 
the stamens and style equal in length. 
This plant is therefore distinct from 
either of the other two. ‘The plants 
formerly cultivated in the Singapore 
gardens and obtained from Kew were cer- 
tainly herbaceous. Ipecacuanha seems 
to have been first introduced to the 
Straits Settlements by Murtonin 1875. 
The plants were brought from Ceylon. 
But whether the Selangor, or called as 
they were at first, the Johor plants, were 
derived from these or obtained elsewhere 
1 cannot say. 


Mr. Pfenningwerth states that the 
cultivation is very slow work. The plant 
seems to grow well but does not produce 
root in abundance. The first crop off 
fresh soil is a fairly good one but on try- 
ing to raise a second it invariably turns 
out very poor, although all kinds of 
manure have been tried to enrich the 
land but without apparently restoring 
to the soil the necessary ingredients for 
luxuriant growth. He then quotes from 
Mr. Macnab, as to the growth of the 
plant. ‘‘ The stem is of slow growth and 
although cuttings root freely in five or 
six weeks when inserted in white sand 
kept somewhat moist, very few cuttings 
are obtainable, so that propagation from 
sections of the rhizome even if only one 
sixteenth of an inch thick give the best 
results. These can he readily propa- 
gated if placed ina horizontal position 
over the surface of a pot, prepared with 
drainage and white sand and kept moist 
and placed ina warm propagating bed 
under a hand glass. In afew weeks the 
root cuttings begin to swell, and show 
signs of budding chiefly on the upper 
edge of the cut surface. These leaf buds 
are first nourished by the sapin tke cut 
rhizome, but as they begin to elongate 
some filmy roots are protruded from the 
under surface. hen this is the case 
the root sections may be cut into as 
many pieces as there are buds and each 
potted separately in open free fibrous 
soil with a slight mixture of sand. In 
Brazil the Poayero or collector of Ipeca- 
cuanha root when he pulls up the roots, 
breaks them at certain points, leaving 
sufficient of the thickened rhizome 
to produce young plants and fills the 
holes wherce the plants have been 
pulled, so that ih 3 or 4 years, the 
plants may recover their growth. The 


fringed with hairs. 


plant flowers in February andMarch so 


that by pulling up plants at that time 
of the year reproduction by seed is pre- 
vented.” Ihave been recently informed 
by Mr. #. Ransom that the percentage of 
alkaloid in Selangor Ipecacuanha is now 
less than when the drug was first import- 
ed. This may of course be due to im- 


* poverishment of the soil or to collection 


at a different period of the year or more 
probably from plants of different age, 
but Mr. Ransom’s conclusion does not 
appear to beshared by other chemists 
who have examined the root:so that 
different samples probably vary in 
quality and activity. [I would suggest 
that if Mr. Ransom’s conclusion is correct 
another cause may be constant propa- 
gation from cuttings. Plants propagated 
continuously from ecnttings for a large 
number of yearsare very apt to deter- 
jorate. H. N. R.J—Agricullural Bulletin 
of the Straits and Federated Malay 
States, No. 4, April 1908, Vol., VI. 


225" 


Drugs and Medicinal Plants, 


COMBRETUM SUNDAICUM. 


In the same number of the Pharma- 
ceutical Journal is an article by Mr. EK. F. 
Harrison on the constituents of Combre- 
tum sundaicum, the much talked of 
Chinese anti-opium drug. Mr. Harrison 
has submitted boththe raw and roasted 
drug as prepared by the Chinese to 
elaborate chemical analysis. The treat- 
ment showed the existence of no al- 
kaloid. A green resin was obtained and 
tannin was also found, as has been done 
by other chemists. 


The story of this drug has already 
been detailed in the Bulletin. There 
seems no reasonto suppose it has any 
special properties, but several chemists 
are still at work investigating it 
thoroughly.—Agricultural Bulletin of 
the Straits and Federated Malay States, 
No 4, April 1908, Vol. VI. 


a 226 


(SEPTEMBER, 1908: 


EDIBLE PRODUCTS. j 


AGRICULTURAL INDUSTRIES IN 


NATAL. 


TRA. 


To judge by comments of correspon- 
dents in the public press, the actual 
facts concerning the tea industry in 
Natal are apparently unknown to the 
public, and there has been widespread 
misapprehension of the truth, leading to 
wholly erroneous criticism and misstate- 
ments. The Commissioners deem it well, 
therefore, in the interests of truth, fair- 
play, and well-advised future action, 
that the facts should be made known, as 
received in evidence. 


In the early days of experimental tea 
planting in Natal, the revenue duty upon 
tea in Natal was 7d. perlb. Not before 
1885, however, did Natal tea appear on 
the market in any appreciable quantity, 
in which year the revenue on tea was 6d. 
per lb., and the idea of this 6d. rate 
being a permanent one, for revenue pur- 
poses, was a sufficient inducement for the 
investment of capital in the industry. 
It will remembered that for many years 
6d. was the rate of duty on tea in the 
United Kingdom, where it was regarded 
as a duty for revenue purposes only. In 
1883 the price for imported tea paid by 
the consumer in Natal ranged from 2s. 
to 3s. 6d. per lb., inclusive of the duty. 
About that period, very considerable 
developments took place in the tea in- 
dustry, several new plantations were 
opened up, and the area of land under 
tea very considerably increased, and 
from that time the extent of the in- 
dustry has gradually increased year by 
year. In 1904 the price of tea had fallen 
on the World’s markets, but in Natal, it 
had fallen to from Is. to Is. 6d. per Ib., 
from the 2s. to 3s. 6d. of 1883, and it is 
contended that this local drop in prices 
exceeded the fall in outside markets. 
Natal tea is now sold to the consumer at 
from 9d. to ls. 8d. per lb. according to 
quality. The Commissioners fail to see 
any indication, from these figures, that 
the consumer in South Africa is suffer- 
ipngin his pocket from the existence of 
tea growing as an industry in Natal. 


In 1904 the duty in South Africa on 
imported tea was reduced to 4d. per lb., 
and later, in 1906, a duty of 15 per cent. 
was imposed on wood imported for 
packing purposes, and of 25 per cent. on 
all printed matter for labels, etc., used 
in the business. When it is borne in 
mind that the packing cases and labels 
used in the cases of imported tea are 


allowed to enter the country free of 
duty, it will be seen that imported tea 
is favoured in this respect as compared 
with tea of local produztion. When it 
is further borne in mind that in the tea- 
growing country from which Natal tea 
meets the severest competition, the 
currency is a silver one, and that the 
planter in that country, in consequence, 
enjoysan advantage of some 33 per cent. 
in the cost of his labour, it will further 
be appreciated that 4d. per lb. so-called 
*« protection,” which the Natal planter is 
popularly supposed to enjoy, is severely 
discounted, 


But can that 4d. per lb. duty be fairly 
termed a protective duty ? 


In almost every country in the world 
where tea is consumed, this commodity 
has been deemed a very suitable one 
from which to obtain revenue by means 
of a Customs duty. Of the 88 British 
Colonies and Foreign Countries, whose 
Customs tariffs are enumerated in Kelly’s 
Customs Tariffs of the World (1905 
Edition), the duty ranges from 2s. 10d. 
per lb. to10 per cent. ad valorem. As 
none of these countries produce tea, 
except one, it is manifest that in all the 
other cases tea must have been selected 
on the ground that it is a fit and proper 
commodity from which to obtain re- 
venue. Further, with the exception of 
four of these countries, referred to above, 
the present duty on tea inthe South 
African Union stands at the lowest 
figure. 


In 1906, the importations of tea from 
over-seas into the States ot the South 
African Union amounted, in weight, to 
4,822,000 lbs., of a money value _ of 
£221,000. Figures have been produced to 
show that the whole of this tea and more 
could be produced by the tea estates at 
present in existence in Natal. 


The money expended and_ distributed 
in a multitude of ways, by the Natal tea 
industry in South Africa, amounts to 
between £50,000 and £60,000 per annum 
at present. Disaster to the industry 
would not only mean the loss of this ex- 
penditure, but that there would cease to 
be the competition between the local 
producer and the importer, and the 
latter would be in a position _to raise 
prices against the consumer. Dumping, 
it is alleged, now seriously threatens the 
tea industry of Natal. South Africa, it 
is stated in evidence, has been made the 
dumping ground for certain classes of 
Indian and Ceylon teas—elsewhere un- 
saleable. These teas, itis asserted, must 


SEPTEMBER 1908.] 


have been sold at prices much below cost 
of production, thus causing such severe 
competition in the local market as to 
have rendered the carrying-on of the tea 
industry in Natal unprofitable for some 
time past. 


The figures, as supplied by one of the 
largest groups of tea estates show the 
division of wages to be for twelve 
months asfollows:— | 
Whites (including those 


in Durban Office) £3,833 
Coloured (including rations 
to coolies) Be ; £3,672* 


Owing to the possibility of preferential 
railways rates being abolished at the 
coming Pretoria Conference, it is neces- 
sary to bear in mind that Natal tea, 
taking Johannesburg asa central point, 
is privileged as compared with imported 
tea, to the extent of £3 3s. 4d. per ton. 
To remove that privilege, without giving 
compensation therefor, in the shape of 
additional duty at the Port, would be a 
very serious additional blow to an indus- 
try already suffering from the effects of 
the action of past Conferences, to a 
degree that has deprived the share- 
holders of any dividend for some years. 
The equivalent additional duty to com- 
pensate for the loss of the privilege on 
the railway, taking Johannesburg as the 
central point, would be about 2-5ths of a 
penny per lb. 


RECOMMENDATIONS. 


In view of the fact even in free-trade 
Great Britain, the duty on tea at present 
is 5d. per lb., or 25 per cent. higher than 
the present South African Union duty, 
and that, within recent years it has 
been as high as 7d. perlb. in great 
Britain, for revenue purposes, the 
Commissioners, taking also all the condi- 
tions into account, do not think that the 
following suggested recommendations 
err on the side of unduly favouring the 
tea planter :— 


(a) That, in the event of preferential 
railway rates being abolished, the duty 
on tea imported in packets be restored 
to 6d. per Ib. 


(b) That, in the event of preferential 
railway rates being abolished, the duty 
on tea imported in bulk be 53d. per Ib. 

(c) That, in the event of preferential 


railway rates, and the duty on box 
shooks, printing, and rice, being retained 


*Since the above was written the following 
figures have been supplied, as representing as 
nearly as could be obtained from an estate to estate 
enquiry, the division of wages paid during 1907, 
over the whcle tea industry in Natal. To Euro- 
peans, £6,500; to Coloureds, £13,700. (Footnote by 
Conumission,) 


227 


Edible Products, 


as at present, the duty on all imported 
tea to be 5d. per lb.—Natal Agricultural 
Journal, No. 4, Vol. XI., April, 1908. 


THE USE OF A MULCH IN THE 
CULTIVATION OF CACAO. 


(ABSTRACTED BY R. H. LOcK.) 
[Journal d’Agriculture Tropicale, May 
1908, p. 188.] 

The protection of the soil of a cacao 
plantation is a difficult matter in the 
dry season unless recourse is had either 
to the cultivation of herbaceous plants 
or to the use of a mulch of leaves, man- 
ure, or other vegetable material. 


Fora living mulch choice is generally 
made of sume quick-growing leguminous 
plant like the Cow-pea (Vigna sinensis), 
the Velvet-bean (Mucuna utilis), the 
Soya-bean oc Crotalaria. 


These plants have the additional ad- 
vantage of fixing nitrogen from the air. 


O. W. Barrett, in a Report addressed 
to the Agricultural Society of Trinidad, 
recommends the growth of other useful 
plants like Lemon grass, Citronella, 
Ground-nuts and Manioc in Cacao as well 
as India-rubber plantations. 


The result of practical tests carried 
out in Dominica seems to show that the 
dead mulch possesses considerable ad- 
vantages as compared with the living 
one. These results are taken from a 
lecture delivered by Dr, F. Watts before 
the Agricultural Conference held at 
Kingston in 1907. 


Experiments extending over four years 
carried out by Mr. Jones, Curator of the 
Botanic Station of Dominica, showed 
that the plot treated with a complete 
manure showed an increase of 160 shil- 
lings to the acre, whilst the non-nitro- 
genous plots gave a less satisfactory 
result. Buta mulch of leaves and grass 
on anon-manured plot let to a still more 
striking increase, as much in tact as 416 
shillings per acre or more than double 
that obtained from an acre which 
received annually 200 ke. caleium phos- 
phate, 75 kg. sulphate of potash and 200 
kg. blood meal. 


Mulching the soil consists in covering 
the whole surface, or merely the part 
round the foot of the trees, with their 
layer of vegetable matter in order to 
prevent evaporation, to protect the sur- 
face from the sun and violent rain, and 
to reduce the amount of necessary culti- 
vation. 


According to Dr, Watts’ advice the 
mulch is applied once a year, at the 


Edible Products. 228 


beginning of the dry season, spread uni- 
formly over the soil to the thickness of 
about an inch, and a thin layer of earth 
sprinkled over it. The mulch may con- 
sist of manure fresh or half decomposed. 
of grass, which should be cut up if too 
long, of fresh or dry leaves and twigs. 
Plantain leaves are specially useful, cut 
up to facilitate decomposition. 


In young plantations where weeds 
invade the free soil, these should be cut 
down and strewn round the bases of the 
trees, thus forming a simple kind of 
mulch. 


A note in the ‘‘ Journal of the Society 
of Agriculture for Jamaica” for Decem- 
ber, 1907, confirms the valuable results 
of mulching in the case of Bananas, 
Cacao, Coffee and Coconuts. 


CACAO IN THE UNITED STATES. 


Irs PoPpULARITY OUTSTRIPPING THAT OF 
TRA AND COFFEE. 


According to the New Orleans Press, 
the growing popularity of cacao and its 
products among the people of the United 
States, to which reference has _ been 
made from time to time in recent years, 
is illustrated by some figures prepared 
by the Bureau of Statistics of the De- 
partment of Commerce and Labour, 
which show the relative growth in tea, 
coffee, and cacao importations during 
recent years. Cocao imports have grown 
from 18,000,000 lb. in 1890 to 92,000,000 Ib. 
1907; coffee imports from 499,000,000 lb. 
in 1890 to 987,000,0(0 Ib. 1907, and tea 
imports from 84,000,000 lb. in 1890 to 
86,000,000 lb. in 1907. The cacao import- 
tations have quintupled during the 
period under consideration, while those 
of coffee were scarcely doubling and 
those of tea making practically no in- 
erease. In value the importation of 
eacao have grown from $2,383,333} 
in 1890 to $18.250,000 in 1907, while those 
of coffee are practically unchanged, 
being $78,250,000 in 1890 to $78,833,333 in 
1907 ; and those of tea have buta slight 
increase, being $12,333,3333 in 1890, and 
slightly less than $14,000,000 in 1907. 


Another interesting fact with refer- 
ence to this more rapid growth in the 
import of cacao is that it has occur- 
red in the face of a greater advance 
in price of that article than has occurred 
in either tea or coffee. The average 
value per pound of the crude cacao 
imported in 1890 was 12°7 cents and in 
1907 14:5 cents; that of ,tea, 15 cents in 
1890 and 16‘1 centsin 1907; while that 
of coffee shows a marked fall, having 
been in 1890 16 cents and in 1907 79 


cents, 


warty 
Wg 


(SEPTEMBER, 


The growing taste for cacao among 
the American people puts them into 
closer touch with the people of the 
West India Islands, and suggests possi- 
blities for their own tropical islands, all 
of which are capable of producing this 
article. “Of the 92,000,000 lb. of cacao 
imported in the last fiscal year, 
39,000,000 lb. came from the West Indies 
20,000,000 Ib. from Brazil, 15,000,000 from 
other South American countries, and 
16,000,00 1b. from Huropean countries, 
but doubtless originating in their tropi- 
cal colonies. 


Meanwhile, in England, according to 
the papers, it has been decided by our 
Government that, owing to the high 
price of ingredients of Navy cacao, coffee 
and tea will be served to sailors of the 
British Navy as an additional ration in 
lieu thereof. We know the price of 
cacao has risen very much, but have not 
heard what the ingredients are that the 
Navy puts into its cacao, so cannot 
express an opinionon them. Probably 
this is only afaulty statement on the 
part of the Journal. The fact of dis- 
pensing with cacao, if true, shows a 
most short-sighted policy on the part 
of the Admiralty, as during the winter 
months especially, there is nothing so 
suitable for a sailor’s beverage or so 
sustaining as a, food cacao.—Tropical 
Life, Vol. 1V., No. 2. Feb. 1908. 


THE SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF 
THE COCONODT. 


We have been meaning for several 
months to call the attention of those of 
our readers interested in coconut culture 
to the valuable articles, illustrated with 
diagrams and photographs, that appear- 
ed at the beginning of last year in the 
Philippine Journal of Science; but not 
having the numbers by us atthe time, 
we had to write out for a complete file. 
These having been supplied by the 
courtesy of Dr. Freer, Director of the 
Bureau of Science, we are now able to 
do so, and though late in pointing out 
the chief points of interest they contain, 
we feel that it is far better to do so now 
than not at all. 


Under the charge and direction of 
Dr. Paul C. Freer, investigations on the 
subject of the coconut plam (Cocos 
nucifera) have been carried on in the 
laboratories attached to the Bureau 
since the middle of 1904, and the results 
published in their Journal, which is 
issued approximately ten times a year. 
In the January (1906) number, Mr. Edwin 
Copeland contributed the results on the 
jnvestigations into ‘The Water Relations 


ee eee 


SEPTEMBER, 1908. | 


of the Coconut Palm,” adding to his 
very full notes some twenty diagrams. 
Mr. Herbert Walker wrote on ‘The 
Relation of the Production of Oil to the 
Nut, ‘‘with ten full-page photographs. 
Mr. Walker, in the February issue, also 
writes on “The Keeping Quality of 
Coconut Oil, and the Causes of its 
Rancidity,” and Mr. Charles 8. Banks on 
«The Principal Insects Attacking the 
Coconut Palm,” continuing the article in 
the April journal. These artlcles are 
accompanied by numerous illustrations, 
showing the insects and the harm that 
they do tothe trees and fruit. 


Most of the investigations were carried 
on at the San Ramon Government Farm 
on the west coast of Mindanoa, which is 
some ten miles north of the town of 
Zamboanga. The head Bureau is situat- 
ed, of course, at Manila. 

Mr. Copeland comes to the conclusion, 
as regards the effect of water on the palms 
that if a considerabie supply is not con- 
stantly at the disposal of the trees, it will 
protect itself by a partial suspense of its 
vitality. Asregards fertilisation, it is 
the unanimous experience of those who 
are acquainted with the subject that an 
increase in some of the constituents of 
its mineral food has a very marked 
favourable effect on the production of the 
fruit. Certain trees, as with cacao and 
coffee, are pointed out as particularly 
productive, because they have long 
received the waste from the kitchen, and 
itis recognised that the quantity of 
mineral food which the tree takes is 
roughly proportional tothe amount_ of 
water which it absorbs, the solution 
absorbed being more concentrated than 


229 


Edible Products. 


that in the ground. The palm will 
naturally grow ina ‘‘ poor” soil—that is, 
one in which the mineral nitrogenous 
raw food is present in very dilute solu- 
tion; but it must not be expected to 
thrive even on the richest soils if its 
supply of light is restricted by other 
trees orin any other way. Increasing 
the plant’s transpiration has the same 
effect, once it can absorb moisture from, 
the soil, as applying a fertilizer to the 
ground, and its transpiration (emission of 
vapour) is somewhat accelerated by the 
wind, and greatly so by intense illumina- 
tion. It therefore follows that the wider 
apart the trees stand the better yield. 
A double row of trees yielded, ina eut- 
ting, twenty- two nuts per tree;a single 
row, @.ée., without trees on either side, an 
average ‘of twenty-seven nuts per tree; a 
tree planted alone gave fifty-five nuts at 
a cutting. 


On this point Mr. Copeland considers 
that up to a distance of atleast 15 metres 
(metre=3 ft. 3} inches) any increase in 
the intervals between the trees would 
probably result in an appreciable ad- 
vance in the average viele per tree; but 
whether the total yield per acre or hec- 
tare would be commensurate with the 
extra area of land such wide planting 


would require seems very doubtful. 
Mr. Copeland himself adds: ‘In my 
opinion, the trees in a grove can 


usually best be placed at intervals of 
about 9 metres. In exposed rows they 
may well be closer together, and where 
intense cultivation is economically pos- 
sible the distance between them may be 
a little less.”—Tropical Life, Vol. IV., 
No. 2, February, 1908. 


[SEPTEMBER, 1908, 


‘ 


MISCELLANEOWS PRODUCTS. 


SELECT EDIBLE GARCINIA FRUITS. 
(Illustrated. ) 


By H. F. Macmincan. 


MANGOSTEEN. 


The Mangosteen (Garcinia Mangos” 
tana) is far-famed as one of the most 
delicious fruits of the tropics., The tree 
which bears it has been introduced ori gi- 
nally from Malaya, probably by the 
Dutch, and has now become familiar 
to the Sinhalese under the name of 
“mangus,” and!|to the Ceylon Tamils as 
““mangus-kai.” The distinction of being 
one of the three finest fruits in the world 
has been claimed for the Mangosteen, 
the other two rivals being the Pineapple 
and the Cherimoyer. The mangosteen is 
held in the highest estimation, and is 
a fruit which .travellers to the East 
especially wish to sample. Don declared 
it to be “the most delicious of all fruits, 
partaking of the strawberry and the 
grape. Being a fruit which does not 
keep well, it is difficult to transport it in 
good condition over long journeys, so 
that its export, at least on commercial 
lines, is impracticable, and dwellers in 
temperate countries cannot hope to enjoy 
its peculiar luciousness. To taste the 
fruit to perfection it must be eaten soon 
after it is gathered from the tree. In 
appearance the mangosteen is uncom- 
monly dainty and elegant. In size it 
resembles an apple, but it is almost per- 
fectly round. In striking contrast with 
the reddish purple rind, the delicious 
pulp which surrounds and adheres to 
the seeds is snowy white. The mangos- 
teen as a fruit may be said to have only 
one fault—there is not enough of it. 
With high cultivation, however, and 
careful selection of the best varieties, it 
should be possible to reduce the dense 
thick rind and increase the proportion of 
pulp. The fruit is in season from June 
to July at the lower elevations or near 
sea-level, and from July to August at 
1,000 to 1,600 feet elevation. It is usually 
hawked about at 75 cents to Rs. 1 
(ils. to Is. 4d.) per dozen, and is 
always charged for at the hotels as an 
extra. 


The mangosteen tree is unfortunately 
of very slow growth, and does not come 
into bearing till about nine years old. It 
will only thrive in ahot and moist cli- 
mate, such as obtains to perfection in 


the Kalutara district. It willnot succeed 
on the plains of India, but is found to 
do fairly well in the moister districts of 
Southern India, up to about 2,500 feet ele- 
vation. Propagation is usually effected 
by sowing the seed, the germination of 
which is very slow and precarious. An 
average of more than two good seeds per 
fruit cannot be reckoned upon. The 
gootee method of propagation, as illus- 
trated in this magazine for May, is prefer- 
able to sowing seed; the former ensures 
an earlier crop, and enables the best 
variety being selected and perpepuated. 


COCHIN GORAKA. 

Cochin-goraka (Garcinia Xanthochy- 
mus). This isa small tree which combines 
beauty with utility, and_deserves to be 
more widely known and cultivated in 
the tropics. It is of a compact bushy 
habit, conical and symmetrical in shape, 
and grows to a height of 25 to 30 feet. A 
distinguishing characteristic of it, is 
its large leathery, glossy leaves, which 
vary from 10 to16 inches in length and 
25 to 8inches in width, These qualities 
and the cone-shaped appearance of the 
tree render it an ornamental object even 
in the small state. It is indigenous to 
the Malay Peninsula, Eastern Bengal, 
and South India, and has been intro- 
duced into Ceylon probably about the 
end of the Highteenth Century by the 
Dutch. The goraka fruit is of a luring 
appearance. In shape it resembles a 
medium-sized apple ; it has a very smooth 
and-even skin, with a_ characteristic 
slightly. pointed top. The shell (peri- 
carp) which is hard and woody in the 
mangesteen, is soft and juicy in the 
Cochin-goraka, and forms the_ edible 
pulp. The latter is orange-yellow in 
colour, very acid, but not unpalatable, 
It is refreshing on a hot day, and is liked 
by many people for dessert. Don in his 
encyclopedia of plants considered this 
fruit ‘‘not inferior to many apples,” 
whilst Firminger compared it in some 
respects to an apricot. Cameron says ‘‘it 


is occasioually used in India in place of — 


tamarinds.” The. soft pulp consists of 
rather distinct two layers, the inner of 
which surrounding the seeds is the less 
acid. In the centre are 4. to 6 large 
oblong flat seeds. 


The tree is easily propagated from 
these seeds, which take five to six weeks 
to germinate. It thrives in any moder- 
ately good soil, but succeeds best in rich 
well-drained soil, witha sheltered situ- 
ation. A rainfall of at least 55 or 60 
inches, equally distributed, is’ essential. 


Photo by H. F. Macmillan, 


GARCINIA XANTHOCHYMUS, 4k. s 
CooHIN GoRAKa. 


Photo by H. F. Macmillan. 


GARCINIA CAMBOGIA, Desr. 
GoraKka. 


SEPTEMBER, 1908.] 


Fruits are produced from the time the 
tree is 4 years old, and afterwards al- 
most throughout the year, but the prin- 
cipal crop is yielded during December 
and January. The tree is naturally a 
heavy cropper, the numerous fruits 


sometimes almost weighing down the, 


stiff branches. Some trees yield fruits 
of less acidity than others, and this fact 
encourages the hope that selection and 
high cultivation may render the Cochin- 
goraka avery useful fruit for the trop- 
ics. The tree is known to the Sinhalese 
as Rata-goraka, and to the Tamils as 
Seemai-goraka. In Coorg it is called 
“ Divarige,” and in Bengal “ Vate Mara.” 


GORAKA. 


The ‘‘Goraka” (Garcinia Cambogia), 
known to the Tamils as Korakkaipulh, 
is a moderate-sized handsome tree, with 
a round head and- thin drooping bran- 
ches. In its natural distribution it is 
confined to the moist low country of 
Ceylon, being also indigenous to certain 
moist districts in Western India. The 
fruit is distinct from all other species 
of Garcinia, being ‘of the size of an 
orange, with several (6 to 8) vertical 
grooves forming as many blunt lobes. 
It has a smooth skin, orange yellow 
when ripe. The thick succulent shell is 
acid though not unpalatable; but its 
chief use to the natives is for flavouring 
curries. The fruit is in season in July, 
when it is collected and the thick fleshy 
Shells (which are hard and woody in the 
Mangosteen) are dried in the sun and 
preserved for use as required. In this 
way they form an excellent substitute 
for limes. In the Kalutara district, es- 
pecially, it is a common feature during 
June and July to see mats covered with 
split gorakas for drying before the 
native houses. 


The ‘“Goraka” tree will thrive from 
the sea-level up to about 2,000 feet in 
Ceylon, provided the anuual rainfall is 
not much below 60 inches. “Like all spe- 
cies of Garcinia it is of rather slow 
growth, butin time it attainsa height 
of about 60 feet, and is probably the 
tallest species of the genus. It isa tree 
which should be preserved from extinc- 
tion, and is well worth a place in a 
collection of tropical fruit trees. It is 
propagated from seed, which should be 
sown in rich porous soil in a moist shady 
corner. The seedlings when quite young 
should be transferred to bamboo pots or 
plant-baskets, 7.e. if the seeds have not 
germinated “in these. The ‘Goraka” 
tree, like all species of Garcinia, is 
characterised by a resinous juice which 
coagulates on exposure, when it is called 
gamboge; this isa valuable dye, and is 
used in European medicine, 


231 Miscellaneous Products. 


PINEAPPLE CULTURE. III. 
FERTILIZER EXPERIMENTS. 


HA. K. MILLER AND A. W. BLAIR. 


INTRODUCTION. 


It would perhaps be difficult to say 
jast when commercial fertilizers were 
first used for pineapples, but it is safe 
to say that they were not very exten- 
sively used before about 1890 or 1891; 
and in this connection it is interesting 
to note that the pineapple industry in 
Florida has had its growth largely since 
that time. 


There is little doubt that Captain 
Richards, one of the pioneers of the pine- 
apple industry on the Kast Coast, used 
commercial fertilizers as early as some- 
time in the ‘80’s, though we have. no 
record of any comparative tests so early 
as this. 


Dr. L. C. Washburn, reporting from 
the Hort Myers sub-station in a bulletin* 
issued July Ist, 1891, says: ‘I would 
set the rows three feet apart, north and 
south, opened out with two furrows. I 
would put well rotted muck, marl, stable 
manure or sea grass freely inthe tren- 
ches, and spade it up and mix well with 
the soil, pulled in from each side.” And 
further along in the same report he 
says: ‘If planted with suckers, hoe in 
the fertilizers between the rows in six 
months, but if planted with slips, hoe in 
fertilizers between the rows in one year, 
so the feeder roots can reach it.” How- 
ever he does not tell us what kind of 
fertilizer he would use. 


EARLY EXPERIMENTAL WORK. 


In 1892 Dr. Washburn began some 
comparative fertilizer tests at the Fort 
Myers sub-station, report of which is 
made in bulletin No. 27 Florida Experi- 
ment Station. These were not very suc- 
cessful, however, and appear to have 
been discontinued after the summer of 
1894. Indiscussing the subject of ferti- 
lizers, Dr. Washburn says: ‘‘ The pine- 
apple is a voracious feeder. It requires 
heavy fertilizing; nitrogen, phosphoric 
acid and potash are all required in gener- 
ous .amounts. Perhaps the following 
manures are the best sources from which 
to obtain these requirements; poultry 
manure, stable manure, guano, blood and 
bone, bone meal, cotton-seed meal, acid 
phosphate, sulphate of potash, and well 
rotted muck. If compost is used, it 
should be well rotted and ready for 
assimilation. Compost undergoing fer- 
mentation will destroy the feeder roots.” 


* Bulletin No, 14, Florida Experiment Station, 
July Ist, 1891, 


Miscellaneous Products. 232 


On some of his experiment plots Dr. 


Washburn used a compost made as 
follows :— 
Dark Cotton-seed meal ... 1,000 lbs. 
Kainit Ne pe HOO Riess 
Acid Phosphate ae OOM: 
Blood amd Bone Bis DOO WES 
Cow Manure ... ne 2;000> 35; 


On one of the plots receiving this 
compost at the rate of six tons per acre, 
more than half the plants were affected 
with ‘long leaf,” which he attributes 
to fermentation of the compost. How- 
ever, in the light of more recent experi- 
ments one would probably attribute 
some of the bad effects, at least, to the 
kainit and acid phosphate. 


Another plot which received this com- 
post, at the rate of two tons per acre, 
taken from the top of the pile, and in 
addition, a top dressing of hen manure, 
is reported as a complete success. Still 
another, which received five tons per 
acre and was mulched with salt marsh 
grass, proved a failure. A plot ferti- 
lized with cotton-seed meal one and one- 
half tons per acre, and kainit five 
hundred pounds per acre, is also reported 
asa failure. It isperhaps due Dr. Wash- 
burn to state that he expressed his dis- 
approval of the above-mentioned com- 
post for pineapples, and adds that it was 
not of his choosing. 


Further comparative tests were not 
made until the winter of 1897-8, when a 
rather extensive experiment was begun 
by Professor P. H. Rolfs, then Biologist 
and Horticulturist to this Station. on the 
lands of Ballentine and Moore, at Jensen 
on the Indian River. The results of this 
experiment were published in bulletin 
No. 50* of the Station. The bulletin gives 
the general plan, details and results of 
the work. and conclusions which were 
drawn from the results. Different forms 
of phosphoric acid, nitrogen and potash 
were used alone and in combination. A 
study was made of the effect of fertili- 
zers upon leaf area and upon freeze-resis- 
tance of the plants. <A table of fruit 
picked from some of the plots in June 
1889 is given. On the basis of the experi- 
ment the author suggests a plan for fer- 
tilizing pineapples in Florida and draws 
anumber of conclusions, among which 
may be mentioned the following:— 


“The fertilizers used to furnish am- 
monia stand in the following order, begin- 
ning with the best; (1) blood and bone, 
(2) nitrate of soda, (3) cotton-seed meal, 
(4) sulphate of ammonia.” 


* Pineapple Fertilizers, P. H. Rolfs, Florida Sta- 
tion, Bulletin No, 50, 


{SEPTEMBER, 1908 


“Potash salts stand in the following 


order: (1) potassium magnesium carbo- 
nate, (2)low grade sulphate of potash, 
(38) high grade sulphate of potash, (4) 
muriate of potash, (5) kainit.” 


‘* Bone meal is very much better than 
acid phosphate.” 


‘““A Fertilizer analayzing 4 per cent. 
ammonia, 6 per cent. potash and 1 per 
cent. phosphoric acid is nearer correct 
than the normal one taken as an arbitrary 
basis on which to begin work.” 


“There is a certain amount of ammo- 
nia, of potash and of phosphoric acid, 
which, if applied to the soil, proves of 
greatest benefit to the plants; any vari- 
ation, either a decrease or an inerease of 
any one or more of these fertilizers, will 
be disadvantageous.” 


“The amount of ammonia, of potash 
and of phosphoric acid which may be 
applied to the soil to produce the best 
results varies with the different sources 
from which it is obtained.” 


“There isa certain amount of ammonia 
of potash and of phosphoric acid which 
produces the greatest freeze-resistance 
in pineapple plants; any increase or de- 
crease of anyone or more of the ingre- 
dients produces a less freeze-resistant 
plant.” 


‘«Wreeze-resistance varies with sources 
from which the ammonia and potash are 
obtained.” 


The experiment was discontinued. after 
about 18 months. 


Fertilizer experiments conducted in 
Queensland* in 1899 indicated that pine- 
apples were much benefitted by the 
application of a mixture of soluble nitro- 
genous and phosphatic materials, but 
contrary to the results obtained by the 
Ma. Station, up to that time, potash 
seemed to have little, if any, effect. 


In Jamaica} experiments were carried 
on insix different localities, using from 
one to thirteen different fertilizer for- 
mulasin each case. In only one case 
was the addition of fertilizers to the soil 
found beneficial, In this case larger 
fruits of finer quality were obtained. 
An analysis of this soil indicated a low 
standard of fertility. The soil in the 
other cases appeared to be sufficiently 
fertile. In one of the experiments in 
which atest was made of the effect of 
fertilizers on ‘monstrous plants” the 


* Queensland Agricultural Journal, 4 (1899), 
No. 6 pp. 472-473. 

+ Annual Report Nepartment Public Gardens and 
Plantations a1 Board of Agriculture (Jamaica), 


1903, pp. 16-19, 


vey 
chew 


fei 
pat 


: ‘Smpreneen, 


1908.) 


‘results indicate that neither slag, super- 


phosphate, mixed phosphate nor sulphate 


_ had any effect in checking the formation 


of such fruits. The fertilizers used in 
the experiments were sulphate of am- 
monia almost exclusively for nitrogen, 


_ superphosphate and steamed bone for 


phosphoric acid and sulphate of potash 
for potash. 


H. H. Cousin* states that soil contain- 
ing thirty times the amount of plant- 
food present inthe Florida sands has 
been used for pineapples, in some in- 
stances, with the result that the plants 
made phenomenal growth of foliage, but 
scarcely any fruit. Nine-tenths ot the 
plants were monstrosities. The fruits 
consisted of reduplicated crowns, and in 
some cases a mass of axillary leaf shoots. 


Notwithstanding the small amount of 
experimental work that has been done 
on the fertilizing of pineapples, much 
progress has been made along this line 
during recent years, and very satisfac- 
tory results are being obtained by many 
of the growers. However, there still 
remains much to be learned, and it was 
with the hope of adding something to 


' the knowledge already existing on this 


subject, that the Experiment Station, in 
co-operation with Hardee Bros., of 
Jensen, began, in 1901, an extensive 
fertilizer experiment, the results of 
which, up to the present time, will be 


_ reported in this bulletin as intelligently 


as possible. 
OBJECT. 


The object of this experiment is to 
find out from what source or sources it 
is best to obtain fertilizing materials for 
pineapples; the proper quantity to use 
for the best results as regards quantity, 
quality, and shipping properties; best 
methods of applying; ratio of phos- 
horie acid, nitrogen and potash; the 
effect of shading, and to determine any 
other conditions which will prove of 
advantage to the industry. 


GENERAL PLAN OF THE EXPERIMENT. 


In the spring of 1901, Hardee Bros. set 
aside fortheuse of the Station, under con- 
ditions presently to be named, about one 
acre of virgin spruce pine land. This was 
cleared, put into thorough condition and 
finally laid off into 96 plots, with 
alleyways between the plots. During 
August this was set with slips of the 
Red Spanish variety, this being the 
variety that is grown almost exclusi- 
vely on the Hast Coast. The rows 
are twenty inches apart and the plants 
twenty inches in the row, with the size 
of the plots so arranged as to make just 


* Journal, Jamaica Agricultural Society 5, 1901, 
No, 10, pp. 403-405, 


30 


283 


Miscellaneous Products. 


100 plants in each plot; making 9,600 
plants in the entire experiment. The size 
of the entire plot excluding alleyways, 
which are more numerous than would be 
found in an ordinary field, is about two- 
thirds of an acre and the size of each 
individual plot is 1-150 of an acre. There- 
fore, in calculating from one plot to rate 
per acre it is only necessary to multiply 
by 150. The entire plot was protected 
later by a shed of the usual type produc- 
ing one-third shade. The shed extends 
out a little beyond the plot on all sides, 
and under this part of the shed is a 
border of pines separated from the ex- 
periment plot by the usual alleyways and 
fertilized as the owners of the land 
fertilize their general crop. 


Samples of the soil and sub-soil were 
collected and analyzed in order that the 
tertilizer requirements might be better 
understood. The results will be found 
in Table 1. 

TABLE 1. 
ANALYSIS OF SOIL” AND SUB-SOILS 


FROM HXPERIMENT PLOT. 


: é Deep 
Substance. Berl. SubioH  sanesoil 

Jo» ie % 
Insoluble matter Sid, 99:3700 99°5670 99°2660 
Soluble Silica Sid2 00°0132 00°0162 00°0412 
Lime CaO 00°0087 00°0000 0070062 
Magnesia Mg0 00°0058 00°0049 00°0131 
Potash K20 00°0061 00°0048 00°0110: 

Tron & Alumina F'e:03, 

Alz 03 00°1700 = 00°1775 00°3693 
Phosphoric Acid P205 00°0087 00°0062 00°0194 
Sulphur Trioxide $03 00-0000 00°0000 000000 
Volatile Matter 00°4200 00°2480 00°3160 
Humus 00°1500 0091200. 00°1300 
Nitrogen 00'0100 00°0055 00°0050 

The agreement entered into between 
the Station and Hardee Bros. was that 


the Station should plan and conduct the 
experiment, put up the shed, furnish the 
fertilizers mixed and bagged ready for 
the various plots, and have such fruit as 
might be required for analytical pur- 
poses. Hardee Bros. were tofurnishthe 
land, set out and cultivate the plants, 
apply the fertilizers under the direction 
of a representative of the Station, gather 
and keep count of the crop, and have such 
part of the crop as was not required by 
the Station for analytical purposes. It 
was mutually agreed that the experi- 
ment should run for at least five years. 


DETAILED PLAN OF FERTILIZER 
APPLICATION, 
Before deciding upon the ratio in 


which phosphoric acid, nitrogen and 
potash should be used in the fertilizers, 

* Hor a discussion of pineapple soils, see Pine- 
apple Culture 1. Soils. H. K. Miller and H., 
Harold Hume, Bulletin No, 68, Florida Ezperiment 
Station, 


Miscellaneous Products: 


analyses of the fruit and plant were 
made to determine the ratio in which 
these are present. While it is true that 
too much dependence cannot be placed 
in this method of determining the food 
requirements of plants and fruit, still 
it aids in estimating the amount of 
plant food removed by the crop, and, 
knowing this, it is less difficult ‘to deter- 
mine the requirements. The results of 
these analyses will be found in Table 2. 


TABLE 2. 
ANALYSES OF THE PINEAPPLE—PLANT 
AND FRUIT. 
Station No. P20; N. KO 
J: Ge %- 
Analyses of Fruit 
(Fresh) 1285 0758 ‘0640 +2565 
1325 ‘0591 0931 *2930 
1330 -0446 -0910 +2630 
Analyses of Plant 
(Air Dried) 1286 °8545 = °5380 1°3000 
13826 °7975 °8300 1°3900 
With the above analyses, and the 


practice of the more successful growers 
as a basis, it was determined that the 
ratio of the fertilizer constituents be as 
follows :— 


Phosphovic Acid "80 
Nitrogen 1:00 
Potash 2°00 


That is, these amounts in pounds were 
considered to be the normal annual re- 
quirements of 100 plants, as determined 
by analysis: and experience. By refer- 
ence to Diagram II., it will be seen that 
plot "No. 2 of Section A., for example, is 
given this normal or standard amount, 
while plot 1 has one-fourth more than the 
standard, and plot 4, one-half more than 
the standard, or twice as much as plot 1, 
the object of this being to determine the 
quantity of plant-food that will give the 
best results, assuming that the ratio 
taken is the correct one. By a careful 
study of the diagram it will be seen that 
this plan has been followed with combi- 
nations of all the fertilizers that were 
considered most worthy of trial. (Am- 
monium sulphate, for example, was 
ruled out on the ground of former expe- 
rience.) Bone meal, dried blood and high 
grade sulphate of potash were taken as 
the standard, or rather ideal inaterials. 
It should be noted that in reading from 
left to right on the diagram—with 
certain exceptions—the plots have iden- 
tical amounts of the fertilizing elements, 
or plant food, the difference being in 
the sources from which they are derived. 
A few of the sections were introduced 
for special purposes and do not conform 
to this rule. For example, section H. is 


234 


(SEPTEMBER, 1908, 3 


intended to show whether the addition 
of lime to the standard ingredients, bone, 
blood and high grade sulphate of potash, 
will prove beneficial; section C. being 
the same with the exception of the lime. 
In the same way section K. is designed 
to show whether the addition of lime to 
acid phosphate, blood, and sulphate of 
potash will prove beneficial; section A. 
being the same with the exception of 
lime. Section L. was designed to find 
out what is likely to prove the best ratio 
for phosphoric acid, nitrogen and potash. 
On sections R. and S. bone was used as 
the only source of nitrogen, thus very 
materially increasing the amount of 
phosphoric acid added. In section V. 
the normal amount is kept constant, 
while the number of applications is 
varied. the intention being to determine 
the number of applications that will give 
the best results. Section W. is designed 
to determine if it is worth while to vary 
the ratio during the different stages of 
growth. For example, on plot 89 the 
ratio for the first and second applica- 
tions was phosphoric acid 8 per cent., 
nitrogen 6 per cent., and potash 12 per 
cent.; for the third and fourth applica- 
tions the ratio was phosphoric acid 4 per 
cent., nitrogen 4 per cent., and potash 
12 per cent.. and so on throughout the 
section. Section X. is the same as 
section C. with the exception that each 
plot in section X. received ten pounds 
additional bone meal at the beginning. 
The fertilizers were analysed at the 
Station, carefully weighed out and mixed, 
aud the proper amount for each plot put 
into a separate bag before being shipped 
to Jensen. 


It should be explained that in the 
case of fertilizers containing more 
than one of the three essential ingre- 
dients, as  cotton-seed-meal, castor 
poonac and bone-meal, all of the ingre- 
dients were included in calculating the 
amount to be added. For example, 
where cotton-seed meal was used as the 
source of nitrogen, the amount ‘of phos- 
phoric acid in the required amount of 
cottonseed-meal was calculated, and 
this amount was taken into consider- 
ation when calculating the amount of 
bone or other substance supplying phos- 
phoric acid. In the same way, when 
bone-meal was used with some other 
substance supplying nitrogen, as for 
example, nitrate of soda, the nitrogen 
of the bone-meal was taken into con- 
sideration when calculating the amount 
of nitrogen to be obtained from the 
nitrate of soda. Sections R. and S. how- 
ever, are exceptions to this, inasmuch as 
they received the required amount of 
nitrogen in the form of bone-meal, and 
thus necessarily received more than the 


oy x 
v5. 


be SEPTEMBER, 1908. | 


required amount of phosphoric acid. 
Diagram 11 indicates the quantities of 
fertilizers applied to the various plots, 
the amount there given being the 
amount for one year, and except where 
otherwise indicated. this was given in 
4a applications, the first year, as fol- 
OWS :— 


First Application ...October 18th, 1901 


Second Application...March, 1902 
Third Application ...July, 1902 
Fourth Application...November, 1902 


In addition to this the plants were 
given a handful of cottonseed-meal in 
the bud about three weeks after setting 
out. The fifth application was made in 
April, 1903, and the sixth after the 
summer crop of 1903 had been removed. 
After this time, only two applications a 
year were made—except perhaps in the 
case of a few special plots—one in Febru- 
ary or March as the conditions seemed 
to require, and the other soon after the 
. gathering of the summer crop. After the 
crop of 1903 had been removed the plants 
appeared to be suffering from nitrogen, 
and they were givenan application of 
cottonseed-meal, all plots being treated 
alike. Some other variations occurred 
which should be mentioned. Onaccount 
of circumstances which could not be con- 
trolled, the regular summer application 
for 1904 was not made, and in order that 
the plants might not suffer, Hardee 
Bros. put On about 1,300 pounds bone, 
blood, and high-grade sulphate, analy- 
zing 7 per cent. phosphoric acid, 65 per 
cent. nitrogen, and 74 per cent. potash. 
Two hundred pounds of land plaster 
was also added. This application was 
made on the 25th of August, 1904. 


CHANGES MADE IN 1905. 

Beginning with the March application 
for 1905, some changes were made owing 
to the fact that in the case of certain 
plots all had been demonstrated that 
could be demonstrated, and it was un- 
necessary to continue them under those 
conditions. Among these may be men- 
tioned sections A. and B. where the 
plots received acid phosphate without 
lime ; section N. on whichacid phosphate 
and nitrate of soda were both used; 
section Q. on which nitrate of soda 
was used as the only source of nitrogen, 
and sections R. and S.on which bone 
was used as the only source of 
nitrogen. On sections A. and B. the 
acid phosphate was replaced by bone 
and slag respectively, with the 
idea of finding out if either of these 
materials would tend to counteract the 
injurious effects produced by the acid 
phosphate. It may be stated here that 
these injurious effects have been marked 
almost from the beginning, On these 


5 


23 


Miscellaneous Products. 


plots there has been a decided tendency 
to “spike” or “long leaf,” and the 
plants have never had that healthy, 
vigorous appearance which has charac- 
terised many of the plots. On the other 
hand, section K., which received the same 
fertilizers and inthe same amounts as 
section A.,and lime at the rate of 
750 pounds per acre in addition, has all 
the while been one of the most promis- 
ing sections, and in general appearance 
and productiveness, ranks well up to 
the section that has been considered the 
best. Sections N. and Q. had been so . 
badly injured and given such unsatis- 
factory results, the first as a result of 
using acid phosphate and nitrate of 
soda, and the second as a result of 
using nitrate of soda, that beginning 
with the spring application for 1905 they 
were entirely dropped from the experi- 
ment. Here, too, the injurious effects 
were noted early in the experiment, and 
the plants have gone from bad to worse. 
A fact that has been especially notice- 
able in these two sections is that, as the 
fertilizers were increased, the injurious 
effects upon the plants seemed to be 
increased. There was a tendency to 
‘«spike,” and the plants seemed lacking 
in vigour and healthy appearance. 


The early records of section Q., how- 
ever, indicate that it started off well, 
showing the usefulness of nitrate of 
soda for getting plants started to grow- 
ing, but the later records showa gradual 
falling offas noted above. Nitrate of 
soda, too, seems to produce a fruit of 
green colour which does not ship well, 
becoming soft and decaying rapidly, 
and there is also a tendency for the 
fruit to *‘ plug” or break off too far up 
in the base of the pine, thus causing 
early decay. In the case of sections 
R. and S. where bone was used as the 
only source of nitrogen, it became 
evident that this combination would 
not be practicable as'‘a pineapple ferti- 
lizer, since nitrogen obtained in this 
way is too expensive. The results 
obtained from section R. where muriate 
was used would also indicate that this 
combination is not adapted to pineapples, 
even though it should not prove too 
expensive. 


These two sections might have been 
discarded altogether, but for the fact 
that it was desired to see what would 
be the effect of furnishing nitrogen in 
the form of cottonseed-meal for a time, 
without adding any further phosphoric 
acid. It was thought that this would 
give an opportunity to see how long the 
effects of the excess of phosphoric acid 
which had been added could be observ- 
ed. The applications of lime have not 


’ the records. 


Miscellaneous Products. 


been made to sections F.and K. this 
year, the plots appearing not to need 
further lime at present. 


Notes KEPT ON THE PROGRESS OF THE 
EXPERIMENT. 


Notes were taken on the growth 
general progress and appearance of the 
plants at several different times during 
the past four years, and while it will 
not be advisable to incorporate all of 
these notes in a bulletin, still it is pos- 
sible to give a brief general summary: of 
These records, taken in 
connection with the results from the 
crops, will form the basis of conclusions 
to pe drawn and recommendations to be 
made. 


Sections A. and B. were treated alike, 
except that A. received high grade 
sulphate and B. muriate. As already 
noted, both received acid phosphate, 
and as shown by the notes, there has 
been a tendency to ‘‘spike,” and the 
plants have lacked that healthy appear- 
ance which a normal plant should 
have. This condition has been attri- 
buted to the acid phosphate, and when 
we compare these sections with others 
treated in the same way except as regards 
source of phosphoric acid, and also with 
section K. which received acid phosphate 
but in addition 750 pounds of lime to 
the acre, and when we further con- 
sider the general experience of many 
of the growers, we are forced to accept 
this as the explanation of the poor 
showing which these sections have made, 

the two sections A. has given better 
results than B. which emphasizes the 
superiority of the sulphate over the 
muriate. 


Sections C. and D. were treated alike 
exceptin source of potash, C. receiving 
high grade sulphate and D. muriate. 
They have both made good progress and 
have been reported from time to time 
as *‘good” sections, the term “fair,” 
however, having been applied to some of 
the polts of D. occasionally. In general 
appearance and for the most part in 
crop returns,C. has given the _ best 
results; again indicating the superi- 
ority of the sulphate over the muriate. 


Sections H., F. and G. received bone 
and dried blood, and low grade sul- 
phate, high grade sulphate and kainit 
respectively as the source of potash. 
Section EK. has made good progress and 
has been reported as ‘‘good” and even 
sometimes as ‘‘ excellent,” and if we 
compare the number of fruits taken from 
this section with the number taken 
from other sections we also find that 
‘the resultsare good, Section EF. received 


236 


[SEPTEMBER, 1908, — 


the same as section C., and in addition 
750 pounds of lime per acre. It has made 
good progress and has been reported as 
““good,” and sometimes as ‘‘ very good,” 
but if we judge by the fruit produced C.. 
has given better results than F., which 
would indicate that lime is not required 
with these ingredients. The injurious 
effects of the kainit on section G. have 
been very apparent all the while. This 
is even more clearly emphasized by a 
study of the tables giving the results of 
the crops. It seems reasonable to attri- 
bute the injurious effects to the chlorides 
in the kainit, inasmuch as muriate also 
does not seem to bea suitable form in 
which to apply potash. 


Sections H., I. and J. received slag 
and dried blood and wuriate, high 
grade sulphate, and kainit respectively 
as the source of potash, They are all 
good sections, and the plants have, dur- 
ing the greater part of the experiment, 
had astrong, healthy appearance, with 
little or no tendency to ‘‘spike.” Section 
I., however, is and has been better 
than the other two, and has been re- 
ported from timeto time as the best 
section in the entire plot. A careful 
study of the tables in Diagram III. will 
emphasize this fact. ‘I'he number of 
pines obtained from this section has 
notalways been the largest, but when 
total numbers, number ofthe larger sizes 
and general progress are all taken into 
consideration, we are'safe in saying that 
this has been the best section. It should 
be observed that this section received 
the standard formula, with the phos- 
phorie acid supplied from slag (odourless 
slag phosphate, or Thomas slag) instead 
of bone, Other sections in the experi- 
ment received slag, but no others receiv- 
ed both dried blood and high grade _ sul- 
phate in addition. The section receiving 
muriate did better than the one receiv- 
ing kainit, but not so well as the one 
receiving high grade sulphate, 


Section K. as mentioned under the 
head of special sections, was designed 
to determine whether lime would have 
a tendency to correct the injurious 
effects of acid phosphate. So far, the 
results decidedly indicate an affirmative 
answer. The plants have maintained a 
splendid condition and have given 
good results as compared with other 
sections fromthe very beginning. At 
times it has been difficult to detect much 
difference between this section and 
section I., which has been regarded as 
the best. Itis not an easy matter to say 
why the acid phosphate has an injuri- 
ous effect upon pineapples, nor to say 
in what way the lime prevents or cor- 
rects this. The most satisfactory ex- 
planation we can offer isthat ordinary 


ee, SEPTEMBER, 1908.) 237 


acid phosphate contains sulphates of 
iron and aluminum, and it is really the 
presence of these astringent salts which 
causes the injury. This view seems 
the more correct when it is known that 
acid phosphate derived from bone black 
has no injurious effect on pineapple 
plants. The application of lime with the 
acid phosphate converts tlese injurious 
sulphates into harmless insoluble oxides. 
It is perhaps well to caution against the 
use of dissolved bone black, inasmuch 
as in many cases, high grade acid 
phosphate, coloured with charcoal, is 
on the market in imitation of the dissol- 
ved bone black. It is well for one not 
experienced in the chemistry of ferti- 
lizers to use no form of acid phosphate 
whatever for pineapples, but rely upon 
bone meal or slag. This explanation of 
the cause of the injurious effects of acid 
phosphate on pineapple plants is not 
given asa fact which has been fully 
demonstrated, but as what seems to be 
themost plausible explanation with the 
evidence that is before us. 


Section L. was designed to find out 
what is likely to prove the best ratio 
for phosphoric acid, nitrogen and potash, 
the four plots receiving the same kind 
of fertilizer, but in different ratios. The 
notes taken on this section from year 
to year show that it has been a good 
section and that the plots have been 
fairly uniform in size, though the third 
plot, No. 47,is recorded as being just 
a little better than the others, and it 
is of interest to note that the ratio of 
phosphoric acid, nitrogen and potash on 
this plot approaches very nearly the 
ratio adopted for the experiment, and 
further, as will be shown later, the 
amount per acre—3,750 pounds—is the 
same as the amount that has given the 
best results in general. 


Section M. is recorded asa good uni- 
form section, and has given results that 
compare very favourably with the best. 


Section N., as already noted, has been 
discontinued on account of the injurious 
effects of the acid phosphate and nitrate 
of soda. It started off well but soon 
manifested a tendency to ‘‘spike,” which 
tendency has been more or less apparent 
during the entire time. 


Section O. has given good results, and. 
the plants have been fairly uniform, 
with a healthy, vigourous appearance. 
A comparison between the results from 
this section and séction M., which differs 
from it only in the source of phosphoric 
acid, M. receiving bone and O, slag, will 
show that O. has given practically the 
game results, 


Miscellaneous Products. 


Section P. has given good _ results, 
though the injurious effects of the ni- 
trate of soda have been noted to some 
extent. The fact that a part of the 
nitrogen was derived from the bone 
meal tends to make these injurious 
effects less than where nitrate of soda is 
used as the only source of nitrogen. 


Section Q. has also been discontinued 
for the reason just suggested, that is, 
that nitrate of soda when used in suffi- | 
cient quantity to furnish all the nitrogen 
proves injurious both to the plants and 
to the shipping qualities of the fruit. 
This section started off well, indicating 
that the formula may be suitable for 
getting young plants started to growing. 
{For notes on sections R. and S. see notes 
on page 420. | 


Section T. has been recorded as a_good 
section, with healthy, vigourous plants. 
The results as shown by the crops com- 
pare favourably with some of the sections 
that have been classed among the best, 


Section U. has been a very uniform 
section throughout, with healthy plants, 
though the results, when judged by the 
crop as given in the tables, do not indi- 
cate that dissolved bone black could 
replace bone meal or slag as a source of 
phosphoric acid. 


The notes which have been taken on 
V. aud W. from time to time state that 
these sections are quite uniform through- 
out, there being scarcely a perceptible 
difference between the various!,plots of 
the two sections. However, an examina- 
tion of the tables of results will show 
that the crops obtained from these sec- 
tions do not exceed the crops from sec- 
tions treated with the same fertilizers, 
but which received only the two appli- 
cations per year without variations. 
This would seem to indicate that increas- 
ing the number of applications per year 
beyond two, or three, at the most, and 
that varying the ratio of the fertilizing 
ingredients with the different applica- 
tions, as was done on section W.* are not 
necessary after the first year. 


Section X. received the same treat- 
ment as section C., except that each plot 
received ten pounds extra bone meal at 
the beginning. The section has been a 
good one, and the plants have been fairly 
uniform and in a healthy condition all 
the time. However, the extra bone does 
not seem to have given it any advantage 
over those fertilized in the same way 
but without the extra bone. 


—— oa 


» Beginning with 1905 the number of applications 
for this section was reduced to two, 


Miscellaneous Products. 


A STUDY OF THE CROP FoR 1903. 


The first crop was gathered in June 
and July of 1908, and was about 88 per 
cent. of the total possible crop. Dia- 
gram III. gives the total number, and 
number of different sizes of pines taken 
from each plot; the total number in the 
sections; and the total number in the 
plots occupying relatively the same posi- 
tion in the sections counting from left 
to right across the entire plot, for the 
years 1903, 1904 and 1905. A careful study 
of the crop for 1903 will yield some very 
interesting results. In at least half the 
sections there is a slight increase in the 
total number of pines from the first to 
the third plot of the sections, On the 
other hand there is but little difference 
between the number obtained from the 
third and fourth plots of the sections, 
indicating, it would seem, that the limit 
of amount of plant-food has been reached 
with the quantity applied to the third 
plot in each section, this amount as al- 
ready stated being the same for all plots 
occupying the same relative position in 
the sections, reading from left to right. 
As further proof of this, the plants of 
the third plot in -the sections have al- 
most uniformly appeared as large, stronlg 
and healthy as those of the fourth plot, 
and in some instances they have been 
superior. By again referring to Diagram 


238 


Il. it will be seen that the third plot in 
all the sections, except those introduced 
for special purposes, received each year 
the equivalent of 3,750 pounds per acre 
of a fertilizer analyzing 4 per cent. avail- 
able phosphoric acid, 5 per cent. nitrogen 
and 10 per cent. potash, but in most 
cases representing a different source for 
at least one of the constituents. From 
the same diagram it will be seen that 
the fourth plot of the sections received 
4,500 pounds per acre of the same ferti- 
lizer. Judging, therefore, by the general 
appearance, and also from the results 
obtained from the plots, we are ready to 
conclude that 3,750 pounds per acre, of a 
fertilizer analyzing as above, about ap- 
proaches the limit for profitable results. 


And as we have already shown by 
section L., plot 47, that a mixture of 
bone, blood and high grade sulphate, 
with a percentage very closely approach- 
ing the 4, 5, 10 percentage which was 
adopted as the standard, and 3750 pounds 
to the acre, gave slightly better results 
than any of the other percentages tried, 
it seems safe to conclude that on the 
third plot of the sections we have the 
quantity and percentage of a fertilizer 
that will, in general, give the best results 
with pineapples on the East Coast of 
Florida, the proper materials, of course, 
being selected. 


TABLE III. 


SHow1na INCREASE OF 247s AND DkCREASE OF 42’s AS FERTILIZER IS INCRFASED—CROP oF 1903, 


Section A. Section B. 


—— H.. 


Section C. 


os 


Sectioa D. 


Section K. Section IF’. 


Section G. 


Plot 24’s 42’s Plot 24’s 49s 


Plct 24’s 42's Plot 24’s 42’s 


—_——_—_—-_ 


(= pa: (a NE ones a 
Plot 24’3 42’s Plot 24’s 42’s_ Plot 24’s 42's 


1 (3 peaks 5 P25 9 Coral! 13 0 43 17 2 42 21 4 30 25 5 24 
2 6 8 6 1 2 10 q 9 14 PANN hall LS al 22 6 DeraeG 6 8 
3 33 0 Teal 6 ne vay 6 LON dO 0 19 44 0 23 Ball 27 SJ hl) 
4 38 0 8.528 0 12 ee 0) 0 16 7 7 20irol Oar 24e al) 0 23 6 9 
Section H. Section I, Section J, Section K. Section L, Total. Total, 
ao ao Se aR ee 
Plot 2s 42’s Plot 24’s 42's Plot 24’s 42’s Plot 24’s 42’s Plot 24's 42's 24’s 42’s 
Bg BM as)! 88. 9% a0, Bp ean 0 1) ian eee ds Pe ca Iie 45 255 
30 9 4 34 22 0 38 5 0 42 22 0 46 8 1 105 47 
814 Jo 0 35. («45U 0 39 8 0 43 39 0 47 38 0 277 39 
32 LG 1 36 36 0 40 17 0 447 wi29 0 48 21 0 279 the 
Section M. Section N. Section O. Section P S ction Q. Section R. Section S. 
Plov ahs 40s Plot Ws ade Plor Qs 4) Plot Bs 4's Plot 2s 42's Plot 4% 426 Plot Bs ane 
49 22 8 py OH hell 57 7 18 61 8. a Gi 00 yay, 14: 7 69 0 Di aaa 1 34 
Gy Ibe yeni 54 31 0 58 27 5 62 17 7 66 26 4 70 Le27 74 0 48 
lee 25, 9 55382 5 59 395 4 >. 637739 DrcOT 44 3 71 eb ALS, Semen (Pate! 
ye i) 2 56 «38 2 60 30 0 64 °° 37 On. Gey ty On aa 4 7 76 8 4 


[SEPTEMBER, 1908. 


. 


f. 


Reis 


pe 
“Plot 24’s 42’s 


Section T. 


Section U. Section V, 


ee an 


foisop \ 
Plot 24’s 42’s 


a Ss —— — A. —— —. 


Plot 24’ 42’s 

ae 26 10 Si- oil) 10 Sole ga, 

Selo 6G 82 26 0 8 aa 

Ao 18. 6 8 40 7 87 Ce 
0 


80 29 0 84 43 88 a a 


239 


Miscellaneous Products. 


Section W. Seotion X. Total. Total. 
Plot 4's 42's Plot 24's 4s sas 
89 OME 93 8 21 124 131 
90 ay ie 94 5 8 165 81 
91 Cand i353, val) 7 262 75 
92 Cane 96 9 10 269 25 


@ Special Plots. 


Table III, which shows the increase in 
24’s and decrease in 42’s, as the fertilizer 
is increased, still further emphasizes this 
fact. For example, by reference to the 
table it will be seen that the total num- 
ber of 24’s in the third plots of the upper 
sections is 277, while the total number 
in the fourth plots, which received one- 
fifth more fertilizer than the third, is 
exactly the same—277. In thelower half, 
the total 24’s in the third plots of the 
sections is 262, while in the fourth it is 
269—only 7 more. A further study of 
this table will reveal the rapid increase 
of 24’s from the first to the third plots of 
nearly all the sections, but as already 
pointed out this increase does not extend 
to the fourth plots in very many cases, 
while in some instances there is actually 
a decrease. Onthe other hand there is 
a decrease in 42’s which is very decided 
from the first to the second plots of the 
sections but more gradual from the 
second to the fourth. 


Assuming that the total number of 
pines on the third horizontal line of 
plots would have been the same as the 
total number on the first line, had the 
fertilizer not been increased on the third, 
we have a basis for calculating the 
increase in crop value due apparently 
to the quantity of fertilizer which was 
added to the third line of plots above 
that which was added to the first. By 
referring to the first column headed 
totalin Table IIl., and taking the sum 
of the total number of 24’s from the third 
line of plots, both upper and lower sec- 
tions, it will be found to be 530, while 
the total from the first line of plots, 
both upper and lower sections is 169, 
giving an increase on the 22* plots appa- 
rently due to increase in fertilizer, of 370 
pines or about 153 crates. Since these 
plots are 1-150 of an acre the increase is 
at the rate of 105 8-5 crates per acre, 
which, at $1°65+ per crate would amount 
to $174'24. Again, referring to the same 


* Sections V. and W. being intended for special 
purposes have been omitted from this count. 

+ An experienced grower estimates that taking 
a series of years 18’s would bring $1°80, 24’s and 
30’s $1°65, 36’s $1°30, and 42’s $1°10 per crate, 


table it will be seen that the 42’s have 
decreased from a total of 386 in the first 
line of plots to 114 in the third line, 
making a loss of 272 pines or 63 crates for 
the 22 plots, which is at the rate of 441-3 
crates per acre, which at $1:10 would be 
worth 48°67. Subtracting this from 
$174:24 we have $125'47 gain, due appa- 
rently to increasing the number of 24’s 
by increasing the fertilizer about 3-4 of 
a ton peracre. To get the net gain we 
have but to deduct from this the cost 
of the extra fertilizer. Calculating the 
cost of the extra fertilizer added to the 
third line of plots, above what was 
added tothe first, on the basis of the 
cost of the raw materials at the factory, 
we findit to be $3°88 for the 22 plots, 
which is at the rate of $26°45 per acre. 
Deducting this from $125:-47 leaves usa 
gain of $99°02. From this must still be 
deducted the cost of mixing and the 
freight rate from Jacksonville to the 
pineapple district, and this would be, 
according to statement furnished by a 
manufacturer, $3'79 per ton; and since 
the extra fertilizer required amounts to 
about 3-4 of a ton, this change would be 
$2°85. Deducting this from $99:02 would 
leave usa net profit per acre on the 24's 
of $96:17.* In the same way it may be 
shown that the increase in value of the 
30’s above the decrease of 36’sis about 
$11'80, and this is net gain, the fertilizers 
having already been accounted for. 
This makes the total net gain $107:97. 
The gain in 18’s was so slight that they 
were not taken into consideration in 
this case. But this does not represent 
the entire possible gain, since in an 
experiment some fertilizers are used in 
order that their unfitness for the parti- 
cular erop may be demonstrated, and 
the results from such plots are neces- 
sarily lower than they would be under 
ordinary circumstances. This can be 
demonstrated by calculating the increase 
in value on one of the best plots. On 
examination we find that plot 19 of 


In making these calculations we havs 
made them for the average year and not for 
the first crop, which would require a little more 
extra fertiizer than the ? ton provided for. 


Miscellaneous Products. 
section F. has yielded a greater increase 


with increase of fertilizer than any 
other plot, as follows :— 
Value, 


42 24’s equivalent to 262} crates 


per acre at $1°65 .-. $483'°12 
17 30’s equivalent to 85 crates 
per acre at 1°65 140°25 


Total gain on 24’s 


and 30’s ... 0473 crates $573'37 
The decrease in 36’s and 42’s is as 
follows :— 
Value. 
8 36’s equivalent to 384 crates 
per acre at $1:10 .. $43°33 
42 42’s equivalent to 150 crates 


per acre at $1°10... 
Total loss on 386’s 
and 42’s ... 1884 crates $208'33 


Subtracting this from, $573°37 gives us 
again per acre of $865°04. To get the 
net gain we must still deduct from this 
the cost of the extra fertilizer per acre, 
including the cost of mixing and the 
freight from Jacksonville, which for the 
materials used on this plot (see Diagram 
IL, plot 19) would be $25'88 (a little less 
than the average extra expense on the 
22 plots), and this leaves $839°16 clear 
gain per acre, obtained by increasing the 
fertilizer from 2,250 to 3,750 pounds. In 
this connectien it will be of interest to 
learn which section* and which plott 
have given the largest gross returns. On 
calculating the yield per section to yield 
per acre we find that section I. which 
received slag phosphate, blood and high 
grade sulphate gave the largest rteurns, 
as follows :— 


117 24s equivalent to 182°8 crates 
per acre at $1°65 Bee 
176 80's equivalent to 220:0 crates 
per acre at 1°65 ee 
83 36’s equivalent to 86°46 crates 


165°00 


$301°62 
363°00 


per acre at 1°30 «. 112°40 
10 42’s equivalent to 9°00 crates 
peracre at 1:10 ans 9:90 


Total 498-26 erates $786-92 


That is, section I. has yielded at the 
rate of nearly 500 craters per acre which, 
at the price assumed, would amount to 
$786°92. But the four plots of this sec- 
tion, as already explained, received 
their fertilizer in gradually increasing 
amounts, beginning with the first, and 
consequently this amount does not re- 
present the yield per acre from the best 


*To convert number per section to crates per 
acre, multiply by + of 159 or 37°5 and divide 
by the size. 

+ To convert number 


per plot to crates per 
acre, multiply by 150 an 


divide by the size. 


240 


plot. On examination it is found that 
plot 35, the third in section I., has given 
larger total returns than any other plot 
in the entire experiment as follows :— 


50 24’s equivalent to 312% crates 
per acre at $1°65 Pe $515°625 


385 380’s equivalent to 175 crates 


per acre at 1°65 288°750 
12 36’s equivalent to 50 crates 
per acre at 1:30 «..  65°000 


Total ... 5874 crates $869°375 


Plot 36 the fourth of the same section, 
gives the following results :— 


318’s equivalent to 25 crates 


per acre at $1°80 $45°00 
36 24’s equivalent to 225 crates 

per acre at 1°65 foe 371°25 
39 30’s equivalent to 195 crates 

per acreat 1°65 aN 821°75 


22 36’s equivalent to 


91°66 crates 
per acre at 130 —— il 


19°16 


Total 53666 crates $857°16 


This bears out the statement already 
made that the limit of profitable fertiliz- 
ing has been reached with the amount 
applied to the third plot of the sections. 


Plot 47, section L., also furnishes some 
interesting facts. It will be remembered 
that this section was introduced for the 
purpose of ascertaining what is likely to 
prove the best raito for phosphoric acid, 
nitrogen and potash. Already we have 
seen that the third plot of this section 
received these constituents in a ratio 
which more closely approaches the 4, 5, 10 
raito adopted for the experiment, than 
any of the other plots of this section, 
and also that it received the fertilizer at 
the rate of 3,750 pounds per acre, which 
is the amount that has in most cases 
given the best results. 


And now in the crop from this p:ot_ we 
have still further evidence on this point. 
We find on examination that it has 
yielded larger returns than any other 


plot of the section, and that it is not- 


very far behind plots 35 and 36 of sec- 
tion I. The results are as follows :— 


38 24’s equivalent to 2873 crates 
per acre at $1°65 ‘ $391 ‘875 
49 30’s equivalent to 245 crates 
per acre at 1°65 «- 404:250 
9 36's equivalent to 373 crates 
per acre at 1°30 .-- 48°750 


crates $844'87 


Total ... 520 


yoo ea rrr 


(SuPTEMBUR, 1908. 


i” 


i: SEPTEMBER, 1908.) | 


Section T. ae the rate of 487°76 


To return again to the yield per section, 
we find that several others approach 
very closely the yield of section I. as 
follows :— 


Value. 


crates per acre 


Section P. at the rate of 483°62 
erates per acre 


Section EH. at the rate of 488°55 


crates per acre 766°25 
Section M. at the rate of 484: 84 
crates per acre 763°94 


Section O. at the rate of 488°59 
crates per acre .. 763°30 
Section Q.* at the rate of 474: 28 


creats per acre .. 756°40 
Section U. at the rate of 475: 00. 
erates per acre 750°00 


Section V. at the rate of 472° 00 
crates per acre v —140°38 
Computing the value of twoof the 
poorest sections we find them to beas 
follows :-- 


Value. 
Section B. at the rate of 283:95 
crates per acre 428-44 
Section R. at the rate of 324°44 
crates per acre 483°05 


Computing the value of the poorest 
plot—plot 69 Section R.—we find it to be 
as follows :— 


Value. 
24 30’s equivalent to 120 crates 
per acre at $1°65 ... $198°00 
5 42’s equivalent to 17°86 crates 
per acre at 1:10 ae, 19°94 


137°86 crates $217 '64 
Comparing the best and poorest sec- 


tions aud the best and poorest plots we 
we have the following results :— 


Vaule. 
Best section—I 498°25 erates 
per acre 786.92 
Poorest section—B 283° 81 coates 
per acre .. -  422°44 
Difference 214°31 crates 
per acre $358°38 
Best plot—plot 85637" 50 erates 
per acre 869°375 
Poorest— plot 00-137 85 seis 
per acre 217-640 
Difference 399°64 crates 
per acre ey ean Oa 730 


*Since the gathering of the first crop this section 
has deteriorated very greatly. 


3l 


241 Miscellaneous Products. 


We believe, therefore, that the experi- 
ment fully demonstrates that there is 
good profit to those growing pineapples 
undershade on the Hast Coast, in applying 
as high as the equivalent of 3,750 pounds 
per acre of a fertilizer analyzing 4 per 
cent. phosphoric acid, 5 per cent. nit- 
rogen, and 10 per cent. potash, but that 
beyond this amount there is but little if 
any profit. Just how far this will apply 
to pineapples grown inthe open we can- 
not say, though it seems to be generally 
conceded that less fertilizer is “required 
under sheds than in the open, and, this 
being the case, itis quite possible that 
the amount to be used in the open might 
profitably be increased beyond the 
amount here specified for sheds. 


Crop oF 1904. 


No such decisive conclusions can be 
drawn from the crops of 1904 and 1905, 
but this is undoubtedly due to causes 
other than fertilizers. The shortness of 
the crop for 1904 may possibly be attri- 
buted to the fact that the plants were 
somewhat exhausted from having 
yielded so full a crop in 1903. , Certainly 
the fact that in many cases the plots 
receiving the least fertilizer gave the 
largest yield, would indicate that it was 
not want of fertilizer that caused the 
short crop. It would hardly seem fair 
to undertake to draw many conclusions 
from a crop which is less than one-third 
of a total possibility. Unfortunately, 
we failed to get arecord of the fall and 
winter crop for either 1903 or 1904. Could 
this crop have been added to the sum- 
mer crop for 1904, it is quite possible 
thatthe showing would have been dif- 
ferent, as we would naturally expect so 
small a summer crop to be followed by a 
heavy fall and winter crop. The fall and 
winter crop for 1903 was small on 
account of the heavy summer crop, and 
therefore would not have materially 
affected the total. 


Crop oF 1905. 


The freeze of February, 1905, explains 
the shortage of the crop for this year, 
and again it would seem unfair to draw 
many conclusions, for undoubtedly the 
fertilizers had little to do with the fall- 
ing off. At the same time a careful 
count will show that the number of 24’s 
has been considerably increased on many 
of the plots as the fertilizer was in- 
creased, while the 42’s were decreased 
but slightly. In the upper half of the 
plot (see Diagram III., crop of 1905), it 
will be noticed that the total number of 
pines has increased from the first to the 
third line of plots, while in the fourth 
the total is less than in the third line, 


Miscellaneous Products. 


Again emphasizing the fact that the 
imit of profitable fertilizing has been 
reached with the third line. In the 
lower half of the experiment plot, there 
is a gradual decrease in the total from 
the first to the fourth line, but this 
may possibly be accounted for from the 
fact that several of these plots received 
fertilizers that proved injurious, and as 
the amount was increased the injurious 
effects were more pronounced. 


A study of the table will bring out 
some other interesting facts. Sections 
A,and B., both of which received acid 

hosphate up to this year, each yielded 

ess than 100 pines, while section K. 
which received the same treatment and 
lime in addition yielded 162 pines, an 
increase of over 60 per cent.; this section 
produced the highest number of 24’s. 
Section U., which was fertilized with dis- 
solved bone black, dried blood and high 
grade sulphate gave the highest yield 
for this year, 168, while sections H. and 
I. with 152 and 153 respectively, and 
which received their phosphoric acid in 
the form of slag, closely follow section 
K. Section O., which also received slag 
is next, with 147. Sections G. and J., 
both of which received kainit, yielded 
less than ten 24’s, while section S. yielded 
only one. 


THE KREEZE OF 1905. 


After the freeze of February, 1905, the 
experiment plot was carefully examined, 
first by Mr. W. R. Hardee and later by 
one of us (Blair) to see whether plots 
fertilized differently had been differently 
affected, but no marked difference could 
be detected. True, some of the plots 
looked worse than others, but they were 
the plots that had already been injured 
by the treatment they had received. 
Practically no difference, so faras the 
effect of the freeze was concerned, could 
be detected in the condition of those 
plots which had responded well to the 
treatment they were receiving. 


Although the crop for this year was 
very much reduced, this statement is 
weli borne out by the results. A further 
examination of the table reporting the 
crop for 1905 shows very clearly that the 
most of those plots which have already 
been reported as injured by the treat- 
ment they were receiving, for example 
sections A,, B., G., J., R. and S., gave the 
lowest total number of fruits, or a very 
small number of the larger sizes, or both. 
Neither were we able to detect any 
difference in the effect upon those plots 
which received phosphoric acid, nitrogen 
and potash in varying ratios. 


242, 


REMARKS. 


lt was assumed that an average of 4 
and of the total ‘phosphoric acid in 
bone meal is available, 


According to the method used for 
determining the available phosphoric 
acid in slag, approximately +4 of the 
total is available. 


Slag tends to produce a rank growth 
of plants, and it is possible that if a part 
of the slag should be replaced with bone 
meal better results would be obtained 
than with either alone. 


While land plaster was not used in 
this experiment, except for one applica- 
tion, it is used by a number of the 
growers with good results. The claim 
is made that it tends to aid in fixing 
the nitrogen of organic fertilizers, such 
as dried blood and cotton-seed meal. It 
is considered especially helpful in this 
respectif these organic fertilizers are 
applied during a dry spell. This claim is 
borne out by the work of a German 
invenstigator.* He finds that land plaster 
not only assists in the rotting of manure, 
but that it also fixes or holds much 
ammonia that would otherwise escape. 
The conditions under which this investi- 
gator worked are, of course, not the con- 
ditions which exist in the pineapple belt, 
but it is not at all unlikely that the same 
chemical reactions take place. Those 
growers who have used land plaster put 
on about 200 pounds per acre. 


An effort was made, by analysis, to 
find out whether the fruit would show 
an increase in the elements of plant food 
as the fertilizers were increased, but the 
method of taking the samples tended to 
vitiate the results. I[t was not possible 
to make acomposite sample of all the 
fruit from each plot, and to take two or 
three fruits from a plot, as was done, 
probably does not give average results. 
The results obtained do uot warrant us 
in drawing any conclusions in regard to 
the relation which exists between the 
plant food in the soil and in the fruit. 
indeed, it is quite possible that increas- 
ing the amount of plant food in the soil 
may not affect the quantity to be found 
in the fruit, but only thatin the plant. 
The results are of interest as showing 
the amount of plant food removed by 
the fruit and will be found in Table IV. 
Given the weight of a crate of pineapples, 
and the number of crates per acre, 
itis a simple matter to calculate the 
plant food removed by a crop of pine- 
apples. 


*§. A. Sewerin, Gips als ammoniakbindende 
Substanz bei der Verrottung des Stallmistes. 
Centralblatt fur Bakteriologie, Par. u. Infek. 
XI. Bd., Nos. 12-13 und 14-15. 


hf SEPTEMBER, 1908. % 


Sd | 


ANALYSES OF PINEAPPLES FROM EXPERI- 
MENT Plot SHOWING PHOSPHORIC ACID, 


NITROGEN AND POTASH IN THE 
ORIGINAL FRUIT. 


Station P2 Os N K2 O 
No. Per cent. Percent. Per cent. 
1494 "0368 0767 "2432 
1495 0418 0688 2201 
1496 0391 06/6 "1838 
1497 ‘0374. “0883 *2281 
1498 0875 ‘0641 *2092 
1499 0858 “0647 2085 
1500 “0402 0680 2315 
1501 "0844 0657 "2283 
1502 0409 0674 2458 
1503 “0462 ‘0688 2136 
1504. 0471 0885 “2049 
1505 “0410 “0694 *2095 
1506 0420 ‘0781 2182 
1507 0484 “0859 2188 
1508 ‘0369 0727 “1883 
1509 ‘0369 “0795 2010 
1510 0381 0710 2187 
1512 0434 "0666 2148 
1518 04338 0757 2545 
1519 0421 0929 2475 
1520 0390 0669 2197 
1521 0426 0736 2361 
1522 0390 0765 2288 
1528 0401 “0706 "2384 
1524 0417 ‘0605 +2330 
1526 "0339 0580 “1980 
1527 0404 0621 *2470 
15381 0395 0633 ‘2179 
1582 0455 ‘0760 1822 
1534 0522 ‘O704 ‘2198 
15387 0508 0648 2283 
1588 0497 0650 "2347 
1539 0386 0638 “PATA 
1540 *0429 O69L "2111 
1541 0563 0742 *2581 
1542 -0892 ‘0667 OPA Ware 
1543 0482 0662 2518 
1544 0477 0650 2716 
1545 0482 0796 *2585 
1551 04380 0692 12312 
1552 0450 0697 *1955 
1553 0429 0680 ‘2876 
1554. 0443 .0789 +2320 
1555 0451 0698 2558 
1556 ‘0416 ‘0703 “1868 
1557 "0398 ‘0658 °2090 
1558 "0429 "0664 2244 
1559 "0451 0724 "2259 

Average "0423 0707 22:56 


_ Some work has also been done looking 
towards ascertaining whether increasing 
the fertilizers has any effect upon the 
sugar and acid content of the pineapple, 
but this wok is not yet complete. 


For the beginner in pineapple grow- 
ing there will be many details which 
must be learned by experience or from 
the practical grower. The experimenter 


SEPIEMBER, 1908.) 243 


Miscellaneous Products. 


is, of necessity, obliged to content hin- 
self largely with working out general 
principles, since different localities and. 
different individuals require that dif- 
ferent methods be employed in executing 
many of the minor details in almost all 
agricu[tural pursuits.—Bulletin No. 83, 
Florida Agricultural Experiment Station, 
February, 1906, pp. 411-435. 


By C. K. Suspa Rao 

The seed of Nymphea Lotus, which is 
very plentiful in the Koller Lake, is 
known in the Kistna District, Madras, 
as Allyalu, the whole plant being called 
Alli. The plant occurring in the Koller 
Lake bears white flowers. It is met 
with, though not abundantly, in other 
parts of the Presidency. While the seed: 
and the fleshy root of the plant are used 
as articles of diet by the lower classes of 
people inhabiting the villages bordering 
on the Koller Lake, their dietetic value 
is quite unknown elsewhere. <A Christian 
gentleman who had recently returned to 
India from Japan referred, in a lecture 
delivered on the manners and customs 
of the Japanese, to the fact of lotus 
roots being used as food by the Japanese. 
Whether these people use lotus seed as 
food is not known. 


The Wuddis, Malas and other low 
classes of people go out on rafts orin 
hallowed trunks of the palmyra, in the 
Koller Lake in November and December, 
to gather various products, of which the 
fruit of Mymphea Lotus is the chief. 
The fruit is roundish and brownish red. 
It is kept soaked in cowdung in a.basket 
for three days, when itis pounded and 
the seed separated. The seed somewhat 
resembles ragt when thoroughly husked, 
and is of dirty white colour, It is boiled 
like rice and thus eaten or ground to 
flour and made into cakes. It is con- 
sidered specially good for people suffer- 
ing from beri-beri. It is very palatable, 
but is potso nutritious as rice, cholam 
or other grain. It is extensively con- 
sumed, especially in times of scarcity, 
by the classesof people above referred 
to. Last year, the price of the seed in 
the villages bordering on the Koller 
Lake, was so high as Rs. 40 per candy of 
500 lbs., that is, half the price of paddy. 


The root of the plant is cooked and 
eaten as curry.—Agricultural Journal 
Ch ee Vol. Til., Part I., January 
1908. 


oo 


* Olu, Ht-olu, Sinhalese. Common in Ceylon, 
The seeds eaton here.— Ep, 


ee ee ox NO OE Se See 


ar ae ee 


yh ae 


Miscellaneous Products. 


MANUFACTURE OF PINEAPPLE 
JUICE. 


During the manufacture of canned 


pineapples a very largeamount of refuse © 


in the form of peelings and trimmings 
collects in the factory, which raw 
material is at present allowed to go to 
waste, and its disposal is quite a nuisance 
to the factories. Early last year the Agri- 
cultural Chemist prepared a few bottles 
of pineapple juice, which were opened 
after having been kept for twelve 
months, and the juice was found to be 
of excellent quality, having kept its 
pure fiavour of the fresh fruit. Tue 
complete success of the experiment en- 
couraged the Department of Agriculture 
and Stock to experiment on a larger scale, 
soas to prepare about a gross of pint 
bottles of pure pineapple juice from 
waste materials only for the Franco- 
British Exhibition. Messrs. Hargreaves 
and Sons, of Tingalpa, were good enough 
to allow us the use of their manufactur- 
ing plant, and also supplied the raw 
material, the peelings of barely a couple 
of hours’ work. The peelings have to 
be worked up at once, as even after a 
few hours’ keeping fermentation would 
set in, which must be avoided to get a 
juice absolutely pure, possessing a fine 
flavour, and whichis free from alcohol 
and preservatives. The demand for 
such pure fruit juices in Europe and else- 
where has enormously increased of late 
years, and our pineapple juice should be 
a successful rival of such drinks pre- 
pared from other fruits. The juice may 
be used in its pure state, or may be 
diluted with water, according to taste, 
or, again, could be aerated, and make a 
sparkling, palatable and nutritious driuk. 


The peels are passed through some sort 
of pug mill, and then are pressed in a 
strong press. The juice is run through g 
sieve or cloth toremoveany floating mat. 
ter and is then heated ina suitable boiler 
to about 170 degrees Fahr., and kept at 
that temperature for about half an hour. 
This heating pasteurises the juice by 
destroying all micro-organisms, and at 
the same time coagulates some of the 
impurities, which easily settle down on 
standing. 


The hot juice is drawn off into a clean 
cask, which is covered up and allowed 
to stand for about twelve hours to settle, 
and the clear juice syphoned off. The 
drawn-off clear juice is again heated to 170 
degrees Fahr., and bottled whilst hot and 
corked atonce. The filled bottles have 
again to be heated after having been kept 
for twenty-four hours, which is best ac- 
complished and does away with further 


244 


[SePTEMBER, 1908. 


handling by placing them into a wooden 
steam chest, where they can be gradually 
heated to 165 degrees, and kept at that 
temperature for about half an hour. 
Theright temperature is ascertained by 
placing athermometer right into the 
centre of a bottle of the same size filled 
with water, and placedin the centre 
near the top of the chest, so that the 
thermometer projects through the top 
of the steam box. This heating is repeat- 


ed after another twenty-four hours’ 
standing, which completes the. treat- 
ment. 


This process of repeated heating to 165 
degrees Fahr., with twenty-four hcurs’ 
interval, absolutely sterilises the juice, so 
thatit will keep indefinitely, preserving 
at the same time the fine fruity flavour, 
as the juice was never actually boiled. A 
small amount of sugar may be added to 
the juice if the pines are not very sweet, 
and in the manufacture of such juice on 
a large scale, the juice drawn off from the 
settling cask or tank may be filtered by 
some suitable apparatus in order to get 
it absolutely clear.—Queensland Agri- 
cultural Journal., Vol. XX., Part 4, 
April, 1908. 


PRESERVATION OF RED SORREL 
FRUITS. 


In the course of an article in the 
Natal Agricultural Journal entitled 
‘The Roselle or Jamaica Sorrel’ (Hibiscus 
sabdariffa), so well-known in the West 
Indies, the following note is given on 
the preservation of fruits :— 


The roselle is well adapted for jam- 
making, giving a palatabie, easily-kept 
product if put up in earthenware or 
glass. Unfortunately the fruits contain 
an acid principle which precludes them 
being put up as preserves in ordinary 
tin-ware, and hence some failures have 
been experienced in this respect. For 
pickles the fruit is well adapted, and it 
makes an excellent condiment. 


Ji has been found that the _ best 
method of handling the fruit is to dry it 
after the removal of the seed pod, ‘The 
dried fruit has been kept in jars and tins 
for two or three yearsin good order. The 
first preparation that is necessary is the 
cutting off of the stem of the fruit, 
and the basal end of the calyx (the 
calyx is the red-coloured edible portion) 
to where the seed pod is united with 
the calyx, whena gentle pressure with 
the fingers will force out the seed pod. 
Then the fruit should be placed in some 
roomy, airy position (not necessarily in 
the sun), iin trays or in sheets on the 


SEPTEMBER, 1908. | 


floor, allowing as much air to pass 
through and over the fruit as possible. 
Ina few days all superfluous moisture 
will have evaporated, and the dried 
article can be packed away in jars. By 
this means roselles can be had in good 
condition allthe year round. All that 
is needful, when required for use for 
jam, tarts, ete.,is to take the quantity 
necessary and pour over the fruit a little 
water, when it will absorb the moisture 
and resolve itself into apparently fresh 
fruit. The large grower has in this 
method a certain way of keeping such 
surplus fruit as may not be in immediate 
demand, or which on account of low 
ruling prices, he may not wish at the 
moment to put on the market. Fruit 
put up in this form might be success- 
fully exported to the London market.— 
Agricultural News, Vol. VII, No. 159, 
May, 1908. 


THE CULTIVATION OF 
IN SARAWAK, 


PEPPER 


By J. HEWITT. 


For many years the cultivation of the 
Piper nigrum has been one of the staple 
industries of Borneo; it was mentioned 
by the earliest European travellers asa 
valuable product of the country, and by 
the end of the eighteenth century the 
spice was so much cultivated that there 
were said to be in Brunei no less than 
30,000 Chinamen, of whom the majority 
were pepper planters. 


The vine is not, however, indigenous to 
Borneo, and it must have been introduced 
atan early date by Chinamen or pos- 
sibly by Indians. Of late years at any 
rate the industry is entirely in the hands 
ot the Chinamen whom Nature has 
endowed with a temperament particu- 
larly suitable for this kind of agricul- 
ture. For the successful growing of 
pepper it is desirable that each indivi- 
dual vine should receive constant and 
careful attention, and accordingly the 
celestial husbandman pets and cares for 
his vines as if they were his children. 


With such an essential to success, 
pepper growing does not commend itself 
to the native of Borneo, whose ‘‘ forte” 
lies rather with fruit trees. 


The chief pepper growing district of 
this country is in Upper Sarawak, but 
pepper gardens are also found on the 
Rejang and Batang Lupar rivers, and 
in tact in the neighbourhood of any port, 
provided that suitable land can be 
obtained, 


The site usually chosen for a garden 
is on sloping ground which can be well 


245 


Miscellaneous Products. 


drained, and they appear to pay as 
much attention to the facilities for 
draining as to the quality of the soil. 
In fact, the soil of an average pepper 
garden in Upper Sarawak is a stiff yel- 
low clay of poor quality. Nevertheless, 
the Chinaman, where possible, chooses 
a soil which experience has shewn to be 
most productive, and in Upper Sarawak, 
for instance, he has followed the por- 
phyry dykes; a sandy soil is usually 
avoided. 

Before entering into details concern- 
ing its cultivation, perhaps it will be 
well to mention very briefly a few of 
the obvious features of this well-known 
plant. — 

The stem is climbing, becoming stout 
and shrubby, aud reaching a height of 
ten feet or more; the branches are 
rooting at the rodes; the simple leaves 
are glabrows, petioled and coriaceous, 
in size 5-7 inches by 2-5 ins., the upper 
leaves being unequal sided; the flowers 
are minute on numerous spikes several 
inches long; the fruit is small round 
berries which are red when ripe. 


In most pepper gardens there are to 
be found two varieties of vine, the small- 
leaved and the large-leaved. The for- 
mer, being more fruitful, is preferred 
before the large-leaved variety, of which 
there may be only a few representatives 
ina garden. On the large-leaved vine, 
many of the leaves are quite like of 
those of the other variety, but some few 
are considerably larger. Presumably, 
cuttings from small-leaved vines always 
yield of that variety, so that if the 
pepper gardeners seriously attempted 
it, they could exclude the less fruitful 
form altogether. 


Most gardens contain one or two 
representatives of a third kind of vine, 
the so-called male. This is indistinguish- 
able from the small-leaved vine until the 
fruiting season, when the ‘male’ pro- 
duces only a small quantity of fruit. 


Ihave not been ableto examine the 
flower spikes of these ‘male’ vines, 
but presumably such would be found to 
be unisexual, the male flowers predomi- 
nating. The flower spike of an ordinary 
vine is made up of numerous hermaphro- 
dite flowers, each consisting of an ovary 
capped by three tiny stigmas, and a pair 
of small stamens; the stigmas ripen 
before the anthers. 


Some gardeners look with favour on 
the ‘male’ vines, and one man told me 
that in case a garden had no ‘male’ it 
was customary to grow aSireh (Piper 
betle) vine to act as such! However this 
may be, it certainly is usual to find at 
least one Sireh vine in each pepper 
garden. 


Miscellaneous Products. 


For the following information relating 
to the methods employed by Chinese 
agriculturists in Upper Sarawak, I am 
indebted to Mr. Gerald Dalton of Busan, 
who for several years has resided in the 
midst of the pepper growing area. 


Position.—The best position for a 
garden is a plain gently sloping towards 
the east and sheltered on either side. 


Preparation of the Ground.—It usu- 
ally happens that the land he has chosen 
is covered with jungle, and this has to be 
felled and burned. The destruction of 
the jungle trees is complete, even the 
stumps and roots being unearthed after 
the general conflagration is over; these 
stumps are collected into heaps and used 
in making the burnt earth hereafter 
described. The ground is lined out and 
sticks are placed at proper intervals, 6 ft. 
by 6ft. apart to mark the position of 
the future vines, drains being allowed for 
where necessary. he ground is now 
left fora month or two to dry, mean- 
while being kept free. from weeds; 
during this time good drains are made 
allround. After this the ground in the 
immediate neighbourhood of the sticks 
is well hoed to the depth of a foot, and is 
then piled up to form small mounds 
around the sticks toa height of about 


18 ins. ; to these mounds is carried the 


burnt earth obtained from the burning 
of the stumps. The garden is now ready 
for planting. 


Planting.—The pepper vine is invari- 
ably propagated by cuttings obtained 
from the terminal shoots of young vines 
which are only about 5 or 6 feet 
high and from 1§ to 23 years old. ‘The 
cuttings are from 13 to 2 ft. long and are 
planted straight out, nurseries being un- 
necessary. Usually they are arranged 
in the soil atan angle of about 45° and 
are pointed to the Hast; some five or six 
internodes should be covered by soil, the 
lowest one being aboutsix inches deep; 
the top of the cuttings leans against the 
stick. Above, protection from the sun’s 
rays is afforded by a covering of fern 
leaves or grass, one to each cutting, and 
this protection is continued for several 
months, until in fact the young plant 
has attained a fair hold. Planting is 
usually performed in January during the 
wet monsoon. 


Treatment of Vines. —Within a week or 
so of being planted, each vine receives a 
first application of burnt earth, a few 
handfuls, and afterwards this is applied 
regularly every four months. 


Whenever it becomes necessary, the 
young shoots are tied to the stick with 
soft bark or twine. After six months or 
more these temporary supports are re- 


246 


(SEPTEMBER, 1908. 


placed by the permanent posts, which 
are of the hardest wood obtainable and 
of the dimensions 12 feet long by 4 in. 
or more square. This vost is fixed verti- 
cally two feet deep in the centre of each 
mound, and the vine is transferred to 
the post. 


Three main shoots only are allowed to 
climb up the post, and these are tied to 
their support at every internode. For- 
merly it was customary to pull down 
the main shoot and to coil it spirally 
round the post so as to obtain a more 
bushy vine; nowadays this is no longer 
practised. 


About this time the flower spikes may 
appear, in which case they should be 
at once picked off. It is the custom 
of the pepper gardeners to prevent 
sporadie fruiting, which is liable to 
occur almost any time in the life of the 
vine, and thus to concentrate on the 
proper annual crop. When the vines are 
about a year old, all those from which 
cuttings are to be taken are pruned so 
as to leave oue main shoot only. This 
is allowed to grow for six months or 
more and is then cut off; this is the cut- 
ting which is Ordinarily employed in 
planting. After this, around the roots 
of each viné a quantity (half a catty) of 
prawn refuse is spread; the valuable 
manure is applied in preparation for 
the first fruiting. In the ordinary 
course of events fruiting occurs during 
the succeeding year, and now the gar- 
deners are particularly busy with weed- 
ing, draining, the regular application of 
burnt earth, and with spraying oper- 
ations. Judicious pruning is also neces- 
sary for producing bushy vines; by the 
time it has reached the top of its post 
a vine has been pruned at least three 
times. When the vine is from 2; to 23 
years old the first crop is over, the 
yield being estimated at from 1 to 1$ 
catties of white pepper per vine (four 
to six catties of green pepper). By the 
end of another year, the vine being 33 
years old, the plant has reached the top 
its 10 ft. post and is, considered to be 
full grown; the crop of that year is 
estimated at three catties per vine. In 
each year the fruiting period extends 
over some months, the main crop being 
produced between August and Decem- 
ber. Each season, when fruiting is 
nearly over, a catty of prawn refuse is — 
supplied to the roots of each vine ; this 
is the manure for the next season crop. 
Theaverage life of a vine is from 10 to 
12 years, but this depends very much 
on the care bestowed on its cultivations. 


Crop.—In a_ well-conducted garden 
the fruiting vines are covered with 
fruit spikes, and each spike is thick with 


i ) - SEPTEMBER, 1908.] 


ny well-formed berries. As every- 

body knows, the white pepper and 
black pepper of commerce are products 
to the same vine, the difference between 
them depending simply on after treat- 
ment of the picked berries, Botanically 
speaking, black pepper is the entire 
fruit, whilst white pepper is the seed 
unly. _When preparing white pepper 
the spikes of fruit are picked off just as 
they are turning red; the berries are 
loosened from the spike stalk by press- 
ing underfoot. These berries are col- 
lected and tied up in large bags which, 
with their contents areallowed to soak 
in water fora week or ten days. It is 
usual to arrange for running water 
which receives the full heat of the sun 
as the decomposition of the skin on the 
pepper corns is thereby accelerated. 
When the skins have becume sufficiently 
loose, the pepper is put into tubs where 
itis stamped under-toot and well washed 
until all the skins and stalks have been 
removed. Finally, the pepper corns 
which remain are spread out on mats 
and dried in the sun; the product is now 
ready for the market. 


In making black pepper, the fruit is 
picked before it is ripe, earlier than 
would be the case if white pepper 
were the object. It is then spread out 
on mats to dry in the sun, and as 
it dries, the skin of the pepper corn 
turns black; afterwards it is rubbed by 
hand so as to separate the berries from 
the stalks which latter are winnowed 
out. A better method of preparing the 
article isto boil the fresh berries in 
water for a short time and then dry 
them as above. In this way the skins 
are rendered tougher and the skins have 
a more uniform colour. 


- Insecticides.—The spikes of tlowers and 
of fruits of the pepper vine are the 
victims of insect attack, and to prevent 
partial or even entire loss of the crop it 
is absolutely necessary to resort to in- 
secticides. The Chinaman always em- 
ploys for this purpose a watery extract 
of crushed ‘tuba’ (Derris eliptica) and 
strong tobacco. This is applied to the 
flowers from asyringe, and it proves 
very effective; the smell of the tobacco 
clings to the garden for several days. 
The proportions commonly adopted are 
one catty of ‘Tuba,’ one catty of tobacco, 
and five gallons of water; such a quan- 
tity, would be sufficient tor ten vines. 
It is usual to apply the insecticide 
three times, at intervals of a week or 
more, while the fruit is setting. This 
insecticide, although excellent for its 
purpose, is comparatively expensive ; in 
1907 the price of ‘Tuba’ was 8-12 cents 
per catty and of tobacco 85 cents per 
catty. 


247 


Miscellaneous Products. 


Labour. —It usually happens that the 
man in charge of a pepper garden is 


‘also the owner—it is often heavily mort- 


gaged—and this man may be sufficient 
fora small garden. However, as already 
mentioned, the pepper vine requires 
much personal care, and it is found that 
one coolie cannot properly deal with 
more than 400 vines. In gardens of 1,000 
vines or more it is the custom. to 
employ one or two “ Sinkehs ” (inden- 
tured coolies), who cost from $380 to 60 
each for the year, not counting food and 
clothing. With a good gardener to look 
after them their work is better and 
cheaper than that of the ordinary free 
coolie who works for a monthly wage. 


The foregoing represents in brief 
outline the nunvarying routine of a 
Chinaman’s pepper garden. When the 
price of pepper was high it was possible 
to make large profits, but at the present 
day with an abnormally low price for 
the product, it is difficult for the average 
gardener to pay his way. So depressed 
is the industry that hundreds of gardens 
have been completely abandoned of late 
years, and only those are likely to con- 
tinue who, having a little capital of . 
their own, can afford to run the concern 
unassisted by the merchant money- 
leader. 


At the present time (1908) the price of 
pepper in Kuching is $17 per picul, where- 
as a few years ago it had reached a 
price of more than $60\per picul. (The 
exchange value of the dollar was then 
only about ¢ of the present dollar.) 


Considering the magnitude of the 
pepper industry it is somewhat unfor- 
tunate that SO little has been attempted 
in the way of possibile improvements in 
the methods of working. It is very 
unlikely that the Chinese agriculturist 
wil care to experiment with western 
novelties, but nevertheless it would 
seem quite possible that some appreci- 
able reductions in the cost could be 
effected ; and thereby an _ industry 
which is threatened almost with extinc- 
tion could be considerably resuscitated. 
The Chinese gardener is at present 
obliged to endure unnecessary expense 
in his insecticide and apparently also in 
the manure. The costly item of the 
insecticide is tobacco, and so far a satis- 
factory substitute has not appeared. 
Very recently, a series of interesting 
experiments have been conducted by 
Mr. R. HK. Hose of Busau in the hope of 
providing cheaper insecticides and arti- 
ficial manures, but the results areas yet 
inconclusive. These experiments have 
certainly proved the excellence of the 
Chinaman’s insecticide, and although it 
will no doubt be possible to replace it 


Miscellaneous Products. 


by acheaper one, nevertheless, the pro- 
blem is by no means easy, as the pepper 
vine is very sensitive, quickly dropping 
its leaves if subjected to drastic treat- 
ment. Atany rate an improvement can 
be effected by the use of a better spraying 
apparatus, the one used by the China- 
man being a comparatively coarse 
syringe. 


As regards the manurial. treatment, 
Wwe are here presented with a question 
of some interest. I have previously 
mentioned that each vine should be 
supplied at regular intervals with cer- 
tain amounts of prawn dust and burit 
earth, and that the soil is ordinarily 
of poor quality; yet not infrequently 
does it happen that a gardener unable 
to afford prawn dust manures his vines 
with burnt earth only, and for years 
good crops have thus been obtained. 
To the pepper grower burnt earth is 
of primary importance, and it is con- 
sidered to be an absolute essential. 
The method of preparing itis simple, 
but it requires sound judgment and 
care to produce burnt earth of the 
best quality. In one corner of his 
garden, the labourer spreads out a 
quantity of brushwood, and over this 
some logs of wood cut from the jungle; 
on the top of this comes another layer 
of brushwood, and over the whole is 
heaped up a large quantity of soil. 
The heap is fired from below, and after 
some days or weeks when the burning 
has ceased it is broken up, and after 
the unburnt pieces of wood and char- 
coal are removed—the gardener considers 
that charcoal in the proximity of pepper 
roots fosters fungoid disease—the whole 
is mixed up together. Thusis produc- 
ed burnt earth which varies much in 
quality according to (1) the kind of soil 
used to produce it, and (2) the nature of 
the combustion. The svil preferred for 
this purpose is a mixture of jungle soil 
rich in humus, and ordinary yellow clay 
of the garden; if jungle soil only be used, 
it often acts as a complete damper. 
During the burning, it is most impor- 
tant that the combustion shall be slow 
and that the earth as a whole shall not 
be overheated as baked earth is useless. 
If the top or sides fall in during the 
burning the aperture must be filled up 
lest the burniing be accelerated. 


Thus prepared it is obvious that the 
soil which is in the immediate neighbour- 
hood of the burning logs becomes quite 
overburnot, and the most valuable part 
of the heap is the black middle stratum. 
Wherein ties the indisputable virtue 
of burnt earth is somewhat doubtful, 
but one may expect it to possess 
several points of superiority over un- 
burnt earth, viz :— 


248 


[SEPTEMBER, 1908. 


(1) In the absence of living organ- 
isms, fungi bacteria, etc. 


(2) In the presence of wood ashes. 


(3) In the presence of the products 
of the incomplete combustion 
of the wood. 


(4) In the presence of the products 
of partial decomposition of the 
organic matter contained in the 
jungle soil itself. 

(5) In the increased porosity of the 
product. So far as I know, no 
experiments have been under- 
taken to elucidate this problem. 


The manure proper of the pepper 
gardener is prawn refuse, and this is 
excellent. It is rich in organic matter, 
in phosphates and in Calcium salts, and 
moreover has a great advantage over 
ordinary chemical manures in that it 
is not too easily soluble and is not 
liable to be entirely dissolved by the 
first shower of tropical rain. Never- 
theless, it is expensive and the supply 
is not unlimited. 

An account of pepper cultivation would 
not be complete without some mention of 
diseases resulting from insect ravages 
and other causes. Very formidable 
pests are certain small plant bugs which 
attack the flowers and the setting fruit. 
When the flower spikes appear, there 
may be seen flying about the vines a 
number of small black insects each armed 
with a long spine on the back and one on 
either shoulder; these settle on the 
flowers and feed thereon. The insects 
belong to the Membracide and is aspecies 
of Centrotus. Another plant bug, but 
one much more sluggish, is a small black 
flattened creature which crawls along 
the spike destroying the flowers. It is 
one of the Tingidide and is called 
Elasmognathus Hewitti. Still another 
flower-eating creature belonging to the 
same order isa small flattened insect, 
green in colour, its sides fringed with 
tiny spines. Thisisan immature form 
whose adult I have not seen; it may be a 
Centrucnemis. This pest is very slug- 
gish, but it is a serious one. 


Another insect, a destructive Coccid, 
attacks the young setting fruit. It 
appears in number on the fruit spike as 
small but stout sott bodied creatures 
covered with a white fluff, and on their 
attack, the flower spike withers and 
blackens ; the whole of the berries on a 
spike may thus be destroyed. This in- 
sect is attended on by colonies of Ants 
(Cremastogaster rogenhoferi) which pro- 
bably are responsible for the spreading 
of the Coceid. The four pests just men- 
tioned are always a menace to the pepper 
grower, and hi~ only remedy, quite an 
effectual one, is the insecticide already 


—— 


mentioned. The insects are all indi- 
genous, and no doubt they finda happy 
feeding ground on the abandoned vines. 


It occasionally happens that the pepper 
leaves are attacked by caterpillars, but 
I have only once met a case; this cater- 
pillar, belonging to a Limacodid moth, 
was a green oval disc beset laterally with 
hairy processes, and covered all over 
with irritant hairs. A more destructive 
caterpillar is one which bores the stem 
penetrating at the base of a_ petiole. 
Subsequently the stem withers up, and 
partor the whole of a vine may be 
destroyed. 


The roots are also subject to the 
attacks of insects; not infrequently, 
certain white ants commit ravages on 
the root system and the plant may suffer 
considerably. Occasionally, too, some 
damage is done to the roots by the pre- 
sence of large fat grubs, ditty white in 
colour and sparsely covered with short 
brown hairs ; these burrow in the ground 
and by their movements disturb the 
delicate vine roots though they do not 
appear to feed theieon. Thelarge grubs 
are larvae of a_ stag-horn (Dynastids) 
beetle, and may be those of Oryctes 
rhinoceros, the well-known coconut 
beetle. An application of lime water to 
the neighbourhood of the roots is con- 
sidered effectual in driving away the 
intruder. The most serious disease from 
which the roots are apt to suffer is of 
rather obscure cause, though most pro- 
bably itis to be attributed entirely to 
the action of fungi, The symptoms are 
a serious shedding of the leaves usually 
throughout a well-defined area of the 
vine which is in relation with the fibro- 
vascular bundles coming from _ the 
affected part of the root. <A _ clever 
gardener can usually guess which part of 
the root system is damaged, and he pro- 
ceeds to remove the earth so as to ex- 
plore the sickly area. Then he scrapes 
or cuts away the blackened tissue and 
allows the cut surface to dry directly 
exposed to the sun’s rays. Afterwards 
he replaces the earth and the vine 
usually recovers. This disease is more 
likely to occur in the damp parts of a 
pepper garden. The roots of pepper 
appear to be specially sensitive to water, 
and prolonged rains sometimes bring 
about the _ rottiyg just mentioned. 
Drought also is prejudicial and may 
cause the leaves to drop off.—Agricul- 
tural Bulletin of the Straits and Feder- 
ated Malay States, No. 6, Vol. VII. 


32 


| SEPTEMRER, 1908, | | 249 


Miscellaneous Products. 


COW PEAS. 


By H. T. NIELSon, 
Scientific Assistant, Forage Crop Investi- 
gation Bureau of Plant Industry. 


INTRODUCTION. 


A system of agriculture without the 
use of a leguminous crop tends to lessen 
the productivity of the soil and makes 
necessary large outlays for nitrogenous 
fertilizers. With a leguminous crop 
grown at frequent intervals, the pro- 
ductivity may be maintained or even 
increased. The cowpea is at the present 
time, and probably will continue to be, 
the most valuable legume for the entire 
cotton belt, and can be depended upon to 
succeed on practically all types of soils, 
It has been well said that the cowpea is 
to the South what red clover is to the 
North and alfalfa to the West. 


It is safe to say that no one thing can 
add more to the agricultural weaith of 
the South than the more extensive grow- 
ing of the cowpea. This will supply the 
southern markets with much of their 
hay, which is now shipped in from the 
North and West. It will tend to increase 
the production of live stock which is 
very essential in securing the maximum 
returns in any system of agriculture; 
and it will go far toward keeping the 
soil in good tilth and maintaining its 
productiveness, 


While cowpea culture has greatly 
increased in late years, this very fact has 
in part brought about a large increase 
in the price of seed. The more extensive 
use of the crop will be seriously retarded 
untilseed becomes more plentiful than 
at present. Fortunately the develop- 
ment of improved machinery for hand- 
ling cowpeas makes it certain that this 
will soon be the case, and that the price 
of seed will be materially reduced with- 
out lessening the profit to the grower. 


Cowpea seed for planting should be 
fresh and of good quality or, if old, 
should be tested for germination, as seed 
more than one year old is likely to be 
very low in vitality. It is practically 
certain that seed which ripens and is 
harvested in dry weather is of superior 
quality. Varieties with hard seeds are 
injured to a less extent by wet weather 
at harvest time than those with soft 
seeds. They also retain their vitality 
for a longer time and are less subject to 
the ravages of weevils. The Iron cow- 
pea is the only common variety which 
has any advantage over other sorts in 
this respect. 


Miscellaneous Products. 


COWPEAS FOR HAY. 


Good cowpea hay is fully as valuable 
a feed, pound for pound, as red clover 
hay, and very nearly equal in value to 
alfalfa or to wheat bran. The principal 
value of this hay lies in its high percent- 
age of digestible protein, which is 
nearly four times that of timothy hay. 

One reason why cowpeas are not more 
extensively used as a hay crop is the 
difficulty often experienced in curing 
the larger growth of succulent vines. 
Where proper care is taken in curing, 
especially where sorghum or a similar 
plant is grown with itin mixture, it is 
not a difficult matter to make good cow- 
pea hay unless the weather is decidedly 
unfavourable. 


When grown for hay production cow- 
peas are nearly always broadcasted or 
put in with a grain drill any time from 
May 15 to July 15. The quantity of seed 
used to the acre ranges from one to two 
bushels, broadcasting requiring from 
one-fourth to one-third more than _ is 
necessary when using a grain drill. The 
quantity most commonly used and 
which gives the most general satisfac- 
tion when the seed is put in with a 
grain drill is five pecks to the acre. 
The use of a grain drill is decidedly 
superior to broadcasting. Larger hay 
yields have frequently been secured by 
planting in rows 24 to 36 inches apart, 
and giving two or three cultivations, the 
seed required inthis way being trom 
two or three pecks per acre. The in- 
creased yield of hay due to cultivation 
is not sufficient to cover the increased 
cost, especially as rather thick broad- 
east seeding is equally as effective in 
destroying weeds as cultivationin rows. 
The practice of broadcasting on small 
grain stubble and ploughing under the 
seed is still common; also that of put- 
ting in the seed on grain stubble with 
a disk drill without ploughing. Both of 
these practices are rapidly being re- 
placed by good preparation of the soil 
before seeding. 


As nearly as average conditions will 
permit, cowpeas for hay should be plant- 
ed so that they will be at the proper 
stage for hay making inthe latter part 
of August, in September, or early in 
October, as the rainfall is likely to be 
small during that time. With four to 
six days of dry sunny weather, cowpeas 
can be cured into hay of excellent qual- 
ity if they are at the proper stage of 
maturity when cut. 


The proper time to cut cowpeas for 
hay is when most of the pods are full 
grown and a considerable number of 
them are ripe. At this stage none of the 


250 


Pa 


(SEPTEMBER, 1908. : 


best hay varieties have dropped their 
leaves. Of the large list of cowpea 
varieties, those with an upright habit 
of growth which seed fairly well and 
mature quite uniformly should be 
chosen for hay. The varieties more 
commonly used are Whippoorwill, Un- 
known, New Era, and Iron. These hold 
their leaves well and stand up much 
better than most of the other varieties. 
Such varieties as Black, Red Ripper, 
and Clay are not desirable for the pro- 
duction of hay, as they rur to vine badly 
and are consequently very hard to cure 
and handle. The readiness with which 
the hay can be cured depends largely 
upon the maturity of the vine and the 
condition of the weather; hence the 
advisability of having the harvesting 
done when the season is most likely to 
be dry. 


An ordinary mower is the most prac- 
tical machine for cutting cowpeas for 
hay, and if an erect variety is grown 
the entire 'plant can readily be 
saved. The mowing should begin in 
the morning, as soon as the dew is off, 
and may be continued all day if desired, 
though some advocate cutting only till 
noon. The vines should be left in the 
swath until well wilted on top, but not 
till the leaves are dry and brittle. 
They should then be raked into wind- 
rows; this may be the same day or the 
day after mowing. They should be left 
in the windrows one or two days and 
then put into small cocks of one or 
two forkfuls. The cocks should be left 
till the vines are well cured, from two 
to five or six days, depending on the 
conditions which have prevailed during 
the cured period. A good rule to follow 
is that peas are ready for stacking or 
putting into the barn when it is not 
possible to wring moisture out of the 
steams by twisting a handful with con- 
siderable force. 


The hay tedder can be used very ad- 
vantageously in making cowpea hay. 
If the growth is very heavy the tedder 
should be used immediately after mow- 
ing, as it will open up the vines so that 
the sun and air can get to them better. 
It can be used to good advantage on 
vines inthe swath after the top part 
is wilted, as it opens them up so they 
will dry more uniformly. It is also 
valuable for opening up the windrows a 
half day oraday before cocking. An 
ordinary rake can also be used for turn- 
ing the windrows over. The tedder 
should never be used expect ‘when 
the vines are either green or dane. so as 
not to cause the loss of too many leaves, 


In case of wet weather setting in 
shortly after mowing, the best practice 


SEPTEMBER 1908. ] 


is not to touch the vires at all until after 
the rain. Itis a mistake to be in a hurry 
about handling after wet weather. If 
the vines are fairly mature before 
cutting, a wet spell during hay-making, 
unless prolonged, is not a very serious 
matter. If, however, the vines are im- 
mature when cut, great difficulty is 
always experienced in curing the hay in 
unfavorable weather. 


Several special devices are more or 
less used in curing cowpea hay. The 
most common of these isa pole, usvallv 
with cross-pieces nailed at right angles, 
around which the vines are cocked. 
Triangular pyramids from 2 to 38 feet 
high, built of poles with cross-pieces 
nailed on to hold them together, are 
used to asmall extent in the same way. 
The object of these devices is to get air 
into the vines by keeping them from 
becoming tightly packed together and 
to have an airspace in the centre of the 
cock. Canvas or other covers, or hay 
caps, to protect the cocks during rainy 
weather, also have a limited use. These 
devices give excellent results in curing 
cowpeas, but on account of the increased 
cost and labour they entail are not in 
general use. A good and comparatively 
cheap hay cap would find a ready market 
and could be soldin large numbers, It 
would be a great help in cowpea hay 
making. 


COWPEAS IN MIXTURES. 


While cowpeas can be satisfactorily 
grown alone for hay, it is a much better 
practice asarule to grow them in mix- 
tures. The most widely used crop for 
this purpose issorghum. This includes 
both the sweet sorghums and the kafirs. 
The sorghum serves to support the 
cowpea vines, and its use usually results 
in increasing the yield of hay consider- 
ably. An additional important advan- 
tage is that the hay is more easily cured, 
as the sorghum prevents the matting 
together of the cowpea plants. Corn is 
also used very extensively in mixture 
with cowpeas, but only to a small 
extent for hay purposes. The two are 
grown together very satisfactorily in 
cultivated rows. Other crops that have 
been used to grow in mixture with 
cowpeas are millet, soy beans, and 
Jonnson grass, 


Cowpeas and Sorghum.—In the Pied- 
mont region of the South a large per- 
centage of the cowpeas planted for hay 
is in mixture with sorghum, and the 
practice should spread rapidly, as this 
mixed hay is very nearly a complete 
ration and is relished by all farm stock. 
The mixture has given excellent satis- 
faction on the Arlington Experimental 
Farm, near Washington, D. C. The 


51 Miscellaneous Products, 


variety of sweet sorghum most used is 
the Amber, as itis not as coarse as the 
others, and hence cures more rapidly. 
The seeding is best done with a grain 
drill on well-prepared land, the two 
kinds of seed being well mixed and sown 
at the same time. The best rate is one 
bushel of good seed of cowpeas to one-half 
bushel of sorghum to the acre. If a 
grain drill is:not available for seeding, 
the cowpea seed should be disked or 
ploughed in, and the sorghum seed should 
then be sown while the land is rough 
and covered witha drag harrow. The 
Whippoorwill, Iron, Unknown, and Clay 
cowpeas require about the same time as 
sorghum to mature, and therefore should 
be used instead of the early varieties. 
In general, the planting may be done 
from June | to July 15. 


Growing cowpeas and sorghum to- 
gether in cultivated rows gives excellent 
results. They should be planted together 
in rows 23 to 3$ feet apart, three pecks of 
cowpea seed and about one-third of a 
bushel of sorghum seed being used to the 
acre. The Sumac and the Orange varie- 
ties are fully as good as the Amber 
sorghum for this use, as they grow larger 
and stronger plants. The harvesting is 
most satisfactorily done with a mower. 


Cowpeas and Corn.—Cowpeas are most 
widely used at present for growing with 
corn. When grown in this way afarmer 
secures a crop of corn, sufficient cowpea 
seed for use the next season, and either 
a hay crop ora certain amount of graz- 
ing for his stock. The cowpea is an 
excellent plant to grow with corn for 
ensilage, and is being used quite exten- 
sively for this purpose on many dairy 
farms, especially in the northern part of 
the cowpea region. When planted in 
the corn-field itis usually at the last cul- 
tivation of that crop. The quantity of 
seed used to the acre ranges from half a 
bushel or less to two bushels, depending 
largely on whether the planting is broad, 
cast or in rows close to the corn. Gen- 
erally the best results are obtained by 
the use of about three pecks of seed and 
planting near the rows of corn, prefer- 
ably with a corn, cotton or other planter, 
immediately after the last cultivation 
of the corn. Usually the peas are 
allowed to ripen a fair percentage of 
pods, which are gathered for next year’s 
seed, and the vines are then pastured. 


Iu the sugar-cane districts of Louisiana 
and in parts of Mississippi and Alabama 
the cowpeas are made into hay instead 
of being pastured after the corn has been 
gathered. Thisisa very good practice 
and is becoming general. The work is 
very satisfactorily done with a strong 
wooden-toothed rake, which pulls the 


Miscellaneous Products. 252 


vines and leaves them in small bunches 
for curing. The harvesting is also done 
with a mower to some extent. 


In a few localities, especially in parts 
of Maryland, corn and cowpeas are sown 
thickly together for hay with excellent 
results. The seeding for this purpose 
is at the rate of one-half to one bushel of 
corn and one bushel of cowpeas to the 
acre. The two mature at practically 
the same time, the yield is large, and the 
curing is easily done. 


Cowpeas and Johnson Grass.—W here 
Johnson grass is not a pest, or where it is 
well established ona field and there is 
no desire to clean it out, it can very 
satisfactorily forma part of a mixture 
with cowpeas. At the Arlington Experi- 
mental Farm in 1906 the mixture of 
Johnson grass and cowpeas gave the 
best results both in yield and in the 
quality of the hay produced. There is 
no difficulty in killing out Johnson grass 
north of Tennessee and Central Virginia, 
but south of these States the difficulty 
increases rapidly. 


The mixture should be sown at the 
rate of one bushel of Johnson grass and 
one bushel of cowpeas to the acre; if the 
seeding is done with a grain drill, care 
must be exercised not to cover the John- 
ton grass seed too deeply. Where this 
grass is already established, the land 
may either be ploughed or thoroughly 
disked in late spring, the treatment 
depending on the nature of the soil, 
and then the cowpeas alone should be 
sown in June. One and a half bushels 
of cowpea seed to the acre are fre- 
quently used, as the Johnson grass 
makes a more vigorous growth under 
such circumstances than when coming 
from seed. This latter practise is com- 
mon at Augusta, Ga., and gives excellent 
results. The quality of hay obtained is 
very good, and it is not as coarse as the 
mixture with sorghum. The fact that 
Johnson grass often becomes a trouble- 
some weed is the only objection to it in 
mixture with cowpeas for hay produc- 
tion. In other respects it is the best 
plant for this purpose, 


Cowpeas and Millet.—German millet 
has often been grown in mixture with 
cowpeas. As it matures in relatively 
short time it is adapted for growing 
only with the early varieties of cowpeas, 
such as the New Era, and even with 
these the yield is rarely increased. The 
millet aids materially in curing the hay, 
however, and possibly improves its 
quality by adding variety. Millet 
should never be used in mixture with 
the late and rank-growing cowpeas, as 
the results ebtained are not satisfactory, 


since in addition to maturing too early 
the millet is not strong enough to hold 
up the cowpea vines. 


Cowpeas and Soy Beans.—But little 
experumenting has been donein growing 
soy beans and cowpeas together, but the 
results obtained have been very pro- 
mising. Only the larger growing soy 
beans, such as the Mammoth variety, 
are suitable for this use. The soy beans 
are strong enough to assist very materi- 
ally in holding up the cowpeas, and they 
also aid effectively in curing the hay. 
The combination is therefore worthy of 
much more extended use. The hay of 
this mixture is an exceedingly rich one, 
as the composition of both plants is high 
iu protein. Seeding should be at the 
rate of a bushel of soy beans and a halt 
bushel of cowpeas to theacre. 


COWPEAS FOR PASTURE. 


The use of cowpeasfor pasture isnot 
asa rule the best farm practice, but 
under certain circumstances it is advi- 
sable and fairly profitable. Grazing culti- 
vated landsis likely to render succeed- 
ing tillage more difficult on account of 
the trampling by stock; and, unless care 
is exercised in pasturing cowpeas, loss of 
animals by bleating may result, espe- 
cially in wetweather. However, the 
small amount of work and the insigni- 
ficant cash outlay, always associated 
with the grazing of stock commend the 
pratice to the average farmer, 
seareity of labour often makesit neces- 
sary to pasture a crop whenever pos- 
sible. Cowpeas when planted in corn are 
very commonly used for grazing, espe- 
cially with hogs. 


The best time to begin pasturing cow- 
peas is when the first pods are ripe. 
This practice is not generally followed, 
as at least a part of the seed is saved 
first. When the peas are grown in corn- 
fields the grazing is deferred until the 
corn has been gathered. 


In a feeding trialat the Alabama Agri- 
cultural Experiment Station it was 
found that pigs fed on corn alone gained 
0:36 pound daily, while pigs on cow- 
peas pasture and corn gained 0°97 
pound daily, consuming 36 per cent. less 


corn for each pound of gain. The returns. 


were $10°65 for an acre of cowpeas, with 
corn at40 cents a bushel and hogs at 38 
cents a pound. 


Oklahoma Agricultural Experiment 
Station reports that cowpeas planted 
early in July furnished two. grazing 
periods for milk cows before frost in the 
fall, and that the flow of milk was 
noticeably increased. At the Arkansas 


Station steers were fattened on cowpea 


LT aoa 
(HAP ay a 


a 
(SEPTEMBER, 1908, 


Se — 


and - 


SEPTEMBER, 1908.] 


._ horse fed bran just held its 


pasture and cotton-seed, making an 
average gainof 2 pounds a day for ninety 
days. So long asthe pea vines were 
green and considerable seed was avail- 
able, very little cotton-seed were eaten. 
The cost of each pound of gain was 
only 2 cents for cotton seed, thus show- 
ing the high value of the cowpea 
pasture. 


FEEDING VALUE OF COWPBAS. 


Cowpea Hay.—The feeding value of 
cowpea hay has long been recognized, as 
it has been used extensively for all kinds 
of stock in the Southern States. With 
a fair number of ripe peas in the hay it 
has heen found to be satisfactory when 
fed alone to stock at work, and can be 


‘used very successfully as a maintenance 


ration for horses, mules, cattle, sheep, 
and even hogs. The farmers in the 
sugar-cane districts of Louisiana make a 
very extensive use of cowpea hay for 
their work stock, it being practically the 
only roughage used. It is generally 
claimed that horses or mules at work 
stand hot weather better when fed on 
cowpea hay than when fed on grass hay 
and corn. The difference in the appear- 
ance of the animals is also very much in 
favour of the cowpeas. 


Ina three months’ test at the North 
Carolina Agricultural Experiment Sta- 
tion the rations fed two high-grade 
Percheron mares, used as a team and 
receiving the same care and _ shelter, 
differed only in the use cf 10 pounds of 
cowpea hay inone and thesame quan- 
tity of wheat bran in the other. The 
own in 
weight, while the one fed cowpea hay 
gained a little, The cowpea ration was 
5 cents cheaper in daily cost. 


At the Arkansas Agricultural Hxperi- 
ment Station two three-year-old steers 
were fattened on cowpea hay and 
cotton-seed in a feeding trial lasting 
ninety days. The daily ration consisted of 
132 pounds of cotton seed and 20 pounds 
pea hay. The average daily gain was 
3 pounds for each steer, and the cattle 
were in excellent condition during the 
entire trial. The profit realized was 
$21°30. The Tennessee Agricultural Hx- 
periment Station found that 6 to 10 
pounds of cowpea hay could be substi- 
tuted for 3 to 5 pounds of cotton-seed 
meal in beef production. This indicates 
that this hay can be utilized to 
advantage in place of corn and cotton- 
seed meal when these feeds are high 
priced. 


In the production of milk and butter, 
the Tennessee Agricultural Experiment 
Station reports that 15 pounds of chopped 
pea hay is equivalent to a pound of 


253 


Miscellaneous Products. 


wheat bran, and 3 pounds of chopped 
pea hay to a pound of cotton-seed meal. 
With bran valued at $20a ton a yield 
of 25 tons of cowpea hay would mean a 
return of $40 an acre for the crop, based 
on its feeding value. Cowpea hay is 
equally as good as bran for producing a 
flow of milk. 


Cowpea Seed.—The seed of cowpeas is 
rarely obtainable at a low enough price 
to be used as a feed. Its composition 
indicates that it isa richer feed than 
wheat bran. ‘Che Alabama Agricultural 
Hxperiment Station fed cowpeas to 
fattening pigs with excelleat results, 
More lean meat was found in the bodies 
of the pigs fed cowpeas than in those 
fed corn meal only. A’ great many 
people have tried feeding the seed, 
either whole or in broken pieces to 
poultry. Splendid results are obtained, 
the fowls being kept in good condition 
and producing a good supply of eggs, 
even inthe winter months. Very good 
results are also obtained by teeding the 
hay, as the fowls eat all except the hard, 
coarse stems. 


Cowpea Straw.—Now that cowpea seed 
can be secured by running the vines 
through a thrashing machine, the straw 
is coming to be quite an important feed. 
While no authentic data are at hand in 
regard to this straw, farmers and stable- 
keepers who have used it claim that it is 
an excellent feed, some even preferring 
it to ordinary pea-vine hay. There have 
been no ill-effects reported from its use. 
The straw sells for about the same price 
as the hay. 


GROWING COWPEAS FOR SEED. 


The greater agricultural use of cowpeas 
has been seriously handicapped in late 
years by the high price of seed. Until 
the last few years cowpea seed has been 
almost entirely gathered by hand, though 
that Larvested by machinery makes up 
an increasing percentage of the com- 
mercial seed each year. Cheaper seed 
will undoubtedly bring about an enor- 
mous Increase in the culture of the crop. 


Cowpeas when grown jor seed or for 
combined seed and hay production are 
nearly always sown broadcast or with 
a grain drill. Occasionally fields are 
planted in rows and cultivated. Ex- 
periments generally prove that the 
largest yields are secured by planting in 
rows and cultivating, but in many 
localities this increased yield is not 
sufficient to off-set the additional cost of 
cultivation. 


The planting of cowpeas for seed 
production should always be_ thinner 
than for (forage purposes. Figure 2 


Miscellaneous Products. 


shows a field of cowpeas of the Whippoor- 
will variety planted in rows one-fifth 
rod (about 3 feet 4 inches) apart and 
cultivated three times, while figure 3 
shows a field of the same variety broad- 
casted thickly. Attention is called to 
the fair crop of pods and the larger size 
of the plants in the cultivated area. 
Figure 4 shows a field of Iron cowpeas 
planted in rows one-fifth rod apart and 
cultivated three times. The plants are 
much larger than those shown in figure 
5, a field of thesame variety broadcasted 
thinly ; but the plants in both fields are 
well podded. When grown in rows 
24 to 36 inches apart one peck toa half 
bushel of good seed per acre is required. 
When the seed is broadcasted the quan- 
tity ranges from three to six pecks to the 
acre, depending on the soil, the method 
of seeding, and the size of seed. Heavy 
clay or light sandy soils require more 
seed than loam soils. If sown with a 
grain drill only about two-thirds as 
much as for broadcasting is required, 
Of the smaller seeded varieties, such as 
the New Era and the Iron, two or three 
pecks will give the best results ; while of 
the larger seeded varieties, suchas the 
Black, the Unknown, and the Whippoor- 
will, the quantities range from three pecks 
to five pecks to the acre, a bushel generally 
being the best amount to use. In most 
of the cowpea region planting for seed 
production should be rather late in the 
season, since late plantings as a rule 
give much better seed yields than early 
plantings. This is not the case, however, 
in Oklahoma and northern Texas, where 
early seeding gives the best yields, 
owing probably to the light rainfall. 
In certain sections near the Gulf, two 
seed crops in a season may be secured 
by growing in rows and planting the 
first very early. 


HAND PICKING. 


The method of gathering seed by hand 
is the only one practicable where the 
peas are planted in corn, which is a very 
common practice throughout the South. 
The cowpeas are planted at the last culti- 
vation of the corn and are nearly always 
ripe before frost. The vines climb the 
corn stalks, so most of the pods are well 


254 


(SEPTEMBER, 1908, 


above ground, which greatly facilitates 
gathering them. They are picked by 
hand into bags, and later flailed or run 
through a pod huller. The cost of hand 
picking ranges from 40 to 75 cents a 
hundred pounds of pods, or the picker is 
given one-third to one-half of the total 
quantity gathered. This method of 
harvesting naturally makes the price of 
seed high. Fields grown to cowpeas 
alone for seed production are often hand 
picked. The yield of seed in such cases 
isasa rule much larger, anda larger 
number of podsecan be picked in a day 
than when grown with corn. The Black- 
eye and similar varieties grown for table 
use are usually picked by hand. 


MACHINE PICKING. 


The scarcity of seed and the difficulty 
of securing labour have resulted in the 
inveution of several so-called pea pickers, 
These machines are intended to gather 
the pods from the vines in the field. The 
peas must be planted in rows for the 
most successful operation of a pea picker, 
and the entire plant must be ripe and 
dry before the machine will do satis- 
factory work. Two of these pickers are 
constructed on much the same principle, 
that of a winged drum revolving rapidly 
over a stationary moderately sharp edge. 
The pods are thus knocked back upon a 
platform and then elevated into a receiv- 
ing box or bag. A third machine differs 
from the foregoing in that the picking 
apparatus is very much in the nature of 
a flailing operation, the cylinder consist- 
ing of four arms made up of pieces of gas 
pipe. This revolves rapidly and knocks 
the pods back into the gathering box. A 
fourth machine is a harvester and 
thrasher combined. In this, the vines 
are cut with an ordinary mowing 
arrangement and passed directly to the 
thrashing part of the machine, which is 
essentially the same as that of any 
thrasher. This last-mentioned machine 
is very satisfactory for harvesting 
perfectly ripe peas, sinceit very nearly 
completes the operation. For harvesting 
varieties grown for table use, such as the 
Blackeye, the Lady, and other white peas, 
it may find considerable demand. 


(To be concluded.) 


=> 


SEPTEMBER, 1908. | 


255 


SCIENTIFIC AGRICULTURE. 


INFLUENCE OF THE CHARACTER OF 
SEED ON THE GROWTH OF TREES. 


Iaan address to the Royal Scottish 
Arboricultural Society, Dr. Somerville 
drew attention to experiments made in 
Australia and Switzerland to test the in- 
fluence of elevation on seed of the spruce 
and larch. In the case of the Swiss 
experiments, an examination of the 
seed procured from trees of approximate- 
ly equal age situated at different ele- 
vations showed that there wasa gradual, 
though by no means regular, reduction 
in size according as it was obtained 
from low and high elevations; for in- 
stance, it was found that 1,000 seeds 
usually weighed more than 6 grammes 
when obtained from an altitude under 
3.000 feet, and less than 6 grammes when 
the altitude was 3,000 to 6,000 feet. The 
percentage germination followed the 
same order, being 70 to 80 for lower alti- 
tudes, and 50 to 60 for higher altitudes. 
It was also clearly shown that there was a 
relationship between the rate of growth 
of the seedlings and the elevation at 
which the seed was gathered. As is well 
known, above a certain altitude the 
growth of trees in height is affected, 
and at the upper levels the trees became 
more or less stunted. These experi- 
ments showed that this reduction in the 
stature of trees is a character that is 
inherited, for example, plants from seed 
gathered ata height of 1,800 feet were 
18inches high after 5 years, while seed 
obtained from levels between 5,000 and 
6,000 feet only produced plants 9-10 
inches high. Similar results were ob- 


tained in Austria, where spruce gather- 
ed and sown at an altitude of 1,700 feet 
attained a height of 53 inches after 15 
years, while seed sown in the same nur- 
sery but gathered at a height of 5,200 
feet only gave plants 380 inches high. 
The height-growth in 1905 was also 
smaller, so that fifteen years after sow- 
ing the seed the slower growth of 
plants from seed harvested at a high 
altitude was still conspicuous. and it 
seems probable that this characteristic 
will be maintained throughout the life 
of the tree. A number of other trials 
were made besides those mentioned, 
and also some with larch and sycamore, 
which confirm the conclusion as to the 
transmission of the tendency to slower 
growth. The converse is also true, for 
seed from low elevations produced 
plants thatthrove badly at high alti- 
tudes. For use at high altitudes, 
seed from similar altitudes must be 
obtained, and Dr. Somerville thinks it 
not unlikely that woods could be grown 
in Scotland at greater heights than at 
present if high-grown coniferous seed 
were obtained for the purpose. Gener- 
ally seed should be obtained from well- 
grown healthy trees situated in the 
district where the woods are to be 
grown, orin adistrict of similar char- 
acter.—Journal of the Board of Agricul- 
ture, Vol. XV., No.2, May, 1908. 


[This is the method employed in Java 
to get Liberian Coffee to grow at higher 


elevations than it. would naturally 
stand. It has, we believe, now been 
successfully cultivated as high as 


3,500 feet.—ED. | 


256 


HORTICULTURE. 


SOME OTHER ORNAMENTAL 
TREKS. 


By J: P. Lewis. 


Mr. Macmillan, in his interesting paper 
on “Some Beautiful Tropical Trees,” in 
the June number of the ‘‘7.A.,” has 
omitted to mention some of the best and 
most suitable trees for planting along 
the roads. 


I do not know whether he has been to 
Jafina; but I should say probably not, 
or he would have referred to the fine 
avenue of Mahogany trees on the main 
road to the Kachcheri and Chundikuli. 
planted by Sir William Twynam, and, if 
he had made the journey by road, the 
similar but much younger avenue at 
Vavuniya, planted by the same veteran 
Vice-Presideut of the 
Society, soon after the Vavuniya Kach- 
cheri was opened in 1880. 


This tree, which was identified by Dr. 
Trimen as the “Marsh Mahogany” 
(Swietenia mahogani), was introduced 
by Mr. Dyke into Jaffna, and the largest 
trees then at the Kachcheri, Nellore and 
Chundikuli, were planted by him. 


In 1842 he applied to Peradeniya for 
seeds, but he does not seem to have been 
able to get them. InJune, 1844, however, 
he received a dozen plants from the 
Caleutta Botanic Gardens (presumably 
through Peradeniya), and in April, 1846, a 
quantity of seeds. He planted some ofthe 
trees at the Kachcheri, Chundikuli and 
Nellore, and gave one ortwo to the Moor- 
men of Jaffna to plant at_ their mosque. 
Several of the former and one given to 
the Moors were still standing 60 yéars 
later. The plants were 10 or 12 feet high 
in August, 1847; over 18 feet with 
circumference of 7 inches at 4 feet trom 
the ground in May, 1848. 


The height of one tree near the gate of 
the Chundikuli Mission compound was 
measured in 1864 or 1865, by Mr. Reginald 
Pole, Office Assistant, and found to be 60 
feet. 


Mr. Henry Pole of the Civil Service 
planted two at Mullaittivu, in the 
Assistant Government Agent’s compound 
in 1846 or 1847, and these are still stand- 
ing. 

The first pods in Jaffna were obtained 
from a tree in front of the Fiscal’s Office. 
The original trees planted did not fruit 
until very late, and then not freely. The 


Agricultural. 


younger trees grown from the seeds 
fruited early and somewhat freely, es- 
pecially, one close to the Kachcheri resi- 
dence. 


Mr. Dyke remarks with regard to 
these trees that ‘‘they grow as if indi- 
genous and require very little watering, 
even in this arid climate and in very 
exposed situations.” * 


The Vavuniya trees were grown from 
seed obtained from the Jaffna trees. 
From Jaffna they have been introduced 
also into Trincomalee and Anuradha- 
pura. Mr. Le Mesurier introduced them 
into Kandy (I think from Jaffna), about 
25 years ago, and there are two large 
trees in front of the Kachcheri, which he 
planted ; also some smaller trees on the 
green alongside of the Audience Hall. 
In 1904-5 the writer sent some dozen 
plants from Jaffna to Mr. S. M. Burrows 
at Kurunegala, and I believe they are 
flourishing there. I planted another 
dozen plants obtained from Jaffna in 
Kandy, in 1906, but it was a case of taking 
eoals to Neweastle, for afterwards there 
were discovered some plants in the Old 
Palace Garden below the wall which 
bounds the green referred to, the only 
tree apparently out of nine in Kandy 
which bears seed. The plants from Jaffna 
are doing well, some of them are now 
6 feet high and others would be the same 
if they had not been broken by mischiev- 
ous persons in spite of the tree guards. 
I have also introduced the tree into 
Gampola and Nawalapitiya, and expect 
to see it soon at Matale. 


I sent at his request two plants to Mr. 
tT. R. Ward, P. E., at Badulla in 1904, and 
when I saw them last in October, 1905, 
in the Provincial Engineer’s compound, 
they were then 10 feet high. 


i think the Jaffna climate suits them 
better than that of Kandy ; though they 
grow well in both places—they flourish 
especially in Jaffna. 


Another tree is the large-leaved Maho- 
gany (Swietenia macrophylla), if any- 
thing, a finer tree than the first-named. I 
introduced this into Negombo in 1894- 
1895 from Henaratgoda Gardens. The 
trees were planted in front of the Rest 
House and grew very tast; they are now 
quite large trees. In July or August last - 
the Secretary of the Local Board sent 
me a pod from one of the trees I planted 


* This account of the introduction of the Maho- 
gany tree into Jafina is taken from the Kachcheri 
records, 


‘SEPTEMBER, 1908.] 


- in Negombo; from this I have now half- 


dozen trees growing round the lake at 
Kandy and in other places in Kandy— 
one in front of the Kachcheri. 


I introduced this tree into Jaffna in 
1903, and left two growing very well in 
the Park in 1906. 


The Parkia Roxburghiw is the third 
splendid shade tree not mentioned by 
Mr. Macmillan. It shoots up straight for 
20 feet or so, and then throws out 
branches. It was introduced by the late 
Colonel Byrde, Secretary of the Munici- 
pality, into Kandy about 25 years ago, 
and there is a fine, though short, avenue 
of the trees planted by him in Ward 
Street, between the National and Mercan- 
tile Banks, which has completely trans- 
formed tbat street from a glaring white 
thoroughfare into a shady boulevard. 


T introduced it into Jaffna and Vavu- 
niya in 1903-4 from seed obtained 
from these trees, and left two plants 
growing well in the Park at Jaffna in 
1906, and one at least at Vavuniya, The 
dry climate did not seem to affect them 
injuriously. 


The resemblance between the maho- 
gany and the margosa, to which, I believe, 
itis allied, is very striking. The mar- 
gosa is the distinguishing tree of the 
Jaffna Peninsula and Islands, but it is 
almost useless planting it as an orna- 
mental tree, as it is ruthlessly ‘‘barked” 
by the people for medicine. I have had 
the same experience here with the two 
or three na trees growing in the lake 
round. 


The only redeeming feature at Cal- 
pentyn, besides the Fort and the lagoon, 
is its avenue of margosa trees. 


Would tarring the bark for 8 or 10 feet 
hurt the tree? It would be unsightly 
perhaps, but not more unsightly than 
che bark scored with wounds all round ; 
and if it put a stop to this and helped to 
preserve a beautiful tree, it would be 
worth doing. I am going to try corru- 


33 


257 


Horticulture. 


gated iron cylinders encircling the na 
trees, and should be glad of any hints 
as to how to stop the practice. 


The Spathodea was introduced int 
Negombo by Mr. E. M. Byrde, s.G.A., in 
1884, and the Jacaranda mimoscefolia 
(see Mr. Macmillan’s paper) by the writer 
in 1892-1894. I planted a good many 
Spathodea and Pehimbiya (Filiciwm de- 
cipiens, a fourth tree which, though a 
jungle tree, is well worth planting for 
ornament owing to its handsome fern- 
like foliage) on the Esplanade there. 


I introduced the former into Vavuniya 
in 1889-1890, but tailed to get it to grow 
in Jaffna. Jaffna possesses one pehimbiya 
in the Park, and the largest Nelli tree 
(Phyllanthus emblica) I have seen, but I 
suppose planted by Mr. Dyke, who 
collected trees of every kind to plant in 
the Park. The latter tree is for months 
leafless, but the rest of the year flourishes 
like the green bay tree. The pehimbiya 
does not flourish—the ends of the bran- 
ches die off. 


Mr. Dyke also introduced the ‘‘Sissoo” 
tree from India into Jaffna in 1848, but 
the climate did not suit it, and the few 
trees left in 1902 looked very shuck and 
died off. I doubt whether one is now 
left. Ido not know the scientific name 
of this tree; * it is a good timber tree. 


Seeing that so many miles by road in 
Jaffna and the Jaffna Peninsula are 
planted with the Suriya or tulip tree 
(Thespesia populnea) and its prominence 
in all sea-side towns in the Island, I 
think it might have been worthy of 
being included in the list. It is very 
handsome in December, when it is in 
flower. The only objections to it are the 
fact that it harbours a peculiarly ob- 
noxious hairy caterpillar and is the prey 
of the Kuruvichchar (Loranthus). Itis 
a godsend in hot, dry, wind-swept 
places. I have seen it growing at the 
tanks at Aden. 


* Dalbergia Sissoo,—Ep, 


4 a 
4 


258 [SEPTEMBER, 1908. 
; 
MISGELLANEOUYS. ) 
DEMONSTRATION WORK IN CO. we have allowed the stalks to be turned 
OPERATION WITH SOUTHERN under provided the immature bolls are 


FARMERS. 
By S. A. KNAPP. 


(Concluded from page 169,—Read cash 
for catch on page 169.) 


THE CULTURAL SYSTEM FOR PRODUCING 
CoTTON UNDER BoLL-WEEVIL 
CONDITIONS. 


As it is evident that the cotton boll 
weevil will soon spread over the entire 
cotton-producing territory of the United 
States, itisa matter of general interest 
to know how cotton is at present produc- 
ed with the weevil present. 


Success in making a cotton crop under 
boll-weevil condition is based upon there 
principles. It was found (1) that the 
numbers of the weevils could be limited 
so that they would not become totally 
destructive to the crop until the first 
and middle crops are out of danger; (2) 
that the cotton plant can be so bred 
‘and selected as to throw nearly its whole 
life forces into the lower and middle 
crops ;and (8) that the plant can be 
so hastened to maturity by the applica- 
tion of cultural methods that most of the 
boll will be developed—to the safety 
point before the weevils are too 
numerous. 


Guided by the principles just men- 
tioned, the Bureau of Plant Industry 
has worked out a co-operative plan of 
producing cotton under boll-weevil con- 
ditions, which is known through the 
South as the ‘‘cotton cultural system.” 
This plan is based upon our knowledge 
of the cotton plant upon the life habits 
of the boll weevil as ascertained by the 
Bureau of Entomology.* Its chief 
features may be briefly mentioned as 
follows :-— 


(1) The destruction of the weevils in 
the fall (a) by burning the cotton stalks 
early in the fall while the weevils are 
still upon them, and (b) by burning all 
rubbish in and about the field which 
might serve for hibernating quarters. 


It is so difficult to secure a general 
adoption by the farmers of the plan of 
early burning of the cotton stalks that 


* See Bulletin No, 61 of the Bureau of Ento- 
mology. 


destroyed. 


(2) Immediately after destroying the 
bolls breaking (ploughing) the field as 
deep as conditions will allow. 


(8) The shallow winter cultivation of 
the soil. 


(4) As early planting as the season 
will allow with safety to the crop. 


(5) The planting of early-maturing 
varieties of cotton, 


(6) The use of fertilizers. 


(7) Leaving more space between the 
rows, and on ordinary uplands having a 
greater distance between plants in the 
row than is usually allowed. On rich or 
highly fertilized lands it is better to 
crowd the plants slightly in the rows to 
avoid the excessive growth of the stalks. 


(8) The use of the toothed-harrow 
before and after planting and on the 
young cotton. 


(9) Intensive shallow cultivation. 


(10) Agitation of the stalks by means 
of brush attached to the cultivator. 


(11) Picking up and burning the 
squares that fall, where practicable. 

(12) Controlling the growth of the 
plant if excessive by barring off or top- 
ping. 


(13) Selecting the seed. 


(14) The rotation 


of crops and the 
use of legumes. 


It will be noted that the system as 
outlined has a two-fold object: (1) To 
reduce the number of weevils, and (2) to 
aid early maturity in order to obtain a 
crop in advance of the weevil. 


A few remarks concerning the main 
features of this plan may prove of value. 


DESTRUCTION OF THE WEEVILS. 


One of the greatest dangers to the 
cotton crop is the wintering of large 
numbers of weevils. By a failure to 
destroy early in the fall the immature 
cotton bolls and the rubbish in the fields, 
enough weevils may be wintered over to 
jeopardize the crops the ensuing year. 
{f the immature bolls and the field rub- 
bish are destroyed, the stalks may be 
safely ploughed under. The rubbish in 
the field which may serve for hibernating 
quaters includes the borders and fence 
corners. 

| 


_ SEPTEMBER, 1908. | 2 


Two methods of destroying the over- 
wintered weevil while they are feeding 
on the tender te1minal buds are advo- 
cated: (1) They may be hand-picked 
and burned, or (2) some may be destroyed 
by the use of the harrow and brush. 


FALL AND WINTER CULTIVATION 
OF THE SOIL. 


After the destruction of the bolls in 
the fall, breaking (ploughing) the field 1 
or 2inches deeper than usual assist in 
the destruction of the weevils and in the 
preparation of the field for successful 
cropping the following season. In order 
to air the soil and destroy grass, shallow 
winter cultivation of the soil should be 
practised, z.e., working the land with a 
toothed harrow or a disk once every 
twenty or thirty days during the 
winter, as the weather may permit. 
The soil should be in excellent condition 
at the time of planting. 


EARLY PLANTING AND THE USE OF 
EARLY-MATURING VARIETIES. 


The object of early planting is to 
hasten the maturity of the crop. The 
Bureau of Entomology has shown that 
the weevils do not multiply until the 
squares begin to form and do not gener- 
ally become numerous enough to des- 
troy the entire crop before the last of 
July. In addition to this, early planting 
has been found generally helpful against 
cotton pests, such as the bollworm and 
the leafworm. Furthermore, the winter 
rains usually leave the soil with plenty 
of moisture, while in the spring there is 
liable to bea drought which may retard 
germination in late planting. 


Varieties of cotton differ in time of 
maturity, and the same variety may 
differ owing to soil, moisture, ferti- 
lization, cultivation, ete. The planting 
of early-maturing varieties of cotton is 
not only important as an aid in securing 
a crop, butalso asa meansof destroy- 
ing the weevil. The early-maturing 
cotton can be gathered and the immature 
bolls destroyed beforeit is time for the 
weevils to go into winter quarters. If 
all growers would plant early-maturing 
cotton and follow the plan here outlined 
it would result in gieatly lessening the 
damage of the weevil. 


In advising the planting of early- 
maturing cotton it is not the intention 
to advocate the exclusive use of small-boll 
cotton. These varieties may be better 
adapted to the northern limits of the 
cotton belt, but in nine-tenths of the 
cotton-producing territory there are 
large-boll varieties which can be just as 
successfully grown under boll-weevil 
conditions as the small-boll cottons. 


9) ! Miscellaneous. 


They must be varieties that are generally 
vigorous and that put out short-jointed 
fruit limbs close to the ground. 


USE OF FERTLIZERS. 


The use of fertilizers, especially acid 
phosphate and potash, to hasten matu- 
rity and increase fruitage, as well as the 
use of cotton-seed meal when necessary 
to promote vigour and growth, is re- 
commended. Soils and methods of appli- 
tation are fully explained, and it has 
been demonstrated that a small quantity 
of fertilizer properly applied accom- 
plishes marvellous results. 


SPACING BETWEEN PLANTs AND Rows. 


Planting in rows wider than usual and 
allowing more space inthe row on light 
lands are advised under boll-weevil condi- 
tions. Special attention must be direct- 
ed to have the rows proper distance 
apart and to thin the plants in the rows. 
There must be width enough for the 
sun’s rays to reach the earth between 
the rows and thus aid in destroying the 
larvae of the weevil. 


Generally speaking, more space to the 
plant makes a better stalk with more 
limbs, more bloom, and a higher grade of 
cotton. The spacing between the rows 
must depend on the soil and the variety 
of cotton. Morespace should be given to 
fertilized than to unfertiJized cotton. It, 
however, extreme space is allowed be- 
tween plants in the rows and intensive 
cultivation is given there may be enough 
stimulus imparted to the growth of the 
plant to actually retard maturity unless 
the growth is controlled by barring off, 
as explained later ; hence, on rich lands 
it is best to give plenty of space between 
the rows and to crowd the plants a little 
in the rows. 


USE OF THE TootuspD HARROW. 


The use of the toothed harrow as soon 
as the crop comesup is of sufficient im- 
portance to warrant special mention. 
After early planting the germination is 
frequently slow and the earth may _ be- 
come crusted. The harrow may be used 
to break the crust before the plants are 
up, and should be used soon afterwards 
to keep the soil loose so that the plants 
will take on rapid gro vth at once. The 
crop is surprisingly advanced by the 
judicious use of the harrow. 


INTENSIVE CULTIVATION. 


Ploughing or eultivating deep the first 
time and shallow at all subsequent times 
isan important feature of good cotton 
production. It destroys weeds, increases 
the plant food, and conserves moisture, 
consequently hastening maturity. Under 
boll-weevil conditions the cotton crop 


Miscellaneous. 


should be cultivated every week. Some 
of our} most successful co-operators have 
cultivated fifteen times and continued 
till picking commenced. 


AGITATION OF STALKS. 


Violent agitation of the cotton stalks 
when cultivating or ploughing, by means 
of a brush attached to the cultivator or 
plough, is reeommended. Some farmere 
attach a chain to the tongue and smooth 
poles to the whiffletrees, and also a pole 
to the handles, so as to brush the stalks 
more than once in passing. Bundles of 
soft, leafy twigs are better. This knocks 
off the infested squares. The great 
majority of squares fall off naturally in 
avery few days after they become in- 
fested. Abundant testimony has come 
from our co-operators to show that as 
long as weekly cultivation of the crop 
with violent agitation of the stalks is 
continued, the damage done by the boll 
weevil is greatly reduced. 


PICKING UP FALLEN SQUARES. 


An important aid toward the destruc- 
tion of the weevils 
squares that fall. If two or three gener- 
ations can thus be destroyed, it will 
result in retarding the increase of the 
weevil and in adding tothe cotton crop. 
This reduces the rapidity with which 
the weevils multiply and isa great aid 
in saving the crop, 


BARRING OFF OR TOPPING. 


Under boll-weevil conditions the main 
cotton crop must be made upon the lower 
and middle limbs. There is no use of a 
tall plant. The growth of the plant 
should therefore be controlled by har- 
ring off or topping. As soon as the 
plant indicates too rapid growth, bar off 
on each side, thus slightly root pruning 
and retarding upward growth. The 
tendency will then be to throw more 
vigour into the lower limbs and to put on 
more fruit. This method is especially 
valuable ov rich bottom lands where the 
stalks frequently grow 6 to 7 feet high. 
It should be noted that with the boll 
weevil no top crop is made; hence, more 
bottom crop must be secured, requiring 
a low, limby, vigorous plant. 


SELECTING AND STORING SEED. 


Scarcely any item in the cultural 
system is of more importance than the 
selection of the seed as an aid to early 
maturity in the following crop. The 
largest, best, and earliest bolls from the 
most vigorous — short-jointed plants 
should be selected for seed in advance ot 
the general picking and be stored in a 


260 


is picking up the | 


[SEPTEMBER, 1908. 


dry place. The planting of early- 
maturity varieties and the selection of 
seed from the earliest and best bolls on 
the most vigorous and best-developed 
stalks are fundamental principles in 
growing cotton irrespective of 
boll weevil and cannot be too closely 
followed. 


ROTATION OF CROPS AND USE OF 
LEGUMES. 


. The Bureau of Plant Industry in all 
its instructions seeks to build up soil 
€nergy and to improve the mechanical 
Condition of the soil as well. An im- 
portant factor to this end is rotation of 
crops and the increase of humus by 
ploughing-under green plants, especially 
cowpeas. This builds up the soil and 
renders it more porous and responsive. 


Some of the serious difficulties in 
cotton production arise from the grow- 
ing of consecutive crops of cotton on the 
same land. This reduces fertility and 
hence operates against early maturity. 
With the best of efforts to clear fields of 
the weevil in the fall by burning the 
stalks and deep ploughing, some weevils 
will survive, and a few soon infest a 
field. By planting one-half of the land 
to corn and cowpeas and the other half 
to cotton, as much cotton can be pro- 
duced as formerly, and the land will be 
gradually restored to its original ferti- 
lity. The corn and cowpeas will also 
add materially to the income of the 
farm, but the special reason urged for 
such rotation under boll-weevil infesta- 
tion is that the crop of corn and peas 
leaves the field free from the weevil, 
as it feeds only upon cotton. It is 
evident that with the boll-weevil it 
requires more labour to cultivate an 
acre of cotton; consequently, only as 
many acres should be planted as can be 
given the best attention, so as to pro- 
duce a maximum crop, thus leaving 
more laud for cereals and for meadows 
and pastures. 


DEMONSTRATION WORK ON VARIOUS 
FARM OROPS. 


The Farmers’ Co-operative Demonstra- 
tion Work, as before stated, aims to 
cover the entire scope of the manage- 
ment of the standard crops in the 
sections where the work is conducted. | 
In addition to the cotton-culture system, 
which is the main feature of the work in 
many localities, it may be well to give 
brief mention of some of the co-operative 
work on other crops now under way, 
such as corn culture, the use of soil- 
renovating crops, and the product of 
good farm seeds. 


SEPTEMBER, 1908. | 


CorN CULTURE. 


Corn is the main grain dependence for 
farm stock and can be successfully raised 
in most portions of the South. Any 
considerable increase in its anuual pro- 
duction would have a marked effect 
upon the value of the unused lands for 
grazing purposes, and would perceptibly 
increase the income of the farms. The 
importance of corn for food and for 
rotation with other crops gives it a 
rank next to cotton asa standard farm 
crop. Notwithstanding this, its cultiva- 
tion has been singularly neglected until 
the average yield per acre has fallen 
below the profit line in many States. 
Even at the high value per bushel 
allowed, the corn cropin many of the 
Southern States does not pay a living 
wage or a fair rent value for the land. 


There is abundant proof that large 
and_ profitable crops of corn can be 
produced in the South by the use of the 
best seed andimproved methods. The 
planting of low-grade seed ina shallow 
and impoverished seed-bed is responsible 
in the main for deficient yields and 
quality. However, to secure the best 
results other reforms must be made, 
such as better drainage, an adjustment of 
distances between the rows and the 
stalks in the rows to meet the require- 
ments of soil and climate, intensive 
cultivation of the erop, the use of 
cowpeas in the corn, and the following 
ot the corn with a winter cover crop. 


The Farmers’ Co-operative Demonstra- 
tion Work includes instruction along all 
of these lines, and the results have been 
most encouraging. Our investigations 
show that not even one per cent. of the 
lands in the South planted to corn are 
ploughed deeply enough at breaking, 
that they have not sufficient humus, and 
that they are not given the proper tillage 
to make the best crop. Seed is so gener- 
ally defective that only about one-third 
of so-called good seed is suitable for 
planting if maximum yields are expected. 
Along these practical lines weate con- 
ducting co-operative demonstrations 
with the object of increasing the corn 
crop in the South Atlantic and Gulf 
States atleast threefold per acre without 
additional cost. A system of seed selec- 
tion for improving the quality and in- 
creasing the yield and methods of storage 
for the preservation of vitality are out- 
lined, detailed instructions beiny given 
on application. 


SELECTION OF SEED CoRN. 


The object of the average farmer in 
planting corn is to secure the largest 
crop of good corn possible under the con- 
ditions. The selection of the seed is very 
important, 


261 


Miscellaneous. 


Kor the best results corn should be 
selected in the field. The Japanese select 
their rice seed before the harvest. 


The model ear of cornis only a small 
part of the problem. The stalk, the leaf, 
the root habits, the husk, and _ the 
environment of the plant from which the 
ear is taken must be considered. Mostof 
the Southern States are subject to a 
shorter or longer drought during the 
period of growth of the corn crop, and 
the crop will depend largely upon the 
drought-resisting habits of leaf and roots. 
Some varieties of corn which are model 
in ear have so open a husk that the 
weevils destroy much of it while in the 
field. Again, the ear in the crib does not 
tell how many weak or bastard stalks 
grew in the vicinity. 


COWPEAS AND OTHER Soir-RENOVATING. 
CROPS. 


As just stated, corn requires a strong 
well-tilled soil, and upon thin land 
deteriorated by bad management, the 
yieldsoon drops below a remunerative 
average. Such lands will, however, pro- 
fitably produce other crops of great value 
for the sustenance of farm stock, and, in 
addition, the growing of these crops will 
provide an excellent means of soil renova- 
tion. Lands that are now producing ten 
bushels of corn per acre will with much 
less labour produce 14 tons of cowpea 
hay per acre, equal in nutritive value to 
thirty-one bushels of corn, or they will 
yield 14 tons of peanut hay per acre, equal 
in nutritive value to 23? bushels of corn, 
and in addition a peanut crop of 25 
bushels per acre may be secured. 


On rich lands that under good culture 
will produce forty or more bushels of corn 
per acre satisfactory results can be 
secured by planting cowpeas between 
the rows of corn. EKven rich bottom 
lands rated to yield forty bushels of corn 
per acre if sown to alfalfa frequently 
produce five tons of hay per acreina sea- 
son, equal in feeding value to 1053 bushels 
of corn. In addition, sucherops as cow- 
peas, peanuts, and alfalfa rapidly enrich 
the soil and leave it in excellent mecha 
nical condition for the ensuing year. 


“Generally speaking, poor hill lands 
should not be used for corn culture 
unless they are placed under a thorough 
system of renovation, or unless fertiliza- 
tion with stable manure or compost is 
practised toa high degree. 


SEED FARMS. 
The good-seed problem has been a most 
difficult); one to solve. in the South. 
Very few farmers have paid any atten- 


Miscellaneous. 


tion to planting pure seed or keeping it 
pure when planted, and still fewer have 
tried to improve their seed by selec- 
tion. Notone farm in one hundred inthe 
South has proper’ storage for good 
seed. Through field agents prominent 
farmers in every county have been 
induced to establish seed farms, where 
the cultivation of the crop and the 
selection and storing of the seed are 
supervised by agents of this co-operative 
demonstration work under an agree- 
ment that the seed produced shall be 
distributed to the farmers at a moderate 
price. The best seeds for a given sec- 
tion are observed, anda general interest 
is aroused among the farmers to plant a 
separate seed patch on every farm and 
carefully select for improvement. 


PRACTICAL RESULTS ACCOMPLISHED. 


The field operations in connection with 
the Farmers’ Co-operative Demonstra- 
tion Work extend over such a vast 
territory that it is difficult to state 
results in a concrete way. The follow- 
ing statements give the more important 
items in condensed form :— 


Amount available from Con- 


gressional appropriations for 
year 1907-8 ae wel Oh TOO 1OO 


General Education Board 
Contribution* 69,000:00 
Slater fund* : 1,000:00 
Voluntary local contributions 
(estimated)+ ... _20,000°00 
167,739°80 
Agent in charge oh “ia ‘iL 
General assistant agents Hs 2 


Field agents i oe 148 
States partially or wholly worked 10 


Public meetings held annually .... 2,750 
Circulars distributed annually... 200,000 
Number of demonstration farms, 

1907-8, of which exact records 

are kept in central office 12,000 
Number of co-operating farms, 

1907-8 an 20,000 
Number of farmers visiting the 

demonstration farms annually 

(conservatively estimated) ... 300,000 


Great interest is everywhere manifest- 
ed in better preparation of the soil, in 


* The responsibility for handling these funds re- 
mains in thafhands of the contributors, acting 
underthe advice of the agent in charge. 


+ Many counties ask for more demonstration 
farms andjmore improved seed than the Depart- 
ment jof Agriculture can furnish on account of 
lack of funds. Someof these pledge the money 
necessay to thus supplement the work. 


262 


planting selected seed, and in general 
betterment. 


Thousands of prize contests have been 
started in cotton and corn production 
among farmers and also among boys on 
the farm. 


Thousands of letters bearing testimony 
to the value of the work have been re- 
ceived, but it is impossible to present any 
extended digest of these within the limits 
of a Farmers’ Bulletin. 


The following extracts from letters 
received show the people’s estimate . of 
the value of this demonstration work :— 


Marshall, Tex., October 10, 1907. 


We, the undersigned committee for 
Harrison County, Tex., make the follow- 
ing prelimanry report on the Karmers’ 
Co-operative Demonstration Work donein 
the past season in this county :— 


On account of the ravages of the bol- 
weevil, Harrison County, Tex., was 
threatened with a disaster in the 
loss of the cotton crop that would affect 
every material interestin the county. 
The loss of money was not the sole con- 
sideration. Our tenants and farm 
labourers would toa large extent leave 
the county, and it would thus _ per- 
manently injure our Commonwealth. 
In this emergency we appealed to the 
United States Department of Agricul- 
ture through you for advice and aid. 
You came to our county and organized 
the woikin February, 1907, under an 
arrangement by which the Department 
of Agriculture would furnish superin- 
tendence and the people of this county 
would raise enough funds to buy im- 
yroved seed for the demonstration 
‘arms. The citizens of the county 
promptly raised and deposited in bank 
$1,000, and later contributed $700 more, 
making a total of $1,700 invested in 
better seed. All agreements between 
the Department of Agriculture and the 
people were promptly and satisfactorily 
carried out. Almost without expection 
this was the worst season this section 
has ever known for producing cotton, 
but without reservation we wishto make 
the following statements :— 


(1) The results of the demonstration 
work have been in the highest degree 
satisfactory to our people, and they re- 
gard this movement as one of the 


greatest ever made for the upbuilding of 


our secticn. 


(2) Our people are unanimous in asking 
for its continuance and would regard the 
discontinuance of the work as an untold 
disaster. 


7 
. 


‘SEPTEMBER, 1908. | 


(3) Among the many good things 


- accomplished we enumerate the follow- 


ing :— 
(a) It established over 300 demonstra- 


tion farms, scattered over the entire 
county. 


(b) It taught better culture and in- 
troduced better seed. These two items 
alone were worth more than $100,000 this 
year to our county in actual cash, to say 
nothing of future benefits. Theimprove- 
ment was so apparent that the observing 
traveller on the high ways could pick 
out every demonstration field. 


(c) This demonstration work saved a 
stampede of tenant farmers and labourers 
from the farms, 

(d) It gave confidence to the mer- 
chants and bankers that a crop would be 
made, and thus promoted credit. 

(e) It demonstrated to the farmers 
that a crop of cotton could be made 


under extremely adverse condition of 


weather and insect pests, and they enter 
upon another year with perfect confi- 
dence. 


Great credit for the success of this 
year’s work is due to the excellert super- 
vision of W. F. Proctor, State Agent for 
Texas, and to the untiring energy of 
T. O. Plunkett, local agent. 


JNo. H. Pore 

W. T. TwyMon 

P. G. WHALEY 

M. ScuLLy 

H. B. McwiLLiAMs 
W. L. MARTIN. 


The above committee-men are well- 
known to me, and are among the most 
substantial and reliable citizens of Har- 
rison County, Tex., and I also personally 
endorse the statements made. 


H. S. LyTrLeton, 
County Judge, Harrison County. 


Palestine, Tex., January Ist, 1908. 

Drar Sir,—We, the undersigned citi- 
zens of Anderson County, Tex., desire 
to acquaint you with the character of 
the work done in this county since last 
March through the department known 
as the Farmers’ Co-operative Demonstra- 
tion Work, and to call your attention to 
some of the beneficial results accom- 
plished. 


The work of the Department in this 
county was done on a comparatively 
small scale. The enterprising board of 
trade of the city of Palestine contributed 
$600 to this work, which constituted the 
sum of local support the work has had 
in the way of money contributed. But, 
notwithstanding this, the result of the 
work accomplished has been most grati- 
fying in many ways. 


263 Miscellaneous. 


Two hundred demonstration farms 
have been established; improved seed 
has been used; improved methods of 
cultivation have been employed, anda 
fine sowing has been made. Outside of 
these demonstration farms.a conservative 
estimate places the average yield of 
cotton per acre at about 300 pounds of 
seed cotton, or about 1 bale to 6 acres. 
The record made by the demonstration 
farms is 608 pounds of seed cotton per 
acre as an average. The yield of corn 
per acre outside of the demonstration 
farms is certainly not greater than 15 
bushels per acre. The demonstration 
farms show an average yield of 283 
bushels per acre.* 


This good showing on the cottton is 
still further augmented by the fact that 
while it formerly took about 1,700 pounds 
of seed cotton to makea bale, the im- 
proved seed used on the demonstration 
farms produces a bale with 1,400 pounds 
of seed cotton. 


These manifest results of the work are 
proving very stimulating to the farming 
interests, and the advantages of the 
work of this first season are simply in- 
calculable. We believe that one of the 
certain results is a general awakening of 
the farmers of this county to the need 
of better seeds and up-to-date methods 
of farming. 

It must be remembered that the sow- 
ing that has been made this last year has 
been made under the most adverse cir- 
cumstances imaginable. Adverse crop 
zonditions have existed from the very 
beginning of the work. 


We earnestly petition that the good 
work be continued in this county on just 
as large a scale as possible, and we pledge 
the same our hearty co-operation and 
encouragement. * * * 

JOHN R. HEARNE, 
President, Board of Trade, and Presi- 
dent, Royal National Bank. 
H. W. Watts, 
Ex-Sheriff, Anderson County. 
R. R. CLARIDGE, 
President, Texas Div., Southern Corn 
Association. 
Don M. BARRETT, 
EKx-Tax Collector, Anderson County. 


_Y. L. JONEs, 
Merchant. 

H. Horwitz, 
Merchant. 

S. M. Paut, 
Farmer. 


J. J. STRICKLAND, 
Representative, Thirtieth Legislature. 


*The yields of cotton and corn given are an- 
usually low because of the excessive rainfall, 


~~ 


ee ee ae Gs ee 


aw ee oe 


i 


Miscellaneous. 


Denison Board of Trade, 
Denison, Tex., January 2nd, 1908. 


DEAR S1R,—Referring to your esteemed 
favour of recent date, beg to say that we 
greatly appreciate your interest and 
co-operation in our efforts for agricul- 
tural advancement, and we expect great 
good to result from the work planned 
next year. The work of the past year 
has served to thoroughly arouse our 
people to an understanding of the great 
work that your Department is doing in 
the interest of agricultural advance- 
ment. 


Your workin this community during 
the past year has been of inestimable 
value to our people. There has been a 
wonderful awakening of interest among 
our farmers, who are now onthe alert 
for new ideas and progressive methods. 
There was a time, perhaps, when farmers 
regarded the work of the Department of 
Agriculture as empty theory and spurned 
the advice of what they pleased to term 
‘book farmers,” but they now realize 
the science of agriculture and the wonder- 
ful possibilities for improvement and for 
increasing their earning capacity, Such 
an awakening is manifest on every 
hand in the vicinity of Denison, where 


wonderful progress has been made 
during the past year. I feel safe in 
the assertion that there has _ been 


more scientific and methodical work on 
the farms about Denision during 1907 
than ever before. * * * This is evi- 
dence of real prosperity—prosperity so 
firmly established that our little city 
and the surrounding country hardly 
realized the existence of the financial 
flurry which so upset conditions through- 
out the country. 


We regard the work in the interest of 
agricultural advancement as being the 
most productive effort of this organiza- 
tion, and we feel deeply indebted to you 
for co-operation, which has made our 
work much more effective than it could 
have been otherwise. We feel that the 
object lessons provided by you last year 
were very effective, and the establish- 
ment of the thirty demonstration and 
co-operative farms planned for the next 
year insures even greater progress. Two 
of the farmers who operated demonstra- 
tion plats the past year under the able 
direction of Mr. J. L. Quicksall have sold 
all their Triumph seed they had to spare 
at $1 per bushel. 


We are especially anxious to encourage 
the corn growers whom we have suc- 
ceeded in so thoroughly arousing during 
the past year. I have never known so 
much interest in the improvement of 
corn as is in evidence here at this time. 
*« * * Weare anxious to render any 


264 


t 


(SEPTEMBER, 1908: 


possible service that will facilitate your 
work in the vicinity of Denison, believ- 
ing that your continued co-operation 
will assist us in making this the greatest 
agricultural section of the Southwest. 


Very truly yours, 
T. W. LARKIN, 
Secretary, 


Taylor, La., January 5th, 1908. 


DEAR Sir,—Some four years ago I 
worked a plat of land by your cultural 
method, which gave me much better 
results than the usual methods pre- 
viously used. I have been following the 
same instructions in part for the last 
three seasons, and find this method 
gives better results, especially the 
thorough preparation of the seed bed 
and the distance between rows and 
plants. I find the crop much easier 
worked and the yield better in quality, 
as well as quantity; I also have tried to 
help a good thing along by showing your 
instructions and my crop to others and 
by having my tenants work by same. 
One of the parties to whom I read the 
instructions and showed the crop asked 
me to see his crop last summer, saying 
he had worked it my way and had the 
best crop he ever raised in his life. I 
think he had a fine crop for the season. 


Respectfully, 
W. C. WALL. 


Clarendon, Ark., Dee. 20th, 1907. 


DEAR S1r,—I took up your plan of 
farming in 1906 ina small way with good 
results; in fact, was so well pleased 
with it that I planted and culti- 
vated something like 400 acres this 
year. I followed your directions in 
preparation and _ cultivation, using 
200 pounds of phosphate per acre. 
While we had the wettest and coldest 
and most backward spring I ever knew, 
causing me to plant the greater part of 
my crop over the fourth time and as late 
as June 9 to 12, then only getting about 
half a stand on most of it, and after that 
date only had rain enough to keep the 
ploughs out of the field a tew hours until 
picking time, I am satisfied with the 
result, some of it paying me as high as 
$30 per acre net rent, the lowest $6 per 
acre, averaging about $13 per acre net. 
I more than doubled my yield of corn. 
I expect to go at it more extensively 


next year. I have had my ploughs going 
for two weeks, preparing cotton land 
for 1908. 


Very respectfully, 
W. S. JEFFRIES. 


a ae oe 


Smpr MBER, 1908.] 


- experiment. 


_ just past, 


Stonewall, La., Dec. 13th, 1907. 


Dear Sir,—Having spent twenty-five 
yearsin paying for cotton lands anda 


cotton gin, and otherwise gettiny in 
shape to grow and handle cotton to 
advantage, we have studied and watched 
with deep interest every moment which 
was calculated to relieve us from the 
ravages of the boll weevil, and now we 
write to thank you and Mr. Cowden 
(agent) for the work done in this com- 
munity in the way of establishing 
demonstration farms this year. We 
feel sure this is the best manner to 
reach most of our people, who have 
grown skeptical of book farming, but 
are easily convinced by a practical appli- 
cation of your methods. 
your plans for two years, and think it 
our only hope to outwit the boll weevil. 


Trusting you may be able to continue 


your work in our parish next year. 


We are, with regards, 
Yours truly, 
J. M. & M. G. NELSON. 


The Business Men’s League of Helena, 
Helana, Ark., January lith, 1908. 


DEAR Sir,—Our league has on foot a 
movement to increase the production 
per acre of cotton and corn in this 
section. 


Two years ago an experiment was con- 
ducted under the immediate care of 
Messrs. H. D. Pillow and H. G. Ste- 
phens. one of your representatives 
having a general supervision of the 
No fertilizer was used, but 
the cultural methods adopted proved 
wonderfully beneficial and a large yield 
of cotton resulted. During the season 
Mr. Stephens conducted an 
experiment upon his own behalf, using 
nitrate of soda as a fertilizer for cotton 
and cotton-seed meal for corn. He has 
made us a report which we will publish, 
and that, together with a letter from 
Mr. E. D. Pillow, willbe mailed by us to 


about 1,000 farmers in thissection, * * * 


We would also ask your co-operation 


in this matter, and would like to know 


if it would be possible to secure the 
services of a representative of the Agri- 
cultural Department to make a tour on 


‘inspection at short intervals for the 


purpose of aiding these farmers by way 
of instruction and general information. 
The experiment would be more apt to 
prove profitable if some one would make 
the rounds, and letit be known in ad- 


- vance that an inspection would be made. 


34 


265° 


We have tried - 


Miscellaneous, 


Kindly write us fully upon this subject, 
and tell us to what extent and in what 
manner youcan aid us in this movement. 

Yours truly, 


H. C. Horwnor. 


CONCLUSION. 


It has been proved by our co-operative 
demonstration work that by following 
the instructions of the Bureau of Plant 
Industry a good crop of cotton can be 
raised in the worst-infested boll-weevil 
districts and despite the ravages of this 
pest. Itis possible that the future may 
discover some better method of meeting 
the boll-weevil problems, but experience 
has shown thatthe method outlined is 
the only safe one at present. The boll- 
weevil has now covered a large portion 
of Texas, Louisiana, Arkanas, Oklahoma, 
and several counties in Mississippi. It 
is annually invading new territory with 
a column 600 miles long and in numbers 
sufficient to cover every stalk of cotton 
toa width of 80 miles. A cotton crop 
can be produced despite the boll-weevil, 
and the sooner American farmers face 
the situation the better it will be for all 
concerned. To demonstrate the truth 
of this theory is one object of the 
Rarmers’ Co-operative Demonstration 
Work. 


In the foregoing pages have heen 
mentioned only some of the lines of 
demonstration which have been under- 
taken for rural uplifting. The results 
have far exceeded our expectations, and 
the farmers have accepted the work 
gratefully and have co-operated to the 
best of their ability in every under- 
taking. It is along such lines as these 
that great economies can be practised and 
valuable reforms wrought for the better- 
ment of rural conditions and for solving 
the problems of the farm.—JU. 8. Depart- 
ment of Agriculture, Farmers’ Bulletin 
319, April 6, 1908. 


PASSIFLORA FCITIDA. 


The use of this plantas a covering for 
the ground to: keep down weeds—especi- 
ally lalang or illuk grass—is rapidly 
spreading in the Malay States. As a 
good many people take for granted that 
it does not grow in Ceylon, it may be 
well to point out that it is one of our 
commoner weeds. It is a native of 
America, introduced long ago into 
Ceylon and Malaya, and is every where 
common in Ceylon, especially in the dry 
country. Itis easily known, being a smail 
whitish passion-flower with the flower 


surrounded by moss-like much-divided . 


OEE eee ee 


Sn Se a ee ee 


ty 


Se Re eT set On eR ee 


Se ae eee 


Miscellaneous. 


LITERATURE OF ECONOMIC 
BOTANY AND AGRICULTURE. 
XXXII. 


HEVEA: (PARA RUBBER.) 


CULTIVATION, DISEASES, SEED, WC. 


Vitality of Para seeds. Str. Bull. I. 
1903, p. 228. 

Packing seed for travel. Bull. Jard. 
Col,, Sept. 1903, p. 236. 

Para rubber in Ceylon. ‘‘T.A.” June 
1904, p. 820. 

Commercial utilisation of seeds of the 
Para rubber tree. Imp. Inst. Bull., 
March 1904, p. 22 

Para rubber soe and oil. Str. Bull: 
Feb. 1904, p. + 

Manuring Pa do. 
p. 405. 

Caterpillars, and white ants. Malay 
Bull. I 

Arden’sreport. Ind. Gard., Feb. 1903, 
p, 125. 

Notes on/Arden’s report. Str. Bull. 
IT., 1908, p. 42. 

Experiments at Singapore. Planting 
Opin., 1908, p. 374. 

Termes Gestroi. Str. Bull., Dec. 1904, 
p. 477. 

Ceylon Para rubber. 
1907, p. 262. 

Para rubber from Mergui. ‘“T,A.” 
June, 1908, p. 516. 

The exportation and _ packing of 
Hevea seeds. ‘‘T.A,” July, 1906, 
p. 24. 

Exporting seed of Para rubber. Do. 
Aug., 1906, p. 129. 

Die Frage der Ueberfuhrung der 
Heveasaat. Tropenpfl. 1906, p. 597. 

Para rubber seed oil. Str. Bull., June 
1907, p. 177. 

Para rubber seed: weight of seed, 
cotyledons and shell. Str. Bull., 
1907, p. 383. 

Wright: the Science.of Para rubber 
cultivation. ‘‘T.A.” July, 1906, p. 3. 

Notes on the cultivation and manu- 
facture of rubber. Do. p. 22 

Rubber at Henaratgoda. ‘ T.A.” 
1906, p. 104. 

Pollarding and thumbnail pruning 
rubber trees. Do. p. 108. 

Wright: Para rubber : distance and 
interplanting. Do. Jan. 1907, p. 2. 

“Wickham: the cultivation of the Para 
rubber tree. Do. Dec. 1905, p. 784. 

Rubber growing in Ceylon. Do. 
p. 741, 


Oct. 1904, 


“TA,” May, 


266 


Ve ae 
i) 

(SEPTEMBER, 1908. 

Wide planting of Para rubber. ‘‘T.A.” 


July, 1907, p 

Rubber cultivation in Burma. Do 
June 1907, p. 345. 

Rubber planting in Ceylon. Ind. 
Journ. Aug. 1907, p. 214. 

The rubber industry in Ceylon. Do. 
Sept., 1907, p. 823. 

Manuring rubber plantations. Do. 
July. 1907, p. 153. 

The importance of manuring rubber. 
“T.A.” Nov., 1907, p. 158. 

Huber : iA Sevinemeneas Para 1907. 
The proper distance for planting 
Hevea. ‘'T.A,” Apr., 1908, p. 301. 
Mann: The cultivation of Para rubber 
in N. K. India. ‘“T.A.” Dee. 1907, 

p. 395. 

Two enemies of Hevea. Str. Bull., 
Aug. 1907, p. 251. 

Notes on Termes Gestroi and other 
eeu antes. Str. Bull., May 1906, p.- 


Some diseases of rubber plant Do. 
p. 169. 


HEVBA : 
TAPPING, COAGULATION, TRADE, &C. 


Preparing Para ae in Ceylon 
“T.A.” May 1908, p. 726. 

Para rubber in Selangon Str. Bull., 
1908, p. 316. 

Para rubber collecting at Soebang, 
Java. Do. Keb. 1904, p. 51. 


Rubber notes. Do. Oct. ,1904, p. 412. 


Tapping experiments at Singapore. 
Do, 1908, p. 42. 

Holloway’s method of preparation. 
Rev. Cult. Col. 1903, p. 311, Agr. 
News II., p. 265. 


Fs bts sPara Rubber. Str. Bull. 

» p. 108. 

Para Rubber. Kew Bull., 1906, p. 241. 

Rubber tapping in the Botanic Gar- 
dens. Str. Bull., 1903, p, 354. 

Para rubber extraction. Ind. Gdng., 
Jan. 1904, p. 10. 


Notes on Hevea brasiliensis. ‘'T.A.” 
Nov. 1904, p. 295. 


Experimental tapping of Para rubber 
Trees in the Botanic Gardens, 
Pipeopore: Str. Buil., 1904, pp. 339, 


Methods of tapping rubber trees and 
collecting ‘latex. Do. 1904, p. 380. 

Tromp de Haas. Results of the ex- 
perimental tappings of Hevea brasi- 
liensis. Do. 1905, p. 285. 

Report on the experimental tapping 
of Para rubber trees: in Botanic 
Gardens, Singapore, for 1904. Do, 
Nov. 1905, p. 424, 


NT > Ae 
nett os tat 


SEPTEMBER, 1908.] 


267 Miscellaneous. 
Les procedés de travail du _caou- CO-OPERATIVE SOCIETIES IN 
tchouc * d’Hevea ,cultivé. Journ. INDIA. 


d’Agr. Trop., Aug. 1905, p. 239. 


Uitkomsten van dein 1905 verrichte 
Aftappingsproeven met Hevea bra- 


stliensis in den cultuurtuin te 
Tjikemeuh verkregen. Korte Ber. 
Bzg. 1906, 17. 


Experiments in Tapping (Singapore). 
“'T,A.” Sept-, 1907, p. 166. 

Experiments in tapping at Henarat- 
goda. Do. p. 169. 

Rubber tapping on Kepitigala Estate 
Ind. World, Jan., 1906, jp. 107. 

Saignée et observation des Heveas au 
Jardin d’esais de_ ‘T'jikeumeuh. 
Journ. d’Agr. Trop. Jan., 1906, p. 9. 

Rubber tapping demonstration at 


_ Henaratgoda. ‘“‘T.A:” Dec. 1906, 
p. 460. 
Het aftappen der Para-boomen. Ind, 


Merce., Dec. 1906, p. =1J. 


Second annual report on the experi- 
mental tapping of Para rubber 
trees in the Botanic Gardens, 
Singapore. Str. Bull. V., p. 489. 


The spiral system of rubber tapping. 
“T.A.” Nov., 1905, p. 641. 


The quality of eastern plantation 
Rubber. ‘T.A.” July, 1907, p. 4. 


Willis: The tapping of rubber. 
“TA.” Auga, 1907, p. 94. 


ee tapping. Do. Nov. 1907, p: 
13. 


The frequent tapping of rubber trees: 
Do. Oct. 1907, p. 248. 

Rubber tapping, &c. Do. 244. 

Distribution of the proteid in Para 
rubber. Spence. L’pool, Univ. J. 
C. R. 1907,:and 1908. 


Tapping patterns—the chain gamma. 
Str. Bull. 1907, p. 387. 


Para rubber’ from Mergui, Burma. 
Bull. Imp. Inst. 4, 1907 p. 371. 

Tapping experiments on Rambong 
and Para. Str. Bull. 6. 1908, p, 1338. 

Observations sur la saignée de 
VHevea. Journ. d’Ar: Trop., April, 
1908, p. 106, 


Para naturel et Para de plantation: 
opinion d’un manufactureur. Journ 
d’ Agr. Trop. Feb., 1908, p. 33, 

Petch: The second annual report on 
the experimental tapping of Para 
rubber trees in the Botanic Gar- 
dens, Singapore. ‘“T.A.” Dec., 1907, 
p- 391. 

Base tapping of rubber trees. “T.A.” 
Supp.,' Dec.,}1907, p..124. 
Para’ rubber}; from Mergui. 

June, 1908, p, 516. 


oA. 


The co-operative movement in India is 
the subject of an enthusiastic article in 
the Hconomic Review (Rivingtons), con- 
tributed by Mr. Henry W. Wolff, whoisa 
recognised authority on the question. 
Mr. Wolff is critical as well as eulogistic, 
but he closes his paper with the predic- 
tion that ‘with well-regulated pro- 
gress the co-operative banking intro- 
duced during Lord Curzon’s viceroyalty 
appears destined to be remembered, 
rightly, as one of the greatest among 
many blessings that British rule has 
conferred upon India.” He does not, 
however, overlook the fact that this 
particular blessing has been rendered 
necessary, to a large extent, in order to 
counteract a grave wrong which British 
rule, unintentionally no doubt, inflicted 
upon the cultivators by insisting upon 
the payment of Government rent in 
money instead of in kind. The result 
has been that the ryot is worse off when 
his crops are most plentiful, and prices 
consequently low, than is when his 
crops are a comparative failure ; and the 
good seasons which ought to have lifted 
him out of debt have only plunged him 
deeper in the bog. Indebtedness is now 
his normal condition. Hencesome means 
of rescuing him from this miserable and 
helpless plight became one of the crying 
needs of the situation, and the Govern- 
ment did nothing more than recognise 
their own responsibility for the im- 
poverished state of the ryot when they 
entered upon a series of experiments for 
his deliverance. The grant of takavi 
loans was one effort in this direction, but 
the Government cannot afford to finance 
all the cultivators of India; and, even if 
they were able to do.so, the takavi 
system does not teach self-help and is not 
calculated to help the ryot to stand on 
his own feet. Mr. Wolff calls ita ‘‘ spoon- 
feeding practice,” in which there is no 
training to business habits. Aftermany 
sporadic attempts to find a self-maintain- 
ing system of rural banking, the Govern- 
ment in 1904 passed the Co-operative 
Credit Societies ’ Act, which was intended 
to render possible in India the applica- 
tion of the principles of co-operation 
which Schulze Delitzsch and Reffeisen 
had successfully put into practice in 
Germany. There was’ good reason to 
hope that the Indian peasant would take 
kindly to co-operative institutions, for 
in his struggle with the money-lender he 
had already evolved nidhis and akharas, 
which are co-operative societies of a 
somewhat crude type. This expectation 
has been fulfilled in a very gratifying 
way during the few years in which the 


iA 


a ae i yh 


Miscellaneous. 268 [SEPTEM BR, 
Act has been in operation. As Mr. root principles. Happily [we jaye eer 4 


Gourlay stated in the paper which he 
prepared for the Industrial Conference 
held at Surat at the beginning of this 
year, there are now 785 rural credit 
societies, which have a capital of eleven 
lakhs. And the movement is constantly 
extending. Assoon as the ryots begin 
_ to understand what co-operation means, 
they appeal to the zemindar or the 
missionary to help them in forming a 
society, and almostevery society estab- 
lished tends to bring others into exist- 
ence. That difficulties would arise was 
inevitable. Considerable skill and 
atience are required to acclimatise in 
ndia ideas made in Germany. How 
numerous the problems are may be seen 
by referring to the proceedings of the 
Second Conference of the Registrars of 
Co-operative Credit Societies. There is, 
for instance, the question whether the 
Societies should have the power of 
recovering debts by summary procedure. 
Lord Curzion’s Government deliberately 
withheld this power on the ground that 
a wisely conducted Society will not make 
a bad debt calling for summary recovery. 
Mr. Wolff applauds this decision, but 
Mr. Campbell, the Bombay Registrar of 
Co-operative Credit Societies, is strongly 
in favour ofsummary procedure. Again, 
there is the question of area. How far 
should a Society extend its operation? 
Should different castes have their own 
Societies? Then we have questions as to 
the objects for which loans can be legiti- 
mately granted. Isit right to lend’ for 
marriages? Mr. Wolff holds that as 
marriage expenditure appears to be 
necessary in India, loans should be 
granted, since it is well that those who 
incur this expense should be kept out ot 
the usurer’s. grip. But prudently 
managed Societies will avoid loans of 
the kind, and it is a moot point whether 
they are in any case desirable. There 
are more fundamental! ditficulties. Mr. 
Wolff complains thatthe Actis defec- 
tive, because it makes an arbitrary and 
illogical distinction between urban and 
rural banks, as if locality affected prin- 
ciples. He insists that there are two 
essentially different systems, one being 
that of a bank whose share capital is 
held by its members, and the other that 


of a society which borrows money on the 


strength of the unlimited liability of the 
members. Inthe latter type unlimited 
liability is an indispensable feature. 
“You cannot blend the two systems,” 
writes Mr. Wolff; ‘* you cannot take a 
little from one and a little from the 
other and compose amixture.’ Unfor- 
tunately a blend has been frequently 
attempted because thuse who | have 
organised Co-operative Societies are 
inadequately acquainted with their 


Director _of Credit Societies in Bengal — 


Mr. W. R. Gourlay, whom Mr. Wolff 
eulogises as ‘‘a thoroughly competent 
man” who has studied the Raffeisen 
system in his own home. This being the 
case, we hope that Mr. Gourlay will not 
be removed from a postin which he will 
be able to put co-operation in Bengal on 
a thoroughly sound footing.—Indian 
a griculturist, June, 1908, Vol. XXX., 
o. 6. 


CO-OPERATIVE CREDIT SOCIETIES. 
REPORT ON THE WORKING IN THE 
MADRAS PRESIDENCY IN THE 15TH © 

MONTH ENDING 380TH JUNE, 1907. 


During the period under report, thirty- 


six new societies were registered. Of 
these twenty-four were rural and 
twelve were urban. All the rural 


societies were based on the _ principle 
of unlimited liability. Most of the 
new societies were started in districts in 
which similar institutions were already 
in existence. The aggregate number of 
members rose from 2,733 to 6,439, O€ 
thisnumber 31 per cent, were agricul- 
turists, and 37 per cent. were those who 
partly followed agriculture and partly 
other occupations. Besides the paid-up 
share capital of these societies, fixed 
deposits were borrowed on interest from 
5 to9 per cent. More than two-thirds of 
these deposits were contributed by the 
members themselves. The amount lent 
by Government was nearly as much as 
the share-capital and fixed deposits of 
these societies. 


Certain concessions. granted by the 
Madras Government have raised the 
prestige of these societies in the eye of 
the public and have created a feeling of 
confidence and security. The annual re- 
ports of the societies with the registrar’s 
audit reviews thereon are published in 
the District Gazettes, and are supplied 
free of charge to all rural societies. 
Remittance transfer receipts are issued 
at par, so that remittances can he sent 
without extra charge. The societies’ 
strong boxes can be kept in Government 
Treasuries for security.—(Kditor).—A are 
cultural Journal of India, Vol. III., 
Part I., January, 1908. 


THE INTRODUCTION OF IMPROVE- 
MENTS INTO INDIAN AGRICULTURE. 


. By D. CLouston, B.Sc., 
(Deputy Director of Agriculture, Central 


Provinces and Berar.) a 


_ Government has organized during the past — 
few years a strong department for the — 


ee 


scientific investigation of Indian Agriculture, 
with the object of ascertaining the lines 
upon which improvement is practicable, A 
staff of specialists, highly trained in the 
agricultural sciences, is employed both in 
the Imperial and Provincial departments, 
whose research and experimental work have 
already shown that many important impove- 
ments can be effected. These results are 
placed before the public in the reports and 
other pulications issued from time to time, 
but such literature fails to reach the mass of 
Indian cultivators. It is, therefore, an 
essential function of the department, no less 
important than scientific investigation, to 
devise methods whereby experimental results 
of proved value can be introduced into 
ordinary farming practice by the Indian 
cultivator. The methods to be employed in 
bringing experimental work of proved value 
to the notice of the cultivator, so as to secure 
its adoption in ordinary farming practice, 
will necessarily vary in different parts of 
India in accordance with the varying local 
conditions, such as the system of land tenure, 
the standard of farming attained by the 
cultivators, the social condition of the rural 
community and the like. It may be of 
interest to give an account of the methods 
that have been tried in the Central Provinces, 
and of the lessons learnt from the successes 
and failures that have resulted. 


In the Central Provinces the villages are 
held by landowners, whose proprietorship is 
clearly recognized, though their rights of 
ownership are subject to the rights of occu- 
pancy of their tenants. Both proprietor and 
tenant are given security of tenure in the 
land, with the object of encouraging each to 
make the best possible use of it, This system 
has given a number of village proprietors 
who often cultivate large home-farms—in- 
telligent farmers, who are willing to test 
improved methods and to lay out substantial 
capital sums, if they are convinced that an 
adequate return is likely to be secured. 
Amongst the tenantry there is also a sprink- 
ling of men who cultivate large holdings and 
employ large capital; and such men are 
even more numerous in the rich province of 
Berar, where the ryotwari system of tenure 
prevails. The difficulties in | introducing 
improvements are, therefore, not so great as 
in a tract where the land is parcelled out 
into minute holdings, and where the capital 
at the disposal of each holder is extremely 
limited, for there are numbers of cultivators 
ready to expend some hundreds of rupees 
upon a new implement, an improved method 
of cultivation or the like, provided they are 
convinced that the outlay will give a sub- 
stantial return. The standard of farming 
attained in different parts of those Provinces 
varies considerably, but it is on the whole 
inferior to that of most other parts of India, 
so that there is much more scope for improve- 
ment than in provinces where cultivation 


ts SEPTEMBER, 1908. ] 269 


Miscellaneous. 

date donald 07 20a 
has already reached a high level. In the 
Central Provinces, as a rule, the land is 
plentiful and intensive cultivation is but 
little practised ; in Berar, on the other hand, 
the great boom in the cotton trade has 
enormously increased the demand for land, 
with the result that grazing areas have been 
curtailed and the standard of cultivation has 
reached a much higher level. Good culti- 
vators are found, as exceptions, among all 
the different castes. The best cultivators are 
the hereditary cultivating castes such as 
Kunbis, Powars and Lodhis. Contrasted 
with these may be mentioned such castes as 
Gonds and Chamars, The former live a 
contended but unenterprising life in the hilly 
jungle tracts of poor soil, Satisfied with a 
low standard of comfort, they are for the 
present so inacessible and primitive, as 
to be altogether outside the sphere of the 
department’s influence. The Chamars, who 
form the bulk of the cultivators in the 
Chhattisgarh rice country, though inferior 
cultivators, enjoy a lazy and stoical content 
which is opposed to everything an agri- 
cultural department can teach in the way of 
progress. Contrasted with these again may 
be mentioned the educated Brahman culti- 
vator of Berar who, after having made 
his fortune at a profession or trade, has 
purchased land on which he is anxious to 
experiment with anything from tree cottons 
to steam ploughs. The kind of improvements 
necessary, and the lines to be followed in 
introducing them among cultivators, can 
only be satisfactorily determined after 
studying all these conditions as they obtain 
in the different tracts. In the more back- 
ward parts, it is often some means of 
demonstrating better tillage methods that 
has to be considered; the Chhattisgarhi, 
for instance, has yet to learn the very 
elements of his art, i.e., to cultivate his land 
properly, to conserve the manure already at 
his disposal, and to sow his crops efficiently. 
In more advanced tracts, on the other hand, 
what is necessary is to organize a system of 
seed farms from which supplies of pure and 
improved seed can be obtained, to introduce 
new and improved varieties of seeds, to teach 
definite but simple methods of preventing 
and remedying insect pests and of supple- 
menting the present supply of manure. 
Every scheme for demonstrating the results 
of experimental work to the ordinary culti- 
vator must, then, be based on a knowledge 
of the different tracts and of the people and 
their needs. 


Wherever possible, oux teaching should be 
in the concrete. This can best be done by 
means of demonstration farms. On these 
farms many experimental results of proved 
value can be demonstrated on a practical 
scale, so as to secure their application to the 
general practice of farmers. Experimental 
work should never be attempted on these 
farms ; first experiment, and then demon- 


i 
i 
y 


ee a ee ee ee 


Miscellaneous. 270 


strate the results if they are of any practical 
value, should be the rule. To do this 
effectively, an experiment station has been 
located in each well-defined agricultural 
tract, and the experimental programme is 
based on a knowledge of the agricultural 
requirements of the tract which it represents. 
The demonstration farm has an entirely 
different purpose, and serves as an object- 
lesson to introduce the ordinary cultivator 
to incorporate into his farm practice the 
teaching of the station. No difficulty has 
been found in inducing a cultivator to lend 
a suitable piece of land. This should not be 
larger than the purpose demands, and which 
the assistant in charge can efficiently manage; 
a small area carefully cultivated is much 
better than a larger area _ inefficiently 
managed. In some cases, with a thoroughly 
keen and efficient cultivator, it is safe 
to rely upon him to supply the bullocks, 
labour and other requirements, but in 
most cases it is much better for the 
assistant to be as independent as possible of 
local assistance and to supply him with his 
own bullocks and implements, and with funds 
to employ the requisite labour; otherwise 
the demonstration plot is apt to be neglected 
by the cultivator until the rest of his land has 
received his attention. An agreement is 
made with the cultivator for the use of his 
land, either by payment of a rent or by a 
share of the produce. Several demonstration 
farms started in these Provinces have failed 
to answer the purpose for which they were 
intended. In some cases they have failed, as 
they tried to demonstrate what remained to 
be proved, e.g., that cotton and juar can be 
profitably grown in the rice tract. In other 
cases the failure was due to bad management, 
the assistant in charge having insufficient 
practical experience of cultivation, even if 
possessed of fair theoretical knowledge. This 
is the greatest difficulty that the department 
has to cope with at the present time ; 
assistants are employed who have not been 
brought up on the land, and who are not, 
therefore, in sympathy with their work. 
Even when supervised by more highly quali- 
fied men, their work is not always satis- 
factory, for, not knowing when the simple 
cultural operations are properly performed, 
their supervision is futile. In the past, for 
lack of sufficient supervision, these men have 
been left to do things on their own initiative, 
and the result has been that under their 
management demonstration farms have some- 
times failed in their purpose owing to small 
mistake in practical working. No assistant 
should be given a demonstration farm until 
it is certain that he has a thorough practical 
knowledge of the work entrusted to him. 
With more careful supervision and reliable 
experimental results to work upon, the de- 
monstration farms started in Chhattisgarh 
last year proved successful. The objects 
aimed at were (1) to substitute the system of 
transplanting paddy for the present broad- 


[See a di 


[SEPTEMBER, 1908. 


cast sowings, (2) to induce cultivators to 
utilize to the best advantage the irrigation 
water lately made available by the construc- 
tion of Government reservoirs, (3) to grow a 
second crop after early and medium paddy, 
and (4) to demonstrate the method of eradi- 
cating kans grass by means of Ransome’s 
turnwrest plough. A distinct measure of 
success has been achieved, and the malguzars 
and cultivators concerned, who at first were 
apathetic, are now most anxious that these 
farms should be continued in their villages 
for another year, so that they may learn still 
more of the new methods being taught by 
the agricultural department, whilst applica- 
tions have been received from several villages 
to start similar farms. The department has 
thus gained their confidence in its desire to 
benefit them and in its power to do so. The 
out-turns of paddy from the transplanted 
fieids of the demonstration farms and from 
the adjoining fields of the cultivators, sown 
broadcast, are shown below :— 


Out-turn of paddy in 
lbs. per acre. 


Transplanted Broadcasted 
by the by 

Department. Cultivators, 
Jageshwar Farm 3,940 2,450 
Jawaibandha Farm ... 1,690 600 
Kholar Farm 2,880 AOD 


Even this large increase due to trans- 
planting does not fairly represent the total 
value of this demonstration work to the 
cultivators, for they also followed our 
example and irrigated their paddy for the 
first time this year. The cultivators of the 
villages concerned have thoroughly appre- 
ciated the value of these farms, and the agri- 
cultural department has risen considerably 
in their estimation, so that this year we 
confidently hope that hundreds of acres will 
be transplanted where transplanting was un- 
known before, and this in a tract where the 
cultivators are notably lazy and slow to 
adopt improvements. They have already 
followed our example in transplanting small 
areas and in irrigating their wheat. The 
success of these farms was due to the fact 
that the scheme was carefully devised and 
the work efficiently supervised by a thorough- 
ly practical superintendent under proper 
control. The results obtained appeal all the 
more to the cultivators, seeing that the 
manure and implements, with the exception 
of the turnwrest plough used for eradicating 
kans, were exactly the same as those used by 
themselves, so that the results are due to one 
varying factor in each case. 


Seed farins and seed selection form a part 
of the work of the agricultural department 
which readily recommends itself to the culti- 
vator. The cotton seed farms established in 
these Provinces have been successful. The 
cultivators recognize the advantage of using 
good seed, and a few have already started to 


SEPTEMBER, 1908.} p 


imitate the seed farms in giving more atten- 
tion to the cultivation of the plot intended 
for seed, to the spacing of the plants, to the 
selection of the seed and to the ginning of 
the cotton. They show, too, a preference 
for certain strains of seed. In one case the 
proprietor has taken into his regular employ 
the assistant who was in charge of the seed 
farm. After two or three years’ careful 
supervision it will be possible to withdraw 
the agricultural assistants in charge of these 
farms, and to leave the owners to manage 
them as private seed farms. The department 
will still continue to supply the owners with 
selected seed for each yeats’s sowing and to 
give them the benefit of its advice. The 
owners will be made to feel that they and the 
department are working in co-operation for 
the common weal. They will be requested 
to inspect the experimental stations from 
time to time and to see the whole scheme of 
seed selection carried on at these centres, 
while officers of the departinent will inspect 
and advise them in the management of their 
seed farms. In the course of a few years it 
is not too much to expect that in these 
Provinces there will be several private seed 
farms where pure and improved cotton seed 
can be obtained, and where, too, the use of 
new manures and new varieties of cotton 
tested at the experiment stations can be 
demonstrated to neighbouring cultivators. 


The agricultural stations themselves also 
serve the purpose of demonstrating to the 
ryots of the tract experimental work of 
proved value, including the use of improved 
agricultural machinery. The usefulness of a 
station in this respect depends very largely 
on the superintendent in charge. A practical 
man, who shows tact and sympathy in 
welcoming visitors, will induce many to come 
to the station. A visitor generally comes 
with the intention of seeing one particu- 
lar experiment, or it may be one particular 
machine in which he is interested. It is advi- 
sable, therefore, to concentrate his attention 
on the results of one or two experiments 
in which he is specially interested, rather 
than to confound him by attempting to 
explain all the lines of work in progress. If, 
as a member of one of the District Agricul- 
tural Associations, he has been entrusted 
with one of the co-operative experiments 
being carried out by his association, he is 
anxious to compare the results of the station 
with his own, and he will often declare with 
some degree of pride that the crop at the 
station falls short of his own. This depart- 
ment always holds the meetings of the 
District Agricultural Association at the 
stations in the case of districts in which 
stations have been established. In other 
districts such meetings will be held ata 
suitable demonstration or seed farm, when- 
ever it is available. When the meetings are 
held at the stations, arrangements are made 
to work suitable foreign agricultural machi- 
nery andimplements, 'The members are also 


271 


Miscellaneous. 


shown such of the experimental series as 
are likely to be of some educational value 
to them. At other times leading cultivators, 
who have been paying special attention to 
one particular crop or manure, are asked to 
visit the station to compare their results 
with those obtained there. By paying 
attention to such points as these, much can 
be done to make an agricultural station 
popular, and to rouse the interest of the 
better class of cultivators in its work, 


A Cattle-breeding Farm run up by the 
Agricultural Department can also be made a 
most useful object-lesson in the improvement 
of a breed by selection, The cultivator re- 
cognizes that the scheme for the improve- 
ment of his animals is based on the same 
principle as that for the improvement of his 
seed, and that in each case the aim is to 
produce the best of its kind. The work of 
the Nagpur Cattle-breeding Farm is duly 
appreciated, and the demand for the loan of 
bulls far exceeds the supply available for 
distribution, On the other hand, the 
Hoshangabad Cattle-breeding Farm has not 
been so successful, because the stock is 
not of the best quality and of the exact 
stamp desired by the cultivators. It was 
started without sufficient inquiry into the 
local conditions and without sufficient effort 
to secure the right type of animal.  Reli- 
gious sentiment, combined with a knowledge 
of the fact that his cattle are deteriorating 
in quality, induces the ryot of the Central 
Provinces to look with favour on any scheme 
that makes for the improvement of his stock. 


The demand for agricultural assistants as 
managers of Court of Wards estates effords 
another opportunity of bringing the results 
of the experimental work of the stations to 
the notice of cultivators. But as in the case 
of demonstration farms, it is essential to 
frame a complete scheme for such work 
which the manager should not be allowed to 
exceed, to decide what improved methods of 
tillage, what manures, what system of seed 
selection and the like should be permitted 
with due regard to the local conditions, 
Here, again, the great difficulty is to secure 
competent candidates for such posts. In 
some cases the managers supplied for such 
estates by this department have proved 
unsatisfactory, being unpractical, lacking in 
initiative and therefore incapable of per- 
forming satisfactorily the duties of an inde- 
pendent charge. Their one idea is generally 
to imitate the experiment stations, particu- 
larly in purchasing foreign agricultural 
machinery at an extravagant cost. They 
lack the money-making instinct of the true 
farmer. In future this department will 
supervise the work of all its assistants thus 
employed, and advise them to follow the 
teaching of the stations only as far as it is 
applicable to estates run on commercial lines. 


By exhibiting agricultural machinery and 
farm products at shows, fairs and exhibi- 


Miscellaneous. 


| 


tions, the work of the department can be 
brought to the notice of a large body of 
cultivators who are not otherwise accessible. 
By combining popular lectures on the exhi- 
bits with practical demonstrations of each, 
much good work can be done. This requires 
to be arranged on a systematic plan in order 
to secure that the exhibits and lectures are 
suited to the tract served by the show. The 
exhibits of farm produce should be neatly 
arranged in sufficiently large quantities to 
allow of their being handled by interested 
parties. It must always be remembered that 
nine-tenths of the cultivators never read, 
and that their minds are not trained to 
assimilate abstract ideas, They are children 
of nature, and as such get all their impres- 
sions from the concrete. The exhibits should, 
therefore, be arranged so as to be an intelli- 
gible and instructive lesson to the ordinary 
illiterate ryot. The lecturer should, there- 
fore, carry with him a small travelling 
museum of exhibits to illustrate his lecture. 
This department has started on these lines 
to prepare lectures and exhibits suitable for 
the different tracts. The more important 
shows and fairs of each tract will in future 
be attended by the superintendent of the 
station of that tract, or by some higher offi- 
cial. The superintendent will be supplied 
from head-quarters with a copy of the 
lectures that are to be delivered and the 
necessary museum of exhibits to illustrate 
the same. In the cotton tract the latter 
includes bolls of the different varieties of 
cotton recommended for the tract mounted on 
cardboard together with those of the varie- 
ties already grown locally; on a second sheet 
the lint is mounted so as to show their 
relative lengths ; on a third is shown the life- 
history of the stem borer and an actual 
plant killed by the same, with the help of 
which the lecturer will explain the remedies 
and method of prevention, Cotton boll- 
worm and cotton wilt disease are similarly 
illustrated. The artificial manures recom- 
mended for cotton are also exhibited along 
with bags of uncleaned cotton to show the 
relative outturns of unmanured land and 
land to which these fertilizers have been 
applied. At exhibitions the exhibits would 
be more varied and on a much larger scale. 
And many of the experiments that have 
given useful results at the stations can be 
graphically illustrated there by pot cultures. 


(To be concluded.) 


AGRICULTURAL SAYINGS IN BENGAL, 


By JAMINI MOHAN GHOSH, B.A., 
Mymensingh. 


Every country has its sayings, and it is 
the fitness of things that as one of the 
foremost agricultural provinces in India, 
Bengal should possess a wealth of agri- 
cultural folk-lore. 


272 


eee Api. 


Like other folk-lores of Bengal, these agri- 
cultural syaings are attributed to Khana, 
amythical lady, who is said to have been 
gifted with supernatural astrological know- 
ledge. The reason of enshrouding them 
with legendary mystery, so common in this 
country, may be to render a religious 
sanction to them, so that they may be 
scrupulously observed by the intensely reli- 
gious peasantry of this country. These 
sayings are mostly in the form of couplets, 
dealing with the various aspects of cultivation, 
and are represented as being addressed by 
Khana to her father-in-law, Baraha. Never- 
theless, they very often betray in their 
language and observations, the rhymer to be 
no other than a tiller of the soil. For who but 
a cultivator would characterise the ‘‘uncertain 
heaven” with patches of clouds, as a field 
‘broken up with axe and spade,” or would 
consider it ‘‘a favour of Luxmi (goddess of 
Fortune) to have the compound of his house 
filled with water gourd and cucumber” and 
feel ‘‘her presence when his thatched roof is 
covered with leaves of water-melon.” 


That the true cultivator must needs labour 
on his own soil is expressed in the saying - 
that ‘‘he who himself works or employs 
labourers gains heaps, and he who takes 
umbrella on his shoulder (i.e,, supervises the 
labourers in his fields) gains half, while the 
cry for want of rice rends the house of him 
who asks questions (of his labourers) remain- 
ing idle in his house.” Neither should one 
have partners in his field, for ‘‘only father 
and son should plough one’s field, failing 
which take only one’s own brother.” Again, 
says another proverb, ‘‘he who having oxen 
does not plough suffers misery for ever.” 


Rain is an important factor in the agri- 
culture of India. Andit is, therefore, only 
proper that in Bengal, where there is practi- 
cally no irrigation, a large portion of agri- 
cultural sayings should relate to rainfall. 


Rain from about the middle of November 
to the middle of January is very injurious to 
the ripening paddy crop, and hinders the 
gathering, drying and threshing of the crop, 
so run the couplets,—‘‘If rain falls in the 
month of Agrahayan (middle November to 
middle December) the king himself goes 
a-begging” (signifying famine). Also, ‘‘if 
it rains in Pows(middle December to middle 
January), even the husks bring money (so 
great is the scarcity),” 


On the contrary, rain is very welcome 
from February to April,as the ploughing and 
sowing season commences, and a moist soil 
is easy to be ploughed up, so goes the 
proverb :—‘“‘If there be rain during late Magh 
(i.e., early February) the holy land is of the 
blessed king” (meaning there is the indi- 
cation of a prosperous season), and also ‘‘if it 
rains in Chaitra (middle March to middle 
April) there will be growth of paddy.” 


 SupTemBer, 1908.] 


_ Again, small millets are helped by a shower 
in late February or early March, and we 
have “‘if it rains in Falgwn (middle February 
to middle March) Chena and Kaon (small 
millets) grow twice.” 


Drought in late May and early June assists 
the young seedlings of paddy to grow instead 
of being swamped by rain, but during next 
two months, i.e., the rainy season, we must 
have rain for them, as also for sowing late 
paddy in the high lands; this is expressed in 
the familiar sayings :—‘‘(If there be) any 
drought in Jaistha (middle May to middle 
June) and shower in Ashav (middle June to 
middle July) the earth cannot bear the 
burden of crops.” 


During the rainy season, an easterly wind 
would sometimes disperse a gathering cloud, 
and without rain there is very little prospect 
of a good harvest, so ‘‘if there be easterly 
wind in Ashar and Sraban (the rainy season),” 
the cultivator is advised to ‘thang up his 
plough and go to commerce.” 


Rain is very much appreciated by the 
peasants in Kartic (middle October to middle 
November), and is known in these parts as 
Katian. It helps the ears to come out, and 
is very necessary for the development of the 
corn, and ‘‘Khana says that a little rain in 
Kartic (gives) twice paddy.” 

Now, having completed the cycle of sayings 
on the effect of rainfall throughout the 
various months of the year, we shall give 
some of the sayings on the signs of rain, 
How far they are predictive I have not been 
able to test, and I give them for what they 
are worth. But in some of them at least, 
there is some truth as in the fact that ‘*when 
the frog croaks incessantly, know it will rain 
soon,” but with this is coupled the rather 
incredible saying in which ‘‘ Khana says that 
if it blows north-east on the first day of the 
year, there will be (ample) rain.” 


The ninth day of the new moon in Ashar 
(i.e., late June) is regarded as a very signi- 
ficant day by the cultivators, and vain or 
drought on this day is believed to give the 
forecast for the year. Says Khana, ‘‘Father- 
in-law, what’s the need of calculating, for 
if on the ninth day of the new moon in 
Asha, it rains heavily, herons will walk 
over) midocean (meaning there will be 
drought), if on the other hand there be a few 
drops of rain, fishes will abound even in 
the mountain (7.¢., there will be heavy rain 
throughout the year), also if it drizzles the 
earth will shake under the burden of crops, 
but if the sun (after the day’s labour) takes 


his throne smiling (i.e., if there be a cloudless 


afternoon) the cattle of cultivators will be 
sold in fairs” (meaning a very bad year for 
them), The rainbow is also supposed to give 
indications for the year, and we have ‘if 
there be rainbow on the west (sky) there 
will be drought throughtout the year, while 


53) 


a 


273 


Miscellaneous. 


if there be a rainbow on the east there will 
be storm and rain,” 


A writer in an Indian agricultural paper 
vouches for the accuracy of the saying 
that ‘‘if the days be cloudy and the 
nights starry, these are the signs of drought,” 
also that, ‘‘the easterly wind in Bhadra 
and Aswin (middle August to middle October) 
brings a downpour,” so the cultivator 
is advised to ‘‘go home after cutting through 
the ail” (to prevent the field from being 
flooded and the standing crop being injured). 
The halo round the sun or the moon is also 
supposed to be an indication of rain, and we 
have that ‘‘if the halo be distant, rain is 
imminent, while if the halo be nearer, it 
means flood.” 


T now conclude these sayings on the signs 
of rain, with the one which foretells 
‘*drought or excessive rain in a month 
having five Sundays.” There are others on 
the subject which seem to be even more 
vague and arbitrary than even some of the 
preceding ones. 


Paddy being the staple crop, receives the 
greatest attention in these sayings, and so 
we have the favourable circumstances for a 
good harvest summed up ina single couplet 
thus :—‘‘If (the fields) are full (of water) in 
Cancer* and dry up in Leo, also if they are 
filled to their ears in Virgo, and if it rains 
without wind in Libra, then where will ye 
keep your paddy?” (so abundant will be the 
harvest). 


The lowlands, specially in Eastern Bengal, 
are inundated by the overflowing of rivers 
during the rainy season. The early inunda- 
tion is also a very vital factor to agriculture, 
as it leaves behind a deposit of silt. A high 
and sudden rise of water will destroy the 
standing crops, while a low and slow rise 
is beneficial for the development of the 
plants. Andso ‘‘the first rise of water in 
Baisakh makes the aus paddy grow twice.” 
The indications of inundation seem rather 
queer, thus “if itis warm in Pouws, cold in 
Baisakh, the pits will be filled in by the 
first part of Ashar, and Khana says, ‘‘O my 
husband, there will be no water in Sraban 
and Bhadra.” Also, ‘if during mid Ashar 
southerly wind blows, there will be flood 
during the year.” But the queerest of all is 
that which would foretell a good harvest 
of paddy from a good harvest of mango, and 
also a flood from a good season of tamarind, 


Conditions of soil and of climate differ 
very much with different places, yet the 
above may be taken to represent fairly the 
circumstances for a good harvest in a 
normal year. But it would be absurd to lay 
down for the whole of Lower Bengal and for 
high and low lands as well that a cultivator 


* In the Hindu astrology, months often go by the 
name of the signs of the Zodiac, 


Miscellaneous. 2 


would be ‘‘happy and prosperous in husban- 
dry and also gain honour if he plants paddy 
within five days of the month of Ashaz.” 
Neither can it be advised with certainty to 
‘*plant as much pulses as one can from the 
fourth of Bhadra to the fourth of Aswin.” 
Also there is much truth when ‘Khana 
would advise a son of the peasant to sow 
mustard seeds during the latter part of saat, 
i.e., maiddle September to middle October). 
Also ‘‘he who without transplanting chillie 
seedlings in Bhadra, ov Aswin spends his 
time in sleep and inthe Kartik and Agra- 
hayan (i.e., the next two months) transplant 
the old seedlings, will not have to fill his 
stores of chillies, as those plants will die of 
fungus diseases.” 

Again, among the sayings on the prope 
time of planting is one which advises a 
husbandman to ‘‘plant turmeric in Baisakh 
or Jaistha, throwing away pieces and dice, 
to hoe the soilin Ashar and Sraban and to 


make it thorough in Bhadra, (otherwise) 
says Harth, ‘what yield can I give, if 


planted on any other rule.’ ” Also, ‘* if you 
don’t plant Ol (Amorphophallus companu- 
latus) in Flagwn, then there will be topsy- 
turvy in the end,” so also Patal (Trichosan- 
thes disica, Roxb.) planted in Flaguwn gives 
twice the crop.” 

The sayings on the planting of bamboo are 
rather interesting. Thus we have ‘‘O brother 
cultivator plant bamboos eight cubits apart 
at adepth of one cubit, and after planting 
three hundred and sixty clumps of them, lie 
ye peasant, on your bedstead.” Preswnably 
one or two bamboos from each clump, would 
enable him to provide for his daily necessa- 
vies throughout the year. But the reckless 
cutting of bamboos would destroy a clump, 
soaman wishing to preserve his bamboos 
must be ‘fas stiff (sparing) as the twig of a 
bamboo,” for the coconuts of the spendthrift, 
and the bamboos of the miser do not run 
short throughout the year.” Wholesale 
destruction is also reprehensible in the case 
of plantain, which is also a very important 
plant, as its flower, leaves and even the 
trunk are of everyday necessity in a house- 
hold. The leaves serve the purpose of plates 
and are largely utilised during feasts even 
in the houses of the rich, while the flower 
and the trunk are cooked up for meals. 
Nevertheless, the ‘leaves must not be cut oft 
as soon as planted,” for that would injure the 
plant, and it is the peasant’s interest to save a 
valuable plant ‘‘that would provide him 
with cloth and food.” 


Ploughing is begun on auspicious days, and 
the Hindu cultivator consults the village 
astrologer before beginning to plough his 
fields anew, Many stringent rules have. 
been laid down for it. Thus, ‘‘Hear cultiva- 
tors, says Khana, when you go to your 
fields with plough, seek out an auspicious 
moment for that, also let not have any 
untoward news on your way, next ascertain 


td 


4 {SEPTEMBER, 1908. 


f 
¢ 
7 


the directions and begin ploughing from the 
east, then will your whole labours be ful- 
filled without fail.” The cultivator, also, 
should not ‘‘take to his plough on the new 
and the full moon, for then his misery would 
last for ever, his bullocks will have gout, 
and he will not have food in his house.” 


That different crops would require different 
degrees of preparation of the soil is laconi- 
cally summarised in a single couplet. Thus 
the radish requires a thoroughly prepared 
soil, so “‘sixteen ploughings,” are laid down 
for it, and ‘‘half of that for cotton,” a tap- 
rooted plant. But paddy having crown- 
roots, ‘‘half of that,” 7.e., four plough- 
ings would suffice for it, while ‘‘the betel- 
vine (would grow) without any ploughing.” 
Also ‘‘the soil for sugarcane should be 
thoroughly pulverised,” which requires a 
great deal of labour, so ‘‘let him who has 
grandsons, great-grandsons cultivate sugar- 
cane.” Again, the soil for Man (Arum 


_indicwmn) is prepared by a spade, while 


ploughing is required for preparing a soil 
for til (Sesame indicum). 

That some plants would thrive in light, 
while others would require shade, has not 
also been lost sight of in these sayings. 
Khana would say ‘‘Paddy in sunshine, and 
betel-vine in shade (thrive); while ‘* though 
the Ol in shade would ich the mouth, it 
would do no other harm.” But it is to be 
doubted whether ‘‘the potatoe would circle 
round the plant (i.c., abound) if planted near 
a bamboo clump.” 

Next we come to the sayings on the soil. 
Different crops require different soils, so we 
have ‘‘sandy loam for aus paddy, and clayey 
loam for jute.’ Again, says Khana, ‘‘Hear 
me, O son of a peasant, plant Patal on the 
sandy soil, for that will bring to your desire’s 
end,” Also ‘‘if you plant Kachiw on the river 
bank, it will grow three cubits deep under 
ground.” 

The rich soil of Lower Bengal, fertilised 
for the most part by an annual deposit of silt, 
requires very little of artificial manuring for 
the staple crops; besides in India, manuring 
has not been systematised and its utility is 
not so very well understood as in Kurope and 
America, so there ave practically no sayings 
on the manures for field crops. Nevertheless, 
there is some very practical and sound advice 
in these sayings; thus ‘if one scatters ashes 
in a Kachw field,” Khana says, ‘* there will be 
no end of them” (?.e., it will give plenty of 
yield). In the case of bamboo it is advised 
**to loosen the soil in Flagwn, to put (fresh) 
earth (at the root) in Chaitra, for ‘ with such 
treatment,’ says bamboo, ‘I grow soon.’” 
Also ‘‘Hear ye! son of a cultivator! put the 
husks of paddy under a clump of bamboo, for 
if husks be put at the foot of a bamboo two 
Kurs of land will be covered by the clump.” 
Water in which fishes have been washed is 
said to be good for water-melon, while 
‘chillies thrive in paddy-lands,” 


SEPTEMBER, 1908. | 


While concluding ow: observations -on 
these ‘‘rudely cavoll’d chiming phrase, in 
uncouth rhymes, we cannot but admire them 
for the broad commonsense, and the keen 
observative nature they sometimes display. 
These also give an insight into the character 
of our peasants. Though prejudiced and 
imbued with a firm belief in fatality which is 
ingrained in an oriental nature, they have 
sense enough not to be solely guided by 
these sayings, however oracular they may be 
represented. No cultivator would hopelessly 
give up his plough, though in the coming 
Bengalee year ‘‘Saturn is the king and Mars 
_ his minister, and in vain would one hoe and 
_ plough,” rather should he join ia the pious 
prayer of our fathers in the holy Rig Veda, 
“Sweet be our crops, sweet be our cattle,” — 
Agricultwral Jowrnal of India, Vol, ITl., 
Part IT., April, 1908. ’ 


Ee ts 


AGRICULTURAL BOARD. 


MINUTES OF THE 418T MEETING. 
(Ceylon Observer, Aug. 3rd.) 
PAPERS ON “THE VILLAGE CULTI- 


VATOR AND PADDY CULTIVATION”: 


AND: ‘VERMIN DESTRUCTION.” 


The monthly meeting of the Ceylon Agri 
cultural Society was held in the Council 
Chamber on the 3rd August, 1908, under the 
presidency of H. HE. the Governor. 

AGRICULTURAL INSTRUCTION. 


¥ 


Dr. WILLIS, in submitting the Report of the 
Special Committee on Agricultural Instruc- 
tion, said:—The Committee had. met on two 
or three occasions and had discussed the 
~ matter very fuily; had also paid a visit to the 

School Garden at Mirigama. The school in 

that district was, he added, one of the best 

within easy reach of Colombo. The Report 
was as follows :— 
- -ReporT OF THE COMMITTEE ON SCHOOL 
GARDENS AND AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION : 
 APPporInrTED BY THE CEYLON AGRICULTURAL 
Soctety, &c., &c. 


é 


1. We recommend that the Director, Royal 
Botanic Gardens, by whose Department the 
School Gardens are now worked, be requested 
to apply to Government for the following 
‘additions to his votes, viz., (a) Rs. 1,000 under 
the head of implements, to permit of the 
extension of the scheme to a larger number 

of Government and Gyrant-in-aid Schools ; 

(b) Rs. 1,000 under the head of prizes, in order 

to give greater encouragement to teachers 

in charge of School Gardens ; (¢) Rs. 1,000 for 
providing a special course of lectures in 

Nature Teaching to be delivered annually to 
teachers at the Training College, on similar 

lines to the lectures to teachers on Sanitation, 

which are given annually at the Medical 


College. 


h 


275 Miscellaneous, 


2. That Dr. Willis and Mv, Lock be asked 
to prepare a Manual giving materials for 
lessons on Nature Study, to be translated into 
Sinhalese, for use by teachers in the lower 
standards of Vernacular Schools, and that 
Mr, Drieberg be asked to prepare an Agri- 
cultural Reader suitable for Ceylon, to be 
translated into Sinhalese for use in the upper 
Standards. 


3. That in certain schools where special 
facilities favour this departure, more definite 
agricultural teaching (illustrated by practical 
experiments) be provided for boys in the fifth 
and higher Standards, and that, with a view 
to assisting and encouraging their work, the 
Agricultural Society and local authorities be 
asked to offer prizes for competition among 
the boys. 


4, That the course for teachers at the 
Training College be expanded so as to include 
instruction in Nature Teaching, and that as 
soon as one is available, a suitable man be 
appointed to carry on regular instruction in 
the College and act as an organising inspector, 


5. That a School of Agriculture be started 
at Peradeniya, as soon as practicable, with a 
view to undertaking the Training of Agricul- 
tuval Instructors, and when this is done that 
a practical course in the vernacular, consisting 
chiefly of field work, should be combined 
with it for the benefit of candidates nominated 
for Village Headmenships, twenty-five to be 
trained at one time for a period of one year, 

The Committee desires to express their 
thanks to Mr, E. Evans and Mr. W. A. de 
Silva for their valuable suggestions.—(Signed) 
J. HARWARD, JoHN C. Wiis, S. D. BANDA- 
RANAIKH, P. ARUNACHALAM, S, C. OBE YESE- 
KERE, H. Marcus FERNANDO. 


A. POINT OF ORDER. 

The COLONIAL SECRETARY:—Before any 
member moves the adoption of the Report, 
may [ask whether it is any part of the pro- 
vince of the Society to recommend the 
expenditure of Government money. No one 
cowd have a greater sympathy than I have 
with agricultural instruction throughout the 


schools of the Colony. Ithink that a system - 


of instruction such as is already now being: 
inaugurated and now in progress is very 
much needed in an agricultural colony such 
as ours, and that the benefits likely to accrue 
from it should probably be very great. At 
the same time I may make it clear that it is 
for this Society not only to suggest expendi- 
ture but even to name the amount which it 
considers should be provided, if the Society 
was itself a contributor to that expenditure— 
it would certainly be absolutely within its 
rights; but when itis being startlingly gener- 
ous with other people’s money, we must begin 
to question how far it is justified in the action 
it takes. I would ask the members to bear 
that in mind before they adopt the Report of 
the Special Committee, 


Miscellaneous. 2 


A. SUGGESTION, 


H. E. the GovERNoR:—As the Colonial 
Secretary has raised a point of order, [ think 
it right to say that he is perfectly correct. 
In the same way as in the Legislative Council 
Unofficial Members cannot propose a money 
vote, neither is it in the province of the Agri- 
cultural Society to propose a definite ex- 
penditure to the Government. I may say in 
connection with the three heads which have 
been read out by the Director of the Botanic 
Gardens, it will be a matter of consideration 
for the Society before such a recommendation 
is made to the Government to say whether 
such expenditure can be defrayed out of the 
annual vote already given by Government. 
(H. E. was understood to say that this might 
be done by a re-distribution of the amounts, 
Continuing, H. E. said: Having answered the 
point of order, | would like to hear any other 
remarks. As regards the Report itself I have 
not seen it at all, but have only just heard it 
read. Iam not, therefore, proposing to make 
any remarks upon it, as I think the generally 
broad interests of agricultural education in 
this Colony have already been enunciated from 
this chair, and need not, therefore, be 
duplicated. I can only say, when the Report 
is submitted to me, it shall receive every 
attention and show how far it goes in the 
direction which I hope agricultural instruc- 
tion in this Colony will take. 


THE COMMITTEE’S IMPRESSION, 


The Hon. Mr. OBEYESEKERE :—The Com- 
mittee, I think, Sir, were under the impression 
that it was quite legitimate for them to make 
any suggestion to promote agriculture. If 
think it was with that view that they did it. 
IT am of the opinion that the annual vote 
is Rs. 30,000, and in the same way an addi- 
tional amount may be voted for purposes 
which they feel necessary. It is under that 
impression that the Committee have made 
the suggestion—merely a suggestion and 
nothing more; Government may act upon it 
or not. Iam of the opinion that they think 
and firmly believe that Government ought 
to come to the rescue of this Association 
in a matter where they feel their funds are 
not sufficient to meet a particular course of 
action. 


H. KE. the GOVERNOR :—I am obliged to the 


Hon, Mr. Obeyesekere for stating that it is 
only a suggestion. At the same time the 
suggestion should have taken the form, 


possibly, whether Government could not give 
some additional help instead of specifying 
sums of money for definite objects. I repeat 
still again it will be for the Society to see 
whether the Rs. 3,000 cannot be met by the 
ordinary vote which Government gives to 
them. 


[ The Hon. Mr. OBEYESEKERE pointed out 
that the Committee, to save time, made a 
proposal. 


fi. KE. the Governor:—I have given my 
decision on the subject. 


A paper by Mr. A, Dissanaike, Mudaliyar 
and retired President V. T., entitled 


THE VILLAGE CULTIVATOR AND PADDY 
CULTIVATION 
was read by the Secretary. (Vide page, 128.) 

At the conclusion of the paper, 

The Hon. Mr. OBEYESEKERE said:—The 
suggestion of this paper appears to me, if 
carried out, to revive the paddy tax that has 
been abolished. No doubt it can be put to 
very effective use as pointed out by the 
writer, but the question is whether we would 
be justified in re-imposing a tax which has 
after due deliberation been abolished. 


The Hon. the COLONIALSECRETARY:—In this 
connection, Si, | may perhaps be telling mem- 
bers of the Society what they already know. 
But it has been brought to my knowledge on 
several occasions that one of the most un- 
popular acts of this Government was the 
abolition of the paddy tax. It was deeply 
felt and believed that the payment of that 
tax was something which had become sacred 
from antiquity; and it was only the other 
day that I was reading a remark in the 
journal of a Government Agent to the effect 
that villagers have complained to him that 
they have never had any good crops since 
that tax was abolished (laughter), and I 
believe that this is not a solitary instance. 


The SECRETARY here read an extract from 
a letter from a gentleman on the subject, 
who could not attend that day’s meeting, and 
did not wish that his name should be known. 


THE GOVERNOR’S REMARKS. 


H. E. the GovERNOR:—The paper, which 
has just been read, is a very interesting one, 
coming as it does from a distinguished Sinha- 
lease. It deals with one of the matters 
which I have lately been discussing in Durbar, 
both with the upcountry Chiefs and the 
lowcountry Chiefs, and it provides in itself 
a text for rather lengthy remarks with 
which [am not now going to trouble you. 
I should like, however, just to point out 
that the Mudaliyar has made use of one or 
two excellent ideas. One is that part where 
he talks about lands being acquired for 
tankage, in which he says thatthe labour 
must be supplied by the field owners or 
cultivators. He then goes on to say that it 
should be the care of the people, with the 
help of the Government, to devise the best 
means to remedy the evils arising from these 
causes. (Hear, hear.) Members of this Society 
know that personally one has a very strong 
feeling that Government should assist those 
who assist themselves (hear, hear,) and I feel 
sure in this matter of irrigation and of village 
tanks—and I speak especially of the latter as 
against the large monuments of which we 


have a few throughout the country. I 


speak especially of village tanks: that any 


6 (SEPTEMBER, 1908. a 


— a 


ity 


- SEPTEMBER, 1908.] 


ee 


x 


WRAY 


plan by which the people will come forward 
as a community and approach Government 
with a view of getting Government help, 
will meet with every consideration. The 
idea of the Mudaliyar is that any outlay, 
which may be incurred, should be defrayed 
by their giving a tithe of their crops; and I 
would, in connection with that, and the 
remark which has fallen from the Colonial 
Secretary and the Hon. Mr. Obeyesekere, 
like to point out that the proposal is entirely 


a different matter froma tax on paddy. The 
Tax ON PADDY 
came into the Government coffers. This 


would be a voluntary contribution from the 
people themselves for work for their direct 
benefit, and be expended upon them; and it 
is, therefore, no more a resuscitation of a tax 
than it would be if they put money into a 
fund for the holding of Agricultural Shows 
on their own which they hoped would benefit 
themselves. As regards the amount of one 
tithe, it is very possible, under such circum- 
stances as these that it might not be suffici- 
ent to cover the expenditure, and it is no 
doubt known to some of the members that 
in various portions of the Colony we are now 
opening up paddy fields upon what you 
might call an extension of Sir Henry Ward’s 
system; by which the people pay, on the 
share principle, one-fifth of their crops, whe- 
ther big or small, on the termination of which 
they keep their titles.. A somewhat similar 
system may be held in this case also; and I 
say particularly that one tithe might not be 
sufficient in some circumstances. Seeing 
that the Mudaliyar has suggested, and, I 
may say, with some show of reason, that the 
headmen who are engaged in the business 
should also be remunerated for their trouble. 
In connection with what has fallen from the 
Colonial Secretary as regards the abolition 
of the paddy tax in 1893, that it has been 
mentioned to me several times that one of 
the drawbacks of the abolition of that tax is 
that the headmen no longer care a rap for 
paddy cultivation in their districts, although 
formerly they used to do so. Where the 
headmen have given out the seed themselves, 
they have been particularly interested ; but 
as a rule they do not take an interest as 
regards the paddy cultivation of their district 
as they did in the past. As regards the 
second column of the paper, where it is pro- 
posed that there should be advances made to 
cultivators, and that there should be eventu- 
ally organised Agricultural Banks, I may say 
that these remarks are not only fully appre- 
ciated by me, but they are remarks very 
similar to those which at the present moment 
are before the Secretary of State. As no 
reply has come to my Despatch, it would be 
irregular of me to give it to you. 
My Ippa 


is to advance to the cultivator, on easy terms 
and on the security of his lands, his seed 
paddy, and the agricultural implements suit- 


277 


Miscellaneous. 


able for his purposes in carrying out any 
scheme. There should be as little Govern- 
ment interference as possible. The people 
themselves should, as far as possible, ad- 
minister the machinery. In districts where 
there is a branch of the Agricultural Society 
IT would leave the administration to a 
Committee consisting of the chief revenue 
officer, as Chairman, with the nominated 
members of the Province on the Agricultural 
Board, and with them I would associate the 
Gansabawa or Village Committee. In the 
case of any Government contribution to a 
fund, I would propose that, after payment of 
expenses, including loan, interest, and sinking 
fund, any balance should be paid to the 
credit of the District Committee to form the 
foundation of small agricultural banks for the 
promotion of different forms of agriculture. 

Continuing, His Excellency said: I venture 
to express the hope that the Mudaliyar will 
favour us with further remarks on _ this 
subject, after he has considered it with other 
Mudaliyars in the lowcountry. A further 
paper would not only prove of interest to the 
Society itself, but of great value to his 
Sinhalese compatriots. (Hear, hear.) 

Mr. A. F. West, Acting Government Kn- 
tomologist, read a paper on 


‘*“VERMIN DESTRUCTION, ” 


after which His Excellency invited discussion, 
which was not forthcoming, 


NOTES AND QUERIES. 


By C. DRIEBERG. 

B. G. P.—The latest invention in the 
way of a white-ant destroyer is a con- 
trivance consisting of an air-pump con- 
nected by a short length of rubber-hose 
with afurnace. By working the pump 
a continuous blast of air is delivered 


_ into the furnace, entering beneath and 


escaping through a pipe near the top, to 
which is attached a flexible iron hose. 
A charcoal fire is first started in the 
furnace, and, by pumping, got thorough- 
ly air tight. A powder is thensprinkled 
over the fire and the lid closed.’ By con- 
tinuing the pumping avery hot cloud of 
poisonous smoke is driven out through 


the flexible iron hose, the end of which 
is inserted into the white-ant ‘‘nest” 
and the smoke thus driven in. The 


appliance is reeommended by the Govern- 

ment Entomologist, who is using one at 

Peradeniya, and will no doubt be ready 

to give any further information with 

eet to it to any one applying to 
im. 


M. H.—The incubator at the Stock 
Garden has only been started lately, 
but it has done well so far, and hatched 
out a first brood of chickens early this 


Miscellaneous 


month. The Government Veterinary 
Surgeon has kindly helped with his ad- 
vice, andIam sure he will gladly tell 
you what ought to suit your require- 
ments if you consult him. 

TreRMITES ATTACKING YOUNG COCONUT 
PLANTS.—I note that you have tried 
saw-dust and salt, and also planting of 
Colocasia antiquorum in the same hole 
as the nut, but having not found either 
satisfactory, I shall be glad to hear 
later how the application of a coat 
of tar to the seed-nuts has answered. I 
would advise you trying castor cake 
when planting out. White-ants object 
to it strongly, and it will benefit the 
young plants. If you can get Margosa 
poonac you will find it even more effica- 
cious. 

Tomato DisEASE.—The black spot 
fruit disease is caused by a fungus (Cla- 
diosporium lycopersici). The spores 
gain entrance into the fruit through 
minute cracks or punctures on the skin. 
The use of raw manure likely to prove 
too forcing and cause cracking should 
be avoided, as also excessive watering. 
Allow the plant free ventilation and 
spray at intervals with Potassium sul- 
phide solution, made by dissolving one 
ounce of the sulphide (liver of sulphur) 
ina quart of hot water; then make up 
to two and a half gallons with cold 
water. Give the plants liquid manure. 

PouLtRY FANciIER.—The usual way of 
testing eggs is by holding them in a suit- 
able appliance against the light of 
a candle. If fresh, the egg will appear 
quite clear and almost transparent. If 
incubation has begun, a dark spot will be 
visible which increases with length of 
incubation. A rotten egg appears dark 
in colour. Another method is to place the 
egg inasolution of salt (2 oz.) in water 
(1 pint). If new laid, the eggs will sink 
to the bottom; if one day old, it 
will sink below the surface but not 
to the bottom; if three days old it will 
stand just below the liquid; if over three 
days it will float on the surface; if 
two weeks old only alittle of the shell 
will go below the liquid. The older the 
egg the lighter it is, and hence the less 
will it sink in the solution. 

Vv. P.—The “Aerator” is stocked by 
Messrs. Brown & Co. For garden work 
youcould get nothing better for keeping 
the surface soil loose and free of weeds. 
The price is somewhere about Rs. 7:50. 
The ‘Planet Junior” machine is intended 
for rather more extensive work ; but all 
these appliances are calculated to help 
jn keeping soil in tilth—-a condition 
rarely seen in Ceylon. 


2 


"8% [SEPTRMBRR. 1908. 


SUGAR-CANE VINEGAR.—A lady corres- 
pondent writes from upcountry inquiring 
where she could get some of this vine- 
gar, having read about it in Miss 
Gordon Cumming’s work on Ceylon, from 
which the following passage is taken :— 
“‘Possibily some of the many victims 
of jungle fever in other lands may be 
disposed to try the simple remedy des- 
cribed ina letter tothe Editor of the 
Ceylon Observer. The writer states 
that his stalwart brother had from 
repeated attacks of fever dwindled to a 
mere skeleton, when a fakir came to 
his tent and offered to permanently cure 
him. His materia medica were of the 
simplest, consisting only of a flat piece of 
iron and a bottle of sugarcane vinegar. 
The former was made red-hot, and the 
vinegar was poured over it—the patient 
inhaling the fumes. This operation 
was repeated only a second time, and 
from that day forward, in the thirteen 
years up to date of the letter, the sufferer 
never had a return of fever, and quite 
recovered his health.” I have succeeded 
in procuring some of this vinegar from 
Mr. D. A. Jayasinghe, sugar planter of 
Nagoda, in Galle District. Will any 
one who could furnish further testi 
mony as to the efficacy of the treatment 
referred to kindly doso ? 


Gorrespondence, 


ROSELLE: ITS CULTURE AND USES. 


Kudat, B.N. Borneo, 20th July, 1908. 

Sir,—Referring to the article on 
“‘Roselle: Its Culture and Uses” in 
“1 A. & Mag.” for April last, on page 
316 reference is made to the cultivation 
of the plant in India for fibre. Could 
you kindly inform me what the yield 
per acre of fibre averages, the valne per 
lb., and the method and cost of treating 
it. 

As itis very difficult to place a new 
fibre on the market, I should be glad to 
know whether it has been under cultiva- 
tiou for any length of time, what quan- 
tities are produced, and where it is 
chiefly sold. 

I presume the machinery for extract- 
ing the fibre could be obtained in Caleutta, 
if not at Colombo, 


Yours faithfully. 
PLANTER. 


[Watt, in his Dictionary of Economic 
Products of India, says :— 

Fisre.—The stems yield a_ good, 
strong, silky Fibre, the Roselle Hemp of 
Commerce, obtained by retting the t wigs 
when inflower. The process is deser ibed 


_— 


SEPTEMBER, 1908.] 


as follows in a statement from the 
Nellore. District of Madras: ‘‘ After the 
plants are supposed to be properly dried, 


they are made into bundles and soaked 


in water, in which state they are allowed 
to remain for a period varying from 15 
to 20 days. After that time the bark is 
separated by the hand, and well washed 
to free it from any impurities ; ; itis then 
allowed to dry, and becomes available 
foruse.” It isemployedby the natives for 
the purposes of cordage, being twisted 
intoa ropeof varying thickness called 
nilaka. The thinner varieties of rope 
are substituted for tape and rattaning 
for cots, the thicker is generally employ- 
ed as a strong rope for agricultural 
purposes, tying upcattle, &c. The fibre 
is also said to be employed in the manu- 
facture of gunnies in certain districts of 
Madras. 

LIOTARD (Paper-making materials of 
India) mentions the Roselle as yielding 
a fibre likely to be valuable to paper- 
makers, but no account exists of its 
actually having beenso employed. On 
the whole, considering the easy growth 
ot the plant and the cheap rate at which 
it could be procured, the fibre seems 
worthy of more attention than it has 
hitherto received.—KED. | 


MALAY RUBBER GROWERS’ ASSO- 
CIATION: MR. W. W. BAILEY’S 
REVIEW. 

DEAR SirR,—I have toad with much 
interest Mr. W. W. Bailey’s letter to the 
Singapore Free Press of April 10th last, 
inserted in your issue for May. 

Although agreeing, for the most part, 
with what Mr. Bailey writes about 
practical Hevea planting in general and 
thumb-nail pruning in particular, I must 
take exception to what he says about 
keeping an estate ‘‘ perfectly clean from 
the day itis burned off.” Asa planter I 
of course admit that this is the cheapest 
way of working an estate, but whether it 
will prove to be the most successful in 
the long run I very much doubt, more 
especially on steeper country. On low- 
lying flat estates such as obtain in most 
parts of the Straits, of course, the loss of 
soil caused by wash is reduced to a 
minimum, but on steeper estates the 
policy of keeping the hillsides perfectly 
bare and thus exposed to the full force 
of the sun’s rays and to the heavy tro- 
pical rains seems to me a suicidal one, to 
say nothing of the loss of organic 
matter to the soil through want of weed- 
growth. Is it not better to pay more for 
weeding during the first few years until 
the trees close up and render this work 
superfluous than to run the risk of im- 
poverishment of the soil through un- 
necessary wash? Are we not living on 
our capital, as it were, by taking every- 


279 


Miscellaneous. 


thing from the soil in this way and 
returning nothing to it? When in 
Ceylon last yearI sawa Hevea estate, 
planted on a very steep hillside, kept 
perfectly clean in this way, but without 
even terraces or trenches to retain the 
soil, and it was pitiful to see the loss of 
humus taking place through wash. I 
cannot believe that any saving in 
weeding during the first few years com- 
pensates in any way for this loss of soil. 
Surely also the physical condition of the 
soil and its consequent ability to retain 
moisture in an easily available condition 
is improved by mulching ? 

I need hardly add thatIam no advo- 
cate of allowing the young trees to be 
stifled by lalang or other harmful weeds. 
On the contrary, lam strongly of opinion 
that lalang and all other noxious weeds 
should be eradicated at all costs from the 
very start, but surely there are many 
other growths which not only do no 
harm to the Hevea, but on the contrary 
protrect the ground from sun and rain 
and, on being cut down at regular 
intervals, eventually add to fertility of 
‘the soil. On many tea estates here in 
Java, where wash is almost impossible 
owing tothe very elaborate system of 
drains and trenches, the ground is seldom 
kept weedless, but onthe contrary good 
kinds of weed are encouraged for use 
as green .aanure. Besides Crotalaria, 
which suffers much from insect plagues 
in this countrv, I am planting between 
the rubber with greater success a variety 
of Indigo named Tephrosia, which by 
its quick, low, spreading growth soon 
covers the ground and is very effective 
in preventing weed. It seeds very free- 
ly which makes its propagation easy and 
rapid. It dies off, I believe, within the 
year but sows itselfagain so that, once 
established, the cost is merely nominal. 
That this or any other growth will kill 
off well-established lalang Ido not for 
% moment maintain, but, once the lalang 
has been got out, Tephrosia makes the 
keeping of itin hand mere child’s play, 
whilst the fertilising properties of the 
Indigo tribe are too well known to eall 
for further comment. 

Probably interplanting with catch- 
crops is an even better method of cul- 
tivation than theabove, but leaving that 
entirely out of the question for the 
present, 1 think, Sir, that where opinions 
so widely differ as to the value of abso- 
lutely clean or practically weedy gar- 
dens, it would be of great value to 
plantersif you would give us the benefit 
of your weighty opinion on the subject, 
even at the risk of baing accused of 
offering ‘‘ bad scientific advice.” 

Tam, dear Sir, 
Your obedient servant, 


CLEVELAND HARRINGTON, 


280 Ree 1908, 


MARKET RATES FOR TROPICAL PRODUCTS. i 
(From Lewis & Peats Monthly Price Current, London, 12th August, 1908.) 


QUALITY. QUOTATIONS. QUALITY. QUOTATIONS 
ALOE, Soccotrine cwt*|Fair to fine +1858 a 908 INDIARUBBER.(Contd.) 

Zanzibar & Hepatic ,, |Common to good -.120s a 828 6d Borneo pL good 6d a 2s 2d 
ARROWRKOOT (Natal) Ib.|Fair to fine Liozd a 4d ave Low, White red Laurea] 
BEES’ W ; cwt. enang 4 s a 2s 

le See ,, {Slightly drossy to fair ...|£6 10s a £612s6d] | Mozambique Hane to fine red Ball .../2s6d a 8s 6d 
Bombay bleached _,, |Fair to good £7 10s a £7 12s 6d ausage, fair to good .. is éd a 3s 4d 
# unbleached,, |Derk to good genuine ../£515s a £6 10s Nyassaland Fair to fine ball 23 :da 2s 4d 
Madagascar it Dare to good palish |£67s6d a £6 12/6 Madagascar Majunge & hikeoaled ts a aa 2d 
2, Fo ,», {Crude nom. S +-|Is a 1s 
See) eh tam Fair average quality .. /162s 6d Niggers, low to good ../6da2s 1d 
CARDAMOMS. Malabarlb| Goed to fine bold 1s 10d a 2s New Guinea Ordinary to fine ball ..lis6éda2s 6d nom 
Middling lean Is dda ls 7d INDIGO, KI. Bengal Shipping mid to gd violet|3s 5d a 3s lod 
Tellicherry Good to ine bold -./2s ae 6d a Ordinavye ea uae Be aa a as a 
Brownis ls 6d als 9% Ss a 8s 
Mangalore ,, |Med brown to fair bold|is 9d a 28.94 nom. Oude Middling to fine "2s 6d a 2/8 nom. 
Ceylon. Mysore ,, |Sml) fair to fine plump |1s 5da 3s 6d Mid. to good Kurpah 2s 3d a 2s 6d 
Malabar... |Fair to good 1s a a 1s ian ed i ordi sD = Be. aes a8 
Seeds Vhs 7 als 10 ‘ n s 5da 2s 4 
Long Wild,, |Shelly to good ../6d ais 9d MACE, Bombay & Penang Pale reddish to fine [1s 5d a 1s 10d 
CASTOR OIL, Caleutta,, |Ists and 2nds .. {8d a 34d per Ib. >/Ordinary to fair 1s 2d als 6d 
CHILLIES, Zanzibar cwt.|Dull to tine bright —_.../208 a 25s uy ” » good pale |is 1d a1s6d 
5 .— Tb. OLANES, cwt 
Geolen ras Crown, Renewed oe ag Madras Spblep oa anae ic re a rs od 
f od a s9sa 
Red cae Stem 1jd a 44d" Bombay» (Bhimlies 5s a 5s 6d 
Renewed 38da 5id Rhajpore, &e. 43 9s a 5S 
Root 1jda 4d Bengal ,, (Calcutta ds ads 3d 
CINNAMON, Ceylon Ists|Common to fine quill |7idals 3d NUTMEGS— Wa Repco. Is 4d a 1s bd 
per Ib, 2nds i ut a ais 2d Bombay & Penang ,, |{10'S {0 Coie bid a ae 
3ords 7 i ais S € 4 7a a 
Ane i iB 5d a sid NUTS, ARECA emi Ordinary to fair fresh |1é6s a 18s 
Chips, &c..|Fair to fine bold 25d a 34d NUX VOMICA, Cochin |O'dinary to good 93 a 11s 6d 
CLOVES, Penang Ib.|Dull to tine bright bold|9d a 11d per cwt. eee ” ” 7s 6d a 7s 9d 
Amboyna  ..|Dull to fine 73d a 8d Madras |.” » 7s 9da 9s 
Ceylon mi i a 7da 8d OIL OF ANISEED _,, |Fair merchantable | [4s 5d 
Zanzibar Fair and fine bright 43d CASSIA a According to analysis |4s6da4s 9d 
Stems ..|Fair 2d LEMONGRASS | ;, |Good Savon ae ie 
COFFEE NUTMEG if ReneS. HO RW a2 
Ceylon Plantation ,, |Bold to fine 110s a 116s CINNAMON Ordinary to fair sweet |24d a 1s3d 
Medium to good 80s a 100s CITRON ELLE Bright & good flavour [ls 
Native Good ordinary nominal ORCHELLA WEED—cwt),,. ¥ 
Liberian 5, |Fair to bold 425 6d a 46s 6d Ceylon - Mid. to fine not woody...|10s a 12s 6d 
COCOA, Ceylon Plant. ,, Special Marke 78s a 908 | Zanzibar. ” |Picked beret eee nom. 
ed to goo TUS a 77s | 9 * ” 
Native Estate 5, [Ordinary to red 50s a 748 /PEPPLR— (Black) Ips 
Alleppee & Tellicherry|Fair + [3hd 
COLOMBO ROOT », |Middling to good 12s al5s Ceylon », o fine bold heavy ../3d a 4d 
CKOTON SEEDS,sift. cwt,|Dull to fair 273 6d a 32s 6d Singapore i ny at [8d 
CUTCH Fair to fine dry 21s a 23s nom. | Acheen & W. C. Penang Dull to fine [BA _@ 39d 
GINGER, Bengal, ’ rough,, Fair 30s nom. | (White) Singapore », |Lair to fine dc ../4gd a 8d 
Calicut, ON A,, |Small to fine bold 72s 6d a 853 » |Fair NY ke .. [od 
»» {Small and medium 48s a 65s Pen ng », [Fair sed 
Cocbin RaWER ,, Common to fine bold  |32s 6d a 35s 'PLUMBAGO, hag ewt,|Fair to fine bright bold 35s a 45s nom. 
Small and D’s 338 |Middling to good small|25s a 40s 
Japan ** [Unsplit 288 chips |Dull to Ane bright 15s a 30s 
@UM AMMONIACUM,’ |Sm. blocky to fair clean|25s a 60s dust Ordinary to fine bright 78 a 158 
ANIMLI, Zanzibar ,’ |Pale and amber, str. srts./£16 a£1910s |SAGO, Pearl, large ...|Dull to fine si .|148 a 15s 9d 
» _ little red|£13 a £15 | medium ..| ,, 7 14s a 163 6d. 
Bean and Pea size ditto|75sa £14 small i 14s a 15s 
Fair to good red sorts |£9a £12 SEEDLAC ewt, Ordinary to gd. soluble |£5 a£6 nom. 
Med. & bold glassy sorts|£6 10s a £8 SENNA, Tinnevelly 1b.|Good to fine bold green ae a7d 
Madagascar ,, |Fair to good palish .,.|£4 a £8 10s Fair greenish da 4d 
Ay red ..|£4 a £7 10s Commonspeckyand small id a2d 
ARABIC F.I. & Aden ,, Ordinary to Rood pale 25s a 32s 6d SHELLS, M. o’PEARL—| 
Turkey sorts ,, 32s 6d a 5Us Egyptian cwt.|Small to bold .. 65s a £5 10s 
Ghatti ,, |Sorts to fine pale ...{1L7s a 42s 6d Bombay af ” ee 25s a £5 1s 
Kurrachee ,, [Reddish to goed pale ...|20s a 30s nom. Mergui Fe, are --|24a 27 
Madras », |Dark to fine pale ...|158 a 25s Manilla 5 Fair to good -|£4 5s a £7 15s 
ASSAFCKTIDA ;, |Clean fr. to gd. almonds|85s a 10¢s Banda 5, [Sorts -|25s a30S nom. 
com. stony to good block!|25s a 75s TAS Calcutta... Mid.to fine b’k not stony|11s a 12s 
KINO » |Fair to tine bright éd als wt. Madras |Stonyand inferior ..|/4sa 5s 
MYRRH, picked » |Fair to fine pale £5 a £6 TORTOISESHELL— 
Aden sorts ,, |Middling to good 55s a 708 Zanzibar, & Bombay Ib. |Small to bold «- [12s 230s 
OLIBANUM, drop » |Good to tine white 45s a 658 Pickings .. [6s a 228 
Middling to fair 30s a 40s TURMERIC, Pengel ewt,|Fair 17s 
eas ” comes good pale 10s a 22s 6d padres Fr Haney fair to fine bold 19s a 22s 
ng 9 ou 
INDIA RUKBEK lb. Tine Bara Hin ve canes isa oe Chenin ” Finger CO ae ae 
Ceylon, Straits, 2 Ceara ” 2 43 2d 2 Bulbs w- {138 
Malay Straits, ete. Crepe ordinary to fine... 4s 1d ads ad VANILLOES— Ib. 
Fine Block 4d Mauritius ...\ 1sts/Gd crystallized 3} a8hin|7sa 14s 
Scrap fair to fine ‘los 4d a2s 9d Madagascar ... } 2nds| Foxy & reddish 3448 ,,|/6s a 10s 
Assam Plantation 3s 4d Seychelles...) a3rd.| Lean and inferior [5S a 68 
Fair II to good red No.1)2s a 2s sd VERMILLION .. Fine, pure, bright . [28 9d a Ys 100 
Rangoon a x 2s 2d a 2s 4d WAX, Japan, squares |Good white hard + [538 ; 


THE SUPPLEMENT TO THE 


Tropical Agriculturist and Magazine of the 6. A. 8. 


No. 3,] 


SEPTEMBER, 1908. 


[ Vol. ITT. 


THE FUTURE OF RUBBER. 


WITH OVER 400,000 ACRES NOW PLANTED IN SOU- 
THERN ASIA, HOW MANY TONS SHOULD BE 
PRODUCED BY 1914 anD 1920? 

In 1903, Mr. Donald Mackay at our request, 
made an estimate of the rubber trees growing in 
the Malay States and Straits Settlements. He put 
the total at 3 millions of trees with only 100,000 
then 5 to 6 years old, the rest from 4 years to a 
few months. Now, if they have all survived, the 
whole 3 millions should be either yielding latex 
or getting ready very shortly to doso. It is 
from this number of trees that the current 
year’s export of probably very near 3 million lb. 
(1,300 tons) of rubber is being harvested. How 
many rubber trees had Ceylon in 1903? Pos- 
sibly about a million of all ages, chiefly new 
planted, for we could not make out that there 
were then more than 70,000 five to six years old, 
These are now ten to eleven years old and give 
much of the rubber that goes to make up the 
350 tons or 794,000 lb. that may possibly be 
shipped from Ceylon this year. Altogether we 
count on 350,000 trees this year as yielding more 
or less of latex. This ought to be nearly 
doubled next year with 650 tons—and so on, say, 
until by 1914, trees growing over 150,000 acres 
(said to be planted up last year) should be giving 
10,000 tons. This is counting on 20 million trees 
being then available and averaging 1{ Ib. per 
tree. Inthe same year the Malay Peninsula 
should be good for at least 16,000 tons and the 
rest of Asia (Java, Sumatra, Borneo, India and 
Burmah) for 6,000 tons-—or 32,0c0 tons in all; 
and by 1920 this should be doubled if moderate 
expectations are realised even if the price goes 
down to 3s., aye, or 2s. perlb. Itis extremely 
interesting to remember that Mr. H. K. Ruther- 
ford. in January, 1905, estimated that there 
should be Larvested in 1910 from ‘planted ” 
trees in Asia about 3,520 tons (8,000,000 lb.) If 
Ceylon gives 1,200 tons two years hence, Malaya 


36 


= : = 


should certainly be good for more than the 
balance of 2,320 tons, For 1911 Mr. Ruther- 
ford’s estimate was 13 million lb. or 5,800 tons 
and Ceylon should be good for nearly 2,000 tons 
of this from the 25,000 acres planted up to 1904, 
For 1912, Mr. Rutherford estimated 22 millions 
lb, or 9,820 tons of Ceylon which should contri- 
bute 3,500 tons gathered from trees growing over 
40,000 acres, dating from 1905 and previous 
years. Curiously enough Mr. Carruthers puts 
the Malay States down for 5,425 tons at 1 lb. a 
tree or 8,215 tons if 14 ]b.atree in 1912 To 
turn to the planted extent atthe present time, 
here is the best information available :— 


Ceylon - 180,000 acres, 
Malay Peninsula 150,000 
Java 58,000 
Sumatra 23,000 
Borneo - 7,100 
India and Burmah - 28,000 

- 446,000 


For 8. Asia = 


Mr. Carruthers’ returns at the end of 1907 
pointed to 150,0C0 acres as then planted in the 
peninsula. The recent Java Congress gave us 
58,000 acres; but much of this is the planting 
of ficus by Government. Sumatra’s is a safe 
estimate on good authority. Messrs. Figgis & 
Co, of London put Borneo at 10,000 in January 
last: we think this too high. Travancore had 
13,000 acres planted Mr. Drummond 
Deane reported some time ago, and from one 
division of Burmah we hada return of 4,500 
‘racres That leaves 10,500 acres for the rest of 
Southern India and other divisions of Burmah. 
Make an ample allowance for failures, and yet it 
must be owned that, from 1914 onwards, this 
‘‘ planted area” should mean many thousands of 
trees in rubber. Then we have to take into 
account planting in Mexico, in Central and 
South America, in some parts of Africa and in 
some of the islands of the seas. Mexico owes 
much to American enterprise and capital, and 
yet Dr. Olson-Seffer with his 95,000 acres must 
be confounding Jand, taken up for rubber, with 


when 


282 


the extent actually planted. Messrs. Figgis & 
Co.7 months back put 20,000 acres planted in 
Mexico, Nicaragua and Honduras, We now give 
Mexico alone credit for 25,000 acres. Alto- 
gether the attempt to work out a record for the 
world results in a tota] of 534,550 acres. For 
the details see the pages of the ‘‘ Ceylon Hand- 
book and Directory ”’ just published. It will be 
extremely interesting now, year by year, to watch 
how the exports of the plantation product deve- 
lop and how they compare with the estimates 
which will be found in the ‘* Ceylon Handbook 
and Directory ” and elsewhere, 


THE CEYLON PLANTING INDUSTRY. 


35,000 ACRES CACAO: 8,350 CARDAMOMS ; 
1,200 OF CAMPHOR. 


There is not much to be said about Cacao: 
our returns from estates for the current 
period show about 1,000 acres added to plan- 
tations during 1907-08 and 2,000 additional of 
cacao and rubber: whether due to clearings dur- 
ing 1907-8 or of earlier date, it is impossible to 
say. The total works out to 29,354 acres and, with 
5,700 acres added for native gardens, 35,000 
may be taken as representing the industry in 
the present year. It looks, too, as if an era 
of alternate good and poor crops were setting 
in. Thus 1905 gave an export of 69,463 cwt; in 
1906 only 54,020 cwt. were shipped ; 1907 gave 
a bumper return of 92,511 while we suppose 
60,000 to 65,000 ewt. are all that can be looked 
for this year ? 


Cardamoms reached a maximum export of 
995,680 lb. in 1904 when 9,300 acres were under 
cultivation. Now there are 1,000 acres less and 
the shipments this year are not likely to ex- 
ceed 600,000 to 650,000 Ib. 


Weare only at the beginning of an industry 
in the growing of Camphor trees, of which the 
regular planting has in two years extended from 
142 to 45] acres; but judging by the seed used 
and knowing that there is no means of tabu- 
lating the trees planted along the boundaries 
and roads of a large number of estates, we 
feel sure that there must be the equivalent of 
1,200 acres under this new product. Writing 
in January, 1907, Dr. Willis estimated 900 
acres for camphor and we know that there have 
been more than 300 acres planted since. 


CINCHONA IN CEYLON. 


Poor OLp CincHona—once represented by 
millions of trees covering thousands of acres 
in Ceylon, which gave 30 million lb. of bark 
for exportation in two seasons, twenty-two 
years back—is now represented in our Directory 
by ‘‘173 acres,” the export last year being 235,000 
lb. and this year probably about 20(,00u Jb.! 
How are the mighty fallen! But in Java the 
industry has gone ahead in spite of attention 
to coffee, tea and rubber, so that the yearly 
harvest is now from 18 to 20 million lb. of much 
richer bark than ever Ceylon produced ; and so 


The Supplement lo the Tropical A griculturist 


Java rules the world’s markets. The yield from 
the Government Gardens in India is falling 
off: only 437,000 lb. of bark was exported in 
1907-08 against 916,000 lb. two years before ; 
but some is, of course, kept for local manu- 
facture. India now imports over 80,000 lb. of 
quinine a year and the consumption cannot be 
under 100,000 lb. We cannot say what Ceylon 
imported last year of quinine, no separate 
account being keot at the Customs, 


PLANTING RESERVES ON ESTATES. 


We sometimes hear the cry that there is very 
little room for the expansion of planting now 
in Ceylon, even if it were desirable to cultivate 
anew or old product. But few people think 
of the very considerable reserves in private 
hands, and of a number of properties abandoned 
in coffee days and never since taken up. This 
accounts for the fact that only 1,722 plantations 
are entered as ‘‘ cultivated” out of 2,083 estate 
properties entered in the Directory, The total 
acreage of the latter is 944,403 against 614,022 
acres in cultivation. This leaves reserves of no 
less than 330,000 acres. Of course, a great deal 
of this is comparatively useless patana and waste; 
but we may safely calculate that at least 100,000 
acres would come under the designation of good 
forest land in private hands ready to be developed 
into clearings of tea or any other product that 
may offer due encouragement. In certain dis- 
tricts it is extremely interesting to notice the 
diversity of products engaging the attention of 
the Superintendent—as when cacao is conjoined 
not only with rubber, but with pepper, nutmegs 
and vanilla ; while croton oil nut trees, coca and 
kola are interesting minor additions in other 
cases. The Sinhalese—in the Kegalla and Matara 
districts especially—if they were true to the 
tastes of their forefathers, ought to be great 
cultivators of the pepper vine; for the Dutch 
derived very considerable quantities of this 
spice, Which they considered decidedly superior 
in its Ceylon growth, from what are now our 
Southern and Sabaragamuwa Provinces. The 
Dutch even considered pepper a more suitable 
and valuable product than coffee to grow in 
Ceylon, two hundred years ago. 


TEA IN JAVA. 


In our issue of May Mr Hugh Tomlinson, 
of Bandoeng, Java, wrote giving us_parti- 
culars of the prize Java estate, Malabar, 
which produces tea at a cost of 24d per lb., 
netting 34d profit, and which paid a_ divi- 
dend last year of 80 per cent—Directors, 
besides, getting the equivalent of 343 per cent., - 
and the Manager (by way of commission) of 144 
per cent. He said these figures were excep- 
tional; but other estates run on Dutch (as 
against Ceylon lines) shewed nearly as wonder- 
ful results. The average (7th year, from seed) 
was in this case 1,559 1b. per acre, while 2,124% 
acres averaged 1,082 lb. made tea. We at the 
time questioned if there were, or were likely to 
be, many Malabars in Java; though we confessed 
that country’s volcanic soil was'not to be found 
in Ceylon. Mr Bingley wrote us fully (on 


ind Magazine of the Ceylon Ayvicullural Society. 


June 8th) in a letter published in July issue 
furnishing authentic particulars for nine typical 
estates, the best of which only gave one-third 
the yield and profit of Malabar, and the average 
was 476 lb. per acre. He compared Java and 
Ceylon methods, too, with much to advance in 
favour of the latter ; and said if there were any 
estates in Java even approaching Malabar, he 
did not know them. This has roused Mr Tom- 
linson again; and inithe letter we print hereafter 
he promises to give us figures for four or five 
estates in different districts, each with acreage 
in bearing producing 900 lb. per acre. Mr 
Tomlinson suggests to us methods of editorial 
courtesy, in whichhe is asking a little too much: 
Mr Bingley gave tabulated figures at once, of 
typical estates, when taking a different view 
from Mr Tomlinson. The latter is only now about 
to produce such figures, instead of backing up 
with them, in the first instance, his statement 
about ‘‘other estates.” We shall certainly be 
glad to publish the figures wlien they arrive. 


Mr. Tomitnson’s LETTER, 
Bandoeng, 27th July, 1908S. 


Srz,--I only heard from Mr Bingley, during 
the races here last week, that he had written 
you a letter on ‘‘Tea in Java.” Yesterday I 
managed to procure a copy of the number in 
which his letter appeared. If I had seen this 
earlier, there would not have been this delay 
in my reply. 

Dealing with Mr Bingley’s letter first—I 
cannot understand Mr Bingley when he writes 
that he does not know of any other estates 
shewing ‘‘nearly as wonderful results as Mala- 
bar.” The wonderful part about Malabar is of 
course the crop per acre, (the financial results 
are the outcome of a very conservative policy 
in the past) and I hope shortly to be able to 
supply you with the figures of four or five 
estates all situated in different districts and all 
more or less young, whose gardens in bearing 
are producing 900 lb. per acre. 


I have re-read my former letter ard fail to 
see where I suggested that Java methods are 
superior to Ceylon—I merely stated that the 
estates giving wonderful results were run on 
Dutch lines—that, and nothing more. I| have 
only had the pleasure of visiting one Ceylon 
estate, (in the Kalutara district), so I cannot 
speak with much confidence about Ceylon, but 
apparently cultivation and manufacture here 
have to be suited to conditions entirely different 
from those prevailing in the English colony; c.g. 
it would be hard to find a planter here who 
would plant Wild Manipuri tea seed, as that 
_jat, suitable in Ceylon, is unsuitable here, whilst 
in manufacture few estates wither more than 
20 to 35 per cent. against the 40 to 45 per cent. 
usual in Ceylon, I believe. Mr R C Wright, 
when he was actively planting here, with all 
his Ceylon experience and who was to teach 
Java planters something, managed with some 
regularity to be near the bottom of the list at 
the sales. From what I saw, I certainly agree 
that with the material at his disposal the 
Ceylon planter performs miracles, but that 
Ceylon methods ought to be transferred here in 
globo, 1 beg leave to doubt; though, if modified 
the same could be applied with advantage. None 


283 


of the foregoing alters the fact that many Java 
soils are giving more wonderful results so far 
as tea is concerned than those of any other 
country, which was all I wished to draw your 
attention to originally. For results from a 
small acreage, I may tell you that I have seen a 
field of 80 acres which last year produced 
1,900 lb. per acre. 

As to the available land being limited, Mr 
ROC Wright only told me this spring that during 
his visit he had been offered over 50,000 acres of 
really first-class land. 

Turning to your Editorial—surely it had been 
more courtesus to have offered me the chance of 
proving the statements which made an impres- 
sion ‘‘ requiring correction” ? 

I must apologise for the length of this lotter, 
but { did not consider it fair to myself to wait 
until 1 had collected the information I require, 
without letting you know that I will prove 
what I state. In conclusion I cannot help re- 
marking that it is amusing to find Mr Bingley, 
at this time of day, championing Ceylon.—I am, 
Sir, yours faithfully. 

HUGH TOMLINSON. 


TEA NOTES. 


“Versa Mare”—Who can tell us about the 
enormous trade in South American States over 
this peculiar form of so-called tea? In 1880, it 
was estimated that 60 million lb. of ‘“‘maté” tea 
was consumed in South America—half of this 
in Argentina ; and that Brazil supplied half or 
30 million lb, But we now find that in 1906, Brazil 
exported no less than 57,796 tons of “ Yerba Maté” 
valued at £1,846,301. A trade which now amounts 
from Brazil alone, to 130 million Ib. of maté tea 
is worth looking into, even though the Brazilian 
Customs valuation seems to be about 34d a lb. 


Teas DRiINKiNG IN BuRMA.—It will be interest- 
ing to tea planters to note some figures on 
tea-drinking in Burma given in the seventh 
triennial report just issued on Burma’s 
trans-frontier trade. Taking the population 
of the province as at the last census, the 
quantity of tea consumed annually is about 2 lb. 
per head of population. The advance in the 
consumption of wet or pickled tea was 398,000 lb. 
During the financial year 1907-8 the quantity ot 
pickled tea imported from the Northern Shan 
States was 16,359,878 lb., and dry tea 2,477,952 
lb. besides 1,389,U00 lb. imported by sea. The 
wet or pickled tea is considered a luxury by the 
Burmans.—Statesman, Aug. 13. 


FIBRES. 


Sips. Fipre,—A Bengal sample of sida fibre 
(a variety of the Sinhalese Bevila) recently sent 
to London was submitted to commercial experts, 
who described it as a beautiful specimen of fine 
silky, well-grown fibre, very white in colour, free 
of root, strong and well prepared, They stated 
that it could probably be used for mixing with 
silk; but, even if only employed for the finest 
purposes to which jute is applied, it would sell 
very readily in large quantities at from £25 to 
£30 per ton (with *‘ good” to “fine” jute at 


284 The Supplement to the 
£16 to £25 per ton.) The experts also stated that, 
in their opinion, the cultivation of this plant 
could be encouraged with advantage, as 
there would be a very good market for the 
fibve.—Indian Trade Journal, Aug. 13. 


A New Fisre.—‘‘ Mr Charles A White, F.R.H.S. 
a native of Australia, and at present manager of 
an estate in Central Africa, has made an acciden- 
tal discovery that may prove of immense benefit 
to Australia. Requiring a rope one day, he was 
surprised to find that a native servant had im- 
provised one from the fibres of a plant with 
which he was well acquainted, but of the valu- 
able properties of which he had no knowledge. 
In the course of a letter to the Minister for 
Agriculture (Mr Perry) Mr White says he has 
known the Asceplias semilunata (the plant re- 
ferred to) to havea wide geographical distribu- 
tion—-he has seen it growing in Western Austra- 
lia, South Africa, Rhodesia, German Africa, 
Portuguese Africa, Uganda, and in theCongo 
country. Nobody seemed to be aware of its 
great market value. in its habits it does not 
object to abundant rain, and itis also drought- 
resistant, growing on the Equator 6ft. in height 
in stony ground. By the same mail Mr Perry 
received from Mr White a parcel of seed anda 
hank of fibre. It is of fine colour, about four 
feet in length, and very tough. The fibre was 
submitted to a well-known firm of rope-makers 
in the city, who pronounced it equal to the best 
manila, and worth £35 a ton in Sydney if sup- 
plied in lengths of not less than 4ft. Hach seed 
carried a down tuft, more silky than kapok, and 
this down the African natives use for bedding. 
Mr Perry has taken steps to have the seed 
tested in Sydney and different parts of the 
State, to ascertain if it can be grown success- 
fully under New South Wales conditions. Mr 
White advises that it may be sown broadcast, 
like wheat, and he is very confident that it will 
do excellently in Australian soil.”—Sydney Mail. 


‘CAMHERSTIA NOBILIS.” 


There is a good example of this handsome 
tropical tree in the Aroid house (No. 1) at Kew 
where it has been for at least 30 years. Until 
about 10 years ago it was planted ina tub, but 
since then it has been in the open border the 
soil in which receives a certain amount of heat 
from the boiler chamber immediately below. 
This plant is 25 feet high and has a stem 
6 inches in diameter with loosely spreading 
branches. It has flowered more or less freely 
every year since it was planted out, and this 
year it has been exceptionally foriferous, 
varrying 82 large pendulous racemes of bright 
scarlet and yellow flowers which were at their 
best early in June. Aimherstia was first intro- 
duced from Burma into English gardens through 
Chatsworth about 60 years ago, and was first 
flowered in a garden at Kaling in 1849. The 
Kew tree is probably about 40 years old. In 
Burma there are trees 40 to 50 feet high and 
when in flower they are said to be magnificent, 
and one of the features of the Royal Botanic 
Garden at Calcutta is an avenue of these trees. 
The flowers are used by the Burmese in con- 
nection with their religious ceremnonies.—W. W 
—Kew Bulletin, No. 6, 1908. 


Tropical A griculwrist 


PINEAPPLE CULTIVATION IN 
SINGAPORE, 


The cultivation of pineapples in Singapore 
island has taken larger dimensions than before. 
Large tracts of country formerly occupied by 
secondary growth are now cleared and covered 
with pineapples. Great quantities of pines have 
been also brought into Singapore from the 
islands around. The result of this immense crop 
has been that pineapples have been selling in 
town for a cent a piece and upcountry at 6 for 
a cent; that is, about 20 for a penny. The tinning 
trade is now apparently entirely in Chinese 
hands, It is satisfactory to see in many of the 
pineapple fields coconuts or rubber being 
planted, as pineapple culture is by no means 
good for the land.—H.N.R.—Stravts Agricultural 
Bulletin for August. 


EUROPEAN AGRICULTURE IN 


NYASSALAND. 
(Year ended 3lst March, 1908.) 
RUBBER, 
j OTIS Doe 
ee Ne tS | Lapp’ ries Mee ia 
District. Variety. Be Bo aes ha 
58 ag z ae 
4a qc oO SS 
Lower Shire Ceara 20 
West Shire do 524 
Blantyre do 965) 10 40 c 
Castilloa 25 — = os, 
Landolphia Large acre- 
age — a = 
Mlanje Ceara 62 50 72 76 
Zomba do 637 
Chikala, do 280 
Upper Shire do 124 
West Nyasa Funtumia 1 
Ceara 3 
Castilloa 25 
Para 124 = mb [= 
Landolphia Large acre- 
age ? locwt. 10cwt. 
North Nyasa Ceara 100 - = -= 
TEA, 
p Estimated 
District. Acres Acres in Crop 1907, crop 1908, 
planted. bearing. tons, tons, 
West Shire 3 _ = =“ 
Mlanje 513 53 24 9} 
Totals 516 53 25 y 


—Nyasaland Gazette, May 30. 


Wesr Arrican Maize.—Sir Alfred Jones, pre- 
siding at the monthly meeting of the Liverpool! 
Chamber of Commerce yesterday, stated that 
the cultivation of maize in West Africa had 
been most successful. Three crops a year could 
be obtained, and he was convinced that Africa 
would be the greatest maize-growing country 
in the world. Maize shipments from Lagos were 
going to be immense. Already small white maize 
was being sold in Liverpool at six guineas a ton, 
or 10s more than was being obtained in Ham- 
burg. As to the Canadian cattle embargo, he 
said the Liverpool Chamber of Commerce had 
always been in favour of the removal of the 
embargo, —London Limes, July 29, 


and Magazine of the Ceylon Agrwultural Society. 


COTTON OIL IN LONDON. 


The market for cotton oil has shown some 
weakness in London, where the prices were 
rather higher than in Huli, and about 15s. has 
been lost. In Hull the value has remained 
steadier, the fluctuations moving within a limit 
of 5s. per ton, and closing as we write at the 
price of June 30. The demand has remained 
steady, but there has been no very active trade, 
and little of interest to the speculator. It is 
rather difficult to see what there is to ‘* go for ” 
in cotton oil just now, consequently spocula- 
tors are few and tke trade is largely in the hands 
of producers and consumers. Had the imports 
of seed kept up, it is possible that we might 
have been seen cheap cotton oil during the pre- 
sent year; but the failure of India to maintain 
the promise of large supplies and some falling 
off in the quantity rceeived from Egypt have 
naturally steadied the market and presented 
any fall. That the consumption is much less 
than it was is apparent when the following 
statistics are studied :— 


1904, 1905. 1906. 1907. 1958. 
Imports to 
June 30. 24,949 309,216 355,708 425,144 340,507 tons. 
Price of oil, 
July 1. £17 10s. £16 20s, £19 7s, 6d. £29 10s, £22 10s, 


It will be noticed that comparing midsummer 
prices of 1907 with those of 1908 there is a fall 
of about 25 per cent., while, at the saine time, 
the supplies are shorter by just 20 per cout. We 
may probably reckon that the actual demand 
for cotton oil is not more than two-thirds of 
what it was at this time last year. So far as 
imports of cotton oil are concerned the figures 
for the six months are practically the same as 
they were last year, so this tactor need not be 
taken into account,—Jronmonger. 


SIZE OF RUBBER-SEED. 

The Ceylon circular on the effect of tapping 
on seeds by Messrs. Macmillan and Petch is 
very interesting, especially asit does not seem 
to be borne out at all by the phenomena here. 
It is stated that it is obviousthat the seeds of 
the tapped trees were smaller than those of un- 
tapped trees. Nowthe seeds from the trees in 
the Singapore Botanic Gardens vary consider- 
ably. Wehave trees that before they were 
tapped produced ridiculously small but quite 

ood seed, and trees that were younger and 
hed never been tapped produced very large seed. 
The size of the seed of the oldest trees, which 
certainly have not been heavily tapped, though 
for some years they were occasionally tapped 
are decidedly small. But the amouut of tapping 
they had about once in five or six years could 
hardly so affect them. Further small-seeded trees 
ss far as has been seen keep true whatever the 
ieason may be and regardless of whether they 
aave been tapped or not. The earlier years of 
huiting trees seem always to produce large seed 
wth the exceptions of the specially small seeded 
trees, all of which however that I know of are 
over 20 years old. 

I am moro inclined to think that with trees of 
normal size average seed the early fruiting gives 
large seed, getting a little smaller in later years, 
while some trees give small seed from the start. 
—H.N.R.—Straits Agricultural Bulletin for Aug, 


285 
BUKIT RAJAH ESTATE AND ITS 
TAPPING METHODS. 


I shall never forget my visit to Bukit Rajah. 
the tapping is the best I have seen in so far that 
the cambium has only rarely been cut. I have, 
when visiting estates, usually challenged the 
superintendent to find me a tree, tapped for at 
least a year, which has not been injured. [ have 
been over a large number of estates, but it was 
on Bukit Rajah that I saw the first perfectly 
tapped tree, free from even a trace of a wound. 
Au ordinary tree has the knife along some part 
of it about 400 to 500 times per year, assuming 
thero are ten tapping lines; no wonder the 
cambium is touched once or twice during these 
operations. An ordinary gouge is used for tap- 
ping —an implement surpassing all others for 
simplicity and cheapness, and yet one with which 
an unlimited amount of damage can be done. 
Yet if was on a property where the gouge was 
used that | saw tapping second to none ; which 
proves our oft-repeated contention that success 
depends on the man using the knife, and not on 
the implement itself. 1 kept my eyes open when 
going over the clearings and the sections planted 
with coconuts, Rambong rubber and coftee, and 
concluded that the rubber crop alone for the 
current year should not fall far short of 200,000 
lb, It is obvious that this property will soon 
outriin many others in yield of rubber. 


Tapping is usually done on the _ half-her- 
ring-bone system, only the leading trees being 
tapped on the full-herring-bone system. The 
bark below 5 feet has lasted four years, and 
the renewed tissue is often quite as thick as 
the original or primary bark. It is antici- 
pated, however, that the trees will be tap- 
ped from 6 to 9 feet before the renewed bark on 
the basal section is touched. Hach tree is tapped 
every alternate day for three months and then 
rested two months. The trees are not tapped 
until they girth 20 inches a yard from the ground. 


Some parts of Bukit Rajah have been planted 
20 by 20, 30 by 15 and 15 by 15 feet. I saw some 
trees planted in March, 1904, which were 20, 25 
and evon 29 inches in girth. Many of the five- 
year-old trees planted 15 by 15 feet, had a girth of 
26 inches, This property, in virtue of the widely- 
planted trees now two, three, four, five, six and 
ten years’ old, must rise in value in a very short 
time, The view from the bungalow of the manager, 
Mr C T Hamerton, is very impressive, between 
2,000 to 3,000 acres of planted rubber trees be- 
longing to Bukit Rajah alone being visible. 

The factory is well equipped with up-to-date 
washing rollers, a Passburg vacuum drier, and an 
oil engine. Mr. Hamerton is curing rubber 
for several small estates in the district, a fact 
from which one may glean the capacity of the 
machinery already in the factory. H. W. 
—India-Rubber Journat, June 29, 


_Bic Rusrer Trees: Correction.—By an ac- 
cidental misprint the height of the big tree No. 2 
in the last Bulletin is given as 54. feet, this 
should be 84. The picture in that Bulletin of the 
rubber tree is that of this tree No. 2.—Ed,— 
Straits Agricultural Bulletin for August. 


[See page 199 last month—A, M, & J, F.] 


286 
MALAYA RUBBER EXPORTs. 


The exports of rubber from Malaya for the 
seven months of 1908 are as follows :— 


Exported Previ- Total for 
in July. ously. 7 months. 
1908. Ib, 1908. 
Perak .«, 32,827 189,633 222,460 
Selangor _...164,428 866,567 1,030,995 
Negri Sem- 
bilan ..» 28,847 325,958 354,805 
Total ...226,102 1,382,158 1,608,260 


The following are the corresponding figures 
fur last year (July and first seven months) :— 


Exported Previ- Total for 
inJuly. ously. 7 months, 
1907 Ib. lb. lb. 
Perak . 16,034 98,591 114,625 
Selangor ... 59,206 554,324 613,530 
Negri Sem- 
bilan... 45,848 208,610 254,458 
Total...121,088 861,525 982,613 


The net increase for the F.M.S. is 725,647 lb- 
or by 74 per cent ; while Ceylon increased by 42 
per cent only! Ceylon Rubber Exports for 1908 
to Aug. 3rd were 365,3141b. as against 256,762 lb. 
to same date of 1907. In this connection we 
have slightly different figures from Messrs. Bar- 
low & Co’s report dated Singapore, 31st July, 
and comparison with Ceylon, as follows :— 


Exports Para Rubber from 1st January to 
3lst July, 1908:— 


From Singapore. Penang. 
Ib. lb. 


(Lo July 13th) b. 

Yo United Kingdom 959,949 467,733 
», The Continent 50,181 74,000 
», United States 400 _ 
» Japan 5,048 _— 
,, Australia 13,569 — 

Ceylon 136,219 46,922 
Total lb. 1,165,366 588,655 

For the same period, 1907 723,701 76,961 
Ss 1906 320,397 45,909 


_ Exports from Ceylon Ist January to 20th 
July, 1908 :— 


Yo United Kingdom 216,856 Th. 

», Continent 22,178 ,, 

», United States 98,138 |,, 

», Australia 12,834 ,, 

», India 896 ,, 
Total 350,897 ,, 

For the same period, 1997 240,719 Ib. 
a is 1906 154,276 ,, 


MR. HERBERT WRIGHT ON HIS TOUR 
IM SUMATRA, 


The cultivation of plants in Sumatra is limited 
to the Icw-lying lands near sea-level, and 
thereby resembles Malaya and differs from Java, 
Ceylon, and Southern India. The soil is very 
similar to that in Java, being light, fertile, and 
mainly of volcanic origin. Vos never see any- 
thing resembling the stiff blue clay of Malaya or 
the rocky slopes of Ceylon; everywhere the soil 
is finely divided and porous, and grows most 
magnificent crops. The sugar of Java, and the 
tea.and cacao of Ceylon, are replaced by exten- 


The Supplement to the Tropical Agriculturist 


sive plantations of tobacco in Sumatra. Exactly 
why Java takes so ravenously to sugar and 
Sumatra to tobacco, though each country could 
grow both products very well indeed, is difficult 
to explain. The only product which is com- 
monly grown on EKuropean plantations in Java 
and Sumatra, to a large extent, is coffee. In 
both the coffee estates are being rapidly 
interplanted with Para and Ficus rubber trees. 


RaMBonc RUBBER, 


I have seen more Ficus elastica (Gutta Ram- 
bong) in Sumatra than in all the other countries 
put together. Large estates exist each with 
thousands of mature trees. Planting on old 
tobacco and lalang lands is still going on, and 
every campo-eng is planted with this species 
and no other. You may keep near civilised 
areas within reach of the train, or you may 
travel into the interior, where only Batoks have 
their villages; everywhere you will meet with 
Rambong trees, many of them of enormous size. 
The trees are not only growing; they are being 
tapped, and most of them over seven years 
appear to be yielding over 1 lb. of rubber 
yearly. From my experiences in the Dutch 
East Indies, and especially in Sumatra, my 
respect for Rambong trees has been changed. 
Ino longer despise that species on account of 
its poor yielding qualities. If I could only feel 
certain of a remunerative price for the pure raw 
rubber, I might be tempted to plant 1t in dis- 
tricts too dry for Para Rubber. Where Ficus 
plantations exist alone and there is plenty of 
forest suitable for Para, it would be sheer waste 
to neglect or fell the Ficus trees. I would only 
recommend the removal of Rambong trees when 
they interfered with the natural growth ef 
adjacent Para trees. The fact that eight-year- 
old trees in Sumatra have given 14 lb. of dry 
rubber per tree, costing 40 guilder cents (8d) to 
collect and deliver at the factory, should not be 
forgotten by Para enthusiasts. 


Para CULTIVATION. 


Para rubber cultivation in Sumatra was not 
commenced in earnest much before 1906, and I 
do not think manufacturers can expect many 
tons of rubber from that island before 1913 or 
1914. A few estates, such as those owned by 
the Langkat Sumatra, United Sumatra, Sumatra 
Para, and Amsterdam-Langkat Companies, 
possess several thousands of old or. tappable 
trees. Most estates, however, consist of coffee 
interplanted with Para, or old tobacco lands 
planted up with Hevea, during the last two or 
three years. There are very few estates consist- 
ing of Para trees alone; in this respect Sumatra 
comes into line with most other countries. 


Most people have the idea that phenomenally 
rapid growth is to be seen in Sumatra, the Para 
trees being reputed to increase in girth atthe 
rate of six inches per year. I should put the 
circumferential rate of growth in Sumatra at 
six, fiveand four inches respectively, on lands 
included in the three categories enumerated 
above. It is very dangerous to generalise in this 
way, especially when the trees are scattered over 
the Serdang, Langkat and Asahan districts, but 
{ think the above conclusion will be found to be 
approximately correct in most instanees,—Jndia- 
Rubber Journal, July 27. 


and Magazine of the Ceylon Agricultural Society. 


PRUNING OF CAMPHOR. 


Naduvatam, Aug. Ist. 

‘Dear Str,—Has Mr. Bamber, or any other 
Ceylon authority, considered the result of 
manipulating the camphor bush, in accordance 
with the proposed method of taking branches 
and twigs at frequent intervals ? With respect 
to the tea bush, as only the three leaves at the 
end of branch or twig are removed from the bush, 
the stem does not develop into any tree-like 
girth, but can easily be renewed. The growth 
of the camphor tree is, however, different ; 
namely, much more rapid, and its tendency to 
form stems of great thickness very decided. 
I, therefore, fear that by cutting away branches 
and twigs from the camphor bushes frequently, 
we should soon have nothing left but a 
number of hardened thick stems which would 
send out only a very feeble growth of weak 
twigs. How would Mr. Bamber guard against 
such an undesirable result ?—Yours Peiehtally, 


{All Mr. Nock says about Pruning in his 
pamphlet is as follows :-— 

“The first clipping, to shape the bush, might 
take place in the tifth year—though Camphor has 
been obtained from bushes only 24 years old— 
and as only young twigs and leaves are required, 
should be scraped up and placed round the trunk 
to rot (and so benefit the tree) if too woody. 
When the bushes become too high or unwieldy 
to be effectively clipped, one-third of the estate 
should be pruned or coppiced in three successive 
years, thus maintaining yield each year, though it 
would not take so long to again come into bear- 
ing.” Mr. Nock, we now learn, does not think 
thereneed beany fear of camphor bushes ceasing 
to yield through being continually clipped. He 
seen them, after the fifth clipping, looking per- 
has fectly vigorous and sending out fresh strong 

‘shoots. Ifthey begin to get ‘‘crow-footed” and 
shut up, the thing would be to cut again below the 
original cuts, -An 8-year-old tree at Hakgala, 
sawn off at ground level has—Mr Nock tells us— 
sent up dozens of strong branches and the plant 
is now bushier than ever. He thinks that con- 
tinuous clipping will necessitate the application 
of manures aftera time.—A.M.&J.F.] 


PROVINCE WELLESLEY AND ITS 
PRODUCTS: AND SUGAR IN PERAK. 


lt is evident that the comparatively limited 
division of the Malay Peninsula officially con- 
nected with Penang is not to be left behind in 
the cultivation of new as well as old products. 
The island of Penang comprises an area of 107 
square miles and Province Wellesley on the 
mainland does not include more than 288 
square miles, Not much score here, one would 
think, when contrasted with the 26,000 square 
miles comprised within the Free States. And 
yet, given a province of 180,000 acres, nearly 
all of which is rich cultivable land, it will 
be seen that its planting importance, if once 
fully developed, might be very considerable. In 
the past, sugar has been the most import- 
ant product from Province Wellesley and it 
requires rich, easily worked land to grow 
this staple. The profitable days of sugar 
in the Malay Peninsula are well-nigh over 


1 


287 


—the tendency is not to extend, but to con- 
tract cultivation and to intermix if not super- 
sede cane with other and more promising pro- 
ducts. In this way groves of the coconut palm 
are found where once cane sugar was cultivated; 
considerable expanses of tapioca and eveniot 
indigo are seen on old cane-fields ; and last but 
not least, rubber trees are freely dotted over the 
land, getting on very well with tapioca and 
forming boundaries if not interplantings with 
other products. The future of Province Wel- 
lesley and Penang, from a planting point of view, 
would seem to rest with the coconut palm and 
Para rubber, and of both it is quite possible we 
may learn of a very appreciable acreage yielding 
good and profitable returns before many years 
are out. With us, coconut palms require at 
least 7 to 8 years to come into real ‘‘ bearing”; but 
on favoured plantaticns in Province Wellesley 
one if not two years are saved, and a palm may 
beas advanced there at five, as itis here at seven 
years, In the same way with rubber, Para trees 
are being systematically and profitably tapped 
at 5 to 5 years, with results that in Ceylon 
could scarcely be equalled at 6} to 7), years, ex- 
cept in specially favoured situations. It will 
be interesting to watch the futureof both pro- 
ducts in this long-explvited division of the 
Peninsula ; and while there is very little, if any, 
Crown reserve land available for would-be in- 
vestors, we may congratulate the shareholders 
in the ‘ Bertam” §. S. Rubber Company on 
their fine property—extending altogether over 
15,000 acres, nearly all available for cultivation 
and of which only a limited proportion has as 
yet been opened with coconuts and rubber. 
Province Wellesley and its Products will be 
more and more heard of, as time runs on, 
Here is the list of estates appertaining to 
the two Companies with which the Hon, Mr. 
Turner is specially identified as Managing 
Director. It will be observed that in the 
‘ Penang ” Company, there are seven properties 
comprising altogether 23,099 acres, of which 
11,3U5 are in cultivation made up as follows :— 


Sugar 3,130 acres 

Coconuts 2,085 a 

Rubber 6,090 rs 

Total .... 11,305 Bs 

The full table is as follows :— 

Estates BELONGING TO THE PENANG Staar 

Estates Company, LimIrep, 
state Area of Nature Area in 
Estate of Culti- Cultva- 

Acres. vation. tion 

Acres. 
Caledonia Sugar 3,130 
Caledonia 12,607 Rubber 2,848 
Caledonia Coconut 980 
Golden Grove 2,165 Coconut 258 
Talie Ayer 1,654 Rubber 1,369 
Selaba 2,600 Rubber 1,265 
Strashmashie 2,933 Coconut 847 
Rubber 363 
Sabrang 640 Rubber 200 
Johore 500 Rubber 45 
Total 23,099 11,305 


Next we have four properties of the ‘“ Straits 
Sugar Company, Limited,” all situated in Perak 
comprising 15,421 acres, of which 5,578 acres are 


288 


cultivated, having 
Sugar and Rubber 
Coconuts 
Rubber alone BOL ATG) 1th 
Sugar, however, will probably be gradually 
superseded altogether in favour of the other 
products, the conditions not being so favourable 
as on Caledonia where the cultivation and 
manufacture may be expected to continue for 
many years. The Perak properties, before many 
years are over, may be expected to fall under 
Rubber and Coconuts if prices donot go below 
certain standards. 
The ‘ Perak ” table is as follows :— 
Estates BELONGING TO THE Straits SuGAR 


3,750 acres, 
712, 


Co., Lrp. 
Area of Nature of Area in 
Estates. Estate. Cultivation. Cultivation. 
‘ Acres. : : Acres. 
, 3,478 Sugar & Rubber 2,100 
. { Gedong Coconut 204 
“4! HaiKee 622 do do 418 
5 1 Rubana 4,883 Rubber 1,116 
& | Nova 
{ Scotia 6,4294 Sugar & Rubber 1,650 
15,412 5,578. 


NATIVE AGRICULTURE AND TILLAGE 


If there is any word, the full signiticance of 
which is not yet understood by the native culti- 
vator, it is Tillage. His agriculture for genera- 
tions past has consisted almost exclusively in the 
growing of an irrigated crop in which tillage isat 
a minimum and irrigation is depended upon to 
save him the maximum of labour, For such 
crops there was in ancient times ample tank 
supplies of water, and in the conservation and 
distribution of this water the ancient Sinhalese 
wereapparently expert. But the day of unlimited 
tank irrigation is done and it will surely be 
wise to limit the area of rice to such lands as 
offer special facilities for its cultivation, and 
replace it elsewhere by crops (such as Indian 
Corn, the Sorghums, &c.) which can do without 
much water. It was stated at the Agricultural 
Board (by Dr. Willis, we believe) thatin Ceylon 
an unnecessarily large amount of water is used 
in the irrigation of rice fields. This is very likely 
the case, and the supply can possibly be utilised 
to much greater advantage: that is, over wider 
areas. But at present weare not so much con- 
cerned with the regulation of the existing water 
supply, as with the question of imducing the 
native cultivator to grow crops (and learn to 

row them well) that are not likely to fail him. 
We have already mentioned Indian corn or 
Maize as acereal worthy of his atttention, and 
one which has proved its value as a wholesome 
and nutritious food crop in North America, South 
Africa and elsewhere. It is said that the natives 
will not take to Indian corn asa diet. If that is 
so then there is ample scope for the Agricultural 
Society to use its influence in popularising the 
cultivation and consumption of this grain, parti- 
eularly in districts where irrigation facilities 
are scanty and the rainfall deficient. Indian 
corn is, to a considerable extent, grown in the 
Nuwara Eliya, Badulla and Kuvrunegala dis- 
tricts ; and there is no reason why, if it suits one 
sectionof the native population, it should not 
suit another. 


The Supplement to the Tropical Agriewltwrist. 


But the cultivation of all dry land crops, 
whether Indian corn or the different varieties 
of millet that are usually grown, is carried on 
according to a rude and wasteful system—a relic 
of barbarous times—known as ‘‘chena.” This, 
system might have answered in days of old 
when there was an unlimited extent of fresh 
areas, and lands could be left to lie fallow 
for long periods. But the time has come when 
it must give place toa better scheme. The ques- 
tion will naturally be asked, is it possible to 
carry on continuous cultivation of the areas 
known as ‘‘chena lands.” Undoubtedly, but 
only on the following conditions :—(1) That the 
crops must be rotated, (2) that seeds should 
be sown in drills, (3) that the soil should be 
properly tilled, and (4) that the land should 
be periodically manured. 

By rotating, we mean, that the area culti- 
vated should grow a succession of crops, so 
that a cereal will recur after, say, two other 
crops, one of which may be a ‘‘root’”” crop, and 
the other a Jeguminous crop. For the con- 
venience of the cultivator, his whole land need 
not be devoted to one crop at a time, but 
equally divided between the crops ot the 
rotation, e.g., if he is adopting a three-course 
rotation into three equal sections, one of 
which will always carry a grain crop and the 
other two each of the alternative crops. The 
object of sowing seed in drills is to facili- 
tate weeding and tilling during the growing 
period, operations that can never be satis- 
factorily carried on where the seed is sown 
broad-cast or irregularly distributed. 

Tillage, as has already been remarked, is 
what the cultivator least understands. It would 
exceed our limits of space to go fully into a con- 
sideration of the importance of tillage in agrir 
culture, suffice it to say that it helps to maintain 
the fertility of soil and conserve the moisture 
in it. As a preparatory to cultivation, land ~ 
must be thoroughly and deeply worked, but 
while the crop is growing itis necessary that the 
top layer should be constantly stirred to bring 
about the condition known as a ‘fine tilth.” 
This is the secret of dry-land cultivation, 
and if only the Sinhalese cultivator will make 
up his mind to follow this system, all his ap- 
parently insuperable difficulties will disappear 
as mist before the wind, and he will discover— 
to his surprise—that it is possible to satisfact- 
orily raise crops under what are generally con- 
sidered the most unfavourable conditions. 

Manuring is another neglected item in native 
agriculture, and the cultivator has yet to learn 
to look upon his land as a bank from which he 
cannot continue to make withdrawals without 
also making deposits. The Tamils of the North 
offer an admirable example to their Sinhalese 
neighbours, in that they utilise every avail- 
able form of waste organic matter and green 
manure to enrich their lands. Given proper 
attention to the general principles enunciated 
under the above four heads, the condition of 
the ‘‘ goiya ” should be materially altered for 
the better ; and it is for those whose business 
it is, to utilise every means in their power to 
educate him to a recognition of what is expected 
of him—not as an old-time but an up-to-date 
cultivator in order that he may not continue 
in the precarious position in which his laisse 


faire style of living has placed him, 


and Magazine of the Ceylon Agricultural Society. 


TEA PACKING AND DESPATCHING. 


The first question that arises is: Are you 
going to bulk or not? Wesay decidedly, Yes, 
of course. There are gardens that pack atew 
chests daily (yesterday’s manufacture.) The 
idea of not leaving tea about to deteriorate is 
an excelleut one and daily packing dispenses 
with bins—but there we think the advantages 
terminate. You showld have 

WELL CONSTRUCTED BINS 

suitable for packing a break of one grade of 
bulked tea when packing. The work is more 
uniform, simpler and consequently better done 
and you can invoice, number and mark for 
despatch right away. For a grade of tea the 
smallest break will be twenty full chests, twenty- 
five medium chests and thirty small or quarter 
chests, so if you are in. a small garden you 
must have six bins 5 ft. by 5 ft. by 5 ft. to hold 
the minimum, break, each with sloping seg- 
mented bases well lined with zinc in which tea 
will keep quite unimpaired for at least a week. 
So don’t hesitate; the system has so many 
advantages. The tea is put into this bin daily 
in small quantities, is removed by single door 
in the base, is fired in dryers and again col— 
lected for packing, a process that amply bulks 
sn all breaks......... 

The first preliminary to actual packing is a 

GOOD SOUND FINAL DRYING 

of the tea in hand. We favour acontinuous auto- 
dryer with an automatic spreader and this 
especially for final firing (as the last drying pro- 
cess is termed,) as they must do more even and 
regular work than is possible with any hand-fed 
machine. . . Well, raise your heat till your ther- 
mometer registers 180° Fahr. with fan going and 
fan inlet apertures half-open, for Souchongs and 
Pekoes, and just closed for Brokens and Fan- 
nings. Put on your fastest web speed, and let the 
spreader do its own work... Properly fired 
tea at this stage acquires a malty aroma, which 
when once inhaled can never be forgotten. The 
first tea that comes over is not expected to be 
properly fired. You put on your fastest speed 
merely to fill your dryer; this full, check your 
speed till the tea catches the malt. (e.g. aroma), 
the correct term to use, and keep the speed so 
that the slight increase in this direction loses the 
malt. This speed will vary agood deal, depend- 
ing entirely on the amount of moisture contained 
in the tea under treatment and the height of 
the local atmospheric dew point. Having ac- 
quired the malt, your tea will have acquired all 
essential briskness, The maximum of briskness 
marks the malty aroma, and, as_ previously 
stated, is only suitable to teas having no pre- 
tensions to quality. 

We have been told that all teas should be 
packed cold; and if thisis not done, the teas 
sweat, This is quite incorrect. Always pack 
warm, and if your teashave been fired in ac- 
cordance with our instructions, they can con- 
tain no moisture, and therefore cannot sweat, 
or deposit moisture by condensation on the 
inner side of the lead casing, so proceed fear- 
lessly. Only neglected teas can sweat and these 
are distinctly out of our province, 

There are two | é 
‘ METHODS OF PACKING 
in genera] use, for the one where the chest is 


37 


289 
removed from the packer and put on the scale 
when the nett tea (plus tare) is weighed into 
the chest, the chest is shaken till the last of the 
tea is put into it. The weighment of netts can 
proceed much more rapidly without constant 
adjustment of the odd ounces of tare on the 
scale. It would further, in the case of Venesta 
chests, which tare very accurately, dispense in 
cases of emergency with the taring of the chests 
before filling. The receptacle for making the 
nett weighments referred to should of course 
be of metal, As regards the most suitable 
chests for the shipment of teas to the various 
markets, chests of the Venesta type, despite 
their extra cost, will assuredly become the chests 
of the future. A metal chest would be the acme 
of perfection, but of those put on the market 
up to date all seem defective in one point or 
another. To explain 
THE OBJECT OF TARING 

forthe English market we must glance at the 
procedure when the package reaches England. 
On receipt in England the package or chest is 
weighed for gross weight and in this weighment 
all ounces over the even pound ignored. The 
gross weight of all packages from, say, 129lb. Loz. 
to 129lb. 150z. is reckoned as 129lb. Having 
weighed the gross the tea is turned out and 
the empty chest is weighed.for tare, In this 
weighment all ounces in excess of the 
even pound below 8 ounces are ignored but 
8 ounces and over are reckoned as another full 
pound, hence a tare of 27 1b. 7 oz, is reckoned 
as 27 lb., buta tare of 27 lb. 8 oz. and up is 
28 lb. Over and above all this a draft of 1 lb. 
is deducted. Now let us see how the matter 
works out. 

The first is an example of wrong taring:— 


Garden Weighments. London Weighments, London 
actual, allows. 
Gross 127-15 Gross 127-15 Gross 127 
Tare 27-15 Tare 127-15 Tare 28 
Nett 100-00 Nett 99 
less draft. less draft, 


You should by taring carefully on the garden 
with dry shooks get the following results :— 
Gross 127-7 Gross 127-5 Gross 127 
Tare 27-7 Tare 27-5 Tare 27 
Nett — _ 100-0 Nett _ 100-0 | Nett 100 
The object of taring is to avoid the loss as 
shown above and careful taring materially helps 
this result. Remember the tares of your box 
in London must be under the half pound or you 
will lose a pound of tea on each chest. Dougall 
does it with wooden chests—more power to 
him, as also the Southerner, but the latter with 
Venestas. In these weighments your invoice 
is ignored. 
THEA, 
—Indian Plunters’ Gazette, Aug. 8. 


ss 


TEO-NON, A NEW RUBBER TREE 
FROM TONKIN, 


(Bleekrodea tonkinensis, Dub, & Eberh.) 
Orto Starr. 

In the July number of last vear of the Buéletin 
Economique, published by the Director of Agri- 
oulture, Forests and Commerce of Indo-China 
(pp. 576-585), Dr, Th, Eberhardt, Inspector of 
Agriculture, gave a detailed account of the oc- 
currence of a valuable rubber tree in Tonkin, 


290 


known to the Thos people as ‘‘Teo-non,.” At the 
time it was not possible to define the systematic 
position of the plant beyond its affinity with 
Ulmaceae, Since then, however, it has been re- 
cognised asa member of the genus Bleckrodea 
(Moraceae) and has been described as B. tonkinen- 
sis by Dubard and Eberhardt in Compt. Rend, Ac. 
d. Sc. Paris, vol. CXIV., Oct. 1907, p. 631. ‘The 
examination of a few branchlets of the plant, 
recently received at Kew from Dr. E, Perrot, 
has confirmed the conclusions of the authors as 
to its affinity and specific distinction. The genus 
Bleekrodea has so far been known only from two 
species, one a native of Borneo (B, insignis, Bl.) 
and the other of North-West Madagascar (B. 
madagascariensis, Bl.) It has already been de- 
scribed by Blume as laticiferous,a character very 
general in Moraceae, but, so far as we know, there 
18 no evidence of the presence of caoutchouc in 
the latex of the two species recorded by him. On 
the other hand, B. tonkinensis is stated to be very 
rich in caoutchouc and in this respect reminds 
us of another Moraceous genus, Castilloa. 


The occurrence of a rtubber-yielding tree in 
the forests of Tonkin was recorded as early as 
1905 in a report by the Commanding Officer of the 
Cercle of That-Khe in the province of Bac-Kan. 
According to him it was known as ‘ May-ten- 
nong,’ and attained: a height of 10—12 m. with a 
diameter of 40 cm. The latex was abundant and 
was collected by the natives, whose attention 
seemsto have been directed to thetrve quite re- 
cently and accidentally; in fact they used it only 
as an admixture to increase the bulk of rubber 
collected from other sources, Last year, how- 
ever, Dr Eberhardt wascommissioned to investi-— 
gate the properties of the tree on the spot and 
the conditions under which it grows. The follow- 
ing is the essence of his report. 


The tree occurs practically all over the province 
of Bac-Kan (north of Hanoi,and half way between 
this town and the Chinese frontier), and in the 
adjoining southern parts of the Cercles of Bao- 
lanc and Cao-bang; but Dr Eberhardt is inclined 
to believe that it will be found throughout the 
mountainous districts to the north-west of the 
delta of the Red River and in the Laos country. 
In the province of Bac-Kan, it prefers hilly 
ground witha subsoil of calcareous schist and a 
deep covering of humus, which, however, must 
be fresh and well aérated and free from stagnant 
water. where the soil is charged with clay, the 
‘teo-non’ disappears completely, giving way toa 
vigorous growth of bamboos. It grows gregari- 
ously and may constitute as much as 40 percent 
of the vegetation. Itisa rapid growing, much 
branched tree and attains a height of 12 to 15 m. 
The bark is thin and white, the wood white, 
soft and useless for soe and carpentry. The 
mode of collecting the latex employed by the 
natives is very crude and wasteful. It consists 
in tapping the tree near its base by as many cuts 
as possible so that the normal flow of the latex 
is scon interrupted, whilst at the same time the 
tree is rapidly exhausted. Moreover, the pro- 
duct becomes in this way much contaminated 
with impurities. The latex is collected in the 
hollow joints of bamboos and carried to the 
nearest village or to some water-course where 
the contents are poured into a pot containing 


The Supplement to the Tropical Agriculturist 


water which is then heated to boiling point. 
Thus treated it forms into cakes, the impurities 
nearly always gathering in the centre. There 
are two seasons for collecting the latex, one be- 
fore, and the other towards the end of the rainy 
season. The natives, however, generally confine 
their efforts to the latter time, when the flow is 
much more abundant. This is due to the in- 
creased activity of the organism and to the pre- 
sence of a greater quantity of water in the latex, 
so that finally the amount of caoutchouc 
obtained is after all not greater at the 
end than just before the beginning of the 
wet season. Similarly the trees on the outskirts 
ofa ‘teo-non’ wood yield less but more concen- 
trated latex. At the end of May Dr. Eberhardt 
obtained from a single tree of 20 cm. in diameter 
as much as 480 grammes of latex; but he thinks 
that in the autumn this tree might well have 
yielded 600-650 grammes. He recommends tap- 
ping at the base of the trees as the latex taken 
from the young parts does not coagulate. In 
this respect the ‘ teo-non’ behaves like Ficus 
and Castilloa. 


Dr. Eberhardt obtained 676°6 grammes of 
caoutchouc’ per kilogramme (or 67'6' per cent) 
from two litres of latex. The best method of 
inducing coagulation was by means of sulphuric 
and hydrochloric acids; acetic acid seems to 
impair the natural cohesiveness of the caout- 
chuue globules. Heating directly over 
fire results in an inferior product; as it has 
to be continued until the serum is completel 
evaporated when a succession cf thin and toug 
skins is formed which do not adhere to each 
other. On the other hand, the hot water bath 
gives excellent results, The treatment with 
sulphuric acid, however, seems to be by far “the 
best process and the caoutchouc thus obtained 
is of first-rate quality, very strong (nerveux), 
resistant and elastic. Mr Cibot, an expert in Am- 
erican rubber and in the rubber industry gener- 
ally, states that the ‘ teo-non’ rubber is equiva- 
Jentto Para and practically indistinguishable 
from it. A native-made cake of ‘ teo-non ’ rubber 
was, infact, awarded a gold medal at the Hrench 
Colonial Exhibition at Marseilles in 1906, inspite 
of Hi usual impurities present in the native 
article. 


A score of young plants are at present in culti- 
vation in the Botanic Garden at Hanoi. Only 
one member of the small sub-tribe Fatoneae, to 
which Beekrodea belongs, has been found up to. 
the present in India, viz. : Pscudostreblus indica, 
Bur,, a small tree of the Khasia Hills ; but be- 
tween them and Tonkin, there must be many 
localities where ‘ teo-non ’ could be grown with 
success if it should be found that itsnatural ares 
does not extend into British territory. 


Of three branchlets received from Dr Perrot, 
two possess only male clusters, the third only fe- 
male cymes with or without rudiments of male 
flowers. Dr Eberhardt, on the other hand, says 
that the male and female inflorescences alter- 
nate, whilst his and Dubard’s description in the 
Comptes Rendus, 1.c., admit male and mixed 
clusters on the same branch,—Kew Bulletin, 
No. 6, 1908. 


and Magazine of the Ceylon Agricultural Society 


REMINISCENCES OF AN EX-CEYLON 
PLANTER. 


Planting in Guiana. 
British Consulate, Paramari, June 23rd. 


The “Ceylon Handbook & Directory” for 
1907—8, is most interesting, and must be of very 
great service to all: who have anything to do 
with Ceylon, whether in the way of administra- 
tion, business, or in ordinary daily life, it sooms 
to include everything ; and I have studied it, 
and continue to doso with very great interest. 


Yes, things have changed since I left the 
island. Of my old Matale North and West 
friends, I find only Keith Rollo, Wm. Milne, J 
R Martin, A L French, and F H Davidson, to all 
ef whom I send my most kind regards. So far 
as I remember the only Ceylon men I have met, 
since I left are: Alexander Ashmore, Wrightson 
of the P W D, and Henry Brown (of Rusiya- 
gama) who called on me in Mombasa years ago, 
on his way to Nyassaland. 


1 should much like to visit Ceylon again : I 
always look back with pleasure to my planting 
days there. 


Planting here is very different; to begin 
with, the land is almost a dead level, the 
water having to be kept off by dams and 
sluices. All the transport is done by river, the 
rivers are many and great. (It is possible to go 
from British to French Guiana by boat, without 
landing, or going on to the sea.) 


You ask about the cacao industry in this 
Colony. Well, there is nothing very encourag- 
ing to relate. Cacao has for many years been 
the staple product of the Colony. I have before 
me the record of the exports from 1816 to the 
present date. The maximum was reached in 
1895 with 4,556 tons, the minimum in 1904, 
with 854 tons. This year (1904) should be kept 
out of sight when considering the general state 
of the industry, as there were special circum- 
stances ; estates which were at that time in no 
way affected by the disease, which has crippled 
the industry, that year gave very short crops. 
The exports for the three following years, 1905-7, 
were 1,681, 1,480 and 1,625, respectively. 


As I think; [told you in a former letter, 
the falling-off of the crop is mainly due to 
a disease which appeared some years ago in 
the Saramacca District, becoming serious about 
the year 1898. From there it spread to 
the other districts. The disease locally 
goes by the name of ‘Krulloto,” (or Witch 
Broom.) Various causes are given, but my own 
opinion is, that it is due to under-cuitivation, 
insufficient drainage and insufficient light ; but 
this theory is, I know, not generally accepted 
by the Planters, and others. But whatever may 
be the cause, the disease exists, the trees die, 
and there is no sign that the disease will even- 
tually die out of itself. The ‘‘Krulloto” does 
not necessarily itself kill the trees, but 
weakens therm and renders them liable to the 
attacks of other diseases. 


The Chaetodiplodia attacks trees which have 
been weakened and rendered more or less leaf- 
less by the Krulloto, The fungus attacks the 


291 


twigs, and grows with 
great rapidity towards the stem, and 
eventually kills the tree. With the Chaetodip- 
lodia appears, more especially in the dry wea- 
ther, Thrips, which, if their attacks cortinue, 
render the trees leafless, and still more suscep- 
tible to the Chaetodiplodia. 


tips of the leafless 


Experiments are being made by the Agricul— 
tural Department on a few plantations, witha 
view to stamp out the disease, and, so far as one 
can see at present, appear to be satisfactory. The 
treatment consists of lopping the trees, leaving 
only the trunks and stumps of the primary 
branches. The cuts are immediately tarred, 
all the débris collected, and destroyed by 
fire, and the lopped trees thoroughly syringed 
with a solution of sulphate of copper. The re- 
sult has been that, in almost every case, where 
the treatment has been properly carried out, 
the trees have thrown out « quantity of new 
healthy wood, which in due course produces 
large numbers of healthy pods. 


The hardening (‘‘ Versteening”’) of the pods, 
which on the untreated fields amounts to some 
50%, appears, on the treated fields, to be less 
than 1%; while in the latter case, the total 
number of pods is much greater. 


It is estimated, and the estimate does not 
appear to de over-sanguine, that the increased 
production will within two years more than 
cover the cost of the treatment, and the crop 
lost by lopping. It is impossible at present 
to say whether the improvement will be per- 
manent ; but if the treatment is properly carried 
out on all the plantations, and followed up 
with proper cultivation, there is every reason to 
believe that it will be so. 


The hopes of the Colony now hang on Bananas. 
In 1906 an Agreement was entered into between 
the Colonial Government, and the United Fruit 
Company, of Boston, U.S.A.—the former under- 


taking that within 3 years from the date of the 


Agreement, 3,000 Hectares should be planted 
up with ‘Gros’ Michael” Bananas, with the 
aid and under the supervision of the Govern- 
ment; the latter undertaking to buy all the 
fruit produced on that area, of a certain stan- 
dard, at fixed rates. 


Four steamers have been specially built by the 
Royal Dutch West India Mail Company for the 
service,and commenced running weekly in March 
last. So far, owing partly to the planters being 
unwilling to carry on the cultivation in accor- 
dance with the instructions of the experts, the 
yield has been very short, and the steamers have 
taken less than one fifth of the expected mini- 
mum number, but the quality of the fruit has 
been very favourably reported on in New York, 
Now, however, that the planters are beginning 
to realize that treir own methods are not per- 
fect, and as more fields are coming into beariug, 
it may be hoped that before this time next year 
the exports may exceed 20,000 bunches a week. 
The steamers calling alternately at Trinidad and 
Barbados, make the trip in 9} days. 


Some Rubber, Hevea brasiliensis, has been 
put in,and is doing weil, but at present the area 
under cultivation is not important, 


292 


The waat of the Colony is population, the 
total, exclusive of aboriginal Indians, and 
‘Bush Negroes,” was at the end of 1906, $1,237. 
The labour for the Plantations is almost en- 
tirely drawn from British India, and the Dutch 
East Indies. There are at present some 21,000 
British Indians here. Many of these at the 
termination of their term of indenture, commute 
their right to a return passage, and take up 
land, they hold at present some 30,000 acres; 
they are doing well, and will eventually prove 
an immense benefit to the country. Compara- 
tively few Creoles, of African descent, are 
employed on the plantations. 


J. R. W. PIGOTT. 


THE GCAMPHOR WAR. 

As long as they endure, monopolies generally 

rove very profitable to those who control them. 

ut they have one inherent weakness. Though all 
the sources of supply of the article are subject to 
control, it is yet possible that the monopoly 
may be completely broken down by the discovery 
or Invention of a substitute which can enter the 
same field ata lower price and meet the same 
wants. And this weakness is common both to 
accidental monopolies, such as lac and jute in 
India, and to artificial monopolies which depend 
upon State control or the machinations of finan- 
ciers to be effective. The modern chemist may 
not have substantiated the claims of the philoso- 
pher’s stone, but he tends to play an increas- 
ingly important role in commercial enterprise, 
and fortunate and few are the industries which 
can afford to disregard the synthetic menace. 
India is, unhappily, familiar with synthetic 
indigo, and German chemists are reputed to be 
evolving a synthetic substitute for lac. But 
threatened monopolies are safe so long as the 
substitutes, whether natural or artificial, can 
only be produced ata price which is higher 
than that ofthe article they seek to compete 
with. The recent history of camphor illustrates 
this in a very remarkable way. 


The world’s supply of camphor is abouteleven 
million pounds per annum, and almost the whole 
of it is obtained from Formosa and Japan; a 
comparatively small quantity being supplied by 
China and other countries. Formosa is the 
greatest producing country. For a hundred 
and fifty years the Chinese held a camphor 
monopoly in that island and punished the eva- 
sion of it with death; and yet this monopuly 
failed and was revoked in 1868. When, however, 
Formosa fell to Japan as a resultof her war with 
China, the camphor monopoly was revived 
under what had all the appearance of being very 
favourable circumstances. Under this arrange- 
ment, the output is regulated by only granting 
a certain number of licenses for the manufacture 
of crude camphor, which is sold to the 
Government at a fixed rate. The license holders 
are vot permitted to produce refined camphor, 
which is the exclusive right of the State. Ar- 
rangements were next made with a London firm 
to place the camphor on the market, and the 
immediate result was that the price was forced 
up from about 50s. to 400s. per cwt. The inev- 
itable compet ition at once commenced and 
‘amongst the 


The Supplement to the Tropical Agriculturist 


COMPETITORS WHO RUSHED IN TO | HARE 


inthe handsome profits of camphor manufac- 
ture was Ceylon, who took up the cultivation of 
camphor trees on a somewhat large scale, and 
China which began to tap sources of supply that 
had hitherto been altogether ee lator 


The Japanese camphor monopoly came into 
force in August, 1899 ; and in the following year 
a process was patented by the Ampére Electro- 
Chemical Company of New Jersey tor the manu- 
facture of camphor from oil of turpentine. 
Three years later the Port Chester Chemical 
Company was formed and.joined in the synthetic 
trade. Other companies quickly followed, and 
at the present time the synthetic article is 
manufacturedin England, America, Germany, 
France and Switzerland. Inappearance synthe- 
tic camphor is identical with natural camphor 
and chemically they are the same. The enly 
distinguishing characteristic is that synthetic 
camphor has no action on polarised light. 
This, however, is only a technical difference 
and of no practical importance. Like most 
new ventures, the synthetic industry had a 
struggle for existence for several years, and 
the volume of output, which was chiefly 
absorbed by manufacturers of celluloid, was 
not sufficient to affect the price of natural 
camphor, which continued to rise and fall in 
sympathy with the demand. The crisis, however, 
was reached last year when the demand for 
camphor was so great that the Monopoly put 
up their prices. Evidently the synthetic fac- 
tories and Chinese manufacturers had been 
lying in wait for this move; and,as soon as it was 
made, they flooded the world’s markets with their 
respective products. When the Monopoly real- 
ised the exact state of affairs, they brought 
their prices down to the level of their com- 
petitors, who again dropped theirs and once 
more took the lead. Rate-cutting has been the 
order of the day ever since. It is evident, how- 
ever, that there isa limit beyond which rate- 
cutting cannot go, if camphor is to be sold at 
a profit, and this limit has, we. ‘believe, been 
reached. It should be understood that the 
prosperity of the synthetic product depends 
absolutely on the price of turpentine; and in 
an article in the Indian Trade Journal of De- 
cember 26th, 1907 (page 700), we endeavoured 
to show how India might participate in the 
camphor profits by supplying, as she is able to 
do, a much larger quantity of turpentine to the 
synthetic camphor factories, At the time the 
present demand for turpentine by the paint, 
varnish and other trades is so extensive that it 
has outrun the supply, with the result that syn- 
thetic camphor could not be sold in the London 
market at the end of June last for less than 1s. 
9d. per lb, but this may be compared with the 
price (58. 2d. per |b) which refined camphor was 
fetching in some markets last year. On _ the 
same date the Formosan Monopoly were selling 
camphor at Is. 3d. per lb. The immediate effect 
of this large difference in price will be to run the 
synthetic camphor out of the market tempora- 
rily ; and, if the price can be maintained at this 
level sufficiently long, compel the closing of the 
factories where it is now prepared, unless some 
cheaper base for the manufacture of synthetic 
camphor has been discovered meanwhile, It 


and Magazine of the Ceylon Agricultural Society, 


may cost the camphor Monopoly some thousands 
of pounds to accomplish this task; but, when 
it is accomplished, they will be in the enviable 
position of being able to recoup themselves by 
the simple process of enhancing the price of 
natural camnhor. Both the natural and synthe- 
tic articles enter so largely into the celluloid, 
explosive, medicinal, disinfectant and a host of 
other industries, that the commercial fight to 
a finish now being waged between the mono- 
polists in the Far East and the scientists of the 
West will be watched with more than ordinary 
interest.—Indian Trade Journal, Aug. 6. 


SAMOAN GOPRA AND Cocoa. 


CoMPARISON WITH CEYLON. 


By far the most valuable export of the Samoan 
group of islands in the Southern Pacific is copra, 
or the dried pulp of the coconut, and next in 
value and importance come cocoa and kawa, 
the latter being a root of medicinal value. We 
learn from the Consular report on this district 
just issued, that during the year 1907 the ex- 
port of copra greatly diminished, and that its 
price at Apia, the capital of Upolu, the princi- 
pal island, fell from £17 per ton to £12 and even 
lower. The export, in fact, amounting to 5,400 
tons, was only about half the quantity shipped 
in 1906, partly owing to the lower prices now 
being paid, and partly to a stringent, though 
necessary, law made by the Government, for- 
bidding the working-up of unripe ruts with 
good copra, and making the sale of such inferior 
qualities punishable, both buyer and seller 
being liable. At the same time, we read that 
owners of suitable Jand are now paying much 
more attention to this industry than was for- 
merly the case. The Government have for some 
years past required the heads of each Samoan 
family to plant 50 coconuts yearly on their land. 
Moreover, the coconut tree on these islands has 
the advantage of being free from any noticeable 
disease, such as is common to specimens in the 
Fiji, the Philippine, the Caroline, and other 
groups of islands in the Southern Seas. But 
while the copra export showed signs last year 
of diminution, the export of cocoa is rapidly 
increasing, and may some day amount to 700 or 
800 tons. Dr, Preuss, a well-known authority, 
writes :— 

The planters can therefore expect that Samoan cocoa 
will maintain its good price, especially as in_nearly all 
the large producing countries, Ecuador, Brazil, Trinidad 
and West Africa, varieties are cultivated which are of 
imferior quality to the Samoan cocoa, whilst in British 
and Dutch India, where good varieties are also culti- 
vated, the culture of cacao is not extending owing to 
numerous pests. 

The cocoa export for 1907, amounting to 115 
tons, is nearly double that of the previous year, 
and at the end of that year as high a price as 
£110 per ton was paid in the London market. 
The cacao, or seed of the cocoa, cultivated in 
Upolu is of two species, Criollo and Forastero, 
and the good reputation of Samoan cacao is due 
to Criollo, this species having been introduced 

artly from Ceylon in 1883 and partly from 

ava in 1884. The same authority writes :— 


This cacao represents one of the first varieties in the 
world, especially when not mixed with Forastero, In taste 
it excels Ceylon and Java Criollo and most of the varieties 
of Central America, with white nibs, which in many cases, 
though fetching high prices on account of their light colour, 
have a somewhat grassy and expressionless taste, which 


202 
we 
cannot be said of Samoan Criollo, The taste of well-pre- 
pared Samoan cacao is mild, but at the same time vigorous, 
The aroma is fine, allhough not very strong, 


The other important export, kawa, is at pre- 
sent only cultivated by the natives, and at the 
present price paid, 1s per lb, gives the grower 
a good return.—Economist, June 27. 


RICE-GROWING A NEW AND IMPORT- 
ANT INDUSTRY IN BRITISH GUIANA. 
AN EXAMPLE TO CEYLON. 


A very notable illustration of how a Crown 
tropical Colony for a long time entirely depend- 
ent on imported rice can begin and extend a 
successful local industry in rice-growing, is 
afforded by Brtish Guiana of late years. For 
many years this Colony imported all the rice— 
from Bengal or Burma—to feed its labouring 
population, chiefly East Indian coolies. Many 
of these, after their indentures expire. elect to 
remain in the Colony in place of being shipped 
back. In this way out of a total population of 
about 315,000, of whom immigrants make up 
138,000, and of these not more than 65,000 are on 
the sugar or other estates. To feed these 
labourers up to eight years ago as much as 
25 millions Ih. weight of rice was imported ; but 
this fell in 1907 to 6 millions of lb.—not because 
there was less rice required, but on account of 
local production. We do not have statistics 
earlier than for 1898-9, and in that year there 
were 6,477 acres cultivated which yielded 6,374 
tons of paddy equal to 4,653 tons of rice. (This 
bears out our contention that in weight, 2 bushels 
of paddy are equal to fully 14 bushel of rice.) 
By 1902-03 the acreage had increased to 16,628 
yielding (nearly a ton an acre) or 16,522 tons of 
paddy equal to 12,138 tons of rice) while in 
1906-07 there were no fewer than 26,567 acres 
under paddy cultivation giving 30,152 tons of 
rice. Asa consequence, importation is practi- 
cally ceasing altogether ; indeed last year over 4 
million lb, of rice was exported from the Colony 
to the other Guianas and part ofthe West Indies. 
The Board of Agriculture had interested itself 
in a series of yield experiments to discover the 
yields of different varieties of rice, and strange 
to say, the opinion was expressed that the 
varieties Nos, 4 and 6 (‘Ceylon Upland Rice”) 
‘‘were very suitable for local trade” and ‘No. 6 
gave the highest mean yield of the varieties 
tested.” Manurial plots were also tried and 
carefully reported on, and experiments in differ- 
ent modes of planting showed the superiority 
of single plants in holes by themselves. Now, 
here is a new and important industry fully 
established in a tropical Colony within a few 
years, and not only so but Jamaica, Trinidad 
and St. Lucia seem best to copy the example of 
British Guiana. There is surely encouragement 
here to do much more in Ceylon than has ever yet 
been attempted. A change of seed is of great 
importance, and if seed supplies are made avail- 
able without the intervention of usury, and if 
all the officers of Government from the Agent 
downwards, in each province or district, manifest 
a direct interest in the improvement and exten- 
sion of the great rative rice-growing industry, 
we feel that a great change for the better might 
be effected in Ceylon sain the next five years 


204 


ANIMALS ASSOCIATED WITH THE HE- 
VEA RUBBER PLANT IN CEYLON. 


(A PERADENIYA CIRCULAR. ) 


At the present stage of the cultivation of this 
product in Ceylon we have comparatively few 
animal pests to combat. The plant is to a very 
large extent self-protected from insect attack 
by the presence of the viscid caoutchouc- 
producing latex, which constitutes its great 
value. The most vulnerable part of the plant— 
its ‘‘ Achilles heel ”—is the root system, and 
it is here that we find its more important 
enemies. Many of the insects included 
in the following catalogue are but doubt- 
ful pests, and others are not enemies at 
all. But in the present state of our knowledge 
I have thought it advisable to notice every in- 
sect that isin any way associated with the plant. 

The various pests and negative species will be 
noticed insections dealing with (I.) the roots ; 
(1I.) the collar and stem; (II1.) the branches 
and young stems of seedlings; (LV.) the leaves 
and terminal buds ; and (V.) latex and prepared 
rubber. 


I.—ENEMIES OF THE Root SystTEM. 
(1) ‘‘ Cockchafer Grub” (Lepidiota pinguis, 
Burm.).—It is in the larval or grub stage 


that these insects are so destructive. The 
larva is a large white fleshy grub with 
al reddish head and strong biting jaws. 
There are six well-developed legs near 


the anterior extremity. The anterior half of 
the body is strongly wrinkled, the hinder part is 
smooth and swollen and curved round towards 
the head. When full-grown the body measures 
about three inches in length. The time occupied 
in the larval stage is not known, but the growth 
of the grub is probably slow, aud it may be more 
than a year before it attains its full size. It then 
constructs an earthen cocoon, in which it turns 
into a reddish pupa, and after another probably 
somewhat lengthy period appears as a winged 
beetle. The adult insect is of a’ dull brown 
colour with a covering of grayish scaly hairs ; 
and has a total length of rather more than two 
inches. The beetle flies at dusk and lays its 
eggs just below the surface of the ground. The 
newly: hatched grubs burrow down into the soil 
and attack the roots of the neighbouring plants. 
The insect by no means confines its attention to 
Hevea plants. Itis probably more or less omni- 
vorous. It was at one time a notorious coffee 
pest, andis now a serious enemy of cinnamon in 
the low-country. [ts appearance in large numbers 
in rubber clearings is probably dueto the facility 
with which the beetle is able to deposit its 
eggs in the newly-turned soil immediately sur- 
rounding the plants. The clean weeding of 
clearings also tends to concentrate the grubs at 
the roots of the rubber plants. If there is an 
insufficiency of food at one spot, the grubs will 
come up tothe surface and wander to neighbour- 
ing plants. Specimens of injured plants that have 
been submitted to me show the tap root eaten 
clean offto within an inch of the surface of the 
soil. One correspondent informs me that he has 
lost 3,000 plants in a single clearing, and has 
extracted five or six grubs from each hole. Ihave 
not received any reports of damage to older trees. 


The Supplement to the Tropical Agriculturist 


Treatment,—Dead or dying plants in a clear- 
ing should be pulled up and examined. If the 
roots show signs of having been attacked by an 
insect, it will almost certainly be the wore of 
either cockchafer grubs or termites. In the 
former case the roots will have been bitten off 
clean. The work of the termites, on the other 
hand, is usually recognisable by the core of the 
root or stem being left, while the outside part 
is eaten away. Ifthe damage is attributable 
to cockchafers, further search should be made 
for the grubs in the soil at the roots of this and 
the neighbouring plants. Whena plant shows 
signs of distress, the damage has usually gone 
too far to secure that individual ; but damage to 
the remaining plants may be prevented by 
forking in either nitrate ot soda or ‘‘ vaporite’” 
The former is a well-known fertiliser, and has a 
marked effect in ridding the soil of insects. 
‘‘ Vaporite” is a patent insecticide placed on 
the market by the Strawson Company, and is 
specially designed for subterranean insects, I 
have made some experiments with this mixture, 
which show that it is rapidly fatal to cock- 
chafer grub. A number of the grubs were 
buried in the soil of pots containing growing 
Hevea plants. Half of these were treated with 
‘*vaporite” (3 oz. to each pot) the other half 
being left: as controls. Within two hours the 
grubs in the treated pots had come to the sur- 
face, and they were all dead, by the next 
morning. The grubs in the other pots remained 
below. Similar results were observed in a field 
experiment. The grubs very quickly came to 
the surface and died or crawled away from the 
neighbourhood of the ‘‘ vaporite.” 


‘* Vaporite”” has a strong odour of carbolic 
acid and gas lime. lt is claimed by the patentees 
that the powder “gradually evolves a noxious 
vapour which fills the interstices of the soil, 
from which the insects cannot escape, and are 
consequently cestroyed. The development of 
vapour is slowly promoted by the influence of 
the soil and remains in force for a long time 
probably two to six months.’ To protect rub- 
ber plants in a clearing, from 1 to 14 oz. should 
be forked or dibbled in at a distance of about 6 
inches from the stem. It should not come into 
direct contact with the roots. 


Nitrate of soda has also been reported upon 
very favourably, one correspondent writing that 
the grubs quickly deserted the holes treated with 
this substance. The nitrate should be applied at 
the rate of from 1 to 2 oz. for each plant, accord- 
ing to size. 


The grubs of several other smaller cockchafers 
attack the roots in a similar manner. They are 
all very similar in appearance, and will respond 
to the same treatment. 


(2) Termites (White Ants),—Complaints have 
been made from time to time of damage to the 
roots of young plants by white ants. The insects 
have been found apparently in flagrante delictu ? 
But it is extremely doubtful if we have really 
any termitesin Ceylon that attack healthy living 
plants. In every case that has been examined 
the roots are found to be invaded by some 
parasitic fungus, and it is practically certain 
that the white ants came on the scene only 
after the death of the affected parts. If at any 


and Magazine of the Ceylon Agricultural Society. 


time termites are found to be doing real damage 
to the roots, the application of ‘‘ vaporite ” will 
soon drive them away. 


(3) Longicorn Beetles.—A few instances have 
come to my notice of the destruction of a 
Hevea tree by the work of the grub of some 
longicorn beetle in the root.’ This grub is an 
elongate worm-like creature of a whitish colour 
with a reddish brown head, immediately behind 
which the body is distinctly swollen. It tunnels 
into the tap root and bores upwards into the 
stump, causing the tree to snap off at or below 
ground level. It is impossible to determine the 
particular species; but the adult insects would 
probably be targish beetles with very long 
jointed antenne. Any beetles of this descrip- 
tion that may be found frequenting the rubber 
clearings should be treated as potential enemies. 
lt will be practically impossible to detect the 
presence of the grub in the root before the 
damage is done. 

{I.—Tuz Corian AND SremM. 

Termites (White Ants).—Many stems riddled 
by white ants have been received for report. In 
every case it was evident that the termite attack 
was of a secondary character. The parts had 
been dead for a considerable time, and there 
were abundant signs of fungus disease (ot several 
kinds) in the tissues. 

A single instance of a colony of Termes inanis 
inhabiting the hollow stem of a treehas come to 
my notice. The insects were devouring the 
wood inside, but left the bark above. The his- 
tory of this tree was as follows:—The original 
stem had been broken off by the wind and had 
subsequently thrown up several strong suckers. 
The termites were occupying a cavity in the old 
stem at the base of the suckers. At my recom- 
men‘lation as much of the pest as_ possible was 
scooped out, and the cavity was flooded with 
naphthalin dissolved in petrel. This treatment 
proved successful and the termites vacated 
the tree. 

The ‘‘ Gestroi Ant ” (Termes gestroi) has fortu- 
nately not been observed in Ceylon. It is said to 
be a serious pest in the Federated Malay 
States, and to be responsible for the death of 
many well-grown trees. Mr E V Carey asserts 
(Agricult, Bull. of Straits, No. 6, March, 1902) 
that they can be driven away by digging to a 
depth of 2 or 3 feet for 10 feet round the affected 
tree. Flooding the land (when practicable) has 
also been suggested, but [ have no records of the 
results of such treatment. 


The common mound-building termites (Z'cr- 
mes redemanni and 7. obscuriceps) sometimes 
construct galleries and screens of earth over the 
stems of living rubber trees, but this need cause 
no alarm if the tree issound and healthy. They 
merely eat off the functionless dead outer sur- 
face of bark, leaving the stem smvoth and clean. 
As soon as they have cleaned off the dry outer 
bark, theinsects will desert thetree of their own 
accord. Butif their presence on the stem is 
considered undesirable, they may be prevented 
by sprinkling the soil around the base of each 
tree with a mixture of refuse petroleum and 
water, as ibe ishing by a writer in the ‘‘Indische 
Mercuur” of July 30, 1907. About 1 part of the 
oilto 20 of water are shaken up together and 
sprinkled on the soil. This plan has been adopted 
in Java, where it issaid to be quite successful, 


295 


(2) Bark-cating Tineid Comeritis  pieria, 
Meyr.).—The caterpillars of this little moth 
feed on the outer bark of living rubber trees, 
but seldom penetrate far enough to cause any 
flow of latex. They conceal themselves beneath 
ascreen composed of fragments of bark and 
their own excreta fastened together with silk 
web. The insect can scarcely be called a pest, 
as it does little or no appreciable damage. ‘The 
silken galleries can be easily brushed off by hand 


(3) Boring Bect'es (Xylopertha mutilata. 
Wik., —I have frequently received dead stems 
of H)-vea riddled by neat round holes of about 
one-teenth of an inch in diameter. On splitting 
the stem asmall dark brown cylindrical beetle 
isfound in each gallery. It is ofa cylindrical 
form, rather more than a fourth of an inchin 
length, and tbe hinder part of the body is 
abruptly sloped off, as if it had been cut off 
with a knife. The front is rounded and 
roughened like a rasp. This beetle has been 
observed only in dead or diseased wood, and 
cannot be held responsible for the original in— 
jury. Appearances are deceptive in this as 
in many other occurrences. The top of a fine 
Hevea tree may be found to be dead and riddled 
by these beetles ; and it is only natural that the 
insects should be credited with the injury. But 
one fact will show that the attack must have 
been of a secondary nature. The entrance tothe 
burrow of Xylopertha will be found to be either 
clear or (in still weather) marked by projecting 
columns of powdered wood, which crumbles at a 
touch. This could not have occurredif latex had 
been present at the time of attack. In that case 
the fragments would have been agglutinated to- 
gether and would have formed irregular conglo- 
merations outside the tunnels. The same and 
allied species haveattacked dry sections of rub- 
ber stems exposed in the verandah of the 


laboratory. 


Various small Scolytidw (allied te but quite 
distinct from the ‘‘Shot-hole Borer” of tea) are 
often found in the dead stems, often in company 
with the Yylopertha. In every case that has 
come to my notice there is abundant evidenge of 
the previous existence of Diplodia or some other 
parasitic fungus. Inone instance it appeared at 
first sightas though the beetles had really pene- 
trated the living bark. [here was an extensive exu- 
dation of latex at the spot, and some of the beetle 
holes were actually plugged with coagulated 
latex. This led the superintendent of the estate 
to believe that the latex was actually exuding 
from the perforations made by the beetles ; 
but a careful examination proved that the 
latex had issued from cracks above the injured 
part and had flowed over and into the perfora~ 
tions, Several of the insects were found en- 
tangled in the clot of latex, killed in their 
endeavour to force their way out through the 
obstruction. In this case the sequence of events 
was probably as follows :—A small area of bark 
had been attacked by Diplodia ; boring beetles 
had attacked the diseased spot ; the living bark 
above the dead patch became fissured and 
exuded latex, which flowed over the dead area, 
imprisoning the insects, 


It is quite possible that small boring insects 
may gain an entrance into the exposed wood 
or depleted bark after a severe tapping, and that 


296 


this may cause exudation of latex when the 
cells become turgid once more. But the re- 
appearance of the latex will itself be the best 
cure, and will almost certainly kill the intrud- 
jng insects. 

(4) Bark-eating Beetles (Viwchoytpu verruci- 
collis, Gahah).—his beetle has the reputation 
of damaging the stems of young Hevea trees by 
eating away the bark. Specimens of the injured 
stems showed irregular patches of the (still 
green) bark destroyed, in some cases completely 
ringing the tree. The beetles themselves have 
been captured at work. It was noticeable, how- 
ever, that no latex had exuded trom the wounds, 
and where the whole plant was submitted for 
examination the roots were found to be attacked 
by a fungus (Solty yodiptodia elastice.) The pro- 
bability therefore was that the attacked plants 
were diseased, and had ceased tu produce latex 
before the advent of the beetles. To put the 
matter to the test, | obtained “numerous living 
specimens of the beetles and confined them ina 
cage, together with a living healthy young tree. 
I watched one individual climb up the stem and 
fix its jaws in the tender bark. ‘The first punc- 
ture resulted ir a bead of latex, which adhered 
to the mouth parts of the beetle, and evidently 
proved very distasteful to it. The insect 
immediately abandoned the attack and wandered 
off, doing its best to remove the sticky fluid. 
Other individuals made similar attempts to 
feed, but were promptly refused in the 
same way, nor could they be induced to repeat 
the experiment. After a week’s confinement 
without other food, they still refused to touch 
the living bark ; but when removed to another 
cage containing fresh branches of Cassia, they 
greedily fed upon the bark. They were also 
tried with tea branches, but this was not alto- 
gether to their taste. They fed only sparingly 
upon the outer layers of the bark. . 

This insect is one of the Longicorn (or Jong- 
horned) Beetles. It measures an inch in length, 
and is of proportionately stout build. The 
colour ranges from olive brown to pinkish, 
variegated with darker markings. Another 
smagler species of Longicorn (Niphona, sp.) has 
been accused of similar injury, but it is prob- 
ably as innocent of the originalattack. As 
both these beetles may possibly be destructive 
to the bark of Jess well-protected plants, it 
will be advisabie to treat them as potential 
enemies, and to collect and destroy them when 
found congregated on the stems of the trees. 


(5) Click Beetle Alaus speciosus, Linn.).—Speci- 
mens of this handsome species have been re- 
ceived with the report that they were found 
clinging to the stem of a Hevea tree, upon the 
bark of which they were supposed to have been 
feeding. Some ot the living beetles were im- 
prisoned with several healthy sections of rubber 
stem, but after three weeks’ confinement no at- 
tempt had been made to attack the bark, and 
in the meantime one of the insects had died of 
starvation, 


(6) Porcupines, rats, hares, &c., are sometimes 
very troublesome in rubber clearings. Porcu- 
pines in particular can be extremely destructive, 
tearing off and devouring the juicy bark at the 
base of the trees. It is noticeable that many 
mammals seem to relish and to be capable of 


‘of planting. 


Lhe Supplement to the Tropical Agriculturist. 


digesting the rubber latex. Several mixttirés 
have been put upon the market designed as 
deterrents to such attacks. They are all rather 
dangerous to young plants while the bark is 
still green, but can be safely applied on older 
bark. But the only sure method to prevent 
attack is to enclose each individual stem in 
a cylinder of wire netting until they are old 
enough to take care of themselves. The syste- 
matic trapping and poisoning of porcupines 
will greatly lessen the evil. 


IJ1.—BrancHES AND GREEN STEMS. 


(1) ‘‘ Cut Worm” (Agrotis segetis, Schiff.).— 
A few instances of damage to young plants 
by ‘* cut worms” have been reported. But 
this insect does not appear to be nearly so 
troublesome with rubber. as with the seedlings 
of many other plants. If necessary, injury 
could be prevented by mixing a small quan- 
tity of ‘‘ vaporite ” with the soil (1302. to the 
square yard) before putting in the seed. 


(2) Locusts (various species of Acriditda).— 
I have received specimens of young rubber 
plants said to have been killed by small 
locusts. The bark was gnarled and completely 
eaten off in parts. The insect (an apterous 
species) were found clinging on to the damaged 
stems. The insects disappeared with the advent 
of heavy rains. The usual treatment is to dis- 
tribute poisoned baits amongst the plants to be 
protected. The best of these is compounded 
of 1 part Paris green, 2 parts salt and 40 
parts cffresh horsedung, with sufticient water 
to make the mixture soft without being sloppy. 


(3) Shot-hole Borers (Scolytida, various spp.). 
—I have never yet seen a vigorous plant, with 
its laticiferous system in working order, 
that has been injured by these insects. But 
there is no doubt that there is a critical period 
after transplanting, especially in the case of 
plants transported from considerable distances, 
when they are specially liable to attack. The 
nender bark has become partially dry, and yields 
to latex when wounded. If unmolested such 
plants might recover, but they are not suffi- 
ciently vigorous at the time to withstand the 
attack of these borers. 


Some ‘‘vaporite” dusted on the surface of the 
soil around each plant (leaving a clear space of 
a couple of inches from the stem) might deter 
the attack, as it gives off an unpleasant odour of 
gaslime. But the best safeguard is to ensure 
the vigorous condition of the plants at the time 
If plants have to travel for any 
distance, the roots and lower parts of the stems 
should be dipped into a thick mixture of cow- 
dung and water immediately after removal 
from the nursery. 


(4) Pith Borers,—The ends of stumped plants 
are very frequently tunnelled by various small 
bees and wasps, which habitually choose such 
situations for the construction of their nests. 
Various species of Ceratina fill these tunnels 
with cells containing a mixture of pollen and 
honey. But the wasps store their cells with 
paralysed insects clestined for the nourishment 
of their young Zrypoxylon intrudens provides 
small spiders, and Stigius niger employs aphi- 
des for the purpose, 


and Magazine of the Ceylon Agricultural Society. 


When a plant is stumped, the cut end usually 
dies back to the next node, from which the new 
shoots will be produced. Itis the dead pith in 
this dry portion that attracts the insects. They 
will not coramence burrowing into the living 
sappy stems, nor will they enter by any buta 
cut or broken surface. It is possible that the 
excavation ofthe centre of the dead part may 
lead to an extension of the decay, but this has 
not been proved. Any possible danger from this 
cause may be prevented by stumping the plant 
immediately above the node, leaving, say, half- 
an-inch to prevent chance of injury. There 
would then be little or no dead wood to attract 
the insects. Where this precaution has not been 
taken, the terminal dead parts should be cut or 
broken off as soon as they are thoroughly dry. 


(5) The deserted tunnels of these wasps and 
bees are sometimes tenanted by a species of 
Thrips, which has consequently been regarded 
with suspicion. But this particular species is 
quite harmless, and may indeed be a friend 
rather than an enemy. It is an insinuating 
little creature, and penetrates into the galleries 
of the ‘‘Shot-hole Borer’ in tea, where it is 
believed to attack the young larvz of the beetle. 


(6) I have on more than one occasion re- 
ceived reports of reputed damage to rubber 
plants and stumps by Dragon flies, which are 
said to be found perched on the ends of the 
stumps engaged in sucking the sap. This is, of 
course, an error of observation. Dragon flies 
are purely insectivorous, and, far from occasion- 
ing any injury, should be regarded as_ highly 
beneficial insects. They are fond of taking up 
their position on any vantage ground, from 
which an uninterrupted view is obtainable on 
all sides. This will account for their presence 
on the end of the rubber stumps. From such 
a perch they would be ready to pounce upon 
any smaller insect that might come within 
their range of vision. 


(8) ‘‘ Black Bug” (Lecanium nigrum, Nietner). 
—This common and almost omnivorous scale 
bug occasionally occurs on the terminal branches 
of the Hevea plant. On young plants it will be 
sufficient to rub off the scales with a piece of 
sacking. On older plants it can be checked by 
spraying with MacDougall’s solution (in the pro- 
portion of 1 lb. to 5 gallons of water). 


LV.—Fo.Liage and TERMINAL Bups, 


(1) ‘* Spotted Locust” Aularches mititaris, L.) 
-——This conspicuous locust has occasionally been 
known to attack the foliage of young rubber 
plants, but such an occurrence appears to be ex- 
ceptional. Though the locusts are sometimes 
present in enormous numbers on cacao estates 
interplanted with Hevea, they usually ignore 
both the cacaoand the rubber, confining their 
attentions to the foliage of the shade trees. 


Several smaller species of acridiid grasshop- 
pers are sometimes destructive in young nurse- 
ries, defoliating the seedlings. Poisoned baits, 
as recommended in section I{I. (No. 2), should 
be employed to check this pest. 

(2) Two plant-sucking bugs (the ‘‘ Rice Sap- 
per,” Leptocorisa acuta, Thunb, and Callicratides 
rama, Kirby) have been credited with injury to 
the foliage of Hevea seedlings in the nursery, 


38 


297 


The plants submitted as specimens were minu- 
tely punctured, but the punctures were not of 
insect origin at all, being caused by a spot fun- 
gus, At the same time it was proved (by keeping 
the insects in captivity) that the Leptocorisa 
will puncture the soft parts of the stem, causing 
the terminal shoot to wilt and droop. Damage 
from this cause can be prevented by lightly 
sweeping a butterfly net over the surface of the 
growing seedlings. The insects will fall into the 
net and can be destroyed by hand. 

(3) ‘‘ Scale Bugs” (Coccide).—Only two species 
(Lecanium nigrum and an undescribed species 
of Mytilaspis) have been observed upon the 
leaves, and these in such very small numbersas 
to be practically negligible. 

(4) Leaf-euating Caterpillars.—There is no 


single species that has a preference for 
the foliage of Hevea  brasiliensis,—The 
few that have been’ recorded are mere 


casual visitors ; but every caterpillar found 
actually feeding upon the plant must be regarded 
as a potential enemy and destroyed at sight. 


“* Tussar Silkworm” (Anthereea paphia, Linn.). 
—A large and conspicuous green caterpillar, 
with two rows of orange-tipped tubercles on 
the back. If a diet of rubber leaves would 
add elasticity to the secreted silk, it might 
be of advantage to. raise’ silkworms on spare 
rubber foliage, but such a result is extremely 
problematical. 


‘‘ Large Bagworm” (Clania variegaia).—The 
caterpillar conceals itself in a tough silken 
case intermingled with pieces of leaves and 
fragments of stick. 

(5) ‘‘Pigmy Rose Beetle” (Cingala tenella, 
Blanchard).—Specimens of this tiny beetle were 
submitted to me, together with leaves from 
young plants upon which they had been feeding. 
The latter showed numerous small irregular 
perforations. On arrival the insects were all 
dead, and so firmly glued to the leaves by 
coagulated latex that it was impossible to remove 
them without the loss of most of their limbs. 


V,— ANIMALS AFFECTING THE LATEX AND 
MANUFACTURED RUBBER, 


I have very few records under this section, 
but one of them is of some interest. 

(1) ‘Slugs’? (Lima, sp).—A correspondent sent 
me specimensof a slug with the complaint that 
these animals visited the recently-tapped rubber 
trees and lapped up the remains of the latex 
left in the wounds, with the result that the 
amount of scrap rubber was considerably re- 
duced. Some of these slugs were confined ina 
cage, together witha small saucer of fresh latex, 
Its presence was almost immediately scented 
out by them. One of them drank for about ten 
minutes with no subsequent derangement of its 
digestive organs, 


Quicklime is a recognised deterrent against 
slugs, but in this climate would: become 
slaked too rapidly to be of much practical 
use. Many slugs have the power of shed- 
ding off obnoxious material with a copious 
secretion of slime, but this power is weakened 
with each repetition of its exercise and 
requires time for recuperation. A sprinklin 
of ‘‘vaporite” around the base of the tappe 


298 


trees would probably prove an_ eftective 
obstacle ; but unless the animals are present 
in very large numbers, hand picking would be 
the most economical and practical treatment. 

(2) ‘‘ Book-lice” (Psocide).—On the arrival 
in Colombo of a shipment of sheet rubber 
from the Federated Malay States, it was found 
to be swarming with minute insects, which 
proved to be a species of Psocus. The rubber 
had evidently been packed before it was quite 
dry, with the result that the surface was 
covered with mould. [It was upon this superficial 
fungus that the insects were feeding. 


KE. Ernest GREEN, 


March 14, 1908. Government Entomologist. 


‘(PARA RUBBER BY HERBERT 
WRIGRT.””* 


The third edition of Mr. Wrights well-known 
book has just left the Ceylon Observer press. 
It is now a handsome, portly and very 
complete volume of over 300 pages, giving all 
the information required by the planter, the 
capitalist and all interested inrubber. This 
edition is profusely illustrated (over 90 full- 
page illustrations) clearly printed on good paper 
with wide margin; and with a fullindex. The 
book contains 21 chapters and the headings of 
each will indicate the contents :— 


History of Para Rubber in the East ; Botany 
of the Para Rubber Tree; Climatic Conditions 
for Para Rubber; Cultivation of Para Rubber 
Trees ; Para Rubber Soils and Manuring; Tap- 
ping Operations and Implements; How to Tap 
Para Rubber Trees; Where to ‘lap; When to 
Tap ; Yields of Para Rubber ; Effect of Tapping 
on the Trees ; Physical and Chemical Properties 
of Latex; The Production of Rubber from 
Latex ; Drying of Rubber ; Physical and Chem- 
ical Properties of Rubber; Purification of 
Rubber; Vulcanisation and Uses of Rubber ; 
Kinds of Para Rubber; Diseases cf Para Rub- 
ber Trees ; What to do with the Seeds; Esti- 
mates of Rubber Planters: Costs of Planting 
Rubber in Ceylon, Malaya, Java, South India 
and Borneo. 


Finally, we may quote Mr. Wright’s preface:—- 

I am writing these notes while enjoying a tour 
through Ceylon, Malaya, Java and Sumatra 
under conditions which might lead the average 
man to go into some little detail regarding 
rubber trees and their cultivation in the Hast. 
But the sizeof this book has already greatly 
exceeded the dimensions originally anticipated 
and [ do not therefore propose to write any- 
thing beyond an explanation of why this edition 


* “ Hevea Brasiliensis” or Para Rubber its 
Botany, Cultivation, Chemistry and Diseases by 
Herbert Wright, a.R.c.s., F..s., late Controller, 
Government Experiment Station, Peradeniya, 
Ceylon ; Editor, ‘‘The India Rubber Journal ” 
and author of ‘‘ Rubber Cultivation inthe Bri- 
tish Empire,’”’ ‘“‘Science of Para Rubber Culti- 
vation,” ‘Theobroma Cacao,” etc. Third edi- 
tion. With plates and diagrams. Colombo: 
Messrs A. M. & J. Ferguson. London: Messrs 
MacLaren & Sons. 1908. [Copyright in Great 
Britain,] Price R7°50 (or 10s.) 


The Supplement to the Tropical Agriculturist 


is being printed. The first practical work on 
Rubber cultivation for Planters in the Hast was 
compiled py the Hon. Mr. John Ferguson, 
C.M.G., in 1883. Some 700 to 800 Planters read 
that work and not afew planted rubber ; with 
what wisdom and foresight recent events have 
shown. In 1905, while I was Acting Director of 
the Peradeniya Department, Mr. Ferguson 
suggested that I should write a book on ‘‘ Para 
Rubber ” ; an application was duly forwarded to 
Government and their permission to compile 
and publish the book was granted. In the pre- 
vious edition, written long before the Ceylon 
Rubber Exhibition, I pointed out that the in- 
dustry, as far as growers were concerned, was 
in itsinfancy. ‘lhe present edition has been 
compiled in consequence of the many advances 
which have been recently made in methods of 
cultivation and tapping, coagulating, and curing 
operations. have, since I retired from the 
Ceylon Service, had signal opportunities of 
studying the rubber industry from many points 
of view; the wider knowledge thus gained 
prompted me to give a more detailed account of 
essential operations as carried out by rubber 
collectors in all parts of the world. I again 
express my gratitude to Planters and Officials in 
the tropics, to manufacturers in Europe, and to 
the proprietors of the ‘‘ India- Rubber Journal”, 
forthe information which they have kindly 
placed at my disposal. Without their assistance 
the present compilation could not have been 
published. 
H. W. 


May, 1908. 

The volume is strongly bound in red covers 
and weighs2 lb. 120z., the price being R7‘50 or 
10s. Altogether the third edition should hold 
the field for a long time to come. 


RUBBER IN ANGOLA. — 

There is about to be a new development in 
the supply of indiarubber. The Portuguese 
province of Angola, though rich in forests of the 
rubber tres, is a source of annual loss to the 
Government of Portugal, owing chiefly to failure 
of capital to work the forests, and the formid- 
able competition of the Congo. The Portuguese 
Government has determined to make an effort 
to secure something from the great riches in 
rubber of Angola. It has accordingly accepted 
the offer of a group of Belgian capitalists who 
have applied for a concession to work the dis- 
trict of Lunda, the richest part of Angola, and 
situated on the border of the Congo. The Bel- 
gian financiers offer to halve the profits with the 
Portuguese Government, and further pledge 
themselves to export all their rubber by the port 
of Lunda.—Indian Planters’ Gazette, Aug. 22. 


CEYLON PLANTING INDUSTRY. 


AND CEYLONESE PROPRIETARY OF ESTATE, 

Few have any just idea of the very consider- 
able stake the people of Ceylon and Southern 
India have in our Planting Enterprise—not 
simply because of the employment it affords, 
but as a means of investing their savings or in- 
herited capital, Among proprietors of tea, 
cacao, rubber or other regular plantations en- 
tered in the Directory, there are'no fewer than 


and Magazine of the Ceylon Agricultural Society. 


15 Burghers, 146 Sinhalese,!32 Tamils, 20 Moor- 
men or Malays, 17 Chetties and 3 Parsees; and 
they own between them some 82,000 acres of 
which 42,350 are in cultivation. Of course, 
this is altogether apart; from the very exten- 
sive ownership of members of nearly all these 
races of coconut, other Palm, Fruit, Vegetable 
and Rice-growing properties in the lowcountry 
—over large expanses of which there is scarcely 
a single representative of the colonist class. 
As regards the Planting industry in tea, Wwc., 
we believe our calculation, made many years 
ago, still holds good that from every acre fully 
cultivated, as many as four to five natives of 
Ceylon or Southern India derive their means 
of subsistence. A cooly an acre for estate 
purposes is the common reckoning ; but most of 
these coolies provide for dependents in children 
and old people, and then we have to count ia 
the artificers, domestic servants, cartmen, 
boutique-keepers, railway men, all who work 
in tea stores or tea offices in Colombo. Sweep 
utterly away the tea aud rubber-growing in- 
dustry of Ceylon—and quite two or three mil- 
lions of people (big and little, old and young) 
in Ceylon and Southern India would find their 
means of subsistence disappear! We have only 
to think of the scores, almost hundreds of towns 
and villages which have;come into existence 
in our ;‘‘hill-country” since old George Bird, 
Wm. Rudd, Robert Boyd Tytler and their 
confreres first felled forest for coffee some 70 
to 80 years ago! 


RUBBER IN THE SANDWICH ISLANDS 


Hawait AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION, 


In the summer of 1906 attention was called to 
the existence of two grovesof rubber trees on 
the island of Kauai, each containing about 100 
individual trees. One of these groves, at Koloa, 
was planted in 1893, and seed from these trees 
was planted at Lihue in 1899, so that the two 
groves are, respectively, 13 and 7 years old. 
These trees are of the Ceara variety, which is 
being extensively planted in these islands. It 
was at once suggested by some of the planters 
interested in rubber cultivation that this 
station make 

A TAPPING EXPERIMENT 


to determine the amount and quality of rubber 
obtainable, Asthis station had no funds, work 
was not begun until January 1, 1907, when the 
B P Bishop estate (Limited), and Mr George N 
Wilcox each contributed $200 to assist the work. 


The first work done was on a few isolated 
trees from 4 to 10 years old on the experiment 
station grounds in Honolulu. Three months 
were devoted to laboratory investigations in re- 
gard to the behaviour of the latex under different 
coagulents. Some preliminary work was done 
to determine the form of tapping tools and me- 
thod of tapping. 


In April, a satisfactory method having been 
worked out, the special agent, accompanied by 
Mr Q Q Bradford, farm foreman, went to Lihue. 
The management of the Lihue plantation lent 


299 


the station hearty cooperation, erecting a small 
shed in the rubber grove and providing enter- 
tainment and horses for the use of our foreman. 
The Lihue grove of 7-year-old trees occupies ar 
old taro patch inthe bottom of a gulch. Sur- 
rounding it is a planted forest several hundred 
acres in extent, A living stream of water runs 
through the middle of the grove and the land is 
quite swampy. ‘The trees vary greatly in size, 
from 6 inches to 30 inches in circumference of 
trunk, at 3 feet from the ground, No care ap- 
pears to have been given the trees during the 
entire period of their growth. Some of the 
trees show a clear, straight trunk, 30 feet in 
height; others fork near the base. It was found 
that only about 70 trees out of the full 
number, 110, were suitable for tapping, owing 
to their size or shape. 


A SET OF RUBBER TAPPING KNIVES SUCH AS 
ARE USED IN CEYLON 


for work on Hevea had been purchased, but it 
was soon found that these were entirely unsuited 
for thin-barked trees like the Ceara, and con- 
siderable work was devoted to making a form 
of knife which would be satisfactory. After 
many experiments the system of tapping de- 
cided upon was the half herringbone, with one 
vertical cut and laterals a foot apart extending 
half around the tree. Where the full herring- 
bone system was employed it was found that 
only the uppermost and lowest laterals yielded 
a full flow of latex. Two experiments were out- 
lined, one to tap every day, the other alternate 
days. 

The Ceara latex coagulates almost at once 
when the channels are made. We therefore 
adopted a method of trickling water over the 
cut surfaces, and soon found an addition of am- 
monia retarded coagulation and continued the 
flow until the feeding area was practically ex- 
hausted. The mixed water and latex iscol- 
lected at the foot of the tree. The tapping was 
begun at 5 o’clock a.m. Two trees averaging 28 
inches in circumference were tapped for nine 
consecutive days, with the full herringbone 
system from the ground to 5 feet, there being 
five laterals 1 foot apart. These two trees 
yielded 8 ounces of dry rubber in nine days. 
Two other trees were tapped on alternate days 
for a period of two weeks and yielded 4 ounces 
of dry rubber in that time, 


Work was begun at Koloain May. The trees, 
44 inches in circumference and 13 years old at 
the time tapping was begun, were almost bare 
of leaves, the resting period being about ended. 
Two of these 13-year-old trees were tapped every 
day for nine days and yielded 12} ounces of dry 
rubber. It was not considered advisable to tap 
alternate days on account of the leafless con- 
dition of the grove. 


In Junea number of 4-year-old trees at Koloa, 
averaging 19 inches in circumference, were 
tapped every day for 9 days, yielding only 4 
ounce of dry rubber. These troes were entirely 
bare. 


This tapping work has been very sugges- 
tive, and there are many points that have arisen 
which we shall endeavour to work out during 
the coming year, The Cearatrees seom to be 
very susceptible to the atmospheric and other 


300 


conditions, at least as far asthe flow of latex is 
concerned. The flow is apparently greatest in 
the early morning at about sunrise. The amount 
of sunshine received by the tree apparently has 
some influence on the amount and flow of latex. 
These experiments are only in the preliminary 
stage, and it is too soon to draw conclusions, 
but if any results can be predicted the indica- 
tion very strongly suggests the value of daily 
tappings rather than tapping the tree at longer 
intervals. Trees tapped late in the forenoon, 
at midday, orin the afternoon, yield almost no 
latex. At about sundown there is apparently 
an increase of tension and the latex flows more 
freely. 


Four-year-old trees at Koloa yielded at the 
rate of 10 ounces of dry rubber per tree per 
annum, supposing it possible to tap every day. 
Seven-year-old trees at Lihue yielded at the rate 
of 10 pounds per tree, while 13-year-old trees at 
Koloa yielded at the rate of 15 pounds of dry 
rubber per tree. Neither the Koloa nor Lihue 
trees were in good condition at the time of 
tapping. Thoseat Lihue arein a swampy loca- 
tion, where the ground is always saturated with 
water. Those at Koloa are in amuch drier 
location, but have been choked with guava and 
lantana and overrun with vines. Allthe tap- 
pings were made while the trees were just en- 
tering their period of rest or during the time 
when bare of leaves. Nevertheless, the results 
are encouraging. The indications are that the 
Ceara rubber tree will grow in almost any loca- 
tion in these islands, from sea level to 2,000 
feet, and wherever the conditions are sufficiently 
favourable to permit the attainment ofa trunk 
diameter of 7 or 8 inches these trees will yield 
an enormous quantity of rubber of most ex- 
cellent quality. 


The quality of the rubber has been good. The 
variations in quality apparently depend more 
upon the coagulating medium than upon the 
character of the latex itself, although in this 
respect there is wide variation. A great many 
experiments have been made with various me- 
thods of coagulating the latex, but itis too soon 
to announce results. The best qualities thus 
far produced have been made by neutralising 
the ammonia in the latex and coagulating by 
adding a hot concentrated solution of ammo- 
nium sulphate to which a small amount of 
formalin has been added. Other coagulents that 
have been experimented with are acetic acid, 
sulphuric acid, tri-chloric acid, formic acid, sea 
water, ammonium sulphate, various copper and 
other mineral salts, sodium sulphate, etc. A 
very excellent quality of rubber may be sepa- 
rated out by simply churning the mixture of 
water and latex. Sulphuric acid gives good 
results, provided but little more than enough 
to neutralise the ammonia in the mixture is 
used. An excess of sulphuric acid apparently 
causes deterioration in the quality of the rubber, 


A large collection of rubber plants and mis- 
cellaneous economic plants has been set out on 
the clearings above the 1,000-foot level. These 
were all grown by us in our greenhouses from 
seeds purchased from dealers in tropical seeds 
and plants.—Annual Report of the Hawaii Agri- 
cultural Experiment Station for 1907. 


The Supplement to the Tropical Agriculturist 


RICE CULTIVATION IN SIAM. 


GovERNMENT Errorts TowARDS AN IMPROVED 
QUALITY. 


The Ministry of Agriculture in Siam, it is 
satisfactory to note, is taking an active interest 
in the rice-growing industry of the country of 
late, which is bound to lead to very excellent 
results. It is stated that a prize of ticals 400 
will be awarded for the best rice produced in 
each of the monthons, at the Exhibition which 
is to be held in January or february next ; 
and a special prize will be given for the best 
rice of all the provinces grown this year. Be- 
sides those, there will be also prizes offered for 
second and third qualities. The best rice pro- 
duced will be reserved for the seed of the har- 
vest of next year, and foreign rice will be 
imported for this purpose also. In this way, 
says a Bangkok exchange, the quality of rice 
grown in Siam can be greatly improved, and the 
present departure on the part of the Ministry 
of Agriculture, in holding annual exhibitions of 
the grain, and offering prizes for the best pro- 
duced, should prove a very powerful incentive 
to the paddy planters of the country to strive 
and produce good crops. Already a spirit of 
emulation has taken hold of the farmers, many 
of whom have even in the present year secured 
a better class of seed than formerly. There is 
much room for greater diligence and skill in the 
cultivation ; the present attention devoted to 
the industry by the authorities will insure great 
improvement both in the quality and quantity of 
rice produced in Siam.—Straits Times, Aug. 20. 


TREATMENT OF LATEX IN THE 
PREPARATION OF RUBBER. 


REMOVING THE ENZYME BY HEAT. 


And Raising Prices by 4d per Ib. 


The process of treating rubber employed 
by such planters as Mr. Lenox Conyngham, 
who has secured prices for Wariapolla bis- 
cuits pence in advance of other marks, did 
not remain a secret for very long. Mr. Kelway 
Bamber—who first (in Ceylon) formulated 
valuable ideas on the subject, ideas which 
Mr. Conyngham adapted in a process of his 
own—has made known for the benefit of 
rubber-planters generally some ways by which 
the enzyme may be killed and the quality 
of the rubber vastly improved—the heating 
methods used getting rid of the element 
subject to oxidisation, which involves deteri- 
oration of the rubber. The details were contri- 
buted by Mr. Bamber to ‘Straits Agricultural 
Bulletin” (August) and we reproduce them 
hereafter with additional remarks. With the 
careful adoption of these methods, we hope 
to see the distance that plantation rubber 
keeps ahead of ‘‘ Fine Para” being slightly im- 
proved in the near future. 


[By Mr, M. Ketway BAmMBER.] 


A point of considerable importance in the 
manufacture of Plantation rubber is to obtain, 
not only purity, but constant uniformity in 
the finished froduct. At present there are al- 
most daily variations in appearance, due to 


and Magazine of the Ceylon Agricultural Society. 


causes which cannot easily be overcome, such 
as weather, age of trees being tapped, and the 
bringing of new trees into bearing, all of which 
affect the colour and clearness of the dried 
rubber. The discoloration is due to oxidation 
of soluble organic bodies allied to tannin in the 
latex water, by means of an oxidising enzyme, 
and isintensified by a warm temperature and 
exposure tothe air. Thorough washing of the 
freshly coagulated caoutchouc will remove much 
of the soluble matter with the enzyme, but it 
is difficult or impossible to remove it all, and 
other means have to be adopted to prevent the 
darkening on drying which almost invariably 
occurs. Thisis done by destroying the enzyme 
by means of heat before oxidisation occurs, 
with the result that the rubber dries of a clear 
pale yellow colour, and of perfect uniformity 
from day to day. The 


HEATING CAN BE DONE IN DIFFERENT WAYS 


before or after coagulation:— 

lst. By passing steam into the bulked latex 
until the temperature reaches 80° C or 167° F, 
and maintaining this temperature for 15 minutes 
or longer, according to the thickness of the 
rubber. ® 

2nd. By immersing the biscuits or sheets 
etc., in water of the temperature for some. min- 
utes immediately after passing through the 
above rolling machine; then re-rolling to the re- 
uisite thinness, and immersing again for a 
shorter time to ensure destruction of the 
enzyme. 

3rd. Hot water can be employed in the wash- 
ing machine, and if necessary, steam heated 
rollers as well. 


Heating while coagulating most nearly re- 
sembles the method of making hard para, but the 
other method gives excellent results. 


To insure the best product cleanliness in all 
stages of collection and manufacture is abso- 
lutely essential, and if the loss in the value 
from want of simple precautions in prepar- 
ation was more fully realised on the estates, 
much greater care would be exercised. Many 
samples of excellentrubber appear on the Lon- 
don market, but from want of uniformity, and 
perhaps the presence of some slight impurity, 
they do not realise, by some pence per lb., the 
value they otherwise would. 


Rubber made by this process, hasalready been 
sold on the market, and realised a premium of 
up to about 4d. per lb., over ordinary good bis- 
cuits which indicates that the process can be 
successfullyapplied on the estate. It still re- 
mains to be proved whether the rubber is 
stronger than that manufactured by the ordinary 
method, and Messrs Gow, Wilson & Stanton, 
Ltd.,are now having it tested by manfacturers to 
determine this point, but as the process re- 
sembles in some points the manufacture of fine 
hard Para, there isreason to expect some im- 
provement in the physical properties in addition 
to the other advantages obtained. In order 


TO SECURE THE BEST RESULTS 
from the process, the latex must be strained free 
from solid impurities, and all vessels kept per- 
fectly clean. No time must be lost in putting 
therubber into the hot water after rolling or 
pressing, and the sheets or biscuits must be kept 


301 


separate and constantly moving for a sufticient 
length of time for the rubberto acquire the ne- 
cessary temperature throughout. In‘all stages of 
the preparation the rubber must be protected 
from dust and other impurities. 
M Ketway BAMBRR, F.I.C , M.B.A.C., &C., 
C/o. Messrs Gow, Wilson & Stanton, Ltd., 
13, Rood Lane, E.C. 


With regard to the above instructions, which 
have been largely circulated from London, I 
found on visiting several estates that the 
process was rarely carried out properly, 
In several the water was barely lukewarm; 
in. others, and where the correct tem- 
perature might have been employed to start 
with, it was only maintained so for a few 
seconds as the immersion of several thick sheets 
of cold wet rubber rapidly reduced it. The 
rubber wasrarely immersed for the correct time ; 
in fact, it was frequently only in the water for 
a fewseconds. It is absurd to imagine that 
good results can be obtained by such methods, 
and if the process is to be successful at all, the 
instructions must be carefully and thoroughly 
carried out. On only one estatethat I visited 
was this being done, and the result was ex- 
cellent in every way and in no factory have I 
ever seen amore uniform outturn of the palest 
crepe and sheet. In addition to treating the 
sheet or crepe by this method, é.e., immersion 
after rolling once or twice, the scrap on the 
trees should be collected immediately it has 
coagulated and immersed in water at 170°-180° 
F. so as to prevent darkening and it can then 
be rolled and manufactured in the usual way. 
—M.K.B.—Straits Agricultural Bulletin, August. 


A NEW USE FOR LALANG. 


Thus Jn Tinland:—It may not be generally 
known that lalang played an instructive Govern- 
ment function at the Agri-Horticultural Show. 
It is a positive fact that the pillows supplied to 
those favoured Government visitors at the Vic- 
toria Institution, catered for at the rate of $7 
a day, were stuffed with lalang. This is per- 
haps the first instance on record of that useful 
grass being devoted to domestic purposes. We 
understand patent rights are being applied for 
this product, but whether it carries comfort 
rights is questionable. None of the lalang pil- 
lows formed an exhibit at the Show.—Malay 
Mail, Aug. 17. 


SISAL FIBRE CULTIVATION IN INDIA, 

An Indian planter writes on the subject of 
sisal fibre cultivation in India that although 
agaves and nettles thrive tolerably well all over 
Kastern Bengal an extensive tour in those dis- 
tricts has demonstrated that the best are pro- 
duced in the calcareous country stretch- 
ing slong the cliff formation from the eastern 
end of the Garo Hills on the extreme west to the 
Loobah River on the east. As this stream is 
reached the strata twist abruptly to the north, 
and perceptible differevceis at once apparent in 
the plants, although the cursory tourist might 
not observe it. Within the boundaries men- 
tioned he states sisal fibre at two years old at- 
tains a height of seven to ten feet, the leaves 


302 


when ripe averaging six feet in length. Roughly 
the area most suitable for raising this and other 
fibre plants may be put down at 800 square 
miles as the limestone formation runs back 
into the hills some ten miles «n an average. 
Sisal from its size it may be stated requires 
a field toitself, andthe presence of lime in the 
soil will be found to greatly stimulate its 
growth. The planting of sisalin [ndia lately 
has been fairly extensive, from this however it 
cannot be expected that the abnormally high 
prices which characterised the market for the 
fibre a year or two ago wili be maintained. 
Those who have planted sisal in South West 
Sylhet would have done better, the writer thinks, 
to have made their plantings under the northern 
hills where in his opinion the soil is more suit- 
able for the plant’s best cultivation. The 
Assam Valley proper he points out is deficient 
in calcareous formation (except in the extreme 
north-east corner near Syddia where limestone 
crops out, and does not therefore come up to 
the same mark in fibre producing plants as the 
Southern Valley) patches of rhea, or ramie, put 
down here are, however, said to look promis- 
ing. Inthe Sylhet district there are celebrated 
orange groves situated in the detritus, attrited 
from the stone mingled with leaf soil from 
the upper forests, and the adaptability of 
the spaces between the orange plants for the 
raising of rhea is often referred to as presenting 
a good opportunity for cheap and successful 
culture. Numerous salt springs abound thus 
providing an inexpensive means of getting rid 
of part of the tenacious gums. Fermentation 
setsin the hot weather im about forty-eight 
hours so this process would require watching as 
if the steeping is carried too far discolouration, 
as wellas brittleness, is set up. The native 
owners of these orange groves make use of all 
fibre-yielding plants, but only in the rough, and 
it is stated wouldbring in bundles toa central 
factory, but preparation for the market would 
have to be undertaken by some permanent 
hands. Attempts are being made in Assam to 
reintroduce the genuine Musa textilis, or 
Manila hemp. The closest approach to this 
fibre is found in the still dense forests of the 
Namba Jairang, and in the more inaccessible 
forest of Janitia in North East Sylhet, where 


the fibre is coarser, and less flexible. Those 
essaying present operations are very sau- 
guine of success, and the climate and 


soil of the habitat of the plant have been 
very carefully studied. There are many fibre- 
yielding plants whose product is of superior 
quality, however, and unless the Manilla one 
can be successfully introduced it is hardly worth 
while devoting much attention to the plantain, 
which is much more valuable for its fruit. 


THE SisaL INDUSTRY OF THE CaIcos 
forms the subject of a most readable report 
recently prepared by the Commissioner of the 
Islands, the Hon. F H Watkins. The first year 
in which any sisal fibre approached on two occa- 
sions since. In 1906, when a consignment of 
the value of £50 was shipped. In 1894 the value 
of the exports rose to £420, and three years later 
to £2,539. The yearin which the greatest ship- 
ments have been made, so far, was 1899, when 
the exports reached the value of £7,494. This 
figure has been, however, approached on two 


The Supplement to the Tropical A griculturist 


occasions since. In 1906, the quantity of fibre 
extracted was 219,365 lb. and the value of 
the exports £5,605. The area under cultivation 
with sisal in the Caicos Islands is estimated at 
about 3,200 acres, while the industry gives em- 
ployment to about 300 people. A further area 
of 1,000 acres in Kast Caicos is to be planted in 
the near future, while it is mentioned that 
several thousand acres, suitable for sisal culti- 
vation, exist in the different islands, but are 
awaiting development. Two Companies were 
formed at an early stage of the industry to carry 
on planting operations. In addition there 
exists a considerable number of small growers, 
many of whom are extending their area as 
rapidly as their limited means will allow. The 
soil of the Caicos Islands is very shallow, 
droughts are of frequent occurrence and the 
bulk of the population were previously entirely 
dependent for a precarious livelihood upon salt- 
raking or sponge collecting. In regard to the 
cost of clearing land and planting it with sisal, 
it is stated that in some places £1 an acre with 
an additional $d. for each plant set out, forms 
the average expense, but in other cases £1 10s. 
is generally paid for an acre fully planted 44 by 
4) feet. ‘The average daily wages for a man in 
East Caicos are 2s 3d , fora youth 1s 6d., and 
for a woman is. The life of the sisal plant in the 
Caicos Islands may be put at about eight 
years, at the end of which period replanting 
must take place. ‘The first crop of leaves 
may be gathered three or four years after 
planting. An acre of land should yield an 
annual average of from 685 to 9001b. of fibre. 
At at an average cost of 6 cents per lb., of 
£28 per ton) (present price is about £32 
per ton) this would give a return of £10 
per acre per annum, At the close of his 
report, Mr. Watkins mentions the fcllow- 
ing three conditions, the existence of which 
is essential to profitable results in sisal culti- 
vation:--(1) Capital, on account of the some- 
what expensive machinery for extractirg the 
fibre, and the length of time which must elapse 
before a return is made. (2) A large area of 
land, especially where the soil is poor, to main- 
tain the cultivation in regular succession. 
(3) An abundant and cheap suprly of labour. 
—Indian Planters’ Cazelte, Aug. 22 


RUBBER IN TRAVANCORE, 


FINE MEASUREMENTS AND YIELDS. 


Mr J A Richardson read to the recent 
U.P.A.8.I, meeting the following interesting 
account ot the rubber industry of 'Travancore:— 

The rubber planting industry of Southern 
India has made rapid strides during the last few 
years and South India as a rubber-producing 
country will in the near future take a very 
important place. It has already been proved 
that Para rubber (I am now speaking of Travan- 
core and Cochin) can be brought to the tapping 
stage in ifs fifth year if we are to go by girth 
moasurements. In this ccnnection I should 
like to draw attention to a statement made 
by Mr. C KH Welldon, a Ceylon planter, read 
and printed inthe July Chronicle, as follows :— 

‘‘Mr C E Welldon, a Ceylon Planter, consid- 
ers that four-years-old Rubber trees in Java 
and the Straits Settlements are practically 


and Magazine of the Ceylon Agricultural Sociely. 


equal and that they are both equal to 5 and 
5% year trees in Ceylon. On account of the 
soil and the absence of droughts the yield in 
Java (especially) and the Straits should, this 
gentleman thinks, exceed that of Ceylon or 
South India,’' 

From this statement he would seem to infer 
that Ceylon and South India are on a par as re- 
gards growth, which we in Southern India are 
not prepared to admit. We consider our growth 
to be very fine indeed, in proof of which we have 
the following measurements taken by Managers 
of some ten estates in Travancore and Cochin :— 

6 years. 4 yoars. 3 years 2 years, 
32 19°04 12"10 B52 

These are the averages of the returns sent ia. 
I do not suppose they have taken their worst 
trees, but the fact that we have such trees, | 
think, is proof that we have growth that is 
second to none. 

The biggest measurements sent in, although 
only of individual trees, are worth mentioning, 
and are as follows :— 

6 years, 4 years. 3 years, 
33°75 23°25 19'5) 12°50 

These are all Para rubber. I have received 
measurements of four year old Castilloa as 32 
inches and two year old Ceara at 274. J may 
mention that the four year old Castilloa has been 
tapped and I have with me samples of biscuits 
as well as Para biscuits from both low and high 
elevation rubber. I have also some photo- 
graphs which are interesting. lL have also 
received arecord of the tapping of 7 Para 
trees 12 to 15 years old which during the last 
3 months have given a yield of 28 tb. of dry rub- 
ber, an average of 4 lb, each. 

I do not think there is any doubt about the 
yielding powers of our rubber, as our fine soil 
which has already shown its effect in the matter 
of growth must also tell on the outturn of rub- 
ber and healthy and rapid renewal of bark. 

Mr. WinpiE—confirmed generally Mr. Rich- 
ardson’s statement.—M. Mail, Aug. 19. 


2 years, 


TROPICAL AGRICULTURE: CEYLON 
AND INDIA. 


[Extracts from a Report by Mr. H. Newport, 
Instructor in Tropical Agticulture, Kamerunga. } 


It wil] be remembered that last year Mr. H 
Newport, on recovering from a_ serious illness, 
was granted leave of absence for three months 
to regain his health by a visit to Ceylon and 
India. During his absence Mr. Newport has 
been busily engaged in inquiring into the 
various phases of tropical agriculture as they 

resent themselves in the countries mentioned. 

e writes :— 

In Ceylon, on my way to India, I called on 
the Honourable Hugh Clifford, Chief Secretary 
tothe Government of Ceylon, and had an inter- 
esting conversation with him, chiefly in re labour 
for tropical industries. This gentleman kindly 
gave me a letter of introduction to Dr. Willis, 
of Peradeniya Royal Botanic Gardens, Kandy, 
and I accordingly proceeded to Kandy by rail 
and by trap to Peradeniya. Dr. Willis kindly 
gave mea good deal of his time, and conducted 
us over the grounds, especially the experimental 
portion of the gardens, across the river, to which 
ordinary visitors are notadmitted. A description 
of the Botanical Gardens, magnificent and com- 


308 


plete as they are, would be out of place in this 
report ; the experimental section, however, was 
replete with interest. Hxtensive experiments 
were being conducted with many tropical pro- 
ducts, particularly in connection with cocoa, 
rubber, coffee, coconuts, &c. Especially notice- 
able were the fine buildings in the Experimental 
Station, including laboratory, experiment rooms, 
drying rooms, large stores, power house, and 
complete machinery for the drying or prepar- 
ation of products suchas cocoa, coffee, rubber, 
&c.; for crushing and even distilling oils, from 
heavy oils such as castor oil to volatile oils such 
as citronella or lemon grass. Recordsand museum 
specimens were in the Director’s office buildings. 
Similar ample storage and drying rooms for 
tropical products, especially in districts with 
heavy rainfall, are very necessary and requisite, 
though at present, in this country, largely con- 
spicuous by their absence. Complete machinery 
also for artificial drying with hot air and fans, 
&c., as well as for preparation in marketable 
quantities, is a great desiderata, and would be 
invaluable in this country for purposes of com- 
plete and practical demonstration in encourag- 
ing the establishment of tropical industries. 
With regard to machinery for rubber, I am re- 
porting especially and separately. 

In these experiment plots, which in them- 
selves must cover well over 100 acres, especial 
attention is paid to matters of culture as well as 
numerous methods of harvesting the products. 

In Southern India [ was fortunate in being 
able to meet Sir Frederick Nicholson, 1.¢.s., 
K.C.M.G., the greatest authority on agriculture 
in the Civil Service of India, who also gave me 
a great deal of time and a fund of information 
on cultural matters. 

On the Shevaroy Hills, in the Presidency of 
Madras, [ also met Mr A G Nicholson, one cf 
the most successful planters of Southern India, 
and the first to undertake the cultivation of 
rubber on a practical scale. Mr A G Nicholson 
very kindly showed me over several of his es- 
tates, especially that of ‘‘ Hawthorn,” from 
which his Para rubber biscuit obtained a first- 
prize gold medal at the recent Rubber Exhibi- 
tion in Ceylon. 

In Madras [ carried a letter of introduction to 
the Hou. J N Atkinson, 1.¢.s., and was intro- 
duced by him to the Director of Agriculture, and 
also to the Director of the Horticultural Soc- 
iety’s Gardens. Over these latter magnificent 
gardens I was thus enabled to see, under the 
most favourable circumstances, and found the 
rubber experiments most interesting, especially 
in connection with the giant vreepers—species 
of Landolphias.—To arrange to go over 


RUBBER PLANTATIONS IN CEYLON, 

and to see the inner workings of factories, &c., 
is no very easy matter, and correspondence in an 
effort to obtain this privilege took some time. 

Returning from India to Ceylon, however, I 
interviewed the manager of Messrs. Walker 
Sons and Company, agricultural implement and 
machinery manufacturers, of Colombo, Ceylon. 
This gentleman was most courteous and kind, 
affording me considerable information regarding 
rubber-tapping and other implements, and intro- 
ducing me to Mr. Michie, the firm’s engineer. 
Mr. Michie is the inventor and patentee of 
numerous machines, appliances, and implements, 


304 


and is himself interested in rubber culture. He 
took me over Messrs Walker and Sons’ extensive 
workshops, where I was especially interested 
in the various rubber machines in course of con- 
truction and completed Mr. Michie kindly in- 
troduced me to Mr Golledge, owner (sic) of one of 
the largest estates in the island, thus enabling 
me to see the rubber machines actually at work. 
Mr. Golledge’s estate is at 
GIKLYANAKANDA, 
whence I proceeded by rail to Takura (sic); thence 
by trap. This estate had the most complete and 
up-to-date machinery and appliances for rubber 
manufacturing, and by Mr. Golledge’s kindness 
I was enabled to see the complete processes, from 
tapping the trees and collecting the latex to 
packing the dried rubber for export to the Con- 
tinent. The principal machines required for 
proper rubber treatment are the washing 
machine and the coagulating machine. Matters 
relating to the construction, working, prices, 
&e., of which I fully investigated, and in a 
separate report propose to submit suggestions 
to the Department regarding the obtaining of 
either full-sized or reduced models of which, 
for use and demonstration in this country. 
I may here note that while great strides 
have been made in the matter of culture and 
preparation of rubber, and in connection with 
many other important tropical products, I 
was agreeably surprised to find the Depart- 
ment’s work in tropical Queensland was in 
many respects as advanced and up to dato 
as [foundit there. Of course, in extent, owing 
to want of labour in field culture, and through 
waut of room, machinery, and financial support, 
itis on a far smallér scale here. The line of 
work, also, as was to be expected, in many res- 
pects materially differed, as the objects aimed 
for in the experiments varied; but in many 
directions similar work, with but slightly differ- 
ing results, had been simultaneously carried out. 
In tapping rubber on the estate above-men- 
tioned, the ‘‘Michie-Golledge”’ knives were, 
I found, universally used. This knife is a 
collaborated invention of the two gentlemen 
above referred to. Many varieties of knives 


are used in different parts, and some 
estates use several different kinds. Messrs 
Walker Sons, and Company have a most 


complete collection of tapping appliances, in- 
cluding knives, among which is one—the “‘Pask- 
Holloway ”’—the collaborated invention of Mr 
GW Pask, recently of Melbourne, and one of 
the first to plant rubber in North Queensland 
(Castilloa, at Stratford, Cairns), and Mr Hollo- 
way, a well-known and large estate owner and 
planter in Ceylon. 

The cultivation and production of plantation 
rubber is, in the opinion of the best authorities 
in Ceylon, going to become a large and valu- 
able industry. The industry is receiving the 
most careful consideration of experts in every 
branch, and all possible assistence from the 
Agricultural Department of the Government. 

Space will not permit of my referring in this 
report to many tropical industries observed in 
their various aspects and trials and experiments in 
quired into and noted. I would especially remark, 
however, that experiments and trials of North 
Queensland samples of cotton in South India 
and Ceylon have not been universally successful, 


The Supplement to the Tropical Agriculturist. 


A new product, called ‘‘Cocotine,” was noted, 
manufactured by a simple process at Pondi- 
cherry from coconut oil, that appeared to me 
might be of use in this country, where but little 
use is made of the coconut, and copra as a 
marketable product is almost prohibitive, owing 
to the high rates of labour. 

This ‘‘ Cocotine” is in substance a thickened 
oil, prepared by having certain chemical ele- 
ments in the natural oil, which cause it more or 
less quickly to become rancid, removed or 
counteracted. Cocotine is largely coming into 
household use in India and Ceylon as a cook- 
ing medium, being more satisfactory than any 
of the ordinary cooking oils, cheaper than most, 
and materially cheaper than lard or butter. 

I obtained one sample tin, which I submit 
herewith for the inspection of the Department. . 
I would suggest that it be submitted to the 
Government Analyst, with a view of ascertain- 
ing the chemical treatmentto which it has been 
submitted or that may be required to make it 
here, and the probable cost of so doing. A large 
market exists in the East for this commodity, 
and, in view of the comparatively high cost of 
land here, probably a large demand would soon 
result within the Commonwealth. 

The tins, such as submitted, are'’sold in 
Ceylon at 45 cents, equal to 7 1-5d, and in South 
India from 7d to 8d according to distance from 
cities and cost of transport. 

I found a new variety of tinned milk to be 
largely taking the place of the old Swiss con- 
densed milk. The thickened and sweetened 
condensed milk has a flavour that is disliked by 
many, also the mixing necessary before use can 
be made of it—mixture possibly with impure, 
or, at any rate, unsterilised, liquids, renders it 
undesirable for many purposes. 

The kind of milk I found to be replacing this 
milk on the market is known as ‘‘sterilised 
milk,” and is put up in tins ina manner similar 
to condensed milk. The ‘‘Ideal” is perhaps 
the most popular, and next to it a brand 


known as ‘Dahl’s”; the former is a 
Swiss, and the latter a Norwegian, pro- 
duction. Stone and Sons’ Diamond Reef 


Brand (also Norwegian) is being largely used 
in Ceylon. This milk requires no mixing, and 
on merely piercing the tin can be poured out 
and used as it is, [t has no peculiar flavour, and 
is with difficulty distinguished from fresh cow’s 
milk. The price is about the same as for con- 
densed milk—viz., 5d to 7d per tin, retail, ac- 
cording to locality. I obtained samples of ‘Ideal’ 
and ‘Diamond Reef’ brands, sold respectively at 
6 2-5d. and 7 1-5d per tin in Ceylon, and which 
1 submit for the information of the Department, 
thinking that if not already known (I have never 
seen or heard of it here) these samples may be of 
interest and use, in view of the stimulus that is 
being given to the manufacture of tinned milk 
in Queensland. 

I also saw and made inquiries concerning 
various economic plants and trees that would be 
of value to this country, among them _ the coco- 
nut palm that comes into bearing in three years 
from seed. This is to be found in cultivation by 
the Maharajah Bobili, of Vizagapatam but [ 
regret I had neither time nor opportunity to 
obtain plants or seed.—Queenstand Agricultural 
Jowrnal, for April. 


and Magazine of the Ceylon Agricultural Society. 


TAPIOGA CULTIVATION. 


INTERESTING INFORMATION FOR PLANTERS, 


Practicability of Combining with Para Rubber. 


(Written for the ‘* Straits Times” by H. Mathieu.) 


The importance, for the planter of Para Rub- 
ber, coconut or of any other culture of slow 
growth, of finding a product which will give him a 
prompt return and one remunerative enough to 
allow him to use his land during the first years 
of unproductiveness, and to reimburse himself, 
in part at least, of the capital which he has 
sunk in it, is self-evident. From past experi- 
ence, we see that, of the three staples—gam bier, 
pepper and tapioca—which have been culti- 
vated on a large scale in Malaya by the Chinese, 
the last is the only one which has, throughout, 
maintained itself. Whereas the fluctuations of 
the market and over-production seem to have 
at times discouraged the planter of pepper and 
gambier, the planter of tapioca has steadily held 
his ground and more than made the two ends 
meet, while in good years, when prices rule 
high, he piles up money. It is, therefore, quite 
natural that our attention should be drawn 
anew to the cultivation of tapioca and to the prac- 
ticability of combining it with Para Rubber, 
Tapioca has a bad name; and it is true that 
the sorry aspect of an abandoned field of 
manioc, overgrown with lalang is not, at first 
sight, a tempting one. It is true, also, that 
Government does not welcome its cultivation, 
and will only tolerate it as a catch-crop, for a 
permanent cultivation, and that only on condition 
that not more than three crops shall be taken 
from the ground. It is, in fact, labelled a ‘‘rob- 
ber” crop, namely, a crop which takes away all, 
leaving nothing behind, and we can well under- 
stand the little enthusiasm of the majority of 
planters to take up a cultivation reputedly ex- 
hausting and baneful to the land, 


CHANGED OPINIONS. 

In my Planter’s Manual, I have, somewhat 
hastily, adopted the same view, and been. led 
by it to depreciate tapioca as a catch-crop for 
rubber, At that time (1906) it was true, and, 
until quite recently, the difficulty of recruiting 
labour made it quite idle, in my opinion, to 
discuss the question of catch-crops of any kind, 
Planters had not even enough hands for the 
requirements of upkeep and weeding of their 
rubber, and it is well-known that some estates 
have suffered severely from this scarcity. 
Since then, however, thanks to the happy 
action of Government, these difficulties are 
being overcome gradually, and the steady cur- 
rent of immigration which has now set in 
from India seems likely to meet the require- 
ments of the future. This great obstacle to 
the adoption of catch-crops for rubber 
having been disposed of, it has occurred to 
me that the time has come to look into the 
question more closely ; and, in view of the 
fact that tapioca cultivation is now, on a 
fairly extensive scale, carried on in Malacca 
at Diamond Jubilee Estate and at Bukit 
Asahan, and in Johore at the Jomentah Estate, 
I propose to examine ‘what there is in it.” 


39 


305 


Moreover, it appears to me that a gap is 
to be filled here, for, notwithstanding that 
manioc is grown at the four corners of the 
globe, there is, perhaps, not one cultivation 
for which the sources of information are so 
meagre. The United States Department of 
Agriculture has, I believe, made exhaustive 
research on the subject, and the Government 
of Jamaica has also made instructive experi- 
ments; but we do not know their results. 
I would single out, however, a report which 
appeared in the Agricultural Review of the 
Philippines under the name of Mr E Cope- 
land, and which is replete with useful informa- 
tion, based upon accurate observation and know- 
ledge of the subject. I have drawn largely for 
facts and figures on Mr Copeland’s report. 


SweEEr AND Bitter VARIETIES. 

Tapioca (Manihot utilissima), obi cayn in 
Malay, is a shrub of the family of Euphor- 
biaccea, which include also Ceara Rubber 
(Manihot Glaziovii), native of Tropical America, 
which was introduced in India and Malaya by 
the early Portuguese. Like all the plants which 
are largely cultivated over wide and varied 
areas, manioc, to adopt its common name, offers 
a great many varieties, which have been classed 
into two great groups of bitter and sweet. But 
in reality, these varieties have but little fixity, 
and they are rather the result of surroundings, 
their character varying with climate, soil and 
the cultivation given them. Certain varieties, 
sweetin Jamaica, have become bitterin Florida, 
while bitter varieties have lost of their bitter- 
ness by transplantation to new countries. This 
bitterness is due to a poisonous juice, white 
and milky, found in the thick skin of the roots, 
which is no other than cyanhydric acid, known 
more commonly under the name of prussic acid, 
the active principle found in the leaves of the 
laurel tree and in many other plants. Mr B J 
Eaton, Government Analyst of the FM §, has 
obtained it from the seeds, the leaves and twigs 
of the Para Rubber tree. The acid is also found 
in fleshy parts of the roots, but in much 
reduced quantities and volatility causes its com- 
plete elimination during the successive pro- 
cesses of washing, drying or heating which the 
roots undergo during their conversion into 
starch either for domestic use or industrial use. 
Some varieties, also, are more early than others, 
and Mr, Moorhouse. Manager of Diamond 
Jubilee Hstate, Malacca, tells us of one variety 
which attains maturity in ten months, but he 
does not give us the yield in starch. 


PROPAGATION, 


Although manioc often seeds, the mode of 
propagation universally adopted is by slips 
obtained by cutting into sections the stems 
of the preceding crop. These slips, which 
should be taken preferably from. the lower 
to the middle part of the stem, and be 
from 6 to 8 inches long, are stuck in the 
ground, slanting, in lines as described later ; 
the undeveloped buds or so-called eyes will soon 
throw out shoots which develop into long, fleshy 
tubercles which form the roots of the plant, 

Roors or Tusercies.—The roots are the 
useful part of the plant. From them is ob- 
tained, in a ratio of one-fifth or even one- 
quarter of their weight, that excellent farina 


306 


80 appreciated by European consumers, and, 
what is no less important, so much in demand 
in commerce, for the manufacture of alcohol 
and of glucose, used in breweries, distilleries 
and confectioneries, and for the makirg of 
sizing used in the textile industries. 


CLIMATE. 

Manioc grows well only in tropical re- 
gions. It thrives best in an even temperature 
ranging between 70 and 90 Fahrenheit. It 
is, nevertheless, cultivated outside of these 
regions, notably in Florida, but for fear of 
frosts, which would be fatal to it, planting 
and harvesting have to be done within limits 
of time which do not allow the tubercles 
attain their full growth nor maximum of starch. 


It canbe planted in all seasons, but in com- 
mon with all young plants, it likes moisture 
at the start, and the best season for planting 
it would be a little before the end of the rainy 
season. After that, manioc can stand drought 
very well, and there is not much to fear from 
droughts such as we get in Malaya. It likes plenty 
of sun and light; it does not grow well with 
shade around or above it. Yet a warm atmo- 
sphere tempered by occasional showers is favour- 
able to the growth of the tubercles and gives 
them succulence, whereas too much dryness 
would tend to render them more fibrous, which 
occasions more wastein the process of extrac- 
tion of the starch. 


From what has just been said the climate of 
Malaya, with its uniform range of temperature 
and its well distributed rainfall, can be consid- 
ered as an ideal one for manioc, and there is no 
cause for surprise at the huge crops which have 
been obtained of 25 tons of roots per hectare. 


DIFFICULTIES OF SoIL. 


Sort.—Manioc, like all other plants with 
starch-forming roots, takes more from the atmos- 
pheric air than from the soil, and it, therefore, 
prefers light and friable soils to heavy clay soils, 
which cannot suit it unless they have been 
drained thoroughly and broken up by the plough, 
or, if the plough is not employable, as isthe case 
in new clearings of forest land, by a deep tilth 
with the changkol. 

Here a question presents itself. Given that we 
are considering manioc only asa catch-crop for a 
permanent arboreal cultivation such as rubber, 
coconut and such like (since it is only as such 
that Government allows it), how are the vary- 
ing requirements of these cultivations to be 
reconciled ? 

In the case of the coconut, the question is 
solved, the requirements of both coconut and 
manioc being identical. But Heveadoes not 
thrive in light soils of a sandy character ; it 
wants rather a clayey, firm soil. 


The answer to the question is that argillous 
coils, except when too low, too compact, and 
undrainable (in which case they will suit neither 
one cultivation nor the other), one very much 
benefited by tillage and, their texture being 
finer, they become, when divided, more pene- 
trable to air and heat ; and they, henceforth, 
offer all the advantages of lighter soils, with 
a greater abundance of mineral elements which, 
generally, are wanting in sandy soils. In these 
conditions, they are capable of giving very high 


The Supplement to the Tropical Agriculturist 


yields of manioc. This much said, it should be 
stated that the work of tilling a heavy soil is 
expensive, involving ploughing and cross plough- 
ing, or double changkoling if the plough is not 
employable. Moreover, unless the ground is 
kept mellow, the pulling of the roots, at harvest- 
ing, is more difficult than in light soils. Manioc 
does not require much nitrogen, which enters 
only for asmall partin the composition of the 
starch—a hydro-carbon. Morecver, as observed 
previously, it draws the greater part of its sub- 
stance (carbonic acid, hydrogen, and oxygen) 
from the air. Properly speaking, therefore, it 
can hardly be said to be an exhaustive crop. 
But no matter what crop we raise, it will leave 
the soil the poorer if raised on the method 
followed formerly by the Chinese, a method 
which consists in extracting crop after crop off 
the same land, without manuring or rotation, 
and then, leaving the land a sporting ground 
for rank vegetation of lalang. The fairest ‘‘alma 
mater” willrun dry under such treatment, and 
Government are doing right in checking the 
extension of such cultivation in the Federated 
Malay States. At the same time, lalang soil is 
often not so hopeless, as it looks, and many a good 
crop of tobacco or tapioca has been raised off 
well-tilled lalang fields. 


Laying Out THE Estate. 

After the forest has been cut down and burned, 
the ground cleared,and the roadsand drains estab- 
lished, as shownin the Planter’s Manual, the land 
is divided into fieldsa hundred feet broad by 1,v00 
feet long, giving a superficies a little over two 
acres and a quarter. Round each field a small 
ditch, one foot-and-a-half broad and deep, is dug 
which will serve the double purpose of carrying 
the superfluous water to the roadside drains and 
of apportioning each field. As a first prepara- 
tion of the land, it is not necessary (unless it be 
lalang land, when the whole surface will have 
to be ploughed) to till the whole of the field 
the first year ; this would only hasten the ap- 
pearance of weeds, which, on the contrary, will 
be retarded if the land is left unbroken, for the 
live roots of the primitive jungle preserve the 
virginity of the land. But it is indispensable 
that the strip of land on which the manioc is to 
be planted shall receive a very thorough chang- 
koling. By means of a measuring tape, each 
field is divided accordingly into strips 5 feet 
broad, which is the space to be given between 
each row of manioc. Half of each strip, namely 
two-and-a-half feet on which the manioc is to be 
planted, isto be changkoled deep ; the other 
half will be left untouched, except for the cutting 
down of any bushes that spring up. We shall thus 
have per field, 1,000 feet long, and 200 bands 24 
feet broad well changkoled, alternating with 200 
bands 24 feet broad, left as they are. This, finally, 
will give us a superficies of tilled land of 50,000 
square feet which, at a price of fifty cents per 
thousand square feet, will bring the cost of 
tilling to $25 per field. 


CUTTINGS. 


Porrine IN THE CuTtinas.—After the fields 
have been hoed, each coolie. is supplied with a 
string, 10) feet long (the width of a field), 
attached at each end toa pointed stick 5 feet 
long ; on the string, at every 23 feet a strip 


and Magazine of the Ceylon Agricultural Society. 


of white cotton cloth is tied. The string will 
thus have forty strips, which will mark the 
place where one cutting of manioc is to be 
put in the ground. 


The coolie pushes one of the pointed sticks 
in the’earth in the middle of the first strip of 
hoed land, and, unrolling the string, he walks 
to the other side of the field, puts up his other 
stick, and, making the string taut, drops a 
cutting of manioc at every strip of cloth. Then, 
measuring with his stick a distance of 5 feet, 
he gets his second line in the middle of the 
second strip of hoed land ; he drops another lot 
of cuttings, and proceeds onwards until he has 
completed fifty rows, or the quarter of his field. 

Coming back to the point he started from, 
he puts each cutting in the ground, the head 
end up, and in a slanting position, which 
facilitates the straight growth of the bud which 
is to form the stem. Thecoolie will thus have 
planted fifty rows of forty cuttings, namely 
2,000 cuttings, and the rest of the field will 
be furnished in the same way, as much as 
possible, after rain. 


PLANTING OUT HEVEAS. 


Hoxes ror Rosser TrEees.—The time has 
now come to make the holes which are to 
receive the Heveas. It would, perhaps, be more 
regular to plant the Heveas before the manioc, 
and, in this matter, the planter will be guided 
by circumstances, but, as the cuttings of manioc 
are all the better fur being planted fresh, whilst 
the young rubber can remain in the nursery 
for a while longer without in the least suffer- 
ing for it, it will generally be found more 
convenient to proceed as I here show. We 
Shall have to throw away 4 cuttings of manioc, 
at half of the holes made, so as to leave 5 
feet free to each hevea; but that is a very 
small matter. The holes shall be made 20 feet 
from one another, on rows 174 feet apart, the 
first row of holes starting from the second 
strip of untilled land. On this strip, and well 
in the middle of it, we trace our first line of 
5 holes; the first hole at 10 feet from the 
small drain to tae right of the field. The 
field being 100 feet broad, we shall have 5 holes 
20 feet apart. ‘The second line, 173 feet further, 
is the same as the 5th row of manioc, The 
third line, 174 feet further, will fail between 
the 8th and 9th row of tapioca, and so forth. 
Where the lines of Hevea and Tapioca are the 
same, we shall have to throw away, as just 
stated, 4 cuttings for each hole,—or per row 
of 5 holes, 20 cuttings. Each field (1,000 feet 
long) will contain 57 rows of Heveas 17} 
feet apart, 4.€., 57x5=285 Heveas. Where 
the rows of Hevea fall in between the 
rows of tapioca, we shall only have to throw 
away 2 cuttings for each hole. We shall thus 
have to. sacrifice 20 young manioc on 29 
rows, 7.€., 5830 and 10 on 28 rows, %.e,, 280—in 
all 860 per field. So that, finally, our field of 
1,000 x 100 feet will contain 285 Hevea (=125 
per acre) and 7,140 manioc plats. (200 rows 
of 40, less 860). 

CULTIVATION. 


When the planting is finished the ground 
must be kept free from weeds. It has been 
well said that a weed is a plant which grows 
where it is not wanted. Everything that is 


307 


not manioc or Hevea must be suppressed from 
our fields. ‘Two months after planting, the 
rows should receive a light banking up, that 1s 
to say, that the earth on each side is scraped 
and ridged up at the foot of the young plants 
to aheight of 3 or 4 inches; later on, this 
should be repeated at least once, and just 
before harvest, if the state of the fields allows 
it, the plough should be passed in between the 
rows. The aim of cultivation, over and above 
checking the growth of weeds, is to obtain a 
soil as free and as mellow as possible, for it is 
only by this means that the plants will be able 
to give thick roots, and it is easy to understand 
that this willnot be attained if the earth is 
allowed to press too hard round them. More- 
over, the looser the earth is kept, the easier 
will be the pulling ofthe roots at harvest time 
and the less risk of breaking them. If left to 
itself, especially in very rich soil, the manioc 
will develop stout and tall stems at the expense 
of the roots. To check this, it is usual, on some 
estates, to cut offthe top at a height of 5 to 6 feet. 


HARVESTING. 


When used for food, the yams may be con- 
sumed between 8 to 10 months. They are then 
tender and very mealy, and may be accommo- 
dated in many ways—fried, baked or wasted; or 
simply boiled, after peeling, with a pinch of salt, 
and eaten with a little grated coconut and sugar, 
a form in which I often have it on my table. But, 
at this period, the yams are very far from having 
attained their full development, and, as regards 
the yield in starch, which is the object which 
more particularly interests large growers of 
manioc, itis pretty certain that there is great 
advantage in retarding the harvest to a later 
period. This comes out clearly from the follow- 
ing figures, obtained in Jamaica from five diffe- ‘ 
rent varieties :— 


Starch per acre, inlb. At 12 mths., At ‘8 mths., 
Variety. 1906. 1907. 
No. 1 5,322 7,102 
No. 2 4,107 12,632 
No. 3 2,388 8,894 
No. 4 2,384 8,927 
No. 5 we 5,636 16,813 
These figures go to show that in all cases, save 


by putting off the harvesting to the eighteenth 
month,and,if we put against this increase of yield 
the expenditure of upkeep incurred during the 
six months of waiting, we shall find this expen- 
diture much more than covered by the amount 
ofstarch produced in the interval. The practice 
of Chinese planters, who, as a rule, do not 
harvest before the sixteenth to eighteenth month 
is, therefore, fully justified. This applies, how- 
ever, to the first crop only ; if a second crop is 
raised off the same ground, it matures more 
quickly, and a third crop will be earlier still, 
being ready for harvesting in 10 to 11 months; 
but the yield of flour in both cases is much less 
than in the first crop. If manure is used, the 
yield of flour will be considerably increased in 
these later crops. 


Harvesting MerHops. 


Harvesting is done by pulling up the roots, 
In very light soils this can be done by hand 
after partly uncovering the roots, by a strong 
tug, but, where the soil is heavy, a lever will 
have to be used. A simple and effective one can 


308 


be made out of a wooden stick 5 to 6 feet long, 
curved at one end; the curved end is introduced 
between the roots, and, by pressure on the 
other end and a few strong shakes, the yams are 
lifted. A stone or the blade of a changkol is 
laid below the fulcrum to prevent its sinking in 
the earth. If pieces of roots are broken in the 
lifting, they must be dug out with the changkol. 

Before the lifting, the stems are cut down and 
dropped between the rows; they will supply 
cuttings for the next planting, and the leaves 
are left to rot on the ground. Before loading 
the yams on the carts which are to convey them 
to the factory, the cooly shakes off the earth 
adhering to them. 

YIELD In YAmMs. 

In the experiment referred to above, in 
Jamaica, the weight of roots dug up per acre 
was also given, as follows, in tons :— 


Variety No.1 13°3 
1/4 No.2 114 
* No. 3 11°4 
» | No.4 11°4 
a No. 5 iL 


sje ots LLB 

Leaving aside experimental results, which 
cannot be consdered as normal, we shall content 
ourselves with yields obtained in practice by 
large known estates, notably in Java: they will 
do to show that manioc cultivation is a hand- 
somely paying proposition. In Java, 25 tons 
of roots are obtained currently from one 
hectare, which is equivalent to 10 tons per 
acre. The same figure is given as normal by 
Mr E Copeland, in the Philippines. Mr Moor- 
house, Manager ot the Diamond Jubilee Estate, 
Malacca, puts at 150 piculs of yams the crop of 
one acre (1 picul=1334 pounds). Ten tons per 
acre is also given asa Ceylon crop. But as we 
are dealing more particularly with the Straits 
Settlements and F.M.S., we shall be safe in 
‘ adopting Mr Moorhouse’s figure of 150 piculs as 
the normal crop of one acre, under good manage- 
ment and under fair average conditions of soil 
and climate. 

YIELD IN STARCH. 

The yield in flour depends upon several 
factors—soil, climate, cultivation and method 
of extraction. Hence the impgrtance of a 
well-equipped factory and up-to-date machi- 
nery. With such a mill, 20 to 25 per cent. 
of the weight of the roots is obtainable. As 
much as 30 per cent. has been extracted, and 
Mr Copeland considers this figure as obtainable 
commercially in the Philippines, but from figures 
collected from Ceylon, Johore and Malacca, and 
which we have before us, we incline for the safer 
figure of 20 per cent. It is on this figure we shall 
base our estimates. 

EXTRACTION OF THE STARCH. 

To extract as much as possible of the starch, 
and to obtain it clean and white, the estate must 
have an abundant supply of clear, running water. 
The factory must, therefore, be on or in close 
proximity toa stream, and a dam established to 
store the water for use when wanted. Where 
possible, itmay supply the water-power for 
the factory. Mxtraction includes thefollowing : 

(1) The weighing of the roots on arrival at the mill, so as 
to make sure that the work of extraction is carried on 
with completeness, and, also, where the work of the fields 
is done on contract, to apportion each coolies’ crop; 

(2) Cutting off the tops of the yams and giving them a 
first steeping to get rid of the greater portion of the dirt. 


Crooked roots should be broken at the angles as they will 
pass more readily through the washer jj 


The Supplement to the Tropical Agriculturist. 


(3) Putting through the washer ; 5 

(4)°Slicing, or grinding or rasping the roots to a finely 
divided pulp ; 

(5) Separating the starch from the pulp ; 

(6) Exhausting the waste pulp by pressure ; 

(7) Settling in tanks and repeated washings and clean- 
ings of the starch in fresh water ; 

(8) Draining and drying the flour in the sun or in ,heated 
pans ; 

(9) Manipulation of the flour into pearl or flake tapioca. 

As will be seen, although simple enough, the 
extraction of the flour necessitates a good many 
handlings, but it will be found that much may 
be done, in most installations, to save labour, 
either by mechanical transporters or by so coup- 
ling the machines that the pulp passes by its 
own weight from one to the next. 


A second method of treatment of the roots 
should be here mentioned, as it appears 
applicable where the supply of water is not 
abundant. So far as we understand it, the roots 
are put in heaps, well wetted with water, and 
left to undergo a beginning of fermentation, 
for from 4 to 6 days, according to the tem- 
perature, when the thick skin becomes easily 
detachable with the hands, leaving the starchy 
flesh white and clean, which can be passed 
direct through the rasper or through rollers, 
and the resulting pulp washed in the ordinary 
way. According to Mr. de Kuiff, who adopts 
this method, there is no loss either of quantity 
or quality of the starch. As we have not seen 
it in operation, we can say no more; but it 
is conceivable that, if the fermentation is 
carried too far, a risk exists of a partial de- 
composition of the starch granules and a begin- 
ning of alcoholic transformation. If this can 
be safely guarded against, and if the product 
does not suffer, there appears to be much in this 
method to recommend it. 


MACHINERY. 

Description oF Macatnery.—Methods of 
work and types of machinery differ in various 
countries and from estate to estate, and, in 
the following descriptions, the writer is only 
giving what he considers to be a serviceable 
equipment. More up-to-date machinery no 
doubt exists, andif we had the privilege of peep- 
ing at some of the great starch-making works of 
Germany, we would probably know a good deal 
more than we do; but, on the other hand, it must 
be remembered that we are dealing with tapioca, 
not as a staple crop, but as a catch crop. The 
putting up of a very expensive plant might de- 
feat the object of the rubber planter, which is 
to get out of tapiocathe wherewithal to feed and 
stretch out his rubber estate to the tapping 
stage. A plain, workable installation will, under 
the circumstances, be considered adesideratum, 
and that is what we here propose. After weigh- 
ing, the yams may be peeled and then taken 
direct to the washer, or put, as they are, to 
steep in wide-meshed baskets of wire-nettin 
lying in a tank half full of water. Most of the 
dirt is thus detached: the baskets are then 
lifted from the tank by means ofa pulley and 
transported onrails to the washer, wherein the 
roots fall through a hopper. 


THe WASHER. 

The WaAsHer is a cylindrical drum, the sides 
of which are formed of perforated galvanised iron 
sheets, detachable, and joined by means of bolts 
to wooden laths, They can easily be replaced 


and Magazine of the Ceylon Agricultural Society. 


when worn by use. The drum, 10 to 12 feet long, 
revolves slowly, receivirg its movement direct 
fromthe motor. Water, brought from an adjoin- 
ing cistern, by a pipe with spraying spouts, plays 
constantiy over and on the sidesof the drum, 
The washer is lying at a slope, and the roots 
pass of themselves to the lower part of the drum, 
whence they fall, clean and free of earthy 
matter, into the same basket which brought 
them. The basket, now full of clean roots, is 
hoisted up by means of pulleys to a plattorm 
some 15 feet above, where the roots are emptied 
by tilting the basket.—A more thorough cleaning 
might, perhaps, be obtained by the adoption of 
a type of cleaner similar to that in use in 
certain preserve factories at Home, and 
wherein, on the axis of the drum and concentric 
to it, a beater, with four paddles, is fixed. 
The paddles run through the length of the 
drum, slightly spirally, with a very long thread. 
This beater is so geared that it revolves 15 
times faster than the drum, and the paddles, 
being provided at their extremity with a small 
broom, the roots receive 4 brushing at each 
revolution. At the same time, the helicoidal 
contour of the beater causes the roots to ad- 
vance automatically to the end of the drum. 


THE GRATER. 

THE GratER.—From the platform on which 
they were emptied the yams fall through a 
hopper on to a grater, which consists of a 
wooden roller with sharp short spikes, which 
revolves before a concave surface also with 
spikes, the whole supported by a wooden frame 
closed on all sides, except in front, where 
a trough or drawer receives the pulp as it falls 
from the roller, a jet of water playing meanwhile 
on the roller to carry away the pulp. Itis well 
to note here that the cells containing the 
granules of tapioca are very small, and that upon 
the complete breaking and tearing of these cells 
depends the perfection of the extraction of the 
flour. For that reason, we give our preference 
to grating over crushing with rollers, because, 
in our opinion, the disintegration is more com- 
plete when combined, as will be seen below, 
with strong pressure. 


A grater of the model we have just described 
18 inches long and 8 inches in diameter, will 
treat 6 to 8tons of roots daily, but it may be 
made of large dimensions for larger quantities. 


THe SIEVE. 


THE SIEVE OR STARCH SEPARATOR.—From the 
Grater, the pulp is brought or falls into a hopper 
which leads it to the sieve or starch separator, 
a hexagonal or octagonal cylinder 14to 16 feet 
long, covered with fine brass wire gauze, 
and lying ata slope. This cylinder revolves 
slowly and water is kept running on it. 
The separation of the starch is thus effected, 
the starch grains passing through the meshes 
of the gauze into a tank below, while 
the vegetable and fibrous waste is dis- 
charged at the lower end of the cylinder, to be 
further exhausted by being passed to a strong 
press whence it comes out as cake for pig food 
or manure. After the starch has subsided in the 
tank for 24 hours, the water is drawn off by 
means of a syphon, fresh water brought in, and 
the starch beaten to a cream is conveyed by 
gutters to the washing tubs 


309 


WasHinG Turs.—These tubs are made of stout 
boards, 6 to8 feet in diameter and}4 feet, high. 
The starch is allowed to settle at the bottom, 
the water drawn off by syphon, fresh water ad- 
mitted, andthe stuff is stirred and beaten again. 
This process of alternating, settling and stirring 
is repeated every day for 5 or 6 days, when, the 
water being finally removed the starch remains 
clean and white; the top layers, more or less 
discoloured, can be scraped off and put through 
a further washing. As much water is used in 
these operations, the floor should be concreted 
and slightly sloping to allow the water to run off 
quickly. 

DrYING OF THE STARCH. 


The starch, cut up in blocks, is next taken to 
be dried. When the climate allows it, this may 
be done in the open, on cemented barbecues, cov- 
ered with a moveable roof, on rails, which, by 
means of a tackle, may be drawn out or in for the 
night, or when rain threatens. But modern fac- 
tories are, besides, equipped with sets of large tin 
pans, slightly concave, which are heated below, 
from a brick flue, with a wood fire. In other fac- 
tories, steam-heated kilns are used, and, lastly 
desiccators, wherethe drying is rapidly completed 


If tapioca flour is required, the starch is taken 
from the cleaning vats to racks, to drain; it is 
there cut up, crumbled with the hands or wooden 
rakes, and then brought to the pans where it is 
kept stirred constantly, over a gentle fire for a 
quarter-of-an-hour. Care must be taken that it 
does not turn into paste, which would make it 
worthless. I[tcan then be submitted to stronger 
heat, and the drying can be quickened either by 
steam or in the desiccator. The flour is then 
ready for packing. 

The forms of tapioca knownas ‘‘pear!” tapioca 
or ‘‘flake” tapioca are the result of a special mani- 
pulation in which the Chinese are adept. 


Mr. Copetann’s Pkocgss. 


Mr. Copeland describes the process used on 
some plantations, somewhat in the following 
terms (we have not the exact text before us):— 


‘‘The tapioca is produced by pressing, rolling 
and shaking the starch, still wet, insmall round 
pellets, obtained by forcing them through a 
sieve on to a piece of cloth, which is kept con- 
stantly agitated. These pellets are then rolled, 
or fall of their own weight, on to an iron plate 
which also is kept shaking, and heated to a 
temperature of about 100 degrees centigrade. 
The heat causes a partial conversion of the 
starch into sugar, swells the pellets which take 
a gelatinous aspect. The product is called 
‘‘pearl” tapioca. Ifthe pellets are only 1 milli- 
metre to 1.5in diameter, it iscalled seed tapioca; 
if 3 millimetres, ‘‘medium pearl ;” if 5 milli- 
metres, ‘‘bullet pearl.” 


“Flake tapioca is heated and changes its com- 
position inthe same way, without being pre- 
viously put into pellet form.” 


Use or tHE Wastr.—As we have said, the 
waste left after exhaustion of the starch can be 
used as pig food or as manure. As a forage for 
working cattle, horses or bullocks, its nutritive 
value is doubtful, as it contains very little nitro- 
genous matter (only 1°39 per cent.) according to 
the analyses of Mr Boname of the Agronomic 


310 The Supplement to the 
Station of Mauritius. Tapioca cake is, there- 
fore, to be given as forage only after mixing with 
grains or with green leguminous plants. As for 
the pig, wholives only for the purpose of putting 
on fat, it is an’ excellent food and Chinese 
farmers will pay up to 3U cents a picul for it. 


TRADE AND INDUSTRIAL Usxs.—Under the 
different designations of Brazilian Arrow-root 
(an usurped name) ; of cassava or tapioca flour, 
pear! tapioca, etc., manioc, as everybody knows, 
plays a great part in the trade of food stuffs, 
Nourishing and easy of digestion, it gives us 
excellent soups and puddings; it enters into the 
composition of several patent and milk foods, 
and it is known all the world over in the 
form of biscuits. It is even found in the 
trade returns of Smyrna (see American Con- 
sular Reports) for 300 tons for the fabrication 
of Rahat Lakoum (Turkish Delight). But, 
important as this trade is, it is not 
there only that lies the strength of tapioca and 
its sure commercial value; itis asa source of 
industrial starch that tapioca takes rank among 
the most important staples of commerce. 


OTHER USES. 


In the distilling for alcohol and in the manu- 
facture of glucose, which is almost universally 
used by brewers, distillers and confectioners, 
tapioca starch has its place marked among the 
other starches. It is used by cotton printers as 
a stiffener for certain colours and mordants. I[t 
is still more in request for cotton spinners, who 
used it, in preference to other starches, for 
sizing the yarn, especially when fine fabrics are 
required. Before weaving, the yarn is sized, 
which causes the loose ends of the fibres, com- 
posing the yarn, to adhore and unite in form- 
ing a Strong and even thread. Tapioca starch 
penetrates the fibres more completely than 
potato or maize starch, which form more like an 
outside coating to the thread, making it stiff 
ani thick and unsuitable for the making of a 
viess 21 anifoem warp. 


MarkeT or Taproca.—As a result of this large 
demand, the market for tapioca is always a firm 
one. The shipments of the ports of Singapore 
and Penang in May and June, 1908, amounted 
to 5,417 tons and the ‘‘Singapore Market Re- 
port” records the following prices (per picul) for 
the month of June :— 

Highest price. Lowest price 


Tapioca Flake Small $6°90 ... 5°77: fair 
Tapioca Pearl Small 5°65... . 4°90 fair 
Tapioca Pearl Small Sx75u ts, 18420 hne 
Tapioca Pearl Medium 6°30 5°05 fair 
Tapioca Pearl Bullet 3 7375 


The following estimate only aims at giving an 
approximate cost ofthe work reckoned on a daily 
wage of 40 cents per day, but Chinese labour 
will be found more profitable if employed on 
contract or by results, and locai conditions pre- 
vailing inthis or that region, will, in many 
cases, allow of a reduction of expenditure on 
several of the items therein mentioned. 


ESTIMATES. 


Estimate of Costs and Returns of 1,000 acres of tapioca 
interplanted with Para-Rubber. The Hevea are planted 
20 feet by 17.’ 6”='20 trees per acre allowing for drains. 

The Tapioca planted 5 feet by 2.’ 6”—3,000 plants per 
acre allowing space round the Hevea. 

1st year (1909) 300 acres (block A) are planted up. 

2nd year (1910) 350 acres (block B) are planted up. 

8rd year (1911) 350 acres (block C) are planted up. 


Tropical A griculturist 


(1909) FIRST YEAR (block A) 300 acres dols, 
Purchase of land: 1,000 acres at dols. 20 20,000 
Engagement of 250 coolies at dols. 6) per head 
(dols. 30 recuverable) 15,000 
Felling, burning, stacking, dols. 10 per acre on 
300 acres 3,000 
Roads and drains, dols.10 per acre on 300 acres 3,000 
fapioca cuttings, 1 million at 10 cents per hundred 1,00 
Hoeing, 300 acres in alternate strips 24 feet broad 
(1 acre costs dols, 24-2..—300 acres at dols. 12 
per acre . 3,600 
Weeding, Cultivation, banking up, dols. 10 per acre 3,000 
Salaries: Manager and Assistant 6,000 
Salaries : 2 Conductors 1,440 
Salaries: Hospital Dresser $40 
Buildings: 2 Bungalows 1,400 
Buildings : 10 Coolie lines 2,000 
Buildings : Hospital 800 
Tools, transports, Medicines, barbed wire, and 
contingencies 7,000 


Expenditure : tapioca dols, 68,080 


Rubber : 45,000 stumps at 30 dols. 7,000 dols 1,350 
Nurseries for 19101911: Making bed 300 
15,000 seeds at dols. 5 per thousand 750 
Lining, holing and filling up at dols. 3 per 

acre 900 
Planting out and filling up at dol. 1 per 

acre 300 


3,600 


Total Expenditure 1st-year, 1909 dols, 71,680 
SECOND YEAR (1910) Block B 350 acres ————— 
The same expenditure as 1909 dols. 71,680 
Less: Purchase of land _ dols, 20,000 


Less: Engagement of 50 


coolies less at dols. 60 3,000 
Less: Bungalows and 
hospital 2, 00 
Less: Tapioca Cuttings 1,000 
Less: Rubber Stumps and 
seeds 2,100 28,300 


duls. 43,380 


Plus: on 50 acres (350 instead of 300): 
felling 

Plus: burning at dols.10 per acre, 
Roads and drains dols. 10 

Plus: Hoeing dols. 12 Weeding 


dols, 10—dols. 42 per acre on 50 2,100 
Plus: 850 acres (plot A) weeding 3,000 
Plus: Building : factory (wood and 

ruberoid concrete floor) ?,0°0 
Plus: Building Drying shed brick 

flue heating pans 2,500 
Plus: Machinery: Washers, Separa- 

tors, Press-Motor 12,000 

dols. 64,980 
Lifting the crop off 300 acres, dols. 4 

per acre 1,209 
Carting the crop off 390 acres, dol. 1 

per acre 300 
Handling and manipulation of 

tapioca in factory 9,000 piculs at 

0°25 cents 2,259 
Wages, Engine room 1,800 
Gunnies 10,000 at 20 cents 2,009 
Freight, export duty 2} per cent, com- 

mon brokerage at L*>0 par picul on 

9,000 piculs 13,500 

Expenditure on tapioca: dols. 83,030 
Rubbar : Lining, holing and planting 

50 acres at 4 200 
Rubber: Upkeep of drains and roads 

650 acres at 3 1,950 


__ 


Total Expenditure (1910) dols. 88,180 
Crop: Rlock A first crop, 300 acres at 


3) pikols,=9,000 piculs at 6= dols. 54,000 


Expenditure end of 2nd year dols 159,860 
THIRD YEAR (1911) Block C 350 (acres 
--the same expenditure as in 1909 


Less: Machinery and_ buildings 
dols, 16,500 


dols. 88,180 


16,500 
dols. 71,680 


and Magazine of the Ceylon Agricultural Society. 


Plus: Lifting crop off 350 acres more 


cartage at dols, 4 1,400 
Plus: Handling and manufacture of 

tapioca in factory on 7,600 piculs 

more (16,50 9,000) at 25 cents 1,875 
Gunnies 8,000 more at 20 cents 1,600 
Freight Export duty etc., at dols. 1.50 

on 7,500 piculs more 11,250 
Expenditure on tapioca dols, 87,805 
ehbers Upkeep of rubber 1,000 acres 

at dols. 3 3,000 ; 
Yotal expenditure (1911) -— dols. 9,805 


Total expenditure end of 3rd year 
Crop 3rd year: ’nd crop off Block A 
20 piculs (reduced) per acre on 30U 


dols. £50,665 


acres: 6,000 pkls. 

1st crop off Block B 30 piculs per acre 
on 350 acres: 10,500 pkls. 
16,590 pkls, 


14,500 piculs at dols. 6=dols. 99,000 

FOURTH YEAR (1912) 1,000 acres are 
planted up. Expenditure the same 
as in 3rd year: , 

Less: felling, burning, stacking, etc. 
on 350 acres at 42 per acre (see 
above) 


dols, 90,805 


14,700 


dols, 76,105 


Less Engagement of coolies 100 at 60 6,000 
dols, 70,105 
Plus: Rubber increase of upkeep 
dols.5 per acre on 1,000 acres 
bringing the upkeep to dols. 8 5,090 


_ dols. 78,105 
Plus 1,000 piculs more, Lifting and manipulation 650 
freight etc. 1,500 


Total Expenditure (1912) dols. 77,255 


Crop 4th year: 
2nd Crop Block B 

20 piculs off 350 acres = 7,000 piculs 
1st Crop Block C 

30 pikols of 350 


acres 19,500 piculs 


17,500 ,, at dols, 6-dlols, 105,000 


Firrn Year, 1913— 


Upkeep 350 acres tapioca Block C dols, 3,500 


Cropping, last crop off Block C 
and cartage dols. 4 per acre 1,400 

Handling and manipulation of 
tapioca 7,000 piculs 25 cents 1,750 
Gunnies 7,900 at 20 cents 1,400 

Freight, Export duty etc. at 

dols. 1.50 per picul on 7,000 
piculs 10,350 
Expenditure on tapioca 18,400 

Rubber: Upkeep 650 acres rubber 
at dols, 25 16,250 
Total Expenditure 5th year dols. 34,650 


—_—_—_—— 


Crop 5th year: 350 acres at 20 


piculs = 7,000 piculs at doJs.6 dols. 42,000 


Recaputulation ; 


lst year Expenditure dols, 71,630 
2nd year WE 83,180 
3rd year ay 90,805 
4th year A 77,255 
5th year 3 34,650 


Total Expenditure 5 years 


including cost ofland __ dols. 362,570 
* Crops, 
1910, 2nd year 9,000 piculs dols, 54,000 
1911, 3rd year 16,500 piculs » 99,000 
1912, 4th year 17,500 piculs »» 105,000 
1913, 5th year 7,000 piculs », 42,000 


dols, 300,000 


Recovery 50 per cent. of ad- 
vances to coolies at dols. 
15 per head on 600 coolies — dols. 9,000 

Incoming dols. 309,000 

EXCESS OF EXPENDITURE 


OVER INCOME dols. 53,570 


Against this Balance of expenditure dols. 
53,570. We have the following asscés, put at a 
very conservative figure :— 

300 acres (Block A) of Para Rubber 


5 years old at dols. 650 per acre = 
350 acres (Block B) of Para Rubber over 


over 
dols, 195,000 


4 years old at dols. 450 per acre = y», 157,500 
3850 acres (Block C) of Para Rubber over 
3 years old at dols. 250 per acre = 5, 87,500 


dols, 449,000 
» 15,000 


Bungalows, factory, hospital and machinery 


Value of assets : dols, 455,000 
With a full force of trained labour and a 
prospective crop, before the year is out, of 20 to 
3” pounds of rubber per acre on 300 acres. 
Singapore, August 18, 1908, 
—Straits Times, Aug. 25. 


CRITICISM : AND REPLY. 


(To the Editor, ‘Straits Times.’’) 
Singapore, Aug. 26. 
Siz,—Mr Mathieu puts some rather astonish- 
ing figures into his estimates, and it would be 
interesting to have details as to how ‘‘ handling 
and manipulation” can be done for 25 cents per 
picul.—I am, yours, etc., 
J, WINTER, 
—lIbid., Aug. 26. 
Singapore, Aug. 27. 
Str,—Mr Winter’s remark is right. The 
handling and manipulation of Tapioca cost more 
than 25 cents per picul. As it happens, this and 
two other errors had been noted on the proof 
sheet, but to follow it up right through to the 
end of the Estimate would eee required some 
hours, and these I had not at my disposal, as a 
,ewspaper is timed to appear at its appointed 
hour. I[ had, therefore, to let go the figures as 
they stood on the proof sheet, reserving the 
correction for the revised copy which is shortly 
to appear in pamphlet form.—I am, yours, etc. 


E. Martaievu, 
—Ibid., Aug. 27. 


CASHEW NUTS. 


As the result of an enquiry as to the quantity 
and value of the exports and imports of cashew 
nuts (kaju badam), from and into India during 
1907, we find, says the Indian Trade Journal, 
thatthe total quantity exported amounted to 
over 8,507 cwts. valued at a little more than 
R2 lakhs. Bombay’s share was 8,201 cwts. 
valued at R199,662, Madras coming next with 
about 304 cwts. valued at R5,674. The imports 
during the year amounted to only 9 cwts. valued 
at R83. Figuresfor Bengal are not available, 
while Eastern Bengal and Assam and Burma 
are not represented at all. The chief ports that 
carried on the export were Bombay, Karachi 
Tuticorin, Calicutand Cochin, and the chief cus-, 
tomers were France and the United Kingdom. 


3l2 


AMERICAN VIEW OF PLANTING 
RUBBER. 


(To the Editor, ‘‘India-Rubber Journal.”) 


Dear Sir,—I notice in your issue of June 
29th that Messrs. Gow, Wilson and Stanton, 
Ltd., have offered a prize valued at 25 guineas 
for ‘‘the most economical and complete process 
for preparing plantation Para from the latex, 
which will give the best and most uniform pro- 
duct.” Now this is moving in the right direc- 
tion, especially when attention is given to uni- 
formity ; if the plantation Para lacks anything 
at all, it certainly lacks uniformity. 

Writing as a manufacturer, and as one who 
has made and is making an exhaustive study 
of crude rubber on behalf of a very large cor- 
poration, I feel quite within bounds when I 
say that plantation rubber, so far, has been ex- 
tremely unsatisfactory to anyone who wishes to 
use it in large quantities. 

Is it not strange that plantation rubber pro- 
duced _ by scientific (so we are told) men, should 
be so lacking in uniformity, when that gathered 
by natives on the Amazon is the reverse ? Oh, 
well, says Mr. Plantation Man, there are rea- 
sons for that! We know that, we are painfully 
aware of it ; but why don’t our scientific friends 
do away with them ? We find that there are 
vases being delivered which plainly show mani- 
pulation. Now, Sir, if the producer of crude 
rubber thinks that he can tone up an inferior 
grade by adding a certain quantity of superior 
quality, he is woefully mistaken. He is simply 
spoiling the good with bad. By all means grade 
the rubber, but first and foremost have an AI 
quality which must never vary in any particu- 
lar, have a uniform shade, a uniform sheet, pan- 
cake or whatever shape you like, and last but 
not least, a uniform method of coagulation. 
Under these conditions we ought, when we buy 
At Plantation, to know just what we are going 
to get. 

In Canada, wheat, barley, cheese, apples, etz., 
are inspected by Government officials ; one is 
liable to very heavy penalties if he ships a 
quality other than that marked on the case. 
lt would be extremely detrimental to the 
country at large should our reputation be bad 
for these products. Should the same not apply 
to Ceylon rubber ? Yours truly, 


A. D. THoRNTON, 

The suggested “faking” of the rubber is an 
accusation which we find it difficult to accept. 
Our recent experience in the East did not reveal 
a single case of deliberate adulteration of plant- 
ation rubber; on the contrary, every planter 
appeared to be taking the greatest pains to 
prepare his rubber in order that it would come 
second to none in point of quality. If definite 
proof of adulteration on plantations can_ be 
brought forward, we shall be prepared to deal 
with the matter promptly in these columns....... 
Distinctive differences in the same sheet of 
rubber are not commonly met with, and we are 
left to conclude that in this case reference is 
possibly made to consignments of scrap and 
bark shavings which may have been worked up 
into crepe. If sheets or biscuits are referred to, 
the estate mark on same would be of service. 


The Supplement to the Tropical Agriculturist 


STANDARDISATION OF PLANTATION RUBBER. 


It is possible that many samples, prepared 
experimentally by new methods, with the object 
of improving the finished product, have arrived 
in a condition which might give rise to suspicion, 
and the accusation of ‘‘faking”; but such lots 
should be rightly regarded ina different light. 
It would be a pity, even in the present advanced 
state, if experiments were discouraged, and 
current modes of coagulating, curing, drying, 
etc., became too firmly fixed. The Eastern in- 
dustry has only just indicated its potentialities, 
and any experiments having for their object 
the improvement in quality and keeping proper- 
ties of plantation rubber should not be discarded. 
The cry of many parties in Europe is for stand- 
ardisation, or uniformity, in order that more 
direct and valuable comparisons can be made of 
the same product from different estates; but 
that achievement is not intended to imply that 
attempts at improvement are to be for ever 
stopped. ...... The value of different tests, the 
method of cutting samples, the limitations con- 
cerning the use of various substances are all 
points upon which a diversity of opinion is freely 
expressed. This subject will be treely dis- 
cussed at the forthcoming Rubber Exhibition. 
—India Rubber Journal, Aug. 10, 


COMBINATION OF RUBBER FACTO: 
RIES IN JAPAN. 


Co-operation with Britain and France. 


The Canadian Department of Trade and Com- 
merce publishes a report by the Canadian Trade 
Comuissioner at Yokohama to the effect that 
a representative of a French syndicate is nego- 
tiating to bring the rubber factories in Japan 
into co-operation with certain large manufac- 
turing concerns in Great Britain and France. 
The intention isto supply the local markets, 
and eventually secure the export business to 
Corea, China, India, Siam and the Straits Settle- 
ments At present, the Commissioner states, 
there are six companies engaged in the rubber 
industry in Japan. So far, the quality of rubber 
goods manufactured by these factories has not 
been first-class, but, nevertheless, the productis 
replacing the imported article. The local product 
has not altogether met with the approval ofthe 
public, on account of its weakness and inability 
to stand wear. One or two of the establish- 
ments, however, have made changes in basis of 
the material from which their goods are manu- 
factured, charging a considerably increased 
price, and have placed articles on the market 
quite equal to the best of the kind that have 
been imported.—Board of Trade Journal,Aug. 20. 


‘‘PASPALUM DILATATUM”’ EXPERI- 
MENTS GIVEN UP IN MADRAS. 
° 


The Board of Revenue, having come to the 
conclusion that experiments in the cultivation 
of Paspalum Dilatatum are not likely to yield 
satisfactory results in this Presidency, has dir- 
ected that they be abandoned.—M Mail, Sept. 5. 


(‘L061 ‘AUVOAaaT NMOG aadg) 


‘GNV1 STEVOINYINN NO Y3ssEnd VWeVsd : 
‘818 WD ALA ‘SUMMA “0 “£ fiq 0"U 


a Se 


0 me OS 


TROPICAL AGRICULTURIST 


AND 


MAGAZINE OF THE 


CEYLON AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY. 


eee 


Vou. XXXII, 


COLOMBO, OCTOBER 15rx, 1908, 


No. 4. 


ae 


Cleanliness of Cultivation. 


A great deal of nonsense, or of irrele- 
vant matter, is uttered on this topic. 
Really what it comes to is whether 
complete cleanliness, or clean weeding, 
is worth while. The question has been 
brought into great prominence by the 
enormous expenditure on weeding in- 
curred upon many rubber estates, on 
which clean weeding is often costing 
two or three times as much as on a tea 
estate, where the cost is already heavy 
enough in all conscience. 


For places where machinery can be 
used to weed, there is little dovbt that 
clean weeding is cheap and effective, but 
less as weeding than as tilth. Where 
the ground is kept well tilled, the weeds 
do not spring so vigorously, the soil 
remains moist, and renews its water 
supply from below. Whereas in the 
southern part of Ceylon, the soil is not 
tilled, its water supply would seem to 
come mainly from above, and a short 
drought soon makes itself felt. Water 
evaporates more rapidly froma hard soil 
than from a tilled soil. This is a point 
which seems very difficult of comprehen- 
sion in this country, 


Where the land is covered with such 
permanent crops as tea, leaving too 
little room for machine tillage (even if 
such were possible on the hilly and 
rocky ground of much of the planting 
country), the best thing is probably to 
grow selected weeds. These may with 
great advantage belong to the family 
Leguminoss, for then they improve 
the contents of the soil in nitrogen. 
Such are Crotalarias, Parochetus, Des- 
modium, and the rest, They should be 
cut at the flowering stage, and the cut 
stuff used as a mulch. Other green 
manures are such things as Passiflora 
foetida, a common (American) weed in 
Ceylon, which will, it appears, grow 
very well flat on the ground and thus 
keep down other weeds, while being itself 
easily rolled up. It must, however, be 
pointed out that more water evaporates 
from a soil covered with plants than from 
a naked tilled soil, so that in dry places 
the clean weeding is probably the better, 


We have for years maintained that 
machinery must sooner or later replace 
much of the hand labour now being 
done inj Ceylon, and there is no doubt 


Se ee. eae es 


acme oe 


314 [OctopER, 1908: 


that it can be used with advantage on, 
at any rate, low-country ° places. The 
Experiment Station in the North-Central 
Province isacasein point. Solong as 
we had to employ mamoty labour, the 
weeding cost Rs. 4an acre a month, for 
weeds grow there in a way not often seen 
in the south, and coolie labour is poor 
and expensive. Now that the land is 
tilled with American machinery, the 
cost of weeding has gone down to 43 
cents a month. For half what it costs 
in South Ceylon we can notonly keep 
the ground free of weeds, but also keep 
it in good tilth to a depth of 8 inches, so 
that it needs no artificial watering for 
most crops. This is a subject of such 
great importance to agriculture in 
Ceylon, that we shall return to itata 
later date, and give illustrative photo- 
graphs. There is no doubt that such 
tools asthe disc-harrow and the culti- 
vator could be used in most low-country 
places in Ceylon. Persons who have 
only seen them in shops say that they 
want elephants to draw them, but ours 
(6 feet wide) are drawn easily by two 
bulls. Stones can be removed as come 
upon, and their removal will benefit the 
land, though it may make the first treat- 
mentexpensive. It is quite possible that 
ploughing with a good plough, which 
completely inverts the soil turned, may 


prove disadvantageous except at long 
intervals, though it is the most effective 
way of destroying weeds on weedy land. 
Disc-harrows and_ cultivators, which 
merely stir the soil, may prove best, and 
in any case the plough need be used 
only to get the soil into a condition in 
which the other machines can be used, 
Our ploughs can only do one-third of an 
acre a day each, while the disc-harrow 
and the cultivator can each do four acres. 


In such soils as that in which most of 
the rubber in the Malay States is grow- 
ing, clean weeding with the aid of 
machinery would cost but little, and 
would keep the ground well tilled, a con- 
dition which would likely react upon 
the growth of the trees, and in any case 
would enable catch crops to be grown 
upon the land. In a report written in 
1904, we called attention to this feature 
of the Malayan soils, but, so far as we 
are aware, no one has made any move 
towards putting our recommendations 
into actual practice. 


Keep the top soil well tilled, and the 
rain will soak in better, the lower soil 
will remain damper, and the bacteria 
that are essential to plant life will not 
be killed by the sun’s rays, while at the 
same time the soil will be properly 
aerated, and roots can grow better. 


ner ll i il 


315 


GUMS, RESINS, SAPS AND EXUDATIONS. 


OBSERVATIONS ON THE TAPPING 
OF HEVEA. 


(Observations sur las Saignee de l’Hevea. 
Journ. d Agr. Trop., April, 1908, p. 106.) 


ABSTRACTED BY R. H. Lock. 
After several years of trial and experi- 
ment both by practical and scientific 
men, there still exists considerable 
difference of opinion as to the most 
rational arid economical method of tap- 
ping cultivated Hevea trees. 


The rapid increase in the area culti- 
- vated with this product makes the sub- 
ject an important one. 


The effect of tapping depends upon the 
physiology of the particular species 
tapped and the effect upon the future 
life of the tree may be different in 
different cases. It has been shown that 
damage to the cambium is much more 
prejudicial to Hevea than the mere 
removal of latex. 


What is required is a simple and prac- 
tical method which will reduce to a 
minimum the time required for the 
recovery of the tree, andat the same 
time assure a large yield andalow cost 
of manipulation. 


According to Dr. Willis’ tapping 
should not be started until the tree 
measures 18 inches in girth from 
the ground, and_ should then only be 
done lightly. Johnson and Wright 
increase this minimum size to2 feet or 
more in circumference. 


Attention is always paid rather to the 
size of the tree than toitsagein these 
cases. 


The time required for the renovation 
of the bark is putatfour years by Wright 
and at from two years to twenty-eight 
months by Willis, according to the opi- 
nion of various planters. 


Tapping every other day is regarded 
by Wright, Carruthers, Ridley and Pit 
as better than daily tapping, the ques- 
tion of a longer intervalis still under 
discussion. 

Dr. Willis has recorded the remark- 


able fact that left-handed cuts yield 
more rubber than right-handed. 


Further research is required to deter- 
mine whether tapping should be adjusted 
to the wet and dry seasons of the year, 
or simply carried out at regular 
intervals. 


Tromp de Haas, after a visit to the 
plantations of Ceylon, has published 
observations from which the notes con- 
stituting the remainder of the paper are 
chiefly taken. 


Descriptions are given of the herring- 
bone method, and of the half spiral 
employed at. Culloden, with tapping 
alternately to the right and to the left. 


Pit in Java is said to have obtained 
good results with what is described as a 
quarter-spiral—a series of separate cuts, 
the distribution of which is not fully 
described. 


A diagram is also given of the longi- 
tudinal series of V cuts employed by 
Holloway on Kepitigalla. 


No decision is arrived at with regard 
to the respective merits of these several 
methods, though it is pointed out that 
the full spiral is the most likely to affect 
the vitality of the tree. 


SOMETHING DOING IN MEXICO. 


There is reason to believe that Mexi- 
can exports are beginning to include con- 
siderable rubber obtained from planted 
trees. It is true that these trees for the 
most part were planted primarily for 
the purpose of shading cacao or coffee, 
but the same was the case with the 
first trees that yielded commercial rub- 
ber in Ceylon. They are planted trees, 
and the rubber is a plantation product 
just as much asif the original idea had 
been to form plantations of rubber. And 
if these trees yield rubber, why should 
not those trees which were planted for 
this purpose and no other prove equally 
productive on attaining the proper size, 
as they are beginning to do in Ceylon ? 


The quantity of plantation rubber pro- 
duced in Mexico thus far cannot be 
stated so accurately as in the case of the 
Ceylon product, but some figures on this 
subject printed in another column appear 
worthy of confidence. The Mexican 
representative of an important New 
York firm states that their purchases of 
locally produced rubber for export have 
increased from 7,000 pounds seven years 
ago to 182,219 poundsin 1907. Heis con- 
vinced that not over 4,000 pounds of this 
was “‘ wild” rubber. Besides, he credits 
the other merchants in the same town 
with buying half as much more. Sup- 
posing the situation to beas stated by 
this merchant, the plantation rubber 


Gums, Resins: BAL 


shipped last year from one Mexican town 
amounted to about 267,000 pounds, with- 
out reference to what may have been 
done in other parts of the republic. 


Now, this is more rubber than was 
shipped from Ceylon in any year 
pirior to 1906. It is more than was ship- 
ped from Malaya in any year before that 
date. Itis more than all the rubber, 
of whatever kind, shipped from Mexico 
in the fiscal year 1897-98, and it has come 
about so quietly that most persons who 
read these lines probably will be sur- 
prised. Yet these figures are larger 
than those from the Far Hast which first 
gave a ‘‘boom” to rubber planting over 
there, and led to the formation of some 
of the most prominent plantation com- 
panies that have been capitalized in 
Eneland. 


One hundred and eighty tons or so of 
rubber, considered alone, is not of much 
importance ; considered as the product 
of planted Castilloa trees in Mexico, and 
evidence that such trees can be cultivat- 
ed profitably, itis a matter of very real 
importance to the owners of several 
millions of planted trees who have been 
waiting for assurances that their money 
has not been thrown away. We hope 
that this latest intelligence will encour- 
age more plantation managers in Mexico 
to get in readiness to do some systematic 
rubber tapping on a_ liberal scale.— 
India Rubber World, Vol. XXXVIIL., 
No. 4, July, 1908. 


CHARA OR MANICOBA RUBBER, 
II.* 
OF COLLECTING THE RUBBER. 


Having finished the operations just 
explained in the opening of the hole, and 
. the fixing of the receivers, &c., the work 
consists of simply filling the receivers 
with pure water or with the solution 
which you had to employ. Continuing 
thus, making the cuts quickly, substi- 
tuting the water or solution when neces- 
sary, every morning or as early as pos- 
sible, while the temperature is still low, 
make the “taps” as explained working 
several at the same time; continue this 
work up till 9 or 10a.m. on hot days. 


In the afternoon it is customary to 
continue the collection by new ‘‘taps,” it 
is found more convenient, only in the 
morning, leaving the collection of the 
rubber, after several ‘‘taps” every two 
days, according to the process which has 
been adopted. : 


MANNER 


* Translated from Bolition: see de Agricultura, 
& ,, Bahia 11, 2, August, 1903. We are indebted 
for the translation to Mr. D, 4. Wetherall —Ep1ror, 


After the ‘‘tap” is made, after a short 


delay the milk runs and after a while 
coazulates and closes the cut ; this time is 
more or less prolonged, according to the 
different causes, such as temperature, 
repressing of the milk, &c. 
necessary, clean off the coagulated rub- 
ber from the cut so as to have a fresh 
discharge of milk. 


After some amount has accumulated 
in the basin it should be collected, then 
tap again and place new water or soiu- 
tion in the basins. This rubber is taken 
to the house still wet and placed in the 
press, according to the process for mould- 
ing and uniting the different fragments, 
and thus enabling the rubber to be deli- 
vered to the market ina neat manner, 
—slabs of 1 centimetre thick are best so 
as to avoid fraud. 


UsE OF THE PRESS IN THE PREPARATION 
OF THE RUBBER FOR DELIVERING 
TO THE MARKET. 


Owing to the rapid coagulation of the 
milk and to the slight sweating, frac- 
tionizing the collection, the use of presses 
cannot be dispensed with so as to 
unite the fragments in a body more 
voluminous and endowed with advanta- 
geous condition. By any of the pro- 
cesses employed, the rubber obtained is 
taken to the press still wet and fresh, 
because in this state it is easier to unite 
under the compression of the press. 


Auy system of press may be employed, 
so long.as its compressing powers are 
sufficient, so that it can unite the frag- 
ments in one solid body. Cylinders of 
iron covered with wood may also be 
employed, or even of wood with a grada- 
tion in order to compress the rubber to 
the thickness required. 


Usk oF SMALL Cups OR BASINS: HOW 
THEY SHOULD BE MADE AND WHICH 
ARE PROFITABLE. 


Itis impossible to dispense with the 
small cups. When a superior product is 
required these small cups have to be 
made according to the process whieh 
practice proves to be the best to be 
adopted. 


If adopting the alum the cups cannot 
be made of iron, nor of any metal 
attached thereby; neither ean “‘ tapping” 
be done with a steel instrument, because 
it blackens the product. 


Also the form and material in which 
they have to be manufactured differ; 
when they are destined for use on the 
branches they must be made of light 


material, if they are for the roots then © 


y 


they may be made of heavy stuff. 


Should it be 


- aie 
ee 


a 


‘ 

’ 
’ 
t 
¥ 


sett Ate gti 


PP BL a ps. 3 


the roots, cups of 


ep Re Ne ae ee TE ee 


HiKNS Y 


nies é f i d 
DctosuR, 1908.] 


- According tothe above, we must use 
for the extraction of the milk from 
raw clay, which 
although they improve the product, still 
are liable to erack and allow part of 
the milk to escape, and deposit itself 


in the soil. 


For the use ot extraction by the 
roots, the best cups or basins should be 
those of clay baked and glazed inside, 
which stops the filtering through of 
the water or solution employed. They 
should affect the form of a semi-cir- 
cumference, ten centimetres in diameter 
(4 inehes) offering the greatest surface 
at the part which has to remain 
adherent to the root to permit of several 
cuts being made. To where the cups 
or basins adhere perfectly to the root, 
it is necessary at the point of junc- 
tion to place clay plaster to fasten the 
cups to that part. 


The caps can be made of zine sheet. 
A cow’s horn ean also be used. The 
cups for the extraction from the branches 
should he as deep as a glass. 


We will now treat of a part no less 


- important,—knowing the mean produc- 


tion from a tree in a wild state, and 
advantages of culture of Manicoba. 


MBEAN PRODUCTION OF RUBBER PER 
TREE. 


Collecting carefully and separately the 
production obtained from fourteen trees 
was found, to give the mean of 57°73 
grains per plant. 


Afterwards taking another production 
of ten trees the mean was 77:15 grains 
per plant. ; 

We found one tree whose production 
taken by itself attained 197'50 grains. 

According to these results obtained 
under the irregular conditions of the 
dry and bad season, it is seen that the 
mean is not disappointing ; it should also 
be noticed that those trees submitted for 
the test, in the majority had already 
suffered from previous tappings. 


PRODUCTION OF A TREE IN ITS WILD 

STATE UNDER NORMAL CONDITIONS. 

Taking into consideration the dry and 
bad seasons and the losses in the extrac- 
tion, it may be safely estimated at 100 
grains the mean of production of one 
tree in its wild state, during the time it 
is undergoing tapping. 

* * * a * * * 
THE MANICOBA AS PRODUCER OF 
FORAGE. 

The seeds constitute a food, liked by 
cattle, and of great alimentary power 
from the richness of fat materials, and 


37 


Saps and Fxuudations 


can be ground to produce a rich forage, 
superior perhaps to the flour of the seeds 
of cotton and other similar seeds, 


THE TIME WHICH PASSES FROM CULTURE 
TO PERFECTION. 


It appears to us that the Manicoba has 
a rapid growth, principally at the com- 
mencement of the development; we 
believe that from the 4th to the 5th year 
it ean produce, but the maximum of 
production is during the 8th year for- 
ward, as with the cocoa and other plants. 


* * * * * * 
AUGMENTATION OF THE PRODUCTION OF 
RUBBER IN MANICOBA DURING THE 
EXTRACTION OF THE MILK. 


Manicoba is educated in its production 
of rubber or of milk, in the same manner 
as the breasts of animals are habituated 
to give the maximum production of milk; 
during our labours we observed the 
augmenting in the production of milk, 
after repeated taps, the fact is known to 
all the extractors of rubber from Mani- 
coba.—Bulletin of the Department of 
Agriculture, Jamaica, Vol. VI., Pts. 2 & 
3, Febuary and March, 1908. 


REMARKS ON THE CULTIVATION, 
PREPARATION AND YIELD © 
OF MANICOBAS. 


By Ava. CARDOZO. 
(Abstracted by R. H. Lock.) 


The author uses the term Manicoba to 
include Ceara rubber, and it is with this 
product that the paper chiefly deals, only 
a brief reference being made near the end 
to the true Manicoba varieties in the sense 
in which that term has hitherto been 
used in the 7. A. and Mag. of C.A.S. 


Reasons are given for the comparative 


_ failure of Ceara rubber as an agricultural 


crop. The chief of these are :— 
(1) The lack ofa satisfactory method 
of extracting the latex. 
(2) The large proportion of badly 
yielding trees which are often 
found in plantations. 


It is stated that only 15 or 20 % of the 
seeds of any variety will yield good trees, 
so far as yield of rubber is concerned. 

It is impossible to tell which seeds will 
yield good trees before they are sown, but 
a choice may be made of these seedlings 
which grow most rapidly, with a large 
main axis, and produce a thick latex, 
oqaque and not sticky. 


In order that the latex may be readily 
extracted, the trunk must be verticle, and 
branching must not begin too close to 
the ground. 


Gums, Resins, 


A distance of at least 15 feet between plant succeeds well enough, and on drier 


the trees is recommended in good soil. 
Wind belts are strongly advocated, to 
be pee ene as soon as the clearing is 
made. 


In 1906 Mr. Cardozo obtained 1,161 qr. 
of dry rubber from a group of four trees in 
ninety-two tappings. In 1907 the same 
four trees yielded 1,231 qr. in sixty-one 
tappings. A fairly marked increase, but 
this rate of tapping is regarded as too 
severe for trees seven years old. 


Tapping should not be begun before 
the 8th year unless the tree is at least 
2 feet in girth. 


The arrangement of the laticiferous 
vessels in Ceara shows that it is impos- 
sible to obtain a large quantity of latex 
at one tapping. Tapping must be re- 
peated as trequent intervals. I6 is 
found that twice as much latex is obtain- 
edin the morning asin the afternoon, 
and the work of tapping should therefore 
be confined to the fovmer period. 


The method of tapping adopted was to 
make a series of horizontal incisions 
1 em. in length at intervals of 5 to 7 em. 
in a verticle direction. The drops of 
latex run down the trunk and are caught 
in a little gutter placed near the base 
of the tree. 


Two opposite areas are tapped on one 
day. and a pair of intermediate faces on 
the next, and when the original area is 
again reached, the cuts are made between 
the old ones. 


. Some notes are given on the difference 
between Jéquié Manicoba and Ceara. 


The former germinates in 9-18 days 
without any necessity for filing the seeds, 


It is less variable in its vegetative 
growth than Ceara. 


The latex makes its appearance later. 


The leaves are more liable to be eaten 
by locusts. 


The greater value of Manihot dicho- 
toma (Jequie Manicoba) is primarily asso- 
ciated with the thicker bark as compar- 
ed with Ceara.—Journal @ Agriculture 
Tropicale, June, 1908, p. 1638. 


CEARA RUBBER IN THE DRY 
ZONE OF CKYLON. 


By J. C. WILLIs. 


Manihot Glaziovii is a native of the 
Ceara province of Brazil. a hilly region 
with a climate apparently not unlike 
that of north Ceylon, and a rainfall of 
about 45 inches (about equal to that at 
Jaffna). In wet southern Ceylon this 


318 


: a) 
Me vine 
2 f, WS . 
a) 


[Ocronur, 1908) 


places like Pallekelle, grows like a weed. 


This species has been given a trial on 
the Experiment Station at Maha-iluppa- 
lama, 11 miles from Kekirawa on ‘the 
road leading to Talawa Station. The: 
first lot (Shown in the first photo) was 
planted on unirrigable land, locally sup- 
posed to be only fit for chena, but 
really witha good soil. The seed was 
sown in February, 1907, and the trees 
planted out 10 feet by 10 over five acres 
in August, 1907. In August, 1908, the 
ground was all but covered, the sky 
being only visible between the trees in 
places. The growth was very uniform 
and good, and the trees akout 9 feet 
higk. Taking two central rows of 
the trees, and measuring the girth at 
3 feet from the ground, it gave the 
in inches—First row 
73, 5k, 7S, 82, 53, 8, 6, 74, 54, 5, 63, 6, 44 6.9, 
if, 6, 8, 74 3) Th, Gy.9s 75 Obs Os Ontae 
6, 6,7. Second row 
t+, 62, Yt, 72, 8, 74, 94, 8, 10, 9, 

Oh) Ds Ys Bt; 43, 4, 67, 4, 73, D5 Ths We 63, y 

5 8, 82, 83, 6,7, 7,9. ‘This gives an f 
average girth of just over 7 inches for 78 
consecutive trees chosen at random. : 
The trees are growing vigorously and $ 
their latex runs freely, though of course ; 
they are as yet much too youngto tap. . Hy 
® 


1, 5, 
’ 6g, 


The second photograph shows trees 
from seed of February, 1908, planted out 
about four months ago as shade for 
cacao, on irrigable land with rather 
better soil. These are growing even 
better, but no measurements were taken. q 


The finest Ceara rubber trees in the } 
island are probably some growing about ; 
ten miles south of Trincomalee bay, and 

there is little doubt that this species 
will prove well suited to the dry zone. 5 
As it will grow on unirrigable land there 
is plenty of country now available for it. 


ar a 


CAMPHOR PROSPECTS. 


The Indo-Huropean Commercial In- 
telligence of Bombay is worthy the 
attention of those interested in camphor, 
as the issues from June onward contain 
very useful articles on the cultivation 
and preparation of this drug. We still 
maintain, in spite of adverse opinions, 
that this industry is worthy of much 
more notice on the part of all planters 
and landowners to cultivate it success- 
falls, either extensively cr on a small 
scale. 


Our contemporary maintains that a 
move has been made in Japan to enable 
alocal Japanese concern to secure the 


C8061 ‘ANVOUdTA NMOQ adaag) 


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SUUM (OL Nig 01l0ud 


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the Governor-General of Hormosa 


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OcropEr, -1908.] 


camphor monopoly at present farmed 


out to Messrs. Samuel, Samuel & Co. 
This monopoly will expire by the end of 
March next, and the idea is abroad that 
is 
looking out for a powerful native combin- 
ation to take itup, thus giving all the 
profits to Japanese individuals. The 
annual output of Formosan camphor is 
estimated at 50,000 piculs, of which 40,000 
are handled by Messrs. Samuel, Samuel 
& Co., and 10,000 sold by the Japanese 
Government amongst the camphor-refin- 
ing concerns in Japan. 


We are also reminded that the Chinese 
originally owned the Formosan forests, 
and their Government adopted harsh 
measures to secure the monopoly. They 
also state that the term ‘‘ camphor” is 
always understood to apply to the well- 
known laurel, or Japan camphor, the 
product of the Cinnamomum camphora, 
an evergreen of the Lawrace family. 
The camphor, however, referred to in 
the earlier Chinese and Arabian writings 
was probably another variety known at 
the present time as Borneo camphor, or 
‘‘borneol,” the product of the tree 
Dryobanalops aromatica, small quan- 
tities also being derived from the 
tree Blumea balsmaifera. ‘‘ Borneol ” is, 
however, almost entirely consumed in 
the Kast. 


Messrs. Schimmel & Co., quoting the 
German Consul at Kobe, give the 
Japanese Customs’ statistics to show as 
near as possible the total annual pro- 
duction of Japan-cum-Kormosa, which 
are. otherwise unobtainable, as the 
Japanese Bureau of monopoly carefully 
avoids publishing the details of its 
statistics. According to Schimmel, the 
exports were :—- 

Kobe 


Formosa, (Japan). Total. 
1904 ... 24,034 31,408 = 55,442 piculs. 
1905 ... 22,480 BASE 4 OTT 53 
1906 ... 21,774 26,565 = 48,339 ,, 


The Chemist and Druggist reckons 
that the world’s demand for camphor is 
8,000,000 kin, or 16,600,000 lb. (the total 
export of camphor and oil (?) from Japan 
and Formosa in 1906 is placed at 5,544,000 
kin, or nearly 70 per cent. of the world’s 
consumption, if this estimate is correct), 
of which 70 per cent. is employed in 
celluloid manufacture, 2 per cent. in gun- 
cotton works, 15 per cent. for disinfect- 
ing and deodorising purposes, and 13 
per cent. for medicinal preparations. 
According to German returns, that 
country is the largest importer, receiv- 
ing 1,018,400 kilos in 1905, valued at 
4,560,000 marks (1 mark = Is. roughly); 
and 890,200 kilos last year, valued 
at 5,786,000 marks. As the total value 


319 


Saps and Fxudations, 


of the Formosa-cum-Kobe exports in 
1906 was placed at 5,850,000 yen, or 
11,700,000 marks, it can be roughly 
estimated that the German consumption 
is equal to half greater than Japan’s 
output. 


On the other hand, the American 
Consul in Formosa (Mr. J. H. Arnold) 
speaks of the island as supplying 75 per 
cent. of the world’s requirements, the 
remainder coming from Japan and 
China. He estimates the Formosa out- 
put for 1907 at 5,000,000 kin. 


Whatever the figures are, however, 
the fact still remains that the world’s 
production of camphor is far and away 
behind the world’s requirements, and, 
therefore, in these days of competition 
it behoves planters to look seriously into 
the matter and see whether it will not 
pay them, even when the prices fall, to 
take up the cultivation of the drug ona 
large or small scale, not for its immediate 
a but as a nest-egg for some future 

ate. 


Although, as we showed in our former 
articles, it used to be estimated that 
Japanese and Chinese could afford to 
sell camphor ata figure far below the 
price at which it could be produced else- 
where, it is as well to note that experts 
in all parts of the world are giving 
their serious attention to its production. 
On the Mediterranean coast, we hear 
that the French are trying to acclimatise 
the tree, which, it is said, grows well in | 
those parts, and prceduces leaves yielding 
the drug in commercial quantities suffi- 
cient to pay the cost of production and 
extraction. Some ef those interested in 
this idea even claim that the camphor 
may replace the olive, owing to its 
giving a bigger profit. Hlsewhere (Mr. 
Ridley at the Straits Settlements) we are 
told that it is said to do anywhere in 
Italy except in the neighbourhood of the 
Alps. The Ceylon Agricultural Society 
urges its cultivation (see Tropical Agr- - 
culturist, July, 1907), saying that since 
the Royal Botanic Gardens show a way 
in which it can be multiplied locally, 
planters are rendered less dependent on 
the Japanese for seeds or cuttings. 


‘“‘ Amongst neglected industries in this 
State,” writes the Queensland Agricul- 
tural Journal for November, ‘“‘may be 
included camphor’ production. The 
camphor laurel grows so well, not only 
on the coast, but on the tableland, that 
some think it would be a very paying 
speculation to plant forests of this tree. 
The arguments are, that the tree thrives 
in most parts of Queensland, that it 
requires no attention, that camphor is 
exceedingly high in price, that large 


Gums, Resins, 


quantities are used in the manufacture 
of smokeless powder, and that the Japan- 
ese have the monopoly of the produc- 
tion in Formosa.” According tothe 
Chemist and Druggist, only about 2 per 
cent. goes in gun-cotton, and no mention 
being made of smokeless powder, it is 
either included in this 2 per cent. or is 
too small a quantity to be placed separ- 
ately. As to the price, that is bound 
to come down, and the sooner the better ; 
but at present it shows no chance of 
dropping below a profit unworthy of 
being earned by a Huropean. The T’ro- 
pical Agriculturist does state in the 
July issue, already referred to, that the 
demand would be almost entirely met if 
Ceylon were to plant 25,000 acres with 
this product. This does not seem a very 
large area, but we cannot say off-hand 
what the annual production per acre is 
supposed to be. he same journal, in 
February, stated that the principa! diffi- 
culty in Ceylon was lack of experience 
in the distillation. As with the sugar 
output in India, this may perhaps 
reduce the output by half. 


Dr. Ridley, in the Straits Agricultural 
Bulletin for June, reports that in Cali- 
fornia (U. S. A.) the tree seems to do 
well, and experimental returns show 
that the camphor produced is purer than 
the Japanese. In Tonkin it justifies the 
most sanguine expectations, and the 
Journal WAgriculture Tropicale for 
November 
camphor experiments in Tonkin. Even 
in England the tree flourishes. ‘The 
finest tree I have ever seen,” continues 
Mr. Ridley, ‘‘ was one in Cornwall, near 
Fowey. One would, therefore, hardly 
expect that the tree would thrive in the 
Tropics so near the Equator. However, 
several planters in the Peninsula are 
trying it. Mr. Larken notes that in 
Johore the seeds took a morth to come 
up, but all are starting.” In the Straits 
Botanic Gardens, camphor plants have 
been growing for many years, but have 
made very little growth, and still re- 
main bushes of no great size, which have 
never flowered or fruited. They have 
all been planted in stiff clay ; perhaps in 
the hill regions, where the soil is lighter 
and more friable, they would do 
better. 


320 


gives full details of the | 


F Wie Raa dt 
(OCTOBER, 1908. 


We have already mentioned an 


attempt made in the Federated Malay — 


States to propagate camphor. The 
American Bureau of Plant Industry 
speaks well, not only of the camphor 
trees in Michiganand Florida, but also of 
the quality of the 30 lb. of camphor 
obtained. Mr. Hutchins, in his report 
on the Kenia forests 
Africa, calls attention to the ‘‘Ibean 
camphor tree,” many specimens of which 
are of enormous size, 120 to 130 ft. high. 
Mr. Hutchins does not say, however, 
that camphor has actually been isolated 
from this tree, and detected. 


Experimental plantings have been 
carried on in Hawaii,.and, according to 
the Journal d@ Agriculture Tropicale, the 
tree has becn acclimatised in Algiers for 
along time. Here the C. canvphora is 
grafted on the poorer yielding Camphora 
inuncta, in order to increase the returns, 
which from the single species was con- 
sidered a poor one, only ‘65 per cent, 
against 112 to 1140 per cent. from the 
grafted tree. 


Meanwhile, it must be remembered that 
the Japanese are not idle. Whilst Dr. 
Willis, in Ceylon, talks of 25,000 acres, 
Schimmel reports that the Japanese 
Government are making serious efforts 
to improve the cultivation bothin Japan 
and Formosa, and that a large sum 
granted by the Japanese Parliament for 
forestry purposes will be used exclu- 
sively for camphor plantations. Accord- 
ing to the Chemist and Druggist, there 
are in Japan over 400,000 acres of land in 
private hands, on which it is hoped to 
plant 361,470,000 trees, while they talk of 
planting 1,176,810,000 trees on some 
1,300,000 acres of Government land. 
These 1,500,000,000 trees, it is reckoned, 
will yield 10,844,000 kin* of camphor, and 
4,337, 640 kin of camphor oil. ve 1904-5, 
8,750,000 trees were planted, so the above 
stupendous cultivation would take some 
time. Whilst it would yield 10,000,000 
kin of camphor, the present world’s 
consumption is returned as_ being 
8,000,000 kin. Lower prices and increased. 
population can, of course, increase the 
demand to any point.—Tvropical Life, 
Vol. [V., No. 2, February, 1908. 


* 1 Kin=10°6 lb. 4,000,000 =2,400 tons, 


in British Hast - 


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TOBER, 1908. | 


821 


DRUGS AND MEDICINAL PLANTS. 


FERMENTATION OF TOBACCO. 


The particulars given below on the 
fermentation of tobacco leaves are taken 
from Bulletin 15 of the Hawaiian Agri- 
cultural Experiment Station, a pamphlet 
issued to show the possibilities of tobacco 
growing on a commercial scale in Hawaii, 
and also to give information as to the 
best methods of carrying out the various 
operations connected with the prepar- 
ation of the crop. They form a continu- 
ation of the notes on harvesting and 
curing the leaves that appeared in the 
last issue of the Agricultural News. 
After curing has taken place, the tobacco 
should be sorted in lots of thick, thin, 
and medium leaves respectively. The 
different grades are then tied up into 
bunches containing from fifty to a 
hundred leaves, and in order to undergo 
the process of fermentation these 
bunches are piled up into heaps on the 
floor of the room specially provided for 
the purpose. 


_ The fermentation should follow imme- 
diately after the grading and sorting 
process, as the tobacco is then in the 
best condition. A much better fexment- 
ation can be secured immediately than 
after a delay of weeks or months. The 
tobacco is taken from the sorting room 
to the fermenting room. If the tobacco 
is in proper condition when it is placed 
in the pile—that is, if the leaf contains 
20 to 25 per cent. of moisture—a rise in 
temperature will begin at once. The 
heap of fermenting tobacco leaves should 


‘be covered over with a tarpaulin or 


rubber blanket, excluding all air and 
retaining all moisture. No weight 
should be applied. When the building 
of the fermenting heap has been finished, 
the temperature of the room should be 
heated to from 85° to 95°, and should be 
kept at that figure until the pile of 
fermenting tobacco reaches the same 
degree of heat. As the temperature in 


the pile of tobacco increases above 90° 
the air temperature should be permitted 
to remain about 10° lower than the 
increasing temperature of the pile. The 
higher the temreratures in the ferment- 
ing pile the darker the colour of the 
finished leaf. Under no circumstances 
must the temperature of the fermenting 
tobacco be permitted to rise above 
136° F. Assoon as the temperature in 
the middle of the pile, which is the 
hottest, reaches 100° F., the pile should 
be torn down and re-arranged on the 
floor near by. The leaves that pre- 
viously formed the bottom, sides, and 
tops are placed in the centre of the new 
pile, while the leaves that werein the 
centre of the first heap, become the out- 
side, bottom, and top of the second pile. 
This process should be _ continued 
throughout the various re-arrangements 
of the pile. An important point is to 
maintain a constant degree of humidity 
in the fermenting room, Theairin the 
fermenting room should never be per- 
mitted to become dry, but should always 
show from 85° to 90° of humidity, irres- 
pective of the temperature. 


In the first stages of fermentation, 
large quantities of ammonia are set free, 
and there is a considerable evolution of 
ammonia throughout the whole ferment- 
ation process. As soon as the ferment- 
ation is complete, the tobacco is ready for 
the final sorting. 


A second fermentation takes place in 
the bale. It is a slower one and the 
temperatures do not rise very high, but 
it seems to be quite important in fixing 
character in the leat. This second 
fermentation mellows the tobacco and 
tends to improve the aroma. The bales 
should be placed in the warehouse for at 
least six months before selling. The 
warehouse should be clean, dry, and 
cool, and no other goods stored with the 
tobacco.—Agricultural News, Vol. VIL., 
No. 161, June, 1908. 


4) 


322 


[OcroRER, 1908. 


EDIBLE PRODUCTS. 


TEAS FROM NATAL. 


In an article on ‘The Tea Production 
of the British Empire” in this Bulletin 
(1904-2-206), reference was made to the 
tea industry of Natal anda table was 
given showing the areas of land under 
cultivation and the quantities of tea 
produced during the years 1880-1902. 


The introduction of tea into Natal 
took place in 1877, when seed was for- 
warded from Calcutta and was planted 
as soon asitarrived. The varieties in- 
troduced were ‘Assam Indigenous” 
from the Rookang Estate, and ‘ Assam 
Hybrid” from the Longeeburr Estate. 
The former has been found to be the 
more suitable, as it produces more leaf 
and yields a manufactured tea of 
superior quality. After various dis- 
appointments and _  discouragements, 
owing to losses caused by drought and 
the attack of insect pests, no serious 
attempt was made to extend the culti- 
vation until 1881. Since this time the 
area under cultivation has gradually in- 
creased untilit now amounts to about 
4,000 acres and yields annually 2,000,000 
lb. of the manufactured article. 


The samples of Natal tea which are 
the subject of this report were taken 
from specimens exhibited in the Natal 
Court of the Imperial Institute and from 
supplies forwarded to the recent South 
African Products Exhibition in London, 
The latter specimens were transferred 
to the Imperial Institute at the close of 
the Exhibition, and are now shown with 
other samples in the Natal Court, 


At the request of the Natal Govern- 
ment achemical examination of repre- 
sentative samples has been carried out 
in order that a comparison of Natal teas 
rath Indian and China teas could be 
made. 


The results of the examination are 
shown in the following table, which in- 
cludes for comparison the corresponding 
figures obtained at the Imperial] Institute 


for Indian and Cuina teas and also for 
Ceylon green teas: 


Percentages calculated on 
material dried at 1002 C, 


oO Es . xt 
= S zg S 
Kstate, Description, pa Paes ‘D a 
ee pl 3 g 
By seh 1S iS) a 
Natal Teas — 
Kearsney Grade 1* 91 58 2671 39 78 
oH) Grade 2* 76 56 288 3°6 6°3 
» Grade 3* 74 52 274 81 67 
aa Grade 4* 87 59 25°0 3°4 6°8 
x Flowery Pekoe 7.6 51 not determined 770 
os Broken Pekoe 69 5°8 not determined 73 
Barnsdale Pekoe 5°96 58 26'2 4°38 10°5 
Clifton Pekoe 6.2 4°8 31'4 notdeter- 13:0 
mined, 
Barnsdale Golden Pekoe - 5°5 5°5 23°0 4°4 115 
oA Flowery Pekoe 61 5'3 27°0 4°2 116 
Aroma Pekoe Souchong 71 5°5 24°3 40 10°4 
Be Tine Natal ,, 80 50 20°9 APL ey ROFL! 
Burrow 
Green Souchong 77 «5:2, 3370 44 10°8 
Average CE ais! Ge Oye 40 9:2 
Indian Teas (13 samples) 
Maximum 78 69 35:2 41 chit 
Minimum 64 54 27°4 3°6 69 
Average TL GO MBL. 3'8 9°2 
China Teas (8) samples— 
Maximum 92 8°2 °27°2 37 93 
Minimnm 71 60 19°0 2°6 3°3 
Average 82 6S 24°3 3°0 52 
Ceylon Green Tea— 
No. 1 67 2°6 24°56 2°9 14°5 
No. 2 62 50 35°0 2-9 16°6 
Average 6°5. 3:8) 29:7 29 15°6 
CONCLUSIONS, 


A consideration of the foregoing analy- 
tical figures shows that these Natal teas 
may be divided into two groups, which 
differ considerably in composition: (1) 
those from the Kearsney Estate, and (2) 
those from all other sources. 


The specimens from the Kearsney 
Estate, grades 1 to 4, were all good black 
looking teas, concaining from 3'1 to 3'9 
per cent. of caffeine and from 6°38 to 7:8 
per cent. of tannin. The other two speci- 
mens of ‘“‘ Flowery Pekoe” and ‘Broken 
Pekoe” from the same source also con- 
tained a low percentage of tannin, viz., 
7:0to 73 percent. These figures must 
be regarded as very satisfactory, since 
the average percentage of caffeine (8°5) 


is only a little below the amount present ~ 


in the Indian teas examined, and on the 


** These four samples were taken from speci- 
mens in the Natal Court of the Imperial Insti- 
tute; the remainder were from the South 
African Products Exhibition. 

+ ‘Extractive matter” or ‘‘extract” is the 
percentage dissolved by treating a given quantity 
of the tea with one hundered times its weight 
of boiling water, and allowing it to infuse for 
ten minutes, 

+ Determined by Procter’s modification of 
Léventhal’s process. 


ee ee ee ee 


im 


Cy we 


le i CEI 6 tat aye oR 


— OcToBER, 1908.] 


other hand the average of tannin (7 per 
cent.) is considerably lower. In respect 
- of the percentage of tainnin these teas 
' from the Kearsney Estate are intermedi- 
ate between the Indian and China teas. 
The amount of extractive matter is also 
less than in the Indian teas, and approx- 
imates to that of the China samples. 


As is well known, it is the caffeine to 
which the valuable stimulating proper- 
ties of tea are due, whilst the pre- 
sence of much tannin is generally consi- 
dered to be detrimental. 


The other group of Natal teas, compris- 
ing all the remaining specimens, is char- 
acterised by unusually high percentages 
of caffeine and tannin. The amount of 
caffeine ranges from 4:0 to 4°8 per cent., 
with an average of 4:3 per cent., whilst 
the percentages of tannin vary from 10:1 
to 13:0 with an average of 11°1 per cent. 
The abnormal amount of tannin (13 per 
cent). present in the Pekoe tea from the 
Clifton Estate is probably due to the 
fact that the sample had not been pro- 
perly fermented, and was more or less 
green. Sofaras the amount of extrac- 
tive matter is concerned, this group 
agrees closely with the Kearsney teas. 


The difference in the figures furnished 
by these two groups of specimens is very 
striking, and may be due to some modi- 
fication in the processes of manufacture, 


It was to be expected that Natal tea 
would show a general similarity to 
Indian tea, since the original seed was 
obtained from Assam. This similarity 
can be seen in the figures for the major- 
ity of the specimens and in the average 
results, but in the case of the Kearsney 
teas the small percentages of extractive 
matter and tannin approximate more 
nearly to those obtained for China teas. 


These results show that the cultivation 
of tea in Natal and its preparation 
deserve very full study with a veiw to 
the production of a tea of characteristic 
quality. The best of these teas combine 
the qualities of the teas of China and 
India.— Bulletin of the Imperial Institute, 
Vol. VI., No. 1, 1906. 


THE SOY BEAN AS A FORAGE CROP. 


GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS AND 


ORIGIN, 
The Soy Bean (Glycine hispida), previ- 
ously, but incorrectly, called soja 


bean, is a leguminous plant, native of 
south-eastern Asia. De Candolle says 
that it originally occurred in the wild 
state in the region ‘‘trom Cochin China 
to the south of Japan and to Java.” It 


328 


Rdible Products, 


has been cultivated from very ancient 
times, and in some countries, notably 
Japan, it is a very important food 
plant, and its cultivation has reached 
such an advanced stage that innumer- 
able varieties and forms have been 
developed. Professor Rein says it is 
the most important Jegume in extent 
of varieties, uses, and value grown in 
China or Japan. ‘It is supposed to have 
been used for food in China even before 
the time of Confucius. Although it has 
been grown in China and Japan for such 
an extended period, its cultivation seems 
to have spread very slowly to the sur- 
rounding countries. Its introduction 
into India seems to have taken place in 
comparatively modern times. More 
recently it was brought to Europe, 
where it was grown in botanic gardens 
for more thana hundred years without 
attracting attention asa plant of much 
economic importance. Aiton says in 
his Hortus Kewensis that it was first 
brought to England in 1790. In 1875 Pro- 
fessor Haberlandt began an extensive 
series of expriments with this plant in 
Austro-Hungary, andinawork published 
in 1878 he gave the results of his studies 
and strongly urged the cultivation of 
the soy bean as a food plant for both 
man and beast. Although he succeeded 
in exciting a great deal of interest in its 
cultivation while making his experi- 
ments, and distributed a considerable 
amount of seed, very little seems to 
have come of it; forat his death, which 
occurred in 1878, the interest flagged, 
and the soy bean has failed to obtain 
the place as a staple crop which he 
prophesied for it. 


In our own country the soy bean has 
been grown for a great many years, 
chiefly in the South, but it is only within 
the last fifteen years that it has received 
much attention as a forage crop. Recent- 
ly it has been the subject of considerable 
experimentation at a number of the ex- 
periment stations, and its great value 
as acrop has been very clearly demon- 
strated 


The term ‘“‘soy” applied to this bean 
is derived from a Japanee word ‘“‘ shoyu,” 
denoting a certain preparation from the 
seeds which is a favourite article of diet 
in that country. The term “soja” is 
often used in connection with this plant, 
but Professor Georgeson, who spent 
some time in Japan, and who, since his 
return to this country, has experiment- 
ed extensively with this plant, says :— 


The term soja, often applied to this 
bean, is. misleading, inasmuch as the 
species named by Siebold and Zuccarini 
(Glycine soja) is not cultivated there 
(Japan), or at least rarely cultivated, 


Edible Products. 


though wild in the south; and later this 
species was confounded with the culti- 
vated species, G. hispida, Moench., 
whence the origin of the term soja as 
applied to the cultivated bean. 


Recent works on Japanese botany seem 
to substantiate this position, though it 
is still a matter of doubt as to what 
botanical name probably belongs to the 
cultivated species. 


The soy bean is an erect, annual plant, 
with branching, hairy stems, trifoliate, 
more or less hairy leaves, rather incon- 
spicuous pale lilac or violet coloured 
fiowers, and broad, two to _ five-seed- 
ed pods, covered, like the stem, with 
stiff, reddish hairs. The seeds vary in 
colour from whitish and yellowish to 
green, brown, and black; and in shape 
from spherical to elliptical and more 
or less compressed. nder favourable 
conditions the plant may reach a height 
of 4 feet or more. In Professor Haber- 
landt’s experiments in Austro-Hungary 
the plants bore about 200 pods and 450 
seeds each, and though thisis probably 
considerably above the average, it 
shows them to be remarkably prolific. 


The fact that the flowers are self-polli- 
nated makes the yield entirely inde- 
pendent of insects, and renders the soy 
bean free from an important obstacle 
in the way of the introduction of many 
legumes into new regions. A crop of 
seed is insured wherever conditions are 
to allow the plants to make the proper 
vegetative growth and reach maturity. 


VARIETIES, 


The different varieties of soy bean are 
distinguished largely according to the 
colour, size, and shape of the seed, and 
the time required tor the plants to reach 
maturity. They also differ more or less 
in the habit of growth and in the 
character and degree of the hairiness of 
the various parts of the plant. The 
names applied to the varieties here in 
the United States usually refer to the 
time of reaching maturity and the colour 
of the seed; as, for example, “Early 
White.” ‘‘ Medium Late Green,” ‘‘Medium 
Black,” ete. The early varieties gener- 
ally fruit heavier in proportion to the 
size of the plant than the later ones, 
and hence are better to grow for seed, 
while the medium or late varieties are 
better for forage on account of the larger 
yield of fodder that may be obtained. 


The ‘“‘Harly White” soy bean is an 
excellent variety to grow when a crop 
of seed is desired, particularly in the 
North, where the growing season is 
likely to be short. It is not a good 
variety to grow for hay or soiling, how- 


324 


ae al ae 

athe ee hiitauee aa bs 

ant MO yaar ee 
ve, 


‘[OctorER, 1908. 


ever, on account of the small size of the 
plants and a tendency to drop the leaves 
early. ‘‘ Medium Karly Green” is one of 
the best varieties to plant for hay, as it 
yields heavily and retains its leaves well. 
For soiling or for ensilage ‘‘ Medium 
Early Green, ‘‘Medium Karly Black,” 
or the ‘‘Late” green or black varieties 
may be used, according to the length of 
the season and the time at which the 
crop is to be used. In the New England 
States the ‘‘Medium Early Green” 
variety is generally preferred, while in 
the Central States ‘‘Medium Harly 
Black” seems to be the favourite, In 
the South the ‘“‘medium” or “late” 
varieties are used, some preferring one 
and some another. For green manuring 
the large medium or late varieties are 
best; ‘‘ Medium Late Black” being excel- 
lent for this purpose. 


CONDITIONS OF GROWTH. 


It is believed that in Japan than in 
northern climates, soils of a _ rather 
strong character are best adapted to the 
soy bean. It is usually sown about the 
end of May, and when used for hay is 
cut early in August. In both Europe 
and America it has been found to thrive 
best on soils of medium texture that 
are well supplied with potash, phos- 
phoric acid, and lime. It succeeds very 
well, however, on comparatively light 
soils, often giving an abundant crop on 
soils too poor to grow clover. Professor 
Haberlandt found that good results 
could be obtained in Kurope on a very 
great variety of soils, and similar results 
have been obtained in the United States. 
Professor Georgeson has obtained fairly 
good results in Kansas on very poor soils, 
and under very adverse conditions as to 
the moisture. In South Carolina the 
soy bean gives excellent crops on sandy, 
limestone, or marly soils, and also on 
drained swamp or peaty lands that are 
well marled. Experiments in hoth 
Kurope and America show that the soy 
bean possesses excellent drought-resist- 
ing qualities, enduring dry weather 
much better than the ordinary field or 
garden beans. 


The soy bean requires about the same 
temperature as corn. Professor Haber- 
landt found that the earlier varieties of 
soy bean would mature in Kurope rather 
farther north than the earlier varieties 
of corn. Inthe United States the rela- 
tion of the soy bean to temperature has 
not yet been thoroughly tested, but it is 
very likely that the northern limit will 
be found very near to that of corn. © 
Professor Brook says that the earlier 
sorts will mature in Massachusetts with 
as much certainty as will the earlier 
varieties of corn. As a general thing, 


he OcroRER, 1908. } 


ih 


by = 


the soy beanis not so easily injured bY 
frost as the common field 


or garde 
varieties of beans, and hence it can b®& 

lanted earlier in the spring and can also 
ike left in the field later in the antumn. 
At the Kansas Station, soy beans 
planted on the 25th of July on poor soil 
survived several light freezes and, when 
cut on the 17th of October, had matured 
a fair crop of seeds. 


While the soy bean is possessed of 
excellent drought-resisting qualities, it 
‘at the same time seems to be able to sur- 
vive a period of excess of moisture better 
than the cowpea or even corn. Mr. 
Robert C. Morris, of Illinois, reports, as 
an instance in his own experience in 1896, 
that, after standing in water for three 
weeks in July, the soy beans recovered, 
while corn and cowpeas under the same 
-econditions were permanently injured. 
The upright, bushy habit of growth 
gives the soy bean a great advantage 
over the cowpea during wet weather 
and makes it easier to handle at harvest 
time. 


METHODS OF CULTURE. 


In a general way, the same methods 
of culture may be recommended for the 
soy bean as would be given to the 
ordinary field beans. The soil should be 
well prepared, so as to affcrd a good 
root bed, and should be left smooth and 
free from clods in order to facilitate the 
cultivation and harvesting of the crop. 
If the soil is lacking in potash and _ phos- 
phoric acid, these should be supplied to 
secure the best results, From experi- 
ments carried on at the Massachusetts 
Hatch Experiment Station, it is probable 
that for this crop the potash can be best 
supplied in the form of the muriate. 
Under ordinary conditions it is not 
likely that there will be any necessity 
for using any nitrogen-containing ferti- 
lizer, as sufficient of this element is 
usually present in the soil, and, like 
other legumes, this plant assimilates the 
free nitrogen of the air. In experiments 
with this crop where nitrogen has been 
supplied to the soil in various forms, it 
has been found that there was but very 
little gain in the yield, andin but very 
few instances was this sufficient to pay 
for the extra fertilizer used. 


Although soy beans may be planted 
quite early in the season, the best results 
will be obtained if the seeding is post- 
poned until the ground has become 
thoroughly warm; and incase the earlier 
varieties are used, a fairly good crop of 
forage or even of seed may be obtained 
if the seeds are not planted until the 
earlier small grains, such as rye and 
barley, have been harvested, It may 


82 


5 Edible Products. 


thus be possible to obtain two crops 
from the same field in a single season ; 
one of small grain, and the other of soy 
bean, and yet to leave the land in better 
condition than if the second crop had 
not been grown. Another practice is to 
drill the beans in between the rows of 
corn after the last ploughing; they are 
also sometimes planted between the 
hills in the row, as are field beans. The 
best method of seeding will depend some- 
what upon the kind of crop which it is 
desired to harvest. If the soil is good, 
and a crop of hay or green fodder is 
desired, good results may be obtained by 
sowing broadeast or with a grain drill. 
If, however, a crop of beans is desired, it 
is best to plant in drills from 2to3 feet 
apart, according asthe soil is light or 
heavy. 


There is considerable difference in the 
amount of seed sown per acre in the 
various parts of the country; some 
farmers sow only about half a bushel per 
acre, while others prefer a bushel or even 
more. The proper amount will neces- 
sarily vary somewhat, according to the 
method of seeding and the character of 
the soil. Asa rule, when grown for seed, 
from one-half to three-fourths of a 
bushel per acre will be ample. When 
put in with a grain drill or sown broad- 
cast, a greater amount of seed will be 
required ; but in any case it will hardly 
be necessary to use more than one bushel 
per acre. Of course, less seed will be 
required when the grain drill is used 
than when the seed is sown broadcast, 
and as a rule better results will be 
obtained. When planted for beans 
enough seed should be used to give an 
average of five or six plants per foot in 
the row. If nothing better is at hand 
for planting the seed, an ordinary grain 
drill, with enough of the holes stopped 
up to give the desired distance for the 
rows, may be used. For example, if the 
holes are 8inches apart, number 1 may 
be left open, numbers 2, 3, and 4 closed, 
number 5 open, ete., and the rows will 
be 82 inches apart, or, ifa lese distance 
is desired, number 4 .aay be left open 
and number 5 closed, and the rows will 
be 24 inches apart. In very light soil the 
latter distance would probably he best, 
but in heavier soils the former would be 
preferable. 


When the seed has been drilled in 
rows close together, or has been sown 
broadcast, very little cultivation will be 
necessary. It will sometimes be found 
advisable, however, to cultivate the 
drilled field soon after planting, as in 
case the land is very foul, the weeds are 
liable to get such » start that they will 
interfere with the growth of the young 


Edible Products. 326 


soy plants. For this purpose use a 
light harrow. When grown for seed, 
thorough cultivation should be given, 
at least while the plants are young. 
As arule, cultivation should be shallow 
and frequent if the best results are to 
be obtained. When the ground is in- 
clined to pack or bake, it should be 
stirred after each rain, but care should 
be taken not to work the field when the 
plants are very wet from rain or dew. 
If the drills have not been made too far 
apart, it will be found that the plants 
will soon shade the soil sufficiently to 
keep the weeds in check and to keep the 
surtace in good condition, so that much 
cultivation will be necessary. In fact, 
on good soil very fine crops have been 
obtained with but a single stirring of 
the soil after the seed had been planted. 
Asa rule, this crop will require a smaller 
amount of cultivation than corn. 


HARVESTING. 


Thetime for harvesting the soy bean 
crop will necessarily depend somewhat 
upon the use for which the crop is in- 
tended. From the analyses given in the 
following table it will be noticed that 
the plants, cut when the pods are well 
developed, contain larger amounts of 
_erude protein and fat than those cut at 
early stages. But from feeding experi- 
ments it seems likely that more of the 
plant will be eaten if cut in the earlier 
stages, and hence it is doubtful if very 
much is gained by the latter cutting. 
Considering palatability and _ digesti- 


bility as well as chemical composition, it . 


is probable that the best forage will be 
obtained by cutting just as the pods are 
forming. 
COMPOSITION OF THE SOY BEAN AT 
DIFFERENT STATES OF GROWTH. 


= : ie eS Has? 

Sasa oo =) GBVdeg 

A= Bo y a) a2 BE Bo 

Water-free bstance. o% § 2 = 3 of e236 

Smo S83 oe SORA 

eT cee | wibeh Ps SZ s253 

fe : ae eetey ifs, phic) 
Protein 12°84 3-38 | 14°41 14°43 
Fats ba a 2°57) 0°80 3°78 3°85 
Nitrogen-free extract 50°(5 9°25 46°83 55°70 
Crude fibre .. 27°31 81°34 28°20 20°38 
Ash . 7°23, 5'23 678 5°64 


If the crop is to be used for soiling 
purposes, cutting can begin when the 
plants are in early bloom and can be 
kept up until the pods are beginning to 
ripen, though the length of the season 
will vary somewhat, according to the 
different varieties, some being better for 
this purpose than others. If the crop is 
to be cured for hay, it may be cut when 
the plants are in full bloom or the pods 
beginning toform, but this will also vary 
according to the variety grown, since 
some of the varieties begin to drop their 


hf ve Rey 


leaves much earlier than others, and it 
is quite important that as many of the 
leaves should be saved as possible. It 
will be noticed from the preceding table 
that in the stalk of the plant the per- 
centage of protein and fat is very low, 
and that of the crude fibre is very high ; 
hence the most important of the food 
elements are found in the leaves, 


When the crop is to be preserved in 
the silo, it will be best to cut it at about 
the same stage as when used for hay. 
However, the plants can be eut at a 
later stage for the silo than for hay, 
since they are preserved in a much more 
palatable condition than when cured as 
hay, and the cutting necessary in pre- 
paring for the silo leaves the plant in 
condition to be more easily masticated 
by the animals. 


Because of its coarse habit of growth 
the soy bean is somewhat difficult to 
cure satisfactorily in moist climates. A 
good plan to follow in curing is to allow 
the plants to lie in the swath or wind- 
row until well wilted (but not until 
they begin to become brittle), and then 
gather into small piles. Care should be 
taken to see that these piles are so con- 
structed as to admit of thorough venti- 
lation to the very centre, in order that 
the plants may not mold and spoil. 
The hay should be handled as little as 
possible in curing and carrying to the 
barn or shed, in order that the leaves 
may not be broken off and lost. 


Under ordinary conditions the earlier 
varieties will mature in 75 to 90 days 
from the time of planting. Itis possible, 
however, and often even desirable, in 
harvesting the crop for seed to cut be- 
fore the pods are entirely mature. If 
they become too ripe, they are liable to 
burst open in drying and carrying to 
the machine, and thus a portion of the 
seed may belost. Some growers recom- 
mend cutting for seed when the pods are 
only about half mature. This is undoubt- 
edly a good practice if the straw is to 
be used for feeding purposes, as in that 
ease it will contain a larger amount of 
digestible nutrients, and will be much 
more palatable than if allowed to stand 
until the pods are thoroughly mature. 


In harvesting a crop for the seed, the 
plants may be pulled by hand or cut 
with ascythe or mower and gathered 
into small piles, which should be rela- 
tively high and of a small diameter, so 
that the plants may dry out readily. 
Thrashing can be done with a flail or 
with the thrashing machine. Very good 
results can be had with common grain 
thrashers by taking out a portion or all 
of the canvas and substituting blanks 


[OcToRER, 1908. 


OcroBER, 1908.] 
YIELD. 


The amount of forage obtained from 
the soy bean will, of course, vary wide- 
ly, according to the conditions under 
which the crop is grown. Under favour- 
able conditions as much as 12 or 13 tons 
of fresh fodder may be produced per 
acre. In the New England States, 
under the ordinary farm conditions, 
yields of from 9 to 12 tons per acre are 
reported from the medium early varie- 
ties. The early varieties yield, as arule, 
a less amount of forage. Inthe South, 
where the later and coarser varieties 
are grown, larger yields may be obtain- 
ed. But in some parts of the South 
the yields have been so light that the 
crop hasbeen regarded as an unprofitable 
one to grow, and in some parts of colder 
Northern States the season is too short 
for any but the very earilest varieties, 
and these often fail to matureseed. At 
the South Carolina Station, yields of 2 
to 24 tons of cured hay per acre are 
reported, and similar amounts have been 
obtained in many other portions of the 
United States. In Japan, the earlier 
varieties are said to afford on an average 
from 14 to2tons of well-cured forage 
per acre. At tbe North Carolina Sta- 
tion, in an experiment in which the soy 
bean andthe cowpea were grown un- 
der similar conditions, a yield of nearly 
2+ tons of well-cured hay was obtained 


CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF THE 


327 


Edible Products. 


from one acre of soy bean, while from 
one azre of cowpea alittle less than a 
ton was secured, 


Under ordinary conditions 25 to 40 
bushels of seed per acre will be an 
average yield. If the conditions are 
very favourable, the’ yield may reach 
100 bushels. On the other hand, drought 
‘and poor soil may reduce the yield to 15 
bushels or even less. In the experiments 
by Professor Georgeson, mentioned inthe 
preceding pages, a yield of over eight 
bushels per acre of well-cleaned seed 
was obtained from a field planted after 
a crop of rye had been harvested. In 
this case the beans were cultivated 
but once, and grew under very adverse 
conditions of both soil and climate. 
When it is remembered that this was 
the second crop from the land that 
season, and that the beans brought $2 
per bushel, it will be seen that the 
crop was a profitableone to grow. : 


CHEMICAL COMPOSITION, 


The following tables on the chemical 
composition of the various parts of 
the soy bean used for feeding purposes 
have been aranged with great care, to 
show as far as possible the latest and 
best results obtained by experimenters 
in the United States during the course 
of their studies of this plant :— 


Vv 
ARIOUS KINDS oF FoRAGE MADE 


FROM THE SoY BEAN, 


| Coo As 
| Fresh or air-dry substance, Saree 
Wiss | es 
| ® | | 
} Ps | 2 Al 3 
& eee iss a8 
JA 7 | 3S ae qj |v Fal gq 5 ® 
Soy-bean Forage. 4s 3 % Ee Ea 3 eae one 
WS MASE On ah Meee be rea OWN esl oles Oh ye 
[i ai | ned ey et ey eet ag ea la, li Bete lice 
Fodder (early bloom to early seed)! 18 |76°5) 3°6| 1.0 10°1) 6:5) 2:3|15-3| 4:1 |43-0|27-6 [10-0 
Soy-bean hay (Japanese) «| 1 /16°0]16-9] 2-2 /23°1/35°9) 5-9/20-1| 2:6 27-5 /42-7| 7°0 
Soy-bean hay (Mass) 4 |12°1|14-2| 4-1 |42°2 (21-1) 73/162] 4°7|46'8 124-0] ... 
Soy-bean straw (Mass) ... w) 8 |LU4] 4:9] 1-9/87°8'37°6) 6:4) 5:5] 2-2/42-7 142-4 
Soy-bean straw (hulls and vine 
after thrashing) .| 1 | 5°27} 4:0] 0:8/86°0 49-5 3-9 [4:25 10-85 [38-2 [52-6] 5°3 
Soy-bean seed Wy 8 10°83 34-0 |16-9 28'S) 4-8) 4-7 388-1 |18-9 32-21 5-4| 5:3 
Soy-bean meal in 2 |10°4/36:0|18-9 27°0 | 2:6 | 5-1 |40°2/21-0 30-2! 2:9] 5°7 
Soy-bean ensilage ne 1 (74-2) 4:1] 2:2) 70) 9:7! 2-8)15-7| 8:7 27-0 /37°6|11°0 
Corn and Soy-bean ensilage 4 |76°0) 2:5] 0-8 11-1} 7-2| 2:4 |10-4} 3'3/46-3 130-0] ... 
Millet and Soy-bean ensilage 9 (79-0! 2:8; 1:0| 7:2) 7:21! 2:8 |18°3’ 4°8/34:3 [34°38 


Water-tree sub- 


If the preceding analyses are compared The green fodder has much the same 
with those of other leguminous crops, composition as red clover, being slightly 
it will be seen that the soy bean ranks lower in crude protein and higher in 
high from a chemical point of view. crude fibre. Inthe two most important 


Edible Products. 


substances, crude protein and fat, the 
soy bean is considerably richer than the 
cowpea. The hay also shows a rela- 
tively high fat and protein  con- 
tent. The only available analysis of 
soy-bean ensilage shows it to agree 
very closely in composition with red 
clover ensilage, being higher in crude 
fibre and fat, and lower in extract 
matter. Krom the analysis of the beans 
it will be seen that these are about two- 
fifths protein and one-sixth fat, with 
but very little fibre present, making 
them almost as rich in crude protein as 
the best cotton seed-meal, with a higher 
percentage of fat. They contain three 
times as much crude protein and nearly 
three anda haif timesas much fat as 
oats ; nearly three and one-half times as 
much protein and about three times as 
much fat as corn, and almost twice as 
much crude protein and over twelve 
timesas much fat peas; allof which 
shows them to form one of the most con- 
centrated of our feeding stuffs. 


The accompanying table gives an 
excellent comparison of the yield and 
composition of soy bean and fodder corn 
under similar conditions, and shows how 
admirably the one supplements the other 
when both are used in the feeding ration. 
At the Massachusetts Hatch Station, 
Longfellow corn gave an average yield 
ot 16 tons of green fodder per acre, and 
medium early green soy bean gave a 


328 


[OcroBER, 1908, 


little over 10 tons. The soy bean, cut 
when the pods had formed but not 
hardened, afforded a little over 30 per 
cent. of dry matter, and Longfellow 
corn, cut when the ears were glazed, 
gave a little less than 28 percent. The 
total amounts of the various food con- 
stituents produced ‘by each crop on an 
acre of ground may he seen by the 
following table :— 


TortaL AMOUNTS IN PoUNDS oF FooD 
CONSTITUENTS PRODUCED ON AN 
ACRE OF LAND BY Soy BEAN 
AND FODDER CORN. 


Flesh Fatand heat producors. 


Crops. formers: 
Protein. Crude fat. Fibre. Extract 
matter. 
Green soy bean .. 1,167°2 23°4 1,418'1 2,430°9 
Longfellow fodder 
corn Me SMOICD) 290°1 1,626°0 5,616°8 
DIGESTIBILITY. 


The chemical analysis alone will not 
prove the feeding value of a forage crop. 
Other points must be considered, one of 
the most important of which is the per- 
centage of digestibility of the various 
nutrient substances found in the plant 
at the time it isfed to the animal. As 
yet very few experiments on the digesti- 
bility of the soy bean have been carried 
outin the United States, and of these 
the greater part has been made at the 
Connecticut (Storrs) Experimeut Station. 
Sheep have been used in most of the 
tests. | 


DIGESTIBILITY OF SoyY-BEAN FORAGE. 


Soy-bean forage. pengiee 
Soy-been fodder Sheep 


Soy-bean mealand timothy hay do. 

Soy-bean meal alone (calculat- 
ed from the above mixture) 

Soy-beans (seed) Ks 


Soy-bean pods te ig do. 
Soy-bean straw do. 
Soy-bean hay... do. 
: Goats 
Soy-bean ensilage Chobits 
Corn and soy-bean ensilage ...| Sheep 
Barnyard millet and soy-bean 
ensilage do. 


Comparison of the preceding percent- 
ages with those of the clovers, cowpeas, 
alfalfa, and other legumes shows that 
the soy bean stands well as to its digesti- 
bility, especially as regards the more 
important nutrient substances. 


O. 
.{(Ruminants 


Ce a) 
a F Bs Qs 
A q m ) qo 
gs| 3 on) 5 | eel g 
Seis, | 3 182 1 BUG ae 
tal Meta 2 15S Of) < 
7, Oy ia 4 
Shand 
8: | 75°1 | 54:0 | 73°2 | 47:0 | 64:5 | 189 
8 | 77:7 | 7°36 | 662 | 613 | 69-1 | 471 
8 | 85°38) 84:9] 734] ... | 78:0 | 21°3 
2 | 87:0) 94:0} 62:0] ... Bai0 sl Ieee 
2 | 44:0 | 57:0) 73°0| 51:0 | 63:0) ... 
4 | 50:0 | 60:0 | 66°0 | 88:0 | 55°0 
6 | 70:0 | 80°0 | 67:0 | 56:0 | ... 
2 11760 | 72:0 | 52:0) 59'0 | ar 
2 | 55:0 | 49°0 | 61:0 | 48°0] 1. oo 
3:0) $65°0. | '82°0 | 75:0/)/ Gai0") aie Ae 
4 | 57:0! 72:0! 59:0 ' 69:0! ... ee 


The following rough computation will 


give an idea of the amount of digestible 


matter in the forage raised on an acre 
planted to this crop. Under ordinary 
farm conditions the yield of green 
fodder usually ranges from 6 to12 tons 


ey Mey, 


y Aer 


‘pI ec alanes 
‘Mie 


' 


OcTOBER, 1908. | 


peracre. Taking 8tons as an average 
yield, the amount ot dry matter will be 
about 2 tons, of which about 54 per cent. 
is digestible. This will make the 
digestible matter raised on an acre of 
ground amount to nearly ;, tons. Of 
this amount about one-sixth is protein 
or muscle-making material, and about 
three-fourths crude fibre and other fat- 
forming substances. ‘ 


Soy-bean meal has a high percentage 
of digestibility. It contains almost two 
and a half times as much digestible 
protein and over five times as much 
digestible fat as the common roller- 
process wheat bran, and its digestibility 
is decidedly higher in everything but 
the fat than that of cotton-seed meal. 


VALUE AND USES AS A SOILING CROP. 


One of the most important uses of the 
soy bean is for green forage. The great 
variation in the season of maturity of 
the various varieties makes it possible 
to have a succession of forage lasting 
throughout a great part of the summer 
and autumn. Wherever tried it has prov- 
ed a most valuable forage for milk pro- 
duction. At the Massachusetts Station 
soy bean fodder gave excellent results 
in every combination tried. <A ration of 
grain soy bean and hay gave better 
results in five out of six cases than a 
ration of grain, vetch, oats, and hay, and 
also exceeded yrain and rowen hay. In 
another experiment, in which vetch, oats, 
fodder corn and soy bean were fed in 
connection with corn meal, gluten meal, 
and wheat bran or dried brewers’ grains, 
the soy bean made a remarkably fine 
showing, especially when fed with the 
dried brewers’ grains. This ration gave 
the largest average flow of milk in every 
case. The quality of the milk also im- 
proved. This clearly shows the addition 
of soy bean fodder to the ration of milk 
cows will have_a beneficial effect upon 
both the quantity and the quality of 
the milk. It tends to promote a narrows 
er nutritive ratio, and hence makes a 
more profitable ration for the production 
of milk and butter. Soy bean and sor- 
ghum make an excellent combination for 
green fodder; the former is rich in the 
muscle-making elements and the latter 
in the fat-forming ones. Both make 
large yields of forage per acre, and both 
will thrive under a great variety of soil 
and climatic conditions. These crops 
are among the best that can be recom- 
mended for dairymen throughout a large 
portion of the United States. 


AS A SILAGE CROP. 


A number of the State Experiment 
Stations have conducted experiments in 
making and feeding soy bean ensilage, 


42 


329 


Edible Products. 


and the results have been quite satis- 
factory. By using the larger, coarser- 
growing varieties a heavy yield of for- 
age may be obtained. The silage keeps 
well, is eaten readily by stock, and the 
animals show good results in flesh or 
milk production. Again, the cropis an 
easy one to put into the silo as compared 
with some others that are often used for 
this purpose. 


There are a number of reasons why 
the soy bean can usually be more profit- 
ably ensiJed than cured for hay. The 
ensilage is more palatable than the hay 
and can be fed with much less waste. 
There is also usually less loss in cutting 
the crop and putting it into the silo, 
owing to the liability of the leaves to 
fall off during the process of curing and 
storing the hay. Furthermore, the 
plants can be ensiled at any time from 
early blooming to early maturity with 
fairly good results, while, if cutting for 
hay is delayed much after the pods are 
well formed, the quality may be con- 
siderably impaired by the stems becom- 
ing woody and unpalatable. 


Excellent results are obtained by mak- 
ing a mixed ensilage of soy bean and 
corn, millet, or other crops richin fat- 
forming nutrients but poor in muscle- 
makers. The one supplies what the 
other lacks, and thus a more evenly 
balanced ration is obtained. All things 
considered, corn is the best crop that 
can be used with the soy bean for mak- 
ing sucha mixed silage. In filling the 
silo the corn and beans may be put 
down in alternate layers, and whatever 
further mixing may be necessary can 
be done when the ensilage is fed out to 
the stock. Professor Phelps, of the 
Connecticut (Storrs) Experiment Station, 
recommends this mixed silage very high- 
ly as an economical feed for farm and 
dairy stock. 


AS A Hay Crop, 


There can be no question as to the 
high feeding value of hay made from 
soy bean, cut in the right season and 
properly cured and preserved. Hven 
when the cutting is delayed until the 
seedis mature enough to harvest, the 
stem and leaves contain sufficient diges- 
tible substances to be of considerable 
value for forage. Unless the plants are 
cut in the proper season, however, much 
of the value of the forage will be lost on 
account of the woody character of the 
stems and the falling off of the leaves. 
It is, therefore, the best plan to ensile 
the crop if it becomes too mature before 
it can be cut. On account of its coarse- 
ness the hay is noteaten so readily as 
that ofmany other legumes, butthis may 


Edible Products. 


in a measure, be overcome by running the 
hay through a feed cutter before feeding 
it. All things considered, the soy bean 
cannot be used for hay as advanta- 
geously as for soiling or for ensilage. 
Nevertheless, it may often be profitably 
grown for this purpose, as, for example, 
in short rotations and in localities where 
clover cannot be relied upon. 


As A PASTURE PLANT. 


In some parts of the country, parti- 
cularly in the South, the soy bean crop 
is often pastured. Although hogs are 
perhaps most frequently used, all kinds 
of stock can be pastured on it. The crop 
can often be fed in this manner to a 
great advantage. The labour and ex- 
pense of harvesting is saved and the 
droppings from the animals are of great 
value to the land. Young stock, parti- 
cularly sheep and hogs, can be very pro- 
fitably pastured on this crop. Many 
farmers maintain that by this method of 
feeding the land is benefited as much as 
if the crop had been ploughed under, and 
they obtain the pasturage in addition. 


As A Soi RENEWER, 


One of the great advantages in grow- 
ing leguminous forage crops lies in the 
benefit which the soil derives from the 
nitrogen and other important elements 
of plant food that are left in it by the 
crops. Soils that have become impover- 
ished by continuous cropping with 
small grains or other nitrogen-using 
crops may be restored to fertility by 
the use of leguminous crops, as, for ex- 
ample, the clovers, cowpeas, vetches, 
lupines, and the soy bean, The value of 
a crop as a soil restorer, depends upon 
the amount of available plant food which 
it adds to the soil, and also upon the 
effect which the roots have upon the 


330 


4 


ae r 
” y 
ta ” 


mechanical condition of the soil. Legu- 


minous plants, through the aid of the 
root tubercle organisms, are able to add 
to the available nitrogen of the soil, and 
hence are extensively used in restoring 
those deficient in that element. 


The soy bean is highly valued in Japan 
as a nitrogen gatherer, andis extensively 
grown in rotation with cereal erops. 
When the soy bean was first introduced 
into the United States it did not form 
root tubercles, owing to. the absence of 
the tubercle organism from the soil, and 
it has been grown for several years in 
some localities without the appearance 
of any tubercles. In other cases ‘the 
tubercles have developed in great abund- 
ance after ashort time. At the Massa- 
chusetts (Hatch) Station the medium 
green soy bean produces great numbers 
of the tubercles. At the same station it 
was found that a liberal application of 
nitrates interfered with the develop- 
ment of the tubercles. 


In experiments made at the (Storrs) 
Experiment Station soy beans were 
planted in soil uninfested with the tuber- 
cle microbes, and then later in the sea- 
son (about the middle of July) a portion 
of the field was inoculated with infected 
soil. Tubercles were produced on the 
plants in the inoculated land, but, owing 
to the lateness of the inoculation, they 
made but little development, and no 
difference could be noticed between the 
crops grown on the two parts of the field. 


The manurial value of a crop of soy 
bean compares very favourably with 
that of other legumes commonly grown 
as green manures. In the following 
table is given a comparison of the ferti- 
lizing ingredients contained in the crop 
and roots produced on an acre by soy 
beans, cowpeas, and red clover :— 


YIELD OF GREEN FORAGE PER ACRE, AND FERTILIZING INGREDIENTS IN CROP AND 
Roots OF THE Soy BEANS, COWPEAS, AND CLOVER. 


Nitrogen. Potash (K¢0). Phosphoric acid. 
C Green (P205). 
rops. = meres meses = 
Coie Rocts, | Total, b 28. || Bonte.| ‘Total, | Cetp.. | Bese 
oots, | Tota oots otal. rop, oots otal. 
Crop ete. Crop. etc j etc. j , 
* | rons. | Ibs, | Ibs. |- lbs. | Iba dba) Ibs. | Ibs. pecans 
Soy Bean .. 94 165 9 174 109 6 115 42. 2 44 
Cowpea ...| 8 67 23 90 60 15 75 17 6 23 
Red Clover 13 138 44 182 152 32 184 32 13 45 


At the Massachusetts (State) Station it 
was estimated that the cash value of the 
essential fertilizing ingredients (nitrogen, 
phosphoric acid, and potash) contained in 
ton of green soy bean fodder would be 
about$2'44and that of cowpeas about $2'23. 


When acrop of soy bean or cowpea. is 
turned under for green manure, it 
should be well limed. This will obviate 
the bad effects sometimes experienced 


when a very heavy crop of legumes is 


ploughed under, 


BY iG a 
[OcToRER, 1908. 


 OcropER, 1908.) 


Though soy beans possess a very high 
value asa green manure, they do not 
seem to leave the soilin as good condi- 
tion when the crop is taken off as does 
clover and some other legumes, parti- 
cularly perennials. After considerable 
experimentation in Massachusetts the 
conclusion was reached that soy beans 
failed to enrich the soil sufficiently in 
available nitrogen to produce as good 
yields of small grains following them 
as did the clovers. 


VALUE OF THE BEAN FOR FEED. 


There is no other crop so easily grown 
that is so rich and can be used to touch 
good advantage in compounding feed- 
ing rations as the soy bean. Excepting 
the pea nut, there is no other raw 
vegetable product known which con- 
tains such high percentages of protein 
and fat in such a highly digestible form. 


For feeding to animals the beans 
should be ground and the meal used 
with some less concentratred feeding 
stuffs. Comparatively few experiments 
have as yet been made in the United 
States to test the feeding value of soy 
bean meal. Professor Brooks, in Massa- 
chusetts, found that it compared very 
favourably with cotton-seed meal. Cows 
fed on soy bean meal gave richer 
milk and produced a better quality of 
butter than when fed on cotton-seed 
meal, but on the latter the cream was 
richer. Professor Georgeson obtained 
excellent results in feeding hogs on a 
ration of which soy bean meal was a 
prominent constituent. His experiments 
are reported in detail in Bulletin No. 
61 of the Kansas Station, but the fol- 
lowing brief summary, taken from an 
article in the Industrialist for January 
11, 1897, gives the essential features of 
his tests :— 


It was found....thatalotof three 
pigs which was fed for 126days on a 
ration consisting for the first eleven 
weeks of Kaffir corn meal alone and the 
last seven weeks of Kaffir corn meal 
and shorts gained a total of 191 pounds, 
while a similar lot fed two-thirds Kaffir 
corn meal and one-third soy bean meal 
gained 547 pounds in the same time. 
Another lot of three pigs which was fed 
on corn meal for the first eleven weeks 
of the experiment and a mixture of two- 
thirds corn meal and one-thirds shorts 
for the last seven weeks of the experi- 
ment made a total gain of 306 pounds 
in 126 days, while a similar lot of three 
pigs fed on two-thirds corn meal and 
one-third soy bean meal throughout the 
experiment gained 554 pounds in the 
same time. The largely increased gains 
in these pigs must be credited chiefly 
to the soy bean meal. 


331 Edible? Products. 


SUMMARY. 


The soy bean thrives best in soils of 
medium texture well supplied with lime, 
potash, and phosphoric acid. It endures 
drought well, is not easily injured by 
excess of moisture, and may be grown 
about as far north as corn. 


The early varieties are best for seed 
crops, and the medium or late varie- 
ties for hay, forage, and silage. Seeds 
may be planted at any time during the 
spring and early summer, but prefer- 
ably as soon as the ground becomes well 
warmed up. Drill one-half to three- 
fourths of a bushel to the acre; broad- 
cast three-fourths to one bushel. 


Little cultivation is needed when grow- 
ing for forage; when for seed keep weeds 
down until plants shade the soil. The 
soy bean may be used for soiling, pastur- 
age, hay, and ensilage, or the beans may 
be harvested and fed as grain. 


The forage is very rich in fat and 
muscle-making materials, and should be 
fed with fodder corn, sorghum, or some 
other feeding stuffs rich in fat-forming 
nutrients. The seed can be fed to the 
best advantage when ground into meal, 
and is almost without equal as a concen- 
trated food. 


Cut for hay when the plants are in 
late bloom or early fruit; for ensilage the 
crop can be cut later, but it is better to 
cut before the pods begin to ripen; for 
green forage cutting may begin earlier 
and continue rather later than for either 
hay or ensilage; the crop may be cut for 


'seed after the. pods become about half 


ripe. 


The soy bean is excellent for green 
manuring and for short rotation -with 
cereal crops. It should be well limed 
when ploughed under as a green manure, 
—U. 8, Department of Agriculture, 
Farmers’ Bulletin, No. 58. 


SOY BEANS AS FOOD FOR MAN, 
By C. F. Lanawortuy, Pu.D., 
Office of Experiment Station. 


The soy bean has been used as a food 
for man in Japan, China, and neigh- 
bouring countries from the earliest 
times. In more recent years it has 
been cultivated for this purpose in 
Europe. As has been stated, there is a 
considerable number of cultural varieties. 
Analyses of the soy bean grown in 
various countries have been reported 
by a number of investigators, Some 
ot these are given in the following 
table:— 


Edible Products, 


382 


an 


ANALYSES OF THE Soy BEAN. 


r; Calculated to 
wa In fresh or air-dry material. Water-free 
ra substances. 
Variety. ie a ‘ TNs Ne 
o f Nitrogen 
¢ | Water. | Protein.) Fat free | Fibre Ash. |Protein.| Fat, 
ya Extract 
Perct. | Perct, | Per ct Eu rct, t. ti ot, 
Blears oeoeiti an aati Perc Perc Perc Per ct, | Perct, 
and France if el 12°71 32°18 | 1 31:97 4:40 4°71 36 87 _ 
e low grown, in China,Ger- 
many, and Austria tan|ej20 9°89 33°41 17°68 | 29-31 4°67 5:10 | 37:08 | 19°57 
rown, grown in China.,| | 
Germany, and Austria ...| 13 9°25 32:90 | 18:03 | 30°17 4°76 4°89 | 36:25 | 19'87 
Black, round, grown in Chi | 
na, Germany, and Austria} 5 11°23 33:97 17'1l | 28°41 4:55 | 4°73 | 3826 19:28 
Variety unknown, grown in | 
Switzerland by ..f = || (10°00 | 37:00 | 17:81) 25:00 4:96 | 5'23 | 41'M | 19°69 
Variety unknown, grown in 
China oes ai, Bea ros 9°00 | 35°50 | 16°40 | 92:59 | 11:65 | 486 39°01 | 18'02 
Variety unknown, grown in | | 
Hungary ... fia | — | 10°16 | 27-75 | 16:60 | 28:97 11°65\') | 4:8i |g 19'69 
Variety unknown, grown in | 
HMrance  ¢. re oof — | 12588 |) 85:00 | 13°60 F¥29%92 4°40 | 4:20 | 4018 1561 
Japan haat Ny Sete «-| — |} 11°30 | 37°80 | 20:90 | 24-00 2:20 | 3°80 | 42°60 |. 25:55 
Variety unknown, grown in | | 
India nee as wel 12°00 | 3600 | 18-00 29°|10 4:90 | 40:90 | 20:45 
Variety unknown, grown in 
Japan i Be P= sal OO Moe DI: 18:02 24°87 3°99 | 3:69 | 42°59 | 20°46 
Do 12°87 37°62 18:11 24°52 353 3°35 43°18 20'78 
Do — 10°30 39°75 11°98 28°59 0°43 395 44°31 13'36 
Do Soo ce veel — 42°05 20°46 — 4°53 4:19 — —_ 
Yellow, grown in America | — | 10°13 | 84:63 | 17:98 | 30°50 3°69 3°07 | 38:50 | 2000 
White, grown in America.. 17338 j\ (27256 19°09 28:24 4°42 4°31 33°40 21:90 
Black, rown in America .., 19°27 || 26°25 16°38 26°57 6'13 5:40 | 32°50 | 20°30 
Variety unknown, grown in 
America .. &6 .-| — | 10°00 | 35:25 16°89 | 30:69 2°45 4'72 | 39:10 | 18'80 
Average o American ana- 
lyses bc Hh «>| — | 10°80 | 33°98 | 16°85 | 28°89 4‘79 4°69 |} 38:10 | 19:00 
Comparatively little information i thelarge amounts of protein and fat 


available concerning the chemical char- 
acter of the different constituents of the 
soy bean. According to the Japanese 
investigators, the bean contains on 
an average 7°5 per cent. of nitrogen— 
69 per cent. being albuminoid nitro- 
gen, exclusive of peptones, Ol per 
cent. amide nitrogen, and 0°3 per cent. 
nitrogen of peptones. Osborne studied 
the nitrogenous constituents of white or 
kidney beans. He found that they con- 
tained on an average 23'5 per cent. of pro- 
tein, made up of phaselin and phaseolin, 
The percentage of protein in the soy 
bean is much higher than this, and it is 
not improbable that it differs materially 
in chemical character. According to 
Japanese authors, the soy bean contains 
no starch. No statements have been 
sound concerning the character of the 
at. 


The’fact is well recognized that beans 
of all kinds are valuable food because of 


which they contain. In order that the 
nutrients may be available, the beans 
must be cooked or prepared in some way 
so that the cell walls may be broken 
down and their contents readily acted 
upon by the digestive juices. What is 
true of beans in general is especially true 
of the soy bean. Though it is eaten 
more extensively in China and Japan 
than in any other countries, so far as 
can be learned, it is never eaten there as 
a vegetable, but more or less complex 
food products are prepared fromit. At 
least five preparations are commonly 
made in Japan from the _ soy bean. 
These are natto, tofu, miso, yuba, and 
shoyu. 


Natto is prepared by boiling the beans 
in water for tive hours to render them 
very soft. The hot massis then wrapped 
in small potion in straw, and the bundles, 
securely tied at both ends, are placed in 
a cellar in which a fire has been kindled. 


i 


{OCTOBER, 1908. 


i 
ay 


ay, 


ci, 


OcrosuR, 1908.) 


The cellar is then closed for twenty-four 


hours and the cooked beans allowed to 
ferment in the warm, moist atmosphere. 
The fermented product is a thick, viscid 
pees, and has a peculiar but not putrid 
odour. 


Tofu, or bean cheese, is prepared as 
follows :—The beans are soaked in water 
for about twelve hours, and crushed 
between millstones until of a uniform 
consistency. The ground material is 
then boiled with about three times its 
bulk of water for about an hour, and 
filtered through cloth. The filtrate is 
white and oqaque, having somewhat the 
appearance of milk. It has, however, 
the taste and smell of malt. This milky 
liquid, to some extent, resembles cow’s 
milk in composition, asis shown by the 
following table :— 


COMPARISON OF THE COMPOSITION OF 
Soy BEAN MILK AND Cow’s MILK. 


: Soy Bean Cow’s 
Constituents. milk. Salil 
Per cent. Per cent. 
Water ... 92°53 86°08 
Albuminoids 3:02 4:00 
abe i ssc is PAA 3 3°05 
Fibre 0:03 = 
Ash ifs fea O41 0°70 
Nitrogen-freeextract,in- 
eluding earbohydrates 1°88 — 
Milk Sugar aes ve 5°09 


The protein in soy bean is preceipi- 
tated by adding the mother liquor 


333: 


Edible Products, 


obtained in the manufacture of salt from 
sea water, which contains considerable 
magnesium chloride. The precipitate is 
filtered off and formed into cakes with 
the hands. It is eaten in the fresh state 
or frozen. In the latter case it loses 
part of its water. 


Miso is prepared from cooked beans 
which are rubbed to a thick paste and 
fermented with rice wine ferment. 
Miso is of two kinds, white and red, and 
to some extent resembles tofu. 


A sort of film forms on the surface of 
soy bean milk which in appearance 
suggests cream. This material is some- 
times prepared in quantity by evapor- 
ating the milk, and when dried it is used 
as an article of food under the name 
of yuba. 


Shoyu is a sauce prepared from a 
frozen mixture of cooked and pulverized 
soy beans, roasted and pulverized wheat, 
wheat flour, salt, and water. The mass 
is fermented with rice wine ferment in 
casks for from one and a half to five 
years, being very frequently stirred. 
The resulting product is a moderately 
thick brown liquid. In odour aud taste it 
is not unlike a good quality of meat ex- 
tract, though perhaps a trifle more 
pungent. Under tke name of soy sauce 
it has been known in India, and to some 
extent in Europe, for many years. 


The composition of each of the above- 
gescned foods is given in the following 
table :— 


COMPOSITION oF Foop PRODUCTS MADE FROM Soy BEANS. 


Boy Besrifood| water. | Protein. | Hat, | trees | Fibre Ash 

products. ater, rotein. : ae . ; 

| Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. 

Fresh tofu 89:00 =| = 5:00 S402 0 2°00 “en 0°50 
Fresh tofu 89°29 4°87 act 4°35 os 0°48 
Frozen tofu .. 18°70 48°50 28°50 2°60 be 1:70 
Natto 15°32 41°42 23°65 15°05 1-48 3°08 
Yuba 21°85 42°60 24°62 _ 7:65 ae 2:82 
White miso 50°70 5°70 24° 40 12°60 6°60 
Red miso 50°40 10°08 18°77 8°25 12°50 
Swiss miso 12°53 | «26°48 1391 19-54 141 | 26°18 
Shoyu O3°29 1 1) 8:31 Ae 5°10 | 19-45 
Shoyu 67°42 7°37 4:06 17°47 


It will be noticed that most of these 
soy bean products are fermented; that 
is, they are prepared with the aid of 
micro organisms. The cell walls . and 
other carbohydrate material are broken 
down and the cell contents rendered 
more accessible to the digestive juices, 
and at the same time peculiar and 


pleasant flavours are developed. The 
special micro organisms used in the 
preparation of these foods have been 
studied in recent years. The manu- 
facture of these products is of very 
ancient origin, and affords an interest- 
ing practical illustration of the use of 
bacteria for economic purposes. 


Edible Products. 


Though these soy bean products are 
prepared chiefiy in Japan and other 
eastern countries, their manufacture has 
been attempted to some extent in 
Switzerland and elsewhere. 


The statement is frequently made that 
the Japanese live almost exclusively 
upon rice, eating little or no meat. It 
is not, however, generally known that 
the deficiency of protein in the rice is 
made up by the consumption of large 
quantities of shoyu, miso, or other soy 
bean products. It is stated on good 
authority that these products actually 
take the place of meat and other nitro- 
genous apimal foods in the Japanese 
dietary. They are eaten in some form 
or other by rich and poor at almost 
every meal. 


Alarge number of dietary and diges- 
tion experiments have been made in 
Japan in which soy bean preparations 
formed a considerable part of the 
food consumed, although no _ experi- 
ments have been made, so far as can be 
learned, in which such preparations 
were eaten alone. Generally speaking, 
the nitrogen was well assimilated. For 
instance, when 12 grams of nitrogen was 
consumed daily, the dietary consisting 
of bean cheese and rice, only 0:1. gram 
of nitrogen was excreted in the feces. 
When 18:9 grams of nitrogen was con- 
sumed daily, in a dietary of bean cheese 
and barley, only 1:14 grams was excreted 
in the feces. According to the author, 
in a dietary containing a large amount 
of been cheese, 90 per cent. of the protein, 
89°9 per cent. of the fat, and 14°5 per cent. 
of the crude fibre are digestible. The 
general opinion of Japanese investiga- 
tors and others familiar with oriental 
dietetics is, that the protein in articles 
of food prepared from soy beans is ina 
very available form, and that these pre- 
parations are most valuable foods. 


Bean sausages in considerable variety 
are prepared in Germany, and formed 
part of the ration of the German soldier 
in the Franco-Prussian war. So far as 
can be learned, these are always made 
from ordinary varieties of beans and 
not from soybeans. 


Since soy beans contain no starch, 
they have been recommended as food 
for persons suffering from diabetes. A 
soy bean bread is manufactured for this 
purpose in Paris. 


Under the name of coffee beans, soy 
beans are eaten to some extent in 
Switzerland as a vegetable, and dried 
and roasted are also used as a coffee 
substitute. Their use for this latter 
purpose is not unknown in America. 
The attempt has recently been made by 


{Al 
i ack Ph 
ary yy 5 


Aye 9 


334 [Ocrosmr, 1908. — 


certain dealers to place the soy bean on 
the market as a new substitute for 
cotfee and to sell it under other names at 
an exorbitant price, 


Bulletin No. 98 of the North Carolina 
Experiment Station recommends soy 
beans as a palatable vegetable when pre- 
pared as follows: Soak the beans: until 
the skins come off and stir in water 
until the skins rise to the surface and 
then remove them. Boil the beans with 
bacon until soft, season with pepper, 
salt, and butter, and serve hot. If the 
beans are green the preliminary soak- 
ing may be omitted. No other references 
to the use of soy beans for human food 
in the Unitea States have been found. 
—U. 8S. Depuriment of Agriculture, Far- 
mers’ Bulletin, No. 58. 


COCONUT OIL IN THE STATES. 


According to the Oi, Paint, and 
Drug Reporter, the continued quiet in 
the New York Market for coconut oil 
has had a depressing effect, yet both 
Ceylon and Cochin, all things taken 
into consideration, have held their own 
fairly well, the wonder being that, with 
so many natural conditions against it, 
the market has not gone much lower. 
Starting in January, Ceylon oil was 
barely steady at 7} cents, and there 
was little support from buyers who 
have been particullarly shy this year in 
the matter of contracts. It has been 
a hand-to-mouth business, and what 
little stock there is is in the hands of the 
importers. Gradually the market weak- 
ened under the pressure of compettion, 
and the lack of interest shown, until 
Ceylon oil was freely offered at 63 cents. 


The depression is not wholly due to 
quiet times, but to excessive production 
of raw material at primary points. 
Seldom indeed has so much copra been 
produced as isshown by present_ stocks. 
It is estimated that there has been an 
out-turn of 370,000 tons all told, of which 
200,000 tons are credited to Java and the 
Dutch East Indies, 60,000 tons to the 
Straits Settlements, 70,000 tons to the 
Philippines, and 40,000 tons to Ceylon. 
In comparison with other years the 
excess has been remarkably heavy. In 
1905 there were produced, all told, 
286,000 tons, and during that year prices 
held fairly steady, fluctuating only 
between a low price of 6} cents and a 
high of 6? cents. In 1906 the out-turn 
was 290.000 tons, butit was a prosperous 
year for the oil trade, and the market 
showed unusual strength towards the 
end. Starting in January at 6% cents, 
there was a steady advance until at the 


 OcTOBER, 1908. } 93 


‘close of December Ceylon oil was held 
‘at 93 cents. 


The yield of coprain 1907 
was only 237,000 tons, and prospects 
favoured high-priced oil. The strength 
developed late in the preceding year 
was easily maintained until the record 
price of 10 cents was reached in March. 
Since then, however, the course has 
been ever downward, which lends col- 
our to the belief that prices must have 
been more or less fictitious. Be this as 
it may, coconut oil has been steadily 
declining. and by last December had 
dropped fully 3} cents from the high- 
level mark. At the close the local mar- 
ket was quoted at 7} cents. 


The present year, with its heavy 
estimated production of copra and gen- 
eral lack of demand, does not promise 
great things. Starting at 7} cents, 


Ceylon oil was gradually forced down ' 


until in Februray it sold on spot at 67 
cents. In March the big fire in Mar- 
seilles destroyed some4,000 tons of copra. 
Under ordinary circumstances this 
would likely have proved sufficient to 
bring about an advance, but it had no 
effect on the market at this time. In 
fact, oil during the month of March 
sold down to 64 cents. The present price 
is 62 cents, and with no buying support, 
and a heavy copra crop, the trade 
might be excused for wondering whether 
we are to havea recurrence of the low 
prices of five years ago, when Ceylon 
oil sold between 5 and 5? cents.—Tropical 
Life, Vol. IV., No. 6. June, 1908. 


COCONUT-PLANTING: TERRITORY 
OF PAPUA. 


(From Particulars supplied by Mr. N. R. 
ScHRODER to “ Dalgety’s Review.”) 


The interest which is being aroused 
in the Commonwealth at the present 
time by the possiblities of the territory 
of Papua for coconut and rubber culti- 
vation has induced Mr. N. R. Schroder, 
of Milne Bay, Papua, to send us some 
particulars of the former industry, 
which we have pleasure in publishing 
for the information of any intending 
planters. 


The territory is situated outside the 
hurricane zone, has an agreeable climate, 
and a plentiful rainfall (except in the 
dry belt of the Central Division). Thus, 
the planter has every advantage which 
Nature can bestow to render his enter- 
prise successful. 


The soil is considered equal in richness 
to any in the world, and our correspon- 
dent’s experience leads him to express 


5 Edible Products. 


it as his opinion that, in the course of a 
few years, when Australia has realised 
what a valuable asset she possesses right 
at her very doors, Papua will have 
become the most prolific and richest 
exporter of tropical products outside of 
Ceylon. Labour is plentiful and cheap, 
and land easily obtainable on the most 
liberal terms. 


A good deal has been written on the 
subject of coconut-planting during the 
last few years, mostly by people in India, 
but comparatively little has been said 
by those conversant with the conditions 
obtaining in the South Sea Islands and 
British New Guinea to help intending 
planters who may be thinking of taking 
up land in Papua, 


With regard to choice of land for culti- 
vation, if no island is available, and land 
is taken up on the mainland, it should 
be as flat as possible. If a river or two 
run through the property, so much the 
better. They will help to irrigate the 


land, and coconut require a great deal 


of water (running, not stagnant); if 
there are any swamps they must be 
thoroughly drained before any planting 
is attempted. 


After land has been taken up, the next 
step is to obtain labour to cultivate it. 

Boys” may be had from the local 
recruiting vesseis at from £1 15s. to £2 
per heed (for one-year boys). These 
figures refer to New Guinea. In the 
Solomon Islands the rate is from £4 to 
£6 per head for three-year boys. The 
food of these labourers consists of rice, 
sweet potatoes, with meat twice a week. 
They also get a tobacco allowance of, 
say, two sticks per week. Their only 
requirement in the matter of clothing is 
one Lava-lava every three months, and 
one blanket per boy per annum. 


There are many ways of clearing land, 
but the following method has been found 
the best. After the forest has been cut 
down, lop off all the branches of trees 
and then run a fire through. After this, 
stack all unburnt timber around stumps 
and big logs, and fire once again. Do 
this twice so as to leave as little dead 
timber as possible on the plantation, 
The timber, if left to rot, will in time 
manure the ground, but this method 
entails the harbourage of an immense 
number of grubs and beetles, and these 
insects, breeding rapidly, leave the old 
logs and take up their residence in the 
young sweet coconuts, causing untold 
damage. By firing the ground tho- 
roughly these insect pests are kept within 
bounds. 


Edible Products. 


NURSERIES. 


If there are no plantation near where 
seed nuts may be obtained, great care 
must be taken in the selection of nuts 
for planting. Itis better to depend on 
the natives for them, and to go per- 
sonally and buy them, inspecting the 
coconut-trees, and picking the nuts 
therefrom, taking particular care that 
the tree is not too old or too thin or too 
tall, but a young, vigorous, solid, and 
stout tree; also seeing that the nuts it 
bears are plentiful in number, and of a 
good shape. They should not be long 
and narrow, but round, with little husk 
and plenty of milk. Open them and 
note how thick the flesh is. Do not 
always choose the big-looking nuts, as 
they may have a very large husk and 
yet be small inthe nut proper. Take no 
nuts from yellow-looking trees. The 
dark-green trees are the best. 


Having gathered all the seed nuts 
required, make a nursery, hoeing up the 
ground toa depth of about 1 foot, and 
removing all weeds. In setting the seed 
coconut cover about two-thirds of it. 
laying itatan angle of about 45 degrees 
in the earth, covering lightly with leaves. 
When the young trees have reached a 
height of 12 or 18 inches transplant to 
the plantation, being careful to_pick 
out all the healthiest and to condemn 
the weak ones. This will be in about 
three months after the setting in the 
nursery. 


From the foregoing it will be seen that 
it is advisable to get the nursery going 
early, soas to be ready to plant out 
when land has been cleared and got 
ready to receive the young plants. No 
time is, therefore, lost by this arrange- 
ment. Advantage should always be 
taken of a downpour of rain, and plant- 
ing out should be undertaken imme- 
diately the ground is sufficiently mois- 
tened. 


In transplanting, a sharp knife should 
be used in order to slice the roots off 
close to the husk. Holes should be dug 
about 2 feet in depth and 2 feet in dia- 
meter, and the nut planted therein 
about 9 inches below the surface, a fill- 
ing of 9 inches of surface mould being 
placed at the bottom of the hole. The 
nut should then be completely covered. 
Keep a ring of about 12 feet in diameter 
around each plant, and the intervening 
ground well hoed and free from weeds, 
because the roots require a great deal of 
air and light during the first three years 
of the plant’s existence. 


The lining out of nuts should be done 
very carefully, so that the trees are in 
line both horizontally and traversely, 


336 


[OCTOBER, 1908. 


and so that they are not more than 30 
feet apart. No other ‘trees*should be - 
planted in between. Some planters have 
planted 33 feet apart, and are now 
putting rubber between the rows. This 
is considered a mistake, as both classes 
take a great deal out of the ground, and 
asthey attain to maturity their roots 
will become interlocked. Thus they will 
be fighting for supremacy beneath the 
surface, and are bound* to eripple each 
otherin the long run. If itis desired to 
cultivate both classes of trees, Mr. 
Schroder’s advice is to. strictly plant 
them apart. 


Insect PEsts. 


Beetles will, of course, be found on 
every plantation, however well kept it 
may be; but the clearing of the land of 
all dead timber will make the number 
very much less than if the logs were left 
to rot away on the ground. More beetles 
have been found in the coconut-trees 
planted on the outskirts of a plantation 
where the bush is rubbing shoulders, so 
to speak, than in the plantation itself, 
whence all dead timber has been 
removed. 


There are several kinds of beetles ini- 
mical to coconuts. The big ‘‘Rhino- 
ceros”’ species seems to do most damage. 
This beetle grows to a length of 2 inches 
and a girth of linch. It burrows a way 
through the young trees right into the 
soft heart. It does not require much 
imagination to estimate the damage this 
pest can cause. The tree willlook quite 
healthy, new shoots will spring out, and 
coconuts appear ason any other tree, 
but the nuts will never ripen—as soon as 
the flesh begins to form in it the nut 
will drop off. 


Until the beetle has been got out of 
the tree, the planter need not look for 
any return for all his work and outlay 
of money ; for the creature will continue 
to eat its way upwards towards the new 
shoots, and all the nuts will be affected 
the same as the first. This beetle, how- 
ever, can be extracted by an easy 
process. 


Procure a wire about 8 feet in length, 
with a handle at one end and the other 
end twisted corkscrew fashion. Now, 
look under the leaves and you will notice 
that the cloth around the tree appears 
as if it had been chewed by a rat; pull it 
away and the beetle’s hole will he 
visible; then push the wire up as far as 
it will go, twist it round, and in nine 
instances out of ten you will succeed in 
extracting the beetle. Dust the leaves 
near the trunk with Paris green, also 
putting Paris green in the hole. This 
will destroy any eggs the beetle may 


Ocrosur, 1908.} 


have left behind. A boy can be taught 


this method, and in a very little time he 
will become ‘quite an expert. It is well, 
however, to give him a tin and to make 
him bring the capiured beetles to you. 
It will be a matter of surprise what 
a large number he will find on a 
plantation where the logs have heen 
left to rot on the ground between the 
trees. 


Another small beetle which is very 
plentiful attains a length of half an inch 
but is very thin. It has a light-brown 
head and a dark body. This insect enters 
very young trees and feeds on the leaf that 
is just forming. Trees that are infested 
with this pest are easily distinguishable, 
for dry spots appear on the leaves. The 
presence of the beetle does not kill the 
tree, but retrads its growth consider- 
ably. Wood ashes or Paris green is an 
effective remedy; open out the new 
leaf very carefully and dust in the 
same manner as for the ‘‘ Rhinoceros” 
beetle. 


The grub isanother source of annoy- 
ance tothe coconut-planter. He enters 
the tree from the roots and works his 
way upwards, His presence can be 
detected by the grating sound which 
he makes. When the sound has been 
located a hole should be cut in the 
tree and the grub extracted. Fortun- 
ately, this pest is seldom met with, 
and visitations are rare from it in 
Papua. 


If the plantation be near the sea-front, 
all intervening timber should be cut 
away right down to the water’s edge, as 
the coconuts require plenty of air, and 
the salt sea breeze is very beneficial to 
them. Seaweed, too, makes an excel- 
lent manure, and helps the young 
nut considerably. It may be remarked 
here that the first two flowers should 
Be cut off, as this strengthens the young 
ree. 


ESTIMATE OF EXPENSES AND RETURNS: 


For the further guidance of intend- 
ing investors, a table is append- 
ed which gives approximately Mr. 
Schroder’s idea of the expenses incurred 
in runnirg two plantations of 1,000 
acres, and of the profits to be derived 
thereform. 


This estimate, our correspondent men- 
tions, is based upon a very low price for 
the product—viz,, £10 per ton. Copra 
he putsdown at £16 per ton in Sydney ; 
but £10 he considers a bed-rock figure, 
below which the market is very unlikely 
to go for many years. 


43 


337 


Edible Products. 


EXPENSES FOR THE First YEAR—AREA 
PLANTED, 500 ACRES. 


ES 
Manager 800 
Assistant Manager 200 
200 boys 900 
Tools 125 
23,000 seed nuts (imported) 231 
Food for boys.. 150 
Incidentals a 100 
Recruiting, tobacco, “medicine, 
blankets ae 500 
Returning boys 100 
Manager’s and Assistant’ s house .. 250 
£2,856 
SECOND YEAR—AREA PLANTED, 
3800 ACRES. 
£. 
Manager 300 
Assistant Manager 200 
150 boys 595 
20,000 ee nuts 140 
Food for boys nd 125 
Recruiting, tobacco, medicine, 
blankets a 40C 
Returning boys 75 
Incidentals 100 
£1,935 
THIRD YEAR—AREA PLANTED, 
180 ACRES. 
£. 
Manager 300 
Assistant Manager 200 
boys 450 
11,000 seed nuts 77 
i Recruiting, &e. 350 
Incidentals 100 
Food for boys 75 
Returning boys 50 
£1,602 
FourRTH, FIFTH, SIXTH, SEVENTH, 
AND EIGHTH YEARS. 2 
Manager 300 
Boys 450 
Tools 50 
Recruiting, &e. 350 
Food 15 
Returning boys 50 
Incidentals Be ABH 100 
Two Native Overseers ... 48 
£1,428 
SUMMARY. 
£. 
Hirst year 2,856 
Second year 1,985 
Third year ... 1,602 
Roun fifth, sixth, seventh, and 
eighth years “ 7,115 
£13,508 


Edible Producis, 338 — [OcroRER, 1908. a 


‘EXPENSES PER YEAR 1,000 ACRES 
FULLY PLANTED AND BEARING. 


&. 
Manager Ast ay 300 
Two Native Overseers... a7 48 
Boys’ wages ... ce 450 


Freight to Sydney, £1 10s. per ton 984 
Insurance, commission, 5s. per ton 164 


Incidentals ... ane ape 100 
Imports ae on ‘ies 100 
Recruiting and returning boys, &c. 300 
£2,446 

1,000 acres, bearing 53 trees to 


one acre. 


=53,000 trees in all at 
60 nuts on each tree (low estimate) 


8,180,000 nuts in all 


5,000 nuts to one ton copra 


636 tons copra per year 


£10 per ton Sydney price 


£6,360 income per annum 


TorsaL INCOME, EXPENSES, AND Net In- 
COME 1,000 ACRES, FULLY BEARING. 


£& 
Income AS te 6,360 
Expenses Ps fa 2,446 
Net Income ued £3,914 


During the first six years there is no 
income to speak of, with only a little 
during the seventh and eighth years. 
It is in the early stages, says Mr. 
Schroder, all expenses and hard work; 
but, with the exercise of economy, a 
1,000-acre plantation ought to be 
brought to maturity for £18,500.— 
Queensland Agricultural Journal, Vol. 
XX. Part 6, June, 1900. 


COCONUTS IN PORTO RICO. 


It is believed that there are good pros- 
pects of profit in connection with the 
coconut industry of Porto Rico, and the 
report of the Experiment Station of the 
island (1907) states that coconut planta- 
tions are increasing in number, while in 
addition a good deal of general planting 


of coconut trees is also being "done. The 


accompanying notes are taken from the 
report :— 


Efforts have been made by officers at 
the Experiment Station to obtain some 
data in regard to the number of fruits 
a tree will bear during the year. Though " 
many countings have been made, the e 
variation has been found to be so great 
that as yetitis impossible to give any 
accurate figures. Trees have been ob- 
served bearing as many as 225 nuts at 
one time, anda crop of from 125 to 159 , 
nuts has been found very common in ‘ 
the section where the coconut trees 
appear to flourish best. Most authors 
reporting on this subject give an 
average of 120to 125 nuts for the whole 
year, but from data gathered here it 
would seem as though there is a higher 
average in the better coconut sections of 
Porto Rico. 


Cultivation, fertilization, and seed 
selection are found to have an 
important infiuence on the rapidity of 
development of a coconut plantation, as 
well as on its productiveness. Krom 
data obtained it can be strongly recom- 
mended to those starting new groves 
that they look carefully to the physical 
condition of their soil, the selection of 
their seed, and the cultivation and ferti- 
lization of the trees. By paying atten- 
tion to these points they may gain from 
one to three years in the development of 
the plantations. 


Thus far none of the dreaded coconut 
diseases have been observed or reported. 
There are some minor “diseases present 
in the groves, but they are almost 
entirely due to neglect of the trees and 
are not to be feared by the careful 
grower.—A gricultural News, Vol. VIL., 
No, 161, June, 1908. 


GUAVA JELLY. 


The fact that guava fruits decay so 
readily on reaching a stage of ripeness 
renders their shipment on a commercial 
scale to outside countries almost impos- 
sible. The culture of the guava, how- 
ever, need not be the less remunerative 
on this account, since well-prepared 
guava jelly finds such a ready market 
in all countries where it is once known, 
that its production may well become a 
substantial source of profit. This ques- 
tion is referred to in the course of an 
article ‘“‘Some opportunities in Sub- 
tropical Fruit Growing,” that appeared 
in the Yearbook of the U. S. Department 
of Agriculture, 1905, and which contains 


/ 


— OctonrR, 1908.] 


the following account of the methods 
employed in Florida in the preparation 
of jelly and other guava conserves :— 


The guavas are picked up every morn- 
ing and taken to the factory, where 
they are weighed, and later sorted to 
remove any bad fruits that may have 
been delivered. The guavas are turned 
into a boiler for preliminary cooking, 
after which the juice is filtered through 
aheavy, coarse fabric, which prevents 
any of the pulp from passing through. 
The juice is afterwards bottled or put 
into jars, sterilized by means of heat, 
sealed, and kept in these vessels until 
the jelly is wanted on the market. The 
quantity desired is then taken from the 
containers, sugar is added. and the 
juice is boiled long enough to give the 
proper colour, when it is placed in the 
jelly containers and sent to the market. 
The fancy product is§put up in glass jars, 
sealed and labelled Properly, while the 
cheaper grades are placed in paper boxes, 
in which form the jelly is sold as cheap 
as 29e. per lb. retail. 


In addition to guava jelly, another 
product is sometimes made that resem- 
bles the jelly in firmness, but which 
might be briefly described as jellied 
marmalade. This preparation is known 
by several names, as guava cheese, 
guava paste, ete. It is moulded in 
various cubical or oblong shapes and 
wrapped in oil paper. The formulas for 
making it are very numerous, but in 
general it is composed of the best of the 
guava pulp, containing sufficient juice 
to cause it to become firm like jelly when 
properly cooked with the _ requisite 
amount of sugar. In addition to jelly 
and cheese, wine and vinegar are also 
made from the guava, both of which are 
said to be excellent. 


Canned guavas are rarely seen outside 
of the guava belt, but they make a fine 
appearance and are delicious. To pre- 
pare them for canning, the firm, ripe 
truits are chosen, pared and quartered, 
and then treated like any other fruit. 
The more fastidious housekeepers choose 
the thick-meated guavas, and in addition 
to paring the fruits. they also remove 
the seeds. The fruit that has become 
too ripe to make good jelly, or is not 
firm enough for canning, may still be 
used for marmalade. [Kor immediate 
table use, sliced guavas with sugar and 
cream make an excellent dessert. 


The Monserrat Preserving Industry 
Company, whose products were referred 
toin the Agricultural News, Vol. VII, 
p. 52, make a speciality of guava con- 


serves in different forms.— Agricultural 


News, Vol. VIL, No. 161., June, 1908, 


9 
We 


Edible Products, 


MISCELLANEOUS HKCONOMIC 
PLANTS.* 
By J. C. WILLIs. 


J, ABERIA. 


Aberia, often united to Doryalis, is a 
genus comprising some ten or eleven 
species found in Africa (West, South, 
and Abyssinia) and in Ceylot, but not in 
South India (one of many things that 
mark the former connection of Ceylon 
with Africa). In most English botanical 
text-books it is placed in the family 
Bixineze, but in more modern classifica- 
tions is placed in Flacourtiaceze. 


The only Ceylon species, A. Gardneri, 
Clos., called by the Sinhalese Ketambilla, 
is a tree 16-20 feet high, much branched, 
with male and female flowers on 
separate trees. The pale purple fruit is 
globular, about an inch in diameter, 
with a velvety hairiness. It is found, 
but not commonly, in the neighbourhood 
of Kandy, Hanguranketa, Maturata, 
Wilson’s Bungalow, and elsewhere from 
1,000 to 4,000 feet elevation. Its greenish 
flowers come outin June, and the fruit 
is usually ripe in August. Plants are 
sometimes for sale at Peradeniya at 
25 cents each. 


The fruit of this plant is eatable and 
has quite a pleasant acid flavour, but a 
great objection is the hairy skin, and it 
is better made into jelly. Trying an 
experiment in the manufacture of this the 
other day, we found that eighty fruits 
weighed 2 lbs. They were covered with 
water and then boiled down to 2% Ilbs., 
to which 3 lbs, of sugar was added. This 
was perhaps a little too much, but made 
a distinctly good jelly, with a magni- 
ficent colour. The jelly has proved of 
much use in cooking with plantains. 
The fruit is also said to make good tarts. 


There is no information forthcoming 
regarding the West African and Abys- 
sinian species, other than that the fruits 
of the latter are edible, but of the South 
African species it is recorded that 
A. rhamnoides and A. rotundifolia, 
known as Zuurebesjes or Kaffir plums, 
form a good jelly, while A. Caffra, the 
Kei apple, is a popular eating fruit in 
Natal. This species was long ago (at least 
as early as 1884) introduced into Ceylon, 
and planted at Peradeniya and Hakgala. 
It has not yet fruited at Peradeniya, 
but at Hakgala atree borea few fruit 
in 1889 and until 1904, when it died. 
There is another tree there, about 
17 feet high, that has not yet fruited. 


* In this series of papers I propose to give 
the results of the examination and arrange- 
ment of our departmental files which is now 
going on as time permits, —J. C. W 


Fidible Products. 840 


CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE KNOW- 
LEDGE OF CACAO FERMENTATION. 


The following paper has been compiled 
from the Dutch, by the acting Curator, 
Government House Gardens, A. Fred- 
holm, Esq. It is of considerable interest 
to Cacao planters, and explains much that 
was previously mysterious in the ‘“ Rule 
of Thumb” methods so generally adopted 
in carrying on the Fermentation of 
Cacao. 


There is still, however, the fact that the 
quality of Cacao, though improved by 
fermentation, depends more upon the 
special variety cultivated, than upon 
any method of fermentation which can 
be employed. 


CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE KNOWLEDGE OF 
THE FERMENTATION OF CACAO, 


By Dr. J. SAck 


In Bulletin No. 10 of ‘‘Inspectie van 
den Landbouw in West Indie” issued 
from Surinam, January, 1908, appears an 
article by Dr. J. Sack entitled, ‘‘ Con- 
tributions to the knowledge of the fer- 
mentation of Cacao” recording some 
useful researches. The following is a 
brief synopsis of Dr. Sack’s work :— 


After showing in afew concise para- 
graphs, treating of the various modes 
of Cacao-curing in vogue, that little 
change has taken place therein since the 
first shipment of Cacao was made from 
Surinam to Holland in 1733, he suggests 
that by the aid of scientific investigations 
the curing may be improved so as to pro- 
duce an article of higher market value. 
The way to obtain this desirable end is 
obviously by studying the fermentation 
process by which the curing is done. 


Before entering upon a description of 
the process itself, he asks and replies by 
means of experiments to three questions 
regarding the nature of, and the condi- 
tions needed for, fermentation. 


. Question I.—Is the fermentation of 
Cacao a Chemical or Biological process ? 


In order to demonstrate whether the 
fermentation is the result of purely Che- 
mical reactions taking place among the 
constituents of the pulp and the kernel 
without the intervention of bacteria, 
fungi or other organisms, Dr. Sack takes 
four equal measures of Cacao numbered 
1, 2, 8, and 4. Numbers 1 and 2 were 
treated in the customary curing manner, 
to number 3 was added formaldehyde, 
and to number 4 chloroform, both pre- 
parations destructive to life while not 

nfluencing chemical activities. Flermen- 
ation is always accompanied by rise of 
emperature. In numbers 1 and 2 the 


[OcTOBER, 1908. 


temperature rose from 28°C. to 40°, in 
numbers 3 and 4 it remained at 28°C, 
Nos. 1 and 2 were now in their turn 
treated with chloroform, with the result 
that fermentation ceased shortly, reduc- 
ing the temperature to 28°C. 


This experiment establishes the fact 
that the fermentation of Cacao is prima- 
rily not a chemical but a _ biological 
process. 


Question 1I.—Is the free access of air 
necessary to the fermentation process > 


Four cylinders provided witha drainage 
tube were made, and in each was placed 
four kilograms of fresh cacao beans. 
Two were so constructed that air could 
freely circulate among the beans, the 
other two were completly sealed. In 
the two first cylinders the normal fer- 
mentation preceded, in the two which 
were air-tight the beans rotted. 


Result.—F ree access of air necessary 
during the fermentation process. 


Question I1I.—Is the rise of temper- 
ature caused by changes in the sugary 
contents of the pulp? 


The sweet taste of the pulp, as well as 
the strong odour of vinegar given out 
during the curing, points to the presence 
of sugar in the pulp. Two lots of beans 
were put to ferment. From one the pulp 
was removed through washing, the other 
lot retained the pulp. The unwashed lot 
fermented, the washed failed to ferment. 
After addition of syrup to the washed 
beans, fermentation began. 


These experiments proved that the 
sugar in the pulp is essential to the fer- 
mentation and the incidental rise of 
temperature. 


Dr. Sack goes on to discuss the fermen- 
tation process itself. He divides his sub- 
ject in two parts, viz., the fermentation 
of the pulp which he ealls externa] fer- 
mentation, and the fermentation of the 
kernel the internal fermentation. 


The external fermentation he describes 
asfollows:—As soon as the beans are 
heaped for fermentation microscopic 
organisms, which have the power to con- 
vert the sugar contained in the pulp 
first into alcohol and subsequently into 
vinegar, enter the mass. The change 
from sugar to alcohol is caused by 
fungi by which sugar in the presence of 
water is changed into alcohol by setting 
free oxygen, a well-known process. The 
changing of the alcohol into vinegar he 
considers an oxidation process caused 
by bacteria and gives chemical formula 
C2,, He O+02 = Cz Hi OF + He O. The 
process requires free access of air and 
during it heat is developed. 


. 
: 
' 


OcToRER, 1908.| 


' The internal fermentation shows as 
follows :—So long as the seed remains 
alive, no chemical process seems to take 
place, but, as soon as dead, such process 
sets in. The temperature developed by 
the fermentation of the pulp causes the 
death of the contents of the kernel. 


He made the following experiments to 
establish the temperature at which 
death took place. Tosecure for the ex- 
periments well germinating and uniform 
seeds special care was taken. ‘Ten seeds 
were exposed for three hours to a tem- 
perature of 43° C., all germinated. After 
an exposure lasting six hours four ger- 
minated but with unhealthy looking 
sprouts. When exposed nine hours one 
germinated. Of ten seeds which were 
exposed for six hours to a44 C. tem- 
perature none germinated. 

As the temperature usually developed 
during the external fermentation reaches 
- 45° C. and is continued for at least four 
days, it is fairly certain that all the 
seed-germs are killed and the internal 
fermentation has set in. 


- The next, investigate the change of 
colour taking place in the kernels. The 
change from purple in the unfermented 
bean to brown in the fermented appears 
to be the result of some agent or agency 
present in the kernelitfself, as no direct 
“connection seems to exist between the 
two (external and internal) fermenta- 
tions. This agent is an enzyme, and a 
series of experiments are conducted to 
prove this assertion. A comprehensive 
understanding of the subject can be 
gained by noting the result of these ex- 
periments without going into detailed 
descriptions of them. 


If kernels are finely pulverized the 
change of colour takes place, free access 
of air being essential. 


Tf the kernels are previously steeped 
in boiling water no colour-change occurs. 

If to the steeped mass some unsteeped 
kernels are added the colour changes. 


The enzyme manifests the greatest 
activity ata temperature ranging from 
45°C. to 60°C. (optimum temperature). 


Through the usual method of washing, 
filtration and alcoholic precipitation a 
culture of the enzyme was made. From 
one kilo of beans about one-half gram of 
culture was obtained. 


When some of this enzyme-culture was 
added to a quantity of pulverized beans, 
which had been immersed in boiling 
water, colouring took place in one hour. 

When the temperature of the mass 
was for five minutes raised to 100°C. (a 
temperature at which enzymic activities 


ddl 


Edible Products. 


generally cease) it retained its original 
colour. 


The chemical process occasioned by 


the enzymic is explained thus :— 


The beans contain a glucoside Cacao- 
nine Osco Hgs Ois Na, (Hilger) and a large 
percentage of water. During fermen- 
tation oxygen is taken up. The result 
of the fermentation is Theobromine, 
C; Hs O2 Na. dextrose Co Hiz Os and 
cacao red C17 H22 Or, 


Ceo Hsg O15 Na +8 He O + 250 = C7 He 
O2 Na + 6C¢ HizO6 + Ci7 Hye Org, 


One molecule of Cacaonine, § molecules 
of water and 24 molecules of oxygen are 
thus converted into one molecule of 
Theobromine, six molecules of dextrose 
and one molecule of cacao red. 


Theobromine is an alkaloid which im- 
parts to Cacao its pungent and bitter 
taste. Cacao red has been considered 
the ingredient from which Cacao derives 
its characteristic smell and flavour. Dr. 
Sack by confirming Hilger’s and Lazarus’ 
work proves the fallacy of this sup- 
position; Cacao red being a perfectly 
tasteless and colourless powder. 

As unfermented Cacao beans give no 
scent in cooking, it is evident that the 
scent is acquired through some product 
of the fermentation. Some pulverized 
fermented Cacac was distilled and re- 
distilled with steam, anda volatile oil 
called cacao-oil produced. This oil 
possesses the scent and the flavour 
pecular to cacao. It is present in small 
quantities, 20 kg. of Cacao yielding only 
lee. of the oil. 


In closing Dr. Sack sums up the con- 


tents of his paper :— 


“While curing Cacao fungi enter the 
pulp, setting up an alcoholic fermenta- 
tion through which the sugar of the 
pulp is split up into alcohol and oxygen ; 
the alcohol is by admixture of the 
oxygen of the air further oxydized 
forming vinegar, during which process a 
considerable amount of heat is developed. 
This constitutes the external fermenta- 
tion. When the temperature reaches 
about 45° C, the germinating powers of 
the seeds are destroyed. As soon as this 
takes place the internal fermentation 
sets in, which is an enzymic fermenta- 
tion process causing the Cacaonine to 
be split up into Theobromine, Acetrose, 
Cacao red and Cacao-oil.” 


The aim of Cacao-curing is threefold: 
To remove the useless pulp, thereby 
insuring the ‘‘ keeping” of the Cacao; 
to produce theobromine, which gives to 
Cacao its stimulating properties; and to 
generate Cacao-oil which makes the 
Cacao palatable.—Bulletin, Botanical 
Departinent, Trinidad, No. 58, April, 1908. 


Edible Products. 


NUMBER OF PODS PRODUCED BY 
TREES ON A CACAO ESTATE. 


Following article 846 on the crop of a 
single tree, published in April, 1907, a 
leading planter has favoured the De- 
partment with an account of a crop 
for 1907, calculated by the number of 
pods taken from (12) selected trees grow- 
ing on four different sections of his 
estate. 


The actual number of pounds of Dry 
Cacao cannot be accurately estimated, 
as the size of the pods is not given, but 
as it is seen that the 95 pods give 19 lbs. 
of wet cacao, it allows 5 pods to the lb. 
of wet cacao—and deducting 62°5 per 
cent. forloss in curing, it would show a 
return of some 24 lbs. of dry cacao per 


342 


[Ocrormr, 1908. 


tree for selected trees on this estate. 
As the accuracy of this calculation de- 
pends upon a single weighing, further 
experiment is necessary to correctly cal- 
culate the weight of dry cacao to be 
taken from any certain number of pods. 
It is evident, however, that trees giving 
a certain return of 3242 pods in one 
year, are not uncommon, and the problem 
should be capable of solution, which 
would convert the trees now yielding 
only a single pound of dry cacao per 
annum, into trees yielding at least 10 to 
15 lbs. of dry cacao. 


If trees bearing over 800 pods per 
annum were propagated by budding or 
grafting, it is certain that larger yields 
might be confidently expected. As an 
officer of long experience I am convineed 
that it can be done.—WHO WILL MAKE 
THE HNDEAVOUR? 


YIELD OF TWELVE Cacao TREES, DIEGO MARTIN WARD. 


Pods Harvested from March 1st, 1907, to February 29th, 1908. 


No. of Trees. | Total per 
oe ara Picking. 
1) ate aS Re ales: |.°9: |) 10 '|aam tes 

3rd January, 1907 ..., : 9 | 12/15 [18 5 | 18) 17 | 15 | 29| 24] 138] 6 166 
2nd April, a of 10 1/12 518) 29) Sie aaa | 7.) 18. ees eleeeae 202 
DAE! ,, cs is Tb Ws Plece Mes lin sed ess ATCT Mae Pe f 64 
23rd May . 92) 21 83) 64 864) ARG! TE) 414 Osean 134 
27th June es ...|46| 4/16]16| 83] 5 | 30 | 84 | 10) 11 | 24 | 42 321 
22nd July ss oe) BOM 71 Sl BO 27st es ees oe 13. | Ty Soa eel 249 
27th August, B22, eA OMG 3) 90) aaa 226 
24th September.,, seb MON DA Of 21) AN GR EMT OS he 0 |!) °4. 0) UNI RS 37 
22nd October ,, sl OL CsONl Bylo O 4S era he 1 | 12 Gia 63 
12th November ,, ee] Ot 0 1) Aa LZ OM AG G8... «8 ) Oi 99 
srd December ., wee LA | 16 123) 4 | 4 MS 1 ).13° | 38 | bales 139 
17th “6 3 oc} 82.114 142-0 3) TQ MNSS 4.50: | 41 |) 23a 307 
8rd January, 1908 _ ...| 57 | 40 [113 | 11 | 22 | 21 | 85 , 29 | 88 | 84 | 22 | 11 533 
9th ‘3 a ..| 25 | 81} 68 }17| 6] 19] 47] 17 | 14 | 75 | 36) 6 351 
20th February ., ..| 88 | 10 | 81 | 16 | 18:| 19:1 59.) 28 \ 24 | 84 | 804737 344 
Total per trees 1385 |142 1851 |189 [278 |181 [867 [242 [218 /355 |227 260 | 3,045 


AVERAGE PER TREE FROM 12 TREES— 
253°9 Pops. 


The six best trees gave pods as fol- 
lows :— 


No. 7 367 |) 
55 
5 A bp a | Average per tree 
i Fi eee 995 u from six trees— 
ae the Wong | 324°3. 
ein 260 J 


— Bulletin, Botanical Department, Tri- 
nidad, No. 58, April, 1908. 


PRICKLY PEAR AS FODDER. 


Some time ago, Mr. R. T. Keys, Mus- 
wellbrook, wrote on the above subject 
to the ‘‘Stock and Station Journal,” and 
we drew attention to his remarks, as 
some people have a firm belief in the 
value of the pear, and not only as a 
life-sustainer in dry seasons, but even 
as a fattening fodder. Mr. Keys 
remarks are as follows :— 


By advocating the use of the noxious 
weed at this adverse period of our 
history, when stock-owners are eager 
to discover drought-resisting _ plants, 


OcrosEr, 1908.] . 


Bas 
a ea 


much injury may be done to the pas- 
toral industry by causing some graziers 
to relax their efforts in the eradica- 
‘tion of prickly pear, on account of 
men of standing hastily giving it a 
fictitious value, and mayhap thus cause 
valuable properties to be overrun with 
the pest ina year or two, and rendered 
worthless. In a conversation [ had 
with Mr. Maiden, the well-known _ bo- 
tanist, and Curator of the Sydney 
Botanical Gardens, a year or two ago, 
we discussed the question of the utility 
of prickly pear for fodder, and he 
assured me that analyses by himself 
and other scientists has proved beyond 
doubt that the earth does not produce 
a plant with less nutriment for stock 
than the prickly pear, and he accord- 
ingly urged every true friend of the 
pastoral industry, and consequently 
patriotic son of the State, to never 
lose an opportunity in helping on the 
work of its eradication. ‘‘If” added 
Mr. Maiden, ‘‘ you were to put a handful 
of pollard into a 400-gallon tank filled 
with prickly pears, that small quantity 
of pollard would have more life-sustain- 
ing nutriment for stock than the whole 
of the pears with which it had been 
mixed.” 


Mr. F. S. Bell, of Pickering, who has 
had a life-long experience as a grazier, 
recently put the prickly pear to a 
thorough test, and no greater object 
Jesson was ever given in New South 
Wales of its utter worthlessness as 
fodder than that which resulted from 
the comprehensive experiments of my 
esteemed neighbour. Like all stock- 
owners, Mr. Bell was severely affected 
by the drought, and could have turned 


his cattle into a large paddock covered: 


with prickly pear; but, having had 
forty years’ experience of the plant, he 
felt certain that trying to graze stock 
upon it would be useless ; but he resolved 
to thoroughly test it otherwise, and 
prove if it were able to sustain bis 
stock, and capable of helping them 
through the severely dry time we were 
experiencing. He, therefore, had consi- 
derable quantities of the prickly pear 
plants cut, and went to great expense 
in erecting pots in different parts of his 
paddocks for the thorough boiling of 
the pears. In this way he fed 400 
bullocks for nearly three months, but 
they did no good on the prepared pear 
fodder, became poorer from week to 
week, until at last Mr. Bell had to send 
them away to the coast to save their 
lives. 

No better trial of the value of the 
pear than the foregoing was ever given 
in Australia, and no more experienced 
or practical man to deal with the sub- 


343 


Edible Products. 


ject under notice can be found in the 
Commonwealth than the gentleman who 
made the test. Yet, in the face of this 
lifelong experience and complete test, 
Mr. Peele will contend that cattle were 
fattened at Womblebank on the worth- 
less and noxious plants. I might also 
be permitted to point out to Mr. Peele, 
and anyone who may think with him, 
that the Hunter River stock-owners 
have had more experience of prickly 
pear than the graziers of any other 
part of Australia, inasmuch as the 
noxious weed was first brought to Scone 
in the thirties, and they are unanimous 
in condemnation of the pest; a number 
of the most experienced of them hav- 
ing recently had miles of prickly pear 
to put their stock on, had they so 
desired, but they sent their cattle to 
the coast, knowing that it would be 
madness to try and keep them alive on 
the noxious plant. 


With. regard to the Womblebank 
bullock theory, an old Womblebank 
stockman who has been recently visit- 
ing Muswellbrook has given me what 
seems to be acorrect version of the pear- 
fattening story, and a very reasonable 
explanation of how the fattening of the 
stock in question was effected. It appears 
that at Womblebank there isan extensive 
growth of pears that covers an area of 
15 miles, but the vegetable products on 
that portion of land do not consist 
solely of prickly pears, for an exploration 
of the locality disclosed the fact that 
it contained patches of good grass 10, 
15 and 20 acres in extent, which had 
been preserved by the surrounding 
growth of pears, that, barrier-like, had 
kept cattle out until the great scarcity 
of food caused the bullocks to break 
through and reach the grass, which 
although old and dry, was still nutritious, 
and enabled the bullocks to preserve 
tbeir condition when stock in other 
parts of the run wasted away, the pears, 
as explained, therefore getting un- 
deserved credit for the fattening result. 


I am well aware that Mr. Peele is as 
much interested as anyone else in the 
welfare of the State, and _ strongly 
desirous of promoting the pastoral in- 
dustry; but, his ill-advised, though 
strong, advocacy of the use of the 
prickly pear, by influencing others, 
might some day cause an intelligent 
Government to take steps to protect 
the noxious weed to the general detri- 
ment of the landholders of the country. 
It is, therefore, to be hoped that he 
will discontinue his advocacy of the 
use of the pear till possessed of full 
information in its regard, and which 
J am sure will convince him of its 
worthlessness. 


Edible Products. 344 


I will concede that stock will eat 
prickly pear when all edible grass and 
serub have failed, and while feeding on 
it will require little or no water; but 
they will never thrive on it, as has 
been conclusively proved by the illus- 
trations given. 


Anyone who will take the trouble 
to open beasts that have been fed on 
prickly pear will see the mouths and 
entrails penetrated with thorns, and 
then realise the cruelty, as wellas the 
futility, of giving the animals such 
food.—Queensland Agricultural Jour- 
nal, Vol. XXI., Part 2., August, 1908. 


PINEAPPLE CULTURE. IV. 
HANDLING THE CROP. 


INTRODUCTION. 


The evolution of the methods of pre- 
paring pineapples for market has cover. 
ed a period of about twenty years- 
From a crude beginning the methods 
have gradually changed from year to 
year, until now the care given to the 
handling of the pineapple crop wiil com- 
pare favourabiy with that bestowed 
upon any other fruit found in our fruit 
markets. 


At first, pineapples were shipped in 
old or disearded barrels with holes 
chopped in their staves to ensure ventil- 
ation. An old jute sack put over the 
top and held in place by the top hoop 
served asacover. About 1890 the barrel 
crate, 12 by 20 by 386 inches, was in use 
and continued to be used until discarded 
in favour of the crate, holding approxi- 
mately ahalf barrel, measuring 103 by 
12 by 36 inches, This crate is still in use. 
The crates at first were marked witha 
pencil or brush, but finally the rubber 
stamp was introduced. 


Inthe packing of pineapples in the 
early days no wrapping paper was used. 
Then common newspapers were used for 
wrapping. These were followed by 
plain manilla sheets, and finally coloured 
and stamped paper came into vogue. 


The first pineapples (1885 and_ later) 
were shipped by sail boat on the Indian 
River to Titusville. thence they were 
hauled across to the St. John’s River to 
be loaded on the steamer. It was not 
util the present territory was opened 
up by the railroad that the pineapple 
industry took rank among the important 
horticultural crops of the State. 


PACKING HOUSES AND EQUIPMENT. 


The pineapple packing house should 
be so arranged as to give every possible 


of ie 
i, bil 


convenience for handling the fruit. The 
picking season is usually quite short, 
the bulk of the fruit being removed in 
about three weeks. During this time 
the fruit must be moved rapidly to pre- 
vent its becoming overripe, and a con- 
veniently arranged packing house goes a 
long way in facilitating the work. 


As a general principle the fruit should 
enter at one end or side of the building, 
and as the several steps in the process 
of packing are performed, it should be 
moved away from the point of entry. 
The packing house should be construct- 
edso asto render lifting the fruit or 
packed crates unnecessary. Plenty of 
light, air and good protection against 
heat should be afforded. If the house 
can be placed close beside a side track, 
so as to load the packed crates directly 
into the car, it will be found very con- 
venient, as well as less expensive. 


The packing house need not be expen- 
sive, but it should be well and substanti- 
ally built. Two convenient houses have 
been erected by Mr. C. T. McCarty, 
President of the Florida State Horti- 
cultural Society, Eldred, Fla. The first 
of these is two stories high, 40 feet long 
and 20 feet wide, surrounded by a plat- 
form 8 feet wide. This platform is pro- 
tected on the east and west by 8 feet of 


overhanging roof. This gives a protect- - 


ed platfor.a 80 feet long and 8 feet wide. 
Inside the fruit bin extends along one 
side the entire length of the building 
(40 feet), It is 3 feet wide, 16 inches 
deep, and holds one hundred and twenty 
five crates of pineapples when full. 


The upper story holds 1,000 crates 
made up, and there is sufficient floor 
space below to hold 3,500 crates at the 
same time, leaving plenty of room for 
erate making, packing and heading up. 
'The entire east side can be opened up to 
admit air and take in fruit. This is 
done by a seriesof windows hung on 
pulleys and operated from inside. The 
fruit is brought from the field in wheel- 
barrows. The south end and west side 
are provided with six-foot sliding doors. 
Sucha packing house can be used in 
handling a crop of 38,500 to 4,500 crates 
conveniently, and costs $600. 


The second house is larger, 50 by 20 
feet, two stories high. The roof projects 
twelve feet, the platform along one side 
only beneath the projection is four feet 


wide. The south end is provided with a 


six-foot platform. The fruit bin at pre- 
sent extends the length of the building, 


three feet wide, two feet high from the ~ 


floor, twelve inches deep, and will hold 
one hundred and fifty crates. 


[OcrosER, 1908, 


: 
| 


— OcToBER, 1908. | 


Just over the fruit bin are eight 
windows, four feet by four feet, provid- 
ed with shutters. These shutters swing 
outward and upward, being held up by 


ropes provided for that purpose. The 
fruit is brought in from the fields 
in wagons, unloaded cn_ the _ plat- 


form outside just under the windows 
and emptied through them into the 
fruit bin inside. In the north end 
there are two windows similar to 
those over the fruit bin. In the south 
there is one window and one sliding door 
and two sliding doors and two windows 
on the west side. The sliding doors are 
six feet, The upper story of the build- 
ing gives ample room for crate making 
and storage of crate material. It will 
hold about 1,500 made-up crates. This 
building cost complete about $1,000. 


Packing Tables.—These are laced 
alongside the fruit bins to hold the 
’ erates while they are being packed. A 
smaller one sometimes stands between 
the packing table and the bin and in 
front of the packer to serve as a wrap- 
ping. A convenient length for the pack- 
ing table is about eight feet. It should 
be made twenty-seven inches high and 
fifteen and a_ half inches wide. 


Nailing Tables.—For placing the heads 
on the crates a_ slightly lower table 
(twenty-one inches high) of the same 
width should be provided. <Asthecrates 
are packed they are slid off on to the 
nailing table and there headed up. One 
man will nail up about as rapidly as two 
can pack. 


Paper T'rays.—Trays for holding the 
wrapping paper should be provided. If 
substantially built, these will serve as 
wrapping tables as well. 


The tray should be slightly wider and 
a couple of inches longer than the paper. 
It should be made so as to hang on the 
edge of the fruit bin in such a way as to 
permit of its being shoved along from 
one place to another. 


KIELD EQUIPMENT. 


Wheel-barrows.—For bringing the fruit 
infrom the field, an ordinary wheel- 
barrow is frequently used. It should be 
light, but strongly built, and provided 
with a rack two feet high. Such a 
wheel-barrow will hold three or four 
erates of pineapples. The wheel should 
be four inches wide to prevent its sink- 
ing in the yielding sand. A plank track 
should be provided if the wheel be any 
narrower, and at any rate, planks should 
be laid down in the main trails, 


44 


345 


Edible Products, 


Tracks and Cars.—Tracks may be laid 
through the field and provided with 
proper switches, This makes one of the 
most convenient methods of bringing 
Pree quantities of fruit to the packing- 

ouse, 


The track can be made of 2by 4 inch 
or 3 by 3 inch scantlings. The cross ties 
may be made of the same material. 
Cars can be made by anyone at all handy 
with tools, ordinary tram car trucks, or 
such as are used on hand-cars being used 
for wheels and axles. 


In many parts of the pineapple district 
the natural fall of the ground is sufficient 
to permit of the loaded cars being 
brought to the packing-house by simply 
allowing them to slide down hill. A 
brake should be provided to be managed 
by one man riding on the back of the 
ear. The empty cars can be returned by 
man power, unless the incline is very 
steep. 


Mule power may be used. If a mule or 
horse is used a path can be made along: 
side the track for the animal, or the 
space between the cross ties may be 
filled in to make a level path. Occasion- 
ally asmall gasoline engine is used as 
the propelling power, an excellent plan 
where large quantities of fruit have 
to be transported any _ considerable 
distance. 


Baskets.—Bushel baskets may be used 
in gathering the fruit, 7.e.,in bringing 
it from the beds to the tram cars, or 
even in some cases to the packing-house. 
one baskets should be strong and well 
made. 


Mitts and Leggings.—For the protec- 
tion of the hands and clothing of the 
pickers some covering is necessary. 
Leather has not proven satisfactory 
owing to its expensiveness and to the 
material increase of heat to its not 
allowing the air to pass through it. 
Nothing has proven better than heavy 
weight duck (ten ounce). 


The mitts should fit loosely and should 
be made with sufficient “wrist” to 
afford ample protection to the forearm 
of the pickers. The leggings are made 
of sufficient length to cover the whole 
leg of the wearer, projecting up on the 
outer side to the waist and attached 
around the waist with a string, or 
attached to the suspenders. 


WHEN TO PICK. 


That portion of the crop gathered in 
winter should be allowed to reach a 
greater degree of maturity than in 
summer. The reasons briefly are these: 
In winter the amount of sugar deve- 


Edible Products. 


loped in the fruit is less than in summer, 
and to secure good edible quality it 
should be allowed to remain on the plant 
as long as possible. The winter fruit. 
because of weather conditions, does not 
become overripe so rapidly, and the 
yellow exterior is not an indication of 
the same degree of ripeness as in sum- 
mer. In winter the fruit may be left 
on the plants until it has become 
slightly coloured in the case of Cayenne 
or quite coloured as in Spanish pine- 
apples. 


Just before the pineapple reaches full 
maturity it is dark, black green in colour 
and the eyes are somewhat pointed and 
angular. 


As it matures the eyes flatten down 
somewhat in the centre and become 
slighty elevated around the margins. 
while the colour changes to a very 
pale green. The opening and spreading 
of the crown may be taken as one 
of the best indications of maturity. 
To the veteran picker the length of 
the fruit stem, the size and length 
of the slips are a good general guide 
of the stage of maturity, As the 
fruit ripens its stem elongates, the 
slips grow rapidly and their leaves 
spread out. In looking for evidences of 
maturity the basal eyes of the fruit 
should be closely examined as the pine- 
apple ripens from the base upwards as 
well as from the core outward. 


In the summer if intended for short 
distance shipments and immediate con- 
sumption, the basal eyes may be allowed 
to attain some colour. If a considerable 
time is to elapse between picking and 
consumption in summer, the fruit 
should not be quite so mature. Fruit of 
good quality, judiciously grown on good 
land, judiciously fertilized, may be 
allowed to become riper than fruit not 
grown under such favourable conditions. 


There is a tendency towards shipping 
fruit too green. This should be guarded 
against. A pineapple ripened in a 
freight train, ina crate or on a fruit 
stand is never so good as one allowed to 
ripen on the plant. The consumer 
should be given the best flavour and 
quality. It will make him want more. 


How To PIckK. 


Spanish pineapples can be broken 
from the plants without injury to the 
fruit. A quick, sharp jerk, using the 
erown as a handle brings them off. 
Other varieties, such as Cayenne, and 
particularly Porto Rico and Abbachi are 
not so easily handled. If the last two 
varieties are broken off they frequently 
“plug” up into the fruit, 7.e., the stem 


346 


Day 


id Vi yal 

[OcropER, 1908, — 
breaks off a short distance up into the 
fruit, leaving the flesh exposed. The 
only way to get around this difficulty is 
to use a knife and cut them off the 
stems. 


The fruit may be taken out of the beds 
in armfulls and laid in the walks to be 
taken up afterwards. This must usually 
be done under sheds. Inthe open fleld, 
however, the best plan, and the one 
usually followed, is for the picker to 
break the fruit off and throw it to its 
helper who stands in the walk between 
the beds, catches it and places it in his 
wheel-barrow or basket. 


PINEAPPLE PACKAGES. 


At the present time two different x 
standards of size for pineapple crates + 
are in use in Florida. It would perhaps 4 
be better were there only one, but so é 
long as there issuch a wide variation in H 
size of the different varieties of fruit 4 
shipped. so long will there bea demand 
for the fancy pineapple crate. The 
demand has been made necessary owing 
to the larger size of the fruit of some 
varieties and their crowns. 


But whatever the size of crate in use 
it should be of the exact standard size 
and should not vary much, even the 
fraction of an inch one way or another. ‘ 
The wood used in making them should’ : 
be bright, clean and attractive. The 
sale of any fruit is injured by being 
placed on the market in dirty, or 
uninviting packages. In the damp 
climate of Florida the packages are 
subject to mildew if left exposed to y 
the weather. Assoon as the shipment F; 
is received it should be placed urder : 
cover, the loft of the packing house 3 
being frequently used for the purpose. . 
This makes some unnecessary labour, and ‘ 
if possible the packing house should be 6 
so arranged as to place the packing room 7 
and the materials brought for packages 
on one and the same floor. But if the : 
crates can be made in the loft this 
objection is largely overcome, 


One of the objections which was for- 
merly urged against the panel head was 
that it warped so readily, but this 
objection can be overcome if the ma- 
terial is immediately put under cover. 
If left exposed to the rains and dews 
they will warp past recognition and he 
totally worthless. \ 


Size of the Crate.—The pineapple crate 
used throughout the Florida Kast Coast 
for Spanish pineapples is mads of pine 
12 inches wide, 10} inches deep and 36 
incheslong. There isa partition in the ~ 
middle, the ends and partition being 


Ct > 


‘Octorrr, 1908. | 347 


either solid or paneled and % of an inch 


or 14 inch thick. The top, bottom fand 
sides are made of two slates each 5-l6ths 
inch thick and 45 inches wide. 


Materials required for Spanish Pine- 
apple Crate :— 


2 heads 12 by 103 inch by 14 inch. 

1 partition 12 by 104 inch by 12 or 
% inch, 
i 8 slates 44 by 5-16ths inch by 386 inches. 


These materials are shipped from the 
factories or dealers, ‘‘ knocked down” 
in bundles and cost about 11°50 per 
hundred in carload lots of 1,700, 


Fancy Pineapple Crate.—The crate 
used in shipping the large varieties of 
pineapples, such as Cayenne and Porto 
Rico, is different in size and shape 
from that commonly used for the 
Spanish variety. It measures outside 
12} inches wide, 20} inches deep and 
24 inches long. The inside measure- 
ments are 12 inches wide, 20 inches 
deep, 22 inches long. The sides, top and 
bottom are each ,;5 inch thick, the 
ends are paneled 1 inch thick and no 
partition is used. 


Materials required for Fancy Crate: 
2 heads 12 by 20 inch by 1 inch. 


4 slats (sides) 83 by 5-16ths inches by 


24 inches. — 
4 slats (top andbottom) 43 
inch by 24 inches. 


These materials cost, knocked down, 
about 20°00 per hundred crates. 


hy 5-16ths 


Paper.—HKach individual pineappie 
should be wrapped before placing in 
the crate. The paper used for this 
should be heavy and glazed. If not 
glazed it absorbs moisture and tears 
too readily. The size commonly used 
in wrapping the Spanish pineapple is 
15 by 20 inch, and such paper wili cost 
from $1:00 to $1'45 per 1,000, depending 
upon the quality. For wrapping fancy 
pineapples a sheet about 15 by 18 inches 


is in common use. 


In the use of paper there is consider- 
able room for the ingenuity and _ in- 
dividuality of the grower. Various 
fancy brands may be used to advantage. 
One of the most decided early improve- 
ments in the way of paper was a 
coloured paper, which for a number of 
years was used by a grower of the 
Kast Coast. This paper was of a 
peculiar and particular colour, and no 
doubt had considerably to do with the 
prices secured by him in advance of 
those received by his neighbours. It 
pays to give attention to these small 
details, and anything which will add 


Kdible Products, 


2or3 cents to the value of a package 
in the market over what it costs to 
put it up should, of course, be under- 
taken. By no means. should a. soft, 
unglazed paper be used, as it absorbs 
moisture readily and tears easily in 
consequenee. If coloured paper is used 
it should only be of the very best 
quality, because if of poor quality and 
it becomes moist or wet it may stain 
or discolour the fruit. 


GRADING. 
The grading of pineapples at_ the 


time of packing is not a difficult 
matter. Specimens injured by rats, 
misshappen specimens and crownless 


fruits should not be packed unless they 
cannot be sold in the local market. Rat- 
injured fruit should usually be con- 
signed to the cull heap, as an opening 
made in the fruit will cause it to decay 
and rot prematurely. The abnormally 
small specimens should not be shipped. 
and it is sometimes questionable as to 
whether the 48 size pack should be 
used, although they take in the markets. 
There is no question, however, that 
the small-sized fruit wili count against 
the marketing of fair and large-sized 
Specimens. : 


The fruit in packing should be care- 
fully graded as to size. For this purpose 
no machinery can be used, the eye 
of the packer must be the sole and 
only guide. The size for the different 
packs of Spanish pineapples are about 
as follows :— 


18 to the crate, 5} by 62 inches. 


24 to the crate, 42 by 4 15/16inch by 
52 inch. 


30 to the crate, 44 by 5} inch or 42 
y 5 35 inch. 
36 to the ceate, 44 by 42 inches or 


3 43 by 48 inches. 
42 to the crate, 3? by 4 ;3, inches or 

3% by 4} inches. 
48 to the crate, 


I 33 by 32 
37/6 by 4 inches. 


inches or 


These dimensions cannot, of course, be 
regarded as absolute, but give a fair 
indication as to the size of the fruit 
for the several packs. The crown of 
the fruit is, of course, not included in 
the above measurements. 


The fruit put into each package 
should approach as nearly as possible 
a uniform size, It is not a good policy 
to put very large and small fruit into 
the same package. Occasionally a pack- 
age may be packed, however, with two 
different sizes in the different apart- 
ments, but if this be done the fact should 
be indicated on the end of the crate. 


Edible Products. 348 


PACKING DIAGRAMS. 


As in the packing of Citrus fruits, so 
in the packing: of pineapples. In order 
to fill the crates full of fruit a uniform 
size it has to be put in according to dif- 
ferent arrangements. Such arrange- 
ments are usually referred to as packing 
diagrams. These arrangements, or dia- 
grams, for the different packs of pine- 
apples, are as follows :— 


Pack oi 3 layers of 8 each in each end 

RSD. Stiars \)0 5). |.) aah, 

» 96,3 layers ,, 
42,3 


29 99 59 


99 39 


AS.3 —, 


The first layer should be placed in the 
crate with the crowns away from the 
packer, the second with the crowns 
reversed, and so on alternating until the 
crate is full. Each upper layer should 
cover the spaces between the fruit in 
the layer immediately beneath. For 
many years the packing was done by 
each individual grower and, of course, 
this holds to a certain degree still, 
although the professional pineapple 
packer is one of the more recent develop- 
ments of the industry. 


99 99 39 


5 
6 39 99 39 
7 
8 


99 9 39 


PACKING THE FRUIT. 


With one hand the packer draws out a 
piece of paper trom the tray, while the 
other reaches for a pineapple from the 
pile besides him and sets it on the paper. 
Then with a roll and a dexterous twist, 
wraps the paper about it. The fruit is 
then ready for the crate. 


Place the different sized fruits in the 
crate according to the different packs. 
When the crate is completed, the fruit 
should not shake or rattle, the whole 
package should be perfectly solid. Fill 
the crate with all the fruit it will hold 
of the particular size being packed, 
should be the rule. Select the fruit in 
such a way as to fill the crate, don’t 
wrap three or four sheets of paper 
around a fruit to bring it up to the size. 
When packed the fruit should stand 
flush with the ends and partitions of the 
crate, or a little above them. 


HEADING UP, 


As soon as the crates are packed they 
are ready for the cover. The box should 
be placed on a low table, the slats laid 
on, nailed at one end, pressed down and 
nailed to the partition and the other 
head. Four-penny cement coated nails, 
running 75,000 to the keg, should be 
used. One mancan nail up as quickly 
as two or three can pack. 


ji, 


\ 


(OcToBER, 1908, 


STENCILING. 


The marking of the crates may occa- 
sionally be left until the day’s work is 
done, though in thisas in many other 
matters pertaining to the handling of 
the crop, train schedules will govern. 


The end of the crate should bear the 
number of pineapples, the name of the 
variety, the name of the consignee and 
the consignor and the shipping direc- 
tions. When the stenciling is completed 


‘the end of the crate will be something 


like this :— 


80 Red Spanish. 


Indian River Pineapples 
James Jones & Co. 
Boston, 6752 
From 
C. F. Smith 


Jensen, Fla. 


Via A. C. D. 


If the box contains two different sizes, 
the fact should be so indicated on the 
end of the crate. 


Some growers cover the panel of one 
end of the crate with a fancy poster, 
which adds considerably to the ap- 
pearance of the package. : 


Cost OF PICKING ‘AND PACKING. 
The cost of picking, wrapping and 
packing pineapples, including paper, 
nails, crates and all is approximately 
twenty-five cents per crate. 


SHIPPING. 


Pineapples may be forwarded to the 
large northern markets by express, by 
all-rail freight, or partly by rail and 
partly by steamer. 


Express shipments would be the ideal 
way for forwarding pineapples, as the 
fruit could then be allowed to become 
more nearly matured before picking, 
but the express rates are prohibitive. 
In fact, the high rates of expressage have 
had much to do with the falling off of 
the pineapple industry at various inland 
points. Moreover, express shipments 
cannot usually be sent through to their 


OcToORER, 1908. } 


destination in solid cars. Such fruit as 
is shipped by express must usually be 
transferred a number of times. The 
time allowed by train connections for 
transferring expressage is usually very 
short, consequently the crates receive 
extremely rough handling and many of 
them are broken. 


Since express shipments are out of the 
question, the next best planis to ship 
by freight in car load lots. This insures 
more rapid transportation and cheaper 
rates than if smaller shipments are 
made. Two or three neighbours may 
combine and load a car in case one 
cannot do so alone. 


All-rail shipments should reach New 
York from Fort Pierce, near the northern 
edge of the pineappie belt, in five days ; 
Boston in six days ; Philadelphia in four 
and one-half days. By water from Jack- 
sonville the time averages one or two 
days longer. 

LOADING THE CAR. 


A car load is 300 crates, though the car 
load rate may apply to 150 crates; the 
maximum should not exceed 3860 crates. 


In loading the car for all-rail ship- 
ments, place six crates across the end on 
their flat sides and two and a half to 
three inches apart. On top at front 
edge of this layer placea slat one-half 
inch thick by three inches wide; cut so 
as to exactly fit into the car crosswise. 
Put one nail through thisinto the slat of 
each crate, contiuue this five tiers high 
for a 300 crate car and six tiers high for 
3860 crate car, placing 150 or 180 crates in 
each end of the car, as the case may be. 
When the crates are all in, a passage 
about two and one-half feet wide is left 
in the centre of the car between the 
doors. These spaces must be braced to 
prevent the crates from slipping and 
falling. Across the face of the top layer 
at the centre, bottom and top tack a 
board 1 by 5 inches, then with short 
pieces brace diagonally across between 
filling inthe two one-half feet spaces 
with sufficient braces to prevent slipping. 
It will be noticed that no slats are to be 
nailed across the crates except at the 
front ends. This leaves the top upper 
tier of crates two and one-half inches 
higher than those at the back ends of 
the car, which will assist, considerably 
in preventing shifting. 

SHIPPING ROUTES AND RATES. 


The shipping routes for pineapples 
from the east coast of Florida to the 
northern markets are as follows :— 


RAIL AND STEAMER. 


1. Florida East Coast Railroad and 
Ocean Steamship Company. 


319 


Hdible Products, 


2. Florida Hast Coast Railroad and 
Merchant and Miners’ Transportation 
Company. 


3. Florida East Coast Railroad and 
Clyde Line Steamship. 


4. Florida East Ccast Railroad, At- 
lantic Coast Line (Norfolk) Merchant and 
Miners’ Transportation Company. 


ALL-RAIL. 
5. Atlantic Coast Dispatch. 


The rates beyond Jacksonville, Fla., 
to New York, Philadelphia and Boston 
by routes one, two and three is thirty- 
five cents per crate; by routes four, 
forty-five and one-half cents, while the 
all-rail (A.C.D.) is forty-eight and one- 
half cents to Philadelphia, fifty cents to 
New York, and fifty-eight and one-half 
cents to Boston. 


The rates to Jacksonville on the 
Florida East Coast Railroad from various 
points are as follows :— 


Stations. Rates 
Roseland to Vero (inclusive) 22 e. 
Oslo to Ankona (inclusive) 23 ¢@. 


Tibballsto Aberdeen (iaclusive) 24 ec. 
Gomez to West Jupiter (inclusive) 25 ec. 
Prairie to Hypoluxo (inclusive) 28 «. 
Boynton to Deertield (inclusive) 30 c. 
Pompano to Dania (inclusive) 82 ¢@. 
Hallandale to Miami (inclusive) 338 ¢. 


The facilities throughout the pine- 
apple belt for loading pineapples could 
scarcely be improved upon, sidings and 
loading stations are placed so that the 
hauls are always short, there being in 
some cases fouc or five or more loading 
stations in every two or three miles. 


MARKETING. 


Pineapples are marketed in one of 
four ways, either by selling them at the 
packing house, by shipping them to a 
commission house, selling through an 
association, or selling through a broker. 


Selling at Home.—lIf the fruit can be 
sold ata fair figure at the packing 
house, it is usually best to take it. Then 
someone else than the grower has 
to assume the responsibility of market 
fiuctuations and delays in transporta- 
tions. Frequently the crop is sold in 
advance at a certain fixed rate per 
crate. Such contracts usually cover the 
fruit harvested within a certain period. 


Private Trade.—The private trade in 
pineapples has assumed considerable 
proportions. To the larger grower this 
method of marketing pineapples is not 
very inviting owing to the extra amount 
of time and care required. But it is 
worthy the serious consideration of the 
small grower. 


KHilible Products, 35 


The fruit supplied toa private trade 
should be of the best quality, carefully 
selected, neatly and tastefully pack- 
ed. In dealing with private customers 
every effort should be made to give the 
same grade of fruit in every order. Uni- 
formity is absoluetly necessary in hold- 
ing the good-will and confidence of a 
private customer. 


All packages for the private trade 
must usually go forward by express. 


Commission Merchants.—The bulk of 
the pineapple crop is handled either 
directly or indirectly by the commission 
merchants. The main objection to the 
commission merchant system of selling 
fruit is that the grower has to place 
himself entirely in his hands. There 
seems, however, no way of overcoming 
this objection. There are honest men in 
the commission business, as large a pro- 
portion asin any other line of endea- 
vour, and there are always ways and 
means for finding out which are the 
honest, responsible houses, and which 
are not. Select a good house and_ stick 
to it. Weknow pineapple growers who 
have been shipping every season tothe 
same firm for fifteen years and more. 


In shipping to commission merchants, 
the best policy is to select one reliable 
man in each market to which shipments 
are to be made, and ship to him alone. 
Do not split a shipment in any one 
market, sending part of it to one man, 


[OcTopER, 1908: 


part toanother. It is not fair to the 
merchant and will result in loss to the 
shipper. 

Try to work with the commission man. 
If he wants riper fruit, send it to him, if 
not so ripe, let him have it. He knows 
the market as the grower cannot. Try 
to give him what he wants. 


Spasmodic Shipments.—A grower ship- 
ping to New York learns that pine- 
apples are worth more in Boston than 
they are in New York. Heships there, 
but by the time his fruit arrives, the 
price has dropped and _ he gets the same 
or less than he would have gotin New 
York. The price at which the market 
stands when the fruit is shipped is 
seldom the exact price at which the 
fruit is sold when it arrives. It does 
not pay to ship first to one market, then 
to another in the hope of getting the 
top prices always. Low prices. will 
probably be obtained more frequently 
than if the fruit is regularly sent for- 
ward into certain markets, regardless of 
prices. One who ships according to this 
rule will usually come out at the end of 
the season withmore money to his credit 
than will the one who chases about 
from one market to another in the hope 
of securing the best prices. 

The following receipts, taken from the 
books of a pinneapple grower, go to 
show that there is after all but little 
presi in the markets from day to 

ay :— 


Date Market. Shipment. Net receipts. Average. 
May 27, 1904...New York ... 20 crates $35°47 $1:27 
29 3 99 ...Philadelphia eee 15 39 20°15 1°34 
Juney4,) <4: ).. New Work POON Wes 66°18 1°32 
BF Aes, jo 0StON! TOS as 188'56 1°34. 
494,45 ose (ee ehiladelphia’.::) 54.05), 99°57 1:86 
Pe Sai Area hheL INO We YOLK Win sete cebiee 43°48 161 
We i Ook eon ee OSbON! Pee ee 49°50 1°50 
Bet Sih ies! bas deh tladelplian 47) 26m). 45°76 1°76 
» 18, 1905...Boston pe IQA 169°88 1:80 
i 15,0) 4, >. hiladelphial).-2)100))., 194°94 1:95 
» 15, ., ...Boston Pay asc ha ing 286°95 1°81 
Bob Basi iiss!) «ocd 3OSCON! aD s, 122-85 1:86 
pswliZsl).. 44). soNe Ws YOrk ee LOO Is 190-28 1:90 
PO a New Wor kia ie LOOM Ws 187°62 1'87 
35) 19)" 4, :/.6.ehiladelphiay::. 150) 3, 241°65 161 
MP 2Os i! 4h -skvladelphian e.0o0) vis; 155'51 1:03 


Select a number of markets, one or 
more, as many as can be given a fair 
amount of fruit, and ship to them right 
along, week in and week out, day in 
and day out. 


Associations.—If any association can 
be formed for the mutual benefit of the 
growers it is an excellent thing. Too 
frequently, however, they go to pieces 
and the work amounts to nothing. The 
weak point seems to be that the associ- 


ation undertakes to do too much. The 
only association known to the writer 
which has proved successful is one which 
looks to the protection of the grower, 
without destroying his individuality 
and independence. 


Brokerage.—In selling by the broker- 
age system, the fruitis placed in the 
hands of a fruit broker, who has the 
power to sell or consign as he deems best, 
a charge of ten cents per crate being 


j 
| 


Pe ee ey 


OcTOBER, 1908. | 3561 


made for handling. The grower then 
turns over the responsibility of market- 
ing entirely to another person, The 
system possesses no advantages for the 
person who teels equal to the task of 
marketing his own fruit.—Agricultural 
Experiment Station, Florida: Bulletin 
No. 84, March, 1906. 


_ COWPEAS. 


By H. T. NIELson, 
Scientific Assistant, Forage Crop Investi- 
gation Bureau of Plant Industry. 


(Concluded from page 254.) 
MowiInG AND THRASHING. 


Cowpeas for seed production are 
quite satisfactorily harvested with a 
mower. A bunching attachment has 
been used with excellent results. This 
gets the vines out of the way of the 
team, thus avoiding considerable loss of 
peas through trampling and crushing 
by the mower wheels. It also leaves 
the vines in a more desirable shape for 
curing, they being rolled into small 
windrows. The self-rake reaper is a very 
satisfactory machine for mowing cow- 
peas for seed, accomplishing even better 
results than the buncher on a mower, 
as the vines are left in bunches of very 
convenient size for curing and handling. 


The bean harvester has been given 
careful trial in harvesting cowpeas for 
seed production, but itis not very satis- 
factory. Viny peas catch on parts of 
the machine and drag badly. There is 
also likely to be much soil worked into 
the vines, making the further handling 
difficult and disagreeable. 


For seed production cowpeas should 
be allowed to mature a greater percent- 
age of pods than when cut for hay. 
Half or more should be ripe before mow- 
ing, even at the expense of losing a part 
of the foliage. The vines should then be 
allowed to cure and become thoroughly 
dry, after which the thrashing may be 
done. The curing and drying may be 
done in the swath, cock, stack, or barn, 
as desired, weather conditions largely 
determining the method to be pursued. 
The hay or straw is of better quality if 
the curing and drying are done in the 
stack or barn, though, of course, the 
amount of work required is greater. It 
is a common belief that weevils do much 
less damage to seeds in the pods than 
to the thrashed seeds. On this account 
some growers store their crop and 
thrash it late, in the winter or early in 


Kdible Products. 


the spring. However, the unthrashed 
material requires much space. for 
storage, and there is no effective way of 
combating the insects, while in clean 
stored seed all insect life is readily des- 
troyed by treatment with carbon bi- 
sulphide.* 


Cowpeas may be thrashed with an 
ordinary grain thrasher. In this case 


the riddles are adjusted for cowpeas and — 


satisfactory screens are provided. The 
most essential point in thrashing cow- 
peas is to maintain a low and even speed 
of the eylinder, 300 to 400 revolutions 
per minute, while the rest of the machine 
should be adjusted to run at least as 
fast as for thrashing wheat or oats. 
Some operators prefer to have a greater 
clearance between the cylinder and con- 
cave spikes than for grain thrashing, 
while others do not think this anadvan- 
tage. While expert operators sometimes 
do very satisfactory work with an ordin- 
ary grain separator, there are three 
important difficulties encountered; (1) 
Too many of the pods pass through with 
the straw unopened ; (2) the machine is 
easily choked by the tangled vines wrap- 
ping around the cylinder; and (8) the 
percentage of cracked peas is usually 
large. 


To overcome these difficulties several 
modifications of thrashing machines 
have been devised soas to adapt them 
for handling cowpeas. One modifica- 
tion which has been adopted in several 
different machines is the use of two 
cylinders. These cylinders are adjusted 
to run at different speeds, the front one 
slowly, about 300 revolutions per minute, 
and the rear one more rapidly, about 
450. revolutions per minute, Appar- 
ently the only advantage gained by 
two cylinders over one is that a 
smaller percentage of the unopened 
pods pass through with the straw. The 
use of two cylinders, however, results in 
a somewhat larger percentage of cracked 
peas. 

A second modification which has been 
applied both to machines with one 
cylinder and those with two is to 
sharpen the spikes on the concaves or 
on both the coneaves and cylinders. 
This sharpening means bringing the 
face of the spike to as nearly a sharp 
edge as can be done by ordinary 
blacksmithing. The beneficial effect of 
sharpening the spikes is very marked, 
as the vines pass through much more 
readily, there is little tendency to wrap 
around the cylinder, the amount of 


* For destroying weevils or preventing da- 
mage by them, see article on ** Insects Injurious 
to Beans and Peas,” in the Yearbook of the 
Department of Agriculture for 1898, 


SS 


Edible Products, 


power required is very materially 
reduced, and the percentage of cracked 
peas is decidedly smaller. The straw 
is also chopped, so it is in fine condition 
for feeding. A one-cylinder machine 
with the spikes sharpened does very 
satisfactory work except that a small 
percentage of the pods may pass through 
in the straw unopened, while by the 
use of a two-cylinder machine practi- 
cally all the peas are secured. 


In a third device all the spikes in 
both cylinder and concaves are sharp- 
ened, and there is a minimum of 
clearance. The concaves are arranged 
in two sets, cne of two rows and the 
other of three. The two-row set is at 
the front of the cylinder ona plane 
with the shaft; the other is below the 
eylinder and at the back of it about 
120° from the first. There isaperforated 
web under the cylinder which is hinged 
at the three-row set of concaves and 
has the front part attached to the 
shakers, so that it is worked up and 
down by their backward and forward 
motion. When the vines come through 
the first concaves they drop on the 
web, rest momentarily, and are then 
picked up by the cylinder again and 
taken through the second concaves. 
The momentary rest results in rearrange- 
ment of the straw, so that it virtually 
amounts to passing through a second 
cylinder, as in the. two-cylinder 
machines. A perforated feeding table is 
used to get loose peas to the separating 
surface without passing through the 
cylinder. This machine is by far 
the most satisfactory pea thrasher yet 
devised. The number of cracked peas 
is very small; the vines are chopped 
as fine as if they had been through 
a cutting box, and all the peas are 
gotten out of the pods, while the 
material which can be run through in 
a given time is the maximum for 
present-day machines and the power 
required the minimun. 


It is very essential in thrashing 
cowpeas that there be sufficient power 
to give a uniform speed to the separator. 
It is also highly desirable that the 
eylinder be kept uniformly full in order 
to get the best results, as running 
empty means an increase in the number 
of cracked peas. 


The price of cowpea thrashers now 
on the market ranges from 4800 to 
$600, exclusive of the engine. If the 
peas are stacked or put into a barn 
they need not be thrashed imme- 
diately, one machine will be sufficient 
for 2,000 acres, as the crop from 20 
acres can readily be handled in one 
day. Asarule, only a moderate acreage 


352 


bal p68 oo 
7, ‘SF y 


[OCTOBER, 1908. 


of cowpeas for seed should be grown 
by any one farmer, as unfavourable 
weather may cause great difficulty at 
harvest time. It is very desirable to 
have enough cowpeas for seed grown 
in a community to justify the local 
ownership of a thrashing machine. 


COWPEAS FOR SOIL IMPROVEMENT. 


The beneficial results of growing 
cowpeas are due largely to the ability 
of the plants, like those of alfalfa 
end red clover, to take nitrogen from 
the air by means of the bacteria 
which live in the nodulgs on the roots. 
Cowpeas also improve markedly the 
physical condition of the soil. This, 
taken in connection with their ability 
to produce a crop quickly on even 
the poorer soils, makes the cowpea 
particularly valuable both as a catch 


crop and in regular rotations when 
utilized either for hay or seed pro- 
duction. 


At the present time the most popular 
rotation for the entire South is one 
which allows the largest possible area 
to be planted in cotton each year. 
A system of cropping which is in 
general use is three years in cotton, 
the fourth year in corn and cowpeas, 
and then three years in cotton again. 
This system allows three-fourths-of the 
farm to be in cotton each year, and 
is applicable to all of the better 
agricultural land. On the poorer soils 
ot the cotton belt it is likely that 
better results would be secured by 
growing cotton only two years and 
corn and cowpeas the third year. This 
would leave two-thirds of the farm for 
cotton each year, and would undoubt- 
edly be an excellent system of cropping. 
The Alabama Agricultural Experiment 
Station reports an increase in yield in 
one case of 696 pounds of seed cotton to 
the acre, or 83 per cent. due to ploughing 
under acrop of cowpea vines on land 
which had been in cotton the previous 
season. The Arkansas Agricultural 
Experiment Station secured an increase 
in yield of 59 per cent. where a crop of 
cowpeas had been grazed the preceding 
year. 


Practically the same plan of rotation 
is followed in the sugar-cane districts of 
Louisiana. Three crops of cane are taken 
off the land, and the fourth year it is — 
planted to cowpeas or to corn and cow- 
peas. The work stock are fed almost 
exclusively on pea-vine hay or are 
grazed on cowpeas in the cornfield after 
the corn has been gathered. This rota- 
tion gives excellent results in the suc- 
ceeding crops of cane. 


OCTOBER, 1908. | 


A rotation of wheat or oats and cow- 
reas is giving excellent results in parts 
of Missouri, Arkansas, and Tennessee. 
Cowpeas are sown on the land immedi- 
ately after the removal of the grain crop 
and are utilized for hay or seed or for 

asture. Grain is sown again in the 

all, this making two crops a year from 
the same land. In many instances land- 
owners in Arkansas and Missouri have 
allowed tenants the use of land free of 
charge for producing a crop of cowpeas, 
stipulating, however, that the land must 
be well prepared. When the soil is 
given good preparation before sowing 
the cowpeas, it is not necessary to 
plough in the autumn for the grain. 
The fall preparation usually consists of 
disking thecowpea stubble and sowing 
the grain with a drill. Occasionally 
the seeding is done with a disk drill 
without any preliminary preparation. 
The increase in yield of wheat due to the 
cowpeas is generally given as from 3 
to 5 bushels per acre. At the Missouri 
Agricultural Experiment Station, an 
increase in yield of 63 per ceut. with 
oats and 49 per cent. with wheat fol- 
lowing cowpeas as a catch crop was 
secured. The Arkansas Agricultural Kx- 
periment Station reports as the average 
of a four years’ test of wheat an in- 
crease of 25 per cent. from ploughing 
under cowpea stubble the first fall, 39 
per cent. from plouging under cowpea 
vines, and 42 per cent. where cowpeas 
were grown each year as a catch crop 
between the wheat crops, only the stub- 
ble of the peas being ploughed under. 
The increased yield in the latter case 
amounted to 70 per cent. in the fourth 
season, the yields having gradually 
increased from year to year, in addi- 
tion to producing a fair quantity of 
very nutritious hay each season. 


On farms where more or less live 
stock is produced. the following three- 
year rotation is very popular and is a 
good one: first year, cotton ; second year, 
corn with cowpeas at last cultivation; 
third year, winter oats or wheat, with 
a catch crop of cowpeas for hay or seed 
after the grain has been removed. 


A few striking results due to the 
growing of cowpeas are here noted :— 
The Alabama Agricultural Experiment 
Station reports a yield of oats follow- 
ing cowpea vines. ploughed under 
247 per cent. larger than where German 
millet was ploughed under. The Ark- 
ansas_ station reports an _ increase 
in yield of 63 per cent. on corn where 
cowpeas were grazed the season before. 
‘Lhe Missouri station increased the yield 
of corn 79 per cent. by growing cowpeas 
onthe land for two years before plant- 
ing the corn. In yield of hay the 

45 


300 


Edible Products. 


Arkansas station secured an increase of 
116 per cent. on oats following cowpeas 
grazed the year before. The Alabama 
station increased the yield of sorghum 
hay 2:01 ton, or 55 per cents by plough- 
ing under cowpea stubble on land where 
sorghum was grown the previous year. 


These and many similar experiments 
conculsively prove that it is much more 
economical to use cowpeas for hay or 
seed production in rotation with other 
farm crops.than to use them for 
green manuring. It is only in_ special 
cases that it is advisable to utilize cow-. 
peas asa green manure. On very poor 
sandy land or on stiff, heavy clay soils in 
bad mechanical condition a crop of cow- 
peas ploughed under will give markedly 
beneficial results. Cowpeas give very 
good saticfaction as a cover crop in 
orchards, for which they find a limited 
use. Incase of bad weather setting in 
at harvest time it may be desirable to 
utilize the crop for green manure, or to 
pasture it if the land is of such a nature 
as not to be seriously injured by the 
trampling of stock. 


VARIETIES OF COWPEAS. 


There are about fifty varieties of,cow- 
peas known, but only a few of the best 
of these are extensively cultivated. The 
varieties differ in such characters as 
habit, size, earliness, prolificness, disease 
resistance, and especially in the colour of 
the seeds, which are either entirely 
white, red, buff, black, or blue, or 
variously blotched or speckled. The 
varieties are allvery constant in their 
seed characters. The variation in vines, 
however, is very marked, being influenc- 
ed by the time of planting, the nature 
of the season, and the locality where 
grown. Harly planting on a wet season 
usually results in a large growth of 
vines. Natural crosses between the 
varieties occur under favouring con- 
ditions, but they are far from common. 
The use to be made of the crop by the 
grower should determine largely which 
variety to select. 


For table use the varieties with white 
or nearly white seeds are preferred, as 
they make a more attractive dish. The 
habit of growth of the table peas is of 
little direct concern, and, as a matter of 
fact, none of them is very satisfactory 
for forage purposes. The _ principal 
varieties are the Blackeye, of which 
there are several strains, the Brown-eye, 
the Lady, andthe Cream. These are 
more properly considered vegetables. 
Several of the coloured-seeded varieties 
are also used as table peas. 


For forage purposes the most desir- 
able varieties are those which have a 


Edible Products: 


fairly upright habit, grow to large size, 
hold their leaves well, and produce an 
abundance of pods. Descriptions of the 
most important varieties follow. Of the 
numerous remaining varieties none is 
grown toa very large extent, and most 
of them are disticntly inferior to those 
described here. 


Whippoorwill.—_The Whippoorwill va- 
riety is known: under several other 
names, such as Running Speckled, Bunch 
Speckled, and Shinney. It may be con- 
sidered the standard of all field cowpeas. 
Itis suitable either for grain or hay pro- 
duction, or both. It makes a vigorous 
growth, is fairly erect, and still produces 
alarge amount of vine. It can readily 
be handled by machinery, which is bring- 
ing it more and more into prominence. 
The seed is mottled chocolate ona buff 
or reddish ground colour. 


Unknown, or Wonderful.—The Un- 
known, or Wonderful, cowpeais another 
field variety which is grown toa large 
extent. Itis the largest growing and 
most vigorous of the cowpeas, but is 
late in maturing, it being difficult some- 
times to secure seed of it as far north as 
Washington, D. C. The principal objec- 
tion to this pea is its light seeding. Itis 

_ nearly as erect as the Whippoorwill 
variety ; hence, it is quite readily han- 
dled by machinery either for grain or hay 
production. The seed is large in size 
and of a very light clay colour. 


New Era.—The New Hra is the smallest 
seeded of the cowpeas that have found a 
wide use. The seed is bluish in colour, 
owing tothe innumeroble minute blue 
specks ona gray ground. The New Era 
is the most nearly erect of any of the 
varieties, rarely having any prostrate 
branches. It usually produces a heavy 
crop of seed and matures in from seventy- 
five to ninety days. It is one of the 
earliest of the cowpeas and isthe most 
easily handled by machinery. The small 
seed is not usually considered an un- 
desirable character, as asmaller quantity 
is required for seeding than is the case 
with other varieties. 


Groit—The variety known as the 
Groit has been much confused with the 
New Era cowpea. In habit the two are 
much alike, but the Groit is a little 
superior, as it makes a larger growth and 
fruits more heavily. The seed is quite 
similar to that of the New Era, but has 
chocolate mottlings in addition to the 
blue specks. It is quite certainly a 
hybrid between the New Era and the 
. Whippoorwill varieties. 


Ivon.—The Iron variety 


is coming 
rapidly into prominence. 


In its habit 


354 


[OcrosER, 1908) 


itis only slightly different from the 
Unknown, though it is not quite as 
vigorous or as large. It is earlier than 
the Unknown and the seed, though 
nearly the same colour, is much smaller 
being but very little larger than that 
of the New Era. The characteristic of 
the Iron cowpea which has been instru- 
mental in bringing it into prominence is 
its resistance to wilt and to root-knot 
caused by cel worms. Itisthe only one 
of the cowpeas which has been found to 
resist these diseases. Where they are 
prevalent in the soil, the Iron cowpea is 
the only variety which can be success- 
fully grown, and since the diseases are 
spreading the distribution of the Iron 
cowpea is also increasing. Regardless 
of its resistance to these diseases it is a 
valuable variety under nearly all condi- 
tions, being vigorous, prolific, and quite 
erect. Theseed is hard and retains its 
vitality better than that of most varie- 
ties. It will lie in the ground through 
the winter and germinate the next 
spring. This variety and the Unknown 
hold their leaves better than any others. 


Clay.—The Clay cowpea is more vari- 
ablein its habit than that of the foregoing 
varieties. It is the most pronounced 
trailor of any of the peas grown quite 
largely, and is consequently in very — 
slight favour where the pea crop is 
handled by machinery. The plants are 
very vigorous but low growing, and 
they usually seed sparingly. Since seed 
is such an important item at the present — 
time, a variety which has but poor fruit- —_ 
ing qualities is not apt to remain ~— 
popular, even though it may be har- — 
vested readily by machinery. The seed 
is of the same colour as that of the Un- i 

p 
4 


Se a ee ee 


known and Iron, butis intermediate in 
size and flatter and longer. 


Black.—The Black cowpea is used to a 
considerable extent in the sandy coastal 
plain soils of Virginia and North Caro- 
lina. On heavy clay land this variety 
makes a very heavy growth of vine, but 
produces very little seed, whileon the 
sandy lands it grows more bushy and 
fruits quite heavily. It also finds some 
demand in the sugar-cane section of 
Louisiana, where itis grown with corn 
in rotation with sugar cane. Where 
other varieties thrive the Black is not a 
favourite. The seeds are quite large and 
entirely black. 


Taylor.—The variety called Taylor has — 
larger seeds than any other cowpea. 
The seeds have nearly the same mark- 
ings as those of the New Era, though the 
ground colour is somewhat lighter. The — 
Taylor cowpea has met with consider- 
able favour in Maryland and Delaware, 
where it is erroneously called the. Gray 


ee an 
2 


Ocrosnr, 1908.} 


A 


Crowder, but outside of this region does 
not seem to be a very valuable variety. 
In most cases it is too much of a trailer 
to be desirable. It also has a tendency 
to drop its leaves earlier than any of the 
other varieties except the Black. 


Red Riper.—The Red Ripper is a valu- 
able pea, as it makes nearly as large a 
growth as the Unknown, or Wonderful, 
and is excellent for growing in corn. It 
is very late, usually maturing but a 
small number of peas at Washington, 
D. C. It is difficult to procure seed of it 
in quantity on account of its light yield. 
The seed is dark red and about the same 
size as that of the Whippoorwill variety , 


SUMMARY. 


(1) The cowpea is the best legume for 
the entire cotton belt, and can_be pro- 
fitably grown much farther north. Itis 
especially suitable for combined hay and 
seed production or for hay alone. 


(2) To make good cowpea hay requires 
careful handling of the crop. The plant 
should have made its growth and have 
at least the first pods ripe when the 
mowing isdone, Uniformity in matur- 
ing is essential in getting the best 
results. The use of a tedder is very 
helpful. The serious loss of leaves can 
be avoided by not handling the hay 
when the leaves are dry and _ brittle. 
The curing is best done in small cocks, 
and the hay is ready for the stack or 
barn when no moisture can be wrung 
from the stem by twisting it with con- 
siderable force. 


(8) Cowpeas for hay production are 
very advantageously grown in mixture 
with sorghum, Johnson grass, or soy 
beans. The yield is thus increased, the 
quality improved, and the curing more 
easily done. Cowpeas give very good 
results when grown with sorghum in 
cultivated rows, and are very commonly 
planted in corn and used for grazing 
or ensilage. 


(4) Pasturing cowpeas is not the most 
economical practice, but itis frequently 
resorted to because of the small expense 
it entails. Cowpeas are especially suit- 
able for grazing hogs. 


(5) Cowpea hay is very nutritious. It 
is nearly equal to wheat bran as part of 


p ration. [t is satisfactory for work 


855 


Edible Products. 


stock and for beef or milk production, 
and it gives good results when fed to 
poultry. The grain is a rich feed, ex- 
cellent for poultry but little used for 
other feeding. Cowpea straw is an ex- 
cellent roughage and nearly as valuable 
as the hay. 


_ (6) Cheaper cowpea seed will result 
in the much more extensive growing of 
the crop. Harvesting for seed .can be 
done most cheaply by the use of machin- 
ery. The crop should be cut with a 
mower or self-rake reaper when half or 
more of the pods are ripe. When 
thoroughly dry the thrashing may be 
done with an ordinary grain separator 
with some modifications, with a two- 
cylinder cowpea thrasher, or with a one- 
cylinder special machine which has all 
the thrashing spikes, sharpened in addi- 
tion to having ingenious devices which 
makeit the most satisfactory thrasher 
for handling cowpeas. 


(7) Cowpeas add nitrogen to the soil 
and improve its mechanical condition, 
They are most profitably grown in rota- 
tion with other crops. The following 
rotations are good ones :— 


(a) Cotton, three years ;corn and cow- 
peas fourth year ; and then cotton again. 
This is all right on the better soils of 
the South, but the cotton should be 
planted only two years in succession on 
the poorer soils, 


(6) Wheat or oats with cowpeas each 
season after the removal of the grain 
crop, the land being seeded to grain in 
the fall, making two cropsa year from 
the same land. 


(c) Cotton, first year; corn and cow- 
peas, second year ; winter oats or wheat 
followed by cowpeas as a catch crop, 
third year; and then cotton again. 


(8) The most valuable varieties are 
the Whipporwill, the Unknown or the 
Wonderful, the New Era, and the Iron 
for field purposes; and the Blackeye 
for table use. 


_ (9) The Iron cowpea is practically 
immune to the two serious diseases, 
wilt and root-knot, which attack the 
other varieties more or less. It alone 
should therefore be grown wherever 
these diseases are ‘prevalent.—JU. S. 
Department of Agriculture, Farmer's 
Bulletin 318, April 4, 1908. 


306 


[OcTOBER, 1908. 


TIMBERS. 


WHAT FORESTRY HAS DONE. 


The following extracts are reprinted 

from Circular 140, Forest Service, 

‘U.S. Department of Agriculture :— 
INTRODUCTION. 


Many people in this country think 
that forestry had never been tried until 
the Government began to_ practise it 
upon the National Forest. Yet forestry 
is practised by every civilized country 
in the worid, except China and Turkey. 
It gets results which can be got no other 
way, and which are necessary to the 
general welfare. Forestry is not a new 
thing. It was discussed two thousand 
year's ago, and it has been studied and 
applied with increasing thoroughness 
ever since. 


The principles of forestry are every- 
where the same. They rest on natural 
laws, which are at work everywhere 
and allthe time. Itis simply a question 
of how best toapply these laws to fit 
local needs and conditions. No matter 
how widely countries may differ in size, 
climate, population, industry, or govern- 
ment, provided only they have forests, 
all of them must come to forestry some 
time as a matter of necessity. 


The more advanced and progressive 
countries arrive first and go farthest in 
forestry, as they do in other things. 
Indeed, we might almost take forestry 
asa yardstick with which to measure 
the height of a civilization, On the one 
hand, the nations which follow forestry 
most widely and systematically, would 
be found to be the most enlightened 
nations, On the other hand when we 
applied our yardstick to such countries 
as are without forestry, we could say 
with a good deal of assurance, by this 
test alone, ‘‘ Here is a backward nation.” 


A singular and suggestive exception 
is England, which, though provided 
with mountain and heat lands capable 
of producing a large part of the wood 
for home consumption, has, with strange 
indifference, been leading all nations in 
volume of wood imports and depending 
mainly upon foreign sources for_ her 
supplies. England has hitherto been 
able to count with certainty upon out- 
side aid from such near neighbours as 
Norway and Sweden. This policy has 
seemed satisfactory to the people in 
spite of the examples of a more provi- 
dent policy afforded by rival nations 
almost at her door. The geographical 
and economic position of the country 


has permitted the Government, for the 
time at least, to ignore measures found 
necessary for the public welfare in other 
countries of the same rank. 


The countries’ of Kurope and Asia, 
taken together, have passed through 
all the stages of forest history and 
applied all the known principles of 
forestry. They are rich in _ forest 
experience. Their lessons of forestry 
were brought home to them by hard 
knocks. Their forest systems were 
built up gradually as the result of 
hardship. They did not first spin fine 
theories and then apply those theories 
by main force. On the contrary, they 
began by facing disagreeable facts. 
Every step of the way toward wise 
forest use, the world over, has been 
made at the sharp spur of want, suffer- 
ing, or loss. As a result. the science 
of forestry is one of the most practical 
and most directly useful of all the 
sciences. It is a serious work, under- 
taken as a measure of relief, and 


continued as a safeguard against future 
calamity. 


Roughly, those countries which to-day 
manage their forests on sound principles 
have passed through four stages of 
forest experience. At first the forests 
wereso abundant as tobe in the way 
and so they were either neglected or 
destroyed. Next, as settlements grew 
and the borders of the forest receded 
farther and farther from the places 
where wood was needed and used, the 
question. of local wood supplies had to 
be faced and the forest was spared 
and even protected. Third, the increas- 
ing need of wood, together with better 
knowledge of the forest and its growth, 
led to the recognition of the forest 
as a crop, like agricultural crops, which 
must be harvested and which should 
therefore be made to grow again. In this 
stage silviculture, or the management of 
the forest so as to encourage its continued 
best growth, was born. Finally as 
natural and industrial progress led 
to measures for the general welfare, 
including a wiser and less wasteful 
use of natural resources, the forest was 
safeguarded and controlled so as to 
yield a constant maximum product year 
after year and from one generation to 
another. Systematic forestry, therefore, _ 
applied by the nation for the benefit of 
the people and practised increasingly by 
farsighted private citizens, comes when 
the last lesson in the school of forest 
experience is mastered. 


OCTOBER, 1908,] 


The United States, then, in attacking 
the problem of how best to useits great 
forest resources, is not in the position of 
a pioneer in the field. It has the ex- 
perience of all other countries to go 
upon. Thereis no need for years of 
experiment with untried theories. The 
forest principles which hundreds of 
years of actual practice have proved 
right are at its command. The only 
question is how should these be modified 
or extended to best meet American con- 
ditions. -In the management of the 
National Forests the Government is not 
working in thedark. Nor isit slavishly 
copying Kuropean countries. It is put- 
ting into practice, in America and for 
Americans, principles tried and found 
correct, which will insure to all the 
people alike the fullest and best use of 
all forest resources. 


In the following short history of what 
forestry has done in other countries, it 
will be possible to give only the chief 
facts. Yet even in this incomplete 
review two things stand out with strik- 
ing clearness. Oneis that those coun- 
tries which have gone farthest in the 
practice of forestry arethe ones which 
today are most prosperous, which have 
the least proportion of waste land, and 
which have the most promising futures. 
The other is that those countries which 
spend most upon their forests receive 
from them the greatest net returns. 


SWITZERLAND. 


In Switzerland, which has 2,000,000 
acres. or 20°6 per cent. of its area, in 
forest, the communal forests are the 
largest, and make up 67 per cent. of the 
total; the cantons own 4°5 per cent., 
and private persons own 28°6 per cent. 
The communal holdings are constantly 
growing by the purchase of private 
lands. The general government, or 
Bund, owns no forests. From $6,000,000 
to $8,000,000 worth of wood (800,000 tons) 
and wooden-ware are annually imported. 
This comes mainly from Austria-Hun- 
gary, southern Germany, and France. 


The State forests yield about 64 cubic 
feet per acre, the corporation forests 
42 cubic feet ; the average yield of both 
together is about 45 cubic feet. The 
average wood growth per acre has been 
estimated to be 50 cubic feet. In the 
State forests of Berne the figures show a 
growth of 50 cubic feet for the plateau 
country, 73 cubic feet for the middle 
country, and 75 cubic feet in the Jura. 
Wood prices, which are higher than in 
Germany, have been rising for forty 
years. 


The expenditures in forest manage- 
ment vary greatly among the Cantons, 


307 


Timbers, 


ranging from $1'50 to $7 per acre. The 
net annual returns range from ‘$3 per 
acre in the forests where least is ex- 
pended, to $8 or $9 per acre in the city 
forests, where most is expended. 
Forest regulations came very early j 

Switzerland. The first'forest Yad 
of Berne was issued 600 years ago. The 
city forest of Ziirich, famous as the 
Sihlwald, has been managed under a 
working plan since 1680, and is today one 
of the most perfectly managed and 
most profitable forests in the world. 
It yields, on the average, a clear annual 
profit of $12 per acre. From time to 
time, as the evidence shows, the . Swiss 
people stood in dread of a timber famine. 
Ordinances were passed forbidding the 
reduction of the forest area, the makin g 
of clearings, and the exportation of 
wood from one Canton to another. In 
the middle of the eighteenth century, as 
modern industrial life began, various 
Cantors sought to follow the ,examples 
which Berne and Zurich had set in 
forestry. A severe flood in 1830 brought 
home eee need of more vigorous measures 
in guarding against torrents. 

floods of 1834 and 1868 further pee 
the lesson. An investigation of Swiss 
forest conditions was ordered by the 
Bund in 1857, and the same year pro- 
vision was made for an annual appro- 
priation of $2,000 to the Swiss Forestry 
Association for engineering and reforest- 
ing work inthe Alps. In1871 the Bundes« 
rath was empowered to carry on this 
work, with an annual appropriation of 
$20,000 After the flood of 1868, $200,000 of 
the collections made foc the relief 
of the sufferers was devoted to refor- 
estation. In 1876 the Bund assumed 
supervision of the water and forest 
police in thehigh Alps above a certain 
elevation, and undertook to give aid in 
the work of engineering and reforesting 
for the control of the Alpine torrents. 
Since 1898 the Bund has supervised all 
this work, and in 1902 the present policy 
was firmly fixed by a revision of the 
existing law. 


All the Swiss forests comprised in the 
Bund are now classified as protection 
and non-protection forests. Whether 
public or private they are all controlled 
by the government. In _ protection 
forests all cuttings must be such as to 
preserve the protective value of the 
forest cover intact, and for this reason 
clean cutting is usually forbidden. In 
such forests stumpage sales are forbid- 
den, and all wood must be filled and mea- 
sured under the direction of a forest 
officer. _ Otherwise privately-owned 
protection forests are supervised in the 
main as are those publicly owned. Non: 


Timbers, 858 


protection forests are also subject to a 
number of regulations. When they 
are in private hands clearings may be 
made only with consent of the Canton, 
logged areas must be reforested within 
three years, and existing forest pastures 
must be maintained. 


Where protection forests can be creat- 
ed by planting, this may be ordered, 
and where forests are converted to 
farming land or pasture an equal area 
may be ordered reforested. Where 
barren groundis required to be forest- 
ed for protective purposes, the Bund 
assists by paying from 30 to 50 per 
cent. of the cost. Between 1876 and 
1902, 16,000 acres were reforested at a 
cost of $1,000,000, in round numbers, the 
Bund having paid one-half. 


Grazing hasbeen regulated for centuries. 
In protection forests it is entirely prohi- 
bited ; but on all the rest of the forests 
great success has attended the efforts of 
the forest service to safe-guard both pas- 
turage and the forest by supervision and 
range improvement. Despite differences 
in local conditions, the experience in 


Switzerland in forest grazing is  there- 
fore, strongly in support of the policies 
which are directing the efforts of our 
own Forest Service. Indeed, the experi- 
ence of all Europe shows the necessity 
of controlling the public range. 


To sum up, forestry in Switzerland, 
where every foot of agricultural land 
is of the greatest value, has made 


it possible for the people to farm all | 


land fit for crops, and so has assisted 
the country to support a large popula- 
tion, and one that is more prosperous 
than would be the case if the valleys 
were subjected to destructive floods. 
In a country assmall as Switzerland, 
and one which contains so many high 
and rugged mountains, this is a service 
thebenetits of which cannot be measured 
in dollars. It is in Switzerland also, 
in the Sihlwald, that forestry demon- 
strates beyond contradiction how great 
ayield in wood and money it may bring 
about if applied consistently for a num- 
ber of years.—The Hawaiian Forester 
and Agriculturist, Vol. V., No. 5., May, 
1908. 


(OcTOBER, 1908. 


} 
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- OcToBER, 1908.| 


309 


HORTICULTURE. 


THE WATER HYACINTH. 
By J. C. W1L.Is. 


A little over a year ago I received an 
unpleasant surprise, finding that a 
number of plants of the Water Hyacinth 
(Hichhornia crassipes) had been im- 
ported into Ceylon. I recomme nded that 
they be at once destroyed, this being 
one of the most troublesome weeds in 
the world, but this was refused on the 
ground that the plant (which is quite 
true) was one of the most beautiful 
that could be grown ina house in this 
country. 


The plant was established, and given 
toa number of residents. Whenever I 
discovered it, I urged upon the owner, 
usually with success, the necessity of 
destroying it, anda few months ago I 
thought that the matter was ended. 
Now, however, I find the plant in 
new places, and it is, I believe, even 
being hawked in Colombo. As itis not 
parasitic, it cannot-be included under 
the Pests Ordinance, and as_ the 
plants had actually been imported, their 
introduction could not be prevented 
under the other Ordinance, that of 1901 
against importation of Pests, though 
further introduction will be prevented 
under this Ordinance. 


Hichhornia crassipes is a member of 
the little family Pontederiacec, and is 
itself a South A:nerican plant, as are so 


many of the most beautiful tropical 
flowers. From South America it was 
first introduced to Flordia, where it has 
become a_ terrible weed. With _ its 
bladder-like leaf staiks (by which and 
by its blue or whitish flowers it may be 
instantiy recognised) its floats in the 
water like the water lettuce of Colombo 
lake, and multiplies with great rapidity. 
I have myself crossed wide rivers in 
Florida where no water could be seen 
for the masses of this plant. In many 
places steamboat traffic has been greatly 
interfered with. 


I have also seen the plant in Java, 
where it covers the canals and is a 
common weed} in the paddy fields, and it 
has recently become so troublesome in 
Australia that most strenuous laws have 
had to be passed for its extirpation, 
involving considerable trouble and ex- 
pense to landowners. 


Weeds do not, as a rule, spread till 
they have been some time in Ceylon, 
but already grave risk is being run that 
this plant should escape into the rivers, 
lagoons or paddy fields. Kvery one who 
has it in his possession should immedi- 
ately destroy it by fire—not by throw- 
ing it away—and impress upon anyone 
whom he may find in possession of it to 
do the same. If it be allowed to be dis- 
tributed about as at present, it is sure, 
sooner or later, to escape into a river 
or ela, and may spread mightily and 
cause much trouble and loss. 


360 


[OcTOBER, 1908. 


PLANT SANITATION. 


A SUGGESTION FOR WEED 
SUPPRESSION. 


By ALFRED J. Ewart, D. Sc., Pu. D., 
E.L.S., 
Government Botanist. 


At some recent prosecutions under 
the Thistle Act at Leongatha the Police 
Magistrate, Mr. G. Read Murphy, offered 
a series of prizes to the children bringing 
the largest numbers of Ragwort, a plant 
with which the district is infested, to 
the head teacher of the _ local State 
school. As the result, the head teacher 
writes to say that so far 19,9438 plants of 
ragwort have been brought to him, and 
that over 12,000 were brought in during 
the first four days. Apparently the 
idea has been very successful, and the 
children have for the time being cleared 
the district, more or less. of plants of 
ragwort of appreciable size. 


There can be no doubt that the same 
idea might be extended to other districts 
infested by proclaimed weeds with great 
effect, although itseems hardly fair to 
throw a new burden on the already 
heavily-laden shoulders of the _ local 
teachers. If the fines obtained as the 
result of prosecutions were devoted in 
some suitable fashion as rewards for 
their destruction, the good done by the 
Thistle Act would be greatly increased, 
and an order authorizing Police Magis- 
trates to devote the fines inflicted to 
that purpose would be of great value. 
The money would then be retained and 
utilized in the districts affected, where 
it is usually most needed, instead of 
being lost to it. 


The good effects of utilizing the 
services of the childrenin the manner 
above indicated are two-fold. In the 
first place everyone who has had any- 
thing to do with children and with plants 
knows how strong the natural des- 
tructive tendency of children is, and 
how much. damage it can cause when 


uncontrolled. By directing this destruc- 
tive tendency into proper channels we 
give their natural faculties full play, and 
divert them from the useful shrubs, 


trees, birds, nests and the like on which — 


they might otherwise be exercised. 
After atime the child should come to 
regard certain plants as he does _ snakes, 
1.€., as something to be destroyed on sight. 
When he comes to man’s estate and has 
land of his own, proclaimed plants will 
not be likely to thrive upon it. It is 
from an educational point of view, and 
by inculeating the spirit that certain 
plants, like certain animals, are natural 
though insidious enemies of man, that 
the idea of offering rewards to school 
children for their destruction is likely to 
prove of most use. 


Nevertheless in France, and in other 
countries also, the services of children 
have been largely utilized to keep down 
or suppress plant or animal pests, and 
the direct good effects of children 
scouring the highways and byways for 
weeds are not to be under-estimated. 
It is along roadsides that the problem 
of weed suppression is most difficult, and 
itis also along the roads that weeds 
spread most readily from one district to 
another. Ihave estimated that a plant 
of ragwort allowed to flower freely ina 
newly-cleared district may, under 
favourable conditions, succeed in estab- 
lishing 500 offspring besides being itself 
perennial. The 20,000 plants of ragwort 
collected and destroyed by the school 
children in a short time at Leongatha, 
and at an unfavourable period of the 
year, represent a potential 10,000,000 
plants in the following season. Fair- 
sized plants of ragwort run about 10 to 
the pound when thoroughly dried, so that 
10,000,000 plants represent not far short 
of 500 tons of organic matter which, in 
the form of sheep or mutton, would be 
of considerable value, instead of a dead 
loss to the district.—Journal of the 
Department of Agriculture of Victoria, 
Vol. VI., Part 8, August 10, 1908. 


a 
[> 


: 


’ bees to settle down in. 


+) 


CTOBER, 1908.] 


361 


LIVE STOCK. 


BEE NOTES. 


(A, P, GOONETILLEK A) 
ip 


Of honey bees, there are four varieties 
intheIsland. (1) Meemessa (A pis indica), 
(2) Bambara (Apis dorsata), (8) Dandu- 
wel messa (Apis florea) and (4) Kana- 
miya messa or the stingless bee (Meli- 
pona irripenis). Of these only the first 
can be hived in a box-hive with frames, 
since it alone builds a number of combs 
parallel to each other and naturally in 
eavities. The second and the third 
species build a single comb on branches 
of trees and overhanging rocks, in the 
open air, but never ina cavity, hence the 
difficulty in rearing them in box hives. 
The last-named, though it builds its comb 
in cavities, does so in the form of a mass 
which shows no normal cell structure; 
they can be hived in a bottle covered 
with paper to keep the inside dark. The 
attempt to cultivate unicomb bees in 
hives is not to be recommended, as the 
mere fact of their building only one 
comb, and that too generally in the open 
air, makes cultivation according to 
present methods impracticable, since the 
single comb cannot be removed without 
removing the brood at the same time. 
The rearing of the stingless bee will not 
prove profitable as its capacity for 
storing honey is very limited. 


Apis indica, the bee which admits of 
cultivation as a hive bee, is, asa general 
rule, distributed all over the Island. 
Though .apparently all swarms belong 
to original stock, one swarm differs very 
much from the other in temper, &c. 
often occurs that while one lot is as 
vicious as wasps, another is as gentle as 
Carniolars. The ordinary way of keep- 
ing bees in earthernware pots is objec- 
tionable, besides being risky and little 
remunerative. To attract a swarm it is 
usual to fumigate a pot with some resins 
and leaveitona tree fora stray swarm of 
After they do so 
no notice is taken of the hive till it is 
time to take the honey. The combs can- 
not be taken out and examined, the bees 
swarm at their own sweet will and the 


. bee-keeper cannot come to their rescue 


when they dwindle down for want of 
food or to queenlessness, or again owing 
to being harrassed by an enemy. 


The advantages of the modern hive 
are numerous:—The frames are remov- 
able, so are the top and bottom boards; 

46 


the hive is easily cleaned; food can he 
provided when necessary; swarming can 
be controlled; queens can be bred, &e. 
In fact, with the modern hive the bee- 
keeper could get the bees to work almost 
as he pleases. The honey extractor ren- 
ders it possible to extract the honey and 
save the combs to be refilled, 


An authority on bee-keeping writes :— 
‘‘Bees can be bred as certainly as poul- 
try; many of the ills and accidents 
which bee-life is liable to can be success- 
fully dealt with and bees can be fed on 
substitutes for honey and pollen, so 
insuring their existence in due number 
irrespective of their natural food sup- 
plies, and a large number during the 
season when honey is plentiful. The 
invention of queen-cages, smokers, nuclei, 
the system of artificial swarming, sec- 
tional supers, &c., has made bee manage- 
ment easier, simpler and also more cer- 
tain in its results; whereas the old 
system was one barbarous to bees, less 
productive, precarious and not admit- 
ting of expansion beyond the limits of 
an industry to be pursued by the peas- 
antry on a small scale, while the new 
system has made it easier to keep bees 
on a large scale as a remunerative 
employment. Bee-keeping is not an 
industry which can be profitably pur- 
sued without any capital at all, nor is 
it an industry which yields large profits 
without labour, knowledge or expe- 
rience; but if started with very trifling 
capital and working expenses, the 
capital may be rapidly increased as ex- 
perience is gained, by the mere invest- 
ment of the income and the natural 
increase of well-cared-for bees; the 
return for the capital is as certain and 
relatively much greater than in any 
other rural industry.” 


In countries such as America and Aus" 
tralia which had no indigenous bees, 
bee-keeping has progressed by leaps and 
bounds and the industry gives good re- 
turns. Ceylon has its own honey bees 
and there is no reason why we should 
notimproveit as an honey producer. My 
experience of the Italian bee is that it 
has not yet found suitable pasturage 
in the Island, especially in the low- 
country. Buckwheat and alfalfa are 
now grown to some extent and should 
meet this difficulty. The chief recom- 
mendation of the Italian bee is its 
gentleness, and the ease with which it 
could be handled and managed; but in 
time there is no reason why our indi- 
pone bee should not become as tract- 
able. 


: 


Live Stock. 
SOME SOUNDS OF THE BEE. 


The following interesting little article, 
from the pen of a former reader of and 
contributor to, the pages of the B. B. J., 
appears in the current issue of, the 
South African Poultry Journal, just 
received :— 


“To distinguish all the sounds of the 
bees would require a sense of hearing 
keener than that possessed by human 
ears, but even the dullest ear, after long 
listening, becomes familiar with many 
bee-notes, and finds meaning in what to 
the novice is nothing but a bewildering 
confusion of sound. 


“In practical bee-keeping there is 
nothing the beginner will find of greater 
service than to learn to interpret these 
various sounds from the everyday happy 
hum of the bees in the flowers, varying 
as it does in intensity and eagerness, 
but expressive always of satisfaction 
and delight, to the strange peep-peep of 
a princess in her, as yet, unopened cell. 


‘When the weather is warm and 
honey plentiful each bee leaves the hive 
with a flourish ‘ Whizz, I am off’ ! excla- 
mation; or isita hymn of gratitude for 
a new day and its sunshine ? 


‘The nooday play-spell is a living 
song of gladness—an ariel dance in which 
the young bees join and learn the joys 
of flight—a thorough ventilation and 
refreshment of the hive, but often a 
source of consternation and alarm to 
the beginner in bee-keeping, for he is 
sure that in all this uproar his bees are 
swarming or robbing or doing something 
dreadful, until he discovers itis only 
play andthat each hive repeats this 
performance at the same time every 
day. To the uninitiated the noise is 
suggestive of swarming, and he watches 
with some concern until the bees have 
gone back and the usual quiet is 
restored. 


**One of the most interesting sounds 
is the ‘ call of the queen’ or the ‘call of 
the home ’—the sound that when aswarm 
is being hived leads them up the entrance 
in such unerring lines. 


** All these are sounds that one is glad 
to hear, but there are unpleasant sounds 
as well—the sound of the robber, the 
high angry note of an enraged bee, the 
bee that has a grudge against you and is 
determined instantly to pay it off. 
bee ‘calls out’ when it is being captured 
or crushed and a queen when she is 
frightened. Bees annoyed by ants call 
in distress and spit at their tiny tormen- 
tors, like defiant kittens. The wail ofa 
queenless colony is easily known, and 


362 


[OctoBER, 1908. 


utterly sad, though most pathetic and 
pitiful of all is the sound of bees that 
have lost themselves in the rain or 
darkness.” 


(The writer of the above, Miss Mary 
Ritchie, is now science mistress at a 
college in South Africa, and will be 
remembered as an esteemed contributor 
to our pages a year or two ago.—EDs.) 
—British Bee Journal. No, 1289. Vol. 
XXXV., March 1907. 


KISH-INSECTS. 


Fish-insects are too well known to 
Anglo-Indians to need description. We 
all have seen the flat, scaly, shining 
creature, over an inch in length, which 
is found lurking among papers that 
have lain undisturbed in some out-of-the- 
way place. We have remarked its fish- 
like shape and noticed its three long 
caudal stylets. 


Fish-insects belong to that primitive 
order of the hexapoda called Thysanura. 
These creatures have no wings, but 
many of them can run with great rapi- 


dity. Their life historyis simple. They 
undergo no metamorphosis. They pass 
through no larval stage. The young 


ones are miniatures of their parents. 
The other Thysanura is divided into 
two sub-orders, popularly knownas the 
spring-tails and the bristle-tails. Fish- 
insects belong to the latter sub-order 
and to the family Lepismatide. 


Fich-insects are not by any means con- 
fined to India. They appear to be found 
all the world over. As longagoas 1665, 
R. Rooke, a Fellow of the Royal Society, 
gavea graphic account of the creature. 
He describes it as ‘‘small, white, silver 
shining worm or moth, which I found 
much conversant among books and 
papers, and is supposed to be that which 
corrodes and eats through the leaves and 
covers. Its head appears big and blunt, 
and its body tapers from it towards the 
tail, smaller and smaller, being shaped 
almost like a carrot.........00 It has two 
long horns, before, which are straight, 
and tapering towards the top, curiously 
ring’d or knobb’d and bristled much like 
the marsh weed called horse’s tail......... 
the hinder part terminated in three 
tails, in every particular resembling the 
two longer horns that grow out of the 
head. The legs are seal’d and hair’d.” 
Everybody knows how rapidly books, 
papers and photographs deteriorate in 
this country unless they receive constant 
attention. Anglo-Indians, with one 
accord, blame the fish-insects for thi 
damage. It is true that no one has eve 


OcTorrr, 1908.) 


_ eaught a fiish-insect in flagrante delictu. 


But that is not surprising, for the fish- 
insect is a creature of the night, coming 
out from its lair, like rats and _ black- 
beetles, only when the lights are extin- 
guished. There is, however, strong cir- 
cumstantial evidence against the fish- 
insect; he is always to be found near 
the place where the offence has been 
committed. 


The men of science equally with ‘the 
manin the street” shares Mr. Rooke’s 
view that fish-insects are injurious to 
books. 


Mr. Bladesin his work, entitled ‘‘ The 
Enemies of Books” writes: “ thereis, too, 
a small silvery insect (Lepisma) which I 
have often seen in the backs of neglect- 
ed books, but his ravages are not of 
much importance.” The American En- 
tomologist Packard states that the 
Lepismatide# are sometimes injurious 
to papers and books.” According to 
him Lepisma domestical has injured 
books in the library of Wellesly College. 


The Anglo-Indian eritomologist, Mr. 
K. P. Stebbing, believes that the fish- 
insect ‘‘ perhapsdoes the most damage 
in libraries and to pictures. In the 
latter it apparently feeds upon the 
saccharine matter used in mounting 
the picture in its frame,” 


Sir J. EH. Tennent, however, holds a 
very different opinion of fish-insects, 
believing them to be most useful crea- 
tures. Hedescribes them as ‘‘foes who 

ursue and feed greedily upon” the 
Hasdesof minute insects which destroy 
books. He adds ‘‘instead of their 
services bring gratefully recognised 
these insects are popularly branded as 
accomplices in the work of destruction. 
One of these ill-used creatures is a tiny 
tail-less scorpion (Bhelifer), and the 
other is the pretty little silvery crea- 
ture (Lepisma), called by Europeans the 
fish-insect. Like the Chelifer, it shuns 
the light, hiding in chinks till sunset, 
and is actively engaged throughout the 
night feasting on the acari and _ soft- 
bodied insects which assail books and 
papers. There are thus two opinions 
regarding the character of the _fish- 
insect. Oneis that the fish-insect is a 
hexapod without guile, a poor dog who 
unjustly has been given a bad name; 
the other is that the fish-insect is the 
arch-enemy of our books and _ pictures. 
It behoves us to decide which of these 
two is the true one, for upon the result 
arrived at our policy towards the fish- 
insects should depend. 


I gave some attention to the subject 
nd have held each view in turn. At 
ne time I was orthodox in the extreme, 


368 


Live Stock. 


then I became heterodox and was in- 
clined to side with Tennent; more 
mature experience has, however, con- 
vinced me that the fish-insect is no 
friend to man. Let me recount the 
reasons for these changes of opinion. 
One day I discovered in an old box, 
which contained neither books nor 
paper nor indeed anything but dirt, a 
fish-insect. It is true that it was not 
of the ordinary species. Its body was 
black with the exception of a white 
band running transversely across the 
hinder part of its back. As the old 
box was in an empty room, this dis- 
covery seemed to show that some fish- 
insects, at any rate, can get along 
without paper or books. 


On a subsequent occasion in Madras, 
I saw a dark-coloured fish-insect emerge 
from a crack between the bricks and 
the lintel of a gate in a compound 
wall. It is fairly obvious that that 
particular fish-insect did not feed upon 
paper. 


Then again, the fish-insect is obviously 
not the cause of those round holes 
often found in the leaves and covers 
of books. Some of these excavations 
are nearly an inch in length. The 
mouth of the fish-insect is not an in- 
strument capable of boring such a 
tunnel. Nor is the shape of the tunnel 
that of the Lepisma’s body. 


I then determined to capture some 
fish-insects and keep them under obser- 
vation. This resolution seemed to have 
the effect of producing a dearth of 
fish-insects in a locality where previously 
they had appeared to be exceptionally 
abundant; many days elapsed before I 
managed to secure one. If any person 
desires to ridehis house of Lepismatidse 
I advise him to make a collection of 
them. They seem as difficult to collect 
as five-pound notes. Having at last 
secured my fish-insect I placed him in 
a square cigarette box, with a paper 
of a book, which was already, riddled 
with holes that were the handiwork 
of some insect. [ selected a book of 
this description, as I am assured that 
the paper which helps to form most 
of our modern books is loaded with 
lead and other impurities to such an 
extent that the life of the book-worm 
is now scarcely worth living. The 
fish-insect did not appear to be 
enthusiastic over the paper. I had 
him in that box for three weeks dur- 
ing which the paper remained altogether 
unaffected. On the second day of his 
captivity | introduced into his cagea 
dead mosquito which did seem to 
excite his curiosity. Later I actually 


Lave Stock. 


saw him with the corpse of the mosquito 
in his jaws. After that I used almost 
daily to put into his box some small in- 
sect which I had previously killed. 
On the twentieth day he was as lively, 
as hale and hearty,- as when he was 


first captured, and as I have said before, - 


the piece of paper was not touched. 
After I had had him for about ten 
days I placed in his box a piece of the 
paper which makes the foundation of 
the back of a book, but the fish-insect 
did not take the least notice of it. 
When it ran over it, it did not stop 
to investigate. 


On the twentieth day I caught a 
second fish-insect, a smaller one than 
my first capture, and introduced it 
into the box. The two creatures ignored 
one another so long as I observed 
them. A fish-insect abhors the light; 
it is therefore difficult to observe his 
habits. Although these insects took no 
notice of one another while I was 
watching them, they must have played 
high jinks after my back was turned. 
It happened that 1 did not close the 
box tightly, the consequence was that 
my fish-insects had disappeared by the 
next morning. There had_ probably 
been an elopement during the night ; 
I went to England on leave shortly 
after that. On returning to India I 
was posted to Lahore where fish-insects 
seem to be unusually scarce. Hence 
my researches were ata standstill for 
a long time, during which I held a 
good opinion of the fish-insect, going 
so far as to make the following public 
declaration : “I believe that the fish- 
insect does prey upon the insects which 
attack books, also upon any soft-bodied 
creatures he is able to catch. It is 
possible that he does soil and stain 
books when he is lying up in them 
during the day. This I believe is the 
worst that can be said against him.” 
But, alack, and alas! I have since been 
disillusioned. Iam onceagain among the 
company of the orthodox. It happened 


364 


[OcToRER, 1908. q 


in this wise. Last July I went for ten 
days to Mussoorie, where I was given a 
dressing-room which contained anything 
from twenty to a hundred fish-insects. I 
had not been three days in the place, 
before [noticed that the label on my 
bottle of quinine tabloids was growing 
beautifully less. Some tissue paper that 
my wife had put on a shelf became liter- 
ally riddled with holes in an incredible 
short space of time. The same fate over- 
took some muslin which had never been 
used. The fish-insects also played havoc 
with some new hats that had come out 
from Home and were being stored up for 
some great occasion. The tule in the 
hats was the attraction; it was this 
that rapidly became riddled with holes; 
no other parts of the hats were touched. 


_ The Mussoorie fish-insects also did con- 
siderable damage to the covers of some 
books which were bound in what 
publishers describe as “linen.” 


The glaze on these proved the attrac- 
tion. In order to keep out the fish- 
insects my wife’ placed quantities of 
naphthaline and black pepper in her 
boxes, but this seems to attract rather 
than repel the hardy creatures! The 
above-enuimerated articles alone were 
touched. It is evident that whatever 
the fish-insect may eat in the way of 
insects, it is injurious to the covers of 
books if these contain any kind of glaze. 
lt does not do much damage to the 
leaves of books, even when these are. 
glossy, because it cannot get at them. 
Anything starchy appears to be parti- 
cularly palatable to fish-insects. 


ee 


a Fa ee a ee ee Se 


There are, of course, many species of _ 
fish-insects, some of whichare probably 
purely insectivorous, and hence not to 
be regarded as pests. But the common 
fish.insect—the Lepisma domestica—of 
India is assuredly not a creature to be 
encouraged.—(D. D. in the Indian Field.) 
—Indian Forester, Vol. XXXIV., July, 
1908, No. 7. 


Mic, 


 OcrorER, 1908.) 


365 


SCIENTIFIC AGRICULTURE. 


PLANT EXCRETA. 


Popular opinions generally have some 
foundation in fact, whether or not they 
may seem reasonable on a careful an- 
alysis. It is said that certain plants 
poison the land and this has led to the 
belief that certain plants will excrete 
matter into the soil that will be in- 
jurious to other plants. Referring to the 
eurrent belief, Prof. Clinton D. Smith 
recently answered a correspondent in 
the Country Gentleman to the effect 
that the probable reason of the lack of 
fertility in certain soils, once fertile, is 
notso much the lack of plant food, or 
soluble plant food, as the presence in 
the soil of certain bodies, partly known 
and probably others unknown, which 
are poisonous to the growing crop. Itis 
also believed that the source of these 
poisonous bodies is the previous crop, or 
crops. A German scientist, after a 
series of extensive experiments, believes 
that plants excrete potash, as certain 
ripe crops contained a great deal less of 
it than the same crops when sending 
forth vigorous shoots in the early part 
of their growth. 


On the other hand, the investigations 
in plant physiology during the last ten 
years have led to the present belief that 
the plants are much like any other 
animal possessing life, but, by their 
method of life, are ordinarily held in 
situ, growing in the land just as oysters 
and sponges do in the sea. These living 
things, growing in the land, are presumed 
to take their food, water and oxygen 
through the roots and are presumed to 
exhale any resulting excreta through 
their leaves. The carbonic dioxide, or 
carbonic acid coming from the leaves of 
plants is presumed tobe similar to the 
carbonic acid exhaled from animal 
lungs. If these conclusions be correct 
and if every plant or sponge is buta 
humbler member of the great living 
animal world, we can see at once that 
we have yet very much to learn con- 
cerning plant biology. If with our quick 
American appreciation of new ideas, we 


take hold of thi s matter in earnest, a 
Wwe now seem to be doing, the benefit to 
the agricultural interests of the United 
States will be large, far beyond our 
present comprehension. 


We who live in the alluvial country, 
with low lands necessitating careful 
drainage, can quickly perceive that if 
sugar cane is an air-breathing plant, as 
it must be, andif the air it breathes 
must be inhaled through its roots before 
it can be exhaled by the plant through 
its leaves, the earth in which the cane 
plant grows must be permeated hy 
atmospheric air sufficiently to give the 
plants their necessary oxygen. The 
sugar cane isnot an aquatic plant. It 
cannot get its oxygen out of the water 
as fishes do, and, on the other hand, 
water in undue quantity drowns these 
dry-land plants, 


It is less than twenty-five years ago 
that Helriegel brought out in Germany 
and definitely formulated the now 
generally accepted theories of the value 
of leguminous plants, such as cow peas, 
alfalfa and clover, in fertilizing land by 
the accumulation therein of nitrogen, 
which nitrogen is secreted from the air 
by the bacilli that make the roots of 
these ; plants their habitat. The Old 
Roman and Greek world knew the 
advantage of leguminous plants in a 
rotation of crops, but never ascertained 
the reason why such plants were so 
valuable as a fertilizing agent. In plant 
physiology we understand that until 
within ten years it was thought that 
plants exhaled carbonic acid and inhaled 
oxygen and all this through the leaf 
system. This belief is now apparently 
dissipated and we find the plants lining 
up with the rest of the living things of 
the world, inhaling their oxygen and 
ingesting their nutriment through one 
set of organs and exhaling any necessary 
excreta through other organs. As to 
the excreta of plants in the soil and the 
poisoning of the soil therewith, we are 
still very much in the dark, as all this 
world seems to indicate.—The Louisiana 
Planter & Sugar Manufacturer. Vol, 
XXXX, No 25, June, 1908.) 


En REE PS, 2 SO a aes 


Si Se 


. ¢ Lh — 
[OCTOBER, 1908, 


366 
MISCELLANEOUS. 
LITERATURE OF ECONOMIC ee liane i cacn ae arene ies 
BOTANY AND AGRICULTURE. foe Aur 1908, 6 ee ne 
XXXIV. Landolphia rubber vines. ‘T.A.” 
5 soba Aug. 1907, p. 98. 
KICKXIA.—-see FUNTUMIA. MANIHOT. 


LANDOLPHIA. 


Warburg in Tropenpfl. July 1899, 
p. dll. 

Pierre, see Bot. Centr. 82. 1900, p. 337. 

Hallier, see do. 85, 1901, p. 170. 


Notes sur un nouvelle Landolphia 
de l’ Etat Independant du Congo 
(L. Laurentii De Wild.) Rev. Cult. 
Col. 1901, p. 229, 


Ueber der Stampfianze des Donde— 
kautschuks und ihre praktische 
Bedeutung. Tropenpfi. 1901, p. 403. 

Getrocknete Landolphia-rinde. do. 
p. 443. 


L. tenuis: petite liane 4 caoutchoue 
de Madagascar. Rev. Cult. Col. 
1902, p, 298. 

Busse: zur Kenntniss der 
kanischen lLandolphias. 
Jahrb. 32, p. 163. 


Multiplication de la liane’ caout- 
chouc, owariensis. Journ. @ 
Agr. trop. 1903, p. 99. 

LL. Kirkii.—Hooker’s Icones. 2755. 

L. Petersiana do. 2756. 


L. Thollonii et L. parvifolia: contri- 
butions 4 la connaissance de I ori- 
gine du caoutchouc des _ herbes. 
Rev. Cult, Col. Feb. 1904, p. 57. 


Rubber of L. Kirkii from Amatonga- 
land, i lan Imp. Inst. Bull. June 
1904, p. 9 


Dawe: ee rubber, its col- 
lection and preparation. ‘‘T.A.” 
June 1904, p. 825. 


Sur quelques Landolphias nouvelles 
de Madagascar. Bull Jard. Col. 
July 1904, p. 107. 


The rubber of L. Petersianatrom the 
East African Protectorate. Bull. 
Imp. Inst. Jan. 1905, p 


Einiges ueber Landolphia. Tropenpfi. 
9, 1905, p. 712. 

Vegetation et rendement du L, Thol- 
lonit. Jour. d’Agr. trop. 5. 1905, 
p. 327. 

Cultivation of aya rubber. 
Chron. 1906, p 

History of a aba creeper in trop- 
pical Africa (LZ. Dawei). Ind. 
Journ. May 1906, p. 514. 


Ostafri- 
Engler’s 


Gard. 


(Ceara or Manicoba rubber). 
eecuenting Opinion, 25 Feb. 1899, p. 


Cultivation du caoutchouc de Ceara 
au Congo francais. Rev. Cult. Col. 
Oct. 1899, p. 219. 

An Opportunity for our Indian For- 
ests. Ind. Agric. Sept. 1899, p. 279. 

M. Glaziovii in Deutsch Ost- Afrika. 
Tropenpfl. July 1899, p. 335. 

Uses of M. Glaziovii. Ind. Gard. 12. 
7. 1900, p. 20. 

Ceara rubber tree do, 30. 8. 1900, p. 189. 


Le Manihot. Rev. Cult. Col. 1903, pp. 
343, 361. 

peed and bad Cearas. ‘*T.A.” 1904, 
p. 8. 

Gruber: see Ber. L. F. Deutsch Ost- 
Afrika II. p. 121. 

Tropenpfi. 1904, p. 455, 


Le Manicoba. Bull. Jard. Col. 5, 
p- 298. 

Ceara rubber in Ceylon. 
3. 1906 p. 172. 

Untersuchungen iiber die Gewinnung 
des Kautschuks von Manihot Glazi- 
Mies Der Pflanzer 1905, p. 305, 1906, 
p. 33. - 

Zwei Gutachten iiber der Kautschuk 
von Manihot Glazovii Tropenpfl. 
1906, jp. 20. 

The cultivation of Ceara rubber: 
Trop. Life, Nov. 1906, p. 165. 


Do. May 


Ind. PI. 10. 


Bons et Mauvais Cearas. 
1906, p. 134, 

Ceara rubber in Ceylon. ‘‘T.A.” Mar. 
1906, p. 101. 


Untersuchungen iiber die Gewin- 
nung des Kautschuks von M. Glazi- 
ovit. Der Pflanzer 3, 1907, p. 49. 


Die Anzucht und kultur des M. Glazi- 
ovii in Kibwezi, B. H. A. Notizbl. 
Berlin LV. p. 263. 


Die VW. Glaziovit Kultur in Madagas- 
car. Tropenpfl. 1907 p. 244. 


Le caoutchoue de Ceara «4 l’exposi- 
tion de Ceylon. Journ. D’Agri. 
trop. 1907, p. 71. 


‘Critique du M. Glaziovui in Annam. 
do. 73. 


ati 


; OCTOBER, 1908. | 


Oil from the seed of the Céara rubber 
tree analysed. “‘T.A.” June 1007, 
Dp. 303. 

Ule: Vorliufige Besvhreibung von 


drei Manihot Arten. Notizbl. - 


Berlin, 1907. 


Zimmermann, Hinige neue Kauts- 
chuk—liefernde Manihot— Arten 
Der Pflanzer Aug. 1907, p. 167. 


Jequié Manicoba and its allies. Kew 


Bull. 1908, p. 59. “*T.A.” May 1908, 
p. 412, 


Seq uié Manicoba rubber. Agr. News, 
IV. 388: “ T.A.” Apr. 1908, p. 298. 
Ceara or Manicoba rubber. Jam. 

Bull. 1908, p. 1. 


New species of Manihot and their 
importance. (Trans. by Lock from 
Der Paauzer) TA.” Man 1908, p. 198, 


Les nouveaux Manicobas de Bahia 
et de Piauhy. Journ. dAgr. trop. 
31. 8. 1908, p. 65. 


Johnson: Ceara rubber in Portuguese 
East Africa. Bull. Imp. Inst. 4 
1907, p. 401. 


Chevalier: Un nouveau Manihot a 
caoutechouc. Journ. dAgr. trop. 
Dec. 1907, p. 356, 


Neue Manihot—Arten und _ ihre 
Sess Tropenpfl. Dec. 1907, 


A propos du M. Teissonniert A. 
Chev. Journ. d’Agi. trop. Apr. 
1908, p. 110. 


Le Sisal, coagulant du latex de 
M. Glaziovit do. p. 128 


Observations sur le culture, l’exploi- 
tation et le rendement du Mani- 
coba. do. June 1908, p. 163, 


Ueber Anzapfungsversuche von M. 
Glaziovit in Togo. Der Pflanzer. 
Apr. 1908, p. 36. 


Untersuchung von Manihot—Kauts- 
chuk. do. p. 39. 

Ceara rubber. ‘*T,A.”, Suppt. Dec. 
1907, p. 121. 


Ceara or Manicoba rubber. T.A.” 
June 1908, p. 518. 


MARSDENIA. 


Le M. verrucosa ou Bokalahy de 
Madagascar, et son Caoutchouc, 
Rev. Cult. Col. VI. 1900, p. 293. 


M ASCARENHASIA, 


Les Mascarenhasias & caoutchouc de 
Madagascar. do. 1899, p. 297. See 
Comptes Rendus, 20, May 1899. 


367 


Miscellaneous. 


Jumelle : Recherches sur lextraction 
du caoutchouc des écorees et la 
coagulation des latex dans les 
Mascarenhasias. Le Caout. et la 
Guttap. Aug. Sept. 1965. 


Le genre Mascarenhasia. Bull, Jard. 
Col. July 1906, p. 59 


Jumelle: Le polymorphisme des 
Mascarenhasias del’Ambongo et du 
Boina. Bull. Jard. Co 1-7. 1907, 
p. 283 

Stapf: Mgoa rubber in British Kast 
Africa. Kew Bull. 1907. T. A. Feb. 
1908, p. 102. 


Ueber die Kautschukgewinnung von 
Mascarenhasia and Cryptostegia- 
arten. Der Pflanzer, 1907, p. 145. 


MEXICAN RUBBER.—See CASTILLOA. 
ParA RUBBER.—See HEVEA. 


PARAMERIA, 


Une liane a caoutchouc de I Indo- 
Chine. Bull. Ke. Indo-Ch. 1901, p. 371. 


Latex and rubber ot Paramerna 
glandulifera from India. Imp. Inst. 
Bull. 1907, p. 14. 


PARTHENIUM (Guayule) 


Der Guayule und seine wirthschaf- 
tliche Bedeutung. Tropenpfl. 9. 
1905, p. 283, 


The Guayule rubber of Mexico. Imp. 
Inst. Bull. 1906, p. 114. 


The Guayule rubber plant. Ind. 
World. July &e. 1905, pp, 335, 
367, &c. 


The Guayule factories of Mexico. 
do. July 1906, p. 329. 

Caoutchoue de Guayule. Journ. d’ 
Agr. trop. Dee. 1905, p. 368. 

The use of Guayule rubber. T. A. 
Dee. 1906, p. 457. 


Ueber den gegenwartigen Stand und 
die Aussichten der Guayule in- 
dustrie. Tropenpfl. 11. 1907, p. 449. 

The Guayule rubber of Mexico. 
Trop. Life Dec, 1906, p, 181. 


The Guayule interests. Ind. World, 
Aug. 1907, p. 382. 


Guayule rubber. Ind. Journal Sepc. 
1907, p. 305. 


Guayule rubber Kew Bull. 1907, p. 
285. T. A. do. p. 103. 


Le caoutchouc de Guayule. Journ. 
d Agr. trop. Sept. 1907, p. 259. 


Guaywe rubber. Str. Bull, 1907, p. 385. 


Oe paige 


Miscellaneous. 368 OcToBER, 1908. — 
Ross: Der anatomische Bau_ der Ueber das Vorkommen von Kauts- 
mexicanischen Kautschukpflanze chuk bei Hinigen ostafrikanischen 
Guayule. Ber. D. Bot. Ges. 26, ’ Gymnosporia-arten. Notizbl. Ber- 
1908, p. 248. lin V. 1908. p. 64. 
Guayule rubber. Kew Bull. 1908 Le Plec taneia elastica ou Pies annee 
955! ‘ liane & caoutchoue de Madagascar. 
Bacon. Joure. dAgr trop. Apr. 1908, p. 
SAPIUM. 125. 
Notes surleS. biglandulosum (review The native rubber trees of British 
to date). Rev. Cult. Col. 1900, p. 14, Guiana. Journ. B. A., Brit. Gui. 
See R. B. G. Perad Circ. 1899, No, 14. T. A 1908, pp. 805, 415. 


Kew Bull. 1890, p. 149. 


Sago. 

A t de S. biglandul .R 

TERT Te geal gine ak Ne a See Malay Bull. No. 4, 1895. 
Sapium spp- Hooker’s Icones VII. Preyer in Tropenpfl, 1901, p. 354. 

2647 seg., 2677 seg. See Tropenpfi. 1901, p. 213. 
Sapiumstylare do. 2757. Cycead Sago. T. A. June, 1906, p. 385 
The ‘‘ Virgen ” rubber of Colombia. The Sago palm. Journ. B. A. Brit. 

Ind. Journ. Aug. 1906, p. 244. Gui. Jan. 1908, p. 18. T. A, May, 1908. 
A new source of Amazon rubber. Ind. p. 433. 

World, Aug. 1905, p. 365. SA MALGDOOL. 


SUNDRY GENERA. See Schimmel’s Reports, especially 


; ; j : that for April 1900, p. 40, where is a 
pea ene papeD haat map of the Sandalwood districts. 


Neue Kautschukbiume (Alstonia) Rudolf, Sandalwood and Sandal- 
aus Neu—Caledonien. Tropenpfl. ee aaa oul harmacy 12, 


1903, p. 526. ; 
Kautschuk von Clitandra Kilimand” Tate oS, at ae wuts 


ieee NV aco fl, 6. 1902, p: ) 
UN Ad hae anid P Sandalwood-oil do. 11.8) 16n0h wereee 
Les Bois de Santal en Indo-Chine. 


' 
. 
} 
} 


Kine neue Kautschuk—liefernde 
Liane, Clitandra Simone. Notizbl. Ppt ie. doc eae : 
Berlin IV, 1905, p. 169. Barber. Spike disease in Coorg. Ind. f 

Guis caoutchoutiferes d’Amazonie Forester, 29. p. 21. N 7 
Journ. d’Agr. trop. May. 1906, p. Butler. Spike disease in Coorg. do., 

131. Suppt. . : 
de Wildeman: Le Periploca nigres- Treatment of the Sandalwood tree : 
cens, plante 4 caoutchouc. Journ. do. p. 113, ! 
d@Agr. trop. 6. 1906, p. 363. Notes on Sandalwood. do. 30, 1904, 

A new rubber tree, Palo Amarillo. pp. 18, 248 t 
Kew bull. 1907, p. 294. Das Santalholz. Mitth. Amani No. i" 

Rubber from a_ tuber at last. 33. ; 
Str. Bull. A ug. 1907, p. 252. Barber. The study of Sandalwood ~ 

Arbre A caoutchouc dit Nong Giot seedlings. Ind, For. 30, 1904, p. 546. 
dans le cercle de Caobang. Bull. Sandalwood at Kurnool. do. 1906, 
Ec, Indoch. 1907, p. 703. p. 893. 

Une nouvelle liane a caoutchouc du Barber. The haustorium of Santa- 
genre Bousigonia do. p. 706. lum album. Mem. Dpt. Agr. India 

Nouvelles observations sur l’arbre I. 1. 

a caoutchouc du Tonkin (Teo-nong) Sandalwood-oil. Parry. Chem. and 
do. p. 798. Drug. 28. 3. 1908, p, 489. 

Determination de larbre a caout- The characters of essential oil of 
chouc du Tonkin, Teo-nong, Bleek- East Indian Sandalwood. Chem. 
rodea tokinensis Dub-et Eberh. and Drug. Sept. 1907, p. 448. 

Goes seat Sansevieria. 

Another new _ indiarubber tree, , wis, 
Bleekrodea tokinensis. T. A. Mar. Preyer. Die Sansevieria-taser Beih. 
1908, p. 208. z. Tropenpfi. I. 1900, p. 18. : 

A new rubber tree (Huphorbia ela- Sansevieria fibre. Ind. Gard. 26. 4. — 


stica) Kew Bull. 1907, p. 109. 1900, p. 275. 


Ocroser, 1908.) 


Greilach. Zur Anatomie des Blattes 
von Sansevieria, und ueber die 
Sansevieria-faser—Oest. Bot. Zeits- 
chr. LI. 1901, p- 152. Bot. Centr. 87, 
p. 240, 

Sansevieria cultivation in Selangor. 
Str. Bull. II. 1903, p. 220. 


Arden. Murva fibre. T. A. Sept. 
1903, p. 188. 

The bowstring hemp. Ind. Pl. and 

_ Gard. 12, 9. 1903, p. 181. 

La fibre tessile Sansevieria. Boll. 


Eritrea II. 1902, p. 269. 


Murva fibre from the Straits Settle- 
ments. Imp. Inst. I. 2. 71, 


Die Sansevieren von Deutsch Ost 
oe Der Pflanzer 1905, pp. 264 


Aufbereitung der Sanseviera—blat- 
ter. Tropenpfl. 1905, p. 584. 


Bericht uber eine im Autftrag Der 
Kaiserliches Governements unter- 
nommene Reise in die Sansevieria- 
gebietebei Voi (Britisch Ost-Africa), 
Der Panzer III. 1907, p. 90. 


Essai de multiplication de la Sanse- 
vieria et du Sisal parle bouturage 


des feuilles. Journ. d’Agr. trop. 
June, 1908, p. 167. 
Sapindus 
Seifenfrucht. Tropenpfi. 1907, p. 287. 
Sapodilla 


The Zapote tree and chicle gum. T. 
A. Sept. 1906, p, 229. 
Sarcolobus 
S. globosus. Ridley in Str. Bull. II. 
1903, p. 223. 
Satinwood 


Broun. Satinwood. 
May, 1899, 


Templer, Satinwood. T. A. Jan. 
1907, p, 26 
Schleichera 
Schleichera fat. Ind. Agr. May 1906: 


p. 182. 
Schleichera or Kusam oil and fat. T. 
A. Oct. 1906, p. 3809, 


Senna. 


The Senna industry (South India). 
Ind. Agric. 1902, p, 210. 


Ind. Forester, 


Sesame. 


Sesame. Queens]. Agr. Jl., Dec. 1898, 
p. 423, 

Thoms. Prufiing der Sesamum aus 
Byer Tropenpii. II. Beih. Z. B. C.8. 
p. B 


Ueber das Sesamum, Beih. Z. B, C, 9: 
p. 313. 
47 


369 


Miscellaneous, 


La culture du Sesame. Rev. Cult. 
Col. Dec. 1903, p. 387. 


Sesamum in Burmah. Ind. Agr. Jan. 

1908, «‘T,A.” Apr. 1908, p. 319. 
Shade Trees. 

Str. Bull. No. 8. Dec. 1898, p. 221. 

Zizyphus Joazeiro. Tropenpfl. 4, 1900, 
p» 299. 

Manurial value of shade trees. 
Bull. 1901, p. 347. 


Le Rorako (Parkinsonia aculeata) 
comme arbre d’ombrage & Java. 
Journ, dAgr, trop. May 1907, 
p. 157. 

Shellac. 

Wattin Chem. and Drug. Nov. II, 

1907, p. 775. 
Shorea. 

The seeds of S. robusta as a famine 
food. Agr. Ledg. P. Series 
81, 1904. 

Development of salin volume and 


money value. Ind. Forest. Records 
I. 2. 1908. 


Trin. 


A JOURNEY TO CEYLON, INDIA AND 
BURMA. 
By D. SANDMANN (DEUTSCHES KOLONIAL 
BLATT, 1907.) 
REVIEWED By J. C. WILLIs. 


The author made a tour of three months 
in the Kast to study the general agricultural 
conditions, with a view to determining the 
best methods of handling such matters in 
German colonies. 

After a good general description of the 
island, including the povery of the soil, the 
author remarks ‘‘ The good climate, the cheap 
labour, good connection with the world’s 
warkets, and last but not least the correct re- 
cognition of the world’s different needs, has 
contributed more than the natural conditions 
of the soil, to the development of Ceylon. 


He gives a good account of the Peradeniya 
department and its organisation for the 
assistance of agriculture, the Agricultural 
Society. 

A full account is then given of rubber 
planting, coconuts, &c., 


THE VILLAGE CULTIVATOR AND 
PADDY CULTIVATION. 


A. DISSANAIKE MUDALIYAR,. 


[Laid before the Board of Agriculture 
Meeting of 5th Uctober, 1908.] 
In my previous paper I referred to the diffi” 


culties experienced by paddy cultivators as 
the result of uncertain rainfall as well as 


Miscellaneous. 


their strained circumstances and_ inability 
to combat the many evils arising therefrom. 
The ordinary villager is not a man without 
energy and intelligence, and he is able and 
willing to work if there is a way of getting 
help to overcome the difficulties with which 
he is beset. As there are no friendly associ- 
ations or companies in existence among the 
people to carry on Agricultural or Industrial 
work, what is to be desired is a fund, to 
be created by themselves which will enable 
them to carry on paddy cultivation and 
other agricultural pursuits. Paddy culti- 
vators, being generally a poor and neglected 
class of people, require help in carrying on 
this most important industry, and the only 
way the people can help themselves is by 
a voluntary cess. In this the Government 
can help by recovering a share of the produce 
of their paddy lands to be spent upon im- 
provements in paddy cultivation. This 
would enable the cultivator to get monetary 
help in times of need—a thing which the 
people have not been able to do except on 
the most ruinous terms. 


Paddy cultivation has been the main in- 
dustry in this country for thousands of years 
past, and the payment of the tithe as royalty 
existed from time immemorial. The people 
were used to it, and never grumbled at 
having to pay it. The Portuguese historian, 
Captain John Robiyro, in his ‘‘ History of 
Ceylon” states that ‘there is no nation which 
so highly venerates its King as the Sinha- 
lese.” Itis equally true that the Sinhalese 
held this tax as something sacred to the 
Sovereign. In the early days it was taken 
in kind and continued during Dutch rule 
and even at the commencement of the 
British Government. The tax came to be 
regarded unfair, methods subsequently adopt- 
ed in levying it proving a harass to the 
cultivators. Renting out crops by Govern- 
ment resulted in many cases before Courts 
between the renters (generally strangers) 
and the cultivators. ‘The renting system 
was given up in 1881 and _ commutation 
introduced; but this proved still more 
vexatious, many of the small holdings of 
the people falling under the hammer in 
default, until in 1893 it was abolished. 
The people everywhere are agreeable to the 
tithe and, I believe, there is a general im- 
pression that paddy cultivation was more 
prosperous during the days of the tax than 
now. This may be attributed largely to the 
attention which the headmen paid to the culti- 
vation and the crop. Another reason is that 
the people act freely regardless of others, 
whereas paddy cultivation should be carried 
on systematically and with mutual under- 
standing and co-operation. The revival of 
the tithe would not be imposing a land tax 
but a voluntary contribution by the people 
for their direct benefit. 


Isuggest the necessity of having a Tithe for 
_ the advancement of the industry—revival of 


30 


{OcrozER, 1908. am 
a custom the people are used to—not th | 
resuscitation of an abolished Tax, , 


The cultivators all over the Island have no 
repugnance to paying the tithe, and they will 
be the more willing to pay it, when itis known 
to be used for their own benefit. The proceeds 
of the sale shall be applied to necessary im- - 
provements in cultivation, the remainder 
credited to the District Committee. The 
cultivators are often obliged to attend to 
other agricultural pursuits during times of 
recess in order to provide for themselves and 
families when they are actively engaged in 
paddy cultivation. This fund shall be of 
great service at such times, and turn them off 
the money lenders on exorbitant interest. 
Loans might be given on joint security where 
necessary, and such privileges granted will 
afford them much relief and comfort. When — 
the fund has increased by yearly contri- 
butions to a big capital, Government would 
be better placed in initiating large and useful 
irrigation works with the co-operation of the 
people. JI have so far pointed out the de- 
sirability of having a fund for the cultivators, 
and how it can be conveniently formed out 
of the produce of the lands. 

Whether the levying of a tithe is effected 
by a special Ordinance or by special Rules 
framed to be worked under the Village Com- 
munities’ Ordinance, or the Paddy Cultivation 
Ordinance, the fund shall be administered by 
Village Committee members, selected by the 
cultivators and presided by the chief Revenue 
Officer of the District as Chairman, all act- 
ing under the presidency of the Government 
Agent or the Asstistant Government Agent. 
When any necessary work has to be effected, 
the Village Committee can discuss the matter 
and report their views to the Government 
Agent or the Assistant Government Agent, 
who can, with the consent of a reasonable 
majority, take action. The co-operation of 
the Irrigation Department in such cases may 
be availed of, and the work done under its 
supervision, the cultivators supplying all such 
labour as they can render according to the 
quota assigned to each by the proper officer, 
necessary expenses being met out of the fund. 
I consider, from my long experience as a 
District Mudaliyar, the procedure above to 
be the best; this opinion is held by other 
native chiefs of long service as also by land- 
owners of experience. 


It is for the Government to consider the 
further utilization of the Irrigation Depart- 
ment so as to make its usefulness and advan- 
tages widely extended. Every Province is 
understood to possess an Irrigation Instructor 
or Adviser, whose special duty is to see that 
the cultivators conform to the rules on the 
improved methods of cultivation, with a 
small staff to inspect the works. ; 

In districts where the Paddy Cultivation — 
Ordinance is in force and worked upon, a — 
class of petty headmen called Vel-Vidanes — 
are generally taken from the ordinary classes, — 


! 
“a 


It would prove better to let the selection 
of these officers to the Village Committees, 


who should have control of the general 


management of cultivation, such as fixing 
sowing time, weeding, fencing, selection of 
seed-paddy or its distribution to cultivators, 
raising and repair of ridges of fields, upkeep 
of village tanks, if any, &c. Special rules, 
where necessary, might be enforced. 


The assessment of the paddy crops for the 
levying of the tithe may be done as in former 
days by employing Comisteer Appus or Com- 
missioners, the local headman of the division 
certifying as to the correctness of the 
wattores (lists of land with an assessment of 
the crops). 

The mode of recovering the tithe, whether 
in kind? or by renting the crops should, I 
think, be left to the Village Committees, 


It is important to consider the advisability 


_of employing some methods of education and 


instruction on the improvement of fields, 
e.g., by observing systematic rotation of 
crops, trying new kinds of paddy, introducing 
improved implements, transplanting, and 
manuring suitable to various soils. These 


improvements will be best effected by asso- 
ciating the Village Committees with the 


Agricultural Society. 


Assuming that the management of paddy 
cultivation and the carrying out of the 
different improvements suggested are con- 
ducted on lines indicated above, and under 
the supervision of the Agricultural Society, 
and that Agricultural Shows are arranged, 
after harvest times, it would be a good plan, 
when the cultivators bring their paddy, to 
award prizes for the best quality and yield. 
I have borrowed the idea from Japan, where 
the modus operandi is described in the 
following passage from ‘‘Dai Nippon” by 
Henry Dyer, c.E., M.A., D,SC :— 


**The time of the annual payment of the 
rice at the Collectors’ store-houses, where 
each farmer’s rice was submitted for in- 
spection, instead of being an occasion of 
sorrow and irritation, was more like that of 


‘a fair where each vied with the other in 


presenting for official inspection the best 
return of rice, It was always a source of 
mortification for any one when his rice was 
rejected or declared improperly cleaned for 
the market, Prices were awarded for the 
best quality and yield, which stimulated the 
farmers in its production. The tax rice 
was regarded as a precious thing not to be 
defiled,” 


Transplanting of paddy is seldom or never 
resorted to in most of the districts, as is done 
in India, where it is extensively carried on. 
Some years ago, when [ was Mudaliyar of the 
Gangaboda Pattu of Galle, I tried transplant- 
ing, on a small scale, in one of my lands and 
had a return of about fifty-fold. It is to be 
hoped that cultivators would more extensively 
adopt it. As a start, rewards might be 


ov) 


Miscellaneous. 


offered to those who undertake it according 
to the extent planted and the success 
acheived, till the people get used to it and 
appreciate it. Such awards, of course, will 
have to be paid out of the common fund, J 
learn some of the branches of the Agricultural 
Society are already doing this. 


There is another side of the question to be 
faced if remunerating minor headmen is 
going to be adopted. ‘There is a general 
dislike on the part of the people to associate 
the headmen with any new scheme brought 
forward for their benefit. The present 
headmen, it is an unpleasant fact, are not as 
respected and obeyed as a decade ago; but it 
is for the Government to consider whether a 
general reform of the headman system, and 
whether the present number may not be con- 
siderably reduced. Some of the native chiefs 
are of opinion that it would be extremely 
difficult to raise funds to pay headmen, as a 
rule, and that the selection and remuneration 
of field-headmen be left to the discretion of 
respective Committees. Ifitis held, however, 
that half the money should go to the Head- 
men’s Fund or to Government to enable it to 
form a scheme for remunerating headmen 
there will still be one-half the proceeds to be 
dealt by Village Committees or District 
Committees. This might not be sufficient 
unless the Government extended help by 
grants to cover half the expenses incurred for 
village works, irrespective of such labour as 
would be supplied by the cultivators. In 


cases where any irrigation works, such as 


village tanks, anicuts, &c., have to be put up, 
estimates should be furnished by officers of 
the Irrigation Department. 


Where funds are not available to give 
loans to the cultivators when necessary, 
Government shall have to be appealed to 
supplement any deficiencies, by occasional 
advances, until the fund increases, 


It might be well to direct parties seeking 
loans first to lay their cases before a 
President of V. T., and where there is no 
President, before the Chairmen of Village 
Committees, who, after recording necessary 
evidence, should forward it to the Govern- 
ment Agent or the Assistant Government 
Agent, with his own recommendations. In 
cases where payment is not prompt, the 
recovery might be effected through the 
Village Tribunal, by any person so authorised. 


Referring to the remarks which fell from 
His Excellency the Governor on the last 
occasion, that one tithe might nol be sufficient 
in some circumstances, I beg to state that 
it is the opinion of very many that the 
paddy cultivators will be inconvenienced by 
giving another tithe, and that they would 
gladly consent to such a cess when the 
working of the scheme proves successful, 
and when they see that the benefits they 
receive will be more than ample compen- 
sation, Any proposal to increase the rate at. 


Miscellaneous, 372 
the commencement would be looked on with 
. disfavour by the generality of the people, 


The Government has with great liberality 
caused the restoration of large Irrigation 
Works, and thereby saved parts of the coun- 
try from disastrous crises. We find already 
the beneficial results of such works in 
enhancing the food supply in those districts, 
and averting famine and epidemics. Large 
expenditure has been incurred by the Govern- 
ment in schemes of restoration and in 
opening up new irrigation works. There 
still remain, however, enormous tracts of 
land suitable for paddy cultivation, which in 
the olden days of the Sinhalese kings were 
fully utilized by means of various devices and 
contrivances for irrigating.. The revival of 
Sir Henry Ward’s Minute for extension of 
paddy cultivation augurs well for the future. 
But the extension of these irrigation works 
would be like asking people to occupy empty 
palaces, if they were not at the same time 
provided with the means of obtaining the 
necessary funds which are beyond their 
reach. When the people have no means to 
carry on effective works on their own lands, 
they cannot be expected to do pioneer work 
and undertake new enterprises without 
adequate support. It is quite possible that a 
fund created for the people on the lines 
above suggested might, in course of time, 
grow into such proportions as would enable 
the carrying out of large and important 
enterprises. 


A, DISSANAIKE, 
Mudaliyar. 


_ which are sometimes left useless in a village, 


THE INTRODUCTION OF IM- 
PROVEMENTS INTO INDIAN 
AGRICULTURE. 

By D. CLouston, B.Sc., 


(Deputy Director of Agriculture, 
Central Provinces and Berar.) 


(Continued from page 268.) 


Certain kinds of demonstration work can 
be effectively carried out by means of an 
itinerary staff. Here, again, the work is 
most sure to prove futile unless precautions 
be taken to employ the right class of men 
for the work and to make all thearrangements 
beforehand, by fixing definite centres and — 
definite dates for the demonstrations, and by 
Securing the assistance of the District Officer 
in intimating the same to the cultivators. 
Good work has been done on these lines by 
demonstrating the method of pickling juar to 
prevent smut. The assistants deliver short 
addresses at each centre, in which they 
explain the advantage of using this fungicide, 
and then proceed to give a practical demon- 
stration of the method of applying it to the 


seed, Several cultivators are thoroughly 
taught the process, and are then given free 
of cost sufficient copper sulphate required to 
pickle the quantity of juar seed which each 
intends to sow. About 8 ewts. of copper- 
sulphate were given out in this way last year 
or sufficient to pickle about 200,000 lbs. of 
seed. 


The department has successfully demon- 
strated this process for several years, and its 
advantages have been so fully recognised that 
it has become a regular practice in certain 
parts of the juar tract. Successful work on 
similar lines has been done by sending 
assistants on tour with selected new machines 
and implements, which we believe to be 
suitable for the tract. Here also it is neces- 
sary to frame a definite programme with 
fixed centres, such as large villages where 
bazaars are held, where the assistant can stay 
and work his machines for some days, rather 
than wander about to a new village each day. 
In this way a considerable demand has arisen 
for some useful machines, such as winnowers 
and fodder-cutters. A register of purchasers 
should be maintained, and the department 
should ascertain from time to time whether 
the machine is working satisfactorily and 
should assist in effecting any necessary 
repairs. Failure has resulted in some cases, 
where the purchaser has not known how to 
work the machine properly, and it is now the 
practice to try and induce a purchaser to 
send a man to the agricultural station to be 
taught the practical working of the imple- 
ments that he desires to purchase. ‘This is 
very necessary in the case of foreign ploughs, 


not because the plough is unsuitable, but 
because the purchaser has not learnt the 
proper method of working it. 


The school gardens should, to some extent, 
at least, be the means of bringing the young 
mind into touch with nature, and of arousing 
his interest in plant-growth. Nature study 
should form a fundamental part in the edu- 
cation of every child so as to teach him to 
observe closely and to reason accurately — 
from data gained by observation. Nature ~ 
study brings the child face to face with real 
things, and tends in this case to give his | 
mind an intelligent bent towards cultivation 
and for the assimilation, later, of such useful 
scientific work as the stations may turn out — 
for his farm practice. As the success of the — 
scheme depends very largely on the teachers ~ 
in charge, they are put through a six months’ 
course at the Agricultural College, where 
they are taught the rudiments of theoretical — 
agriculture in the class-room and on the 
Nagpur Farm, sufficient to enable them to 
teach intelligently the agricultural lessons 
included in the School Readers. The system 
of elementary rural education has a most 
important bearing on the future of agricul- 
tural improvement. es 


OcTORER, 1908, | 


An important departure was made six 
years ago by starting at the Nagpur Agri- 


cultural College a one yeai’s course in 
practical agriculture for training the sons of 
farmers. The teaching is given in the verna- 
cular, and is almost wholly practical work 
on the farm with a minimum of lectures and 
book-work. At the outset it was found 
very difficult to attract the right stamp of 
student, although scholarships were freely 
given by the District Councils. Some of the 
students were the sons of petty traders or 
officials who had failed in other attempts to 
earn a livelihood, who had no connection 
with, or liking for the land, but who hoped 
ultimately to get some employment and at 
least to be supported in the meantime by 
scholarships. The importance of careful 
selection of the students cannot be over- 
estimated. A few sons of cultivators were 
-attracted with a real desire to learn some- 
thing connected with their profession, and in 
such cases some measure of success has been 
secured, as was shown by an enquiry into the 
work that they were doing in their villages 
after they had left the College. One im- 
portant lesson learned is, that it is most 
desirable to try and keep in touch with the 
students after they have finished their course; 
to encourage them to write and explain what 
they are trying, to advise them upon any 
difficulties that they experience, and to visit 
them in their homes when occasion offers. 
Some are the keenest members of their 
District Agricultural Association. 


By personal intercourse between officers 
of the department and leading cultivators, 
much can be done to increase their con- 
fidence in the department and their inter- 
est in the work of the stations. Requests 
for information and advise should be en- 
couraged in every possible way, for amidst 
much chaff there is often a little good 
grain. Everything possible should be done, 
also, to get District Officers to co-operate 
with the department in carrying out its 
demonstration work in the districts. If the 
department is doing its duty, there will be a 
large amount of unofficial correspondence 
between its officers and cultivators and the 
district staff. 


The formation of agricultural associations 
has proved a most useful means of getting 
the best class of cultivators to co-operate 
with the department. In the Cential Pro- 
vinces the district is the best unit for which 
to form an association. Hach district should 
have its own association, the members of 
which should be the leading cultivators, and 
afew Government officers who are keen on 
agricultural improvement, the District Offi- 
cer being President. In forming such an 
association, considerable discretion is neces- 
‘sary in order to secure as members the right 
type of men from among the cultivating 
class. The men selected should be cultivators 


who take an intelligent interest in super- 


B18 


Miscellaneous. 


vising their own cultivation, and who are 


willing to undertake actual tests of suggested. 


improvements. They should be men of 
sufficient intelligence to understand simple 
instructions and to carry them out. The 
number of members should not be large, but 
each should be a willing worker and not 
merely atalker. The District Agricultural 
Associations started in these Provinces six 
years ago, have in most cases made satis- 
factory progress. Among the members will 
be found the most progressive farmers in 
each district, men who are anxious to learn 
and to experiment. The meetings, which 
are held twice a year to suit the kharif and 
rabi seasons, are attended by the Director or 
one of the Deputy Directors of Agriculture. 
The results of the past season’s test are 
discussed and a programme arranged for the 
next seasons’s work. An officer of the Agri- 
cultural Department usually delivers an 
address describing such experimental work 
of the stations as may be of some practical 
use to the members. The members are asked 
to give their own experience on the particular 
subject dealt with. New manures and new 
varieties of seed recommended by the stations 
are distributed free of cost to the members 
willing to test them, and they are requested 
to report the results obtained at the next 
meeting of their association. To facilitate 
the writing of this report, forms are fur- 
nished, in which the member enters his 
observation as to the growth and yield of 
each variety tested, the increase due to the 
manures and the like. Leaflets written in 
the vernaculars, giving directions as to how 
the manure is to be applied and how to grow 
the crop that is to be tested, ave also distri- 
buted. The members then carry out these 
experiments in their several villages. This 
kind of co-operative work has not yet had 
time to produce results of much value, but we 
believe that it may prove most useful as a 
means of demonstrating to the more back- 
ward cultivators the use of new methods, 
new varieties of seed and new manures; and 
the plots on which they are successful, in the 
case of trials with a new variety, may well 
become centres for the distribution of the 
seed to neighbouring cultivators. Indeed, 
the District Agricultural Associations have 
proved to be much the best means of distri- 
buting new and selecled seed which generally 
receives a fair trial by the members. An 
instance of successful work in this line is the 
introduction of the variety of early ripening 
fwr grown in the south of the Provinces to 
the northern districts, as it escapes the frost 
which sometimes causes great loss to the late 
ripening variety locally grown, Seed distvri- 
bution has largely increased of late, and 
there is a large and increasing demand by 
cultivators for improved seed which the 
department is endeavouring to meet. 


An agricultural paper published in the 
vernacular can be made a most useful method 


Miscellaneous. 


of disseminating among its readers important 
experimental results obtained at the stations. 
It should be up to date, thoroughly practical, 
and should deal with the immediate needs 
and interests of the cultivator. It should 
contain popular statements of the work of 
of the station, with directions to enable culti- 
vators to apply them in their practical work 
onthefarms. Purelyscientific articles should 
never find a place in its pages, for the culti- 
vator does not understand them. In editing 
such a paper for distribution among cultiva- 
tors, the translation from English to the 
vernacular requires to be carefully made. 
If the work is left to a man who has not been 
brought up on the land, he often fails to give 
the meaning of the information of which 
you wish to convey, and, being ignorant of 
local agricultnral terms, he gets over the 
difficulty to his own satisfaction by a free use 
of Sanskrit which is unintelligible to the 
villager. The language must be that of the 
people and not of the court. Such a paper 
can also be made a most useful medium 
for advertising improved strains of seed, 
agricultural machinery and other things for 
sale at the stations, while by introducing a 
‘query and answer” column the readers are 
encouraged to ask the department for 
advice which, when given in this way, often 
saves the trouble of having to reply in the 
same strain to several different individuals. 
The Agricultwral Gazette published monthly 
in Hindi, Marathi and English in these Pro- 
vinces, has been a decided success. There 
are already 2,500 subscribers, but this is no 
measure of the circulation of its contents as, 
in villages in which only one Gazette is 
received, it is the common practice for the 
Pandit of the same to read it out to his 
fellows. With the increasing number of 
persons taught to read and write, there is a 
great dearth of reading matter in the village, 
so that a monthly magazine is a real boon to 
many. 


These in brief are the steps that are being 
taken to get the results of the stations’ work 
incorporated into the general farm practice 
of the cultivator. What is required at pre- 
sent is steady work in these lines, perfecting 
them from time to time in accordance with 
the dictates of a fuller experience. The 
work is yet in its infancy, and the diffi- 
culties in the way of rapid progress are 
great owing to the paucity and inefficiency 
of most of the existing agricultural assist- 
ants. The better prospects that are now 
offered to men entering the department 
should attract men of the right type who, 
having been brought up on the land, under- 
stand the need of the cultivator and how to 
meet them; and who, moreover, inherit as 
by instinct a sense of the dignity of labour,— 
Agricultural Journal of India, Vol. IIl., 
Part II., April, 1908. 


374 


[OcToBER, 1908 


sift 


CASSAVA. MANIOCA OR TAPIOGA, 


By J.C. WiLus. 


Cassava is the produce of a South 


American species of Manihot (the genus 
that includes the Ceara rubber). It is 
a matter of dispute whether it is of 
two species, M. utilissima the bitter, 
and WM. aipi the sweet, cassava, or 
whether the latter is only a _ variety 
of the former. The former has the 
fruit capsule winged, the latter not. 
Most of that grown in Ceylon, to 
which it was introduced from Mauritius 
by the Dutch Governor Van der Graat 
in 1786, is apparently the sweet kind. 
There are numerous varieties known 
in South America. but comparatively 
few in the Hast, though the plant is 
now grown everywhere and is forming 
a more and more important article of 
food. In many parts of South America, 
cassava takes the place held by potatoes 
in Ireland. 


Though everywhere cultivated in the 
tropics for local use, it is grown for 
export purposes mainly in Brazil and 
the Straits Settlements, both countries 
exporting tapioca, and Brazil also 
cassava meal (Brazilian arrowroot). 


The plant requires a good soil, not 
too heavy. preferably a sandy loam, 
well tilled to some depth. The climate 
should be a damp and _ fairly uniform 
one, with a mean temperature of at least 
77° for the bitter variety, though the 
sweet will stand a lower temperature. 
In a very dry climate, the roots tend 
to get woody. The plant does best on 
the whole within reasonable distance 
of the sea. Rain is wanted for at 
least the first two months of the 
growth, but after that is not necessary, 
especially if the soil be kept tilled. 
In the Straits Settlements, enormous 
areas of land have been spoiled by 
clearing forest for this crop, and then 
abandoning the land after a few years, 
when it has grown up in illuk grass 
Imperata). This is no longer permitted, 
and more permanent crops have to be 
put on the ground with the tapioca. 
If the plant were made to take the 
place of the ‘‘ roots” in a rotation, there 
need be no fear of exhausting the soil. 


Ifthe soil is not virgin, manure is 
usually applied in South America, and 
sometinies the land is green manured. 
Catch crops, such as maize or hill paddy, 
are often grown, or the cassava is grown 
among plantains, coconuts, or other 
more permanent crops. 


The plant is put out about (3 to4 feet 


apart as stem cuttings about a foot long, 


J 
ii 


j 


 OcrowHR, 1908.) 


lanted standing vertically or on a slope. 

hese are covered with buds which 
rapidly come out and give rise to stems. 
Often these are pruned down to three. 
They grow toa height of 5-10 feet, and 
the roots swell out into the large tubers, 
which may beas many as 60n a plant, 
18 inches long, and 20 lbs. in weight, 
though smaller figures than these are 
the rule. Sweet cassava gives smaller 
returns than bitter. 


The tubers are ripe for gathering in 
about 6-12 months. Natives often leave 
them too long in the ground. An aver- 
age good yieldis said tobe10 tons an 
acre, but smaller figures are probably 
commoner. Wild pigs are often very 
troublesome (as they are to Ceara rubber) 
by digging up the tubers. 


The tubers having been gathered 
should at once be put through whatever 
process it is intended to subject them to, 
as they undergo various’ changes. 
Hydrocyanic acid is said to develop toa 
greater extent after they are dug up. 
There isin any case so much of this 
poison inthe bitter variety that it is 
extremely dangerous to eatit till it has 
been boiled, or better, roasted. The 
sweet variety contains the acid mainly 
inthe rind, which must be taken off, 
but is said to develop it in the inner 
parts as soon as dug up. 


The valuable constituent of the 
root is the starch, which may be used in 
various ways. The roots may be eaten 
like yams, as is done in Ceylon and else- 
where; starch (cassava starch or Brazili- 
an arrowroot) may ibe made directly 
from them, or the starch may be made 
into tapioca; orthe roots may be cut 
and dried in slices, and exported to 
Kurope, where the starch is prepared ; 
or finally they may be made into glucose. 


It would lead too farto go into the 
details of all these processes. The manu- 
facture of tapioca will be described in a 
circular to issue in afew days from my 
Department, The history of this manu- 
facture is interesting. Until some time 
ago it was in the hands of Chinese, who 
made the tapioca in a very primitive 
way. Then Huropeans took it up and 
successfully competed with the Chinese, 
and finally Chinese capitalists took up 
the Huropean methods and machinery. 


The manufacture of the actual starch 
requires capital, and in making it Ceylon 
would have to meet the competition of 
the United States with good machinery 
and skilled labour. 


The remaining way is_ the one which I 
would recommend tor Ceylon, viz., the 


315 


Miscellaneous: 


making of sliced and dried cassava root. 
The root should be cut into slices about 
# inch thick, and dried in the sun on 
mats, care being taken to keep off dust. 
For this there is a good market in 
Europe among calico printers and others, 
and I would recommend that the Society 
experiment with a trial consignment. 


PROGRESS REPORT XLI. 


Membership.—The last meeting was 
held on August 8, since when the follow- 
ing new members have been_ enrolled :— 
Capt. T. Montgomery (Fiji), C. J. 
Marzetti, J. B. Ratnayake, W. A. Asher, 
C. F. S. Jayawickreme, J. Coryton 
Roberts. 


Inspection Tours.—The organizing 
Vice-President and the Secretary have 
since last meeting visited Jaffna, Balalla, 
and Pilessa. Dr Willis also visited 
Mahailluppalama, and Mr. Drieberg 
Lower Dumbara and Nuwara Eliya 
districts. Mr.. Wickremeratne, Agricul- 
tural Instructor, has been in Uva and 
Katugampola hatpattu, and Mr. L. A. D. 
Silva, Agricultural Instructor, in Sabara- 
gamuwa and the Ambalangoda district, 
and Mr. S. Chelliah, Agricultural In- 
structor, in Uduppiddi, Valveddi, Karana- 
vavay including akamam, Tanakkara- 
kurichchi including Kalluvam, Kerudavil, 
and Tondamannar districts. 


Branch Societies.—The  Wellaboda 
pattu (Galle) Branch held a meeting of 
the Working Committee on August 22, 
when a paper on the ‘‘ Co-operative 
Bank System carried on locally with 
income derived from Coconut Trees” 
was read by Mr. ,C. D. S. Wickrema- 
suriya, It was resolved to obtain per- 
mission from the District Road Com- 
mittee to use Ambalangoda resthouse 
compound for holding the next Show in 
December, ona date to be fixed later, 
and to ask for the services of an Agricul- 
tural Instructor to hold demonstrations 
and give instructions in the method of 
transplanting paddy. 


The Dumbara Association held a 
meeting on July 30. It was resolved to 
send tobacco, arecanuts, and cardamoms 
to the Mysore Dassara Exhibition to be 
held in October; to amalgamate the 
funds of the Society with those of the 
Co-operative Credit Society, so that 
more funds may be available for the 
purpose of lending; to inquire from the 
Secretary, Ceylon Agricultural Society, 
on what terms Government will be pre- 
pared to lend the services of a tobacco 


Miscellaneous. 


expert with a view to _ instructing 
tobacco cultivators in curing tobacco for 
the European market. The question of 
opening a manure store and bank was 
discussed, but a decision was postponed 
till next year. 


A Committe meeting of the Co-opera- 
tive Credit Society was held on the same 
day, and the proposed amalgamation 
of funds was approved. In addition to 
the paddy bin at Madugoda it was 
resolved to erect another at Mediwaka. 
The President announced that several 
planters of the district had expressed 
their desire to join the Society, and it 
was resolved to send out circulars to 
intending members. 


The Jaffna Society held a meeting of 
Committee on August 8. Asumof Rs. 4 
was voted for an experiment with arti- 
ficial manures in paddy cultivation, the 
Agricultural Instructor being respon- 
sible for its supervision. 


The Rayigam Korale Branch, thanks 
to the efforts of the Assistant Gover)” 
ment Agent and the Mudaliyar, is alive 
to the possible improvement in the 
present methods of cultivation, and it is 
gratifying to kuow that transplanting 
of paddy is to be taken up energetically 
in the korale. 


The Experimental Garden at Bandara- 
gama has been fenced and cleared, and 
about half the entire extent planted 
with fruit trees, pineapples, and vege- 
tables. The fruit trees, including about 
200 oranges, appear to be doing well. 
The pineapples, which cover nearly half 
an acre, are also coming up fairly well. 
The vegetable section, apart from the 
ground planted with sweet potatoes and 
cassava, isas yet inconsiderable. Alto- 
gether a fair start has been made with 
the garden. Better progress would 
have been made by this time but for a 
boundary dispute which delayed the 
fencing. 


Transplanting in Paddy.—The follow- 
ing communication has been received 
from the Secretary, Wellaboda pattu 
(Galle) Society, dated September 5:— 
‘*T have the honour to submit below 
results obtained by the use of Messrs. 
Freudenberg’s special fertilizers (and 


transplanting) :— 
Ordinary Special Special 
Manure. Mixture. \. ixture. 
Broadcast. Broadcast. Trans: 
planted 
Date of sowing 29-3—8 29—3—8 z9—3-8 
Extent 3 acre 3 acre 2 seers 
Quantity 4 bushed % bushed 3 seer 
Average height of 
plants 3 to 34 ft. 5 to 6 ft. 52 to 7 ft, 
Average number of 
shoots 4to6 6to9 10 to 12 
Harvest 6-fold 18-fold 40-fold 
Kind of paddy Muttusamba Muttusamba Carolina 
Average number of 
ears 6 to 8 16 to 21 20 tio 25 


376 


R, 1908, 


‘This land is marshy ground, and is 
situated about a quarter mile to the 
south-east of the Weragoda Experi- 
mental Garden.” 


Report by Mudaliyaliyar, Wellaboda 
pattu (Galle), dated August 20, 1908, on 
a field cultivated by Mr. J. F. de Livera 
of Delduwa :—‘‘In my opinion the trans- 
planting was not sufficiently methodical. 
The necessary distance from one plant 
to another had not been observed. 
Hither on account of deep planting or 
not draining the patch properly the 
bushes were not large enough. How- 
ever, the cultivation as a first attempt is 
satisfactory, and it will, Iam sure, show 
a good yield. The greater credit in this 
instance is the bringing under cultiva- 
tion of a patch of waste land subject to 
be flooded by brackish water.” 


Paddy Experiment at Minneriya.— 
Reference has previously been made to 
this experiment conducted under the 
supervision of Tank Guardian Mr. G. W, 


[OcTOBE 


Perkins. Mr. Perkins reports :—“A 
species of paddy ealled ‘kallunda’ (4 
months paddy) was sown and _ trans- 
planted, as per your’ instructions 
received from time to time, about 
the end of May last. The  trans- 


planting had to be done by men ot 
accustomed to the work, thereby taking 
several days to complete the acre. The 
field will be reaped about the end of this 
month, and is admitted by all as quite 
good. The transplanting was delayed 
owing to insufficient hands for the work. 
Out of the plants there are clusters from 
26 to 35 from each seed. The plants are 
also more sturdy than those of the 
adjoining fields. A good deal of damage 
was done to the fields by buffaloes. One 
good thing that my experiment will do 
for Minneri will be that some transplant- 
ing will take place every year in future, 
forthe landlord who gave me permission 
to work his field has decided to have one 
measure transplanted out of each portion 
he gives the goiyas to cultivate. He has 
about 24 goiyas under him, and requires 
119 bushels of seed paddy. He is con- 
vineed of the tremendous saving in seed 
paddy.” A report on the result of the 
harvest is expected shortly. 


Agri-Horticultural Shows.—Three Vil-. 
lage Shows were held in the North- 
Western Province, at Kuliyapitiya, 
Balalla, and Pilessa on August 15, 22, and 
29. The drought that prevailed through- 
out these districts during the preceding 
five or six months somewhat marred the 
success of the shows, but the gatherings 
on all three occasions were good, and ~ 
the villagers seemed to take a keen — 


interest in the proceedings, while the ~ 


prize-winners went away well pleased. af 
The Government Agent, Director of the 


Royal Botanic Gardens, and the Secre- 


tary, Ceylon Agricultural Society, who 


were present, took advantage of the 


- oceasion to speak to the people. 


The 
value of holding Shows where the actual 
cultivators come to the front—instead 


- of being kept in the background as is 


not be over-estimated ; 


generally the case at town shows—can- 
these village 


_ exhibitions, small as they are, are well 


ealculated to encourage the cultivator 
to put forth his best efforts in showing 
what he is capable of producing in the 
way of agricultural and garden produce, 

The Kegalla Show, which was fixed for 
September 25 and 26, was postponed at 


the last moment owing to the failure of 


_ year. 


the monsoon rains. It is intended to 
hold the Show in June or July next 


Kandy Agri-Horticultural Show.— 


This show has been fixed for August, 
1909, during the time of the annual 


Perahera. At a meeting held. on 
September Ist, a representative Show 


Committee was elected, with His Hx- 
‘cellency the Governor as President, and 


the Hon. the Colonial Secretary, the 
General Commanding the Forces, the 


_ Planting Representative, and the Chair- 
- man of the Ceylon Planters’ Association 
_as Vice-Presidents. 


and Jaffna, 


Lee 


Nuwara Eliya Show has been fixed 
for Easter Monday. 


Indian Shows.—Exhibits of arecanuts, 
cardamoms, tobacco, and jaggery were 
sent by the Branch Societies at Dumbara 
Mudaliyar Wirasingha of 
Rayigam korale, and Mr. J. J. Van 
Starrex of Matale, to the Mysore 
Industrial and Agricultural Hxhibition 
which was to open at the end of 


- September. 


The Nagpur Exhibition (Central Pro- 
vinces and Berar).—The Secretary of the 


- above exhibition has written asking for 


the Society’s co-operation, and arrange- 


ments are being made to get together a 


small collection of exhibits to be sent 
thither. Exhibits will be received up to 
October 30, and the Exhibition will be 
opened during November and December. 


Intending exhibitors who are prepared 


to send in exhibits of tea, rubber, tap- 
ping implements, vanilla, pepper, carda- 
moms, coir, fibre, or desiccated coconuts 
are requested to communicate with the 


Secretary, Ceylon Agricultural Society, 
~ without delay. 


i 


Paddy Cultivation and Manuring in 
the North.—The Society’s Agricultural 
Instructor has undertaken an experi- 
ment in the manuring of paddy on 
behalf of the local Society, while several 
landowners are trying Freudenberg’s 


48 


377 


Miscellaneous. 


special mixture on their fields. On land 
hitherto used purely for dry grain culti- 
vation experiments are being tried with 
hill paddy. 

Importation of Vegetable Seeds.—A 
supply of vegetable seed has been 
received from England, and is being dis- 
tributed among the several applicants 
who have booked in advance. 

Orange and Mango Grafts—Grafted 
orange and mango plants—balance out- 
standing from a previous order sent to 
India—were received in September and 
distributed. 


Manure for Oranges.—Messrs. Freu- 
denberg & Co. are recommending the 
following mixture:—2 lb. groundnut 


cake, 2 lb. bone meal, 21b. steamed bones, 
2 lb. potash—8 lb. per tree, together 
with cattle manure. 


Manure for Tobacco.—The following 
manure mixture is recommended for 
tobacco :—400 1b. groundnut cake, 100 Ib. 
nitrate of soda, 100 lb, ordinary super. 
phosphate, 100 lb. nitrate ot potash, 
100 lb. slaked lime—800 lb. per acre. 

Messrs. Freudenberg & Co. report :— 
“The mixture cannot be termed a cheap 
one at Rs. 117, less 5 per cent. per tonf. o,r., 
Colombo, but as quality plays an impor 
tant rolein tobacco growing we cannot- 
make a modification in the composition 
of the ingredients. If the manuring 
should be undertaken with a view of 
obtaining only quantity ard not quality 
at lowest possible cost we can recom- 
mend :—200 Ib. fish, 300 lb. groundnut 
cake, 100 lb. ordinary basic slag, 200 Ib. 
kainit. The cost is Rs. 73:50, less 5 per 
cent.” 

Dindigul* Tobacco Seed.—A supply of 
this variety was imported from India, 
and is being tried at Jaffna, Ulapane, 
Dumbara, and the North-Western Pro- 
vince. 


Cotton Seed.—Messrs. Nieland & Wil- 
son have been good enough to supply 
Sea Island cotton seed for growing in 
the Jaffna District. 


Well Boring.—Messrs. Brown & Co. 
furnishes the following information 
regarding tube wells :—‘‘ The wells con- 
sist of a tube, having the bottom portion 
perforated round the sides with small 
holes through which the water perco- 
lates and rises in the tube. At the bot- 
tom of the tube, in order to facilitate 
its being driven, a point is fitted at the 
extreme end of the tube, and a suitable 
head is fitted to the top to enable the 
tube to be driven into the ground with- 
out injury. The necessary force is 
applied by means of a driving apparatus, 
one of which can of course be used for 
any number of wells, and as each length 


Miscellaneous. 


of tube is driven into the ground, 
another length ds serewed on until water 
is reached, when an ordinary pump head 
and handle is fitted to the piping, and 
water is pumped in the usual way.” 


Resthouse Gardens.—Among resthouse- 
keepers who are interested in the upkeep 
of gardens are those in charge of the 
Kurunegala and Polgahawela resthouses. 
At the former place English vegetables 
have been successfully grown. at the 
latter place, efforts are being made to 
establish fruit trees as well as a vege- 
table and flower garden. 


Demonstrations in Transplanting 
Paddy.—Mr. L, A. D. Silva, Agricultural 
Instructor, was sent to the Ambalangoda 
district, at the invitation of the local 
Society, to give instructions in trans- 
planting paddy in connection with a 
programme of experiments to be tried 
in Wellaboda pattu under the supervision 
of the vidane arachchies and headmen. 
The necessary instructions were given 
atl4 centres. The Instructor will again 
visit the district at the time of trans- 
planting. Similar demonstrations will 
be held in the Tebuwana district, from 
where the Assistant Government Agent, 
Mr. J. Conroy, writing on September 
ll, says.—“I am arranging with the 
Mudaliyars and Irrigation Headmen to 
have the system of transplanting paddy 
tried in various parts of this district 
during the coming season.” 


White Ant Exterminator.—Mr. A. H. 
Bury, of Orange Hill, Ragama, reports 
that he has discovered a very effectual 
remedy for exterminating the white 
ant. He says:—‘‘ The remedy is applied 
by hand, and can be done by any 
cooly. Asa preventive two applications 
per annum are necessary; cost about 
Rs. 2 per acre. No injury whatever is 
done either to roots or stumps, and 
the substance is procurable locally very 
cheap.” 


Eri Silk Cocoons (further report by 
Professor Dunstan) :—The sample con- 
sisted of about 73 lb. of pierced cocoons, 
and, as recommended in the previous 
report dated September 30, 1907, the 
brick-red cocoons had been eliminated, 
leaving only the white which are 
much more readily bleached and dyed. 
Apart from this difference in colour 
the cocoons were similar to those 
previously examined. The cocoons have 
been submitted for valuation to a silk 
expert, who confirms the opinion 
expressed in the previous report, that 
it is inadvisable to encourage efforts 
to wind or reel eri cocoons, but they 
could be carded and spun. He states 
that woven cloths of great strength 
and durability could be made from 
yarns spun from eri silk, and that if 


378 


Wry a 


the cocoons could be sent over in 


sufficient quantities, there would he 
a great demand for them by the spun- 
silk manufacturers of this country. 
He values these white cocoons at about 
ls, 6d. per pound. Samples have also 
been submitted to manufacturers on 
the Continent. One firm stated that 
the cocoons appeared to be suitable 
for the manufacture of waste silk, but 
they were not prepared to give a 
definite opinion without trial. Before 
carrying out any experiment, however, 
they would require assurance that 
large and regular supplies of the cocoons 
would be available. A second firm to 
whom samples were referred to did 


not supply more definite information. © — 


It appears certain that these white 
eri cocoons could be utilized for the 
production of spun-silk, and if large 
quantities can be supplied it would be 
dssirable to forward a trial consign- 
ment for sale.” 


Agricultural Implements and Appli- 
ances:—The disc plough brought out 
by Mr. M. Kelway Bamber some time 
ago, and which has been on view at 
the Government Stock Garden, is being 
sent up to Maha-illuppalama at the re- 
quest of the Superintendent of the Experi- 
ment Station, but proves to be too heavy 
for bulls. Similar types of machinery of 
American make are answering well on 
the same land. The Director of the 
Royal Botanic Gardens reports that the 
land at Maha-iluppalama has been 
brought into sucha state of tilth that 
crops are now almost independent of 
irrigation water for their actual growth. 
60 acres have been cultivated in cozonuts, 
cacao, rubber, cotton, ete., for 6 months 
atacost of oneand a half inches of 
water from a 625-acre tank. The culti- 
vators of the district are said to be 
amazed atthe results of tillage as carried 
on by the Superintendent. 


Messrs. Walker, Sons & Co., have in- 
troduced a special light iron plough in- 
tended for rice cultivation. One maybe 
seen at the Government Stock Garden. 
They are shortly expecting further im- 
proved types from England and India; 
when they are received it is intended to 
hold another practical demonstration of 
implements. 

The ‘‘Soil Aerator,” introduced by 
Messrs Brown & Co., is a handy and 
effective tool which should be found in 
use in every flower and vegetable gar- 
den. 


Through the courtsey of the Director 


of Agriculture, Central Provinces, India, — 


a cheap and usefulappliance for detach- — 
ing seeds of Indian corn has been secured, — 
The use of this wlll be demonstrated at_ 
future shows. ei 


{OcTOBER, 1908: — 


ee ee a ee ee nS 


‘Octozmr, 1908.] 


Experiment in Continuous Cultivation 
of Chena Land.—The Secretary has 
drawn up the following memorandum in 
connection with the proposal :—Cotton 
can be grown in chenas with the use of 
manure like any othercrop. It is best 
planted in a rotation, %.¢., ina_ regular 
succession of different crops which grow 
and feed differently. Ifthe same crop 
is grown continuously on the same land 
there is a greater tendency to exhausta- 
tion of the soilthan if grown in a rota- 
tion. The reason why there is less ex- 
haustion by growing a regular suc- 
cession of crops is that some crops take 
up more of one kind of food than 
another. Again, some crops’ are 
shallow-rooted, others are deep-rooted, 
and plant food is thus procured from 
different depths of soil when different 
crops follow one another. Lastly, there 
are some crops which exert a_ special 
fertilizing action on the soil that others 
cannot exert, andthesemust, whenever 
possible, be grown ina rotation. This fer- 
tilizing property is possessed by legumi- 
nous or bean-bearing crops such as mun, 
ulundu, kollu, rata-tora, dc. When the 
erop from these is taken the foliage 
and roots should be worked into the 
land, for they add a great deal of ferti- 
lity to the soil. A four-course rotation, 
if it could be adopted, would be most 
satisfactory, 1.e., the land must be divid- 
ed into four equal parts, and each of the 
four selected crops grown in succession, 
thus :— 

1. Cotton Legume Grain Maioc 

2. Legume Grain Manioc Cotton 

3. Grain Manioc Cotton Legume 

4, Manioe Cotton LegumeGrain 

In this case the land should be manur- 
ed after the manioc and before the 
cotton. If a four-course rotation is 
found to be impracticable a three-course 


one consisting of cotton, grain, and 
legume can be selected, thus :— 
1. Grain... Cotton Legume 
2. Cotton ... Legume Grain 
38. Legume... Grain Cotton 


Here, the land should be manured for 
cotton. If the rotation is reduced to a 
minimum of twocrops, consisting only 
of cotton and grain grown alternately 
on two sections of the land, then, in the 
absence of a fertilizing crop, both 
should be manured. Where cattle 
manure is difficult to get and folding 
of cattle on the land is not practicable, 
there should be a liberal use of green 
manure. For this the foliage of wild 
trees and plants can be used. The 
best leaves for this purpose are those 
of leguminous weeds (such as pila, nil- 
awari, and andanahiriya, &c.); but 
failing these the leaves of keppiliya, 
adatoda, tarana, or any plant may he 


379 


Miscellaneous. 


employed. Another matter to which 
attention must be given is proper 
tillage. In the preparing of the land 
it should be dug or ploughed to a 
good depth, say 12 inches. Then in 
sowing sow in rows, and do not fear 
that you will get a smaller crop by 
doing so. Let cotton be placed 4 ft. 
by 2ft. apart, mun 2ft. by 2 ft., dry 
grains 12in. by 6in., manioc 4 ft. by 
6 ft. The interspaces will admit of the 
crop being properly weeded and atten- 
ded to. The surface soil must be kept 
constantly stirred, so that it will always 
be loose to a depth of three or four 
inches. This preserves the moisture 
in the soil and enables the plants to 
get their food more easily and to thrive 
better. By carefully attending to the 
above details the fertility of chena 
lands can be maintained, and _ there 
will be no necessity for abandoning 
them on the plea of exhaustion, and 
going on to fresh areas. If possible a 
record of the rotations adopted each 
year should be kept by the headmen, 
and some kind of encouragement given 
to those who continue cultivation on 
the same land by adopting an intelligent 
system of rotation and tillage with a 
view to preserving fertility,” 


With the co-operation of the Govern- 
ment Agent, North-Western Province, 
it is intended to start an experiment 
in that Province, probably in the 
Katugampola hatpattu, and place it in 
charge of an Agricultural Instructor, 


Work done by Instructors.—The Tamil 
Instructor, Mr. S. Chelliah, in engaged 
in the Northern Province in experi- 
mentally growing paddy with a view 
to finding a suitable variety to replace 
dry grains in one part of the rotations 
at present practised in the north ; also 
a number of millets imported by the 
Society as likely to prove suitable in 
the dry country. Mr. Chelliah is 
demonstrating the possibility of more 
effectual tillage with the use of imple- 
ments kindly loaned by Messrs. Walker, 
Sons & Co., and Mr. A. E. Rajapakse, 
Mudaliyar, and also (as already stated) 
trying the effect of artificial manure 
on paddy. 


Of the two Sinhalese Agricultural 
Instructors, Mr. Wickremaratne has 
made a detailed tour through the 
villages of the Province of Uva and 
held meetings and demonstrations with 
the help of the Ratamahatmayas who 
have rendered much assistance at the 
request of the Government Agent of 
the Province. Very full reports have 
been submitted to the Organizing Vice- 
President who considers them usefui 
records for future work. Mr. Wickre- 
maratne was unfortunately temporarlly 


Miscellaneous. 


incapacitated by a sharp attack of 
malaria while in the Bintenne country, 
but is now at work again in connection 
with the cultivation of chena Jand. 


Mr. L. A. D. Silva has been working 
on similar lines in the Province of 
Sabaragamuwa, through which he has 
made a detailed circuit. He has since 
been employed in giving instructions 
in the transplanting of paddy. 


With the sanction of the Director, 
Royal Botanic Gardens, the Foreman 
and Seedsman at the Government Stock 
Garden is about to visit the Kegalla 
District to start bee-keeping at two 
- schools where swarms have already 
been secured. Improved hives have 
been provided from the funds voted 
by the Society for this work. 

Application jor Seeds and Plants from 
abroad.—A number of applications have 
been received for seeds of paddy, cacao, 
shade trees, leguminous plants, «&c., 
from Manila. Jamaica, Sumatra, the 
Solomon Isles, Mozambique, Papua, and 
Washington. 


Indian Corn and Cluster Sweet 
Potatoes.—An order has gone forward 
for these with a view to introducing 
them to local growers if found suitable 
to the localities in which the crops are 
raised. 

Rice Hullers.—Messrs. Jossop & Co., 
Calcutta, have forwarded for the infor- 
mation of the Society circulars dealing 
with hand power rice hullers and ‘‘ ele- 
mininators.” They report well of the 
machines. The eliminator has _ the 
capacity to deal with the output of about 
four hullers, and is valued at Rs. 249, 
less 10 per cent. discount; the huller and 
aspirator, dealing with 60 to 80 lb. per 
hour, is Rs. 350, iess 10 per cent. dis- 
count, 

Apiculture.— Mr. Chas. Gray of Coo- 
noor, writing on Sepetember 12, says :— 
‘“T note in your report of the Ceylon 
Agricultural Society. in the June num- 
ber of ‘T. A’:, that apiculture is being 
largely taken up. Itis possible that a 
large quantity of propolis is removed 
from the hives of the Italian bees. 
May lask if you can procure some for 
me? Iam prepared to buy it by the 
pound, up to a certain limit. a 
mention that I have been a subscriber 
to your journal for some years past. 
I refer to this asI see you object (and 
rightly too) to help persons who can 
benefit from the excellent work done by 
your Society, and for a small sum, and 
yet will not join as members.” 

Tobacco Committee-—The report of the 
_. proposed tobacco experiment in grow- 

ing and curing tobacco for the foreign 
market will be presented by the Sec- 


380 


information on the subject, 


I may . 


retary to-day, and a resolution em- — 
bodying the recommendations therein — 
made will be duly moved. ‘a 
Sprays for Plants.—Sample lots of 
Cooper’s VI. and V2, solution for insects 
and fungi on plants have been received 
and are being given atrial, so far with 
excellent results. Further details re- 
garding these preparations will be given 


in a later report. 
C. DRIEBERG, 
Colombo, October 5, 1908. Secretary. 


NOTES AND QUERIES. 


By C. DRIEBERG. 


H. EK. A.—The subject of alkaline soils 
and the means of improving them came 
up before the Board not long ago, You 
will find Mr. R. W. Smith's paper and 
Dr. Willis’ remarks reproduced in the 
pages of the Magazine of the Ceylon 
Agricultural Society for June last. The 
memorandum below, which gives further 
is taken 
from a circular issued by the Central 
Agricultural Committee of Madras :— 

*“As may be seen from one of the 
Agricultural Ledgers on ‘ Reh,’ a cer- 
tain Moahmedan agricultural officer in 
Northern India converted worthless alka- 
line land into fertile land by enclosing 
it witha fence and manuring it plenti- 
fully by picketing onthe land a very 
large number of milch cows purchased 
for the purpose, the milk of the cows 
being sold daily and the cows themselves 
being sold after a short period when 
the land had been materially improved. 
Plentiful addition of green manure 
would have the effect. The fencing of 
alkaline land, so that it became covered 
with thick natural herbage, which 
would otherwise have been grazed by 
cattle, has also led to the material im- 
provement of such land in Northern 
India.” 

Again, from Balfour’s ‘‘ Cyclopzedia of 
India” it may be seen that crude nitrate 
of lime, called chikna kalar, may be 
applied with benefit to alkaline land; 
indeed, it is asovereign remedy, im- 
mediate and certain in its effect on 
alkaline land. If the refuse scrapings of 
raw hides (Tamil javuvu) available at 
tanneries or margosa or other oil cake in 
fine powder be mixed with powdered 
limestone and kept well exposed: tothe — 
air under shelter for about a year or 
longer, being frequently stirred, nitrate — 
of lime will be plentifully formed. — 
Under the head ‘‘ Manure” the process — 
of deriving nitrate of lime from the — 
careases of dogs which are killed in — 
towns is explained. Again in the Kistna — 
and Godavari deltas, alkaline land is re- — 
claimed by the plentiful addition o 


-Ocronsr, 1908:] 


- stomach derangement. 


Ny sta Chg hag ik Sap ALS ahaa il a i eg 


certain kinds of padw mannu, which 


are probably rich in nitrate of lime. 


« Alkaline wetland may be improved 
by leaving the straw of a paddy crop 
uncut and ploughing it in under water, 
asis done in the Kistna and Godavari 
deltas, no water-rate being charged 
by Government on certain conditions 
being fulfilled. In thi# connection, the 
Trichinopoly Agricultural Association 
might use gypsum (Tamil, karpura 
silasittu) which may be had for the 
picking in practically unlimited quant 
ities at the Uttattur beds. They should 
be applied after being powdered, at the 
rate of 2oré8tons per acre, on all alka- 
line land which is ascertained by analysis 
to contain more than one-fifth per cent. 
of sodium carbonate.” 


B. pE A.—The murunga (Moringa 
pterygosperma) is called the horse radish 
tree because it has properties similar to 
that of the horse-radish. The bark of 
the roots is what is usually used in 
“Drum sticks” 
is another name for the fruits. Murunga 
is not leguminous, but Katurumurunga 
(of which the flowers and leaves are 
eaten, but seldom the pods) is. 


F. D.—Basic slag isa by-product in the 
manufacture of steel, in which lime, a 
base, is largely used and forms a com- 
pound with the phosphorus invariably 
present in the’ iron ore—separating as a 
slag, hence the name. 


G, P.—Margosa poonac, referred to in 
my last notes, is the refuse cake after 
the extraction of oil from the seeds. 
The tree is known in Sinhalese as Ko- 
hombo, in Tamil as Vampadam, and 
botanically as Azadirachta indica. In 
India it is called neem. The refuse 
cake has been put torward as a cure 
for Betel-vine diseases. 


A. W. A.—Thanks for the litchi seed. I 
will distribute them asrequested. The 
tree is rather a shy bearer in Ceylon, and 
I have only heard of fruiting trees in the 
Matale and Peradeniya districts. Those 
who have grown litchi sucessfully in 
Ceylon may be inclined to give their ex- 
perience of cultivation. In Calcutta the 
fruits are plentiful in season, and when 
fresh have the same strong ethereal 
odour as our mora (Nephelium longana). 

_ Para Rupper.—Re packing of rubber 
seed the following account of a method 
adopted by Mr. H. N. Ridley, F.R.s., 
Director of Botanic Gardens, Singapore, 
in sending seed toa great distance, will 
be read with interest :—‘‘ The seeds were 
packed in biscuit tin boxes with burnt 
rice husks 600 seeds in one box; the 
boxes were not soldered. The tins were 
then packed in a wooden box, 8 to 10 
tins in a box, The burnt rice husk is 


381 


Miscellaneous. 


obtained from the rice mills where the rice 
is husked, the fine powdered husk is burnt 
at the mills and we obtain it from them. 
It is then in the form of a very fine 
powdery charcoal, very tight. We have 
found this far the best packing material 
for rubber seed and always use it now.” 


Correspondence, 


CLEANLINESS OF CULTIVATION. 


Maskeliya, 5th September, 1908. 


Sir,—In an interesting article in your 
last issue entitled ‘‘ Agriculture in Japan,’ 
the authoy, in describing the methods of 
the cultivators, says, ‘‘ Weeds are not to 
be seen at any time, and all stones are 
removed, so that ‘every square inch 
(of the soil)may play its part.’” 

Our system of cultivation in Ceylon 
inciudes the former, 1.e, ‘‘clean weeding,” 
but such a thing as removing stones 
from the soilis not thought of, at least 
not generally. 


There are favoured districts and 
estates with soil comparatively, if not 
entirely, free from stones, but there are 
very many estates with both the surface 
and the sub-soil full of stones. I know 
of fields of Tea where it is next to impos- 
sible to drive a digging fork in any- 
where without coming in contact with 
a stone, big or small. Now, most plan- 
ters must have observed that although 
one usually finds good Tea in rocky 
fields, in stony fields the Tea is poor, 
the g reason probably being that the 
root of the bushes do not get free play 
in the soil, the stones embedded in it 
tending to choke the efforts of the roots 
to seek fresh food, and so preventing full 
development of the bushes. If the root 
growth is retarded, the development of 
the bush must also be retarded. 


The removel of these stones cannot 
but be beneficial to the Tea, especially if 
some covering or mulching, with prun- 
ings or other green stuff, be given to the 
surface afterwards. The bigger stones 
could be made use of for terracing, an 
excellent thing inland subject to wash, 
and the smaller stones for laying on the 
top of the prunings or mulching to keep it 
in its place. An opinion from on agricul- 
tural expert would be interesting, and 
helpful to the ‘‘Tea Farmer” in his efforts 
to make the most of his stony land. 


Yours faithfully, 
R. MActurg, 


[There can be little doubt that it 
would ultimately pay an estate to spend 
a little money on removing stones, but 
the ground should then be kept properly 


Miscetlaneous. 


tilled, or planted with green manures. 
So longas the surface of the ground is 
hard, water evaporates more freely from 
it, and the effects of a drought are 
sooner manifest. Our leader this month 
deals with this quesition.—ED., | 


STRAWBERRY GROWING AND 
GARDEN NOTES. 


Nuwara Eliya, 7th August, 1908. 


Sir,—As strawberries are now being 
grown in Nuwara Eliya, Isend you some 
Garden Notes on their culture which 
may be of service for your magazine. 


Yours faithfully, 
H. F. G. WEBSTER. 


GARDEN NOTES. 


The planting of strawberries so soon 
as the young ones are rooted suggests 
the question of distances apart to set the 
plants. The usual distance adopted by 
regular growers is half a yard from 
plant to plant and two feet six inches 
from row to row, as we mentioned last 
week. But amateurs may make the 
most of the land they devote to straw- 
berry culture by placing the rows only 
two feet apart, and setting the young 
plants as closely together as one foot 
apart. he space thus alloted will 
suffice for the first season. For the 
second season every alternate plant in 
each row should be removed when the 
first fruiting is over. Thus the straw- 
berry plants will enjcy a space of two 
feet every way from their neighbours, 
in their second and third years. In 
removing the surplus plants care must 
be taken not to injure the roots of those 
destined to remain. The strawberry, 
like many other plants, sends fine roots 
far afield in search of food to maintain 
itself and the numerous family it hopes 
to bear and bring up. These fine, far- 
reaching roots contribute greatly to_the 
support of the crop. They should be 
guarded from injury and_ spared 
serious disturbance. For this reason 
digging with the spade between the 
rows of strawberries is bad policy at all 
times. The stirring of the surface of the 
soilis of advantage to growing crops, 
but this should be done with the fork. 
With carea fork may be so used in 
strawberry beds as to do no injury to the 
roots, or so little that the advantage of 
aerating the soil more than atones to 
the plants. In planting young straw- 
berries, the roots, with the ball of earth, 
should be placed as deep as they well can 
be set without covering the heart of the 
plant. Water must be plentifully given 
_at first planting; afterwards only very 
moderate watering is desirable until the 


382 


has been completed, the surface should 


{OcroBER, 1008, 3 


plants have rooted. After the planting 


be kept free from weeds and stirred. 
Runners must be removed until the 
time come round again to encourage the 
formation of some to make new plants. 
But it is advisable not to cut off the first 
runners from young plants too promptly. 
By allowing theirst runners to form a 
second joint or bud before cutting them 
off an advantage is gained. The young 
plant forbears from producing super- 
abandant foliage whilst occupied in send- 
ing outits earliest runners. When the 
runners are removed, they may be cut 
off close to the plants from which they 
spring. The selection of strawberries is 
a matter of some bewilderment to 
growers, especially where no previous 
experience exists of the suitability of 
kinds to the soil. Strawberries have 
marked partialities of their own. In 
land that is uncongenial, they make 
their grower sensible of their dissatis- 
faction. But the production of different 
kinds in great variety has been specia- 
lised by notable raisers like Messrs. 
Laxton Brothers, who devote sixteen 
acres to the culture of young strawberry, 
plants, at their Bedford nurseries. It is 
possible now to make choice from nearly 
one hundred excellent kinds. When a 
plantation is not a complete success, a 
change in the varieties planted should 
be tried by obtaining young plants in 
pots this month from the nurseries. If 
a grower has room for only one variety, 
the Laxton should be tried. This hand- 
some strawberry was produced about 
three years ago by a cress between 
‘Royal Sovereign” and ‘Sir Joseph 
Paxton,” both notable strawberries and 
popular favourites with growers. It 
was the result of eight years’ watchful- 
ness and selection. Upon its exhibition ~ 
on the show table in 1901, the Fruit Com- 
mittee of the Royal Horticultural Society 
at once unanimously awarded it a first- 
class certificate, a distinction of which it 
has since proved itself well worthy. It 
is a sturdy grower, with thick glossy 
foliage and a strong leaf stalk. Its 
strong constitution gives it an advantage 
in poor soils and adaptability to many 
soils. It produces profusely very large 
strawberries of dark bright colour, 
conical shape, and of/ fine rich flavour. — 
Itisanearly strawberry. Where the — 
Laxton fails, its half-parent Royal 
Sovereign may succeed. This straw- 
berry bears fruit of glossy bright scarlet 
colour, with firm white flesh, very — 
delicious in favour. It also is early in 
fruiting. A later variety is Climax, — 
which bears fruit of large size and 
shining crimson hue; its flavouris rich 
and suggestive of vintage. In shape it — 
is elongated, like a filbert ; itis of hardy 


By, 


~ [OcroBeR, 1908, 


constitution. Fillbasket is another good 

late strawberry, bearing fruit shaped 
like an inverted pear, bright glossy 
scarlet in colour. Its flesh is juicy, 
sweet, and luscious, but firm and solid. 
Trafalgar, a rounder shaped strawberry, 
isa good variety. It fruits very late, 
and its fruit has a flavour of the pine, 
piquant and pleasant. It is a free-grow- 
ing plant. Latest of All bears large 
fruit of fine flavour to the latest day one 
ean reasonably expect to gather straw- 
berries. In the suggestions we have 
given for land preparation for straw- 
berries, we have had in view chiefly the 
circumstances of the amateur grower. 
The grower for market, who produces 
strawberries on a great acreage, does 
not, it is true, prepare his fields in such 
elaborate fashion. Itis not practicable, 
in the present scarce condition of rural 
labour, to cultivate a wide extent of 
land by spade or fork industry. The 
plough must suffice in such cases, but 
the professional grower takes care to 
eultivate strawberries only .on land 
specially suitable for the crop. The 
amateur desires to grow strawberries 
wherever his garden may chance to be 
placed, hence the desirability of the 
amateur expending extra cultivation on 
his strawberry beds of limited extent. 


A comprehensive view of the disas- 
trous effect of the bitter Spring weather 
of 1903 upon our British fruit crops, is 
presented by a tabular statement just 
published in the Gardeners’ Chronicle. 
Totalling the whole of the kingdom, we 
find from the tables given, that out of 267 
reports on apples, no less than 248 are 
adverse. From England, Wales, Ireland, 
and the Channel Islands, not a single re- 

ort records a crop over average. Scot- 
and only yields two such reports. 
Pears are even worse. Not one over- 
average report has come in from any 
section of the Kingdom, and only seven 
cases report an average result. Of these, 
six are in Scotland. Plums tell the same 
doleful tale. One single over-average 
erop alone is recorded. In England 
there are 176 under-average to one 
average. Cherry reports are some- 
what less monotonously gloomy. There 
are five good crops and 67 average ones 
to 176 bad results. Peaches and apri- 
cots run neck-and-neck in a race to 
disaster. Only one over-average crop 
of peaches is reported, and two of 
apricots. he under-averages are 147 
and 137 respectively. Strawberries, as 
might be expected, have done the best. 
Ina bad fruit year they come out with 
74 over-average and 150 average crops 
out of 262 reports, an unexpectedly 
favourable result, Currants and other 
small fruits, taken as a whole, do not 


383} 


Miscellaneous. 


show nearly so well. ‘*‘ Never,” writes the 
Editor, ‘‘ since wehave madea practice 
of recording the condition of the fruit 
crops, a period of nearly forty years, 
have we had occassion to present so 
disastrous a record. From John o’Groats 
to the Land’s End, from Galway to 
East Anglia, the tale is the same, With 
the exception of strawberries and small 
fruit, the words ‘total failure’ best ex- 
press the condition of affairs.” 


If the fruit crop has mocked our pains 
the vegetable department of the garden 
has given us some returns for the 
labour expended uponit earlier in the 
year. Mostof the usual Summer crops 
have madea fair show of plenty. The 
hard skin-surface of the beds, induced 
by the alternate rain-beating and sun- 
baking, has been a bane; but for this 
the Dutch hoe is the effective antidote in 
the hands of the industrious cultivator. 
The month of August is the chief time 
of preparation for Autumn, Winter, and 
Spring crops of vegetables, Plantlets, 
already raised from seed and not plant- 
ed outin July, will require to be got 
into their permanent quarters, and 
many seeds must be sown at suitlable 
dates for various crops. Garden culture 
differs from farm cropping in the per- 
petual succession which demands atten- 
tion. Whilst we are in the time of 
greatest plenty, we must be laying out 
our plans for the next crops on penalty 
of finding our results fall behind the 
measure of success obtained by provi- 
dent and foreseeing growers. 


The crops to be planted out include 
the later stocks of Winter greens, such 
as borecole or kale, broccoli, cabbage 
for coleworts, and endive. The ground 
for these crops will have been prepared 
some time ago, except for broccoli, which 
grows hardiest, is most valuable, and 
gives the best returns when grown in 
very firm, wundug soil, not freshly 
manured. To make the holes a crowbar 
is used, and the plants are planted very 
firmly. For the others, the land 
ought to have hada generous dressing 
of good, natural manures, thoroughly 
incorporated with the lower spit of 
earth. A little extra manure is given 
to the surface soil, and the whole made 
firm before the planting is done. Plenty 
of space should be allowed between the 
plants, which should be put in very 
firmly: 


The frequent sowings of seed to be 
made tothe end of August, and even 
later, involve careful attention to ap- 
propriate dates. This is more of import- 
ance now than 1n thecase of Sprng sow- 
ings. A week too soon may mean the 
running to seed of the plants. A week 


Miscellaneous. Se 


too late may mean lack of size when 


the plants come _ to maturity, As 
seasons vary in different districts, the 
cultivator will do well to be neigh- 


bourly. The lessons learned from the 
ascertained custom of successful local 
growers willl be found very useful. 
Subject to such revision, it is well to 
sow in the first week of August the 
principal Autumn sowing of early mar- 
ket cabbage: early Horn carrots for 
Spring use ina warm, sheltered ~ situ- 
ation; corn salad for Winter supply ; 
endive and white stone turnips for 
Winteruse. In the middle of the month, 
early York and red cabbages may be 
sown; cauliflowers in a situation where 
they can be protected during the Winter; 
lettuce also ina sheltered situation for 
standing the Winter; onions and spinach. 
The crops to be sown towards the end of 
the month will include a small sowing 
of onions for succession. As onions fur 
Winter and for drawing young are a 
very valuable crop, everything pos- 


sibleshouldbe done to make it a succe sae hh 

With good soil and good seed little 

difficulty should be experienced. In — 
cold wet soils care should be taken to — 
sow none but the hardiest varieties. — 
Hor August-sown vegetables generally 
care should be taken to prepare the site 
well, but, at the same time, to guard 
against over-manuring. This is apt to 
foster rapid and succulent growth, and 
to unfit the plants for the ordeal of hard 
weather they may have to encounter 
later. Strong aud sturdy plants will 
be needed to stand the Winter if 
we have a _ severe one, and_ showy- 
looking weaklings will fare badly. The 
crops to be August-sown for Winter or 
Spring use may include white or silver- 
leaved beet, American cress, borage, 
tuberous-rooted chervil, mustard and 
cress successionally, Buda kale, Brussels 
sprouts for transplanting in Spring, 
black.and white Spanish radishes also 
early white and scarlet turnip-rooted 
radishes.—Home paper. 


PRO AMY ST eon 


R, 1908.] 


Minutes of the Board of Agriculture. 


MEETING OF OcrosER 5ra, 1908. 


The 42nd meeting of the Board of 
Bee aealuce was held at the Council 
ake at 12 noon on Mouday, the 5th 
October. 


_ His Excellency the Governor presided 


There were also present :—The Hon’ble 
Me H. L. Crawford, the Houn’ble Mr. 
John Herguson, Sir Solomon Dias 
Bandaranaike, Drs. J. C. Willis and H. M. 
‘Fernando, Messrs. J. Harward, A. N. 
Galbraith, R. H. Lock, G, W. Sturgess, 
Francis Daniel and Mr. ©. Drieberg 
(Secretary ). 


‘ As Visitors:—Messrs, Ediard Cowan 
and Alex. Perera. 


BUSINESS. 


1. Minutes of meeting held on August 
8rd were read and confirmed. 


2. Progress Report No. XLI. 


Beecisrot 


Dr. Willis drew attention to the re- 
“ference (on page 8) to the work going on 
it Mahailluppalama, and remarked that 
the statement made was apt to mislead 
‘the reader. He went on to fully explain, 
with the aid of photographs, the results 
of cultivation by labour-saving imple- 
ments. It was decided to add an ex- 
nlanatory note by Dr. Willis to the 


. 


Progress Report. 


was 


f° 3. Statements of expenditure for 


August and September were tabled. 


4. The Hon’ble Mr. Crawford moved 
(the Hon’ble Mr. Ferguson seconded) :— 
“That Rule 3 be amended to read; ‘'The 
Board shall meet for the despatch of 
business on the first Monday of every 
_ month.’”—Carried. 


CSS ge 


2 


veg 


es 
2 


5. Mr. Harward, D. P. I., moved (the 
Hon’ble Mr. Ferguson seconded) :—‘* That 
asumof Rs. 500 be voted for the (ex- 
tension of School Gardening during this 
year.’’—Carried. 


6. Dr. Willis moved (Sir Solomon Dias 
Bandaranaike seconded) :—‘* That pro- 
vision be made for the employment of 
two more Agricultural Instructors—one 
forthe Sinhalese Districts and the other 
for the Tamil Districts.”— Carried, 


7. The Secretary read the Report of 
the Tobaceo Committee (which had not 
yet received the approval of the Govern- 
ment Agent, Northern Province), and the 
Hon’ble Mr. Ferguson moved (Mr. Francis 
Daniel seconding):—‘‘That a sum of 
Rs. 27,500 out of the balance estimated 
to be in the hands of the Society, be 
reserved for an experiment in the grow- 
ing and curing of ''obacco for the foreign 
market.”—Carried. 


8 Dr. Willis read a paper entitled 
“Cassava Cultivation as a Local In- 
dustry.” 


9. The Government Veterinary Sur 
geon read a memo. on Castration of 
Cattle, 


10. Mudaliyar A. Dissanaike’s paper 
on ‘*The Village Cultivator and Paddy 
Cultivation,” which had been previousi y 
circulated, was taken as read. 


1l. A financial statement for 1907, 
drawn up by the Society’s Auditor, was 
presented, and was ordered by H. E. the 
President to be printed and circulated 
for the information of menabers. 


12. His Excellency concluded the 
meeting by thanking the writers of the 
papers on behalf of the Board. 


C. DRIEBERG, 
Secretary, C. A. S. 


MARKET RATES FOR TROPICAL PRODUCTS. — MORE SD 
(From Lewis & Peat’s Monthly Prices Current, London, 9th September, 1908.) 


QUALITY. QUOTATIONS. QUALITY, QUOTATIONS. 


— 


ALOK, Socotrine _ cwt-|Fair to fine oe (858 a 908 INDIARUBBER.(Contd.) 


Zanzibar & Hepatic ,, |Common t 


é vON ; 5 6 ay d to fire red 9 i$ 

VKOOT (Natal) Jb.| Fair to fine -- | gda4d Java Goo ‘ 3 159d a2s6d 

aE WAX) ( pags Penang 1 «w white to prime red|}, 44 a Ys 3a_ 
Zanzibar Yellow __,, |Slightly drossy to fair .. |£6 7s 6d a £6 10s Mozambique Fans tufme red tall...) séd ats 54d 

Bombay Verched —_,, |Feir to gerd ) e7 lus a £7 12s 60 PAUSE AL, iat 1 gocd .-pstduss3d 

sh unbleached ,, |Di rk to good gepniniel: £5 1s a £6 5s Nyassaland Fy LORE e nie ree 28 doe 2s4d 
Madayascur oy jtalk to grou palis ZOE a £6103 Mz dagascar Majunga é& blk coated .. bari 2d 


OAMPHOR,* Hy ryrosa ,, |( rude 


lair average quality  ...)15fs Nizpets, ew lo pod. led a 98 


China 9» i Oidinary t fine ball 
MOMS. Malabail |Gced to fine bold ts 10d a 28 New Guinea ene Payee ts Oda oe 
aon ade Middling lear isédalséd INDIGO, KI. Bengal [hipping mid tage violet sid ads ud 
Be lerenum (peta e iehean aaa, ea Crdinary to middling oda aye 
Mangalore ,, \Med brown to fair holdls + 3s Cudes Mide Hin: tofine))” 95 61a e naa 


Ceylon. Nysore ys [Xmi N fan 


» |Fair to ,ood . fiséda 1s 7d i! Low to ordi ary Is 6d a 28 20d 
Be Bete : petda.as 1 Side to fie Maaras eds oes, 
ong Wild”,, shelly to good efbd # Is 9 MACE, Bombay & Penan ae : ls bdaisi0d — 
CABIOR ork Coletta” lists and 2nds o[3d a 84d per tb. (Uidinary tofair 
CHILLIES, Zanzi ar cwl]! ull 10 fine bright oe (ZES & SUS ve ” » 200d pale 
s : K.—- Ib. ABOLANES,  cwt 
pein sa Crown, Renewed (3fda7d Madras UG and Coconada 
tt Org. Stem |¢d acd Bombay ,, ubblepore 
5 Red Org. Stem |1;d a 44d Lhimlies 
Renewed 3d a 64d yhhajpore, &c. 
hut ida 4d Bengal a Cale utia : 
CINNAMON,Ceylon Jstricommon to tine quill |tsdals 5d NUTMEGS— Yb. |.4’8 bo 57's 
per lb, 2nd ” ” 74d a 1s 4d Bombay & Penang ,, |!10's to 65's 
- 3rds ie ee bid als 160’s to 1185's 
4ths ms i bda 9d NUTS, ARFCA cwt,|\)dinary to fair fresh 
Chips, 6¢..lFair to fine bold 24a a sid NUX VOD 1CA, Cochin |Urdinary to goca 
GLOVES, Penang Ib.1 wl) to tne bright boldj10d a 11d per c vt. Benpal ” i, 
.  Atvboyna ~~ --|Dull to tine ida bd Mecsas 3 
Ceylon ° fn Pie ida 8d OIL OF ANISEKD _ ,, [Fair merchantable | 
Zanzibar Fair and fine bright = |4:d CASSIA ») {according to analysis 
Stems e|bair zd LEMONGRASS i Maman 
SOF FRE NUTMEG * |liugy to x 
i Ceylon Plantation cwt.|pold to fine Mos a 1128 CINNAMON ” ordinary to fair sweet 
MY Meri uinito good sts a 1088 cl) RONEILE PT bright & good flavour 
Native Good ordinary i ORCHELLA WEED—cwi|, . 
Liberian » |Fair to lola Roni) seated Ceylon if Mid. to tine not woody: 
COCOA, Ceylon Plant. ., Special Mats 78s a 208 Zanzibar. Pill icked Ae 
1. ed to goo $8 a778 oy 4 
Nativestate 5 Ordinary to red 50s a. 748 PEPPER- (Black) Jb. 
. Alleppee & Tellicherry |Fair é «- {33 
COLOMKO ROOT » {Aliddling to good ifs alfs Ceylon ,, Lo fine bold heavy ..|: 
CKOTON SEEDS, oft. wl ull to fair vs €d a 828 €d Singapore Pas a : eee 
cuich hat? » |Fair to fine dry 21s u Yeo nom, | Acheen & W. C. Penang|!'ull to tne Eat? WAH 
GINGER, Bengal, rough,, [Fair 20s nom. (White) Singapore ,, {lair tu fine or 
Calicut, Cut A ,, |snall to fine bold 728 tU w dbs Siam » {tair Be eve eee foc 
B&C,, pall and medium 488 a 608 Penang »» |bair aS Bene ie } 
Cochin Rough ,, (cmmon to fine bold [313 a 36s PLUMBAGQ, lump cwt.Jeir to tine bright bold|35s a 458 nom, 
small and D’s 338 viddling to good smali|25s a 403 , 
Japan » |Unsplit “ts chips oull tofne bright | ..|l5sa 30s 
@UM AMMONIACUM ,, [>m. blocky to fair clean) 5s a ¢0s dust ndinary to fine bright]’s a 15s 
ANIMI, Zanzibar ,, |P: Je and ambe ane ae £16 A£191C8 SAGO, Pearl, large «ej ull to fine 2 ia Vee i 
” *9 ittle red}oi3 a 115 nedium . » 2s 6da 15s 
3ean and Pea size ditto ae revel small aN i & lisa 13s 
i iv te geodied sits [po a £12 SEEDLAC ewt.|O:dinary vo gd, soluble |£5 a6 nom. 
Med. & bold glassy sorts|26 10s a £8 SENNA, Tinnevelly 1b./Good to fine bold giee) jid a7d ; 
Madagascar ,, |Fair to good palish ...)£4 a £8 10s Fair greenish da 4td 


svaBIC F.1,& Aden ,, |Ordinary 


Turkey sorts ,, 


Gatti ,, [Sorts to fine pale ...\\7s a 4¥s ou nom. Bombay 4, | 5 on 

Kurrachee »» |Reddish to good pale ...):0s a sus wi Mergui im Ai co tne a0 é 

Madras », |Park to fine pale ...J1;s a 25s M:mlla  ,, |Fair to good +-|84 5s a £7 15s 
ASSAFGTIDS », \Clean fr. to gd. almends}|35. a jus Banda Sorts . 


KINO b. 

MYRRH, picked cewt. 
Aden sorts ,, 

OLIBANUM, drop ” 


pickings ,, 


siftings 5, |Nlightly 


INDIA RUKBER Ib. /\Fine jaa bis. & sheetsas y4d Cochin __,, |Finger * 
Ceylon, Straits, 5 Ceara ,, a 4 244 Bulbs 
Malay Straits, ete. Crepe ordinary to fine..|4s 2d a4s 3d VANILLOES— Tb. 
Kine Block [is 43d Nauritius .. Ists|Gd crystallized 34 a8} inléga, 188 
Scrap fair to fine --28(d a8s Moacougasear ... } 2nd:|Foxy & reddish 34a 153 a 9g 
Assam » ~|Plantation 48 4d Seychelles irds|.eon ond inferior 
Fair 11 to good red No.1/2s a 2s 17d VERMILLION .. Fine, pure, bright 
Rangoon p »» 2s ida 28 4d WAX, Japan, squares Good white hard 


von. stony to go d block! 5s a 75s 
Fair to fine bright 
lair to fine pale 
NMiddling to good 
Good to fine white 
Midaling to fair 
Low to good pale 


384a [Ocror 


ee ee 


a 
t's 


0 good eelYUs a 828 6d Rorneo Cemmon to good Gd a. 2s 2d 


to fine plump |is.da 3s 6d Mid. topoed Kuipoh 93a avs éd 


i red 


»j£4a £7 10s 
to good pale 


258 a 3vs 6d nom. 
32s 6da fUs 


Commonspeckyand small|1. da 24d 
SHELLS, M. o’PFARIL— 
Feyptian cwt.|Smallto bold .. 


J i ae "1958 aa ‘4 
TAMARINDS, Calcutty,, |\ id.to fine b’k not stonyl;}s ayes ZO 


er owt. Madras |Stony and inferior 
TORTOTISESHEL) — 
Zanzivar, & Bomlay }b. |Small to bold 


foul to fine 


Do. yy |bulbs 


THE SUPPLEMENT TO THE 


Tropical Agriculturist and Magazine of the 6. A. 8. 


Comertep By A. M. & J. FERGUSON. 


No. 4,] 


OCTOBER, 1908. 


{Vou. IIT. 


DESICCATED COCONUT MANUFACT- 
URE IN CEYLON AND NEW 
SOUTH WALES. 


Amongst the new industries which have gained 
a footing in Australia, asa result of the measure 
of protection afforded under the new tariff— 
without which their successful continuance 
would not have been possible—is one for the 
preparation of desiccated coconut. The new 
venture, which, under the trading style of Meg- 
gitts Limited, has its headquarters at Parra- 
matta, New South Wales, is already in full 
swing, finding employment for 100 hands. 

Apart altogether from any political senti- 
ment, the locally manufactured article is 
likely to have the support of Australians by 
reason of the fact that in the course of 
its preparation hygienic requirements are 
complied with to an extent that is quite 
beyond the reach of manufacturers in Ceylon 
and other countries where the employment of 
cheap black labour renders it impossible to guar- 
antee these essentials. The importance of this 
aspect will be recognised when it is remembered 
that a considerable proportion of the desiccated 
coconut consumed in Australia is eaten practi- 
cally in its raw state, large quantities being used 
thus in the manufacture of confectionery. Those 
who are competent'to express an opinion assert 
that in quality, flavour, and colour there is no 
question as to the superiority of the Australian 
product, So encouraging has been the support 
accorded the new concern that the output of 
the factory is now about five tons per week, and 
it has been found necessary to arrange for an 
extension of the present plan in order to cope 
with the demand. The coconuts used are 
being obtained from the South Sea Islands, 
New Guinea and Java, every precaution being 
taken, of course, to assure a supply of none but 
fresh nuts. The objection has been urged that 
the industry cannot possibly hope to flourish in 


49 


Australia because the necessary freshness of the 
fruit cannot be guaranteed ; but this supposed 
bar disappears before the explanation, that 
under existing conditions the coconuts used 
in Ceylon and other producing centres are 
stacked for at least a month after being picked 
to allow the flesh to ‘‘set,” a process which 
is necessary prior to manufacture. In the case 
of the Australian-made article the nuts are 
on the machines at’ Parramatta within four or 
five weeks of their being picked, and on some 
occasions it has been found necessary to hold 
back the nuts for a time in order to have 
them in ausable condition, owing to the fact 
that in a cooler climate they do not mature 
as rapidly as in warmer temperatures. Not- 
withstanding the very low basis of values now 
ruling in the East—due, no doubt, toa world wide 
depression in the market for this commodity— 
theAustralian product is being supplied at nearly 
03d. per lb. under the cost here of imported 
desiccated coconut.—Melbowrne Age, Aug. 6. 


A CEYLON MANUFACTURE'S VIEWS ON 
THE ABOVE, 

With reference to the above article published 
in the Melbourne Age regarding the mannu- 
facture of Desiccated Coconut in New South 
Wales, one of our representatives was accorded an 
interview with a Ceylon manufacturer of that 
product, who stated that he had no fear of New 
South Wales proving any serious competitor to 
the Ceylon industry. 

“The suggestion in that paper,” he said, 
“that we do not take sufficient sanitary precau- 
tions with the manufacture of our produce, be- 
cause, employing coloured labour, we are unable 
to, is nonsense, 

THE GREATEST CLEANLINESS 
is maintained through the whole process of 
manufacture and clean water is so freely used 
that dirt or uncleanliness in the finished article 


386 


is practically impossible. The details of manu- 
facture are more or less secret, but I may tell 
you this, that while the nut is being handled 
it is constantly in water, and on leaving the 
water it passes into the machinery and is 
then untouched by hand until it is turned out 
a snow-like mass of finely cut or powdered 
dry coconut. The nut has to be stelled and 
the brown skin pared off—that is the only 
work done by hand, and, as I say, water is 
freely used and the whole oval kernel under- 
goesa thorough washing tefore passing into 
the machinery—where does this process fail 
in “hygienic requirements?” 

‘‘Then the Australian article is not superior 
to the Ceylon product ?” 

“Tt cannot be. If you saw the care wtih 
which the dried or desiccated nut is watched 
at the mills you would realise that the process 
of manufacture can hardly be improved upon, 
even in Ceylon where we have been working 
for years. Moreover, currents of fresh dry 
air pass through the factory, where everything 
is kept scrupulously clean, and the high tem- 
perature employed in the desiccators would 
render perfectly innocuous any stray microbes. 
And finally, before being carefully packed in 
‘‘orease-paper’”’ in lead-lined chests, the piles 
of snow-white nut are aera turned over and 
the smallest specks of even slightly discoloured 
nut are picked out. Any one can eat Ceylon 
desiccated nut raw without any fear at all— 
I have eaten quantities—and the slur on our 
produce in that Australian paper is unfair 
and untrue. Of course, it was inspired by 
some interested person, but such remarks as 
that will only redound to the hurt of the 
person himself. 

CEYLON’s COMPETITORS. 


“And you fear no competition?” ‘ Well, 
there tis such a demand for good Ceylon nut, 
and it has such a firm hold in Europe, America, 
Canada and elsewhere, that we can stand a 
lot of competition. Besides this Australian 
concern gets the nuts from the South Sea 
Islands, and they are so liable to typhoons, etc., 
which destroy the crops, as was experienced a 
couple of years ago, that from time to time 
coconuts there are scarce and prices of copra go 
up very high, and the price of nuts follows; and 
if the mills there had no nuts—well, I leave 
the rest to you!” ) 

“¢ Does any other country produce desiccated 
coconut” ? 

‘““Well, a Jamaica concern commenced work 
and did something a few years ago; but if they 
are still working, it must be in a very small 
way. Inthe United States are several mills ; 
they get nuts from the West Indies and mix 
up potato and cassava with the coconut, and 
sell a curious mixture as ‘desiccated coconut’ ; 
but their trade is limited and they have to de- 
clare that it is a mixture they are selling.” 

So the famous Ceylon desiccated coconut 
still leads the way. 


CEYLON vs. AUSTRALIA. 


Colombo, Sept. 4th. 
Dear Srr,—Your article ve the Australian 
“‘ Desiccated Cokernut” industry is interesting, 
but it would be still more so if you told us what 


The Supplement to the Tropical Agriculturist. 


the amount of the Import Duty is that enables 
the Australian-made product to be sold at, you 
say, $d per lb. under cost of Ceylon Cokernut. 


—I am, yours, &c., 
COKERNOUT. 
[The duty, we learn, is 2d per lb. which leaves 
2d per lb. to cover the extra cost of labour, &. 
—Ebp., C. V.] i; ; 


September 5th. 

Dear Sir,—With reference to the extract from 
the Melbourne ‘‘Age” of 6th August last on the 
subject of ‘‘ New Industries Established,” I have 
only to remark with regard to Desiccated Coco- 
nut manufactured in Ceylon—which articleis—or 
was until our great Commonwealth of the South 
commenced to ‘stagger humanity ” with her 5- 
ton-a-week Parramatta output——practically the 
only country producing it :—Our enterprise was 
started about 1885, or say a couple of decades 
ago. In1898 Ceylon exported about 13,040,554 
lb. only, while this year of grace, i fancy we will 
not be much short of 27,000,000 1b., while Aus- 
tralia has to 24th August taken some 594,648 lb. 
or little over a month’s Parramatta Factory out- 
put; so that, while we are suffering from over- 
production here, which is the *‘ real cause ” 
of our extremely low. prices during this 
year—all 1 can say is, if our gum-sucking 
friends of the South do not increase their popu- 
lation in all its branches, and the confectionery- 
sucking olive-branches in particular, they too 
are bound, if Parramatta nut industry lives 
another few months, to suffer from the same 
complaint. I fail to see where the political 
sentiment comes in nor even the hygienic re- 
quirements the writer in the ‘‘ Age” alludes to, 
but I question the superiority of their white 
workers over our Sinhalese. It would be absurd 
for an Australian to attempt to form an opinion, 
but I know that black cooks are prized very 
much in America, it being a well-known fact 
that they are cleaner than the whites in many 
respects. The writer in the ‘“‘ Age’ does not say 
so, but I conclude the nuts for manufacture are 
obtained in the husk ; that is, they have to take 
them just as they are packed. Now this must 
entail a very heavy toll for rejections of bad and 
immature nuts, and spoilt ones during the 
voyage in the hot hold of a ship. This period, 
the writer in question tells us, is from four 
to five weeks, practically the same time our 
nuts in Ceylon require tor pee prior to 
being husked for desivcating ; in other words, 
their nuts wither in the ship-hold, whereas 
ours mature on the ground in open air or 
in well-ventilated sheds, so that what he calls 
the ‘‘set” is nothing more or less than the 
withering or maturing. In Ceylon the seller 
of green nuts in husk generally allows the 
buyer 5 per cent for rejections, but this toll 
often runs to10per cent, so that with this charge 
and the great cost of labour in Australia, and 
the great heat the desiccating white men must 
endure in Summer, it is very questionable if the 
concern can be made to pay; however, itseems that 
the Australians like the article raw, so perhaps 
by educating the people in that direction, the 
Parramatta general output of 537,600 lb, might 
be doubled—so as to meet the great Australian 
consumption of say 1,000,0001b., about which 
figure or little over it reached last year, The 


and Magazine of the Ceylon A gricullural Society. 


Ceylon product. is finding its way rapidly into 
new countries and I fancy that with an export 
a few years hence of say 30,000,000 lb. I should 
not think manufacturers in Ceylon have very 
much or anything to fear from this great 
Southern Cross bogie. Judging from what 
white labour cost me in Australia as compared 
with Ceylon, we need have no fear atall. We 
can put it in Colombo for less than $d per lb., 
and in some cases, as low as 2% cents, so that if 
they can put it in Sydney at double that with 
nuts as cheap as ours, they should have a 
look in; buta local consumption of 1,000,000 
lb. only, as at present, should certainly 
not require very much fresh plant for the 
Parramatta Factory to enable its owners to 
supply the requirements of New South Wales 
and other States. I suppose that as they have 
protection just now, the promoters do not 
contemplate such a contingency as an export 
duty being imposed, in the event of there being 
a change in the Government, on shipments to 
New Zealand, ctc. 


Sept. 4th. 

Dear Sir,—We must stick up for our local in- 
dustry, now verging on 30,000,000 lb. per annum, 
This year will, I think, reach 27,000,000 lb. (or 
say 7,000,000 lb. over 1906), of which one manu- 
facturer does about 1-8th himself, viz., 25,000 
cases of 130 1b. nett each =3,250,000 lb. I only 
wish it were going to a better market. 


It seems they (at Parramatta, New South 
Wales) are at present employing 100 workmen 
(white) and are actually turning out 15 cases per 
diem, or 5 tons per week, while the manufacturer 
here (above alluded to) is cutting 50,000 to 60,000 
nuts and turning out 140 to 150 cases per diem. 
Ifthey export to the United States, New Zealand, 
&c., then the Government will be sure to put on 
an Export Tax. We can lay 1t down in Colombo 
at 3 cents per lb.. Can they do that? No. 


It appears to me they have forgotten the cloth 
in cutting out their coat, z.¢., the demand ; for, 
as you know, all Australia does not take more 
than 1,200,000 lb. per annum just now (it was 
1,021,083 Ib. in 1906). As IL wrote today, it 
is to be hoped they do not muzzle the ox ; but 
if they do not, and their 100 workers eat as much 
of it per head as our people do, their outturn of 
nut in pounds per nut desiccated will be very 
poor; and, besides, it seems they eat it raw. 


If what they say is true, their nuts and labour 
must cost less than ours—and if so, their suc- 
cess is assured; but from my experieuce they 
will want a much greater demand than there 1s 
at present, even if they supply ‘‘all Australia.” 


They tell us a lot, but not one word as to size 
and cost of nuts, small as compared with ours, 
and average rate of wages, including super- 
vision ; this must be high, with only 15 cases 
per diem—and that, too, by 100 workmen ! 


They lay stress on their nuts, while taking a 
month to get to Parramatta, being worked up 
‘** fresher ” than ours, which we have to keep al- 
ways exactly the same time before working, 1.¢., 
for ‘maturing ” or what they call the ‘‘set,” 


Since writing yesterday I find, on looking at 
the cutting from the Age, that they employ 100 


387 
people daily ; and putting that at 5s per day, in- 


cluding supervision, &c,, it comes to 3}d_ _— cts. 
or say au 1 He aw) 
per Ib. on the 5-ton or 90-case weekly out- 

put; and putting nuts at, say, 3°70 cts per 

nut with 3 nuts to the 11b., desiccated 

nut ibs 3c veo) 1110 
Packages same as ours ... 1°50 
making a total cost per lb. of 31°10 


100 people to turn out 15 cases per diem is a ‘‘ bit 
thick.” They would probably eat a good lot of 
the 15 cases, and it does not do to muzzle the ox 
either here or in Australia ; besides they seem 
to like it raw there.—Yours faithfully, 


DESICCATOR, 


THE RESULTS OF MANURING TEA 
WITH MUSTARD MEAL, 


have been so successful, says the Indian Planters’ 
Gazette, that it behoves planters to give an ap- 
plication of this a trial on all old and backward 
parts of their gardens. Exhaustive experiments 
have been conducted by the Scientific Officer 
attached to the Indian Tea Association which 
leave no manner of doubt as to the recuperative 
qualities of mustard seed meal judiciously ap- 
plied.—M, Mail, Sept. 9. 


WASTE OF COCONUT HUSKS. 


In Durcs Hast Inpizs anp SINGAPORE. 

_The Registrar of Imports and Exports at 
Singapore (Mr. A. Stuart) states that enormous 
quantities of coconut husks are thrown aside 
after extracting the kernel and thousands of 
tons lie rotting in such places as the Natunas 
and Anambas Islands, as well as in other parts 
of the Dutch Indies and even in the Malay 
Peninsula, owing to the absence of machinery 
to deal with he fibre. 


OIL-CAKE, 

Mr. Stuart thinks the United Kingdom 
should provide a fair market for the oil-cake— 
the refuse of copra after extraction of the oil— 
which finds its way to the Continent in large 
quantities. —Board of Trade Journal, Aug. 27. 


GINGHONA AND TEA IN JAVA, 


Mr, F L Upjohn of the Upjohn Co., New 
York, who recently returned from a _ tour 
round the world, states in the Pharmaceu- 
tical Era that the idea prevalent in some 
quarters that the cinchona trees in Java 
are being rooted up to make room for tea 
plants is entirely erroneous. ‘* While tea culture 
inJava is undoubtedly on the increase,” he 
says, ‘‘it does not conflict with the production 
of cinchona, but rather with that of coffee, 
which is a dying industry in Java. Coffee is 
really a thing of the past in the island, as the 
growing of tea has proved to be cheaper and 
more profitable. Cinchona is allowed to grow 
from five to seven years before the bark is gath- 
ered, Trees are at their best at about seven 
years. Then they are rooted up, and the bark 
stripped from the roots as well as from the 
trunk and main branches of the tree,” 


388 


WEEDING IN PARA RUBBER 
GULTIVATION. 


BY J. B. CARRUTHERS. 

Mr. J. B. CarrRuTHERS—oN CLEAN WEEDING 
ror Russer Esrates—writes an interesting 
article; we reproduce it in full hereafter from the 
Straits Agricultural Bulletin. The views he 
puts forward will be found amplified in 
his Administration Report, which has been 
ready a good many weeks, we understand, 
but not turned out with great celerity by the 
F. M. 8. Government Printer. He emphasizes 
the necessity of conserving everything one can 
in the soil that will be useful to rubber—a 
forest tree, and not a shrub or bush, like 
coftee and tea which may be affected by the 
consumption of soil nutrition by weeds and 
perhaps require less assistance in root growth. 
He is advocating the green manuring policy 
which Mr. Bamber has done for Ceylon, for 
some time—but in an even more emphatic 
way ; Mr. Carruthers is revealing himself (after 
his observations in Malaya) as an out-and-out 
opponent of clean weeding, and a counsellor 
to Britishers— 

They change their skies above them 

But not their hearts, that roam— 
to lay aside their prejudices, or knowledge of 
home farming ideals, and recognise the forestry 
work involved in rubber-growing, and the im- 
mense need of conserving moisture, and prevent- 
ing wash, exposure to sun, and loss of nutrition. 
We commend his remarks to local planters, espe 
cially those whose rubber is set onsteep land. 


MR. J. B. CARRUTHERS’ VIEWS. 

Rubber cultivation in the East is a comparati- 
vely new industry and has not the advantages 
of long experience to help in deciding as to the 
best and most economical modes of cultivation. 

EXPERIENCE GAINED 1N GROWING COFFEE, "EBA, 
cacao, &C., 

has been used in determining methods 
for the conduct of a rubber estate and 
it is perhaps natural that a successful tea or 
coffee planter should cling to those which he 
has found of value in his previous agricultural 
experience, In the same way the methods used 
in the cultivation of tea, ccffee, &c., were to 
some extent the results of experience gained in 
England and Scotland in the growing of turnips, 
wheat, cabbages, &c., in a temperate climate, 
The desire to retain his own methods in a foreign 
country, even when those methods are suited 
specially to his home land, 1s a British charac- 
teristic. Forms of Government, clothes, games 
and other habits of life are introduced into 
countries where the climatic conditions are very 
different from that of his own country. 

In agriculture this characteristic has led in 
some cases to improvements in native methods 
of cultivation but has also frequently caused the 
adoption of methods admirable in Europe but un- 
suitablefor tropical and sub-tropical climates, In 
the case of weeding, the practice which obtainsin 
the cultivation of cereal crops ina northern 
country cannot be of great value in deciding 
what should be the method adopted in growing 
trees as a permanent cultivation, in a country 
where the temperature and moisture are always 
favourable to rapid plant growth, where the sun 


The Supplement to the Tropical Agriculturist 


is so powerful as to dry up all moisture from 
the surface layers of the soil, and where the 
rain often descends so heavily that in one day it 
may pour on the earth as much as in six months 
in England. 

In rubber cultivation it is advisable to attack 
the question without preconceived ideas and to 
use only the experience of conditions similar to 
those under which the rubber is to be grown. 


THE RUBBER PLANTER’S OBJECT. 

The object of the rubber planter is to produce 
healthy vigorous rubber trees containing large 
supplies of latex as quickly as possible. The 
climate in Malaya is for such a purpose ideal: 
sunshine and rain and a moist atmosphere of an 
equable temperature—the conditions aimed at 
in aforcing house. The soil cannot be described 
as rich, though it is physically good and allows 
the passage of water and air—both of which are 
necessary for vigorous root action. Various 
writers on the subject of growing rubber have 
recommended the use of shade trees for grow- 
ing young rubber and used as an argument the 
fact that wild rubber trees in Brazil grow in 
dense shade, yet those who have seen the 
healthy rapid growth of para rubber trees grown 
in the open in Malaya and observed their height 
and girth are satisfied that such conditions are 
suitable, probably the most suitable, for the 
vigorous growth of young rubber. 

The conditions to be aimed at for the portion 
of the plant above ground are an equable, moist 
climate witha temperature not too high for the ° 
healthy growth of the piant cultivated. These 
conditions we have all the year round in Malaya, 


THE CONDITIONS TO BE DESIRED FOR ROOTS 
are briefly;—a soil so constructed physically 
that it is not too loose to retain the water, 
necessary for growth, and yet not so close as to 
become water logged and prevent the access of 
air, which is also necessary, the soil must pos- 
sess a sufficient amount of nutritive substances 
for the formation of plant tissue. The soil must 
be moist and shaded, for these are the conditions 
under which the formation of plant food in the 
soil takes place. ‘he conditions present for the 
development of roots of rubber trees can be and 
are very largely dependent upon methods of 
cultivation ; and it is not difticult to see that the 
methods at present adopted are not calculated to 
produce the best results and are at the same 
time costing a large sum of valuable labour. 

The coffee or tea planter in Ceylon and Malaya 
is a firm believer in clean weeding and has per- 
haps never seriously considered whether this 
method is suited to all cultivations in all cli- 
mates. Weeding is practised in the corn fields 
and gardens of Britain ; therefore it should be 
used in the plantations of the Hast, 


CLEAN WEEDING : 

is good farming. A good farmer at home is 
known by the freedom of his land from weeds 
ergo a good planter in the East must show bare 
earth between his plants. But the conditions in 
the two cases are totally different : little or no 
harm is done in Britain by exposing the soil tothe 
sun and rain; incalculable harm is done by expos- 
ing good friable soil in the tropics to baking 
sunlight and downpours of rain, The cultivations 
are different and the growth of cereals, roots or 
other temporary crops in England can have 


and Magazine of the Ceylon Agricultural Society. 


little to teach usin regard to methods to be 
employed in rearing forest trees in the tropics. 
Bacteria which are largely responsible for the 
continuous supply of plant food to the roots 
cannot exist inadry baked soil and the roots 
themselves cannot live under these conditions. 

MALAYA SOILS AND DRAINAGE. 

The soils in Malaya are physically excel- 
lent in their structure, though not chemi- 
cally very rich, and possess the requisite 
amount of plant food for para rubber cul- 
tivation. Many places require little or no 
artificial aids to get rid of excess of water— 
the structure allowing water to percolate freely 
while not being too loose to partially retain it. 
Drainage is a factor, the importance of which 
the planter has learnt by experience. If the 
soil is water-logged and consequently not 
sufficiently aérated rubber roots will not grow 
vigorously. He has still to learn the advantages 
of protecting his soil from sun and rain or 
rather the disadvantages of exposing it to these 
inimical influences. His drains are made chiefly 
to decrease the loss of surface soil after rain 
but if he will cover his land with a beneficial 
weed the only drains that will be necessary will 
be those on flat land which prevent the land 
becoming waterlogged. Nearly all the expenses 
of draining are thus saved and a sum of from 
$1/- to $4/- per acre in order to permanently 
establish a protective plant which will 
obviate the necessity for drains on sloping 
land and at the same time 

ENCOURAGE THE ROOT GROWTH 
of his rubber trees, can readily be afforded, 
especially as it meansa cessation of all expense 
in regard to weeding or attending to drains. 

Millions of dollars have been spent on keeping 
the land on which rubber is growing exposed 
and probably three quarters of the labour force 
have been used in carrying this out. Hundreds 
of thousands of tons of top soil, which can never 
be replaced and the value of which as plant food 
is immense have been washed offclean weeded 
estates. Is this expenditure of money and labour 
and sacrifice of top soil necessary in order to get 
the most rapid and vigorous growth of rubber 
trees ? Thisis a problem which any planter can 
solve himself. Let him the next time he is 
opening a clearing 

SOW OR PLANT A SELECTED GREEN MANURE 
Crotalaria, Mimosa (sensitive plant) Vigna, 
Desmodium, &c., or even Passiflora foetida 
(passion flower) directly the burning is finished 
and see that it is established so that the ground 
is never exposed to the sun and therich top 
soil which is left behind when jungle is burnt 
is not immediately washed off. Let him plant 
hisrubber in this and compare its height and 
girth and general vigour with the growth of 
rubber trees of equal age in his clean weeded 
clearings and I have no doubt that he will be 
convinced that the labour and money spent on 
clean weeding is not a sound commercial invest- 
ment, If he establishes his selected plant at 
once, there is no fear of lalang that bugbear of 
the rubber, getting admission. 

During the past three years I have been 
making observations as to rubber which for 
various reasons has been allowed to remain in 
weeds or has had other plants growing with it 
which tend to protect the soil from sun and 


389 


rain. In cases where the weed is lalang the 
benefit of the protection of the soil is to a great 
extent counteracted by the damage done by this, 
the worst of all the weeds of Malaya. 


LALANG 
forms a close mat of roots which absorb a great 
deal of rain and dew, the leaves of the plant 
do not protect the soil nearly as well as almost 
any other plant, being all arranged vertically 
and thus giving as little shade as possible. [ 
have found the surface temperature in lalang to 
be some 8 to 10 degrees higher than in other 
weeds, sensitive, plant, passion flower, &c., on 
similar soil. Even where lalang is the weed, the 
hindrance to rapid growth of the rubber is not 
so marked as believers in clean weeding would 
expect. No serious planter would allow if he 
could avoid it the invasion of lalang ; but looked 
at purely from acommercial aspect, the position 
in regard to lalang on many estates is that the 
rubber trees have been checked in their growth 
compared with weeded trees about }; that is 
to say a five year old tree is only equal to a four 
year old tree which has been tended, but the 
cost of the weeding during the three years of 
the tended tree has been from $3 to $60 per 
acre, and it is a question whether the hastening 
by a year of the tree’s growth is worth the cost 
paid for it. With other weeds the advantage of 
covering the soil usually balances the dis- 
advantage caused by the weeds taking moisture 
and plant food from the soil at the expenses, 
the rubber roots. To take exact instances, 

AN ESTATE IN PERAK 
planted in rubber was owing to want of 
funds abandoned for five years and allowed 
to grow up in belukar. When cleared up only 
8 per cent. of the trees were missing and the 
remainder showed excellent growth and are to- 
day at eleven years old giving 4 1b, of dry rubber 
per tree per year though they have been tapped 
some years. There are many thousands of acres 
of rubber in the Malay States and the Colony 
under Tapioca the cropping of which takes more 
plant food out of the soil than almost any known 
cultivation and even with this tax upon the soil 
the rubber trees benefiting from the shading of 
their roots are growing not very much less 
vigorously than their neighbours with no com- 
petitors but with their root areas exposed to 
sun and rain. 

To put it briefly the policy of scrape, clean, 
expose, let in sun and rain should be 
EXCHANGED FUR THE POLICY OF PROTECT, COVER, 

RETAIN, 
prevent the baking of the sun and the washing of 
the rain. Without any detriment to the rubber 
this method of cultivation reduces more than 
considerably the cost of bringing a rubber estate 
into bearing. 

This question was dealt with in my annual 
report for 1907 published in this Bulletin for 
September of that year and has been further dis- 
cussed at length in my report for this year about 
to be published. It is of so much practical 
importance that no excuse is needed for its 
reiteration in order to urge the planter to give 
the whole matter serious consideration and— 
what is still better—to carefully try the effect of 
green manure or cover plants as against the 
more usual method of bare soil.—Straits Agri- 
cultural Bulletin, for Sept. 


390 
CASSAVA CULTIVATION IN CEYLON. 


of special interest to learn, as we do from a 
Jaffna paper, that it is the intention of 
some leading gentlemen of Jafina to float 
a Joint Stock Company to undertake agri- 
cultural operations in the Northern Province. 
The immediate object of the Company 1s to en- 
courage the cultivation of Cassava in Jaffna by 
importing machinery and converting the root 
into tapioca in large quantities for export to 
Europe. This is considered to be the only means 
in the existing circumstances, of preventing the 
over-production of tobacco in the District and 
of introducing another remunerative industry 
here. The capital of the Company will be 
R200,000 divided into 2,000 shares of R100 each. 
The capital required for the tapioca business 
not being large, it is the intention of the pro- 
moters of the Company to call upon the share- 
holders to pay only about R30 per share; the 
balance will not be required till the Company 
undertakes other agricultural and industrial 
operations on a gigantic scale. The preliminary 
arrangements for the formation of this Company 
are In the hands of Mr. William Mather, the 
founder and Managing Director of the Jaffna 
Commercial Corporation. 


CASSAVA AS FAMINE FOOD. 


By F. Boorn-TuckEr. 


While travelling in Travancore last January, 
I learned from inquiries that the high prices 
of rice and other staple grains had reached even 
this distant and comparatively isolated corner 
of India. Yet the people seemed unusually 
prosperous and well-fed. Famine, I was told, 
had been unknown for the last thirty years, in 
the sense in which it afflicted other parts of 
India. Droughts there had been, and scarcities, 
and high prices, but the population by famine 
deaths, were things unknown to the present 
generation. My informants pointed to the 
familiar. Cassava plant, a plot of which was at- 
tached to every cottage home and the cultivation 
of which had now become practically universal, 


Each acre could produce from five to twenty 
tons of the tuber, so that a small patch would 
supply an entire household with food and render 
them independent of the fluctuations of the 
grain market. The rains may fail and rice may 
be dear, but there is always an abundant supply 
of the drought-resisting ‘‘Marachini” to fall 
back upon. We were the guests of a retired 
Travancore Judge, and were thus in a good posi- 
tion to gain the most reliable information possi- 
ble. Specimens of the. raw tuber were shown 
us, and in different fomms it was included in the 
generous diet which ozir kind hosts had provided 
for us. What struck me, however, most of all 
was the Jndianisation of the Cassava in Travan- 
core. To persuade Indians to take to tubers as 

astaple article of diels had always appeared to 
me an almost hopeless; task, As a mere ‘‘bonne 
bouche,” appetiser, o r addition to their veget- 
able curries, or as an: enforced but disliked ‘‘der- 
nier ressort” in case o f actual famine, its popu- 
larity would be limite d and there seemed little 
hope of securing for it a’ place amongst the 


The Supplement to the Tropical Agriculturist 


staple foods of India. Here in Travancore, 
however, a simple device had been adopted 
which, I could see at a glance, placed Cassava 
amongst the front rank foods of India, and gave 
her the entrée to all castes and classes of the 
people. The roots had been boiled, cut and sun- 
dried for purposes of preservation. The next 
step was an easy one, to reduce it to powder 
with an ordinary rice-pounder or country hand- 
mill. It then made a delicious and tasty flour, 
very wholesome and capable of being mixed 
with other forms of flour. 


The next inquiry was naturally in regard to 
PRICES, 


and here I was glad to find that it had not so far 
been affected by famine conditions. In ordi- 
nary seasons the price of the sun-dried product 
ranged in various localities from 20 to 40 seers 
per rupee. Cassava land, [ was told, rented as 
high as R25 per acre and brought in an income 
to the cultivator of from R100 to R150. Hence 
t was a profitable crop to the agriculturist, and 
with a wider market would become still more so. 
The next difficulty was the question of 


TRANSPORTATION. 


It was obvious that unless the new food could 
be carried at a reasonable rate, it would be im- 
possible to deliver it in the famine regions at 
such a price as would enable it to be of any use 
to the people. Another more serious difficulty 
to overcome was the univereal incredulity on 
the part of all concerned (outside Travancore 
itself) as to the willingness of the people to take 
to any kind of new food. However, persistence 
and enthusiasm ina cause, regarding the ulti- 
mate success of which I entertain no shadow of 
doubt, has enabled us ina large measure to 
overcome the initial difficulties. The Jeading 
Railway Companies have consented, at least 
temporarily, to admit the new intruder to the 
same privileges as other staple articles of 
the people’s diet, instead of placing it on 
the shelf among luxuries denied to all but the 
rich and well-to-do. In this we have received 
some assistance from Railway Board. In regard 
to the circulation of the new food, I have con- 
sulted freely with Indian grain merchants. 
Indeed, it has been here that I have received 
the largest measure of co-operation and_ sup- 
port, the importance of which it is impossible to 
exaggerate. I have felt from the first that if we 
could create a demand for the article on the part 
of those who had their fingers on the pulse of 
the food supplies of India, success would be 
assured. They would see to it that the agri- 
culturists of India were made acquainted with 
the merits of Cassav2, and would make suitable 
arrangements for a supply commensurate with 
the demand. Calling personally on some of the 
leading merchants of the bazaar, I showed them 
Cassava, both in its 


SUN-DRIED FORM AND WHEN REDOCED TO FLOUR. 


They liked the taste and appearance, experi- 
mented with a small quantity and then ordered 
several maunds for further trial. They then 
tasted it by itself and also when mixed with 
other kinds of flour. So satisfactory was the 
result, that I have already received orders fora 
supply of about 1,000 maunds, and have been 
asked to make arrangements for a regular and 


and Magazine of the Ceylon Agricultural Society. 


steady supply of the article. Im addition to 
this,. spontaneous requests have been made by 
these merchants for full information as to the 
cultivation of Cassava and forasupply of cutt- 
ings, with the assurance that a considerable 
amount of land will be planted with it during 
the present season. Being anxious to spread 


THE EXPERIMENTAL OPERATIONS 

over as wide an area as possible, we have tried 
the Cassava in our Salvation Army Boarding 
Schools for boysand girls not only in Travan- 
core, where it is already known and liked, butin 
the Deccan and the Punjab, with the result that 
the children have taken readily to it, and have 
asked for it to be made a permanent part oftheir 
bill of fare. Arrangements have also been made 
for planting Cassava on our Farm Colony in Guja- 
rat ‘near Ahmedabad, and also at Ahmednagar, 
Bareilly, and other places where we have land, 
with a view to exploiting it in the various 
neighbourhoods. One hundred maunds of the 
Cassava have been ordered by the Famine Com- 
missioner of the U P for experimental use at the 
poor houses in Gonda and Bahraich, the labour 
of the women being utilised to reduce it to 
flour by means of the ordinary chakki. The 
district officers report that there has been no 
difficulty in getting the people to adopt it as 
part of their diet 

It may, therefore, be fairly assumed that 
Cassava in its sun-dried and flour form has now 

MADE A SUCCESSFUL DEBUT 

both asa Famine fighter and as a permanent 
and popular article of diet in India. The impor- 
tance of this it seems difficult to exaggerate:— 


1. Cassava will grow in almost any part of 
India, and is already to be found in districts so 
widely separated and differing in climate as 
Nepal, Darjeeling, Assam, Bengal, Madras and 
Travancore. 

2. The root will resist drought and can be 
left in the ground a considerable period after 
maturing, without requiring to be rapidly and 
simultaneously harvested, and is immune from 
the attacks of white ants. 

3: Inits sun-dried form it will keep for a 
year and is very convenient for transportation 
and cannot be mixed with deleterious articles, « 


4, Itiseasily cultivated and is a very pro- 
fitable crop. 

5. Countries where it is well known and 
largely grown, such as South America, Hast and 
West Africa, Madagascar, etc., while liable to 
droughts and scarcities, are said t6 be absolutely 
immune fromthe ghastly death-roll and depo- 
pulation, which so frequently accompany Indian 
families. 

6. In its flour form the universal prejudice 
against the use of tubers is dealt with and over- 
come.—Agricultural Journal of India, July. 


PLANTING IN JAVA AND SUMATRA. 


TEA— COFFEE—CINCHONA—RUBBER—CAMPHOR 
—TOBACCO—SUGAR, 


It may come as a surprise to our readers, as it 
did to us, to learn that in the opinion of a plant- 
ing authority well acquainted with Java, there 
are no great areas of forest land suited for tea, 
coffee or cinchona now available in that island, 


391 


for the capitalist or would-be planter. One rea 
son for this is that the Dutch Government, in 
carrying out their admirable surveys, have made 
considerable reservations on official account 
which they rigidly maintain, In some cases this 
is In consequence of a policy of Forest conser- 
vation ; in others, to have land for future coffee 
gardens under official control; and in still others 
with reference to possible requirements of 
native cultivation to which, with so large a 
population, the Java authorities very properly 
give their constant and serious consideration. 
But it must not be inferred from a limit being 
placed to possible ‘‘ concessions” of land for 
the different objects of the planter, that the out- 
turn of produce in any one case has reached its 
maximum. There are large forest reserves in 
private hands which could be transformed into 
tea, cinchona or coffee fields inthe hillcountry 
according as encouragement offers from the 
markets of the world. For the present, prob- 
ably, Java has reached a limit in the produc- 
tion of cinchona, simply because with an 
outturn of 17 to 18 millions lb. of rich bark, it 
not only rules the world’s cinchona and quinine 
market, but fully supplies the demand. All 
the bark coming from South America, or 
produced in British India now, is of compara- 
tive insignificance. It isa positive delight to 
ay one who recalls (as we do) the days of 
ciuchona in Ceylon, to watch the luxuriant 
growth of Calisaya-Ledgeriana trees in the rich 
soil of Java on hillsides at 3,000 feet above 
sea-level ; and to learn the high percentage of 
quinine got from the bark, which in the case 
of carefully selected and grafted trees—of which 
there are many bordering the tea-fields, —may 
go.up to8or 10percent. In this culture there 
can be no question of the immense debt which 
the Java cinchona planter owes to Dr. Treub 
and the great Scientific Department over which 
he presides. It was by continuous analysis of 
bark and selection of seed at the Buitenzorg 
Gardens, that the planters were enabled even- 
tually to secure cinchona trees vastly superior 
to the best ever grown by the Ceylon or Indian 
planter. Further, the establishment of quinine 
manufactories in Java greatly strengthened 
the position of the local planters and prevented 
any monopoly being organised in Europe or 
the United States. Nevertheless, at the present 
time, the margin of profit to the Java cinchona 
planter is low—very low in his estimation. So 
much so that in the case of his older trees, he 
is often inclined to cut down, root out, harvest 
all the bark and, after digging up the land, to 
plant it with tea. Where the work is carefuly 
done, tea grows well under such circumstances. 
Still there are extensive and very flourishing 
clearings of young Ledgers and _ high-class 
Hybrid cinchona to be seen on hill plantations 
in Java even at the present time, and the 
planters, of course, live in hope of the market 
taking a turn and giving them a higher quota- 
tion per unit of their product. The freer distribu- 
tion by all civilised Governments of the great 
prophylactic among their tropical subjects must 
lead to an increased consumption of quinine; 
and if opium should be gradually given up 
in Southern China and other divisions of the 
Far East, there can be no doubt that much 
quinine would be required to take its place 


392 


among a people very liable to fever at certain 
seasons. Opium is often taken to mitigate 
the effects of fever; but it is never the 
cure or prophylactic that quinine is, and 
very often demonstrates how tne remedy may 
be worse than the disease. If the produc- 
tion and import of opium could be altogether 
stopped in China, there can be no doubt that 
that country would require an immense quant- 
ity of quinine to the great benefit of the mass 
of its people, who would then substitute the 
bark tonic for the insidious poppy-product. 
*Long, therefore, may the cinchona industry 
in Java flourish. 


The next planting industry in which the old 
Ceylon resident visiting Java should feel a 
special interest is coffee; for, again owing to 
the aid of science and experimental gardens, 
in Java coffee has now been established as u 
permanently safe pursuit for the intelligent 
tropical planter, who has the suitable climate 
as well as land tor this product. The fungus 
which ravaged coffee in Ceylon, Travancore and 
other parts of Southern India, between 1869 
and 1885, leading to the absolute extinction of 
a great industry, did not fail to reach Java, and 
from 1883 onwards for some years, there was 
a steady falling-off in production ; but experi- 
ments with different species have resulted—not 
only in the experience that coffee robusta, though 
liable to hemileia vastatriz, does not perma- 
nently suffer from its invasion when grown 
under shade--but in the discovery of a hybrid 
coffee that in respect of this fungus is practic- 
ally immune. Java, therefore—although it will 
never approach Brazil--has recovered its posi- 
tion as a producer of coffee, its annual crops 
running up to close on 1,500,000 cwt. of late 
years. Nevertheless, terrible blunders have 
been made in Java in planting coffee where it 
could not be profitably grown; and that, too, 
by a group of planter-proprietors which in- 
cluded some among the ablest and shrewdest 
of colonists who ever came to Ceylon. It isa 
matter of notoriety how, some years bark, a 
district in East Java was invaded by ex-Ceylon 
men, who took up land for coffee and spent 
their money liberally--with very inadequate, not 
to say unsatisfactory, results. flad it chanced 
that tea or rubber had instead been exploited 
in suitable situations, in those years, how 
different would have been the return for the 
capital invested ! But how much more often 
has the same lesson been taught in Ceylon 
itself, of land being planted with a product for 
which it was quite unsuited ? Again, in the 
case of East Java, it is probable that by degrees, 
rubber and other products may take the place 
of coffee : indeed, this transition has already 
been effected over a considerable area. 


Of far greater interest to Ceylon at present 
is it to learn of Tea cultivation and production 
in Java; for, gradually but surely, there 1s the 
likelihood here of a rivalry that may to some 
extent affect markets now occupied by Indian 
and Ceylon teas, Tea planters in Java have, 
so far, not been indebted so much to their 
scientific department as have their brethren 
interested in Cinchona and Coffee. In many 
cases, the cultivation of tea and cinchona go 
together. But they have learned much from 


The Supplement to the Tropical Agriculturist 


the experience gained in India and Ceylon in 
respect of jat, modes of planting, pruning and 
reparation. There are many exceptionally 
arge plantations with first-class factories 
thoroughly well-equipped ; and though there is 
only one ‘*Malabar ’—a uniquely rich undulat- 
ing plateau at 5,000 feet—yet there are many 
luxuriant gardens yielding fairly good teas up 
to the best average crops per acre that are 
gathered in Ceylon, from 500 to 8001]b. per 
acre. A finer cover or better jat of tea in many 
cases one could not wish to see. The exten- 
sion of this cultivation must come chiefly from 
the planting of reserves already in private 
hands ; and, indeed, thereis at present a good 
deal of young tea yet to come into bearing. 
With these facts in view, it is not surprising 
that a steady increase in the total crop of 
Java tea is expected for some years to come, 
and that there should be the prospect of a 
growing export to the Australian Colonies in 
return for an import trade in stock, provisions, 
cold storage, &c., which is growing up, through 
the establishment of a direct line of steamers 
between Melbourne and Sydney and Soerabaya 
and Batavia. 


RUBBER PLANTING IN SAMOA. 


The large results which have been attained 
with hevea culture in Ceylon, the Malay States, 
and the Straits Settlements, have induced the 
planters of Samoa to turn their attention to 
rubber planting, and it is expected that within 
a few months 300,000 hevea trees will be planted 
out in the island. The importation of 100,000 
hevea plants into Samoa from Ceylon as so- 
called ‘‘stumps” has been a complete success. 
The difficulty in obtaining hevea plants has been 
solved. How it will stand as regards disease, 
especially the Limumea, and what yield the rub- 
ber will give in Samoa, cannot be forecasted. 
According to the report of Mr. Acting Vice- 
Consul! Trood on the trade of Samoa, just issued 
(No. 4017, Annual Series) there are three. large 
rubber plantations now in existence in Samoa, 
The first has several thousand acres, the second 
$00 acres, of which half are cultivated; and 
the third, 350 acres in rubber and cacao, 
and 100 acres in rubber solely. All promise 
excellent results when tho trees are ready for 
tapping. The great advantage which Samoa en- 
joys over the adjacent islands is that it is sub- 
ject to hurricanes only at extremely long inter- 
vals. here has been no severe storm since 1889, 
and.even if a hurricane should take place within 
the next few years, it is pretty certain to be 
followed by a period, varying from 25 to 30 
years or more, during which there will be no 
gale worth mentioning. The rubber tree has no 
very great power of resistance against storms, 
and Dr. Preuss, who has been making a study of 
the question of rubber-growing in Samoa, sug- 
gests that the plantations should be provided 
with wind breaks, for which purpose the Ficus 
elastica is best suited. This tree grows quickly, 
spreads out widely, and forms a full thick crown. 
It has great resisting powers against wind, and, 
besides, gives a yield of first-class caoutchouc,— 
Journal of the Royal Society of Arts, July 17. 


and Magazine of the Ceylon Agricultural Society. 393 


YIELD AND GROWTH OF RUBBER ON 
MEXICAN PLANTATIONS. 


Our readers will not require telling that the 
native rubber tree of Mexico is the Castilloa, 
and that it requires in many ways different 
treatment to the Para rubber tree. Methods 
of cultivation are different and methods of 
collecting the latex also differ to an important 
degree. For example. the recommended method 
of planting Castilloa is to sow the seeds at 
stake in small mounds, seven seeds or so to 
the mound. The mounds are spaced at a dis- 
tance of seven feet in rows twelve feet apart. 
This allows for a very large percentage of 
failures, and thinning is carried on year by 
year until at the end of the sixth year from 
planting there are approximately 600 trees 
to the acre. The best 400 trees are allowed to 
remain permanently and are not tapped before 
they have rooted 26 in. or 28 in. in circum- 
ference, The remaining trees are tapped to death. 
Differences from the Eastern practice in con- 
nection with rubber collection arise from the fact 
that while Hevea gives a small amount of latex 
at each tapping, say two or three times a week, 
Castilloa does not respond to such methods, 
but gives a considerably larger amount at each 
tapping when tapped from one to three times a 
year. This is not to say, however, that the total 
yield from Castilloa is as good as that from Para. 


So far there are little data to go on regarding 
the average yield of Castilloa rubber, but it 
may be pointed out that in a supposititious 
instance where two trees, one of Para (on an 
Eastern plantation) and the other of Castilloa 
(in Mexico), are producing the same amount 
of rubber annually, the cheaper coolie labour 
of the Eastern estate would be offset by the 
necessity of employing more tappers. Labour 
being one of the largest items in estate ex- 
penditure, this is a levelling factor of the first 
importance ; according to the Mexican view. 


In many cases extremely low figures are 
given as the cost of producing rubber in Mexico; 
for example, in two reports before us the 
figure of 15 cents (74d.) per lb. is quoted, but 
others give 25 cents (1s. 1d.) and 23 cents (114d.) 
On tho well-known La Zacualpa Plantation, 
No. 1, 40,600 1b. of ‘‘ refined” rubber was col- 
lected by means of 257,760 different tappings 
at_a cost working out at 71 cents per lb. 
Adding approximately 8 cents per lb. for 
maintenance and general expense of market- 
ing, etc., this makes a total of 15 cents per lb 
as the cost harvesting and marketing. The 
average was about 2°25 ounces per tree for each 
tapping, but it is not stated how often each 
tree wastapped. <A few of the trees were seven 
yearsold; some were six; but the majority would 
be only five years old. Some trees of the age 
of seven years were tapped twice during the 
year, yielding about 3 oz. at the first tapping and 
8 to 11 oz, at a second and more drastic tapping 
four months later. 


The following table is given by another plant- 
ation as the normal yield expectation at various 
ages :— 


' Ounces. 
Yield, first year, age eight years fi 


Af second year, age nine years At 5 
i third year, age ten years a 6 
Yh fourth year, age eleven years ar 8 
fe fifth year, age twelve years we 110) 
A sixth year, age thirteen years es 
+5 seventh year, age fourteen years ef (14 
Ap eighth year, age fifteen years sch LG: 


On the Pittsburg Obispo Plantation, the pro- 
perty of the Pennsylvania Obispo Plantation Co., 
the following measurements of the circumfer- 
ence of Castilloa trees were taken by a stock- 
holder, who recently visited the property :— 

One and one-half year old trees—10, 87, 12, 14, 124, 144, 104, 
5}, 93, 7. Average, 10.42 inches, 

Twoand one-half year old trees. First group—21, 21, 20, 
213, 21, 17, 21, 19,20, 18, 223, 18, 193, 174, 161,153. Average, 
19.31 inches. Second group—15, 131, 1o4, 18, 19}, 17, 18, 183, 
174, 16, 17, 18, 153, 162, 18}, 15, 13%, 123,17, 16, 214. Average, 
16.2 inches. Third group -193, 17, 17, 143, 14, 194, 13, 
16%, 14, 12} 93, 173, 13%, 112, 133, 18, 143, 12, 124, 14, 12} 
135, 115, 10. Average, 14°03 inches, Fourth group 18, 172, 
dy, 16, 133, 12, 16, +3, 133, 163, 15, 15, 15, 153, 114, 1:3, 
15, 142, 12, 14, 213, 18. Average 15 inches. 


Three and one-half year old trees—21, 22, 23, 24. Aver- 
age, 22°56 inches. 
Four and one-half year old trees—27, 29, 23, 27, 222 


aay, 


26, 27, 262, 26, 253, 26, 253. Average, 25°92 inches. 

Of course this rate of growth is not permanent 
and at the age of 5 or 6 years it becomes some- 
what slower. 

This gentleman naively concludes, by the 
way: ‘‘When visiting the rubber plantations 
my thoughts went back to our stockholders, and 
[ wished every one of them could see what 1 
saw, so that they might appreciate the wonder- 
ful possibilities of rubber culture, and also the 
fine beginning that has been made with the 
work. Iam sure they would say unanimously, 
; i is better than [ expected or even than I was 
told,’”.... 


Past AND PRESENT OF THE MEXICAN 
Piantine INpDustTRY. 


Since writing the above there has come to 
hand a report of a speech made by Dr Olssen- 
Seffer on the occasion of the opening of the 
second convention of the Rubber Planters’ As- 
sociation of Mexico, held at San Geronimo on 
the 31st July and following days....If he does 
not wish to commit himself onthe subject of 
the probable yield of Castilloa rubber, Dr 
Olssen-Seffer can at all events speak plainly 
when he likes : 


“It is well known what a deplorable state 
Mexican planting has been in in years gone 
by. The main reason for this was that the 
promoter of plantation undertakings did not re- 
alise that a tropical plantation representing per- 
haps an investment of one million dollars, calls 
for a managerial ability of the highest order. 
Any man who was something of a business 
man in his own country was considered fit 
to take charge of a large enterprise, which 
required a man of many accomplishments. 
Such a management naturally was not success- 
ful, and we have seen one large concern after 
another fall down, causing entire loss of the 
investment to those actually interested, and 
giving a bad raputation to the entire rubber 
planting industry of Mexico. 


‘“We have now reached a turning point. 
The public is not willing to invest if they 
have not every assurance of competent and 
honest management of the property they are 


financing. The promoter has found that it is 


304. The Supplement to the Tropical Agriculturist. 


in his interest to secure the best possible 
knowledge to assist him. We have had a 
thorough weeding out of our plantation managers 
in Mexico, and we can say that the outlook 
today is gooe. Our Planters’ Association stands 
first of all for honesty, and it has been formed 
for the purpose of co-operation between our 
planters, for the exchange of ideas and ex- 
periences. We have much to learn, and we can 
only learn quickly by co-operation. The man, 
who states that he knows everything about rub- 
ber culture, thereby shows his gross ignorance, 

‘‘Another question is that of the so-called 
home end. In a great number of instances 
most of the capital invested in a plantation 
company has been spent at the home end, 
and only a small proportion has ever reached 
the plantation. It is impossible under such 
circumstances, to expect a success.” —India- 
Rubber Journal, Aug. 24. 


RUBBER OUTPUT: CEYLON AND 
MALAYA. 


A leading article in the Financier (Aug. 21st) 
quoted below deals with the opinion ex- 
pressed in a recent Ceylon Observer editorial 
on the future prospects of rubber. The Fin- 
ancier does not believe in so much need for 
caution in rubber planting as we recommended. 
Caution in view of possible over-production 
would, it says, be all very well, if we were 
certain that the South American output will 
go on at its present rate, but unless Brazil 
steps forward with much more rapidity than 
can be supposed likely at present, the chances 
are that, while the world’s consumption of 
rubber will enormyusly increase, the Amazon 
production of rubber will decrease, This is all 
very well, and has a pleasing tinge of hope 
abort it, very delightful to the mind of the 
investor who has gonein for the rubber Com- 
panies of the Middle Hast, but experientia 
docet and Ceylon has had too many ghastly 
warnings as to the evils of over-production not 
to be careful about going too fast or far even 
with such a promising thing as rubber. As 
the writer suggests, probably we shall hear 
something on this subject during the Exhibi- 
tion fortnight. Malaya men started much 
earlier than Ceylon, practically absorbing three 
editions of our ‘‘All about Indiarubber,” in 
the ’eighties and ‘nineties. and planting up land 
accordingly. 


RUBBER ESTIMATES: MALAYA 
AND CEYLON. 


It is interesting to compare the outputs from 
Ceylon and the Malay States over a term of 
years, and in doing so even the most casual 
ohserver will probably be struck with the way 
in which the Peninsula has forged ahead as a 
producer, although in 1907 the acreages in the 
Colony and in Malaya under rubber were. to all 
intents and purposes, identical. In Malaya, 
however, there is not only a much higher per- 
centage of matured rubber, but the trees reach 
a tapping size about twelve months sooner than 
they do in moat of the districts in Ceylon, The 


heaviest planting in Malaya corafortably ante- 
dated that in Ceylon, where in 1905 40,000 aeres 
were credited to rubber, and this area had in- 
creased to 150,0U0 acres in 1907. - A writer in 
the Ceylon U'server, while discussing the ques- 
tion of the probable output of plantation rub- 
ber in 19U8, gives the following table, which 
succinctly summarises the position .— 


Exports oF RUBBER IN Tons. 
From Malay 


From Ceylon. States. Total. 

Tons, Tons. Tons, 

1904 .. 3D = = 
1905 Pie its 130 205 
1406 wy 150, 460 610 
1907 weiZo0) 885 1,086 
1903(Estimated) .. 350 1,300 1,650 


It will be seen that the Observer's estimated 
aggregate for 19U8 is considerably smaller than 
the total we incline to regard as easily possible, 
but even these more moderate figures admit of 
an anticipated increase in the output from the 
two chiet Middle East rubber-producing cen- 
tres of some 600 tons during the current year. 


In concluding his consideration of this matter, 
The Ceylon Observer writer says:—‘‘ As regards 
the future, no special increase is expected for 
the next two or three years; but by 1912, what 
may we expect to see from the 40,000 acres 

lanted in Ceylon up to 1905, and still more 
eee the 100,000 acres of rubber planted up to 
1906 and the 150,000 acres up to 1907? Six 
years hence, by 1913 to 1914, an export re- 
quiring five figures in tons may surely be ex- 
pected, with a very much Jarger return for the 
Malay Peninsula. If again five years later 
Southern Asia is expected to be producing (or 
capable of producing) ‘plantation rubber” 
equal in quantity in one year to the present 
consumption of the world, it is surely time now 
to stop planting any more rubber, until it is seen 
what effect on prices largely-increasing exports 
from the East from 1911 onwards may pro- 
duce.” The Observer is correct enough in its 
implied contention if we are to assume that 
in 1919 or 1920 the South American output 
continues at or about its present level of, say, 
34,000 tons per annum. But unless affairs march 
with considerably greater rapidity in Brazil in 
the future than they have done in the past, the 
chances are all against what may be termed 
the Amazon output being maintained at any- 
thing near the levels of recent years. Further, 


IN TWELVE YEARS’ TIME THE WORLD’S 
CONSUMPTION 


of rubber will have increased enormously, and 
to put the consumption in that year at 120,000 
tons is not to take undue liberties with prob- 
abilities. The United States’ supply of raw rub- 
ber will be less dependent ten or twelve years 
hence on the forest resources of South America, 
for, unless the extensive planting in Mexico 
and some of the more Southern Republics has 
been exceedingly ill-done (and we know that 
much of it is not), American and Canadian 
manufacturers will have a surer and a cheaper 
source from whence to draw their necessary 
supplies. When the natural rubber regions of 
Svuth America are more opened up and settled, 
and better means of speedy and economical 
transport are provided, Brazil will become a 
really serious competing factor, But as matters 


and Magazine uf the Ceylon Agricultural Society. 


are at present there is no likelihood of such 
things happening, and by the time they do 
plautation rubber will have relegated the forest 
product to a very secondary position, from 
which it is doubtful whether it will ever recover. 

To cease planting rubber, then in the Middle 
East merely because in twelve years’ time 
there is a prospect of the output from existing 
plantations equalling the present world’s con- 
sumption of thecommodity, appears to us to 
savour of overcaution, especially when it is 
remembered that with rubber selling at only 
2s. per 1d. the plantation product would 
realise a profit of from 75 to 100 per cent. 
But we would urge that planting from now 
onwards should be undertaken with a due res- 
pect to the fact that 


HEVEA IS A TREE AND NOT A SHRUB, 

In other words, all new planting should 
be wide planting, and we feel certain that the 
trees on such properties will not only when 
mature give better annual yields, but will be 
assured of much longer life. We are well aware 
that such a suggestion will meet with but scant 
support from the individual who is busy or 
intends to be busy crowding as many trees 
as he can into his acreage with the idea of 
selling his property as a rubber proposition 
to the investing public. The pvblic, however, 
are by this time fairly wide awake when rub- 
ber is talked about, and the investor may 
depend upon this journal doing its utmost 
to keep him out of any flotation which bases 
its claims for support merely upon the huge 
number of trees which have been planted to 
the acre. The matter is one which we trust 
will be discussed at the forthcoming exhibi- 
tion at Olympia, and definite expressions of 
opinion from recognised authorities in the 
planting industry obtained, so that these same 
opinions—which we venture to think will not 
differ materially from our own—may be duly 
recorded in order that he who plants may read. 
—Financier, Aug. 21. 


RUBBER CANKER IN JAVA. 


ALARMIST VIEWS OF AN OUTBREAK. 


Some uneasiness has been aroused of late 
among rubber planters in Java by the appear- 
ance of canker In some of the Hevea trees, and 
the more timid among them recall expert 
opinion that Gutta Rambong, an indigenous 
kind, should have the preference over the 
foreign variety, The Batavia Niewwsblad favours 
the counsel of despair, which urges the rooting 
out of the Hevea and the replacing of it by the 
Rambong. Mr Cleveland Harington wrote to 
the Bataviu Nieuwwsblid protesting strongly 
against these alarmist views, and asserted from 
personal knowledge that canker was not at 
all common on rubber estates in Java. It had 
also been noticed in Ceylon and the F.M.5., 
but was not thought much of by planters. He 
pointed out that such alarmist statements would 
impair the good name which Java has among 
capitalists in foreign lands for rubber invest- 
ment. Mr Harington also shows that planters 
from the Straits and Ceylon, who had visited 
Java, have nothing but praise for the rubber 
plantations there. Such is the confidence of 


395 


British capitalists in Java rubber that they 
have invested twenty millions of guilders in 
that line of planting enterpriso in the island. 
Mr Harington had just returned from Deli, 
where planters have every faith in Hevea, and 
had rooted out the Ficus or Rambong to make 
room for it on many estates. He had not found 
a single trace of canker in Doli, and planters 
had never met with it so far, so he was told. 
The Sumatra Post ridicules the alarmists, and 
shows that there need be no uneasiness about 
rubber canker in that quarter. ‘There is hardly 
any signs of it on the estates. Mr V Rus, the 
bead manager of the United Serdang (Sumatra) 
Rubber Plantations Company, assured that 
journal that, on one of the letter’s estates he 
examined 120,000 Hevea trees from two to three 
years old and found that only about 04 per 
cent. of them had any disease at all. Of these, 
very few indeed bore the marks of canker. 
Other planters have confirmed the experience. 
So far, in Doli, Rambong has no chance of 
displacing Hevea.—Struits Times, August 18th. 


TREATMENT OF CANKERED TREES. 


A planter of long experience has dealt, in the 
Sumatra Post, a heavy blow at the rubber 
canker scare. He assures that journal that, in 
East Sumatra, canker seldom shows itself and 
does but little harm. It is marked out easily 
and all danger can be removed readily. A 
blackish moist spot on a tree betokens an attack 
of canker. The spot must be at once cut out, and 
the tree disinfected with carbolineum. This 
checks the disease at once and there is no 
danger of the tree dying. The tree will only 
die in case the disease is allowed to go on with- 
out hindrance. Some years ago, the above- 
mentioned planter treated a cankered tree in 
this way and wroughta thorough cure. In his 
opinion, root disease is of more importance 
to planters. This is best dealt with by dig- 
ging out the soil round the tree to a great 
depth and by disinfecting the ground, —Straits 
Times, Aug. 22. 


ee ee 


RUBBER PLANTING IN BURMAH, 


THE VALUE OF PROTECTIVE BELTS, 
Tavoy, Burmah, Aug, 21st. 

Dear Sir,—With reference to my letter of 
the 29th May, which was published in the July 
Tropic 1 Agriculturist, please allow me to make 
a correction, In the last line but four read 
‘hill contours” not ‘‘hill centres” as printed. 
Rightly or wrongly Ido not stump my 2 and 
3-year-old plants when putting out in the field. 
I would like to add to my former letter 
that these large supplies, when put out in the 
older fields where there are pronounced hedges, 
so to speak, of secondary growth, after losing 
their leaves (and many do not even do this), 
pub on strong growth ‘from the top; whereas 
about 70 per cent. of the same aged plants, 
planted in new clearings where there are, of 
course, no protective belts, die back one, two 
or more feet before sending up shoots. 

This I attribute to the protection afforded 
from wind and sun, in the inevitable breaks 
which occur in the monsoon, by the protective 


side growth,—Yours truly, 
J. G. F, MARSHALL, 


396 The Supplement to the Tropical Agriculiurist 


RUBBER IN MOZAMBIQUE. 


Reporting on the trade and commerce of 
Mozambique, Mr. Consul Maugham refers to 
the exports of rubber and_ to the ‘‘cooked ” 
quality of much of it. Hamburg has been 
for many years past the market for Mozam- 
bique rubber of this quality, a steady demand 
having existed there for all qualities. During 
1905-6 the British Indian dealers were induced 
to buy very largely from the native quarters, 
and the increased demand has given rise to 
much adulteration by these latter, who have 
not scrupled to mix all manner of foreign 
bodies with the latex and to such a large 
extent that consiguments exported instead of 
realising 1s 6d to 2s 3d per |b., as they did 
for so long, were found on arrival in Europe 
to be either unsaleable or were disposed of at 
6d to 8d. At the present time, Mozambique 
** cooked ’’ rubber is not marketable in Ham- 
burg or London, while several sellers have 
endeavoured to dispose of their depreciated 
stocks. It is felt to be most regrettable that 
the export of this article should have been 
permitted, as the prices realised in the centres 
mentioned do not serve to cover expenses of 
freight and customs, and large sums have been 
lost by local Indians from this cause.—Journal 
of the Royal Society of Arts, July 17. 


A CAMPHOR PEST, 


An account of an insect attacking the camphor 
trees in Perak is published by Mr. Jacques 
Surcouf in the Journal D’ Agriculture Tropicale, 
June 1908, page 186. The sample of leaves and 
insects were sent by M. Geraud of Papan, 
Perak, to the Colonial laboratory of the Museum 
(presumably at Paris). The insects were iden- 
tified by M. Heylaerts as one of the Psychodide, 
Eumcta Hekmeyeri, Heyl. ‘The caterpillar fixes 
itself on the lower side of the leaves and eats 
the parenchyma, cutting out circles which it 
winds round the lower part of its body so that 
the animal appears to be enclosed in a flower or 
little pagoda. The caterpillar in pupating spins 
a cocoon which in the males is furnished with 
a prolongation to allow the pupa to move about, 
The male moths are black or brownish, and 
are very eager in searching for the females which 
are wingless and do not leavethe cocoon. 


The author says that though the Psychodid 
moths have never caused great damage, it must 
be remembered that the fields of the Loire 
(France) were ravaged by an insect of this group. 
All the same every planter or gardener here 
knows too well these troublesome little insects 
which are as pestilential a group as one canjmeet. 
protected some by silken cases, others by little 
hat-shaped cases made of bitten-out leaf or 
sticks, and, usually attacking a tree in great 
numbers, they are most difficult to exterminate 
as no insecticide affects them directly and hand- 
picking is often the only remedy. 


H, N. R. 
—Agricultural Bulletin, for Sept, 


RUSSIA’S CAUCASIAN TEA. 


Enciisu Company TO HANDLE It. 


Our Russian correspondent writes :—A state- 
ment on the tea plantations of the Caucasus 
appears in the Pharmatzevtitchesky Journal, 
which saysthe plantations are to be found on 
the Black Sea shore, inthe district of Batoum, 
some versts from the town. They belong to 
Mr. K S Popoff. In the year 1892 this area was 
covered with unbroken virgin forest, but now 
it is beautified by three fine tea plantations. 
The story of the Caucasian tea industry is then 
rapidly traced from its origin in 1847 (when M 
S Vorontzoff transplanted a number of the trees 
from the Crimea Imperial Gardens to various 
parts of the Eastern Black Sea coast), through 
numerous experiments up to 1896, when the 
Appanage Department of the State began to 
cultivate tea on an extended scale. 


Expeditions were organised, and visited the 
world’s tea-producing countries, and the com- 
mittees concluded in favour of the Batoum dis- 
trict as fulfilling the conditions they found 
where tea was largely grown—particularly 
China—and now these views have been amply 
confirmed by 14 years’ practical working. Many 
trees were brought from China, Japan, Ceylon, 
Himalaya, Assam and Java, and seeds also from 
China. etc., and on January 14th 140 dessiatines 
(1 dessiatine equais 2.7 acres) were planted with 
1,000,000 China trees, beside what was being 
reared in nurseries, numbering 3,000,000. Com- 
parisons made between the tea produced in the 
Caucasus and that produced in Ceylon all show 
clearly in favour of the Caucasus, says the jour- 
nal. After a 13 years’ trial the Caucasian fields 
yield 146 lb. an acre to 14 1b. only from the 
Ceylon plantations—ten times less. It is now 
stated that the prospects are so encouraging that 
an English company will be organised to handle 
the industry.—/inancier, Aug. 11. 

[The above figures indicate how little care 
has been taken by the Russian journal to 
get at the facts of Ceylon yields per acre.] 


TEA MANUFACTURE. 


LABOUR SAVING AND ECONOMY BY 
THE USE OF CHARCOAL. 
CHarcosat-pvriep Tuas May Go Ur. 

Mr JR Farbridge, the Hastern Director of 
the Tyneside Foundry and Engineering Co., 
and one of the inventors of the Chula Tea Drier, 
claims to have convinced a ‘‘ fair number” of 
estate managers in several of the Ceylon tea 
districts of the economical advantages to be 
derived by first converting the estate jungle 
into charcoal—by doing this on some estates 
half the present consumption of wood-fuel 
would be sufficient to dry the present crop 
of tea—and then using it in the Campanys 
drier. The methods adopted in Ceylon are 
not, he considers, satisfactory. The best 
charcoal contractor in Ceylon—we read in a 
contemporary—was an old Sinhalese man in 
Dolosbage, who had been trained by Mr 
Blackett, late of Dolosbage. He made it in 
a scientific manner as in the Black Forest, 


and Magazine of the Ceylon Agricultural Society. 


Germany, in stacks 40 ft. by 12 ft. by 
6 ft. on the ground level, and obtained a 25 per 
cent. output from the timber burned; he made 
it in quantities of from three to five tons, ac- 
cording to the size of his stalk, and at a cost of 
R11 a ton. 

Mr Farbridge said in the Salem District of 
South India Government made this article, 
and they got 30 per cent. of excellent charcoal 


from the wood burned; the work is 
done on up-to-date lines. Mr Farbridge is 
thoroughly convinced that the charcoal 


method of drying tea is an assured success. 
He has been asked by more than one firm to 
supply a list of the estates using Chula driers, 
so that they can purchase the tea coming from 
these estates, the object being a good keeping 
quality of tea. There 1s one Company in Ceylon 
which is opening a 1,000 acre tea-clearing, and 
all the newly-felled jungle is to be converted 
into charcoal and notallowed to decay—newly 
felled jungle making the very best charcoal, 
and giving as much as 30 per cent. of carbon, 
if it is not allowed to dry. 


Mr Farbridge gives the following figures with 
regard to labour-saving on one large estate in 
Ceylon, over the past two years: ‘‘ Estate crop 
500,0001b. tea per annum. Previousto drying by 
Chula about 30 coolies per day were used in 
cutting and transporting firewood. Since adopt- 
ing Chula drying no coolies are used on fire- 
wood account, charcoal being delivered at the 
factory by a Sinhalese villager at R15 per ton 
in any quantity. The labour-saving question 
is a very big one and varies, of course, accord- 
ing to the situation of the estates for fuel 
supplies. However, assuming that the estate I 
refer to had to use its Tamil labour for making 
charcoal, then about one-fifth of the coolies 
only would be employed at the work, or say 6 
cooliesa day, against 30 with firewood, to dry 
the same quantity of tea.” 


A TRAP FOR CATCHING MOSQUITOES 


Has been devised by Mr. Maxwell Lefroy which 
is simpleand effective. It consists of a smal! box, 
about 12 in. squareand 9 in. wide, with a hinged 
lid which has a small orifice with a sliding cover. 
The box is lined with dark-green baize, and has 
a tin floor. The trap is placed in a shady 
corner of the room and the mosquitoes, when 
they enter the house inthe morning, seclude 
themselves in it to escape the sunlight. The lid 
is then shut and a teaspoonful of benzine in- 
jected into the box. Mr. Lefroy found that in 
a short time the mosquitoes succumbed, and by 
continuing this process for a month caught and 
killed over 2,300.—Madras C.C. Magazine, Sept. 


RUBBER TO DATE IN THE GONGO. 

‘“ T am indebted to a correspondent who 
is intimately acquainted de visu with the 
actual prospects of the rubber plantations in 
the Congo,” says the London correspondent 
of the Manchester Guardian, in a recent issue 
of that paper, ‘‘for information which is in 
marked contrast with the optimistic utterances 
recently made in the Belgian Chamber by M 


Schollaert, who declared that the State and - 


397 


the Concessionnaire Companies had _ planted 
13,000,000 vines and trees, that the planta- 
tions were ‘ beginning to yield,’ and that in 
a few years the Congo would see a great in- 
dustry in cultivated rabber grow up to replace 
the export of wild rubber upon which the so- 
called prosperity of the Congo State now de- 
pends. My informant declares that these esti- 
mates are ‘ absolute nonsense.’ ”—H, and C. 
Mail, Aug. 21, 


RUBBER FROM PENANG RUBBER 
VINES, 


Gerauw GrERIP FRoM PULAU JERAJAH. 

During last year Dr Mugliston, Senior Medical 
Officer, Penang, reported tothe Resident Coun- 
cillor there that he had prepared samples of a 
rubber obtained from rubber-vines growing on 
Pulau Jerajah, the leper Island, near Penang and 
that some Penang buyers regarded the samples 
as rubber of the first quality. By direction of the 
Resident Councillor I visited the Island and was 
shewn avine then in flower which proved to be 
Willoughbeia firma, the well-known ‘getah gerip,’ 
From the several incisions I obtained a small 
buantity of latex but this failed to coagulate 
with the only agent I had with me viz., acetic 
acid. I understood Dr Mugliston coagulated 
his samples by raising the temperature of the 
latex. The latex exuded much quicker from the 
blow of alarge heavy knife than from an ordinary 
tapping instrument, and runsoff fairly clean, 
leaving very little latex to coagulate on the bark 
(practically ni/). I was told there were several 
vines on this little Island. What I saw did not 
exceed 34 inches in diameter and I[ was not fortu- 
nate enough to find any seedlings which it was 
suggested might be abundant. Butit is inter- 
esting to record an isolated place where the 
plants are not likely to be exploited. Dr Muglis- 
ton’s samples were prepared in biscuits, cups, 
and lumps. These were exhibited at the Kuala 
Kangsar showlast year without success, in the 
class for Jungle Rubbers. Subsequently through 
the kindness of the Director of the Royal Gardens, 
Kew, the following report was obtained from 
Messrs Lewis & Peat:— ; 

6, Mincing Lane, London, EK. C., June 17, 1908. 

“No the Director, Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew.” 

DEAR Stir, —We have carefully examined the sample o 
rubber you handed us this afternoon. 

The biscuits are very dark and rough, but fairly strong and 
in good condition, worth about 3s per Ib. 

The Nuggets are clean and in good condition, but cut wet 
and very spongy, value about 1s 9d—1s 10d per lb. 

The scrapis ordinary black ill-shapen lumps, also cutting 
spongy and wet and shewing a few pieces of bark and grit, 
worth about 1s 6d, 1s 8d per lb. 

The best form to send this rubber in would be as Biscuits, 
but a little more care Should be taken in the preparation. 

In thesample they are very uneven, and evidently not 
properly rolled ; we think they have probably been exposed 
to the air and sunlight, causing discoloration, 

(Signed) LEwIs & Puat. 
Note.—The rubber, except when at the Kuala 
Kangsar show was not exposed to the light. It 
is obvious, from the wet and spongy condition 
spoken of, such rubbers should be thoroughly 
smoked, and if prepared in biscuit form would 
very likelycommand a higher price, as native col- 
lected getah gerip is usually exported in large 

balls which are impossible to smoke efficiently. 

R. Derry, 

—Straits Agricultural Bulletin for Sept, 


398 
RUBBER IN MALAYA. 


A New Writer: ON SPECULATION, PLANTING 
Cost oF Propuction, &c. 


Mr W FC Asimont, a recent writer on ‘' Para 
Rubberin the Malay Peninsula,” is very properly 
severe upon the man who plants up rubber areas 
merely for the purpose of selling them at a high 
price to the public. By this time—and, we 
venture to think, to some extent with our assis- 
tance ~-the investing public are no longer wor- 
shippers of the fetish which so many hundreds 
of thousands of rubber trees on a more or less 
given area of land represent. But in the earlier 
days it was comparatively easy to impress not 
only the public, but men with practical expe- 
rience in other branches of planting, with the 
statement that a property of, say, four thousand 
acres had so many hundreds of thousands of 
trees, planted in given years, upon it. Even 
careful people might be led to infer that these 
trees represented planting over the whole four 
thousand acres—working out the number of 
trees to the stated area. But as a matter of fact 
the worst vices of the earliest theories of Hevea 
planting, which meant Heaven only knows how 
many so-called ‘trees’ to the acre, were, as often 
as not, represented by this statement, while, as 
Mr Asimont points out, -‘felling, clearing and 
planting had been done at a minimum of expense 
at the greatest possible speed,’ and the ultimate 
position of the company which happened to 
take over such a property can easily be left to 
the imagination of the reader. Following, how- 
ever, upon the lines suggested by our author, 
the dangers of a rubber property being ill- 
cleared, ill-planted, ill-equipped, or under- 
capitalised, are few, and it is a matter of satis- 
faction for usto record thatthe majority of Plan- 
tation Rubber companies in which the public are 
directly interested more than conform to the 
writer’s minimum requirements. 


Mr Asimont gives an estimate of expenditure 
upon a 4000-acre plantation from the first year 
until the tenth, when the whole of the area is 
under rubberin bearing. The estimate does not 
include original cost of land, flotation expenses 
and quit rent—these being of such a necessarily 
variable character that it is impossible to in- 
clude them in such a statement as the one under 
review. He plants 20 ft. by 20 ft, (i.e., 108 trees 
to the acre), planting 1,000 acres the first year, 
2,000 acres the second and 1,000 acres the third, 
so that at the end of the tenth year he has 
432,000 trees in bearing, yielding 864,000 lb. of 
dry rubber, at a total expenditure (less items ex- 
cepted above) of £32,783, What the capital of 
such a company should be, giving a gross Income 
of £121,968 from rubber alone (at 25 cents per 
lb) is wisely left to the reader’s imagination. 
But this is about the only item which, apart 
from the trio specifically barred, Mr Asimont 
does not mention in his estimate; and we dare 
swear that thousands of shareholders in Planta- 
tion Rubber companies will learn from a study 
of his statement many points in connection with 
estate expenditure which will enable them in 
future the better to understand the figures sup- 
plied in the balance-sheets of the companies 
they are interested in.—Financier, Aug. 14, 


The, Supplement to the Tropical Agriculturist 


PLANTAIN FIBRE AT MALAYA 
A.-H. SHOW. 


Among the exhibits at the recent Agri-Horti- 
cultural Show were a few specimens of banana 
fibre which seem to have almost escaped public 
notice. They were sent by the Forest Depart- 
ment, and proved to be excellent samples. It 
may not be generally known that successful 
experiments of extracting fibre from the plan- 
tain or banana have been made inthe Federated 
Malay States. Only recently, a gentleman in 
Tampin (Negri Sembilan) produced a fine speci- 
men of the fibre from the wild banana, and, 
encouraged by the success of his efforts, and, 
anticipating probably that in the near future the 
industry may become a new source of agricul- 
tural wealth in the Peninsula, he has applied 
to Government for the authority—-required by 
the Forest Laws presumably—to extract the 
fibre from the wild banana. The wild plantain 
grows abundantly inthe Malay Peninsula, and 
it seems a pity that such an immense quantity 
of fibre has hitherto been wasted. As the fibre 
isalso obtainable from the cultivated banana, 
which is indigenous to the entire Malayan 
Archipelago, the waste must, of course, be 
enormous. Applied for no other use, the fruit- 
cut stems are thrown away. The fibre extracted 
is said to be so strong that a fine rope may be 
made out of it equal to aloe or manila hemp ; 
and after undergoing the process of dyeing in 
different colours, it may be turned to accouns in 
the manufacture of various kinds of heavy goods 
such as cords, carpets, rugs and window screens; 
and may also be as useful a product as ramie has 
proved to be. Thus, it may not be surprising 
in course of time to seo a species of cloth made 
from the banana fibre, just as we have seen one 
manufactured from ramie.—Straits Times, Sept. 7. 


ORANGE AND BANANAS IN MEXICO. 


In reporting on the trade and commerce of 
Tampico, Mr Consul Wilson refers to the advan- 
tages offered to British emigrants with some 
knowledge of farming and possessed of a little 
capital. During last year several hundred 
colonists, mostly Americans, settled in the dis- 
trict and are doing well. These colonists have 
either purchased small tracts of land for farming 
purposes or have joined one of the numerous 
colonisation schemes that were started during 
1907. These colonisation companies have pur- 
chased large tracts of land which they have 
subdivided into small lots and sell to colonists 
on deferred payments. The average price is 
about £1 per acre. Mr Consul Wilson thinks it 
doubtful whether these colonists, mostly small 
farmers accustomed todo all the work on their 
farms themselves, will be able to perform hard 
manual work in the hot weather, but other 
emigrants with sufficient capital to employ 
Mexicans would get over that difficulty, 
and it would seem from the Consul’s statement 
that a very good return upon their capital 
might with fair fortune be reckoned upon. 

Take for example orange growing. The land 
round Tampico suitable for this cultivation 
is all being rapidly bought up. Virgin soil was 


-sold in 1902 for 16s. an acre within five miles 


and Magazine of the Ceylon Agricultural Society. 


of Tampico. ‘The game class of land is now being 
sold as high as £10 an acre, to which has to 
be added the cost of clearing, about £2 10s. 
The men who started their orange growing 
about six years ago are not only making a very 
good income out of their fruit, but have also 
made a very profitable business by selling young 
budded trees to new settlers at £10 per 10). By 
purchasing and setting out these trees the new 
settlers can expect acrop within four years. 
This may be estimated at from 200 to 300 boxes 
of fruit per acre, worth 3s. a box or more, aud 
the production increases annually until the trees 
average 10 boxes each, or about 750 boxes of 
fruit to the acre. After clearing the land and 
setting out the young trees, a profitable return 
is secured by planting potatoes on the same land 
between the trees. This crop will realise from 
£20 to £30 per acre, but should not be repeated. 

Banana growing is another profitable industry; 
and during the past year several large com- 
panies have been formed for the cultivation of 
this fruit. The best lands are along the banks 
of the Panuno and Tamesi rivers, and can be 
purchased in large tracts for about £1 an acre 
uncleared. Plants from Jamaica are being 
imported in preference to cultivating the native 
Mexican fruit. Altogether, it would seem that 
this district offers rather exceptional chances to 
the emigrant who is not afraid of work, knows 
something about land, and has a little capital. 
Ee aanial oF the Royal Society of Aris, Aug. 14. 


TEA-BRICK MAKING AT HANKOW. 


DEscRIPTION OF THE PROCESS. 

Vice-Consul-General Albert W Pontius, U.S.A., 
of Hankow, makes the following report on the 
brick-tea industry of that Chinese port :—‘‘ In 
the Russian concession there are two brick-tea 
factories which, with the other two in the 
British concession, are undoubtedly the most 
important industrial institutions of the port. 
Brick tea is made from ordinary tea dust. It is 
first steamed in a cotton cloth bag and then 
placed in a wooden mould, much the same as is 
used for making ordinary clay bricks, but 
stronger and not so deep. The mould is placed 
under a powerful press and the pressure is 
maintained until the requisite consistency is 
reached, Tho bricks are then removed and 
wrapped up in common white paper. ’hey are 
exported in bamboo baskets holding 1 to 13 
piculs (1 picul=133! pounds), The Mongolians 
before drinking boi! the tea so as to get the 
most out of it. This boiling does not injure the 
taste, as there is ro flavour to lose. Tablets 
are made of the very fine kinds of tea dust. 
About 2} ounces of dust ina dry state without 
steaming are poured into a steam mould ona 
cylinder and put undera pressure of two tons. 
When the tablets are removed from the mould 
they are wrapped in tinfoil, then in paper, and 
finally packed in tin-lined boxes. The whole 
cf this export goes to Russia. These factories, 
which are fitted with costly modern machinory, 
employ many thousands of natives. Anidea of 
the importance of this branch of the tea trade 
may be gained by tke total value of brick and 
tablet tea which passed through the Customs 
during the last ten years, amounting to more 
than $18,000,000.” 


399 
NOTES FROM NYASSALAND. 


The possession of capital, however small, is 
not too frequent nowadays among those who 
have had the requisite planting experience and 
are still young and enterprising enough to 
seek their fortunes in a new country. But 
the attractions of Nyassaland, as described by 
our correspondent hereafter seem to be more 
numerous by far than are generally known. 
With land for lease at 6d per acre, or free- 
hold at 5s to 7s 6d, good climatic conditions 
for tropical products and even (in the High- 
lands) tor English fruits and vegetables, and 
above a'l plenty of native labour wanting 
employment, the advantages of the region 
hitherto known as British Central Africa are 
great, The dangers or drawbacks of climate 
(including blackwater fever) are duly men- 
tioned; but most of these are avoidable with 
reasonable precaution. Our readers will be 
grateful to ‘‘H.B.” for the amount of useful 
information he gives in a small space. 


M’lanje, B. C. Africa, Aug. 21. 

British Central Africa, or rather Nyassaland (as 

our name has been changed) is 
WITHOUT A NEWSPAPER 

the ‘‘Central African Times” having stopped, 
or shré down, some months ago. The country 
can easily support a paper, as we have over 600 
Europeans beside Indians and Eurasians or 
Burghers in the country; so there is a good 
opportunity for anybody to start a paper. 


QUR LEGISLATIVE COUNCIL 

has been formed and there are three Unofticial 
Members. There was a formal meeting in May ; 
the nextistohe in November. There is great 
DISSATISFACTION IN REGARD TO THE SELECTION 
of the L. C. members; one is the head of the 
Church of Scotland Mission, one the Manager 
of the African Lakes Corporation, and the other 
the Manager of the British Central African Co. 
All these are subject to the dictation of a Com- 
mittee, or board of directors, and liable to dismis- 
sal or removal any day; they are bound to give 
(according to their agreements) all their time 
and attention to their employers’ interests, for 
which they are paid, and not one of them has 
any vested interests in the country. 

The Chamber of Commerce protested as 
none of those chosen by the Governor for the 
appointments were eligible and the plant- 
ing industry was not represented, but were told 
the appointments were already made; so you see 
we are still subject to autocratic Government. 


OUR STRAWBERRY SEASON 
is on; the yield of this lovely fruit here is enor- 
mous, equal to the home garden. Ceylon climate 
(as far as I recollect) does not favour this fruit. 


HINTS TO NEWCOMERS AND 


INVESTORS. 
Aug. 29. 

As land is getting scarce in Ceylon and some 
of your young planters may want to try this 
country for a living or making a fortune, I send 
you a few notes :— 

Freehold land can be bought in Nyassaland 
at from 5/- to 7/6 per acre, and a lease for 6d 
per acre can be got from Government, 


400 


This climate is one of the best for the growth 
of all tropical and semi-tropical products such 
as coffee, tea, tobacco, cotton, &c. 


Labour costs from 3/- to 5/- per month, so that 
any of the above-named products can be put on 
the London market at about 2d. per lb. or less, 
leaving a good profit to the grower. 


Labour is abundant and natives all over the 
country are begging for work. 


The Shire Highland Railway is now open 
from Port Herald on the lower river to Blantyre ; 
so there is now no difficulty in reaching the 
Highlands from our coast port Chinde. 

Produce can easily be got out of the country 
now, as the British Central African Co. will 
undertake transport at $d. per lb. from here to 
London for coffee, tea, cotton, tobacco, &e. 

Living is exceedingly cheap, being in propor- 
tion to the cost of labour : fowls 3d. each, eggs 
2d. per dozen, English potatoes 3d. per Ib. and 
sweet potatoes at 6d. per basket of about 50 lb. 
So that a large capital is nct required to start a 
man and keep a place going till returns can be 
got from it by one or other of the annual crops 
that might be grown. 

This country affords good sport for those in- 
clined for shooting. Elephants and buck in great 
variety can be got at usually in about 12 or 24 
hours’ journey from any of the planting districts. 


The Government is a settled one; the natives 
are a peaceable, law-abiding people, willing to 
work, giving no trouble totheir employer like 
the Ceylon kangani and cooly. 

A word about the climate—which may be said 
to be bad. From March to April is the wet 
season, May to October is dry, but with haidly a 
month without several inches of rain. During the 
rainy season the thermometer ranges from 68° 
to85° Fahr. ; andduring the winter months, April 
to October, 50° to 72°. Fever is prevalent, but 
of a mild form, easily kept in check by quinine. 

Blackwater fever is 


THE ONLY DANGEROUS SICKNESS 


in the country, but those who take quinine 
in small doses when required never get fever at 
all. Many old residents have never had Black- 
waterfever. When men learn how to live in the 
tropics and take precautions necessary to pre- 
serve their health, they need not fear this country. 
The writer has not had malaria fever for 15 
years and knows many others who can givea 
longer record of excellent health without one 
dose of fever or other complaint. 


English fruitand vegetables grow well all over 
the Shire Highlands. Finer cabbages, potatoes, 
peas, lettuce, cauliflowers and strawberries, | 
have never seen than are at present visible in 
most European gardens here. 


What is wanted in this country most is men 
with a small capital ofa few hundred or a few 
thousand pounds; but there is no use in people 
coming here in search of employment, as there 
is none to be got. Europeans cannot labour here 
any more than in any other tropical country and 
only a few men can find work at eUOT YAS 
native labour. You can give my name an 
address to anybody who may want further 
information about Nyassaland. may 3 


The Supplement to the 


Tropical Agriculturist 


PLANTING AND RUBBER IN 
NYASSALAND. 


26th Sept. 

Dear Sr1r,—It is all very well for ‘‘H. B. 
to crack up his corner of the tropical world ; 
but can he tell us what percentage of his 
fellow-planters or of his estate proprietors al- 
together have made anything out of their in- 
vestments in his part of the Shire Highlands ? 
And while he is about it, he might explain 
why the Planting Company, specially got up 
with Ceylon capital to do justice to the re- 
sources he speaks of—namely the ‘“‘ Nyassaland 
Coffee Co.” in 1895—had to be wound up after 
a limited number of years without even paying 
a dividend and with all the shareholders’ 
money gone? J daresay ‘‘H. B.” will say : the 
usual fate of Pioncers, coming before there was 
arailway, d&c., &c. But let us hear of any who 
are getting big returns, even now ?—Yours, &c., 


SCEPTICAL. 


‘‘Sceptic” is justified in his criticism of our 
correspondent “H.86.’’s invitation to young capi- 
talists to go and take up land and plant in 
Nyassaland. We ought assuredly to get some 
facts as to successful planters of recent years. 
“A.B.” need not give names; but following the 
example of his uncle (‘‘A.B.”), one of the most 
prominent of early coffee planters in Ceyloz. 
let him give us a chapter on ‘‘The Vicissitudes 
of plantations in Nyassaland” and show how 
X.Y.Z., say, have come round and are now more 
than paying their way in coffee, tea, tobacco, 
cotton or any other product.—Following his 
general information on the planting of tropical 
products in the above territory, ‘‘ H. B.” gives 
us an interesting summary of the present posi- 
tion of rubber there. Root rubber, the rubber 
vine, has been annihilated ; and so busy are the 
exploiters of natural rubber in this Protectorate, 
aided by the best seekers for it—the natives—that 
the forests are expected ere long to be ‘‘ worked 
out.” Ceara rubber, it is found, will not do; but 
Para has not been planted up as here and in 
Malaya—so that Nyassaland fortunately has 
not to be added to the list of our competing 
‘plantation rubber” producing countries. 


ROOT RUBBER, CEARA AND PARA— 
IN NYASSALAND. 


M‘Janje, Nyassaland Protectorate, Aug. 21st. 


Dear Six,—You ask me for information about 
Root Rubber ; this plant is well-known in this 
part of Africa, but unfortunately the natives 
have rooted up almost every vine, and [ do not 
suppose one could be found within a radius of 
100 miles. Some years ago I used to see stretches 
of miles of this rubber-yielding vine growing on 
the sandy reaches of the big river banks, but 
now non est. 

There is still some natural rubber exported 
from Nyassaland, but it cannot be long before 
the forests are worked out, even in the most 
remote corner of the Protectorate ; for traders 
are at work employing natives to search for 
the balance of our natural rubbers, anywhere 
and everywhere that there is any likelihood 
of finding it. 


and Magazine of the Ceylon Agricultural Society. 


Ceara rubber has had a fair trial here, but as 
in Ceylon, in days of old, has not been found 
satisfactory as far as yield goes; all the trees 
here have been dug out as they interfere with 
the growth of tea and coffee ; being such gross 
feeders, nothing grows well under or near them. 


I doubt if Ceylon can do better with any 
rubber-yielding plant or tree than Para. None 
of the African vines or trees, even including 
Funtumia Elastica, yield anything like the 
amount of latex that Para does. 


Some Para plants have been introduced dur- 
ing the past two yearsfrom Kow. The African 
Lakes Corporation have several growing well on 
their Chetaka estate ; and the writer has one 
doing well, Many attempts in years gone by 
were made to introduce Para through imported 
seed, but nobody seems to have succeeded 
owing to the perishable nature of this seed and 
the delay in transit.—Yours faithfully, 


A.B. 


BRITISH-GROWN RUBBER, 


(To the Editor, ‘* Ceyton Observer”) 

13 & 23, Rood Lane, E.C., 12th Sept., 190s, 

Dear Sirs,—It is now about 1S months since 
we last dealt with this subject, but the devel. 
opments that have taken place in the mean- 
time have been on such a large and varied 
scale that we have compiled the following 
remarks in order to bring the information up 
to date, and trust that they will be of some 
value in showing the importance and large 
possibilities of the industry.—We are, dear 
Sirs, yours faithfully, 


GOW, WILSON & STANTON, Lrp. 
The following Diagram shows the chemical 
contents of: the different grades of Brazilian 
Para Rubber compared with British grown 
‘¢ Plantation ” varieties. This clearly demons- 
tratesthe high degree of purity of the latter, 
DracraM No. 1.—Chemical contents of the 
different grades of Wild and Cultivated Para 
Rubber in their relative percentages, 
Caout- Mois- Oils & Mineral Pro 


choue ture Resins matter teids 

Plantation Fine 94°36 40 2°01 “30 2°93 
do Serap 89°19 2°05 3°03 = 3'42, 3°32 
Hard Para Fine 17'67 16°35 3°28 "150. 2°55 
Soft do 76°55 16°95 2°96 "82 3°21 
Hard Para Extra Vine 73°63 20°94 3°05 “20 2°18 
Soft do do 70°76 23:31 3°01 22 2°71 
Negroheads 63°00 18°51 1:27 12°67@ =—-4°55 
Cametas 44°93 51°02 1°64 62 1.79 


Note—tThe analyses are taken from carefully selected 
Standard Samples of each grade. 


a This figure includes 9°75 per cent earth, woor and such 
impurities. 

DEVELOPMENTS. 

In 1906 the areas devoted to Rubber cultivation 
in Ceylon and Malaya were estimated to amount 
altogether to about 200,000 acres, but extensions 
have been carried on steadily since that time, 
so that this total has now been materially in- 
creased, the latest advice from Ceylon indicating 
that in all about 180,000 acres are now planted 
with rubber in the island and the Malay States 
and Straits Settlements figures are given as 
179,000 acres at the end of 1907. 


51 


101 


MARKET CoNDITIONS, 


The fall in the price of raw rubber during the 
later menths of last year has been a factor of im- 
portance as affecting the prospects of the Plan- 
tation Industry. Coming as it did at the height 
of a boom it had the effect of curtailing to a 
marked degree the extensive programmes that 
had been formulated. Probably had the high 
level of price been maintained harm might have 
been done by the opening of land with rubber 
in a rapid and promiscuous way. The reduction 
in values may thus have done much to place the 
industry on a more stable basis. 


Since the beginning of the present year the 
American crisis and other adverse features of 
the market have been to some extent allayed, 
and the quotation for Fine Hard Para, which in 
March last, touched the lowest point for over 16 
years, viz., 2/9 per lb., has recovered to the ex- 
tent of about 1/3 per lb,, the price now standing 
at about 4/-. The course ofthe Plantation Rub- 
ber market during the last two years isindicated 
by the averages given in the following diagram : 

Diagram No, 2—shows average sale prices of 
all kinds of Plantation Rubber from September, 
1906, to August, 1908. [Woe regret we cannot 
reproduce this diagram, | 


Furure Propoction, 


It is impossible to forecast even approxi- 
mately the production of Plantation Rubber 
in the future, but much valuable data has been 
obtained during the last two years as to the aver- 
age yield that may be expected from the culti- 
vated Para variety, and on other important 
points. Ifreasonable allowances are made, it 
will be found that the total quantity that may 
be looked for when all the rubber now plantel 
has become mature, perhaps 35,000 tons will 
give little cause for anxiety on the score of 
over-production,as seven years hence the world’s 
requirements should amount to over 100,000 
tons supposing that the average rate of increase 
in consumption continues. Further it is 
anticipated that with any marked reduction in 
prices the available supplies of forest rubber 
from various parts of the world will show a 
marked falling off on account of the expense en- 
tailed in the harvesting as compared with the 
cheapness of Eastern production. From a re- 
port on the financial condition affecting com- 
mercial interests in Para received in the Com~ 
mercial Intelligence Branch of the Board of ° 
Trade from H.B.M. Consul at Para, dated Para 
February Ist, 1908, we extract the following : 

“While dealing with this topic reference may also be 
made tothe development of rubber cultivation in Ceylon 
the Straits Settlements and other British possessions, as 
well as in Africa, Central America and Mexico. Up to 
this time little importance has been attached to the pos- 
sible competition from these sources, but Brazilian eco- 
nomists are beginning to view this matter as fraught with 
more consequence to the interests of this country than was 
at first supposed. It has been even argued that in a 
period of not more than 10 years the practical Brazilian 
monopoly in this production may be at an end. Cen- 
tainly it appears to me that other conditions being fa- 
yourable the systematic processes observed in the coun- 
tries named, together with the greater cheapness of labour 
transport and all items affecting the industry will place 
these cultivators in a vastly superior position to those of 
Brazil where the expenses in every branch of activity con- 
nected with the industry are onan extremely high scale, 
and where the process of collection seems, more often than 
not, attended with risk to health, if nob of more serious 
consequences,” 


102 The Supplement to the Tropical Agriculturis! 


The following Diagram gives the production 
of Ceylon and Malayafor the last three years, 
showing the rate of increase in the supplies 
coming forward from these countries : 


Diacram No. 3.—AnnuaL Exports or Bri- 
TISH GROWN PLANTATION RUBBER—Shows :— 


1905.—CrYLon—75 tons; MaLaya—130 tons, 
1906.—CrYLOoN—146 tons ; Mataya—385 tons ; 
1907.— CEYLON—248 tons ; MaLaAya—936 tons. 
EstimMaTE FoR 1908.—Ceylon, 300 tons. Malaya, 
1,500 tons. 
DisraNceE OF PLANTING, 


_ This is another matter on which valuable 

knowledge has been gained and it is now 
thought that it will have a large influence on the 
yield and health of the tree. In closely planted 
areas the yield has not increased to the same 
extent as with wide planting. The latter has 
therefore been more popular recently. 


WEEDING. 


This has been a source of some anxiety in the 
past owing to the expense incurred in keeping 
estates thoroughly clean, but it is now thought 
that a method involving the use of far less labour 
such as green manuring with plants which give 
a good cover to the soil while the young rubber 
is coming on as well as keeping down weeds 
will, in the end, be found the most effective. A 
material reduction in expenditure under this 
head may thus be looked for, 


TAPPING. 


It has been found that some of the more 
drastic methods used formerly were liable to 
overtax or injure the trees. Experience has led 
to more caretul systems being adopted and the 
large basal V to which we drew attention some 
time since has become more popular. Import- 
ant experiments with a view to ascertaining the 
best periods for tapping have been carried on at 
the Botanical Gardens in Ceylon, and the result 
of these are awaited with much interest. 


PREPARATION AND MANUFACTURE, 


Biscuits and sheet were the grades into which 
the bulk of the latex was until recently manu- 
factured but ‘‘ Crepe” being better adapted to 
the handling of large quantities of latex, has to 
some extent superseded them, and a consider- 
able proportion of the rubber now being har- 
vested is sold in this form. Plantation Rubber 
has enjoyed a reputation for purity and dryness 

‘quite beyond that of any other grade, but un- 
evenness and variation in quality complained of 
recently by some manufacturers has tended to 
endanger this, and it is of the utmost importance 
that no effort should be spared to produce rubber 
as pure and even in colour as possible. The at- 
tention of producers might well be more particu- 
larly directed to this. 


Some most important results have been 
obtained by a new process, based on some _ valu- 
able research work carried out by Mr. M Kel- 
way Bamber (Analytical Chemist to the Govern- 
ment of Ceylon), to which we drew special 
attention in the early part of the present year. 


By a simple method the discolouration caused 
by an oxidising enzymein the latex is avoided 
at an early stage in the preparation the rubber 
being immersed in water ata certain tempera- 
ture for sufficient length of time for all parts of 


it to be affected. Rubber treated by this process 
has already been put on the market, and is much 
paler, brighter and clearer in appearance than 
ordinary fine Plantation, as well as being excep- 
tionally even in quality. Buyers are willing to 
pay a substantial premium over ordinary prices 
for such rubber, and there is little doubt that 
were it obtainable in large quantities, supplies 
would be readily absorbed in preference to other 
kinds, as manufacturers can so easily convince 
themselves cf its purity. It is to be hoped that 
by some such device as this the standard of 
purity and excellence for Plantation Rubber 
will before long be raised to a much higher level 
than has previously been attained. This would 
undoubtedly have the effect of widening the de- 
mand for the product and enhancing its value to 
manufacturers. 


Diacram No, 4—shows. 1905. Output—Ceylon 
75 tons, Malaya 130 tons, Brazil 34,490 tons. 


1906.—Ceylon 146 tons, Malaya 385 tons, Brazil 
38,070 tons. 


1907.—Ceylon 248 tons, Malaya 936 tons, Brazil 
36,910 tons. 


Gow Witson & Stanton, Lp., 


13 and 23, 
Rood Lane, E.C. 


CLEAN WEEDING—AND GREEN 
MANURING—FOR RUBBER. 


xammaduwa, Sept. 22nd. 


S1r,— Without wishing to enter into a contro- 
versy on the matter of clean weeding rubber 
clearings v. three or even a circle of six feet 
diameter round the plant or any othersystem, 
I should like to record from practical experi- 
ence of thirty-eight years the system I have 
found the cheapest and best. 


What is the reason that rubber clearings are 
often so much dirtierthan tea or coffee clear- 
ings? The answer is, a greater acreage In many 
instances has been felled and cleared than there 
were coolies to keep the clearing clean from the 
date of the burn off, and in a clearing for 
tea the bulk of the surface soil with all the 
seed of weeds and grass is scraped into, 
say, 3,630 holes per acre; while in a rubber 
clearing there are only 200 holes or there- 
abouts to receive the top soil near them. 
The fillers in thus largely aid towards 
making and keeping clean the tea clearing from 
the beginning, but give little assistance in a 
rubber clearing. 


Given a suflicient labour force to clean and 
keep clean a well-drained rubber clearing; the 
expense, though greater at first than weeding a 
tea clearing, is cheaper and better in every re- 
spect than any attempt to weed only round the 
plant or to weed the planted line three feet the 
whole length, leaving all between the line to grow 
a natural cover of short grass, which ultimately 
becomes a cover for almost every known weed, 
the home of the hare and vermin, to destroy any 
unprotected plants. 


Fence the clearing as you may, the low-country 
buffalo has every inducement to make it his 
grazing ground and very often he is found parad- 
ing the clearing and destroying the young plants, 


and Magazine of the Ceylon Agricultural Society. 


Clearings have been known to cost K10 per 
mensem per acre for nine months to keep 
the weeds down. Had there been a_ sufhi- 
cient labour force from the time of open- 
ing to weed the whole clearing, R2 per 
acre per mensem would have been ample; and 
when clean, the monthly weeding expenditure 
might then be reduced to about one rupee per 
acre—giving little trouble and more profit if on 
contract. The proposal to weed 3 ft. round the 
plant has cost many thousands of rupees to 
many a Company and rubber planter, short of 
labour, tempted to open more land and try 
this system thinking it would answer, it cer- 
tainly looked cheaper and thus suited them ; 
but if there be one man in Ceylon, who has 
tried it and considers it better than clean 
weeding, I have yet to make his acquaintance. 
For cover and soil preservation, dadap appears 
to be the favourite. Between every line of rub- 
ber, have one or two lines of dadap, and in 
less than three years they will cover the ground, 
and the loppings and foliage will do more 
to improving the soil and increasing the 
girth of the rubber plants than any natural 
grass cover, were it possible to grow it without 
weeds. Between Galboda and Nawalapitiya 
travellers by rail have an opportunity of seeing 
several plots of land belonging to the Forest 
Department, planted with a view to growing 
trees, and the plants have all been allowed to 
fight their way upwards, surrounded by under- 
growth no forester ever planted. Alongside 
in the tea, and some in swamps, are blue gums 
planted about the same distance apart, of much 
better growth and said to be younger, but clean 
aude Grevillea fuel clearings allowed to get 
into weeds after the first year, grow lanky, if 
they grow at all, but if kept clean, by an occa- 
sional weeding they become large trees in com- 
parison. Weed clean from the first month of 
the clearing—three times in two months if 
necessary, certainly monthly. The Superinten- 
dent, who can get his contractors to weed three 
times in two months at the inonthly rate, will 
have no trouble in keeping his estate clean ; and 
the contractors will make a larger profit than if 
they weeded only once a month.—Yours faith- 


fully, 
JAMES WESTLAND. 


TEA IN INDIA. 


MR. COTTON’S ANNUAL REVIEW —1907 -8 


Great care is taken in compiling, the statistics 
of the Tea Industry in Northern India. We find 
that 927 tea estates in Assam and subsidiary 
districts comprise in all 1,359,920 acres—of which 
428,962 acres were cultivated in the past year, 
but only 410,492 gave crop, there being about 
18,500 acres of young tea. The newly planted land 
during 1907 was only equal to 10,137 acres, but 
against this 4,771 acres of old tea were aban- 
doned, This does not indicate much enterprise 
in the face of an exceptionally good year, as Mr. 
Cotton reports in his Annual Keview of the 
Trade of India, 1907-8, which has just come to 
hand. We give the main portion of this Review 
so far as it bears on éea, as of special interest to 


403 


Ceylon merchants and planters. The points to 
note are that ‘‘coarse plucking,” which prevailed 
during most of 1907, is now gradually being aban- 
doned, and that the consumption oft ea all over 
Indiais increasing, ‘ttea shops” being a common 
feature in bazaars. Would that they super- 
seded the arrack taverns all over Ceylon! The 
Russian market has become of great importance 
to India, and mention is made of transhipment 
as itis now, of Indian tea at Colombo being saved, 
by the special line of steamers from Calcutta to 
Vladivostock just started. ‘‘ A vigorous medical 
campaign against beer and coffee” in Germany 
is likely to give an impetus to tea consumption, 
Ceylon’s attention to rubber (60,000 acres tea 
and rubber mixed) is regarded as likely to 
affect her production, so there is clearly room 
for some more planting of tea in our island 
during the next few years. Calcutta, like Col- 
ombo, is superseding Mincing Lane for tea sales, 
and prices have steadily increased. For 1907, 
the total area under tea in all India is given at 
536,652 acres yielding 248,020,398 lb., of which 
865,648 lb. was exported by land and 235,422,376 
lb. by sea ; and with this by way of contrast we 
may state that Ceylon with 392,000 acres gavea 
total export of 182,023,732 lb. in 1907. 


ALL ABOUT TEA IN INDIA. 


(From Annual Review for 1907-08 by Mr. 
Cotton, I, C. 8.) 


Tra.—The Indian Tea trade has enjoyed an- 
other prosperous year. The world’s consumption 
has apparently caught up supply, and every- 
thing points to its increasing in the future 
at a corresponding ratio, The only disquiet- 
ing features of the year’s trading were the 
temporary inflation of values for lower grades 
of leaf, which have appreciated by 70 per cent 
since 1906, at the expense of the better teas, and 
complaints of a general decline in quality, but 
the principal excuse for coarse plucking has 
been removed now that the market seems to 
have recovered its sense of proportion. In any 
event India could not hope to have benefited 
long by the extravagant rates for her poorer 
stuff for they would have provoked the competi- 
tion of the cheaper China teas, and encouraged 
increased cultivationin Java, 


Tne advance in consumption, which followed 
the reduction of the import duty in the United 
Kingdon to 5d per lb, has been maintained. 
Internal absorption is increasing, and tea shops 
are now @ common feature of many bazaars, 
particularly in Southern India, but itis in the 
expansion of the Continental markets that the 
prospects of the Indian industry centre, and of 
these the Russian market in particular is shew- 
ing remarkable development, The following 
table illustrates in the last three calendar years, 
compared with the year 1890, the astonishin 

rowth in absorption of teas from India and 

eylon on the Continent :— a 
14,001,924 
129,884,250 
162,461,824 
171,600,009 


1890 
1905 


1906 
1907 (estimated) 


404 


‘The Russian market is of particular interest 
and importance. Its development dates from 
the discovery that Indian dust gives a greater 
strength to ‘tablet’ tea than Chinese. Indian 
tea reaches Russia not only by direct ship- 
ment, but also across the land frontier of 
India and by re-export from the United King- 
dom, Germany, and China. It has been esti- 
mated that Russia in the nine months ending 
September 30th, 1907, absorbed 30,542,081 lb. 
of Indian and Ceylon teas as compared with 
24,566,329 lb. for the same nine months of 
the previous year. These figures exclude 
imports of brick tea from China, in which 
Indian dust has been blended, estimated at 
8,000,000 lb. in 1907 or proportionately 
6,000,000 Ib. for the period January—September. 
{India is encouraged to direct importation into 
Russia by the preferential duty on her tea 
and that of Ceylon carried by the Trans- 
Siberian Railway, and it isannounced in this 
connection that a double service of steamers 
will be established next season between Cal- 
cutta and Vladivostok to save transhipment 
at Colombo. The duty on tea in Germany was 
reduced in 1906 to 13d per lb., and this, aided 
by a vigorous medical campaign against beer and 
coffee, is likely to encourage imports. Holland 
and Belgium are two other promising markets. 

As regards the competition with Ceylon, it 
remains to be seen how far the introduction 
of rubber there will ultimately affect produc- 
tion, for the cultivation tends to oust tea 
from lower levels where the yield is generally 
greater than at higher altitudes. 

The results of improved prospects in the tea 
trade are illustrated by the appreciation of 
shares in the market. Mr George Seton has 
calculated that the shares of 170 tea companies 
registered in London have enhanced in value 
from £14,400,000 to £21,600,000 or by no less 
than 50 per cent. between January, 1905, and 
November, 1907. China supplied half the re- 
quirements of the United Kingdom twenty years 
ago: in 1907 the proportion had been reduced 
to 6 per cent and is only sustained at that level 
by the competitive price for lower grades of 
Indian and Ceylon teas. The imports of tea into 
the United Kingdom in 1907 were as follows :—- 

1906. 1907. 
Million Ih. Per cent, 


Milliontb, Per cent. 


india 183°8 57°2 171°4 54 
Ceylon 106°3 33° 107°5 33'9 
China 13°2 41 18°38 59 


Java 12°6 39 1 2°9 

The consumption per capita in the United 
Kingdom in 1907 was 6°19 Ib as compared with 
6'13 lb in the previous year. 

The following figures shew the quantity and 
value of tea exported from India in the last 
five years :-— 


Quantity. Value. 
Ib. Re Be 
1903-04 £07,159, 793 8,55,79,827 = 6,705,288 
1904-05 211,887,158 8,45, 54,867 5,643,658 
1905-06 214,223,788 &,84,76,037 5,898,402 
1906-07 233,653,637 —9,85,77,642 6,571,843 
1907-08 927,021,657  10,30,03,486 6,866,899 


The figures for 1906-07 represented a record 
both in quantity and value, but the progress in 

uantity was not maintained in 1907-08, when it 
declined by 6°63 million !b or 2°8 per cent, 
though the rise in value was of R44°26 lakhs 
(£295,000) or 4°5 per cent, the increase in 
specific value being one of about 7°6 per cent. 


.per cent. 


The Supplement to the Tropical Agriculturist 


The quantities of tea exported to the princi- 
pal countries in the last three years have been 
as follows (in thousands of lb.) :— 


1905-06. 1906-07. 1907-08. 
United Kingdom 166,591 176,17u 169,825 
Canada 15,019 14,515 4,731 
Russia 9,988 138,761 15,407 
Australia 7,729 9,499 11,090 
Turkey in Asia 3,543 3,101 3,504 
Ceylon 2,101 4,318 8,88L 
China 3,078 4,820 7,502 
Persia 1,102 929 1,578 
United States 2,175 1,739 2,086 
Other Countries 2,900 4,302 2,919 


Though the figures for the United King- 
dom tend proportionately to reduce, as 
direct shipments take the place of consign- 
ments to London on optional bills of lading, 
her share of the total exports stands at 74°6 
The 
EXPANSION IN THE CEYLON AND CHINA FIGURES 
is due to Russian requirements, and the heavy 
decline in direct shipments to Canada should 
not be regarded as an index of contracting 
market. Russia and Australia have made 
marked advances. The figures to Australia were 
swelled by a replacement of the shipment of 
750,000 lb lost by fire on the ss, ‘* Fortunatus.” 


Another feature of the year’s trade which 
should be noticed is the increase in the volume 
of sales by auction in 


CALCUTTA IN PREFERENUE TO MINCING LANE, 
and London has further suffered as the 
emporium of imports into the United 
Kingdom by the competition of lower freights 
with Glasgow and Liverpool. About 73,200,000 
lb were auctioned in Calcutta during the past 
season, of which only about 20,000,000 Ib went 
to London, and of the balance Russia (direct and 
through China and Ceylon) absorbed 27? mil- 
lions and Australia 10$ millions. The prices 
realised in Calcutta have shewn a greater ad- 
vance on those of the previous year than those 
in London, and several of the London Assan‘ 
Companies have found it profitable to auction 
their lower grades of tea here rather thanat home, 


PRICES AT AUCTION IN CALCUTTA. 


Pekoe Souchong, 


Broken Pekoe, Souchong, pekoo 
Pekoe, fannings and 
congou. 
g 5 s #8 §& 
. 3 Bo /iSik Ses 
© & © & Or ee Gye S 
a RR ee SCY 
if a FS mS, aT is 
A.P. A. Pi RUBE S A. Py 
1904-05 5 10 100 5 4 100 4 6 100 5 4 100 
1905-06 6 3 107 5 2 97 4 2 98 5 4 100 
1906-07 6 8 114 5 7 105 4. 7 1¢2 5 6 102 
190/-08 7 2 123 610 128 6 2 1387 6 8 125 


The average price realisedin 1907-08 in London 
was8'21 per lb, as compared with 8'1ld per lb. 
ju 1906-07. 


In spite of the efforts of the Indian Tea Asso- 
ciation, estimates of production continue under 
suspicion of great inaccuracy, and for this the 
planters must be held chiefly to blame. The 
crop in 1907 was generally considered to be 
better than that of the previous year, except in 
Bengal. The table below gives approximate 
figures of the area, production, and land exports 
during the last five years and the actual figures 
of exports by sea during the same period :— 


und Magazine of the Ceylon Agricultural Society. 


Area. Production, Exports (1b.) 

acres. b. By land. By sea. 
1903 526,611 209,041,888 679,616 204,123,723 
1904 524,472 221,565,631 744,352 211,395,940 
1908 528,004 221,712,407 760,256 210,798,056 
1906 520,246 241,403,510 942,256 235,815,697 
1907 536,652 248,020,398 865,648 235,422,376 


The export trade is practically contined to 
three ports, Calcutta shipping 73°9 por cent, 
Chittagong 18-9 per cent (almost entirely to the 
United Kingdom), and Madras 62 per cent. 
Five years ago Calcutta claimed 83 per cent of 


the total. The coast shipments were in the 
last two years :— 
1906-07 1907-03 
Ib. \b. 
¥Vrom Bengal 3,298,495 3,380,385 


»  Hastern Bengal & Assam 1,185,327 $54,117 
The recorded exports of green tea by sea and 
by land during the last three years were :— 
Ib. 


1905-06 » 2,183,940 
1906-07 +. 2,034,384 
1907-08 . 1,806,031 


A customs duty, known as the Tea Cess, at 
the rate of a quarter of a pie per pound, has 
been levied since the Ist April, 1903, on all 
Indian tea exported. The collections realised 
are paid to a Committee constituted to receive 
and expend the proceeds of this cess on mea- 
sures for promoting the sale and consumption of 
Indian tea. The collections since the institution 
of the cess have been as follows :— 


Rn: £ 
1903-04 .. 2,86,915 — 19,128 
1904-05 .. 3,04,317 ,, 21,288 
195-06 +») 320,358, ,, 21,357 
1906-07 . 3,17,554 ,, 21,170 
1907-08 3,02,°33 ,, 20,189 


BRITISH NEW GUINEA AS A PLAN- 
TING COUNTRY. 


ROOM FOR RUBBER: FULL 
INFORMATION. 


We direct attention to the admirable se- 
ries of ‘‘ Notes” with which Mr. Wallace R. 
Westland (son of the well-known Ceylon 
veteran, Mr. James Westland), has favoured us 
for publication. Mr. W. R. Westland has 
been long enough a planting pioneer on the 
Papuan Coast to enable his information to be 
regarded as both trustworthy and most useful 
to any capitalist looking for ‘‘fresh fields aud 
pastures new” in the direction of New Guinea. 
He details the drawbacks very faithfully ; 
but he is equally clear as to the attractions 
and advantages. Cheap iand, finest soil, good 
climate and a considerate Government are 
bound to tell; while the drawbacks which 
circle chiefly round the labour and absence of 
roads, &c., may be gradually modified and 
improved. Meantime, let each one interested, 
study Mr. Westland’s very full and interest- 
ing notes. 


PLANTING IN NEW GUINEA. 


(By an ex-Ceylon Planter.) 
Kanosia, Mann Mann, Papua, Aug. 2nd. 
The following notes on this Island may be of 
interest to you and others in Ceylon who are on 
the look-out for rivals to the rubber planting 
industry. [t must be understood, however, that 


405 


the views set forth are purely personal and may 
require modification as fuller knowledge and 
more experience are acquired :— 

Yo begin with, Papua is reached from Ceylon 
vie Singapore and Thursday Island or by way 
of Sydney to Brisbane where there is a choice 
of routes—by the Solomon Islands to Samorai 
and Port Moresby or to Cooktown—thence to 
the two ports named, 

The latter is the better route, Port Moresby 
being opposite to and about 48 hours’ steam 
from Cooktown. The passage either way 18 
made in comfortable boats, fitted with electric 
light, refrigerator, etc. 

Tho Island, or rather British New Guinea, is 
flat on the coast, riging rapidly inland range 
upon range to the main chain of mountains, the 
highest peaks of which are a great many miles 
from the sea and 13,000 feet above it. This gives 
the visitor every temperature from the sharp 
frosty air of Mt. Victoria to the steamy heat of 
Samorai, and ensures a heavy and well distri- 
buted rainfall, Indeed some of these ranges 
must rival the famous Dolosbage where a week's 
dry weather elicits a despairing wail from your 


correspondent about the ‘* Awful drought.” 


The island appears to have 
TWO REGULAR MONSOONS 
—§.-E. and N.-W., the former being com- 
paratively dry and the latter wet. No severe 
gales have been known for years and but fei 
trifling earthquakes. 

The means of communication between ports 
are small mail steamers and a number of sailing 
vessels of all descriptions from about 60 tone 
dewnward. Places inland are very much worss 
off, there being no roads. A few bridle paths. 
(perhaps 50 miles in all) have been cut, but a 
properly made and graded cart road does nos 
exist. The villages are connected by tie 
ordinary jungle track, quite impassable for 
horses and often very difticult for laden ment 
The only means of getting any distance inland 
is, therefore, 

BY RIVER 
—of which thore are many beautiful ones, most 
of them navigable for whale boats for great 
distances, some of them allowing the passage 
of small steamers three days’ steam up their 
course, 

The Kast Coast—from Samorai to Port Mor- 
esby—has the advantage of a barrier reet ; 
inside it small boats can run up and down in 
comparative safety. So much from the tourists’ 
point of view ; now 

FOR THE PLANTERS, 

The soil varies considerably, from the fat 
black sandy loam in the river valleys and the 
rich red basaltic soil of the low foot hills where 
rank vegetation and heavy crops prove its ferti- 
lity, to the poor wind-blown sandy coral ridges 
where stunted grass fights seadrift for a living. 


The deep valleys in the mountain ranges 
must contain some magnificent soil, far richer 
than anything we can produce in Ceylon, to 
judge by the deposits and colours of the rivers in 
spate. All the old explorers are agreed that this 
island contains some of the 

MOST FERTILE SOIL IN THE WORLD, 

The land is assumed to belong to the natives 
and is purchased at low rates from them. by 
Government from time to time as opportunity 


406 


occurs. In some cases, owing to the Survey 
Department being greatly undermanned and the 
absence of a trained land buyer, huge blocks 
were bought in a most perfunctory way—the 
areas and boundaries being indefinite to the 
last degree. This has now ceased and drastic 
changes have occurred in these departments, 
The intending planter may now 


SELECT AND APPLY FOR ANY BLOCK 
of land, depositing with his application a small 
fee, proportionate to the area required. 

If the land applied for already belongs to 
Government, and if he satisfies them that his 
intentions are bona fide, the land is usually 
granted at once and he is free to commence 
operations forthwith. 

Should the block belong to natives, the A. G. 
A. of the district is instructed to endeavour to 
purchase it from them. If he succeeds, the pro- 
cedure is as above; if not, the applicant is in- 
formed of the fact and invited to select another 
block somewhere else. No: direct purchase 
between planter and native is permitted. 

The land is granted as lease-hold for 99 years 
on most liberal terms, there being no survey 
fees and no rent for 10 years; after which six 
pence(maximum) per acre becomes due annually. 
One-fifth of the area suitable for cultivation has 
to be under cultivation 5 years from date of grant. 

The areas at present taken up are mostly for 
COCONUT AND KUBBER PLANTING ALONG THE COAST. 
There are several small estates inland in coffee 
and more land is being applied for in their 
neighbourhood. A new industry is commencing 
in Sisal hemp some large blocks having been 
secured recently and a start actually made. 


One great factor in all Tropical Agriculture is 
labour ; that of B. N. Guinea is one of the most 
interesting problems any country can present. 

The labour here is the native Papuan in an 
extraordinary diversity of type, language and 
disposition. ne 

The native from the Eastern and Central Divi- 
sions of coastal districts is, as a rule, a light 
hearted cheerful man, ready to laugh or sing 
all day long and make light ofatask. If well- 
fed and looked after, he is as ready to raise a 
cheer anda yellat the end of his day’s work 
as at the commencement. Some men havea 
bad reputation and it is not wise to trust 
them too much yet, but their main failing 
is that there is not more of them ! The 
Mawata and Kiwai district men in the West are 
more pear! divers and boats’ crews than coolies, 
although a few are found here and there along 
the coast, The Gulf district, which is said 
to teem with natives and is the only district 
where they may be said to be in thousands, gives 
the worst class of labour. They are greedy, 
sulky brutes without any idea of steady work. 
They cannot count beyond tive, have very little 
intelligence and are only fit for pack-carriers. 
The miners in the Eastern districts will have 
none of them, except as porters. They are in 
every way quite unsuited for estate labour. 

The remaining class, the Bushman, is as 
wild as a hawk and cannot, for a long time 
yet, be depended on for anything but spas- 
modic labour. At present he is usually too 
seared to approach at all and as often as not 
bolts out of the village on the first alarm, 


The Supplement to the Tropical Agriculturist 


Once tamed, they are said to be excellent. The 
estate labour is indentured ; on the whole, the 
laws may slightly favour the native. A man is 
SIGNED ON FOR ANY PERIOD UP TO THREE YEARS, 
At the end of that time the employer has to 
return him to his home—free, Contract can be 
broken by mutual agreement, or, in the event of 
the employer wishing to rid himself of the man, 
the latter can demand his wages for the full 
period. Conversely, if the man bolts, the 
employer can imprison him and add the term of 
imprisonment on to his term of service. 


No native women have signed on as estate 
coolies yet, owing doubtless to the tales their 
men-folks have spread on their return from 
mining camps or carrying tracks. These occu- 
pations have been the most important hitherto 
and are not ones which would appeal to 
women. It is hoped that by esta blashie 
villages on the estates, giving each marrie 
man a little hut to himself and keeping each 
little tribe together, the native will not want 
to leave the estate when his contract of ser- 
vice expires, but settle down for good. Do 
not we all know the cooly who has been 
man and boy on the same estate all his life ? 
Estate work is practically unknown in B.N.G. 
and festina Icnte the best motto to write 
across the muster roll. 

AS TO COST : 

The recruiter charges, say, £2 10s per head 
landed on the estate. 3/ Government fees, 
signing on and off, etc., and 10/ return passage; 
so that each indentured native costs £3 3s. 0d. 
For a three-years-agreement-man the rate is 
£6 2s. 0d:, all of it irrecoverabJe. Kit has to be 
supplied from motives of policy to keep the man 
in health—blanket, mosquito net, plate, pannikin, 
spoon, billican, cooking pot, jumper and waist 
cloth. Food is a much-vexed point. By the 
Government regulations the employer is re- 
quired to supply him with good and sufficient 
food. Rice is now £15—£17 per ton at Port 
Moresby (transport inland extra). Sago flour, 
an excellent food, £6 10s., when obtainable. It 
may be had at times, but only in small quantity 
and irregularly. Of sweet potatoes, yams, taro, 
etc., no large supply is available and it is doubt- 
ful whether the cost of cultivation and harvest- 
ing, balance the saving of time and labour in 
giving imported foods. 


Chillies, curry stuffs, and the ‘‘selavu,” so dear 
to Ramasamy, are wnknown here. 


Wages are 10s per month, wet or fine, sick or 
sorry; aud no Sunday work. They are due at the 
end of term of service and must be paid before a 
Native Labour Officer. An advance may be given 
from time to time, but the practice is discour- 
aged asthe native has then nothing to take 
back to his village. 


All these things combined make labour work 
out at not less than ls. per working day at a 
low estimate. 


All skilled labour is at present white and 
costs £12—£19 per month for carpenters, boat 
builders, etc. Coloured foremen may be im- 
ported at the discretion of the Government and 
are granted a certificate for a term of years 
which must always be specified. At the end of 
their term they have to leave the country 
under penalty of £50 fine, The 


und Magazine of the Ceylon Agricullural Society. 


IMPORTATION Of COLOURED LABOUR 
is looked upon with the strongest disfavour by 
the Australian Labour Party andit is difficult to 
see where acheap and efficient substitute for 
the expensive white man carpenter can be 
obtained. 

The present rate of wages for black and white 
labour is absurdly high all round. Fancy a new 
country, endeavouring to attract capital, hang- 
ing this millstone around the capitalists’ neck 
When competition or skill enhances the value 
of the labour, let wages rise by all means, but why 
start from this pinnacle—the highest in sight? 


The exclusion of cheaper labour is surely an 
unfortunate policy,as this can never be a satisfac- 
tory white man’s country, ¢.e., a country where 
he can do manual work alongside of, and retain 
the respect, of his black helpers. 


THE NATURAL MARKET FOR THE PRODUCE 
of British New Guineais, of course, Australia; but 
as yet the Customs in that Protectionist country 
do not favour markedly its first-born colony. 


Ifthe Commonwealth insist on framing laws 
which keep alien labour out of this country and 
thus raising cost of production, it is only 
reasonable to hope that it will allow that 
country some concession which will enable it to 
compete successfully with other countries where 
such handicaps do not exist. At present when 
New Guinea produce, say maize, is mentioned 
in Australia, the cry is: ‘‘grown with black 
labour’—and its doom is sealed, 

There are many products, coffee, cacao, coca- 
nuts, rubber, to mention a few which do not 
appear to be extensively cultivated in Australia? 
These would grow to perfection here. Why not 
make this Australia’s tropical garden where 
such products as require a large number of 
labourers per acre could grow, enter the Common- 
wealth free of duty and compete with other 
countries whose produce pays a heavy tax ? 


The cost of living, if luxuries are eschewed, 
is not high. Fresh vegetables can be had if suffi- 
cient energy be put into gardening in suitable 
soil. In the Central Division at sea level there 
are gardens, where beans, carrots, turnips, beet 
root, etc., grow well; while on the hills. limes 
oranges, papayas, etc., come to perfection. 


Most people have ‘‘no time” or don’t care and 
prefer to struggle along with tinned apologies 
for these necessaries. If one or two good China- 
men were allowed to start a market garden, 
they would make a great difference to those 
near them, 

Fowls are practically unknown 
beef one hears of but seldom sees. Good 
mutton is sometimes to be had in port, but 
more often than not the tinned delicacy known 
as “ Bullemakow ” is the pitce-de-vesistance. 

Society away from towns—nil. The natives 
have taken to 

CRICKET; AND THE ASTONISHING SPECTACLE 
of a frizzy-haired Papuan, clothed in a string, 
wicket-keeping as if to the manner born, 
is one that may be seen in almost every large 
coastal village. 


and fresh 


SPORT. 

For the sportsman there are strange and 
beautiful fish on the reefs where you look over 
the side into 20 feet of water to see the bottom 
as clearly as if a yard away, In the estuaries the 


O07 


White Torres Strait pigeon roosts on the man- 
groves and gives the most sporting of hard 
chances, or in the bush—where the pigeons and 
doves call all day long—one may shaot a tiny 
dove the size of a bulbul or a fat-crested goura, 
weighing 10 or 12 pounds and tasting better 
than the best turkey. Pig roam the country, 
but are as shy and hard to find as deer. Those 
here are much smaller than the Ceylon pig, but 
seem as fierce and cunning when cornered as 
the biggest grim grey boar. Wallabies of sorts 
swarm In every acre of the lowcountry, while 
one occasionally sees the track of some big 
vassowary or hears his sonorous call, , 


These notes are sketchy and incomplete and 
have the additional disadvantage that they are 
from the writer’s point of view—necessarily a 
limited horizon ; but the ideas embodied are the 
result of much earnest discussion with those 
whose long residence in and knowledge of the 
county entitle them to speak with authority. 
The 

DRAWBACKS TO THE INTENDING 
INVESTOR 
of capital are :— 

ASurvey Department very much undermanned 
and consequently in arrears of work. This means 
doubtful boundaries until block surveys are 
completed. 

Unsettled Labour Laws, which means that 
the available labour is an unknown quautity. 
High wages for all labour and high rates for 
goods'to and from the country. Absence of 
roads, portending difficulties of land transport. 
Insufficient postal arrangements and a market 
of which the hospitality is, to say the best of 
it, doubtful. Conversely the attractions, and they 
are not small, are a title to land which is in- 
disputable; generous land-laws; the finest soil 
that heart could wish for, growing magnificent 
timber. Soil that will grow any tropical pro- 
duct he takes the trouble tocultivate, every 
variety of climate and as healthy a new country 
as one can hear of, With ordinary care and 
temperate living, his health here will be as safe 
asin any other rubber-growing part of the 
tropics. 

One thing the intending planter can be sure 
of, the cordial assistance of every member of 
the Government. From His Excellency the 
Administrator down to the last-joined Cadet, 
every officer appears to look upon the planter as 
his especial protégé, and no service, no incon. 
venience, nodiscomfort is too great if by that 
means he can forward the Planting Industry in 
the slightest degree. 

{ take this opportumity of offering my 
most grateful thanks to those officers for their 
many acts of kindness and courtesy and to 
assure them that but for their assistance my 
task would be a very different one and not the 
pleasure it is. 

WALLACE R. 


PLANTING 


WESTLAND. 
PLANTING IN B.E. AFRICA. 


WonDERFUL CatcH Crops or Corron: 
Mr, O. Tonks, Solicitor of Mombassa, after 
paying a two months’ visit to Ceylon, sailed by 
the ss. ‘‘ Herefordshire ” today for home and 
is returning to Mombassa again in February 
or March, Mr, Tonks believes in the 


108 The Supplement to the Tropical Agriculliwrist 


LOW-LYING TROPICAL BELT ON THE MAIN-LAND 
CLOSE TO MOMBASSA, 

but notin the prospect before settlers in the 
highlands. Mr. Tonks is directly interested in 
two estates on which Ceara rubber and cotton 
have been planted, and he has also started coco- 
nuts, the product par excellence for the country. 
The rubber grows marvellously, and young trees, 
5 months old, stand § or 9 feet high; but how the 
trees will tap when they mature, he cannot say, 
Meanwhile the soil is so much richer than Cey- 
on soil (says our contemporary) that paying 
catch-crops can be grown. For example, 100 acres 
can be opened at a cost of R500 on a year’s ex- 
penditure, and the first crop of Egyptian cotton 
will bring in this sum as profit, so that Mr. Tonks 
has 100 acres of Ceara rubber that has cost him 
nothing. Both his estates march with the rail- 
way, and the land cost R4 peracre. Payment of 
this can be spread over 14 years ; but as scon as 
a planter can show he has spent a certain amount 
and has opened up a small acreage, the Govern- 
ment give him his title deeds for the whole area. 
Wealthy Greeks from Egypt, who had recenily 
come down to East Africa, were proving the 
value of cotton culture on a large scale. Mr.'‘Tonks 
is also interested with five others in a block ot 
6,000 acres—costing R2 per acre—eight miles 
from Mombassa, and while he has been in Ceylon 
he has been negotiating for a prominent Ceylon 
V.A.to go to Mombassa for two months to start 
the development of the property on the best lines. 
The name of the planter selected has not yet 
transpired. The new land regulations no longer 
permit of large blocks being taken up, the limit of 
estates now being 820 acres. Mr. Tonks has been 
in British East Africa for ten years; he tramped 
to Victoria Nyanza before the railway was 
opened, and is keen on development of his part 
of the country. He says sleeping sickness is 
not getting worse there, though it has decimated 
inland villages. He admits the serious question 
is labour, but he is glad that the country is 
free from the unbusinesslike advance system 
which has grown to be such an abuse in Ceylon. 
They have to pay the labourers from R10 to R15 
per month; but Mr. Tonks’ system is always to 
have something in hand, and yet never to pay a 
considerable lump sum at one time, or the ‘‘boy” 
would disappear until his money was used up. 
The labourer is employed by the estate, and he 
can get small sums on account whenever he ap- 
plies for them, so long as thore is always some- 
thing in hand. Wages had gone up greatly in 
his time, and might, of course, go still higher 
with increased planting; but he hoped to see 
several Ceylon planters arriving before very 
long to help to develop a rich country. What had 
sent up wages in the first instance was the pay 
given to servants and bearers by sportsmen who 
came out and engaged large gangs, not minding 
what wages they paid so Tong as they were well 
“served and hada good time. Such people would 
pay double the ordinary rates. 


COAGULATING CASTILLOA RUBBER. 


Plant has been designed by Dr. Olsson. Seffer, 
Castilloa rubber expert, Mexico, and Mr Leslie 
Radclyffe, A.M.1.0.H., 35, Queen Victoria Street, 
E.C., is connection with Dr. Olsson-Seffer’s 
patent system for coagulating Castilloa rubber. 


By this process the latex is first of all weighed 
and poured into the tank A to which is added 
a certain quantity of water in proportion to 
the weight of the latex ; from this tank the 
latex flows into a specially constructed centri- 
fugal machine B for extracting all the bark, 
sand, and other mechanical impurities ; the 
latex then flows by gravitation to a special co- 
agulating conveyor OC, which forces the latex 
into the creaming vats D and D1, where it is 
allowed tostand fora short period ; the latex 
is raised to the surface by the injection of water 
at the underside of these vats, thus allowing the 
latex, in a creamy form, to run over an over- 
flow lip ; the freshly coagulated latex is then 
taken from the tables fixed underneath the lips 
of these vats and put through specially prepared 
washing machines F as many times as may be 
desirable to further cleanse the latex and at the 
same time allowing a sprinkling of water to pass 
through the rollers whilst washing. The latex 
at this stage is in a form of crepe rubber 
and is placed in an improved vacuum dryer 
J until only 6 per cent to 1U per cent of mois- 
ture remains. From this drying apparatus the 
strips of rubber are folded and placed in the 
box of the press G and a suitable pressure is 
put on; but, in order to keep the presses con- 
tinuously going, interchangeable boxes are in- 
troduced and by a duplicate bridle arrangement 
fitted with four strong screws the inverted 
name-plate, for branding the rubber already in 
position, is held down by these screws and 
easily relieved from the foot of the press: The 
press ram screw is then raised, a new name- 
plate inserted, and another box placed in posi- 
tion, thus the pressing proceeds. After pressing, 
the boxes with the rubber still under pressure, 
are taken to another stove for ‘ fixing” and 
then by simply unlocking the hinged base the 
pressed, branded and finished block is thrust 
through the bottom. These rubber blocks are 
made of astandard size and packed in suitable 
standard packing cases with the inner surfaces 
planned smooth and made cheaply by means 
of the circular saw M and panel planer N—the 
whole plant being complete with boiler K, 
engine L. Shafting O, and building. The whole 
arrangement, it is claimed, 1s as perfect as 
possible, and so simple that unskilled or native 
labour only is required. By certain modifica— 
tions the plant can be made suitable for Hevea 
Brasiliensis (Para) or any species of rubber 
producing trees. Messrs David Bridge and Co. 
are the sole makers.—H, & C. Mail, Sept. 11. 


STRAITS DESTRUCTIVE PESTS BILL. 


The Destructive Pests Bill to prevent the in- 
troduction into the Colony of pests and insects 
destructive to trees, plants, and crops, was 
brought forward in the Straits Legislative on 
August 2ist at the suggestion of the Direc- 
tor of Bc tanic Gardens, who had pointed out 
that at present no provision exists for prevent- 
ing the introduction into the Colony of econo- 
mic plants infected with fungus or other. des- 
tructive pests. There was the disease known as 
Bleeding Heart, which might easily be intro- 
duced into the coconut plantations. The Biil 
was read a first time,—Straits Times, Aug. 22, 


~~ 


om Ae 
nap 
eS i 
Y 
1 
te 
) 
x 


Vide page 428, Photo by H. I. Macmillan. 


1. ARTOCARPUS INCISA: BREADFRUIT TREE. 


ae As 


TROPICAL AGRICULTURIST 


AND 


MAGAZINE OF THE 


CEYLON AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY. 


Von. XXXII, 


COLOMBO, NOVEMBER 15ra, 1908, 


No. 5. 


Literature of Tropical Agriculture. 


Complaints are often coming in that 
the contents of the Tropical Agricul- 
turist do not include more about tea 
and coconuts. A study of the lists of 
literature which we have for some time 
been publishing will explain this. In 
the last six or seven years the number 
of papers on coconuts published has been 
about 60, in all the journals (English and 
foreign) dealing with tropical agricul- 
ture; while in the same, or less, time, the 
number dealing with rubber has been 
over 600. Tea fares but little better 
than coconuts. 


When a product is “‘ new,” a great deal 
is written aboutit ; but when, asin the 
case of tea or coconuts, itis long-estab- 
lished, its methods become more or 
less stereotyped, and the man who 
wishes to introduce improvements must 
be prepared to doa lot of work fora 
very small result. The same change is 
coming over the rubber industry, and 
the time when aman could easily in- 
troduce great improvements in methods 
of cultivation. or tapping is passing, 
and careful detailed work and thought 


will be required. At the same time the 
great profitableness of the industry is 
going by, and success will be to the man 
who most carefully, economically and 
energetically manages his plantation; 
and applies the results of science 
to it. 


The old idea,so common here, that 
Ceylon, by virtue of cheap labour, would 
necessarily have things all its own way, 
is being very markedly upset, as we 
predicted years ago, and Ceylon is 
no more facile princeps among tropical 
colonies, Peopleare, however, beginning 
to awaken to the idea thata new ageis 
dawning, and that scientific treatment 
is coming in in most things. Brute 
labour cannot compete against improved 
treatment, nor against machinery. 


We should be only too glad to include 
more about tea and coconuts, did it 
exist to include, even if it had tobe 
translated from another language. 
Cacao, acrop of far less local importance, 
has much more literature. And be it re- 
membered that the Yropical Agricul- 
twrist has 72 pages a month to be filled, 


410 


[Novem BER, 1908. 


GUMS, RESINS, SAPS AND EXUDATIONS. 


THE COLLECTION OF PARA 
RUBBER ON THE AMAZON, AND 
ITS FUTURE. 


(By D. SANDMANN, in Der Tropenflan- 
zer, SEPTEMBER, 1908.) 
ABSTRACTED BY J. C, WILLIS. 


Herr Sandmann visited Ceylon and the 
East, upon an agricultural expedition, 
in 1906, and has now been to Brazil, 
where he devoted special attention, 
to rubber, it being evident that upon 
the future of South American rubber 
would largely depend that of many rub- 
ber plantations now established, and 
espically those of the valuable kinds of 
caoutchouc, such as Funtumia, &e. 


Most of the land in the Amazon 
valley, except to a distance of a few 
miles from the navigable streams, is 
still Government property, but much of 
it is worked for rubber, &¢., without any 
title, and of coursein such cases Oper- 
ations are liable to come toa sudden end. 

When a_ rubber-wood, or seringal is 
opened, a good deal of labour is required, 
and has often to be got from great dis- 
tances, especially the States of Ceara or 
Maranhao, under heavy advances. An 
opened seringal of one hundred Hstra- 
das or paths will require about fifty 
men, but to allow for sickness and losses 
in other ways, eighty must be kept. 
These will require advances of at least 
500 milreis each at the start, and_pro- 
bably more later, so that a seringal 
of 400 or 500 estradas may represent 
advances of 400,000 or £00,000 milreis 
(£40,000—50,000). 


In laying out a seringal, huts of tim- 
ber and cadjan are first built along the 
streams at likely spots for boats to 
call. One forms a kind of store and 
shop, the others dwellings. Paths 
(estradas) ave then cut through the 
jungle, passing by all the Hevea trees. 
These are often over 100 yards apart, 
but sometimes stand in little clumps of 
twotofour. Afterwards more perma- 
nent buildings, or barracons, are erected 
by the waterside. 


Most large seringals are not managed 
by the owners, but by their represent- 
atives or lessees. Besides the actual 
workers atrubber collection, there are 
other servants, hunters, fishers, &c. The 
last named get 3,000 milreis (£300) a 
year in wages. 


The home of the Hevea is mainly in 
the country subject to floods. Over 
twenty varieties have been described, 
but the best is H. brasiliensis, Mull- 
Arg., locally known as Seringa. 


Hach estrada runs round by about 
10 or 150 trees, and returus to its start- 
ing point. 40 to 800 estradas form a 
seringal, which may therefore have 
from 4,000 to 100,000 trees. The largest 
is consequently not so large (in number 
of trees) as a big rubber estate. 


The seringuero, or rubber-collector, 
begins his work at 6 a.m., equipped 
with a small axe (machadinha) and a 
wood knife (teicado). The tin cups for 
collection of the milk (tigelinhas) are left 
in the forest hanging on twigs near the 
trees. The tapping season begins with 
the disappearance of the floodwater, 
and the estrada is cleared of over- 
growth. On the first tour of the 
estrada, every tree is struck with a 
long-handled machadinha at about 12 
feet from the ground. The wound thus 
given stimulates the flow of milk from . 
the roots and favours tapping.* The 
milk that exudes is allowed to run down 
and dry upon the bark. Two days later 
the regular tapping is begun, the macha- 
dinha now used being about 13 inch 
wide, on a 20 inch handle, and made of 
not too hard iron, so that it will not 
penetrate too deeply. Sometimes larger 
tools are used, but against the wish 
of the owner, for much damage may be 
done with them. 


The tapping is begun at about 6/6. 
above the ground, cuts being made in 
the bark at an angle of 25°, Every second 
day new ones are made at 2-3 inches 
below, until after thirty-five tappings the 
ground is reached, the row of tappings 
being termed an «arracdo. A second 
arracao is then begun at the top two spans 
distant from the first. The machadinha 
is struck in downwards, and then slight- 
ly bent outwards to open the wound. 
The blow is supposed not to penetrate 
the cambium, but is usually struck too 
hard and enters the wood, so that heal- 
ing, instead of being smooth, is warty, 
as has often been noticed in Ceylon. 
Old trees are frequently so knotty that. 
large round pieces come out at the blow 
of the machadinha. 


At the lower end of the wound a tige- 
linha is at once fixed, the sharp edge of 
the cup being pressed into the bark. 


*« We have no evideace that there is any flow 
from theroots, but ibis worth trying this method, 
asis bein done at Henaratguda,—Ev. 


NOVEMBER, 1908. } 


The trees being often ten minutes apart, 
the seringuero takes 2-3 hours to go 
round the estrada, and he then returns 
with a tin vessel of about ten liters 
capacity, pouring into it the contents 
of the tigelinhas, cleaning these out 
with the finger. The empty cups are 
then hung again in the old place. 


About midday the seringuero gets 
back with the milk, and must at once 
elot it, as that which coagulates natur- 
ally in the vessel gives inferior rubber. 
A fire is built and fed with the nuts of 
the Urucuri palm, <Attalea speciosa, 
Martius, or the wood of the oily Masse- 
randuba, JWinmwsops elata, Alem. When 
the fire is developing a thick smoke, a 
somewhat funnel-shaped chimney (Boiao) 
of tin or earthernware is put over it; 
this has an opening on the lower edge 
to admit air. The latter gives the hotter 
smoke, but is more easily broken. 


As soon as the smoke pours freely out 
of the top of the funnel, smoking is 
begun. Inthe loop ofa cord hung up 
near the funnel is a round staff of wood, 
called_a pao, so arranged that it can be 
easily placed either over the smoke or 
over the vessel of milk. With a cup 
(cuia) made out of a fruit the seringuero 
then pours milk over the pao and_ holds 
it in the smoke, turning it slowly round, 
one end being in the loop, the other on 
his knee. The smoke contains much 
antiseptic and cvagulating material, 
such as creosote and acetic acid.” As 
soon as the milk coagulates, which is 
known by the colour changing from 
white to yellow, fresh milk is poured on, 
and held again in the smoke, and _ so on, 
until all the milk is finished. In this 
way, often after several days, a ball of 
rubber weighing 25 to 70 kilograms (56 to 
150 lbs.) is made, and drawn off the pao. 
Smaller blocks are also made_ by using a 
kind of flat paddle and holding it in 
the hand. 


The work is at first slow, the surface 
for evaporation being small. A litre 
of milk at first lasts half an hour, later 
only ten minutes. The smoke of urucuari 
nuts produces a quicker coagulation, and 
so does hot smoke. 


If in the vessel of milk small particles 
of clotted rubber are found, they are 
carefully removed by the better workers, 
though many work them into the ball of 
rubber and deceive the purchaser who 
does not cut it into portions. _These 
pieces of rubber are not rendered anti- 
septic, and set up decay, &c. 


*1t was on tho known composition of this 
smoke that Mr. Parkin based his method of 
making biscuits, by heating and adding creosote 
and acetic acid,—Ep. 


411 Saps and Kaudations. 


When the vessel of milk is empty, it is 
held over the smoke to coagulate the 
film that remains, which is mixed with 
the pieces taken out of the milk to form 
scrap, known as ser namby. 


Kach seringuero usually has two 
estradas, and as he does one on one day 
and the other on the next, and has to 
make two arracaos of 35 cuts each, on 
every tree, he will take 140 days at least 
but holidays, &c., usually lengthen the 
time to six or even eight months. 


Injury often results from the serin- 
guero making three arracdos ona tree 
that should only have two, or from his 
cutting into the wood. Insome places 
scaffoldings are fixed to let the upper 
parts of the tree be tapped. This also 
causes much harm. 


In consequence of the liability to 
injury, trees are not termed tappable 
until of one foot in diameter, whereas on 
plantations smaller trees are tapped. 


(To be continued.) 


[This article, written by a_ trained 
observer, deserves careful study. Ex- 
periments are being set on foot to 
determine the value of the preliminary 
cut at 12 feet from the ground. Those 
estates which, as some do, open a fresh 
cut every two days, will be pleased to 
find their method supported by Amazon 
experience. In the preparation of the 
rubber, it is evident that the only 
difference from Ceylon is in the fact 
that smoked ‘wet block’ is made. Mr. 
Parkin, years ago, showed that heating 
the milk almost to boiling, and clotting 
with acetic acid and creosote, gave the 
best results. The biscuits he made in 
1898-9 are still quite sound, whereas 
many of those made without creosote, 
or in the cold, decay within a couple of 
years. The process will take time to 
work out, but we feel almost certain 
that some form of making the biscuits 
as deseribed by Mr. Parkin, and making 
these into wet block, will ultimately 
come in.—KED.] 


THE GUAYULE SITUATION. 
(By LaBRoy in Journ. d Agi. Trop., 71 
Auwg., 1908, p. 232.) 
REVIEWED BY J. C. WILLIS. 


There seems no doubt that the 
exploitation of this shrub is going on 
much more rapidly than its natural 
reproduction, while there is as yet no 
planting of it, 


Gums, Resins, 


THE GUM OF GREVILLEA ROBUSTA. 


(DES GROTTES AND RIVIERE, in Jonrn. 
ad Agr. Trop. 31 August, 1908, . 225.) 
ABSTRACTED BY J. C. WILLIS, 


This gum has often been studied, 
but so far without any practical results. 
Samples recently sent from Travancore 
showed a reddish colour, slight solu- 
bility, and brilliant resinous fracture. 
Cooke, in the ‘“‘Gums and Resins of 
India.” says that a tree exudes 10 
ounces a year. 


On an estate in Travancore, a herd 
of elephants rubbed against many 
Grevilleas along a road, and soon after- 
wards these trees exuded gums varying 
much in colour. This is put down to 
infection from different microbes 
earried on the elephants. A reference 
to M, Achalme, Director of the Colonial 
Laboratory at the Museum, and to 
Prof. Bernard of the Pasteur Laboratory, 
goes to confirm this. They are of 
opinion that gum-formation is due to 
microbes. 


The work is suggestive, and indicates 
that we may some day be able to guide 
and control the formation of gums. 


NOTES ON FUNTUMIA ELASTICA. 


By FREDERICK DE VALDA. 


West African rubbers have not at the 
present time a very favourable reputa- 
tion in the European markets. In the 
endeavour to obtain rubber for sale, the 
juices of many different trees, some of 
them quite innocent of any caoutchouc, 
are mixed with good latices of Funtumia, 
Landolphia, &c. Putrefaction of the 
proteid constituents soon sets in, and the 
delectable preparations known to the 
trade as Gold Coast paste, lump, soft 
ball, &c., are the evil-smelling results. 
These different rubbers are valued at 
from 10d. to Is. 9d. per pound, and re- 
quire a man with a very strong stomach 
indeed to handle them. Some excep- 
tions, it is true, havea very favourable 
reputation ; fine nigger-ball, for instance, 
has obtained as much as 3s. to3s. 6d. per 
lb. ; but if we search for the reason of 
the higher price these latter rubbers 
have obtained, we invariably find that 
they consist either of unadulterated 
Funtumia, Landolphia, or one or two 
other fine rubbers. 

While Para rubber has always reached 
the European markets more or less 
unadulterated, and has thus anexcellent 
reputation behind it, Funtumia elastica 
has very rarely been shipped to Europe 
in its pure state. When this has been 
done, a price equal to hard Para has 


412 


(NOVEMBER, 1908. 


always been obtained. The bad quality 
of West African rubbers will always 
continue as long as the collection and 
preparation of the rubber are carried 
out in the native fashion. These natives 
have not the same intelligence that the 
Central and South American collectors 
have. The local merchants and traders 
are to blame for not encouraging the 
production of high-grade rubbers by 
paying a corresponding price for them.* 


The only way to establish F. elastica 
in the eyes of the manufacturer is to 
cultivate it on the same _ basis, and with 
the same thoroughness, that Hevea 
brasiliensis has been taken up and culti- 
vated in the East. The planter will 
then find that he has fewer difficulties 
to contend with in establishing his 
plantation, and simpler methods will 
suffice to produce the cured article from 
the milk of the trees. 


It is impossible, within the space of 
this short article, to compare point for 
point the qualities of #. elastica and 
Al. brasiliensis. Their main points of 
similarity and divergence will therefore 
have to be shortly epitomized. 


Planting.—The H, brasiliensis is being 
planted out at distances varying from 
15 to 20 feet. FF. elastica can be planted 
out 8 by 6ft., the yield per individual 
tree of H. brasiliensis, by most ex- 
haustive tapping methods, is said to 
have been raised to 10 to 12 pounds per 
year. This statement looms largely in 
some prospectuses issued by rubber- 
planting companies and is to be con- 
sidered more as an exception—a very 
great exception—than a rule, It is safer 
to assume that an eight-to-ten-year-old 
Para tree yields 1 lb. of rubber per year. 
In the case of Para this would give a 
yield per acre per year of 190 lbs. of 
rubber. In the case of F. elastica no 
claims of such high individual yields are 
made, but I have found, as the result of 
numerous tappings, that 4 lb. per tree 
per year is to be relied upon in an eight- 
to-ten-year-old tree. Thus, planted 8 
feet by 8 ft., an acre of I. elastica would 
yield 335 lb. of rubber, or 175 per cent. 
greater yield than that same acre would 
have given, planted with Para 15 ft. by 
15 ft. Para requires a rainfall of 80 to 
100 in. to do well; F&. elastica gets along 
nicely on 55 to 60 in. per year. Para is 
liable to many diseases—canker, fungoid, 
blights, &c. ; &. elastica is not liable to 
such diseases to nearly the same extent 


* The natives have good reasons for not put- 
ting a better rubber on the market. They are 
intelligent enough to know that they can make 
more money out of the mixed rubber, as at 
present exported, jthan out of the true 
article,—Ep. T. L 


NOVEMBER, 1908, } 


as Para is.* The difficulty of intro- 
ducing Para into Africa les in the 
great susceptibilty of its seed to long 
transport. Planters in Africa, for in- 
stance, importing such seeds from Ceylon, 
even when most carefully packed, con- 
sider themselves lucky if they raise 15 
per cent. of seedlingst from the seeds 
imported. Large quantities of /, clastica 
seeds can be sent in a 11 1b. parcel for 
3s. toany part of the world. We thus 
have the following advantages in the 
ease of F. elastica:— 


Seeds easily procurable; they stand 
transporation to any part of the world 
at small expense and do not necessitate 
cumbrous packing and consequent ex- 
pense.t{ 


F. elastica is a drought-resisting tree, 
doing well with a rainfall to which Para 
would inevitably succumb. 

It is a disease-resisting tree, and not 
liable to the pests and cankers that have 
caused considerable ravage in the Para 
plantations of Ceylon. 


The yield per acre of rubber from F. 
elastica is greater than from Para. 

The mode of preparation and curing 
the latex of &. elaslica rubber is simple, 
and does not necessitate any chemicals, 
which tend to weaken its resilient and 
elastic qualities. 


Lastly, the price obtained for it in the 
open market has been practically the 
same asfor hard Para, when prepared 
on equally scientific methods, and. ship- 
ped free of moisture, dirt, &e. 


A brief summary of the different 
methods of coagulating the latex of 
Funtumia may prove of interest to plant- 
ers. There are several ways of carrying 
out this operation. 


(1) By the crude method at present 
in vogue among the natives. This con- 
sists in digging a hole in the ground, or 
scooping out the trunk of a tree, and 
pouring the milk in. In three or four 
weeks the latex coagulates, and the 
rubber thus formed is then taken out 
and sent down to the coast and sold. 


(2) Next in order comes the boiling 
process. The milk is placed in a ‘“‘bain- 
marie;” the water surrounding it is 
brought to the boil, and the water in 
the milk carefully steamed off. This 


*When Funtumia is planted out in large 
cultivated areas it may, and probably will. 
develop diseases the same as other trees: 
rubber, cacao, &c, 

+ We always understood that the Botanical 
Gardens supply plants at a price that works out 
under a penny each, so they cannot be said to 
be expensive. 

{ Some authorities insist that Funtumia seeds 
also rapidly lose their germinating vitality. 


9 


113 Saps and HRaudations, 


process requires time, fuel, and constant 
attention.” 


(8) Then comes another process, con- 


sidered by the writer very simple 
and effective. Several planks of the 
‘*“Odoom” tree (Chlorophora  excelsa) 


after being planed, are joined together, 
and the milk poured over this surface to 
a depth of about} inch. This is done in 
the evening. By the next morning the 
rubber is ready to be peeled off.t 


Fourth, and lastly. comes the Otoko- 
taka process, which has attracted so 
much attention of late.t The milk is 
poured into an infusion made from the 
leaves of the Otokotaka shrub (Bauhinia 
reticulata) and stirred, coagulation im- 
mediately takes place. The rubber 
gathers on the surface of the vessel in 
grey-white lumps. These are removed 
and rolled out into flat biscuits or 
sheets. 


The writer has also successfully carried 
out the smoking and creosoting of these 
biscuits and sheets by dropping creosote 
on to the smouldering fibres that are 
left after the oil has been boiled out of 
the pericarp (fleshy part) of the nut of 
the oil palm. The smoke thus obtained 
preserves the rubber and gives it that 
peculiar smoked-bacon odour so highly 
prized by buyers.§ The cakes of rubber 
were subjected to this smoke for about 
half an hour. I have one before me that 
has been ona steam radiator in an office 
during the past winter; its condition is 
perfect. 


Tapping.—Experiments with = spiral 
and semi-spiral tapping, after the me- 

* The process resembles the ‘ Norzagaray 
trough” process, now on show at the stall of 
the Chilian ExplorationCompany ia the Mexican 
Exhibition at the Crystal Palace. We have 
seen rubber prepared by this process, even in 
London, with great success. By this system 
the rubber can be prepared in about thirty 
minutes, and the apparatus (simply a tin pan 
and some troughs, 12 in. long) can be carried 
about anywhere. Mr. Evans values Funtumia 
prepared by a process similar to the ‘* Norza- 
garay’’ as being equal to hard Para.—Ep .T.L. 

+ We understand that this system is an old 
one, and from an experimental point of view it 
works out admirably, but is not generally to be 
recommended for commercial purposes, Any 
wood seems to do; it is the exposure to the at- 
mosphere that causes coagulation, the length of 
time depending on the thinness of the layer of 
latex. 


+ In the Gold Coast exhibits at the Franco. 
British Exhibition Mr. Evans has included some 
Otokotaka leaves, and specimens of the rubber pre- 
pared by this process. 

§ Rubber can also be suceessfully creosoted. on the 
West Coast by hangiug the biscuits, &c,, in a 
native cooking house,—Hd, T, L. 


Guins, Resins, 


thods used in Ceylon for Hevea, have 
given unsatisfactory results with Fun- 
tumia. The lactiferous system of the 
two trees cannot be compared. The 
milk-bearing tubes or cells of the Hevea 
are divided into well-defined compart- 
ments, running vertically, with very 
little, if any, lateral communication, so 
that a vertical cut produces very little 
latex. In the Funtumia, however, the 
tubes arelonger and not divided to the 
extent that the milk tubes of the Hevea 
are. One vertical groove produces 
more Jatex than the same length of 


diagonal grooves, distributed over a 
wide surface. This points to there 


being horizontal, or secondary tubes, in 
Funtumia, connecting the vertical or 
primary ones, and this is clearly proved 
by the microscope. 

A series of vertical grooves made at 
intervals, say of two months, would 
at a distance of 4in. completely tap one 
tree in the course of a year without 
inflicting the damage that the spiral and 
herring-bone systems undoubtedly do. 
A knife, made on the principle of the Cey- 
lon V-knife, would be the best one to 
use. I find, however, that a slightly 
rounded apex cuts better and does less 
damage tothe bark of the Funtumia. 

In preparing an estimate for any 
forest or plantation venture on the 
Western Coast of Africa, it is quite use- 
less and incorrect to count onany rubber 
coming from untapped trees on the 
property. A few untapped trees may 
exist, but they are very few and far 
between. The native rubber collector 
knows the value of an untapped rubber 
tree just as well as a man does, and has 
greater facilities to seek it out.—Tropical 
Life, Vol. 1V., No. 8, August 1908. 


HEVEA BRASILIENSIS. 


EXPERIMENTS IN GERMINATION, ETC. 


BY. T. .PETCH: 


The latest contribution to cur know- 
ledge of the seeds of Hevea brasiliensis 
is furnished by Mr. G. Vernet, of 
Annam. A comparison of his results 
with the figures obtained in Ceylon is 
interesting, more especially as the 
Apnam trees, now ten years old, were 
grown from Ceylon seeds. 

Mr. Vernet gives illustrations of the 
seed and details of its analysis. He 
states that the oil content of the dry 
kernel varies from 283 to 86°32 %. 
This is considerably less than the value 
found at the Imperial Institute, viz., 
423%, but the difference may be 
accounted for, if we suppose that the 
Annam ‘figures refer to ‘‘air dry” ker- 


414 


nels; the kernels, “ air dry ” in Kogland, 
would be drier than in Annam. 

The weight of a seed (just gathered ?) 
is said to vary from 1:02 grammes to 
955 grammes; and for selecting seed 
for experimental plantations Mr. Vernet 
rejects all which do not weigh more 
than 5grammes. We have no recorded 
variation of this extent in Ceylon, 
though it is probable that some seeds 
may be found which approach the 
lower limit. Carruthers gives 38:14 
grammes to 5'l4 grammes, but only deals 
with twelve seeds; and the figures 
obtained by Macmillan and myself are 
only averages. But it may confidently 
be stated that the application of the 
‘*5 grammes” rule to the seeds sent 
from Ceylon would have led to the 
rejection of almost all of them. Car- 
ruthers only found one seed in twelve 
to weigh more than 5 grammes; and as 
the weight of one hundred fresh Ceylon 
seed has been found to vary from 336 
grammes to 424 grames, it is evident 
that only a very small percentage can 
weigh more than five grammes, The 
samples were fairly uniform, and 
certainly did not include a large pro- 
portion of small seeds. 


If the results of experiments are to 
be comparable, the conditions must be 
the samein eachecase. The Ceylon seeds 
were gathered on the ground each 
morning, and therefore had ripened 
and fallen during the previous twenty- 
four hours. Mr, Vernet states that in 
order to reduce the error due to loss 
of weight on drying, the seeds were 
obtained by gathering the fruits as 
soon as the capsule had turned com- 
pletely brown. This procedure would 
seem to be impossible in Ceylon, for 
many fruits, at least, split when they 
are some shade of green. It might be 
thought that this method would account 


for some of the difference between 
the weights of Ceylon and Annam 
seeds. as the latter might contain 


more water, but this explanation is 
contradicted by Mr. Vernet’s figures 
which show that the Annam seeds left 
to dry in the laboratory lose a similar 
preentage of their weight in ten days 
than the Ceylon seeds lose in a week 


under similar conditions. We must 
conclude, therefore, that the Annam 
seeds are heavier than the Ceylon 


seeds. The recorded weights per 100 
seeds (Aiinam) vary from 381 grammesto 
630 grammes, 2,900 seeds being weighed; 
Peradeniya seeds vary from 336 to 434 
grammes per 100 seeds, 2,000 seeds 
being weighed. 

Mr. Vernet quotes the alleged opinion 


of the planters of Ceylon and Malaya 
that trees less than eight years old 


[NOVEMBER, 1908. 


N OVEMBER, 1908. | 


do not produce good seed; and he 
supports this view by figures Obtained 
in Annam. Thus, trees, 7 years old, 
produce seed weighing 38l grammes per 
_ 100; trees 8 and 9 years old, 498 grammes 
per 100; and trees 10 years old, 530 
grammes per 100. Since seed from 
Ceylon trees, twenty to thirty years 
old, weighs less than this, we must, 
if this view is correct, expect a 
maximum weight per one hundred seed 
between the ages of ten and twenty; and 
the result isat variance with Mr. Ridley’s 
view that the early fruiting gives 
large seed getting a little smaller in 
later years. But it must be objected 
that results in this matter can only 
be obtained by weighing the seed from 
the same group of trees for several 
years, the trees meanwhile remaining 
untapped. The Peradeniya — results 
showed that trees 26 years old produced 
seed weighing 409 grammes per 100 
seed ; for years later, the same trees, 
now tapped, produced seed weighing 
354 grammes per 100, while in the same 
years, untapped trees 20 years old, 
produced seed weighing 412 grammes 
per 100. Are we to suppose that the 
weight per 100 seed is constant between 
the ages of twenty and tweity-six, 
but drops 124 % between twenty-six and 
thirty? It is quite possible that the 
weight of the seed varies with the age of 
the tree, but this°can only be proved by 
weighing the produce of one tree, or a 
small group of trees, for a number of 
years: and the experiment will prove 
nothing if the trees are tapped. 


Mr. Vernet justifies his rejection of 
seeds weighing less than five grammes 
each by an experiment which shows 
that their germination is only 56%, 
while thatof seeds weighing over five 
grammes is 91%. In contrast to this, 
the germination of one-hundred Ceylon 
seeds weighing 345 grammes was 93 % 
in one case, and 96% in another. It 
would certainly not be expected that 
the germinative capacity of fresh seeds 
would be governed by the weight, un- 
less the smaller weight indicates that 
the kernel has for somereason not de- 
veloped properly. But on this point 
no information is given. Mr. Vernet’s 
results are without parallel in Ceylon. 
The Annam maximum weight per one- 
hundred seeds is 630 grammes, and seeds 
weighing less than five grammes each 
show a small percentage germination. 
The Ceylon maximum per hundred seeds 
is 434 grammes, so that we ought on 
this principle to have a low percentage 
germination with seeds weighing less 
than three-fourth grammes. Instead, we 
obtain 93 % germination from one-hun- 
dred seeds which weighed 345 grammes. 


5 Saps and Fxudations. 


A further experiment by Mr. Vernet is 
taken to prove that the amount of water 
in the kernel is pvoportional to the 
yield of rubber by the tree. The yield 
of rubber is not stated, but with three 
series of trees in increasing order of 
yield, the percentages of water in the 
kernels were twenty-four, forty-five 
and sixty-three respectively. The trees 
were unfortunately of different ages. 
Corresponding figures for Ceylon are not 
available, but it has been shown that the 
small seeds from the tapped trees lose a 
greater percentage of their weight in 
drying than the larger seeds from un- 
tapped trees. We may provisionally 
conclude therefore that the seeds from 
tapped trees contain a greater percent- 
age of water thanseeds from untapped 
trees; and Mr. Vernet’s result confirms 
this if taken to mean that the greater 
percentage of wateris a consequence of 
the removal of the latex or bark. 

An experiment showing the variation 
in the time of germination of one-hundred 
seeds gives another instance of wide 
departure from Ceylon results. The time 
between the germination of the first 
and last seeds was twenty-six days, and 
fourteen days have elapsed before 5) % 
had germinated. In our experience, 
80 % germinate without the first three 
days of germination, and, with fresh 
seed, all have germinated withinseven 
days. A series of germinations extend- 
ing over twenty-six days would be con- 
sidered to prove that the sample was a 
mixed one, t.e., consisting of seeds which 
had been gathered at different tinies. 

Mr. Vernet’s remaining experiments 
deal with methods of preserving the ger- 
minative capacity of the seeds. Seeds 
were kept'in a closed box for periods up to 
forty days. Those planted after having 
been thus kept for thirty-five days gave 
95 % germination, and those kept for 
forty days gave 80 %. The number of 
seeds tested was only twenty in the first 
case, and tenin the second. A similar 
experiment in which the seeds were pre- 
served in dry charcoal gave only 235 % 
germination after twenty-five days, and 
20 % after forty days. Mr. Vernet de- 
precates the use of moist charcoal because 
the seeds germinate in the charcoal, and 
the roots and stemsare liable to be dis- 
torted or broken. 


There is still need of considerable ex- 
tension of experiments of this nature. The 
results at present recorded show such 
wide differences that no general conclu- 
sions can be drawn from them. It would 
be interesting to have similar figures from 
the Federated Malay States, Singapore, 
andother countries in which Hevea brasi- 
liensts is grown. _T. PETCH, 

Govt. Mycologist. 


416 [NOVEMBER, 1908, 


OILS AND FATS. 


PURIFICATION OF COCONUT OIL. 


SIMPLE METHODS. 


Coconut oil, as it is expressed from 
sun or grill-dried copra, always contains 
a quantity of impurities—organic 
colouring matter, albuminoid bodies 
and a certain characteristic-odour, 
all of which are objectionable for 
particular purposes for which the 
oil is otherwise well suited. While it 
is entirely possible to produce a pure 
oil directly from the nuts if special 
precaution in curing them is taken, 
the demand for highly-refined oil does 
not seem to warrant the introduction 
of modern mechanical methods of 
desiccation at the present time, hence 
the numerous patents which are taken 
out from time to time, and the frequent 
notices in the literature of new or 
improved processes for the production 
of pure coconut oil, refer to some 
subsequent chemical treatment of the 
commercially expressed oil itself. Clari- 
fication by filtration, subsidence or 
heating with or without the addition 
of coagulants is simple and economical 
of application, and, as generally 
practised, removes all of the suspended 
foreign matter and most of the soluble 
impurities, producing a perfectly clear, 
light, amber oil of sufficient purity 
for soap stock, but it falls short of 
being completely free from odour and 
colour. Therefore, further refining 
constituents, the only known means of 
producing an odourless and colourless 
product suitable for alimental or cos- 
metic purposes, are necessary, 


REFINING PROCESSES. 

The removal of the last traces of 
odour and colour from cocount oil 
present many difficulties in the way 
of subsequent clarification and risk of 
loss of oil, and the methods of procedure 
are necessarily limited to the use of 
such chemical reagents as are harmless 
or are easily removed. In general, 
refining processes may be conveniently 
divided into (1) acid, and (2) alkaline 
treatments. The former has not proved 
applicable for the production of oils 
for edible, cosmetic or lubricating 
purposes, because of the poisonous 
nature and otherwise harmful action 
of mineral acids. The alkaline process 
makes use of the hydrates or carbonates 
of the fixed alkalies, ammonia, caustic 
lime or magnesia, with or without the aid 
of heat. The efficiency of an alkaline 
treatment depends upon incomplete 
saponification, whereby the free, volite, 


fatty acids, which are responsible toa 
large measure for the characteristic 
odour of coconut oil, are first neutralized 
and precipitated as a salt of whichever 
alkali is employed. If the alkali be 
added in excess of the amount necessary 
to neutralize the free acids, and the oil 
is steamed or otherwise heated, then 
the neutral glycerides—that is the oil 
itself—suffers partial decomposition and 
goes to augment the amount of soaps 
formed. Therefore, unless any alkaline 
treatment of a vegetable oilis carefully 
regulated, both as regards the amount 
of alkalie used and the temperature 
employed, low yields of purified oil are 
obtained. All of the residues or ‘‘ foots” 
go to form soap stock, hence the advi- 
sability is apparent of employing this 
process in conjunction with a market 
for the by-product. The main points to 
note in connection with refining by 
means of alkalies are, first the miuimum 
quantity of alkali necessary to effect the 
purification; and, secondly, the right con- 
centration of caustic lye which is un- 
favourable to the formation of emulsions. 
The minimum quantity of alkali can be 
determined accurately by testing the 
acidity of asmall sample of the oil to be 
refined or by the eut and dried methods 
of practical experience, 


Free Fatty AcIpDs. 


Ordinary commercial grades of coconut 
oil contain from 1 to 10 per cent. of free 
fatty acids calculated as oleic acid, and 
these percentages require approximately 
015 to 15 parts, respectively, of caustic 
soda per 100 parts of oil. The caustic 
soda may be added to the oil either in 
the solid state with subsequent addition 
of water, or better in the form of a 
caustic liquor previously prepared. The 
stronger the caustic liquor used the less 
the tendency to emulsion formation, and 
the more rapid and complete the 
action, if proper mechanical devices for 
thoroughly mixing a strong lye with the 
oil are used. If, after the addition of 
the caustic the oil is gradually heated to 
the boiling point of water, the soap 
separates ina granular condition and is 
easily removed by filtration or sub- 
sidence. The oil may now be steamed 
and washed with hot water, until it is 
perfectly clear and neutral, and, if the 
above treatment with caustic liquor and 
the subsequent steaming are properly 
conducted, the resulting oil will be found 
perfectly free from the well-defined odour 
of the original oil and to possess the 
bland, fatty odour of pure melted lard, 


NOVEMBER, 1908. ] 


COLOURLESS OIL. 

Coconut oilis also considerably lighten- 
edin colour by the above treatment, 
but in no sense can it be considered asa 
colourless oil. To remove the last traces 
of colouring matter from a vegetable 
oilis much more difficult than the des- 
truction of the rancid odour, and in 
order to accomplish this completely it is 
necessary to subject the refined oil to 
some mild bleaching action which does 
not introduce harmful ingredients which 
would be difficult of subsequent removal. 
Of the many well-known methods of 
bleaching proposed for general use, 
hydrogen peroxide seems to be most 
favourable in this regard as it is easy of 
application, and at its present price is 
not prohibitive. Sufficient dilute alkali 
should be added to neutralize any 
mineral acid it may contain, and a slight 
excess favours the action of this reagent, 
at the same time having no saponifying 
action. Nextin order of suitability is a 
dilute solution of chloride of lime 
slightly acidified with acetic acid. If 
the addition of acid and the temperature 
of the bleaching are carefully controlled, 
the chance of injury to the oil by free 
chlorine is a minimum, and the result is 
a pure, water-white product.—Indian 
Trade Journal, 24th Sept., 1908, p. 285. 


41 


7 Oils and Fats. 


NOTES ON THE SPROUTING COCO- 
NUT, ON COPRA, AND ON 
COCONUT OIL. 

(By H.S. WALKER, in Philippine Jour- 
nal of Science, III, A. 1908, p. 111.) 


ABSTRACTED BY J.C, WILLIS. 

1. Enzymes.—Experiments were car- 
ried on to determine if the coconut, like 
the ecastor-oil and other oil seeds, 
contains a fat-splitting enzyme. No 
trace of such a body could be discovered, 
and the cause of the destruction of the 
fat in the growing nut must therefore 
be sought elsewhere. 

2. Changes in the Sprouting Nut.— 
‘*Oilis lost by the meat; it is not taken 
up as such by any other portion of the 
nut, but is either burned to furnish en- 
ergy for the growing plant or is split up, 
being transformed by progressive syn- 
thesis into sagar and finally to cellulose.” 

3. Copra.—The moulds which grow 
on copra were found to have the pro- 
perty of hydrolyzing and destroying 
fat; itis, therefore, a direct loss of oil 
if these be suffered to grow. Bacteria, 
which also grow, do not reduce the oil 
but produce a sour smell and disin- 
tegrate the meat. 


4, Production of Acid in Oil.—The 
deterioration of a freshly prepared oil is 
due to several causes. Molds destroy it 
after it is expressed, but this may be 
checked by filtration, preferably after 
heating to the boiling point of water to 
destroy moulds and enzymes formed by 
them, Afterwards oxidation by the air 
sets in, andthe oil should therefore be 
stored in full receptacles, impervious to 
air. Heat also has some effect. 


418 


| NOVEMBER, 1908, 


DYES AND TANS. 


CULTIVATION AND UTILISATION 
, OF ANNATTO. 


In connection with the question of 
annatto production in the Colonies, 
especially in West Africa and Ceylon, 
the following memorandum has_ been 
prepared and is now published for 
general information :— 


Annatto is the orange-red colouring 
matter occurring asa layer of pulp on 
the outside of the seeds of the annatto 
plant, Bixa orellana, a small tree indi- 
genous to South America, but now ex- 
tensively cultivated in many tropical 
countries. 


The supplies of annatto which reach 
the United Kingdom at present come 
principallyin the form of the seeds from 
the East and West Indies, and as paste 
from French Guiana or Brazil. 


CULTIVATION OF THE PLANT. 


The annatto plant grows luxuriantly 
in almost any soil, and in the tropics 
will thrive up to about 3,000 feet above 
sea level. The soil is prepared fcr 
annatto in much the same way as for 
cotton. The seeds, previously softened 
by soaking in water, are planted in 
furrows at distances of 8 to 10 feet apart. 
As the young plants come up they should 
be provided with artificial shade to 
protect them from excessive heat, but 
later ona large amount of sunshine is 
necessary for their proper development. 
After three months the plantation 
should be weeded and superfluous plants 
removed. Beyond periodical weeding 
the plantation requires little attention. 


HARVESTING. 


Full crops of seed may be obtained in 
three or four years from the time of 
sowing, but the collection of seed may 
be commenced usually after the first 
eighteen months or even earlier. The 
fruit capsules are gathered when they 
have acquired a reddish colour and are 
just beginning to break open. This takes 
place from the pointed end along the 
edges and causes the seeds to be exposed. 
It is said to be advantageous to cut the 
branches along with the capsules, as in 
this way the plants are prevented from 
growing so high as to make collection a 
matter of difficulty, and they bear better. 


The capsules are opened out on mats 
or cloths and allowed to dry completely 
in the sun, being turned over from time 
totime: Three or four days’ exposure is 
usually sufficient to accomplish this, and 


the fruits are then collected into heaps 
and beaten with clubs or thrashed to 
separate the seeds. These are separated 
from the empty pods by winnowing or 
sifting, and again exposed to the sun 
until they are completely dry. 


The seed is usually packed in barrels 
for export, but manufacturers using 
annatto in the United Kingdom re- 
commend that they should be packed in 
double sacks holding from 13 to2 ewt. 
each. Great care should be taken to see 
that the seeds are dry before they are 
packed, as if they are at alldamp they 
are liable to become mouldy and lose 
colour. 


CoMMERCIAL VALUE OF ANNATTO SEEDS. 


The prices obtained for annatto seed 
in London in the last few years have 
varied somewhat. Ceylon and Madras 
seed fetched from 6d, to7d. per lb. at the 
end of 1905, but gradually fell to 83d. or 
4d. during 1906, Jamaica seed similarly 
fell from 8d. at the end of 1905 to 4d. in 
October, 1906. At present 4d. per lb. may 
be taken as the average value. Java 
seed, which go principally to Liverpool, 
is at present worth 4d. to 5d. perlb. The 
most recent quotations available are 4d. 
per lb. for Madras seed and 3$d. per lb. 
for Ceylon seed. 


There is a fair demand for annatto 
seedin the United Kingdom, and the 
annual imports are said to fluctuate 
between 75 and 100 tons, and manu- 
facturers of annatto preparations are of 
opinion that the demand is likely to 
grow. There is said also to be an in- 
creasing market in the United States 
for annatto, but this is likely to be met 
by a larger output from Jamaica. It 
should be borne in mind, however, that 
the annatto plant can be grown practi- 
cally anywhere in the tropics, and that 
plantations have been formed in many 
tropical countries, and that if prices rose 
there would probably be an immediate 
increase in output from plantations 
already in existence. 


PREPARATION OF ANNATTO PASTE. 


At one time considerable quantities 
of annatto paste were imported into 
the United Kingdom and other European 
countries from French Guiana and 
Brazil, but although text-bcoks dealing 
with annatto dye still refer to the 
paste as the principal form in which 
annatto is imported, there is reason to 
believe that this trade has almost ceased. 
Thus no export figures for annatto 
paste from French Guiana have been 


Novewser, 1908.) 


given in the statistical returns for the 
French Colonies since 1900. Annatto 
aste was imported into the United 
ingdom from Ceylon in considerable 
quantities some years ago. but owing, 
it is said, to a falling off in the quality 
of the material, the demand for it 
diminished. 


Manufacturers in the United Kingdom, 
and merchants handling annatto paste, 
say that the reason for the decline in 
the market for this article is entirely 
due to the practice of adulterating it 
in the countries where it is produced, 
and that if a clean paste of good 
quality were produced it would com- 
mand areadysale. Unless, however, a 
paste of excellent quality can be made 
it is better to export the seeds. 

In Brazil annatto paste was formerly 
made by crushing the seeds in hot 
water, decanting the liquid containing 
the colouring matter in suspension. and 
evaporating it to a pasty consistence 
in shallw pans over a _ fire. More 
recently, however, in Brazil and French 
Guiana the uncrushed seeds have been 
mixed with hot water and the mass 
agitated until the whole of the pulp 
earrying the colouring matter has been 
washed off. The muddy liquor so 
produced is decanted through a sieve 
to remove the seeds. The liquor is then 
allowed to stand until the insoluble 
colouring matter held in suspension 
settles to the bottom when the useless 
supernatant liquid is poured off and 
the wet paste or colouring matter is 


dried by exposure to sun heat. The 
paste so produced can be prepared 
for the market in several ways. It 


may be formed into rolls weighing from 
4 to 5 lb. each, and, after drying, 
wrapped in banana leaves and then 
packed in boxes or sacks, as is the 
custom in Brazil; or it may be made 
into small cheese-like masses weighing 
from 1 to 2 ozs., and these, when 
uite dry, packed in boxes holding 
rom 4 to 5 ewts. The French Guiana 
variety of annatto is superior in 
quality to the Brazilian (Spanish). 

It will be seen that no special 
machinery is required for the production 
of annatto paste by these processes, 
but doubtless the extraction of the 
colouring matter could be made move 
efficiently and rapidly if mechanical 
‘agitation were employed to keep the 
seeds in motion while they are in the 
water, and similarly the separation of 
the colouring matter from the mother 
liquor and its subsequent drying could 
be more cleanly and rapidly effected 
by the use of filter press. 

Owing to the very small 
existing for 


demand 
annatto paste in the 


419 


Dyes and Tans. 


United Kingdom at the present time 
it isimpossible to obtain a satisfactory 
idea of its commercial value, but it 
appears that Cayenne paste from French 
Guiana fetches about 10d. per lb. in 
France at present, and that good 
qualities of Ceylon paste when imported 
into the United Kingdom were worth, 
as a rule, from ls. 6d. to 2s, per Ib. 


USES oF ANNATTO. 


At present annatto is principally 
employed as a colouring agent for 
food materials such as butter, margarine 
and cheese. It was formerly used in 
considerable quantity for dyeing silk, 
but is now little employed for this 
purpose as better dyes less fugitive 
to light are available.—Bulletin of the 
Imperial Institute, Vol, 11, No. 2, 1908. 


PRODUCTION AND UTILISATION 
OF WATTLE BARK. 


The wattle or mimosa barks of com- 
merce are derived from several species of 
Acacia indigenous to Australia, whence 
the barks have long been exported to Eu- 
rope for use as tanning materials. The 
name ‘‘ wattle” was bestowed on the 
aacias in Australia owing to their 
willow-like habit, and from the fact that 
they were used in the early days of 
the colony for binding hurdles _ to- 
gether, generally to serve the same pur- 
pose as the wattles of Kurope. 


The species most priced for the pro- 
duction of barkare Acacia pycnantha 
(Golden Wattle), Acacia decurrens, 
Willd., Acacia decurrens, var. mollis- 
simad (Acacia mollissima, Willd.), Black- 
Wattles, and Acacia deatbata (Silver 
Wattle). Of these the bark of A. pycnan- 
tha is usually richest in tannin, whilst 
that of A. dealbata is poorest. A. de- 
currens, var. mollissima, has, however, 
the advantage of being hardier and 
giving on the whole a better yield of 
bark, and consequently wherever, as in 
Natal, wattle cultivation on a large 
scale has been attempted, this variety 
has generally been selected for planta- 
tion. 


Formerly the supply of wattle bark 
came almost exclusively from Australia, 
and especially from South Australia and 
Tasmania, but in 1880 wattles were in- 
troduced into Natal, and within the 
last ten years or so the plantations of 
Natal have begun to supply a preponder- 
ating share of the material. Similar 
progress has not been made in Australia, 
but this is probably partly due to the facet 
that the Commonwealth exporters have 
relied principally on natural forests, and 


Dyes und Tans. 


have not practised cultivation of the 
wattle tree to the same extentas the 
Natal growers, though recently in- 
creased attention has been given to the 
formation of wattle plantations in Aus- 
tralia (this Bulletin, 1907, 5, 187). 


As already indicated, the black wattle 
is the species usually selected for plant- 
ing, and the following information re- 
garding the cultivation of the tree and 
the preparation of the bark relates more 
especially to this species. 


CULTIVATION. 


Although the black wattle will grow 
in practically any kind of soil, expe- 
rience has shown that a friable sandy 
loam, or a sandy soil lying on a clay sub- 
soil two or three feet below the surface 
answers best. The roots donot pene- 
trate deeply into the ground, and con- 
sequently soil which retains moisture 
is advantageous for their culture. 


The plants are invariably grown from 
seed, but no special precautions are 
necessary for the sowing. As a rule. 
rows about 12 feet apart are prepared, 
and the seed, mixed with a quantity 
of sand, is planted about one inch deep 
and insuch a manner that the young 
trees can eventually be thinned out to 6 
feet apart in the rows. 


The outer covering of the seeds is ex- 
tremely hard, and to assist germination 
the seeds should be Specially treated 
before sowing, as under ordinary circum- 
stances they may remain in the ground 
for a considerable time without germi- 
nating. More rapid germination can be 
brought about in a number of ways. 
Perhaps the commonest practice is to 
cover the seed with boiling water, in 
which, after cooling, they are allowed 
to soak for about 24 hours, after which 
they are sown as soon as_ possible, im- 
mediately after removal from the 
water. In Australia the seeds are fre- 
quently roasted, but care has to be 
taken to avoid loss by over-heating. 
Quite recently excellent results are said 
to have obtained in German East 
Africa by soaking the seeds in concen- 
trated sulphuric acid and keeping the 
mixture stirred occasionally to prevent 
caking. After the lapse of four or five 
hours the seeds are removed and 
thoroughly washed in running water, 
when they are ready for setting. Itis 
stated that after this treatment 80 to 90 
per cent. of the seeds germinate in a 
few days. 


_ Indian corn (maize) is frequently grown 
in the spaces between the yourg plants, 
generally two rows of maize between 


420 


[NoVEMBER, 1908. 


each two rows of wattles, and this 
serves to provide a return from the 
plantation whilst the wattles are matur- 
ing. 


After germination the plant grows 
quickly, and at an age of only four years 
it generally attainsa height of from 25 
to 380 feet. The foliage is laxuriant and 
affords luxuriant shade for animals or 
low-growing crops. Practically no atten- 
tion is given to the trees themselves, 
for if they have been properly distri- 
buted pruning is unnecessary and several 
crops of wattles may be taken off the 
same soil without rendering it unsuitable 
for their further cultivation. 


One of the most serious enemies of the 
wattle grower is fire, which sometimes 
spreads from the surrounding prairie 
and destroys the plantations unless fire 
“breaks” have been constructed by 
ploughing broad strips of land round 
the plantations. 


Several insect pests have also made 
themselves felt on Natal wattle estates, 
the chief of these being a bagworm 
which destroys the foliage and thus 
checks growth, and red and white ants 
which destroy the roots. Locusts are 
also a serious trouble in some years in 
Natal, but with suitable precautions 
their depredations may to a_ certain 
extent be mitigated. 


Wattle trees reach their prime in 
about ten years from the time of sowing, 
though many trees are marked down as 
large enough to strip after seven or even 
five years. The rate of growth varies in 
different localities and soils, and indivi- 
dual variations in the seed also exert 
considerable influence. When an area 
of forests is old enough harvesting of 
the bark is commenced. In Australia 
the trees are usually stripped during 
three or four months of the year (gener- 
ally September, October, November, and 
December), but in Natal the work is 
carried on at all seasons, ag the barks 
strip readily except in very dry weather. 
Nevertheless the period from the begin- 
ning of March to the end of April is 
generally adopted, despite the danger 
of getting the stripped bark soaked 
with rain before it can be brought under 
cover and thus losing part of the tannin. 


Attention has been drawn recently to 
the possibility of variation of the con- 
teut of tannin being caused by stripping 
at different times of the year, and this 
matter is being investigated (this Bulle- 
tin, 1908, 6, 86). 


After clearing away the dead twigs 
and leaves at the bottom of the tree an. 
incision is made in the bark either (a) 3 


Me 


NovEMBER, 1908. | 


or 4 feet above the ground, or (b) as close 
to the ground as possible. If the former 
method is adopted the strip or sheet of 
bark is pulled off downwards, thus obtain- 
ing much of the bark from the upper 
roots which is frequently the richest in 
tannin. In the second case, by a series 
of strong jerks a broad strip is pulled- 
off up to the height of the lower bran- 
ches. Sheet after sheet is thus removed 
from the trunk until it is quite bare, 
after which the tree is felled and the 
stripping completed on the portions 
lying between the branches. A strip- 
ping machine has been invented which, 
it is claimed, removes the bark close up 
to the leaves, and higher than can be 
stripped by hand, and it has been stated 
that its use would reduce the cost of 
stripping by at least 25 per cent. In 
using the machine the wattles pass be- 
tween two revolving rollers, thus receiv- 
iving pressure on two. sides, which 
causes the bark to crack and spring from 
the complete circle of the stem in two 
halves, 


The long strips of bark are hung over 
poles in the drying sheds, which are 
arranged to hold about six tons of fresh 
bark. Drying should take place in the 
shade, and the operation generally lasts 
several weeks. Although in some cases 
artificial heat may be employed for 
drying, care must be taken to avoid too 
high a temperature, otherwise a diminu- 
tion in the tannin content will take 
place. When dry the bark is taken in 
bundles to the mill, where it is usually 
cut into short chips or pieces about two 
inches long by one inch wide, and then 
after being packed into sacks it is ready 
for export. 


The stripped wattle-tree trunks are 
generally cut into six or twelve feet 
lengths for mining timbers, but their 
use as asourece of wood pulp for paper 
manufacture (see Technical Reports and 
Scientific Papers, published by the Imp2- 
rial Institure, p. 314), and more vecently 
the distillation of the wood for the pro- 
duction of acetic acid and wood alcohol 
has been suggested in Natal. 


As previously stated, the same ground 
will bear several successive crops of 
wattle trees without becoming ex- 
hausted. In the ordinary a wattle forest 
replants itself, and an area once cleared 
of trees is quickly covered again. The 
naturally grown seedlings are allowed 
to grow until they form a thick mass 
covering the field, when they are thinned 
out, leaving rows twelve feet apart 
standing. Itis stated that replanting 
from natural seedlings is no great 
advantage, as the cost of thinning out 


i Dyes and Tans. 


is greater than that of starting a fresh 
plantation. 


PRODUCTION OF WATTLE BARK: 
AUSTRALASIA. 


South Australia.—The wattle bark 
of South Australia is almost exclusively 
derived from the ‘“broad-leaved or 
Golden Wattle,” A. peynantha. This 
bark is one of the richest of tanning 
materials, although recently the 
eucalyptus ‘* mallet bark” of Australia 
(this Bulletin, 1905, 3, 69) has been found 
to overstep itin actual tannin content. 
It is found chiefly on the Adelaide hills 
and plains, but in the north of the colony 
a narrower leaved variety exists which 
is of slower growth and yields bark of 
less value. The broad-leaved wattle 
bark of South Australia generally con- 
tains from 40 to 45 percent. of tannin, 
tans very quickly and produces a good 
light-coloured leather. It is worth 
about £8 to £9 per ton at present. 


66 


New South Wales.—This colony at one 
time produced and exported large 
quantities of wattle bark, but of recent 
years the export trade has been nearly 
lost, although the price per tor has risen 
trom £6 in 1890 to £8 at present date. 
Most of the bark is *‘ green” or “ black” 
wattle, and contains about 385 to 40 per 
cent of tannin. A. pycnantha cultiva- 
tion is practically contined to those parts 


of the country bordering on South 
Australia and Victoria. 
Victoria.—_In Victoria no other crop 


is regarded as so prcfitable as wattle, 
especially for poor soil. Thousands of 
acres are under cultivation, and Victoria 
is the greatest producing area of black 
wattie bark in the Commonwealth. 


Tasmania,—Vhis island possesses large 
natural supplies of black wattle, and at 
one time was the chief Australasian 
source of this variety. Owing to indis- 
cciminate destruction of the forests and 
failure to systematise the planting of 
fresh trees, Tasmania has lost consider- 
able ground, bothin the quantity and 
value per ton of bark exported. 


Queensland and Western Australia.— 
Among the wattles termed ‘ black,” 
there are several mountain hickories of 
much less importance than Acacia 
decurrens, although containing from 30 
to 35 per cent. of tannin. Chief amongst 
these is A. penninervis, which may be- 
come of great commercial importance, 
especially in Queensland, where it is 
very abundant. At the present time 
Queensland produces and exports com- 
paratively little wattle bark. 


In the last few years Western Aus- 
tralia has exported greatly increasing 


Dyes and Tans. 


quantities of wattle bark, although up 
till 1902 none at all was produced. 


New Zealand.—Wattle plantations in 
New Zealand for the production of 
tanning bark occupy an area of about 
5,000 aeres, in the Auckland district. 


422 


[NOVEMBER, 1908. 


The black wattle is the only variety 
planted. 


The following typical analyses of 
Australian wattles are taken from 
results obtained by Blockley (Journ. 


Soc, Chem, Ind., 1902, 21, 159) :— 


i Sour al Ne eee - .) Non- | Insolu-) Mois- 
Botanical Source,| Local Name. Source, Tannin*|pannin| ‘bio renee 
‘ o/ fo) ° ry 
A. pycnantha — ...Golden wattle se i \ 7 - 
‘No. 1, special” |S. Australia 49°5 9-4 29'9 11:2 
A. Pycnantha _ ..|Golden wattle 
“No. 2,ordinary |S. Australia 40°2 90 396 | 11:2 
A. decurrens, sur.|Sydney green St. Mary’s 7-9 39°2 115 
nor malis ... wattle (N. S. W.) 41-4 
A. decurrens, var. Bateman’s Bay 91 41-4 11:0 
leichardti ...|Green wattle (N.S. W.) 38°5 
A. decurrens, var. Bateman’s Bay 78 44°5 11°6 
pauci glandulosa Green wattle (N.S. W.) 36:1 
A. decurrens, var. 
mollissima __ ..-\Black wattle — 38:3 4-4 46-2 Il 
A. penninervis ,.. Hickory bark Bateman’s Bay! 37:7 52 | 46-1 11:0 
A. binervata ... Black wattle Cambervarra 80°2 6-7 52-0 11 1 
A, dealbata .. Silver wattle : 122 4°3 71:9 11°6 


“Estimated by the bell-filter method (Bull. Imp’ Inst. 1907, 5, 344). 


SoutH AFRICA. 


Natal.—Being known to grow quickly, 
wattles were first introduced into Natal 
as a shade tree and wind-break, more 
especially as a protection for cattle. 
The value of their barks as_ tanning 
agents was not recognised until several 
years later. Netal wattleis nearly all A. 


decurrens, although the  ‘‘ golden” 
variety is grown to a limited ex- 
tent. 


The chief centre of the black wattle 
cultivation was originally in the Noods- 
berg distret, but at present the greater 
part is grown round abort the Umvati, 
although wattie plantations are scatter- 
ed throughout the central portion of 
the Colony, and largely along the rail- 
way from Pietermaritzberg to Grey 
town. One of the largest wattle estates, 
the Town Hill plantation, covers over 
8,000 acres of hilly uplands near Pieter- 
maritsberg. 


At present over 30,000 acres in Natal 
are planted with black wattle, and it is 
confidently expected that within the 
next five years production will be 
trebled. 


Cape Colony and the Transvaal.—The 
pronounced success of the cultivation of 
wattle trees in Natal has caused at- 


tempts to be made to place wattle cul- 
tivation on a commercial basis in other 
South African colonies, notably in Cape 
Colony and the Transvaal. Several 
samples of Cape Colony wattle bark 
have been examined at the Imperial 
Institute, and found to be richin tannin 
and ef good quality (this Bulletin, 1907, 
5, 852) 


GERMAN HAST AFRICA. 


The cultivation of A. decurrens in 
German East Africa has already passed 
the experimental stage, and as early as 
1904 samples of bark were obtained, which 
proved to be of satisfactory quality. The 
seed used in these plantations was ob- 
tained partly from Natal and _ partly 
from Australia, but as no special care 
was taken in its selection, very mixed 
results have been obtained. There 
seems to be no doubt, however, that 
German East Africa is well suited for 
wattle growing, and that in the near 
furture it will be able to compete with 
Nate and Australia for the supply of 

ark. 


Experimental cultivation of the black 
wattle has also been undertaken in Bri- 
tish East Africa, but so far nothing 
is known as to the bark obtained. 


The analysis on the opposite page of 


NOVEMBER, 1908. | 


African wattle barks have been partly 
carried out in the laboratories of the 
Imperial Institute. In those marked * 


the tannin was estimated by the bell” 


filter method. 
INDIA AND CEYLON. 


423 


Dyes and Tans. 


acclimatised in different parts of India, 
and in the Ceylon hills A. decurrens and 
A.dealbata are now plentiful. Although 
the barks of these trees are used locally 
for tanning purposes, no attempt ha 
been made to grow or harvest the bark 


Several varieties of wattles have been for export. . 
Botanical |Local Name or aa : Non- : Mois- 
Source. Description, Source. Tannin. ot Ash. ture 
eS a Se ee 
% ee. 6 Vi 
A. decurrenst | Black wattle | Warburg, Natal 30°2 ay AG) ea 
29 + 29 | Natal 37°8 9°3 15 9°5 
2° th oe) | 9 85'2 10°3 28 11:3 
” + .» | +9 39°38 | 99 ae 9-6 
ie i A 5 368 10°38 26 10°4 
0 ap a3 Fort Conyngham 85°4* 12°0 1'8 11°4 
(chopped) Cape Colony. 
A. pycnantha — Dept. of Agric., 40°1* 13:0 15 10-1 
Cape Colony. ; 
A. saligna — Dept. of Agric., 26°4* 12°1 4:0 111 
| Cape Colony. 
A, horrida ** Doornbusch ” Alexandra, 18°3* 83 45 11:0 
Cape Colony. 
A. decurrens Black wattle Eastern Con- 44:1* Fel 18 ) 109 
(unchopped) | servancy | 
Mimosa bark Big Umgagi 18-0* Mo 53 | 12 
0 54 years old Amani, G.E.A. 50°95 8°54 — 2:95 
”° 99 39 39°28 29 “=: 4°88 
99 34 years old ” 88°12 8 35 a7 10°7 
55 — | Wihelmstal, 47°82 (5Y2 = 11:02 
| G.E.A. 
5 10 years old | Kawai, G.E.A. 44:77 | 8:04 = 8°75 
A. mollissimat| Syears old | Amani, G.E.A. 44°91 5°85 == 8-71 
” iL ° ” 388'6L TDA a 10°37 
” it > | . 46°78 9°43 = 9°62 
» 1] Tyearsold | Kwai, G.H.A. 38°14 | 13°51 = | cue 
96 t| 10 years old Me 46°39 | 11°76 = 6-OL 
A. dealbata — Mer eee | 17-42 | 6°54 a 11:15 
| .E.A. | 
” — | 3 18°51 | 10:96 — | 12°86 
29 = | ” 18°48 10°55 — 11:92 


t+ Probably all var. mollissima. {=A. decurrens, var. mollissima. 


MARKETING OF WATTLE BARK. 


There has, since its introduction, always 
been a good demand for wattle bark in 
the European tanneries, but for several 
years previous to its commercial pro- 
duction in Natal, English tanners had 
begun to revert to older and better 
known tanning materials, owing to the 
cay of the Australian  sup- 
ply. 


The chief consumers of wattle bark 
areGermapy andthe United Kingdom, 


but it is difficult to obtain trustworthy 
statistics showing the relative amounts 
imported by each country. 


The following table showing the ex- 
ports of wattle from Australia up to 
1904, is taken from the third edition of 
Maiden’s pamphlet on Wattles (Sydney, 
1906), the market prices in 1906 being 


£6 10s. to £8 per ton for good bark 
from A. decurrens, and over £8 
for South Australian bark from A. 
pycnantha. 


Dyes and Tans. 424 (NOVEMBER, 1908, 
AUSTRALIAN EXPORTS. 
rony (|New South! y:.,..:, | Queens- South | Western P 
Yeai Wales. Victoria. land. Australia. Australia. Tasmania. 

1898 tons 835 2,620 12 8,206 — 5,892 
3,805 17,478 59 62,1382 | -- 31,017 
1899 tons 872 3,097 1 8,953 — 5,187 
£ 2,040 22,772 5 69,985 _ 13,042 
1900 tons 463 1,560 = 8,386 = 4,742 
£ | 2,983 11,688 — 68,782 — 29,405 
1901 tons 29 2,581 15 | 7,974 -~ 4,983 
211 20,966 300 | 67,601 = °2,173 
1902 tons 184 3,896 15 | 7,702 -— 5,765 
£ BAO 32,907 98 68.856 — 40,190 
1903 tons | 382 3,477 177 6,669 188 4,618 
£ | 2,812 28,576 661 65,062 859 32,843 
1904 tons 3878 =| —S«5 122 715 | 1205 5,059 4,301 
£& 3.194 | 41,816 2,685 59,902 32,876 30,506 


Owing to the custom of classing all 
tanning barks together, it is impossible 
to provide figures for the last two 
years from the official Commonwealth 
trade returns, and it should be pointed 
out that the figures in the foregoing 
table probably include interstate trade, 
as total Australian exports of ‘Tanning 
Bark” in 1904 were only 12,599 tons, 
valued at £938,927. This rose in 1905 to 
25,514 tons, valued at £189,699, but the 
increase was no doubt due to ‘ mallet 
bark, ” which has been exported in 
large quantities in recent years. 


South Australia’s exports in 1890 were 
4,444 tons, valued at £56,006, but in 
1904, although risitig to 7,205 tons, the 
total value was only £59,902. This 
decrease in value is due mainly to a 
general fall in prices, and not to a 
decrease in quality. 


Tasmanian exports dropped during 
the same period from 11,008 tons to 
4,301 tons. The Victorian exports fell 
in the same period from 5,659 tons to 
5,122 tons. The corresponding figures 
for Natal, given inthe following table, 
are also taken chiefly from Maiden’s 
pamphlet (loc. cit.). 


NATAL EXPORTS. 

Year.| Tons, | Value. |Year, | Tons, | Valu 

ue. (ees 
1898 | 9,427 | 30,929 | 1903 | 12,1385 | 70,581 
1899 | 11,070 57,885 | 1904 | 15.819 92,911 
1900 | 8,900 | 46,479 | 1905 | 17,513 | 102,666 
1901 | 13,771 | 69,850 | 1906 | 15,00u £9,443 
1902 | 15,537 | 74,554 | 


This shows on the whole a consider- 
able expansion. Recently there has been 
a decline, for instance, in the price of 
bark, and though this may be due in 
part to the competition of other tanning 
materials, ithas been suggested in Natal 
that the confidence of consumers of 
Natal bark may have been shaken by 
the export of ‘‘ weathered” bark, and 
also of blue wattle bark, which is poorer 
in tannin, and to combat this and other 
difficulties a Union has been formed to 
provide for a “‘ mark ” for standard bark, 
which will be a guide to buyers. 


During the last few years the imports 
of wattle bark into the two chief Euro- 
pean ports of discharge (London and 
Hambarg) have been as follows (Natal 
Agric. Journ. 1907, 10, 1188; and Year 
Book of the Manchester, Liverpool, and 
District Tanners’ Federation, 1906 :— 


| London (including bark in tran-| Hamburg.) » 
| sit.) (all sources 


Year,| from 
From Natal,| From Australia, Natal, 
| Tons Tous, Tons, 

1900 | 7,827 1 642 = 

1901 | 11,634 1,448 = 

1902 | ~ 11,232 2,813 6,000 

1903 | 10,649 2,350 5,250 

1904 13,671 3,136 7,950 

1905 | 11,914 | 2,059 8, 100 

1906 | 8,461 — 8,300 


In 1866 the United Kingdom’s consump- 
tion was esti.aated at 2,500 tons (Loc. cit.), 
so thet Hamburg probably received 
about 6,000 tons by transhipment from 
London. In 1906 the United Kingdom 
imported roughly about one-third of the 
world’s production of wattle bark. 


. NOVEMBER, 1908. ] 


Russia, Austria, and Belgium all take 
a fair amount ot wattle bark, Russia 
especially using Natal bark. Ln 1906, Sid 
tons were exported to fussia, and as 
trade improves, it is hoped that more 
will be taken. 


At present the United States takes 
very little wattle bark, and none is 
produced there. There are signs, how- 
ever, that the United States is willing 
to directly interest itself in the ques- 
tion, although it is probable that few 
parts of the country, except those in 
the extreme south, are sufficiently free 
from forest to make the culture of 
wattle trees profitable. (JU. s. Dept. 
Agri. Bull. No. 51, Part {V). Lt is 
worth noting, however, that an experi- 
mental plantation has been in existence 
for a number of years in the Hawaiian 
Islands. 


To be saleable in the United Kingdom, 
wattle bark must be in good condition 
and well harvested. The best prices are 
only obtainable for barks which arrive 
undamaged by weather or by wet pack- 
ing. It is stuced that the proportion 
of damaged bark shipped from Natal 
has been unusually large of late, and 


allowances up tu several pounds per 
ton have had to be made. 
In Germany, most of the imported 


bark is made into extract, and does not 
go direct into the tanning pit. As a 
result, weathered and damaged bark 
is more readily saleable there than in 
the United Kingdom. 


WATTLE BARK EXTRACT. 


Of late years the use of bark ex- 
tracts has largely taken the place of 
ground barks for tanning purposes. 
Hxtracts are preferred by  tanners, 
since they are quicker and more regular 
in their action, and there is practically 
no waste in their use. Quebracho, valo- 
nia, oak bark, sumac, and mangrove are 
all largely utilised in the form of liquid 
and solid extracts, and their application 
in this form is being greatly extended 
year to year. 


Besides these advantages to the tan- 
ner, it is clear that advantage also 
accrues to the producer, since he is 
able by this means to utilise materia!s 
deficient in tannin, and is able to com- 
pete in distant markets otherwise closed 
to him by reason of high freights. 


These considerations have been of 
late the subject of much discussion in 


54 


Dyes and Tans. 
the wattle-producing countries, and 
notably in Natal. The Union already 
referred to appears to have decided 
that the best chance for the expansion 
of the industry lies in the direction of 
manufacturing extract in the centre of 
production of the bark. 


MANUFACTURE OF WATTLE BARK 
EXTRACTS. 


Tanning extract can be placed on the 
market in either the liquid or solid 
form. Where it is possible to concen- 
trate the extract sufticiently without 
decomposition, it is more advantageous 
to prepare the solid extract, since this 
is cheaper to pack and to transport. 
The process of making extracts resolves 
itself into several sections which may 
be considered seriatim. 


Leaching.—This is the technical term 
describing the process of dissolving 
the tannin out ofthe bark. For this 
purpose the latter is ground to a fine 
powder to facilitate extraction. The 
system oi ‘leaches” or extractors now 
cousidered the best admits of continu- 
ous working. Pits, or tabs sunk in 
the ground, and built in series of ‘‘ bat- 
teries ” of six to eight, are packed with 
the ground bark, and the liquor obtain- 
ed by percolation with water in one pit 
is used to extract the bark in the next 
leach, and so on until a strong liquor. 
is obtained. Continuity of action is ob, 
tained by keeping a high head of wate 
or spent liquor in the end vat by means 
of a series of vertical pipes. The spare 


vat may be heated by steam if re- 
quired. 


Wattle bark is best extracted at a 
temperature of about 60, beginning cold 
and raising the temperature gradually. 
The following table, taken from Proctor’s 
Principles of Leather Manufacture, 
shows the percentage of tanning matter 
and the amount of colour (as measured 
py Lovibond’s tintometer) obtained by 
extracting Natal wattle bark so long as 
any colour or tannin could be ob- 
tained. 


The object of the extract manufacturer 
should ve to remove the maximum 
amount of tannin and the minimum 
amount of colouc in the minimum of 
time and with the least possible quan- 
tity of water, since the water will later 
on have to be evaporated. The results 
recorded in the following table clearly 
indicate waterat about 60 C. as giving 
the best results when all these _ re- 
quirements are taken into consider- 
ation, 


Dyes and Tans. 


426 


(NOVEMBER, 1908. 


Temperature Colour of 3 per cent. 
at which ex- | oN Percentage | Solution in 4 inch cell. ten eeniege 
traction is | Tannin. | rp, ea of Tannin on = on maxi- 
conducted. annin. "maximum. Red. Yellow. mum. 
°C. Per cent. | Per cent. Degrees | Degrees. 
15 202 | ALG 66°2 2°6 | 4: 51°1 
15-30 29:0 9°8 90°6 3°0 4‘1 54.2 
30-40 30°1 9°8 94-0 3°0 4°4 56°5 
40-50 30°2 9°8 94-4 31 5-0 61°8 
50-60 30°4 10°4 95:0 3°9 6°5 79°9 
60-70 31°5 10°6 98-4 4:2 6°5 816 
70-80 32°0 10°8 100°0 4:2 70 85°5 
80-90 30°8 11°2 96°2 49 74 93°8 
90-100 30°1 118 94.0 53 7'8 100°0 
boiled 29°4 12°0 91°8 57 7:2 98°4 


Decolorisation.—As in the case of most 
extracts, it is probable that wattle 
extract will generally be improved by 
decolorisation. The agent usually 
employed for this purpose is dried 
blood, but plates of blood-albumen, 
alumnia, and casein are also occa- 
sionally used. 


The blood or albumen is dissolved in 
a little water, added to the vat liquor 
obtained as described above, and well 
mixed. On raising the temperature to 
70 degrees C., the albumen coagulates 
and carries down much of the colouring 
matter, which is allowed to settle, 
after which the clear liquid may be 
drawn off for evaporation. 


Decolorising always occasions a certain 
loss of tannin, and for this reason is 
dispensed with when not absolutely 
necessary. Sulphurous acid is fre- 
quently used to “ brighten” tan liquors, 
but its use should be unnecessary in 
preparing wattle bark extract; it is 
said to be disadvantageous in various 
ways. 


Concentration of the Liquor.—The 
liquors from the leaches or decolorising 
vats are concentrated by evaporation. 
Up to a certain stage it is possible to 
use for this purpose ‘‘spray” machines 
of the Yaryan type, which concentrate 
the liquid with as little access of air 
and atas low a temperature as possible. 
This result is obtained by passing the 
liquid into copper tubes working under 
reducing pressure and kept at_ the 
required temperature. The fluid is 
immediately converted into spray and 
swept forward into a separating cham- 
ber. In this way the liquid can be 
concentrated up toa specific gravity 


of 1'1 to 1:2 without having been heated 
above 70° C. The final evaporation of 
the extracts is conducted in ordinary 
vacuum pans. It must be understood, 
of course, that in all stages of its 
manufacture the extract must be kept 
from contact with iron. The apparatus 
is usuaily constructed of wood and 
copper. 


In the foregoing account of extract 
manufacture an outline of the process 
only has been attempted, and for 
fuller details both of the process and 
of the plant required. Prof. Proctor’s 
handbook already referred to might 
be consulted with advantage. 


Considerable quantities of wattle 
extract are already manufactured in 
Australia for its preparation, chiefly 
from branch bark, which is too small 
to pay for stripping. A fluid extract 
is prepared which contains 60 per cent. 
of water and about 388 per cent. of 
soluble tannin. Practical experiments 
are also being conducted in Australia 
with a view of the preparation of a 
tanning extract from wattle leaves. It 
is probable that where wattle bark 
extract manutacture is contemplated 
it would be advantageous to adopt the 
plan of building a central extract 
factory, conveniently situated with 
respect to a group of plantations, the 
produce of which could be worked up 
in the factory. This plan has _ been 
worked successfully in Germany in the 
manufacture of beet sugar, and more 
recent instances of its success are the 
central ginneries for treating seed 
cotton in West Africa and the West 
Indies and elsewhere.—Bulletin of the 
Imperial Institute, Vol. VI. No. 2, 1908. 


NOVEMBER, 1908:] 


427 


EDIBLE PRODUCTS. 


MILO AS A DRY-LAND GRAIN CROP. 


SUMMARY. 


Milo is one of the durra group of. sor- 
ghums, closely related to white durra 
(Jerusalem corn”) and to brown durra. 
It is probably of African, perhaps Egy p- 
tian, origin, and was introduced into the 
United States between 1880 and 1836. 


Milo is recommended as a short and 
suitable name for this crop. It is com- 
monly known as dwarf milo, yellow 
milo, and milo ‘‘ maize.” The last name 
confuses it with corn. 


There is only one variety handled by 
the seed trade. Whatissold as “dwarf” 
milo is ordinary milo grown ou the drier 
plains, where for lack of moisture it is 
low in stature. There is a true dwarf 
milo, but itis not yet generally sold on 
the market. 


Ordinary milo stools freely at the bise 
and branches freely above, is tall and 
rather stout, and is not uniform in 
height orin time orripening. The heads 
are mostly pendent. Asa crop it is diffi- 
cult to handle rapidly and satisfactorily. 


Improved or selected milo has to a 
large extent been prevented from sucker- 
ing and branching, is low and rather 
slender, is uniform in height and ripen- 
ing, and has its heads mostly erect. It 
may be handled easily by machinery 
and is fitted for harvesting with headers. 


Milo is widely grown in Western 
Texas and adjacent parts of New Mexico, 
Oklahoma, and Kansas. It is well suited 
to the entire southern half of the Plains 
region below 4,500 feet elevation. It can 
probably be profitably grown as far 
north as South Dakota and westward in 
Colorado and New Mexico to elevations 
of about 6,000 feet; likewise in the 
Great Basin region. 

The soil requirements of milo are much 
the same as those of corn. The land 
should preferably be fall ploughed and 
well prepared in spring to hold moisture 
and destroy weeds. 


In general, milo should be sown about 
three weeks later thancorn and after all 
danger from frost is past- Milo may be 
listed or sown at the surface as_ local 
conditions require. The seed is sown by 
means of special sorghum plates used in 
either the corn planter or the lister 
planter. 

The best rate of planting for highest 
grain yields lies probably between 4 
and 6 pounds to the acre, depending 
somewhat onthe character of the soil, 


the average rainfall, the length of the 
season, and the cultivation given. Four 
pounds to the acre has given the best 
results in the Texas Panhandle. The 
rows should be about 34 feet apart and 
the stalks 6 to 8 inches apart in the row. 

The cultivation of milo is essentially 
the same as that for corn. 

Harmers should carefully select their 
own seed of milo, especially where it is 
not yet a staple crop. Selection is 
usually made for (1) earliness, (2) drought 
resistance, (3) higher yields, (4) unifor- 
mity, (5) freedom from suckers and 
branches, and (6) erect heads. The yield 
and value of the crop can be greatly 
increased by such means. Select enough 
forasmall seed platif time lacks for 
more extensive work. Interest the farm 
boys in this work. 

Harvesting is usually done with a 
corn binder or by cutting the heads by 
hand. Ordinary milo cannot be headed 
by machinery because of the pendent 
heads. Our improved milo with erect 
heads may be cut with a grain header 
or witha row header. A good adjust- 
able kind of row header is much needed. 


Thrashing is done with a grain separ- 
ator. Slowing the cylinder and removing 
the concaves or part of the concave and 
cylinder teeth will prevent cracking the 
seed. 

Yields vary from 25 to55 bushels of 
seed to the acre. The yields in the 
Panhandle of Texas average about 40 
bushels to the acre. As tilage methods 
and the crop itself are improved the 
yields should be increased, 


Milo is used mostly as a feeding grain 
on the farms. It may be fed as thrashed 
grain, in the head or in the bundle. The 
grain is preferably cracked or ground 
before feeding, except for poultry. The 
heads may also be ground. Milo is 
entering more and more into the produc- 
tion of chops and poultry foods. 


Milo, like other sorghums, may become 
poisonous in the green state, especially 
when checked or stunted in growth. 


The principal insect enemies are the 
chinch bug, aphides or plant. lice, fall 
army worm, and sorghum midge. The 
last may totally prevent seed production 
in the Gulf region. 

Milo is entirely free from the kernel 
smut and the head smut of sorghum.— 

S. Department of Agriculture, 
Farmers’ Bull., June, 1908, No. 822. 
[The sorghums, though a little culti- 


vated in the dry zone of Ceylon, are 
worth more attention.—ED. } 


Edible Products. 


BREAD-FRUITS OF THE TROPICS. 
(Illustrated.) 


By H. F. MAcMILLAN. 

The name “bread” is applied to vari- 
ous tropical fruits, and sometimes to 
stems and tubers which furnish food to 
the inhabitants of the country in which 
they grow. It signifies the importance 
of the article as a source of nutriment 
rather than any resemblance to what is 
generally called bread by other races. 
Thus the Bread-fruit of Ceylon is Arto- 
carpus nobilis or “ Del,” which is indi- 
genous to the Island; that of the South- 
Sea Islands, Artocarpus incisa or ‘ Rata- 
del,” Sinh. ; of Tropical Africa, Treculia 
africana; of Nicobar Islands, Pandaniaus 
Sera, & species of screw-pine with 
huge globular pendant fruits. The 
* Bread-fruit ” of Northern Australia is 
Gardenia edulis, whilst the ‘‘ Native- 
bread” is Adylitta australis, and the 
‘**Tartar-bread,” Crambe tartarica, asea- 
kale with a fleshy root, Then there is 
the ‘‘ Bread-nut” (Brosimum alicastrum) 
of South America, the ‘* Kaffir-bread” 
(Hucephatartos sp.) of South Africa, and 
the ** Bread-root” (Psoralea esculenta) of 
North America. 

For tropical countries the most valu- 
able of these is the real Bread-fruit of 
Malaya andthe South Sea Islands. So 
struck was Captain Cook, the explorer, 
with the importance of this fruit to the 
natives, that be induced the British 
Government to send an expedition tothe 
Pacific Islands to procure and transport 
young plants to the West Indies. The 
first attempt was frustrated owing to 
the mutiny of the crew of the ship 
‘*Bounty” under Lieut. Bligh, but a 
subsequent attempt proved successful, 
and the bread-fruit tree has become tho- 
roughly established in the West Indian 
Islands and many parts of South Ame- 
rica. The tree was introduced and.estab- 
lished in Ceylon before the British occu- 
pation (1796). Its value was at once ap- 
preciated by the natives, who have 
planted it in their gardens and com- 
pounds throughout the low-country. 
Being especially adapted to the sea 
coast, it is seen in the most luxuriating 
state near the sea, in the moist districts, 
The genus Artocarpus contains other 
species which furnish nutritious fruits. 
Among these is the jak-fruit (Artocarpus 
integrifotia), which is a household word 
and a standard article of food with the 
working classes in the Eastern tropics. 
Taking the species in alphabetical order, 
the first of importance is i— 

Artocarpus incisa, the _ bread-fruit 
proper, known also as the ‘Tahiti 
bread-fruit.” In Ceylon it is known as 
**Rata-del” to the Sinhalese, and “ eera- 


428 


[NovEMBER, 1908.’ 


pilakkai” to the Tamils. It is in regard 
to foliage one of the handsomest of 
tropical trees. Growing to a height of 
forty to fifty feet, it bears very large 
shining leaves, which are deeply cut 
into lobes, as indicated by the specific 
name. ‘The fruit is oval or round in 
shape, and about the size of a musk- 
melon. Two or three fruits are borne, 
more or less erect, in a cluster at the ends 
of the young stiff branches. The fruit 
of the best varieties contains no seed, 
the whole interior consisting of a solid 
mass of fleshy pulp. This, when sliced 
and roasted, is said to resemble the 
crumb of a new loaf. It is much 
esteemed as a vegetable for curries, 
and may also be prepared and used in 
various other ways. Firminger, who 
partook of the fruit in Ceylon, when 
sliced and fried, considered it to be 
“hardly distinguishable from an excel- 
lent butter pudding.” It can therefore 
be understood why it forms the prin- 
cipal diet of the natives of the South 
Sea Islands. The fruit should be picked 
for use when it is full-grown and has 
not commenced to ripen, the latter state 
being indicated by a softuess of the 
pulp; the green colour of the fruit is 
constant. The tree thrives up to 1,500 
teet in the moist, hot districts of 
Ceylon, more especially in proximity to 
the sea. It is propagated by suckers from 
the roots. also by gootee or layering. 

Artocarpus  integrifolia,  jak-fruit; 
known to the Sinhalese as ‘t kos” and to 
the Tamils as “ pilakkai.” This common 
but useful tree hardly needs introduc. 
tion. Though met with in a naturalised 
state in Ceylon, it is not indigenous 
here, having been originally brought 
from Southern India. Thatit has now 


been introduced and established in 
every tropical country is only what 


is to be expected. The enormous fruit, 
which may weigh anything up to 112 lb., 
is borne on the trunk and older branches, 
sometimes at the base of the trunk or even 
under the ground surface. It is usually 
oblong and irreguiar in shape, though 
sometimes almost perfectly round or oval. 
The rind, which remains green, consists 
of somewhat hexagonal knobs, charac- 
teristic of all fruits of this genus. ‘The 
jak-fruit is a familiar object in the 
moist low-country of Ceylon. The pulp 
forms an important article of food with 
the natives, whilst Kurcpeans also relish 
it when cooked in curries. When ripe 
the whole truit has an overpowering 
odour, and, untortunately, the stronger 
the smell, the better the quality of the 
fruit; to those who relish the latter, how- 
ever, the odour is not objectionable. 
The edible pulp which fills the interior 
consists of a solid mass of. white: or 
cream-coloured flakey substance, which: 


_ 


Photo by H. F. Maemillan, 


2, ARTOCARPUS INCISA: FRUITING BRANCH 
SHOWING LEAVES AND FRUIT IN SECTION. 


Photo by H. F. Macmillan, 


3. ARTOCARPUS NOBILIS: INDIGENOUS BREADFRUIT OF CEYLON. 


NovEMBER, 1908.] 


is cooked and prepared in various ways, 
and sometimes eaten raw. It is sold in 
pieces in the bazaars at a few cents each, 
The seeds, which are of the size and 
form of dates, are roasted and esteemed 
in curries, etc. They are both tasty and 
nutritious. There are numerous varie- 
ties of jak tree, differing chiefly in the 
shape and flavour of the fruit. In Cey- 
lon there is the variety called ‘‘vela,” 
distinct by its comparatively soft rind 
and pulp; also *‘ waraka,” distinguished 
by a firmer fruit. Of the latter there 
are sub-varieties; as ‘“ kuru-waraka,” 
with small roundish fruits; and ‘ peni- 
waraka,”. which means honey-jak, the 
pulp being sweet. A distinct variety 
called the ‘‘Johore jak” may be seen 
growing on Mr. Wright’s estate at Miri- 
gama. It bears hairy leaves and small 
fruits which have a most overpowering 
odour, suggesting that of the durian 
fruit. This is considered one of the 
sweetest varieties of the jak-fruit. 

Artocarpus Lakoocha, known in India 
as the ‘“‘ Monkey-jak.” This is an erect 
tree with oblong entire dark-green 
leaves, which are about eight inches 
long and four broad. It is a native of 
Bengal, and its fruit is said to be some- 
times eaten and relished. The fruit is 
roundish or oblong in shape, of the size 
of an orange. The tree flourishes at 
Peradeniya, and in Southern India up 
to 4,000 feet. 


Artocarpus nobilis.—This is the indi- 
genous bread-fruit of Ceylon, known to 
the Sinhalese as ‘‘del.” ‘‘gan-del” or 
* wal-del,” and to the Tamils as “ asini- 
pilakkai.” It is a handsome tree, usually 
growing toa height of about 50 feet, but 
sometimes to a much greater height. It 
hasa spreading habit with a round head, 
and bears large leathery leaves which are 
wavy at themargin. The fruitis like a 
thick coue, six to eight inches long; it is 
commonly eaten by the natives, being 
cooked and used as a_ vegetable for 
curries, ete. It contains several round 
white seeds, of the form of large peas, 
which are roasted and eaten. The tree 
is confined to Ceylon, and grows in the 
moist low country up to 2,000 feet. It 
isreadily propagated by seed, and is well 
worth cultivating as a handsome shade 
or timber tree. 


MISCELLANEOUS ECONOMIC 
PRODUCTS. 


By J. C. WI.is 


2, Bassta. 

Bassia is a genus of the family Sapo- 
tacere, to which belong Payena and 
Palaquium, which yield gutta-percha, 
and Mimusops which in its South 


429 


Edible Products. 


American species yields balata, and in 
its Ceylon species is the palu. There 
are about thirty species, chiefly in the 
Indo-Malayan region. Of these five occur 
in Ceylon; the commonest is B. longi- 


folia, L., the Mi (Sinh.) or Illuppai (Tam.), 


which also occurs in South India. The 
other four are found only in Ceylon: 
one is common, the others rare. 


Bassia longifolia, L., the Mi or Iluppai, 
is common in the forests of the dry zone of 
Ceylon, but is rare, and perhaps always 
planted, in the wet districts. It isa large 
much-branched tree, which for a few 
days inthe dry season is bare of leaves, 
but is soon covered with the yellowish- 
pink young foliage. 

The flowers have a strong and un- 
pleasant odour of mice; they come out 
from February to May. Their petals 
contain alarge quantity of sugar, and 
they are collected and dried and sub- 
sequently eaten. They aresaid to be 
mildly laxative. 

The tree also occurs in Mysore, Mala- 
bar, the Anamalai hills, and the Circars. 
It yields an inferior gum known as 
elloppa, used in Madras asa remedy in 
rheumatic affections. The leaves and 
bark, and the juice of the bark and 
young fruit are also used medicinally, 
and are said to be astringent and emol- 
lient. The bark is also used as an astrin- 
gent tonic in Ceylon. 

The ripe seeds yield an oil known in 
Ceylon as Mi-tel, whichis used here in 
cooking and as anapplication in skin 
diseases. The oil is yellow and semi- 
solid, and is used in India for burning, 


soapmaking, and as an adulterant for 
ghee. The cake left after expression of 


the oil is baked, and used as a_hair- 
wash, having good detergent properties. 
The cake is known in the north of Uey- 
lon as arappu, and is exported from 
Jaffna, &c., to India, In 1905, 105 ewt. 
were exported, valued at Rs. 567. 

The timber is pale reddish brown in 
colour, hard and heavy, and lasts well, 
especially under water, where it is com- 
paratively free from the attacks of 
Teredo. Itis used for carts, furniture 
and bridges. 

Bassia latifolia, Roxb., the Mahua, 
Mhowra, or butter tree of India (IUuppi, 
Tam.), which occurs from the Central 
Provinces to the Western Ghats and 
Burma, is one of the most valuable 
Indian trees. It occurs in gregarious 
forests, usually mixed with sal. It 
thrives on dry stoney ground, and a 
most unusual drought is required to 
check its bearing. It is nowhere plant- 
ed, but is carefully protected and 
preserved, and in many districts is the 
most common tree. 


Edible Products. 


The tree drops its leaves in February 
and remains naked till April. The 
flowers appear in March and April, and 
as they fall the tree comes out in the 
pretty coloured young foliage. 


The tree yields a valueless gum. and 
the bark is used in dyeing to mix with 
other matreials when a dark or black 
colour is wanted. Sankernath (in Ind. 
Forester, 1906, p. 399) deseribes the col- 
lection of the latex, but finds that an 
average yield of about 25 tolas (1 0z.) 
only can be expected a year, and the 
guttapercha produced is but of poor 
quality, if not actually valueless. 


The succulent flowers are one of the 
most important minov food supplies of 
India. They have a very disagreeable 
smell of mice, but are none the less 
eagetly collected. The ground is clear- 
ed under the tree, and the flowers 
carefully collected before they drop. In 
many places the petals only are taken 
and the pistil left to ripen to a fruit, .in 
others some only of the flowers are 
collected. A tree will yield 200--500 
lbs. of flowers in a year. The flowers 
are dried on mats in the sun when 
they whither to half their weight and 
get a brownish red colour, A hundred- 
weight of the dried flowers sells at from 
four annas toarupee. The merchants 
often give a handful of salt and8 or 
10 lbs. of rice fora maund. Two maunds 
are said to be enough to feed a family 
of five for a month, and are usually eaten 
mixed with sal seeds and sometimes 
rice; sometimes they are pounded into 
flour together with other seeds. 


The flowers are also popular with 
animals, and during the mahua season a 
considerable number of these are shot 
under the trees at night. 


From the flowers a spirit is distilled, 
called daru, which though it has an 
unpleasant smell at first, afterwards 
comes to resemble frish whisky. The 
Bhils get eight bottles of weak spirit from 
sixteen seers of dried flower soaked in 
water and then distilled 4-5 days (or 8-10 
if old). About 1888 a considerable export 
of these flowers’ went on to Marseilles, but 
the French Government, finding that 
they were used for the preparation of a 
cheap brandy, stopped the import. An 
Italian in Bengal took a patent for a pro- 
eess which eliminated the smell, and 
commenced to make spirit on «a large 
scale, but the rum merchants of Calcutta 
succeeded in getting a prohibitive duty 
imposed. 


The seeds ripen about three months 
after the fall of the flowers, and yield a 
valuable oil. The kernels are removed 
from their skin by bruising, and the oil 


430 


[NOVEMBER, 1908. 
obtained in the cold by pressure. In the 
Central Provinces the kernels are 


pounded and boiled and then _ pressed. 
The oil thus obtained is semi-solid ; it is 
used for lighting, for cooking, and to 
adulterate ghee, as well as in making soap. 
For the last-named purpose it is coming 
into demand in Kurope, and it is said 
that the average price given for the seed 
in Bombay is Rs. 4°50 a hundredweight. 
Demands have lately come to Ceylon for 
this seed from soapmakers in England. 
600,000 cwts. were exported from 
Bombay in 1901-2. 


This tree grows at Peradeniya, to 
which it was introduced a long time ago. 
Two good specimens may be seen near 
the Laboratory, and the Tamil coolies 
gather the flowers with avidity in the 
season. 


Bassia butyracea, Roxb., the Indian 
butter tree, is a native of the lower 
Himalayas, from 1,000 to 5,000 ft. The 
flowers are not eaten, but make a syrup 
which is boiled down to sugar. From 
the seeds an oil (phulwa oil) is expressed, 
which is inodourous, of the consistency 
of lard, and does not become rancid so 
early as that of the preceding species. 
Other species, e.g., Bassia pallida, Burch, 
yield inferior guttaperchas. 


To sum up, the Ceylon species might 
be better utilised as a source of oil for 
soap, and if the opposition of makers of 
other spirits could be got over, this and 
others might be used as sources of 
alcohol. 


PARA GRASS (PANICUM MOLLE). 


We have recently received quite a 
number of inquiries regarding Para 
grass. This interest has been no doubt 
largely stimulated by the publication of 
articlesin the Lowtsiana Planter and 
Sugar Manufacturer, and the daily 
papers that have given attention to 
these articles. Wearetherefore prompt- 
ed to give the experience that the HKx- 
periment Station at Baton Rouge has 
had with this grass. 


We present herewith a photograph of 
this grass at the Experiment Station at 
Baton Rouge, taken on the 20th of 
August, 1908. This isthe second year’s 
growth on this plot. Seeds were ob- 
tained from Professor S. M. Tracy, of 
the United States Department of Agri- 
culture, early in the spring of 1907, and 
planted in a very rich soil which is 
inclined to hold moisture better than the 
average soil of the bluff lands. The 
grass grew rapidly fiom the beginning 
and sent out very long stems that re- 


NOVEMBER, 1908. ] 


mained prostrate on the ground almost 
to the end of the stem until late in the 
season. Only a portion of the plot was 
mowed, the remainder allowed to mature 
its seed and the seed allowed to drop on 
the ground. Fearing that the plant 
would be exterminated by the winter 
treeze, as the stems were all on the 
surface of the ground, aturn plough was 
used in bedding the rows, covering the 
stems toadepth of about two inches, 
so as to protect a lot of them from the 
freezes during winter. 


During the winter of 1907-8 the plants 
were almost completely exterminated, 
notwithstanding this protection. In 
the early spring a few straggling plants 
came out from the stems that had lived 
through the winter, and a moderately 
good stand was secured later from 
germinating seed. The grass has not 
grown quite as vigorously during 1908 as 
it did in 1907, notwithstanding the ex- 
cessive rainfall that we had this summer. 
The erect stems and the standing 
portion of the prostrate stems have 
reached a height of two and a half feet 
at the present time, and [ judge would 
make about a ton anda half of hay to 
the acre if harvested. Ido not think it 
would have made more hay than this at 
any time last year. 


The stems are very coarse and woody, 
and, consequently, difficult to cure. We 
have saved samples of this hay both 
years, and, while not having a sufficient 
quantity to make a feeding test of it, to 
all appearances itis a poor quality of 
hay. I present herewith analysis of a 
recent sample made iu this laboratory 
by Mr. J. EK. Halligan :— 


Protein 1°41 
Carbohydrates, 13°38 
Water, 73 50 


Dry basis— Water free, 
Protein, 5°33 
Carbohydrates, 50'49 


Fat, 0°6) Ash, 9°38 
Fibre, 8°62 Fat, 2:29 
Ash, 2°48 Fibre, 32°53. 


It will be seen that this hay contains 


less than half as much protein as Les- 
pedeza, and only a= slightly higher 


carbohydrate content. The fibre is 
rather high. It contains two-thirds us 
much protein as Johnson hay and about 
four per cent. more carbohydrate. 


As the plant is grown here it would be 
difficult to harvest as hay. The stems 
running on the greund, taking root at 
every joint, would make it difficult to 
rake the hay without pulling up a lot 
of the green stems that would be mixed 
with the harvested hay, which, of 
course, would be undesirable. 


_As the results of two years’ observa- 
tions, it is my opinion that this grass 


431 


Edible Products. 


has absolutely nothing to recommend it 
to the planters of Louisiana as a hay 
crop to be planted on soils or ordinary 
drainage. We have not yet experi- 
mented with it long enough to tell of 
its worth in wet places or in lands sub- 
ject to overflows. During the month of 
May we transplanted a quantity of the 
grass to the margins of a small bayou 
that runs through the pasture at the 
Experiment Station, and this planting 
was just becoming established when the 
high water came and the pasture was 
submerged for a period of about six 
weeks. After the water subsided the 
grass was still living, but of course had 
not grown any during the period of 
submergence. While Professor Tracy 
thinks that the grass has given satis- 
faction asa grazing grass in Texas, and 
says that it will withstand tramping of 
the animals that are grazing on it, I do 
not believe that ~ would hold good in 
Louisiana. 


The expressions in the papers of 
apprehension regarding this grass be- 
coming a pest comparable to Johnson 
grass may be well founded for the 
extreme southern portion of the State, 
but not for the latitude of Baton Rouge 
or further north. I am confident that 
the average winter at Baton Rouge will 
exterminate the grass if it is not pro- 
tected in some way, either by ploughing 
or by the warmer atmosphere adjacent 
to a body of water.—Louwisiana Planter 
and Sugar Manufacturer, Vol. XLL, 
No. 9, August, 1908. 


[This is the Mauritius or water grass of 
Ceylon—-Panicum Muticum—the stand- 
by of stall-fed animals (especially mileh 
cows) in the low country. It is, of 
course, quite unsuitable for hay, but as 
a succulent tood for animals getting a 
nitrogenous cake it has its value.— 
UC. DRIEBERG. | 


THE TAX ON CITRATE. 


On several occasions we have men- 
tioned the Italian Government Bill pro- 
moted to protect the Sicilian lemon- 
industry by the imposition of an export 
tax on citrate of lime and concentrated 
lemon-juice, and we reported a fort- 
night ago that the Bill had passed. It 
appears to be a hasty and ill-advised 
piece of legislation, which has been pre- 
sented without a full study of the facts, 
and was rushed through Parliament 
during the last few days of the Session. 
In some quarters it is regarded as a 
political move in order to appease the 
Sicilian voters; while others say ,that 
pressure has been put on the Government 


Edible Products. 


by the syndicates of manufacturers and 
speculators in citrate of lime, who have 
large stocks that have heavily depreci- 
ated in value. The Act creates a body 
called the “Camera Agrumaria,” or 
Chamber for the Citrus-industry, which 
will practically have a monopoly. The 
chamber has to sell the goods deposited 
by the producers for their account 
against a commission of 2 per cent. and 
is exempt from the tax, whereas the 
goods which are sold outside the chamber 
are to pay the tax. At the present time 
only citrate of lime and concentrated 
lemon-juice are required to pay the 
duty, which is variable and may reach 
ainaximum of about 25 per cent. of the 
value, but the duty may be extended by 
royal deeree to other citrus products, 
including lemon oil. Much doubt pre- 
vails in Messina as to whether the 
Chamber will be able to work success- 
fully ; indeed, some believe that the 
scheme will be unsatisfactory to every- 
body, especially to owners of lemon- 
orchards, who believe it will be the 
means of advancing or keeping up the 
price of lemons. But there are views to 
the contrary. No artificial means is 
likely to improve the lemon-industry, 
which is at present suffering from over- 
production. The chief interest of the 
new law to makers, dealers, and con- 
sumer of citric acid is that the duty on 
citrate and juice is equal to 120 lire per 
pipe of juice, or, say, £5 per pipe or 3d. 
per lb. on citric acid. Payment of the 
tax will eventually fall on the consumer, 
for the narrow margin of profit on 
which citric-acid makers work  pre- 
cludes the possibility of their bearing it. 
The duty will come into force in Septem- 
ber. Makers complain of the instability 
of the market price of citrate of lime 
and the uncertain and frequent fluctu- 
ations, whereby they are unable to 
ascertain with any degree of accuracy 
the prices and extent of their contract 
business. English makers have been 
compelled to restrict their bnsiness on 
this account, and with the new duty in 
sight the future course of citric acid is 
quite uncertain. It has been stated that 
the Italian Government intend to in- 
terest themselves in the mauufacture of 
citric acid, and with that object a sum 
equivaient to £8,000 is at the disposal of 
the Italian Minister of Agriculture for 
the erection of 1 factory. Thereappears 
to be uncalled-for animosity in Sicily 
against all makers of citric acid, and it 
iseven alleged that they are respon- 
sible for the present crisis in the citrus- 
industry. Probably that is the reason 
they wish to undertake the manufacture 
of citric acid themselves.—Chemist and 
Deugotst Vol. LXXII., No. 1487, July, 
e 


432 


[NovEMBER, ‘1908. 


SUMATRA TOBACCO: 


HISTORY OF ITS GROWTH AND 
DEVELOPMENT. 


PIONEER WoRK IN THE SEVENTIES. 
(Written for the Straits Times) 
By E. MATHIEU. 


It was in 1864 that Mr. Niewenhuis, a 
Java planter, raised the first crop of 
Sumatra tobacco, and in 1865 that 150 
bales of that crop reached Europe. Its 
qualities were recognised at once, and 
the price paid for it averaged 1 florin 49 
per halt-kilo. 


Other pioneers soon followed in the 
footsteps of Mr. Niewenhuis. Of this 
period, the usual tale is recorded of 
misery, sickness and death, which is the 
inevitable prelude of the opening up of 
a new tropical country to cultivation; 
and, when we see the rich plains of Deli 
of the present day, it is hard to realise 
that this smiling land, not more than 
forty years ago, was an almost impene- 
trable block of jungle and forbidding 
swamps, a wild land haunted by wild 
beasts. 


But, early in the seventies, important 
companies, such as the Deli Maatschap- 
pij, with huge capita}, and a host of pri- 
vate planters stepped in, aud set them- 
selves in earnest to the work of felling 
the forests, of draining the swamps and 
laying down the crops; roads were made 
connecting the estates with the little 
port of Labcean. A new port was estab- 
lished at Belawan, and, in 1884, a well- 
appointed railway was opened, quicken- 
ing the life of the country; so that, in 
less than twenty years, this land, where 
“the hand of man had never set foot” 
as the humorist puts it, had blossomed 
out into a chess-board of highly-culti- 
vated domains with rich creps of the 
finest tobacco ever grown. 


RECORD OF PROGRESS.—Excepting the 
Federated Malay States, there is, per- 
haps, not one Colony which can show 
such a brilliant record of progress as 
that made by that small strip of country 
comprising the Sultanates of Deli, Lang- 
kat and Serdang. This progress is not 
the result of a bloody war, such as marks 
the birth of most Colonies; it 1s a tale of 
conquest of wild nature by the sheer 
determination of the planters them- 
selves, absolutely unaided by Govern 
ment. A generous soil and a propitious 
climate were on their side, it is true; but 
it wanted somethi,.. more than that to 
bring about the signal success achieved 
by Sumatra tobacco throughout the 
world at large. It wanted the un- 


November, 1908. ] 


surpassed experience of the Dutch as 
planters; their capacity for organising 
and handling native and Chinese labour, 
and, lastly, the thoroughness of their 
methods which have raised  tobacco- 
growing to the plane of a highly special- 
ised and intelligent cultivation. 


Deli planters realised from the start 
that, for the profitable cultivation of 
tobacco, there is only room for a product 
of marked characteristics, and qualities 
answering the well-defined requirements 
of the trade for its different: purposes. 
It is no use, for instance, forthe planter 
to strive to supply a tobacco that will 
answer, to take an extreme case, at the 
same time the purposes of a cigar wrap- 
per, and those of a pipe or chewing to- 
bacco. The qualities required for each 
type exclude each other. He shorld aim 
at excellence in the type of tobacco for 
which his soil and- climate are most 
suited, and, to reach the standard of 
excellence, he should be well in touch 
with the market and informed as to the 
actual demands of the day. 


A WRaApPER LEAF.—In fact, a high 
grade of tobacco of any class can be 
grown only bya _ specialist. He must 
know precisely what field practice, what 
methods of planting, of harvesting, of 
fermentation will produce the best re- 
sults towards the end he is working for, 
whether it be fineness of aroma, or the 
size and weight of texture and lightness 
of leaf. This practical knowledge should, 
moreover, go hand in hand with a close 
attention to the researches of scientific 
investigators. which have already done 
much of value to elucidate the actions of 
various manures on the qualities of the 
leaf, the facts which govern the evolu- 
tion of colour, of flavour and aroma 
during cultivation and fermentation, 
and also the life habits of the insect 
pests and the nature of the diseases to 
which, from seed to staple, tobacco is 
subject. 


Deli planters, having recognised the 
capacity of their land to grow a wrapper 
leaf of very high quality, have stopped 
at nothing to maintain it or even to im- 
prove it. As the demands of trade and 
of fashion became more exacting, they 
altered their modes of cultivation, of 
harvesting and of fermentation. From 
broad planting, they resorted to closer 
planting ; abandoning their former prac- 
tice of cutting the whole plant, they 
have now adopted the plucking of the 
leaves one by one, which entails an 
enormous complication of the work, to 
be understood only when we consider 
that each coolie has to handle, one by 
one, at least 180,000 leaves. A a result of 


59 


433 


Edible Products. 


these improvements, the cost of produc- 
tion of one pound of leaf, which ould 
formerly be grown for 75 cents of a 
florin, has now risen to something like 
one florin. 


APPLIED SCIENCE.—It can be truly 
said that the whole course of cultivating 
and curing tobacco leaf for wrappers is 
a system of applied science, compared to 
which other branches of Agriculture 
and preparation of vegetable products, 
with perhaps the exception of such in- 
tensive culture as the Paris ‘‘ marai- 
chers” and such like, is simple and easy. 
It hag, in fact, reached such a degree of 
minuteness that it appears almost 
perfect, and yet, it is doubtful if we 
have seen the last of improvements. 
Such a highly specialised industry, con- 
stituting, as it does, a virtual monopoly, 
can hardly stand still in the face of the 
brilliant results achieved within late 
years by the planters of Florida and 
Carolina from Sumatra seed. 


If the accounts which we read are not 
over-hopeful, the tobacco which they 
now produce is of such fine qualities 
that New York brokers declare that it 
cannot be told from the imported 
Sumatra leaf, and they predict, as a 
result, a complete revolution in the 
tobacco industry of their country. 
Already at the Paris Exposition of 1900 
some specimens of this tobacco, ex- 
hibited by the Owl Commercial Com- 
pany, had been adjudged a higher order 
of merit than the Sumatra exhibits, as 
they were found thinner and more 
elastic, 


We may take it for granted that the 
Florida growers will not stopin their 
endeavour to improve still further their 
crops, which have now become so valu- 
able that many go the length of shading 
their land under cheese cloth, or under 
thin pine slats. It is stated that some of 
these crops yield 80 per cent. of wrapper 
leaf, and that the best among them are 
of such a fine quality that 200 leaves go 
to the pound, two pounds covering 1,000 
cigars; and, in the 16 inch size, it takes 
25 leaves more to make up a pound 
weight than it does of the Sumatra leaf, 


A TELLING TEstT.—I believe there isa 
tendency among some of the Deli 
planters to think lightly of these efforts 
of the Florida planters, and that their 
confidence in the superiority of the Deli 
product remains unshaken ; but this may 
turn out to be a mistake, and in this con- 
nection, the following anecdote tells a 
plain enough tale. 


A friend of mine, formerly a well- 
known Deli planter, who went to the 


Edible Products, 


States in 1904, brought back with him 
some Florida wrapper leaf tobacco, and 
on his return to Holland invited some 
friends, five innumber, some of the best- 
known tobacco-men among them, to see 
the tobacco side by side with another 
lot of Sumatra tobacco. The Florida 
bundles, being of different make and get- 
upthan the Deli tobacco, were opened 
and put up in the same way as the 
Sumatra samples, namely, tied with 
‘‘Keelit Kayce” and a special knot made 
to,them for identification, Then Florida 
and Sumatra bundles were mixed _ to- 
gether ; the windows were wide open 
and the room afforded a very good light 
which would render plainly visible any 
real difference, The tobacco experts were 
then admitted, and, to cut the story 
short, no one succeeded in spotting the 
Florida from the Sumatra bundles. 


The moral of this is that the last word 
has not yet been said in the matter of 
tobaceo cultivation, even in Deli, and 
that, with the help of the duty of 31°85 
(U.S. currency) per pound, the day may 
not be far off when the large shipments 
of Sumatra leaf tobacco to the States 
may cease and be supplied by the home 
grownarticle. Up to the present, so far 
aslam aware, the quantities of shade- 
grown tobacco have not been sufficient 
to influence the market; but, as time 
goes on and the growers gain experience, 
which they are fast doing. we may soon 
hear more of the matter. A parcel of 
134 bales of Connecticut shade-grown 
tobacco, from Deli seed, realised, in 1905, 
an average price of $1°26 (U.S. currency) 
per pound; the highest pvice being $1°75 
and the lowest, for short sized, second 
quality leaf, 835 cents per pound. 


A Goop SMOKE,—We ¢an all tell good 
butter from bad. Flavour, odour, fresh- 
ness, fineness of grain, at once differen- 
tiate the good article froma bad one. 
But who can say what a good tobacco is ? 


“Hodge” puffs at his church-warden 
filed with a nondescript mixture and 
says ‘‘that’s foine.” 


‘*Hans” smokes his cheap, full-bodied 
cigar, and beaming, exclaims ‘* schmeckt 
shon.” 


“ Jacques” pulls away at his coarse 
and. ill-flavoured ‘‘caporal” and finds it 
** chic.” 

The street-urchin picks up a cigarette 


end from the gutter and pronounces 
it ‘‘nobby.’ 


Which goes to prove that, in the 
matter of tobacco, tastes differ. But, 
notwithstanding this diversity, certain 
types of tobacco have found favour 
generally among smokers, and are re- 


454 


[NOVEMBER, 1908. 


cognised as standards by the trade for 
their individual characteristic qualities. 
Of such are the Cuban tobaccoes for 
their richness of aroma, and the Sumatra 
tobaccoes for their delicate texture. 


CONSTRUCTION OF THE CIGAR.—A cigar 
consists of :— 


1. A filler or inner core which is com- 
posed of two or three pieces of tobacco 
leaf rolled with the fingers in the form 
of a short rod. For the best cigars, 
Cuban tobacco is used, selected for 
its flavour and aroma, although some 
very good brands are turned out which 
have no connection at all with Cuba. 
Sometimes the filler is made up of two 
or three kinds of tobacco, blended to 
produce acertain strength and aroma 
required to obtain a specified brand. 


2. A binder—an oblong strip of leaf 


of the length of the cigar which en- 
wraps the core and slightly overlaps. 

3. The outer cover or wWwrapper—a 
strip cut to a definite pattern and 
dimensions, wound spirally round the 
cigar, beginning from the burning end 
down to the mouth end, where it 
neatly finished to a fine point. 


THe PERFECT WRAPPER LEAF.— 
1. It should be light in weight. The cigar 
manufacturer, who pays 1 florin 50, or 
2 florins a halt-kilo likes to have as many 
leaves as possible for his money; and, 
other qualities being equal, he will 
naturally prefer the tobacco which gives 
him the most wrapping material for the 
same weight. 


2. Its flavour should not be too strong 
or too marked, so as not to veil the 
aroma of the filler. 

3. It should be without holes or spots. 


4. The midribs should be very thin so 
as to minimise waste. 


5. The texture of the leaf should 
also be very thin, silky, and elastic so as 
to form a smooth cover. 


6. It should not be strong in nicotine 
as, in the tact of smoking, it comes in 
coat with the tongue and with the 
ips. 

7. It should burn well, without crepi- 
tation, and consume itself into a white, 
pearly and firm ash, which will not 
easily drop off. 

8. It should be bright in tone and 
slightly glossy, and, in regard to 
colour, meet the demands of the trade 
and the caprice of fashions. 

9. Its size should be 12, 14 or 16 
inches, which prove to be the most 
suitable sizes for the requirements of the 
manufacturers and those entailing the 
least waste. 


NOVEMBER, 1908. ] 


10. The lateral veins should neither 
be spreading at a right angle nor at 
too acute an angle from the midrib, and 
they must be equidistant, 15 to 2 
inches at the base on either side of the 
midribs. <A tapering leaf is not favour- 
able for cover. 


The Sumatra leaf represents, so far, 
the highest wrapper leaf grown, and 
it will beunderstood that the grower 
of such a high standard of tobacco can 
leave nothing to chance in the selection 
of his land, and that, from seed to 
finish, his work must conform through- 
out to a_ well-defined plan which ex- 
perience has taught him to be the best 
to achieve his purpose. How thorough 
his methods are, I purpose to. show 
later on, but I first must refer to the 
climate and soil and surroundings he 
hasto work with. 


A, B. C. OF LIME CULTIVATION. 


PREFACE 


One of the most promising of the 
newer industries of the West Indies is 
the cultivation of limes. Lime pro- 
ducts, at the present time, form the 
principal exports from the Island of 
Dominica, and are second only to cotton 
in the island of Montserrat. Large 
tracts of land have recently been taken 
up in British Guiana for the cultivation 
of lime trees, and progress is being made 
at St. Lucia, Carriacou, and other 
portions of these colonies. 


It is estimated, by calculating an 
average yield peracre asl} hogsheads 
of concentrated juice, that there are 
approximately 2,500 acres of full bearing 
lime trees in Dominica at the present 
time, and, in addition to the above, 
there are from 1,000 to 1,200 acres of 
young lime cultivation from one to six 
years old. 


Lime fruits in a fresh conditon are 
now being largely exported to New 
York, London, and Manchester. They 
can be used for every purpose to which 
the lemon is put, and are esteemed as 
being more economical and superior to 
that fruit. Raw lime juice is exported 
-for making cordials ; while concentrated 
lime juice forms one of the principal 
sources of commercial citric acid. 


The manufacture of the citrate of 
lime has recently been taken up with 
success. Hssential oil of limes and dis- 
tilled oil are of value in Perfumery. 


5 Edible Products. 


With the view of extending and im- 
proving the cultivation of lime trees in 
the West Indies, the present pamphlet 
has been issued. Themanuscript, in the 
first instance, was prepared by Mr. 
Joseph Jones, the efficient Curator of 
the Botanic Station at Dominica. It 
was afterwards carefully revised by the 
Hon. J.C. Macintyre, an experienced and 
successful lime planter at Dominica, and 
by the scientific officers on the staff of 
this Department. 


The following pages should serve asa 


popular guide in regard to the selection 


of suitable land, and the various details 
connected with the successful cultivation 
of the trees and the preparation of the 
various lime products for export. They 
should also prove of interest to those 
engaged as lime growers, and of especial 
value to young settlers and others who 
contemplate embarking in the industry. 


Lime trees may givea few fruits in 
the third year after planting, but it is 
thought that eight to ten years is neces- 
sary to bring a lime plantation into full 
bearing. The cost of establishing a 
plantation, including the necessary 
works and buildings is estimated at 
between £30 and £40 per acre. A 
planter, possessed of a capital at least 
£2,000, unless he is familiar with local 
conditions, could expect to make a com- 
fortable living from 30 to 40 acres of 
limes. : 


To bring, say, 100 acres of forest land 
into full-bearing, limes would need a 
capital of between £3,500 and £4,000. 


In the Appendices will be found in- 
formation obtained from manufactur- 
ing chemists in London and New York 
with reference to the future of citrate 
of lime, particulars of the methods of 
cultivation of limes as practised at 
Monsterrat, details of the exports of 
lime products from Dominica and 
Monsterat, and a caretully prepared 
bibliography of the literature readily 
accessible in regard to the lime tree and 
its numerous products. 


The thanks of the Department are due 
to Mr. Joseph Jones, the Hon. J. C. 
Macintyre and others for the trouble 
and care they have devoted to the pre- 
paration of this pamphlet. It is hoped 
that its publication will serve a useful 
purpose in assisting in the further 
development of what may be regarded 
as a distinctive West Indian industry. 


D. MORRIS, 
Cominvissioner of Agricullure 


for the West Indies. 
March 11th, 1908. 


Edible Products. 


INTRODUCTORY. 


One of the most distinct species of 
Citrus is C. Medica, which includes the 
citron, lemon, and the limes. Of limes 
there are sweet and sour kinds. The 
sour lime (the one dealt with in this 
pamphlet) although probably introduced 
into tropical America from the East 
Indies, has made its second home in 
this part of the world, where it is 
more generally cultivated. The tree 
is described as probably indigenous to 
the wild valleys of the outer Himalaya, 
and probably also of the mountain 


tracts of the Central Provinces and of ° 


Central India. 


The sour lime of the West Indies 
(Citrus Medica, var acida) seems to 
be confined to tropical and sub-tropical 
zones. It does not appear to flourish 
in Southern Europe nor in many other 
localities where oranges and lemons 
are capable of being grown. 


The date of the introduction of the 
lime into the West Indies is not 
recorded, but it is supposed that it 
found its way to the English islands 
from the French island of Martinique. 


Atwood, the historian of Dominica, 
in 1791, states:—‘‘The lemon and the 
lime trees bear also very aromatic 
scenting blossoms, and the fruit of 
both is in great abundance, large and 
of excellent quality. Of these, the 
latter especially, great quantities are 
often sent in barrels to England and 
America. The neighbouring English 
islands are likewise often supplied 
with them from this island, especially 
Antigua and Barbados.” 


Up to the time of Dr. Imray, in the 
middle of the nineteenth century, the 
lime was cultivated to but a_ slight 
extent in Dominica, and then for the 
fruit only. Experiments commenced 
by this gentleman in about 1852 showed 
that the cultivation of limes could be 
undertaken upon a commercial scale. 
About the same time, ora little later, 
similar cultivation was commenced by 
Messrs. Sturge in the island of 
Montserrat. 


Through the enterprising action of 
Messrs. Sturge, Mortserrat soon be- 
came the headquarters of the lime 
industry in the West Indies, a position 
which in later years has been attained 
by Dominica. 


It would appear that the future 
prospects of the lime industry in the 
West Indies are of a promising nature 
and considerable interest has, of late 
been awakened in this cultivation 


436 


| NOVEMBER, 1908. 


The progress made in the industry in 
Montserrat, Dominica, and Jamaica has 
induced the planting of limes in 
British Guiana, Trinidad, Grenada, 
Carriacou, aud St. Lucia, 


Records show that lime products 
to the value of £280 were exported 
from Dominica in 1845, but that their 
value fell to £12 in 1857. In 1887, the 
value is given by Dr. H. A. Alford 
Nicholls (Kew Bulletin, August, 1888) 
as £8,561, whilst lime products from 
Montserrat were valued at £10,625. 
The total value of lime products 
exported from the island cf Dominica 
during the year 1906 was £55,174. The 
exports from Montserrat during the 
same period amounted to £6,883. Those 
from Jamaica were of the value of 
£3,909, and from Trinidal of £982, 


The falling off in exports of lime 
products from Montserrat in recent 
years has been due to the destructive 
hurricane that swept over that island 
in 1889. The lime plantations are only 
now recovering from this disaster. 


The rapid progress of the lime indus- 
try in Dominica during the last ten 
years is largely due to the assistance 
rendered by the Imperial Department 
of Agriculture, which has distributed 
at asmall cost immense quantities of 
lime plants from the Botanic Station. 
During the five years 1902-6, over 
150,000 ordinary lime plants have been 
distributed from the station, in addi- 
tion to nearly 12.000 plants of the spine- 
less variety. For the year ended 
March 31, 1907, about 70,000 lime plants 
were sentout. Of these, 60,000 were of 
the ordinary kind, and 10,000 of the 
spineless variety. The Agricultural 
School has also taken part in this work, 
and the pupils are thoroughly trained 
in the cultivation of limes. . 


For the year 1906-7, over 5,500 lime 
plants and eight gallons of lime seeds 
were distributed from the Montserrat 
Botanic Station, and 387,000 plants from 
St. Lucia. The majority of the plants 
at St. Lucia were raised in the nurseries 
attached to the Agricultural School. 


As already shown, the lime industry 
of Dominica has made rapid progress 
in recent years. It received a serious 
set-back from the attacks of scale 
insects in 1902 and 1903, when the ex- 
ports dropped from £45,857 to £23,420. 
Valuable services were rendered by the 
Imperial Department of Agriculture 
in successfully checking these scale 
attacks, and the industry rapidly re- 
covered. The exports of 1907 rose to a 
value of £17,407. 


NOVEMBER, 1908. ] 


VARIETIES. 


The ordinary variety of lime that is 
cultivated is the spiny variety. There 
are also ‘spineless’ and ‘seedless’ 
varieties. 


The variety of lime now known as the 
spineless lime was first noticed on Shaw- 
ford estate, Dominica. Seeds from this 
locality were collected and sown by Mr. 
H. F. Green, the Curator of the Botanic 
Station, Dominica, in 1891. Seedlings 
from these, in turn yielded fruit, and 
plants were established in ‘spineless 
lime plot’ at the Botanic Station. From 
this plot the spineless variety has been 
propagated for general distribution in 
the island. 


The spineless lime is characterized not 
only by the absence of spines, but also 
by an erect habit of growth while 
young. This erect habit is modified 
with age, for as the trees grow older 
and bear fruit the branches tend down- 
wards, 


The fruits contain comparatively 
few seeds, while the skin is smooth 
and thin. They are smaller than the 
fruits of the ordinary variety, but are 
very juicy. The juice would appear to 


be purer and richer in acid. 


Various samples of ordinary and of 
spineless limes, grown under similar 
conditions, have been examined by Dr. 
Watts at the Government Laboratory, 
Antigua. They showed that the spine- 
less variety gave an average acidity of 

oz. of citric acid per gallon 
against 13°30z. by the ordinary variety. 
The average weight of one fruit of the 
spineless lime has been caleulated to be 
4305 grammes against an average weight 
of 65'7 grammes for the ordinary lime. 
Mr. A. KE. Agar has also kindly under- 
taken comparative crushings of spine- 
less and ordinary limes. These also 
show the richness of the juice of the 
former variety in acid its purity, the 
juicy character of the fruit, the thinness 
of the skin and the comparative free- 
dom from seeds, Fuller particulars of 
analyses of spineless and ordinary limes 
may be found in the Report of the 
Bontanic Station, Dominica, for 1906-7. 


There are now over 20,000 trees, equi- 
valent toabout 100 acres of the spine- 
less variety growing in Dominica, and 
information, based upon observations 
made on large field plots, should soon 
be forthcoming. 


When the seeds of this variety are 
sown, they come fairly true to type, 
about 75 per cent. of the seedlings being 
spineless. The spineless seedlings are 


437 


Hdible Products. 


readily distinguished from the others, 
evenat a very young stage, by the 
different shape of the leaves. 


‘Seedless’ varieties have been noticed 
in Trinidad, Dominica, and Montserrat, 
and budded plants have been obtained 
for distribution. 


The United States Department of Agri- 
culture have obtained hybrids between 
the West Indian lime and the Sicily 
lemon. Two hybrids appear to possess 
characters of merit, but it is not yet 
known whether they will prove of real 
economic value. 


GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS. 
CHOICE OF LAND. 


The flat or gently undulating land met 
with near the coast line of Dominica are 
considered the best for lime cultivation. 
In some instances, these lands may ex- 
tend for considerable distances from the 
coast inland up the vaileys. 


Limes can also be successfully culti- 
vated on fairly steep slopes, especially 
where the land is held by numerous 
boulders, and fed with vegetable matter 
from forest land above the cultivation. 
On slopes that have ‘been cleared of 
forest to the top of the ridge, lime trees 
have been established in some instances, 
but unless trees so situated are carefully 
terraced and manured, they cannot be 
expected to bear such good cropsas trees 
growing under more suitable conditions. 


The flat coastal lands of Dominica 
were formerly cultivated in sugar-cane. 
On the collapse of that industry the 
more sheltered positions were planted 
with cacao, and the lands which were 
more exposed with limes. Limes, which 
are surface feeders, will grow vigorously 
and yield heavy crops in comparatively 
shallow soils overlying heavy clays. 
Such lands could not successfully be 
cultivated in cacao. 


This line of development has continued 
to the present day, both industries 
flourishing side by side, Dominica is 
therefore producing two staple crops of 
first-rate importance. 


Lime trees will develop best and yield 
the heaviest crops in rich, well sheltered 
lands, situated from sea-level up to 800 
feet elevation, and possessing a rainfall 
varying from 80 to 160 inches per annum. 


They are, however, being cultivated 
in Dominica at elevations up to 2,000 
feet, and in districts possessing a rainfall 
of over 200 inches per year. 


The most serious consideration in con- 
nection with the cultivation inland at 


Edible Products. 


high elevations is the question of trans- 
port of,the crop to the coast. It would 
appear, however, that with good selec- 
tion of land, sound methods of cultiva- 
tion, ard attention to the protection of 
the property from the wind, there is 
little doubt that lime cultivation may 
be profitable in the hills. 


The lime can be successfully grown 
under varying circumstances, provided 
there is a sufficient rainfall and not too 
prolonged adry season. Experience in 
Dominica shows that the best results 
are obtained on the rich coastal and 
valley lands possessing a light black 
soil. Limes may also be successfully 
grown on the red soils of the uplands. 


LAYING OUT PLANTATIONS. 


The greater part of lime cultivation in 
Dominica was established on old sugar- 
cane lands. The same may also be said, 
to a certain degree, of the lime cultiva- 
tion in Montserrat, When the canes 
were cut, the fields were holed and 
planted with lime seedlings. The canes 
were allowed to remain and to ratoon. 
They yielded fair crops, and, also. 
afforded protection to the young lime 
plants. 


The system is a good one when the 
canes around the lime plants are suffi- 
ciently removed to allow of free develop- 
ment. Limes can, by this method, be 
successfully established in the fields of 
sugar-cane in the course of a few years, 
but they must receive attention, for, if 
the canes around the lime plants are not 
removed, the latter will become weak 
and dwarfed. 


Limes may also be grown on lands that 
are cultivated in the usual garden 
crops of cassava, pigeon peas, tannias, 
dasheens, etc., while on some estates, 
lands in grass and guava bushes are 
planted with this crop. Land in grass or 
guava bush is cutlassed, lined and holed 
before being planted. Circles around 
the young plants are kept clean, while 
the remainder of the field is occasionally 
cutlassed. 


When forest land is felled for lime 
cultivation, the usual methods of lop- 
ping and burning the branches are fol- 
lowed by liningandholing. After plant- 
ing, a small space around each plant 
is kept clean, while the bush and grass 
that spring up are kept down by cut- 
lassing. 

When the plantation is being estab- 
lished, a good system of roads should 
be outlined, for lime fruits area bulky 
crop, and have to be carted to the mill. 
Good roads render the fields easily acces- 
sible for the many estate operations, and 
lead to economy in working. 


438 


| NOVEMBER, 1908. 


In districts where the rainfall is heavy, 
the question of drainage is very import- 
ant. In many wet districts it is to be 
recommended that an efficient drainage 
system should be in existence before any 
planting is done. Frequently, however, 
the need for drainage does not become 
apparent until the trees have begun to 
come into bearing, when the constant 
trampling of the soil by the labourers 
renders it imperative. Limes that have 
been planted in straight rows render 
this after-operation of additional drain- 
age possible with but slight injury to 
the trees. Very great injury is often 
done to trees in draining fields irregu- 
larly planted. On coastal lands where 
the rainfall is light, and the natural 
draisage good, but little attention is 
needed for the laying out of drains. 
When it is necessary, it should be one 
of the first operations undertaken. 


Protection from wind must also receive 
attention at an early date. Many 
estates are well protected by the con- 
formation of the land, but on more 
exposed lands, wind-breaks of suitable 
trees should be formed as early as_ pos- 
sible. Galba has been found the most 
suitable for main shelter belts, and Pois 
doux is to be recommended for subsi- 
diary hedges by reason of its beneficial 
effect on surrounding cultivation. The 
hedges for wind-breaks should be topped 
to prevent them from becoming tall, 
thin, and ineffective for shelter. The 
prunings make excellent mulch. 


Temporary wind-breaks of the wild 
plantain (cokoi) or manila hemp, ete., 
afford protection while the permanent 
hedges are growing. When either of the 
above are established in the land, how- 
ever, it is exceedingly difficult to get out 
their roots and to rid the land of them. 
Ordinary bananas and plantains are not 
recommended as they are liable to be 
blown down. 


Full exposure to the wind has a dwarf- 
ing effect on the trees. Also lime 
flowers are very easily blown off the 
trees, and, as the principal flushes of 
flowers occur in February and March 
when strong winds are blowing, care 
should be taken to establish’ effective 
windbreaks. Very often, this impor- 
tant work of making wind-breaks is 
neglected in the establishment of a lime 
plantation. 


Much loss of time and money is pre- 
vented by forming wind-breaks of suit- 
able trees at the same time as the 
earliest planting of lime is done, especi- 
ally in any situations that are exposed 
to the full force of the wind. 


NovEMBER, 1908. | 436 


PREPARATION OF SEED BEDS 
RAISING PLANTS. 


AND 


Lime plants are usually raised in nur- 
series until they are about 16-18 inches 
high, when they are suitable for plant- 
ing out in the field. It takes from ten 
to twelve months from the sowing of 
the seeds to the time when strong plants 
are fit for putting out. Sometimes, 
seeds are planted at stake in the fields, 
but this is not generally to be recom- 
mended. 


Seed beds should be made in a 
sheltered corner of land after the 
soil has been thoroughly tilled. Beds 


from 4 to5 feet wide should be made, 
and there should be paths from 2 to 
3 feet wide between the beds. The soil 
from the paths should be thrown upon 
the seed beds, thus raising them and 
insuring good drainage. 


Nursery beds are prepared ina similar 
manner and are usually of the same 
width as the seed beds. The soil of the 
nursery beds, as in the case of seed 
beds, should be thoroughly broken up. 
This ensures that the seedlings develop a 
good root system. When the beds are 
badly prepared, the plants possess a 
very poor root system, and such 
plants cannot be lifted and transplant- 
ed in the field without a heavy per- 
centage of loss, whilst even those that 
survive receive a great check. 


A quantity of seed, selected for sow- 
ing, should be placed in a fine sieve and 
kept stirred by hand while water is 
poured over it to remove the mucilage 
enveloping the seeds. The seeds are 
then dried in the shade, and as soon as 
they are dry enough for handling they 
should be sown, for lime seeds do not 
retain their vitality very long. 


When lime seeds are sown unwashed, 
rats very often dig them out and des- 
troy them, whereas if they are carefully 
washed and dried, rats but seldom 
interfere with them. 


Lime seeds are usually sown in drills 
about 8-9inches apart running across the 
seed beds. Two men are generally en- 
gaged in sowing, one on each side of 
the bed. The drillis marked by press- 
ing on the soil lengthways with a broom 
handle. The drill is opened by the 
fingers, and the seed is sown thinly 
about an inch deep. A seed bed 5 
feet wide and 100 feet long, with drills 
8 or 9 inches apart, should give from 
5,000 to 6,000 strong seedlings, 


When the seedlings are from 4 to 
6 inches high they are ready for trans- 
planting into the nursery beds, The 
plants are carefully lifted with forks, 


Edible Products. 


the rootlets trimmed, and the stems top- 
ped. The roots of the seedlings are 
kept wetted and covered with damp 
baling during the time they are out 
of the ground. The seedlings are then 
taken to the nursery beds, which should 
have been previously well prepared 
and levelled. 


The tools necessary for transplanting 
work are:—Two garden trowels, a short 
line to keep the rows straight, two 
pieces of stick 8 or 9 inches long for 
measuring the distances between the 
rows, anda short piece of board to pre- 
vent the men from placing their feet on 
the soil of the bed. 


The board is placed on the bed and 
the two men working together have 
one footin either path and one foot on 
the board. The seedlings are placed 
out in rows 8 or 9 inches apart, 
with the same distance from plant to 
plant in the rows. Each row in a bed 
5 feet wide will contain seven plants. 


Two good workmen who have had 
some practice at this work can trans- 
plant, on easily worked soil, 2,000 seed- 
lings a day. <A nursery bed 5 feet 
wide and 100 feet long should give 1,000 
strong plants for planting in the field, 
after allowing 15 per cent. for wastage 
and for backward plants. 


The lime isan extremely hardy plant 
and needs no protection from the sun 
at any stage of its growth. In the 
nursery, however, the young plants 
should receive careful treatment io 
order to produce vigorous plants _pos- 
sessing a good root system, capable of 
being transplanted to the field without 
loss, and with the least possible check 
to growth. 


(To be continued.) 


PROPAGATION OF TOBACCO 
IN CUBA, 
By C. F. BAKER. 


I. SHED. 
A.—Seed Selection. 


Good seed is one of the most impor- 
tant items in tobacco culture. It is 
perfectly true that poor seed—seed 
taken from secondary sprouts on all 
kinds of plants, good, bad, and in- 
different, seed cut before it is ripe, and 
large and small seed together—may all 
be planted, and then, with sufficient 
outlay in fertilizers, water, and care, 
fairly good tobacco may yet be made. 
But itis not a good business proposition 
when, if the best seed and rightly 


Kdible Products. 


grown posturas are used, as good and 
tar better tobacco may be grown at 
less cost. It has been proven conclusively 
elsewhere, and alsoin Cuba, that seed 
selection pays; seed from plants of the 
finest type only, seed from the main 
terminal flower cluster, seed from the 
largest strongest capsules, and finally 
the heaviest seed. We tested this in 
a way, in cur experimental plots, by 
making a planting on very poor ground, 
ground that had been occupied oniy 
by Johnson grass, using very strong 
and healthy posturas from heavy seed 
that had come out of the best parents. 
The ground was very carefully and 
thoroughly worked, but received no 
fertilizer of any description and had 
only a very uncertain water supply. 
Cultivation was frequent and careful. 
The resulting plants were as tall and 
strong and produced as many leaves 
and of as good quality as any uncovered 
tobacco in near-by vegas which had 
received fertilizers in quantity and 
water ad-libitum. This does not mean 
that good tobacco may always. be 
raised on wornout soils without ferti- 
lizers, by use of good seed and posturas, 
but it does mean, and that most 
e.aphatically, that these two items are 
of the very greatest importance in 
tobacco culture, 

Most 
two sexual 


plants require the union of 
elements to produce 
seed, very much after the manner 
of animals, and with very similar 
results so far as heredity goes, 
The fine yellow dust called pollen we 
may speak of as the male element, 
and the pistil which stands in the centre 
of the flower, and the lower part of 
which eventually develops into a capsule, 
as the female portion. Hence both sexes 
may occur in the same flower. Com- 
monly through the agency of insects the 
pollen is carried from flower to flower, 
causing broadcast mixture of blood with- 
in each species, and with most plants it 
isa decided advantage to the race to 
have the mixture take place. Besides, it 
actively promotes continuous variation, 
So that in the case of tobacco it will not 
do to simply mark plants in the field and 
afterward collect the seed from these. 
Fortunately tobacco happens to be a 
plant that readily submits to inbreed- 
ing, t.e., forms good seed by the use of 
the pollen in the same flower. The 
progeny resulting from this inbreeding 
possesses the very desirable quality of 
remarkable similarity to the parent, so 
that seed so produced from selected 
plants possesses a far higher value than 
ordinary seed. To insure inbreeding a 
stout paper sack must be placed over 
the entire flower cluster before any of 
the flowers are open, and tied in so 


440 


[NOVEMBER, 1908. 


closely to the stem below that no insects 
may enter. Large sacks, at least 18 
inches long, must be used, and they 
should be examined at least twice each 
week and moved up to keep pace with 
the expanding flower cluster. Heavy 
winds will whip these about and break 
off the plants if long sharpened sticks 
are not run down close to the stems and 
the sacks tied to them at top and bottom. 
This selecting should all be done in the 
open fields instead of under cheese cloth, 
the planter personally going through 
and distinctly marking just such plants 
ashe considers of the best type and 
quality and to him altogether desirable, 
before the first topping is done. These 
selected plants should not be topped, 
but be allowed to develop normally 
until time to put on the bags. Later on 
no harm will be doneif some of the best 
leaves on these plants are picked, but 
the majority of the leaves should be left 
undisturbed. As soon as the flowers 
have all dropped, the bags may be 
removed and storedinadry place for 
another year’s use. The capsules 
should be aliowed to remain on the 
plant until perfectly ripened. After the 
bags are removed, a boy witha pair of 
old seissors may be sent through to 
cut out all the small and weakened 
eapsules. Plants vary widely under dif- 
ferent conditions and even under the 
same conditions in the amount of seed 
produced. From ten plants which we 
have selected, which had set a fair num- 
ber of capsules and from which all the 
small capsules had been discarded, we 
obtained 100 grams of fine clean heavy 
seed. But many weights should be 
taken under varying conditions.to get at 
a safe average that could be used for 
general estimates. However, using the 
above figures. it would require the bag- 
ging of at least forty-five good plants to 
secure a pound of the best heavy seed. 
Ordinarily in Cuban seed beds im- 
mensely greater quantities of seed are 
used than there is any necessity for. 
Good seed should never. be_ thickly 
planted in the permanert seed bed, and 
poor seed should never be used at all. 
One gram should be plenty for each 
square yard of seed bed. This would be 
about an even teaspoonful. To insure 
even distribution the seed should be 
thoroughly mixed with many times the 
amount of finely pulverized soil taken 
from the same bed when it is ready to 
plant. Atthe rate above mentioned there 
will be required about ten pounds of seed 
to the acre of seedbed. Whenitis con- 
sidered that good Cuban seed often runs 
five million. to the pound, it will be 
recognized that a good margin for losses 
and non-germination is still left. 
Scarcely any Cuban seed as now placed 


NOVEMBER, 1908. } 


upon the markets can be properly 
measured except after careful cleaning 
and separating of the heaviest seed. By 
careful winnowing we have found that 
in many samples of Cuban seed the chaff 
and dirt run as high as 10 per cent. 


We have made many germination 
tests of samples of Cuban seed. If seeds 
are cleaned aud the heaviest carefully 
separated we have found that they will 
then give a 60 per cent. and higher ger- 
mination test. The lighter and smaller 
seeds from these same samples gave ger- 
mination tests usually lower than 30 per 
cent. and very rarely higher. The 
smaller and lighter seed produces poorer 
plants, and in the seed beds even the 30 
per cent. that might sprout would only 
interfere with the better. posturas and 
would probably largely go to make up 
the usual percentage that is discarded 
from every seed bed as too weak 
and spindling to be usable. Experts 
in the United States Department of. 
Aguiculture have devised a machine for 
cleaning tobacco seed and separating it 
according to weight, and this machine 
is manufactured by Messrs. Queen & Co. 
of Philadelphia. The thinner planting 
that good seed makes possible not only 
produces better posturas but hinders the 
spread of the fungus which thrives best 
and spreads most rapidly where plants 
are crowded. 


(b.) VARIETIES. 


The name ‘Cuban Tobacco” is to-day 
an almost meaningless term. One 
may go into almost any vega and find 
there a mixture of many types, some 
of them presenting wholly distinct 
varieties, ranging all the way from the 
“lengua de vaca” form to a very broad- 
leaved and very desirable type. After 
the ten years’ war, seed of Mexican and 
States tobacco that were more or less 
like the original Cuban, was introduced 
here in large quantities to supply the 
then almost universal demand. Later a 
law was passed calling for the destruc- 
tion of all these foreign tcebacecoes. Such 
a law was, however, utterly futile, since 
the blood of these tobaceces was already 
spread broadcast and the seed distri- 
buted entirely beyond hope of complete 
extermination. These tobaccoes are 
lusty growers and coarser than the 
genuine old-time Cuban. Their fruit is 
larger and more copious, and possibly 
was, for this reason, at first more com- 
monly gathered by vegueros. The result 
has naturally been that the Mexican 
tobaceoes (Nicoliana tabacuin variety 
macrophyllum) are to-day predominant 
in a large part of Cuban vegas. At the 
Estacion and in neighbouring vegas it is 
the sole type, none of the original pure 

56 


441 


Hdibte Products, 
Cuban lobacco (Nicotiana  tabacwm 
variety havanensis) being present. 


These forms were long ago (some as 
early as 1818) characterized in exact 
botanical terms so that they can now be 
recognized with certainty by the techni- 
cal expert. Ordinary commercial Cuban 
seed of to-day is largely, and often alto- 
gether Mexican tobacco. We will admit 
readily enough that it greatly improves 
any variety of tobacco to bring it here 
and grow it under the soil and climatic 
conditions of Cuba,—improves its aroma 
and texture, and make a more valuable 
product of it,—but we will not for a 
moment admit that it transmutes the 
variety into something else. If small 
lots of foreign varieties are openly 
planted and allowed to flower in Cuban 
vegas they would eventually be crossed 
and recrossed until they were completely 
blended with the common Cuban forms. 
But after the ten years’ war was over. 
the introduced tobaccoes were the pre- 
dominant ones, and the original Cuban 
tobacco was the one to be swamped 
under the stronger characters of the 
other. For tobaccoes with exactly the 
characters of the introduced types are 
now the dominant forms. Suppose that 
most of the native razor-back hogs of 
Cuba were exterminated and great num- 
bers of improved red hogs were intro- 
duced. It would mean the complete dis- 
appearance of the original form of 
native hog, and not all the effects of 
climate and food could transmute the 
red hog into the former type of Cuban 
razor-back. 


There is little question but what in 
the more remote and isolated vegas of 
Pinar del Rio, where the posturas have 
always been as a rule home-grown, there 
will yet be found the original and 
genuine Cuban tobacco, true tc the 
original type. It only remains for care- 
ful search to be made during the flower- 
ing and fruiting season of tobacco, 
along the foothills and through the 
mountain districts. Once found. the 
more desirable forms could be restored 
in all the vegas where it was desired in 
one to two seasons. The work only 
requires proper facilities for getting 
about over the country and then free- 
dom of action; with these avery great 
deal could be accomplished in a very 
short time in the much-needed work of 
selection and improvement of existing 
Cuban tobaccoes. 


Through constant inquiries about the 
suitability of still other varieties of 
tobacco for Cuban vegas, we became 
interested in their possible introduction, 
hoping to find some that under Cuban 
conditions might be an improvement 


Bdible Products. 


over the common form now grown, or 
that would introduce tobaccoes of aro- 
mas that could be used to produce im- 
proved or new and novel blends. To 
this end we introduced a considerable 
number of varieties from other coun- 
tries and planted plots of selected seed 
and selected posturas of each variety.* 
There was absolutely no danger of 
any mixtures occurring in this work, 


because it was all done under close 
control, and all flowers were care- 
fully enclosed in sacks. Naturally 


many of these varieties like Little 
Dutch, White Stem, Virginia Orinoco, 
Tennessee Orinoco, and White Burley, 
proved absolutely valueless so far as 
the Cuban tobacco business is concerned. 
There are some, however, which are 
hybrids based on Cuban _ tobaccoes, 
like Brewer’s Hybrid, Cooley’s Hybrid, 
Connecticut Havana, improved Con- 
necticut Broadleaf and Zimmer Spanish, 
which, using seed from selections made 
by experts in the States, gave, under 
Cuban conditions, magnificent types 
of tobacco that certainly demand the 
attention of Cuban growers. Tobacco 
men who saw this at the Hstacion, 
expressed the deepest interest in them 
and a desire to see them grown under 
cheese cloth on a commercial scale. 
It can very safely be said that their 
introduction will not injure in any 
way the common tobacco now grown 
in Cuban vegas, though an admixture 
of their blood might easily bring about 
an improvement. Besides, under current 
methods of topping and suckering, if 
it be thoroughly done, crops of any 
of these could be grown here anywhere 


with no mixture whatever resulting. 
II. SmED BEDS. 
Tobacco seed beds in Cuba under 


present methods of management, cer- 
tainly cannot be called an economic 
success. They are commonly planted 
on newly-cleared ground along hill 
sides, it first being burnt over and 
then the seed scratched in, and the 
plants kept weeded as much as possible 
until ready for pulling. These beds 
are quite commonly remote from water. 
This is a blind trusting in Providence, 
not worthy of modern conditions and 
methods and not productive of any sure 
results. It is true that during some 
favourable seasons good crops of postu- 
ras are obtained, Occasional showers 
coming just right to bring things 
along nicely, without enough dampness 
to stimulate the fungus, and without 
heavy storms to wash out the young 


* We acknowledge many favours in this con- 
nection from Mr. A. D. Shamel, Tobacco Expert 
of the U.S. Department of Agriculture. 


442 


[NOVEMBER, 1908, 
plants. But this is an utter dependence 
on chance. Often there are tremendous 


losses from damping-off fungus, insects, 
excessive rains, or droughts. Last year 
one company lost 200 out of 300 acres 
of seed beds, and was compelled to 
buy posturas after all the expense of 
working the seed beds. The certain 
obtaining of good seedlings when and 
where they are needed is one of the 
mostserious problems facing the grower. 
We have proven conclusivly through 
three consecutive years of practical seed 
bed management in Cuba, under all 
sorts of conditions, that there is abso- 
lutely no need of the larger part of 
these losses, and we have devised means 
and methods of avoiding them. We 
have also shown by repeated successful 
trials that it is readily possible to 
produce seedlings regardless of time and 
place, and largely independent of exist- 
ing conditions of weather. There is 
nothing secret about the process, nor 
does it depend upon any specific or 
manufactured compound or patented 
article, but it depends absolutely upon 
sane and intelligent management. 


The time will surely come in Cuba 
when all the planters will recognize 
that the only proper place for a seed 
bed is beside the vega. By cheap and 
very simple means water and _ light 
can be absolutely controlled. Couple 
this with proper methods of construct- 
ing the beds and _ planting, and 
difficulties with seed beds will be a 
thing of the past. Under the old 
methods commonly in vogue the planter 
is at the mercy of fungus, insects, 
storms and weather. Our experts have 
exerted themselves to discover pallia- 
tives for some of the troubles encoun- 
tered. But it is infinitely better to 
avoid the troubles even if we may 
know a possible remedy for them after 
they are making inroads on our plant- 
ings. Prevention is certainly better 
than cure, always. In our improved 
practice there will be no need of any 
treatments for fungus, because there 
will be no fungus to treat, and the 
possibility of insect injury will be 
reduced to a minimum, and all this at 
no greater expense than is involved 
in the cumbersome older methods. 
There is no necessity for any very 
radical changes, bat only a_ few 
modifications of detail. There must be 
a soil as good as that of the mountain 
seed beds, a bed that a_ stream of 
water coming from any ordinary rain 
cannot wash away, and a_ cover that 
will shut out water completelyif desired, 
cut off a part of the light in midday, and 
at the same time be readily handled. All 
this we have supplied in the methods 


NOVEMBER, 1908, ] 


that we have used. Some planters have 
covered their beds with cheese cloth, 
but this is no protection from the heavier 
rains, which may readily destroy their 
entire plaating. Others have used 
canvas, but canvas is too heavy and 
thick and its cost is prohibitive. We 
have used the waterproof so called 
“horticultural cloth,” the preparation 
of which is described below, and this 
suits the purpose perfectly. 


(a.) PREPARATION OF BEDs. 


Preparation for the seed beds of the 
coming year should certainly begin just 
as soon as the last year’s crop is out of 
the way and the planter is freeto give 
his attention to other things. Go5od seed 
beds need a very large quantity of the 
best and most perfectly rotted manure, 
and it is almost never possible to obtain 
this at the last moment. It must be 
secured very early and afterwards 
properly handled to get it into the right 
shape for seed bed work. It must be so 
exceedicely well rotted that it can be 
mixed into the seed bed with mattocks 
and produce a very fine soft and friable 
loam. Undecayed portions and bits of 
straw and sticks greatly increase the 
possibility and rapidity of fungus attack. 
Too great care cannot be wasted on the 
preparation and proper mixing of the 
seed bed soil. And it cannot be empha- 
sized too strongly that enough compost 
must be used to completely modify the 
character of the soil in order that it 
shall be most suitable for good seed beds. 
In the permanent seed beds_ which 
should be built in every vega the cost 
will of course be far greater for the first 
year than it will be for any succeeding 
year. 


There is a good deal in picking out the 
right location for seed beds. It should 
be a spot protected by trees or shrubbery 
or buildings from prevalent winds, and 
a spot with very free surface drainage. 
When properly built and well prepared 
seed beds are once established, their 
maintenance will involve far less ex- 
pense than the preparation of new seed 
beds in the mountains or elsewhere. 
Initial expense will be somewhat greater 
in the former case, but results amply 
justify it. Besides, in the case of the 
mountain and other seed beds more or 
less loss is always probable, and this 
has led to the preparation of far greater 
areas than there is any need for. The 
losses certain to come to any planter 
putting his faith iu the old style seed 
beds will cover many times over the cost 
of preparation of the new, whereas the 
results of the latter have a very high 
degree of certainty. 


448 


Edible Products 


The extra expense of the new seed 
beds lies chiefly in the preparation of 
covers, and this work should be concluded 
before the end of July. The cost of 
material of the light framework over 
which to spread the covers is very small. 
The upright posts may becut in any 
manigua, or even all the necessary 
material. If other material be not 
available, we havefound that ordinary 
drying poles split by rip-saw serve the 
purpose admirably. 


If beds are made where there is no 
danger from surface wash, there is no 
need of banking them at the sides with 
poles or old boards. They should, how- 
ever, in any case bs built up toat least 
six inches above the surrounding ground. 
The beds in figure I. were on ground 
subject, in heavy rains, to a rapidly 
running wash of 2 to 4inches sometimes, 
so they were banked as shown, with old 
six inch boards. Even such boards 
should lastfor several years. <A planter 
in this immediate vicinity built beds 
last year ina place subject toa similar 
wash and did not think it “ practicable” 
to go to the expense of banking or pro- 
perly ditching them, and as a result lost 
his entire plantings in the first heavy 
rain, and was compelled to buy posturas 
after having borne the expense of pre- 
paring the seed beds. Cheap and care- 
less methods will never give reasonably 
safe results that can be depended upon 
in any business. The beds in figure I. 
could stand a freshet stream of even six 
inches without being lost. We would 
recommend that the beds be made not 
more than 3 feet wide or better a little 
less, and not more than ten feet long, 
This width and length makes them con- 
venient in many operations such as 
building, weeding, managing covers and 
soon, and has commended itself to us 
for use in all vegas of ordinary size. 
The production of posturas as a business 
by itself is another matter. Prof. 
Earle has shown that beds constructed 
on exactly this same plan can be just 
as easily built and operated to a size 
of 12 feet wide and 50 feet in length. 
In these large seed beds the framework 
for the cover is highest in the centre, 
and the covers roll upin one continuous 
sheet on either side. 


The covers are best made of so- 
called ‘‘ Factory Cloth,” two yards wide. 
This cloth is a cheap, coarse, but 
close-woven and stout muslin, and 
should not cost morethan 6 to 8 cents 
per yard. If this is dipped in boiled 
linseed oil, the excess wrung out, and 
then hung over lines, fences, or bushes, 
until dry, afterwards with brushes 
given another coat of the same oil on 


Edible Products. 


either side and again dried on, it makes 
a durable waterproof cover that may 
be used for a number of years if han- 
dled with ordinary care. Each year a 
new coat of oil will completely restore 
them. A very little turpentine added 
to the oil will increase the rapidity 
of drying. The pieces should be cut 
two feet longer than the length of the 
beds, so that they may hang down at 
either end. Each long edge should be 
tightly nailed between two strips which 
hold them securely to prevent tearing, 
on which they can be rolled, and which 
stretch them tightly when they are 
unrolled. These cover strips should be 
as long as thebed, the one on the back 
or higher side of the bed can be attached 
to the framework by cords, and the 
front strips should also be provided 
with stout cords, so that they may be 
quickly lashed tight in the case of 
eyclonic storms or high winds. During 
early morpings and late in the after- 
noon, two boys can very rapidly roll 
these covers to the top and_ fasten 
them, or loosen them and roll them 
down during midday or in storms. 
As soon as the posturas are large enough 
and ready to harden off for planting, 
the beds should be left open longer 
each day until the covers may _ be 
removed, rolled up and stored in a 
dry place across rafters until the 
next year. 


(To be concluded.) 


THE CULTIVATION OF TOBACCO 
IN BENGAL. 
By C. SompeRS TAYLOR. B,A. 


Tobacco may be considered to be the 
exchange offered by America to India 
for the sugarcane which the latter sup- 
plied to the New World, and its history 
of only two and a-half centuries makes 
it asathing of to-day in this land of 
hoary antiquity and ancient traditions. 


Recent as its introduction may be, 
however, it has spread with such 
rapidity that there are few parts of 
India where its cultivation is not 
attempted, and its use as aluxury is un- 
derstood inevery village from Quetta 
to Tuticorin. 


It remains however to be seen whether 
the cultivator understands cultivation 
so as to reap the greatest profit from his 
crop. 


That he understands how to produce 
a large and heavy crop is well known. 
No one would deny that his methods 
of producing the heaviest possible return 
are ingenious after seeing the amount 


444 


(NOVEMBER, 1908. 


of earth that is mixed with the average 
sample of tobacco leaves one sees in the 
market. He fails to recognise that qual- 
ity and not only quantity is one of 
the main requisites of the tobacco crop. 
Let us consider, first the uses to which 
tobacco may be put. Its primary use 
is of course as a narcotic, and for this 
purpose it is hardly necessary to say 
that different types are required by 
different markets. 


The majority of Bengal tobacco has 
been up till quite recently used only 
for preparation of native tobacco for 
smoking in hookahs. Exceptions to this 
are the tobaccos from the Purneah and 
Rangpur districts which are eagerly 
bought by the Burmah cheroot manu- 
facturers. 


The type of tobacco ueeded for the 
preparation of tobacco in Lucknow 
and the other towns which are noted 
for the hookah preparation are of a 
heavy type witha fairly large nicotine 
content. The aroma and fineness of 
the leaves is not of so much _ conse- 
quence inthis trade, and consequently 
the raiyat exerts himself not to produce 
a fine leaf with good aroma but a 
heavy leaf with plenty of stalk so as 
togive weight onsale; and by careful 
pruning he succeeds in getting a ludi- 
crously large stalk which is useless for 
anything but the native market and 
lowers the value of the tobacco im- 
mensely. 


The type of tobacco required for the 
Kuropean market has now to be con- 
sidered. 


Thetaste for tobacco of the European 
type is steadily increasing in Bengal. 
There is no railway station without its 
vendor of cigarettes which appear to be 
gradually foreing themselves upon the 
people. Attempts have been made 
before now to put Bengal tobacco 
upon the European market. 


The most notable experiment in past 
years was that at Pusain 1874 by Dr. 
Edward Brown. Local tobacco was 
bought from forty-six bighas of land 
and from six to seven hundred maunds 
were cured by Manilla process. It is 
said that some of the tobacco turned 
out very well from the point of view 
of cigar tobacco. A subsequent at- 
tempt, however, to place tobacco on 
the London market was a failure. 
The leaves were said to be in some cases 
too dry, andin others too deficisnt in 
flavour for European taste. The difter- 
ence between the native and Kuropean 
tastes lies entirely in the fact that, 
while the Indian requires strength, 
the eriterion of excellence in the case 


NOVEMBER, 1908.} 


of the European market is the aroma. 
Experiments have been made for many 
years in the United States of North 
America and elsewhere to find out the 
conditions determining the tyne of leaf 
grown. The question of aroma is an 
exceedingly difficult one, and so far 
beyond the grasp of ordinary chemists 
but little progress has been made on 
the investigations from a purely chemical 
point of view. Thatit is due to numer- 
ous substances besides nicotine has been 
fully established, as the best varieties 
of cigar leaf tobacco obtained from Cuba 
have very small nicotine contents, while 
the aroma is very powerful. 


It is said, by some people that this is 
entirly due to the process of fermenta- 
tion used by the curers of different 
neighbourhoods, and some people have 
gone so far as to state that it is possible 
to produce a bacterium culture which 
will give the true Havana flavour to 
any cigar tobacco. 


It isa very disputed point at present. 
however, as to whether the fermenta- 
tion is due to organic or inorganic fer- 
mentation; and it isextremely doubt- 
ful, until this point has been definitely 
cleared up, as to whether any result so 
detinite as this may be accomplished. 
Some progress, however. has been made 
in the knowledge of the constituents 
of the tobacco leaf, and it is maintained 
in some quarters that the difference 
in the practical destruction of some of 
these constituents accounts for the 
differences in flavour cf the products. 
A great amount of work has also been 
done on the influence of various man- 
ures on the quantities of these consti- 
tuents. 


So much has been brought to light 
on this matter, that the question of 
manuring becomes a subject of even 
greater range than that in the case of the 
cultivation of other plants. It is still 
disputed by many workers that the 
quantity of nicotine in the leaf is affect- 
ed by the amount of nitrogen in the 
manure, but these people are in the 
minority. 


There is now a general tendency to 
the belief that the nicotine content of the 
leaf varies considerably with the amount 
of applicetion of manurial nitrogen. It 
is also fairly certain that the quantities 
of albuminoids in the leaf vary largely at 
the same time as the nicotine. This is 
a very important point, as it is extreme- 
ly probable that it is owing to the 
presence of these albuminoids that the 
rankness of certain tobaccos is due. 


It is perhaps for this reason that 
Havana tobacco, although containing a 


445 


Edible Products. 


low percentage of nicotine is yet the finest 
flavoured and most eagerly sought to- 
bacco of ali. It will not be out of place 
here perhaps to mention that the classes 
of soil in this case largely affect the type 
of tobacco produced. A rich heavy soil 
is apparently favourable to the produc- 
tion of a high percentage of nicotine, 
andit must here be pointed out that 
the albuminoids vary with the nicotine, 
while a light sandy soil containing little 
organic matter produces a leat with 
little nicotine. Turning to another im- 
portant point in the value of tobacco 
produced, we come to the consideration 
of the burning qualities of the leaf as 
effected by manures. 


Enough work has been done on this 
subject to fill a volume by itself, but 
it will suffice here to show one or two 
of the main points connected with the 
subject. 


It is generally conceded that the pre- 
sence of chlorine in any quantity very 
badly influences the burning quality of 
the leaf produced, but it must be at the 
same time pointed out that the presence 
of potash to a large extent modifies the 
effect of this constitutent. It was first 
determined by Nessler from examination 
of forty-six samples of tobacco grown 
in different parts of Baden that the 
more potash and the less chlorine a 
leaf contains, the longer it will con- 
tinue to glow when lighted. 


The higher the percentage of potash, 
the more chlorine may exist in the 
leaf without damaging the burning 
powers. In connection with this, an 
interesting point is mentioned by M. 
P. Richard (Couplus Rendus 1899 ; 128, 
10 615-617) who has proved that the 
nitric acid of the soil has a tendency to 
enter into tobacco in the form of 
potassium nitrate and to fix in that 
form the potash of clays and silicates. 


in the chlorine of the soil, which also 
tends to fix potassium as chloride in 
the tobacco plant, the nitric acid has 
a competitor, and the result depends 
on the relative quantites of the two 
constituents. If the nitrates of the soil 
are deficient, the chlorides predominate 
in the plant and vice versa. 


Hence the best lands for growing 
good burning tobacco should contain 
plenty of nitrates. Old village lands 
are said in India to be very good to- 
bacco-producing lands, and the large 
part of its success on such lands might 
easily be supposed to be the predomi- 
nance of nitrates in such soils. 


Hxperiments made by Schlewsing on 
the same subject proved that chlorins 


Kdible Products. 


was very readily assimilated by tobacco, 
and that the leaf of the plant fertilised 
with chlorides burned very badly. It 
cannot be too strongly pointed out, how- 
ever, that it is only an excess of chlorine 
which has such an effect, and that a 
normal quantity of chlorine must be 
present to ensure healthy plant growth. 
In short, then, the manurial constituents 
necessary for the growth of a good crop 
of tohacco are firstly potash, and after 
that nitrogen, preferably in the form 
of nitrates. 


The ‘ordinary cake manures used in 
India supply plenty of potash and nitro- 
gen, and an ideal manure for tobacco 
should be potassium nitrate. It is an 
open question as to whether the com- 
mon salt present in the low grades of 
saltpetre sold in India would seriously 
affect the burning quality of the leaf. 
No experimental results appear to have 
been published on the subject as yet, 
and it would be of great interest to 
determine the effect of varying propor- 
tions of salt in such an admirable fer- 
tiliser as potassium nitrate. 


There appears to be considerable room 
for improvement in the cultivation of 
tobacco in Bengal, particularly in Bihar, 
where the cultivator’s only thought is 
to produce a heavy crop without refer- 
ence to the quality of leaf produced. 
The curing is of the crudest description, 
merely consisting inthe heaping up of 
the leaves with occasional stirring to 
prevent overheating in fermentation. 


This may do very well for the native 
market, for which the bulk of the to- 
bacco raised in India is grown, for 
which all that is required is a leaf 
possessing sufficient flavour and 
strength; but the European demand 
which appears likely to increase with 
the commencement of a tobacco factory 
in Bengal, requires a better prepared 
leaf, full flavoured, easily combustible 
and with a minimum amount of nicotine. 


The native market also cannot be 
oblivious of the fact that the earth with 
which a large amount of Tirhut tobacco 
is so largely contaminated, is not likely 
to burn well in hookah, and it would be 
well if the cultivator could be persuaded 
to take a little more care in the prepar- 
ation of an article whose value is so 
enhanced by proper preparation. 

This is, of course, only the old story of 
laissez faire which runs through the 
whole of Indian Agriculture. The main 
points which must be insisted upon in 
order to produce an article suitable for 
manufacture are as follows :— 


(1) Aproper choice of seed, 


(2) a proper system of manuring 
and rotation of crops, 


446 


[NOVEMBER, 1908. 


(3) a proper system of cutting and 
gathering the ripe leaves, 

(4) a proper system of curing, 

(5) commercial assortment of the 
produce. 


As regards the choice of seed, it may 
here be remarked that, in France, 
where the Government depends largely 
for its revenue on tobacco, and is there- 
fore highly interested in producing the 
most profitable article, the importance 
of seed selection is so well known that 
there are special seed farms instituted, 
and it is actually illegal to use any seed 
but that from the farms. 


It is too much to hope for such radi- 
cal reforms in this country, but the 
importance of seed stores is well recog- 
nised by the Indian cultivator, and it is 
perhaps not hopeless to try and intro- 
duce by degrees new and good varieties 
by their means. As an instance of the 
profit that may be derived by the growth 
of good varieties of tobacco, we may 
take the case of the more expert cul- 
tivators of Tirhut. 


The average cultivator is -content 
to grow a crop of any sort of to- 
bacco, and the average production is 
about 20 maunds to the acre which sells 
at Rs. 5 per maund. The expenses of 
cultivation may be taken at Rs. 55 per 
acre, and the average profit hence 
amounts to Rs. 45. With some of the 
better and ‘stronger varieties, however, 
which are grown by the more expert 
cultivators, the yield of tobacco comes 
to asmuchas 25 or 28 maunds to the 
aere, and the profit obtained comes to 
Rs. 70 to Rs. 85 or about 60 per cent. 
more than the average. 


It may be said, and with very good 
reason, that this only occurs in one or 
two cases, and may be owing to the 
enterprise of one or two men, but it 
must be remembered that the difficulties 
in the way of getting good seed are 
enormous for the other cultivators, and 
that if additional facilities were put 
forward it would be quite likely that 
the amount of good seed sown would 
be appreciably increased. 


The question of manuring and rotation 
of crops is one which not only applies 
to tobacco but toall the crops of the 
Province, but the advantage of greater 
care incutting and gathering the ripe 
leaves, to which reference has already 
been made, is manifest, as is also that of 
improved methods of curing, The com- 
mercial assortment of the produce will 
be much more easily done if a more 
uniform article were turned out. 

In the experiments at Pusa, on the 
curing of tobacco, to which reference 
has already been made, Dr. Brown came 


NOVEMBER, 1908]. 44 


to the conclusion that tobacco in Tir- 
hut may be brought to almost any 
state of perfection by careful cultivation 
and curing. 


The failure of Tirhut tobacco in the 
London market appears to have been 
due to lack of care in these important 
processes, but the erection of a tobacco 
factory in Bihar by an American Com- 
pany shows that tobacco experts do not 
despair of the Indian product, and it is 
to be hoped that in time the raiyat may 
be induced to alter his methods sufti- 
ciently at any rate to produce a clean if 
nota well cured leaf.—Quarterly Journal 
of the Department of Agriculture, Bengal, 
July, 1908. 


CACAO IN SAMOA. 


That the cacao produced in_ the 
German colony of Samoa is of excellent 
quality is proved by the fact that at the 
end of 1907 it commanded a price of 110s. 
per ewt. on the London market. The 
two varieties of cacao cultivated are the 
Forastero and the Criollo, but the good 
reputation of the Samoan product is 
stated to be due tothe Criollo. In his 
latest report the British Consul at Upolu 
discusses at considerable length the 

uestion of cacao cultivation in the 

amoan islands, and gives much interest- 
ing information in regard to the charac- 
teristics of the two varieties grown. 
These particulars, the Consul mentions, 
were largely obtained by him from 
articles written on the subject by Dr. 
P. Preuss, and which appeared in the 
Tropenpflanzer. The following extracts 
are quoted :— 


Cacao trees in Samoa begin to bear 
after the fourth year and mature about 
the seventh or eighth year, when the 
yield should be 6 cwt. yearly per acre. 


Dr. Preuss has no doubt that the real 
home of Samoan cacao is Venezuela, and 
that the Venezuelan Criollo has certainly 
undergone changes in the course of time 
in Java, Ceylon, and Samoa. The huskss 
are mostly rougher and more bulky at 
the point, and the beans are smaller and 
shorter. The colour of the nibs has 
mostly become white, whilst in Vene- 
zuela, at least with the red-shelled fruit, 
it is mostly whitish violet. The princi- 
pal difference, however, between Samoan 
and Venezuelan Criollo isin the taste 
and aroma, In this no cacao in the 
world can equal the pure Venezuelan 
Criollo. In Ceylon and Java these two 
properties influencing the value of cacao 
have gone back. Samoan cacao has lost 


lod 


Hdible Products. 


some of its aroma, but when really well 
prepared is, he says, ‘ the nearest to 
Venezuelan Criollo in taste.’ 


The beans of the Samoan Criollo are of 
the same shape as those of the same 
variety in Ceylon and Java, but, accord- 
ing to Dr. Preuss, there appears to be a 
difference in the colour of the nibs in a 
fresh state, the colour of Samoan Criollo 
being ordinarily pure white—not violet- 
coloured as in Ceylon or Java. 


The colour of properly prepared and 
dried Samoan cacao beans is glossy 
brown with a reddish tint. hen 
whitish brown spots are found, as also 
in Java, it reduces’ the value of the 
product. 


The taste of well-prepared Samoan 
cacao is mild, but at the same time 
vigorous. The aroma is fine although 
not very strong. Dr. Preuss states that 
the Trinidad Forastero variety was in- 
troduced into Samoa from Ceylon. As 
regards the two varieties (Criollo and 
Forastero) one is easily distinguished 
from the other by the difference in 
the hardness of the shell. Criollo can 
be cut through smoothly and easily. 
Forastero, except where it is a cross 
with the former, has a very hard shell 
which it is very difficult to cut witha 
knife. The former, too, will be identified 
by the white colour of its nibs. 


Samoan Forastero is undoubtedly supe- 
rior to Trinidad Forastero because its 
beans are fuller, its break looser and its 
taste milder. It will become still more 
superior when Samoan planters have 
come up to the Trinidad planters in the 
culture of the tree and the preparation 
of the product. At times Forastero 
fetches very good prices, and mixed with 
Criollo it occasionally fetches as much 
as pure Criollo. 


Although the difference in price 
between the two kinds is not very great 
so far, one must consider that up to the 
peeeey fancy prices have been paid for 

amoan cacao since the quantities offered 
have been very simall. As soon as large 
quantities are put on the market itis 
certain that the buyers will make a 
sharper distinction between the two 
qualities, and that Criollo will then be 
valued considerably higher than for- 
merly. When the market is unsteady 
Criollo will not suffer as much as 
Forastero. 


The Criollo variety can only be success- 
fully cultivated in very fertile soil— 
virgin forest soil is to be preferred. 
Forastero will flourish and yield good 
crops on less fertile soils. On other 


Edible Products. 448 


grounds, Korastero is favoured by its 
greater vitality, stronger growth, greater 
productiveness, less demand for shade, 
easier cultivation (and some say its 
greater resistance to disease, though 
this is disputed). The only thing in 
favour of Criollo is the excellence and 
superiority of its fruit. 


A planting distance for Criollo of 13 
feet by 13 feet, or at the farthest of 13 
by 143 feet, is proper. That gives 250 or 
220 trees tothe acre. FKorastero should 
be planted 163 by 163 feet. On very 
good soil two trees may be planted in 
one hole; it increases the yield con- 
siderably. This holds good for both 
Criollo and Forastero. 


All the planters in Samoa appear so 
far to be tolerably well satisfied with 
cacao returns, but. like everything else 


[NOVEMBER, 1908. 


the crop requires careful attention in 
order to give the best returns. Large 
plantations, if well managed, and not 
cripped by want of labour, ought certain- 
ly to do well and return good dividends. 
The same thing applies to those small 
plantations from 20 acres upwards where 
the owner lives and personally directs 
them, but when the estate is too small 
to afford the payment of a proper 
manager, and the owner himself, having 
more important things to attend to else- 
where, cannot live on the land, failure 
is sure to follow. Cacao cultivation 
requires perhaps more personal attention 
by the planter or manager than any 
other tropical product, not merely to 
bring the trees to maturity, but to look 
after them and crop them when they 
can bear fruit.—Agricultural News, Vol. 


s VIL.) NowiGz. 


WHAT FORESTRY HAS DONE. 


The following Extract is reprinted 
from Circular 140, Forest Service, U. S., 
Department of Agriculture :— 


FRANCE. 


France has not quite 18 per cent. of 
forest—three-fiftths of an acre per capita. 
This is enough to produce only one-third 
of the home demand. The country im- 
ports annually $30,000,000 worth of wood, 
and pays $6,000,000 duty and $10,000,°00 
freight for it. This wood comes from 
Russia, Sweden, Norway, Austria-Hun- 
gary, Germany and America. Of the 
23,500,000 acres of French forests the 
State owns 2,707,000 and the Department 
and communes 3,472,000. Since 1827, 
when the first Code was passed, the 
State and communal forests have been 
under management. The State forests 
yield a clear profit of $4,737,250 a year, 
or $1°75 per acre; $0°95is spent for the 
wanagement of each acre every year. 


The best managed State forests yield 
about 40 cubic feet per acre a year. 
which is low compared with the yield of 
some other EKuropean forests, such as 
those of Prussia, Saxony, or Wiirttem- 
berg. 

The great achievement of France in 
forestry has been the establishment of 
protective forests where much destruc- 
tion had been caused by floods and winds. 
From various causes large areas were 
cleared of forests toward the close of the 
eighteenth century, and only when it 
was too late was it realised that these 
lands were not fit for agriculture and 
should have been left in forest. To 
repair the mistake, a movement to forest 
began in the nineteenth century. It 
was an exceedingly expensive mistake. 
Down to the present time, encouraged 
by wise laws, the State, the communes, 
and private landowners have restored 
to forest over 2,500,000 acres, and so 
saved them from ruin. In addition, the 
resulting forests return an excellent 
revenue. 


Two-thirds of the torrents of Europe 
are in France. In the Alps, the Ceven- 
nes, and the Pyrenes mountains there 
are 1,462 brooks and mountain streams 
which are considered dangerous. Nearly 
ayillion acres of mountain slopes are 
exposed to erosion by these streams, to 
say nothing of the flat low land below. 


As far back as the sixteenth century 


there were local restrictions against 
clearing mountain sides, enforced by 


57 


449 


TIMBER. 


fines, confiscation, and corporal punish- 
ment. In the main these prevented 
ruinous stripping of hillsides, but with 
the French Revolution these strictions 
were swept aside and the mountains 
were cleared at such a rate that disas- 
trous effects were felt within ten years. 
By 1803 the people had become aroused 
to the folly of this cutting. Where use- 
ful brooks had been there now rushed 
torrents which flooded the fertile fields 
and covered them with sterile soil 
washed down from the mountains. 'The 
clearing continued unchecked until some 
800,000 acres of farm land had been 
ruined or seriously injured, and the 
population of eighteen Departments had 
been reduced to poverty and forced to 
migrate. By 1860 the State took up 
the problem, but in such a way that the 
. burden of expense for reforestation was 
thrown upon the mountaineers, who, 
mereover, were deprived of much pas- 
turage. Complaints naturally rose. An 
attempt was made to check torrents by 
sodding instead of by forest planting. 
This, however, proved a failure, and 
recourse was again had to planting, by 
the law of 1882, which provides that the 
State shall bear the cost. Since then the 
excellent results of planting have com- 
pletely changed public sentiment. The 
mountaineers are most eager to have 
the work go on and are ready to offer 
their land for nothing to the Forest 
Department. In addition to lands 
secured by gift, the State reclaims 25,000 
to 30,000 acres a year. Over 500,000 acres 
have been acquired, and more than one- 
half of this area has been planted. <Al- 
ready 163 of the torrents have been 
entirely controlled and 654 are begin- 
ning to show the controlling effects of 
the forest on their watersheds. Thirty- 
one of the torrents now entirely con- 
trolled were considered hopelessly bad 
a half century ago. 


It is expected that $50,000,000 will have 
been spent before the work of reforest- 
ing for protection is complete. 


The sand dunes on the coast of France, 
mainly in Gascony, which the winds 
drove farther and farther inland, wast- 
ing the vineyards, have now largely been 
fixed in place by forest plantations 
which were begun in 1793. Of the 350,000 
acres of the sand dunes 275,000 have been 
planted in forest, and the dunes instead 
of being a constant menace to the neigh- 
bouring farmers, now are growing crops 
of pine which produce valuable wood 
and resin, In all, about 2,000,000 was 
spent in the work, and an additional 


Timbers. 45 


$7,00,000 was laid out in bringing the 
forests under administration. Now, 
though about one-half of the lands have 
been acquired by private persons and 
the State retains only about 125,000 acres, 
the State has received $120,000 above all 
expenses, and possesses a_ property 
worth $10,000,000 acquired virtually for 
nothing. 


Some 2,000,000 acres of shifting sands 
and marshes toward the interior of the 
country, a triangular territory known 
as the Landes, has been changed from a 
formerly worthless condition into a pro- 


fitable forest valued at 100,000,000. 
Reforestation was begun akout the 
middle of the last century. This work 


was done principally by the communes, 
aided and imitated by private owners, 
and encouraged by the State. The 
resulting forest produces both pine 
timber and resin, upon the yield of 
which the present valuation is based. 


La Sologne, in the central part of the 
country between the rivers Loire and 
Cher, was once densely wooded, but was 
for two centuries steadily deforested. 
By the beginning of the nineteenth 
century 1,250,000 acres had been utterly 
abandoned. Owing to the nature ot the 
soil and subsoil, drainage was necessary 
as a first step toward reclaiming this 
Jand with forest. About the middle ot 
the nineteenth century a committee of 
private citizens, under the presidency of 
the director-general of forests, began the 
work of reclamation. A cannal 25 
miles long and 350 miles of roads were 
built, and 200,000 acres of non-agricultural 
land were planted with pine. Inspite of 
the fact that one of the species planted 
proved a failure and another kind of 
pine had to be substituted, the restor- 
ation work has resulted in a forest 
property worth $18,000,000, and land 
which could bebought for $4 an acre 
fifty years ago is now yielding $3 an acre 
net annual revenue. 


The arid limestone wastes of the 
province of Champagne have been partly 
reclaimed by forest planting. ‘Two 
hundred thousand acres, planted at a 
cost of $10 per acre, have now risen in 
value of $10,000,000 and a net annual 
revenue of $2 per acre. 


The private forests of France are being 
freely sold. Speculators buy them, strip 
them, and sell them for grazing purposes. 
In this way hilltops and_ hillsides are 
being rapidly denuded. This threatens 
erosion and the silting of farm lands 
in the valleys by the washing down of 
infertile soil. The terribly destructive 
floods of the present year could not have 
been so violent had the hills of France 
been kept clothed in forest. 


In Franee, then, forestry has decreased 
the danger from floods, which threat- 
ened to destroy vast areas of fertile 
farms, and in.doing so has added many 
millions of dollars to the National 
wealth in new forests. It has removed 
the danger from sand dunes; and in 
their places has created a property 
worth many millions of dollars. Applied 
to the State forests, which are small in 
comparison with the National forests of 
this country, it causes them to yield 
each yeara net revenue of more than 
$4,706.000, though the sum spent on each 
acre for management is over one hun- 
dred times greater than. that spent on 
the forests of the United States. 


France and Germany together havea 
population of 100,000,000, in round 
numbers, against a probable 85,000,000, 
and State forests of 14,500,000 acres 
against our 160,000,000 acres of National 
forests; but France and Germany spend 
on their forests $11,000,000 a year, and 
yet get from them in net returns 
$30,0(0,000 a year, while the United 
States spent on the National Forests 
last year $,400,000 and secured a net 
return of less than $,180,000.—Hawatian 
Forester and Agriculturist, Vol, V., No, 
7, July, 1908. 


RAILROADS AND WOOD 
PRESERVATION, 


The recent action by the Board of 
Directors of the American Railway 
Engineering Maintenance of Way Associ- 
ation in appointing a committee of seven- 
teen to investigate and report upon the 
subject of wood preservation, has shown- 
that the practical railroad men of the 
country recognize the importance of 
taking steps to conserve the rapidly 
diminniae timber supply of the United 

ates. 


Timber is one of the principal materials 
purchased by the railroads, and its 
economical use is a subject of far-reach- 
ing importance. More than_ 100,000,000 
cross ties are used annually by the 
different railroad companies, and their 
average life in this country is not more 
than six or seven years. From a study 
of European methods, and the know- 
ledge of wood preservation under con- 
ditions in this country, timber testing 
engineers say it is reasonably certain 
that an average life of from 15 to 20 
years. may be secured by treating the 
tie with a good preservative and the 
use of improved devices for the pre- 
vention of mechanical abrasion, thus to 
a large degree diminishing the drain 
upon the timber supply. 


~ 
of 


in 
*: 
hs 
A 
i, 


OVEMBER, 1908.) | 454 


While the quantity of timber used 
for ties is very great, and the problem of 
a future supply is a serious one, yet 
this class of timber is not the only one 
which should receive consideration. A 
greater length of service from timber 
now used by railroads for bridges, tres- 
tles, piles, fences and transmission poles 
is greatly to be desired. 


The American Railway Engineering 
and Maintenaince of Way Association 
now consists of about 900 members, re- 
presenting 200,000 miles of railroad track, 
and including among its membership 
the leading railroad engineers of the 
country. The object of the association 
is the advancement of knowledge per- 
taining to the scientific and economical 
construction, operation and maintenance 
of railroads. The method employed to 
obtain this information is through stand- 
ing committees appointed by board of 
directors. Each committee is appointed 
to investigate a special subject and to 
report at each annual meeting, pre- 
senting results of its investigation, 
followed by recommendations which are 
published in ‘The Manual of Recommend- 
ed Practice,” after they have been 
adopted by the assocication-—Hawaiian 
Forester and Agriculturist. Vol., V. No. 
7. July, 1908. 


IN JAMAICA. 


RATS 


Owing to many inquiries made about 
rats, rat poisons, traps, virus and 
generally about means of destroying 
them, as a result of what we have 
published in the Journal and our 
circular to all the branch agricultural 
societies, we publish this short article 
to show how matters stand at present. 

Throughout the world an organised 
campaign against rats is being carried 
on. This, not only because of their 
steady increase in numbers of late years, 
not only because of the damage they 
cause to merchandise and agricultural 
crops, and to the eggs and young of 
various domestic animals, has become 
so serious, but more because it has 
been discovered and realized that rats 
carry disease and spread it more than 
any other animal. No other kind of 
animal is so common and so cunning. 


Rats are everywhere—in private 
houses, in out-houses, in store-rooms 
aud in roofs, walis and floors, from 
the garrets to the cellars; they are in 
ships, steamers and barges; they are 
in cultivated fields; they are in the 
wilds; they are by the sea-shore and 
every stream and river; they live in 


Timbers. 


trees, they live among rocks; there is 
almost no place where rats cannot 
exist and thrive, and they are so 
omniverous that nothing comes amiss 
to them. Here is our comparatively 
small island, as compared to other 
lands, with a width of sea around us, 
we have not been so much concerned 
about rats as carriers of disease 
(although that may yet be brought 
home to us) as we are of them as 
the destroyers of valuable crops. And 
of all our crops, the one that is most 
subject to their depredations is one 
that is becoming of great and increas- 
ing value to us every year, and that 
is our cocoa trees, which, unfortunately, 
lend themselves as place for rats to 
carry on their depredations. Our cocoa 
is usually grown through bananas, the 
bunehes on which afford a nesting 
place for rats; the cocoa trees, when 
full grown, interlock their branches, 


_and so rats can travel right through 


a field without touching the ground. 
Cats, dogs, and traps are ineffective 
in fields of this description, continual 
poisoning is tedious, dangerous and 
not of lasting effect, and the most 
effective way to destroy the pests 
wholesale, with safety to domestic 
animals, is by the modern method of 
using rat virus. There are several 
preparations of this, which have been* 
tested here. Unfortunately, they do 
not appear to stand exposure to much 
heat and light, and so, when used, 
they have often been of no effect, the 
bacteria having become inert. Often, 
also, too little has been used, so_ its 
effect has not been noticed. If, where 
there are thousands of rats, one small 
tube of virus only is used, and it is 
expected that rats will be seen lying 
dead wholesale, that expectation is, of 
course, a mistake. Not more than 
half a dozen rats may consume the 
bait made from one tube, these may not 
all sicken, but some, having taken little, 
recover from their fever, and perhaps 
only three spread it. The disease will 
go from one to another, but, like an 
epidemic of small-pox or scarlet fever, 
works itself out, for it must be borne 
in mind that rats are exceedingly 
cleanly and sanitary in their habits— 
although they do infest unsavoury 
places—while sick rats are usually killed 
by the well ones unless they clear off, 
which they generally do,so that the 
contagious disease spread by the virus 
is soon checked by the rats themselves. 


They are cute and cunning creatures, 
so that to keep up the disease, fresh 
tubes of virus have to be used 
continully, or else it must be used on 
a large scale at one time, ; 


Timbers. 452 


Owing to so many failures of the tubes 
of virus used here being reported, 
probably having been exposed to the 
light or subjected to too much heat in 
transit, or often through the instruc- 
tions not being followed implicitly, the 
island chemist was asked by the Board 
of Agriculture and authorized by the 
Government to try and prepare a virus 
suitable for our conditions. This work 
has been carried on at the Government 
laboratory for a year past. Rats have 
been caught and kept in cages and 
inoculated with a Mexican rat virus, 
which was said to be exceedingly viru- 
lent, and also other preparations of virus. 
This inoculation has been a success, as 
the rats sicken and die; other rats have 
been inoculated, and consignments of 
these have been let loose at the wharves 
and storesin Kingston, ata plantation 
in Manchester and at the hospital for 
infectious diseases in Kingston, and 
good results have been reported. This 
work is still being carried on. It must 
be mentioned, however, that the best 
effect found so far has been the inocu- 
lation of the rats externally, i.e., the 
preparation is inoculated into their 
bodies, not swallowed. 


Inoculation is always more virulent 


| [NovemBaR, 1908. 


than the taking of the same _ inter- 
nally ; snake poison can be swallowed 
with immunity, whereas the tiniest drop 
entering the blood through the skin 
kills a man in a short time. 


This is how the matter stands at 
present, that inoculated rats have been 
sent out from the laboratory to test 
their effect, and good results have been 
observed in sick rats coming out in the 
daytime and dead ratslyingabout. But 
the feeding of this virus to rats has not 


given any of the desired results, that is, - 


it has not the effect of sickening them 
and killing them. 


As this inoculation would be a cum- 
brous way to work, we hope that it will 
be found possible to prepare a culture 
from the blood of the rat that can be 
sent out in the way the preparations of 
rat virus are to be set like ordinary 
poisons. This is one of the most impor- 
tant works that can be carried through 
by the laboratory, for if we get an 
effective virus it will save us thousands 
of pounds per annum in cocoa alone. 
Meantime, every method available 
should be used—cats, dugs, traps, poison 
and virus—and no effort spared to exter- 
minate rats.—Journal of the Jamaica 
Agricultural Society. 


: 
. 
| 
; 
7 
: 
' 


‘ forms 


453 | 


LIVE STOCK. 


| A NATIVE BIRD DESTROYING 
THE SPARROW. 


By C. T. Musson, 
Hawkesbury Agricultural College. 


In the Lachlander and Condobolin 
District Recorder, 26th February, 1908 
(sent by Mr. G. L. Sutton, with para- 
graph marked), the following statement 
appeared :— 


“Mr. A. J. Taylor, of Wheatacre, in- 
us that during the past few 
months he has noticed the presence of 
numbers of. large birds, blue in colour, 
with black heads, which are very des- 
tructive to sparrows. Infact, since the 
arrival of these aerial cannibals, spar- 


rows are practically an unknown quan- | 


tity about Wheatacre.” 


We wrote Mr. Taylor for further infor- 
mation, and received the following 
reply :—‘‘fe the bird that takes the 
sparrows, it is quite true that there is 
not a sparrow lett about the place, and 
there were hundreds here. [ tried in 
every way to get rid of them, but since 
those birds came we got rid of them. 
We never saw the birds before; they 
are strangers. There are about four of 
them in a flock, and they keep together. 
I do not think it is a hawk, though they 
balance in the air like a hawk. They 
keep after the grasshoppers, but they 
are death on the sparrows. The other 
birds are not frightened of them. They 
are very quick on the wing, and, when 
flying, spread out the tail.” 


Three days later came a specimen for 
identification; it is the Ground Cuckoo- 
Shrike (Pleropodocys phasianella). The 
head and neck are dark-grey ; breast and 
lower back dull white crossed by narrow 
black bars; wings, upper side biack; 
under side white; tail forked; the ter- 
minal half black. It is about the size of 
a small pigeon, but more slender; total 
length from tip of bill to end of tail, 
fourteen inches. Commonly, they make 
use of their legs a good deal, not flying 
much. Insects ave the chief food, and 
we do not hear of them doing any 
damage. 


This is a most interesting fact, which 
should be noted by all dwellers west of 
the range where the bird is found. If 
this is to become a fixed habit, which 
probably it now will, it would appear 
that the sparrow has at least one enemy 
in its new abode. Sportsmen should 
take note and act up tothe fact stated. 


Nature would here seem to be coming in, 
for evidently the cheeky little interloper 
is no longer to have such a peaceful time 
asit has had in the past. The “balance 
is beginning to kick,” and we may con- 
gratulate ourselves that at least one 
cause is in operation which will help in 
bringing the sparrow down in numbers 
to such reasonable limits as will preserve 
a due balance of life forms, and not 
allow this particular bird to become 
unduly plentiful.—Agricultural Gazette 
of New South Wales, August, 1908, Vol. 
XIX, Part 8. 


THE DEADLY HOUSE-FLY. 


CARRIERS OF DISEASE. 


SANITARY CONGRESS.—SIR J. CRICHTON 
BROWNE’S ADDRESS. 


The Sanitary Inspectors’ Association 
commenced its annual conference in 
Liverpool yesterday, says the ‘‘ Daily | 
Telegraph” of the 9th September, 350 
members attending from all over the 
country, in addition to local represent- 
atives.* They were welcomed to the city 
by the Lord Mayor, Dr. Cator. 


PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 


Sir James Crichton-Browne devoted 
the presidential address largely to the 
subject of disease carriers. It might 
sound chimerical, he said, to talk of the 
abolition of.a disease, but that was 
what they must aim at; the abolition 
first of one disease and then of another, 
until they had aclean bill of health, 
The Liverpool School of Tropical 
Medicine had in a decade added more to 
the knowledge of tropical diseases than 
all the preceding centuries. It might be 
safely predicted that if the researches 
being carried on at that school and 
at the sister school in London 
were adequately supported, some tro- 
pical diseases—grievous scourges—would 
before long be effectually controlled or 
abolished. They had had only the other 
day a striking example of the practical 
abolition of a disease in the case of Malta 
fever. 

At considerable length Sir 
Crichton-Browne dealt with 


SOME OF THE CAUSES OF CONSUMPTION, 


contending that the sharp distinction 
formerly drawn between the human 
and bovine tubercle bacilli had broken 
down. Accumulated evidence left no 
doubt as to the practical identity of 


James 


Live Stock. 


bovine and human tubercle bacilli. 
They were the same organism—modified 
simply by change of host, the bovine 
being gradually transformed into the 
human inand by its human environ- 
ment. The bearing of this was that 
they must have greatly increased 
stringency in supervision. The danger 
attending the consumption of the milk 
of tuberculous cows was being illustrated 
daily by striking example. The sum- 
mary slaughter of animals proved to be 
infected should enable us to stamp out 
bovine tuberculosis in a comparatively 
short time, and thus to cut off the main 
source of human infection. On all hands 
the signs were favourable for the 
subjugation of this disease, for new 
methods of treatment were securing a 
greatly increased rate of recovery in 
those who had actually contracted it. 


PERILS IN THE HOUSE, 


Fortunately, in this country they ran 
practically no risks from _ suctorial 
insects injecting disease-causing  or- 
ganisms, but they had insects that in- 
directly and mechanically smuggled 
disease about. The common _house-fly 
had been alleged to be implicated in 
this flagitious traffic. Six years ago, 
when addressing them at Middlesbrough 
he denounced Musca domestica, and 
expressed his belief that it was a disease- 
carrier, and although some medical 
officers of health and others were still 
sceptical on the point, the evidence that 
had since then accumulated seemed to 
leave no doubt about it. Dr. Jackson, 
of New York, had found as many as 
100,000 fsecal bacteria on the legs, body 
and mouth of one fly, and had shown 
that in that city there was an exact 
correspondence between the prevalence 
of flies and the mortality from diarrhceal 
diseases. ‘‘This so-called innocent insect,” 
said Dr. Jackson, ‘tis one of the chief 
sources of that infection which, in New 
York City, causes annually about 650 
deaths from typhoid fever and about 
7,000 deaths from other intestinal 
diseases.” 


Professor Nuttall had shown that flies 
were 


CAPABLE OF CARRYING THE PLAGUE 
BACILLUS. 


Celli had established that they could 
carry tubercle bacilli. Many other ob- 
servers had found adhering to their ap- 
pendages pathogenic bacteria of several 
different sorts. Could it be questioned 
that they could pick up from typhoid 
cases the bacillus typhosus, and carry 
it to the milk-jug where it would find 
a suitable culturemedium? Couldit be 


454 


pe ae 
(Novempmr, 16 


questioned that in their summer flittings 
to and fro they were instrumental in 
spiriting aboutand landing in milk or 
in sugar, or on cake or other comesti- 
bles, the specific cause of summer 
diarrhoea, the bane of the babies, which 
was not yetidentified, but was assuredly 
one or more micro-organisms ? 


Liverpool was again to the front in 
this matter. The City Council made a 
grant to the School of Tropical Medicine 
to investigate the fly problem further, 
and had now taken action in accordance 
with the recommendations of the school, 
and was clearing away the breeding 
places of the fly. Already this wise policy 
had borne good fruit in a notable reduc- 
tion of the amount of summer diarrhcea. 
The local Government Board had just 
taken up the matter, and its President 
had, with his usual clear sanitary ; 
insight, appointed a Departmental Com- 
mittee toinquire into the part played 
by flies in the spread of disease. No 
scientific jury with the evidence at this 
moment available before it would _ hesi- 
tate to find the fiy guilty asa carrier 
of disease. Lives were at stake, and 
they could not be too prompt in going 
to the rescue. 


FIGHT WITH THE HOUSE-FLY. 


The fly wasa danger signal. Where- 
ever flies congregated there must be dirt 
about. Evenif the fly should be proved 
to be grossly maligned, the removal of é 
that dirt must be advantageous. The ; 
practical proceedings which a study of 
the fly’s life history suggested were 
the removal of all horse manure and 
similar products as speedily as possible 
and certainly within eight days, the 
time occupied by the development of 
the fly, the substitution of water car- 
riagetfor the older methods where that 
practicable, the frequent clearance and 
cleansing of streets and courts, the ~~ 
employment of destructors of sufficient 
capacity todeal with house refuse as it : 
was collected, the re-constitution of the 
domestic larder which should be made 
flyproof, and kept as scrupulously clean 
as the operating theatre of a hospital. 
They would, perhaps, have refrigerating 
larders one of these days. 


No doubt the fight with the fly would 
be astiff one. One fly, it had been eal- 
culated, would lay 1,000 eggs, and might, 
on the snowball _ principle, have 
25,000,000 descendants in a season. It 
was only by systematic attacks on the 
breeding places that they could hope to 
rout this multitudinous disease-carrier. 


OTHER DISEASE CARRIERS. 


But, besides insects, many other ani- 
mals were disease-carriers, Oysters and 


fon a emeenye 


-cockles had been detected in the sur- 
reptitious conveyance of typhoid fever, 
and cats were shrewdly suspected of 
the clandestine delivery of diphtheria. 
It would be interesting to enumerate 
and classify all the known anmial 
carriers of disease, and to say a word 
or two about human carriers. And 
when he mentioned human carriers he 
did not refer to contagion, or the direct 
transference of maleries morbi, by a 
diseased to a sound person by touch, 
inoculation, kissing, or inhalation, or to 
infection or the indirect communication 
of a pathogenic organism from ‘a dis- 
eased to asound person through some 
intervening medium, such as the air, 
but to the transmission of a pathogenic- 
organism from asound person in whom 
its presence was unsuspected to another 
sound person in whom it set up its 
specific disease. 


BEE NOTES. 


A novice should start Bee-keeping 
with two or three hives at the most, 
and increase their number as he gains 
experience. Itis best to have at least 
two, because one could be compared 
with the other, and any difference 
noticed in one could be checked by 
reference to the other. Strips of thin 
wax or comb could be employed as 
starters, and a veil and gloves used if 
the person is nervous. A_ beginner, 
before he tries to produce comb honey 
and section honey, should make himself 
acquainted with the theory of bee-keep- 
ing thoroughly, he should know the 
different kinds of cells, the different 
members of the hive, &c. It would be of 
great use to himif he could get a prac- 
tical man to give him a few demonstra- 
tions, such as the capturing of a swarm, 
hiving bees, examining the hive, clip- 
ping a queen, transferring, dividing, 
how to rear queens, &c. 


In Ceylon I would advice the novize 
to begin with native honey-bees before 
attempting to rear foreign varieties. 
I would strongly urge the importance 
of a small beginning at the smallest 
expense possible, for nothing is more 
discouraging, after having plunged into 
the business extensively, than to lose a 
large portion of the bees, either through 
inexperience or some other cause, all for 
the want of a practical or even theore- 
tical knowledge. Most persons are lia- 
ble to meet with failure by starting api- 
culture on too large a scale. One may 
invest Rs. 15 and put no more capital 
into the business until the bees pay it 
back, i.e., till he gets back that value in 


little island. 


Live Stock, 


honey and wax. There are, it is true, 
experts in the business in other parts 
of the world with thousands of colonies 
which pay the owner well; but that is 
no reason why a novice should start 
on an extensive scale. 


Bee-keeping is an industry that could 
be carried on conveniently in connection 
with some other business in _ life. 
Business men, as a rule, like to have 
some sort of hobby, and a few colonies 
of bees afford them just the diversion 
they need. The keeping of bees is 
admitted to be helpful to planters and 
agriculturists in general, particularly 
the fruit growers. The villager who 
owns a few acres of land could keep 
a number of hives without interfering 
with his other work. 


My experience has been that some 
localities are better adapted for keep- 
ing bees than others even in this- 
The Kurunegala district is 
better than any other that I know of. I 
find the honey there satisfactory in 
quantity, quality, colour, taste and con- 
sistence. | have not found good honey 
produced by Ceylon bees kept in towns. 
They probably get their honey from 
other than natural sources. 


The most satisfactory way to select 
a good locality for an apiary is by 
trying different places and comparing 
the results with each other, especially 
during the honey flow. *Having chosen 
the locality, one may keep any number 
of hives five or six feet apart with 
the entrances to the east. If hives are 
not artificially protected, one must try 
to provide hives with natural shade, 
particularly from the noon day sun. 
As we have so many insects that trouble 
bees, it is advisable to place hives on 
stands, rather than on the ground, 
and adopt other means for preventing 
pests from getting on to them, 


A. P. GOONATILLAKE. 


Says W. K. Morrison in “Gleanings in 
Bee Culture”:—There is an impression 
abroad that alfalfa will not grow in the 
tropics, but as a matter of fact it grows 
to perfection in Peru, a strictly tropical 
country. It was from Peru the seed 
was introduced into the United States. 
But it rather likes a hot, dry, semi- 
arid country, and would _ probably 
succumb ina steaming, moist lowland 
country. . , onalimestone foundation 
it does best.” Ihave been trying alfalfa 
for many years in the Government Stock 
Garden but with little success. It just 
grows, and that is all. Mr. Morrison’s 
description of a suitable locality seems 
to fit Jaffna—‘a hot, dry, semi-arid 


Live Stock. 45 


country’ with ‘a limestone foundation,’ 
though Jaffna would hardly strike one 
as a likely place. However, 1 will have 
it elven a trial there and report re- 
sults 


Lord Avebury, who presided over the 
Franco-British Congress of Bee-keepers 
which lately metin London, recounted 
his experiments to discover whether 
bees can hear and distinguish colours. 
Of the latter fact the result of his trials 
was convincing, but not so of the former. 
Practical apiarists are, however, of 
opinion that thereis no doubt of ‘bees 
hearing. 


Local bee-Keepers will be glad to hear 
of the return of Mr. M. Shanks, of the 
Harbour Works Department, to Ceylon 
after an absence of a few months in 
Europe. Mr. Shanks is likely to move 


i ey he ee hie 


re a 


his hives to Mutwal, where he ernneey, ‘ 


plates residing. 


The prolonged drought before the rain 
came down last month was a trying 
time for bees, and a good deal of artificial 
feeding had to be resorted to; but the 
present drenching rain is no better, and 
only when the monsoon settles down to 
normal conditions will the bees begin 
to feel happy. 


There appears to be no great attrac- 
tion for bees than a flowering orange 
tree, or indeed of any one of the citrus 
family. The way in which they lay 
seige to these trees in their thousands is 
a remarkable sight. The antigonon— 
in blossom practically all the year 
round—is a special favourite of the 
Ceylon bee, and tosome extent of the 
Italian also. 


Ci: 


_Novemenr, 1908.) 


457 r 


SCIENTIFIC AGRICULTURE. 


WATER AND THE SOIL. 


Rapid-growing plants require large and 
‘regular supplies of water. Plants use 
from 300 to 900 times their weight of 
water during growth. This water is 
pumped up through the roots and eva- 
porated through the leaves and in pass- 
ing up through the plant carries with it 
such food as may bein solution in the 
soil. Asa rule, most agricultural plants 
’ will not live in standing water because 
the water keeps the air from the roots. 
Rice is an exception to this rule. 


The water that plants use is that 
which remains in the soil after drainage 
has taken place. For example, if you 
take a bucket of sand and immerse it in 
water, all the spaces between the grains 
of sands are filled with water. Now 
punch afew holes in the bottom and 
allow drainage to go on for three or 
four days. You say all the water is out 
of the soil, yet it is not all out, for there 
is still a film of water around each grain 
of sand just asa piece of rock would be 
covered with water after dipping in 
water and allowing it to drip fora few 
minutes. Thisis called capillary water. 
The small root hairs, which are the 
active feeding roots of the _ plant, 
surround these grains of sand and take 
up this water by what is known as 
“osmosis.” The control of this water is 
a very important factor in growing 
crops and improving soil. 


Good agricultural soils hold capillary 
water equal toabout 30 per cent, of their 
weight. Plants are not able to use this 
water after it has dried ont to about 
12 per cent., so that when the soil is in 
the best condition for plant growth only 
about 60 per cent. of the total moisture 
is available to the plant, During the 
dry season loss of water takes place by 
evaporation at the surface of the ground 
as well as through the leaves of the 
plant. Fortunately for the roots of the 
plant this water tends to maintain an 
even balance; that isto say, when a 
portion of the soil dries out, this water 
moves toward the dry place from the 
point of greatest moisture. An ex- 
ample of this is when the surface dries 
and water from below comes up to take 
the place of that lost by evaporation. 
When water has been taken out of the 
soil by the roots of plants other water 
moves towards this spot and of course 
carries with it soluble plant food, pro- 
vided there is any in the soil, 


58 


The rapidity of movement of capillary 
water depends upon the size of the soil 
particles and the proportion of fine and 
coarse particles. Water will move more 
rapidly through coarse sand than 
through clay, but as the water is held in 
the soil in the form of a thin film around 
the soil grains, and there being more 
surface of the soil grains in a cubie foot 
of fine clay than in the same quantity of 
sand, there will be more water moved in 
the clay soil in a given time than in the 
sand, although it moves more slowly. 
Hence clay soils do not suffer from 
drought as much as sandy soils. 


Most agricultural soils, when composed 
of the proper mixture of sand and clay, 
have a tendency, under normal condi- 
tions, to form small clusters of soil 
particles, just as small particles of sand 


‘tend to cling to larger ones, thus bring- 


ing about the best mechanical condition. 
This mechanical condition is destroyed 
when the soil is stirred while wet. This 
is called ‘‘puddling.” Soil so handled, 
when exposed to the direct rays of the 
sun, becomes very hard. This condition 
is known as ‘‘ baking,’ and simply means 
that the granular structure has been 
destroyed and the soil particles cemented 
together by drying. Soils allowed to 
bake in this manner are very difficult to 
put in good condition again, The 
mechanical condition may be improved 
by the use of shade crops, such as velvet 
beans, ete. The shade allows the slow 
action of capillary water to restore this 
cluster condition. Working when the 
land is in proper condition will also tend 
to improve the soil. Freezing is the 
method used in cold climates. 


The movement of steepage water 
through the soil is governed largely by 
the mechanical condition of thesoil. A 
soil composed of fine clay holds water 
very much as a jug, and if sufficient 
drainage is not supplied the plants 
suffer from the stagnant water. When 
the soil is open and porous this does not 
occur because the water goes on down 
through and does not keep the air out of 
the soil. But when water is allowed 
to run through the soil too freely it 
washes out the soluble plant food that 
has been liberated by natural methods. 
Soils that are too compact need 
drainage. 


A controlling factor in soils, 
as moisture is concerned, is humus. 
Humus is partially decayed leaves, 
grass roots, or other organic matter in 
soils which, on account of the great 


so far 


Scientific Agriculture. 


' number of cells, has a high water- 
holding capacity. The presence of humus 
makes the soil dark or black in colour, 
so that in most countries a dark soil 
is regarded as a rich soil, but such is 
not always the case in these Islands, 


All soils in tropical climates are more 
or less devoid of humus unless they have 
been recently cleared of their virgin 
forest or are formed of the washing 
from surrounding hills. The main cause 
of this absence of humus, however, is 
the fact that decomposition goes on 
constantly, and the excessive rainfall 
washes out the soluble matter. 


The presence of humus not only adds 
fertility to the soil, but makes it more 
porous and open, thus increasing the 
water-holding capacity, which is an 
important factor during the dry season. 
The practice of burning Over the fields 
each year should be stopped, and as 
much organic matter as possible turned 
into the soil. The removal of the forests 
and the burning out of the humus in 
the soil, and the consequent incrusting 
of the surface, are the main causes of the 
rapid rise of our streams and the wash- 
ing of theland during the rainy season. 


The character of the subsoil has 
considerable influence on the amount 
of moisture that will be available for 
the use of plants. As mentioned above 
the supply of capillary moisture is the 
governing factor in plant growth. Also 
only a limited amount of moisture is 
held in the soil, hence the store house 
below the surface must be large, so 
that capillary water may be drawn 
up from 6 or 8 feet below the surface, 
A thin layer of soil underlaid with 
gravel will suffer much from drought, 
while on the other hand, a deep layer 
of clay insures a good supply of 
moisture during the dry season, but 
provides poor drainage in the rainy 
’ season, when good drainageis essential 
except for rice and few grass crops. 


In order to furnish a constant supply 
of moisture during the dry season, it 
is necessary to irrigate. Irrigation 
water may be applied in two ways, 
namely, over the surface or by means 
of underground pipes, which is known 
as sub-irrigation, the water being 
allowed to reach the surface by capillary 
action. Thisis by far the best method, 
because it does not cause “ puddling,” 
or baking of the surface, but it is too 
expensive for general use. It is adapted 
to garden crops on high-price land. 


In using the surface method, the 
water is conducted in ditches to the 
highest point of the field and allowed 
to run over the land by means of 


458 


: « + 


[NovEMBER, 1908 


ditches between the rows of the grow- 
ing crops. These ditches should be from 
4 to 8 feet apart, depending upon the 
closeness of the soil. If the crop is 
rice or grass, the water may be 
allowed to spread over the field until 
the desired degree of saturation is 
obtained. These methods presuppose 
level or nearly level land. 


Surface sprinkling is sometimes prac- 
ticed. This method is in imitation of 
rainfall, but has several objections, 
first, the falling water compacts the 
soil and ‘‘puddles” it so that it bakes 
and necessitates frequent cultivation ; 
second, it is expensive and wasteful 
of water because a large percentage 
of it evaporates before reaching the 
soil. On very sandy soils, however, 
where it is impossible to conduct the 
water over the surface, this method 
is valuable. 


The best water to use in irrigation 
is river water, because it carries some 
plant food in the form of soluble salts 
or in the sediment and does not con- 
tain any injurious salts. Artesian water 
may be used, provided it does not 
contain anything injurious to the crop. 


The amount of water to be used 
depends so much upon climatic con- 
ditions that very little information of 
much value can he given in a short 
article. 


Water is measured, as a rule, by acre- 
inches, which means the amount of 
water ina basin of one square acre in 
extent and one inch deep. One acre-inch 
is equal to 27,111 gallons per acre and 
means the same thing as inches of rain- 
fall. In adry climate where evaporation 
goes on rapidly, much more water is 
required for a given crop than in a 
humid climate. For example, in Hawaii 
as much as 72 acre-inches of water have 
been used on sugar cane with good 
results. The crop, however, used only a 
small fraction of this water, the bulk 
being lost by percolation and evapora- 
tion. 


The probable rainfall during the grow- 
ing season of thecrop must be taken 
into consideration. If sufficient water 
is applied to the crop to bring about the 
best conditions in the soil so far as 
moisture is concerned and a heavy rain 
should come just after, the crop would 
suffer froman excess of moisture the 
same as in the rainy season. 


The kind of crop grown would also 


govern the amount of water used. — 


Corn, for example, would require from 
12 to 20 acre-inches, depending upon the 
kind of soil. Clay requires less and 


, 


- NovEMBER, 1908.] 


sandy soil more. This, of course, is not 
taking into consideration the rainfall. 
Corn, requiring only a short period in 
which to develop, would not require as 
much water as sugar cane, for example. 


Mountain or upland rice would require 
about the sameas corn, but rice that 
has to be flooded would require much 
more, as the water would have to be 
maintained ata depthof from 6tol5 
inches on the land, and this would have 
to be changed a number of times during 
the season. There is little loss by per- 
colation on this kind of soil, however, as 
most rice lands are compact. 


It requires much practice to know 
just how much water to use ina humid 
climate like that found in these Islands. 
The best guide is the ‘‘ condition” of the 
soil, tor such crops as corn, sweet 
potatoes, beans and other crops that 
cannot stand an excess of moisture, but 
for such crops as rice the height of the 
water is the only guide. 


In countries where no rain falls and 
the composition of the soil is known, 
the amount of water to be used for each 
crop can be accurately stated in acre- 
inches.— Philippine Agricultural Review, 
June, 1908, Vol. I., No. 6. 


FURROW IRRIGATION. 


By ALBERT HOWARD, M.A., A.B.C.S.; 
F,C.S., F.LS., 
Imperial Economic Botanist. 


One of the first questions that has to 
be considered in connection with experi- 
mental work in the field in India is the 
best means of applying irrigation water. 
The present paper is written with the 
object of recording the writer’s expe- 
rience in this matter at Pusa during the 
last three years. 


The usual methods of watering plants 
in India are well known and need not be 
described in detail. Where water is 
abundant, as for example in the Canal 
Colonies of the Punjab, the surface is 


459 


Scientific Agriculture. 


divided up into beds (Kiaris) and flooded. 
In well irrigation, in the United Pro- 
vinces, a similar method is used, except 
that here the kiaris are much smaller 
in size. In gardens, basin and trench 
irrigation are to some extent employed, 
but it has often appeared to me that 
much remains to be done in India to 
improve this latter system of watering. 


The disadvantages of flooding the 
surface are well known. Besides the 
destruction of the tilth and the torma- 
tion of a surface skin (papri) which 
becomes hard and impervious on drying, 
this method leads to agreat loss of water 
by evaporation. Moreover, in many 
cases, percolation is slow, as the air in 
the soil can only escape very slowly 
laterally. Further, flooding the surface 
often leads to an infertile condition of 
the soil, due possibly to the partial 
destruction of the bacterial flora thereof. 


In order to overcome the disadvan- 
tages of surface flooding and also to 
economise water, a method has been 
devised which combines the advantages 
of furrow irrigation, basin irrigaticn 
and irrigation by lateral seepage, ard 
at the same time allows of a proper 
surface tilth being maintained. The 
method can be applied both to orchards 
and to crops like tobacco, ganja, cotton, 
patwa, etc. It has been found to be 
particularly valuable in the case of 
newly-planted fruit trees and for crops 
like tobacco and ganja, which have to 
be transplanted in the field from the 
nursery. 


In orchards the method adopted is as 
follows :-— : 


_ Atrench about a foot wide and four 
inches deep is laid off parallel to the 
rows of trees. Each tree is then sur- 
rounded by a similar furrow-ring, the 
position ot the ring corresponding to the 
outer spread of the branches, In newly- 
planted trees the inside diameter of the 
furrow-ring is from 38 to 4 feet. The 
rings are joined up to the longitudinal 
trench by short connecting trenches by 
means of which the rings can be cut off 
by an earth fillet from the longitudinal 
trench. The following diagram will 


make the arrangement clear :— 


Scientific Agriculture. 


In carrying out this system in practice, 
water is allowed to run down the trench 
AB. to B, the furthest point from the 
main distributing channels. The last 
ring is then opened and allowed to fill. 
As soon as this takes place, the main 
trenca is filled at OC with a fillet of earth 
and the connection at D is opened. The 
second ving is now filled, and so on. In 
this way there is no stoppage of work, 
and the tree is not only supplied by the 
water in the ring but also by that in the 
section of the trench CB. 


With young trees the rings are filled 
up after every monsoon and re-made on 
a larger scale at the beginning of the 
next hot weather after weathering and 
manuring have been done. The longi- 
tudinal trenches are left during the mon- 
soon, as these serve asdrainage channels 
and prevent local water-logging. 


In planting new trees this system of 
irrigation has been found most useful. 
After the holes have been dug for the 
trees and filledin, the rings are made 
and the irrigation water run into these 
before planting. By this means any 
shrinkage and subsidence of the soil 
takes place before planting, and can be 
adjusted. Moreover, the young trees 


460 


[NoveMBER, 1908. 


have the benefit of being planted in 
a moist soil. February and March 
are best months for planting young 
trees in Behar, and by this means they 
can be establised before the heavy rains 
of the monsoon in July and August. 


In connection with the manuring of 
trees this system of irrigation has 
proved most useful. Qne of the difficul- 
ties in applying manure to fruit trees 
in India is the subsequent damage 
done by white-ants (Termites), which 
are attracted by the organic matter 
of the manure and frequently turn 
their attention to the tree and destroy it. 
If the trees are manured just before 
the rings are made, and if care is taken 
to apply the manure only to the ring 
of soil just underneath the outside 
branches, the first watering not only 
tends to rot the manure but also to 
drive off the Termites. 


This ring method has great advatages 
over the basin method of irrigating 
fruit trees; which is practised by the 
cultivators in India. In the _ basin 
system (Fig. 2.), a shallow circular hole 
is excavated round the base of the tree, 
and these basins are connected up by 
short trenches betweenthe trees. 


* x , = 


In the first place, trees like Citrus plants 
are not benefited by water lying round 
the base of the stem and are then often 
attacked by the ‘‘collar rot” disease. 
Secondly, the water is not applied 
directly to the young roots of older trees, 
while in young trees they are apt to be 
water-logged. Lastly, this method does 
not facilitate manuring and drainage in 
the monsoon. 


In the case of transplanted crops like 
tobacco and ganja the system becomes 
one of moditied furrow irrigation. The 
great danger in growing a crop like 
tobacco, especially where the autumn 
rains fail, isthe loss of plants which 
occurs on transplanting them in the 
field and also from grasshoppers. The 
usual method in India is to transplant in 
the evening, to water the young plants 
and to cover them with nim leaves 
during the heat of the day. Hven when 
every care is taken, many plants die. 
In plant-breeding work, this loss is of 
great importance owing to the danger of 
a dead plant being replaced by one of a 
wrong variety. In order to minimise 
this loss, I have devised the following 


method :—After cultivation and manur- 
ing are finished, furrows about one 
foot wide and four inches deep are 
laid off at the proper distance, so that 
there will be a furrow between alternate 
rows of tobacco. 


These furrowsare then filled with water 
sveral times, and the water is allowed to 
percolate laterally until the soil is well 
moistened between the furrows. Trans- 
planting is now carried out in the soil 


’ moistened by lateral seepage from the 


trenches, and the young plants are 
covered with nim leaves during the day 
which are removedat night. When this 
method is used, the loss of plants is not 
more than one per cent., and there is 
practically no danger of destruction by 
grass-hoppers. During the last year when 
the failure of the autumn rains almost 
destroyed the tobacco crop of the 
cultivators in the district, no difficulty 
was experienced in growing good tobacco 
at Pusa. Subsequent irrigation is done 
by filling the trenches in the same 
manner as that adopted before transplan- 
ting.—Agricultural Journal of India, 
Vol. IL., Part IIL, July, 1908. 


+" 
Ve 


NovempeEr, 1908.) 461 


MANURING IN SOUTH 
CANARA. 


LEAF 


By M E. CoucHMAN, 1.c.S., 
Director of Agriculture, Madras. 


One of the most interesting and 
important duties of the Agricultural 
Department will be to ascertain, by 
detailed local enquiries, what use is 
made by the cultivators of each tract 
of the sources of manure available to 
them. A few notes regarding the agri- 
cultural practices of the district of 
South Canara, in the Madras Presidency, 
may therefore interest some readers of 
the journal, 


The district isa narrow strip of land 
lying between the western ghauts and 
the sea. Originally a laterite plateau, 
this has been cut up into deep valleys 
by numerous rivers rising in the hills, 


fed by a rainfall of from 120 to 200 - 


inches. The valley bottoms have been 
converted into rice-lands, which extend 
to varying distances up the sides of the 
hills, according to the steepness of the 
gradient, and the pressure of population. 
In the adjoining district of Malabar, 
where there is a larger population, 
many of the hills have been carved into 
terraced fields to the very summit. In 
South Canara the slope of the hill is 
covered with scrub jungle, but when 
the top of the hill itself is reached, it is 
usually seen to be a _ bare plateau, 


-covered with short grass during the 


rainy month, and almost bare in the 
hot weather. In many parts the surface 
is mere laterite rock on which nothing 
will grow. Rice is practically the only 
crop. grown. The almost continuous 
ain which falls in June, July, August 
and part of September suffices to grow 
the first crop of rice. For the second 
crop, dams of brushwood and earth are 
thrown across most of the larger 
streams, and the numerous springs 
which flow from the steep laterite hills 
are carefully trained along the sides 
of the valleys, Where these are insufti- 
cient, shallow pits are sunk in the cor- 
ners of the fields and the water is baled 
from them by a picotah of peculiar con- 
struction. Instead of two men walking 
to and fro on the top of the lever, a num- 
ber of ropes are attached to the end 
remote from the bucket. A hole about 
6 feet deep is dug beneath this end of the 
picotah, with steps cut in one side. 
Four or five women and children hold 
the ends of the ropes, and when the 
bucket is full, they throw themselves 
backwards into the hole, thus pulling 
up the bucket. They then walk up the 
steps cut in the side of the pit, and so 
the work goes on. It has this advantage 


. tial 


Scientific Agriculture. 


over the picotah of the |East Coast, that 
whereas the latter requires strong and 
well-trained men, and there is always 
some danger of the men falling from 
the lever, the South Canara picotah 
renders the cheap labour of women and 
children available, and is perfectly safe. 
In come parts a third rice crop is grown, 
but this is always invariably by lift irri- 
gation throughout. The usual practice 
is as follows :— 


In April and May parts of the low- 
lying lands are well ploughed in the 
dry, and dry seed-beds_ prepared, the 
seed broad-casted and ploughed in. In 


_many cases the “ mango showers” suffice 


to germinate the seed. These seed-beds 
are called ‘‘dust seed-beds,” and the 
seedlings raised from them are con- 
sidered more robust than those raised 
in wet seed-beds. Where there is not 
sufficient moisture in the soil, the seed- 
béds are irrigated from a shallow tank 
or well with the picotah described above. 
Seedlings raised this way, with what is 
called ‘‘ old water,” 7.e., before the south- 
west monsoon rains commence, though 
not so good as those grown in the dry 
beds, are preferred to those sown after 
the burst of the monsoon. The monsoon 
usually bursts about the end of the 
first week of June. By this time the 
seedlings are almost ready for trans- 
plantation. The lower-lying lands are 
hastily prepared and transplanted soon 
after the middle of June, the higher- 
lying lands being planted as soon as 
cattle and labour can be spared from 
the work on the more valuable low- 
lying fields. 


Harvest of the first crop on double 
crop lands begins soon after 15th Sep- 
tember. Seedlings fur the second crop 
have in the meantime been prepared in 
a field left vacant for the purpose. The 
stubble is hastily ploughed in, manure 
applied, and the second crop planted in 
October. This is harvested about the 
end of January. Where athird crop is 
raised, this is put in soon after the 
harvest of the second, and harvested 
about the middle of May. 


From this short account of the ordinary 
methods of cultivation, it will be clear 
that asevere strainis put on the fertility 
of the soil, The same cereal crop is 
yaised year after year, andin some 
cases riceison the ground for eleven 
months out of the twelve. The torren- 
rainfall washes most of the 
soluble plant foods from the soil, and 
land lett uncultivated soon becomes 
incapable of growing anything but a 
little coarse thatching grass. The object 
of this paper is to describe some of 
the methods by which the cultivators 


Scientific Agriculture. 462 


maintain the fertility of their lands as 
no oil seeds are grown excepta very 
small quantity of gingelly for domestic 
consumption, No cake-manures are 
available. Neither is there any pungam 
or neem. The coconut cake is either 
exported or used as cattle food. There 
are no sheep and very few goats. 
‘‘Penning ” is, therefore, out of the 
question. Some fish manure can be 
obtained, but this is mainly used for 
tobacco. 


The sheet anchor of the South Canara 
ryot is his leaf manure. Asa rule, the 
exclusive use of 100 yards of the slope 
of the hill lying above his land is per- 
mitted,to the ryot free of all charge. A 
wall and ditch are put round this, and 
the jungle is strictly protected by the 
royt. He does not, as a rule, cut the 
green branches from the trees in this 
land, but contents himself with sweep- 
ing up the fallen leaves. Beyond this liés 
the open hill-side and the plateau on the 
top. Outside reserved forests, anyone 
can cut and remove green leaves and 
twigs from trees growing in this area. 
With the heavy rainfall and equable 
moist, warm climate the growth of all 
vegetation is extremely rapid, but the 
incessant industry of the royts keeps 
all growth down to a low coppice about 
18’ high, Inthe more thickly populated 
parts, the continuous severe cutting of 
green leaves and twigs has killed out 
all growth. In some villages the royts 
combine to reserve a portion of the 
waste land in the same way as indivi- 
duals protect the 100 yards of land im- 
mediately adjacent to their own. No 
green leaves are then cut, the dead leaves 
alone being swept up. More commonly 
the ryots of each village content them- 
selves with keeping the jungle-growth 
on the waste lands within the boundary 
of their village for their exclusive use. 
Different methods are in vogue to 
secure this object. Sometimes it is de- 
clared to be dedicated to some local god 
or demon, andan annual ceremony per- 
formed to impress the minds of out- 
siders. The efficacy of such methods, 
however, is not what it was. The 
writer once asked the people of a village 
how they managed to keep the jungle- 
growth on the waste lands of the village 
so good as it was. ‘‘Wemakea bun- 
dobust,” they said, ‘‘to prevent the 
people of the other villages cutting it.” 


*““T suppose that means that, if the 
people of other villages come to cut your 
leaves, you collect your tenants and give 
them a good hiding.” 


The deprecating smile which followed 
showed that this had hit the mark. 
Throughout the year the spare time 


(NOVEMBER, 1908. 


of the ryot and his family is fully 
employed in cutting green leaves from 
this unreserved land. The leaves are 
tied into a bundle as large as can be 
carried and taken home. The heavy 
rainfall makes it absolutely necessary 
to provide some shelter for his cattle, and 


the South Canara ryot has evolved for ~ 


himself a simple and effective form of 
loose-box which makes the hest possible 
use of the leaf-manure. A pit isdug toa 
depth of about 4 feet. The other dimen- 
sions depend on how many cattle he has. 
A light thatched roof is built over this 
and the sides are fenced in with railings. 
At night the cattle are driven in from 
the hill where they have been grazing all 
day, and as a rule tied separately to 
posts, grass or straw being sometimes 
placed infront of each. The cattle are 
kept in the shed till about 8 a.m. 
the next morning. The floor is strewn 
with a covering of leaves renewed every 
day. Where leaves are scarce, the 
paddy stubble is pulled up by hand and 
used as litter. The pit will be full in 
abouta month. The leaf-manure which 
has absorbed the solid and liquid excreta 
of the cattle is then removed, and either 
put in a heap or pit, or taken straight 
to the field where it is to be used 
and stacked ina corner. if there is a 
growing crop already on the ground. If 
the ground is bare, it is placed in heaps 
over the field till it can be ploughed in. 
All the green leaves and leaf-manure 
from the cattle sheds have to be carried 
in head loads, the use of carts being 
impracticable owing to thehilly nature 
of the country. 


Jt will beseen at once that this system 
utilizes to the full both the liquid and 
solid excreta of the cattle, and produces 
avery rich fertilizer. At the same time 
the leaves and sticks improve the 
physical condition of the soil. The 
system is possible, because the wood is 
almost always available for fuel, supple- 
mented by the leaves of the coconut 
and palmyra palm. One would, how- 
ever, like to get at the impartial opinion 
of the cattle on the subject. Their 
sleeping place is neither clean nor sweet 
smelling. 


Where the labour is available, the 
crop is always transplanted. In some 
cases the seed is steeped in water for 
a day or two, and then mixed with 
well-rotted leaf-manure and ashes in 
the proportion of one basket of seed 
to ten of manure, and either dropped 
in small handfuls all over the surface 
of the puddled field or sown behind 
the plough, in_the same way as castor, 


ete., are usually sown in other parts. . 


The latter system can, of course, only 


be practised when the land is ploughed | . 


} 


- NovEMBER, 1908.) 


-and sown in the dry. This is, there- 
fore, only done for the first crop and 
with unsteeped seed. Other manures 
applied to the paddy fields are wood 
ashes, which are carted to long dis- 
tances from the large towns, and ‘‘ burnt 
earth,” a compost of leaves and other 
rubbish mixed with soil and burnt. 
Where the ryot has not sufficient cattle 
to pass all his leaves through the pen. 
he applies them direct to the fields 
For this purpose green leaves are 
preferred, Before leaving the subject 
of leaf-manure, one more practice must 
be described. Coconut trees which are 
grown in gardens are usually, heavily 
manured with cattle dung, etc. The 
trees which are scattered along the 
bunds of the fields as a rule receive 
only the following treatment. A deep 
circular pit about a yard deep is dug 
all round the trunk, and this is filled 
with the leaves and boughs of the 
Nux vomica tree, which 
common here. These are then covered 
up with soil. It is believed that this 
not only acts as a stimulant to the 
tree, but protects it from boring insects. 


Apart from manures, the chief means 
by which the fertlity of wet lands is 
maintained, is by growing leguminous 
crops after paddy. In the case of the 
lower-lying one-crop lands, these are 
sown in September-October, and in 
the case of two crops in January- 
February, where the soil is sufficiently 
retentive of moisture. Horse-gram (Doli- 
chos biflorus) is usually broad-casted in 
the standing paddy shortly before the 
paddy is cut. For green and _ black 
gram (Phaseolus mungo), the best 
cultivators plough up the stubble, apply 
ashes, and secure a fine tilth before 
sowing the pulse crop. The whole plant 
is removed when the grain is ripe, 
but so well is the beneficial effect on 
the soil of the leguminous rotation 
understood, that in some places ryots 
who cannot sow the pulse crop them- 
selves will permit others the free use 
of their fields for this purpose. It is 
hoped to introduce ground-nut on the 
sandy soils, as an alternative to these 
pulses. Though some irrigation would 
be necessary, it would be more profit- 
able, and at the same time the cake 
would afford another source of manure. 
‘“*Green manuring in the sense of grow- 
ing a leguminous crop on the ground 
to be ploughed in at the time of 
transplantation is quite unknown here. 
As leaf-manure becomes scarce, with 
‘the destruction of the jungle, it will 
be one of the chief problems of the 
Agricultural Department to see if it 
can be replaced to some extent by green- 
manuring.—Agricultural Journal of 
India, Vol. UI. Pars IIL, July, 1908. 


463 


is extremely . 


Scientific Agriculture. 
A FEW POINTS REGARDING 
CONSERVATION OF SOIL 
MOISTURE. 


By D. MILNE, M.A., B.sc., 
Economic Botanist, Punjab. 


In India where there are large tracts 
of country where crops are often limited 
in growth by the supply of water avail- 
able in the soil, any improvement in the 
conservatiou of the soil moisture would 
be a boon worth striving for. 


One has only to travel a short dist 
{ ‘ ance 
at present to see, in the great expanse of 
bare land and poor crops, the sad havoc 
wrought by drought. 


To avoid these utter failures of 
by means of careful cultural opera ticnel 
the farmer can often do little, but there 
are cases where the alert farmer might 
by skilful farming, reap a very much 


better crop than his bac 
careless brother. ackward and 


Some farmers have told me’ that on 
their land, at present totally barren, 
if they could only have got their wheat 
to “braird,” i.e., germinate and spring 
above ground, the crop would have 
come to something. Whether or not 
any good can be done in such extreme 
cases Is hard to say, but certainly there 
are lands where a study of the conser- 
vation of moisture might be well repaid. 


x It is not my purpose in the present 
note to go very scientifically into the 
above subject, but rather to point out 
orremind the tillers of the soil, of a few 
facts, and to quicken, if possible, the 
interest of those whose business or 
hobby it is to properly investigate the 
matter. 


First, then, it is a well-known fact 
that a soilon which plants are growing 
loses much more water by evaporation 
than doesa bare soil. 


_Some plants with a root system rami- 
fying through a fairly large area, to 
various depths in the soil, and possess- 
ing also a considerable extent of leaf 
surface for the dry winds to play over, 
may evaporate a very large quantity 
of water, indeed, in twenty-four hours. 


I have no Indian figures at hand, but 
for Europe we find several. 


In Pfeffer’s Physiology, Vol. I, pages 
230 to 251, we Bnd recorded ==-qHiaies 
found that asunflower having a total 
area of leaf surface of about9 sq. m, 
(103 sq. yards) lost 0°85 kilogrammes (1 
pint) of water during a single dry day.” 


_ Scientific Agriculture. 464 


‘“*Haberlandt found that  oat-plants 
covering one hectare transpired 2,277,760 
kgs. during a single vegetative period, 
while barley plants covering a similar 
area exhaled 1,236,710 kgs. of water.” 
This means that an acre of oats evapor- 
ated nearly 900 tens of water, and 
barley well on to 500 tons during their 
respective periods of growth. 


Whatever accuracy these men may 
claim for their figures in their own con- 
ditions, my point is that, although 
plants may differ in the relative amounts 
of water transpired from them during 
a given time and in various conditions, 
it is a well-known fact that all plants 
do transpire a very considerable amount 
of water during the 24 hours. 


It is evident, then, that from the 
point of view of the farmer cultivat- 
ing lands in a drought country, the 
lands should be kept clear of weeds. 


Again, itis well-known that on bare 
land which is fairly consolidated right 
to the surface, more moisture will even- 
tually be lost by evaporation than on 
land the surface of which has been well 
pulverised and kept stirred to the depth 
of a few inches. 


One might very roughly explain this 
by saying that the water raising up 
the walls of the minute openings be- 
tween the soil particles can, in the case 
of the compacted soil, rise right to the 
point where it can be quickly evaporated 
by coming directly in contact with the 
dry winds sweeping over the surface of 
the land. 


As the moisture at the surface is eva- 
porated, more isinduced, to take its 
place, and as it must come from below, 
we have a comparatively rapid current 
of water being brought upwards and lost 
by evaporation. 


In the ease of the soil of good tilth, the 
surface, few inches of which are stirred 
up loosely, the openings between the 
particles are too coarse to allow the 
moisture to rise freely in these few inches. 
Also in the large interspaces between 
these particles a considerable volume of 
air is trapped and forms a semi-damp, 
more or less stationary protective cush- 
ion of air between the quickly changing 
dry atmosphere above, and the point to 
which the water is comparatively easily 
brought up. 


Whatever the real theoretical explan- 
ation may be, however, the point of 
practical importance is, that a soil, the 
surface few inches of which is well 
pulverised and stirred, does conserve 
the moisture much better than a more 
compact one, and that farmers who 


wish to retain the moisture in any parti- 
cular area ofland, should not simply 
plough the soil and leave it in large 
rough lumps, and great openings between 
the furrows, but should pulverise and 
stir the surface by harrows or other 
suitable means, 


This pulverising of the surface should 
be done the same day as the land is 
ploughed on all soils, but especially on 
stiff clays, not only because of the 
saving in moisture effected, but also 
because of the greater ease with which 
the lumps can be broken. 


_Treated promptly in this way, a fine 
tilth may be got cheaply and with ease 
even on stiff lands where no amount of 
work can procure a good tilth if the 
lumps are allowed first to get dry. 


A third way of conserving moisture is 
often practised in various parts of the 
world. It is called ‘“‘ mulching.” 


Some fairly open or porous material 
such as refuse litter, inferior grass, or 
inferior straw, leaves, or other organic 
substance, is spread in a thin layer over 
the surface of the land; the idea being 
to forma layer of matter which will 
retain a considerable volume of air in 
the spaces between its component 
particles, and so retard the swift ex- 
change of the dry air of the atmosphere 
for the more or less moist air that isin 
contact with the soil surface. Mulching, 
therefore, has underlying it the same 
idea asthe stirring and pulverising of 
the upper few inches of the soil. 


Unfortunately, mulching, though very 
useful, is difficult to carry out on large 
areas. In some parts of India, however, 
I believe it is a common practice for 
special crops, such as tea, coffee, and 
some market garden crops. 


The implements used in tillage oper- 
ations here appear to me of considerable 
interest in relation to conservation of 
soil moisture, and I think a study of 
these from this point of view might give 
some results worth having. 


Take, for example, the ordinary native 
plough and compare it with the common 
English or American ploughs. 


The native implement differs essen- 
tially from the other two quoted, in the 
fact that while the others partly or 
completely invert the soil, the native 
one stirs but does not invert it. 


_ The difference appears to me to hold 
in it a question of considerable interest, 
forifa slight mulch causes a material 
reduction of the amount of water 
evaporated from the soil. then, may 
there not be a material difference in the 


[Novemerr, 1908. 


; 


nS 
sans 


4 


amount of water evaporated from a soil 
ploughed by an English plough and one 
ploughed by the native implemenat? 


In the one case the organic matter of 
the previous crop residue would be more 
or less deeply buried, and in the other 
practically left on the surface to act as 
mulch. 


With years of tilling with the native 
plough, and the consequent accumu- 
lation of organic matter on the soil 
surface, which right be expected up to 
a certain point, the beneficial mulching 
effect might also be expected. 


I should like to hear of some farmer 
using the native and an American or 
English plough on two separate areas, 
under similar conditions, over a number 
of years, and noting the practical effect 
on his crops, and if he or some one in- 
terested would like to go further into 
the matter and had the necessary skill 
and apparatus, a set of borings of these 
lands could be taken and the amounts 
of moisture in them ascertained and 
compared at intervals. 


The borings might be taken at different 
depths; regular intervals of time; of 
cropped and uncropped areas; and other 
points may require attention. 


The above, however, are mere sugges- 
tions. 


Besides conservation of moisture, there 
appears to me another good effect to be 
got by not inverting too thoroughly the 
residue of the previous crop, and that is 
the prevention to some extent of the 
formation of that extremely hard layer, 
otten not more than a quarter inch 
thick, which forms on the surface of 
stiff soils, or even on light ones if there 
is a tendency to efflorescence of white 
salts. These salts, though present in 
the soil in such small quantity as not to 
be directly very harmful to vegetation, 
may, when collected at the surface by 
evaporation, cement the particles of the 
upper quarter-inch of evena light soil 
till it has almost the consistency of rock 
and completely strangles vegetation. 


The formation of this hard layer may, 
by this practice, be modified partly by 
the lesser concentration of salts at the 
surface owing to the mulch, and partly 
to the greater admixture of organic 
matter of previous crop residues in the 
upper layer of the soil where the salts 
concentrate. 


I have never seen the surface of a 
slightly saltish soil in which there is an 
excess of organic matter harden as I 
have seen thatof even an oxtremely 
light sandy one, 

59 


465 


Scientific Agriculture, 


In the event of there being anything 
in this idea that the native plough tends 
to couserve moisture and prevent caking 
of the surface soil more than an Ameri- 
can or Haglish plough does, if does not 
mean, I hope, that the native plough 
will be Jeft in undisturbed possession of 
the field. 


ome the native plough appears an 
implement with a good deal to recome 
mend it to the native agriculturist, 


lts low initial cost; the almost impossi- 
bility of breaking it; the ease with 
which it can be repaired if it is broken 3 
its comparatively wonderful effective. 
ness when properly handled, and other 
advantages, all stand inits favour, but 
I think there are other implements 
already in the market, or which could 
be made, which could replace it to 
some extent with advantage to the 
farmer. 


The native plough, as I have said, 
differs essentially from the British idea 
of a “plough,” in that it does not turn 
the furrow, and appears to me to be 
more comparable to the implement 
called a ‘* cultivator.” 


This suggests to me that a good strong 
implement of this type, having not too 
many ‘‘ tines” or ‘*‘ teeth,” so that the 
draught would not be too heavy for two 
bullocks, might replace it with advante 
age, at least in some tillage operations, 
and give practically the same effect as 
regards the inverting of the soil as the 
native plough does. 


Some of theadvantages of the ‘“ culti- 
vator” are:—Having a number of tines 
set in a frame at regular distances, there 
is less chance of patches of the land 
being ‘‘ missed” by careless workmen. 


A much greater area is covered; a 
point which in these days of scarcity of 
labour is worth cousidering, and they 
are simple enough to be worked and 
understood by anyone. 


The repairing of these implements is, 
I kuow, a difficulty, as also their initial 
cost, but these difficulties will tend to 
lessen in time. 


As more ironimplements are brought 
into use, the blacksmith will become 
more common in the community, and as 
the ealls for his services to repair such 
implements become more frequent, his 
knowledge of them will increase as_ well 
as his stock of necessaries for their 
renairs, and with these the present 
difficulty of the rayat will lessen. 


The difficulty of the initial cost will 
diminish when it is proved that the 
implements are worth the money, 


Scientific Agriculture. 466 


The ‘‘Sohaga,” from its consolidating 
action on the upper layer of the soil. is 
not the best implement to put last over 
a piece of tilled ground not to be imme- 
diately flooded with water, and required 
to retain its moisture well. 


Again, in relation to the economical 
use of the soil moisture, we have the 
problems of finding out the relative 
amount of water required by each of 
the common crops during a growing 
season, the best arrangement of crops in 
-a rotation from this point of view, and 
many other questions far too numerous 
for me to say anything about in such a 
- note as this. 


It will be quite satisfaction enough 
for me if I have achieved in some 
measure the object with which I set 
out.—Agriculiural Journal of India, 
Vol. II. Part, III. July, 1908. 


SCIENCE IN AGRICULTURE. 


By R. HELMs. 


Soi. BACTERIA, 


A great deal has been written about 
soil bacteria during the last twenty 
years, when first they excited attention 
-in the scientific world. Especially those 
-contained in the swellings found on the 
roots of leguminous plants have come 
in for comment. Newspapers, copying 
one another and enlarging frequently 
on their own accounts, have excited 
attention to this subject everywhere. 
Unfortunately, however, through the 
exaggerations and false deductions 
promulgated by non-scientific writers, 
the farmers were led to expect too 
much, and the promised benefit these 
micro-organisms were to bring the 
agriculturists have not been realised 
in the greater number of instances. 
The scientists who have investigated 
the important part bacteria play in 
connection with the fertility of the 
soil, one and all acknowledge that the 
subject is not yet completely under- 
stood. At the same time the functions 
of soil bacteria have been revealed to 
a certain extent and also their import- 
ance demonstrated. What so far has 
been definitely established by scientific 
research and is known of this important 
problem I intend to repeat in the 
-plainest language possible, 


It is always extremely difficult to 
popularise a scientific subject, or rather 
to treat scientific matter entirely in 
popular language. In order to be quite 


” Ee 
[NovemBerR, 1908. 


lucid to the non-scientific reader, tech- 
nical terms have to be avoided, and 
this cannot always be done, as they 
have been specially coined to express 
definite meanings, and, therefore, require 
tc be translated, which frequently 
obscures their meaning. The disregard 
of scientific work in the past has been 
largely due, no doubt, to the fact 
that scientific research tended to dis- 
credit the preconceived notions that 
had been inherited for generations. 
Scientists were regarded as abnormal 
creatures, or mere speculative dreamers 
dabbling in untenable theories. A 
number of practical men holding such 
views are still to be found. Perhaps 
there is an excuse for it, considering 
the inherited system of rule of thumb 
by which their forbears did very well. 
It is true the work of the_ pioneer 
requires no scientific knowledge; the 
expert axeman, and the man who can 
handle a team of bullocks or horses 
well, possesses an advantage over the 
less experienced, and herein the prac- 
tical mostly consists. There is nothing 
to prevent a scientist being a good 
worker with his hands, but the man 
who can only use his hands is not 
likely to make a, scientist very readily. 
This, moreover, is not necessary; a 
division of labour has its advantages. 
It is a pleasant sign of advancement 
in general knowledge that the modern 
farmer is becoming keen on utilising 
the achievements of science. The idea 
of considering a scientist an impractical 
theorist, or bookworm is becoming a 
thing of the past, and the man who 
loudly boasts about his practical know- 
ledge is beginning to be looked upon 
as being mentally indolent and attempt- 
ing to hide his ignorance under pretence 
of superior experience. The valuable 


services science has rendered agriculture 


are, however, scarcely realised yet by 
most people. 


Farming is as old as _ history, and, 
for the matter of that, science also, but 
its universal application to agriculture 
dates back oxly a few decades, All 
applied sciences contribute their quota 
to make agriculture and its adjuncts 
more profitable now than in former 
times. Chemistry, pathology, physics, 
metallurgy, medicine, botany, entomo- 
logy, meteorology, bacteriology con- 
tribute their share. It may be worth 
while to select a few items which have 
prominently benefited agriculture, and 
proved the devotees to science practical 
men par excellence, 


Liebig, fifty years ago, invented super- 
phosphate, and laid the foundations 
of the present univeral use of artificial 


i No 


iMMANnures. 


-extent than any of the others. 


VEMBER, 1908. } 


Investigations into the chemi- 
eal constitution of plants determined 
their food requirements and laid the basis 
of rational manuring, and led to the utili- 
sation of many waste products for that 
purpose. Chemistry has in other weys 
much enhanced agriculture, andis, with- 
out doubt, the science which has influ- 
enced modern agriculture toa Branter 

1e 
dairymen throughout the world have 
to thank the bacteriologist for many 
advantages; and but for Lavall, the 
physicist, thinking out the separator 
in his laboratory, dairying would not 
be profitable in warm climates. Be- 
tween the botanist and the _ patho- 
logist means were found to produce 
rust-resisting wheats, besides ameli- 
orating other plant diseases. By study- 
ing the life history of insects the ento- 
mologists have found proper ways of 
suppressing or cheeking insect pests. 
The improved knowledge of the metal- 
lurgist made it possible to produce 
cheaper steel and other metals, and 
thereby cheapend and improved farm im- 
plements and machinery. Whenin the 
sixties of last century a disease broke 
out amongst thesilkworms in Southern 
France, killing every caterpillar where- 
ever it made itsappearance, and rapidly 
spreading through almost every estab- 
lishment for the rearing of silkworms, 
thereby bringing thousands of silkworm 
rearers to the brink of starvation, and 
jeopardising the whole silk industry 
which gave employment to several 
millions of people, it was science that 
came to their rescue through the 
medium of great Pasteur. |By the atte- 
nuated virus of anthrax, descovered also 
by Pasteur, the means of preventing 
the terrible disease was disclosed, and 
thereby Australia has benefited to an 
enormous extent. Many other similar 


instances’ might be quoted in which 
agriculture has benefited by scientitic 
Lesearch, 


BACTERIA. 


From the fact that a number of 
bacteria are disease-producing in man, 
beast, and birds and plants. the whole 
tribe of these minute plants have 
acquired a detestable reputation in 
popular opinion. Such a general con- 
demnatory opinion they do not, how- 
ever, deserve. The mischievous bacteria 
and allied forms of micro-organisms, 
terrible as they manifest themselves at 
times, are numerically insignificant in 
comparison with the great number 
which may be termed either directly or 
indirectly beneficial to the higher 
forms of life, and still more with those 
which are decidedly harmless, and 
whose rolé in the economy of nature is 


467 


Scientific Agricullure. 


not understood at present. Many hun- 
dreds are wel-known, and their char- 
acteristics have been worked out, and as 
researches progress they are constantly 
added to. Being of very delicate 
structure they are very sensitive to 
external conditions, especially to the 
presence or absence of oxygen, which 
striking characteristic divides them 
into two distinet groups. Those which 
require oxygen for their growth, and 
prosper ill without it, are called 
aérobic, and those upon which oxygen 
has a toxic effect, are called anaérobic 
bacteria. 


NITROGEN. 


In order to fully understand the im- 
portance of the bacteria to be specially 
discussed, it is necessary to makea few 
remarks regarding the element nitrogen, 
which is absolutely needed as afood by 
all animated nature. 


Nitrogen in its simple form isa gas 
abundantly present in our atmosphere, 
where it is practically inert, and acts 
as a diluent of oxygen, the element 
required by all breathing beings. In- 
this simple form it is otherwise perfect- 
ly useless to either plants or anmials. 
Moreover in this state it will not readily 
combine even with oxygen, almost the 
only element it attaches itself to when 
in the elementary state. Plants, how- 
ever, cannot utilise it unless it has been 
oxidised into nitric acid. In that form 
only is it assimilable by plants which 
possess the power of elaborating it into 
other complex compounds known by the 
term of organic-nitrogen compounds, 
and albuminoids, in which forms it 
serves as food for animals. The fact 
must not be lost sight of—that whilst 
animals require organic nitrogen com- 
pounds for their nutrition, plants cannot 
directly utilise again the compounds 
they elaborate, but require them simpli- 
fied into nitric acid. This is done by 
bacteria, a group of which are called 


NITRIFYING BACTERIA. 


As soon asa plant or animal is dead it 
is attacked by bacteria, whose function 
it is to reduce it into the elements from 
which it was built. The same applies to 
any dead organic substance, the voidings 
of animals, offal of any kind, stable 
manure, &c. These bacteria are the 
putrifying organisms, of which there are 
a number of forms, and which are the 
forerunners of the nitrifying bacteria. 
In the process of decay different gases 
are evolved during the progress of 
fermentation. Some bacteria liberate 
nitrogen, and others ammonia, from the 
organic nitrogenous compounds. The 
nitrogen so evolved is lost in the air, 


Scientific Agricullure. 


but the ammonia, unless the fermenta- 
tion is very violent, and the hacteria 
cannot consume it, is fastened on to by 
a certain type of organism and 


con- 
verted by itinto nitrons acid. This is 
the first stage of nitrification, the 


organisms bringing the ammonia toa 
lower state of oxidation than that re- 
quired by the higher plants. The 
further oxidation of nitrous acid into 
nitric acid is performed by another type, 
which completes the complex process of 
nitrification. It will be seen that it 
requires quite a number of different 
bacteria to convert the organic nitrogen 
compounds into an assimilable form for 
plants. The different putrifying organ- 
isms break up the multiform compounds 
into elementary substances, and whilst 
ammonia is evolved this is fastened 
on to by adistinct oxidising organism; 
and then by another distinct type, that 
cannot oxidise ammonia, it is further 
oxidised to the final stage. These break- 
ing-up and oxidising bacteria, it must 
be borne in mind, work simultaneously 
from the start of the decay, and in this 
manner a continuous development of 
nitric acid is proceeding, always presum- 
ing that all the types necessary for this 
evolution are present. As a rule they 
are present in every soil that is suffi- 
ciently aerated. I found the nitrifying 
bacteria absent in the samples from very 
sour or waterlogged localities only, in 
the many samples of Australian soils I 
have examined tor the purpose. 


The importance of the presence of 
these different bacteria in the soil, and 
their co-operation, will readily be 
perceived. All organic matter would 
remain intact were it not for the putri- 
fying organisms, and unless the nitri- 
fying bacteria were present the nitro- 
genous gases evolved during the decom- 
posing fermentation would escape into 
the air. It would be useless to add 
fertilizers to the land, whether in the 
shape of green plants, stable manure, or 
artificial nitrogenous manures (except 
such containing nitric acid), were it not 
for the activity of these silent workers. 
The whole tribe of this soil flora is 
necessary to prevent a loss of plant food ; 
but if a preference of importance may 
be assigned to any of them, it is the 
nitrous acid former which fixes the very 
volatile ammonia. 


These infinitesimally minute plants, 
which persistently though invisibly 
retain by their activity inthe soil the 
most precious of plant foods, cannot be 
too highly esteemed, for upon them 
depends entirely the productiveness of 
the land, and the susterance of life 
generally. 


468 


[NOVEMBER, 1908. 


Afew words concerning the effects 
produced by tilth, and consequent aera- 
tion upon the soil flora, is not out of 
place here. The greatest value of aera- 
tion is generaily attributed to the 
oxidising effectit has upon the mineral 
plant foods contained inthe soil, by 
which these become soluble, and conse- 
quently assimilable by the crops. But 
the effect it has upon the bacteria 
in the soil, probably, is no less im- 
portant. The nitrifying bacteria re- 
quire a_ liberal supply of oxygen 
dictated by their functions, whilst on 


the other hand the greater number of 
the putrifying bacteria are anaéro- 
bic. Aeration therefore encourages 


the multiplication of nitrifying bacteria, 
which is of the utmost importance, as 
their number is always smaller than 
that of any other kind, owing to their 
much slower growth and reproduction, 
and at the same time the development 
of the anaérobie putrifying bacteria is 
retarded by the admission of air into 
the soil and a too violent fermentation 
may be prevented. Aeration balances 
the functions of the different kinds of 
soil bacteria. 


Besides the nitrifying bacteria, a 
series of other organisms occur in soil, 
the activity of which is even more 
mysterious and which benefit higher 
life to a considerable extent, These 
are the 


NITROGEN-FIXING BACTERIA, 


The. inertness of nitrogen has already 
been mentioned, and, in reality, only 
two phenomena in nature are known 
to oxidise and fix it, The one is the 
discharge of electricity during thunder- 
storms, and the other the activity of 
certain bacteria. At the high temper- 
ature produced by the lightning flash 
the nitrogen combines with the oxygen 
of the air, How the bacteria fix the 
elementary nitrogenis an entire mystery, 
Nevertheless quite a number have been 
credited with the characteristic of being 
able to fix nitrogen in a greater or 
lesser degree. Huropean investigators 
have proved one or the other, or 
several, to occur in almost every kind 
of soil. All Australian soils probably 
contain similar organisms. In two 
examined by me I found considerable 
assimilating power. The quantitative 
fixation of nitrogen from the air is not 
very great in these free living organisms, 
but study may reveal substances that 
will encourage their multiplication, and 
consequently produce greater fixation 
results, They are naturally all aérobic, 
and therefore thrive best in open, well 
aerated soils, A greater assimilating 


NOVEMBER, 1908, | 


power than is possessed by these free 
living organisms may probably be 
assigned to the 


NODULE BACTERIA, 


During a certain period of their 
existence these bacteria are living free 
in the soil, but it is not known whether 
they multiply under such circumstances. 
When, however, they insinuate them- 
selves into the hair-rootlets of plants, 
especially those of the leguminose, they 
produce upon them swellings or nodules, 
wherein they multiply enormously, 
They then actively assimilate atmos- 
pheric nitrogen, andin some way benefit 
the host plant. How this is brought 
about is not yet understood, in the face 
of the fact that the higher plants require 
nitrogen in the shape of nitric acid to 
feed them. The fact that these quasi 
parasites materially benefit their host 
by the assimilation of aerial nitrogen, 
however, has been established without 
reasonable doubt by repeated experi- 
ments. Pots filled with sterlised soils, 
one of which was inoculated with nodule 
material, have proved the effect. The 
inoculated pots yield larger crops, and 
nodules had been produced on the roots 
of the plants, whilst on the plants 
of the uninoculated pots no nodules 
occurred. In the field many similar 
results were obtained, and inoculation 
with artificially reared nodule bacteria 
has produced remarkable results. On 
the other hand very many inoculations 
in the field did not in the least benefit 
the crops. This non-success of inocula- 
tion in the greater number of instances 
in my opinion is mainly due to the 
previous presence of the bacteria in the 
soil experimented upon. The want was 
already supplied and inoculation was 
not required. 


‘ A difference of opinion still exists as 
to whether the nodule organisms found 
on different plants are distinct, or 
merely varieties of the same species. 
Latest researches tend towards the 
latter opinion, and probably, correctly, 
as recently some German experimen- 
talists have made the nodule bacteria 
of French beans, after two or three 
generations, effectively accommodate 
themselves to other leguminosze. But 
this is merely an absolutely scientific 


469 


Scientific Agriculture. 


question; the fact remains that these 
bacteria are so different in their 
character as to require for successful 
inoculation that the soil on which the 
particular crop is grown must be in- 
oculated with cultures taken from the 
nodules of similar plants. 


These nodule bacteria, like the other 
nitrogen assimilating organisms and the 
nitrifying bacteria, are also emphati- 
cally aérobic ; neither they nor the other 
kinds can, consequently, live deep in the 
ground. At a depth of from 4 or 5 
inches from the surface they generally 
thrive well; below 6 inches they begin 
to occur sparingly, and -deeper than 
9 to 12 inches they are only found under 
exceptionally favourable circumstances. 


The benefit lucerne fields receive from 
harrowing in spring is no doubt partly 
caused by enhancing the bacterial acti- 
vity through the aeration of the soil 


surface. 


In conclusion, I draw attention to the 
universal axiom, that nature constantly 
works with exceedingly small quantities. 
As an example we may take one of the 
nodules attached, say, to roots of 
lucerne ; not a millimetre in diameter, it 
frequently contains from 500,000 to 
1,000,000 of bacilli, and yet every indi- 
vidual of these assimilated some nitro- 
gen. When we consider the minuteness 
of the individual organism, how infi- 
nitely small must be the quantity of 
nitrogen absorbed by it. Even the 
quantity fixed daily by a million is so 
minute that the most delicate balance 
would searcely weigh it, and chemists 
can weigh tothe one hundred thousandth 
part of a gramme. According to 
Paul Herre, 2,000,000 of organisms only 
weigh one milligramme (the thousandth 
part of a gramme). The number con- 
tained inan acre of soil in order to 
bring about the assimilation of 10 to 20 
lb. of nitrogen is, therefore, so prodi- 
gious, that expressed in figures they 
would cover a couple of lines of this 
page. Bacilli vary in size, but it takes 
generally from 15,000 to 30,000 laid 
lengthways to measure an inch, and yet 
the results produced by them in a very 
short time are considerable.—Agricul- 
tural Gazette of New South Wales 
August, 1908, Vol. XIX, Part 8. 


4 


» Te Os 


(NOVEMBER, 1908. 


MISCELLANEOUS, 


LITERATURE OF ECONOMIC 
BOTANY AND AGRICULTURE. 
XXXV. 


Sisal Hemp—(& cf, Agave).— 


Coltura ed usi dell Agave sisalana. 
Ball. Palermo IT. 1898, p. 91. 


Kew Bull. addit. series, IT. 
Queens]. Agr. Journ. Sept. 1898. 
Ind. Gard. 28. 11. 99, p. 206, 
Dodge’s Fibre Plants. 


Le Henequen & Cuba. Rev. Cult. 
Col. 1900, p. 481. 
The Agave Fibre Industry. Ind. 


Gard..23..11. 99, p. 206. 

Agave culture. do. 28. 12. 99. pp. 
251, 255. 

do Ind. Agric. 11. 1900, p. 27. 

Der poielba of. Tropenpfl. 4. 1900, 
p. 6. 

Sisalhemp. Planting Op. 17. 2. 1900, 
p- 109. 

Experimental cultivation of Agave 
Sisalana in India. Ind. Gard. 15. 2. 
1900, p. 114. 

Die Agavenkultur in Deutsch Ost- 
Afrika. Tropenpfl. V. 1901, p. 7. 
The Agave fibre industry. Ind. Agr. 

1901, p. 281. 
' Machines, see Journ. d’ Agr. trop. I. 
6. &e. 

Die Kultur der Sisalagave in Yucatan. 
Tropenpfl. V. 1901, p. 495. 

Experimental cultivation of sisal 
hemp in India. Agr. Ledger. V. P. 
Series 55. 

Sisal hemp. 
261, 262, 264. 

Sisal hemp cultivation in India. Ind. 
Agric. Apr. 1901, p. 97. 


Ind. Gard. Apr. 1901, pp. 


Sisal, the Yucatan fibre. ‘T.A.” 
June 1908, p. 797. 

Une defibreuse & henequen sans 
chaines. Journ.d’ Agr. trop. 30.6. 
1908, p. 163. 

The fibre industry of Mauritius, 


Sisal v. Fourcroya. 
Jl. July 1904, p. 498. 

Sisal hemp. do. Aug. 
563, 565. 

Agave fibre asa catch crop to tea. 
Ind. Agric. 1. 9. 04, p. 280. 

Agave fibres. Ind. Pl. and Gard. 
1904, pp. 807, 843. 


Sisal hemp industry in Mexico. Imp. 
Inst. Bull. I, 1903, p, 201. 


Queens]. Agr. 


1904, pp. 


Mittheilungen iiber deu Sisalagave- 
bau aus der Praxis. Tropenpfl. 9. 
1905, p. 375. 

Sisal cultivation &c. 
Jour. Apr. 1904. 

Sisal hemp. Agr. Gaz. N.S.W. Oct. 
1904, p. 949. 

Thesisal hempindustry. Ind. Plant. 
& Gard. 12. 11. 1904, p. 805. 

The sisal hemp industry and the 
West Indies. Agr. News 8. Oct. 
1904, p. 321. ' 

The sisal hemp industry. W.I. Bull. 
V7 p50: 

Sisal hemp in India. 
Jan. 1905, p. 260. 
Exploitation et rendement de 1’ Ixtle 
au Mexique. Journ. d’Agr. trop, 

Aug. 1906, p. 238. 

Hine Erkrankung der Sisalagaven im 
Bezirk Tanga. Der Pflanzer 1905, 
p. 355. 

Die Agaven, 


Queensl. Agr. 


Bull. Imp. Inst. 


ihre Kultur und Ver- 
wendung. do. 1906, p, 209. 

Over de Kultur van Sisal, 
Mere. 30, 10. 1906, p. 732. 

Ueber Agavenin Deutsch Ost-Afrika. 
Tropenpfi. 1906, p. 275. 

L’Agave textile. Bull. Ee. Indoch, 
1906, p. 649. 

Sisal fibre cultivation. 
1906, p. 874. 

Sisal fibre from Madras. do. 375. 


The cultivation of maguey in the 
Philippine Islands. Farmers’ Bull. 
13. Manila 1906. 

Hauteteuille. L’Agave textile. Bull. 
Ee. Indoch. July 1906. 

The growing of sisal. Trop. Life, 
June 1907, p. 90. 

Sisal hemp in Kast Africa. 
News, June 1907, p. 203. 

Sisal fibre cultivation. 
1907, p. 263. 

The development of sisal hemp culti- 
vation in India. Agr. Journ. Ind. 
II. p. 328. 


Ind. 


“TA.” June 


Agr. 
«“T.A.” Oct. 


Sisal fibre cultivation. ‘‘T.A.” Jan. 
1908, p. 14. 
Stuhlmann. Notizen iiber Sisal-aga- 


Der Pflan- 


veu und deren Fasern. 
zet' 1907, p. 229. 


The cultivation of sisal. Trop. Life, 
Dec. 1907, p. 188, Feb. 1908, p. 28. 


Le developpement de la culture de 
Sisal. Journ. dAgr. trop. July 
1907, jp. 204. 


Pa 6 
MT 


a 


NoveMBER, 1908. | 


The cultivation of maguey in the 
Philippines. Agr. News June 1907, 
p. 202. 


Hasai de multiplication de... sisal 
ar le bouturage des  feuilles. 
ourn. d’Agr. trop. 1908, p. 167. 


Die Agaven, ihre Kultur und Ver- 
wendung. Der Pflanzer Oct. 1906, 
and May 1998. 

Zapupe fibre plant. Kew Bull. 1907, 
p. 396. ‘“T.A.” Apr. 1908, p. 325. 


The sisal fibre industry in Queens- 


laud. Q. Dept. Agr. Rep. 1£065. 
“T.A.” Apr. 1908, p. 327. 
Hautefeuille. Sisal. Journ. d’Agr. 
trop.: Dee. 1907, ‘*T.A.” Apr. 1908, 
p- 830. 

Cultur du Sisal aux iles dHawaii. 


Bull. Jard. Col. Mar. 1908, p. 18]. 
De Vezel-agaven. Teysmannia 1907. 
Die fee ular in Mexiko. Tro. 

penpfl. 12. p. 

L’ Agave a Hautefeuille in 

Journ, d’Agr. trop. Dec. 1907, p. 360. 
Drummond & Prain. Notes on Agave 


and Furecraea. Agr. Ledger 7 
of 1906 


Sisal cultivation in the Caicos Islands. 
Agr. News. 7. 8. 08, p. 79. 


Sisal hemp as a possible industry for 


Jamaica. do. p. 79, 
Sonneratia.— 
Straits Bull. 1908, p. Lid. 
Sorghum.— 


Broom corn cultivation. Queens}. 
Agri. Jl. 1899, p. 424. 

Blight of Sorghum, 
1899, p. 65. 

Verarbeitung von Sorghum-arten 
auf weissen Starke nud Nebenpro- 


Bot. Gaz. 29. 


dukte. Tropenpfl. Ii. 1898. Beih. 
Bot. Centr, 8, p. 477. 
Jowar cultivation in Berar. Ind. 


Agric. 2. 4. 1900, p. 112. 
Indian millets or sorghum grown at 


Wollongbar. Agr. Gaz. N. S. W. 
XI. 1900. p. 749. 


Le Canne a sucre de Chine ou Sorgho 
sucre Rev. Cult. Col. 1900, p. 570. 
Ueber die Mafutakrankheit der 
Mobhrenhirse in Deutsch Ost-Afrika. 
Tropenpfi. 1900, p. 481. 

Busse and Pilger on African forms. 
Engler’s Jahrb. 82, p. 182. 


~Green sorghum poisoning. Queensl. 
Agr. Jl. July 1908, p. 59. W. Ind. 
Bul). IIT. p. 326. 


Ueber sorghum-formen aus Togo. 
Notizbl. Berlin, Dec. 1904, p, 139. 


471 


Miscellaneous. 


Dumas: Le Sorgho. Paris 1905. 

The manufacture of Samshu. Ind. 
Agri¢es 1. 5, 1906, yp. 142) 6 TAL 
ia 1906, p. 169. 

Sorghum vulgare. 
Agric. Series 37, 1906. 

The great millet of Sorghum in 
Madras. Bull, Dpt. Agr, Madras 

— HTL 55, 1906. 

The non-saccharine Sorghums. U.S. 
Dpt. Agr. Farmers’ Bull. 288, 1907. 

Sorghum poisoning. Journ Dpt. Agr. 


Agr. ledger, 


Victoria, 9. 3. 1908. “T.A.” May 
1908, p. 449. 

The cultivation of broom corn. 
Ure poord Agr. Brit. Guiana 
Sal 


Spernvacoce.— 


Spermacoce hispida. Planting Opin. 
23. 6. 1900, yp. 429. 


Star Anise,— 


Star Anise oil. Schimmel’s Report, 
especially Oct. 1898 and Apr. 1900. 


Starch (and cf. Cassava &c.)— 


Starch prepared from the bread- 
fruit tree in Seychelles. Imp. Inst. 
Bull. March 1904, p. 28. 


Manufacture of starch from potato - 


in scermany. Jamaica Bull. 1904, 
p- 218. 
Strophanthus.— 
Official strophanthus seed. Chem. 


& Drug. 28. 7. 1900, p. 163. 
Strophanthin. Do. 11. 8, 1900, p. 292. 
Perredes on Pharmacognosy. Bull. 

Wellcome Research Labr. 
eee ican pees see Kngler’s Jahrb. 
The Sha te question. Chem. 

& Drug. 9. 7. 1904, p. 58. 

Gilg. Die Strophanthus Frage. Ber- 
ichte d, deut. Pharm. Ges. 1904, 
p- 48. 

Styraax.— 

Report on specimen of benzoin from 
the F. M.S. Str. Bull. 1906, p. 261. 
Benzoin. Chem. & Drug. 28. 9. 1907> 
p. 523 
Sugar (Cane): General .— 


W. C. Stubbs, Sugar cane. 
Rouge 1897. See Bot. 
1899, p. 869. 

Kriiger, Das Zuckerrohr und _ seine 
Kultur. Magdeburg 1899; rev. in 
Ind. Mere, 18, 2. 1899, 


Baton 
Centr. 77. 


Miscellanecus. 


Tiemann, Zuckerrohr-Kultur, Fabri- 
kation und Statistik. Berlin, 1899. 


Suck, die geographische Verbreitung 
des Zuckerrohrs. Beih. Z. Tropenpfl. 
1900. 


industries of the West 
Ind. Agric. 18, 1900, p, 255. 


de VIndoch. 1. 6. 


The sugar 
Indies. 


See Bull. Econ. 
1900, p. 266. 


See Queensl. 
ference). 


Die chemische Selection des Zuckers. 
Ann. Buitenz. 2. III. 1901 


Agr. J]. July 1900 (con- 


Hybrid sugar canes. Agr. News 9. 5. 
1908, p. 145. 
Hybridization of the sugar cane. 


Lewton Brain in W. Ind. Bull. IV. 
1903, p. 63. 

Bud- AL ee in the sugar 
do. p. 

Me oeution of cut sugar cane. Agr. 
Ledg. Indust. Series, 2. 
Sugar in Jamaica. Bull. 

March, 1904. 

Invoer en fabrikatie van geraffineerde 
suiker in British Indie, Oost Azie, 
en Australie, in verband met de 
fabrikatie van geraffineerde suiker 
op Java. Prinsen Geerligs in Ind. 
Mere. 1905, p. 47. 

Die Zuckerproduktion des 
Ind. Mere. 26, 12. 1905, p. 895. 

Raising pedigree sugar canes. Agr. 
News V. 1906, p. 1”. 

Many papers in W. Ind. Bull. VI. 4. 

De suikerproductie van Formosa. 
Ind. Mere. 18. 9. 1906, p. 633. 

Sugar exper iments in British. Guiana. 
Agr. News, 28. 7. 1906, p. 225. 

The polarimetric determination of 
sucrose. W. Ind. Bull. VII. 1906, 
p- 182. 

See Bulletins, Hawaiian Sugar Expt. 
Sta. 


cane. 


Jamaica 


Welts. 


See Mededeelingen, Java Sugar 
Expt. Sta. 
The sugar industry in India. Trop. 


Life 1906, p. 169. 

Barber, the origin of new sugar canes 
by bud variation. Agr. Jl. Ind. 
I. p. 285. 

The sugar industry. Queensl. Agr. 
Jl. Nov. 1906, p. 2383. 

The sugar industry of the Philip- 
pines. ‘‘T.A.” Aug. 1906, p. 166. 
Sugar cane growing in Trinidad. do. 

p. 167 

Sugar growing in Java. do. Mar. 

1906, p. 175. 


472 


Sugar Cane: 


. ne 


“a 


tNowadeteme 1908. cs 


Improvement of the sugar vege 
of Mysore. Lehmann in Agr. J 1. 
India II. p. 54. 


Barber. Sugar cultivation in the 
Godaveri delta do. p. 33. 

The sugar industry in the United 
Provinces. do. pp. 15, 90. 


Share system in cane cultivation in 
Fiji, Hawaii, and Mauritius. W. 
Ind. Bull. 7. 1906, p. 311. 


Improvement of the sugar cane by 
selecuion and hybridisation do. 
p. 3845 


The selection of sugar cane cukeines 
Agr. Jl. India II. p. 198. 


Sugar industry in Mysore. 
Live Aug. 1907, p. 121. 


The identity of sugar canes in Dema- 
rara. Agr. News, June 1907, p. 194. 

Sugar notes. do. July 1907, p. 211. 

The sugar industry in China. Louis. 
Planter, 7 Sept. 1907, p. 158. 


Java’s success in cane sugar. do. Nov. 
1907, ‘‘T.A.” Feb. 1908, p. 128. 


Growth and examination of seedling 
canes, Trin. Bull. July 1907, p. 239. 


Sugar in Perak. “T.A.” Suppt. 
Sept. 1908, p, 287. 


Varieties cf sugar cane, and_manu- 
rial experiments in British Guiana, 
W. Ind. Bull. 9. 1908, p. 1. 

Handbook voor de suikerrietcultuur. 
Amsterdam 1905, onwards. 


Trop. 


Cultivation.— 


Des ameliorations 4 apporter dans les 
colonies frangaises & la cultivation 
delacanue a sucre. Rev. Cult. Col. 
VI. 1900, p. 65. 

Cultivation of sugar in Bombay 
Presidency. Agr. Ledger, Agr. 
Ser., 25. 

Emploi des feuilles de cannes pour 


la nourriture du betail Rev. Cult. 
Col. 20. 11. 1899, p. 307. 


Sugar cultivation in Bengal. Ind, 
Agr. 2. 7. 1900, p. 221. 

Sugar in the South Arcot district. 
Ind. Gard. 6, 9. 1900, p. 166. 

Sugar as an aid to Indigo. do. p. 193 
seg. 

Sugar cane experiments at Barbados. 
W. Ind. Bull. I. 1900, p. 355. 

Note sur la cultivation de la canne a 
sucre au Tonkin. Bull. Ec. Indoch. 
1901, p. 118 

Sugar cultivation. Ind. Agr. Nov. 
1905, p, 345, 

The Samalkota sugar farm, Barber 
in Agr, Jl, India I, p, 44, 

Manuring sugar. do p. 18. 


NOVEMBER, 1908.] 


Cane Planting in Queensland. Louis. 
Planter, July 1907, p. 34. 
Sugar cane planting in Martinique. 
do. Sept- 7. 1907, p. 146, 
Sugar cane experiments at Barba- 
does. W. Ind. Bull. 9, 1908, p. 39. 


Do. at Leeward Islands, do. p. 68, 
Sugar Cane Diseases.— 


See Trin. Bull. 1899, p. 187. 

Diseases of sugar canes. Barber’s 
reports. See Madras Govt. G. O. 
279, 28 Apr. 1899, and 422, 3 July 
1899. 

A sugar cane pest in Madras, Ind. 
Agric. I. 1, 1900, p, 15, and _ p.48, 

Diseases of sugar cane in Bengal. 
Agr, Ledger, Disease series, 5, 

Le borer et la canne & sucre aux 
Antilles Francaises— Rev. Cult. Col, 
Aug. 1901, p. 87. 

Fungus diseases of sugar in Bengal. 
venote Agr. Ind., Bot. Series I. 
3. 1906. 


Sugar Cane Manufacture, &e. 


Diffusion process of extracting sugar 
from cane. Agr, Ledger, Indust, 
Series, 3, 1903, 


Native methods of sugar manu- 
facture. Ind. Agric, Oct. 1905, 
p. 314. 


Verpakking van suiker, Ind. Mere. 
18. 9. 06, p, 634. 

Recolte mécanique de la canne a 
sucre, Journ, d’Agr, trop. Feb. 
1906. p. 35. 

Sugar making in South India. “‘T. A.” 
July 1906, p, 78. 

Fermentation changes occurring in 
Muscovado sugars, W. Ind. Bull. 
VII. p. 226. 

Modern methods of sugar extraction. 
Tro. Life. Feb. 1907, p. 18. 

See W. Ind. Bull. 8. 1, 

Jamaica Rum do. p. 120. 

Sugar manufacture in India. 
Agric. 2. 3. 1908, p, 94. 

The central sugar factory at Antigua, 
W. Ind. Bull. 9. 1908, p, 79. 

Observations on the work of sugar 
cane mills and the deduction to be 
drawn therefrom, do. p. 85. 


Sunflower.— 


Helianthus annuus. Agr. Ledg. V. P. 
Series 100, 1907. 


Ber owen oil, Ind. Agric, 2. 3. 1908, 

p. 

The Sunflower. Natal Agr. Jl. Apr, 
1908, ‘‘T.A,” Sept. 1908, p. 213. 


60 


Ind, 


473 


Miscellaneous, 


Sweet Potato.— 


Cultivation of sweet potatoes. ‘‘T.A,” 
Oct. 1901, p, 228. 


Cultivation of sweet potatoes. Ind, 
Gard., Oct, 1901, p. 308, 
Recent experiments with sweet 


potatoes. W. Ind. Bull. II. p. 298. 


Ueber den Kultur der Bataten auf 
den Azoren. Tropenpfl. 1902, p. 285. 


Sweet potatoes. Agr. Mag. Aug. 
1903, p. 11. 

‘Manuring and storage of sweet 
potatoes. W. Ind. Bull. III. p. 206. 


Experiments with sweet potatoes at 
Barbadoes. W. Ind. Bull. V. p.'41. 

Sweet potatoes. Agr. Gaz. N.S. W. 
Aug. 1904, p. 778. 

Sweet potato trials. 
1904, p. 275. 

The sweet potato. 
1905, p. 299. 

Proef met Batatenvarieteiten. Teysm. 
1907. 

Sweet potatoes. 


Jam. Bull. Dee. 


Ind. Agric, Oct. 


U.. 8S. ‘Dpt. Agr 


Farmers’ Bull. 324. 1908. 
Synuphonia.— 
Symphonia globulifera. Tropenpfi. 


July 1899, p 339, 
Tabernaemontana.— 


T. Donnell-Smithii in Kamerun. do. 


9. 1905, p. 464, 


Tacea. 


T. pinnatifida, die stiirkemehlreichste 
Knollenfrucht der Erde. do. 9. 
1905. p. 120. 


Tamnarind.— 

See Agr. News 1903, p. 310. 

Hiniges iiber Tamarinden. Tropenpfl. 
10. 1906, p. 679. 

The uses and composition of 
Tamarind seeds. Agr, Ledger, V. 
P. Series 101, 1907, ‘*T. A.” Feb. 1908, 
p. 140. 


Tans and Tanning. Miscellaneous.— 


Tari pods (Caesalpinia digyna ) as 
a tanning agent. Agr. Ledger V. 
P. Series 50, 1899. 

Xylia dolabriformis. Agr. 
Forest Series 4, 1899. 
The Tanning industry of South 
India, Ind. Agric. 1. 6. 1900, p. 181. 
Les écorces tannantes de l’Inde et 
del’ Indo-Chine. Bull. Ee. Indoch. 
1900, p. 681. Rev. Cult. Col. 1900, 

p- 753. 


Ledger 


Miscellaneous. 


Madras tanning industry. Ind Agr. 
May 1908, p.-)146. 

Tanning and Tanning materials. ‘‘T. 
A.” July 19038, p. 1. 

Tanning materials (with analyses). 
Rep. Calif. Univ. Exp. Sta. 1898- 
1901, Pt. II p. 255. 

Culture des Acacia et leur produc- 
tion en Taniu. Rev. Cult. Col. June 

1904, p. 331. 

Die Kultur einiger Sumach-arten. 
Mitth. Amani 30, 1904. 

Quebracho wood in Argentina. 
Hour. Board of Agr. Dec. 1904. 
p. 562. 


Report on tanning materials. 
Jamaica. Jam. Bull. 1906, p. 121. 
Statistics of tanning materials. 


Jamaica. do p. 124 

De Looistoffen: botanisch-chemische 
monographie der Tanniden (with 
literature lists d.) Bull. Kol. 
Museum Haarlem, 35, 1906, 39, 1908. 


Tanning materials from India, the 


Colonies, and other sources. Bull. 
Imp. Inst. 5, 1907, p. 348. 
Analyses de plantas taniferas. Bull. 


Sao Paulo 9, 1908, p. 181. 
Taraktogenos.— 
T. Kurzii (Chaulmoogra). Agr. Led- 
ger, V. P. Series 92, 1906. 
Tea: General.— 
Report on Tea culture in Assam, 1898, 


The Geography of Tea. McEwan, 
Plant. Opin. 138. 11900, p. 31. ‘T. 
A.” Mar. 1900, p. 585. 


Kochs, Ueber der Gattung Thea 
und den chinesischen Thee. Engler’s 
Jahrb. 27, 1900, p. 577. 


Tea in Transcaucasia. KE. O. Report 
on Agriculture in Transcaucasia, 
1899. 


THE CEYLON CHAMBER OF 
COMMERCE. 


(Extracts from the Report of the Com- 
mittee for the half-year ended 30th 
June, 1908.) 


Your Committee beg to submit their 
Report and Accounts for the half-year 
ended 80th June, 1908. 


GENERAL MEETING.—The last half- 
yearly general meeting of the Chamber, 
the Minutes of which follow the Report, 
was held on 25th February. 


The following are the principal subjects 
of interest which have occupied the 


474 


‘ 1 : Wie ead 


attention of your Committee during the 
period under review :— 


EstTIMATE OF TEA EXPORT FOR 1908.— 
The Estimate of Tea Exports adopted 
by the Chamber for the current year 
was 182,000,000 lbs., and as 96,399,778 lbs. 
were exported during the first six 
months of the year, itis expected that 
this estimate will be realised. 


EXPORT OF TEA FROM NORTHERN INDIA 
TO CEkYLON.—Your Committee were ap- 
proached by the Indian Tea Association 
who asked for assistance in ascertaining 
the destination of Indian Teas tran- 
shipped in Colombo, the exports entered 
from Calcutta and Chittagong to Ceylon 
having increased from 30 lbs. in 1905 to 


6,122,000 in 1907. A considerable quantity - 


of tea thus exported is transhipped on 
through Bill of Lading in Colombo 
Harbour, and it is not possible to obtain 
statistics in Colombo as to the destina- 
tion of such teas. ‘ 


With regard to Indian Teas shipped to 
Colombo for subsequent re-shipment, 
the following recommendation was made 
by the Principal Collector of Customs, 
and merchants have been requested to 
enter on their transhipment entries the 
weight and port of destination of all 
teas :— 


Each shipper should state the weight 
and ultimate destination of his teas on 
his transhipment application. The tran- 
shipment clerk in charge of the Ware- 
house will enter in his register, in 
columns added for that purpose, the 
weight and ‘destination of the tea, taking 
his information from the applications. 
A monthly statement of such teas can 
then be drawn up on record kept. 

SALE OF RUBBISHY TEAS IN COLOMBO 
Hargsour.—This subject first occupied 
the attention of your Committee in 19038- 
1904, when representations were made 
to Government by the Chamber, support- 
ed by the Planters’ Association and the 
Colombo Tea Traders’ Association. 

The subject was again brought up for 
discussion through a letter from the 
Colonial Secretary, stating that His 
Excellency the Governor invited the 


Chamber to give the question further | 


consideration ; and your Committee are 
accordingly continuing their investi- 
gations, 


CEYLON TEAS BLENDED IN FRANCE,— 


.The attention of your Committee has 


been drawn to the sale in France of 
packets containing Ceylon Tea blended 
with Annam Tea and _ labelled ‘Pure 
Ceylon Tea.” 


Having ascertained that there is alaw — 
in France rendering illegal the sale of 
produce under labels which misdescribe 


(NOVEMBER, 1908. 


BP Rp I 


) 
- 


Novewuser, 1908.] 


the contents and the origin of the 
produce, your Committee requested the 
Government to take steps, through the 
Secretary of State for the Colonies or 
otherwise, to have the sale of blended 
teas labelled Pure Ceylon stopped in 
France. 


REJECTION OF CEYLON GREEN TEAS 
BY THE AMERICAN CuSTOMS.—The rejec- 
tion by the United States Customs 
authorities of certain Ceylon Green Teas 
has received considerable attention from 
the Planters’ Association, and was before 
the Chamber last year. The subject was 
brought to the attention of your Com- 
mittee by a communication from the 
Government asking for information re- 
garding the teas thus rejected. 


Your Committee were able to report 
that in their opinion the teas rejected 
were, asa rule, Gunpowders made from 
Fannings and Dust and improperly 
described as Gunpowders, and that Gun- 
powders manufactured from whole leaf 
were not rejected. 


CEYLON ImMpoRT Duty ON INDIAN 
Tra.—Attention is directed to the corres- 
pondence between the Government and 
the India Office. Your Committee, it 
will.be seen, were not in favour of any 
modification of the present restrictions 
on the import of tea into Ceylon, as the 
Government were unwilling to grant 
preference to Indian Teas over those 
from China, Japan and Java. 


INTERNATIONAL RUBBER EXHIBITION.— 
Your Committee have taken an active 
interest in the forthcoming Rubber Ex- 
hibition in London, where itis hoped 
that Ceylon will be adequately repre- 
sented. A Special Committee was 
formed of members of the Chamber, 
the Pianters’ Association and the Govern- 
ment Officials, under whose direction a 
large and representative exhibit is being 
got together frcm all rubber-growing 
districts of the Island, and will be 
forwarded to London, where’ the 
arrangements arein the capable hands 
of the Ceylon Association in London. 
Towards the expenses of the exhibit the 
Government have liberally contributed. 


Mr. F, M. Simpson, having been 
ordered home for a change by his medi- 
cal adviser, was granted six months’ 
leave from April last, and during his 
absence the Secretarial duties have 
been undertaken by Mr. Ivor Hthering- 
ton. 

TRADE REPORT. 


TEA.—The total exports of both Black 
and Green Tea amounted to 96,399,778 lbs. 
compared with 96,866,437 lbs. for the 


‘same period last year, 


ee. 


475 


Miscellaneous. 
The figures show a decrease for this 
year of 466,659 lbs :— 


January to January to 


June, 1908, June, 1907. 
Black Tea.,.94,027,143 lbs. 94,210,493 Ibs, 
Green Tea,,, 2,872,635 ,, 2,655,944 ,, 


96,399,778 lbs. 


96,866,437 Ibs. 


The increase was principally in ship- 
ments to Russia, India, and the Contin- 
ent, while Australian shipments fell off 
to asmall extent. The quantity offered 
in Colombo at Auction has exceeded that 
pe last year to date by about 44 million 

S. 


PricEs.—The average of teas sold in 
Colombo was 893 cts. compared with 40 
cts. for the same period in 1907. During 
the months of January and February 
the average was 2 cts. orso above last 
year, but during March and April it 


‘ranged from 2 cts. to 4 cts. below, while 


in May it regained the lead, falling back 
again in June. 


Good Fannings and Dusts continued in 
very strong demand during the first 
three months of the year, and the fine 
descriptions realised extreme rates 
though they fell in value later. 


Quality was about fair on the average, 
and there was an absence of ‘‘ rubbishy ” 
teas, the plucking on the Estates having 
been apparently carefully done. During 
May and Junethe usual large propor: 
tion of plain and poor liquoring teas 
made their appearance, but in spite of 
this, lowcouuntry Pekoe Souchong kept 
up to 33 cts. until the end of May and 
only fell below 30 in June. Itis worthy 
of note that this product has kept its 
position weil in the face of the fact that 
trade has been so universally restricted. 


DISTRIBUTION.—The Russian  hkuyers 
werea feature in the market, while 
buyers for the United Kingdom and 
other countries were general, though 
Aurtralians showed a slight falling off. 


GREEN TEAS.—The quantity of green 
teas was much the sameas last year, and 
the quality generally has been satisfac- 
tory, but prices have ruled considerably 
lower owing to an absence of orders. 


RUBBER-—This year’s exports show 
a large increase over those during the 
same period of 1907, the quantity being 
338,411 lbs. against 242,370 lbs. last year, 
an increase of 96,041 lbs. The shipments 
for January to June, 1906, were 122,284 Ibs. 


The two largest buyers are the United 
Kingdom and America, and both these 
countries show large increases over last 
year, Germany comes next in order, 


Miscellaneous. 476 g 


slighty ahead of Australia, and then 


Belgium. 


The improvement in manufacture is 
quite noticeable over last year, and 
Ceylon estates are now turning out 
excellent quality rubber. During 1907 
estates were manufacturing Biscuits and 
Sheet, whereas this year the grades 
more indemand are Crépe of all des- 
criptions. In COrépe form the rubber 
is more easily prepared, and, as a rule, 
better dried than Biscuits and Sheet. 

Fine pale qualities of Crépe have 
generally been selling at slightly higher 
rates than the same quality Biscuits 
and Sheet. Lower grades of Crépe, 
when well washed and dried, show much 
better rates than as formerly sent down 
as Serap rubber. 


Prices have dropped considerably 
from last year and show a fall of from 
Rs. 3:80 to Rs, 2°80 for Biscuits and Sheet, 
and from Rs. 8to Rs. 1'80 for Scrap. 

PLUMBAGO.—For the first six months 
of 1908 the exports of this mineral show 
a very considerable falling off in quan- 
tity, compared with the same period of 
1907, the decrease being over 7,500 tons 
(nearly 60 per cent.). This was no doubt 
chiefly due to the financial crisis in 
America, shipments to this country being 
over 5,900 tons less than in 1907, while ex- 
ports to the United Kingdom and all 
other countries have also been on a 
reduced scale. 


The following are the actual figures 
and their distribution :— 


1908, 1907, 

To United Kingdom ...cwts, 76,143 92,367 
», America Leon 26 LL 165,319 
», Germany sees 59. £0,904 57,219 
» Belgium ae OU seO 45,852 
,, Other Countries ... ,, 6,283 8,330 
215,077 369,087 


The market has been extremely dull 
and prices have in consequence been 
weak and irregular. With such a pro- 
nounced decrease in the demand miners 
have found it difficult to dispose of their 
plumbago, and many _ pits have been 
closed down temporarily, prices offered 
in numerous cases not covering cost of 
production. 


PRopUCTS OF THE CocoNuT PALM.— 
The following figures represent the ship- 
ments for the first six months of 1908 as 
compared with those for the correspond- 
ing period of 1907, viz sai, 


1907. 
Japuary January 
to June, to June, 


Coconuts nuts 9,657,762 
Desiccated Coconuts lbs. 11,661,240 


nuts 5,730,976 
lbs. 9,889,618 


Coconut Poonac cwts, 110,717 cwts. 73,377 
Copperah 194,958 134,619 
Coconut Oil " 248,285 4, 163,285 


el 


(NoVEMBER, 


from which it will be seen that every 
item shows a substantial increase, not- 
ably Nuts, Poonac, Copperah, and Coco- 
nut Oil. Itis gratifying to know that 
the scare about the Coconut Stem Disease 
has virtually passed away, it being now 
recognized that the disease is not a new 
one, that it does not do so much harm to 
the trees as was at first reported, and 
that it yields to treatment when taken 
in time. 


Coconut OIL was in good demand 
throughout the half-year, the United 
Kingdom, America and India as usual 
being the largest buyers. It is worth 
noting that notwithstanding dulness 
of trade in America, the United States 
took ewts. 57,676 of our Coconut Oil 
during the first six months of 1908 as 
against only cwts. 35,530 in the same 
period of 1907. 


Prices on the whole have shewn com- 
paratively little fluctuation during the 
period under veview. The price at the 
beginning of January was Rs. 3867'50 per 
ton, and at the end of June Rs. 355 per 
ton. Inthe end of January the maxi- 
mum price of Rs. 385 was touched, while 
the Jowest point reached was Rs. 340. 
The average price for the six months 
was in the region of Rs. 350 per ton, or 
fully Rs. 200 per ton below the average 
of the first six months of 1907. 


CoPpPpERAH.—The supply of this articl 
has been ona liberal scale as is evidenced 
by the heavy shipments of both Oil and 
Copperah. Belgium and Italy have 
taken rather less Copperah in 1908 than 
usual, but the shipments of Copperah to 
Germany, Denmark and _ Russia are 
nearly double those in the correspond- 
ing six months of 1907. Prices have ex- 
perienced no violent fluctuations, the 
highest price obtained for Estate cured 
Copperah being Ks.58°25 per candy, which 
is Rs. 27 per candy less than the highest 
point touched in the first six months of 
1907. Large supplies from Java, the 
Philippines, &c., have tended to keep 
prices at a low level. 


Poonac shipments have naturally 
followed Coconut Oil as far as quantity 
is concerned. Prices have been steady 
throughout, and as usual the whole of 
the production has gone to Belgium and 
Germany. 


DESICCATED COCONUT AND CocoNnuTSs,— 
In the former the exports have been on 
a comparatively restricted scale; while 
the export of nuts in the period under 
review was nearly double that of the 
same period in the previous year. 


In the case of Desiccated Coconut the 


price at the beginning of the year stood — 


g 
~ 


1908, 


. 


a 


ihe 


— . - P or 


‘+ eee 
le < 
‘ ; 
: 


NOVEMBER, 1908] 


at 17 to 18 cents per lb., whereas at the 
end of June it was down to 138} to 14 
cents. 


CINNAMON.—There was a decrease in 
the exports for the period under review 
of 173,951 Ibs. Quills and 105,963 lbs. 
Gripe compared with the first six months 
fo) 


The prices for the former article have 
been steadily declining, dropping from 
47 cents for ordinary assoi1tment, which 


_was the quotation at the commencement 


of the year, to 48 cents per lb.-at the 
close of the half-year underreport. 
The rates paid for Chips, though lower 
compared with those during the corre- 
sponding period of the preceding year, 
have gone the other way, advancing 
from Rs. 51, being the lowest rate paid in 
January, to Rs. 58:25 per Candy, the 
highest figure ruling at the end of June. 


An interesting feature is to be found in 
the distribution. Germany, which has 
been our best customer for a number 
of years, has had to cede the first place 
to America with 303,800 Ibs. Quills, 
Germany beingsecond with 268,142 lbs., 
followed by Spain asa good third with 
225,436 lbs. Germany is still leading with 
regard to Chips, having taken 805,756 lbs., 
the United Kingdom ranging second 
with 223,035 lbs., and Belgium third with 
210.112 lbs. 


Cocoa.—Crops during the period under 
review have been very short and poor 
in quality. The exports for January 
to June were about 28,538 cwts., against 
60,661 cwts. for the same months in 
1907. Ofthis quantity about 70 per cent. 
was shipped to the United Kingdom. 


The demand has been poor, and prices 
shew a distinct falling off from those 
ruling in the first-half of 1907. 


CARDAMOMS,.—On comparing thisyear’s 
output for Cardamoms against 1907, one 
is forcibly struck by the large decrease 
in this product, due partly no doubt 
to the drought experienced. The total 
number of lbs, up to 80th June, 1907, 
amounted to 433,159, and this year only 
327,835 lbs., a shortage of 105,324 lbs, 


The market has been, if anything, 
rather lower in price than that of the 
previous year. 


India has been our largest buyer, 
taking about 50 per cent. of the total 
output and showing an increase over 
their last year’s demand. 


CITRONELLA O1L.—At the commence- 
ment of the period under review the 
market stood at 42 to 46cents per lb. 
and rose to 44 to 48 cents by the end 


477 


Miscellaneous. 


of January. The advance was main- 
tained during February until 68 to 75 
cents was recorded at the beginning of 
March, at which the market was steady 
until April, when it declined again to 
65 to 70 cents. 


In May rates rose to 75 to 78‘and to 
88 to 90 at the beginning of June, 
falling later to 65 to 68, at which the 
market stood atthe endof June. The 
exports during thesix months were 
673,748 Ibs. as compared with 682,540 Ibs. 
for the same period of 1907. 


At the suggestion of the Ceylon 
Agricultural Society a meeting of those 
interested in this article was held at 
the commencement of the year, at 
which the question of adulteration was 
discussed, and it appeared that the 
prevailing opinion was that Schimmel’s 
test as generally applied was sufficient 
to meet the present purposes of both 
exporters and importers. 


THe COMPARATIVE STATEMENT OF Exports 
FROM JANUARY TO JUNE. 


1908. 1907. 1906. 
lbs. lbs, Ibs. 
Black Tea ..» 94,027,143 94,210, 493 89,533,47 
Green Tea 2,372,635 2,655,944 1,577,1766 
Rubber 338,411 242,370 122,284 
cwts. cewts. cwts. 
Coffee ae 372 1,635 6,485 
Cocoa 28,588 60,661 41,808 
Ibs. lbs. lbs. 
Cardamoms 327,835 433,159 384,982 
Cinnamon Bales 1,090,940 1,264,891 1,207,389 
Cinnamon Chips 1,304,370 1,410,333 1,251,256 
nuts. nuts. nuts. 
Coconut ... 9,657,762 5,730,976 8,870,091 
lbs. Ibs. Ibs. 
Desiccated 
Coconut... 11,661,240 9,889,613 8,700,403 
cewts. ewts, ewts. 
Coconut 
Poonac 110,747 73,376 99, 265 
Copperah 194,958 134,619 169,049 
Coconut Oil 248,285 163,285 223,701 
Ibs. Ibs. lbs. 
Citronella Oil... 673,743 «682,540 560,296 
Cinchona 144,886 150,287 153,038 
cwts. ewts, ewts, 
Plumbago 215,077 369,087 369,947 
IMPORTS. 


Pikce-Goops TRADE.--During the past 
twelve months the demand for Piece 
Goods has varied considerably. <A fair 
amount of business took place during 
the first-half of the period ; but latterly 
very little business passed owing to the 
tightness of the money market, the 
very high price of foodstuffs, and the 
slackness of trade generally. 


The high price of cotton goods tended 
to make dealers cautious in their trans- 
actions, and they were unwilling to 


Miscellaneous. 478, 


pay rates which leave any margin of 
profit to the importers, 


Mid Uplands, which previously were 
quoted at 74d, per pound now stand at 
64d. per pound, 


RicE.—Total imports forthe six months 
ended 30th June, 1908, amount to 1,453,651 
bags, against 1,971,549 bags for the 
corresponding period in 1907, a decrease 
of 517,898 bags. Prices have been ona 
very high level throughout this period. 


CoAL.—IMPORTS. 


1908. 
Jan,—June, 


From United Kingdom ...154,900 


1907. 
Jan,—June. 


165,329 tons, 


», India 1.215.692 169,311 _,, 
,, Other Countries .., 25,681 15,486 ,, 
396,273 350,126 tons. 


Imports of British Coal during the 
period under review show a decrease 
of 10,429 tons as compared with 1907, 
while those from all other countries 
show a total increase of 56,576 tons. 
India alone has sent an increased supply 
of 46,381 tons, 


SHIPPING. 

Year. Vessels. Tons. 
1907. Arrivals in Colombo ... 1,550 3,656,895 
do other Ports 744 274,860 
Total...2,294 3,931,755 
Departures from Colombo 1,285 3,068,972 
Do other Ports738 207,367 
Total...2,023 3,276,839) 
1908, Arrivalsin Colombo ... 1,586 3,917,589 
Do other Ports 521. 201,552 
Total...2,107 4,119,141 


Departures from Colombo 1,578 3,915,330 
Do other Ports 525 = 193,777 
4,109, 107 


Total,..2,103 


The above figures represent the number 
of Vessels and their tonnage, exclusive 
of Coasting Vessels that have called at 
Ceylon Ports during the first-half of 
1907 and 1908, and show an increase in 
the tonnage of arrivals in Colombo 
during the period under review of 260,694 
tons as compared with 1907, 


EXCHANGE. 


There has been a marked drop in 
sterling rates during the period under 
review. ‘The average buying rate for 
6 months’ sight bills has been 1/42, 3 
months’ sight 1/4 7°32 against 1/4 9°16 
and 1/42 during the previous six months, 


[NoveMBER, 1908. 


whilst the average selling rate for on 
demand Bank drafts was 1/3 15°16. 


_ The year started with cheaper money 
in England which gradually came down 
till 23 per cent. was touched, which 
has been the Bank of England rate of 
discount since 28th May. 


Money has been in good demand 
locally at an average of 104 per cent, 
per annum. 


AccountTs.—The Accounts of the Cham- 
her, duly audited, follow the Report. 


MeEMBERSHIP.—The number of Members 
of the Chamber is 80, as against 79 in 
the previous half-year. 


REVIVAL OF THE TISSAMAHA- 
RAMA CULTIVATORS’ 
ASSOCIATION. 


MEETING OF LANDOWNERS. 


Proceedings of a meeting of Land- ~ 


owners and Cultivators of Tissamaha- 
rama held at the Great Dagoba premises 
on 28th August, 1908. Proprietors and 
cultivators were present representing 
an extent of 2,509 acres. 


Mr. J. B. PATIRATNA read the follow- 
ing notice convening the meeting :—‘*A 
meeting of landowners will be held at 
the Tissamaharama Great Dagoba pre- 
mises at 8 am. on Friday, the 28th 
August, 1908, to discuss what steps 
should be taken to prevent in future 
disaster to the crops such as that which 
has befallen this season. All land- 
owners are earnestly requested to 
attend.” 


Proposed by Mr. D. C. A. WICKRAMA- 
SOORIYA and seconded by Mr. S. CANAGA- 
RAJA that Mr. C. Kk. S. Jayawickrama 
should preside at the meeting.—Carried 
unanimously. 


The CHAIRMAN requested that a 
Secretary be elected. Proposed by Mr. 
ABLIAN AUWARDT and seconded by Mr. 
D.S. JAYASINHA that Mr. J.D. Patiratna 
do act as Secretary pro tem.—Carried 
unanimously. 


Proposed by Mr. D. C. A. WICKRAMA- 
SOORIYA and seconded by Mr. K. M. P. 
Don JACORIS DE SILVA that it is desir- 
able that the Tissamaharama Cultiva- 
tors’ Association, now lying dormant, 


shouldbe revived.—- Carried unanimously, © 


The CHAIRMAN then explained to the 
weeting ,the Rules of the Association. 
The meeting proceeded to elect office- 
bearers and working committee in 
accordance with those Rules: 


NovEMBER, 1908.] 


Proposed by Mr. CANAGARAJAH and 
seconded by Mr. A. AUWARDT, and 
carried unanimously, that Mr. C. F. S. 
Jayawickrama be elected President of 
the Association. 


Mr. JAYAWICKRAMA explained the 
history of the Association since its organ- 
jzation in 1894, and how he had to 
resign its Presidentship seven years ago, 
as it was decided by Government 
that it was incompatible with his 
position as a Government servant to 
hold the office of President. But in 
view of the great interest taken by 
Government in the cause of agriculture, 
he undertook to submit this resolution 
to Government, and until the order in 
reply is known, he said he was not ina 
position to give his consent to be elected 
President. 


Proposed by Mr. ALIAN AUWARDT 
and seconded by Mr. VALLIPURAM 


and carried unanimously that Mr. D.S.° 


Jayasinha be elected Vice-President. 


Proposed by Mr. WICKRAMASOORIYA 
and seconded by Mr. W. BABUN APPU 
and carried unanimously that Mr. J. D. 
Patiratna be elected Secretary. 


Proposed by Mr. AUWARDT and second- 
ed by Mr. K. P. Don JACORIS DE SILVA 


that Mr. S. Canagarajah be elected 
Assistant Secretary. Carried unani- 
mously. 

Proposed by Mr. JAYAWICKRAMA 


(Chairman), and seconded by Mr. M. L. M. 
SINNA MARIKKAN that Mr. K. P. Don 
Jaeoris de Silva be elected Treasurer. 
Carried unanimously. 


It was unanimously resolved that the 
following six members be elected to 
serve on the Committee :—Messrs. D. C. 
A. Wickramasooriya, Atlian Auwardt, 
S. Vallipuram, M. L. M. Sinna Marikkan, 
D. Jayasinha, and S. B. Don Andiris. 


Resolved, that all the landowners now 
present be enrolled as members of the 
Association in accordance with the Rules 
thereof dated the 15th September, 1901. 


Proposed by Mr. S. VALLIPURAM and 
seconded by Mr. WICKRAMASOORIYA 
that for the purpose of paying fees the 
remaining four months of 1908 be con- 
sidered a year. Carried unanimously. 


The SECRETARY urged the necessity 
of having a fixed place of business for 
the Association. Thereupon Mr. Babun 
Appu offered, rent free, the bungalow 
in the land belonging to Amarasinha 
Mudaliyar, which he holds on lease. 
Accepted with thanks. 


479 


Miscellaneous. 


The CHAIRMAN called upon the meeting 
to furnish information on the following 
subjects :-- 


(a) Extent of land sown and crops 
failed. 


(b) Extent of land sown and ripened. 


(c) Extent of land prepared for culti~ 
vation but had to be left uncultivated 
because no water was supplied. 


{ Remarks in previous numbers about 
alkaliin irrigated land may be referred 
to. The waste of water in Ceylon is 
enormous.—HD. | 


The information furnished under 
these heads were as follows :—(a) ;Acres 
sown 1,860;failed acres 589. (b.) Total 
1,045 acres. (c.) Total 3883 acres. 


So that out of a total area sown for this 
(Yala) season of 2,905 acres, an extent of 
589 acres perished for want of water, 
that is to say, 20°28 per cent. failed, and 
that an extent of 888} acres was not 
cultivated atall, solely because no water 
was supplied. 


THE CHAIRMAN invited discussion as to 
the cause of the failuve of crops and of 
the non-supply of water. 


Agreed, that two causes have con 
tributed forthe disaster to the crops- 
this season, namely :— 


(1) That the reservoirs intended to 
hold the water from the Ellegala anicut 
are not in proper order, and those that 
oun order are not of sufficient capacity, 
and 


(2) That the quantity of water stored 
in the tanks was not properly dis- 
tributed. 


As regards (1) suggested by Mr. D. C. A. 
WICKRAMASOORIYA ‘‘ that this: annually 
recurring scarcity of water during yala 
season could be averted if the tanks 
Muthiamma Wewa, Henagehu Wewa, 
and Korgas Wewa, situated between 
the anicut and Tissa Tank, are repaired 
andfilled.” Mr., VALLIPURAM seconded 
this proposal. 


Mr. ASLIAN AUWARDT = said that 
unless more water was stored in the 
issuing reservoirs the above proposal 
alone would not suffice. He therefore 
suggested in addition that the head of 
water in Tissa Wewa should be raised 
to 16 feet; in Debarawewa to 10 feet, and 
in Yoda Wewa to 18 feet. Seconded by 
Mr. D.S. JAYASINHA, and unanimously 
carried. 


(2) Agreed, that the want of distri- 
puting sluices at suitable places in exist- 
ing channels and the insufficient nature 


Miscellaneous. 480 


of the existing distributing contrivances 
therein are the causes why sufficient 
quantities of water are not supplied at 
proper time. 


The Committee are prepared to point 
out these defects to the authorities. 

Agreed, that a recurrence of similar 
disaster could to a considerable extent 
be prevented if orders are laid down 
fixing the number of inches that the 
respective sluices should be raised, and 
fixing the period of time that they 
should remain so open. 

Resolved, that these proceedings should 
be translated into English and submitted 
to Government. 

J. D. PATIRATNA, 
Hon. Secretary. 


Tissamaharama, August 28, 
—Ceylon ndependent. 


AGRICULTURAL INSTRUCTION IN 
ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS. 


The following is the substance of a 
speech given by Dr. Francis Watts, 
C.M.G., F.1.C., at a recent meeting held 
in the Bishop’s School-room at Antigua. 
The speech, which is taken from The 
Antigua Churchman of April 1908, 
followed, and was based on a discussion 
which took place concerning the con- 
ditions and difficulties of agricultural 
teaching in the elementary schools of 
the presidency:— 


At the outset of his speech, Dr. Watts 
remarked that it appeared to him that 
a great deal of difficulty arose from 
too much stress being laid on agricul- 
ture, and too little upon teaching, What 
one wanted was to_ teach general 
principles which would appeal to and 
broaden the minds of children, and not 
merely to draw attention to the drudgery 
of agricultural ‘operations, One wanted 
children to be in a position to appreciate 

the fundamental facts underlying the 
growth and development of the crops 
amongst which they worked and on 
which they lived, and to know some- 
thing of the soil, the plants, the animals, 
and other tangible objects by which 
they were surrounded. 


The garden therefore should become 
the teacher’s laboratory in which he 
can permit children to elucidate facts 
for themselves—facts which must have 
an educational, even more than, an 
agricultural bearing. In these gardens, 
children may conduct small experiments, 
and may acquire useful information 
about the best kinds of vegetables, 
food crops, and the like. 


Dealing with the subject of school 
gardens, and the interest created in 
the minds of the children by successful 
crop growing on these plots, Dr. Watts 
referred to the successful manner in 
which cotton had been grown as an 
object-lesson at St, George’s school, 
Nevis. This cotton had been cultivated 
and reaped in a systematic manner, 
samples had been exhibited at the 
Agricultural Show, and had gained a 
second prize in open competition. This 
small crop had been baled, shipped to 
the British Cotton Growers’ Association, 
and the proceeds returned, the enter- 
prise throughout constituting an object- 
lesson of the greatest utility. 


The excellent exhibits which had been 
made at the Antigua Agricultural Show 
were also mentioned, There were good 
displays of vegetables which had been 
well grown, well prepared, and taste- 
fully arranged. In addition to vege- 
tables, there were good exhibits of 
decorative and Other plants grown in 
pots. The preparation and ownership 
of such things as these must exercise 
a profound influence on the mind of 
the scholar. 


From the school gardens, it was 
pointed out, information can be diffused 
amongst the parents who will thus learn 
to take an interest in the school work, 
while at the same time gaining in- 
directly useful items of knowledge from 
the lessons taught in the school. As 
a result some improvement might take 
place in the gardens of the peasants, 
and perhaps even the day’s work of 
the labourer might be brightened and 
stimulated as the outcome of some 
thought carried home by his child from 
the school. The objection of parents 
to children working in school gardens 
has in most instances disappeared, and, 
as indicated above, it has actually 
been found that parents are quite 
capable of taking a strong interest in 
the work carried on by their children, 
once they recognize that there is no 
attempt to exploit the children’s labours 
either for the benefit of the school or 
of the teacher, but that the object of 
the work isthe instruction and benefit 
of the children themselves. A ready 
means of aiding the removal of this 
objection lies in the possession, by the 
children, of the crops which they 
themselves have grown. 


Where at present this objection is 
apparent, it may be well for the time to 
dispense withthe garden, and to carry 
on the work in boxes and pots. 

Dr. Watts said that in his own ex- 
perience with teachers, whenever he 
had come in contact with them he had 


[NOVEMBER, 1908. 


{ 
4 


NovEMBER,, 1908. | 


invariably found that they could soon 
be worked up toa pitch of enthusiasm. 

He alluded in detail to his experience 

with the teachers at Dominica who after 
offering some slight difficulties in the 
first course, became during the second, 
zealous and keen, so that it was quite 
easy eventually to carry out a very 
useful course of practical garden work. 
His experience with teachers in Antigua 
andin St. Kitt’s-Nevis had been pre- 
cisely similar. 


The speaker appreciated the difficulties 
in garden work—difficulties which often 
were made greater by placing too much 
stress on school gardens, and too little 
on the general teaching of scientific 
principles. The work should proceed 
gradually, and school gardens only be 
resorted to when both teacher and 
scholar feel the need for carrying into 
Operation the principles which have 
been brought to their notice in their 
lessons. 
when both teacher and scholar are made 
to rest satisfied with mere descriptions, 
when they want to handle the. things 
themselves, and to put to proof the 
statements found in books, In this way 
practical work, first of allin boxes and 
pots, and finally in school gardens, will 
__ be felt to be necessary by both teacher 
and taught, and the lesson will be both 
pleasant and permanent in its effects. 


A point to be emphasized in connec- 
tion with school gardens is the necessity 
of a good fence, and in many instances 
it constitutes a good object-lesson to 
grow a hedge around the garden plot. 
Such hedges are to be seen at most of 
the experiment stations, and the Officers- 
in-charge are always willing to assist 
the teachers with advice in this connec- 
tion. Without a fence, the garden 
lacks educational value, for itis liable 
to be injured by trespassing people and 
animals, and also lacks that neatness 
which is so essential in educational 
matters, 


An adequate water supply is also 
most desirable, for without this, interest- 
ing experiments may be lost through 
drought, and children may be greatly 
discouraged by the failure oi their 
efforts. 


Dr. Watts strongly advocated teach- 
ing in relation to agricultural objects, 
on the ground that it enabled the 
teachers to deal with tangible objects 
_and incidents of everyday life, and the 
children to grasp and appreciate the 
real practical bearing of the facts 
brought before them. Such teaching 
stood in striking contrast to some of the 
more abstract teaching which neces- 
sarily occupied a place in all schools, and 


y 4800 


to take a rational interest 


A point is soon arrived at. 


Te REE NI 


Miscellaneous. | 


so it afforded valuable mental relief. 
It encouraged the children to think and 
in things 
relating to their every day life, and 
afforded an opportunity for starting 
trains of thought and education which 
would be continued long after the 
immediate school work had _ ceased. 
Such teaching might and should exercise 
a profound influence on the lives of 
scholars, and tend to make them better 
citizens.—Agricultural News, Vol. VII. 
No. 157, May, 1908. 


THE CENTRAL AGRICULTURAL 
COMMITTEE, MADRAS. 


AGRICULTURAL APPRENTICES. 


The following correspondence between 
the Director of Agriculture and the 
Government Botanist regarding the 
entertainment and training of Agricul- 
tural Apprentices employed by the 
Central Agricultural Committee is com- 
municated to all Agricultural Ass@cia- 
tions for information :— 


‘“‘T have the honour to offer the follow- 
ing remarks concerning the entertain- 
ment and training of Agricultural Officers 
on behalf of the Central Agricultural 
Association -and other non-Government 
Bodies. It seems tome that it may be 
advisable to have some information as 
to what they intend to do with these 
men after the course of probation, and 
also that it would be well to explain to 
the Central Agricultural Association 
just what wecan do and what we cannot. 
Imay say that weshail be glad to re- 
ceive apprentices sent to various farms 


‘ of the Department. Butas to the class 


of work to be (done by them, it will 
naturally depend‘ upon what work they 
have done before and what they will be 
expected to do after leaving. As faras 
Ican gather, the men already sent are 
without any practical Agricultural train- 
ing. This, presume, is what the 
Central Agricultural Association wishes 
to teach them. Their idea, as I take it, 
is that if such men get the round of the 
farms, spendiug two months at each, 
they will be fitted for undertaking farm 
work on their own account for some of 
the District Agricultural Associations. 
I cannot too strongly insist that this is 
a most extraordinary delusion. Aftera 
man has been for full one year on a farm 
in a@ certain tract, he might, provided 
he had had a good Agricultural training 
not too long ago, be expected to do 
some useful work in a tract with similar 
crops, especially if he kept in touch 
with his training ground and referred 
questions of difficulty to the farm 


Miscellaneous. 


officers. But, obviously, a year at 
Samalkota would not fit him for charge 
of a Malabar farm and so forth. The 
period spent at any one farm should be 
atleast one year so that the student 
might follow the practices according to 
the seasons throughout. What seems 
to be necessary for the scheme is. 


“(@) that the men the Central Agri- 
cultural Association sends should be 
already well-grounded in Agriculture, 
theory and practice, and 


(ii) that they should be trained for 
at least one year on a Government farm 
with climate and crops similar to that 
of the district where they will be ex- 
pected to take charge later on. 


«2. The Central Agricultural Associa- 
tion has not, I believe, come to any 
decision as to where the men are to take 
up their work’ after training and it 
seems to me that this is the first point to 
be settled. To bring a Malayalee from 
Malabar and train him at Samalkota in 
Telugu country seems, to say the least, 
a bit unusual, although this is being 
actually done. 


«3. But there is yet another side to 
the question. Itis quite impossible to 
carry on the ordinary farm work pro- 
perly, if the place is infested with un- 
licensed and irresponsible on-lookers. 
The men sent for training must not only 
be completely under the control of the 
local manager but should so to speak be 
seconded to Government and paid by 
and punished, if necessary, by Govern- 
ment officials and should not be allowed 
to leave until they produce a certificate 
' that they have obtained a thorough 

grasp of the work. 


“4. JT submit these opinions to the 
Board for forwardal to the Central Agri- 
eultur al Association. Itis our sincere 
desire to help them, for, by doing so, we 
shall undoubtely help ourselves, but to 
turn out a set of officers with a smatter 
ing of inferior knowledge and, indeed, 
trained to be content with such a 
smattering, will do no one any good, 
will in fact retard Agricuitural progress 
and bring the Department into disgrace. 


(Signed) C, A. BARBER, 
Government Botanist.” 


Proceedings of the Director of Agricul- 
ture, No. 5467, Miscellaneous, dated 
8th September 1906. 

‘¢ With reference to the letter from the 
Government Botanist read above, the 
Board observes that the whole question 

cithe entertainment and training of 


4806 


7 ‘ bY 1 a 
{ena 
[NOVEMBER, 1908. 


apprentices at Agricultural stations was 
carefully considered at the third and 
fourth meetings of the Central Agri- 
cultural Committee, and the resolution 
arrived at was to try and get fairly 
suitable men to be trained, to some 
small extent at least, at their expense, 
in order that District Agricultural 
Associations might have the chance of 
employing these men, if they chose, 
after their training. such as it might be, 
wae over. The Government Botanist is 
evidently not aware that these appren- 
tices are intended tohelp Agricultural 
Associations to get somebody—rather 
than nobody—to work with and among 
the ryots until a supply of duly qualified 
Agricultural Inspectors becomes avail- 
able at the new Agricultural College 
to be started at Coimbatore, and that 
there is no question of attaining any- 
thing like perfection in the matter of 
training such apprentices. The Board 
will now proceed to deal with the 
several enquiries and suggestions made 
in the Government Botanist’s letter 
seriatim :— 


‘*Tt may be advisable to have some information 
as to what they (the Central Agricultural Asso- 
ciation) intend to do with these men after the 
course of probation.” 


*“G) When District Agricultural Asso- 
ciations and their branches sprang up, 
there was a strong demand for qualified 
Agricultural Inspectors. The Agricul- 
tural Department was itself short-handed 
and could only give occasional aid by 
deputing one or other of its Agricultural 
Inspectors to advise Associations and 
the late Deputy Director of Agriculture 
also rendered some help in this direc- 
tion. Agricultural Associations, however, 
wanted to secure the services of full- 
time agriculturists to assist them in 
their agricultural work and as there 
was no chance of getting regularly 
trained men from the Agricultural 
College for some time the Central Agri- 
cultural Committee decided on adopting 
the next best course, which was to get 
the best men they could and let them 
have as much training as they could 
obtain at the Government Agricultural 
stations in six months, with a view to 
their employment at the end of that 
period by such Agricultural Associations 
as might care to have them. It was per- 
fectly understood that these men, after 
undergoing so limited a course of train- 
ing, would not, of course, be in any 
sense experts or qualified Agricultural 
Inspectors or Instructors; but havin 
selected the best men who offere 
themselves (some of them being men 
who have had agricultural training 
either at the Saidapet College or else- 


& 
' 


NOVEMBER, 1908, | 480c 


where e.g., in the Botanic Gardens 
at Trivandram), the Committee thought 
that, if their nominess were allowed 
to spend, say, a couple of months 
ateach of three Agricultural stations 
in succession, they would acquire some 
little agricultural knowledge of a varied 
character and would pro tanto be more 
useful to the Associations than an 
ordinary agriculturist, who had received 
no such opportunity of improving bis 
mind. The apprentices were to be paid 
by the Committee (through the Govern- 
ment officers attached to the Agri- 
cultural stations at which they might 
be learning) for six months, at the end 
of which period Agricultural Associa- 
tions might employ themif they pleased. 
No guarantee of employment was given 
tothe apprentices and, if they were 
employed, the agricultural Department 
could not be expected to give any 
assurance regarding their qualifications 
but would merely certify that they had 
been given such instruction as it was 
possible for anyone to receive who had 
spent six months at certain Goverement 
Agricultural stations. 


‘As to the class of work to be done by them 
(the apprentices), it will naturally depend upon 
what work they have done before and what they 
will be expected to do after leaving.” 


“Gi) The Agricultural Department 
need not concern itself with the work 
that the apprentices may do after leav- 
ing the Agricultural stations; all that 
it has to dois to enable these apprentices 
to see what is going onat the Govern- 
ment Agricultural stations in the hope 
that they may gain some sound know- 
ledge and turn it to good account, when 
and if they areemployed by any Agri- 
cultural Association or even for their 
own private benefit, supposing they 
should never be employed. 


‘<The men already sent are without any practical 
agricultural training, This I presume is what 
the Central Agricultural Association whishes us to 
teach them,” 


(iii) Some of the apprentices have 
undergone a three years’ training in the 
Agricultural College at Saidapet and a 
few others have done practical work 
outside the College, as for example, in 
the Botanic Gardens at Trivandram. 
What the Agricultural Department was 
asked to do was to help these men, in 
the short time available, to see and 
learn as much as they could and so far 
as each Agricultural station could 
provide instruction. They ought, cer- 
tainly, to be in a position to pick up a 
good deal of elementary knowledge, as, 
for example, the best methods of treat- 
ing manure, ploughing, seed-selection, 
planting, fodder, etc, 


Miscellaneous’ 


‘« The idea of the Central Agricultural Committee 
that, if such men (the apprentices) get the round 
of the farms spending, say, two months at each, 
they will be fitted for undertaking farm work on 
their own account for some of the district 
Agricultural Associations . , . . is a most extra- 
ordinary delusion.” 


(iv) The Central Agiculturul Com- 
mitee is under no such ‘extraordinary 
delusion.’ Nobody for a moment imag- 
ined that an apprentice, after six 
months’ stay at Agricultural stations, 
could possibly become an expert or fully- 
qualified Agricultural Inspector or In- 
structor ; but an attentive and intelligent 
apprentice—such as the Central Agri- 
cultural Committee did its best to secure 
—might reasonably be expected to know 
a good deal more when he left the 
stations than he did when he came to 
them, and to that extent at least he 
would be more useful to Agricultural 
Associations than a man who had never 
seen what is being done on scientific 
principles at the Government Agricul- 
tural stations. 

‘Obviously a year at Samalkota would not fit 


him (the apprentice) for charge of a Malabar farm 
and so forth,” 


(v) The Board observes that an 
apprentice, who had been at Samalktoa. 
should certainly have learned a good 
deal more than he knew before he joined 
the station in regard to sugarcane and 
that, if he were employed by an Agri- 
cultural Association in Malabar, he 
should be of more use at any rate as 
regards sugarcane cultivation than if 
he had never been to the Samalkota 
station, and he ought further to have 
learned something’ about jute, which, 
thouh not at present cultivated in 
rena would, itis believed, do well 

ere, 


‘It seems tobe necessary for the scheme that 
the men the Central Agriculural Association sends 


should be already well-grounded in Agricul- 
ture, theroy and practice,” 


(vi) As already stated in clause above, 
some of the apprentices have had 
some previous agricultural education 
and a few of them haxe received agri- 
cultural diplomas or certificates, 

“It is, further necessary for the scheme that 
they (the apprentice) should be trained for at 
least @ year on a Government farm with climate 
and crops similar to those of the District where 
they willbe required to take charge later on.” 


(vii) The method suggested by the 
Government Botanist would, of course, 
be preferable to theone now adopted, 
but the Agricultural Department has 
todo the bestit can within the time 
allotted for training by the Associations 
deputing the apprentices. As the 
Central Agricultural Committee would 


Miscellaneous: e 


only offer to pay these men for six 
months, it is no use suggesting a 
twelve months’ course. It is further not 
possible to forsee at the time of deput- 
ing any individual apprentice where he 
may eventually be employed; that 
depends upon who employs him after 
the course of training is over. 


“The Central Agricultural Committee has not 
come to any decision as to where the men are 
to take up their work after training, and it 
seems to me that this is the first point to be 
settled.” 


(viii) In so far as the apprenticeS 
deputed by the Central Agricultura 
Committee are concerned, this point 
cannot be settled until District Agricul- 
tural Associations notify whether they 
will employ any of the men. The Cen- 
tral Agricultural Committee will, on the 
completion of the training, notify to all 
Agricultural Associations that such and 
such men spent six months at Gover- 
nment Agricultural stations and enquire 
whether any Association is willing to 
take them. Possibly, the men may 
not be required by any of the Associa- 
tions. It is, onthe other hand, possible 
that all may be entertained; but by 
whom they will be employed it is 
not possible to forsee. 

“No bring a Malayalee from Malabar and train 
him at Samalkota in Telugu country seems, to 
say the least, a bit unusual although this is be- 
ing actually done.” 


‘“(ix) This remark is probably based 
on the assumption that the Malayalee 
apprentice will, on the completion of 
his training, be employed in Malabar ; 
but the Malayalee referred to, who is 
obviously T. C. Krishna Kurup, is under- 
going training at the instance of the 
Central Agricultural Committee and, as 
already stated, it is uncertain where 
he will be employed. Even granting 
that one of the Agricultural Associations 
in Malabar entertains him in its service, 
the knowledge that he will have gained 
at Samalkota in regard to the cultivation 
of sugarcane and jute should be of 
service to his employers, as there is 
scope for developing, extending and 
improving sugarcane cultivation and for 
introducing the cultivation of jute into 
the Malabar district. Further there is 
nothing unusual in getting him trained 
in Telugu country. As a matter of fact, 
a Malayalee is running the Pittapur 
Estate Home-Farm and is doing it 
satisfactorily. 

“Jt is quite impossible to carry on the ordinary 
farm work properly, if the place is infested with 
unlicensed and irresponsible on-lookers. The men 
sent for training should be seconded to Government 
and paid by and punished, if necessary, by Govern- 
ment officials.” 


480d 


-ponsible on-lookers.’ 


“(x) There is no question of allowing 
the Government Agricultural stations to 
be ‘infested with unlicensed and irres- 
J Only one or two 
apprentices at a time are sent to any 
station: they are ‘licensed’. to the 
extent that they have been specially 
selected by the Central Agricultural 
Committee, have entered into agree- 
ments and have been authorised to 
attend the Agricultural stations, where 
they are, as stated in the last sentence 
of paragraph I of B.P., Mis. No. 2925, 
dated 12th May, 1906, under the complete 
control of the Government officers. 
through whom they are paid by the 
Central Agricultural Committee and by 
whom they ean be punished, if necessary. 
Far from being mere on-lookers, such 
men should in fact serve as additional 
work-men on the stations. 


‘The men sent for training should not be 
allowed to leave (the Agricultural station) until they 
produce acertificate that they have obtained a 
thorough grasp of the work.” 


‘‘(xi) This suggestion cannot, in the 
nature of the case, be adopted. No 
man could secure such a certificate by 
remaining only two months at ' an’ 
Agricultural station and nobody expects 
such a certificate to be produced by 
these men. The Agricultural Depart- 
ment is not expected to guarantee any- 
thing in the way of perfection, but 
merely to state that such and such men 
have spent six months at such and 
such Agricultural stations, where, in 
their own interests, it may be hoped 
that they have made the best use of 
their opportunities. 


‘To turn out a set of officers with a smattering 
of inferior knowledge will in fact retard agricul- 
tural progress and bring the Department into 
disgrace.” 


“(xii) The Agricultural Department 
can incur no disgrace for having allowed 
these apprentices thechance of gaining 
some little knowledge at Agricultural 
stations. Later on, when the College 
at Coimbatore comes to be established 
and is in full working order, there will 
be no trouble about training apprentices, 
as all candidates for agricaltural employ- 
ment will be required to go througha 
full and regular course at that College. 


(True Extract.) 


L. D. SWAMIKANNU, 
Acting Secretary.” 

H. K. BEAUCHAMP, ry 
P. RAJARATNA MUDALIAR, | 


A vit 4 
Honorary Secretaries, 
4 > 


“ 


EXPERIMENT PLOTS. 


The ‘‘American Farmer” says that 
down in Oklahoma farmers are forming 
“acre clubs,” each member taking 1 acre 
for an experimental crop, doing his best 
with it, and, when the season is over, 
reporting his experience, inclusive of 
mistakes, and describing his methods. 
This is the most practical form of agri- 
cultural education, ard the plan might 
well be adopted elsewhere. Few  far- 
mers are so. skilled in agricultural 
science that they cannot learn some- 
thing from their associates. The Okla- 
homa plan isa kind of extension of the 
experiment station, a reproduction in 
miniature of the individual farm of the 
principles governing the stations. It is 
amost excellent idea, and, if gener- 
ally carried out, will prove of great 
educational benefit. 


(If the same plan were adopted by the 


. farmer members of Queensland Agri- 


cultural Associations, the educational 
benefit would no doubt be universally 
recognised.—Ep,. “Q. A. J.” ) Queens- 
land Agricultural Journal, Vol. XXI., 
July, 1908.) 


NOTES AND QUERIKS. 


Papaya.—The demand for papain, or 
dried papaw juice, is steady if it is not 
increasing. According to Merck’s Re- 
port (May, 1908) the substance known as 
papayotin, is prepared from it by a 
special process of purification, and hastwo 
to three times the therapeutic activity of 
papain. Both were till lately employed 
to further digestion in the alkaline 
intestinal juice, as pepsine is only active 
in acid gastric fluid. Favourable results 
have been reported of the trial of papa- 
yotin in cases of cancer. A new papa- 
yotin preparation, “pepsorthin” is re- 
commended as a digestive as well as 
gastric and intestinal disinfectant. 


F. bE. M.—The Society. is just about 
to issue a leaflet containing definite in- 
structions in the matter of transplanting 
paddy. Copies of these could be had 
on application to the Secretary. Some 
think that the preparation of the field 
in this method of cultivation presents 
difficulties. This is not the case, and 
indeed the only difference between 
this and the ordinary method of culti- 
vation is that a well-prepared nursery 
about ;'; the extent of the land to be 
sown must be prepared, and sown 
about a month before the transplanting 
has to be done, 


480¢e 


.7 inches in circumference, 


Miscellaneous’ 
LIGHT AMERICAN MACHINES.—In reply 
to enquiries about the disc harrow 


and cultivator, referred te in the last 
issue’s leader, Dr. Willis is good enough 
to state that these implements are to 
be obtained from Messrs. Frost & Wood, 
Smith’s Falls, Ontario, Canada. If 
would of course be necessary to plough 
the land first to render it loose enough 
for these machines to get a start, after 
that they alone need be used, After 
the rains are over in the North-Central 
Province, say in February, they could 

be seen at work at the Experiment — 
Station, Maha-illuppalama. 


BITTER GOURD.—Mr. M. G. Perera 
Horticulturist of 145, Bambalapitiya, hag 
grown this fruit, known botanically as 
Momordica charantia, and used as a 
vegetable, to extraordinary perfection. 
A specimen forwarded to this office 
was found to be 14 inches long and 


beaten this ? Has\suyoae 


MANGO WEEVIL.—The Director of the 
Colombo Museum has been good enough 
to refer me for an account of this 
interesting insect to Lefroy’s “ Insect 
Pests of India.” In the beetle stage it 
is found hiding in the bark of the tree 
and here remains till the advent of 
the truit season, when it lays its eggs 
in the flowers or young ftruit. The 
grub, which is subsequently hatched out 
appears to develope at the same rate 
as the fruit. I¢ burrows in the kernel 
of the seed as the mango grows, and 
pupates inside the fruit as it ripens 
becoming a beetle, which, when the 
mango is dead ripe, is ready to emerge 
from the stone and eat its way through 
the pulp. It thus happens that when a 
ripe mango is cut the weevil walks out 
of the seed. These weevils are very 
common in the North of the Island. The 
remedy, according to Lefroy, is to 
destroy all infested fruit and also to kill 
the weevils found in the bark after the 
fruiting season. As the weevils some- 
times also occur on the ground, the soil 
should be thoroughly cultivated under 
the Hea eon them. Itis further 
suggeste at the bark of 
should be washed wi me ores 


th a strong soluti 
2 10n 


GUGUL.—This is a gum resin 
as Indian Bdellium) produced be 
samodrendron Mukul, a close ally of 
B. Berryi, the common fence-plant of 
the North, known as Mul-kilivai. Gugul 
is highly esteemed for its medicinal 
properties, and is found in local bazaars 


under the name of cugu = 
dummala, dete 


ae Bs # rh 24 
480f {NOVEMBER, 1908. _ 
Correspondence, 


MANGOES IN CEYLON. 


Jaffna, 26th October, 1908. 


Sir,—With reference to the article 
‘*Mangoes in Ceylon,” by Mr. H. F 
Macmillan, which appeared in your issue 
for August, 1908, I beg to point out 
that his statement that one hundred trees 
can be grown in an acre of land is quite 
incorrect—a full-grown mango tree in 
Jaffna covers an area of about 400 
square yards, and therefore the highest 
number of trees that can be grown in an 
acreis only twelve. Further, his estimate 
of 1,000 fruits as an average crop per 
tree is also questionable. Mangoes do 
not bear fruits regularly every year, 
for a shower of rain in January- 
February generally results in total 
failure. 


The kind called “Jaffna Mango” was 
introduced into Jaffna from Colombo, 
sixty years ago, by the late Mr. Dyke. I 
presume that “Jaffna Mango” is a 
corruption of the words “‘ Japan Mango,” 
and I believe that this type of mango 
was introduced into Colombo from 
Japan. To settle this question, I would 
suggest your ascertaining from the 
Agricultural Department in Japan whe- 
ther mangoes of this type are to be found 
there in large numbers. 


I am, Sir,. 
Yours sincerely, 
(Sgd.) C. M. SINNAY AH, 
Mudaliyar. 


[The mango only occurs inIndo-Malaya. 
Japan is too cold for it.—EHd.] 


THE FRUIT GARDEN. 
Sir,—l am sending a cutting from 
“The Garden” of September 12, 1908, 
and would suggest its reproduction 
in the 7. A., as it may prove useful to 
intelligent fruit growers. 


Little is understood locally of pruning 
in any form. 


The only plant which appears to be 
subject to root-pruning is the Vine in 
the North. - 


Perhaps some of your readers will be 
able to give their experiences of the 
operation if they have practised it, 

Yours truly, 
GARDENER. 


THE ROOT-PRUNING OF FRUIT TREES. 


In the culture of hardy fruits there is 
no operation capable of producing such 
good results as root-pruning when the 
task is intelligently and properly carried 
out, but where the work is performed 
in a haphazard manner much more 
harm than good is frequently done. At 
the outset it may be as well to briefly 
consider what root-pruning is and for 
what purpose it 1s adopted. The opera- 
tion itself merely consists of shortening 
back all large, straight roots which have 
a tendency to go downwards in the 
soil, but the object of the work will need 
more explanation. It frequently hap- 
pens that when young fruit trees have 
been planted a year or two they com- 
mence to grow at a tremendous rate, 
shoots several feet long being produced 
in one season. This may at first seem 
very satisfactory, but when the owner 
looks year after year in vain for flowers 
and the subsequent fruit he is inclined 
to think, and rightly so, that something 
is wrong. What is happening in such a 
ease is that the tree is devoting the 
whole of its energies to the formation 
of wood, and no fruit is the result. It 
is in such instances that root-pruning is 
required, the idea being to give the tree 
a check and thus induce it to form less 
wood and more flowers. 


The best time to carry out the work 
is the end of September, and it does not 
matter in the least whether the leaves 
have fallen from the tree at that date 
or not. In the cace of trees of manage- 
able size, say, those which have been 
planted three years, it frequently hap- 
pens that lifting them and replanting 
them immediately will suffice, the break- 
ing of a certain number of roots in the 
operation being a sufficient check. With 
older and better established specimens, 
however, the above system will not 
answer, and more elaborate methods 
have to be adopted. The general prac- 
tice is to measure a_half-circle round 
the stem of the tree and some distance 


away. The distance will vary according 


to the size of the specimen being dealt 
with, but a good general rule is to make 
the line one-third the distance from the 
stem as the tree is high. Thus, if a tree 
is 9 feet high the half circle line should 
be made 3 feet from the stem, or in 
similar proportion. The idea of only 
going half-way round the tree at one 
operation is that this will probably 
srove sufficient to bring the tree into 
earing;if not, 
two years hence. 


the other half is done 


. 
. 


0 


NOVEMBER, 1908, | 


A trench 12 inches to 18 inches wide is 
next taken out to a depth of one foot 
or more so as to reach all the lar ge roots, 
these being severed close to the inner 
side of the trench. A sharp knife must 
be employed, and the cut should be 
made from below in an upward yet slop- 
ing outward direction. When 12 inches 
or 18 inches down it is a good plan 
to tunnel under the mass of soil and 
roots towards the bole of the tree, sever- 
ing all large roots encountered in the 
course of the work. This tunneling is 
probably of more benefit than anything 
else, as the roots found thus are usually 
those which take a straight downward 
course. 


To fill up the trench will be the next 
task, and this requires some _ care. 
Where it is easily procured good fibrous 
loam of a rather heavy character is best, 
andif Plum, Cherry or other stone fruit 
trees are being dealt with, the addition 
of some old mortar, or lime in some 
other form, will be highly beneficial. 


4809 


The tunnel under the ball of soil and 
roots must be filled in, taking care not 
to leave any hollow spaces and making 
the new soil firm, then fill in the trench, 
and make this firm also, so that the new 
roots which penetrate shall have an 
opportunity of becoming fibrous. 


Many amateurs, and even some pro- 
fessionals, expect to see a good crop of 
flowers and fruits the spring and sum- 
mer following the root-pruning and as 
a result of the work. This is quite 
impossible, because any flowers to open 
next spring are already formed in the 
bud, hence it is obvious that the oper- 
ation can have no influence over the crop 
the summer following the autumn in 
which the work was carried out. 
Growth should, however, be less 
vigorous, and a tree root-pruned in the 
autumn of this year should, as a result, 
produce flowers and fruits in 1910.— 
The Garden, Vol. UXXII., No. 1921. 
September, 1908. 


480h . Nova 
MARKET RATES FOR TROPICAL PRODUCTS. 
(From Lewis & Peat?s Monthly Prices Current, London, 14th October, 1908.) 


= rears 


QUALITY. QUOTATIONS. QUALITY. QUOTATION 
ALOE, Socotrine  cwt-/Fair to fine «./9CS a@ 958 INDIARUBBER.(Contd.)| _, 

Zanzibar & Hepatic ,, [Common to good ..[20s a 82s 6d Korneo Common to good 6d a 2s 2d 
ARROWKOOT (Natal) Ib.|Fair to fine ..)28d a.4d Java, Good to fine red -jls 9d a 2s 6d 
BEES’ WAX, cwt. Penang Low white to prime red ‘ls 4d a 2s 3d 

Zanzibar Yellow __,, |Siightly drossy to fair .. |66 5s a £6 7s 6d Mozambique Fair to fine red Ball _...!256d a 3s éd 
Bombay bleached _,, |Fuir to good 2710s a £7 12s 6d Sausage, fair to good ..|2s5 6d a 8s 5d 
A unbleached,, |Dsrk to good genuine ../£510s a £6 2s 6d Nyassaland Fair to fine ball 28 8da 2s 
Madagascar * |vark to good palish |£65s a £610s Madagascar Fr to fine pinky & whitells 10d a 2s 2¢ 
CAMPHOR, Formosa ,, |Crude nom. Majunga & blk coated ..|ts a is 8d 
China ,, \Fair average quality .. /15Us nom. Niggers, low to good ..|édva 2 
CARDAMOMS. Malabarlb|Gocd to fine bold 1s 10d a 28 New Guinea Ordinary to fine ball . ieee 6d ne 
Middling lean is6dalssd  |INDIGO, KI. Bengal [Shipping mid to gd violet|3s 5d a8s ld 
Jellicherry Good to fine bold .. {28 a 2s 6d Consuming mid. to gd.|3s 1d a 3s 4d 
Brownish Is 6d als 9d Ordinary to middling 2s aoa 3s 
Mangalore ,, |Med brown to fair bold|2s a 3s Oudes Middling to fine 
Ceylun.- Mysore 45 Small fair to fine nium 1s 5da 8s 6d Mid. to good Kurpah I 
Malabar. Fair to good 1s 6d a 1s 7d Low to ordinary ls 6d a 2s 2d =~ 
Seeds .. is 7da is 9d Mid. to fine Madras  /1s da 2s 4d_ 
Long Wild”,, [Shelly to good ..(6d a 1s 9d MACE, Bombay & Penang Pale reddish to fine d 
CAS OR OIL, Calcutta ,, {ists and 2nds ..(3d a 34d perlb, {Ordinary to fair ls 2d als 6d 
CHILLIES, Zanzibar cwt. Dull to fine bright +.J208 & 303 Java ” » good pale {isldals 6d 
5 A BARK.— lb. MY i 
Deny Crown, Renewed 3gd a 7d (recuse ewHUG and Coconada 
Org. Stem 2d a, 6d »» |Jubblepore 
Red Org. Stem /lid a 47d Bhimlies 
Renewed 3d a bid Bengal Rhajpore, &c. 
’ F Root 1g ae 4d ; NUTMEGS— W Caleuvtas 
NNAMON, Ceylon Ists|Gommon to fine quill |834a1s 5c ; 64's to O7’s 
cl ver le aude c : 3 eg ida 1s.44 | Bombay & Penang ,, 10's is Gos _ 
3rds 63d als ’s to 115’s 
4ths Bayete’. sda 93d NUL VORICE, Cockt'|Ordinary to fair fresh 
Chips, &c..}Fair to fine bold 2d a 34d ochin |Ordinary to good 
CLOVES, Penang b.JDull to tine bright bold|10d a 1s per ewt. Bengal ” a: 
Amboyna —.-|Dull to fine 73d a 8d Say Forres Madras) 4, 2% 
Ceylon 5 i i ida sd e ioe i NISEED _,, Bair merchantable ; 
Zanzibar Fair and fine brigh a3d a 53a vat », |According to analysis 
Stems wie Soe Mladen 4 LEMONGRASS, (Good flavour & colour 
Ue Plantation cwt.|Bold to fine Vos a 112s CINNAMON ‘ aaitbes A sweet 
Medium to good 30s a 108s ORCHELLA WE Bright & good flavour 
Native Good ordinary nominal Ceyl EED—cwt i : 
Liberian », |Fair to bold 425 6d a 468 6d pte obs + |Mid. to fine not woody... 
COCOA, Ceylon Plant. ., |Special Marks 758 a 908 Zanzibar. », |Picked clean flat leaf ... 
Red to good 68s a 748 »  _Wiry Mozambique] ,, 
Native Estate —_, |Ordinary to red 408 a 65s PEPPER—(Black) . Ib.|., 5 
ae Alleppe i air 
COLOMBO ROOT Middling to good l5sai7s 6d Ceslon cere RCH SHS, ,, vo fine bold heavy » Re 
CROTON SEEDS sift. ewt. Dull to fair 278 6d a 32s 6d Singapore “ +» [3d 
cUTCH Fair to fine dry 21s a 23s nom. | Acheen & W: C. Penang Dull to fine. 1.) ane 
GINGER, Bengal, rough,, [Fair 30s nom. | (White) Singapore Fair to fine .. «(4gda 8d 
Calicut, Cut A,, |Smallto fine bold 728 6d a 85s Siam » |Fair : toe »» [bd 
B&C,, |Small and medium 48s a 65s Penang ”” [Bair i 
Cochin Hen », {Common to fine bold 323 6d a 35s PLUMBAGO, lump cwt.\Fair_ to fine bright pola 358 a 45s no) 
,, [Small and D’s 33s Middling to good small|25s a40s 
Japan * |Unsplit 278 - chips Dull to fine bright _ ..|15sa 30s 
GUM AMMONIACUM ” |Sm. blocky to fair clean|25s a 60s dust Ordinary to fine bright|7s a 1s 
ANIMI, Zanzibar ’’ |Pale and amber, str. srts.|£16 a £18 SAGO, Pearl, large .,.,Dull to fine -. .[l4sa 16s 
» little redj/£13 a £15 medium ..| 9 ” 12s 6da 15s 
Bean and Pea, size ditto|75sa £13 small aa lisal3s 
Pair to good red sorts |£9a £12 SEEDLAC ewt. Ordinary Yo gd. soluble |£5 a£6 nom 
Med. & bold Blass sorts|£6 10s a £8 SENNA, Tinnevelly 1b. Good to fine bold green|5d a7d 
Madagascar , |Fair to good palish .../£4a £8 10s Fair greenish 34d a 43d 
rp sored £4a £7 los Commonspeckyand small|1id a 23d 

ARABIC E.I.& Aden ,, |Ordinary to good pale 25s a. 32s 6d nom. |SHELLS, M. o’PEARL— 

Turkey sorts ,, | 32s 6d a 50s Bgyptian cwt.|Small to bold .. 65s a £5 10/ 
Ghatti ,, ports to fine pale ...|L7s a 42s 6d nom. Bombay i ” fe 3 

Kurrachee ,, |Reddish to good pale ...|208 a 30s a Mergui Ee % “59 ao «+ |26 2/6 a £7 
Madras », \Dark to fine pale  .,.|158 a 25s pe Manilla k Fair to good - (£4 10s a £7 

ASSAFCETIDA ,, |Clean fr. to gd. almonds|$53 a 100s ‘Banda Sorts nol 

com. stony to good block!25s a 75s pate! Caleutti,...|Mid.to fine bY'k not stonylils a12s 

KINO lb.|fair to fine bright 6d als ercwt. | Madras |Stonyand inferior  .. 

MYRRH, picked | ma abe Hermes ee pale £5 a £6 TORTOISESHELL— z + a > 

» |Middling to good 558 a 708 & Bomba _ [Small to bo 08 79 
OLIBANUM, drop» |Good to fine white (458 a. 55s egies ecm bay Ib Pickings 7/88 6d a 
aoe iddling to fair 30s a 40s TURMERIC, Bengal cwt.|Fair 8s 
pickings ,, |Low to good pale 10s a 22s 6d EGS i Finger fair to fine bold 19s 228 
siftings ,, |Slightly foul to fine |llsa 15s Do, 2 {Bulbs [prighs 16s a 178 
INDIA RUBBER Ib. /|Fine Para bis. & sheets|4s 734 Cochin ©” |Finger 16s 
Ceylon, Straits, », Ceara ,, 4s 72d ” 'Bulbs «(188 
Malay Straits, etc. Crepe ordinary to fine.. 4s 5d adsod VANILLOES— tb. 
Fine Block ..(48 11d Mauritius ...) Ists|Gd crystallized 33 a85 injésa - 
Scrap fair to fine *"]3s 2d a 8s 5d Madagascar ... } 2nds}Foxy & reddish 3} a 9s 
Assam Plantation 38 5d Seychelles srdg| ean and inferior w/48 a 5S 
Fair II to good red No.1|2s a 2s 11d VERMILLION .. i.e, pure, bright 2s 
Rangoon . a 2s 2da 2s 4d MWAX, Japan, squares \Good white hard wp2S 


THE SUPPLEMENT TO THE 


Tropical Agriculturist and Magazine of the C. A. § 


Compitep By A. M. & J. FERGUSON. 


—= = eS 


No. 5,] 


NOVEMBER, 1908. 


(Von. III. 


CHILLIE-GROWING IN NATAL. 


Catcu-Cropr ror TEA. 

We present our readers this month with a very 
practical article from the pen of a Natal planter, 
who has previously written to us7e tea growing in 
the Garden Colony, on the cultivation of Chillies 
asa catch-crop for tea. We feel sure that the 
facts he presents will come with the interest 
of novelty, and the attraction of what appears 
to be ‘ta good thing” and profitable, to low- 
country planters in charge of tea fields here who 
would be only too glad to know ofa suitable, 
quick-growing and easily handled catch-crop. 
That there is a wide local demand is obvious 
from the fact that the Sinhalese grow chillies 
so widely, though in their own desultory way, 
for personal consumption and for very small 
‘wholesale’ disposal to boutiques; but added 
testimony is borne by the Ceylon Customs re- 
turns. In spite of there being a duty of Rl per 
ewt., 1907 showed an import of 73,125 cwt., value 
R952,906, or slightly more than for 1906, 
quantity 70,748 cwt. and value R919,744, This 
year the import for eight months (to end of 
August) is somewhat less than to same date last 
year—44,385 cwt. (agaicst 51,687) and value 
R525,706 (against R673,502). Perhaps the cul- 
tivation of chillies locally has already extended ? 
Have any European planters taken it up so far? 


THE RESULTS OF A PLANTER’S 
EXPERIENCE. 
[By Wiiuram A, GILBERT.) 
(Special to the “Ceylon Observer and Tropical 
Agriculturist.”’) 

The cultivation of the chillieis carried on to 
some extent in Natal, and perhaps your readers 
would be interested in the way itis conducted, 
and be tempted thereby to put my remarks to 
some practical use and benefit. 

Some grow it as an exclusive crop by itself, 
but I have fonnd it, 


61 


IN CONJUNCTION WITH TEA GROWING, 


a very lucrative catch crop, yielding hand- 
some profits; while it has proved not in the 
least bit detrimental to young ‘tea, among which 
I plant it. The long red chillie is the best 
variety, undoubtedly ; ithas a fine rich colour, 
is easy to grow and manipulate, and commands 
the highest prices, 


The seed, taken from selected pods, should be 
sown about the beginning of winter—in Natal 
about June—into nursery beds, by sprinkling 
evenly over the beds, which should, for con- 
venience, be traversed by pathways 4 feet apart, 
They should be composed of rather a light, but 
rich loam, and if the soil be at all stiffa little 
river sand mixed in will give it the desired 
friability. After sprinkling, the seed should be 
covered — just covered and no more—witha sifter 
mixture of leaf mould and decayed manure, 
Then over all, a layer of grass, or palm leaves 
spread, so as to keep the moisture from eva- 
porating too rapidly. In about a fortnight’s 
time the seedlings will make their appear- 
ance, and a day or two after that the 
grass or leaves should be removed, or the 
plants will grow twisted. Plenty of water is 
necessary to ensure healthy vigorous plants, 
and when making the nursery, choose a well 
sheltered site, close to water. As soon as the 
plants are 2 or 3 inches high, thin them out 
and prevent crowding as much as possible, 
as they havea great tendency to get ‘‘ drawn,” 


The early spring rains—in this Colony about 
October—is the best time to put out into the 
fields the young chillie plants, which should 
by now be 10 to 12 inches high. Holes should 
be cut 9 inches cube and the best distance 
apart is4 feet. If the chillies are to be grown 
with tea, plant them in the same row as the 
tea, between the plants, and leave the space 
between the rows free. Some put the plants 
between every four tea plants in a quincuns ; 


482 


and when the chillies grew up. the weeders 
got so confused with the lines that much time 
was lost. If the plants are placed 


IN THE SAME ROWS AS THE TEA 
it gives much more freedom for efficient working. 

The chillie plant being of so sappy and frail a 
nature, [ have found it best to plant two plants 
together in the same hole. They form a larger 
and denser bush and are not easily blown over 
by strong winds, of which chillie trees cannot 
stand much. 

Before planting, the plants should have their 
roots well trimmed and their tops cut off, and 
always select a dull, wet day for this work. 
They strike root very easily, and in two weeks’ 
time; or in less, with favourable weather ; they 
get fully established and sprout out vigorously. 
No further attention is necessary except, of 
course, an occasional weeding, until the fruit 
ripens which it should do in 5 to 6 months after 
planting. : 

In India the usual way 

TO CURE THE PODS 
is by spreading and drying them in the sun. This 
process however has been found to bleach the 
fruit. This impairs to a large extent the 
pungency, and the value is thereby consider- 
ably reduced. The way [ cure is by 
EVAPORATING IN A HOUSE 
by heat. My curing house is 30 feet long x 12 
feet broad and built with brick walls and fitted 
with air-tight doors and windows and close 
fitting iron roof. Except for a vent to allow 
moisture to escape along the ridging there should 
be no other aperture. I have 
AN UNDERGROUND FLUE, 
starting at one end of the building where 
there is a furnace built in, large enough to take 
a log about 4 feet long and 12 to 18 inches 
diameter. The flue commencing underground 
rises gradually in its course round the inside of 
the room—mine is 2 ft. from, and parallel to the 
wall and then terminates in a chimney stack, the 
same end as the furnace. The stack should be 
about 18 feet to 20 feet high and be fitted with a 
damper to regulate heat. Over the flue I have 
racks erected, capable of carrying a series of 
removable trays which are placed 6 inches 
above one another and there are 6 trays to 
each section. My house contains 250 trays 
which are 4 feet long by 18 inches wide and 
having sides 2 inches deep. The bottom of the 
tray is composed of fine wire gauze. Thereis a 
passage 4 feet wide in the centre of the 
room between the racks for the attendant to pass. 
When the fruit is 
RIPE IT SHOULD BE A DEEP RUBY 
colour, Orange-colour pods should not be 
picked as they are unripe, and turn pale in 
colour during desiccation. The chillies should 
be picked without stalks, and then spread evenly 
over the trays. A brisk heat is now kept up 
night and day at about 125 degrees and the 
chillies occasionally turned over by the attend- 
ant. In three days’ time the chillies will be found 
to be quite dry, when all broken small or dis- 
coloured fruit must be carefully removed by hand 
to be packed and disposed of as a inferior 
quality. There is only 3 to 4 per cent of these 
off-coloured fruit, so the trouble is not much. 

When 4 sufficient quantity of the dried chillies 

is accumulated, they 


The Supplement to the Tropical Agriculturist 


SHOULD BE PACKED IN BALES, 


The way I adopt is very simple and etfective, I 
first have all the chillies that are to be packed, 
heaped overnight and a little water sprayed on 
to the heap which is immediately covered over 
by sacks. This will tend to make the skin of 
the fruit pliable andis not likely to break up 
when subjected to pressure. It will be thought 
that damping the chillies will cause mildew ; 
but it has absolutely no injurious effect and 
soon dries off in the bale. For the baling pro- 
cess, I have a strong wooden box, well put 
together, with one side hinged. Any size or 
shape can be used; but it is best to make your 
box to the size of gunny bag most easily 
procured. The bottom of the bag is squared 
and sewn ; this is easily done by Ata tige the 
bag on to a square piece of board the breadth 
of your bale, which is nailed on toa pole fixed 
in the ground and of a convenient height. The 
loose pointscan then be drawn together and 
sewn down. The bag should now be placed 
into the bale box and the open end be fixed by 
catches that have been previously fitted on the 
four sideson the top of the box. 


The chillies are dropped ina little by little, 
while a cooly treads them firmly down over a 
small square board, When the bagisfull enough 
the ends of the bag are drawn together square, 
and sewn down exactly asthe other end. The 
bale can then be taken out after unbolting the 
side of the box, and it will assume a very neat 
appearance. The most useful weight is 100 lb. 
nett to a bale, but this can be regulated to 
local conditions, The stencilling denoting name 
of estate, grower, quality and quantity should 
be neatly done, for nothing is so unsightly as 
a smudge. 

If the chillies are intended for export, it is 
advisable to send your bales down to any coast 
firm who has a large hydraulic baling machine, 
and get the bales re-pressed, two together and 
bound with iron strapping. This will save ocean 
freight as space will be economised by the 
tighter package.—Chillies have been 

KNOWN TO BEAR FOR 5 TO 6 YEARS 
in succession ; but after the 2nd year they 
deteriorate in size and pungency, and it is ad- 
visable to put in fresh plants. After the first crop 
the trees should be pruned down to 9 in, from 
the ground, A vigorous growth will result 
and if the season is good, a very heavy crop 
to follow, Asa catch crop in tea, two years 
is usually as long as it is wanted, for the 


young tea will have grown sufiiciently by then 
to be left alone. 


Like everything else, chillies are apt to be 
overdone ; but for those who go in for the 
crop on the right lines, a good market is always 
available. As a by-product the chillies (with 
all the seed removed) can be ground into 
Cayenne pepper and bottled into glass castors. 
These find a ready sale at the grocers. 

The dried product is largely in demand in 
this Colony among the Indians, and although 
a vast quantity is imported from India, the 
coolies prefer the desiccated Colonial article, 
because it is richer in colour and more pun- 
gent and less in price than the oversea article 
which is mostly sun-dried and very inferior in 
quality. There is also a 


and Magazine of the Ceylon Agricultural Society. 


GOOD MARKET AT HOME AND ON THE CONTINENT 
for chillies and good samples are eagerly 
bought up by condiment, pickle and sauce 
manufacturers. Up to the present time I 
have had no difficultly to dispose of my 
crop, which is usually a large one, but growers 
must not forget that the present time is different 
to the ‘‘ good old days,” and the public expect 
a great deal for their money. Only the best 
variety should be grown, and planted on good 
rich soil, carefully cultivated andthe curing 
done properly, so that absolutely a first-class 
article is produced, while the get-up of the 
packages or bales must be especially neat and 
attractive. This | contend is half the battle 
of the producer of any crop. 


F. M. S. RESIDENT GENERAL’S 
REPORT FOR 1907. 
EXTRACTS. 


AGRICULTURE, 


The Director of Agriculture, in the course of 
his remarks on the working in 1907 of the 
Agricultural Department, calls attention to the 
fact that ‘‘ The conditions for rapid growth are 
almost uniquein Malaya—viz., alternating sun- 
shine and rain with an equable temperature and 
a moist, humid atmosphere.” According to the 
Director the land in cultivation at the end of 
1907 was :— 4 


Perak 114,969 acres 
Selangor — 92,072 ,,; 
Negri Sembilan 38,299 ,, 
Pahang 16,423 
Total 261,763 =, 


The following observations by the Resident 
of Selangor regarding rubber cultivation in that 
State are of interest :— 


‘The returns of rubber exported during the year show a 
total of 1,193,751 pounds, as compared with 681,040 pounds 
in the preceding year. Fifty-nine thousand seven hundred 
and fifty-eight dollars was paid as export duty. The fall in 
the market price of the product which occurred towards 
the end of the year, though causing a depreciation for the 
time being in the value of shares, had no material effect 
upon the progress of estate development. I understand 
that in a few instances contemplated extensions were 
stopped pro tempore, but for the most part the contidence 
of estate proprietors in the future of the undertaking re- 
mains unshaken Ls a fluctuation in values attributed to 
causes which can have no permanent effect upon the suc- 
cess of theindustry. Atthe time of writing there is no 
indication of any pause or hesitation in the process of 
development.” 

Coconuts.—The acreage under coconxts in- 
creased by seven per cent. Of the 7,500 acres 
newly opened, only some 650 acres were planted 
by Europeans. The total value of the coconut 
plantations is put by the Inspector at $22,000,000. 
The exports of copra he puts at 55,421 pikuls. 

CorrE£.—There was a small increase in the 
area planted with coffee, 10,833 acres as com- 
pared with 9,708 acres at the end of 1906, 


Taproca.—Some 10,000 acres were under 
tapioca, In connection with this form of culti- 
vation, experiments were made as to manuring. 


FORESTRY AND RUBBER EXPERIMENTS, 
From the Conservator’s report on the work- 
ing of the department for 1907 it appears that 
at the close of the year the area of reserved 
forests in these States was 682 square miles 
(436,710 acres), equivalent toabout 24 per cent. 


483 


of the whole area of these States. When the 
further 440 square miles, which it is intended 
shall be reserved, are added to this, the per- 
centage will be raised to 45 per cent., a still 
somewhat disproportionate area. In Perak, of 
the 106,145 acres which it is proposed to re- 
serve, 31,145 acres were being surveyed during 
the year. The Trolak gutta-percha area was 
divided up into 47 blocks of about 40 acres each 
and surveyed. In Selangor the Rantau Panjang 
extension, the Sungei Lalang reserve and the 
Kanching reserve, 37,915 acres in all, were sur- 
veyed. The Kuala Selangor-Klang protective 
belt was surveyed by the Revenue Survey De- 
partment, and this area of 23,826 acres has been 
constituted a Forest reserve. In Negri Sem- 
bilan the Tebong reserve, 25 miles of the 
Pertang reserve, and 124 miles of the Bukit 
Térip reserve were demarcated by the Forest 
Demarcator. In Pahang, also, the Forest 
Demarcator finished the Baloh reserve and de- 
marcated 25 miles of the Rotan Tunggal reserve. 

The quantity of timber felled and burnt by 
planters in opening up new areas for rubber and 
coconut planting must be very large. No account 


‘of itis available, but 64,881 acres are said to have 


been alienated for this purpose during the 
period under review, and on this land there 
must have been standing timber of a useful 
character of not less than 50 tons to the acre. 
The plantation at Pondok Tanjong, a plantation 
of chengal and merbau 


MIXED WITH RUBBER, 


was carefully looked after and much improved 
during the year. This resulted in heavy expen- 
diture, an expenditure of close on $21,000. The 
proceeds of the rubber collected and _ sold 
yielded an almost equal amount. It was noted 
that the chengal and merbau appear to grow 
more quickly than in heavy forest. The small 
plantation of 


PARA AND RAMBONG RUBBER NEAR TAIPING 


also gave good returns and left a balance of 
some $2,000 over and above expenses. 


The casvarinas planted in1906 in abandoned 
mining land near Taiping did fairly well. A 
further 10 acres were planted inthe abandoned 
mining block at Rassah in Negri Sembilan and 
failures in the 30 acres previously planted were 
replaced. A large proportion of the casuarina 
seedlings planted out at Serendah in Selangor 
failed, while nearly all the tembusu succeeded. 
The plantation on the Circular Road at Kuala 
Lumpur was keptup during the year and 
weeded, blanks being supplied with tembusu. 
Drains were made through the plantation by 
the local staff. Nurseries of tembusu, senna, 
molabira and rotan sega were prepared. 


Cultural operations were carried on as usual, 
In the Trolak reserve 686 acres were cleared of 
undergrowth in order to benefit the young taban 
trees; the area treated in this manner now 
totals 1,544 acres. In the Rantau Panjang 
reserve in Selangor 12 blocks of taban, of 80 
acres each, were attended to. In the Weld’s 
Hill reserve at Kuala Lumpur afew acres were 
planted up in lines with merbau, anda great 
deal of attention was given to the three-year-old 
taban, Inthe Waterfall reserve at Taiping in 


484} 


Perak all big trees other than gutta-percha were 
ringed and have since died. The area contain- 
ing taban is 62 acres, the trees in which show 
great progress and rapid growth. Hxperiments 
in tapping some selected trees were made with 
satisfactory results. 


W. T. Taytor, Resident-General, Federated 
Malay States. Kuala Lumpur, 20th August, 
1908.—Selangor Government Gazette, Sept. 11. 


UGANDA RUBBER AND CACAO 
ESTATES GO. 


A New Fiere. 


A correspondent writes:—Few are aware that 
two well-known Western Australians have been 
haif over Africa. Mr C B Carey, a native of 
Bunbury, has been in Equatorial Africa for some 
years; he has been overland in charge of trans- 
ports from Mombasa to the West Coast, and 
is thoroughly conversant with several native 
Janguages. Mr Carey now holds a very impor- 
tant position in German Equatorial Africa, 
under the Government, and has acquired the 
German language. MrChas. A White, F.R.H.S., 
formerly forest officer for Coolgardie in the early 
days, and brother to Cr. Shirley White. of 
Subiaco, has travelled from the Cape to the Vic- 
toria Falls, Portuguese East Africa, German 
Territory, Zanzibar, Madagascar, and British 
Kast Africa, along the Equator to the Congo. 
Mr White is a planter and naturalist, beside 
possessing a good practical knowledge of prus- 
pecting, and was botanical collector for the late 
Baron Von Mueller in Wostern Australia, but 
is at present manager of the Uganda Rubber and 
Cacao Estates, Ltd., at Jinja, near the Ripon 
Falls in Uganda. Mr White states that he has 
discovered a very valuable fibre known to the 
natives as ‘‘Kafumba,” but botanically known 
as Asclepias semilunata, and valued in London 
at £40 a ton, Samples sent by Mr White to the 
Minister for Agriculture in New South Wales 
were shown to Mr Thorpe, of the firm of For- 
syth and Co., Sydney, who have offered to pur- 
chase any quantity at £35 a ton, which was also 
offered by James Miller and Co,, Ltd., of Mel- 
bourne. Mr White has now sent a quantity of 
seeds to various parts in Australia, and states 
that he is confident it will grow and thrive in 
many parts of Western Australia. A sample of 
the fibre is now in the possession of Messrs. C 
and H J Locke, furniture warehousemen, of 
Fremantle, also a small quantity of seed for ex- 
periment. The fibre is of superior quality, and 
needs no cultivation after the seed is sown till 
uprooted. The plant is an annual, and attains 
a height of 6 to 8 feet.—West Australian, Sept. 12. 


COST OF JEBONG RUBBER 
PRODUCTION. 


Assam Rubber Proprietor’s Statement Denied. 

An Assam proprietor of rubber in the F.M.S8. 
recently made some remarks about the cost of 
production in this country. His observations, 
which have been reproduced in the Straits Press, 
have induced Mr. B C N Knight, of Jebong 
estate, to write to our Taiping contemporary 
as follows :— 


The Supplement to the Tropical. Agriculturist 


Sir,—I read with interest Mr. Rose’s remarks 
to the Ceylon Observer on the cost of pro- 
duction of rubber in the F.M.S. Mr. Rose states 
that in 1906, he told me rubber should be pro- 
duced for 6d alb. and that I oughtto be able 
to produce on Jebong, at most, at 9d. Ihave 
never had the pleasure of meeting Mr. Rose 
during his visits to the F.M.8., I would also 
like to know where Mr. Rose obtained his 
figures, saying, at the present time, Jebong was 
producing at 9d. Up to August 31st (after charg- 
ing half salaries to capital account) the cost 
is 37 cents per lb. f.o.b. Penang (about 104d). 
I disagree with Mr. Rose that he wil! be able 
to produce rubber for 6d alb. unless the pre- 
sent rates of pay were reduced considerably, 
and every tree being tapped is 12 years old and 
over. The cost of tapping alone on 10 to 11 
year old trees, including cups and knives, can 
be done for 13to 16 cts. per lb. dry rubber; 6 
to 8 year old trees I don’t think can be done for 
under 20 cts. with tappers at 40 cts. per diem, 
which is the rate of pay in Perak. I write this 
letter in order that shareholders in Jebongand 
others shall not be misled with the statements 
made by Mr. Rose which are inaccurate.—Malay 
Mail, Sept. 23. 


[We gave Mr. Rose’s statement as made to 
us, to the best of our recollection. —Ep. C.0.] 


THE DEMAND FOR QUININE IN INDIA. 


at the present time is exceptionally great, and 
the stock would soon be exhausted if it were not 
replenished from Kurope. Private importers 
are known to have sent urgent indents home. 
Fortunately manufacturers and chemists are 
over-stocked in England, prices are low, and 
ample supplies are available. One large firm 
has been quoting at 7}d.to 8d. per ounce, or 
the equivalent of between 


EIGHT AND NINE RUPEES PER POUND, 


which contrasts in a remarkable way with 
the price quoted by the Government quino- 
logist in India, fifteen rupees per pound. 
We would suggest that at the present time, 
when malaria has to be fought against all over 
Northern India and in Bengal,a big reduction 
in price should be made. Ten rupees per pound 
when 500lb. are taken, and even lower rates for 
still larger quantities, might be instituted. In 
many instances it is found that the people pre-- 
fer their quinine in tabloid form, and it should 
be possible in future years to arrange for im- 
ports in this shape. The expense will be slightly 
more, but the effects likely to be gained will 
justify the additional outlay.— Pioneer, Oct. 3. 


There is reason to hope that in the near 
future perhaps two or more Rubber Estates may 
be opened up in the district, There is plenty 
of excellent land and it is a pity to see it, with 
the many advantages it has, lying idle.—B.N.B, 
Herald, Oct. 1. : ' } 


and Magazine of the Ceylon Agricultural Society. © 


THE EASTERN RUBBER INDUSTRY. 


MR. HERBERT WRIGHT'S HXHIBITLON 
LECTURE. 


The text of the lecture by Mr Herbert Wright, 
delivered at Rubber Exhibition on Wednesday, 
16th Sept., was as follows :— 


A few month ago I had an opportunity of 
visiting the islands of Ceylon, Java, and 
Sumatra, and also of travelling through parts of 
the Straits Settlements and federated Malay 
States. The main objects of the tour were to 
see what changes had recently occurred, in con- 
nection with Hlanting developments, to note the 
methods adopted in cultivation and preparation, 
and to determine the actual conditions of estates 
in those areas. Apart from investigating points 
of importance to planters in every day life, I had 
in view the fact that many rumours were current 
to the eftect that estates had been seriously 
overtapped, that others had been allowed to be- 
come smothered by weeds, and that some proper- 
ties, in unhealthy districts, had been abandoned 
on account of the prohibitive expense incurred 
in managing them. In several cases the rumours 
had some foundation, but after seeing thousands 
of acres of all ages in the countries mentioned, 
Lcould only conclude that many of us, in Lon- 
don, and elsewhere, had been suffering from an 
attack of ‘‘nerves” in the early part of the 

ear. Most managers in the Hast have now 
earned to look forward to a selling price nearer 
2s 6d than 6s per lb for their rubber; as they are 
generally interested in their work and have their 
own money at stake there appears to be little 
reason to anticipate anything except economical 
management in the future. When an industry, 
Jike that of Eastern plantations, is in its in- 
fancy, one may naturally expect new ideas and 
inventions at every turn and that many brilliant 
achievements as well as miserable failures will 
be chronicled during the first ten years of its 
existence. 


THE CONDITION oF PLANTATIONS. 


The details of my observations regarding the 
condition of the estates have been given to you 
elsewhere and I need only dwell upon the more 
important points, viz., tapping methods, modes 
of preparing rubber and the distances adopted 
in planting in various countries, 


TAPPING OPERATIONS. 


First, let us deal with tapping. Phenomenal 
yields of from 4to7lb. per tree were recently 
recorded from sections of well-known Malayan 
estates and rumour had it that many trees had 
been too vigorously tapped. True, the primary 
bark had, in some instances, been excised far 
too rapidly and tapping operations had neces- 
sarily to be stopped on the trees so treated 
until a definite programme was formulated. 
But they were the exceptions on the plan- 
tations 1 visited. The fault appeared to lie 
in the lack of organisation, no definite scheme 
of removing the bark at specified periods and 
rates having been adopted and no thought given 
to the time required for the renewed bark to 
mature. It should be remembered that the future 
plantation yields must be obtained from the 
secondary, tertiary, and subsequent renewed 


485 


bark tissues ; what they will give we cannot de- 
finitely say, especially from trees whare the bark 
has been completely stripped in one year and the 
available renewed bark is young and soft. 


From measurements and experiments made in 
Ceylon and Malaya it was obvious that the 
secondary bark often acquired a thickness equal 
to that ofthe original or primary bark long be- 
fore the latex was sufliciently concentrated ; if 
such bark is tapped a low percentage of rubber 
will be obtained therefrom, though the waste of 
living cells willbe large. An interval of three or 
four years should be allowed on most estates be- 
fore the secondary bark is tapped if permanency 
in output is desired. Para rubber treescan thrive 
under adverse conditions, but the treatment 
meted out to them is often a very exacting one. 
Very frequent tapping does not necessarily in- 
crease the total yield ; and it should be remem- 
bered that the longer the barkis allowed to 
remain on the tree, within limits, the higher 
will the percentage of caoutchouc be inthe latex 
and the more vigorously will the trees grow, 


Most estates are tapping on the half-nerring 
bone system, each area being tapped once every 
alternate day. On a few plantations tapping 
every day is indulged in; and on a few others 
the interval between successive operations is 
longer than two days. I believe Dr Tromp de 
Haas may now be able to give us the benefit of 
his advice on this subject, as a result of 
the tapping experiments he has been carrying 
out at Buitenzorg, Java, but which were not 
completed at the time of my visit. 


Furure YiELpDs, 
The yields of rubber obtained varied consider- 


-ably, but the average leads one to anticipate that 


with careful tapping mature estates should give 
something near 300 lb. of dry rubber per annum, 
per acre. Many planters have already largely 
exceeded that estimate, and even on closely— 
planted estates 300 Ib. per acre have been 
obtained annually for each of the last few years. 
Such a yield is in excess of that which [ pre- 
viously anticipated as the probable return, and, 
if extensively realised, will materially affect 
planters, investors and manufacturers in the not 
very distant future. The subjects of tapping 
and yields require to be seriously considered ; 
in my opinion, too much thought cannot be 
given to organisation of tapping operations, 
training of tapping coolies, and perfecting the 
implements used. A well thought out system 
of tapping willsave much trouble in the future. 


Consideration of this subject leads us on to 
that of the means adopted in preparing raw 
rubber from the latex obtained by tapping. 


PRODUCTION OF RUBBER FROM LATEX, 


The production of dry rubber from latex in- 
volves straining, coagulating, washing or rolling 
and drying processes. On the majority of 
Eastern estates the coagulation period extends 
from the evening of one day to the morning of 
the next ; washing is done in a few minutes ; 
drying may take several weeks or even months. 

Vacuum driers are being taken up and success- 
fully worked by planters who understand the 
mechanism of the apparatus; by such means 
drying is effectedina few hours instead of weeks, 


486 

Rapidity in effecting coagulation is 
generally desirable from the planters’ point 
of view ; in several instances the change 
was completed within twelve to thirty 
minutes from the moment the latex arrived 
in the factory, thus saving a great deal of 
time when compared with the more general 
methods on the majority cf other estates. 
On plantations where rapid coagulation was 
effected and vacuum driers used, the latex col- 
lected in the morning was converted into dry, 
hot rubber before the end of the day’s work, 
This rapid conversion of latex into dry rubbber, 
was with one exception, only sesn on properties 
where vacuum driers were in use. The excep- 
tion was on Gikiyanakanda, Ceylon, where Mr 
Golledge, by means of very simple apparatus, 
succeeded in turning out dry rubber within 
twelve hours without the use of any appliance so 
complicated as a vacuum chamter. 


On nearly every estate coagulation was effected 
by means of acetic acid; instances were, how- 
ever, met with where planters, in order to over- 
come the reputed objections cf certain manu- 
facturers against the use of chemical reagents, 
had allowed the latex to ferment and coagulate 
without the addition of any reagents. Needless to 
add, the Para rubber so prepared had a most 
diabolical, putrid smell, and clear, white, mother 
liquor was Bains thrown away as waste though 
it contained large quantities of rubber. Several 
planters, with a view to obtaining uniform pale 
rubber, were steeping the greatly-coagulated 
and rolled rubber inhot baths and using only 
hot water between the rollers, So much then 
for the more important processes on the planta- 
tion. Now let us discuss that very debatable 
subject, viz :— 


DisTANCE IN PLANTING. 


I visited rubber estates varying in age from 
three months to thirty years, examined rubber 
trees on alluvial, rocky, gravelly and swampy 
soils and walked many miles over flat and hilly 
estates ; I now hesitate, more than ever, to give 
any specific recommendations as to the best 
distance to adopt in planting Para rubber 
estates. Each property requires special con- 
sideration and the planter on the spot is 
generally the person best qualified to ad- 
vise onthis point. Estates were seen where 
the trees were planted 10 feet apart, that 
distance ‘ providing more space for roots 
and branches than the rubber trees will ever 
require ; on other properties a distance of 15 by 
30 feet had been covered in eight years, and it 
would even have been better if the trees had 
been thinned out many years ago to prevent 
present overcrowding. But such a difference 
in distance means a large difference in the 
number of trees on even a small estate. 


Most people think it reasonable to pay more 
for a property with a half a million than for 
one with only 50 thousand trees, especially 
when the plants are on the same estate and 
of exactly the same age. To prove that every 
tree on a widely-planted estate (30 by 30 ft.) 
is worth ten on the closely-planted property 
(10 by 10 ft.) may be a little difficult though 
it is more often than not, quite a safe asser- 
gion to make, 


The Supplement to the Tropical Agriculturist 


The value of a rubber estate is not determined 
alone bythe number of trees but by theavailable 
bark for tapping and the recuperating powers of 
the trees. What the widely-planted estates 
lack in number, they generally make up in 
increased thickness and area of bark. Closely- 
planted Para trees are characterised by long, 
spindly stems, thin bark, low yield of rubber 
per square foot of bark excised and slower bark 
renewal, The trees on widely-planted estates 
have usually short and thick stems, thick bark, 
and renew their tissues rapidly. 1n a general 
way one may say that the thinner the bark the 
higher is the cost of rubber production on the 
estate. All that I wish to say now is that ifa 
soil is so poor that a distance of 10 by 10 feet is 
ample for the trees, I would not care to invest 
money init. If funds are forthcoming and one 
is prepared to wait for many years before re- 
ceiving a substantial return on his capital outlay 
he might plant Para trees even 30 feet apart and 
be acting wisely; 20 by 20 and 30 by 15 feet ap- 
peared, however, to be gaining favour in the rich 
soils of Klang, Java and Sumatra, where finan- 
cial as well as forestry considerations were kept 
in view. 

Sufficient has now keen said to indicate the 
general estate methods adopted today in the 
East. We can now consider how much money 
a been invested and what has been obtained 

or it. 
CaritaL INVOLVED. 


Planting developments have not stopped and 
appreciable increases in estate acreages can be 
expected during the next few years, especially 
in Java, Sumatra, Borneo, and New Guinea, as 
wellasin Western areas. But for the purpose 
of this discussion I wish you toassume that 
only 350,000 acres now planted, or are about to 
be planted, in the East are of any consequence. 
Suchan acreage means that you have,on the 
general basis of each acre costing only £30 per 
acre when in bearing, the equivalent of 
£10,500,000 already earmarked. Add to this the 
higher cost incurred on many -properties, the 
money locked up in unplanted land which often 
forms a large part of many Eastern estates, that 
invested in plantations in Africa, West Indies, 
Tropical America, etc., and you arrive at a sum 
quite large enough to arrest the attention of 
inanciers in this and other parts of the world. 
What the total capital invested in Eastern rub- 
ber plantations alone will be ten years hence, I 
leave you to predict, 


LatEst PLANTEDACREAGES. 


Though I have mentiond 350,000 asa num- 
ber representing the acreageeplanted in the Kast 
it is as well to bear in mind that the most 
recent returns show that there is a prospect of 
the total being much nearer half-a-million than 
the above figure, if all the rubber yielding 
species are considered and account is taken of 
planting operations to which may companies 
have committed themselves. Messrs. A M & J 
Ferguson, Colombo, recently gave the following 
estimate of planted acreages :—Ceylon 180,000 
acres; Malaya, 150,000; Java, 58,000; Sumatra, 
23,000; Borneo, 7,000; India and Burma, 28,000; 
or atotal of 446,000 acres up to date. It must 
not be expected that the whole of the lands 
planted will come into bearing, though, from 


«= 


and Magazine of the Ceylon Agricultural Society. 


what I saw there can only be a very small num- 
ber of real failures, except someting remark- 
able happens. We can state that we have, asa 
result of recent planting activity, a very sub- 
stantial acreage of sturdy, healthy, living rubber 
trees. 


Wuar Prantation May Do. 


Having thus satisfied ourselves that the Has- 
tern plantation industry is not a myth let us 
think what it really represents and compare the 
potentialities of the new enterprise with the 
accomplishments of the old. Most people know 
that the world’s output of raw rubber for last 
year was approximately 67,000 tons and that 
actual shipments from Para, to Europe and 
America, for the year 1907-8 were not less than 
36,470 tons, valued at about £350 per ton or over 
£12,500,000. 


Now I want you to fix that amount of Brazi- 
lian rubber—36,470 tons—in your minds and 
see how gradually it has been obtained. We 
have the figures showing what has been exported 
from Brazil from 1827 to 1907-8. It has taken 
80 years to raise the Brazilian output from 50 to 
36,470 tons. In the first thirty years, 1827 to 1857, 
Brazil raised its :output to 1,800 tons; the Hast 
promises to get near that total this year. But think 
of the handicap. Brazil started with its dense 
forests, indigenous trees, over many square miles 
of territory ;,the East commenced with a couple 
of thousand seeds secured by Wickham in 
1876, had to rear them into seed bearers, and 
to wait for public interest to be aroused in 
the cultivation. In fact the 1908 exports from 
the East only represent the KEscLr or INQUI- 
SITIVENESS on the part of a few planters who 

ut Para seeds out because the trees might 

e useful in later years. The results obtained 
indicate the potentialities of the thriving, 
though young, plantations and the future pros- 
pect can no longer be disregarded. 


If there be any who still regard the Hastern 
plantation industry as something not worthy 
of their consideration, let them remember 
that, on very moderate estimates, the trees 
now planted in a small fraction of the little 
island of Ceylon should, when mature, an- 
nually yield more than the average annual 
output from the whele of Africa. Further 
more, it can be taken for granted that, ex- 
cept something unforeseen happens, we shall 
have annually as much rubber from the Hast as 
we have in the past received from Brazil. 


Every Eastern estate represents a centralised 
mass of trees from which supplies of rubber can 
be more rapidly and economically drawn than in 
any other part of the world. Every tree is under 
the personal supervision of trained European 
agriculturists and can receive daily attention ; 
from past experiences one feels justified in an- 
ticipating success, 


DEcLINE IN INFERIOR RUBBERS. 


From these facts it will be clear that the pot- 
entialities of the Eastern industry alone are such 
that when the rubber is arriving in fair quantity 
other rubbers of an inferior kind will feel the 

inch. In Ceylon, Malaya, Java, Sumatra, 
orneo, and Samoa, Para rubber trees are mainly 


487 


cultivated, though the Dutch and German colo- 
nies have achieved some success with species 
of Ficus. 


Para rubber is acknowledged to be superior to 
most other kinds. We have been assured by 
some of the most prominent British manufac- 
turers that, if we can supply them with Para at 
2/6 per lb. they will use it in preference to 
most African and inferior American grades. This 
appears a fitting opportunity to ask continental 
and American manufacturers at this Exhibition 
whether they share in that view. Ifso, you can 
predict the fate of inferior grades yourselves, 


With such a change—decline in Africans 
and ine cease in Eastern Para—must come others 
in the eommercial centres now dealing more 
or less assclusively in either of these grades. 
As fars to Great Britain is concerned, London 
appear East be one of the coming centres for the 
sale oferpooern Para, when compared with that 
of Livindical. Our continental friends can, per- 
haps, in thte to us the changes likely to be in- 
duced in their respective centres by the same 
causes. 


CONSUMPTION. 


There is on getting away from the fact that 
the condition of affairs must materially change 
when Eastern Para has caken its proper place. 
In addithere wilthe decline in inferior grade 
rubbers there will. in consequence of the more 
reasonable price for raw rubber, be a stimulus to 
consumptiion ; many anticipate that the increase 
in consumption ‘will at the least off-set the in- 
crease from Mexican plantations, In many parts 
of the world there are indications of new open- 
ings for the rubber tracdleand even though the 
annual consumptin is at present very consi- 
derable, further progress in that direction is 
expected 


Thecondition of Kastern estates, the yielding 
capacity of the acreages now planted, and the 
interes{ in this comparatively new and profitable 
industry. 


Raw RuBBER PRICES. 


In this brief sketch of the position of the 
Eastern plantation industry, I hope, I have 
brought home one point, viz., that we are on the 
eve of a great change, not only in planting but 
also in important commercial centres. The 
final results will, as in all other commodities, 
be determined by the values ruling for the 
raw article. A continuance of 2/6 per lb. ror 
plantation rubber, will, toa large extent, place 
the world’s power in Kastern plantations, for 
against that price but little African and 
American rubber can be exported under ex- 
isting circumstances. At that price and with 
yields only equal to those obtained up-to-date, 
planters and others engaged in plantations will 
secure a very handsome profit. Should con- 
sumption and prices increase beyond what we 
anticipate, those connected with plantations 
will be in a stillhappier position. In the mean- 
time they can rest assured that there is a 
healthy demand for raw rubber which is not 
likely to die away, and that only good manage- 
ment on the estates and at home is required to 
bring the enterprise to a successful issue, 


488 
RUBBER IN MALAYA. 


(From Mr. J. B. Carruthers’ Report.) 

The rapid progress of the rubber industry in 
Malaya continued during 1907, and at the end 
of that year 45,764 more acres of rubber land 
had been planted, an increase of about 46 per 
cent on the total of the previous year. The 
number of acres of planted rubber on the 31st 
December, 1907, being 179,227. The number of 
trees in 1906 was under 13,000,000 and in 1907 
27,558,400, a large acreage being planted closer 
than before. The output of dry rubber increa- 
sed by 144 per cent ; 1907 showing an export of 
2,278,870 lb or 1,017 tons, as against 935,056 lb or 
417 tons, inthe previous year. Morethan seven 
times the amount of rubber was exported in 
1907 than two years before in 1905. 


RusserR Sravistics, Manaya, UP TO THE 3ls7 


Drc , 1907. 
Federated straits 
Malay Settle- 
#States, ments & Johore. Total. 
sedah. ; 
No of estates 287 65 13 355 
Acreage 1n a? sage 
possession{/41 2,210 116,549 96,849 625,608 
Acreage planted| 
up to 3ist Dec., ‘ ls ° 
1907 126,235 _42, 866 10,126 179,227 
Acreage planted 
during 1907 i) 40,473 9,344 5,764 55,581 
No of trees 
planted up; 
to 31st Dec., ; : be ateoes 
1907 ,19,628,957 6,787,216 [11,142,196 + 27,553,369 


RueBer IN FepERATED MAuay States. 

At the end of 1906 there were 1n the Federated 
Malay States 85,000 acres, at the end of last 
year 124,580, an increase of about 46 per cent. 
There were 10,745,000 trees planted in 1906, and 
nearly twenty million in 1907. The output of 
dry rubber was nearly doubled, showing 
1,028,792 lb., or 459 tons, in 1906, and 1,984,285 
lb., or 885 tons, in 1907, an increase of 93 per 
cent. Since January, 1906, the amount of 
rubber planted has been trebled, and the whole 
of that large acreage is in a healthy and vigorous 
condition. 

Rosser Srarisrics, FEDERATED Maway STATES, 


Ur tro THE 3lst DECEMBER, 1907. 
5 ae oe f 
Sp 4 ES gs 2 
8 5 aye) By 2 
& Si iBes & 
3 zB a 
No. of estates 124 114 34 15 287 
Acreage in possession 194183 141032 59631 17364 412210 
Acreage planted up to 
3ist December, 1907 61552 46167 17656 860 126235 
Acreage planted during 
1907 19135 16050 4945 193 40743 


No. of trees planted up 

to 31st Dec., 1907 9648093 6648957 3165388 166590 19628957 

In 1897, rubber estates were less than 350 
acres in extent, 10 years after they had increased 
by 360 times. In 1902 less than 7,500 acres had 
been planted, five years after 17 times that 
amount was under rubber. Nearly all of this 
land was virgin jungle previously to its being 
planted with rubber, which had to be cleared 
before any planting operations could be begun. 
Nine-tenths of the whole acreage has been 
cleared and planted by the younger generation 
of planters, who deserve the greatest credit for 
the excellent way in which their work has been 
carried out, The difficulties under which most 


The Supplement to the Tropical Agriculturist 


of them have opened up their estates have been 
many and various: bad conditions of health, 
both for master and cooly, and _ steadily rising 
price of labour owing to local conditions, 


Yirtps or Dry Russer Per TREE. 

The average amount of dry rubber is over the 
whole Peninsula 1 lb. 12 0%. per tapped tree, 
exactly the same figure as was recorded for last 
year. This is most encouraging, as the number 
of trees which are being tapped for the first 
time far exceeds those already tapped, es- 
pecially in Selangor, where the average is 1 lb. 
7 oz. per tapped tree. 

Experiments are being carried on in various 
parts of the Peninsula: Perak, Selangor and 
Negri Sembilan, in regard to yields of compara- 
tively old trees which have not previously been 
tapped. In Krian these experiments have been 
carried out for nearly four months, only half the 
tappable area of the trees being used and space 
being left so that more than three years 
will elapse, with continuous tapping every 
other day, before the healed surface will be 
again reached. The figures for one year will be 
published in next year’s report, but as far as 
they have gone the yields average more than 
2 lb. per mensem per tree. The trees are planted 
widely apart round the edges of a graveyard 
and are about 17 years old. 

There is as yet not sufficient evidence as to 
what yields may fairly be expected over large 
areas of trees from 10 to 20 years old, but all the 
data which we have atpreseut points to the fact 
that estimates or prophecies of probable yields 
at these ages will be amply confirmed. 

COMPARATIVE TABLES OF RUBBER CROPS, 
MALAYA, 1906 AND 1907. 


No. of trees Rubber Average 
State. tapped yields Ib. yield yer 
06. 1907. 1906. 1907. tree, 1907. 
lb. Ib. Ib. oz. 
- -Selangor 364638 772656 620033 1131086 1 Pa 
2 | Perak 67710 132556 94848 272804 2 1 
= + Negri 
5 | Sembilan 91410 240401 «146891 «586864 2 7 
Pahang = _ _ _ _ 
_. {Malacca a7000 12455 al2060 23490 1 14 
%. 4 Province 
n Wellesley 20076 48000 a13560 82131 1 11 
Johore 48350 94159 47724 182495 1 15 
Total 599184 1300227 935056 2278870 1.12 


In Province Wellesley is included one estate in Singapore, 
one estate in Penang and one in Kedah, 
aThese figures are approximate. 


GAMBIER CULTIVATION IN WEST 
SUMATRA. 


The Netherlands India Government has taken 
steps to encourage gambier-growing among 
the Malays of West Sumatra by giving ad- 
vances to the cultivators without charging 
interest. At present the export of the article 
there averages 12,000 piculs a year against 70,000 
piculs in the Residency of Rhio. This Rhio 
gambier is grown by Chinese and has a good 
name in the market as dyeing and tanning 
material. The Government has been advised 
to engage Chinese planters from Rhio to teach 
the Sumatra Malays how to grow gambier 
for the Huropean and American markets. The 
Malay gambier is grown only for the local 
market for consumption along with betel leaf, 
--Malay Mail, Sept. 19. 


and Magazine of the Ceylon Agricultural Society. 


CLEAN WEEDING ON RUBBER 
ESTATES. 


Mr. Carruthers Criticised, 


Mr. A. B. Lake, a prominent Malaya planter, 
takes Mr..Carruthers severely to task for advoca- 
ting the avoidance of clean weeding on rubber es- 
tates, as enabling better growth as well asa saving 
in expenditure oflabour. Mr. Lake not only con- 
demns the F. M. 8. Director for not having 
pointed to any one estate where the system has 
been long tried and found a success, but goes 
so far as speak of Mr. Carruthers having had no 
practical experience at all. Asa planter, perhaps 
not; but from planters—and Malaya planters, 
too—he must have obtained his views, after 
using abundant opportunities as Director of 
Agriculture for seeing a good many estates 
throughout the Maley States. We cannot re- 
call Mr. Carruthers’ having counselled Ceylon 
planters to leave weeds alone, among rubber 
(the bulk of which was very young when he was 
here) or any other product. However, as to 
the point itself Mr, Lake writes in a convinc- 
ing style--we reproduce the letter--and we 
will be interested to read the Malaya official’s 
reply. We notice that at the P. A. M. meet- 
ing it was suggested Mr. Carruthers should be 
asked to value estates with a view to loans to 
planters, District Oflicers having reported some 
estates, when not clean-weeded, as abandoned. 


(To tHE Epitor, ‘‘MaAtay Matt.” ] 


Dear Sir,—Having just read an article en- 
.titled ‘‘Clean weeding of rubber clearings” in 
your yesterday’s issue, I send you a belated 
article addressed to the Editor, The Agricultural 
Bulletin, which I wrote 3 weeks ago, but never 
sentin. It is but a very general reply to an 
article headed ‘‘ Weeding in Para rubber culti- 
vation,” as an answer in detail would have taken 
up too much space. My letter is as follows :— 


I have just read an article by Mr J B Carru- 
thers on ‘t Weeding in Para rubber cultivation” 
in your September number, in which he holds 
up to contumely clean weeding. I feel impelled 
to join issue with him, as his article, being very 
plausible, may do an incomparable amount of 
harm. I do not believe that the Planters ofthis 
country are as a body incapable of looking after 
their own interests; they are all willing to accept 
good advice, and any new system, which can be 
shown to bea commercial success. But they will be 
very ill-advised if, at the instigation of a gentle- 
map who has after all no practical experience, 
they abandon old methods for new without proof 
that the new system is superior to the old, 
Have we any proof at present, which would 
warrant this change? I say most emphatically 
“no”; that one estate had the luck to grow up 
in ‘‘beluker” and not lalang is no proof. 


Mr Carruthers tells us the ground should be 
moist—and shaded. I grant him he is theor- 
etically right, and Iwill grant him that he is 
practically right when he can show me one 
hundred acres of eight-year-old rubber treated 
according to his system which can compare 
favourably in yield and cost of bringing into 
bearing with a like area of clean-weeded rubber. 
Mr Carruthers assumes that the planter believes 


62 


489 


in clean weeding for clean weeding’s sake; it is 
not so, but that he knows that on an estate clean- 
liness is far above godliness, where expenditure 
is concerned (clean weeding is cheap-weeding). 


That many estates have to pay large sums 
for weeding is no proof that properly 
selected estates (no kampong land, and laid out 
on the rectangle) cannot be weeded cheaply if 
kept clean from the burn. 


It really passes my understanding how Mr 
.Carruthers can state that ‘‘without any detri- 
ment tothe rubber this method of cultivation 
reduces more than considerably the cost of 
bringing a rubber estateinto bearing”: any non- 
resident reader would imagine that Mr Car- 
ruthers could point to an estate where his sys- 
tem of cultivation had been tried for years and 
found a success ; whereas in fact it is a theory 
put forward by a well-meaning, but, I fear, 
misguided man. Itis, I think, much to be re- 
gretted that one holding the high official posi- 
tion of Mr Carruthers should actually ventilate 
in print such unproven theories, and it is with 
the feeling that it is someone’s duty to point 
outthat in this year of grace they still are 
theories, that I have ventured to put pen to 
paper. Yours, etc., B. Lake, 


Batu Unjor KHstate, Klang, Oct. 4th, 1908. 


PLANTING IN TRAVANCORE. 


RUBBER AND TEAi 


Woe call attention to a chatty letter from our 
old friend, Mr. Drummond-Deane, on _ this 
page. He gives a good deal of information 
in regard to the progress of Rubber, which is 
satisfactory, and indicates a new Limited Com- 
pany for the two products as in course of 
promotion—one which, we think, ought to take 
and do well, having regard to the statistics put 
forward, 


(From an ex-Ceylon Planter.) 


Sept, 29 ‘Rubber ” is really doing very well 
indeed, and though little is said or written on the 
subject, it will, I venture to think, assert itself in 
the nearfuture. I am thinking of patting these 
places and two rubber places into a Company, and 
if it goes through, Mr, T C Owen will be a Dir- 
ector, and, probably, Messrs. Rowe, White & 
Co. will be Agents. Certain people have the 
refusal up to 30th November. The capital to be 
£60,000 with an issue of £55,000—on which it 
is estimated the tea will at once pay a 5 per 
cent dividend and continue to do so, while the 
rubber comes into bearing. The lands consist 
of tea: Stagbrook, Hope and Maymolly estates 
in Peermade 1,167 acres, of which 687 are in 


bearing and 124 immature tea and 356 reserve 
lands. Eldorado Rubber Estate :— 
1904... 45 acres. | 1907 ... 108 acres, 
1905.,,.3:31 160) 5, W908) 0 9 201 45 
1906 .., 345 ,, 
678 


Roserve land,..136 
Total,,.S14 


490 


Kokay-aar estate, rubber :— 
1908 


234 acres. 
\ Reserve ... 1a 
Total ... 346, 


Eldorado and Kokay-aar estates join each 
other and both are within three hours’ rido 
of Stagbrook. We have nothing wonderful in 
growth, but it is even and good. 


Our best ‘‘ Hevea” 4-year old trees in August 
measured 22 inches girth, 3 feet from ground ; 
the best 3-year old trees 143 to 14% inches 3 feet 
from ground, Our best Castilloa trees, Mexican 
variety, 4-year old, measure 32 inches 3 feet from 
ground, We have some3,000 trees of this variety 
as boundaries between the forest and the Hevea 
fields of rubber. A few trees of this sort we 
tapped and made a few biscuits as a curiosity 
for the Exhibition. { did not care to tap the 
young Hevea trees. 


I am fairly well, but shall be glad of a trip 
home as it is over 10 years since I had a trip. 
My son is in charge of Eldorado, and will 
relieve me as Manager of the whole group if 
I get away; but I want to remain here to see 
the Company started, should it be subscribed, 
and then hope to get home early next year. 


RUBBER TREES IN COLOMBO. 


October 17th. 


Six,—As so very much interest is being evinced 
in rubber, I feel something should be done to 
enable visitors to Colombo to know where they 
can see rubber trees, especially as there are, at 
least, three very fine ones in this City. 


1. The Ficus Llastica, or Rambong in the garden 
of the Royal College, which can be seen from the 
right-hand side of the road leading from Norris 
Road to St. Sebastian Hill. 


2&3. In ‘‘Marandahn House,” 2nd Division, 
Maradana, a largeand a small Hevea B asiliens s 
or Para, both of which have ‘herring bone ”’ in- 
cisions. It will be interesting to know from Mr. 
Charles Mackwood how much Jatex was obtained. 


4. Asmall Para tree in the Victoria Park, near 
the Band-stand, showing V-shaped incisions. 


5 & 6. Two Para trees on the right-hand side 
of Skinner’s Road South, nearly opposite its 
junction with Silversmith Street and at the turn 
to *‘Paradise Villa.” There are some small 
Para trees in the garden of the Lady Have- 
lock Hospital. 


A few days ago I was looking at the tree in 
the Royal College, aud could not help thinking 
what a very fine one it was—as fine as those at 
the entrance to the Royal Botanical Gardens, 
Peradeniya. It must be the oldest Rubber Tree 
in the East. It would be worth keeping photo- 
graphs of this, and the two largest Para trees, 
and specimens of the tatex of both varieties, in 
the Colombo Museum. I remember there was no 
difficulty in the latex of the two trees in the 
garden of the Colombo Academy coagulating, the 
balls being very resilient. As a Dutch Governor 
resided on St. Sebastian Hill, I think it the 
oldest in the Hast. a 


The Supplement to the Tropical Agriculturist 


VALUATION OF RUBBER ESTATES. 
A SLIDING SCALE. 
Upcountry, Oct. 15th. 

DEAR Sir,—In your evening contemporary 
(15th June last) there appeared a paragraph on 
the Value of Rubber Estates in the Klang 
District of Selangor. A gentleman is alleged 
to have valued rubber at 18 months of age 
at £30 sterling per acre, rubber one year old 
at £25 per acre and so downwards. This 
valuation included plants in nursories, buildings 
and tools, and had regard to draining and the 
richness of the soil, etc. 

I am not aware whether these figures would 
be accepted as suflicient in Ceylon, and, in 
any case, there seem to be no authentic data 
of this kind to go upon, nor do any of the 
gentlemen experienced in rubber appear as 
“Valuators ” in your Directory. 

Is there any kind of accepted sliding scale 
on which the value of rubber property can 
be calculated, having regard to the mere age 
of the trees and the price of rubber? Such 
a valuation would be useful for general pur- 
poses, though it could only be an approximate 
one, as the considerations of the growth of 
the plants, the soil, buildings, environment, 
accessibility, etc., must necessarily be the work 
of an expert Valuator, to whom, as of course, 
no one should grudge his reasonable 

FEES. 


WANTED : 


RUBBER FROM ENGLISH PLANTS. 


Satisracrory Resutts or Tests or SAMPLES, 

Dr. Docherty and Mr. Alsebrook, of Burton, 
who claim to have discovered a method of mak- 
ing on sound commercial linesfrom plants grown 
in the district, a material equal to the best 
Para rubber, have received the results of the 
tests by a firm in the North of England. Their 
samples, which have been vulcanised—the only 
process for which Dr. Docherty and his part- 
ner had not the necessary apparatus—were re- 
turned as perfect samples of rubber. The pro- 
duct, it is said, stood well the stringent. test of 
vulcanisation, the samples returned being of 
fine texture, resilient, flexible, and capable of 
hard wear. At first the experts suggested that 
the invented material in its raw condition was 
undesirably dark, but this the inventors have 
rectified by extracting the darkening element 
and leaving it the required light-grey colour,— 
L. & C. Express, Sept. 25. 


VITALITY OF THE CLOVE TREE OF 
ZANZIBAR. 


From the current number of the Agricultural 
Bulletin of the Straits and Federated Malay States 
we learn that the cultivation of the clove tree 
was abandoned in Singapore about the year 
1860 and that the trees succumbed to a red spot 
fungus which attacked the leaves. The writer 
describes ‘‘a very old tree” in the Singapore 
Botanic Gardens which has been gradually 
dying for some years and another tree growing 
under a laree Para rubber tree which “has, as 
far as I have known, never flowered.” The “ very 


and Magazine of the Ceylon Agricultural Society. 


old tree” does not date back as far as 1860 and 
hence would be several decades younger than 
many of the clove trees in the Weti district of 
Pemba where our oldest trees are to be found. 
A red spotted fungus is found upon the leaves 
‘of our trees, but it is quite harmless even to 
check the growth of the clove trea here, The 
vitality of the clove tree in these islands is quite 
extraordinary when one remembers it is an 
exotic plant. Save where the trees have been 
killed outright, even the late drought seems to 
have done little harm, the plantations abound- 
ing with new growth.—Zanzibar Gazelte. Aug. 29, 


THE RUBBER INTEREST IN MALAYA. 


In moving for increased representation of 
Malaya Planters in the Straits Legislature Mr 
C LGibson, at the P. A. M. meeting of Oct. 
5th, brought forward the following figures :— 

1. CaprraL INVESTED. 
(Very incomplete—rubber only.) 
Paid up F,M.S. dols, 21,483,353 
Straits (Colony) 3,734,160 
Johore 1,942,543 


dols, 27,160,056 
say dols. 30,000,000 probably all in 3 years £3,500,000 
2. AcREAGE UNDER RUBBER. 


(Exclusive of Johore and the Colony.) 
At end of 1907 Rubber 126,235 acres 


Coffee 10,833 ,, 
Sundries 24,695 ,, 
161,763 


Of above, rubber in 1907 alone, 40,473 acres, i.e, 1-3 in 
single year. 


3. Export RusBBEk FROM F, M.S. ONLy. 


(Not including Johore and Colony.) 
0) 1,028,792 lb. =460 tons. 
1907 


6 mos, 1908 


to 81st Dec. ; say 1,300 tons, 
4. Duty Pap. 


(F.M.S. only.) 
1906 dols. 50,023 
1907 97,750 
6 mos. 1908 52,000 to 31st Dec., say dols. 115,000. 
Depreciated market first six months; now rising, 


5. As Empnovers or Lapour 


and so contributing indirectly, but still considerably to the 
Revenue. Malay Peninsula, 75,000. 

F. M.S. Total Labourers end of 1907, 58,000, of which 
Tamils and Javanese =55,000 ; large increase 1908. 


6. Vatur or Rupper Exrortep. 
(3 States as per declaration Government Gazette.) 


1906 dols, 1,855,436 
1907 3,882,000 
6mos. | 1908 2,080,000 


EXPORT OF CAMPHOR FROM 
FORMOSA. 


The following particulars as to the distribution 
of the camphor exported from Formosa in 1907 
are given by British Consul Chalmers :— 


To Havre, London 


and Hamburg, To America, To Madras, ‘otal. 
lb. lb. lb. Ib. 
2,452,933 1,635,300 33,333 4,121,566 


Of this amount 1,079,733 lb. (1,046,400 Ib. for 
America and 33,333 lb. for Madras) were shipped 
by local steamers from Keelung for tranship- 
ment at Kobe. Thus no camphor was ultimately 
destined for Japan. Itis reported that there 


491 


has been a large increase in the camphor mana- 
factured by the camphor monopoly in 1907 as 
compared with 1906, the figures being 5,388,918 
lb., as against 4,040,838 Ib,, an increase of 
1,348,080 lb. By the latest returns the produc- 
tion of camphor oil shows an increase of over 
85 per cent in 1907, being 6,710,390lb., as against 
3,610,645 lb, in 1906. Hitherto all the camphor 
oil has been shipped to Kobe to be converted 
into refined camphor, but 


A REFINERY IS TO BE ERECTED 


in Taihoku, the capital of Formosa, at 
a cost of about £14,000, and in future the cam- 
phor will undergo the necessary process there. 
It is said that a new method of distillation has 
been recovered, and that by this method as well 
as by the saving of expense in transport a con- 
siderable economy will be eftected.—Indian 
Trade Journal, Oct. 8. 


RUBBER TANNED LEATHER. 


A new syndicate has established a factory 
and is placing upon the market a new form 
of leather, for which there seems to be a big 
future. It is an .old saying that ‘‘nothing 
wears hike leather,” while rubber manufacturers 
are equally confident respecting the wear- 
resisting properties of good india-rubber; but 
when we get a satisfactory combination of the 
two materials the problem of wear-resisting pro- 
perties seems to be still further advanced towards 
the attainment of a perfect material. Although 
new in this country, this material has been 
manufactured in Australia from the beginning 
of the present century, and some very excellent 
results obtained. 


The leather is submitted to a tanning process 
of the chrome variety, which preserves it; rubber 
solution is then worked into the interstices, 
rendering the hide thoroughly waterproof, The 
elasticity of the rubber permits of the perfect 
flexibility which is unobtainable in ordinary oak 
bark tanniug. We inspected a number of skins 
of various animals treated by this process, and 
were astonished at the extraordinary toughness 
of some of the skins, especially of rabbit, goat 
and sheep skins. 


It is impossible to forecast the many uses for 
which this process may be available. ‘Tests have 
been made for motor tyres, soles for boots and 
shoes, pump washers, machine belting, miners’ 
boots, etc., and we feel certain that the multi- 
tude of articles that can be made of rubberised 
leather will, in time, create a further demand 
for rubber for use in connection with the leather 
trade for articles now made solely of leather. 
As an instance of the possibilities of this mate- 
rial, we would suggest that suitable waterproof 
gloves could be made for motorists, tramway 
drivers, electricians, etc. 


We feel sure that this material will prove 
useful for motor and cycle tyres, as it is almost 
impossible to puncture it, and itis much more 
resilient and waterproof than ordinary leather, 


Those interested in this trade should apply to 
the Rubber Tanning Syndicate, at Finsbury 
Pavement House, London, E.C.—Jndia-Rubber 
Journal, Sept. 21. 


492, 


“PURUB’—A NEW METHOD OF 
COAGULATION. 


By Dr. Frank. 

It is a well-known fact that hydrofluoric acid 
is wonderfully efficient in preserving plant-saps, 
and thatis also has the power of killing the wild 
yeast in the fermentation process without in 
any way influencing the alcoholic fermentation. 
Furthermore, the fact that this substance acts 
in extreme dilution induced Sandman to experi- 
ment with hydrofluoric acid. The results are 
extremely satisfactory, since all the advantages 
of the smoking process are secured, while the 
drawbacks of this method disappear. The pro- 
cess is carried out in the following manner :— 

The hydrofluoric acid comes on the markets 
as ‘‘Purub,” in a condition enabling it to be 
easily shipped. The latex is strained through 
a cloth to remove the mechanical impurities 
and, if necessary, diluted to prevent spontaneous 
coagulation. The working charge is about 2 or 
3 litres. To 1 litre latex is added a mixture of 
50 grs. water and 5c. c. Purub solution, After 
adding the diluted Purub the mass is stirred 
and then allowed to stand. The rubber which 
has separated out soon begins to collect asa 
compact mass on the surface of the almost clear 
liquid. The coagulated mass is removed and 
washed. It is then either pressed in the pri- 
mitive manner with a wooden press or else rolled 
out. The resulting strips can then be pressed 
into blocks inthe wet state, or after superficial 
drying, and are then ready for shipment. The 
quantity of latex per charge is limited only by 
the size of the vessels employed and the 
means at hand for manipulation. It is readily 
seen that in this manner a workman is 
capable of working upa large amount of latex 
in five hours without exerting himself to any 
extent, and without being in the least incon- 
venienced. Ontheother hand, an industrious 
workman is scarcely able to work up more 
than 20 litres of latex in five hours by. the 
smoking method, 

The results so far show that rubber obtained 
by the Purub process has not the least ten- 
dency to ferment or decompose. The rubber, 
furthermore, is in a good state, physically and 
is very easily worked up. These properties 
are easily explained if one studies the state- 
ments made above. Any bacteria liable to cause 
decomposition are killed, and their re-forma- 
tion prevented. The adhering of the particles 
takes place under conditions which effect the 
tompletest distribution of the antiseptic, since 
no sudden coagulation is brought about, The 
manipulation of the process is simple. 

It seems only necessary to mention the ob- 
served fact that the rubber obtained by the 
Purub method vulcanises exceptionally quickly, 
so much so that the sulphur is in complete 
combination with the rubber before it com- 
bines with any litharge present in the mixing. 
—India Rubber-Journal, Sept. 21. 


FROM A BIG RUBBER DISTRICT. 


A proprietary planter writes to us :— 

“ We have been very interested to hear of your 
Senior’s enterprising trip to Sumatra and Java, 
of which, no doubt, we shall read more soon 


The Supplement to the Tropical Agriculturist 


in the Observer. The only fear is, it may 
disgust him to compare what he has seen 
there with the somewhat poorer growth of 
rubber in Ceylon. But as my argument always 
was when in olden days in Dikoya, I heard 
invidious comparisons made with Haputale : 
‘Wish them joy in their better luck as long as 
it does not interfere with you, and you can make 
£5 an acre out of your coffee instead of £10 !’— 
and the worst I can say here of our holding 
is, that if prices keep reasonably near pre- 
sent quotations we are likely in this part of 
the world to realise the former anyhow, 
and possibly something better. I find in 
exposed parts, wind the worst enemy, which, 
no doubt, will yield to abundant plantings of 
albizzias, &c., and the system of cultivation 
adopted has a tendency, probably, to retard 
the growth of the trees in their early stages— 
though, looking ahead, its advantages over clean 
weeding can hardly be questioned. I have trees 
‘ 2 years and 9 months old from seed’ up to 19 
and 20 inches in circumference at foot--and alas! 
some not 6 inches! We mean to cultivate fairly 
liberally--the benefit of which should show 
in a year or so. My question is: will 300 acres 
of rubber suffice to give a moderate income 
permanently? The ‘fiver’ willamply content me, 
and looking at things squarely I do not see 
that it is too much on the unit to expect! The 
trend of present industry and requirements 
seems to me to point imperatively to the rapidly 
increasing rise of rubber, such that, if no 
adequate substitute is found, the natural sup- 
ply will hardly be able to do much more than 
keep pace with it in the future. Let us hope 
so—plenty of labour: no fatalities ; and rubber 
pavement universal.” 


TEA CULTIVATION IN NYASALAND 
PROTECTORATE. 


The report for 1907-8 on the Nyasaland Protec- 
torate, recently issued by the Colonial Office, 
gives the following details respecting the culti- 
vation of tea in that Protectorate :— 

The cultivation of this product is still con- 
fined to the Mlanje district, where the soils 
and climate are well suited to its growth. There 
are now 516 acres under tea, and this area is 
being increased yearly. The crop for 1907-8 is 
stated to have been 24 tons, and 9% tons are 
estimated for the present year. Much of the 
tea at present produced is consumed in the 
country. Tea cultivation is not taken up with 
eagerness by planters, as a period of five or 
six years has to elapse before any return is 
made on the capital expended. 


It is well known that the quality of tea im- 
proves as the bush matures, and those who 
tasted the locally-grown and manufactured 
article three years ago, now report that a great 
improvement has taken place in the quality. 
Tea cultivation requires a good deal of capi- 
tal, but it is understood that it can be pro- 
duced in Nyasaland at a cheaper rate than is 
possible in India or Ceylon. As soon there- 
fore, as Nyasaland tea obtains a footing on the 
London market, it should draw attention to 
that country as a possible field for the invest- 
ment of capital,--Board of Trade Journal, Oct.1, 


and Magazine of the Ceylon Agricultural Society. 


TEA SEED: ITS SELECTION AND 


GROWTH. 


For choice, tea seed should be selected, not 
from plots that have been left for seed, but from 
seed gardens that have been planted with the 
sole object of raising seed, and that have never 
been touched by knife or sullied by vicious deep 
hoe. We havein our mind’s eye a seed garden 
that answers to all requirements essential to a 
hybridised initiative plant. It hes inthe Mikir 
hills and is entirely isolated from contact with 
any plant devoted to commercial purposes. The 
smallest mature plant on this property is not 
less than twenty feet in height, and the highest 
nearly forty. The seed from this plantation is 
invariably sound and is instrong demand. The 
area bears some koroi trees which are the re- 
mains of the original forests, and it is under 
these the largest and most exuberant plants 
are found. This is, in our opinion, the most 
thorough example of what aseed garden should 
be ofall the seed gardens and plots we have 
been privileged to visit. It is essentially an 
ordinated forest of tea, with little or no under- 
growth and thin interposing grass; practically 
free from 90per cent. of the blights prominent 
in cultivated areas of tea. It is cleared in Oc- 
tober each year, by a very perfunctory clod hoe, 
to facilitate the collection of the seed, but 
otherwise left to nature. All high class plant is 
delicate, and will not flower or set such good 
seed, if touched by knife or hoe except on 
strictly protective lines. The higher the 
class of plant, the longer it will take to reach 
maturity and to seed; but it bears some 
immunity from blights under all circum- 
stances, and herein lies the crux of the whole 
question : the yield of tea given by the high 
class plant is superior in quality to that ren- 
dered by any hybrid, no matter how robust. We 
have experimented crucially on this point, and 
we are quite satisfied that tea manufactured 
from Lushai or Assam indigenous will command 
six pies more thanthat manufactured from ad- 
jacent areas of hybridised plant. The same 
should apply to Nagaplant, but we cannot speak 
decidedly of Manipuri. The greater the differ- 
ence in the class of plant, the greater the differ- 
ence in the quality, buik for bulk, and the larger 
the size of the leaf the greater the yield in con- 
tiguous areas. A garden of inferior hybrid is, 
prima facie, handicapped, both in quantity and 
quality when compared with some of marked 
superiority in class of plant. A good manager 
will make satisfactory profits off a well 
equipped hybrid garden, but a fool can scarcely 
make a mistake on an underpowered garden of 
high class plant. We do not for a moment lose 
sight of the value of soil and climate, but in- 
sist that the initiative of quality in plant is a val- 
uable asset in the balance sheet of any estate. 


IN ABSOLUTELY SOUND SEED 


the exterior brown integument or capsule should 
always adhere tothe seed. In all cases where this 
follicle fails to attach itself to the seed, the 
germination is more readily affected by cli- 
matic influences and subterraneous blights 
(and there are many such). Heavy seeds is 
not ipso facto good seed, any more than light 


493 


seed is de facto bad. A large percentage of 
sound seed plucked in a dry December, though 
light, has the follicle adhering to the seed, 
and all this—if not carelessly treated—is cer- 
tain of germination. Of one hundred seeds 
shelled and planted, fifty of which had the 
follicle adhering and of which fifty were 
without this protection, forty-nine of the first 
category threw up healthy plants, while only 
two of the latter showed above ground at 
all, and one of these failed to reach matu- 
rity. The percentages of unshelled seed under 
these headings is difficult of estimation, as 
cracking and replacing the fragments be- 
comes essential ; but in this phase the for- 
mer gave an effective of 94 pér cent. while 
the latter showed orily 42. If each garden 
could set apart a small area of the very best 
plant procurable for the purpose of propagating 
on bigh class hybrid, the standard of plant on 
individual gardens would undoubtedly improve 
slowly and steadily. The plea of the 


ADVISABILITY OF INTERCHANGE 


of seeds, on the basis of a similar status 
adopted with regard to cereals, applies 
but in an extremely modified form to 
the tea industry, as it is never, except possibly 
(and that remotely) in the case of transplants, 
planted on the same area and soil, and the 
variation in surroundings and soil, between 
a seed garden and its proximate culti- 
vated area, is quite sufficient to foil the most 
minute statistician, in appreciation ofa valid 
and tangible depreciation in the areas devoted 
for comparison on the issue of mutation of seed 
alone. We must make it quite clear as to, what 
we look upon as the essentials of a good seed 
garden, and to do this, we cannot do better than 
postulate the steps requisite to the effective 
development of such an area. The best indige- 
nous seed should be procured and if possible 
from two or three sources, and this should be 
most carefully germinated and planted in shaded 
nurseries, not less than twelve inches apart, 
shade being essential to the class of plant we 
have premised. Indigenous plant is shy of 
setting either flower or fruit and this can only 
be induced by assisting nature in her own 
methods, viz., by natural shade from selected 
trees, of which Albizzia stipulata and Leguminosa: 
generally are types, and by the most careful ap- 
plication of well-tried manures, in very moderate 
quantities, and without in any way injuring the 
root processes. The seed garden referred to is 
never cultivated in the ordinary acceptance of 
the term, but despite this the branches have at 
times to be supported to facilitate the collection 
of the seed. One peculiarity seems worth men- 
tioning, that in this small forest of tea, only six- 
teen acres in extent, there were no less than 
nine swarms of bees and the proprietor consi- 
dered these a necessary adjunct for success for 
free fertilisation. Should indigenous seed not be 
selected, but a high class hybrid be decided on, 
absolute isolation becomes imperative, and the 
best sites for selection undoubtedly lie at the 
bases of valleys in the adjacent hills. A site for 
a seed clearance should have a warm, equable 
temperature and be well protected on the north 
and east, as well as screened onthe west,—Indian 
Planters’ Gazette, Oct. 17. 


494 


JAVA’S NEW ‘‘ COFFEA ROBUSTA 
DISAPPOINTING. 


Coffee-growing has long been in a bad way 
in Java, owing to the ravages of disease among 
the plants, and many planters in despair have 
abandoned their estates or have turned to rub- 
ber. But the hope of others rose high on the 
discovery of a variety of the berry known as 
Robusta, which was reputed to be both good 
and disease-proof. Those who took to the new 
kind of coffee, however, find disappointment 
again dogging them. Brokers in Holland who 
tested samples of it report that the coffee is 
inferior in quality. It can only come into de- 
mand when there is a lack of better kincds,— 
Straits Times, Oct. 14. 


THE LANTANA PEST. 


A vigorous letter onthis subject appears 
in this issue. The exact value or curse of 
lantana is arguable: but it would be an 
excellent thing if a rule could be brought 
in to the effect that all occupied land should 
be kept clear of undergrowth, including Lan- 
tana. The P W D, Local Boards, and village 
Committees might set the example and clean 
up road reservations, which are often—even 
about Colombo—in a very dirty condition, There 
is nothing that strikes the traveller in India 
more forcibly than the clean condition in which 
land is kept there. 


Oct. 16. 

Dear Sir,—You did sonobly in the Opium 
Question. Now, will you help inthis matter ? 
You, dwellers in the metropolis, cannot imagine 
the nuisance and expense this shrubis to out- 
side dwellers. 

It was, I understand, first introduced into 
Ceylon from Australia by Lady Horton 75 years 
ago, who had it planted in Government House 
‘gardens. And now it has spread till it has 
become the scourge of the country. Whole 
villages are eaten up by it, grazing destroyed, 
paths obliterated, small garden crops overcome ; 
a dense jungle of it grows up on all sides, every 
season increasing in area by mighty strides, 
fcom each new crop of blossom and seed. What 
is to be done? The natives will sit quietly in 
despair and see their land eaten up unless 
stimulated to do something from outside. 

Can Government at least not insist that its 
C®cwn own Sands shall not be the grand breed- 
ing-beds of this pest, whence the seed is borne 
onall sides to be the devastation of small 
private holdings ? 

I speak feelingly. It is vain for me to go to 
the expense of clearing my land when the 
adjoining Crown land is one dense jungle of 
lantana whence all the seed will be carried to 
my newly-cleared land by the first wind. 

lf onall Government grounds the lantana 
were at least cué down close tohe ground and 
burned once or twice a year, it could be not only. 
very quickly done, giving work to the un- 
employed, but literally at the expense of only 
one or two rupees per acre. This, though not 
clearing the roots, would prevent the spread of 
blossom and seed, 


The Supplement to the Tropical Agriculturist 


Having looked to the cleansing of its waste 
lands, could not Government require that all 
occupiers of premises belonging to Government 
Schools, Post Offices and Dispensaries should 
keep their land clear and that all officials of 
every grade, including village headmen? That 
all these be required to keep land and gardens 
in their own immediate occupation clear; and 
that headmen be instructed to direct the atten- 
tion of all villagers under their control to this 
matter. P. W. D. Inspectors and Irrigation 
Officers to see that streams are clear of this 
overgrowth. In this district every watercourse 
runs through and is overhung by a dense jungle 
of it. It is a rank feverish plant, and if the 
overworked officials named cannot see to it, the 
creation of Inspectors to deal with this pest 
would surely be worthwhile. Unless we all pull 
together, public bodies and private individuals’ 
vast tracts of land will be not only useless them- 
selves, but breeders of devastation to all grazing 
and small crops. 

Villagers are mostly very poor and seldom 
have time, money nor inclination to labour at 
this nuisance after their ordinary daily toil is 
over. Butif every man and boy would do what 
he can, by arming himself with a stout stick and 
slashing off blossom and seed as he went to and 
from to work, a great deal could be done towards 
keeping paths clear, and preventing increase, 
This seems like a suggestion to ladle out the 
ocean with a spoon ; but what is to be done ? 

The 5th of November is approaching. Can 
schoolmasters. not tell their boys of the vast 
bon-fires English Jads make at this season, and 
send or take out companies of energetic school- 
boys aad get them to make huge bonfires of the 
pestilent growth. 


I trust the ‘‘ Times of Ceylon” and all other 
local papers, English and vernacular, will copy 
this letter, and that my crude suggestions may 
produce other and better ones. Could we not 
forma ‘‘ Lantana Extirpation League” and give 
prizes or do something ? 

Here, Mr. Editor, is a Christmas Competition 
ready to your hand : R5 for the best suggestion. 
—Carried out by Christmas. Othee suggestions 
earnestly solicited. If we let it alone for an- 
other 75 years, Ceylon will be one huge jungle 
everywhere outside a town.—Yours truly, 

ANTI-LANTANA. 


INTERNATIONAL RUBBER 
CONFERENCE, 


Mr Kelway Bamber on the Rubber Industry 
in the East. 


At the International Rubber Conference in con- 
nection with the International Rubber and 
Allied Trades Exhibition at Olympia, in London. 


Mr M Kertway Bamser lectured on ‘ The 
Cultivation and Preparation of Rubber in 
the East.” Sir Henry Blake presided over a 
large audience. The lecturer reminded all in- 
terested in the Industry more haste less speed, 
and the cheapest and most rapidly grown and 
manufactured rubber was not necessarily going 
to prove the most profitable in the long run. 
Eastern Planters and manufacturers had to pro- 
duce rubber that would 


and Magazine uf the Ceylon Agricultural Society. 


STAND EVERY COMMERCIAL TEST, 

and they could not afford to run the risk 
of putting on the markets of the world an in- 
ferior article that would not stand test of time 
and wear. Results had already shown that plan- 
tation rubber properly prepared from latex of 
mature trees was equal to the best Para, and 
for certain purposes superior, But it was not in 
variably the case that the rubber was properly 
prepared, and therefore those concerned must 
neglect no chance of remedying errors, and 
profiting by the experience, which it was hoped 
would be largely gained from the present instruc- 
tive Exhibition. As regards soil the Rubber 
plant had a great power of adaptability though 
rich alluvial soil suited it best. In Malaya 
where tho soil was mostly alluvial the growth of 
para was very rapid when once the land had been 
drained, and a height of l2to 14 feet and girth 
44 to 5 inches after ayear’s growth were common 
and these dimensions were frequently exceeded. 
In all cases, however, the Para evidently did 
best where the soil was rich in decomposed 
humus (not peat) and with a fairly high per- 
centage of nitrogen. In Ceylon most of the 
rubber was first planted on Ravines on tea 
estates, and the shade of the tea bushes pro- 
tected the soil from too much exposure to the 
sun. In Malaya in the same way rubber was 
planted with Liberian coffee, and the shade 
given by the latter’s dense growth protected the 
soil from the tropical sun. Tho lecturer exhi- 
bited on the screen photographs of various 
trees growing on estates inthe Hast, and culti- 
vated with and without catch crops, and also 
with various green manures, which he thought 
showed convincingly that clean weeding was 
not essential to procuring excellent growths of 
rubber. He did not, however, advocate allowing 
grasses to run riot but rather growing a crop of 
such a habit as could be kept under control. With 
regard to lalang grass, which caused much 
trouble on many estates, he mentioned that the 
passion flower had been found to be efticacious 
in destroying this pest at small expense and he 
ventured to think that the passion flower would 
ultimately prove the salvation of many estates 
that had not sufficient capital to warrant large 
expenditure otherwise required for eradicating 
the lalang. Much money had been uselessly 
expended in clean weeding. There were several 
indigenous plants such as Crotalaria, Mimosa 
and Desmodimus which could be grown in 
many instances in such a dense manner that it 
was impossible for any weeds to grow between 
them. 


ALL THESE PLANTS WHICH BELONGED TO THE 
LEGUMINLOS@ 
and greatly benefited soils and rubber by their 
growth, were under perfect control, and easily 
eradicated. The alluvial flats of the 
Federated Malay States required an enor- 
mous amount of draining, costing large sums 
of money, and even then much water re- 
mained in the subsoil. Here, the growth of 
a luxuriant green crop with a branching and 
deep root system had the further important 
advantage of removing by evaporation through 
the leaves much of this sour sub-soil water, which 
was unfavourable to development of the rubber 
tap root on which the stability of the trees 
during heavy winds largely depended, It has 


495 


been clearly proved that the baking of the sur- 
face by the sun did notdry soil or subsoil so 
completely as did a growing leaf crop. But 
apart from these considerations there were 
other and more important ones of the question 
of the humus, and the hygroscopic power of the 
soil by which the future flow of the latex would 
be influenced te a large extent. The 


GROWTH OF GREEN CROPS IN PLACE OF CLEAN 
WEEDING 


has also long been advocated by Mr Carruthers, 
the Director of Agriculture in the F.M.S., and 
it seemed that clean weeding would soon be 
abandoned on many estates and become a thing 
of the past. The lecturer alluded to the ad- 
vantages often to be obtained by the cultivation 
of catch crops where the soil and other conditions 
were favourable. Mr Bamber dealt very fully 
with the question of tapping and, efter describing 
the methods in general use, he referred to the 
basal V. system as the cheapest and probably 
the best, both for economy of bark and for 
strength of latex. He especially emphasized the 
bearing which this method of tapping would 
have upon the labour question, but pointed out 
that the successful adoption of this would de- 
pend to sone extent on soil conditions. He 
DEPRECATED THE TAPPING OF TREES TOO YOUNG 
giving five or six years as a minimum ageand he 
insisted on the need of the greatest care both 
in field and factory to get pure latex and free 
from any mechanical mixture, and also on the 
necessity of economy of bark in tapping opera- 
tions. A falling off of the percentage of 
caoutchouc to below the payable minimum in- 
dicated the need for resting the tree, and this 
was a point to which planters should give more 
attention. He compared Brazilian and Eastern 
methods of tapping to give a possible explana- 
tion of why Brazilian Rubber had _ greater 
tensile strength which he ascribed to the 
greater maturity of the globules in the Latex. 
With regard to renewal of bark he pointed out 
that the bark had now been renewed two or 
three times the yield from which was as great or 
even greater than fromthe original, thus show- 
ing the permanency of rubber production might 
from this point of view be reasonably assumed. 
Reference was made to 


PRACTICE OF BRAZILIAN TAPPERS 
who invariably make one or two gashes in the 
treesabout 3 ft. above the tapping area before 
they commence to tap, as they believe without 
these they could not obtain maximum crop. 
The idea underlying the practice was one which 
he thought might be commended to considera- 
tion of planters in the Hast. Proceeding next 
to deal with methods of manufacture Mr. Bam- 
ber urged the need for obtaining uniformity in 
colourand appearance. Palerubber produced by 


THE DESTRUCTION OF OXYDASE BY HEAT 

was generally approved by manufacturers ; many 
German. and other firms had declared that the 
demand for it would be practically unlimited if 
ample supplies could be relied upon to reach the 
market, The lecturer specially referred to the 
necessity of using only the purest water in the 
factories. Importance of not too rapidly drying 
rubber was borne out by lecturer whose views 
on this point were more or less confirmed in 
subsequent discussion, Nett results, he said, 


496 


had been obtained fromthe quickly dried pro- 
duct which were far from satisfactory and he 
expressed belief that although it was impossible 
to say definitely which was the best method of 
drying there was reason to believe that too rapid 
and complete drying would be found a serious 
mistake, and that they might be sacrificing 
some strength, elasticity and lasting power by 
the process. 

Mr. Bamber mentioned also that Continental 
buyers seemed strongly in favour of rubber 
being exported in block from 1 inch to 14 inches 
thick and about a foot square. 


RUBBER GROWERS AND MANUFAC- 
TURERS’ BANQUET. 


REPORT OF PROCEEDINGS. 


Av OtymptrA, THURSDAY, 24TH SeEpT., 1908. 

At the above dinner, 

Str Henry BLAake—proposed the Loyal 
Toasts ; and then, again rising, proposed the 
Rubber Industry. He said he must congratu- 
late this assemblage on the great success of 
the first International Rubber and Allied 
Trades Exhibition ever held. They had got 
together planters, growers and others interested 
in rubber from all parts of the world. He 
hoped to see the day when rubber would be 
reduced—he would not say to what price in 
the presence of those who were interested in 
getting as much as possible for the material 
they produced. His view was. that if rubber 
was considerably cheaper, it could be put to 
such multifarious uses—one alone being the 
paving of streets, of which in London alone there 
were 5,000 miles—that the bogey of over-pro- 
duction need not to be considered at all. He had 
hoped to see more manufacturers present, and 
felt sure that at the next Exhibition in 1910 
this would be the case. He had not hearda 
single complaint nor of a discordant note, 
and he had never had experience of any 
Exhibition conducted with so much success, 
and he congratulated the Organising Manager, 
Mr. Staines Manders, on the result of his 
labours, He invited his hearers to drink to 
to the great industry whose interests they 
were all endeavouring to promote. (Loud and 
continued applause). 

Mr. J. Lovpon SHanp—in responding to 
this toust, said that he found himself in a 

osition which no planter cared to be, viz., 
ie was a substitute. 

MR. RUTHERFORD 

would have replied for the great industry he 
that moment represented ; but as he .- 

HAD TO DEPART FOR BRITISH COLUMBIA 
the following morning, it was impossible for him 
to be present. He would, with permission of 
the President, read a letter addressed to that 
gentleman by Mr. Rutherford, which would 
explain matters :— ue 

Oxford Court, Cannon Street, E.C., 21st Sept., 1908. 

Sir Henry A. Blake, G.C,M.G. 

Dear Sir Henry,—I regret exceedingly my inability to be 
present at the Rubber Growers’ and Manufacturers Banquet 
on Thursday evening as I am on the eve of leaving for British 
Columbia. As Chairman of the Rubber Growers’ Associa- 
tion I would like to convey to you on behalf of the members 
of that body, their great appreciation of the keen interest 
you have taken in making the Exhibition a success. From 


the inception of the idea of the fultilment lof its purposes 
we owe you much for the personal efforts and enthusiasm 


The Supplement to the Tropical Agriculturist 


you have shewn in everything that could further the in- 
terests of the Rubber Industry. I feel convinced that the 
interchange of ideas among experts, growers, and manu- 
facturers which has taken place will prove of the greatest 
possible advantage to us as growers, and that the work 
of this Exhibition will bear profitable fruit in enabling us 
to avoid mistakes in curing through imperfect knowledge. 
From a Grower’s point of view if the Exhibition had no 
other result than shewing us how we could so improve 
the treatment of our Rubber as to meet entirely the re- 
quirements of manufacturers that gain alone would be 
sufficient to justify the holding of such an Exhibition. I 
trust we shall have the advantage once again of your leader- 
ship in the Exhibition proposed to be held two years’ hence 
by which time great strides will undoubtedly have been 
made in all branches of the Industry.—Yours very truly, 
(Signed) H. K. RUTHERFORD, 
Chairman of the Kubber Growers’ Association. 


Colonel BoswortH—then proposed 
THE VISITORS. 

It afforded him great pleasure to propose this 
toast on this unique occasion, viz. at the first 
International Rubber and Allied Trades Exhi- 
bition ever held. Men of science, planters, 
manufacturers and others had assembled from 
every corner of the globe, tolearnand teach. 
He warmly welcomed the visitors from every 
part of the Empire, from across the Atlantic, 
and from other great nations of the world. 
These meetings did more for the goodwill of 
mankind than any Peace Conferences. He 
specially welcomed the representatives of the 
tachnical press, who, with a loud voice and 
letters which remain, expressed themselves as 
clelighted with the treatment received at the 
hands of the Committee, particularly with the 
facilities accorded them for obtaining infor- 
mation with reference to the conferences. The 
toast was received with much enthusiasm. 

Mr. Louis Horr—of the Hurburg and Vienna 
Rubber Works—responded in the following 
terms: MrChairmanand gentlemen, itaffordsme 
great pleasure and I regard it as a great honour 
to have been asked to reply to this toast, but 
I trust you will be indulgent to me, if, in my 
attempt to address you in English I should not 
perhaps succeed in conveying my thoughts in 
adequate and appropriate terms. However, 
wishing to be understood by all assembled at 
this festive gathering, I held it best to use the 
language of the country where we the visitors 
from abroad have met with so cordial a welcome, 
and with such kind and sumptuous hospitality. 
And now permit me first of all to express 
my thanks and those of the visitors for the 
kind words of welcome addressed to us by Sir 
Henry Blake, our worthy Chairman, In doing 
so most heartily, I feel that I cannot do better 
than echo the words he has so eloquently spoken, 
being convinced that this Exhibition will be of 
immense benefit and far-reaching consequence 
for the industries interested in the Rubber 
Trade. I am sure that [ but express the senti- 
ments ofall the visitors assembled here, when 
I say that this first Exhibition of its kind has 
emphatically demonstrated tothe whole world 
the importance of our industry, and when we 
think of the enormous amount of labour, of 
trouble, and of sacrifices that was necessary to 
avert the danger of the want of raw material 
with which our industry was threatened, we 
cannot but 
ADMIRE AND APPLAUD THE FAR-SIGHTED POLICY 

OF THE BRITISH GOVERNMENT; 
for we must not forget that it was the british 
Government which wisely initiated and sub- 
sequently supported the first practical attempts 


and Magazine of the Ceylon Agricultural Society. 


at the establishment of Rubber Plantations in 
the Island of Ceylon. We are thus now enabled 
to look forward with confidence that there need 
henceforth be no fear of their being insuflicient 
raw material for the ever growing wants of our 
industry. For that industry, developed as it 
has, with rapid strides, is ever developing, will 
continue to develop, and will constantly extend 
to fresh branches of trade and manufacture. 
Consequently its wants will likewise be con- 
stantly on the increase. That being so, the 
system of establishing and fostering fresh plan- 
tations wherever the soil and the climate ave 
suitable for the cultivation of rubber, should be 
extended and promoted by all Governments. 
The work should be approached with zeal and 
alacrity alithe more because it is sure to pay. 
Expressing my personal opinion I venturs to 
say that 


WE CANNOT GET RNOUGH RAW MATERIAL, 
and thatthe more its production is increased, 
the more fields will be opened up for the use of 
Caoutchouc. Why it would not in the least sur- 
prise me if with the cheaponing of rubber, it 
would eventually provide material for the pay- 
ing of our streets. Owners of plantations must 
not be discouraged if the yield of profits does 
not realise their expectations. We all know 
that there are ups and downs in every trade 
and every industry, but I am firmly convinced 
that with increased production and greater ex- 
perience in the means of obtaining raw rubber, 


THE COST OF CULTIVATION WILL VERY 
MATERIALLY DECREASE, 


so that the economy on Rubber Plantations will 
result in satistactory returns to all concerned. 
In connection with this, here, allow me to give 
expression of my special thanks to Mr. Backle- 
ton for his efforts to awaken among those in- 
terested in that culture the idea of this exhibi- 
tion. Hehasthereby induced me to come to 
London, The entire international industry bas 
a great interest in this show, and itis the first 
time where those interested in our branch have 
come from al! parts of the globe to meet and to 
exchange their views. I hope that there may 
again be occasion before many years have passed 
tor the holding of a second similar exhibition. 
Such a future Exhibition will, 1 believe, arouse 
even greater attention than the present one, in 
consequence of the undoubtedly great success of 
this show. In conclusion, Sir, I will, with your 
permission, call upon the visitors to rise in their 
places, and drink the health of the Committee, 
aud especially of that of Sir Henry Blake, our 
Chairman. (‘‘ Hip, Hip, Hurrah.”) 
Mr. N H Witt—Commissioner for Amazonas— 
also responded. He said: Sir Hepvry Blake and 
entlemen, to me falls the agreeable task to join 
Mr. Hoff in the response for the feast which 
Colonel Bosworth so kindly offered to the 
visitors. May f ask for your kind indulgence if 
my words do not come up to what sentiments 
it is my desire to express to you. 


1 AM ONLY A RUBBER MAN, 

not one of those who have to do with Plan- 
tation Rubber, and whose life—from what I 
can hear and make out—is all sunshine; but one 
of those who had during the greater part of 
their life to deal with hard cure Amazonas rub- 
ber, a life full of work and trouble but of very 


63 


497 


few dinners and after-dinner speeches, I have 
often thought whether hard cure rubber was not 
calledso by the fact that it isso very hard to 
make money withit. Well, here I standbefore you 


REPRESENTING MY FRIENDS ON THE AMAZONAS 


where this hard cure rubber comes from, to 
convey to you their heartiest thanks for the 
kindness and hospitality shown to their repre- 
sentative. Many yearsago onthe great Amazon 
river, with its immense tributaries only canoes 
were being used ; occasionally a sailing vessel 
would connect its different townships. British 
enterprise sent over from Hurope a big fleet of 
river steamers which ply now on the mighty 
viver and connects its remotest parts with the 
rest of the world. British enterprise and energy 
again established first a rapid over-sea com- 
raunication. The Booth Steamship Co, takes 
away the richos the tropical forests produce and 
brings back in return the goods manufactured 
by Europe and the United States in its fine 
fleet of steamers; when trade developed, 
British enterprise laid a sea cable down to 
Para and connected later ali Para with Manaos 
by a cable laid down in the bed of the Amazon. 
I hope the time will also come when British 
and other foreign capital will partake in get- 
ting the produce out of these wonderfully vast 
and rich forests to a larger extent than has 
been the case so far. Now, as for rubber 


YOU SAID—WHY SHALL WE NOT CONQUER 
NATURE ITSELF 


and the wild growing rubber trees ; why not 
plant and cultivate them and collect rubber 
from these plantations in the same way as we 
collect tea, coffee and other tropical produce ? 
But hardly had you succeeded to some extent 
in doing so, when you said in true Enelish 
goodfellowship and liberality, let us invite all 
the nations of the world interested in rubber 
growing, let us tell them our experience and 
have an exchange of ideas, let us have an In- 
ternational Rubber Exhibition from which all 
the worid may derive a benefit. So we have 
come from all parts of the tropical world and 
you have received us with open arms and 
made us feel at home amongst you. Great has 
been the benefit we have derived from this In- 
ternational exchange of ideas and we leave 
you a good deal wiser than wo came, Allow 
me, Sir Henry Biake, and gentlemen, to thank 
you most heartily on behalf of my friends on 
the Amazonand myself for your kindness and 
hospitality. 


Mr. BuckLETon—proposed 
Tus TecwnicaL Pruss, 


whose valuable work everyone recognised, and 
whose good-will towards this Exhibition had 
been so amply demonstrated. 


Mr. H CU Pearson—responded, He really 
thought that on the whole the Technical Press 
worked for the good of the industries they 
represented. The day of the blackmailing 
technical press was nearly past and an honest 
endeavour was made by them, speaking generally, 
to uphold the interests of those for whom they 
wrote, whilst also taking care to preserve their 
own, Personally he was extremely proud of 
this Exhibition, (Loud applause.) 


498 


Mr. Norman GRIEVE--proposed the 


HEALTH OF THE CHAIRMAN. 

He expatiated on the extraordinary interest 
Sir Henry Blake had taken in every detail of 
the work, which had been extremely hard, and 
emphasised the gratitude felt’ by everyone con- 
nected with the Exhibition, from the highest 
to the lowest, for his invaluable support. A 
little movement had just been set on foot, (but 
unfortunately too late to execute it that evening) 
by which it was 


INTENDED TO PRESENT SIR HENRY WITH A SLIGHT 
MEMENTO 

of this exhibition (loud applause) which would 
be valued, he was sure, not because of its 
intrinsic worth, but because of the good-will 
which impelled those who had undertaken this 
pleasurable duty to see it through. The in- 
scription would be something like this:— 

‘*Presented by a number of those interested to Sir 
Henry Klake, G.C.M.G., President of the 1st Rubber and 
Allied Trades Exhibition held in Englind, at Olympia, 
in September, 1908, as a memento of their appreciation 
of his services on that occasion,” 

In conclusion, he asked everyone to stand and 
drink the health of Sir Henry Blake, which 
was done amidst loud and continued cheering, 
cheers being also given for Lady Blake. 

Sir Henry Blake’s Reply. 

Sir Henry Brake—on rising—received an 
ovation. He had not words in which to ex- 
press his appreciation of the reception of this 
toast, and particularly the reference to his 
dear wife Lady Blake. He thanked them from 
the bottom of his heart, and if by any effort 
on his part the great Rubber Industry could 
be helped, no man would be more pleased than 
he. He again thanked them for the cordial 
way in which his name had been received. 
(Loud cheers.) 

Sir Henry-—-again rising—said he must pro- 
pose a toast which did not appear on the list, 
viz., that of 


COLONEL BOSWORTH, THE CHAIRMAN OF THE 
EXECUTIVE COMMITTRE; AND MR A, STAINES 
MANDERS, THE ORGANISING MANAGER. 

They allknew how those two gentlemen had 
worked for the good of the Exhibition, and they 
must be proud of the success which had attended 
their eftorts. Mr Staines Manders was one of 
the most energetic men he had ever known, and 

he proposed their health jointly. (Cheers.) 
CoLonEL BoswortH—thanked those present 
for the kind way in which they had received the 
toast. If the work had at times been a little 
hard, it was a labour of love, and more than com- 
pensated by the acquaintances and sometimes 
friends he had made during the Exhibition. 


Mr A Sraings ManpEerRs—expressed his 
gratitude for the way in which the toast had been 
received and said that he claimed to have done 
very little himself, and in his opinion most of 
the credit was due to the various Committees, 
who had worked in many parts of the world, 
and whom he had never seen and probably 
never would see. He certainly had been busy 
during the Exhibition, so much so that he never 
had time to properly look at the exhibits, but 
he hoped to do so before the Exhibition closed. 
It afforded him great pleasure to state that every 
exhibitor had expressed his deep appreciation 


The Supplement to the Tropical Agriculturist 


of the way in which the Exhibition was con- 
ducted, the benefits they had derived from*sit, 
and, that many of them had intimated their 
intention of participating in the Exhibition of 
1910, and on that occasion taking largely in- 
creased space, He again thanked them for 
their assistance in carrying out his duties. 
THe MENv. 

The ‘‘Menu Du Diner” was as follows :— 

Hors d@uvres a la Bamber—Consommé Olympia, 
Créme du Hevea—Turbot Coagulation—Para Ham in 
Substitute Jelly—Saddle of Mutton, Netherlands— 
Poularde de F.M.S., Salade Coeur de Latex—Poires & 


la Bresil, Friandises en Formaldehyde—Plantation Des- 
sert—Café Mexico. 


GUAVAS. 

were never so plentiful and cheap in Rangoon 
as they are at present. They come in from all 
parts of the railway by car loads and also by 
boats and steamer from Twanteand Kunyangon. 
The price ranges from R3 to R5 per thousand. 
Before the railway was opened they fetched 
from 12 annas to R1-8 per hundred. Of late 
years extensive gardens along the railway line 
have been planted with them. ‘he cultivation 
of guavas suits the Burmese, for the trees, 
uaolike tho orange or durian, require no watering 
or manuring. The fruit would no doubt improve 
if the trees were watered and manured and a 
little more care taken in the cultivation. There 
are trees in gardens in the suburbs of the town 
thirty years old and still bearing. In the dis- 
tricts, 8 or 10 years is thought the limit of age 
for guava trees and many die off after producing 
fruit for 3 years.—Rangoon Gazette, Oct. 19. 


REPORTED WHITE ANT CURE. 


At least one competitor is forthcoming for the 
handsome reward offered for the extermination 
of white ants. The solution in question has been 
tested by a planter and the result proved satis- 
factory. The rubber tree on which the experi- 
ment was tried was badly attacked; after the 
application of the solution the ants were rapidly 
killed off. Some considerable time afterwards 
there was no sign of their re-appearance. An ex- 
periment was made on affected roots with equal 
success; the solution preserves the bark from 
certain pests which attack it, No figures have 
been given shewing the cost.—Malay Mail, Oct 19. 


DISCOVERY OF NEW RUBBER-PRO- 
DUCING PLANT IN MEXICO. 


The Mexican Herald of 21st September re- 
ports the discovery of a tree, called the palo 
amarillo, which, according toa report by experts 
appointed by the Mexican Government, will 
take the placo of the guayule as arubber- 
producing plant. It is said that the present 
known supply of guayule will be exhausted 
within seven years. I'he new discovery grows 
wild in large numbers throughout Mexico and is 
stated to yield 10 per cent of rubber and 40 per 
cent of varnish and soap material, whereas 
guayule yields about 8 per cent of rubber and 
no by-products. A company has been formed 
at New York, with a capital of 20 million dol- 
lars, to work the palo amarillo._-Board of Trade 
Journal, Oct. 8. 


and Magazine of ihe Ceylon Agricultural Society. 


WEEDING v. CROTALARIA FOR 
RUBBER. 


Some InreREstTING Points Discussep. 


Mr W RB Rowland writes from Perhentian 
Tinggi as follows :— 

In his paper on ‘‘ Weeding in Para Rubber 
Cultivation” in the September issue of the 
Agricultural Bulletin the Director of Agricul- 
ture, F: M. §., has touched upon a subject which 
has not received anything near the amount of 
attention it deserves. I have nothing to say 
against Mr Carruthers’ theory of green manures ; 
that, on the contrary, I believe, that, if Mr 
Carruthers during the term of his office in the 
F.M.S. had done nothing beside impressing 
uponthe planters the desirability of modifying 
this one branch of rubber estate cultivation, 
this would be sufficient to make his name great 
and to have it blessed by every man who has a 
cent invested in rubber—if not now, certainly 
a few years hence. The Director of Agriculture, 
however, makes one mistake, which, in a scien- 
tist is only natural : he gives to the delighted, 
weed-ridden planter a theory, without sufficient 
practical advice to make the theory a complete 
success and disappointment will, in many in- 
stances, be unavoidable. 


Returning to the severely censured coffee 
or tea planter of Ceylon and Malaya, my 
personal experience for 13 years enables me 
to speak of the latter only; from occasional 


VISITS TO THE PRINCIPAL PLANTING CENTRES 
OF CEYLON 

I have, however, like probably most other 
visitors, come away with the impression that 
the men who have left such marks on a4 
country as the old coffee and tea-planters did 
there must have been something more than 
mere hard plodding, unthinking drudges; tea 
planting more particularly has developed into 
such a fine science that I cannot help thinking 
that men who have been successful in that 
branch of tropical agriculture cannot have 
gone on weeding merely because it had become 
a time-honoured practice. 


With all the heavy indictment of ‘‘weeding” I 
would yet callit the young planter’s school of 
discipline ; it isthe most severe test for a man’s 
zeal, thoroughness and organising ability ; there 
areno two interpretations of the term ‘’clean” 
fora field, and there is nothing easier for a 
manager or V A than to inspect and controla 
clean-weeded estate and its superintendent. 
With an as yet insufficient supply of labour in 
many districts it is often impossible for even the 
best man to keep a whole estate perfectly clean, 
more particularly during the wet months; but 
then heas weil as his V A will see ata glance 
where the evil lies. This latter fact will, no 
doubt, for ever andin aii cultivations reserve 
to ‘‘weeding” the position of one of the most 
important items in an estate’s expei diture. 


I say ‘‘ in all cultivations,” and no doubt 


FOR RUBBER CLEAN WEEDING Is AN ABSOLUTE 
NECESSITY, 

That rubber grows in weeds cannot be doubted; 

in some districts I have seen it doing admirably; 

’ but I have no hesitation in saying that it would 

grow better without them. Virgin jungle soil 


499 
will during the first years neither become baked 
nor, with a little draining, lose through wash 
enough to hinder the development of the trees 
which, without weeds to feed on their food, will 
soon enough reach that stage where shade and 
falling leaves will do away with both evils. To 
get our trees into that condition is no doubt the 
aim of the planter as well as_ the capitalist and 
the latter more particularly will probably much 
rather spend alittle more on his estate if he 
can count upon getting queer returns, 

As to lalang being allowed in any rubber 
clearing, the Director of Agriculture certainly 
does not take a_ sufficiently serious view of 
this. To state that atree in lalang is handi- 
capped to the extent of } of its growth 
is certainly optimistic ; I know and could 
show many instances where lalang has, on 
very fair soil, not only checked the growth of 
Para rubber toa far larger extent, but practic- 
ally stopped it ; this refers to trees which were 
surrounded by lalang at an early age, later on the 
tree is, no doubt, able to hold its own better. 

As regards the growing of tapioca and other 
catch-crops with a view to making weeding un- 
necessary, I am inclined to think that a green- 
manure which reduces the cost of weeding and 
simultaneously enriches the soil, is, for most 
men of ordinary expectations, quite good enough 
and that those who expect too much—viz., no 
weeding-bill, a tapioca-crop and a fine rubber— 
may yet come to thing that ‘‘give” is better than 
“take” when it comes to soils like ours of by no 
means great fertility. 

The doctrine of clean-weeding for rubber was 
not only generally established, but also well- 
founded when the Director of Agriculture be- 
gan to preach green-manure; it is certainly his 
merit to have brought up the topic andI would 
nut wonder if a few years hence he is for that 
called the greatest benefactor by planters as 
well as capitalists.--Malay Mail, Oct. 15. 


GREEN MANURING IN TEA GULTURE. 


——s 


(Special for the Statesman.) 


The recent study of the manurial require- 
ments of the tea bush, at Heeleaka Experi- 
mental Station and on private estates, has 
shown that the yield and health of our tea 
bushes can be materially increased and improved 
by a judicious use of greon-manures,.... It is 
still a mvot point, however, whether the burial 
of green-manures improves or lowers the quality 
of our teas. ,.. The burial of prunings has been 
condemned because of the risk of spreading 
blights, but now that trenching 1s coming more 
into vogue this risk can be greatly minimised y 
burying the prunings deeyly. Large quantities 
of green-manure might also, on many gardens, 
be brought in from adjacent jungle and put in 
trenches either along with cattle-manure or 
with a sprinkling of basic slag. 

An endeavour should be made to get jungle 
as succulent as possible to ensure its rapid 
decomposition and incorporation with the soil, 
Unfortunately large quantities of succulent jun- 
gle cannot always be had when labour is avail. 
able, but when it is borne in mind that green 
manure is equal weight for weight to cattle. 
manure it will be found, in many cases, advisable 
to go further atield for this valuable material, 


500 


The hoeing-in of green-manure acts bene- 
ficially in many ways.,.. The essential con- 
ditions necessary to be effective are plants that 
will grow quickly so as to interfere as little as 
possible with cultivation, that will give a large 
crop of vegetable matter, and that will pene- 
trate deeply into the subsoil, ... The crops 
that so far have given the best results are mati- 
kalai (Phaseolus mungo), dhaincha (Sesbania 
cannabina), arahar dhal (Cajanus indicus), and 
Crotolaria striata. 

Dhaincha has come greatly into favour re- 
cently and shares with mati-kalai honours for 
first place: in the estimation of many planters 
dhaincha is the more suitable plant as it grows 
and gives a good crop on land where mati- 
kalai proves a failure. One point in favour of 
mati-kalai is that it is very rich in nitrogen. 

Beneficial results have been obtained by 
growing arahar dhal on land from which old 
bushes have been uprooted and replanted with 
youg tea; the texture of the partially exhausted 
soil has been greatly improved, and the burial 
of organic matter and ready available plant-food 
has given the young bushes their needed start. 

Crotolaria striata proved a failure as a green 
manuring crop at Heeleaka, but good results 
have in many cases been obtained by sowing in 
June and hoeing-under in November. 

Wild leguminous plants are found in all tea 
districts and in selecting any for green-manuring 
preference should be given to those growing 
luxuriantly in the neighbourhood. 

Bogga medeloa (Tephrosia candia) is now 
grown very extensively on light soil and has 
proved of great value: large quantities of suc- 
culent shoots are cut from the plants and buried 
at each round of hoeing. 

It is a perennial, but in scme districts the 
plants die when only two years old,...... 
When the great improvement that can be 
effected in the tilth and fertility of tea soils by 
the addition of organic matteris taken into 
consideration it is difficult to understand why 
up-to-date planters goin for green-manuring on 
80 small a scale, 

Of course, there is the all-important question 
of labour, but few estates are so short-handed 
that they could not annually hoe organic matter 
into, at least, one-sixth of their area under tea, 
—Statesman, Nov. 1. THEA, 


FORESTS AND RAINFALL. 


USEFUL FACTS FOR THE TROPICS. 

There is always a suspicion of a Forest Officer 
magnifying his office when he attempts to show 
the great and beneficial influence of Forests on 
Rainfall. Forty to fifty years ago, there was a 
school that insisted that forests directly at- 
tracted rain-clouds which would otherwise pass 
over without precipitation ; and so warnings 
were frequent as to the evil effects of the denu- 
dation of forest anywhere in hill or low country. 
Our reply was that the attraction lay in the 
mountain ranges, and that a difference of 50 to 
80 feet in the trees which grow on their sides 
and summits could make little or no difference. 
At the same time, we fully admitted the serious 
risk which attended heavy falls of rain on cleared 
land, tending to sudden floods and later on to 
a want of the water supply which would have 


The Supplement to the Tropical Agriculturist 


gradually, but surely, run down from forest- 
covered land. Tneremedy to a considerable ex- 
tent came when clearings got well covered with 
coffee, tea and cacao-bushes, and still further 
when tillage allowed the rainfall to penetrate 
properly into the soil. Neverthless, there is much 
to be said for the Colonial Office rule that no 
more forest land should be alienated in Ceylon 
from 5,000 ft. above sea-level upwards, more es- 
pecially with reference to the conservation of 
the actual rainfall in these regions. But that 
does not affect the argument for utilising to some 
extent the wide extent of cultivable land be 
tween Dimbula and Haputale without at all cut- 
ting down any forest; for the anomaly of a first- 
class railway running through some 15 miles of 
waste land without producing any development 
or deriving any traffic, cannot continue for 
ever. Itisall right so long as the Colony is 
otherwise abundantly prosperous and there is 
no difficulty in making both ends meet. Should 
that difficulty ever arise, waste land suited to 
profitable cultivation will not be allowed to 
remain idle even in the higher regions along 
the Railway. But this is all aside from the 
matter we wish to put before our readers 
today. It is to draw attention to a new and 
striking view of ‘the effect of forests on rain- 
fall,” which we find described in the Indian 
Forester for the present month. It is based on 
investigations made by French scientists which 
demonstrate that in an average forest the area 
of the leaves is at least ten times the area of 
the ground which supports the forest. It is 
further asserted that as all rainfall is directly 
dependent on evaporation for its supply, and 
as the amount of water evaporated from a given 
area of leafsurface is sixty times the quantity eva- 
porated from a free surface of water, —it follows 
that the amount of moisture given off, under 
similar conditions, from an acre of forest is 600 
times the amount evaporated from a free sur- 
face of water of the same area. ‘The proportion 
of land to water on the world’s surface is as 1 to 


3 and 1-4th of the land area is supposed to be - 


under forest and then it follows that from 1-16th 
of the globe’s surface under forest, 50 times as 
much water is evaporated as from the water sur- 
face of the world! From this it is scientific- 
ally inferred that the rainfall of the world is 
chiefly dependent on its forests, and, therefore, 
of course, a new and vastly increased Importance 
is given to the work of afforestation, more espe- 
cially in countries (like India) which are liable 
to famines due to failure of rainfall—although it 
has yet to be shown that the ways of the Mon- 
goons correspond with the attraction offered by 
forest-covered tracts of country. 


NIGERIAN REPORT ON MALAYA, 
(Colonial Office Journal October.) 

On the subject of the cost of plantations, an 
interesting report by Mr N C McLeod, Deputy 
Conservator of Forests in Southern Nigeria, 
based on a visit made to the Hederated Malay 
States, has been laid before the Legislative 
Council of Southern Nigeria. Mr McLeod states 


that rubber is being grown in the Federated 


Malay States on land previously under some other 
crop or in fresh clearings, In the former case 


a 


and Magazine of the Ceylon Agricultural Society. 


the planter merely puts down his stumps or seedl- 
ings at any interval he fancies between rows of 
coffee, cocoa or sugar cane, and, as the rubber 
trees grow older, gradually removes the original 
crops, thus affording more growing space to the 
rubber. The Paratree inthe Federated Malay 
States is propagated by seed from trees at least 
eight or ten years old. Large quantities of seed 
are sent abroad which are obtained from trees 
of younger age, but the planter in the Peninsula 
prefers seeds from mature trees for his own use. 


Mr McLeod thinks that rubber plantations in 
Southern Nigeria would be very profitable, His 
calculation is as follows :— 


“‘In the Malay Peninsula the average wage of 
a coolieis 27 cents per diem, which is equivalent 
in English money to 74d., or about thesame rate 
at which labourers by the month are paid in 
Southern Nigeria, so that figures given by Mr 
Arden (pages 84-86, Johnson’s book on Para) for 
opening up and maintaining a plantation in the 
Federated Malay States may be taken as a very 
fair guide. 

‘‘Inthe Federated Malay States, Para trees 
became productive in five years. but I propose to 
allow seven years inthe case of Southern Nigeria. 

“* Cost of opening up 500 acres and maintaining 
till plantation is productive :— 


‘* First year $25,275 
‘ For next six years 
at $9,900 $59,400 


** Total Ree $84,675 or £9,878 15s. 


“ Allowing compound interest at 4 per cent 
on expenditure from the first year to the end of 
theseventh, would bring the total up to £12,694, 
If the treesare planted 2u ft. by 20 ft. z,2., 108 to 
the acre, and the average yield per trea be taken 
as J41b por annum (6 months tapping), the yield 
would he (500 by 108 by 13 lb.)— 

‘Selling price at 2s 6d per lb. 

500 by 108 by 13 
—— = £10,125 


be 


— 


‘‘ If plantation expenses, cost of manufacture 
of rubber and freight to Europe, be put down at 
£2,125 per annum (a very high figure), a hand- 
some profit of £8,000 would result.” 

This calculation is pretty much in accord with 
the usual estimate of £20—30 as the cost of 
bringing a rubber estate to the productive stage 
per acre. Inthe Federated Malay States it is 
generally found that one coolie is required for 
two acres while the trees are growing and one to 
each acre when they are producing. Labour is 
the principal item, and the cost and scarcity of 
labour is likely to prevent cultivation in Rhodesia 
andthe ‘Transvaal. In West Africa there isa 
great field, but the climatic conditions are un- 
suited to the private settler, andthe work will 
be left to thenative growers and to companies 
and syndicates which can acquire large areas 
and organise industry. The treatment is often 
slovenly, and the impurities found in West Afri- 
can rubber affect the price unfavourably. 

The figures taken by Mr McLeod in the above 
calculation seem to be on the safe side. He gives 
108 trees to the acre, but 120 can easily be grown; 
and a yittd of 14 lb per annum per treo, wherdéas 


o0l 


2 lb are frequently obtained from a mature tree. 
The other crops which can be obtained while the 
rubber trees are growing, such as cassava, tapioca 
or ground-nuts, may also be taken into account. 


RUBBER IN NIGERIA : CURIOUS 
VALUING. 


Upcountry, Oct. 30th. 

Dear S1r,—In your issue of the 27th instant 
is an extract from another paper on the subject 
of Rubber planting in Nigeria which a Deputy 
Conservator of Forests avers can be carried on 
in that Colony at about thejsame outlay as tin 
Malaya. This gentleman estimates that 500 
acres of Rubber ia bearing can be worked, and 
the produce also placed on the European market 
for R64 per acre ! 

But the mere tapping and curing of Rubber 
costs in Malaya from 66 cents to 84 cents of a 
rupee per lb; and, taking the Conservator’s own 
figures of 162 Ib of Rubber per acre, the cost of 
collecting, curing, etc, must run to at least R107 
per acre! Suthat this sum multiplied by five- 


‘hundred must necessarily;be"deducted from the 


enchanting round figures of £8,000 perannum 
rofit, which the Conservator promises the 
igerian planter ! 
Surely such estimates tmust lead many people 
ignorant of ‘‘ Rubber” to rush for shares among 
the over-capitalised 
“WILD CATS 
(Certainly the report should have been 
‘‘edited”” by an expert before being offic 
published.—Eb., C.0.] 


LIFE ON A TOBACCO ESTATE iN 
BRITISH NORTH BORNEO. 


An experience extending over 20 years of the 
Tobacco Estates of this country, and the little 
insight of their working, I have been able to 
glean from time to time during my frequent 
visits as Magistrate and Protector,emboldens me 
to hope that a brief resumé of them may not be 
without interest to some of your readers. 

As the first streaks of early dawn begin to 
make their appearance, this is at 5-30, the Opas 
(Estate Policeman) sounds the “tong tong,” 
which is a piece of the trunk of a tree hollowed 
out and suspended from a beam, and when struck 
emits a hollow resonant sound which can be 
heard at a great distance; it awakens the 
coolics to the consciousness of another day’s 
work fast approaching, as at 6 o’clock the tandils 
(Chinese foremen) and Mandores (Malay fore- 
men) come and call them out to work the nature 
of which varies according to the season. 

_ When the heavy rains are over, that is to say 
in February or March, the jungle has to be 
felled and burned; this, when thick virgin jungle 
is being cleared, is very heavy work. Tobacco 
being a very exhausting crop, it cannot be plan- 
ted on the same land a second time, until after 
the lapse of 7 years, it will thus be seen that new 
estates have to look forward for some years to 
this recurring hard work before they can hope 
to go back to their original lands ; when that 
can be done, this preliminary work is much 
easier. The burning finished, the resultant wood 


ash supplies a valuable adjunct in the form of 
sulphates, 


502 


In addition to avery favourable climate and 
soil, one of the advantages of growing tobacco 
here is that no manuring is required, the aro- 
matic principles, on the preseuce of which the 
value of the tobacco chiefly depends, can only 
be properly developed in the plant by the agency 
of high temperature and moisture. The soil is 
of a light friable sandy nature, rich in vegetable 
mould, and is supplied with the other necessary 
chemical constituents, viz : potash and lime, by 
the burning of the jungle and the blending of 
the wood ash. 


The next operation is the changkoling (turn- 
ing over) of the soil, digging up the roots and 
piling them together ; these in their turn have 
to be burnt; during this time the coolies are 
also preparing seedlings, which are planted in 
beds 3 teet by 18 feet, carefully shaded, and 
watered twice daily; at the expiration of 45 
to 50 days these young plants (called bibits) 
are ready for planting out; they are placed 
18 inches apart in rows running parallel to 
each other at a distance of 36 inches, when 
this has been done they are shaded from the 
slanting rays of the sun by shade planks (small 
square slips of wood) which, after ten days, 
are taken away and the ground on either side of 
the plants earthed up in the form of ridges, about 
6 inches high; at this stage the weaklings are 
plucked out and stronger fresh bibite substituted. 

Much now depends on the weather, as the 
burning is delayed and hindered by heavy rains, 
so the growth of the young plants is fostered, 
or retarded, by frequent hght rains, or the 
absence of them. 


The principal growth of tobacco is accom- 
plished in the hottest weather, and in a period 
of about 8 to9 weeks during which time the 
cooly has to watch his plants carefully and 
see that no grubs are feeding on them; 
these are the scourge of the plant, and 
eat large holes in the leaf thereby greatly 
depreciating its market value; suckers, small 
shoots growing from the stem of the plant 
just above the leaf, also commence to appear, 
these have to be taken off, as they retard the 
development of the leaf. 


A good average tree consists of about 30 leaves 
but trees have been known to yield over double 
that number. When they have arrived at matu- 
rity and attained a height of about 6 feet ‘‘pick- 
ing’ begins, the lower leaves being taken off 
. first ; about this time the tree is also ‘topped’ i.e. 
the flower—which is small and ofa pale pink 
colour—is plucked off, allowing the top leaves 
to develop and ripen, and in about 15 days the 
tree can be cut, then it is hung up in the dryin 
shed and after 25 days the leaves are picke 
from the stem and bundled, the stem is then 
thrown away. Meanwhile the lower loaves have 
been taken into the shed, where they are sewn 
in strings of 50, and then hung up to dry in re- 
gular rows on a frame work of sticks, these again 
after 20 to 25 days drying are bundled in fifties, 
put in baskets, and carried to fermenting shed, 
where they are placed in small ‘banks’ that is 
heaps of say 6 feet by 10 feet and3 feet high 
and containing about 1,000 lb. Fermentation 
then commences, and later these banks are 
paired, that is two or more joined together, 


The Supplement to the Tropical Agricultwrist 


and made into a larger heap, and so ott. 
The turning over and_ blending is for 
the purpose of setting a uniform heat and tem- 
perature, the fermentation continues until a 
temperature of 50 = Centigrade or 1220 Fahren- 
heit is reached by which time the stable (bank) 
will have reached a weight of about 40,000 lb 
and eventually attains a temperature of 600 to 
640 Cent. = 1400—147° Fah. 


Then sorting the leaf commences, a most im- 
portant and intricate work, always entrusted to 
to the best and most experienced coolies, over- 
looked by the manager and senior assistant. 
First of all thecoolies sort the leaves by quality, 
viz: light and dark shades, and broken leaf, 
these again are divided up into about 20 
different shades of colour such as dark, brown, 
green, and yellow leaves, not spotted, and the 
same colours but spotted, these are best quality, 
and roughly speaking are sorted into 8 to 12 
shades, then there are the rough, coarse, and 
much spotted leaves, besides broken leaves; the 
latter are sorted separately as ‘“‘much broken” 
and ‘little broken,” all colours, after this they 
are again sorted into lengths, a full sized 
leaf being over 2 feet in length. 12 inch 
and over are known as first length, 9 to 
12 inch as second, 6 to 9 inch as third, and 
under 6 inch as fourth length ; these are then 
bundled 25 leaves together and brought to the 
receiving room, where they are carefully in- 
spected by 10 of the most expert coolies specially 
paid for this work, and overlooked by an ex- 
perienced European, badly sorted bundles reas 
opened and rejected and the leaves returne 
to the cooly to be again sorted and remade, 
All the accepted bundles are then placed in 
heaps preparatory to being ‘‘ baled,” that is 
packed under pressure in matting, each bale 
averaging 80 kilos or 1771b. English, which 
are carefully marked and numbered, and are 
then ready for shipment. I will endeavour to 
send for your next issue some details of the 
life of the workers on these estates. 

W. H. P. 


—British North Borneo Herald, Oct. 16. 


TAPIOCA CULTIVATION. 


— —— 


‘Tapioca, Manioca or Cassava’ is the sub- 
ject of the Royal Botanic Gardens Circular for 
October, No. 13~a copy of which has reached 
us today—being valuable notes by Mr Kelway 
Bamber on the cultivation and preparation of 
the above-named tuber. We quote two para- 
graphs of interests as follows :— 


‘In Java, the cost of harvesting and drying 
is only 22 cents per picul, and_the dried product 
sells at from $1°40 to $1°72 per picul, leaving a 
profit of atleast $1°20 per picul. The yield in 
Java is 28 piculs per acre, so that the profit 
amounts to about $39°20, or £4. 6s. sterling 
per acre. 


“The dry climate prevailing in the Jaffna Dis- 
trict, and the difficulty of getting an ample sup- 
ply of pure soft water, except from tanks at 
certain seasons, makes the latter process more 
promising, and a few easily conducted experi- 
ments would soon indicate how far the Jaffna 
Tamil could grow the product ata profi ja? 


and Magazine of the Ceylon Agricultural Society. 503 


SYNTHETIC RUBBERS i HAVE MET. 


(By Henry C. Pearson, Editor, ‘India 
Rubber World,” New York). 


[Publishea by permission of Mr. A. Staines 
Manders, Manager of the International Rubber 
and Allied Trades Exhibition, London. The 
article is copyright and will appear in the 
Rocords of the Conference, to be published 
shortly at 5s. 6d., which will contain over thirty 
papers read at the Conference. ] 


A great many years ago, the whole scientific 
wrisslel which was neither very large nor very 
scientific, spent a whole lot of time searching 
for the philosopher’s stone, which, if I re- 
member rightly if properly approached would 
turn most anything into gold. We laugh at such 
childish folly today, and spend our time hunt- 
ing for a philosopher’s stone which shall turn 
everything into Rubber. The transmutation of 
caloids is the dream of the chemist as well as 
the Experimentor, The only trouble is they 
don’t transmute. 


If he were correctly quoted— 
PROFESSOR WYNDHAM DUNSTAN 


in 1906 went on record before the British Asso- 
ciation that Synthetic Rubber would be an 
accomplished fact within the year. Hxactiy 
where it would break out he did not indicate, 
nor whether it would be characterised by mild 
or virulent symptons. 1 should like to say 
ersonally that my acquaintance with synthetic 
Rappers of certain sorts dates back to many 
years. 


It goes without saying that whena man really 
discovers synthetic Rubber, he is more or less 
secretive about the materials of which the 
artificial gum is made; indeed that constantly 
growing class of discoverers whom newspapers 
introduce to us from time to time are the most 
secretive men I have ever met. It was nearly 
25 years ago that I was first brought into con- 
tact with a gentleman who was apparently an 
honest blunt hard-working experimenter, who 
in a private room behind locked doors showed 
me a small sample of what appeared to be dry 
fine Para Rubber. It gave outa faint odour 
of winter green, which he explained was added 
to it to destroy an odour that might lead some 
imitator to a knowledge of ingredients used 
in its manufacture. He assured me earnestly, 
calling upon the Creator of real Rubber to be 
his witness, that it was wholly an artificial pro- 
duct, and contained no atom of Caoutchouc ; 
further than that, in a burst of confidence he 
agreed to let me see some of the materials from 
which the product was made. With much 
secrecy we crossed the city, let ourselves into 
the basement of his house, which was part 
workshop and laboratory, where I was shown 
agum, which I partially identified as Kauri 
and a grease which looked like cocoa-butter. 
There was a faint smell of bisulphide of carbon 
in the air, aud he acknowledged that he used 
this solvent at a certain stage of the process 
and upon heating and the addition of a secret 
material, rubber appeared floating upon the 
liquid, 


While we were talking, an eminent and some- 
what grasping capitalist appeared, claimed;he 
was there by appointment, which I did not 
believe then, but do now, and at once went into 
executive sessions with the inventor, leaving 
me on the outside. It was a bitter blow to 
thus have 


MILLIONS TORN 80 RUDELY FROM MY GRASP, 


articularly as I had mentally already squan- 
dered several hundred thousand pounds. How- 
ever, I was out and had to make the best of 
it. As for the gentleman who was in, just 
to complete the story, it might be well to add 
that he erected a specious factory in which were 
strange machinery secret rooms, glass floors and 
other unusual and expensive paraphernalia; and 
for a number of.years paid, while the inventor 
toiled, until one day the building was closed 
and has remained so up to the present time. 


From that day to this neither the Capitalist 
nor the Inventor could be induced to say a 
word about their experiments or why they 
failed, I fancy the reason the Capitalist would 
not talk is because he lost a great deal of money 
through the venture ; and the only reason the 
Inventor doesn’t talk is because he is dead. In 
the bottle marked A. is a sample of this type of 
synthetic rubber. 


One of the Presidents of the United States 
had a relative who had a little money and was 
anxious to make more. He therefore intrusted 
some £8,000 of it intothe hands of a cultured, 
gentlemanly, persuasive chemist, who had 
brought to him some twenty pounds of what 
appeared to be high grade rubber, which the 
chemist, by the use of many technical terms 
wholly incomprehensible to the ordinary busi- 
ness man, assured him was an entirely synthetic 
production. Theeight thousand pounds went 
tor the equipment ofa little factory near New 
York City ; the erection of a secret room from 
which day light was excluded and only a certain 
shade of red lignt allowed to illumine and _ in- 
cidentally some very excellent champagne sup- 
pers at New York’s most expensive hosteleries, 
It was just about as the initial investment was 
about exhausted that the matter was brought to 
my attention, and in this way. With great 
secrecy 


A 10, 20 OR 50 MILLION DOLLAR COMPANY 


was projected and all the machinery for 
selling much stock was secretly set in mo- 
tion. One of the wealthy men approached, had 
a lawyer wbo knew something about rubber and 
was very much of an investigator, he came to 
me first to size up the probabilities and to out« 
line a method of investigation. The first move 
was to insist that the rubber be made in his 
presence. This was agreed to, but the Inventor 
stipulated that no Chemist be present. The 
Lawyer was then given a list of ingredients 
which he was to purchase and carry to the fac- 
tory. These amounted to about twenty pounds 


There is at the present time in the United 
States a factory in a prosperous town, with a 
high fence round it, with guards in evidence 
night and day, where a little old man is at work 
trying to do on a commercial scale what ho 
alleges to have done in the laboratory, and that 
is to produce synthetic rubber from certain oils, 


504 


He has been at it some three years, is backed by 
very heavy capitalists, further than this, a very 
distinguished American Chemist and physicist 
who is miles above any suspicion of either 
collusion or lack of knowledge, has possession 
of the formula and under the inventor’s guidance 
made the gum himself and says over his own 
signature that the product is real synthetic 
ribbon he said this some three years ago, and 
his verdict resulted in the erection of a factory 
and the attempt to get out a commercial pro- 
duct. Without cataloguing the many delays 
that had followed the erection of the factory- 
due to the lack of purity of material, the im- 
possibility of getting certain machinery, un- 
fortunate breakdown etc. 


I wanted to say that if this is real 
synthetic rubber the inventor has gone far 
beyond anything that synthesis was hereto- 
fore been able to accomplish; for he has 


REPRODUCED ABSOLUTELY UP RIVER FINE PARA 


not only in textures, colour, compounding capa- 
city, and vulcanising ability, but he has suc- 
cessfully imitated the peculiar smoky smell in- 
dividual in that type of rubber. Itis to be 
hoped that when he gets to making different 
kinds of rubber on a large scale, and begins 
to manufacture synthetic Africans he will not 
insist upon reproducing their smell. In the 
jar marked C isthe synthetic para of the smoky 
smell. I hope you don’t think that Yankees 
are the only ones who indulge in synthetic 
‘* pipe dreams.” 


In an English paper of September 4th I read 
that Synthetic Rubber is now being made at 
Burton-on-Trent and is called Burton Rub- 
ber. I have not seen it; nor do [I know 
the chemist, who may be the most honest 
and capable man on the face of the earth, but 
if he can make synthetic rubber commercially, 


WHY DOES HE SEEK NEWSPAPER PUBLICITY 


instead of making and selling the product? [fhe 
found nuggests of gold in his backyard, would 
he write 7he Times pages of argument to prove 
they were really gold ?—or would he quietly dig 
them up and put them into circulation? Just 
what base he works from is difficult to tell, but 
from his published formula the compounds 
would seem to be equal parts of Old Burton Ale 
and offensive smell. 


In the bottle marked B. is what was given 
me as a sample of partially synthetic rubber 
made along lines which appeared tobe new. As 
you all know the latex of a young Castilloa tree 
contains a great deal more resin than the latex 
of an old tree. The gum in the young tree 
containing about 40 per cent, while that in the 
mature tree about 7 per cent. 


The theory of the producer of this semi-syn- 
thetic Rubber was that the tree in maturing 
turned its own resins into rubber. That by 
proper treatment of this resinous latex, the 
inventor could do just what nature did. I 
could not see at the time that he did 
it and certainly the sample on_ exhibition 
does not prove his claim. When I first put it 


The Supplement to the Tropical Agriculturist 


in the bottle it was very resilent, but contained 
40 per cent of resin. 


Of course you are all aware of 


PROFESSOR TILDEN’S EXPERIMENTS IN 
BIRMINGHAM, 


where he succeeded in producing minute particles 
of India Rubber from Terpenes. These results 
are of high scientific value but itis a question 
if they will ever be of the slightest commer- 
cial value, because it is going to be easier and 
cheaper to produce rubber latex bearing a 
large percentage of India Rubber, than to pro- 
duce vegetable oils containing very minute 
qualities of India Rubber. 


It is impossible to consider a subject like this 
without coming in touch with a great variety of 
substitutes for rubber that have been and still 
are in use toa certain degree in rubber manu- 
facture. The rubber manufacturers know of 
course, but none of these are in any way real 
substitutes for the crudegum. They can be used 
in connection with India Rubber and often times 
add certain qualities to the compound thatare of 
value, but there are very few places where they 
can be used alone in place of rubber. The most 
widely known of these are 


THE OIL SUBSTITUTES 


which are so common that they need no expla- 
pation as regards their manufacture or use. 
There are also certain of the natural hydrocar- 
bons such as mineral rubber, which are of defi— 
nite use in adding certain quantities to many 
lines of rubber compounding. 


There is just one word of caution that the 
honest producer of a rubber assistant should 
have or else he will deceive himself, and for a 
time deceive others. Suppose he is able to pro- 
duce a fairly tough substitute that mixes well 
with rubber and is in no way harmful, indeed 
under test the vulcanised product containing his 
assistant is stronger than the same vulcanised 
product without it. He at once believes that he 
has a wonderful product and perhaps he has, but 
he has’t proved his case by such atest, In 
fairness to himself and manufacturer, 
he should test not against a compound 
of pure gum and sulphur, but against com- 
poundsthat certain earthy matter or matallic 
oxides that we all know add toughness to rub- 
ber compounds ; and if his is better or cheaper, 
it is of value; otherwise not. 


It has occurred to me that in bringing some 
of my samples of rubber assistants here and 
calling your attention to them, it might stimu- 
late an interchange of ideas, both on the subject 
of synthetic rubber and rubber substitutes, 
which will be more valuable than a prolonga- 
tion of this paper of mine. Frankly it’s a sub- 
ject I don’t know much about, and—even when 

am ina room full of Rubber experts—I don't 
feel a bit isolated by my ignorance. 


Every industry has its trials, and every manu- 
facturer could easily state his ideas, of perfect 
bliss in the absence of such trials. I fancy the 
rubber man’s Utopia would be—cold water vul- 
canisation—no trade discounts,and the ability to 
produce synthetic rubber from sea water and air, 


™, 


a 


\ 


ae 


Vide page 522. Photo by H, F. Macmillan. 


ANTHURIUM PANDURIFOLIUM. 


vale Sees 


TROPICAL AGRICULTURIST 


AND 


MAGAZINE OF THE 


CEYLON AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY. 


—— 


Vou. XXXI, 


COLOMBO, DECEMBER 15rx, 1908, 


No. 6. 


Our Circulation. 


While the circulation of the T,A. is 
rising, it is not rising so fast as the 
amount of planting enterprise in the 
Tropics, and we should be glad of sug- 
gestions from our subscribers as to fea- 
tures that might be included. 

We propose in this number to start a 
column upon cookery of vegetable pro- 
ducts, and shall be glad of articles from 
ladies dealing with this subject. There 
can be no doubt that a great improve- 
ment is possible in general cookery in 
Ceylon. 

Wealso propose to increase the cor- 
respondence by the insertion of a certain 
amount of the departmental correspon- 
dence carried on at Peradeniya, giving 
the letters and our replies, of course 
with the names of the writers concealed. 


We shall also be glad of original 
papers under any of the heads already 
existing, as well as Poultry Notes, 
Notes on Gardening, Shikar Stories, &e. 


It must be clearly recognised by the 
public that it is absolutely impossible 
for the Editor, even with the assistance 
of the whole staff of the Botanical 
Department, to write original matter, 
or even to translate foreign papers, 
enough to fill more than a small pro- 
portion of so bulky a periodical as the 
T.A., and that most of it must be ‘* paste 
and scissors.” Many people who com- 
plain of the absence of original matter 
would be surprised if they were to 
measure the amount actually contained 
—enough to more than fill most of the 
rival journals of other count ries. 


506 


i 


GUMS, RESINS, SAPS AND EXUDATIONS. 


THE COLLECTION OF PARA 
RUBBER ON THE AMAZON, AND 
ITS FUTURE. 


(By D. SANDMANN, in Der Tropenfian- 
zer, SEPTEMBER, 1908.) 


ABSTRACTED BY J. C. WILLIS. 
(Continued from page 411.) 


The smoking usually takes the serin- 
guero 1-2 hours, so that his day’s work 
is 6-7 hours. 


The patrao, or possessor of aseringal, 
supplies his labourers with all that they 
require, and a store is kept on the 
place, in which the goods are sold at 
cost price, plus a commission of 10-25% 
and heavy freight charges. The serin- 
guero has to buy all that he wants, in- 
cluding tools, collecting tins, &c., from 
the patrao. Figures are given showing 
that the tools, &c., average 3800 milreis 
(£30, most of the advance), while he will 
consume (on the Solimoes river, say) 
about 1,200 milreis worth of provisions 
in his 6-7 months work. The food also 
is of poor quality, and often damaged 
by the climatic conditions, being full of 
grubs. 

In payment for the food the seringuero 
gives rubber. The conditions on which 
this is furnished differ, but in general 


(1) the rubber is bought by the patrao 
at about one-third below market price 
in Manaos, or 


(2) the rubber is sold, and the pro- 
ceeds, less 35 kilos. per estrada, given to 
the seringuero, or 


(8) the rubberis sold and 85-90% given 
to the seringuero, 


On the lower Amazon, especially on 
the islands, each seringuero hires two 
estradas with about 8 acres of land on 
which he plants and hunts, and a water- 
surface for fishing, and pays about 30 
milreis amonth. The return per estrada 
is about 320 kilos borracha fina and 15 
kilos sernamby, and the rubber is 
generally sold to the patrao. 


The average return of the work of a 
seringuero is 350 kilos borracha fina and 
50 kilos sernamby. but it varies from 
100 to 1,000 kilos (1 kilo=2; lbs.). Asa 
normal estrada one may take one with 
120 trees of 35 cm. (13? inches) in diameter. 
On the average 5 litres of milk are 
obtained daily. or 42 grams a tree. In 
144 days about 700 litres of milk are 
obtained, yieiding 400 kilos of rubber. 
This is rather less than would be obtain- 


ed on an estatein Ceylon with trees of 
the same size, and the treatment on the 
estate is more rational. 


The rubber asit accumulates is shipped 
down river by the patrao, and sold in 
Manaos or Para. It loses weight as it 
travels, It is divided into three chief 
grades: borracha fina, interfina, and 
sernamby, to which is sometimes added 
borracha fraca for the more brittle 
rubber obtained from other species of 
Hevea. 


The testing is troublesome. Two men 
put hooks into the central hole and 
draw the rubber apart, and it is divided 
with a sharp knife. If uniform and 
elastic, itis fina, but if there are bad 
spots, interfina, which sells at 200-800 
reis a kilo less, while sernamby (scrap) 
sells at 1,700-2,200 reis less. The difference 
in price is greater in Brazil than in 
Europe or America, and on this the 
merchant makes his profit. 


The rubber is packed for export in 
chests of about 3 cwt. 


PROSPECTS OF THE CULTIVATED RUBBER. 


After a discussion of the area under 
rubber in the tropics, Herr Sandmann 
goes on to deal with the Ceylon figures, 
and takes the area at certain dates, 
with the export six years later, arriving 
at the following figures of yield for the 
bearing trees :— 


1903 0°321 Ib. 
1904 0-515 
1905 0-843 
1906 1°165 
1907 177 


and he calculates that a_ ten-year-old 
tree, at 200 to the acre, will yield 3 lbs. 
Atthis rate rubber is already over- 
planted, for there are now perhaps 
550,000 acres in it, which at even 3 ewt. 
to the acre, means 80,000 tons, against a 
present consumption of 68,000 tons, half 
of which is from Brazil. 


Calculating on the annual rise of the 
consumption, he reckons that serious 
overproduction will begin in 1913, 


Many people claim that rubber pro- 
duction on the Amazon will cease as the 
price falls, but against this many set 
the fact that it increased with the low 
prices of 1900-01, for then the food 
materials of the workers, instead of 
being carried up river, were planted on 
the spot, while the seringueros worked 


harder to get enough rubber to make up 


») 


for the fall in prices, 


[DEcEMBER, 1908. 


<a 


Pai 
_ DECEMBER, 1908. } 


Sandmann himself takes the latter 
view, and one cannot but feel rightly. 
If planting is taken up in the Amazon 
valley, it will greatly reduce cost of 
production. He gives figures of cost of 
provisions on the upper river compared 
with those in Rio. 


Flour 1,000 reis against 85 

Sugar 1,500 Ai 500 

Rice 1,500 fy 290 

Tobacco 1,000 Ma 1,600 
and so on. 


If agriculture begins, better houses, 
in healthier situations, will be built for 
the workers, and they would tend to 
settle, so that the advances would be 
less. Further, actual planting of rubber 
could be taken up, 


[This article will repay study by those 
who are interested in more than the 
immediate prospects of rubber, and who 
look to the future. There is too much 
tendency in Ceylon to pooh-pooh what is 
done elsewhere, because we are British 
and have plenty of cheap labour,—Ep.| 


RUBBERS FROM TRINIDAD. 


A collection of rubbers prepared in 
Trinidad from trees growing on land 
belonging to the Botanical Department 
or on private estates was recently for- 
warded for examination to the Imperial 
Institute. The collection included sam- 
ples of Para, Castilloa, Funtumia and 
Landolphia rubbers, according to the 
following list, which also gives notes 
supplied regarding them:— 
fe Par biscuit from tree A. Natural coagulation. 


” ” 


trees A and 
B (mixed) 
A 
A 


ball B 
» scrap, trees A and B, 


The two trees which furnished the 
above specimens are stated to be from 
30 to 35 years old and are about the 
same size. Both have been determined 
to be Hevea brasiliensis, but itis thought 
in Trinidad that the rubber they yield 
is of different quality. 


No, 10. Castilloa rubber. Cake. Wash- 
ed in three waters, skimmed and 
_ allowed to coagulate in glass saucer. 


No. 11. Castilloa rubber. Cake. Latex 
washed through strainer with 12 volumes 
of water and left in vessel to coagulate. 
It was taken as a cake from surface six 
days afterwards and pressed, 


” 9 ” 
a9 


” ) 


B 
A 


” 


Pe) 
ball 


2) 


Wound out’ of cuts 
daily after taking 


ah flowing milk. 


SOG pero: oa am 


507 Saps and Haudations. 

No. 12. Castilloa scrap. Collected 

from trees which furnished Nos. 10 
and ll. 


These specimens were prepared from 
Castilloa trees which were planted to 
fill up the gaps in a permanent plot » 
of Hevea brasiliensis. The trees are 74 
years old, but are of small size owing 
to the Hevea trees outgrowing them. 


No. 18. Funtumia elastica rubber. 
Coagulated by boiling. The rubber was 
collected from 74 year old trees. 


No. 14. Landolphia Kirkii rubber. 
Wound out of cuts a few seconds 
after cutting. 

The foregoing specimens Nos. 1 to 14, 
were all prepared from trees growing 
‘on lands belonging to the Botanical 
Department. 


Nos. 15 and 16. Castilloa block and 
scrap from trees 17 years old. 


Nos. 17 & 18. Castilloa sheet and scrap. 
Nos. 19 & 20 


99 99 39 °9 
No. 21, op » from trees 6 
years old. 
Nos. 22 and 28. » and scrap. 
These specimens Nos. 15 to 23 represent 
the rubber which is being produced at 
the present time on private estates in 
Trinidad, and for which, it is stated, 
prices of from 3s. to 4s. 3d. per lb. are 
being obtained. 
No, 24, Venezuelan balata (Mimusops 
globosa). 


No, 25. Venezuelan Loranthus rubber, 
The results of the chemical examina- 
tion and commercial valuation of these 


samples are given in the following 
account :— 


PARA RUBBER (Hevea brasiliensis). 


Nos. 1 and 4 ‘Para rubber. Tree A, 
Age 30-35 years. Natural coagulation.” 
Weight 4 oz, 

Two thin biscuits, from 5 to 6 inches 
in diameter and }? inch thick, with 
rather rough surface. 


The rubber was light reddish-brown, 
clean, well prepared and free from 
stickiness; its physical properties were 
very satisfactory, 


The following results were obtained 
on analysis :— 


99 


Rubber as Composition of 


received, dry rubber. 
Per cent, Per cent, 
Moisture 2°0 = 
Caoutchouc 93°0 94°9* 
Resin iy 31 3'2 
Proteids ,.. 16 16 
Ash { 0°3 0°3 
* Soluble in Chloroform 93°6 per cent ; insoluble 


in chloroform 1°3 per cént. 


Gums, Resins, 


The rubber was valued at 5s. ld. per 
Ib. in London, with fine hard Para from 
South America quoted at 4s. 7d. per Ib, 
and Para biscuits from Ceylon aud the 
Federated Malay States at 5s. 1d. to 5s. 
73d, per lb. 


Sample No. 6, also derived from tree 
A, was a very thin biscuit of pale vellow 
rubber, weighing about 4 oz, It ex- 
hibited good elasticity and tenacity and 
was quite equal in quality to samples 
land 4; it was, however, too small for 
separate examination. 


Nos. 2 and 5. ‘Para rubber. 
B. Age 30-35 years. 
tion,” Weight 7 oz. 


Two biscuits of rubber; one 6 inches 
in diameter and nearly 2 inch thick, 
the other 4 inches in diameter and from 
4 toz inch thick. 


The rubber was light coloured, clean, 
well prepared, and free from stickiness, 
but was not quite so strong as the 
rubber from tree A. 


Tree 
Natural coagula- 


The results of the analysis were as 
follows :— 


Rubber as Composition of 


received dry rubber, 

Per cent. Per cent. } 
Moisture ee Ont = 
Caoutchoue An 89°3 92-7* 
Resin bie 36 37 
Proteids cen 2°6 PAUL 
Ash On 0:8 0:8 


lb. in London. 


These samples of rubber from tree B 
were slightly inferior in physical 
properties to the specimens prepared 
from tree A, and the value assigned to 
the rubber is correspondingly lower. 
The only noteworthy difference in the 
composition of the rubber from these 
two trees is that the product from tree 
B contains a much higher percentage of 
‘insoluble caoutchouc” than that from 
tree A. 


No. 3. ‘‘Para rubber. 
trees A and B mixed. 
tion.” Weight 43 oz. 


The specimen was a thick biscuit 
about 5 inches in diameter and from 3 
to inch thick. The rubber was dark 
coloured externally but white within, 
rather porous and muist, and possessed 
a slight disagreeable odour ; it exhibited 
good elasticity and tenacity. It was 
not submitted to chemical examination. 


Latex from 
Natural coagula- 


“Soluble in chloroform 87°4 per cent; insoluble 
in chloroform 5:3 per cent, 


508 


(DECEMBER, 1908. 


Owing to the thickness of the biscuit 
the rubber had not thoroughly dried, 
and its moist character adversely 
affected its market value. Thespecimen 
was valued at 4s. 3d. per lb. in London. 


CASTILLOA RUBBER (Castilloa elastica). 


No. 10. ‘‘Castilloa rubber from trees 
7s years planted.” Weight 6 oz. 


A thick cake of rubber, 5 inches in 
diameter and from } to 4 inch thick. 


The rubber was almost black exter- 
nally, but greenish-white within when 
freshly cut ; it was clean. slightly sticky, 
and exhibited very poor elasticity and 
tenacity. 


The results of the analysis were as 
follows :— 


Rubber as Composition of 

received dry rubber. 

Per cent. Per cent, 
Moisture 29 — 
Caoutchouce 46°4 47°5 
Resin -- 506 52°0 
Proteids AN sun 045; 0°5 
Insoluble matter nil nil. 
Ash 0:24 0°25 


This sample of rubber is of inferior 
quality on account of the very high 
percentage of resin present. It was 
valued at 2s. per lb. in London. 


No. 11, ‘‘Castilloa rubber from trees 
74 years planted.” Weight 8% oz. 


A thick cake of rubber, 6 inches 
in diameter and 1 inch thick. The rub- 
ber was almost black externally but 
lighter within, clean and slightly sticky; 
its physical properties were not very 
satisfactory, although it was superior 
in this respect to the preceding spe- 
cimen No. 10 


The rubber had the following composi- 
tion :— 


Rubber as Composition 

received. of dry rubber. 

Per cent. Per cent. 
Moisture 25 — 
Caoutchouce 57°6 59-1 
Resin Age eco) 36'9 
Proteids a 1:0 1:0 
Insoluble matter... 2°9 30 
Ash 2°4 25 


This sample contains less resin than No. 
10, but the amount of this constituent 
is still very much greater than is admis- 
sible in rubber of good quality. It was — 
valued at 3s. per lb. in London. The 
scrap rubber, sample No. 12, correspond- 
ing to Nos. 10 and 11, was valued at 2s. 
10d. per Ib. 


| DeceMBER, 1908.] 


No, 15. ‘‘Castilloa block from trees 
17 years old.” Weight 2} 1b. 


An oblong piece of rubber, about 2 feet 
ee from 3 to 4inches wide and! inch 
thick. 


The rubber was brown externally but 
lighter within; it was clean, free from 
stickiness, and exhibited fair elasticity 
and tenacity. 


The following results were obtained 
on analysis :— 


Rubber as Composition 
received. of dry rubber. 
Per cent. Per cent, 

Moisture 0:8 — 
Caoutehouc 69:2 75:2 
Resin Mv 21°2 23'0 
Proteids Ase 06 07 
Insoluble matter ... 1:0 11 
Ash 1°99 2°15 


This sample of Castilloa rubber is of 
better quality than Nos. 10 and 11, but 
the amount of resin is still excessive. It 
was valued at 38s. 6d. per Ib. in London. 
The scrap rubber from the same source 
sample No. 16, was valued at 2s. 1d. per lb. 


No. 17. ‘‘Castilloa sheet.” Weight 1 lb. 


A large sheet of rubber 12 x 14 inches, 
and from 1/16 to 4 inch thick. 


The rubber was clean, pale yellow, 
and free from stickiness; it was, how- 
ever, weak and tore readily. 


The rubber had the following com- 
position :— 


Rubber as Composition 

received. of dry rubber. 

Per cent. Per cent: 
Moisture 8:0 a 
Caoutchouc soc those b 76°7 
Resin se. 210 21°7 
Proteids 0°5 O'5 
Insoluble matter 1‘1 11 
Ash 0-71 0°72 


This sample is very similar in composi- 
tion to No. 15, butisa little weaker. It 
was valued at 3s. 5d. per lb. in London. 


The corresponding scrap rubber was 
valued at 3s. per lb. 

No. 19. ‘‘Castilloa sheet.” Weight 
5s OZ 


Two thin sheets of clean rubber, pale 
colour, sticky. The rubber was very 
weak and tore readily. 


The following results were obtained 
on analysis :— 


09 Saps and Hxudations. 

Per cent, 
Moisture Ol 
Caoutchoue 60'9 
Resin 372 
Proteids a 0'4 
Insoluble matter ... 1°4 
Ash 0°37 


This sample is of inferior quality on 
account of the high percentage of resin. 
In composition it agrees well with 
sample No. 11. The scrap rubber, No. 
20, contained a little less resin than the 
sheet, viz., 824 per cent. The sheet 
rubber was valued at 2s. 3d. per Ib., 
and the corresponding scrap rubber in 
ball form at 38s. per lb. in London. 


No. 21. ‘‘ Castilloa sheet.” Weight 5 oz. 


Three small irregular cakes of clean 
black rubber, which exhibited fair elas- 
ticity and tenacity, but tore when 
stretched. 


The rubber had the following com- 
position :—- 


Rubber as Composition of 


received, dry rubber, 

Per cent. Per cent, 
Moisture ... 1°0 — 
Caoutchoue 75°4 76:1 
Resin oe 20°4 20°6 
Proteids ... 0°6 06 
Insoluble matter 2°6 27 
Ash 2°17 2°19 


_This sample corresponds in compo- 
sition and quality with Nos. 15 and 17. 
It was valued at 3s. 6d. per lb. in London. 


No. 22. ‘‘Castilloa sheet.” Weight 15 oz. 


Two thin sheets of rubber about 10 
inches square. The rubber was clean, 
well prepared, pale in colour and free 
from stickiness ; it exhibited good elasti- 
city and tenacity, being much superior 
in these respects to all the other samples. 


The results of the analysis were as 
follows :— 


Per cent. 
Moisture 01 
Caoutchoue id ».. 83'0 
Resin ... Bhs .. 15'6 
Proteids ous sete iO 
Insoluble matter ... sean O9 
Ash 0°51 


This sample of Castilloa rubber con- 
tains less resin than any of the other 
specimens. It was very well prepared 
and is certainly the best sample of 
Castilloa rubber in the series. It was 


Gums, Resins, — é 
valued at 4s. 6d. per Ib. in London, the 
correspondiug scrap rubber, No. 23, 


being valued at 2s. 7d. per Ib. 
FuNTUMIA RUBBER (Funtumia elastica). 


No. 18. ‘“ Funtumia elastica. 
ber; coagulated by boiling.” 
1? oz. 


Ive rub- 
Weight 


A small oval piece of black rubber, 
clean, well prepared and free from 
stickiness; it exhibited fair elasticity and 
tenacity. 

The following 
on analysis :— 


results were obtained 


Rubber as Composition of 


received. dry rubber. 
Per cent. Per cent. 
Moisture .. Seis eae — 
Caoutchouc 84°38 87'6 
Resin ues BON 9-0 
Proteids Se lerO PAS 
Insoluble matter 0-7 O'7 
Ash Owe 0°73 


This rubber is of very fair quality, 
although itis not very strong and the 
percentage of resin isa little high. The 


specimen was valued at 3s 8d. per lb. in | 


London, 
RUBBER OF Landolphia Kirkit. 


y No. 14. “Landolphia rubber.” Weight 
3 OZ 


Avery small ball of reddish-brown 
rubber, which was: white internally 
when freshly cut. The rubber was clean 
of good quality, and exhibited very 
satisfactory physical properties. 


The sample was too small for chemical 
examination or commercial valuation. 


The botanical specimens of the vine 
which furnished this rubber have been 
identified at Kew as Landolphia Kirkit, 
Dyer. 


BaLATA (Mimusops globosa). 


No, 24. ‘‘ Balata from Venezuela (Mimu- 
sops globosa.)” Weight 2 lb. 

A block of balata measuring about 8 
inches by 33 inches by 35 inches. 

It was dark grey in colour, fairly 
clean, hard and very tenacious. The 
balata had the following composition:— 


Per cent, 
Moisture 1'8 
Gutta 45°7 
Resin 44:2 
Proteids Ms ate 3:0 
Insoluble matter st 53 
Ash wy, Bes 1°28 


10 


Ve eh Tame, ‘ 
[DECEMBER, by a 


This sample of balata is of good 
quality, agreeing well in composition 
with the average figures of commercial 
consignments. It was valued at ls. 73d. 
per lb. in London. 


LoRANTHUS RUBBER. 

No. 25. ‘‘ Venezuelan Loranthus rub- 
ber.” Weight 1 oz. 

This sample consisted of two pieces 
of rubber: (1) a thin strip1 inch by 3 
inches, with smooth surface, and (2) a 
thin flat cake with rough surface, 


The rubber was fairly tenacious but 
exhibited little elasticity. 


The following results were obtained 
on analysis :— 


Rubber as Composition of 

received. dry rubber, 

Per cent. Per cent, 
Moisture 4:7 aus 
Caoutchouc ... 54:4 57'1 
Resin xe Ae, 18'°6 
Proteids Rt 4-1 4:3 
Insoluble matter 19°1 20:0 
Ash 1:70 1'78 


This Loranthus rubber is of inferior 
quality on account of the high percen- 
tage of resin and the large amount of 
insoluble matter present. The sample 
was too small for trustworthy valuation. 


CONCLUSIONS. 


Para Rubber.—The investigation has 
shown that the samples of Para rubber 
prepared in Trinidad are of good quality 
and would realise very satisfactory 
prices in the market. Krom the speci- 
mens submitted to the Imperial Institute 
it would appear that the rubber from 
tree A is a little better than that yielded 
by tree B, although the difference is 
only slight. 


Castilloa Rubber.—The two samples 
of Castilloa rubber, Nos. 10 and 11, from 
tree growing on land belonging to 
the Botanical Department, contain an 
exceptionally high percentage of resin 
(viz,, 52 and 37 per cent. respectively) 
for the product of 74 year old trees. 
It may, however, be noted that the 
trees in question are stated to he of 
small growth owing to the fact that 
they were planted along with Para trees 
and the latter had outgrown them. 


The other samples of Castilloa rubber 
were derived from private estates in 
Trinidad. Of these, No. 19 contained — 
37'2 per cent. of resin, thus agreeing in 
composition with No. 11, whereas in the 
other specimens, 
22, the amounts of 


i 


Nos. 15,-17, 21, and 
resin were much © 
less, ranging from 15°6 to 28 per cent. — 


i ee MAE ure 
tN ha) 


2 hss, Sick AF) Dt 2 ie 
PM WRN. 4 ‘ 


Even these latter percentages are much 
higher than those usually recorded for 
Castilloa rubber from mature trees. 


The valuations of the sheet Castilloa 
rubbers vary from 2s. to 4s. 6d, per 
lb., and those of the ‘‘scrap” from 2s. 
1d. to 8s. 0d. per 1b. It may be noted 
that in the case of the specimens Nos. 19 
and 20 the scrap rubber in ball form 
was valued by the brokers at more 
than the corresponding sheet. The 
latter was exceptionally weak, whereas 
the ball of scrap rubber appeared to 
be much stronger and contained a 
little less resin. 


Funtunia Rubber.—The single speci- 
men of this rubber which was submitted 
was of very fair quality.— Bulletin of 
ee pers Institute, Vol. VI., No. 2, 


[The West Indies has been too much 
interested in cotton to pay much atten- 
tion to rubber, but there are signs 
that the latter is now being taken 
up.— Ep. | 


THE COAGULATION OF LATEX. 


(La coagulation des latex & caoutchoue. 
G. Lamy-Torrilhon in Jowrn. @Agr. 
Trop., 30th September, 1908, p. 257.) 


I, MECHANICAL PROCESSES. 


In the introduction the author, well- 
known as a manufacturer of rubber, 
mentions that in French West Africa 

-sehools have been established in the 
rubber centres to instruct the natives 
in the treatment of the trees and the 
coagulation of the latex. He then goes 
on to describe the various machines of 
Guignet, Schmoele, Morchette, and 
Michie-Golledge. 

J.C. W. 


RUBBER ESTATES IN GERMAN 
EAST AFRICA. 


(ZIMMERMANN in Der Pflanzer 2, 12, 
1907, p. 321.) 


ABSTRACTED BY J. C. WILLIS. 


Manihot Glaziovi has so far been 
almost’ exclusively planted, though 
Hevea, Landolphia, Ficus, Castilloa, and 
Mascarenhasia occur, and recently a few 
Funtumias have been put in. 


Investigations wee set on foot by the 
- Botanical Institute at Amanito deter- 
mine the area planted, but as all estates 
i 


; 


‘DECEMBER, 1908] | oa 


Saps and Hxudations. 


did not reply ‘to queries, the following 
figures are too small. They show that 
5,107,600 trees are already planted, or 
allowing that the trees are 19 feet apart, 
an area of 11,582 acres. A further two 
millions of trees were expected to be 
planted before the end of 1907, so that 
the area in the beginning of 1908 may be 
safely looked uponas 15,000 acres, or 
perhaps now 20,000. 


From these trees a yield of say 1,000 
tons may be expected in a few years’ 
time, so that German East Africa is 
distinctly a factor to be reckoned with 
on the rubber market. 

CASTILLOA ON THE ISTHMUS 
OF THHUANTEPEC. 


By J. L. HerMessen,. of Chiapas, 
Mexico. 


O waving trees, O forest liberty ! 
Within your haunts at least a man is free. 
Ravenna. 


The wind of the South blows fierce 
and hot, its voice as the sound of many 
waters, as it riots through waving palm, 
bending bamboo, «and great-leaved 
banana. Borne on the wild surgings of 
the wanton wind come the hoarse 
clamour of countless frogs, the plaintive 
ery of the whip-poor-will, the cease- 
less hum of the myriad insects; but of 
human sounds,. not one, The night, 
with its ‘thousand eyes,” is as the day, 
but in its argent radiance more glorious 
still; the sheen of the moon on field and 
forest palm-thatched hut and winding 
stream, turning its course into molten 
silver and making giant spectres of 
the white-barked ‘‘ chancarro,” and 
**Jonote” midst the “silent places ” where 
the trogon builds his nest and the deer 
and the tapir roam free, 


These southerly winds prevail during 
the hottest and driest months of the 
year—namely, March, April, and May— 
and area source of some anxiety to the 
planter on the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, 
constituting, as they do, about the only 
menace he has to tearon the score of 
fibre. During the same months much 
necessary work, impossible of accomplish- 
ment at any other period of the year— 
such as road and bridge-building—has 
to be attended to, including the prepar- 
ation of areas for new plantings. 


The selected block of forest is first 
underbrushed, then feiled, making a 
complete clearing, which is allowed to 
dry for six weeks. Wither at the 
beginning or middle of May the ground 
is burnt over, the choice of a fayourable 


be 


Gums. Resins, 


day for its operation being a matter 
of rather fine judgment. Hot, sunny 
weather, with a light breeze, is best ; high 
winds naturally render the work very 
risky. Assocn as the ground has cooled 
off sufficiently to permit of its being 
walked over, itis lined and staked for 
planting, which commences with the 
advent of the first rainsin June, when 
about 4 inches have fallen. Five or six 
seeds are sown at stake, ina circle 8 or 
10 in. from the same, the lines being 
74 ft, square, representing about 800 
trees to the acre. Maize is frequently 
sown asa catch crop between the rows 
of rubber. Periodic complete cleanings 
are given to the ground during the first 
year to afford the young plant air and 
space for development; and formerly 
such complete cleanings were continued 
at regularly extended intervals. The 
present general practice, however, is to 
clean only along the rows of rubber 
trees, after they have attained a height 
of 5 ft, or 6 ft., leaving the natural 
“soft” growth to come up_ between 
them, with the two-fold object of pro- 
tecting the elongating trunks of the 
rubber trees—as they begin to cast 
their disarticulating branches—against 
scorching by the sun, and of providing 
shade over the surrounding surface of 
the ground, the effect being to limit, if 
not to wholly prevent, the spread of 
pernicious grasses, and tending towards 
a restoration of what is technically 
known as the “‘forest floor,” in the form 
of an accumulation of leaf mould, which 
is an essential requisite to the per- 
manence of the lateral root system of 
Castilloa. Subject to such modifications 
as local conditions may suggest, this 
appears now to be accepted as the best 
treatment for Castilioa plantings, while 
having, in addition, the advantage of 
considerable economy over the older 
method of complete cleaning. Such 
planting may then be properly charac- 
terized as one of a Sylvan culture, and 
it may be assumed that the application 
of the same to Castilloa would favour 
the theory of equilibrium-in Nature, 
and thus minimize the chances of attack 
upon wounded trees by parasites, &c. 
In this connection it is interesting to 
note that Dr. Warburg, of Berlin, in his 
work ‘‘Die Kautschukpflanzen und ihre 
Kultur,” makes reference to the fact 
that Mr. Millson, a former Government 
official in British Honduras, early pointed 
out the desirability of the sylvan system 
of culture for Castilloa, recommending 
just such procedure as is now being 
adopted. 


The writer recently had the oppor- 
tunity of witnessing a series of experi- 
mental tappings made upon Castilloa 


512 


[DECEMBER, 1908. 


trees of six, seven and eight years 
old, on an estate on the Isthmus 
of Tehuantepec. The crude method of 
tapping as practised by the native 
Indian, by cutting the trees with 
a “machete” has, of course, been 
superseded by the employment of 
specially designed tools. The knife used 
in the experiments here dealt with was 
one invented by Mr. V. S. Smith, an 
American planter in the State of Chia- 
pas. The incisions were .aade in V form, 
but, instead of making acomplete V, the 
cut on one side was stopped short of the 
other, to avoid introducing a possible 
focus of infection or rot at the meeting 
point, where moisture might be retained. 
A drip cup was attached to the base of 
the tree, by means of an upward cut 
made in the bark, the bottom of the cup 
resting on the ground. (The object of 
the upward cut was, of course, to convey 
the latex into the receptacle without 
waste.) In earlier tapping experiments 
a straight incision was also made 
between the centres of the V’s, forming 
a regular herring-bone arrangement; this 
was, however, found to be a_ useless 
mutilation of cortex, increasing the 
risk of rot, as the mere drawing of a 
finger on the bark from V to V sufficed 
to establish a route for the flow of the 
latex down into the drip cup. The 
central cut, moreover, added little or 
nothing to the actual flow of latex, 
owing to the verticle structure of the 
lactiferous cells in the Castilloa tree. 


The latex collected in a fluid state in 
the drip cups was emptied into a large 
vessel at the expiration of the day’s 
work and carried to the coagulating 
shed, where it was first run through a 
fine wire mesh, to free it from mechan- 
ical impurities, such as bits of bark, 
lichen, moss, &c. It was then poured 
into upright, open-topped wooden 
barrels, and mixed with clean water in . 
the proportion of one part of latex to 
four parts of water ; thoroughly agitated 
for afew moments, covered with a lid, 
and allowed to stand over-night. The 
following morning the latex was found 
to have risen to the surface in the form 
of a thick, almost pure, white cream. 
The barrels being provided with taps on 
the side at the bottom, the separated 
black water was drawn off until nothing 
remained but the washed latex, which 
was then ready forcoagulation. A primi- 
tive method was here adopted in the use 
of a juice of a wild vine, known locally as 
“ Jamole” (Ipomea bonanox), amember 
of the Convolvulacee, which grows 
in great abundance along the margins 
of the streams and rivers of this part 
of the country. Pieces of the riper 
stems of this vine were cul about a yard 


i IY. 
eal 
eit 
ee 


4 
p; 


s 


\ 


- 


- liquor. 


-Decumper, 1908.] 513 Saps and Exudations. 
long, doubled up several times, and apparent respects, the most attractive 
macerated, to draw out the juice; the example of castilloa rubber. Later ex- 
stems were then removed, squeezed perience, however, has conclusively 


out, and the remaining liquid strained. 
It was then thoroughly incorporated in 
the latex by stirring with the same. 
Although many claims have _ been 
advanced in favour of the employment 
of certain chemical reagents to assist 
the process of coagulation, the superi- 
ority of such over the simple means 
above described has yet to be proved. 
In the course of an hour or two the 
caoutchouc globules would be found to 
have coalesced in the shape of a spongy 
mass, easily lifted out of the residual 
This mass was laid on a _ table 
and cut up into convenient strips, of 
about 14 in. in thickness, which were 
immediately passed a number of times 
through the hard-rubber rollers of an 
ordinary wringing machine, the rollers 
being gradually adjusted until the strips 


-had been reduced to about 3 in. in 


thickness, and containing the minimum 
(or, rather, the advisable minimum) 
of moisture, foras with Hevea, if too 
much moisture be taken out of the rub- 
ber, it results inaloss of elasticity and 
strength, the product becoming soft and 
gummy, if stored for any length of 
time, or subjected to pressure or a raised 
temperature; while, on the other hand, 
the retention of a large proportion of 
moisture is liable toset up putrefactive 
changes through the development of 
bacteria. The strips were next immers- 
ed fora few momentsin clean water, 
to remove any traces of the extraneous 
black liquor;then taken out and hung 
up to dry on bamboo rods _ suitably 
arranged under the corrugated iron 
roofing of the drying shed. At the 
expiration of a month the rubber was 
ready for packing in bales for shipment. 
When the strips were freshly washed, 
ready for drying, they were about the 
colour of dough or very light putty; 
after a few days, however, they assumed 
a pale brown superficially, but retained 
the original dough colour internally for 
an indefinite period. 


Castilloa rubber prepared in _ this 
manner has been found to rank very 
high in quality for manufacturing  pur- 
poses. Attempts have been made to 
produce what was thought would be 
a still higher grade by repeated wash- 
ing of the latex until the residual liquor 
came Off almost colourless, the latex 
being then transferred to _ shallow, 
porous earthenware pans, and allowed 
to stand until atmospheric coagulation 
took place, requiring from five to ten 
days betore the biscuit thus formed 
could beremoved, The resultant pro- 
duct presented at the time, in all 


65 


. 


demonstrated the fact that rubber so 
treated becomes ‘‘tacky” and _ deteri- 
orates much quicker than that obtained 
by the usual method; nor, indeed, does 
such rubber, upon removal from the 
coagulating pans exhibit nearly the 
same strength of fibre resilience. Just 
what the precise physical or chemical 
causes may be that contribute to these 
results must be lett, of course, to labor- 
atory investigation to determine. 


It has been observed that in compara- 
tively young trees, suchas those referred 
to, the flow of fluid latex was less than in 
older trees; that is to say, that immedi- 
ately upon tapping, whilea small pro- 
portion ran freely, atmospheric coagu- 
lation began very soon, the result being 
the formation of a creamy latex in the 
incisions, too thick to run, which in a 
few days could readily be stripped from 
the trees as ‘‘scrap” rubber, or ‘‘ yrena,” 
as itis locally termed.—Tyropical Life, 
Vol. IV., No. 8. August, 1908, 


A NOISELESS LONDON. 


WuHaT RUBBER-PAVED STREETS 
WovuLp ACCOMPLISH. 
(D. Mail.) 


When Sir Henry A. Blake declared 
open the International Rubber Exhibi- 
tion at Olympia on Monday, he had 
around him in the great building—ac- 
cording to an expert computation—near- 
ly £1,000,000 worth of pure rubber. 


‘‘Rubber,” declared Sir Henry, ‘‘is a 
product that has during the past half- 
century played a greater part than any 
other substance in expediting human 
progress.” As proof of this statement, 
he added: ‘‘ Without rubber no cables 
could have been laid down between far- 
distant continents to give the means 
of that instantaneous communication 
which makes for peace, friendship, and 
commerce. 


OusTING LEATHER. 


Last year £11,000,000 worth of rubber 
was imported into this country ; but the 
romance of rubber lies not in figures, 
but in the extraordinary variety of its 
uses in modern life—as evidenced upon 
the stalls of the Exhibition. The work- 
ing of every factory is now depended in 
some way or another upon rubber. 


Rubber is now doing its best to oust 
leather for some purposes. For machine- 
belting, for instance, it is claimed that 


Gums, Resins, 


gutta-percha, which is india-rubber and 
other things combined, is in many ways 
superior to leather. A leather belting 
is, owing to the limited length of hides, 
made in several sections, whereas gutta- 
percha belting can be made to any 
desired length in one section, | and, 
therefore, it runs truer than one made 
of leather. 


Imitation marble or granite mosaic 
floors are also made of india-rubber, 
and the designs are in colours extending 
throughout the thickness of the material. 


“Tf rubber sank in price to 2s. a 
pound,” observed a prominent exhibitor, 
‘its scope might be further extended by 
using it to pave the streets of London.” 


A NoIsELESS LONDON. 


This remark conjures up visions of a 
silent London. With streets paved 
witb rubber instead ofjwith wood blocks, 
or macadam, or stone setts, and with 
smooth-working motor-omnibus engines, 
traffic would be carried on under condi- 
tions of almost perfect quiet. 


The only obstacle is the initial outlay. 

At Euston Station, London, there is 
arubber road, laid down, twenty-five 
years ago, and despite exceedingly heavy 
traffic it is to-day in a splendid state of 
preservation. 


The courtyard of the Savoy Hotel, 
London, is rubber-paved, while banks. 
hospitals, and public institutions, as 
well as many private houses have 
rubber floors, which not only deaden 
the noise, but are cleaner and more 
economical in every respect. 


RUBBER IN SOUTH INDIA. 


CULTIVATION EXTENDING--SATISFACTORY 
GOVERNMENT RESULT—PROMISING 
OUTLOOK FOR PARA. 


In the Administration Report of the 
Government Botanic Gardens and Parks, 
the Nilgiris, for the year 1907-08, various 
interesting notes about Rubber trees 
appear: There is said to be practically 
no demand for Castilloa seed, and very 
little for Ceara, but Para seed is in 
great request. Mr. Proudlock remarks 
that ‘‘everything now points to the 
fact that the cultivation of rubber is 
extending, and that it is promisine to 
become a very large and important 
industry in South-Western India in the 
near future. At Benhops Castilloa, Para, 
and Funtumia elastica are all growing 
well. Of Burliar it is reported :— 


514 


The Castilloa trees plantedin September, 


1898, are growing well. The best tree, 
No. 1 in the plantation, when measured 
On the 24th April, 1908, was 40 ft. 3in. — 
in height, 10 in. in girth at1 foot from | 
the ground, and 8 ft. 23 in. at 4 feet 
from the ground. The Para trees plant- — 
ed in November, 1898, are also growing ~ 
fast. The best tree was found to be, 
on the 24th Apri), 1908, 55 ft.3 in. in 
height, 8 ft. lin. girthat 1 foot from 
the ground, and 2 ft. 44 in. at 4 feet — 
from the ground. Para tree No. 14 at ; 
the bottom of the garden promises, 
however, to be the best tree in the — 
plantation. It was 3ft. 2 in. in girth ~ 
at 1 foot from the ground and 2 ft. © 
5 in. in girth at 4 feet trom the ~ 
ground on the 24th April, 1908. The — 
best tree of Funtuma, Africana, Stapf., 
when measured on the 24th April, 1908, 
was found to be 57 ft. 8 in, in height, 
2ft. 8 in. in girth at 1 foot from the 
ground, and 2 ft, 7 in. at 4 feet from 
the ground. 


Funtumia Elastica is also growing. 
well. Still, the measurements of the 
various rubber trees given in the report 
show that in girth the trees at Burliar 
do not, as a rule, compare favourably 
with those in Travancore and Cochin, 
of which Mr. J. A, Richardson gave 
some particulars at the last meeting 
of the U,P.A.S.I, Some Kullar figures 
are more encouraging. Thereisanotice- — 
able diversity of measurements, but — 
there can be no doubt that ‘‘the trees — 
at Kullar are making splendid growth.” 


Of the Forest Department Rubber 
Plantation the report says :— 


“The Para plants are doing well. 
There were, however, several failures 
on account of the dry season, and for 
want of water to water the young plants — 
with. The failures were replaced. The 
‘Musa textilis.. which were planted 
among the rubber trees, are growin 
well. The weeds were kept down, an 
the grass among the rubber trees has 
grown well. In fact, the ‘ Guinea grass’ 
has spread so rapidly and grows so 
luxuriantly that it threatens to exter- 
minate all the other species of indigenous © 
grasses tamed in paragraph 62 of last 
year’s report, . . This small rubber 
plantation has already amply demon- 
strated the object that a large supply 
of grass can be grown for fodder and 
for grazing purposes in a Government 
rubber plantation during the early years 
of its existence, till the trees grow up.” 
—Ceylon Indpendent, 6th October, 1908, 


at 


; 


is 


. 


‘1 foot in diameter at its base. 


“DECEMBER, 1908. 5 


OILS AND 


W AX-EXCRETING 


PALMS. 


Among the most interesting members 
of the palm family are one or two 
species which excrete wax and deposit 
on their leaves or on their stems. Pro- 
bably the best known of these is the 
Carnauba palm of Brazil (Copernicia 
cerifera), while a second has latterly 
become known as the wax palm of 
Colombia (Ceroxylon andicola), An 
article dealing with these palms and 
the commercial uses to which the wax 
excreted by them may be put, appeared 
in a recent number of the Gardeners’ 
Chronicle. It was mentioned in the 
Agricultural News (Vol. VI., p. 375) that 
specimens of the Carnauba palm exist 
in the Botanic Gardens in British Guiana, 
and seeds from these have been distri- 
buted to the Botanic Stations through- 
out the West Indies. 


In the forests of Pernambuco and 
Bahia the Carnauba palm is found in 
great number. The tree grows to a 
height of 40 feet and measures to about 
The wax 
is excreted and deposited on the under 
side of the leaves, and the collection of 
this produ2t has of late years become 
an important industry. 


The wax is either scraped from the 
leaves on the tree, or the leaves them- 


FATS. 


selves are gathered from the tree and 
the wax is afterwards removed. Since 
the product so obtained is in an impure 
state, and_contains a large admixture 
of resin and other materials, it is melted, 
the impurities are removed by skim- 
ming, and the wax is run into moulds 
to harden. 


Carnauba wax was, until recently, 
used in the manufacture of candles and 
also asa basis for such articles as boot 
polishes. The discovery of the fact that 
this wax was of special value for the 
purpose of making phonograph and 
gramaphone records, led immediately 
to a greater demand for the product 
and also to a large increase ix its value. 
About 2,000 tons of the wax are annually 
exporled from Brazil, and its value is 
placed at anything from £100 to £200 
per ton. 


The wax palm of Colombia excretes 
wax which is deposited not on the 
leaves, but on the trunk of the trees and 
is frequently found between the scars 
left on the trunk by the petioles of the 
leaves, in deposits so thick that it can 
be removed in flakes. The average 
annual yield of one tree is said to be 
about 25 lb. At present there is but a 
local demand for the wax, and itis used 
by the people of Colombia for making 
candles.—Agricultural News, Vol. VIL. 
No. 165, August, 1908. 


516 


FIBRES. 


SEA ISLAND COTTON 
CULTIVATION, 


Sea Island cotton planting has been in 
active progress in many parts of the 
West Indian Islands for several weeks, 
but large areas are yet to be planted, 
and the present is an opportune time 
for again drawing the attention of 
planters to points in connection with 
the cultivation which they will do well 
to observe. 


In regard to the season for planting 
cotton in the West Indies, experience 
has shown tkat the most satisfactory 
results are obtained from areas that 
have been planted during the period 
from the beginning of June to the end 
of September. Within the limits men- 
tioned, the planter must depend on 
local experience to guide him as to the 
most suitable date for sowing his seed, 
but the soil should be got into a good 
state of cultivation, so that advantage 
may be taken of early showers of rain 
to start planting operations. 


In the case of planters who may have 
had comparatively small experience in 
growing Sea Island cotton, the labour 
supply and the question of suitable soil 
will first need attention. It should be 
remembered that for the gathering of 
cotton an abundance of labour, more 
especially of women and children, is 
essential. As regards soil, although 
cotton has been grown on practicaliy 
every type of land, it isnow generally 
recognized that the best results are 
obtained from fairly light loams, cap- 
able of being easily worked. It is im- 
portant that cotton land, more especially 
if of aheavy nature, should be efficiently 
drained, since it has been noticed that 
where the soil is retentive of moisture 
and the rainfall is high, the cotton pro- 
duced hasatendency to become weak 
and wasty. On the other hand, even 
with a high rainfall, the cotton does not 
show these characteristics if the soil is 
of a porous nature. 


Thorough and careful preparation of 
the land is most essential for success with 
the cotton crop, and is one of the chief 
factors in determining the ultimate 
yield as well as the quality of the lint. 


The land should be ploughed or forked ° 
and the surface soil well pulverized 
sometime before sowing takes place. 
The most successful cotton planters 
have found that improved results are 
obtained when the soil is allowed to 
mellow, or ‘cool out,’ for a short time 
before planting. 


eats | bt 


(DECEMBER, 1908. 


The growth of cotton is attended with 
the loss of a considerable amount of 
organic matter to the soil, and it is 
essential that this should be replaced if 
good crops are to be produced. Where 
cotton forms the main crop of the estate, 
and is grown year after year on the 
same land, pen manure dug into the 
soil, and applied atthe rate of about 
half the quantity usually given to 
sugar-cane, forms an excellent mode of 
supplying the humus lost. Another 
method is by growing cowpeas, or some 
other leguminous crop, and turning it 
into thesoil. On sugar estates, however, 
where cotton is but a subsidiary crop, 
the pen manure supplied to the canes 
is sufficient also to meet the demands 
of the cotton. As regards artificial 
manures, their use in connection with 
Sea Island cotton has not been attended 
with profitable returns at Montserat or 
St. Kitt’s (see Agricultural News, Vol. 
VII, p. 246). In experiments with cotton 
carried cut at Barbados the best results 
were obtained from the application of 
800 lb, high grade superphosphate, 40 1b. 
good sulphate of potash, and 100 lb. good 
sulphate of ammonia per acre. 


In regard to the amount of cotton 
seed required for sowing, it has frequent- 
ly been pointed out in the publications 
of the Imperial Department of Agri- 
culture that 61b. of seed per acre isa 
very suitable quantity under ordinary 
circumstances of planting. On sugar- 
cane land, the seed is usually sownat ~— 
distances of 5 feet in the rows, and. ~ 
20 inches from plant to plant inthe rows, — 
or the rows may be6feet apart witha — 
distance of 18 inches between the plants. _ 

It is a good planto sow four seedsat 
each hole, about an inch deep. Later, — 
three of the plants may be removed, the ~ 
strongest only being left. It is re- ~ 
commended that not more than one 
plant be allowed to grow at each hole. 


The importance of selecting a good 
strain of seed for planting has been | 
1epeatedly urged by the Imperial Depart- 
ment of Agriculture, since the character 
of the seed has great influence upon the 
crop return obtained, and _ especially 
upon the quality of the lint. In the 
early stages of the cotton industry in 
the West Indies, cotton seed was select- 
ed, disinfected, and put on sale by 
Officers of the Department. Many 
planters now do their own selection 
work, and selected and disinfected seed — 
can be obtained from the cotton factories 
of Barbados, St. Vincent, and Antigua. 
Planters should at least assure them- 
selves that the seed planted by them is 


. 


DECEMBER, 1908, | 


of good orgin, 7.e., from plants which in 
the past season ‘produced lint of the 
best quality. 


Disinfection of the seed is carried out 
by immersion in a solution of corrosive 
sublimate made up by dissolving 1 ounce 
of corrosive sublimate in 7 gallons of 
water. One gallon of this solution is 
sufficient to disinfect about 6 lb. of 
eotton seed, which should be soaked for 
twenty minutes, then removed, immersed 
in pure water for ten minutes, taken 
out and allowed to drain, and then 
spread outina thin layer in the shade 
todry. After this the seed is ready for 
planting. It is recommended that 
cotton seed should be treated only 
just before it is to be sown. 


The young cotton plants should 
receive careful attention during the 
early stages of growth. The surface 
soil should be worked by hand imple- 
ments with the double purpose of 
preventing it from becoming hard 
and baked, and of keeping it free 
from weeds. Constant watchfulness 
will have to be exercised for the 
first signs of insect pests as soon as 
the cotton plants areup. The cotton 
worm and the cut-worm are the most 
destructive among these pests. An 
effective method of treatment for 
attack by eut-worm is by the use of 
poisoned bait, consisting of a mixture 
of bran, molasses, and Paris green. 


The cotton worm is well known to 
growers of Sea Island cotton in most 
of the West Indian Islands, and has 
already put in an appearance on one 
or two estates at Barbados where 
early planting took place. Supplies of 
Paris green and lime should be obtained, 
and on the first appearance of the 
worm the plants should be dusted 
with the mixture at the rate of 1 lb. 
of Paris green to6 lb. of lime. In the 
past, this has been shown to be_ the 
most effective method of controlling 
the pest. During the coming season, in 
Barbados at least, it is expected that 
extensive trials in the use of spraying 
machines will bee made for applying 
insecticides in cotton fields. 


The comparative value of spraying 
and dusting methods in the application 
of Paris green will bea matter of con- 
siderable interest, and the results 
obtained by the use of arsenate of lead, 
which can be applied only as a spray, 
will also be watched with interest. 


The trials made last season on one 
estate with arsenate of lead indicate 
that this material will prove an efficient 
insecticide, and its adhesive qualities 


_will render it more resistant than Paris 


a17 


Fibres, 


green to the washing of the heavy rains. 

This, it is hoped, may result.in a saving 
by reducing the number of_applica- 
tions.—Agricultural News, Vol. VII, 
No. 165. August, 1908. 


LACE-BARK TREE OF JAMAICA, 


The lace-bark tree of Jamaica (Lagetta 


‘Lintearia ) forms the subject of a short 


article in the June number of the Journal 
of the New York Botanic Gardens, while 
the peculiar and interesting character 
of the inner bark, to which the tree 
owes its name, is well shown in the 
illustrations accompanying the article. 

The lace-bark tree, which belongs to 
the Thymelawaceex, is found in the cen- 
tral and western parts of Jamaica, and 
is also said to occur in Hayti. In its 
native wilds it attains a height of from 


‘29 to 80 feet. Its ovate leaves are of a 


shining light-green colour, and are yery 
attractive in appearance, The flowers 
are fleshy, of a creamy white colour, 
and are borne in long slender spike-like 
racemes. 


The tree has long been an object of inter- 
est on account of the lace-like character 
of the inner bark, which is made up of 
fibres arranged in several layers that 
may be stretched apart into a _ loose 
fabric. Informer times people employ- 
ed this bark in making caps, ruffs, 
bonnets, ete., and now, in Jamaica, 
the fibre is used in the manufacture of 
various fancy articles, such as doyles, 
lamp-shades, fans, as well as in making 
riding-whips. It is stated, too, that the 
Spaniards formerly utilized the bark in 
the preparation of rope. 


In 1793 specimens of the lace-bark tree 
were first sent to Kew Gardens,from 
Jamaica. These died, however, andit 
was not until 1844 that another attempt 
was made, in this direction. Several 
young plants introduced in that year 
flourished, and one produced flowers 
and fruit a few years later. It is men- 
tioned in the above-mentioned Journal 
that a specimen of the tree has lately 
flowered for the first time at the New 
York Botanic Gardens.—Agricultural 
News, Vol, VII., No. 164. August, 1908. 


CULTIVATION OF CARAVONICA 
COTTON IN INDIA. 


By G. A. GAMMIE. 


About four years ago Dr. Thomatis 
professed to have evolved, by methods 
speedy enough to be accepted by magic, 
three remarkable varieties of tree cot- 


Fibres. 5 


tons, the excellences of which he briefly 
summarised as. follows:—‘‘The tree 
cotton will require only one planting, 
will necessitate but simple and inex- 
pensive culture, will live probably a 
man’s lifetime, will withstand and defy 
roaring floods and resist parching 
droughts, once in full vigour, size and 
growth. Its proportion of lint I am 
raising every year;itis now already 40 
to 50 per cent. and will steadily increase 
every year, probably up to a seedless 
crop.” He also claimed to _ have 
improved the percentage of clean cotton 
in the Kidney seed variety from 26 to 
40, and stated further that it is a very 
hardy tree and a heavy and sure crop- 
per in all kinds of seasons. This is 
entirely opposed to our experience of 
the plant in India, where it is delicate 
and a notoriously poor yielder. 


In 1905, he wrote to the Ceylon 
Observer as follows: —‘‘ You will notice 
how well I succeeded in disintegrating 
or loosening the kidney-shaped group 
of seeds in the Kidney cotton, thus 
making ginning more practicable. I 
- also succeeded in enlarging the size of 
the boll and in improving the staple 
altogether.” 


I have found, from personal observ- 
ation of the plantsin Poona, that the 
seeds are certainly loosened to some 
extent in the majority of examples, but, 
on the other hand, they are disposed to 
coalesce in smaller groups, and this 
feature, looking at it from the ginner's 
point of view, is probably just as objec- 
tionable. Hefurther states that it took 
‘three years to educate the trees, but, 
unfortunately, he does not divulge his 
educational method. 


In other communicaticns to the Indian 
press he reiterates his statements regard- 
ing the super-excellence of his cottons. 
He professed to have no doubt whatever 
that the sandy delta of the Ganges and 
many river flats or beds and the exten- 
sive sea-shores can be made a prosperous 
home for his wondrous productions. 


An article by a botanical expert in 
the Madras Mail, some time in 1905, is 
particularly valuable, as it gave clearly 
and sensibly valid reasons why the pre- 
tensions of Dr. Thomatis should not be 
supported, and it deserves to be quoted 
at some length. 


After briefly dwelling on the failures 
experienced in the attempts to introduce 
exotic cottons into India, the article 
winds up with the following pertinent 
conclusions :—‘‘ Dr. Thomatis has said 
he expects to produce an almost seed- 
less crop. It would be interesting to 


ty 


18 [DRCEMBER, 1908. 


know how he has been improving his per- 
centages of lint and, at the same time, 
been working to obtain a seedless variety. 
The two _ results are diametrically 
opposed to nature..... The cotton 
plant produces its fibre or lint on the 
seed itself and to produce a_ seedless 
cotton plant for the purposes of cotton 
growing is as easy of accomplishment 
He oe produce or grow feathers without 
irds.” 


Dr. Thomatis, in 1904, said :—‘‘ Three 
years ago I collected scores of varieties 
of seed from all parts of the world. 
got samples of bolls and lint thereof, and 
then chose two, both of the ‘Sea Island’ 
variety... .. I ecrossed them by hybri- 
disation.” 


To have obtained seed from all parts 
of the world, to have grown them to a 
flowering stage, to have hybridised and 
obtained seeds from these, and to have 
raised plants from this seed capable of 
producing cotton, must have taken some 
considerable time, and when we remem- 
ber that it was not until 1901 that Dr. 
Thomatis sent to different parts of the 
world to collect his seed, we may judge 
with how much authority he can speak 
of its habits and requirements, especially 
for Indian Cultivation.” 


Now that we understand how the 
evolution of the Caravonica cotton was 
effected, we pass on to the relation of 
some actual experiences in the cultiva- 
tion of these products in India itself. 
At Poona, in 1905, seeds of Caravonica 
No. 1 were received through the In- 
spector-General of Agriculture. Twenty- 
five were sown; of these, twelve only 
germinated and ten plants were finally 
put out in good soil in a situation, 
sheltered but not shaded. After two 
years, only one plant had survived, and 
that has yielded nothing. The principal 
characteristic of this variety was its 
extremely low vitality. 


Thirty seeds of Caravonica No. 2, 
receivedatthe same time, produced fifteen 
plants which were put out in the same 
area as the above. In two years the 
individual variations of these were 
remarkable; the best was a plant with 
a height and spread of about 7 feet, 
three more had attained about half 
these dimensions, and the remainder, 
weak and stunted all through, died 
off one after another. 


Four plants only yielded cotton in 
the second year. ¢ 


Plant No 1, the largest, was so brittle 
that some of its branches broke down 
merely with their own weight, and others 
snapped during the prevalence of winds 


i 
? 
j 
? 
y 
re 


which were never more than moderate 


in the sheltered plot occupied by the 
plants. 


In 1907, or in the second season of 
growth, this plant bore 21 ounces of 
seed cotton, producing 12 ounces of 
ginned cotton. This works out to a 
percentage of 57 which is extremely 
high, of course, but is explained by the 
fact that every seed had been completely 
destroyed by insects. It would be in- 
teresting to know if Dr. Thomatis 
expects to arrive at his seedless variety 
by the same method. At the end of 
the season, the plant which was in a 
severely crippled condition, was pruned 
back according to Dr. Thomatis’ recom- 
mendation, but, unfortunately, it died 
after the operation. 


Plant No.2 yielded 7 ounces of seed 
cotton and 23 ounces of clean cotton, 


Plant No.3 yielded 10 ounces of seed . 


cotton and 5 ounces of clean cotton. 
Plant No. 4 yielded 2 ounces of seed 
cotton. 


The bolls and seeds of all 
severely attacked by insects. 


Two years ago I examined Caravonica 
plants on the Nagpur and Bellary farms, 
and found that they were all of the 
common stunted type. The only plant 
I have seen in any way answering to 
the glowing deseprition of Dr. Thomatis 
was the plant No.1 described above, 
and that was too brittle to retain its 
branches even ina sheltered position. 
Further experiments have assisted to 
prove the low germinating power of 
the seeds and the extraordinary diversity 
of the resulting plans. This latter 
character is, 9f course, due to the recent 
hybrid origin of Dr. Thomatis’ varieties. 
For his own reputation alone he should 
have fixed his types properly before 
selling the seeds at such high figures. 


Mr. R. C. Wood, Deputy Director of 
Agriculture, Northern Division, Madras, 
has written an interesting report on 


were 


-Decemper, 1908. } 519 


Mobres. 


experiments with Caravonica cotton in 
Cuddapah. 


The seed, obtained by a Bombay 
Syndicate direct from Dr. Thomatis, 
was said to be of poor quality, and the 
percentage of germination was very low. 
Mr. Wood found that, although ‘Silk ” 
cotton had been stivulated for all three 
varieties, silk, wool and kidney were 
to be found. The plants produced (as 
would be expected from a hybrid) were 
of many and varied types—in growth, 
habit and quality. 


In this report, Mr. Wood repeats an 
often urged warning by pointing out 
the extreme danger perennial cottons 
have to face from insect attacks, Being 
perennial, they naturally afford food 
and shelter to pests which are carried 
on from one year to another and, in 
the event of the extension of tree 
cotton cultivation, which, however, is 
scarcely a- possible contingency, there 
is always the chance of indigenous 
varieties in the vicinity being attacked. 


In conclusion, I think it ought to be 
emphasized repeatedly and widely that 
cultivation, on a large scale, of perennial 
cottons—whether American, Australian 
or otherwise—should never be attempted 
in India, 


Their very structureis that of denizens 
of wooded and sheltered localities ; their 
brittle nature forbids their being grown 
in open fields exposed to winds ; their 
naked seeds are the easy prey of every 
noxious insect that exists on cotton; 
and, finally, the reasons which will 
perhaps appeal most strongly t» the 
commerical world are, they never produce 
a full crop till the second year, the 
chances of absolute failure from climatic 
causes are carried on from year to year, 
the land becomes weed-infested, and 
the yield is never commensurate with 
the area that each individual plant 
covers.—Agricultural Journal of India, 
July, 1908, p. 271. 


520 


4 


(DECEMBER, 1908. 


DRUGS AND MEDICINAL PLANTS. 


TREATMENT OF UNKNOWN 
VEGETABLE PRODUCTS. 


The recent appearance in the London 
drug market of some fourteen bags, 
each weighing. it was said,  three- 
quarters of a hundredweight, contain- 
ing unknown roots from Colombo, has 
drawn fresh attention to the fact that 
such unknown articles of commerce are 
frequertly introduced in this way, and, 
finding no buyers, as in this case, are 
lost to commerce. The “roots” which 
were so Classified in the broker’s Cata- 
logue, proved to be those of Cosciniwm 
fenestratum, a Menispermaceous climb- 
ing plant of Ceylon and Southern 
India. It is noted for its’ bright 
greenish-yellow colour when _ freshly 
cut, as well as for its very broad 
medullary rays. It is sometimes known 
as False Calumba, and has been used 
as a substitute for true Calumba, which 
is the root of Jateorhiza Columba, a 
climber of the forests of Mozambique. 
Both in India and Ceylon the root of the 
Coscinum senestratum has been spoken 
favourably of by many writers on 
medicinal products, and it is said to 
be now official in the Indian Adden- 
dum of the Pharmacopeia, besides 
which, the yellow colouring matter is 
used as adye. A letter in a recent 
issue of our contemporary, The 
Chemist and Druggist, written by an 
authority on drugs, comments on the 
practice that prevails at the English 
drug auctions of consigning new, or 
unknown products, which fail to find 
buyers, to the rummage sales, or the 
dust destructor. ‘‘ While the Hamburg 
shippers and German drug houses,” he 
says, ‘‘are careful to get supplies of 
out-ot-the-way drugs, in this country it 
is quitea matter of chancefor a new, 
rare or unrecognised product to even 
get catalogued correctly. so that new 
products, whether drugs or other arti- 
cles, get but little chance of being 
known or tried.” New uses are con- 
stantly being found for products that a 
few years ago were considered of no 
value, and it is, therefore, important 
that an expert opinion as to the sources 


“a pear-shaped, fleshy 


and properties of unknown articles 
should be obtained before these are 
offered for sale. It could then be deter- 
mined whether the article could be 
turned toany good purpose, or whether 
its use was only as a substitute for 
any other well-tried substance. 


Bearing upon this subject is the 
increase that has recently taken place 
in the importation of Cashew nuts, the 
fruit of Anacardium occidentale. As 
edible nuts they have hitherto been but 
very little in demand in this country, 
their unpopularity being probably due 
to a great extent, to the presence of an 
acrid juice between the shell and the 
kernel itself. This, 
pated by heat, so that when roasted, 
as they usually are before being sold, 
they are perfectly wholesome. The tree 
belongs to South America and the West 
Indies, butithas long been established 
in India, the bulk of the shipments 
received in England having been ob- 
tained from Bombay. Large quantities 
of these so-called nuts are now annually 
exported from the East Coast of Africa, 
namely, Zanzibar, Inhambance, Beira, 
Quillimane and Delagua Bay to Euro- 
pean ports. The Bombay shipments to 
England mostly come in the shelled 
form, thatis, the kernels are removed 
from the outer shell, which is hard and 
woody. Itis further stated that Madras 
is now sending to England large quan- 
tities of these shelled and blanched ker- 
nels. Considering that these Cashew 
nuts realise in the Mincing Lane market 
from 19s. to 24s. per ewt., there is 
apparently a new development of their 
use springing up. ; 


A reference to the Cashew nut would 
not be complete without noticing the 
peculiar habit of the plant in the pro- 
duction of its fruit. The so-called nut, 
which is kidney-shaped and covered 
with a hard shell, is borne at the top of 
receptacle or 
swollen stalk, which, when fully grown, 
has a reddish tint and is edible, having 
an agreeable, acid taste, the acrid 
juice only surrounding the kernel.— 
Gardeners’ Chronicle, No. 3,529, Vol. 
XLIV., August, 1908. 


however, is dissi- : 


= 
: 

— - 
s 


LE: ees 


Photo by t/. F, Macnillan. 


PERSEA GRATISSIMA. 


bain, 


_- DECEMBER, 1908.] 


521 


EDIBLE PRODUCTS. 


THE AVOCADO PEAR (PERSE A 
GRA TISSIMA). 
(llustrated.) 


By H. F. MAcMILLAN. 


This excellent fruit is of comparatively 
recent introduction in the Eastern Tro- 
pics. Itisa native of Tropical America, 
extending from Mexico to Peru. The 
date of its first importation to Ceylon 
is not known, but it is probable that 
this took place about the end of the 
‘Highteenth, or. very early in the Nine- 
teenth, Century. The first record of its 
cultivation in India has been given as 
1860, but it was probably introduced 
there before that date. The Avocado 
Pear is now widely distributed and 
cultivated in all tropical countries. Pos- 
sessing a remarkable adaptability to 
a variety of climatic conditions, it 
thrives in Florida, Madeira, Azores, 
Queensland and Natal, as well as in 
Ceylon, Hawaii, Malaya, Madagascar, 
ete. In Ceylon it is best suited to 
medium elevations, as from 1,000 to 2,000 
feet, though it willalso grow and fruit 
well at lower elevations, provided the 
rainfall is not much below 60 inches. In 
Southern India it flourishes up to about 
4,500 feet, butinits native habitat it is 
said to attain ‘‘its greatest perfection 
at 2,000 to 8,000 feet in the sheltered 
valleys of the Coast Ranges.” 


The tree is of a bushy habit, grows to 
a height of 25 to 40 feet or more, and 
prefers well-drained and deep friable 
soil. As with most tropical plants, how- 
ever, climate has probably a greater 
influence than soil; and, judging by the 
conditions which obtain in the native 
home of the ‘‘Avocado,” it may be 
granted that a rather decided alterna- 
tion of wet and dry seasons is in its 
favour. 


The Avocado Pear ranks high amongst 
tropical fruits, and deserves to be more 
widely known and cultivated than it is. 
It isa salad, rather thana dessert fruit; 
yet it bas qualities which seldom fail 
to be relished by the novice, whilst 
persons who become accustomed to it 
usually develop a special fondness for 
it. The fruit is shaped like a large pear, 
though varying somewhat in form 
according to variety; its smooth thin 
‘skin remains green when ripe, like many 
other fruits of equatorial regions. The 
centre is hollow, and contains a large 
round fleshy seed. Between this and 


66 


the thin skin is a thick layer of pulp 
(pericarp), which is of the consistency 
of firm butter, and usually quite free of 
any traces of fibre or grittiness. When 
cut round the middle and the two halves 
separated, the seed will readily drop 
out. The pulp, which may be scooped 
out with a spoon, is very palatable when 
flavoured with salt and pepper, or 
with Worcester sauce. Some _ people 
flavour it with port wine. It is said 
that inits native country the fruit is 
eaten by the poor people asa substitute 
for butter, being commonly known by 
the name ‘‘Soldier’s Butter.” Itis also 
served in other ways. A lady in Hawaii 
writes: ‘* We serve the avocado pears 
here in different ways. We cut them 
in two andserve them with soup, and 
we eat them with plain salt and pepper. 
If they are not’ particularly good, we 
cut them into dice, and serve likean 
oyster cocktail. But the best way is to 
put the pear through a vegetable press, 
then turn and scoop out ripe tomatoes 
and stuff them with this pear puree. 
Garnish these with rings of hard-boiled 
egg, and serve with lettuce and mayon- 
naise.” 


The fruit does not keep well and is 
very liable to injury by bruising, so 
that itis difficult of transport. Fallen 
fruits are usually so much damaged by 
being bruised that only a portion of 
them can be eaten. Therefore they 
should be picked by hand when ripe 
enough and placed gently in a sack or 
basket. They should not be pulled, but 
clipped soas to leave a portion of the 
stalk attached to the fruit, 


The avocado pear is especially esteem- 
ed in Anacrica, where it is imported from 
the West Indies, Porto Rico, Southern 
Florida, &e. It is said that fruit-dealers 
in New York and other large towns of 
the United States sometimes pay half a 
dollar each for the fruit. Its cultivation 
has thus naturally developed somewhat 
extensively of late years in Tropical 
America and the West Indies, and pro- 
mises to be tosome extent a remuner- 
ative industry. Trial shipments of the 
fruit have recently been made from 
Hawaii to New York with hopeful 
results. The tree is readily propagated 
from seed, which are large and fleshy 
and soon lose their power of germin- 
ation, 


The fruit is also known as Alligator 
Pear. The Sinhalese call it ‘‘ Ht-pera,” 
and the Tamils ‘‘ Anakoya-palam,” 


Edible Products. 


One of the most remarkable plants in 
the vegetable kingdom is that shown 
in the photograph given in frontispiece, 
viz.. Anthurium pandurifolium. This 
specimen, thanks to the courtesy of 
the officials of Kew, has been photo- 
graphed in the tropical Aroid House 
of that well-known institution. It is 
probably the only specimen in Europe, 
and, according to Mr. Watson, the 
Curator, has been growing for many 
years in the Kew collection without a 
name. Only comparatively recently it 
has flowered, and thus enabled Kew to 
determine it. The plant isa native of 
Costa Rica. At Kew it is grown in a 
large shallow, hanging pot, which is 
filled with a loose mixture of sphagnum, 
old bark, pieces of broken pots and 
fibrous loam, and thrives to perfection. 
This suggests at once that the plant is 
of an epiphytal character, and in its 
native habitat would be found in the 
forks of forest trees, in hot, moist and 
shaded situations. It may be imagined 
what a striking object the plant forms 
when it isstated that the leaves measure 
up to about nine feet in length, the 
blade, which is like a huge broad band, 
being about seven feet long, and the 
stalk from one and a half to two feet. 


AN IMPORTANT TROPICAL 
CEREAL. 


MAIZE OR INDIAN CORN (ZEA Mays). 


The people of this country with char- 
acteristic indifference to any article pro- 
duced locally, do not appear to appre- 
ciate,the great dietary importance of 
maize or Indian corn, the well-known and 
important cereal so largely grown in 
other parts of the world. A native of 
America, the Indians having been found 
engaged in its cultivation at the period 
when the New World was discovered by 
Columbus, maize is now widely distri- 
buted over the world—in the United 
States where it is extensively and syste- 
matically :grown; in South America; 
Africa; Australia; India and Ceylon; 
Burmah and the Straits; and in parts 
of Europe along the Mediterranean. 
Maize growsin a temperate as well as 
tropical climate; throughout the _ hills, 
at 7,000 feet elevation or more, and in 
the valleys. It is very hardy and 
requires little rain, and is rapidly 
matured. In sixty days from sowing 
the cobs are fit to cut. A small sweet 
variety grownin Demerara, called carica, 
ripens its grain in less, than two months 
from the time ofsowing. Any way, from 
two to three crops can be taken in a 
season, which cannot be said of rice or 
any other cultivated grain. Maize is 


522 


ke m ' s'N 


iDeceMBHR, 1908 


used asan article of food to a very 
limited extent in Ceylon, Thecobs are 
boiled and eaten in the villages, and the 
grain roasted and sold in the public 
thoroughfares much in the same way 
that roasted chestnuts are hawked 
about at home; while corn starch, 
‘‘arrowroot (which is maize flour), and 
corn fiour,” extensively used for light 
puddings, blanc-mange, custards, etc., . 
and as diet ‘‘for infants and invalids” i 
are imported in considerable quantities. : 
As anarticle of food maize is by no 
means appreciated in this country as it : 
should be. Maize, which probably ranks , 
next to rice as the grain which affords 
nutriment to the largest number of 
human beings has 


MANY QUALITIES TO RECOMMEND 


it for culture where the climate is 
sufficiently warm to ripen the grain 
properly, growing as it does freely in 
very different kinds of soil, as wellas 
under dissimilar states of moisture and 
dryness. In this country maizeis grown 
in all the Provinces but in a most un- 
decided fashion. The villager distri- 
bute a handful of the grain over his ~ 
chena among other crops, and the market. 
gardener raises afew plants among his 
vegetables and chillies. Thisis what is 
done all over the Island, with the excep- 
tion, however, of Uva where, in recent 
years, considerable advance has been 
made in the cultivation of village pro- 
ducts. This is the only Province in 
which maize is regularly cultivated as a 
crop by itself, as a staple article of food. 
But the cornis ground and converted 
into the inevitable jumper, like that of 
kurakkan, in which form it is consumed 
by the villager. Thereis no reason, how- 
ever, why maize should not be largely 
and systematically cultivated all over 
the Island as an article of food, and it 
can be grown by thousands of village 
cultivators and country farmers who 
have no idea of its food value. People 
have only to become acquainted with 
such food as green corn and the various 
kinds of bread, pudding and_ cakes into — 
which maize meal can be made to appre- 
ciate their usefulness. Maize has proved 
itself amply sufficient for the susten- 
ance of human life 


UNDER EVERY CLIMATIC CONDITION. 


It ripens at a time when moss Other 
grains have been harvested, and there- 
fore furnishes employment when there 
would naturally be little else to do. 
But what gives to maize its great im- 
portance is the actual amount of nutri- 
tive matter which it contains, in which 
respect it is said to be second only to — 
wheat. Dr. Wiley, chemistof the United — 
States Department of Agriculture, is an — 


) 
. 
‘ 
if 
: 


% 


_ DECEMBER, 1908. 


acknowledged authority on foods, and 
in one of his reports he says :—‘‘ Food to 
be perfect must give to the body all the 
necessary constituents to supply tissues 
for its growth, and to take the place of 
the waste of tissue which is a necessary 
attendant on the functions of life. The 
article of food whichis best calculated 
to supply the wants above-meutioned 
would be of necessity the most valuable 
for food purposes. In general, we may 
say of food that they should be fat- 
producers, muscle-producers, bone-pro- 
ducers, and, most of all, blood-producers, 
since itis through the blood that the 
tissues of the body are nourished.” 
Meal from Indian corn is said to contain 
“more than four times as much olea- 
ginous matter as wheat flour, more 
starch, and nearly as much nitrogenous 
material.” The combination of element- 
ary compounds in maize renders it alone 
the mixed diet capable of sustaining 
man under the most extraordinary 
circumstances. It holds the elementary 
principles, says an authority, which 
constitutes 


THE BASIS OF ORGANIC LIFE. 


Maize is the staple and peculiar food 
crop of the United States, although it is 
also grown in many other countries; but 
there it is harvested by thousands of 
millions of bushels per annum. The 
varieties of maize are numerous and are 
continually increasing by improvement 
and may be divided into two kinds, 
namely, table maize and farm maize, the 
one used for table purposes and the other 
for flour and cattle food. Boiledin the 
cob in the unripe state and eaten with 
butter at table asis donein America it 
makes a delicious article of food. In the 
several forms of husked corn, pop corn, 
hominy succatash, mush, maizena, corn 
starch or arrowroot, etc., vast quantities 
are consumed by all classes of people in 
America. There is a large number of 
dishes of which corn meal forms the 
basis, which are exceedingly palatable. 
It has been said of maize thatit was as 
indispensable to the Yankee as the 
potato to an Irishman, or the oat to a 
Scotsman; that there is no crop more 
beneficial to the farmer than Indian 
corn; that it isthe meat, meadow and 
manure crop of the farm; that its value 
in fattening domestic animals is not 
exceeded by any other product of the 
farm. The uses of Indian corn are very 
numerous. 


NOTHING OF THE PLANT IS WASTED. 


When very young we are told the small 
young stalks of thickly sown crops are 
cut over by the Mexicans as an article 


- for the dessert ; and boiled green corn as 


an article of diet must be known to_ be 
realised. The grain, besides providing 


528 


Edibie Products. 


bread and cake, is used in the manu- 
facture of beer, whisky (largely distilled 
in America) and oil (for culinary, burn- 
ing and lubricating). The stem contains 
a crystallizable sugar, at one time largely 
manufactured by the Mexicans. The 
leaves may be used asa green manure 
or made into straw; and the sheathing 
can be made into cloth and paper of 
excellent quality. The husks of the ears 
are used in America for — stuffing 
mattresses, bolsters, ete., and it is a 
material always clean and elastic. The 
empty cobs are used as a source of fuel, 
and the whole plant when burnt yields 
fine potash. As_ regards cultivation, 
maize can be profitably grown on the 
poorest soil, but the better the soil the 
better the crop. Well manured—cattle 
manure gives the most excellent results, 
while decayed leaves, ashes, tank mud 
well dried, may also be used with great 
advantage—no crop pays better than 
maize. Pests of the field are very fond 
of the grain and consume a large per- 
centage, bandicoot rats,squirrels, crows, 
destroying the seed as it lies in the 
ground. The seeds should be tarred 
before sowing. To 1} pts. of hot water 
add 1/12 part of a pint of tar, mix to- 
gether, and after it is cool pour the solu- 
tion over the seed. After dusting sand, 
ashes or saw-dust to prevent the seeds 
adhering together, the grain is ready 
for sowing. Keep down the weeds 
during growth; and see that the cobs 
are well matured before being gathered, 


Hortus. 
—Ceylon Independent, 6th Nov., 1908. 


RICE CULTIVTION IN HAWAII. 

Rice is the agricultural product of 
second importance in Hawaii, coming 
next to sugar—although far below it— 
in magnitude and value. The rice area 
extends over more than 1,000 acres, and 
is carried on chiefly by small proprietors 
and holders. The largest plantations 
are not more than 100 acres in extent, 
and the rentals of rice lands are high, 
ranging from $10 to $50 per acre per 
avnum, including the provision of faci- 
lities for water supply. The fact that 
remunerative returns can be obtained 
after payment of the above rentals 
indicates the profitable nature of the 
industry. 


Careful and continuous cultivation is 
practised, and the crop yields obtained 
in Hawaii compare favourably with 
those given in other rice-growiug coun- 
tries of the world. Two crops a year 
are usually grown on the same land, 
thus occupying the ground continuously, 
especially when slow-maturing varieties 


Edible Products. 


are grown. Theusual practice followed 
is to propagate the seedlings in seed-beds, 
from which the entire crop is trans- 
planted by hand. 


The average annual yield (two crops) 
on good lands in favourable localities 
is 6,000 lb. of paddy per acre, while 
8,000 lb. or more is not uncommon. At 
present prices, which are exceptior ally 
good, an acre will produce a crop valued 
at from $100 to $200. The estimated 
annual value of the Hawaiian rice crop 
in a favourable year is approximately 

2,500, 000. 


In the year 1906 a series of experi- 
ments dealing with rice cultivation was 
started at the Hawaiian Agricultural 
Experiment Station. These experiments, 
which deal with the fertilizer require- 
ments of the rice plant and of rice 
soils, the development of superior strains 
of rice of the old varieties, selection of 
new varieties, a comparison of the yields 
obtained from broadcasted, drilled, and 
transplanted rice respectively, ete., were 
continued during 1907, and an account 
of the progress of the work is included 
in the report for 1907 of the Experiment 
Station. The land on which the trials 
are being carried out has been under 
rice culture for a number of years, and 
although it has received no fertilizer 
for several seasons, yet it has invariably 
yielded crops approximating to 3,000 lb. 
of paddy per acre per harvest. 


One of the most interesting of the 
experiments, and which gave a definite 
result was that undertaken to test the 
relative value, for Hawaiian conditions, 
of two distinct methods of planting, viz., 
the direct sowing of seed, as practised 
in the Southern United States, and the 
Kasteru method of transplanting, which, 
as already mentioned, is generally 
adopted in Hawaii, Seed was_ broad- 
casted at the rate of 50 lb. an acre, 
and another lot of the same stock of 
seed was drilled in rows at the same 
rate per acre. When well established 
the seedlings were thinned out to a 
stand of approximately 200,000 plants 
per acre, thus conforming as closely as 
possible with the number of transplanted 
plants per acre. Oneadjacent plot was 
set out with seedlings twenty days old 
at transplanting, and a second plot 
with seedlings thirty-five days old at 
transplanting. By far the best return 
of all, viz., 4,205 lb. of paddy and 4,024 
lb. of straw per acre was given by the 
plot planted with the seedlings twenty 
days old at transplanting. The cash 
value of the paddy return per acre 
from this plot was $105°12. The plot 
planted with the older seedlings and 
that on which the seed was drilled 


524 


cultivation of cowpeas : 
indicated, might tend to rob the bana- 4 


[DECEMBER, 1908. 


gave returns very nearly equal, but 
about $56 less in value than the return 
from the best plot. The plot on which 
the seed was broadcasted gave a return 
of slightly less value than the plot 
which was drilled.—Agricullural News, 
Vol. VIL. Neo. 164, August, 1908. 


BANANA GROWING IN CUBA. 

Although banana growing is a more 
staple industry in some of the British’ 
West India Islands than in Cuba, yet 
a few hints on the subject, from an 
article that appeared in the Cuba Re- 
view for June last, are worth bringing 
before the notice of plantersin these 
islands. 


It is pointed out that the banana 
delights in a rich, moist, deep soil, that 
hasan abundance of vegetable matter 
in it. Congenial temperature and rain- 
fall conditions are even more important 
to the banana plantthan suitable soil, 
and to do its best, and to produce large 
bunches of fine fruit the whole year 
round, it must have a liberal and regular 
supply of water. If its requirements as 
to moisture and temperature are con- 
served, it is well known that the banana 
will give fairly good results even on a 
poor soil. 


The best time for planting the suckers 
is during the rainy season, from June to 
October, and stress is laid upon the 
importance of having the soil well tilled 
and prepared beforehand. The land 
should be ploughed or hoed toa depth 
of at least 9 inches, and afterwards 
harrowed until the soil isina fine and 
mellow condition. Suckers from 2 to4 
feet high and with large well-developed 
bulbs should be selected for planting 
and set out at distances of about 14 or 
15 feet each way. To give the plants 
a good chance of early development it 
is well to dig the holes about 30 inches 
deep, and 30 inches in diameter. If the 
soil is dry, the suckers should be liber- 
ally watered at the start. When the 
plants are well established, hoeing or 
ploughing between the rows, for the 
purpose of maintaining a surface mulch 
and keeping down weeds, is practised 
by many planters, and always attend 
with beneficial results. The banana 
grower in Cuba is recommended, in 
cases where the soil is poor, to sow 
cowpeas between the rows of banana 
plants, at the beginning of the rainy 


season, and to plough in the crop ae 
n 


on when the peas begin to ripen, 


districts where the rainfall is small, the 


in the way — 


—_——<<_ —=- = — - 


~ 


ee eee eee 


DECEMBER, 1908. | 525 


nas of the soil moisture they require, 
but under more favourable circum- 
stances the practise would be as bene- 
ficial in Jamaica or Barbadosas in Cuba. 


The operation of pruning is’ very 
necessary and important in connection 
with banana growing. Suckers that are 
not intended to bear fruit should be 
removed when not more than 1 to2 feet 
high, and only two, atthe most three, 
stalks left to each plant. These should 
be at different stages of development, 
one being fully matured, while the other 
is only half grown. Banana growers 
are well aware that if left without 
pruning, there would be too great a 
number; of suckers, and the bunches of 
fruit would be small and poor. 


The first bunches of fruit are pro- 
duced in about 18 months from setting 
out the plants, while the subsidiary 
pcr fruit when from 12 to 16 months 
old. 


The apvle banana, which possesses an 
acid flavour (see Agricultural News, 
Vol. V., p. 404) is largely grown in Cuba 
for local consumption, while the plan- 
tain is also cultivated and used for 
cooking purposes. 


The average crop of bananas yielded 
in Cuba, after the plantation has come 
in full bearing, is stated to vary from 
200 to 600 bunches per acre per annum. 
The average price obtained is from 15 
to 20c. per bunch according to size of 
bunch and season of the vear.—Agricul- 
tural News, Vol. VII., No. 165, August, 
1908. 


MANIOC OR CASSAVA. 


By Epwin B. CoPpELAND. 


Cassava comes nearer furnishing the 
Florida farmer with a more universally 
profitable crop than any other which 
he can grow on equally large areas. It 
can be utilized in more ways, can be 
sold in more different forms, can be 
more cheaply converted into staple and 
finished products. and can be produced 
for a smaller part of its selling price 
than any other crop. 


This quotation is from a bulletin of the 
Florida Agricultural Experiment Sta- 
tion. The plant it speaks of can be 
grown more cheaply in the Philippines 
than in Florida, and will here produce 
much larger crops. As a food, especially 
as a famine food, it has the great advan- 
tage, in addition to its cheapness, that 
it will keep in the ground for long 

eriods, without deterioration, and can 
be harvested at any season. For these 
reasons a note as to its origin and nature 


‘the family Huwphorbiacec, 


Edible Products. 


and its production in other countries 
will be of interest, and a description 
of its proper cultivation and its utili- 
zation and values will be valuable. 


The writer has for several_years been 
studying this plant in the Philippines. 
During thé past six months, Dr, R. F. 


Bacon, of the Bureau of Science, has 
been associated with him in a more 
detailed study of it, and this’ paper, 


except in the writing, is their joint 
product. Material has been obtained 
and analyzed from a number of places, 
The cost of planting has been tested on 
a commercial scale, and _ different 
methods of extracting the starch have 
been tested as to efficiency and practi- 
eability, 


DESCRIPTION, 


Manioc or cassava is the plant known 
botanically as Manihot wtilissima, of 
This family 
other usetul plants, 
several sources of commercial rubber, 
as the Para, and the genus Manihot 
itself includes Ceara rubber and several 
other species which seem likely to prove 
useful in the same way. There are more 
than eighty varieties of manihot, all 
natives of tropical or _ sub-tropical 
America. Throughout the Philippines 
manioc is known as “camoting cahoy ” 
(sweet-potato tree) or by an equivalent 
name; but in Cagayan it is more 
commonly called ‘*‘ camote moro.” 


Manioe is a perennial shrub with a 
branching stem and palmate leaves, 
whose divisions are usually 5, 7, or 
9in number. As aresult of long propa- 
gation by cuttings, it rarely forms seed; 
when it does, the staminate and pistil- 
late flowers are borne separately on the 
same plant and the seeds are in shape 
and size like those of castor bean (the 
tangantangan of the Philippines). At 
the base of the stem is a cluster ot long, 
fleshy roots, which are the valuable 
part of the plant. All parts of the plant 
contain a poisonous, milky juice. The 
poison contained in this is hydrocyanic 
(prussic) acid. Some varieties contain 
very little of this and are ealled 
““sweet;” others contain much and are 
called “bitter.” None contain enough 
so that it could profitably be extracted. 
The poison can be completely removed 
by perfect washing or drying of the 
ground roots, by roasting, or by long 
boiling. 


includes, »mong 


History. 
Manioe is very old in cultivation in 
Tropical America, having been the 


staple cultivated crop throughout that 
region at the time of the discovery by 
Europeans, Very soon thereafter it 


° 


Edible Products. 


was taken to Africa, and probably to 
the Far East, by the Portuguese. Its 
spread over the tropics of Africa was 
rapid, and numerous varieties have been 
developed there and in Madagascar. 
There have been several more recent 
independent introductions into India and 
Malaya. It has long been grown ina 
small way in thesouthern United States, 
but on a large seale only within the last 
decade, Within a generation or two it 
has come into fairly general use by the 
natives of Hawaii, and has taken the 
name of “ pia,” which to the older inhabi- 
tants meant arrowroot. There is no 
record of its introduction into the 
Philippines, but it isfound in limited use 
throughout the Archipelago. and as the 
staple crop in the Islands between 
Zamboanga and Borneo. 


VARIETIES AND TOXICITY. 


Itis very probable that, as is true of 
some other cultivated plants, the culti- 
vated manioc has several wild ancestor- 
species, which can no longer be distin- 
guished. However this may be, a great 
many varieties are known in cultiva- 
tion, and many of these have certainly 
been developed since the plant was 
domesticated. In Brazil more than fifty 
varieties are distinguished, most of 
which are bitter. In Paraguay and in 
Columbia only sweet varieties are 
regarded as worth cultivating. In the 
latter country, twenty-three varieties 
were collected in a single season for 
testing in Jamaica; in which island 
twenty-two, mostly bitter, varieties 
were already grown. In German East 
Africa ten varieties are described. In 
some parts of India as many as twenty- 
four varieties are distinguished; in 
others, not more than one. At least 
four each are known in Ceyion and 
Madagascar; in the United States four 
varieties were formerly recognized, and 
alarge number have recently been im- 
pocted from Porto Rico and elsewhere, 
to be tested. In the Philippines there 
are no varieties distinguished by name, 
but a considerable difference in toxicity 
is recognized. 


It is customary to group the varieties 
as sweet and bitter, and the two groups 
are often regarded as distinct species. 
However, no other character has been 
found which everywhere distinguishes 
them, moreover there is no line between 
them, the most and the least bitter 
being connected by varieties and strains 
with every intermediate degree of 
toxicity. Nor is the degree of bitterness 
a fixed character, but certainly depends 
upon the environment. Sweet varieties 
taken from Colombia to Jamaica have 
almost all become more poisonous with- 


526 


[DECEMBER, 1908. 


in a few years. On the other hand; 
varieties taken from Jamaica or Central 
America or Mexico become sweeter, as 
also do bitter varieties taken from 
Jamaica or Porto Rico to Florida. The 
Guarani Indians of Paraguay claim they 
have derived their sweet varieties by 
very long cultivation, from a decidedly 
poisonous wild ancestor, and that the 
bitter varieties cultivated by the peoples 
to their north represent intermediate 
stepsin thisdevelopment. From Florida 
experiments it seems likely that in the 
same plant the amount of poison is not 
atall timesthe same. In all varieties 
the thin, dark bark of the rootis very 
poisonous, and the cortex, which asa 
rule is easily peeled off, also contains a 
dangerous amount of hydrocyanic acid, 
Itis only the pith which is sweetin 
some varieties and bitter in others. 


Beside the free hydrocyanic acid, 
which is in a condition to cause im- 
mediate poisoning if enough of it is 
present, there is usually more of the 
poison combined presumably in the form 
of a glucoside. When the roots are 
taken from the ground they very soon 
beign to decay, and this glucoside breaks 
down, setting the hydrocyanie acid free. 
In this way a wholesome root may with- 
ina few days become very dangerous. 
In New Caledonia the roots are sweet 
and edible when freshly dug, but fatal 
even to hogs three days later, and 
at Manila we have had roots which. 
were perfectly sweet, so far as the 
senses told, change so much in three 
days that their grated pulp could not 


-be smelled without acute discomfort 


The change is usually less rapid. 
USES. 

The manioe roots furnish the chief 
food of human beings in most parts of 
tropical America, in many parts of 
tropieal Africa, and in some parts of 
Malaya and Polynesia. Roots of sweet 
varieties are sometimes eaten raw. 
More commonly, whether they be sweet 
or bitter, they are boiled or roasted, but 
as a general rule, meal is made from 
them. The meal is prepared in various 
ways. Hverywhere, unless it be in 
Africa, the roots are first crushed by 
pounding (the primitive American way), 
rasping (in the Philippines and else- 
where), or between rollers. Before-the 
pulp is dried the juice is usually squeezed 
out of it, but this process wastes con- 
siderable starca. On the uses and value 
of this meal, I quote from Dr. James 
Neish, a physician of Jamaica :— 


The grated pulp, washed and dried, is 
known under the name of cassava flour 
or farina when it has been heated and 
pounced, * * * When reduced into small 


Pe 


ay 


- Decemsnr, 1908.] 


lumps and only slightly heated, it 
(farina) is called conague, a native term. 
When simply grated and dried at the 
fire in the form of a pikelet or muffin (the 
torta or bunelo of Spanish America) it is 
called cassava. ** * Itis generally con- 
sumed under this form in French Guiana. 
* # * The starch dried in the open air is 
known as cispa or moussache ; from this 
sweetened cakes are made, and other 
very agreeable dishes and pastry. * * * 
Cassava starch can be made use of in 
the preparation of all kinds of cakes, 
just as flour or the common starches. 
It gives them a particularly agreeable 
flavour, and greatly increases their 
hygienic and nutritive properties. Pre- 
pared with boiled milk, cassava starch 
is highly digestible and should freely 
be given to young children. Mixed with 
even a small proportion of ground malt 
its digestibility is increased, and it then 
vies with more expensive articles which 
are much advertised. 


The coarsest meal is called ‘‘couac.” 


The crude pulp, or squeezed or more or 


less washed pulp, or the crude or washed 
starch, is heated in various parts of the 
Tropics in a variety of ways, forming 
products more or less like pure tapioca. 
In some of the West Indian islands the 
people bake the cassava bread hard 
and store it, sometimes for as long as 
twelve months. In Hast Africa the meal 
is dried inthe sun so that it can be kept 
for six months. 


While 2 comparatively small part of 
the starch which becomes an article of 
commerce is used as food, it is more 
readily digestible than any other kind 
of starch produced in great quantities, 
and has a superior flavour. I[tsrivals as 
high-grade food starches are the several 
kinds of arrowroot, all of which are 
decidedly more expensive. The old 
trade name of pure manioc starch was 
* Brazilian arrowroot.” 


Tapioca is made by squeezing, rolling, 
or shaking the moist starch into round 
pellets, commonly by forcing them 
through a cullender into a piece of 
shaken canvas. These pellets are then 
rolled or fall into an iron plate or table, 
which is also shaken and whose tem- 
perature is about 100°C. The heat 
causes a partial conversion of the starch 
into sugar, and makes the pellets swell 
somewhat and become gelatinous in 
appearance. The product of this treat- 
ment is called ‘‘ pearl tapioca.” If the 
pellets arel to 15 millimeters in dia- 
meter, itis called ‘‘ seed tapioca”; and 
if they are 3 millimeters in diameter, 
“medium pearl”; if they are _ five 
millimeters in diameter, “ bulled pearl.” 
“Flaked tapioca” is heated and changed 


/ 


27 Edible Producis. 


in composition in the same way, without 
being previously put into the pellet form. 
Tapioea is a large export of Brazil and 
the Straits Settlements. The highest- 
priced tapioca is from Rio Janeiro. That 
from Bahiais yellowish, not being made 
trom ciean starch, and brings a quite 
inferior price. 


Boiling the juice squeezed out of the 
roots drives whatever poison may be 
present. The natives of Paraguay make 
molasses by boiling down the juice 
of avery sugary variety. *‘‘Cassareep” 
is a boiled-down juice of a similar 
consistency, made usually from bitter 
manioc in the northern part of South 
America; it is flavoured with meat 
juices and pepper to make the sauce 
known in the West Indies as ‘‘ pepper- 
pot.” ‘* Piwarri” is the product of chew- 
ing and expectorating the roots and 
then letting them ferment. 


The leaves are stewed and eaten as 
greens in Java and Africa. 

The foremost aim ir the development 
of the manioc industry in the United 
States has been the use of the roots as 
food for cattle. The experiments made 
to this end have not all come up to 
the too roseate anticipations. Manioc 
contains a greater percentage of nour- 
ishment than does any other root crop, 
but by itself it is a most unbalanced 
ration. When it is fed alone, or with 
another crop rich in carbohydrate but 
not in proteid, it is only natural that 
cattle presently tire of it and lose weight. 
When the roots have been used for 
starch manufacture, more than half of 
the refuse is still often made up of 
starch, for the sake of which this waste 
has still a fodder value. This waste is 
ealled ‘‘bitty.” Manioc, whether the 
whole roots or the bitty, ought clearly 
to be fed on a large scale only when 
accompanied by some other food, which 
must be rich in proteid. Manioc is the 
principal fodder raised for cattle in 
Mauritius. 


Peanut fodder suggests itself for such 
use in the Philippines. In Paraguay 
cattle are fed on the tops of the manioe 
plant, and are said to take well to this 
dietand thrive on it. Hxperiments with 
hogs in the United States have given 
better results than those with cattle, and 
in the Straits Settlements the bitty is 
regularly used for hog feed. Cassava 
is fed to poultry in many places. In 
the United States it has been found 
that it is excellent for tattening fowls, 
but does not make them lay well. For 
use as a fodder, the failure of manioe 
to keep after it is dug is more than 
counterbalanced by its remaining sound 
indefinitely if left in the ground. 


Edible Products. 528 


In the Philippines the pith is sometimes 
carved or strung and used for curtains. 


Under existing trade conditions, the 
most profitable use which can be made 
of manioc on a large scale is the 
manufacture of starch. This product is 
known commercially as Brazilian arrow- 
root, tapioca flour, or cassava or manioc 
starch, The cheapest starch is corn 
starch, whcse price is normally 38 to 3°5 
centavos a pound. As a bushel of corn, 
normally worth 80 centavos, weighs 
56 pounds, and contains 63 per cent. of 
starch, it will be seen that the manu- 
factured starch sells for only about 1 
centavosa pound more than it costs in 
the grain. As will be seen later, it 
would be possible to produce manioc 
starch and sell it in competition with 
corn starch, but this is fortunately 
unnecessary. The other source of starch 
is the potato. The price of potato starch 
is ordinarily fully twice that of corn 
starch. When used in laundry work or in 
cloth manufacture, potato starch makes 
aless stiff, more elastic finish,and enters 
much better into thefabric or threadthan 
does corn starch. Before corn thread 
can be woven, it is practically necessary 
that it be starched or ‘‘sized” to fasten 
in the loose endsof the fibres. If corn 
starch is used, the thread not only 
becomes unduly stiff, but also, since 
the starch does not enter into it well but 
rather covers it, unduly thick. The 
threads will therefore not lie as close 
together, and the fabric woven 
them becomes loose and flimsy when 
the starch used in sizing is washed out. 
The finer the fabric to be made, the 
more imperative is the demand for a 
fine sizer. 


The consumption of starch by cloth 
factories is very great. Besides using 
practically all the home product of 
potato starch, the American factories 
are obliged to import it from Europe. 
The United States production of potato 
starch in 1899 was 15,500 tons. In 
Germany the annual production is 
nearly 300,000 tons. The average starch 
content of potatoes used in  strach 
manufacture in Germany is 187 per 
cent., or 11°22 rounds per bushel, but by 
no means all of this can be extracted, 
In Wisconsin, where the manufacture 
of potato starch is perhaps better 
developed than elsewhere in the United 
States, 8 pounds of starch from a bushel 
of potatoes is regarded as a high yield. 
Even though potato starch sells as high 
as 8 centavos per pound, it is clear that 
it can only be made from cheap pota- 
toes, and that any profit, and indeed 
the safety of the business, depends on 
the most complete feasible extraction 
of the starch. 


from) 


‘centavos, it 


(Decempmr, 1908. 


To appreciate the strong commercial 
position of manioc starch it is only 
necessary to appreciate the enormous 
annual consumption of potato starch, 
and to understand that the latter pro- 
duct is now sold at so nearly the cost of 
production, that it is only by the use of 
expensive machinery for the most com- 
plete extraction of the starch that the 
business can now be conducted at a 
profit. While potato strach is produced 
at any profit at all, manioc starch on 
the EHuropean market cannot fall below 
8 centavos a pound, for, in every res- 
pect in which potato starch is better 
than corn starch, manioc starch is 
better still. This is true for use as 
food as well as for manufacturing pur- 
poses. 


The manioc starch manufactured in 
the United States is at present consum- 
ed entirely in cloth factories, and none 
of it appears on the open market. 


The manufacture of starch will be 
described presently. 


Besid® starch, manioc roots contain 
some cane sugar, usually 4 to 6 per 
cent. Thisis lost in the manufacture of 
starch, but is utilized along with the 
starch if the roots are used for the 
manufacture of alcohol or glucose. The 
manufacture of glucose in this part of 
the world would not be likely to be 
profitable, because of the low price of 
cane sugar. Several papers have been 
written which treat of the manufac- 
ture of alcohol from manioe, but so far as 
we knew no maniocis used commercially 
in this way. The steps in the process 
are the conversion of the starch into 
sugar, fermentation, and _ distilling. 
None of these require much time or 
expensive machinery. 


Alcohol in the Philippinesis almost all 
produced by fermenting the bled sap of 
nipa and other palms. It is rather 
expensive, the cost to the manufac- 
turer for a grade of 95 per cent. being 
probably 85 centavos a gallon. The 
total convertible and fermentable mat- 
ter in rich manioc reaches 85 per cent., 
half of which can be obtained as alco- 
hol. With reasonably good work it 
should be safe to count on a yield 
of 16 per cent. Now. if the available 
starch in pounds of roots be reckoned 
at 22 per cent., and its local value at 7 
is worth 54; the same 
amount of roots should yield 16 pounds 
or 2°3 gallons of alcohol, the value of 
which, based on that assumed for the 
starch, is 67 centavos a gallon. This 
assumes the cost of plant and manufac- 
turing to be equal, which is reasonable. 


Alcohol at this price would find a ready ye: 


. DECEMBER, 1908. | 


market in Manila. As a matter of fact, 
so far as the cost of production goes, 
it is probable that industrial alcohol 
made from manioc could be placed on 
the Manila market in competition with 
kerosene, and still be profitable. 


In view of the size and steadiness of 
the world’s starch market, we believe, 
as already stated, that the best present 
commercial use of manioe isas a source 
of starch; but the local market for 
alechol is valuable as a guarantee that 
no erisis in the starch market and no 
increase in production will jeopardize 
Philippine investments in manioc. 


(To be continued.) 


THE QUESTION OF SHADE IN 
COFFEE CULTIVATION AS 
APPLIED TO CACAO. 


The great importance attached by our 
readers to the question of shading cacao, 
as shown by the conversations and cor- 
respondence that grew out of the paper 
read by our Editor at the Colonial Fruit 
Show of the Royal Horticultural Society, 
has also led up to the advisability of 
shading coffee as well. As the circle 
that gathered at the Fruit Show broke 
up before we could look up our notes 
on the matter, we now publish them 
and shall be only too glad if those who 
took part inthe preliminary debate in 
London will conticue the discussion in 
our columns. 


With all crops, the question of shad- 
ing need not only refer to the protection 
of the plants or trees from the sun, but 
to the protection of the soil from the 
effects of too much heat or heavy rains. 
‘‘Leguminous shade trees,” Colville tells 
you, ‘‘in addition to the effects produced 
by shade trees in general, also protect 
the soil from erosion, drying, and 
heating; and, in preventing the mecha- 
nical injury of the coffee plants by the 
wind, have a beneficial effect on coffee 
.... by adding nitrogen to the soil and 
thus, without expense, increase the 
fertility and productiveness of a planta- 
tion. ..-. This Central American sys- 
tem of shading coffee was adopted from 
the customs of the Aborigines in the 
shading of cacao in prehistoric times, 
which is still practised in many local- 
ities. It is confidently believed,” he 
adds, *‘that a rational system of coffee 
culture in Puerto Rico, based on the 
use of leguminous trees and plants for 
shade and fertiliser purposes, will 
revolutionize the coffee industry in that 
island, and at least double the yield per 
acre.” This was written eight years ago, 
in December, 1900. 


67 


529 


Edible Products. 


“Testimony in favour of shade,” Mr: 
O. F. Cook tells you,” ‘‘has come almost 
entirely from Central America, Vene- 
zuela, and Colombia (which would, we 
take it, include the West Indies), in 
which region the custom of planting 
leguminous trees with coffee is general ; 
in Brazil and in the Hast Indies, where 
experiments have been made with figs 
and other non-leguminous trees, theory 
and practice have generally ignored or 
directly opposed the use of shade. These 
contrary ideas are reconciled by observ- 
ing that the coffee and cacao planters 
of the Central American region have 
been practising unconsciously a system 
of soil fertilization. ... . the leguminous 
trees being able to avail themselves of 
the atmospheric nitrogen by means of 
their root tubercles and attendant bac- 
teria. ... If the increased fertility of 
the soi] through leguminous trees be 
left out of account, the adverse opi- 
nions of Dafert and other scientists must 
be admitted as justified, and shade 
must be condemned as a cultural error | 
of huge practical dimensions, . , . There 
are soils and climates where shade trees 
are unnecessary, or even harmful, but 
in broken and mountainous regions, and 
in arid regions, where a great extension 
of the industry is possible, leguminous 
trees have, and will doubtless continue 
to have, enormous agricultural import- 
ance.” 


This is written, of course, in reference 
to coffee, but can equally well be applied 
to cacao, which requires nitrogen to an 
even greater extent than coffee. Where 
the difference of opinion as to the 
utility or disadvantage of shade trees is 
so difficult to reconcile, is in steep, hilly 
lands, and as many cacao estates or 
at least part of them, are spread over such 
lands, the question is for ever cropping 
up afresh, Against the use of shade 
trees in hilly or mountainous regions, 
as recommended by Mr. Cook, can be 
advanced the disbelief of the Grenada 
planters (whose estates cover some very 
hilly areas) in the utility or advantage 
to the cacao. Should it become a more 
general practise to apply manures and 
fertilisers to cacao trees, the decision 
as to the advantage of shade trees (of 
leguminous annual varieties), planted 
with the cacao might be modified. So 
also might the idea of planting Jegu- 
minous trees among the cacao to hold 
the soil, and in order to discourage 
weeds. retain moisture, to render. the 
soil more fertile by adding nitrogen to 
it, and to protect the crop from the 


* “Shadein Coffee Culture,” by O. F. Cook. 
Bulletin No, 25, United States Department of 
Agriculture, 


Edible Products. 


wind. In a nutshell, a judicious use of 
shade, or trees other than the main 
crop under cultivation, can in many 
eases supply the loss of that protection 
that forest trees extended to cacao and 
other crops in the wild state. 


In the wiid state, however, the ulti- 
mate aim was by no means to secure 
the biggest crop, or to reap the largest 
possible return per acre from the trees, 
and so long as the trees obtain sufficient 
moisture they can, under conditicns of 
cultivation, possibly do as well, or better, 
as regards their output, without the 
protection of the shade tree, natural or 
artificial irrigation taking its place. It 
is worth noting on this point that 
Trinidad, the cacao producing centre, 
the most wedded to the use of shade, 
seems as much or more affected by 
weather conditions than Grenada, Bahia, 
or Para, where planters do not look 
upon the use of shade trees as being so 
absolute a necessity. To our mind the 
pros and cons of shade are summed up 
as follows :— 


Pros.—Fertilization of the soil. 
Retention of moisture. 
Prevention of erosion. 
Discouragement of weeds. 
Protection from wind. 


Cons.—Encouragement of pest. 
Delay in the maturity of the tree. 
Reduction of yield. 


According to Dr. Delgado, of Caracas, 
“the special utility of leguminous trees 
is emphasized and explained on the 
ground that, though having superficial 
roots for the fixation of free nitrogen, 
they draw nourishment only from the 
deep strata of the soil, and thus do not 
come into harmful competition with the 
coffee.” 


‘Tt is interesting to note,” adds Mr. 
O. F, Cook, commenting on Dr. Delgado’s 
“Contrebucion al Estudio del Cafe in 
Venezuela,” ‘Dr. Delgado’s insistance 
upon the fertilizing value of a_stir- 
ring of the _ soil, quite outside of 
what may be necessary in the removal 
of weeds. The regular use of the creole 
plough between the rows of coffee is 
advised as extremely beneficial, and the 
injury to the superficial roots is said 
to be more than compensated for by the 
efficiency of the new roots put forth 
in the newly-stirred and aerated soil. 
Here, again, the possible effect of stimu- 
lating the activity of the roots of the 
leguminous shade tree. as well as the 
fertilizing value of the detached tuber- 
cles, are to be taken into account in 
scientific experiments for determining 
the lines of rational culture.” Those 
who have discussed the question of 
disturbing the soil between the cacao 


530 


the first plot has given an increased crop 


[DECEMBER, 1908. 


trees in Grenada with the planters of 
that Island, will find that they say 
much the same of cacao as Mr. Cook . 
says of coffee.—Tropical Life, Vol. [V., 
No. 7, July, 1908. 


MANURIAL EXPERIMENTS WITH 
CACAO AT DOMINICA. 


The results of the manurial experi- 
ments with cacao that have now been in 
progress for many years at Dominica, 
both at the Botanic Station and in the 
country districts, are well worthy of 
study by planters, since they demon- 
strate beyond a doubt the remunerative 
returns obtained by judicious applica- 
tions of manure to cacao plantations. 
Attention may here be drawn to the 
most important and interesting features 
in the results, further particulars of 
which will be found ina paper by Dr. 
Francis Watts, C.M.G., that appears in 
the West Indian Bulletin, Vol. 1X., p.188. 


The manurial experiments at the 
Station have been carried out on uniform 
lines since the year 1900, and there are 
five cacao plots. under observation. Of 
these, one has been regularly manured 
each year with an application of 4 cwt. 
of basic phosphate and 1}ecwt. of sul- 
phate of potash per acre; a _ second plot 
has been annually treated with 4 ewt. of 
dried blood per acre, anda third has 
received a complete manure, composed 
of 4 cwt.of basic phosphate, 14 ewt. of 
sulphate of potash, and4 ecwt,. of dried 
blood per acre. The fourth plot has 
been annually mulched with grass and 
leaves, while the fifth has received no 
manure whatever. 


The crop returns obtained, which have 
been recorded since 1902-8, clearly indi- 
cate the value of manures to cacao 
plantations. This may easily be seen 
from a comparison of the returns yielded 
by the several manured plots during the 
five years ending 1906-7, with the return 
given by the unmanured plot. The use 
of dried blood alone (plot 3), which is 
primarily a nitrogenous manure, resulted 
in an increased yield of 187 lb. of dry 
cured cacao per acre perannum, as com- 
pared with the unmanured plot. If the 
dry cacao is valued at the moderate 
figure of 6d. per lb., the net profit ob- 
tained as the result of the application of 
the dried blood, after deducting the cost 
of the manure, works out at 57s, 6d, 
per acre. 


Theuse of phosphateand potash on 
yield which, on the average of the past 


five years, is equal to 219 lb. of cured 
cacao per acre per annum over and above ~ 


 DecuBer, 1908. 


that given vy the unmanured plot, The 
net return obtained from manuring 
(after deducting the cost of the manure) 
is, on the above basis, equal to G4s. 3d. 
per acre. 


The combination of the organic and 
the mineral manures, i.¢., dried blood, 
phosphates and potash, on the third 
plot, has shown an increased yield of 
374 lb. of dried cacao per acre per annum, 
and at a net monetary profit of 105s. 9d. 


The highest return of all, however, 
was, itis interesting to note, given by 
the plot that was mulched with grass 
and leaves. In this case the average 
gain for the past five years in dry cacao 
per acre per annum over the unmanured 
plot reached 402 lb. When the cost of 
the manure has been deducted, there 
remains a sum of 14ls., representing the 
net profit derived from the mulching 
treatment. 


The results obtained in 1906-7 indicate, 
however, that the average figures for 
the past five years do not fully represent 
the gain derived from mulching in cacao 
plantations, and it would appear that 
the benefits resulting from this method 
of treatment are cumulative. During the 
season 1906-7 the mulched plot yielded 
648 lb. of dry cured cacao in excess of the 
unmanured plot, which, on the basis 
already mentioned, represents a net 
protit of 264s. 


- Further, it is pointed out by Dr. Watts 
that when the general health and growth 
of the trees on the plots are taken into 
account, it is at once seen that the indi- 
vidual trees on the mulched plot are 
much finer and better developed than 
those which received the mineral 
manures. The soil which has received 
the mulching treatment is moist, friable, 
full of humus, andina better condition 
generally, as compared withthe other 
plots. It is also significant that the 
mulched plot is well covered by trees 
planted at the rate of 108 per acre, while 
the plot receiving no manure requires 
178 trees per acre, or nearly 70 per 
cent. more. The trees on the plot 
receiving phosphate, potash, and dried 
blood come next to those on the mulched 
plot as regards general health and 
condition. Although the dressings of 
leaves and grass have given such excel- 
lent results, it is pointed out that in 
many cases it will probably be well to 
supplement mulching with moderate 
applications of nitrogen and phosphate, 


The experiments carried out in the 
county at Picard show beyond doubt 
that manures are beneficial in the 
establishment of young cacao planta- 
tions. Theuse of pen manure brought 


531 Hdible Products. 


about the best returns, and the trees on 
the plots receiving this treatment were 
more healthy and vigorous than other 
plots. Dried blood and bone meal were 
also especially beneficial, both in increas- 
ing the yield of cacao and in improving 
the condition of the trees, while consi- 
derably increased returns, as compared 
with the no-manure plot, were given by 
the trees to which basic phosphate and 
ammonia, both separately and in combi- 
nation, were applied. The trees on the 
plots manured with phosphate and 
potash, both separately and in combi- 
nation, are described as being poor in 
foliage and lacking vigorous growth. 


On one set of plots at Picard the utili- 
zation as green dressings of the weeds 
growing under the young cacao trees 
has proved of great value in maintain- 
ing and improving the condition of the 
soil. The weeds are allowed to grow 
until they reach a moderate size, when 
they are either cut down and spread as 
amuleh, or forked in. 


One of the chief conclusions that may 
already be deduced from the results 
obtained in these experiments is the 
importance of keeping up and increas- 
ing the supply of humus in thesoil. For 
this reason, manures supplying organic 
matter, and especially pen manure, are 
particularly desirable, Nitrogenous 
manures are essential for cacao, as with- 
out nitrogen the trees lack vigour; 
this constituent should preferably be 
givenin a slowly available form, e.g., 
as dried blood or cotton-seed meal. 
Phosphatic manures increase the ereps, 
but should not be used without nitro- 
gen. As regards potash, this constitu- 
entis probably not urgently required 
as a manure for cocao in Dominica.— 
Agricultural News, Vol. VII., No. 163 
July, 1908. 


THE FERMENTATION OF CACAO. 


By Oscar Logw, Physiologist. 
Although much has been written 
about the fermentation of cacao, there 
still exists a great difference of opinion 
in regard to the process, its purpose and 
neces ty and the kind of action involv- 
ed in it. 


Herbert Wright, in his exhaustive 
work on cacao,* mentions yeast cellst as 


* Theobroma Cacao or Cocoa, Colombo, ~ 1907, 
p. 108. 

+ According to A, Preyer (Tropenflanzer, 5 
(1901), pp. 157-173, a special kind of yeast, which 
he named Saccharomyces theobromac, effects the 
bost fermentation in Ceylon, i 


Edible Products. 


the most important organism causing 
the fermentation, while other authors 
attribute the fermentation to unorgan- 
ized ferments, others again to bacteria, 
and even the changes due to germina- 
tion were supposed to play a role in it. 


According to George Watt, in his 
Peary of the Economic Products of 
ndia*:— 


The coolie dexterously strips all the 
beans off the centre pulp. The pods 
are then thrown round the trees and act 
as manure, while the beans are re- 
moved to the fermenting cistern. It 
takes from five to nine days to pro- 
perly ferment the cacao, and it is then 
ready for working. Itis trampled first, 
asin coffee. with the feet and then 
removed in baskets and carefully hand- 
washedt.....tI have no doubt that 
before long some means less expensive 
will be found for washing. .... . 
The prices obtained for it will depend in 
a much greater measure on the care- 
ful attention of the curing than in the 
case of coffee. 


Safford, writing on cacao in Guam} 
says :— 


, Cacao beans are sometimes kept in 
jars and allowed to “sweat” or undergo 
a sort of fermentation which improves 
their flavour, but this custom is not uni- 
versal. Many families, after having 
dried the beans inthe sun, keep them 
until required for use, when they 
toast them as we do coffee, grind them 
and make them into chocolate, Choco- 
late made from the newly-ground bean 
is especially rich and aromatic. 


Hinchley Hart writes :— 


The prime object of sweating or fer- 
mentation appears tobe to change the 
inside portion of the bean by absorbing 
into it products obtained from the fer- 
menting pulp, and where this is not fully 
accomplished by any of the methods 
the bean is classed as unfermented, and 
the product is generally of lower value, 


The changes {brought about by the 
fermentation have been minutely ex- 
amined by J. B. Harrison, chemist in 
British Guiana. Some of the changes 
observed, as for example, the decrease 
of protein in the seed and the increase 
of amido compounds, are only incidental 
and not of any importance, since they 


* London, 1893, vol. 6, pt. 44. 


_ {Sach methodsfare followed in India, but not 
in America. 


{ Useful plants of Guam. U. 8S. Nat, 
Contrib., Nat. Herbarium, 9 (1908), 387. 


§ Cacao. Trinidad, 1900, 2 ed., p, 38. 


Mus., 


582 


(DECEMBER, 1908. 


do not affect the colour, which is simply 


due to the action of a proteolytic enzyme 
in the seed. 


The principal conclusions reached by 
Harrison are that the process of ‘‘ fermen- 
tation or sweating in cacao consists in 
an alcoholic fermentation of the sugars 
in the pulp of the fruit accompanied by 
a loss of some of the albuminoid and 
indeterminate nitrogenous constituents 
of the beans, * * * and some parts of the 
carbohydrates other than sugars undergo 
hydrolysis and either escape in the 
runnings from the boxes in the form of 
glucose or undergo in turn the alcoholic 
and acetic fermentations.” Further, he 
declares: ‘‘ During this change some of 
the astringent matters, to which the 
somewhat acrid taste of the raw beans 
is due, are also hydrolyzed, and thus a 
marked improvement in flavour is 
gained.” Finally, headds: ‘‘This work 
has necessarily only resulted in a partial 
and incomplete study of the results of 
the fermentation.” 


The so-called fermentation is carried 
out either by heaping the fresh seeds, 
after separating them from the shell, 
on the floor or in receptacles and cover- 
ing them with banana leaves or with 
cloth. The floor or the receptacles slope 
so that the watery products can escape 
during the fermentation. A period of 
two to six days, according to circum- 
stances, is usually allowed for fermenta- 
tion. The height of the heaped seed 
measures 1 to 1°5 meters and over. In 
some countries the highest temperature 
allowed for fermentation is 45°C., in 
others 50° C. According to Hart ‘ there 
is danger inallowing (the temperature) 
to rise above 140°. (60° C.), as the 
character of the product is sure to suffer.” — 
An apparatus has been recently devised 
by M. Schulte in which a constant tem- 
perature of 60°C, is maintained. In this 
case the yeast is fully excluded and 
bacteria with few exceptions also, and 
the necessary changes are brought on 
mainly by the heat, but this method 
has been considered too tedious and 
of little value to cacao planters, as is 
shown by Maurice Montet in his criti- 
cism of the apparatus. 


The rise of temperature amounts to 
about 5° C. in twenty-four hours, and 
after four days the fermenting beans 
show generally an elevation of 18° to 
20° C. above the temperature of the sur- 
rounding atmosphere. The more or 
less rapid rise of temperature in the 
fermenting pile depends, of course, 
upon the height of the pile and upon 
the temperature of the surrounding air, 

The cacao fruit resembles a cucumber 
in shape, but the form is subject to — 


Decimeer, 1908.) io BBS 


certain variations. Theshell is of violet, 
red, or yellow colour, sometimes even 
nearly white, 15 to 25 centimeters long 
and 6 to 10centimeters thick. The shape 
of the seed is more or less round, often 
laterally compressed or flattened, when 
it resembles the bean of Phaseolus; its 
length varies from 2 to 2°5 centimeters, 
the diameter from 0°8 to 1°8 centimeters. 
Between the fleshy and corrugate coty- 
ledons showing convolutions on the 
surface, lies the bitter, purple embryo 
with its white chalaza. The cotyledons 
of one variety are white in colour. 
There may exist in one fruit as many 
as fifty seeds. Theloose parenchyma- 
tuous slimy tissue (pulp) surrounding 
the testa of the seed appears to be of 
similar nature to the tissue forming the 
soft inner layer of the hard fruit shell. 
The structure of the entire fruit is 
somewhat complicated, and nature has 
evidently taken much pains to protect 
the embryo by four different envelopes. 


The chief purposes of the fermenta- 
tion process are :— 

(1) Removal or contraction of the pulp 
surrounding the seeds; 

(2) Loosening of the connection be- 
tween the seed and its testa; 

(8) Development of colour and im- 
provement of taste. 


Some authors hold that the heat of 
the fermentation is required to harden 
the interior of the bean, and also pass it 
to a second fermentation; further, that 
another change consists in the hardening 
or toughening of the testa of the bean, 
whereby brittleness is avoided during 
drying, and thus the seeds are better 
protected against the entrance of mold 
fungi. Various authors also ascribe to 
the fermentation a great influence upon 
the development of the aroma. 


As regards the first of the above- 
named purposes, namely, the removal 
of the slime layer attached to the seed 
coat, a somewhat similar process occurs 
in the fermentation of coffee. The first 
step is the development of numerous 
yeast cells, which find ample nutrients 
in the sweet juice oozing from the pulp. 
The yeasts are chiefly Saccharomyces 
ellipseedeus and a certain amount of 
S. apiculatus, which develop rapidly. 
These organisms oceur on fruits, as well 
as in the dust of the air and on the 
surface of the soil, together with 
numerous bacteria, The alcohol formed 
in the fermentation of the sugar by 
these yeasts destroys the superficial 
strata of the pulp or slime tissue, and 
as its juice passes freely to the outside, 
nourishment is given to innumerable 
bacteria, among them the widely distri- 
buted acetic bacillus. The respiration 
of these organisms and the fermentative 


Edible Products. 


activity generate heat and gradually a 
considerable elevation of temperature 
is reached. 


The juice on the surface now assumes 
a strong acid reaction, due to the 
oxidation of alcohol to acetic acid, and 
this suffices to destroy the remaining 
cells of the slime layer, causing thereby 
a considerable shrinkage of it and also 
a further discharge of juice, as the 
cytoplasm of the dying cells becomes 
permeable to the interior juice. Thus 
a considerable amount of liquid gathers 
at the bottom of the receptacles and, 
since this liquor has an agreeable sour 
smell and taste, it is used in some 
factories as vinegar. By the bacterial 
action the attached pulp is further 
loosened from the testa to some extent 
and can be washed away, as is done 
in Ceylon. In many parts of Central 
America, however, the shrunken pulp is 
dried with the beans, which are shipped 
in this condition to other countries. 


The fermented and well-washed cacao 
beans show a uniform yellowish or 
brownish colouration of their testa. The 
testa of unwashed fermented beans do 
not show a uniform colouration on 
account of the adhering films of ferment- 
ed and shrunken pulp, which has turned 
from the orginal colourless condition to 
a violet brown colour, and which is 
reduced from the original thickness of 
O'l to O72 centimeter to a mere 
film, An advantage of removing the 
remaining films by washing consists 
doubtless in a greater rapidity of drying, 
whereby the danger of attack by mold 
fungi is diminished. KE. Lange holds 
that the extra trouble is not compen- 
sated by the additional price obtained 
for washed cacao. Nevertheless, the 
washing of the cacao has been recently 
introduced in Trinidad. 


When pulped cacao is not fermented, 
but simply dried in the sun, the slimy 
layer around the testa shrinks consider- 
ably, but not to such insignificant thin 
films as after fermentation. When the 
entire juice of the slimy layer is simply 
dried up instead of being removed, a 
hygroscopic condition of the product 
results, which in moist weather becomes 
sticky and might support fungus growth. 
Hence, fermentation is preferable to a 
simple drying process, and after washing 
yields a much cleaner product. 

In the fermentation of coffee the slimy 
layer to be removed from the testa 
(parchment envelope) is much thinner 
than that of the cacao seed. Hence, 
the fermentation of coffee is of much 
shorter duration than that of cacao. 


In regard to the second purpose above 
mentioned, namely, loosening the con- 


Edible Produc ts, 


neCtion between the seed and its testa, 
it must be mentioned that by the death 
of the seed, caused by the elevation of 
temperature of the fermentation to 40 
to 45° C., some contraction takes place 
and the seed recedes somewhat from its 
walls. Later on, in the manufacture 
of cacao from the fermented and dried 
beans, they are roasted and some con- 
traction of the seed is caused. The 
testa having lost its hygroscopic water 
by the heat, now can be easily separated 
especially while still warm and brittle. 


An important change also due to the 
fermentation process is the production 
of a fine brown colour. The effect of 
the fermentation in this direction 1s, 
however, not a direct, as supposed by 
many, but an indirect one, and may be 
secured by simply drying the bean. 
Sun-dried beans are uniformly deep 
brown. When the fresh seed is cut, 
the surface thus opened will turn from 
the original violet to a deep brown 
colour within a short time, while boiled 
seed thus treated will not show any 
change of color, even after many hours’ 
exposure to the air. This is in full 
analogy with similar phenomena observ- 
ed very frequently with plants, and 
is due to the presence of oxidases or 
_oxidyzing enzymes. When cellsarekilled 
by being cut open or in any other way 
that will not injure the oxidases, these 
will, upon the death of the protoplasm 
in which they were stored up, be 
Jiberated and commence at once their 
activity, easily recognized by the early 
appearance of a brown, black, or red 
colour. These colours are generally due 
to the oxidation of various kinds of 
tannins originally present in the juice or 
cell sap.* If, however, the death of the 
protoplasm is produced by strong acids 
or boiling temperature,t the oxidases 
will also be killed and no colour change 
will be noticed, as the tannins and 
other readily oxidizable matters in the 
juices cannot easily take up the atmo- 
spheric oxygen without the assistance 
of oxidases. 


A further control experiment was 
made in which the pulped cacao (seed 
with testa and attached slime layer) 
was boiled for about twenty minutes 
with dilute sulphuric acid of 2 per cent. 
The slimy tissue contracted, and to- 
gether with the swollen testa was easily 
separated from the seed. These seeds 
showed a ptre red coloration on the 
outside. while the interior was violet, 


*Such a case is observed in the curing of 
tobacco, whereby a fine brown colour is produced. 

+ The killing temperature for oxidases is 20° 
to 30° C. higher than that for protoplasm or 
living matter, 


534 


(DECEMBER, 1908. 


and no trace of brown colour appeared 
even after may hours’ exposure to the 
air, since the oxidizing enzyme (oxidase) 
has been killed, together with the living 
matter (the protoplasm of celis). 


The seeds commence to die when the 
entire fruit is kept for several days at 
40° to 45° C., and the browning can 
be observed progressing from the surface 
of the seed toward the interior. By 
becoming over ripe, the soft interior 
strata of the fruit shell, as well as the 
slime tissue around the seeds contract 
more or less, and a hollow space is formed 
between the fruit shell and the seeds 
with their adhering slime tissue. Air 
diffuses into this space, and the reason 
for the brown colour produced by oxida- 
tion within the firuit becomes apparent. 
During the fermentation process the 
browning does not often go farther than 
this, and the interior of the seed often ' 
continues to show the original violet 
colouration. It is then that the subse- 
quent drying process, which admits air 
abundantly by diffusion through the 
testa, completely. finishes the browning 
process. Some further darkening can 
take place during the roasting process 
when powdered cacao and chocolate are 
made from the fermented beans. 


The colour change of the cacao seed is 
no doubt similar to the colour change in 
the preparation of black tea, for which 
ithas been positively proved that an 
oxidising enzyme acting on a specific 
tannin is the real cause of the blacken- 
ing of the leaves. When the oxidising 
enzyme of the tea leaves is killed by 
steam, the leaves retain theirgreen colour 
and never turn black (green tea). 


Tea leaves contain 7 per cent. tannin 
and over, and the production of a black 
colour from this tannin commences as 
soon as the leaves die, which takes place 
when they are kept in heaps after pick- 
ing and are deprived of sunlight (death 
by starvation). Indeed, black tea con- 
tains less tannin than green tea, In 
order to increase the black colouration 
the leaves are rolled, which brings their 
juice to the surface, and the access of air 
accelerates the blackening process. 


A casein which tannin is changed by 
partial oxidation for the sake of remov- 
ing the astringent taste is observed in 
the curing of the fruit of certain varieties 
of persimmon (kaki)in Japan. By the 
curing process, which consists in keeping 
the fruits in vapour of aleohol or in 
subjecting them to sluw desiccation in 
the sun, the tannin is changed, in contact 
with an oxidising enzyme and oxygen, to 
a brown, tasteless substance, The fruit 
thus acquires an agreeable taste. 


(To be continued). 


ar 
; Li Bs 
| 


DECEMBER, 1908. ] 5 


A. B, C. OF LIME CULTIVATION. 
(Continued from page 439.) 


PLANTING, DISTANCES, ETC. 


The planting season for limes is from 
June to December. The earlier planting 
is to be recommended, for then the 
plants have time to make satisfactory 
growth before the dry season com- 
mences. The land, before planting, 
should be carefully lined. 


In lands previously under cultivation 
thorough forking of small beds, very 
slightly raised above the level of the 
surrounding soil, should be practised 
before the lime plants are put out, while 
in newly-cleared forest land, holes about 
18 inches deep and from 12 to 15 inches 
square should be opened some time, if 
possible, before the limes are planted 
out. In heavy soils, the system of 
holing is not to be recommended, as 
there is a tendency for the holes to form 
‘water traps’ during the rainy season, 
with the result that the young plants 
either die, through decay of their roots, 
or are severely checked in growth, 


When the lime plants are from 16-18 
inches high, they are ready for planting 
out. They should be carefully lifted 
with forks from the nursery beds. The 
ends of the branches should be cut back 
8 or 4 inches, either before being lifted 
orimmediately after, and they may be 
placed in bundles on baskets or trays for 
conveyance to the field. The roots 
should be watered and kept moist until 
planted. Good results cannot be ex- 
pected if the roots are allowed to be- 
come dry or exposed. 


The plants should be carefully planted 
outat about thesame depth as they grew 
in the nursery beds, or at the most only 
a trifle deeper. The colour of the stems 
clearly shows the depth the plants were 
while growing in the nursery bed. 


The lateral rootlets should be spread 
out, covered with soil, and firmly pressed 
down, while the soil around the plants 
in the holes should be moulded up 
several inches above the level of the 
surrounding ground, so as to ensure that 
no water settles round the stems and 
roots of the lime plants during wet 
weather, after the soil has settled down, 
when planting operations have been 
completed. Careful preparation of land, 
care in planting, and good after-cultiva- 
tion are repaid by healthy quick growth 
and large early crops. 


Limes are planted at varying distances 
apart in the fields according to indi- 
vidual opinion and to locality. 


Edible Products. 


The question of the most suitable 
distances at which to plant is one of the 
most important, and at the same time 
one of the most difficult, that the young 
planter is called upon to answer. Ex- 
perience is the only safe guide, but the 
following suggestions may be found 
of use :— 


On steep hill slopes, especially when 
the land is not particularly good, 12 
feet by 12 feet or 12 feet by 14 feet may 
be adopted. On fairly good flat land, 
15 feet by 15 feet or 16 feet by 16 feet are 
the most usual distances. When the 
land is very good and the rainfall is 
abundant, 20 feet by 20 feet will pro- 
bably be found more suitable, and in 
moist land containing an exceptionally 
large quantity of vegetable matter, asin 
reclaimed swamps, 25 feet by 25 feet 
may not be too great a distance at 
which to plant. Trees attain a greater 
size in hot valleys near the coast than 
they do in the hills. 


Distances of 12 feet by 12 feet require 
308 plants ; 15 feet by 15 feet, 193 plants ; 
18 feet by 18 feet, 184 plants ; 20 feet by 
20 feet, 109 plants; and 25 feet by 25 
feet, 70 plants to the acre. 


Trees planted at wide distances, 
when mature give better results than 
closely planted trees, for, owing to 
the hemispherical shape of the trees, 
they present a greater bearing surface 
than those plants that are struggling 
for light. 


The distances at which to plant lime 
trees, having due regard to certain 
operations that may have to be carried 
on later, should receive very careful 
consideration. Scale insects during the 
past few years have been on the increase 
in lime plantations, and in course of 
time spraying operations may have to 
be carried on systematically on estates 
in order to keep these pests  satis- 
factorily in check. It is impossible to 
spray effectively a closely planted lime 
field. Such a field isa tangled mass of 
formidable vegetation, unapproachable 
as regards spraying. In fields where 
limes are planted at wide distances, 
spraying is easier, but even then, to be 
carried out effectively, it is a difficult 
operation. 


Probably it may be found in dry dis- 
tricts that a system of planting lime 
trees closely in rows, say, 10 to 12 feet 
apart in the rows and from 20 to 25 and 
30 feet between the rows, according to 
the elevation, would prove successful 
culturally. 


It would facilitate many of the estate 
operations, and at the same time give 


ee 


gs Os 


Edible Products. 5 


room for the spraying outfits to pass up 
and down the rows to do their work 
thoroughly. 


This system of planting might be 
adopted with advantage in dry soils, but 
in moist valleys the tendency of the 
lime treeis to throw out long whippy 
branches which are unable satisfac- 
torily to support the weight of the crop. 
Wide planting in such situations might 
necessitate extensive propping, an oper- 
ation that is costly. 


In laying outa field on this principle, 
the rows might be run across the direc- 
tion of the prevailing winds, and thus 
made, in some degree, tc protect each 
other from wind. 


AFTER-CULTIVATION. 


The period from the time of planting 
to when thelime trees pay for their 
cultivation and yield a profit varies 
according to the soil, position, and culti- 
vation. The lime may, under favour- 
able conditions, commence to give a few 
fruits in the third year after planting, 
but experienced men consider that eight 
to ten years is the time necessary to 
bring a lime plantation into full bearing. 


1f limes are planted among sugar-cane, 
the canes are, under good management, 
gradually removed from the land as 
lime trees develop. The same course is 
followed in respect to limes among 
garden crops. When limes are planted 
in grass or guava-bush lands, or in 
newly-cleared forest lands, a gradually 
increased area is kept clean around the 
plants as they develop, and the grass 
and bush between them are cutlassed 
occasionally and applied to the soil 
around the trees asa mulch. 


Now thatthe acreage under young 
limes in Dominica is considerable, the 
need of a green dressing that will cover 
the land and keep down weeds in fields 
being established with limes is much felt. 
Such a leguminous plant should be a 
strorg dwarf grower that will cover 
the land thickly and quickly and keep 
down the weeds. 


Seeds of the green dressing should be 
sown with the first rains, so thatits 
growth during the growing season may 
keep the weeds under. It should bear 
being cut over two or three times a year 
to yield a mulch, and afterwards should 
spring into growth again rapidly. Karly 
in the dry season it should be pulled up 
by the roots and used for mulching the 
lime plants. 


Of the green dressings tried at 


Dominica, the one that comes nearest to ~ 


filling the above requirements success- 
fully is the horse bean (Canavalia 
ensiformis). This may prove very useful 


36 [DECEMBER, 1908, 


for growing among young lime trees on 
lands near to the coast, butit has not 
yet been fully experimented with on the 
west uplands. 


Bengal beans are used in Monsterrat. 
They are allowed to grow over the 
lime trees, and their growth appears 
to have favourable influence towards 
keeping scale insects in check. Soil 
enrichment is probably a secondary 
consideration in this case. 


Lime trees require but little pruning, 
but all suckers and dead branches should 
be rigorously removed. If the suckers 
are allowed to remain, the middle of the 
trees become choked, and the main bear- 
ing branches tend todie off. Should a 
tree at any time lose one of its main 
branches by accident, a sucker may be 
grown and trained to take the place of the 
lost branch. When the main branches 
are formed, the weak! under-branches 
should be pruned off, soas to direct the 
whole strength of the tree to the 
upper branches. 


In consideration of the bare-footed 
workers on lime estates, all prunings of 
the spiny variety should be dragged to 
an open space and burned, and not, as 
is usual with pruning generally, allowed 
to remain for use as manure. 


From the time the young trees are 
planted, and during the life of the plant- 
ation, the aim of the planter should be to 
keep the land in good condition by 
maintaining, and, if possible, increasing 
the percentage of humus in the soil by 
the application of pen manure, or by 
means of frequent mulches of bush and 
grass from adjoining lands. It isseldom 
that an estate produces sufficient pen 
manure for its cultivation, but this defi- 
cency in islands like Dominica can be 
made up by applications of bush and 
grass to the land as mulchirngs. Grass 
and bush may also be carted into pens 
to increase the supply of pen manure. 
By these means the plants will be kept 
supplied with plant food. 


-The skins of the limes after passing 
through the mill are greedily eaten by 
cattle and are also valuable as manure. 
All skins should be placed in the cattle 
pens to make manure. Similarly, lime 
seeds should be placed in pens to decay. 
By using the lime skins and lime seeds 
in the pens and adding good supplies of 
grass and bush, the planter can make 
valuable manure for application to his 
plantation. 


Wood ashes from the furnaces, which 
contain potash and some lime, should 
also always be saved for application to 
the lime fields at a convenient time. 


DECEMBER, 1908. | 537 


Very little is known as to the effect 
of artificial manures on lime plantations, 
A series of experiment plots to which 
various special manures have been 
applied is under observation, and inter- 
esting information should be available 
in the course of a few years. 


Too much stress cannot be laid upon 
the good results that accrue from appli- 
cations of pen manures or of mulch, for 
the appearance of many lime plantations 
has, in a short time, been completely 
changed by attention to this operation. 
Most planters are now fully alive to the 
benefits to be derived from attention to 
the humus question. 


The life of a lime plantation in Domi- 
nica has not yet been determined. Well- 
kept fields of limes, planted over thirty 
years ago, are still in good condition and 
yield good crops, and they appear likely 
to remain profitable for many years to 
come, 


PESTS AND DISEASES. 


The lime tree has numerous enemies, 
and as the area under lime cultivation 
enlarges, they are also likely to increase. 
The attitude of the planter should be 
one of constant watchfulmess, as the 
time has come when he can no longer 
depend on the heavy rainfall, and on 
parasites of the scales to keep his lime 
trees free from scale insects. The scale 
that has caused the most damage to lime 
cultivation up to the present is the 
mussel scale (Mytilaspis citricola), which 
inflicted great havoc in plantations dur- 
ing 1902, Another scale that is preval- 
ent is the orange snow scale (Chionas- 
pis citri) The latter is almost entirely 
confined to the trunks and _ thick 
branches of the tree, and is best dealt 
with by painting the parts affected with 
any of the mixtures recommended by 
the Imperial Department of Agriculture. 


Probably the most serious enemy of 
the lime plant at present is Lecanium 
viride, a scale that is increasing rapidly 
on lime estates in Dominica. Its attacks 
are always accompanied with ‘ black 
blight.’ 


Other scales present on lime trees are 
the West Indian red scale (Aspidiotus 
articulatus), and the brown shield scale 
(Lecanium hemisphericum). These, how- 
ever, have done no harm to speak of 
up to the present. 


Scale insects may be present on a 
pentation for years, and do so little 
arm that their presence is unnoticed by 
the planter. Occasionally conditions are 
such as to favour their rapid increase, 
and the planter sees his trees attacked 
by blight, which causes heavy loss, 


68 


Edible Products. 


When the parasitic enemies of the scales 
fail to keep them in check, spraying 
must be resorted to. Full particulars as 
to seale insects and to spraying outfits 
and mixtures may be found in the 
Pamphlets Nos. 5, 7, and 22 issued by the 
Imperial Department of Agriculture, 
entitled ‘General Treatment of Insect 
Pests,’ second Hdition, and ‘Scale Insects 
of the Lesser Antilles,’ Parts I and II 
respectively. 


In the early days of lime planting no 
thought was given to possible attacks of 
scale insects. Trees were planted close 
together and little attention was given 
to straight lining. In old plantations, 
therefore, in the majority of instances, 
it is almost impossible to carry on effec- 
tive spraying. The young planter should 
bear this matter in mind, and should 
plant his fields so that spraying may be 
thoroughly done should occasion demand 
it: 

The lime tree bark borer (Deptostylus 
premorsus) is another pest that has 
done considerable injury to lime trees. 
To combat it, the removal of dead 
branches and dead bark is reeommended, 
the probing of the tunnels in the wood 
with wire to kill the larvee, and the 
application to the trunk of a protective 
material made of whale oil soap, carbolic 
acid, and clay. It is noticeable that 
the attacks of borers are more prevalent 
on wet, heavy soils, than on light soils. 
Possibly improved drainage might assist 
in keeping down this pest. 


A good deal of fungus disease is 
noticeable on some of the trees, in many 
of the old plantations. Bracket fungi 
such as Fomes lucidus and Polystictus 
hirsutus are not uncommon. The latter 
has been found on living trees, but it 
is questionable whether the former may 
be regarded as parasitic in habit. The 
presence of fungus disease is the result 
of neglect. Were pruning properly done, 
all dead branches carefully removed, 
all wounds dressed with Bordeaux mix- 
ture, and afterwards coated with tar, 
these fungi would be banished from 
lime fields. Their continued presence 
lowers the vitality of lime trees and 
reduces the crop. During recent years, a 
fungus, probably a species of Alternaria, 
has been noticed on the leaves of lime 
trees growing on stiff soils in wet 
districts. This fungus causes greyish 
to brown spots on the leaves, but has 
done no appreciable harm up to the 
present time. Its appearanceand habit 
should be noted, If it becomes at all 
prevalent, destruction of all diseased 
leaves should be practised, and spraying 
with Bordeaux mixture resorted to. 
Pamphlet No. 17 entitled ‘ General Treat- 


' : 
Pe ie ee ee 


Edible Products. 


ment of Fungoid Pests,’ issued by the 
Imperial Department of Agriculture 
should be consulted if fungus diseases 
are at all prevalent. 

The damping off of young seedlings is 
prevalent when the weather is continu- 
ally damp for periods of several days, or 
when the seed beds have been sown too 
thickly. The fungus is liable to attack 
seedlings from the time they appear 
above ground until they are about ten 
days old. It turns the leaves and tender 
stems black, so its appearance is readily 
noted. When observed, the seedlings 
should be sprayed witha 5-per cent. solu- 
tion of copper sulphate. Damping off may 
generally be overcome in Dominica by 
making sowings in December and Janu- 
ary, and thereby raising the seedlings 
during the drier part of the year. 


A constant look-out is necessary. on a 
lime plantation for parasitic growths. 
Two species of Loranthus, known locally 
as ‘Mistletoe,’ are common on certain 
native trees in Dominica. The sticky 
seeds are carried by birds to the lime 
tree, which proves a suitable host plant, 
and here the parasite spreads rapidly. 
Where watchfulness is practised and the 
‘Mistletoe’ destroyed on its early appear- 
ance, it can be kept down with little ex- 
pense, If neglected this paresite can de- 
stroy the trees ina lime plantation. It 
is, therefore, recommended that all 
native plants affected with the ‘Misletoe’ 
that are Stowe in the vicinity of 
lime fields should be destroyed. 

In wet districts, the growth of moss, 
lichens, climbing ferns, orchids, and 
bromeliads on lime trees causes some 
trouble. These plants have to be 
removed by hand. Brushes are generally 
used to remove the moss and lichens 
from the trunks of the trees. Experi- 
ments have shown that moss and lichens 
can be killed by spraying with a 5-per 
cent. copper sulphate solution, without 
in any way injuring the lime tree, but it 
is still questionable whether such a 
spraying could be economically practised 
on an estate scale. 

(To be continued.) 


PROPAGATION OF TOBACCO 
IN CUB 


By C. F. BAKER. 
(Concluded from page 444.) 


(b.) PLANTING. 


The beds being ready and the frame- 
works up, planting may be done at any 
time, andthe untiring care in connec- 
tion with watering and managing the 
covers begun. By this time the soil 


588 


ee 
Vee 
Uy 
; ™ 
, a 


[DECEMBER, 1908. 


will have been properly prepared, and 
if the beds be banked by boards or poles, 
the soil should fillit to the very brim, 
and shonld be carefully fined and 
levelled off with arake. Every bed in 
which itis intended to raise posturas 
directly from seed without intermedi- 
ate handling should be carefully and 
thoroughly sterilized. This operation is 
essential to the best success, Just so 
surely as prevention is better than 
cure, just so surely is it better to do 
this work thoroughly and not be com- 
pelled to suffer losses and work with 
remedies afterward. Formalin has 
been recommended, butis so costly as 
to be practically prohibitive, to say 
nothing of the fact that its action is 
uncertain, and that when put on strong 
enough toeffect a perfect sterilization, 
it will, under certain conditions, inter- 
fere with the subsequent growth of 
the plants. In any ordinary strength 
it does not sterilize (see Figure III.). 
The methods almost universally in use 
in Cuba is firing. In the case of fire 
built on the surface of the ground the 
heat seems to largely go upward, where- 
as the penetration downward in the 
ordinary procedure is very slight, only 
the most superficial layers being steri- 
lized (see figure IV.). We prepared a 
number of small beds, and in conjunc- 
tion with the Department of Vegeta- 
ble Pathology, treated them by these 
methods, and also by a third method 
in common use in other parts of the 
world—hot water. Water was heated 
to near boiling and thrown over the 
beds. In all these test beds seeds were 
planted very thickly to give the best 
possible condition for the action of the 
fungus. Otherwise the beds were treat- 
ed exactly the same. Results are 
shownin the accompanying figures I. to 
VI. The hot water beds (figure II.) were 
perfectly clean for many days. Finally 
two or three small spots appeared in 
two of the beds, the source of infection 
probably being below the surface or 
outside the bed. The water was thrown 
on with a pail and hence the applica- 
tion was not as uniform or effective 
asif put on witha pot. One of these 
beds remained perfectly clear of the 
fungus. In the tired and formalin treat- 
ed beds the plants were eventually all 
swept away. Later another bed was ~ 
treated with hct water, it being put 
on boiling hot with watering pots and 
every inch of the surface gone over twice 
and given a thorough wetting. The 
crop on this bed was perfectly clear 
of fungus. If the water is put on first, 
the planting should be deferred several 
days after, until the soil becomes quite 
friable again, 


he 


| DECEMBER, 1908.] 539 


Remembering the now universally 
used Jensen hot-water treatment for 
smut in certain grains, in which the 
grain is immersed in water at 55 
degrees, we tried the experiment of 
planting seed and putting on the hot 
water afterwards. In one bed the hot 
water was puton at 55 degrees, but a 
half inch below the surface this became 
only 48 degrees, and while this bed 
showed up very well still some fungous 
spots finally appeared in it. In an- 
other the water was put on at62 degrees 
and caused a temperature of 58, a half 
inch below the surface. This bed was 
perfectly clear of fungus throughout, 
and the seed came up more quickly than 
in any of the other beds. However, this 
increases the complexity of the opera- 
tion, and would require constant test- 
ing with a thermometer in the hands of 
a competent foreman, whereas if applied 
before planting the only direction is to 
go over it twice thoroughly with 
water boiling hot, and any farm hands 
ean dothis. We do not believe that 
this method would be much if any 
more expensive thana thorough firiug, 
and it would certainly be far more 
effective. Ifa dozen large kettles could 
be had, putting two men toeach four 
kettles, refilling as fast as used, mov- 
ing, and keeping fires going, a great 
many acres of ground could be gone 
over in a very few days. No remixing 
of the soil should be done after steriliza- 
tion. 


If the soil of the seed beds is carefully 
worked and mixed several times be- 
tween spring and planting time, and then 
sterilized with hot water which pene- 
trates deeply, there will be no loss 
from fungus and probably none from 
cutworms. We found also that the 
attacks of flea beetles decreased in 
proportion to the increase in the height 
of beds at ground level suffering most 
severely. Also beds that are kept care- 
fully covered during the day while the 

lants are very young do not suffer 
‘rom flea beetles when beds alongside 
uncovered .or only partially covered 
will suffer severely. lf, however, after 
all possible preventive precautions are 
taken there is still some damage by 
insects or fungus, the Bordeaux mixture 
recommended by Mr. Horne should 
be promptly sprayed on the affected 


_ portions. 


It is perhaps needless to say that the 
beds should be kept perfectly free from 
weeds. All the time weeding is done, 
the plants should also be freely thinned 
where they come up too thick, the 
smaller and weaker plants being the 
ones removed. This will give a more 
even stand and besides will be a not 


Edible Products. 


inconsiderable deterrent to the action 
of the fungus. It also contributes very 
materially to the production of stronger 
posturas. 


(c.) TRANSPLANTING. 


Appreciating fully the enormous diffi- 
culties and expense in any proper steri- 
lization and care of extensive seed beds, 
we have constantly sought methods 
whereby the work and expense involved 
could be reduced and the results at the 
same time made still more certain. At 
the same time we have laboured to reduce 
the time involved in the production of 
usable posturas from seed. We have in 
successful operation now a method that 
makes entirely unnecessary the steriliza- 
tion of any except a very few of the 
beds, that insures the very finest quality 
of posturas with a certainty wholly 
unknown in older methods, and that 
this year on the Estacion grounds made 
posturas ready to plant in 30 to 35 days 
from the seed. nder this method 
planting. out could begin thirty days 
from seed with almost absolute security, 
and proceed without intermission there- 
after. In native Cuban seed beds the 
posturas are pulled up, the dirt shaken 
off.from such roots as still remain on 
the plant, and tied in the bundles for 
transportation to the vega—sometimes a 
journey of several days. But among 
the almost always over-crowded plants 
many are too small to use, and these are 
left for later pullings. The quality of 
these later pullings is always considered 
far below that of the first. By our 
method there are no later pullings, all 
of the posturas being of the best pos- 
sible quality, and most uniform possible 
growth. Inthe figures VII. and VIILI., 
a comparison may be made between a 
seed bed managed by the old system, 
and one of the new. In the two there 
is exactly the same mixture of soil, the 
same seed, the two are of exactly the 
same age, and have received exactly the 
same treatment as to water and light. 
In figure VII. the plants show a great 
variability in size, and a proportion of 
loss from fungus and insects not at all 
uncommon in Cuban seed beds. But the 
plants in figure VIII. were transplanted 
trom the original seed bed in which 
they were sprouted just as soon as they 
were big enough to be handled; the bed 
they are in was not sterilized in any 
WAY 


The rather remarkable immunity to 
fungous attacks possessed by the healthy 
transplanted plantlets is quite surpris- 
ing. We made a very interesting and 
important test in this connection by 
transplanting large series of small plants 
into beds that had just been swept 


Edible Products. 540 


clean of the first direct planting by 
fungus. The lots transplanted into 
such soil suffered no less and thrived 
from the beginning. 


These methods are not original at all 
with us. They have been found the 
safest and best methods in other parts 
of the world, and are commonly followed 
also in the propagation of tomatoes, 
egg plants, peppers and cabbages in 
the United States, where many thou- 
sands of acres are planted to these crops. 
All of the seed beds in our Propagation 
Garden for the past three years have 
been handled by these methods, and 
we have been constantly astonished at 
the ease with which they can be carried 
out and with the far greater certainty 
and the far better quality of the results 
obtained. Some planters have not been 
ready to endorse these methods, regard- 
ing them as impracticable. But these 
are usually men not acquainted with 
the practical working of the :nethods 
and so not competent judges. Careful 
estimates on this year’s work show that 
the extra handling can he done at a 
cost not to exceed 15 to 20 cents per 
thousand posturas. The gains are finer 
posturas, quicker production, avoidance 
of fungus and necessity to sterilize, “and 
far more certain results. Points which 
we regard as alone amply justifying 
the method and making it entirely prac- 
ticable on any scale. We believe that 
these points will commend the method 
to a thorough trial by the most intelli- 
gent Cuban planters. 


The work is all done, and the prepar- 
ations made exactly the same up to the 
point of planting. Then for each ten 
or more beds it will only be necessary 
to sterilize and plant one, but this one 
should be planted much more thickly 
than ordinary. Assoon asthe plants are 
up and large erough to be handled by 
fingers, boys should be used for the 
work of transplanting. They should 
straddle the bed, seated on a piece of 
board which crosses the bed, and set 
the plants well down in the ground 
firming the earth around each one with 
a single movement as rapidly as they 
can be handled, and in straight rows 
across the bed, hitching the seat board 
back as they go. This work should be 
immediately followed by the placing of 
frames and covers. Indeed, a piece of 
cheese-cloth or muslin should be spread 
over the plants for shade as fast as 
they are set and watered. The plants 
should. be set about one and a half 
inches apart, or closer if the planter 
wishes a more spindling postura, so that 
some 2,000 or more may be set in each 
three square yards, Boys should be 


[DECEMBER, 1908. 


paid by the pieve, and should easily do 
tour or five such beds or more in a ten 
hour day. Numbers of the transplanters 
can be kept well supplied with plants 
by one boy who scoops them up on 
spadelike pieces of board, dirt and all, 
without disturbing them in the least. 
Plants so handled and properly cared 
for will gain a week to ten days or 
more over those left undisturbed from 
a first planting, and will besides make 
larger stronger posturas, as we have 
repeatedly demonstrated here, where 
any planters might have seen and kept 
close watch of every operation. 


Two-foot paths should be allowed 
bothways between all the beds, and 
between every four rows of beds a cart 
road should be provided for, so that 
manure may be easily carried directly 
to each bed, and if necessary posturas 
may be rapidly taken out this same 
way. We would recommend, however, 
that the seed beds should not be massed 
in one place but arranged in groups 
as close as possible to the fields they 
are intended to serve. They cannot be 
too close. There will be other conve- 
niences in this, connected with water 
supply and so on, besides the consider- 
able advantages noted below. It will 
be easy for any planter to estimate the 
number of these beds 3 by 9 feet, or 
better 24 by 10 feet necessary for any 
given field. Suppose 25,000 plants to the 
acre be necessary, then it will require 
12 to 14 such beds to supply the posturas, 
according to whether the planter prefers 
a thin spindling postura or a thick 
stocky one. One or two extra beds 
should always be provided to insure ; 
against shortages and accidents, which 
with the class of help available in Cuba 
are always likely to occur. But with 
these beds, if properly and intelligently ; 
handled, there is no need of preparing . 
more ground than is actually occupied 
by the plants, whereas commonly in 
the mountain seed beds a “‘ good stand” 
of posturas frequently does not occupy 
but three-fourths, a half, or even one- 
fourth of the actual area worked, and, 
on the productive portion, the plants 
are commonly so crowded that the 
portion of well-devoloped posturas is 
necessarily small. 


_ 


III. SerrTiInG PostURAS IN THE FIELD. 

The immense advantage of having seed 
beds at the actual side of the vega 
has been strikingly apparent in every 
planting out of some fundnede of trial | 
lots here at the Estacion. Besides, now 
that many planters are operating seed 
beds on their places, abundant evidence 
comes in from throughout the tobacco — 
region. One planter with whom we are 


Ppa Soe 


DECEMBER, 1908.! 541 


acquainted last year put out posturas 
directly from his own seed beds side 
by side with posturas brought from 
the mountains. These were all put out 
at the same time and given the same 


‘treatment. His home grown posturas 


made a crop ten days ahead of the 
others. We have obtained still more 
striking results by combining increased 
care with which posturas were moved 
with careful seed and postura selection. 
Instead of pulling the posturas as is 
universally done, they were removed 
with the entire root mass and the dirt 
attached. This can only be done to ad- 
vantage in a transplanted bed, where all 
the plants are properly spaced. After the 
posturas have been properly hardened 
off for afew days and are ready to move, 
the operator inserts two fingers deep 
into the soil between the plants, and re- 
moves the postura by a lateral and not 
a vertical motion, and banks the 
lants, roots, dirt and all into shallow 
ight wooden trays about 18 inches 
wide by three feet long and three inches 
deep, and these covered by a piece of 
old sacking are delivered by boys to the 
planters as rapidly as they can be used 
and not moreso. The posturas can be 
taken out of the beds about as_ rapidly 
in this way as in any other. They are 


- set in the same trenches ordinarily used, 


and watered. Very early the following 
morning these plants will be found 
standing erect and crisp, and the same 
ground should then be gone over by men 
with hoes and soil drawn around the 
plants. The posturas from transplanted 
beds 8C to 35 days old will be amply 


‘large enough to permit of this. The 


wetted soil about the plants will then 
have no time to sun-bake, the plants 
will not be left at the bottom of a ditch, 
the victims of any heavy rain, and more- 
over, these posturas will not lose any 
time by ‘*‘durmiendo.” Commonly, in 
Cuban vegas, a week or sometimes more 
is practically lost in the ‘‘durmiendo ’— 
a wilted condition which lasts until some 
new roots are put forth. Andif avery 
heavy rain should happen to follow the 
planting the losses are commonly very 
great. We have personally known of 
there being above 50 % in loss from 
plants dying and being flooded. Last 
season in well-managed vegas in this 
vicinity, operated under the old system, 
it required 78 days to make a crop in the 
open fields and 80 days under cheese 
cloth, whereas by the modifications we 
have suggested, and the use of large 
fine posturas direct from the trans- 
planted beds, as large and as fine tobacco 
was made in 45 to 50 days, and this not 
only in one plot, but in many plots, and 
with many different varieties, and where 
all the world might see it, 


Again, we will grant that it is possible 
even with very badly abused posturas, 
to make a good cropif water and ferti- 
lizer and labour and time enough are con- 
sumed. Butis it a good business pro- 
position when by bettering the posturas 
and the method of handling, and follow- 
ing a system that will insure nearly 
continuous growth, we can get just as 
good a crop and in some respects better, 
with two-thirds the same amount of 
water, labour, fertilizer, and time. We 
have proven the possibility of producing 
a crop—seed to ripe leaves—in from 75 
to 85 days. 


Thousands upon thousands of dollars 
are simply wasted upon every crop of 
tobacco grown in the great majority of 
Cuban vegas by use of poor seed, poor 
posturas, and improper handling. Hach 
year our demonstrations have shown 
this most clearly. And yet there is 
small service to the mass of the planters 
by redemonstrating this each year at 
the Estacion. Itshould be demonstrated 
also at convenient points throughout 
the tobacco region, where all the world 
may become acquainted with this same 
train of facts that have been borne in so 
strongly upon us here, 


QUALITY IN THA. 


WHAT CONSTITUTES IT. 


The basis of all quality is fine young 
leaf, the finer and younger the better. 
It isnot sufficient to pluck abud and 
two leaves, but the bud and two leaves 
must be plucked before young; that 
is to say, the shoot must. be plucked 
before the bud has reached that stage 
of finality from which it will cease 
to develop further, avd become sterile 
or banjy. When itis decided to leave 
two mature leaves and the germinal 
leaf, it should be carefully ascertained, 
to command quality, that of the bud 
and two leaves remaining, the bud is 
not sterile, The careful examination of 
leaf plucked from an advanced flush 
will clearly show whatis here meant. 
The system known as plucking black 
where feasible ensures good leaf. 


PLUCKING. 


How frequently is the remark heard 
“What, not plucking! and you seem 
full of leaf!” and how often the reply 
comes what you saw is not due to be 
plucked till Monday or Tuesday, as the 
case may be. It cannot be too strongly 
impressed that leaf should wait for 
nothing, but should be plucked irrespec- 
tive of dates the moment it answers 
specific conditions. These are points 
beyond comment, which careful experi- 


Edible Products. 


Pe ee, 


Edible Products. 


ment and the most modernised and 
accepted systems entirely verify. Given 
fine leaf every precaution must be taken 
to prevent its heating, and the first 
danger liesin the baskets used by the 
pluckers. If the leaf cannot be brought 
in hourly, by far the best plan, it should 
be turned over every time the woman 
empties the plucking basket, a long 
narrow one holding at most two or 
three seers, into the stock basket in 
which she carries her morning’s accumu- 
lation of leaf to thefactory. Fine young 
leaf brought cool on to the factory 
should be spread at once, evenly and 
thinly ; no two leaves should be super- 
imposed and no spaces left vacant. 
The quicker the leaf can be withered 
and the lower the temperature at which 
the leaf can be kept during the process, 
the greater the resultant pungency and 
quality as regards rolling. Slight rolling 
preserves appearance ; it does not impair 
the pungency, but tends to depreciate 
relative quality in the lower grades. 


ROLLING. 


Hard rolling without separation of 
fine grades destroys the standout appear- 
ance values of high-class Orange and 
Broken Orange Pekoes, which the 
class of leaf under consideration would 
command; but improves the cup quali- 
ties, especially in the lower grades, 
giving enhanced values to the Pekoes, 
Souchongs, and Broken teas, but inas- 
much as Pekoes, Pekoe Souchongs and 
Broken teas beara very much higher 
relative proportion to the crop than 
Orange and Broken Orange Pekoes, 
Broken Pekoes not being much affected 
in the process, hard rolling should on 
a simple business basis be a distinct 
advantage. Generally it may be assumed 
then that hard rolling inasmuch as 
it improves the bulkier lower grades 
is the soundest course to follow, evading 
for the time being all side issues which, 
if necessary, can be touched upon in 
future articles. The most advantageous 
period for rolling is difficult to fix, 
but frequent rollings are better than 
one continuous roll, and the reason 
is not far to seek. In hard rolling 
the leaf heats; admittedly this heat is 
not due to anything but a very 
unavoidable friction, but nevertheless 
a rise in temperature here as else- 
where and from whatever cause impairs 
pungency ; every timea leaf leaves the 
rollers it is separated and cooled, hence 
the advantages of frequent rolling. In 
hard rolling the greater inherent pun- 
gency or strength of the fine grades is 
diffused through the whole bulk, and in 
obtaining this result a large quantity of 
the liquid ingredients of the roll are and 
must unavoidably be expressed, but it 


542 


(DecemBnR, 1908, 


is of paramount importance to see tha t 
none of this liquor is lost, and any loss 
in this direction directly affects the cup 
value of the resultant teas, 


COLOURING. 


We now turn to the colouring or 
fermentation of the roll. In this pro- 
cess aS in all others, and for the 
same reason the rolled leaf must 
be kept cool. It will colour more 
rapidly and take on a better colour 
at higher temperatures, but always at 
a sacrifice of pungeney or strength. 
The amount of colour rolled leaf may 
be allowed to take on with advantage 
varies on all gardens and can only be 
gauged by tasting the infusions, Hvery 
planter should cultivate this faculty of 
tea testing enough to judge for himself 
in the matter of how much colour he 
can give without deteriorating the pun- 
gency of the roll. Very few planters 
give this subject of tasting any careful 
attention. As it is a faculty easily 
acquired, it should commend itself to 
their notice. The colour can be pushed 
with advantage until a loss in pungency 
is appreciable, when it should, of course, . 
be stopped. Non-tasters should be guided 
by local customs and results, which are 
after all quite reliable. 


How QUALITY IS GUAGED. 


At this stage the exact definition of 
the various terms in common use by 
brokers and planters when referring to 
teas become imperative to narrow down 
as far as possible the points at issue. 
Quality is a term used in connection 
with the cup or liquor of infusion. All 
teas possess good quality cream at 
temperatures below 80° Fahr. This rapid 
creaming is a direct gauge to quality, 
and in this .connection the following 
inferences may be drawn. High-elass 
teas creaming with a pale straw-coloured 
liquor have probably been manufactured 
from good young leaf lightly rolled 
and coloured at a low temperature. 
These teas should be very pungent, and 
if attaining a good standard of briskness 
should command leading prices for 
known marks. Darker. creaming teas 
point to higher climatic temperatures 
and Souchongs and Broken teas that 
cream down cannot, when the marks 
become known as reliable, fail to com- 
mand standout prices for their grades. 
Pungency or strength (the meanings are 
similar and accretive) is a term applied 
to the bitter taste imparted to the 
palate on tasting theinfusion. A strong 
pungent liquor is one that has the 


pungency more marked than what is — 


indicated by a good pungent liquor. 


Teas with qualitynot only cream rapidly — 


Phy 


ee 


ee a a 


‘all benefit. 


DECEMBER, 1908. 548, 


in cup, but retain their pungency when 
cold; poor grades of coarse teas with 
clear liquors do not do so. 


Briskness is an attribute induced by 
firing and is similar in taste to pungency. 
It is essential to fire coarse teas in all 
vleir grades as higher temperatures than 
fine teas, so as to make their absence 
of pungenecy or natural strength less 
apparent, Coarse grades of soft or low 
fired teas cannot command attention 
from any but the lowest market values. 
High firing tends to destroy the cream 
in high-class grades, but as low-class 
teas are not expected to cream in the 
eup, this objection does not hold with 
the latter. In final firing good teas 
they should not be taken off the dryers 
until they have acquired a temperature 
of at least 180° Fahr. With low-class 
teas this temperature can be pushed 
with advantage to 200° Kahr. Good teas 
should acquire briskness slowly and care- 
fully, but at the same time thoroughly, 
which, plus the maximum of streagth, 
should enable them to command leading 
prices. In low-class teas briskness should 
be pushed to the limit of high firing. 
High firing may be suspected in dark 
malty smelling teas and can be con- 
firmed by the outturn of infused leaf 
erumbling in the hand when rubbed. 
Burnt teas have black leaves in the 
outturn. Nothing has been said about 
the appearance of the infused leaf or 
outturn in this article, as teas have no 
retail market value for this attribute. 
A bright outturn means fine leaf pluck- 
ed young; all dark uncoloured leaves 
are more matured leaf in which all 
sell. Tissues are harder and more diffi- 
cult to act upon in the rollers and 
fermenting rooms, especially at low tem- 
peratures.—Indian Planters’ Gazette. 


THE TRUTH ABOUT TEA. 


It has long been said that if two cups 
of cocoa are consumed the lavish adver- 
tisement current for that commodity 
represents the cost of the cup. Tea is 
getting into a somewhat similar position. 
If the methods of publicity employed 


were directed to the stimulation of the - 


demand for all classes of tea alike, the 
producers and the distributors would 
Tea advertisement, as at 
present mainly carried on, however, only 
stimulates the demand for common sorts, 
to the loss slike of the careful planters, 
of the distributors who take a pride in 
their business and want to sell fine 
qualities, and of the consumers, on 
whom a potent black decoction is torced. 


Edible Produets. 


All the old epithets of the ‘‘fragrant 
leaf,” the ‘‘cup that cheers,” and so on, 
may as well be dropped if the present 
state of things be continued, and some 
much more uncomplimentary epithets 
be applied to the brew that is foisted 
on the public. That persons of taste do 
not like the present style is seen by the 
undoubted revival in the demand for 
fine China tea. In the tea shops of 
London the skilled purveyors who know 
what their consumers like, now offer a= 
choice between China and other tea, 
and you order which you prefer. All 
the leading family grocers also offer 
China tea. The public do not want 
strength, blackness and bitterness, but 
fragrance, flavour and aroma. There 
are plenty of fine flavoury Indian and 


Ceylon growths prepared by the more 


skilled planters, which would be avail- 
able, if only the trade were not deterred 
from encouraging their sale, by the 
blatant pushing, as the finest grown, 
of what, from the price, can only be 
common tea. There are exceptional 
cases where a magnificent retail business 
has been built up with fine Darj eelings 
at prices up to 8s. 6d. and 4s. per pound. 
Such teas are relatively cheap at the 
money; for as tea is not a food, but a 
stimulant, itis the pleasantness of the 
drink and not its strength that ought 
to be studied. A pound of fine tea also 
makes more cups than a pound of com- 
mon does, while the difference in the 
cost on the three or four cups of tea 
drunk by an individual in the course 
of a day is almost inealeculably small. 


The following approximate estimate 
of the cost of a cup of tea at different 
retail prices is the result of actual experi- 
ment. There appear to be about 112 
teaspoonfuls in a pound of tea; one 
teaspoon is taken to yield two cups up 
to the price of ls. 8d., and 24 cups above 
that price. 


Cost OF ONE CuP OF TEA AT DIFFERENT 
RETAIL PRICES. 


Price Cost of , 
per lb. one cup 

s. d. d. 

1 4 0°071 

LG vos) | 224 cups to the lb. 
1 8 0:089 

2 0 0:085> 

2 6 0°107 

i 0 tas 280 cups to the lb 
36 0°150 


[The number of ' cups in a pound is 
taken as 224 up to Ils 8d; and at 280 above 
that price. Thecost is of course taken 
without milk and sugar.] 


Edible Products. 5 


Cost OF TWENTY CUPS OF TEA ON THE 
ABOVE BASIS. 


Price Cost of 
per lb. 20 Cups 
s. d. d. 
1 4 1°42 ) 
1G 1:60 | 224 cups to the Ib, 
1 8 178 J 
2 0 1:70 
2 z ae 280 cups to the lb, 
3 6 3°00 


Such differences in the cost of a cup of 
tea cannot be of importance to anyone 
directly they know how trivial they are. 
Tf an individual drinks three cups a day, 
it would take him about ninety days to 
consume one pound, and therefore 
nearly three months to spend the extra 
cost cf 8d. for 2s. as compared with Is. 4d. 
tea. For an average family of five 
persons, it would cost less than a pound 
a year to drink the better tea. ‘his is 
on the assumption that children drink 
as much tea as adults, which is, of course, 
not the case. That poverty is not a bar 
to the use of fine tea is to be seen in the 
West of Ireland where everyone is 
struck by the magnificent quality of the 
tea sold. In the relatively better off 
districts in Ireland also, very much 
better tea is consumed than in similar 
parts of England and Scotland. The 
table above shows that the Irish are 
better informed than we are. 


At one time we were told in every 
paper and on every hoarding that Is. 9d. 
was the price of the finest tea. Now 
we are informed that ls. 4d. is the 
outside limit for tea, and on a similar 
foundation, or rather want of founda- 
tion, there is no reason why ls. should 
not be called the finest tea. To those 
acquainted with the trade such state- 
ments can hardly be characterised 
politely, as they are so entirely in- 
accurate. We have taken one absolute 
proof quite at a hazard, namely, the 
bonded prices fetched at the Indian 
public sales. As everyone who attends 
the sales knows there are constant sales 
of fine parcels at 2s., 2s. 6d., or even 
3s. 6d. per pound in bond, and in the 
particulars below it will be seen that 
as much as 4s. 4d. was fetched. 


The statement that the finest tea can 
be retailed at the advertised prices is 
in fact grotesquely opposed to the facts. 
Nevertheless, it does an infinity of harm, 
It degrades the trade by exalting com- 
monress and putting down quality. 
It prevents any pride being taken in 
his trade by the distributor, and renders 
the sale of fine tea very difficult, either 
for wholesale or retail dealers. Of 


44 


"2 


[DECEMBER, 1908. 


course in a similar way the _ skilled 
planter on good soil in India and 
Ceylon, who picks and cures carefully, 
reaps no adequate reward for his labour, 
as alltea more and more approximates 
to one price, and it becomes easier in 
the long run to go in for quantity and 
to pay no attention to quality. 


Is the tea trade to continue to take 
its debasement and degradation lying 
down, or will it at length take action? 
The only method to cure the evil is 
by counter-advertisement, and this must 
bea joint or combined effort, because 
the individual retailer cannot afford to 
compete in mammoth expenditure. No 
trade he could possibly do would repay 
the cost. It follows, therefore, that if 
a counterblast is to be issued it should 
bea joint one and directed simply to 
the point that fairly good tea cannot 
be bought under Is. 6d. per lb. retail, fine 
tea under 2s. or 2s. 6d., and the finest 
under 3s. or 3s. 6d. In such a scheme of 
general advertisement the Indian and 
Ceylon growers might well play a pro- 
minent part with their teas. What is 
the use of spending large sums on the 
development of foreign markets, when 
the main market, the home one, which 
is already fully developed, is being 
vitally injured every day, from the 
producer’s point of view? Unless some 
scheme of joint counter-advertisement 
can be started, in order to bring the 
truth about tea before the public, the 
state of the trade must continue to 
steadily deteriorate.—Produce Markets 
Review. 


SWEET POTATOES, 


INTRODUCTION. 


With the passing of each year the 
sweet potato is becoming of greater im- 
portance as a commercial truck crop in 
the United States. Duringa long period 
it has formed one of the _ principal 
sources of food forthe people of the 
Southern States and ot Tropical America. 
Asa commercial truck crop the sweet 
potato would be included among _ the 
five of greatest importance, ranking 
perhaps about third in the list. Asa 
food for the great mass of the people 
living in the warmer portions of our 
country the use of this crop is exceeded 
by hominy and rice only. In many of 
the islands of the Pacific, especially in 
the Philippines, the sweet potato is 
the principal vegetable food for large 
numbers of the lower classes, at certain 
eT being almost the only food avail- 
able. 


ee ee ee 


et 


PROP OR st i, WA 


DECEMBER, 1908.] 


The sweet potato industry in this 
country is readily divided into two 
classes of production: (1) For home use; 
and (2), for market. A quantity suffi- 
cient for home use can be grown under 
awide range of conditions, while pro- 
duction on a commercial scale is some- 
what restricted by climate and soil and 
also by market and_ transportation 
facilities. The larger eastern markets 
are now well supplied, but there are 
sections where the people have notas 
yet become accustomed to the use of 
sweet potatoes in large quantities. The 
field for the production and use of 
sweet potatoes is very broad, and this 
crop promises to become of more general 
farm importance. 


In view otf the constantly increasing 
interest in sweet potatoes, it is the 
purpose of this. bulletin to give simple 
cultural directions covering their pro- 
duction both for home use and for 
market, including the soil and its 
preparation, the propagation of the 
plants, planting, harvesting, storing, and 
marketing, together with the uses of 
sweet potatoes for stock feeding and 
for similar purposes. 


The sweet potato is of a tropical 
nature, its original home probably being 
the West Indies and Central America. 
The true sweet potato, as we have it 
growing in the United States, belongs 
to the morning-glory family, its botanical 
name being Jpomeea batatas. Through- 
out the Southern States the sweet pota- 
toes having moist flesh are commonly 
known as ‘‘yams,” and those having 
dry flesh as sweet potatoes. The name 
‘“‘“vyam” is misleading, and properly be- 
longs toa distinct class of plants that 
are confined almost entirely to the 
Tropics. 


CLIMATIC CONDITIONS REQUIRED. 


The climatic requirements for the pro- 
duction of sweet potatoes on a com- 
mercial scale are (1) a growing period of 
at least four and a half months without 
frost; (2), warm nights and abundant 
sunshine during the day; and (3), a 
moderate rainfall during the growing 
period. 


Where irrigation is depended upon 
for the supply of moisture, the greatest 
quantitly of water should be applied 
between the time the plants are set in 
the field and the time when the vines 
practically cover the ground. If too 
much water is applied during the latter 
part of the season the result may be an 
abundant growth of vine and a small 
yield of stringy potatoes. For some- 
time before harvesting the crop the 
water should be withheld altogether, in 
order that the rootsmay ripen properly. 


69 


545 


Hdable Products. 


CHARACTER OF SOIL ADAPTED TO 
SWEET POTATORS. 


Sweet potatoes thrive on a moderately 
fertile sandy loam which does not con- 
tain an excess of organic matter. They 
are frequently grown upon almost pure 
sand, especially where the sub-soil is a 
yellow clay. Soils containing consider- 
able calcium or underlain with lime- 
stone are well adapted to the growing 
of the crop. The sweet potato is excep- 
tional in that a fairly good crop can be 
grown upon soils that are too poor for 
the production of the majority of farm 
crops. Sweet potatoes yield a fair crop 
on the ‘‘ wornout” tobacco and cotton 
lands of the South, especially when used 
in a rotation including some leguminous 
crop for increasing the humus in the 
soil. Like many other crops, the sweet 
potato thrives on newly-cleared land, 
but the crop should not be planted con- 
tinuously in the same place. With the 
sweet potato, as with other crops, rota- 
tion is the keynote of success. 


Good drainage is essential, the original 
idea of planting upon high ridges being 
for the purpose of securing better drain- 
age. The surface soil should extend toa 
depth of 6 or 8 inches, and the subsoil 
should be of such a nature that it will 
carry off excessive moisture without 
leaching away the fertilizers applied to 
the land. Too great a depth of loose 
surface soil or an alluvial soil having no 
subsoil will produce long, irregular 
potatoes that are undesirable for market- 
ing. Planting upon land having a loose, 
sandy surface soil underlain by a well- 
drained clay subsoil will tend to produce 
the type of rather thick, spindle-formed 
potato that commands the highest price. 
The depth of ploughing is a prominent 
factor in the preparation of land for 
sweet potatoes, and on soils of too great 
depth before the subsoil is reached very 
shallow ploughing should be practised, 
leaving the soil tirm beneath, against 
which the roots must force their way. 
If the surface soil is of insufficient depth, 
it should be gradually increased by 
ploughing a little deeper each year or by 
subsoiling in the furrow behind the 
regular turning plough. 


FERTILIZERS FOR SWEET POTATOES. 


As already noted, the sweet potato 
will thrive on soils that are only moder- 
ately fertile. The root portion of the 
plant is the part having the greatest 
value, though the foliage and vines have 
some value as foods for certain kinds of 
stock. It has been found that an ex- 
cessive amount of organic matter in the 
soil will frequently produce an abundant 

growth of vines at the expense of the 
roots. It hasalso been noted that the 


Te’ Cae, Dee 


Edible Products. 546 [DecEMBER, 1908. 


potatoes will be small and the yield 
unsatisfactory on soils that do not 
contain sufficient organic matter to 
produce a fair growth of vine. 


USE OF STABLE MANURE. 


The use of stable manure as a fertilizer 
for sweet potatoes is recommended on 
lands that are deficient in organic 
matter. Heavy applications of fresh 
manure to sweet potatoes shortly be- 
fore planting the land will stimulate not 
only the growth of weeds but also of 
the vines at the expense of the roots. 
Well-rotted stable manure may be used 
at the rate of 10 to 15 cart-loads to 
the acre, spread broadcast or beneath 
the ridges and harrowed into the soil, 
but it is always well to apply the 
manure with the crop grown the pre- 
vious season. By this method the man- 
ure will become thoroughly incorporated 
with the soil and become somewhat 
reduced before the sweet potatoes are 
planted upon the land. 


Stable manure will be found most 
beneficial on worn-out soils, but on the 
more fertile soils its use should be 
restricted and the method of application 
carefully studied. In some sections 
where the organic matter in the soil is 
insufficient all kinds of vegetable mat- 
ter, including manure, pine needles, 
corn fodder, straw, and stubble are 
turned into the land to bring up the 
fertility. The sweet potatoe vines will 
go alittle way toward keeping up the 
organic matter in the soil, but have a 
souring tendency and should be ac- 
companied with a moderate application 
of lime or plaster. 


Leguminous plants grown as cover 
crops or in the rotation will serve to 
keep up theorganic matter in the soil 
the same as stable manure. Sweet 
potatoe growers are coming to realize 
the value of crimson clover for use in 
the rotation in which sweet potatoes 
are grown. If the land is planted to 
corn, crimson clover may be sown in 
the alleys at the same time the corn 
receives its final cultivation. This will 
provide a covering for the land during the 
winter, and as the crimson clover starts 
into growth quite early in the springa 
heavy crop is produced by the time it is 
necessary to plough theland for sweet 
potatoes. ,In order to secure the best 
results the crimson clover should be 
turned under not later than the ap- 
pearance of the first blooms; if allowed 
toremain longer the stems become 
tough and do not decay quickly enough 
to be of benefit to the sweet potato crop 
which follows, 


USE OF COMMERCIAL FERTILIZERS. 


The sweet potatoe is one of the few 
of our crops that thrive equally as well 
(or better) upon commercial fertilizers 
as upon stable manure. A fertilizer for 
use in the majority of sweet potato 
lands should contain 3 to 6 per cent. of 
nitrogen, 6 or 7 per cent. of phosphoric 
acid, and 8 to10 percent. of potash. 
Every grower should make a study of 
the requirements of this soil and apply 
the fertilizer that will give the best 
results. Many growers purchase the 
ingredients and mix their own special 
fertilizers, or use a standard fertilizer 
as a base and increase the percentage 
of certain elements by adding high- 
grade elementary ingredients. Some 
soils require that certain elements 
should be ina more available form than 
others; in the case of nitrogen it is 
often desirable to have a portion of that 
contained in the fertilizer quickly avail- 
able and the remainder more slowly 
in order to feed the plants throughout 
the season. 


A mixture adapted to the growing of 
sweet potatoes on most soils may be 
made by combining the following :— 


200 pounds of high-grade sulphate 
of ammonia, 25 per cent. pure. 


200 pounds of dried blood, or 800 
pounds of fish scrap. 


1,200 pounds of acid phosphate, 11 
per cent pure. 


400 pounds of high-grade muriate 
of potash, 50 per cent. pure. 


This mixture contains approximately 
4-25 per cent. of nitrogen, 6°6 per cent. of 
phosphroic acid, and 10 per cent. of 
potash. Nitrogen in two forms is pre- 
sent, the dried blood being quickly avail- 
able and the sulphate of ammonia more 
slowly, becoming available later in the 
season when ,jthe potatoes are forming. 


Experience has demonstrated the ne- 
cessity of having an abundance of 
potash in the fertilizers used for sweet 
potatoes. In experiments with fertili- 
zers for this crop an increased yield of 
from 40 to 60 per cent. has been noted 
on plots where a liberal application of 
potash had been made in comparison 
with plots to which no fertilizer was 
applied. In most cases the highest 
yield is secured where a complete, or 
balanced, fertilizer is used. 


QUANTITY AND TIME OF APPLYING 
COMMERCIAL FERTILIZERS. 


The quantity of fertilizer that may be 
profitably applied willbe governed en- 
tirely by local conditions. Many growers. 


wld 


a 


—— 


ere en ee 


<r 


* DECEMBER, 1908.) 


do not depend upon commercial fertili- 
zers, but merely apply from 200 to 300 
pounds to each acre asa supplement to 
the organic matter and natural fertility 
of the soil. Others apply from 300 to 1,000 
pounds according tothe condition of 
the soil, while afew growers use a ton 
to the acre. The general rule is to 
apply the fertilizer in the row where 
the crop is to be grown, but where large 


- quantities are used it should be distri- 


buted at least ten days before planting 
and thoroughly incorporated with the 
soil. An application of 1,000 pounds of 
high-grade fertilizer placed in the row 
at planting time has been known to 
injure seriously or killthe plants. Hand 
and one-horse distributors, which merely 
sow the fertilizer in the row, are in use. 
Others are designed to scatter the ferti- 
lizer and work it into the soil, and 
tools that mark the land, sow the 
fertlizer, and throw up the ridges at 
one operation can be obtained. For the 
best results the fertilizer should be 
applied at least ten days before planting, 
or a portion of the fertilizer may be 
applied a month or more in advance and 
the remainder at the time of preparing 
the land for planting. 


UsE oF HARDWOOD ASHES AS A 
FERTILIZER. 


Hardwood ashes are desirable for use 
on sweet potato land and may be applied 
at the rate of from 1,200 to 2,000 pounds 
to the acre. The value of wood ashes 
depends upon how much they have 
become leached, but hardwood ashes 
should contain from 6to 8 per cent. 
of available potash. Wood ashes also 
contain considerable lime. 


Use oF LIME ON SwEET PoTaTo LAND. 


Where large quantities of any green 
crop are ploughed into the soil there is a 
tendency to sourness, and occasional 
applications of from 1 to2 tons of lime 
to the acre are beneficial. The presence 
of an abundance of lime in soils devoted 
to the growing of sweet potatoes hastens 
the maturity of the crop and increases 
the yield. Onpoor soils the lime and 
potash work together to produce pota- 
toes of uniform size and shape, but on 
rich or alluvial soils the tendency is 
toward the production of over-large and 
irregular roots. The lime should be 
applied the previous season, or at least 
the autumn before planting the land to 
sweet potatoes. 


PROPAGATION OF PLANTS. 
The more common varieties of the 


sweet potato have for a great many 


years been propagated by cuttings, or 
sets, taken either from the potatoes 
themselves or from growing vines, and 


_grow the plants. 


547  Fidible Products, 


as aresult the plants have ceased to 
flower and produce seed. The greater 
portion of the commercial crop is grown 
from sets, or ‘‘draws,” produced by 
sprouting medium-sized potatoes in a 
warm bed of soil. In the Southern 
States the seed potatoes are frequently 
cut into pieces in the same manner as 
Irish potatoes and planted in the row 
where they are to mature. Where 
several plants appear in one hill they are 
thinned, and those removed are used 
for planting other land. In the South 
Atlantic and Gulf Coast States the 
sweet potato is frequently propagated by 
making vine cuttings, A comparatively 
small bed of seed potatoes is planted 
quite early, and the sets so produced 
are usedto plant a small patch from 
which vine cuttings are taken later by 
the cartload tor planting large fields. 
In the southern parts of Florida and 


’ Texas and on the South Sea Islands the 


potatoes may remain in the soil from 
year to year, being dug only as required 
for use, those remaining over produ- 
cing the sets for the following season’s 
planting. 


Where only a smali area of sweet 
potatoes is to be grown for home use, the 
necessary plants.can generally be secured 
from some one who makes a business 
of growing them. If an acre or more is 
to be planted it will in most cases be 
more economical to prepare a bed and 
The method of start- 
ing the plants will depend upon the 
locality and the acreage to be planted, 
the essentials being a bed of warm earth 
and a covering to protect the young 
plants during the early springtime. 


SELECTION OF SEED. 


The care of the seed potatoes during 
the winter is discussed later under the 
head of storage of sweet potatoes. 


The potatoes that are to serve as seed 
from which to grow the plants for the 
next season’s crop should always be 
selected at the time of digging and 
housing the crop. For seed purposes it 
is the custom to select the medium or 
under-sized potatoes, such as are too 
small for marketing. Those potatoes 
that will pass through a 2-inch ring or 
ean be circled by the thumb and first 
finger of a man having a hand of 
average size are used for seed purposes, 


The seed potatoes should be uniform 
in size and of the shape desired in the 
following year’s crop. The seed should 
be free from cuts, bruises, decay, or 
disease of any kind. Throughout the 
handling of the seed potatoes they 
should not receive any treatment that 


Edible Products. 


would break eggs. The seed should 
always be handled and kept separate 
from the regular crop. 


The oftener the seed is handled the 
greater the danger of decay, and it 
should not be sorted over until every- 
thing is ready for bedding. 


The best seed is grown from cuttings 
taken from the regular plants after 
they have begun to form vines. These 
cuttings produce large numbers of 
medium or small-sized potatoes that are 
free from diseasesand adapted for use 
as seed the following year.— U. S. Depart- 
neato Agriculture, Farmers’ Bulletin, 

o. d/4. 


(To be continued.) 


RICE. 

The importance of rice, whether con- 
sidered as an article of export or the 
principal food of the bulk of the popu- 
lation, cannot be denied. The total 
amount of rice exported annually is 
worth 18 or 19 crores of rupees, which is 
about one-tenth of the total output of 
this cereal in India. Even this euormous 
output, gigantic as itis, is capable of 
considerable expansion. I[t is hardly 
possible to discuss within the space of an 
article the many directions in which 
improvement is possible. We shall 
simply, therefore, try to indicate gener- 
ally some possibilities of this great agri- 
cultural industry ot India. 


It is scarcely necessary to point out 
that, if improved agricultural methods 
can increase the output of this grain in 
India by five or ten per cent., the effect 
will be considerable. For, assuming that 
the export trade of rice consists of the 
surplus produce, it will bring in about 
18 or 19 crores of rupees more into the 
pockets of the ryots every year. If, on 
the other hand, the increased output is 
consumed within the country, the prices 
of food stuffs will be lowered appreci- 
ably, bringing relief to millions of 
people. 


The success or failure of crops depend’ 
to a great extent, on the manure used: 
and rice is not an exception to this rule: 
Careful experiments carried out in 
America have shown that, whereas the 
yield per acre on unmanured lands was 
about 9U0 lbs., i6 was doubled with the 
aid of potash, acid phosphate and cotton 
seed meal manures. On lands where 
the last two manures only were used, 
the output was 1,320 lb. Butthe use of 
suitable manures not only increases the 
output, but also makes the grain heavier 
and hence more valuable. It has been 


548 


(DECEMBER, 1908. ~ 


found that the product of well-manured 
fields is heavier by about4 lb. more to the 
bushel than the ordinary product, 


It is hardly possible to understand 
properly the subject of rice fertilization 
without knowing the chemical composi- 
tion of this grain. Itis also essential to 
keep this in mind before employing 
manures or taking any steps to prevent 
soil exhaustion. One thousand pounds 
of rice contain about 12 1b. of nitrogen, 
about 16 lb. of potash, and 3°'2 lb. of 
phosphoric acid. Besides this, the same 
weight of rice straw contains about 7‘5 
lb. of nitrogen, £25 lb. of potash, and 
2°5 1b. of phosphoric acid. From this 
basis we can calculate what the total 
yield per acre of rice and straw would 
remove the soil foods in theform of 
nitrogen, etc. Hence the necessary 
quantity of manures could be estimated 
scientifically, provided we also take into 
consideration the use made of the straw. 
If the straw is usedas a food for the 
cattle on the farm and returned to the 
soil in the form of farmyard manure, 
a correspondingly lesser quantity of 
chemical manures would be required. 


The second point to be considered is 
the proportion of straw to the rice. 
Careful observations have shown that 
the amount for every 100 lb. of rice 
varies from 150 to 2301b. This, of course, 
depends on the height at which it is cut. 
Tne disadvantage of having a large 
proportion of straw is, that it exhausts 
the soil withuut paying a sufficient 
return to the cultivator. It has also 
been found possible tolower the pro- 
portion of husk to the grain with the 
help of scientific methods and improved 
machines. Statistics indicate that in 
America, during milling, about 1 lb. of 
husk is removed from 5 lb. of paddy, 
whereas in India the corresponding 
figures are about 2 lb. out of 6 lb. 


The considerations mentioned above 
are merely general and do not involve 
any highly scientific training in agri- 
culture. Kut the crude methods of our 
cultivators, in spite of the fact that this 
industry is being carried on in this 
country from immemorial ages, are 
capable of considerable improvement. 
An elementary knowledge of scientific 
agriculture, if it becomes general in 
India, will soon be followed by wonder- 
ful results. 


So far we have discussed this question 
simply from the point of view of the 
cultivator. Butrice also bulks largely 
in our foreign exports. In 1904-5 about 
forty-nine and a half million hundred- 
weights of rice were exported, bringing 
in about nineteen anda half crores .of 


‘ 


DECEMBER, 1908, 549 


rupees. In 1906-07 about 39 millions 
of hundredweights were exported— 
bringing in about 18°5 crores of rupees. 
These figures and similar figures of the 
current year, when the prices are high, 
go to show that the prices of Indian 
rice in the foreign market varies from 
about 1 shilling 9 pence per bushel to 
4 shillings. On the other hand, the 
price of American rice fluctuates be- 
tween 2s. 6d. to 4s. 10d. per bushel. Hence 
attempts should also be made to obtain 
a better price for our product in the 
foreign markets. This can only be dune 
by suiting our articles to these markets. 
Itis said thatthe last process to which 
American rice is subjected before placing 
on the market consists in polishing. 
This gives the grain akind of pearly 
lustre and increases its value in the eye 
of the purchaser, This process is very 
simple and consists of covering the 
grain with a thin coating of paraffia 
acd passing soft pieces of skin over 
them. 


Another. thing to which attention 
should be paid is the improvement in the 
quality of the grain. It is well-known 
that rice varies in quality and _ price 
enormously, A bushel of ordinary rice 
may be worth about one rupee, whereas 
the same quantity of superior rice would 
fetch nearly five rupees. Cultivators 


Edible Products, 


generally prefer to grow the inferior 
sort of the grain, because they largely 
gvow it for personal consumption ‘rather 
than as anarticle of merchandise. | Be- 
sides this, the initial cost of growing 
rice and the difficulty of finding a mar- 
ket for it acts as a discouragement. 
Tie extension of the railwayj,system 
aud the development of the foreign trade 
of the ordiuary country will remove the 
latter difficulty, whereas the former can 
only be met with by mercantile farming. 
Uniess capitalists turn their attention 
to scientific farming on a large scale, 
any cousiderable improvements in the 
agricultucal industries of this country 
can bardly be hoped for. 


Lastly, great beneficial results may 
follow if the recent experiments of Mr. 
Smith, the Deputy Director of Agricul- 
ture, Bengal, prove practicallyj:success- 


‘fal. His experiments indicate that it 


is quite possible to grow a crop of ;paddy 
in rotation with jute in the ‘same year. 
If this is practicable without the risk 
of rapid soil exhaustion, the output of 
this grain can be increased inthis coun- 
try enormously, and thusincrease the 
income of the cultivator, as well as 
benefit the consumer, by lowering high 
prices of this necessary product.—Indo- 
Huropean Commercial Intelligence and 
Trade Register. 


THE SOEKABOEMISCHE LANDBOUW VEREENIGING, JAVA. 


Offers the following Prizes for Papers on Tea Cultivation in Java. 


A prize of 100 florins for I 
(Hen prijs f. 100,—voor I 
A prize of 150 florins for II 
(Ken prijs van f. 150,—voor II 
A prize of 150 florins for III 
(Ken prijs van f.150—voor III 
A prize of 100 florins for IV 


Coolies: levying and use of working torce. 
Werkvolk: aanwerven en benutten werkkrachten), 


Choice of seed, collection of seed and nursery. 
Zaadikeuze, zaadlinning en kweekeri)). 


Treatment of young plants (?) 
Ontginning en aanleg plantsoenen). 


Maintenance of the plantation (?), weeding and 


tillage of the grourd. 


(Ken prijs van f.100—voor IV 


Onderhoud van den aanvlant: wieden en grond- 


bewerking). 


A prize of 150 florins for Mi 
(Een prijs van f. 150—voor Vv 
A prize of 200 florins for VI 
(Een prijs van tf. 200—voor VI 


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(Ken prijs van tf. 200—voor VII 
A prize of 200 florins for VILILI 


(Ken prijs van f, 200—voor VIII 
A prize of 100 florins for 1D.¢ 


Manuring : cattle, artificial and green manures, 
Bemsting: stal-, kunstmest en groebemesting). 


Diseases and pests and their treatment. 

4ietea en plagen, en hare bestrijding). 

Pruning and plucking. 

Snoei en pluk),. 

Preparation of the products. 

Bereiding van het product). 

Working up of the product: sorting, packing and 


despatch, 


(Een prijs van f.100—voor IX 


Afwerking van het product: sorteering, afpak 


en verzending naar de afscheephave, 


Edible Products. 550 


A prize of:200 florius for x 


(Oucmamenl 1908. 


Factory. buildings: space of arrangement and 
machinery for preparation of the product. 
Fabrieksgebouwen: plaats, in richting en machi- 


(Ken prijs van f. 200—voor x i 
nerien voor de bereiding van het product.) 


A prize of 150 florinsfor XI Power: water, steam, petroleum, gas, electricity. 

(Ken prijs van f 150—voor XI Drijkracht: water-, stoom-, neerolenen of pan, 
, electriciteit.) 

A prize of 100 florins for XII Management and bookkeeping, control of factory: 

(Een prijs van f 100--voor XII  Beheer en boekhouding, met fabreiks contrdle.) 

A prize of 100 florins for XIII Trade. 

(Een prijs van f100—voor XIII Handel.) 

A prize of 100 florins for XIV__Historical review of the cultivation. 

(Een prijs van f 100—voor XIV  Geschiedkundig overzicht van de thee cultuur. 


Answers must take account of soil, elevation, slope, etc., and must serve 
to put together a practical handbook of tea culture. They must be written in 
Dutch, and sent to the Secretary, Soekaboemi, before the end of December, 
1909. They must be headed by a motto, and the motto and author’s name, 
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ie u J.C. W. 


THE CULTIVATION AND MARKET- = pre United States of America and 
ING OF MAIZE. the Argentine Republic are the largest 


(Bulletin of the Imperial Institute.) contributors to these imports, British 


3 Possessions rarely sending as much as 
Among the food-grains of the world ten per cent. of tine totale There thus 
mazie or Indian corn holds by no’means seems to be an opening for the develop- 
an unimportant place ;thusin the United ment of a much larger trade in maize 
States of America it occupies the lead- from those colonies where the climate 
ane, eeen aa ae culture: vous as is suitable for its growth; and the 
gards under cultivation an i . icle i i 
RHeeaount produood: tndon7 Ghelaron object of the present article is to direct 


under maize was just under 100 million atten eu bolithis ar le ig he teen 
‘ r iall j t ‘ecau- 
acres; whilst that under wheat, the and especially to point oul hile miae eas 


tions that should be taken in order that 
next crop as regards acreage, was only 


cr 1 it may reach its destination without 
45 million acres. The total production having undergone deterioration and 
in that country was 2,592 million bushels, ¢onsequent loss of market value. 
or, taking the U.S. A. bushel of mazie 
as 56 lb., just under 65 million tons, 
Next after the United States, as a maize- 
producing country, comes the Argentine 
Republic, and then comes Hungary. 


SS ———— 


The following table shows the sources 
and amounts of the imports during the 
three years 1905-7 :— 


IMPORTS OF MAIZE INTO THE UNITED 


In the United Kingdom acomparatively KINGDOM. 
small quantity of maize products is used ; 
as human food, yet the amount of maize 1905. 1906. 1907, 
imported for feeding pcultry and farm Origin, Tons, ‘Teng? /sy Misuse: 
live stock and for making spirits is quite 15.14 states of America 944,010 943,960 748,006 
cor table: and in 1906 it averaged 125  Atgentine Republic ... 947,730 1,226,210 884,410 
ibe se ite Nae rele lati 8 Other Foreign Countries 23,712 149,990 889,340 
- per head of the population. British Bast Indies ... 45,885 1,190 1,655 
IMPORTS OF MAIZE INTO THE UNITED Canada .. ... 137,040 106,110 117,930 
KINGDOM. Other British Possessions 6,683 7,500 27,457 
Quantity in Value in — TT 
Year. Tons. &, Total .- 2,105,060 2,434,260 2,668,997 
1898 eno eng As regards the extent to which maize 
1899 2707-78 ee 9 is cultivated in different British posses- 
1900 2.568 635 12 7, 39 sions, the statistics from different 
1901 3524649 mS localities vary much in respect to com- 
1902 2.504.966 Toe ol 3 pleteness and uniformity ; but the follow- 
19038 2 144.894 iaoga ae ing table gives some indication of the 
1904 SARE 06D ioe re area devoted to its growth and the 
1905 saat 034,7 production obtained. 
1906 we 244,260 11,972,694 ‘ 
1907 aes 2,668,997 14,604,504 (To be continued.) 


DECEMBER, 1908.) 


551 


TIMBER. 


AFFORESTATION OF WASTE 
LANDS. 


The direct relationship between rain- 
fall and famine is hardly less conclu- 
sively established than that between 
forests and rainfall; nevertheless the 
supreme importance to India of the work 
of the Forest Department still fails of 
due recognition. In an interesting and 
thoughtful article in the Nineteenth 
Century Mr. J. Nisbet, some time Con- 
servator of Forests in Burma, points the 
moral. He declines toadmit that famine 
is inevitable, or to regard local direct 
treatment, however well designed, as 
other than a temporary palliative. The 
areas of recurrent scarcity must ever 
widen, he says, unless far more is done 
than has ever yet been attempted to 
afforest all waste lands and the poorest 
classes of agricultural soil, and to plant 
and manage them solely for the benefit 
of the surrounding agricultural popula- 
tion and their plough cattle. His doc- 
trine is not new. So long ago as 1847 the 
Court of Directors asked the Govern- 
ment of India to ascertain the effect of 
trees on the climate and productiveness 
of a country and the results of extensive 
clearances of timber, but nothing 
followed save the publication of three 
Reports from Madras Collectorates. A 
year earlier Dr. Gibson, then Con- 
servator of Forests in Bombay, had 
pointed out the serious effects that were 
already ensuing from the extensive 
clearances of woodlands which had been 
effected during the preceding fifty years. 
This unrestrained reduction of timber, 
he said, had diminished the fertility of 
all the surrounding tracts, and he pro- 
phesied that if the clearances continued 
they must inevitably increase the mean 
annual temperature and the aridity of 
the climate. In support of this, Dr. 
Gibson showed that since the disappear- 
ance of forest from the South Konkan 
the people complained that the springs 
had dried on the uplands, that the cli- 
mate had become drier, the seasons more 
uncertain, and the land less fertile. The 
Reports from the Madras Collectorates 
already referred to yielded further 
evidence of the drying-up of springs 
after forest clearance. They also estab- 
lished its injurious effects on climate 


and soil fertility, quoting the assertions 
of cultivators in Trichinopoly that 
where the forests had been cleared the 
heat and wind were much increased,— 
Indian Agriculturist, October 1, 1908. 


THE SAPODILLA TREE. 

The Sapodilla tree (Achras_ sapota) 
is called the naseberry in Jamaica, and 
is a native of Mexico and other parts of 
Central America, where itis known as 
the ‘ Zapote Chico,’ and is much valued 
on account of its different products. 


The tree grows from 25 to 30 feet in 
height. It is very plentiful in some 
districts of Mexico, and its wood gives a 
most valuable timber. The wood of the 
Sapodilla tree is of a clear, deep, reddish- 
brown colour, very hard, but fairly easy 
to work until thoroughly seasoned, 
when only the finest edged tools have 
any effect on its surface. The grain is 
of such density that the wood sinks 
when placed in water. The British 
Consul at Vera Cruz mentions that door 
frames and other interior work in 
houses, known to be over a century 
old, made from the wood of the ‘ Zapote,’ 
are as_ good to-day as when first placed 
in position. 


Experiments in the use of the timber 
in port construction, for forming sup- 
ports under sea-water, show that it is 
extremely valuable for this purpose, 
since, notwithstanding the influence of 
the water and the mud, the timber 
appears practically indestructible. In 
Central America, the milky juice 
yielded by the tree on tapping the bark, 
is evaporated, and forms the chicle gum 
of commerce, The business of produc- 
ing this chicle has become a large and 
prosperous onein Mexico, the amount 
exported in the past year being over 
2,200 tons, valued at more than $2,000,000 
(Mexican currency). There is also an 
increasing output of chicle from British 
Honduras, This product is chiefly 
shipped to the United States, where it is 
used as the basis of chewing gum. 


The sapodilla fruit is said to be much 
appreciated in America, and it stands 
shipment well. The trees are readily 
propagated by budding.—Agricultural 
News, Vol. VII., No. 165, August, 1908, 


552 


[DECEMBER, 1908. 


FLANT SANITATION. 


LEAD ARSENATE AS AN 
INSECTICIDE. 


During the present cotton-growing 
season lead arsenate will be tried on 
several estates in Barbados as an in- 
secticide in combating the cotton worm. 
For the past five years Paris green has 
been the standard material for this 
purpose, and all other insecticides have 
been compared with it, in judging their 
value. It has been almost universally 
applied inadry condition, mixed with 
air-slaked lime inthe proportion of 1 lb. 
to6lb. of lime, although many other 
proportions have been tried. 


Paris green has been used with good 
results in the fight ayainst the cotton 
worm, but there are certain disadvan- 
tages connected with the use of this 
material. Itis in the hope of getting 
an equally effective. insecticide, and at 
the same time of doing away with some 
of the disadvantages attendant on the 
employment of Paris green, that lead 
arsenate is being tried this year. The 
hope that this insecticide will prove 
satisfactory for the purpose is streng- 
thened by the results of rather extensive 
trials carried out on one estate at 
Barbados last season. 


The advantages attending the use of 
Paris green are that itis quick inits 
action, easy of application, and cheap in 
cost. It may be applied in a dry form 
to the cotton plant by means of very 
simple apparatus. The disadvantages 
connected with the use of this material 
are, that when applied asa dust, itis 
easily washed off by showers of rain; 
that when large amounts are used, it 
often burns or scorches the leaves of 
the cotton plant, and that it sometimes 
has an irritating effect on the skin of 
the labourers, which frequently makes 
them unwilling to do the work of 
dusting. This is aserious matter when 
the attacks of the cotton worm are so 
severe that it is necessary to apply Paris 
green immediately. Much may be done 
to obviate this last difficulty by care on 
the part of the overseers to ensure that 
the labourers keep a distance of several 
rows from each other in the field, and 
on the part of the labourers themselves 
to keep as much as possible to windward 
of the poison they are applying. 


_ Lead arsenate was first used as an 
insecticide by the Gypsy Moth Com- 
mittee in Massachusetts. It had been 


as a spray at ordinary strength (1 lb. to 
100 gallons of water), the gypsy moth 
caterpillars were not killed, and when 
the strength of the mixture was in- 
creased, the foliage of the tree was 
injured. Lead arsenate completely re- 
placed Paris green in this work as soon 
as it was found that when the arsenate 
was used at ordinary strength the 
caterpillars were killed, and that what- 
ever the strength at which it was 
applied, it did not injure the foliage on 
which it was sprayed. 


There are several advantages to be 
expected from the use of lead arsenate 
in combating the cotton worm. The 
fact that, as already stated, this sub- 
stance does not injure the foliage of 
plants is of considerable importance. 
Lead arsenate also has a very great 
power of adhesion to the leaves of plants, 
and thisis one ot the greatest induce- 
ments to its use. It will be found that 
after the lapse of two or three hours of 
sunshine from the time of application 
only a very little of the arsenate would 
be washed from the leaves by a really 
heavy shower. 


On the other hand, there are certain 
features that are likely to seem disadvan- 
tageous when considered from the point 
of view of the planter. In the first 
place, lead arsenate, up tothe present 
time, has been sold only in the form of 
a heavy paste, and can be applied only 
asa spray. This necessitates the pur- 
chase of machines, in place of the bags 
and tin dusters, which have been used 
for the application of dry Paris green. 
Secondly, lead arsenate is much slower 
in action than Paris green. This is 
likely to bea disadvantage which will 
be severely felt unless a very sharp 
look-out is kept for the first appearance 
of the cotton worm. In past seasons it 
has happened frequently that the cotton 
worm has not been noticed until many 
of the caterpillars were full-grown. In 
such a case, aS every cotton grower 
well knows, it is very difficult to prevent 
damage to plants even by the most 
prompt application of Paris green. 


It will probably be found best to 
spray at regular intervals to ensure that 
a sufficient amount of poison is always 
on the plant, and especially to ensure 
that the young leaves are protected as 
they develope. 


The form of spiayer most in favour 


with the cotton planters of Barbados is 


found _that when Paris green was used the‘ Auto-Spray,’ which is a compressed 


DECEMBER, 1908. | 


air sprayer. Thatis, the air is pumped 
into the tank until sufficient pressure is 
obtained, and the spray mixture is 
forced through the nozzle until the air 
pressure is entirely reduced. By careful 
trial, the amount of spray material in 
the cylinder and the amount of pressure 
may be so adjusted, that one pumping 
will serve to force out all the spray 
mixture. 


In this connection, another disadvan- 
tage in the use of lead arsenate is likely 
to be noticed. This material is very 
heavy, anda considerable amount of 
agitation is necessary to prevent the 
poison from settling to the bottom of 
the sprayer and thus producing an 
unequal distribution. Whether it will 


be possible to get the labourers to, 


agitate the mixture sufficiently by shak- 
ing the sprayer as they walk, so that 
the poison may be equally distributed 
throughout the entire operation of 
spraying, remains to be seen. The fact, 
however, that good results in the use of 
lead arsenate have already been obtained 
at Barbados, would seem to indicate 


that this is not an insurmountable 
obstacle. 
One of the points of comparison 


bet.veen dusting and spraying has re- 
ference to the weights of the materials 
used. In dusting with Paris green and 
lime at the rate of one to six, it will be 
seen that in applying each pound of the 
poison, a total of 7 lb. of material has to 
be handled by the labourers, while in 
spraying at the rate of 1 lb. of lead 
arsenate to 100 gallons of water, the 
material used will have a total weight 
of nearly 1,000]b. These figures may be 
taken to represent the amounts used per 
acre per application. 


In addition to this, the value and 
weight of the respective apparatus used 
in the application of the spray and of 
the dust are to be taken iato consider- 
ation. Thecloth bag used in the applica- 
tion of Paris green costs only a few cents 
and has very little weight, while each 


sprayer weighs several pounds, and 
represents an initial cost of several 
dollars. 


Paris green usually costs slightly more 
per pound than lead arsenate, but since 
it is customary to use alittle more of 
the latter substance than of Paris green, 
the difference in the first cost of the 
two materials is very small. If, how- 
ever, the lead aresnate proves, as_ is 
expected, to be much more adhesive 
than Paris green, the saving of several 
applications, and the more continuous 
protection to the plants, due to the 

70 


BO Plant Sanitation. 


lasting properties of the lead arsenate, 
may make this a much cheaper insecticide 
in the long run. 


It may be added that during the 
present season one firm of manufactur- 
ing chemists in the United States has 
succeeded in producing a good grade 
of lead arsenate in a dry powdered 
form. This has been tried by the Crop 
Pest Commission of theStateof Louisiana 
in certain of their experiments and the 
results are very promising. A small 
quantity of this material will be imported 
by the Imperial Department of Agricu- 
ture for trial.—A gricultural News, Sep- 
tember 19, 1908. 


PLANT PATHOLOGY IN ITS RELA- 
TION TO OTHER SCIENCES, 


_In the naming of this association of 
scientists, the Illinois Academy of 
Science, there was recognized a very 
subtle tendency in advancing civilization 
and modern educational thought. It 
has often been noted that as civilization 
becomes more highly developed, it also 


becomes more complicated, and men 
become more independent upon one 
another, So, too, as knowledge increases 


in volume and in extent, the fields of 
study which were formerly quite in- 
dependent grow closer together, and 
new fields opening up, find themselves 
involved with many others already 
existing. We are finding, in fact, that 
knowledge is a unit—not amere assem- 
blage of disconnected ideas, so that itis 
advantageous, now and then, to examine 
a new science, and to discover, in so far 
as we can. with what other parts of the 
body of science it may be intimately 
related. Therefore, ithas seemed advis- 
able to consider, how plant pathology is 
related to other sciences. 


Plant pathology is one of the youngest, 
and perhaps one of the least understood, 
of the recently developed sciences. When 
considered in its broadest meaning, it is 
for plants, as medical science is for man, 
a study of the normal, and of the diseased 
conditions of the organisms. In the 
narrower and more widely accepted 
sense, however, it deals with the abnor- 
malities both of form and of function, 
which in animals are, and in plants may 
be, called diseases. There is one other 
phase also which must always appear, 
that of the prevention and the cure of 
the maladies, 


Kew people who have not studied the 
matter realise the very large loss of 
money occasioned each year by these 
plant diseases, and fewer yet know that 
much has already been done to diminish 


Plant Sanitation. 


this loss, and much more will be done 
when more scientific and detailed study 
is carried on by a larger number of in- 
vestigators scattered widely over the 
country. A conservative estimate of the 
loss caused by the bitter rot of apples 
throughout the country each year, is ten 
millions of dollars. In the State of 
Illinois, the loss, due to corn:rot, for the 
past year, is estimated at perhaps two 
undred and eighty thousand dollars. 
But we want to know what may be done 
to reduce such losses. It is a part of the 
work of the plant pathologist to discover 
how this may be done, and for many 
diseases a remedy has been found. 


By proper spraying methods, on a 
commercial scale, ninety per cent. of the 
loss from peach yellows has been saved. 
Oat smut has nearly lost its terrors for 
the scientific farmer, because of the 
method of ‘‘ seed” treatment which kills 
the smut spores. In New York a pro- 
perly sprayed vineyard gave a net profit 
of over fifteen hundred dollars more 
than the same vineyard, unsprayed, 
yielded the previous year. Diseases of 
various origins have been treated, and 
the loss caused by them has_ been 
materially reduced. Moreover, the im- 
portance of this work is increasing with 
the growing population, for crops are 
becoming more extensive and crowded, 
a condition which gives two of the im- 
portant factors that tend to produce 
great epidemics of diseases. 


The science of plant pathology, like 
bacteriology, is very closely related to 
botany, and in a broad classification of 
the sciences would be considered a part 
of that great subject. Yet, with equal 
justice, it may be considered as a separate 
science, closely related, first to botany, 
then to zoology; chemistry and physics. 


The affiliations with botany are varied 
and strong. If we consider those diseases 
which are caused by parasitic fungi, as 
rusts, mildews and so forth, or by 
bacteria, as many ‘“‘wilts” of garden 
plants, or even by the parasitic flowering 
plants, such as the dodder and the 
mistletoe, we must first know the names 
and the systematic relations of these in- 
vading organisms. Here at the outset 
we come in touch with that great depart- 
ment of the science, systematic botany, 
which for very many years engaged the 
entire attention of botanists. 


Hand in hand with this first part of 
the investigation goes the study of the 
morphology of the parasite, for to 
determine the name we must know the 
peculiarities of form and of structure 
which distinguished it from all of its 
relatives. Moreover, the parasite, if it 


54 


~ ae} 
is on 


[DECEMBER, 1908. 


grows ontwo or more different plants, 
may show various modifications of its 
own form, according to the plant on 
which it happens to develop. Thus, the 
common grain rust, Puccinia graminis, 
when growing on its alternate host- 
plant, the barberry, produces entirely 
different kinds of spores from those on 
the grains. Pathology and morphology 
cross paths also at another point. A 
large and important field of study now 
being developed is that of the correla- 
tion of the natural structure of the 
plant attacked, with the modifications 
due to the disease. This work is essen- 
tial for two reasons. We may thus 
learn, in regard to diseases caused by 
organic beings, in what manner the 
parasite attacks and destroys the host- 
plant. A disease, however, may not be 
caused by an organism, but may result 
from certain known or unknown im- 
proper physical conditions of the plant’s 
environment, Hence this study may 
result in a better differentiation between 
these so- called ‘* physiological diseases,” 
and the derangements caused by 
parasites. 


Plant physiology is no less important 
in the study of plant diseases than 
morphology. We must know the normal 
functions of the plant attacked, and be 
ableto realizein what way they have been 
deranged. Thus, if a parasite is the 
cause of the disease, it may bring about 
the death of the host-plant in one or 
more of the following ways:—It may 
strangle the plant by clogging the water- 
conducting vessels, as in the bacterial 
‘“‘wilt” of melons, already referred to. 
Again, it may give out a poison which 
kills the protoplasm of the cells affected, 
as De Barry describes for one of the 
Sclerotinia diseases. The third method 
is by absorbing the food, water or the 
protoplasm itself, from the cells of the 
host. This seems, at the present time, to 
be the most common mode of attack, 
especially in those diseases, like leaf- 
spots, which remain localized in some 
organ. When an organism has the 
power of injuring more than one kind of 
plant, its own functions may be modified 
according to varying conditions. This 
is important in seeking means of curing 
or of preventing the disease. A good 
example is the common grain rust 
mentioned previously, which, though 
identical in form and appearance, on 
wheat, oats, and rye, cannot be taken 
fromany one of the three hosts and 
grown on either of the others. 


Plant pahology not only owes much 
to these departments of botany, but also 
to bacteriology. Laboratory methods 
which have been found useful in the 


DeceMBER, 1908.) 


latter have been adapted to the some- 
what different needs of the former. The 
use of culture media, though not so 
absolutely necessary for elementary 
work in pathology as it is in bacterio- 
logy, is, however, very common, and, 
doubtless, special media, for special 
organisms are more numerous here than 
in the allied sciences. Since Dr. Burrill, 
of the University of Illinois, demon- 
strated in 1879 that in one instance at 
least, the pear blight, a plant. disease 
might be caused by bacteria, many 
diseases have beenshown to be of similar 
origin, and here naturally the patho- 
logist becomes very closely allied with 
the bacteriologist. 


O£ more and more importance to the 
country is forestry. on which, eventu- 
ally, large portions of the land must 
depend for rainfall and for timber. 
With this is closely allied our science of 
plant pathology. There are many 
diseases of trees, which, unless curbed, 
threaten the growing of forests. One 
need but to refer to the “punk” disease 
of the longleaf and of the shortleaf pines 
and to similar decays of other forest 
trees to justify this claim. Indeed, this 
is so important that a forest pathologist 
has recently been appointed by the 
Government to study these diseases 
more carefully. It is unnecessary to 
dwell upon the increasing importance of 
the science to agriculture, for we have 
already noted their close relation. 


We have seen that Botany in all its 
phases is intimately associated with the 
study of plant diseases, but now we will 
consider what other sciences have an 
interest in it. 


We turn naturally to zoology as the 
’ science next to botany, and in many 
ways it may well be so considered. To 
plant pathology it is related chiefly 
through. the pathological conditions 
which arise as a result of the attacks 
of various worms, insects and even 
higher animals. In this way, many 
galls, such as the well-known oak-galls 
and the nematode  root-gall, which 
inflicts so much damage, originate. The 
stripping of the leaves from trees, and 
the ever-present injuries to farm pro- 
ducts cause conditions for pathological 
study. Many diseases are transferred 
from plant to plant by animals of nearly 
all classes, and the combined efforts of 
zoologists and of pathologists will be 
necessary to combat this evil. Dr. 
Erwin F. Smith enumerates bees, the 
potatoe beetle, snails and slugs as known 
transportation agents for various dis- 
eases. Moreover, we do not yet know 
how many diseases of animals, both 
domesticated and wild, may be due 


555 


Plant Sanitation. 


directly or indirectly to plant diseases. 
Cases have been reported where serious 
results have attended the feeding of 
diseased fodder to live stock ; and flour, 
made from infested grain, may cause 
serious results in man.—Science, Vol. 
XXVIL., No. 703, June, 1908. 


BUD ROT IN THE PHILIPPINES. 


The bud rot is at present very pre- 
valent in Lazaan, Sungi, and Ylaya. 
It is present, but does less damage, 
in two other of the upper barrios of 
Lilio. There are a few scattered cases 
in Balanacan and Sinipian, barrios of 
Nagearlan, and probably in Pagsauitan 
and elsewhere. Captain Grove has heard 
that many years ago it practically wiped 
out the coconut industry of Lucban. 
And I have been told that it was very 
destructive about five years ago in 
Sariaya. 


In the badly infested districts there 
are patches where almost every tree 
is smitten, and larger ones where fully 
half of the trees are dead or dying. 
Although the disease has been present 
in Nagearlan fully ten years, the damage 
now in evidence has been done, at the 
outside, within three years. Dead trunks 
of coconuts do not usually stand for 
two years, but I am told that trunks 
of trees killed by bud rot stand for 
rather more than that period. However, 
I have not found the naked trunks 
more numerous than those with some 
old leaves still at the top; and the 
latter can hardly have been attacked 
as much as one year ago. The im- 
pression made upon me is that condi- 
tions favourable toit the disease will 
kill half of the trees in a single year. 
Under less favourable conditions it is 
less violently epidemic; and it is my 
present opinion that in most parts of 
the Philippines it will never prove vio- 
lently destructive. The fact thata given 
tree escapes one year is no guarantee 
that it will not be killed the next. 
Under conditions favourable to the dis- 
ease it is only a question of time, unless 
vigorous restrictive measures are carried 
out, when practically every tree will 
saccumb. The inhabitants of the in- 
fested district are almost unanimous 
in stating that a tree which once shows 
symptoms of bud rot 1s sure to die. 
Only two men told me otherwise, and 
they agreed that recovery was very rare. 
Toe climatic condition parmitting the 
disease to ba exceedingly destructive is 
a very moist atmosphere. The upp2r 
balt of cozonut country about Moant 
Banajao is ons of the most humid 


Plant Sanitation. 


districts in the Islands. A Secretary 
of Nagearlan, now dead, noticed the 
restricted occurrence of the disease long 
since, and from it deduced the mistaken 
theory that the disease was caused by 
cold. The coconuts at the foot of Mount 
San Christobal, which are comparatively 
unreached by the wet ocean winds, are 
free from bud rot. The people of Lilio 
and Nagcarlan maintain that the disease 
is gradually descending into the lower 
groves. Below the zone where the bud 
rotis most at home, there is of course 
a region in which infection can occur 
under conditions,temporarily favourable, 
or affecting single trees or small loca- 
lities. Asany tree for miles around is 
likely to receive the germs, it is inevi- 
table that in this lower zone some will be 
infected each year. As these die, the 
damage is cumulative, and the gaps in 
the lower groves increase in number or 
size. But I can see no good evidence 
that the region in grave peril is widen- 
ing downward. As already stated, there 
are spots, probably even as low down as 
Pagsauitan, where single or few trees 
have succumbed; but even higher up 
than the centres of population of Nag- 
carlan and Lilio the climatic conditions 
have prevented these spots from becom- 
ing centres for the rapid spread of the 
disease. 


Further evidence that humidity is a 
condition of contagion is found in the 
fact that young trees are more suscep- 
tible than old ones. About the crowns 
of old tall trees the air moves compara- 
tively freely, and keeps them compara- 
tively dry. Every inhabitant of the 
infested district recognizes the greater 
susceptibility of the young trees; the 
general opinion is that for every old 
tree killed, two which are just coming 
into fruit, or would do so within a year 
or so, die, although the total number of 
such trees is naturally much less than 
that of adults. On the other hand, very 
young trees, of two years or less, are 
for some reason comparatively rarely 
attacked. 


Since humidity is the condition of 
easy infection, the extension of the 
disease occurs principally during the 
most humid season, At the present 
time there are numerous trees in 
advanced stages of the disease, but ex- 
ceedingly few which show the first 
symptoms. 


The first symptom always in young 
trees, and almost always in old trees, 
is the yellowing and wilting of the 
youngest, still folded leaf. The disease 
attacks the soft, undifferentiated tissue 
of growing points. It is likely that 
infection normally occurs where the 


556 


[DecEMBER, 1908. 


germs can get direct access to these 
points without penetrating through 
mature tissue, but the germs might also 
be borne by insects which could carry 
them through mechanical lesions in old 
tissue. In young trees, the youngest 
leaf presents the only possible path of 
direct unaided infection; and however 
infection might occur the youngest leaf 
is directly inserted in the tissue suscep- 
tible to rot, and must die before the 
rot embraces most of the soft tissue 
—commonly known in English as the 
‘‘cabbage.” As soon as the youngest 
leaf is noticeably discolored it can easily 
be drawn out. The next youngest 
leaves follow in rapid succession. With- 
in two or four months after the disease 
can first be detected most of the 
leaves will have fallen. A few of the 
oldest leaves grow from tissue so hard 
that the rot makes little or no progress 
in it; these leaves, four to a dozen in 
number, persist for months after the 
younger leaves are gone. It is in this 
stage, with a thin whorl of old leaves 
crowning the stem, that most of 
the diseased trees are found, at least 
at this season. These leaves very likely 
fall only when their natural time comes, 
uninfluenced by the rot. 


In the case of old trees, the young 
flowering branches, like the youngest 
leaves, spring from near the soft heart. 
Infection might occur along’ these 
branches, and they might give the first 
external signs of disease. In some coun- 
tries the withering or fall of these 
branches is said to be the first symptom 
of bud rot, and some of my informants 
state that this is sometimes the case 
here. No such case came under my 
notice, but, as already said, there are 
now very few trees showing any early 
symptoms. Branches whose nuts are 
more than half grown are grounded in 
mature enough tissue so that the disease | 
does not usually prevent the nuts from 
maturing. But no new nuts are set 
after the appearance of the rot, and 
the youngest nuts almost always, or 
quite always, fall without becoming ripe. 


As has been found always true of 
coconut bud rot elsewhere, the decaying 
tissue has a powerful and vile odour. 
The stench is very characteristic but 
not easily described; one of its com- 
ponents is the smell of tan. An attempt 
is now being madein the Government 
Laboratory to separate the organisms 
present, and this will be followed by 
inoculation experiments. I have already 
ascertained that no fungus mycelium 
is present in the advancing border of 
the diseased tissue. 


The inhabitants of Ylaya have found 
that if the first leaves affected are pulled 


Decemper, 1908] 


out, and the rotten mass removed as 
completely as possible, new leaves will 
sometimes appear afterward, and that 
in some of these cases the tree recovers. 
One man states that 25 per cent. of cures 
can be affected in this way; I do not 
believe that this is possible, and other 
men that I asked agreed that if any 
ultimately recovered they were exceed- 
ingly few. 


[[ have seen this done in two cases, 
with trees 4-6 years old: it is not practi- 
cable with older trees. All the fronds 
were cut off, leaving a conical stump, 
and the decayed tissue was cut away. 
The stumps produced healthy fronds 
except when the red beetle attacked 
them.—T. P.] 


For practical purposes, the tree, 
once it shows any symptoms of the 
disease, is valueless, and is fortu- 
nately so regarded by the people. The 
thing to bedoneis to prevent the spread 
of the disease from it to other trees. 


While the people understand the end 


to be gained, the use by them of any’ 


disinfecting chemicals cannot be expect- 
ed to be effective, because of the 
difficulty of making the disinfectant 
reach every part of the diseased tissue. 


The only agent which can be relied 
upon to destroy the organisms is fire. 
Every tree which shows symptoms of 
the disease should have its heart and 
the structures immediately around it 
—the apex of the trunk and the bases 
of the leaves, at least the sheaths— 
completely burned. During the drier 
season this is not a very difficult matter, 
and every diseased tree in the whole 
infested district should be so destroyed 
during this dry season. Even if this 
is done, it is to be anticipated that 
during the first few succeeding rainy 
months numerous cases will appear. 
These must also be burned, and _ this 
will be practicable only by the use of 
petroleum. In my opinion, a vigorous 
campaign of six months, beginning at 
this time, will so restrict the disease that 
it will cease to be a serious menace to the 
coconut industry.—Philippine Agricul- 
tural Review, Vol. I,, No. 5, May, 1908. 


BUD ROT IN OTHER COUNTRIES. 

The most incurable and, unless strongly 
handled, the most dangerous diseases of 
the coconut are the bud rots. These 
diseases attack the soft, young tissues at 
the apex of the stem, and sooner or 
later destroy the growirg point itself. 
Since the coconut does not branch, and 
never renews its growing point, this 
Imnediately stops the formation of new 


557 


Plant Sanitation. 
| 
leaves and flowering branches and very 
soon kills the tree. Whether or not they 
themselves cause the disease, gas-produc- 
ing bacteria are always present in the 
rotting mass and produce a vile odour. 
From a diseased or dead tree, spores or 
germs can by various means be borne to 
other trees ;, they are usually carried by 
insects. When a tree is once infected by 
bud rot it is practically impossible to 
save itin any way, and energetic action 
must be taken to prevent the spread of 
the disease. Bud rot has been reported 
in the West Indies and about the 
Caribbean Sea, in Portuguese East 
Africa, in Ceylon, about the Godaveri 
River in India, and in Luzon. It is 
worth while to describe the symptoms 
and methods of treatment in these 
different regious. 


A bud rot has been known to exist in 
Cuba for many years, but received no 
particular attention until an entomo- 
logist, Buseck, was sent there by the 
United States Department of Agriculture 
to investigate the coconut disease in 
1901. He reported that if the bud rot 


continued to spread as it had inthe - 


preceding decade it would wipe out the 
Cuban coconut industry within ten or 
fifteen years. The disease is described 
as superficially characterized by the 
yellowing and fall of the outer leaves, 
shedding the nuts, and some months later 
by the death of the whole crown. As 
reported by Erwin Smith, the terminal 
bud is ‘‘involved in the vilest sort of a 
bacterial soft rot... the stench resem- 
bling that of aslaughterhouse. This rot, 
invisible until the numerous outer leaf- 
base wrappings are removed, often in- 
volves a diameter of several inches of 
soft tissues and a length of 3 or 4 feet, 
including flower buds and the whole or 
some of the soft, fleshy, white undevelop- 
ed leaves covering the bud and forming 
the so-called. ‘cabbage’ of the palm. ... 
Fly larve and various fungi were found 
in the parts most exposed to the air 
and longest diseased, but the advancing 
margin of the decay was occupied only 
by bacteria, of which there appeared 
to be several sorts. . All were white 
organisms of the soft-rot type, mostly 
plump short rods with rounded ends, 
but occasionally longer rods, all appa- 
rently gas producers. ... The bacteria 
probably find their entrance through 
wounds of some sort, and their distribu- 
tionis undoubtedly favoured by carrion 
creatures. .. Diseased trees should be 
felled, and the terminal bud burned or 
properly disinfected with sulphate of 
copper. Only the most energetic action 
is likely to avail.” 


The Director of the Department of 
Agriculture of Jamaica says in a report 


Plant Sanitation. 


in 1905:—*‘ Mr. Cradwick has been engaged 
at intervals during the last two years 
in applying various remedies suggested 
by me. These exyeriments are still in 
progress, but I may say that I find the 
most effectual remedy is to spray with 
Bordeaux mixture at intervals of six to 
nine months until there is no trace of 
the disease.” The mixture used was— 


Copper maa ara pounds 6 
Lime nae do 4 
Water gallons 50 


The same report states that ‘‘ in Grand 
Cayman and in parts of Jamaica planters 
have not been successful in growing 
coconuts because the young plants die 
off justat the time of the first flowering.” 


F. A. Stockdale, of the Jamaica Station: 
reported in 1907 on the bud rot in 
Trinidad :— 


“The youngest leaves appear to stand 
upright and do not unfold as they 
should. Afterward they turn yellow 
and then brown in colour, and the whole 
appearance is that of a withering tree 
with the centre of the cabbage in an un- 
healthy condition. Sometimes this dying 
of the central bud could not be noticed un- 
til many of the lower leaves had turned 
yellow or brown. . After a time 
the terminal bud falls over, frequently 
leaving a ring of quite healthy- looking 
leaves at the top of a ‘‘headless” trunk. 

This rot, in a diseased palm that 
is still standing is invisible until the 
harder outer coverings of the bud are 
removed, and it is found to be limited 
to the softer tissues. . A badly 
diseased bud is generally full of ay 
larvee, ete., and the smell is awful. 

Microscopic examination of the 
roots and stem indicated that they were 

uite normal, while those portions of 
the terminal bud, in the advancing 
margin of the disease, showed in most 
cases bacteria of different kinds, only in 
two instances was the advancing margin 
marked by a _ reddish discolouration 
produced by some fungus mycelium. 


The few isolated cases in the Cedros 
district would indicate that this disease 
is not of a very infectious character, 
but large numbers have been killed out 
in the Siparia district, the spread being 
very rapid and apparently from the 
windward. I am inclined to the view 
that this disease is similar to the 
destructive disease of coconuts in Cuba, 
but as far as Trinidad plantations are 
at present concerned, it would appear 
to be largely due to unfavourable con- 
ditions of soil, drainage, etc.. . 

With our present knowledge of the 
nature of the disease it is impossible to 


558 


[DecEMBER, 1908. 


suggest a remedy for trees that are 
already infected, and therefore steps 
must be taken for preventing its spread. 
It is suggested that the top 4 or 5 feet 
should be cut from the diseased trees 
and buried deeply with lime.” 


Bud rot appeared in Ceylon in 1906, 
and is reported by Petzh. It was found 
Only in a small isolated patch of 10 acres, 
about 800 trees, of which 50 were dead 
or dying. The infected trees were 3 or 4 
years old, and old trees were not found 
ailing. 

“The first indicaion of the disease (in 
the case of young plants) is the wither- 
ing of the youngest unfolding leaf. 
This turns brown and can be pulled 
out of its sheath; it is then found ue 
end in asoft brown mass. . . 
decay of this leaf is followed. by that 
of the other fronds in succession, com- 
mencing with the youngest and proceed- 
ing outwards and downwards. The 
fronds decay and fall off until only a 
conical stump remains. If the dying 
fronds are removed and the bud exposed 
there will be found instead of the 
white cabbage a pale brown semi-liquid 
mass which becomes dark brown with 
age and possesses an odour resembling 
that of a tanyard. In an advanced stage 
this rot includes the whole of the cab- 
bage, and stops only when the woody 
portion of the stem is reached. 


“The organisms responsible for this 
decay are bacteria which are found in 
abundance in the rotting tissues; they 
are short, thick rods with rounded ends 
which form whitish colonies of slow 
growth on sugar agar. These 
bacteria appear to find an entrance to 
the cabbage along the youngest leaf. 


‘Diseased trees should be felled and 
the terminal bud burned. They should 
not be allowed to lie on the ground 
and become dry. . If steps are 
taken to remove dead and dying palms 
as soonas they are observed, there need 
be no fear that this disease will become 
a serious menace to coconut cultivation. 
Felling and burning diseased trees is 
no doubt an expensive process, but it 
must be remembered that the work is 
of the nature of an insurance effected 
on the remaining trees, and its cost 
should be estimated in terms of the 
survivors instead of being compared with 
the actual value of the trees destroyed.” 


Close planting favours the spread of 
the disease, by preventing the evapor- 
ation of moisture from the young shoots. 


The bud rot in Hast Africa is known 
from a letter cited by Petch, who quotes 
from it:— 


DECEMBER, 1908.] 


“Tf the dead tree is not immediately 
destroyed by fire the disease rapidly 
spreads to the neighbouring trees, and 
finally throughout the whole plant- 
ation.” 


A bud rot in Travancore is described 
in a letter in Ferguson’s ‘“ All about 
the Coconut,” and in the Indian Forester 
for 1894. It isa ‘‘ decay of the tender, un- 
expanded leaf shoot. At first the lower 
end of the shoot grows discoloured, 
and, in a few days, general putrefaction 
of this and more or less of the 
cabbage ensues; the shoot drops, and, in 
some cases, falls to the ground ; the tree 
decays soon after and we are left lookers- 
on and losers. It is only the 
most vigorous trees that are, as a rule, 
affected.” The natives ascribe it to 
falling stars. 


A bud rot of the Palmyra and other 
palms near the mouth of the Godaveri 
River is said to have been seen as long 
ago as 1894, but was not reported until 
1904, and not on coconut until 1905. EK. J. 
Butler published a careful study of this 
disease in 1907, at which time it infested 
a circle of about 14 miles radius. 


The first symptom is a discolouration 
of a recently-expanded leaf, which then 
turns white and withers; other leaves 
follow ; the nuts fall prematurely and no 
more are formed. 


The leaf sheaths of all diseased trees 
are marked by irregular, sunken spots 
in greater or lessnumber. In the earlier 
stages . . . the spots are _ white; 
later on they become brown. They are 
always sunken and usually have some- 
what raised edges. They begin in the 
outer sheaths and may be traced in 


559 


Plant Sanitation. 


through succeeding ones toward the 
heart of the bud. As the inner layers 
are softer, the inside patches are often 
larger than those outside, and may even 
give rise tonew patches which extend 
out again tothe outside sheath. ... 
The earlier patches are dry and either 
free from any appearance ofa _ parasite 
on the surface or covered with a white 
mycelial felt. Very soon a wet rot 
follows, which extends with great 
rapidity in the delicate central tissues 
and converts the whole heart into a 
foul-smelling mass of putrefaction, in 
which everything is involved, and the 
original agent is lost sight of, 


lt is only in the early stages before the 
wet rot starts that the true cause can be 
made out. This is a fungus of the genus 
Pythiwin - In quite young spots 
the mycelium is found only within the 
leaf tissues where its threads extend 
between the cells, sending little branches 
or haustoria in to them, Later on 
itcomes out on the surface, forming 
often a dense white felt of filaments 
bearing sporangia. There is no positive 
information as to its dissemination. No 
remedial measures intended to cure trees 
already attacked are possible. 


It was first recommended by Butler 
that all infected trees be burned, and 
that apparently healthy trees in infected 
districts be treated with Bordeaux 
mixture. A considerable force of men 
has been employed in the immediate 
restriction of the disease in this locality, 
and, as a result of experience under the 
local conditions, the use of fungicides 
has been given up. The work is now 
concentrated in the cremation of the 
sources of infection.—-Philippine Agri- 
cultural Review, Vol. I., No. 5, May, 1908. 


5 


| DECEMBER, 1908. 


LIVE STOCK. 


PAMPHLET ON ERI-SILK. 


By ANUKUL CHANDRA Roy. 


(Translation fron Bengali.) 


The writer principally gives sugges- 
tions regarding the method of rearing 
Eri worms. He begins with stating the 
profitableness of the Eri-silk culture. 
He says formerly Eri cocoons used 
to be sold at Rs,50—60 per maund; 
but now they are sold at Rs. 100—150 
/per maund; also pure white cocoons 
fetch higher prices. The rearing work 
can be done by the female members 
of the family without any interference 
with the household duties. The worms 
feed only on the leaves of the castor 
plant, and the seeds can be readily sold 
in the market. 


Castor plants should be giown about a 
year before the rearing work is taken in 
hand. When the castor is ready, a 
bamboo machan with 3 or 4 shelves is to 
be prepared in a room or verandah, when 
it is proposed to carry on the work ona 
small scale; when a large number of 
worms is meant to be reared, a separate 
house has to be built. A few bamboo 
trays and baskets are to be secured. 
The trays, baskets and shelves are to be 
washed with a one per cent. solution 
of copper sulphate. Ants, birds. frogs 
and wasps are great enemies of the 
worms. In order. to prevent these a 
fence is necessary round the machan; 
also the following compound is to be 
painted round the bases of the posts of 


a ais Boil and tl dd 30-40 
; f oiland thena - 
ested oil i pean \ drops of the milky 
. z , J juice of Calotropis. 


After these are ready, eggs can be got 
from Assam; or some seed cocoons can 
be got and eggs secured from the moths 
which will emerge. The eggs are to be 
dipped in the copper sulphate solution, 
dried in the shade and then kept spread 
for hatching. They will begin to hatch 
in Sor 10 (days in winter and earlier in 
summer. 


The young worms soon crawl up to 
the tender leaves of castor which are to 
be placed on them at noon, and can be 
easily transferred to a separate tray. 
The worms of the first day are to be 
placed on the lowest or highest sheif, 
and those of the next three days (collected 
every day at noon) on the next higher 
or lower shelves in order. The eggs can 
be thrown away after the fourth day, as 
by that time all will have hatched. Until 
the worms are about one inch long, young 


leaves are to be cut into small pieces and 
supplied as food. In order to bring up 
the worms of the different dates to an 
equal growth, the worms of the first day 
are to be fed three times a day, those of 
the second day four times, and those of 
the third and fourth days five times a 
day. After four or five days all the 
worms will be found to be of an equal 
size, and they can then be mixed to- 
gether. They are tobe fed five times 
during the day and night—at 6 a.m., 
10a.m., 2 p.m., 6 p.m., and 10 p.m.—until 
they are ready to spin cocoons. Every 
day the trays are to be cleaned. The 
worms moult four times and should not 
be given food while they are moulting ; 
also they should not be fed with wet or 
dusty leaves. They spin cocoons in 
about fifteen to twenty days in summer 
and in about twenty-five to thirty days 
in winter. They can be made to prepare 
cocoons either (1) in the small chambers 
of a chandraki specially made, or (2) in 
the angles formed by two or three 
sticks tied in the middle ina branching 
manner, ox (3) in a mass of dry plantain 
leaves or papers. After three days the 
cocoons are to be picked out and kept in 
a basket. The moths are to be allowed 
to escape from the cocoons. 


for seed those cocoons should be selected 
which are (1) white, (2) big, and (8) formed 
by the most active and restless worms. 

The cocoons are boiled in ashes and 
water or ina solution of washing soda. 
They are then washed with cold water 
and dried; and then carded and spun 
into thread like cotton lint. 


[The asove has been supplied by 
Mr. N.N. Baneji, Personal Assistant to 
the Officiating Director of Agriculture, 
Bengal, as a rough translation of Mr. 
A. C, Roy’s Pamphlet on Eri-silk culture. 
— Secy., C. A. S.] 


RATS AND AGRICULTURE. 


LESSONS OF THE DANISH RAT WAR. 


(Special for I ndian A griculturist 
by W. R. Boelter.) 


Rats are the farmer’s acorn enemies; 
they raid his pantry and store cupboards ; 


‘steal his eggs and kill chickens and duck- 


lings; eat his corn in the granary, in the 
field, or even out of the manger ; devour 
potatoes and turnips by the ton; poach 
young rabbits and pheasants ; eat insect- 
destroying birds, and their eggs, thereby 
reprieving innumerable farm and garden 
pests ; riddle his stacks; undermine his 


oe arn. +" 
~~) 
Ve) 


£10,000,000 a 


DECEMBER, 1908. ] 


floors ; perforate the thatch, and destroy 
everything else that is not actually iron 
and stone, In addition the rat is most 
likely an active agentin the spreading 
of various diseases of domestic animals. 
This is certainly the opinion of the ex- 
ees of the German Government who, 

aving first proved beyond doubt that 
rats disseminated trichinosis, foundin 
the cvurse of a vigorously conducted rat 
campaign that in all districts where 
trichinosis had been stamped out—in 
other words, where the rats had been 
exterminated—there had also been 
noticed a remarkable absence of cases of 
swine fever. If we remember the foul 
habits of the rat, its power to “get” 
anywhere and live anywhere, and its 
extraordinary vitality, we can well 
understand why the ratshould be an 
ideal disease-carrier. The vicious rdéle 
played by the rat in the spreading of 
bubonic plague has long been recognised, 
and to-day the Indian Plague Committee 
advocates the extermination of rats as 
the first and foremost preventive 
measure. against the terrible scourge 
that exacted last year in India aloxea 
toll of over one million human lives. 

What is precisely the cost of the 
material damage done by the rat? A 
few years ago it would have been 
thought as easy a task to count the 
grains of sand on a stretch of seashore as 
to answer this question; but chiefly 
owing to the general interest awakened 
in this subject by the almost passionate 
agitation of the Danish people for a Rat 
Law, practical men and scientists in 
every civilised country have given 
lately their attention to the rat pro- 
blem, with the result that we have now 
passed from the vague ‘don’t know and 
don’t care” phase into that definite 
knowledge with a corresponding desire 
for energetic action. There is to-day 
nota single agriculturist who has not 
either accepted or will accept, as a 
reasonable estimate, the statement that 
the rats of Great Britain and Ireland 
cause a loss, by the destruction of food 
and material, amounting at least to 
ear, and in the whole 
of the Britis Empire 
£100,000,000. 


It is interesting to see how this 
appalling figure is arrived at. To take 
Great Britain and Ireland as an example. 
All students of the problem are agreed 
that there is not a hamlet or village, or 
town, or city where the rat population 
does not at least equal the number of 
men, women and children. Reports 
received from farmers, estate agents, 
rat and sparrow clubs, and owners of 
shops, hotels, restaurants, warehouses, 
factories, docks and ships show not only 


71 


at least to 


561 


Tive Stocke 


that this is so, but, also that during 
successive years there have been killed 
as many rats as there were people living, 
or employed, in the places reported upon. 
This is to say, to take an average 
instance, that the killing each year, of 
from 600 to 1,000 rats in a village with 
300 souls has apparently not appreciably 
diminished the number of rats or the 
damage done by them. If we further 
remember that the total acreage of Great 


‘Britain and Ireland in pastures, arable 


land, mountain land, woods and planta- 
tions is over 56 millions, and if we only 
assame one rat to each acre, we may feel 
justified in accepting asa serious state- 
ment the “minimum estimate” that 
there are in Great Britain and Ireland 
never less than 40,000,000 rats devouring 
good food and destroying good material 
with a voraciousness and destructiveness 
that has made them a byword in the 
whole civilised world. 


Until students of economic zoology 
had agreed upon a minimum estimate of 
the number of rats with those who 
suffered actual loss, it was obviously 
futile to attempt to calculate in £. s. d. 
the loss caused by rats. At a meeting 
recently held in London with the in- 
tention of declaring war against the 
rat, the Secretary of an important agri- 
cultural society stated with much 
emphasis but little show of reason that 
“the rats cost the poultry farmer at least 
one million pounds sterling per day.” 
Against this wild guess Professor Simp- 
son gave it as his opinion that the 
damage done by the rats amounts at 
least to one penny per day per rat. His 
estimate almost tallies with the infor- 
mation received from the farmers and 
others mentioned above who estimated 
the loss to be about 20 per head of 
the people employed, or living in the 
place reported upon. 


It was Zuschalag, the author and now 
Administrator-in-chief of the Danish 
Rat Law, who brought about general 
agreement upon this very important 
point. He formulated what is known 
as_ the ‘‘Minimum Loss Thesis, viz., 
“That each rat causes each day, by the 
destruction of food and material, a loss 
amounting at least to a id.” Cage 
experiments demonstrated the impossi- 
bility of keeping alive two rats kept 
in the same cage on a food allowance 
of one half-penny a day foreach rat, 
no matter what kind of diet was chosen; 
the stronger would invariably devour 
the weaker rat. As to this cost would 
still have to be added the damage to 
material, that the rats would have done 
if they had not been confined in a cage, 
the reasonableness of the “one farthing 


_ Lave Stock. 562 


per rat per day estimate” was self- 
evident. At any rate, so convinced were 
the Danes of it, that in order to save 
the loss thus forcibly demonstrated 
thoy passsd forthwith a ‘Law Ordering 
the Destructicn of Rats within the 
Kingdom of Denmark.’ 


Though not the first Rat Law—that 
honour belongs to Barbadoes which had 
oneaslong as 130 years ago—it is neverthe- 
less the most unique piece of legislation 
ever enacted. The former civil engineer 
Zuschlag who, only ten years ago was 
regarded by his countrymen as ‘rat mad,’ 
is to-day the Administrator of the Act 
and President of an enormously infiuen- 
tial international society formed for 
the object of bringing about, in con- 
junction with the Governments of the 
civilised world, concerted action in 
exterminating the rats on ships and 
ashore, chiefly with the object of pre- 
venting the spread of the bubonic 
plague. The first cause of the Act is 
nothing less than a partnership deed 
between the State, Municipalities, Zusch- 
lag andamicrobe. Zuchlag is in charge 
because he is the greatest living 
authority on the rat problem, and 
because he is the Advocate on the 
‘* Premium System,” which says in effect, 
“It doesn’t really matter much what 
means you use for killing rats as long 
as you kill them everywhere and at 
the same time. The only way to obtain 
such co-operative killing is to make it 
worth peoples’ while to co-operate, and 
the only stimulus powerful enough to 
effect that ismoney. Pay a penny per 
rat—cash on delivery—and you will see 
what you will see.” The fact is that 
during the first nine months of the 
Danish Rat Law just elapsed, this 
Premium System has met with an extra- 
ordinary success, over one million rats 
having been killed within that time. 


The war chest is supplied by the 
Municipalities which levy a rate of 31 
per year per hundred inhabitants, or 
a higher rate if required, for the pay- 
ment of the premiums; the State who 


(DECEMBER, 1908. 


pays a subsidy of £1,500 a year to his 
strange ally, the microbe, and the 
Danish Society for the destruction of 
rats, which contributes £500 a year as 
long as the war will last. 


The microbe is known in text-books on 
bacteriology as Neumann’s bacillus, and 
was discovered accidentally in the urine 
of the child. By a process which can 
only be deseribed as ‘‘breeding,” how- 
ever strange that may sound, Neumann 
succeeded in producing a microbe with 
an enormous rat killing power. His 
work was continued by Dr. Bahr, of 
Copenhagen, whose variety of Neumann’s 
bacillus, know as ratin, produces accord- 
ing to German Government reports, a 
‘‘case mortality” of 100 per cent., and 
is according to the Indian plague author- 
ities, absolutely indifferent to any 
changes of temperature. In other words, 
this bacillus, while incapable of harming 
any other living thing, will kill all the 
rats which it may come into contact, 
whether in Northern Siberia or in the 
Indian Plains. 


So tar the Home Government has 
done nothing to show that it is alive 
to the necessity of dealing with this 
important problem, but it is possible 
that the vigorous action of a number 
of Colonial Governments may supply 
the stimulus for the formation of a 
scheme of an inter-Empire campaign 
against the rat. Hitherto the want of 
active operations was explained by the 
want of reliable weapons with which 
to conduct this war ; but now that the 
pioneer work of foreign and Colonial 
Governments has shown a way to the 
solution of this problem within their 
own spheres of action, there is no 
longer an excuse for continuing the 
policy of laisser faire; for the prize of 
an inter-Empire rat war, conducted 
relentlessly with all the means that 
human ingenuity can devise, will be 
the saving of many millions of pounds 
and of thousands of human lives.— 
Indian Agriculturist, Vol. XXXII, 
No. 7, July. 1908. 


j 
t 
“ 
" 
“ 


DecemsBer, 1908.) 


563 


SCIENTIFIC AGRICULTURE. 


CONSERVATION OF SOIL 
MOISTURE. 


To no country is the question of the 
conservation of soil.moisture more im- 
portant than to India, where there are 
large tracts of country on which the 
crops are often limited in growth by the 
inadequate supply of water available in 
the soil. An article on the subject 
which Mr. D. Milne, Economic Botanist 
in the Punjab, contributes to the Agri- 
cultural Journal. of India, therefore, 
should be read by all those interested 
in the development of Scientific Agri- 
culture in this country. There are 
many cases, as Mr. Milne points out, 
where the alert farmer might by skilful 
farming in this direction reap a better 
crop than his more careless neighbour. 
It is well known thata soil on which 
plants are growing loses much more 
water by evaporation than does a bare 
soil, and that on bare land which is 
fairly tirmly consolidated right to the 
surface more moisture will be eventually 
lost by evaporation thanon land the 
surface of which has been well pulverised 
and kept stirred to the depth ofa few 
inches. ‘Two things, therefore, are of 
prime importance—to keep the land 
rigorously clear of weeds and_ to 
pulverise the surface of the soil simul- 
taneously with the ploughing of the 
land. .There is a third way, to which 
Mr. Milne refers, of conserving soil 
moisture, which is often practised in 
other countries—the process known as 
“mulching.” This consists in spreading 
some fairly open or porous material such 
as refuse litter, inferior grass, straw or 
leaves, or other organic substance in a 
thin layer over the surface of the land, 
the idea being to form a layer of matter 
which will retain a considerable volume 
of air in the spaces between its com- 
ponent particles and so retard the swift 
exchange of the dry air of the atmo- 
sphere for the more or less moist air that 
is in contact with the soil surface. But 
‘‘mulching,” though useful, is difficult 
tocarry out on large areas. Mr. Milne 
discusses at length also the question of 
the character of the implements used in 
tillage operations in relation to the 
conseivation of soil moisture, and seems 
to think those in use in Europe have the 
advantage in this respect.—Indian Agr1- 
culturist, October 1, 1908. 


NOTE ON A TOXIC SUBSTANCE 
EXCRETED BY THE ROOTS OF 
PLANTS. 


By F. FLETCHER, M.A., B.SC., 


Deputy Director of Agriculture, Bombay 
Presidency. 


It has more than once been suggested 
that plants, like animals, excrete (from 
their roots) material that is no longer of 
use to them or that are bye-products of 
the process of metabolism, and that such 
substances are injurious to the kinds of 
vegetation by which they are excreted. 
Brugmans was apparently the first to 
suggest this, and it has, at various 
times, been affirmed by Plenk, Humbolt, 
Cotta, De Candolle and others, denied 
by Hedwig. Braconnot, Walser, Bous- 
singgault, Unger, Meyen and others, and 
has for long been considered as non- 
existent except with regard to carbon 
dioxide and possibly an acid phosphate 
and formates, 


Again, Dr. Gyde (Trans-Highland and 
Agricultural Society, 1845-47, pp. 273-92) 
in water cultures obtained, on evaporat- 
ing the residual liquid, a very small 
amount of yellowish or brown substance, 
or portion of which was organic in 
character. He concluded that the 
amount excreted was very small, and 
that the substance was not injurious to 
the plants that gave rise to it. 


From observations on crops growing 
in the field, the writer some years ago 
(while in Egypt) came to the conclusion 
that certain phenomena could only be 
explained on the theory of excretion. 
This was especially the case with cotton 
crops in which a grass was allowed to 
grow as a weed. The cotton, grown 
under irrigation, did not revive on appli- 
cation of more water ; its poor state was 
therefore not due to lack of moisture in 
the soil. Manures likewise seemed to 
have comparatively little effect towards 
improvement; appropriation by the 
weed of food material was therefore not 
the cause of the poor growth. Aeration 
had as little effect as manure. 


Observations in the field were resumed 
in India, and these tended to very 
materially strengthen the view that 
materials injurious to other crops were 
excreted by the roots of certain common 
crops in India; this was especially the 
case with sorghum. The system of 
mixed crops very prevalent in the un- 


Scientific Agriculture. 


irrigated tracts in India gave full oppor- 
tunity for a number of observations to 
be taken, and on the strength of these, 
experiment was resumed both in the 
field and in water culture. 


CONCLUSION. 


The bearing of the phenomena des- 
cribed in this article on the question of 
rotation of crops is obvious. 


The question may, however, be put 
why cotton, for instance, which grows 
so feebly near sorghum, growsijat least 
as well, if not better, after sorghum than 
after cotton. From experiments now in 
progress it appears that this is explicable 
as follows :— 


When cotton is growing near sorghum 
the roots of the latter exude the toxic 
substance into the soil in large quanti- 
ties. This spreads rapidly through the 
soil into the subsoil especially during the 
rainy season, and neighbouring cotton 
plants are not protected by the fact 
that their tap roots go down far below 
the zone in which the sorghum roots are 
situated. When cotton follows sorghum, 
however, the condition of affairs is 
different ; the toxic substance remaining, 
at the time of harvesting, in the roots of 
the previous sorghum crop is now being 
given outslowly in the course of the 
decay of those roots,* and is held and 
entangled in the organic matter of the 
roots, largely in the zone of soil in which 
the roots of sorghum spread. Each crop 
thus fouls the soil for a crop of the same 
variety, whose roots will take the same 
course as the previous crop, more than 
for a crop whose roots spread in another 
layer of the soil. 


The precipitation of the toxic substance 
by most of the mineral manures in 
common use indicates the manner in 
which many manures act in increasing 
crop yields. 


While this note has been going through 
the press, I have received Bulletin No. 4U 
of the Bureau of Soils (United States of 
America), by Messrs. Schreiner and Reed 
on ‘‘Some factors influencing soil ferti- 
lity.” In this Bulletin the authors come 
to the conclusion that ‘‘ the excreta of 
the cow pea roots are very slightly toxic 
to roots of wheat seedlings,” and that 
‘‘the excreta of oats are more toxic to 
the roots of wheat seedlings, than those 
of corn or cow peas—a conclusion that 
is substantiated by the results obtained 
in crop rotations.” 


*That the roots of sorghum and other crops 
exert an extraordinarily toxic effect when mixed 
with soil in which plants are then grown has been 
proved by the writer in a set of pot experiments. 


564 


- (DEcEMBER, 1908 


The experimental data given in the 
Bulletin Ho not justify these conclusions, 
but only indicate that the excreta from 
cow peas when in the arbitrary concen- 
tration obtaining in their experiments 
are very slightly toxic to roots of weed 
seedlings when these latter are at the 
stage of growth of those used in the 
experiment. 


I find that very young plants are not 
affected by a toxic solution of given 
strength so rapidly as older plants, doubt- 
less because the latter, owing to more 
rapid transpiratiou, take in the toxic 
substance in larger quantities. 


Again, the impossibility of the state- 
ment made with regard to the excreta 
of oats being more toxic than that of 
cow peas or corn is self-evident, im- 
plying as it does that any quantity 

owever great from oats is more toxic 
than any quantity however small from 
cow peas or corn. 


The media that were compared con- 
tained quite arbitrary amounts of 
excreta from an arbitrary number of 
plants growing tor an arbitrary period, 
it being stated that ‘‘ the agar containin 
their excretions was obtained in eac 
case by planting a large number of 
seedlings in a dish of soft agar and 
allowing them to grow for eight to 
fifteen days according to the kind of 
plant employed.” 


There are no data in the Bulletin under 
reference which indicate that the excreta 
from all the plants tried are not identical 
in character.—Memoirs of the Department 
of Agricultnre in India, Vol. IL., No. 3. 
April, 1908. 


LINING OF DITCHES AND RESER- 
VOIRS TO PREVENT SHEPAGE 
LOSSES. . 


Ina recent bulletin of the California 
Station, E. Mead and Bb, A. Etcheverry 
call attention anew to the enormous 
waste of irrigation water due to seepage 
from ditches and reservoirs. They show 
from general observation and trom a 
large number of careful measurements 
that ‘‘the water which sinks into the 
soilfrom ditches and reservoirs is one 
of the chief sources of waste in irriga- 
tion. In gravelly soils, or where ditches 
cross gypsum strata, the losses some- 
times amount to more than half the 
total flow.” Measarements made on a 
large number of ditches in the course 
of the co-operative irrigation investiga- 
tions of the Office of Experiment Sta- 
tion and the California Station ‘‘show — 


DECEMBER, 1908. ] 


an average loss of main canals of about 
1 per cent. for each mile that water is 
carried ; on laterals the loss amounted 
to between 11 and 12 per cent. per mile; 
while on some California canals the loss 
in a single mile was 64 percent. - ; . 
Measurements made in 1906 on a storage 
reservoir having a surface of 10,000 square 
feet showed a seepage loss of. 1,000 cubic 
feet per day. The reservoir is filled by 
@ windmill, and this loss was 10 per cent. 
of the average quantity pumped each 
day—a loss too heavy to be borne. The 
problem of this reservoir owner is the 
problem of hundreds of irrigators. 


‘‘The water which escapes is often 
worse than wasted. It collects in the 
lower lands, fills the soil, drowns the 
roots of trees and plants, brings alkali 
to the surface, and is a prolific breeding 
place for mosquitoes.” 


In the course of the same investiga 
tions attempts were made to find prac- 
tical means of lining storage works and 
canals and ditches to prevent, or at least 
to reduce. this waste and consequent loss. 
“Prom the results obtained the con- 
clusion was reached that on large and 
costly aqueducts or important storage 
works, linings of cement, concrete, or 
asphaltum may be employed without 
the expense being prohibitve.” It is 
pointed out, however, that a very large 
proportion of the irrigation of the 
country is done by means of the smaller, 


565 


Scientific Agriculture. 


cheaper reservoirs and other works, the 
owners of which ‘‘cannot afford the 
expense needed to line the reservoir 
with concrete or asphalt because the 
value of the water stored will not justify 
this expense.” 


In view of the fact that the greater 
proportion of the losses occur in lateral 
ditches and small storage basins, it is 
necessary to find some simpler and 
cheaper, but efficient, lining which can 
be applied by farmers and unskilled 
labourers. It is clear that the general 
use of such a method would result in a 
great improvement of irrigation practice 
ae a marked increase in the duty of 
water, 


Puddling was tried, but as a rule there 
was not sufficient clay in the scil to make 
this efficient. A natural silting up, with 
consequent improvement of water-hold- 
ing capacity, of reservoirs and ditches 
carrying muddy water frequently occurs, 
but a large proportion of the irrigation 
water used, notably that obtained by 
pumping, is clear, and therefore no silt- 
ing results. 


Of the large number of available raw 
materials promising well as ditch and 
reservoir lining, cement, clay and crude 
petroleum were tested as ditch linings in 
the California experiments. The prin- 
cipal results of the test are given in brief 
in the following table :— 


RESULTS OF TESTS OF VARIOUS DitcH LININGS. 


Experimental Actual cost 


SN, " cost of lining of lining 
re a Kfticiency Saving. per square per square 
Description of lining, ratios, foot. foot. 
Per cent. Cents. Cents. 
Cement concrete, 3 inches thick isi 717 86°6 8°30 7°50 
Cement-lime concrete, 3 inches thick 2°90 65°5 8°30 7°50 
Cement mortar ... ae My nek CTS 63'3 3°88 3°25-3°50 
Heavy oil, 3 4 gals. per sq. yard 2°02 50°4 1°20 1°20 
Clay puddle, 35 inches thick 1-78 47°8 3°90 1°20 
Heavy oil, 3 gals. per square yard 1°50 38'0 1°00 1-v0 
Heavy oil, 2 5 gals. per sq, yard 1°37 27°3 UF ele 
Thin oil, 25 gals. per square yard... 1:08 73 1:00 80 
Earth (no lining) aes aes 1:00 0:0 as i) 


The table shows wide variations in the 
efficiency and cost of the different lining 
materials. 


“While there isno doubt that cement 
concrete is the most efficient as regards 
seepage, it is also the most expensive, 
being more than six times the cost of the 
heavy oil lining (8 2% gallons per square 
yard), which saves 50°4 per cent. of the 
water which would seep were the ditch 
not lined. This saving with the concrete 


ditch is 86°6 per cent. or one and three- 
fourths times as large. Where water is 
very valuable there is no doubt but 
that the concrete is more permanent and 
economical. But where the water is not 
so scarce anda little waste will do no 
damage, the expense of lining the ditch 
with Oil may be justified, while a more ex- 
pensive lining would be impracticable.” 
—Gawatian Korester and Agriculturist, 
July, 1908, Vol. V., No, 7. 


566 


(DEcEMBER, 1903. 


HORTICULTURE. 


ABOUT PRUNING. 


In reply to ‘‘ Beginner,” who asks how 
Pe penne fruit trees, the Expert of the 
‘‘Western Mail” says :-I must say that 
it is absolutely impossible to explain how 
to prune fruit trees by means of a writ- 
ten article, and almost impossible even 
with illustrations, because each tree re- 
quires its own special treatment. Per- 
haps the best thing I can do under the 
circumstances is to try and give the gen- 
eral principlss of pruning. ‘‘ Beginner” 
can study these and try and apply them 
to each individual case. Last season J 
published a long series of illustrated 
articles, and then only touched on the 
subject. 


First of all, why do we prune? The 
answer is to modify the form of the tree 
to suit our particular fancies, or in order 
to render the work of spraying and 
gathering of the fruit more easy; also in 
order to open out the tree to admit of 
light and air, without which the proper 
development of the foliage and fruit is 
not possible ; or, in other words, regulate 
the fruit-bearing of the tree and to 
phunulate the growth of wood if de- 
sired. 


There are certain recognised principles 
which govern the growth of fruit trees. 
These are very clearly stated by Professor 
Bayley in his work on pruning, which is 
worth careful study, though not alto- 
gether suited to our condition. Mr. 
Quinn, of South Australia, has adopted 
Professor Bayley’s laws with a slight al- 
teration in the language, and it will save 
me some trouble if | simply quote the 
following eight rules from his little pam- 
phlet on pruning ;— 


(1) The vigour of a plantor of a shoot 
is in direct ratio to the leaf surface upon 
it. 


Considering that the leaves are practi- 
cally the lungs and stomach ofa plant, 
this statement is tantamount to saying 
that the plant which has the largest 
assimilating capacity must, when food is 
unlimited, be the strongest grower. 
This law has a particularly important 
bearing upon all pruning operations 
performed whilst the tree is in active 
vegetation. 


(2) The nearer a shoot approaches a 
vertical position the stronger will be its 
growth. Thisis founded on an unvary- 


ing law of nature which causes the sap 
in plants to {flow to the highest point of 
each shoot. 


(3) The nearer a shoot approaches to 
a horizontal position, so its vigour dimin- 
ishes, This is only a natural corollary 
to the previous statement. These two 
rules have a most important bearing 
upon the selection of shoots required for 
wood or fruit production. Vertical 
shoots usually run to wood alone, while 
those tending towards a_ horizontal 
plane turn to fruitage. This goes to 
show that fruit-bearing is an attribute 
of moderate weakness rather than great 
vigour. 


(4) The lesser the number of buds 
upon a branch the stronger will be the 
growth made by each individual shoot 
arising thereform. This may be put into 
other words, indicating that heavy 
pruning of the top tends to increase the 
production of strong wood growth. 
Under natural conditions of growth 
there is a balance between root and top, 
They mutually nourish one another, but 
when suddenly the top is reduced, with- 
out the interference of diseases, the 
remaining buds make haste to utilise the 
extra volume of sap sent up to them. 
Partly for this reason, when pruning 
newly-set trees, the number of buds 
is reduced by pruning away the top 
shoots. 


(5) Ifthe root system be reduced the 
extension of the top growth will be 
checked in proportion. It is this fact 
which causes gardeners to prune the 
roots of rank-growing, unfruitful trees. 
Again, when young trees are removed 
from the nursery beds, many roots are 
broken off, or damaged, so as_ to 
necessitate their amputation. To effect 
a balance the top must be curtailed, 
othe stunted growth or decay will 
result. ; 


(6) Whenanumber of shoots are grow- 
ing at different levels upon the same 
plant, generally the topmost shoot 
absorbs most sap and outgrows those 
below. This is seen in every tree, and 
gives rise to the practices of pinching 
the growing points out of the highest 
shoots to lessen this natural advantage. 


(7) The fruit production of any plant 
is in inverse ratio of its activity of vege- 
tation. In other words, when a tree is 
making vigorous growth, its production 
of fruit is lessened. This tends to show 


DECEMBER, 1908, 


that the fruit-bearing habit arises from 
a quiescent state. To quote an extreme 
case, a superabundant crop of oranges is 
usually regarded as asign of the tree 
having begun to decline. 

(8) The smailer the number of fruits 
the greater their value and size. This 


567 


Horticulture 


is why truit-growers thin their crops at 
an early stage of development. Pruning 
also is utilised to the same end. By 
thinning Out the fruiting wood the num- 
bers are lessened, and each receives a 
larger share of the plant-food elaborated. 
—Capricornian, 12th Sept., 1908. 


COOKERY. 


THE COOKING OF PLANTAINS. 


By M WILLIs. 

BAKED PLANTAINS.—Take some Su- 
wandel plantains, cut off a small piece 
from each _end but leave the rest of the 
skin on. Putin the oven until the skin 
bursts, then turn them over, keev in 
the oven five minutes longer and then 
skin them. Afterwards they may either 


(a) Be cut lengthwise, and sprinkled 
with castor sugar, and coconut milk 
poured over them ; or 


(b) Be cut across, mixed with sugar 
and roselle, or some other slightly acid 
jelly, or with strawberry jam, and 
served with custard. 


FRIED PLANTAINS.—Skin some Su wan- 
del plantains, and stew them in water 
in the oven for a time. Pour off the 
water and let them soak in the following 
mixture :—2glasses of rum, 2 tablespoons 
of white castor sugar, together with 
afew cloves, half a nutmeg pounded, 
and the rind of a lime. After soaking, 
fry in dripping after rolling in flour. 
Serve with fine sugar. 


568 


[DECEMBER, 1908. 


MISCELLANEOUS. 


LOANS TO PADDY CULTIVATORS. 


By MupDALIYAR A. DISSANAIKE. 


In continuation of what I stated in my 
last two papers to the Board of Agri- 
culture on ‘‘The Village Cultivator and 
Paddy Cultivation,” it may not be out 
of place for me to offer a few further 
remarks on the subject, especially as the 
Government has since sanctioned the idea 
of giving practical aid and encourage- 
ment in agricultural pursuits. In order 
to prevent the people receiving in vain 
any munificence which the Government 
may offer for their benefit, and with 
the view of inducing them to greater 
exertion and activity, and to create in 
them at the same time a sense of duty, 
I would venture to suggest that the 
Government should offer the benefits 
of the loan to those distriets (Pattus or 
Korales) where the principal inhabitants 
are willing to form amongst themselves 
Associations on co-operative and self- 
supporting principles to carry on agri- 
culture. If a limited number of well-to- 
do men of the different villages of a 
district make up a fund (say of about 
Rs. 3,000, each of them contributing a 
stated sum) and form themselves intoa 
Committee to administer the same, the 
Government might well supplement the 
same with aloan of an equal amount. 
This would produce a sufficiently large 
capital to give advances to the villagers, 
so that there may be small credits ‘for 
simple folks with simple needs.” The 
villagers who wish to avail themselves 
of such help might be asked to join the 
Association by making deposits of small 
sums of money to their own credit. The 
members who are the residents of the 
different villages will be in a position 
to recommend or bring in as many 
villagers as are willing to be enrolled as 
depositors, each paying an annual fee of, 
say, about Rs. 2°40 (7.e., at the rate of 20 
cents a month). This money will be 
accumulated to their credit and paid at 
their deaths with profits to the surviv- 
ing heirs of their families, The object of 
such an arrangement will be to inculcate 
habits of thrift and to teach the people 
how to provide for their families, Con- 
sidering the nature of the rural life of 
very many of the villagers, such an ex- 
pedient, I think, would be very con- 
ducive to their well-being. I suggest 
this scheme on the principle that help 
should be given to those who help them- 
selves, so that the vilagers and the 
wealthy classes of a district may take 
their part in the co-operative system. 


If the villagers who join the Associa- 
tion for agricultural purposes amounting, 
it may be, to several hundreds, will make 
deposists annually or monthly to be 
drawn at their deaths, this money added 
to what is contributed as a nucleus by 
the members together with the grant 
out of the Government loan, will afford 
means to give adequate advances to the 
people at moderate interest for agricul- 
tural purposes. 


In case of the death of any member, 
his deposit with profits will be paid to 
his heirs, and it will be necessary to 
elect another member according to the 
majority of votes of the other members. 
These members who are the leading men 
of the Association when formed into 
«a Committee, presided over by the Chief 
Revenue Officer of the district, will 
enjoy certain definite privileges. It will 
be their duty to see that relief is granted 
to the most deserving parties, and to 
see at the same time that the money 
is properly utilised and paid back to 
the Fund. There may be wealthy persons 
in a district who are ready to contri- 
bute. The obligation of such persons 
towards the poorer classes and those 
who stand in need of assistance is so 
clear, that no one who is able to con- 
tribute to form a starting fund will 
fail to take an interest in such a 
generous act. They will know the 
character of the borrower, and will be 
able to guarantee the payment. 


The scheme will give large opportuni- 
ties to those who require help in agri- 
cultural works on their becoming sub- 
scribers to the Association. As it would 
at the same time assume the character 
of a Provident Fund, it would teach 
the men to lay by something for the 
benefit of their families, and it would 
thus be an arrangement to benfit those 
who join the Association. 


Such a scheme as I have suggested 
above would conduce to the better 
utilisation of a fund created by the 
recovery of one-tenth of the produce of 
of paddy-fields when it is collected as 
a cess on the part of the cultivators 
for making improvements in padd 
cultivation, and for paying the field- 
headmen, which could not be effected 
by means of loans. 


The yearly accretions derived from the 
recovery of the tithe of paddy-fields on 
behalf of the cultivators cannot but 
prove to be very advantageous to them 
and promise a good return. Such a 
fund will be helpful in many other 


| (oe ol a 


DECEMBER, 1908.] 


respects than those already mentioned. 
For instance, such a fund may afford 
means for training youths in agricul- 
tural work by making it possible to 
offer scholarships to those who qualify 
themselves by examination to be sent 
to other countries where rice cultivation 
is more successfully and systematically 
carried on, and where they can acquire 
a proficien:y in the industry that will 
enable them to introduce into this coun- 
try new methods on improved lines. 


The recovery of the tithe from paddy 
crops to form a fund in favour of the 
cultivators being a very important 
matter and entirely in their interest, 
it will probably have to be enforced 
as is done in the case of institutions 
connected with -sanitary reforms or 
preventive methods. If the matter were 
left to the option or consent of the 
people, the results would be of a partial 
or limited character. It is not the 
initiation but the working out and 
management of the business that should 
be left to the cultivators, Success can 
be attained only when, after the enforce- 
ment of the tithe, the management is 
entrusted to the hands of the Com- 
mittee elected by the people. 


RURAL AGRICULTURE IN CEYLON: 
AND HOW iT MIGHT BE 
IMPROVED. 


By W. A. Db SILva. 

There is considerable interdependence 
in the different branches of agriculture 
in Ceylon. The planting industry, 
which comprises Tea, Coconut, Rubber, 
&ec., may eventually find that it has 
to depend very greatly on the success 
of rural agriculture for the continuance 
of its present prosperity. There are at 
present about six hundred thousand 
acres of land under rice in Ceylon, and 
there are several thousands of acres 
which have been provided with irriga- 
tion facilities and are only awaiting 
development. The productive capacity 
of the Ceylon rice-field has decreased 
to such an extent that the average 
yield per acre is, perhaps, the lowest 
in any rice-growing country. This 
average is about 8 bushels of rice per 
acre, whereas in well-managed rice-fields 
an average crop is more like fifty 
bushels. 


The planting industry depends for its 
success on cheap labour. Our labour- 
ers feed almost entirely on rice, and 
while a few years ago the cost of 
rice averaged Rs. 3 per bushel—the 
avelage price per bushel has gradually 
risen till it is now Rs. 5. Adjusting 

72 


‘ 


569 


its 


Miscellaneous. 


wages according to the minimum cost 
of living to a labourer, this increase 
of price demands increase of wages, 
if the old relations between employer 
and employee are to be maintained. If 
with rice at Rs. 3 per bushel the day’s 
wage was 33 cts., when rice goes up to 
Rs. 5 per bushel it ought to be 55 cts. 
per day. The increase of wages, how- 
ever, means a proportionate loss to the 
industries concerned. 


Many employers of labour believe 
that there must before long be a 
decrease in the price of rice through 
increased production in rice-growing 
countries. But, if one studies the con- 
ditions prevailing in the various rice- 
growing regions of the world, this happy 
prospect becomes more remote than ever. 
Japan is not producing rice enough 
to keep pace with the increase of 
population, and has to import 
grain in large quantities every year. 
It is the same in the Philippines and 
Java. China does not grow all she 
requires; and in India, means of trans- 
port have so improved, and the rural 
population has increased to such an 
extent, that her production of rice can 
hardly keep pace with her increasing 
demands. The two countries that have 
some surplus for export are Burma and 
Siam, Burmese rice is in demand in 
Kurope for manufacturing purposes, and 
this demand is yearly increasing. The 
Burmese producer, therefore, selects 
varieties of rice best suited to the Euro- 
pean market. 


It has often been suggested that in 
Ceylon we may be able to draw largely 
from Burma, could we overcome 
the prejudice of the labourers against 
Burmese rice. This prejudice, however, 
would appear to be founded on a very 
firm basis, though the labourer himself 
is not quite aware of the fact. The 
Tamil labourer consumes his rice without 
the addition of fish or meat, and the 
brown rice which he prefers to any 
other variety contains certain constitu- 
ents that compensate for the absence of 
animal food, whereas the white Burma 
rice may be said to be practically pure 
starch, 


It would thus appear that we must 
look nearer home for the solution of 
the food problem. 


Looked at from any stand-point, it 
is evident that the improvement 
of the rural population of a country 
should receive the best attention of the 
State in the interests of the general 
welfare, andifit is fully realised that 
neglect must eventually result in direct 
loss to the whole country, the interest 
taken in this problem should take a 


Miscellaneous. 


more practical form instead of being 
of a speculative character as it now is. 


Admitting that the increase in the 
production of the staple food is of the 
utmost importance to the island, it 
would be instructive to investigate some 
of the means by which similar results 
have been attained in other countries. 
With this view, a few notes on the 
progress of Agriculture in Denmark, 
as seen by me, are given below. 


A competent authority has remarked 
that, ‘‘a century ago. Denmark was ranged 
among the poorest countries of Kurope. 
Itis now considered to be one of the 
most prosperous countries. The change 
is chiefly dueto the successful develop- 
ment of Danish agriculture.” 


For this reason, many countries desir- 
ous of improving the state of rural agri- 
culture have turned their attention to 
Denmark. Scotland sent a deputation 
to visit Denmark, with a view to study- 
ing its methods of agriculture, and the 
Irish Department of Agriculture, which 
is now endeavouring to regenerate a 
rural population, perhaps as backwards 
as our own, has followed the lines which 
Penmaris has adopted towards the same 
end. 


What suits one country and one set 
of people, however, need not neces- 
sarily suit the conditions of another 
country with a population whose habits 
and environments are so distinct, but 
there are certain general principles that 
hold good under all circumstances. 
According to the same authority quoted 
above, the chief means which have con- 
tributed to secure the progress of Danish 
agriculture may be summed up under 
the following heads :— 


1. The distribution of land amongst 
small free holders; 


2. HKasy access to favourable loans 
upon landed property ; 


38. Co-operation 


4. The education imparted to peasants 
at the popular country high 
schools. 


In Ceylon we may be said, to a great 
extent, to have the first condition, in that 
village lands are well distributed among 
small free-holders, making the peasant 
pereonally and directly interested in the 

est possible cultivation of his soil, and 
encouraging his self-esteem, Itis to he 
hoped that no attempt will ever be made 
to.disturb this state of affairs. We next 
come to the second point, viz., easy 
access to favourable loans upon landed 


570 


. 


(DECEMBER, 


property. This condition has been very 
carefully developed in Denmark. No 
Ican system that is not based on strictly 
business principles has ever any chance 
of success; and in Ceylon, where the 
question is at present receiving consider- 
ation, the study of the general principles 
of loans to agriculturists deserves serious 
attention. The following notes on the 
system obtained in Denmark may, per- 
haps, assist those interested in the 
question. 


The laws of the Credit Associations are 
submitted for approval of, and control 
by, the State. Loans rarely exceed 45 to 
50 per cent. of the value of the pro- | 
erty, the utmost limit being 60 per cent. 

he annual interest varies from 34 to 43 
per cent., and the principal is paid back 
in the course of fifty years. In the case 
of Credit Associations of small land- 
owners, Government supports them 
with a limited State guarantee. Any 
system of direct loans by the State is 
likely to result ina demoralization of 
rural agriculture, and is a thing that 
should be carefully. guarded against. 
Much harm may be done to the Cey- 
lon goyia by whatis known as ‘‘patri- 
archal interference.” The aim of any 
loans should rather be to help the 
peasant to be self-reliant, and to develop 
his capacity for initiative. 


Agricultural co-operation has been 
developedin Denmark toa remarkable 
extent. In the matter of dairying, 
twenty years ago every little land- 
owner in that country churnedand sold 
his own butter. Now all the milk is ° 
delivered at the co-operative dairies. 
There are at present 1,058 dairies tn Den- 
mark, based on the profit-sharing system, 
working under competent control, and 
conducted with the greatest cleanliness 
and economy. Similar institutions exist 
as regards other produce, In Ceylon 
there is room for such co-operative 
agencies, and this Society is no. doubt 
alive to the possibilities of promoting 
them. For success, co-operative agricul- 
tural societies must aim at uniform 
excotenee of articles supplied through 
them. 


The success of rural agriculture in 
Denmark is undoubtedly due also to the 
education imparted at the popular coun- 
try high schools. There are two 
branches of these establishments— High 
schuols and Agricultural schools, The 
opening of country high schools is the 
result of private initiative, and they 
receive help from the State only by a 
system of grant-in-aid. The education 
embraces both practical and theoretical 
instruction in the cultivation of the 
soil, forestry, horticulture, manuring, 


‘ cookery and gymnastics, 


DECEMBER, 1908.1 


measurement of land, dairying, manual 
labour, Slojd (joinery and wood work). 
Besides these 
branches of education there are lectures 
and lessons on history, geography, 
political economy, book-keeping, &c. The 
school terms are arranged to suit the 
convenience of the peasants, and consist 
of about four months ina year. Both 
young men and girlsare admitted. A 
high school will have a class for girls 
during the winter months and a class 
for young men in the spring. NO en- 
trance examination is held, all appli- 
cants between the ages of eighteen and 
twenty-five are admitted. The pupils 
reside on the premises during the whole 
term, and the cost of board, lodging, 
and tuition is very moderate. The educa- 
tion differs in different schools, and is 
intended to suit the requirements of the 
young men and women attending the 
classes. The pupils are trained by 
teachers usually of a high standard of 
competence, who take a just pride in 
their work. The leading rules of these 
high schools may be summed up in the 
following :—‘‘ Honour, physical labour, 
know your trade thoroughly and mind 
it well, never neglect your intellectual 
developments,” There are at present in 
Denmark, with its population of only 
two and ahalf millions, about a hundred 
such schools, with an annual attendance 
of about ten thousand (the actual figures 
for 1906 were 85 schools with 7,886 pupils). 


Some system of education on the 
above lines is required in Ceylon, since 
the peasant cannot afford to waste his 


‘time ina long course of education with 


the object of gleaning a little knowledge 
suited to 
training of four or five months (which 
if he is so disposed, he can repeat for two 
or three years) should go a great way to 
educate him as he requires to be educated. 


There is another point that calls for 
attention in Ceylon, Rice cultivatioa is 
the main employment of the villager, 
but it does not occupy his whole time. 
He has much enforced leisure, and, until 
he can find in his own home some re- 
munerative employment to occupy his 
spare hours, he will not do full justice to 
himself, and will have neither the means 
nor the contented spirit that should 
help him to progress and increase in 
prosperity. The present state of aftairs 
can only be remedied by the encourage- 
ment of minor rural industries suitable 
to local conditions. 


These are some of the considerations 
which, I think, should weigh with those 
who have it in their power to guide the 
destinies of the Ceylon farmer. 


his every-day wants, but a : 


71 Miscetlaneous. 


LITERATURE OF ECONOMIC 
BOTANY AND AGRICULTURE. 
XXXYV. 


Tea: General.—(Contd.) 


Cavara. Studi sul the. Richerche 
intorno allo sviluppodel frutto del 
Thee chinensis. AttilIst. Bot. Pavia 

Tea in South Carolina. Exp. Sta. 
Ree, XI. p. 741. 

La production et le commerce du 
thé en extreme Orient. Bull. Ke. 
Indoch. 1900, p. 480. 

See Just’s Jahresbericht. 

Suzuki. Thein. Bull. Agr. Coll. Tokio. 
1901. See Nature 10. 10. 1901, p. 582. 

Huile de thé. Journ. d’ Agr. trop. L, 
1901, p. 78. 

Kiefer. Die Thee industrie Indiens 
und Ceylons. Wien 1902. 

Die Kultur des Thees in Indien. Tro- 
penpfi. 1908, p. 350. 

Geschiednis van de Gouvernements 


Thee cultuur op Java. Ind. Mere. 
Nov. 1904, p. 757. 
Tea inJava. Bamberand Kingsford. 
*T. A.” Nov. 1904, p. 310. 
Formosa teas. do. do. p. 322. 
Teain Japan. do. do. p. 329, 
Formosa tea development. Ind. 


Plant. 6. 1. 1906, p. 5. 

Compton. The leading teas of the 
world. Ind. Plant. 26. 5.1906, p. 364. 

Ceylon’s Import duty on tea. do 
June 1906, p. 447. 

La propagation asexuée du theier. 
Journ. d’ Agr. trop. Dec. 1905, p. 360. 

The leading teas of the world. India. 
“«T, A.” 1906, pp. 150, 483. 

Our excessive tea crop. ‘T.A.” Mar. 
1906, p. 168. 

Sorting and grading of teas for the 
Colombo market. do. Feb. 
p. 52. 

British grown tea at home and 
abroad. do. Jan. 1906, p. 836. 

Tea culture in Japan. F. O, Report 
637, 1905. 

Scheikundige bestanddeelen van het 
eee ee Ind. Mere. 30, 4. 1907, p. 


’ 


Tea culture in Japan, ‘‘T.A.” Feb. 
1907, p. 79, 

The leading teas of the world: China. 
“T.A.” May 1907, p. 289, 

Ceylon’s import duty on 
“T.A.” Mar. 1907, p. 148, 

The Brick tea trade of Thibet. 
“«T,A.” Nov. 1905, p. 692. 

Cousumption of tea in the world. 
do. p. 694. 

The tea trade of China. do. p. 694. 

Tea cultivationin Japan. do. Dec, 
1905, p, 7738. 


tea. 


Miscellaneous. 


Watt. Tea and the tea plant. Journ. 
Roy. Hort. Soc. June 1907, p. 64. 

Ihe Assam tea industry. ‘T.A.” 
Aug. 1907, p. 115. 

Production of tea in India, 1905, do. 


p. 183 

The Ceylon tea duty. Planters 
Chron. Aug. 1907, p. 168. 

Home grown tea. U.S. Dept. Agr. 
Farmers’ Bull. 801. 

Tea cultivation in the United States. 
“TA.” Nov. 1907, p. 352. 

The world’s tea output. ‘‘T.A.” Oct. 
1907, p. 278. 

Tea in Jamaica. W. Ind. Bull. 8. p. 
254. “TA.” Feb. 1908, 118. 

La fleur de thé. Trav. Lab. Mat. 
Med. V. 1908. 

Tea in French Indo-China. Bull. 
Jard..Col. Abstr.in ‘T.A.” Apr. 


. McMeekin’s_ report, 
“TA.” Feb. 1907, 6. 173. 

The a situation in America. do. 

L7G: 

Tea vs. Coconuts. do. p. 195. 

Sandmann. Der Tee auf Ceylon. 
Tropenpfl. May 1908. p. 227. 

Tea cultivation in the United States. 
Queensl. Agr. J]. XX. 1908, “T.A.” 
May 1908, p. 444. 

Teain Java. “T.A.” Supp. May 1908, 
p. 499. ; 

Tea in Natal. Natal Agr. Jl. Apr. 
1968, * T.A.” Sept. 1908, p. 226. 

Teas from Natal. Imp. Inst. Bull. 6. 
1908, p. 1. 

Opstellen over Java thee. Cultuur- 
gids 10. I. pp. 376, 539. 

Over Java-thee. do. p. 427. 


Tea Cultivation, &c.— 


The tea tree, banjhi leaf, &c. Ind’ 
Gard. 1. 3. 1900, p. 143. 

Analysis of tea with a view to 
manuring. do. 10. 5. 1900, p. 304. 
Tea pruning. do. 21. 11. 1901, p. 366. 
Tea soilsof Assam. Mann. Ind. Agr. 

1902, p. 27. 

Watt and Mann. Principles of tea 

pruning. do. é 
_Nanninga. Soil and its influence on 
tea. cf. Ind. Plant. 5. 3.1904, p. 151. 

Mann. The treatment of deteriorated 
tea. Ind. Tea Assoc. Bulls, 4. 1906. 

Mann and Hutchinson. Green manur- 
ing in tea culture in India. do. 
2, 1906. 

Mann. The renovation of deteriorat- 
ed tea. “T.A.” July 1906, p. 57. 

The effect of burying organic matter 
on the quality of tea. ‘‘T.A.” June 
1906, p. 883. 

The disposal of tea prunings. Hughes 
in‘ T.A.” May 1906, p. 295- 

Our excessive tea crop, and how to 
manure. do. Mar. 1906, p, 168, 


572 


_ Manuring of tea. Plant. Chron. Aug. 


Nanninga. Onze Javasche theekul- 


Tea Diseases.— 


Tea: Manufacture, Chemistry, &c.— 


[DECEMBER, 1¢0 


Nanninga. Bemesting van _ theet- 
iunen. Ind. Mere. Feb.;1907, pp. 
118, 184. 

Heavy pruning of tea. ‘‘T.A.” Sept. 
1907, p. 43. 


1907, p. 168. =e 
Experiments in heavy pruning of 
tea in Assam. ‘T.A.” Noy. 1907, 
p. 3840, i 
Largest yield per acre of tea in 
Ceylon. ‘‘T.A.” Feb, 1908, p. 187. 


tuur en de handel in Javathee. 
Ind. Mere. 6. 10. 1908. p, 729, 


Breve blight. Kew Bull. July 1899, 


p. 89. 

Barber. Tea eelworm disease in 
South India. 

Delacroix Les maladies du _ theier. 
Journ. d’ Agr. trop. Mar. 1902, p. 67. 

Toa fungi. Acta. Hort. Bot. Tiflis 
VI. 3. 47. 

Scale insects attacking tea. ‘“T.A.” 
Supp. Sept. 1907, p. 63. 

Les maladies dutheier. Bull. Jard. 
Col. 1908. 

And see Peradeniya Circulars, &e. 


Ceylon teabox woods. Lewis. Journ. 
Soc. Arts. ‘‘T. A.” Nov. 1898, 

Fuel for tea manufacture. “TA.” 
Suppl. Dee. 1899, p. 445. 

Jackson’s Venetian Dryer. Ind. Gard. 
4. 1. 1900, p. 18. 

The Apjohn mechanical tea bulker. 
do. 19. 4. 1900, p. 255. 

Jackson’s tea dust extractor. do. 
10. 5. 1900, p. 807. 

Jackson’s balanced self-cleaning tea- 
sifting machine. do. 381. 5. 1900, 
p. 850. 

Jackson’s double tea packer. do. 7. 
6. 1900, p. 371. 

Mann. Ferment of tea leaf. ‘*T.A.” 
Jan. 1902, p. 452. 

Azo on oxidase. Ind. Gard. Feb. 
1902, p. 115. 
ley. Microchemistry of tea. See 
Bot. Cent. 89, p. 152. 

Nestler. Test for thein. See do. 
89, p. 153. . 

Le ferment de la feuille de thé et ses 
rapports avee la qualité du thé. 
Bull. Econ. Indoch. 1904, p, 862. 

Nestler. Untersuchungen iiber der 
thein der theepflanze. See Bot. 
Cent. 96. p. 404. 

Manufacture of brick tea for the ~ 
Tibet market. Ind. Plant. 20. 1. — 
1907, p. 43. 

Indian brick tea for Tibet, do. 10. 3, 
1906, p. 163. oe 

Brick tea for Tibet. ‘“‘T.A.” Apr.” 


1906, p. 219. 


DECEMBER, 1908. | 


Nanninga. Het drogen van _ thee. 
Ind. Mere. 12. 2. 1907, p. 95. 

Sorting and grading of teas for the 
Colombo market. ‘“‘T.A.” Dee. 
1905, p. 769. 

Mann. The fermentation of tea. 
“TA.” July 1907, p. 41. 

Mann. The factors which determine 
the quality of tea. ‘T.A.” Oct. 
1907, p. 267, Nov. 2907, p. 333. 

Mann. The ferment of tea leaf, and 
its relation to quality in tea. 
«T.A.” Dec. 1907, p. 415. 

Tea packing and despatching. ‘*T.A.” 
Supp. Sept. 1908, p. 289. 

Note on tea manufacture do. Aug. 
1908, p. 201. 


Telfairia.— 


Zimmermann. Die Kultur und Ver- 
wendung des Talerkiirbis. Tropenfl- 
1906, p. 128. 


Terminalia.— 


Wild almond oil. Ind. Agr. Apr. 
1906, p. 117. 
do. “T.A.” June 1906, p. 371. 

Lime from the Kumbuk tree. ‘“T.A,” 
Jan. 1906, p. 870. 

Terminalia Chebula, the myrabolan 
of commerce. ‘‘T.A.” Nov. 1907, 
p. 825. 

The use of Terminalia Arjuna bark 
for tanning. Ind. Forester, Oct. 
1908, p. 583. 


Thevetia.— 


Lucky beans in the West Indies. 
Agr. News. III, Dec. 1904, p. 388. 


Timbers, Miscellaneous.— 


Ceylon teabox woods. Lewis in 
Journ, Soc. Arts. 1898. ‘* T.A.” 
Nov. 1898. 

Fuel for tea manufacture. ‘T,A.” 
Supp. Dec. 1899, p. 445. 

Chemistry of timber. Queensl, Agr. 
Jl. Dec. 1899, p. 594. 

Tree planting in South Australia. 
do. Jan. 1900, p. 49. 

Production of tall trees. do. p. 63. 

Ceylon timbers. Stone’s report. Ind. 
Agric. 1. 8. 1900, p. 244. 

Le Teck au Siam. Bull. Ee. Indoch. 
1900, p. 644. 

Teak industry of Siam. Ind. Fores- 
ter 27, p. 529, 

Teak of Malay Peninsula. Malay 
Bull. I. 

Annual rings in Teak. do. p. 181. 

The identification of wood. Ind. 
Forester 28, 1902, p. 114. 

Le transport du bois dans les forets 
coloniales. Bull. Jard. Col. 2. 1908, 
p. 641. 

The rapid ageing and fireproofing of 
wood. Ind. Forester 29, p. 41. 


Miscellaneous. 


West Indian timbers. do. 28, p. 449. 

Recent progress in timber preserva- 
tion. Yearbook U.S, Dept. Agr. 
1908, p. 427. 

Kssai de classification des principales 
bois de Cochinchina. Bull. Ee. 
Indoch. Nov. 1904, p. 1213. 

Mechanical tests of some Indian 
timbers. Ind. Forester, Bull. 
6. 1906. 

Mechanical tests. Philippine 
Islands woods. Bureau Forestry, 
Manilla. Bull, 4, 1906. 

Possibilities of wood 
“T.A.” May 1907, p. 286. 

Das teakholz. Beih. z. Tropenpfl. 
VIII. 5. Dee. 1907. 

Die japanische Ceder (Cryptomeria). 
Der Pflanzer 22. 2. 1908, p. 29, 


products. 


Tobacco: General.— 


Tobacco in the United States. Jam- 
aica Bull. 5, 1898, p. 246. 

Tobacco. See Report Dpt. Agr. U. 
S., 1898, p. 40. 

Hollandsche tabak. Ind. Mere. 1899, 
Jan. &e. 

Profitable tobacco-growing. Queensl. 
Agr. Jl, June 1899, p. 469. 

Tobacco growing. do. July 1899, 
p- 125. 

He ae Plant. Opin. Dec. 1899, p. 
66. 

Darmstiidter. Die geographische 
Verbreitung des Tabakbaues, mit 
Beitrige zur Geschichte dasselben. 
Sonderburg, 1899. 

Comes, O. Monographie du genre 
Nicotiana. Naples 1899. 

ge in Cuba, F. O. Report 2861, 


Future of the tobacco industry in 
Queensland. Queensl. Agr. JI, Jan. 
1900, p. 44. 

Van Leenhoff. Tobacco production: 
Natal’s prospects. Natal Agr. Jl. 
2.2. 1990; sp. 717: 

Koning. Der Tabak; Studien tiber 
seine Kultur und Biologie. Leipzig 
1899. 

See Exp. Sta. Record. 

The growth of the tobacco industry. 
Soca beck U. S. Dpt. Agr. 1899, 

Ueber die Keimung der Tabak-samen. 
Bull. Buitenzorg VI. I. 1900. 

Over Deli-grond en  Deli-tabak. 
Buitenzorg Meded. 43. 

Hiniges iiber den Tabakbau auf 
Sumatra. Tropenpfl. 5, p. 117. 
Tobacco. Jamaica Bull. 8. 1901, p. 38. 

See Just’s Jahresbericht. 

Leaf tobacco at Paris Exhibition. 
Yearbook U.S. Dept. Agr. 1900, 
p. 157 

Tobacco growing in Trincomalee 
district. °‘T,A.” Apr. 1902, p. 685, 


Miscetlaneous. 574 


Notes pratiques d’un planteur de Tobacco: Cultivation.— 


Deli. Rev. Cult. Col. 1901-2. 


Stuhlmann. Tabak in Java. Beih. 
z Tropenpfl. 4. 1. p. 25. 

Notes on tobacco. “T.A.” Oct. 1904 
p. 282. 

Tobaccos of Jamaica. Jamaica Bull. 
Dec. 1904, p. 265. 

Tobacco growing in Trichinopoly. 
Ind. Agric. Oct. 1905, p. 319. 

Tobacco culture. Journ. Dpt. Agr. 
Victoria 1905, p. 553. 

Collet. Le Tabac. Brussels, 1903. 


The cultivation and curing of to- 
bacco. W. Ind. Dpt. Agr. Leaflet 
38, 1905. 

Tobacco cultivation in Jaffna. ‘“T.A.” 
Sept. 1906, p. 245. 

The cultivation andcuring of tobacco. 
eA.” - Suly), 1906," p. 51: 

The cultivation of tobacco in the 
Hiriyala Hatpattu. do. Mar. 1906, 
p. 129. 

The tobacco industry of Ceylon. do. 
Feb. 1906, p. 37. 

Dumbara tobacco. do. Jan. 1906, 
p. 819. 

Tobacco growing in Ceylon. do. p. 826 

Tobaceo breeding. U. 8. Dept. Agr., 
B. P. I. Bull. 96, 1907, ‘‘T.A.” Apr. 
1908, p. 351. 

Tobacco cultivation in the Chilaw 
district. “LAs” July, (1907) pia), 

Tobacco in the Transvaal. Agr. 
News, July 1907, p. 288. 

Tobacco in Jamaica, W. Ind. Bull. 
8. 1907, p. 209. 

Rapport sur la cultur du tabac en 
Indo-chine. Bull. Ee.Indoch. 1908, 

. 161. 

Mie smeines iiber die Tabakkultur. 
eu Sumatras. Tropenpfl. June 
1908, p. 257, ! ; 

Tobacco cultivation in Victoria. Agr. 
News, June 1907, p. 196. 

De tabakskultuur in San Domingo. 
Ind. Mere. 14. 7. 1908, p. 519. 

De tabakskultuur in Maryland. do. 
p. 519. ; 

The cultivation and curing of tobacco 
as followed near Dindigul, Madura 
district. Bull. Dpt. Agr. Madras. 
«D.A,” June 1908, p. 579. 

The tobacco industry of the Northern 


Province. Report of the Com- 
mittee. ‘‘T.A.” Supp. Aug, 1908, 
p. 187. ae 

Nieuwe  tabaksvarieteiten. Ind. 


Mere. 25. 8. 1908, p. 621. 

Economic plants in Jamaica. To- 
bacco. Jamaica Bull. 6, 1908, p. 46. 

Tobecco growing in the Philippines. 
Farmers’ Bull., Manila Dpt. Agr. 
1907. 

Eenige cijfers over Java tabak, 
Cultuurgios, 10, I. p. Lol. 


’ Rotation of crops on tobacco land. 


Tobacco: Diseases.— 


in AN ts me , 
[Decempmr, 1908 
. ts 


Manuring. Queensl. Agr. Jl. Dee. 
1898, p. 441. 

Tobacco under cover. do. Feb. 1899, 
p. 107. 

Tobacco cultivation and_ curing. 
Jamaica Bull. 1899, p. 145 

Field experiments with fertilizers. 
Expt. Sta. Ree. 11, p. 924. 

Cultivation of tobacco under cloth. 
Jamaica Bull. Sept. 1904, p. 206. 

The cultivation and curing of to- 
bacco. Ind. Agric. Aug. 1900, p. 254. 

Lorganisation du travail et la main 
d’oeuvre Chinoise dans les plant- 
ations de tabac de Sumatra. Bull. 
Ke. Indoch. 1900, p. 491. 

Tobacco culture. Hspin. Trin. Bull. 
extra number Oct. 1900. 

Cultivation et preparation du tabac - 
de Manille. Rev. Cult. Col. 1901, 
p- 239. 

Recent experiments on the growth 
of tobacco. Planting Opin. April 
1902, p. 286. 

Manurial experiments. Buitenzorg 
Meded. 55. : 

The cultivation and curing of to- 
bacco. ‘T.A,” Oct, 1904, p. 282. 
And see above under General and 

Cultivation. 

Over het drogen van de _ tabak, 
Buitenzorg Meded. 41, 1900. 

The culture and curing of tobacco. 
«MT A.” Sept. 1904, p. 153, 

Methods of testing the burning 
qualities of cigar tobacco. U.S. 
Dpt. Agr. B. P. I. Bull. 100, 1906. 

The relation of the composition of 
the leaf to the burning qualities 
of tobacco. do. 105, 1907. 

Fermentation of tobacco. Agr. 
News. 27. 6, 1908, p. 203. ‘*T.A.” 
Oct. 1908, p. 321. 

New method for the determination — 
of nicotine in tobacco. U.S. Dpt. 
Agr. B. P, I. Bull. 102, 1907. 

Tobacco under shade. Ind. Mere, — 
3. 6. 1902, p. 411. 

Tobacco manuring experiments, 
Agr. Jl. Vict. 1904, p. 961. 

Experiments in manuring Dumbara 
tobacco, ‘‘T.A.” May 1907, p. 281. — 


“TA,” July 1907, p. 19, 
How to save the best tohaceo seed. 
do. June 1907, p. 357. . 
Hints for tobacco growers, Drieberg 
do. Apr. 1908, p, 322. ity: 
Essai de culture & V’ombre avee le ~ 
tabae de Deli ASumatra. Hunger. 
Journ, d’Agr. trop. Dec. 1907, p. 366. 
Propagation of tobacco in Cuba. — 
Cuba Sap. Sta. Bull. 10. 1908, 


Mosaic disease in Deli, tobacco. I nd 
Mere, 11. 3. 1899, p. 160, a! 


- DECEMBER, 1908.) Bt 


Tabaks-aaltje. Baitenzorg Meded. 
35, 1899 and abstr, in Bull. Bag. 4. 
Ofverzicht der Ziekten. Buitenzorg 

Meded. 47. 
De mozaiekziekte der tabak. Ind. 
Mere, 18, 2. 1906, p. 105. 
Onderzoekingen en  beschouwingen 
over de Mezaiek-Ziekte der tabak- 
plant. do. 31. 7. 1906, p. 535. 
Delacroix, Recherches sur quelques 
piace du tabac en France. Paris, 


Tobacco: Harvesting and Curing.— 


Nevill: Curing Cigar tobacco. 
Queensl. Agr. Jl. Nov, 1898, p. 342. 
Cigar leaf curing. do. Feb, 1899, p. 107. 
Handling heavy pipe tobaccos. do. 

Sept. 1899; p. 299. 
Fermentation in Sumatra, 
Bull. 1899, p. 100, 
Curing in Florida, 
25. 11. 1899, p. 939. 


Jamaica 


Planting Opin, 


Loew, Fermentaion of Cigar Leaf © 


tobacco. U.S, Dpt. Agr., B, P.I 
Bulls. 1899-1900, 

Vernhout, J, H. Onderzoekingen over 
Bacterien bij de Fermentatie der 
tabak. Buitenzorg Meded. 84. 

Fine Cigar tobaccos. Queensl. Agr, 
Jl. Apr. 1900, p. 294, 

Tobacco. Nature, 11. 10. 1900, p. 576. 

Cigar manufacture in Madras. Ind. 
Agric. July 1901, p. 224. 

Over het Oogsten van 
verschilleden tijden van den dag. 
Ind. Mere, 23. 6, 1903, p. 430. 

Cigar Leaf, Nevill Queens]. Agr, Jl. 
Oct. 1908, p. 188, 


Toluifera.— 


Preuss, Der Perubalsam in Central- 

amerika und seine Kultur. Tro- 
penpfi. 1900, p. 527. 

Mannich. Chemische Untersuchung 
der Perubalsamsorten, do. p, 543. 

Balsam of Peru, Chem. & Drug. 20, 4. 

« 1901, p. 638. 

Zur Nomenklatur des Perubalsam- 


baumes, Hallier. Notizbl, Berlin. 
V, 1908, p. 85. 
Tomato.— 
On Tomatoes, ‘‘T,A,” Mar. 1900, p: 
626. 


Rolfs. Diseases of the Tomato. Fla. 
Exp. Sta. Bull. 1900, 

Hunger. Hen Bacterie ziekte der 
Tomat, Buitenzorg Meded. 48. 

Nieuwe Ziekte in de Tomat. Ind. 
Mere, 380. 6. 1908, p. 447. 

Tomato disease, Str, Bull. Mar, 1964. 

Tomato growing in Jamaica. Agr. 
News, 5. 1906, p. 27. 

The ee Ind. Gard. 7. 4. 1906, 


Tomato disease in California. Bull. 
175, Calif. Univ. Exp. Sta,, 1906. 


tabak op | 


Miscellaneous. 

The Tomato. ‘“T.A.” June 1906, 
p. 399. 

Tomato cultivation in the tropics. 


do. May 1906, p. 291. 
Tonka Bean.-- 


Ff’. O.. Report on Amazonas, 1900, p. 21. 

ISino from the bark of Dipteryx odo- 
rata. Imp. Inst. Bull. June 1904, 
p. 131. 

Tonquin bean. Gard. Chron. 24. 12. 
ne p. 440, Ind. Plant. 14, 1. 1905, 
p. 36. 


Treculia.— 
Js pint cane. Tropenpfl. 4. 1900, p. 
198. 


Tristania. — 
T. suaveolens (timber &ec.). Queensl 
Agr. Jl, Dec. 1899, p. 598. 
T. conferta and laurina. do. Jan. 


1900, p. 47. 
Turf.— 


arf and Fodder grasses. 
1903, p. 278, 


Str. Bull. 


Turmeric.— 
Turmeric. ‘‘T.A.” Apr. 1903, p. 659. 
Turmeric. Jam. Bull, 1906, p. 163. 


Turmeric cultivation. “T.A.” Aug. 


1907, p. 124. 
Vanilla.— 


See papers in ‘‘T. A.” Mar. 1899, p. 597. 

Busse. Studien iiber das Vanilla. See 
Bot. Centr. 77, 1899, p. 421, 

Vanilla in Mexico. Planting Opin. 
8. 4.1899, p. 267. ‘ 

Behrens. Ueber das Vorkommen des 
Vanillins in der Vanilla. Tropenpfl. 
July 1899, p. 299. 

Vanilla. “T.A.” Dec. 1899, p. 381. 

Drying by ealcium chloride, Jamaica 
Bull. 7. 1900, p. 12. 

Vanilla. Planting Opin. 17. 3. 1900, 
p. 198. 

O’Conor. 
India. 

Pharmacy of Vanilla. Amer. Drug. 
and Ph, Ree. 32, 1898, Bot. Cencr. 
Beih. 8. p. 467. 

Die Kultur der Vanilla in Mexico. 
Tropenpfl. 4, 1900, p. 180. 

Vanilla in Reunion. Plant. Opin. 
7. 4. 1900, p. 241, 

Die Bildung des Vanillins in der 
Vanillefrucht. Tropenpfi, 4, 1900, 
p. 199. 

Vanilla cultivation in Bengal. Plant. 
Op. 1900, p. 419. 

Vanilla by J. C. Sawer. 
Bull. 1900, p, 45. 

Avantages de la culture du Vanille 
sur les Jatropha Cureas. Rey. Cult 
Col. 1900, p. 498. 


Vanilla, its cultivation in 


Jamaica, 


Miscellaneous. 


Vanilla in Reunion. Beih. Tropenpfi. 
II. 1901, p. 12. 


Vanilla cultivation on a commercial 
basis. Ind. Gard. 9. 5. 1901, p. 380. 


Sur les parasites animaux et vegetaux 
du Vanille. Rev, Cult, Col. July 
1901, p. 50. 

Une vanillerie modéle a Madagascar: 
Journ. d’ Agr. trop. 1902, p. 14. 

pore de la vanille & Mayotte, do. 
p. 0d. 

Prudhomme. L’ agriculture sur la 
Cote est de Madagascar. 

Léan dans la Vanille. Journ. d’ Agr. 
trop. 31. 8. 1905. p. 227. 

Vanille Kultur und Priparation in 
Posey Ost Afrika. Tropenpfl. 10, 
0. 642, 

Vanilla statistics. Chem. and Drug. 
30. 6. 1906. Jamaica Bull. 1906, p, 
207. 

Seychelles Vanilla. Chem. and Drug. 
1. 9. 1906, p. 369, 

Les fluctuations de la vanille de 
Tahiti. Hamel Smith. Journ. q’ 
Agr. trop. Mar. 1906, p. 75. 

See monthly report of vanilla market. 
Trop. Life. 

Vanilla in Tahiti, “T.A.” Apr. 1906, 
p. 218. 

Vanilla industry in the Seychelles. 
“«T. A.” Oct. 1906, p. 32, 

Vanilla cultivation. ‘‘T.A.” Dee. 1905, 
p. 769. 

Vanilla industry in the Seychelles. 
Jamaica Bull. 1907, p. 170. 

Curing vanilla pods for market. do. 

0. 172. 

Die Vanilla-ernten seit 1901. Tro- 
penpfl. Dec, 1907, p. 871. ‘| T.A.” Feb. 
1908, p. 118. 

Packing vanillas for shipment. Trop. 
Life. May 1908, p. 78, “T.A.” Aug. 
1908, p. 127. 

See Tropenpfl. 1902, p. 246. 

Formation of vanillin. Schimmel’s 
Report Apr. 1902, p. 100. 

Erfahrungen iiber Kultur und Prapa- 
ration der Vanilla in Deutsch Ost- 
Afrika. Tropenpfl, 1902, p. 164. 

Vanilla growing. ‘‘T.A.” July 1902, 
p. 42. 

On the cultivation and curing of 
vanilla. Trin. Bull. 1902, pp. 468, 
509. 

Le Vanille & nossi-Bé. Journ. d’ Agr. 
trop. July 1903, p. 195. 

Vanilla as practised in Seychelles. 
Jamaica Bull. 9, 1902, p. 118. 

Java Vanilla. do. p. 126. 

Artificial vanilla. Agric. News., 26. 
3. 1904. 

Vanilla. ‘‘T.A.” Feb. 1904, p. 512. 

The vanilla trade. Ch. and Drug. 
1904, I. p. 897, 966. 

Mainly about vanilla. do. 22. 10. 1904, 


p: 688 


576 


[DEcEMBER, 1908. 
Hennings. Ueber das Lage des 
-Vanilla-markts. Tropenpfl. Feb. 
1905, p. 87. . 
Vanilla. Chem. and Drug. 7.10. 1905, 
p. 593, 


Vegetables.— 


See Str. Bull. No. 8, Dee. 1898. - 

Zega. Hierpflanzen. Bot. Centr. Beih, 
IX. p. 157. 

La patate douce. Rev. Cult. Col. 6, 
1900, p. 42. 

Sechium. Nock. ‘‘ T.A.” 1902, p. 709; 

Two useful vegetables (Rumex vesi- 
carius and Chenopodium album). 
Agr. Mag. Colombo, May 1902, p. 85. 

La culture des plantes potagerés dans 
les pays chauds. Rev. Cult. Col. 
Nov. 19038, p. 257. 

Onion cultivation. Agr. News, 10. 
9. 1904, p. 289. 

Indische Komkommervruchten. Ind. 
Mere. 7. 1. 1905, p. 87. 

Soy and bean cheese. Str. Bull. Dec. 
1904, p. 494. 

Die Kultur und Verwendung der 
Chayote. Tropenpfi. 1906, p. 188. 
Calathea Allouya. Hart. ‘“T.A.” 

May 1906, p. 349. 

Chemical examination of the beans 
of Phaseolus lunatus, ‘‘T.A.” Jan. 
1906, p. 831. 

Notes on the cultivation of vegetables. 
Jamaica Bull., Oct. 1906, p. 217. 

Vegetable growing in Porto Rico. 
Bull. P. R. Exp. Sta. 1906. 

Oucumbers. U.S. Dept. Agr. Farrn- 
ers’ Bull. 254, 1906. 

Cucurbitacées tropicales.. Bull. Jard. 
Col. 1907, p. 5. 

The soy bean. Macmillan. ‘“T.A.” 
Nov. 1905, p-. 682. 

Calathes Allouya. do. Dee. 1905, p. 
764, 

Kultur und Verwendung der Chayote. 
Tropenpfl, 1907, p. 704. 

Cabbage growing for stock in Cuba. 
“TA.” Apr. 1908, p. 302. ° 

Lettuce culture. Cuba E.S. Bull. 8. 
1907 ““T.A.” Mar. 1908, p. 211. 

The poisonous properties of the beans 
of Phaseolus lunatus, Journ. B. of 
a Mar. 1908. “T.A.” June 1908, p, 
530. 


Vigna,— 


The history of the cowpea and its 


introduction into America. U. S. 


Dpt. Agr., B. P. I. Bull. 102. 


Villebrunea.— 


V. integrifolia. Agr. Ledger V. P, 
Ser. 48. 


Vine.— 


Vines, and culture. Jamaica Bull. 
May 1898, p. 95. 

Disease of the vine. do. Nov. 1899, — 
p- 161. eg oe ; 


DEcEMBER, 1908.] 


(jueensl. 1900, 


Vintage, Agr. Jl. 
p. 

Dependence of the fruit development 
of grapes. . . on_the develop- 
ment of the seed. Exp. Sta. Rec, 
XI. p. 982. 

Zur Weinbaufrage in den deutschen 
Kolonien. Dammer. Tropenpfl. 
1900, p. 487. 

Culture des vines précoces dans le 
nord de l'Afrique. Rev. Cult. Col. 
Sept. 1901, p. 161. 

Grape vine culture. 
Mar. 1904. 

Cultivation of the grape vine at 


Jamaica Bull. 


Antcadloa? Sora At caaae Minis: 1906, 

p 

The cultivation of the grape vine in 
Poona. Bull. A. H. Soe. W. India, 
1906. 

Grape vine culture. Jamaica Bull. 
V. 1907, p. 1. 


The cultivation of the grape vine in 
the Northern Province, Ceylon. 
“T.A.” Nov. 1907, p. 364. 

The season for pruning and winter- 
ing the grape in Ceylon. do. 

Voandzeia.— 

Bambarra groundut. Kew Bull. 1906> 
p. 68. 

Le Voandzobary ou Vouandzu. 
Jard. Col. 1907, p. 38, 

Walking Sticks.— 


Details of commercial requirements. 
See Report Natal Gardens, Jan.— 


June 1901, p. 14. 


Weeds.— 
Nutgrass—Cyperus rotundus, L. Mai- 


Bull. 


denin Agr. Gaz. N.S. W. Dee. 1898. 
Illuk or lalang grass. ‘*‘T.A’”? May 
1906, p. 328, 
Willow.— 


Willow culture for India and Ceylon: 
Macmillan in Ind. Gard. 12. 7. 1900» 


jan al 
The Cricket-bat willow. Kew Bull. 


Ximenia.— 
Das Ol] von Ximenia americana: 
Der Pflanzer 29. 8. 1908, p. 204 


xXylia.— 
Xylia dolabriformis, Iron-wood of 
Pegu. Agr. Ledger, Forest Series 


4, 1899 


Yams (Dioscorea).— 
Dioscorea Daemona Roxb. Ind. Mere. 
98, 1. 1899, p. 55. 
Sur Sena plate du Japon (D. japo- 
rica, Thunb). Rev. Cult. Col. 1902, 


p- 297. 
73 


577 


Miscellaneous. 


Famine foods: D. Denton a: Journ, 
Bombay N. H. Soe. 14. p. 772. 
wan Harris in Tataies Bull. 1906, 
p 
Yautia,— 
The yautias or tanniers, of Porto 
Rico. Bull. 6, Porto Rico Exp, Sta, 


1905. ‘*'T.A.” Oct, 1907, p. 285, Nov. 


1907, p. 368. 
Vlang-ylang.— 
Oil of ylang-ylang. Ch, & Drug. 8. 3: 
1902, p. 388. 

See _Schimmel's reports, April 1902, 
Oultevation of ylang-ylang. Ind. PI. 
and Gard. 6, 2. 1904, p. 98. 
Essential oil of ylang-ylang. se Ae 

Sept. 1907, p p- BPH 
La culture de l’Ylang-Ylang. Journ. 
d Agr. trop. June 1908, p. 171. 


Zacaton.— 
Die Zacaton-wurzel. Tropenpfi. 1906. 
p. 369, 
VALUE OF SODIUM TO PLANTS. 


Osterhout (in Univ. 
Publications : Botany, vol. 3, p, 331, 1908) 
followiug up previous papers, makes 
out that the presence of a small quantity 
of a soda salt is of use in protecting 
a plant against the otherwise harmful 
apo of other salts that may be present. 
— D. 


of California 


NOTES AND QUERIES. 


By C. DRIEBERG. 


M. B.—Chicks do not require to be 
fed till they are thirty-six hours old, and 
it is a mistake to feed them earlier, 


MARKET GARDENER.—As aruie, cab- 
bages should be given a liberal dressing 
of dung, with 3 to 4 ecwt. superphos- 
pate, and an equal quantity of kainit, 
Then, when the plants are well establish- 
ed, a little nitrate of soda may be 
given to each. 


J. G.—The average yield of manioc 
in the United States is given as5 tons 
of roots per acre. In Ceylon the aver- 
age must be a good deal higher, say 8 
to 10 tons per acre, though no reliable 
figures are available. 


Fruit FARMpeR.—-If you plant your 
pine shoots 20” by 24’, you will plant 
12,000 plants per acre. As _ regards 
manure, thougha fair amount of nitro- 


Miscellaneous. 


gen and phosphoric is required, a liberal 

supply of potash is most essential for 
good quality fruit; but avoid the 
chloride, as chorine is found to have a 
very bad effect on pines. Phosphoric 
acid is preferably given as bone-meal or 
Eramined bone dust, and not as super. 
Nitrogen is bestas an organic manure, 
An average fertilizer should contain 
5 % nitrogen, 4 % phosphoric acid and 
10 % potash. 


G.—The ‘devils’ grass” of the West 
Indies is Cynodon dactylon, the ‘‘ dhoob” 
of India and “ Arugam pillu” of the Cey- 
lon Tamils—one of the most valuable 
of our natural fodder grasses and very 
suitable for lawn making. It is_impos- 
sible to say how it came to be called by 
such a hard name in the West! 


F. P.—Argemone meaicanais the name 
of the weed which is more commonly 
known as Mexican poppy. It is not 
spreading to any great extent, as far 
as I know. It is said to be one of the 
few weeds without any redeeming 
feature, so it must not be spread. 


B.—It is very unusual for the bread- 
fruit--the edible species—to fruit with 
seeds, but there are quite a number 
(about twenty) of trees, bearing fruits 
with seeds in the Weragoda Experi- 
mental Garden. 


BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. 


MINUTES OF 48RD MERTING. 


The 48rd meeting of the Board of 
Agriculture was held at the Council 
ree on Thursday the 8rd December, 
1908. 


His Excellency the Governor presided. 
There were present the Hon’ble Mr. 
H.L. Crawford, the Hon’ble Mr. Bernard 
Senior, Dr. Willis, Dr, H. M. Fernando, 
Messrs. J. Harward, C. J. C. Mee, Tudor 
Rajapakse (Mudaliyar). H. J. Peiris, G. 
W. Sturgess, W. A.de Silva, J. D. Van- 
derstraaten, L. W. A. De Soysa, and 
Secretary. 


As Visitors, Capt. Curling, Messrs‘ 
J. S. McCall, Albo Guy, F. C. Roles, and 
Alex. Perera. 


BUSINESS. 


ij. Minutes of the meeting held on the 
5th of October were read and confirmed. 

2. Progress Report No. 42 was adopted. 

8. Statements of Expenditure for 
October and November were tabled. 


4. Mr, W. A. de Silva read a paper on 
“Native Agriculture and how it might 


578 


(DECEMBER, 1908. 


be improved,” which was commented on 
by His Excellency the Governor, Dr. 
Willis, Mr. McCall and Mr. Roles. 


5. Papers by Mudaliyar Dissanaike on 
“Loans to Paddy Cultivators” and by the 
Secretary on ‘“‘ Recent researches regard- 
ing the germination of the coconut and 
the deterioriation of its products ” were ¥ 
taken as read, and, on the invitation of 
His Excelleney the Governor, Mr. J. D. 
Vanderstraaten read a note on ‘‘ The 
Relation of Weather to Crops in the 
Coconut Palm.” 


This terminated the proceedings. 


‘C. DRIEBERG, 
Secretary, C. A. S. 


CEYLON AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY. 


PROGRESS REPORT XLII. 


Membership.—Since the last meeting 
of the Board the following members 
have been errolled :—R. C. Proctor, V. 
M. Muttukumaru, S. Namasivayam, S. 
Subramaniam, J. C. Mitchell, H. C. 
Paterson, Edward Kynaston, V. Muda- 
liyar Chittampalam, Chinnatambiar 
Chelliahpillai, G. C. Ganapathipillai, V. 
Valayetham Pillai, andS. N. Veluppillai. 


Branch Societies.—The Wanni. Hat- 
pattu Branch reports a scarcity of seed 
paddy owing to drought, and endeavours 
are being made to get suitable varieties 
from the North-Central Provinee. A 
meeting of this branch was held on 
November 1, when it was decided to 
hold a Show at Balalla next June. 


The Wellaboda Patlu Branch held a ; 
Committee meeting on November 11, — 
when it was resolved that a general ; 
meeting be held on November 27, to 4 
consider a set of rules prepared with ‘ 
a view to starting a Co-operative Credit | 
Bank. The annual Show and Fair at 
Ambalangoda was fixed for December 
19 at 2 P. M. 


Wellaboda Pattu Co-perative Credit 
Bank.—The objects of the Bank are 
stated to be—to lend money for agricul- 
tural purposes, e.g., supply of manure, 
cattle or poultry, implements, seed 
paddy, vegetable and other seeds, or 
plants required by those engaged in 
cultivation on easy terms, and to faci- 
litate sale of agricultural produce. The — 
capital is to be Rs, 4,000, made up of 


Rs. 10 shares. ad 


y 


DECEMBER, 1908.] 


Agri-Horticultural Shows.--The follow- 
ing is a list of Agri-H orticultural Shows 
to be held next year as far as arranged :— 


Branch Society. Probable Date. 


Hanguranketa .. January or April 
Welimada ... March 
Nuwara Hliya . Easter Monday 
Mannar .. April 30 and May 1 
Negombo .. May 
Mirigama (School 
Garden Show) ... May 
Rayigam Korale ... May 24 
Puttalam ... May 24 
Galle .. June 23 to 25 
' Jaffna ... June 
Wanni Hatpattu at 
(Balalla) .. June 
Delft (at Jaffna) ... Inco-operation with 
Jaffna 
Colombo ... June (4th week) 
Telijjawila . July 17 
Kandy .. August 
Harispattu (at ... In co-operation with 
Kandy) Kandy 
Dumbara (at . In co-peration with 
Kandy) Kandy 
Kegalla .. September 25 and 26 


Kurunegala (3 or 4 
atvillage centres) No date fixed 
Wellaboda Pattu) 
Galle) ... December. 20 and 21 


Nagpur Exhibition (India).—The 
authorities in India having expressed 
a wish that samples of our chief agri- 


cultural products be shown at the 
Nagpur Exhibition, which opened on 
November 12, the following exhibits 


were procured and forwarded through 
the courtesy of the exhibitors :— 
Cacao (raw and manufactured), C. C, 
Barber, The Grove, Ukuwela. 
Cardamoms, James Westland, Mousa- 
kande estate, Gammaduwa, 
Cardamoms, Thirty Committee of the 
Ceylon Planters’ Association, Kandy. 
Cinnamon, A. E. Rajapakse, Mudaliyar, 


Katunayake. 

Cinnamon bark oil, Jacob de Mel, 
Colombo. 

Citronella oil, Government Agricul- 


tural Chemist, Colombo. 

Citronella oil, Bopagoda Agricultural 
Society, Akuressa. 

Coconut, desiccated, D. L. Wije- 
wardene, Loo Mills, Mirigama. 


Coconut, desiccated J. D. Vander- 
straaten, Kandawella Mills, Negombo. 
Coconut oil, Freudenberg & OCo., 


Colombo. 

Coconut poonac, Freudenberg & Co,. 
Colombo. 

Coconut fibre, Freudenberg & Co., 
Colombo. 

Coconut matting, Freudenberg & Co., 
Colombo, 


576 


Miscellaneous. 


Rubber, J. F. Elford, Culloden estate, 
Neboda, 

Rubber, Chas, Northway, Elpitiya. 

Rubber tapping knives, Brown 
Davidson, Talawakele. 

Tea, Ceylon Tea Growers’ Association, 
Kandy. 

Vanilla, James Westland, Mousakande 
estate, Gammaduwa. 


Mysore Exhibition.—At this Show 
held in October last the Dumbara Agri- 
cultural Society was awarded a medal 
for an exhibit of locally-grown tobacco. 


Transplanting in Paddy Cultivation. — 
At Telijjaiwila transplanting was carried 
on in a field at Maragoda, close to the 
main road from Matara to Akuressa. 
This field was specially selected owing 
to its poor soil, which never yields 
more than four-fold under ordinary 
methods of cultivation. The sowing 
extent is 18 kurunies, and plants from 
2 kurunies’ extent sufficed for trans- 
planting. The yield was 690 kurunies. 
The land belongs to the Vidane Arachchi 
of Pahalawalakada who took great 
interest in the experiment, and is help- 
ing the boys of Dampella and Paraduwa 
Government schools to prepare’ beds 


for transplanting this harvest. The 


. results will, it is hoped, induce others 


to take up transplanting on an extended 
scale. 


In the Wellaboda Pattu (Galle) trans- 
planting is being carried on in fourteen 
different divisions under the supervision 
of the Vidane Arachchies. 


The Kalutara Totamune Mudaliyar 
has undertaken cultivation with trans- 
planting at Bombuwela. 


Similar demonstrations are being con- 
ducted by the Mudaliyar of Rayigam 
Korale, in six Vidane divisions. 


The Minneri Experiment.—Mr. T. B. 
Minneriya, Korala of Inamaluwa district, 
Minneriya, reports as follows on the 
experiment started by Mr. G. W. Perkins 
of the Irrigation Department :—‘‘The 
plants reached a height of froni 3} to 
4 feet, and in comparison with the 
surrounding fields this portion was the 
best in appearance and in every other 
respect. The number of seeds in each 
ear averaged 150 to 200, and the yield 
for the 38} measures transplanted gave 
about 40 bushels (366-fold). I ought to 
mention that the transplanting was 
somewhat delayed for want of labour, 
and some damage was done to the paddy 
by fly as well as by cattle.” 


Experimental Gardens.—The Kegalla 
Garden is making progress. <A selection 
of fruit and shade plants was supplied 
from Peradeniya and the Government 
Stock Garden, and the services of the 


Miscellaneous. 5 


School 
supervise the 


Assistant Superintendent of 
Gardens was lent to 
planting. 


The Bandaragama Garden.—This 
garden, which is in immediate charge 
of the Mudaliyar of Rayigam Korale, 
is now well established, and bids fair 
to prove a great success under the 
fostering care of the present Assistant 
Government Agent of Kalutara. It was 
inspected by the Secretary in October. 


Seed.—Negotiations are in progress 
with a view to procuring a _ suitable 
paddy from Java for higher elevations 
in Ceylon. Sample lots of half a dozen 
of the best paddies have also been 
kindly promised by the Director of 
Agriculture, Bengal. A small supply 
of paddy known as ‘“ Taungdekpan,” 
reported to stand drought well, is 
expected from Burma. A large consign- 
ment of maize and buckwheat seed was 
distributed in suitable localities during 
November. Bellary onion seed was also 
distributed in the same month. 


Plants. A consignment of grafted 
orange (Coorg), mango (Mulgoa), rose 
apple, guava, and pomegranate plants 
was received on November 18 for 
members who had ordered them; a 
limited quantity of orange grafts is 
available to non-members at Re. 1, 


Loquats grown at Kandy.—Mr. K. B. 
Beddewela forwarded a quantity of 
these fruits with a view to find a 
market. Samples were submitted to 
Colombo firms dealing in fruits, but 
none were inclined to purchase. The 
crop was reported to be a large one, 
and it is unfortunate that there should 
be no market. 


Arecanut Husk Fibre.—A couple of 
hundredweights were forwarded to the 
Imperial Institute at the request of the 
Director, with a view to a further 
report being made as to its commercial 
value. 


European Market for Ceylon Tobacco. 
—Mr. Kelway Bamber having kindly 
put the Secretary in communication 
with a tobacco leaf expert in England, 
samples procured from Jaffna and Chilaw 
have already been forwarded. Samples 
from Dumbara and Trincomalee will 
follow. 


Government Agricultural Chemist's 
Reports.—The Secretary of the Ham- 
bantota Branch Society forwarded 
samples of soil taken from three different 
places from fields which have the worst 
reputation as saline lands, with a request 


80 


that they may be analyzed. The Govern- 
ment Agricultural Chemist writes :— 


‘‘Herewith my report on the sample 
of soil of saline lands in Hambantota ; 
it is a finely divided clayey loam with 
an alkaline reaction; it has a fair 
amount of humus matter present, and 
has a good reserve of unavailable 
nitrogen. The soil is rich in soda, and 
has large proportions of lime, magnesia, 
and potash present, especially magnesia; 
the phosphoric acid is poor; and the 
sniphates and chlorides show that the 
soil is not very saline.” 


Mechanical Composition. 


Per Cent, 
Fine soil passing 90 mesh ... 55°00 
Fine soil passing 60 mesh 35°00 
Medium soil passing 30 mesh 3°50 
Coarse sand and small stones 6:00 
100-00 
Chemical Composition. és 

: Per Cent. 
Moisture He ae Bag 5600 

Organic matter and combined 

water : 10-000 


Oxide of iron and manganese 7°200 
Oxide of alumina, carbonates, &e. 7°734 


Lime aes me aes 0-480 
Magnesia es a 0-936 
Potash : 0°579 
Soda Bee 1240 
Phosphoric acid 0'076 
Sulphuric acid se 0°155 
Sand and silicates ... 66000 
100-000 
; Per Cent 
Containing nitrogen 0:229 
Equal to ammonia 0-278 
Lower oxide of iron Fair 
Acidity hae .. Alkaline 
Chlorine nee as 0°110 


The Government Agricultural Chemist 
furnished the following report on 
samples submitted by the Agricultural 
Instructor stationed in the Northern 
Province :— 


“‘T have the honour to report on the 
sample of soil obtained from a paddy 
field at Karanavai in Vadamaradchi 
West, in the Jaffna District, received 
together with your letter No. 1,698. 
'rhe soil is a calcareous loam consisting 
largely of shells; it is alkaline, and is 
poor in nitrogen and humus matter, 
quite different to whatis seen _in the 
southern parts of the Island. The soil 
is very rich in lime, a little less so in 
magnesia, but is poor in phosphoric acid, 


and has a fair amount of potash. More 


[DECEMBRR, 1908. — 


ee a a es 


DECEMBER, 1908.] 581 


body must be got into the soil by manur:- 
ing heavily with cattle manure, dead 
leaves, and other waste organic matter. 
The presence of so much lime impover- 
ishes the soil, so that the application of 
organic matter has to be carried out in 
large quantities. The following manure 
might be tried:—2 cwt. bone meal; 
4 ewt. concentrated superphosphate ; 
t owt. sulphate of potash. A top dressing 
of 1 ewt. nitrate of soda per acre would 
prove useful in bringing on the young 
plants.” 


A sample of sugarcane vinegar, manu- 
factured by Mr. M. A. Jayasinghe, sugar 
planter of Nagoda, was also submitted 
to the Chemist, who reports as follows :— 
«<The extract is high and the acetic acid 
low compared with other vinegars. 
There were no mineral acids present. 
Acetic acid 1:98 per cent. ; total solids 
5:20 per cent. ; ash 0°24 per cent. 


Reporting on a sample of fruit of 
évritiera iiionalis (Sin. Etuna), the 
Agricultural Chemist states that the oil 
contents were 6°9 per cent. on samples 
dried at 100°C. Hedoes not consider it 
possible to economically obtain the oil, 
chiefly owing to low percentage of oil 
present, at least by pressure, as even 10 
per cent. ofoilis left in ordinary mill 
poonac. 

A member having raised the question 
of the value of the leaves of Trthonia 
diversifolia, the wild sunflower, as 


fodder, the Agricultural Chemist reports 


t ‘‘the leaves are probably not un- 
EE rclosome, but it is doubtful whether 
cattle would touch them. They are rich 
in nitrogen, containing 1:93 per cent., 
and the plant is more useful for mulch- 
ing purposes and manure.” 


Implements and Machines.—Duchemin 
Fibre Machines.—A_ set of these mach- 
ines, which have been long expected, 
has come to hand at last, and is being 
set up at the Government Stock Garden, 
with the kind assistance of Mr. E. 
Vandort of the Technical College. 


Oil Mills.—Inquiries were received 
through the Galle Branch for a cheap oil 
ress, and Messrs. Walker, Sons & Co., 
td., who were referred to, report that 


they are Agents for a press that should’ 


answer the purpose, as it costs only 
Rs. 195. 


Boring Tools.—The Madras Central 
Agricultural Committee has kindly for- 
warded information regarding well- 
boring tools, a set of which can be 
supplied by the Coimbatore Association 
for Rs. 450 to Rs. 500. 


American Agricultural Implements.— 
Mr. E. Bullard, who is carrying on agri- 


plough thoroughly an acre a 


Miscetlaneouse 


cultural operations in connection with 
his Mission in South India, and following 
as far as possible the system advocated 
in Campbell’s ‘‘ Manual of Soil Culture,” 
reports as follows :—‘‘The implements 
which were sent to me from America 
include a disc harrow, plough shovel, a 
60-tooth harrow, and cultivators, I was 
very emphatic that they should be as 
light as possible to do good work. The 
disc harrow has 8 discs 14 inches 
diameter. The ploughs are Deere’s best 
steel ploughs, large size. The others 
also are _theic make. My bullocks are 
very ordinary ones, costing only about 
Rs. 60 each. I find no difficulty in using 
the implements with these ~ bullocks. 
They have to work, but are not at all 
overworked, and can draw any of them 
by the hour. We can disc, plough, pack, 
and harrow 50 cents a day with two 
pairs of these bullocks, or they can 
day. In 
cool weather I think they do this in half 
a day, and the other half day irrigate 
the same amount of land, i.e¢., half an 
acre. Thisisa great improvement on 
the native implements as far as time 
goes, but it is much more so as regards 
the scientific culture of the soil and the 
securing of a good tilth. Thisis what I 
think. Many farmers about here admire 
the speed and the thoroughness with 
which they work up the soil, but think 
they cannot afford the cost, and could 
improve on their ownat a much less 
cost. They may be able todo so to some 
extent, but I doubt if they can produce 
implements equal to these or as durable 
to do the same work. I can only con- 
vince them by actual results, but it will 
take a year or two to secure these results 
Isuppose. A complete set of the above 
implements cost me here about Rs. 250.” 


Ploughs.—Mr. Chelliah, Agricultural 
Instructor at Jaffna, writing on October 
17, reports :—‘‘I received three ploughs— 
the ‘‘ Hindustani,” ‘‘ Oriental,” and that 
designed by Mr, A. &. Rajapakse, 
Mudaliyar—and have had them worked 
in different places. The cultivators are 
pleased with the “ Hindustani,” though 
some think it too heavy for ordinary 
bullock draft (which is very poor in the 
North). The ‘Oriental’ is no better 
than the native, as it leaves some 
portions unploughed between the fur- 
rows, and does not plough deep enough. 


’ Mr. Rajapakse’s plough is considered by 


cultivators not to do enough for the 
heavier draft.” 


The Rev. fr. P. M. Cooreman, S.J., 
Hambantota, who has been trying the 
Assam plough brought by the Secretary 
from Calcuttta, reports that his experi- 
ments were carried out under unfavour- 


5 


able conditions. ‘‘As no endeva (cattle- 
keeper) was willing toallow his buffaloes 
to be used for this work, I asked, and 
was promised, the help of the headmen, 
but they also at the last moment fell 
back, and I was obliged to use ordinary 
bulls. These animals not being accus- 
tomed to the work, gave much trouble, 
and owing to this the work was slow and 
irregular. Despite this, I came to form 
the opinion that, if trained cattle could 
be got, cultivation with the plough 
would be notably more speedy than 
cultivation by ‘‘mudding.” The supe- 
riority of the Assam plough upon the 
ordinary native plough, at least as used 
in the Matara District, from where I 
had got down six new ploughs, appears 
from the fact that, while in less than 
two hours the six ordinary ploughs were 
broken or unserviceable, the Assam 
plough was found to hold good.” 


Manuring of Paddy.—Experiments are 
being conducted at variouscentres, The 
Mudaliyar, Rayigam Korale, reports 
that he tried four plots with manure-- 
two with bone manure, the other two 
with Freudenberg’s special mixture— 
and the results obtained were 15 against 
19, and 18 against 18 respectively, from 
plots sown with the same paddy in the 
same extent of ground. 


The Mudaliyar, Gangaboda Pattu 
(Galle), reports:—‘‘Mr. Abeyegunawar- 
dene, who used the special paddy 
mixture, states that he got 275 kurunies 
of paddy from an extent of 16 kurunies 
(1 acre extent) where he used the special 
mixture, and 156 kurunies from a similar 
extent of land where he put } cwt. of 
bone dust. (8 kurunies=1 bushel.)” 


The Secretary, Anuradhapura Branch, 
reports :—‘‘ Your special paddy fertilizer 
was experimented with by two members 
of the Soviety, and the results obtained 
by them are as follows :— 


Plot. Manured, Unmanured. 
ea | Be 15-fold 7-fold 
Fey ees 39-fold 24-fold ” 


Publications.—Leaflet No, 39—‘* Fur- 
ther Notes on Transplanting Paddy ”— 
has just been issued. A new Agricul- 
tural Calendar is in preparation, and 
will be issued at the end of the year. 


Stock Inspectors.—An examination in 
agriculture fcr admission into Class III. 
of the Classification of Agricultural and 
Veterinary Officers was held on Novem- 
ber 16, when the following Stock Inspec- 
tors appeared :—D. L. Dias, G. B. de 
Silva, J. 1. Aponsu, and Tassim Maha- 
mooth. 

Live Stock: Ceylon Cattle for Papua.— 
Inquiries have been received from Papua 


(DECEMBER, 1908. 


for particulars regarding Ceylon cattle, 
with a view to purchase. 


Bee-keeping,—The Foreman and Seeds- 
man of the Government Stock Garden 
was sent to Hettimulla and Pinnawela 
Government schools, in the Kegalla 
District, to start box hives with swarms 
found on the school premises, and accom- 
plished the work satisfactorily. 


Inspection Work.—The Secretary has 
been visiting the Siyane, Hapitigam, and 
Hewagam korales; the Organizing Vice- 
President has been touring in the North- 
Western and Sabaragamuwa Provinces. 


C, DRIEBERG, 
Secretary. 
December 3, 1908. / 


Correspondence. 


SOME OTHER ORNAMENTAL TREES. 
London, 20th October, 1908, 


DEAR S1R,—I am interested in the 
Hon’ble Mr. Lewis’ instructive remarks 
on the above subject in the 7.A. .for 
September. I write, however, to correct 
the impression that my paper in the 
June number of the 7.A. was intended 
to include effective ‘‘ Foliage Trees” such 
as Mr. Lewis describes. The first para- 
graph thereof explained that Fine 
Flowering Trees only were referred to. 
In the event of my being asked to givea 
paper on ‘‘ Effective Foliage Trees,” I 
should include those mentioned by the 
How ble the Government Agent, and 
would profit by his practical remarks 
thereon. 


Itis interesting to read Mr. Lewis’ 
record of the introduction of some of 
the trees named by him into different 
parts of Ceylon, and credit should be 
given to whom such isdue. But I think 
it should be explained at the same 
time that the trees were really in- 
troduced into the Colony by the Royal 
Botanic Gardens, which carry on system- 
atically the process of introduction and 
acclimatisation of useful or likely useful 
plants. The statement, for instanee, 
that “the Parkia Roxburghii trees at 
Kandy were introduced by the late 
Col. Byrde twenty-five years ago” is 
misleading, considering that these were 
introduced and established in Pera- 
deniya: Gardens many years previous to 
this, and that the Kandy trees referred 
to can only have been obtained from 
this source in the usual course of plant 
distribution. 


Yours faithfully, 
H. F. MACMILLAN, ~ 


eee a eS 


i a 


es a 


dian My 


Decemser, 1908.) 


OLIVE AND ITS CULTIVATION 
IN CEYLON. 

Sir,—Will you please be good enough 

to give me the following information :— 

(1) Does the olive tree Olea Huropa 
grow in Ceylon? 

(2) Has it been tried in the Botanical 
Gardens or in any of the other 
Gardens? 

(8) If it does grow, does it thrive and 
bear well? 

(4) What varieties are being grown? 

(5) What Ceylon soils, in your opi- 
nion, are most suitable ? 

Yours faithfully, 
AGRICOLA. 


[The olive tree will grow in Ceylon, 
but is of very slow growth. Trees grow- 
ing at Talawakele, and planted in 1901 
(four years old from seed) fruited this 
year for the first time (7'.A., June, 1908), 
and trees distributed many years ago 
from Hakgala all over Uva have not yet 
flowered.—ED. | 


583 


HEVEA BRASILIENSIS: EXPERI- 
MENTS IN GERMINATION. 


Peradeniya, November 20, 1908. 


S1r,—Please publish the following cor” 
rections of printer’s errors in the article 
on ‘‘ Hevea Brasiliensis: Experiments.ijn 
Germination, etc ” on pp. 414-415, 


Page 414, col. 2, line 15 from bottom, 
for ‘‘ similar ” read ‘* smaller.” 

Page 415, col. 1, line 24,"for *‘ for ” read 
“four”; line 27, for ‘ years” read 
‘“‘year” ; line 3 trom bottom, for “ three- 
fourths” read “ three and a half.” 


Page 415, col. 2, line 1, insert “is” after 
“MM. Vernet” ; line 30, for “have” 
read ‘‘ had” ; line 82, for ‘‘ without” read 
within.” 


_ The remaining seventeen errors are not 
important. The new idea of dispensing 
with proofs appears to be hardly a 


success. 
T, PETCH. 


MARKET RATES FOR TROPICAL PRODUCTS. 
(From Lewis & Peat’s Monthly Prices Current, London, 11th November, 1908.) 


584 


7 3h , ay + 
DEcEMBER, 1908 


QUALITY. QUOTATIONS. QUALITY. QUOTATIONS. 
Socotrine cwt.|air to fine as INDIARUBBER., Ja 
ee uhee Hepatic ,, Common to good > oe . oe 6d Borneo eae) Coron re good 9d a 2s 9d 
ARROWKOOT (Natal) 1. Fair to fine rgd a 4d aye Low white to prime rediis gq a tg 
sy WAX, cwt.) enang ; C 
BER azibar Yellow ,, |Slightly drossy to fair .. |e6 53 a £678 6d Mozambique g eee a; a eal Bas ee 
Bombay bleached _,, |Fair to good £7 10s a £7 12s 6d aia a all good ..' 3s 6d a 4s 6d 
», _unbleached,, |D. rk to good genuine ../e5 10s 2 £6 2s 6d)  Nyassaland Fr to fine pinky & whiteljeod age 
ame en ee aa to good palish £628 6d a £6 10s Madagascar Majunge: SE eee «198 3d a os 9d 
» Be ” : an . lggers, ls a 2s 9d 
1 ,, |Fair average quality .. tne F 
Cc Rea ntoaists Malabar Gocd to fine bold tanoaaies New Guinea Oren ay etd toeaetale He nae oe ae 
Middling lean Is 6da ls 8d INDIGO, EI. Bengal Consuming mid. to gd on 
Tellicherry | Good to fine bold .|sarat2s ed rales . 20 §G.)3s 1d a 3s 4d 
Rronmieh = Matt FB petary be midalee 2s 9d a 3a 
Mangalore ,, Med brown to fair bold|gs a 3s Qudes Middt ees aie 2s 6d a 2/8 nom. — 
Ceylon; Mysore — ,, /Small fair to fine plump jis Fda 3s 6d Low to Porat is a 5 28 Of 
Malabar... woes good ” ia ad a Fa i a to Anes Magvas 1s Bda 2s 4d 
, Shall * jis 8da 1s Pale reddish to fine 
Long Wild ”,, Shelly to good --l6d als 9d MACE, Bombay & Penang/Ordinary to fair is bd als nod 
CASTOR OIL, Calcutta,, |Ists and 2nds --|3d a 34d per Ib, od pales eae 
CHILLIES, Zanzibar cwb.|Dull to fine bright +-/258 a 80s Java He 78 P Is 1d a 1s 6d 
SINCHONA BARK.- 1b. po ah MYRABOLANES,  cwt|UG and Coconada 58 a 5s 6d 
Ceylon ai Ones bien orcas Bombay », [Jubblepore 5s6da 5s 9d 
Red Org. Stem lid a 4d 4 Bhimlies 588d a 7s 
Renewed sda sid Rhajpore, &c. 53a 68 
Root lgda 4d Bengal - pence i 5sa5s 6d 
CINNAMON,Ceylon Ists|\Common to fine quill |gidais 5d NUTMEGS— ea acy 57's 1s 4d a 1s 6d 
per Ib, 2nd i ” 7hd a 1s 4a Bombay & Penang ,, | sos to Vis BT |, 
3rds i 4 ; : q 3 
oe 2 t Baal ae NUTS, ARECA ewt,|Ordinary to fair fresh |14s a 16s : 
Chips, &c.,|Fair to fine bold 24d a 34d NUX 'VOMIGA, Cochin |Ordinary to good 93a 11s 6d nom, — 
eS, Penang Ib.|Dull to fine bright bold/104 a 1s per cwt. Bengal % 2” 7s a 78 6d 
CLOVES, 8 
Amboyna {Dull to fine da 8d Madras a ” 78s 8da 8s 6d 
Ceylon . 9) ie 7d a 8d OIL OF ANISEED _,, ee eee i og ie 
Zanzibar Fair and fine bright ad a 5 CASSIA ae BO é 8 a4s9 
Stems [Fatt ae LEMONGRASS —s, [Dfety fo white Hid a 2d 
eS 7 NUTMEG A as 
COFFEE A . » |Ordinary to fa: t 
; t.|Bold to fi CINNAMON pena: ir sweet |2id a 1s 
Ceylon Plantaion CW" Medium to good A PREaITTORE oC LERON ELLE ., (Bright & good flavour fis 
i Good ordinar i RCHELLA WEED—cewt|,,. . ' 
seats Mijlraax'tosnold y MAR desied Ceylon nt nt ey ne not woody.../12s 6d a 18s 
COA, Ceylon Plant. ., Special Marks 74s a 90s Zanzibar. 5, |pieke clean at leaf ...{nom. 
co » Ley Red to good 68s 2,748 a wiry Mozambique] ,, 
Native Estate —_,, [Ordinary to red 40s a 65s eee eed at ieltichersy Bait ... faa 
COLOMBO ROOT e Middling to good 15s .a17s 6d | Ceylon », Lo fine bold heavy .. aoe 4d 
SEEDS,sift.cwt.|/Dull to fair 278 6d a, 82s 6d Singapore cool ree peo ge 7% 
pao N ig ‘ » {fair to tine dry 21s a 23s ‘mom, Acheen & W. C. Penang Dull pow ene + w(tad a 34d 
GINGER, Bengal, rough, Fair sostriomt (White) Singapore ,, re to fine an ../46d a 8d 
Calicut, Cut A ,, Sen to ine bold 72s 6d a 85s eee 5 rae aD siieboee pe 
B , small and medium 48s a 658 enang ’ * Prato 50 seule 
Cochin Rough ** Common to fine bold {32s 6d a 35s PLUMBAGO, lump ewt. Fair to tine bright bold|36s a 458 nom, — 
” ISmall and D’s 338 Middling to good small|25s a 40s 
Japan ,, |Unsplit 278 chips Dull to fine bright _ ../153 a 30s 
TONIACUM » Sm. blocky to fair clean|25s a 60s nom. dust Pedinary, te fine bright|7s a 16s 
6UM AMMO spar »» {Pale and amber, str. srts.|£16 a £18 SAGO, Pearl, large Pe ear UC. a «(148 a 168 
ANIMI, Zanzibar zy little red|£13 a £15 medium ..| 9 ” vs ae ae 
Bi and Pea size ditto|75 12 small veel Ie Ee 
Pele ts abcd aeteoecaiea eee SEEDLAC Cee Ordinary to gd. soluble |£5 £6 nom. 
Med. & bold glassy sorts|£7 2 £8 15s SENNA, Tinnevelly Ib |@00d to fine bold green/od_a7d 
Fair to good palish £4a£8 10s Fair greenish 34d a 43d 
Madagascar 4, ss ered “l24 a £7 los Commonspeckyand small/igd a 23d 
Ordinary to good pale|25s a 3¥s 6d nom.|SHELLS, M. o’PEARL— 
NO & ann ” PMCBIs a 50S * “Egyptian ewt.|Small to bold... 65s a £5 10/nom 
urkey Sorts +5 |Sorts to fine pale _ ..,|178 242s 6d nom, Bombay _,, D rie 35s a £5 10s 
poe h »» |Reddish to good pale .,.|209s a30s Mergui »lrait to geod eRe eee 
Monae ee ” Dark iP fine poze ...{L58 a 25s < Manilla » |Sorts £00 - Fe pore! 10s 
et » |Clean fr. to gd. almonds|85s a 100s anda, ; . ee 125s a30S nom — 
ASSAFQSTIDS +», |com. stony to good block|Z5s a 75s TAMARINDS, Calcutta., |Mid.to fine b’k not stonyli1g 12s 
KINO 1b} Fair to fine bright 6d a 93s ercwt. | Madras |Stonyand inferior —.-/4s.a 53 
MYRRH, picked cwt |Fair to fine pale 90s a 100s TOR TOISESHELL— Small 
Aden sorts ,,!|Middling to good 52s 6d a 658 Zanzibar, & Bombay Ib. |p"); to bold --\83 6da 27s 
OLIBANUM, drop » |Good to fine white [45s a 55s Reine - (6s 6dal8s 6d 
Middling to fair 30s a 40s TURMERIC, Bengal ewt.|Fur 118s 
pickings ,, |Low to good pale 10s a 22s 6d Madras ,, |Hinger fain to fing bold}igs a, 228 
siftings ,, |Slightly foul to fine  |Llsa 15s Bee as, BRU [bright}i6sa 17s 
INDIA RURBER lb. ;|Fine Para bis. & sheets|5s 8d Cochin ,, Bulbs -- {168 ie 
Ceylon, Straits, ,, Ceara ,, pec bs\sd ulbs +» (138 b 
Malay Straits, etc. Crepe ordinary to fine. .|5s 4d a 5s 9d VANILLOES— lb. : : 3 a 
Fine Block _. (58 9d Mauritius .. ists|Gd crystallized 3} a8} in|6sa13s 6d 
\Scrap fair to fine 8s 8d a4s Madagascar ...  2nds|Foxy & reddish 3a ,,/58 299 _— fe 
Assam Plantation 4s 3d _ Seychelles ...J drds|/Lean and inferior (48 6d a 53 6d 
Fair II to good red No.i|2s 6d a3sid [VERMILLION .. Fine, pure, bright . 28 9d a 2s 106 
2s 8d aes WAX, Japan, squares Good white hard oo 523 y* 


Rangoon 


as ” 


of 
e 


THE SUPPLEMENT TO THE 


Tropical Agricutturist and Magazine of the 6. A. § 


CompiLED By A. M. & J. FERGUSON. 


No. 6,] 


DECEMBER, 1908. 


[Vou. III, 


PARA RUBBER PRODUCTION IN 
BRAZIL. 


PROSPECT OF PRICE RISING ABOVE 
PLANTATION RUBBER! 

The thanks of the whole rubber-planting com- 
raunity are due to the ex-Chairman of the 
Planters’ Association, Mr. Jas. R. Martin, for 
the important information he makes public 
elsewhere, with reference to the present con- 
dition of Para rubber production in Brazil. 
His correspondent has travelled in most tro- 
pical countries and his opinions are conse- 
quently of the greater value; but itis to be 
noted that he does not know the methods ot 
preparing the Ceylon—or rather the plantation 
—product generally, Hence we need not lay tou 
much stress on his emphasizing the superiority 
of the smoking method. The merits of the latter 
are, of course, well-known. While more im- 
purities are retained in the process of smoking 
the latex-covered ladle (after dipping in the 
vessel holding the latex collected) and turning it 
over and over, above a fire, till a ball is for- 
med, it is undeniable that nerve, strength and 
elasticity are retained to the full in that 
process, But there seems tous to be mort 
value in what is said about plantation rubber- 
growers being in too great a hurry to get 
their produce to market. Itis these growers, 
we read, that tend to weaken the reputation 
of plantation rubber and to reduce the premium 
on the latter—ouce from 6d. to 7d.—above fine 
Para ; this premium is now only lid. and—ac- 
cording to the expert—is rapidly vanishing. It 
is altogether a novel doctrine to be told that 
before long we may find a premium placed 
on Brazil Para rubber; although it was well- 
known that the manufacturer could hardly do 
without it—the great age of the trees tapped 
jn Brazil lending increased quality in every 
respect for which rubber is bought by the 
makers of enduring rubber goods, As far as 


74 


the immediate situation goes, it is netice- 
able that the Brazil output has fallen from 
37,850 tons in 1906-7 (Para 31,537 and 
Caucho 6,313) to 36,680 in 1907 (Para 29,725— 
a drop of 1812 tons or nearly 6 per cent—and 
Caucho 6,955, a rise of 642 tons) ; but though a 
little less is expected for 1908-9, confidence is 
returning and the collection will be more easily 
financed than has been possible of late. It 
is amusing to hear of the cost of production 
(including export tax, about 6d to 7d) being 
as much as 3s per |b., when in the Kast 
the aim is not to exceed from 1s 6d to Ys 
and certain estates are known to keep 
down to or below the shilling. The view that 
if rubber fel) to 2s or 2s 6d, the Amazon rubber 
would be knocked out of the market, at once 
rises in recollection ; and it is satisfactory to 
find Mr, Martin’s friend deals with it. He says 
the cost of production in Brazil would certainly 
come down, in a life-and-death struggle: ex- 
port tax would be reduced or possibly be 
remitted for a time, business would be done 
on a cash basis, and imposts (which exist but 
are not specified) would no longer be tolerated. 
And on the other side of the scale—supposing 
we are looking at fine Para and planta- 
tion weighed in the opposing balances—we 
have the deliberate opinion, and it is one which 
deserves careful attention, that if planta. 
tion rubber should ever be selling at 28 or 
2s 6d a lb., that is below /alf what it is fetch- 
ing just now, «a swfficiently large premium 
will be put on Para rubber to allow of it being 
gathered at a profit, A partner in a big rubber- 
buying house had told them that customers 
complained of late of the rapid falling-off in the 
plantation quality—owing to this forcing of pro- 
duction (from too young trees 2) in order to 
pay early dividends. ‘‘It would be a catas- 
trophe if at this date Ceylon rubber ‘“—and the 
same applies, perhaps, in less degree to Malaya— 
‘* were to get a bad name.” The warning thus 


586 The Supplement to the Tropical Agriculturist 


delivered against too early tapping is a timely 
one ; and coming, as it does, amidst other 
information calculated to make the rubber- 
grower beware of what he is doing in the 
tapping line, it is of enhanced value. We trust 
it will be heeded everywhere and the fair name 
of the Ceylon product preserved. 


IMPORTANT INFORMATION. 


Hylton, Matale, Nov. 15th. 


Dear Sir,—I enclose extracts from a letter 
from a friend at Manaos which aro, I think, of 
general interest. My friend has travelled in 
most tropical countries and is interested in 
Ceylon Rubber. The warning he gives as to 
the tapping of young rubber trees, most of us 
know now, is sound.—Faithfully yours, 


JAS. R. MARTIN. 
(Eztracts.} 


For the last two years the output of rubber 
from the Amazon district has been: 


Para rubber. Caucho. Total tons. 
1906-7 31,537 6,313 37,850 
1907-8 29,725 6,955 36,689 


For this year 1908-9, an amount the same 
as last year, or perhaps a little less, is ex- 
pected. As you know, everything in this in- 
dustry is done on credit system, and the recent 
slumps in rubber disorganised things; but with 
the better price, confidence is returning. Opi- 
nions as to the expansion of output from the 
Amazon basin are conflicting. One authority 
told me that it had nearly reached its maxi- 
mum; another, that it would expand indefi- 
nitely. It isnot true that the rubber getherers 
destroy the trees, The trees yielding Uaucho 
are certainly cut down, but as you will see, 
Caucho forms only a small part of the output. 
The Hevea trees are merely tapped, and not 
seriously injured. For instance, in the yearly 
output is included about 1(,000 tons from the 
Islands near the mouth of the river. These 
trees are tapped year after year and it 16 
evident they must be well taken care of. 


For some months in the year the Amazon 
valleys are always flooded, and the _ trees 
stand—some of them—many feet deep in 
water, That is the secret of their ferti- 
lity. No doubt, for trees such as ours, 
standing on high land, a heavy rainfall, added 
‘to a rich soil, may make up for some of this, 
but 1 fancy that 


CEYLON TREES WILL ALWAYS HAVE TO BE MORE 
LIGHTLY TAPPED 


than those of the Amazon. The system of 
smoking the rubber seems to be bettor than 
that of chemical treatment, which I believe is 
adopted in the East. A relative study ofthe 
two methods seems advisable, but not knowing 
what the plantations method is I have not 
been able to enquire fully into the matter. The 
cost of producing Para rubber, including an 
export tax of about 20 per cent is evider tly not 
much, if anything, under 3/a lb. At asuper- 
ficial glance it looks as if—were rubber to fall 
permanently to 2/ or 2/6—this industry could not 
live. Ina life and death struggle cost of pro- 


duction would certainly come down. ‘he tax 
would be greatly reduced; business would be 
done on a cash basis; and imports that are 
now levied on the industry, and on those en- 
gaged in it, would no longer be tolerated. Still, 
you have the personal factor to reckon with. 
The bad climate, the heavy death rate, can 
only be made tolerable to the rubber gatherers 
by luxuries and a big wage. Cut off these, 
and your workers will probably return to their 
homes in other parts of Brazil—while there is ro 
local population to speak of. 


On the other hand, I have come to believe 
that Para rubber, with all its’ impuri- 
ties, is probably a better article than the 


plantations will ever produce, I~ under- 
stand that many manufacturers cannot 
do without it—and I believe that in time 


to come, should plantation rubber be selling 
at 2/ or 2/6 a |b., a sufficiently large premium 
will be put on para rubber to allow of it being 
gathered at a pri fit. Of course I may be wrong, 
and have no expert knowledge to guide me. 
travelled out, however, with a partner ofa big 
rubber-buying house, he assured me that para 
rubber will not be knocked out of the market, 
and that many of his customers will take noth- 
ing else. His interests, no doubt, are largely 
bound up with the Amazon, but his arguments 
seemed sound. He did not run down plantation 
enterprise, but pointed out its weak spots. He 
particularly said, over and over again that the 
plantations, in order to pay dividends, and keep 
their promises to shareholders about the yield, 
were forcing things, and doing very great harm 
to their prospects by putting out weak rubber. 
He pointed out that—for this reason—the pre- 
mium of 6d or 7d alb., which used to exist on 
plantations rubber, had already almost run off, 
and that his firm had received complaints from 
customers, as to the rapid falling off in the plan- 
tation article. —— he specially instanced as an 
offender. This man’s firm —— are very leading 
people in the rubber market, and no doubt you 
will give these statements due considera- 
tion. It would bea catastrophe if at this date, 
Ceylon rubber were to get abad name,.... 


If shareholders are led to expect such big 
yields, and if—to keep to promises, or for stock 
market purposes—they try and rush things, 
tapping too soon, and too often, there is going 
to be much trouble. 


This is an extremely hot place, and not attrac- 
tive. Para [like better. The river here, 1,000 
toiles from the mouth, is over 14 mile wide. 


RUBBER PRICES. 


In contrasting the prices. of Para and Planta- 
tion rubber, the amount of moisturein the former 
must always beremembered. It is equal to from 
20 to 25 per cent. and as this is of no value to the 
purchaser he is, of course, paying by that percen- 
tage more for Parathan the actual prices quoted. 
Thus if Para is sold at 48. per lb., as compared 
with Plantation rubber (properly prepared) that 

rice is really equal to 5s. per Ib. of the drier 
lantation product. 


and Magazine of the Ceylon Agricultural Society. 


A ROOT DISEASE OF PARA 
RUBBER TREES. 


By W J GaLLAGHER, M.A., GOVERNMENT 
Mycotocist, F.M,S8. 


A fungus, which attacks the roots of Para 
Rubber trees with fatal results, appears from 
the number of communications received by the 
Department of Agriculture to be fairly common 
at present over this Peninsula. It 1s doubtful if 
there is an estate free from it, as its presence, 
even when it has killed trees, often remains 
unsuspected. 


The disease is seldom distributed over an 
entire estate, but is confined to limited areas in 
which at first a tree here and there is attacked. 
Half-a-dozen or more vacancies may often be seen 
together when, owing toa misconception of the 
cause of death or for other reasons, no preven- 
tive measures were taken on the death of the 
first tree. The trees succumbed one after an- 
other as the disease spread. The ‘supplies’ 
were failures too; plauted in a. soil full of 
threads of the fungus they were soon 
attacked by it and either never “ struck” 
or died shortly after doing so, On these infected 
areas the mortality is-often as high as thirty 
trees per acre. but for a whole estate the yearly 
average is probably not a tree peracre. 1 have 
seen only one particularly bad instance , in 400 
acres of trees 24 years old, 


ABOUT FIVE PER CENT HAD DIED, 


and two dead trees were never adjacent. The 
incidence is heaviest on peaty soils, and where 
there has beena bad burn. The disease occurs 
among trees of from fifteen to thirty months old. 
LThave not noticed it on trees older than two-and- 
a-half years. Nursery plants of a few months 
old may be attacked, and will quickly succumb 
‘ifa source of infection is at hand, 


SvMPToMs. 


The disease is not discovered, as a rule, until 
the tree isdead. The first symptoms are some- 
what as follows:—The leaves of a healthy-looking 
tree suddenly became brown, first round the 
edge and specially at the tips, and the entire 
leaf soon loses its natural colour: this is 
a sign that something has interfered with the 
water supply to the parts ebove ground ; it is 
due to the “ringing” of the tap root by the 
fungus. Little orno latex will flow in response 
to a wound in the stem. Occasionally the leaves 
fall off, but generally before this happens the 
tree is blown down. Sometimes a healthy-looking 
tree falls over, the leaves remain greon, and the 
plant apparently continues to grow, If the roots 
are examined al! will be found to be dead except 
one or two lateral roots which still supply the 
necessary nourishment ; and it is only a question 
of days or at most weeks until these are k'lled. 


Owing to the destruction of some of the lateral 
roots by the parasite a tree frequently loses 
its firm hold in the soil andis shaken about by 
the wind causing a cup-shaped deprossion 
round the collar. ‘This may go on for many days 
before the tree shows any other signs of the 
disease, but it is a pretty sure indication of the 
presence of root disease, and the ‘‘shuck” tree, 
as planters term it, should be. treated as 


587 


infected and incurable. The following ex- 
tracts taken at random from letters sent into 
the Department from different districts give an 
idea of the unformity of the symptoms as 
observed by planters :— 

A. “The first signs are the leaves turning a metallic 
colour, drooping, and then falling off. It does not show 
until the tr es are practically dead, the high lands seem as 
subject to it as tho valleys or flats, estate virgin jungle.” 

B. ‘' The diseased plants are scattered over the estate, 
but in one instance four or five were together. The leaves 
generally become a rusty colour from the bottom upwards, 
there is no inclination to topple over except where white 
auts have eaten the roots, grouud well drained, plants from 
one-and-a-half to two years old, estate virgin jungle.” 

C ‘In sporadic instances over the planted area well- 
nurtured trees (mostly eighteen months old) have suddealy 
died back, ten cases on 300 acres in the last six months; 
this in itself is not serious, but one has to look to the 
future, especially as fungus seems to be the cause.” 

D ‘On this estate there is somewhat heavy mortality 
among trees of 20-80 months old, the disease is especially 
rapid as noted above ground, trees appyar * shuck ;’ leaves 
erumple and in the cuurse of a day or two fall off, sick- 
ness attacks not in isolated cases but inclumps of adjacent 
trees. The tap root seems to be first attacked. ‘The 
neighbouring estite in same lie of country seems to be 
free of the disease.” 

BK ‘About a dozen have died out on 26 acres, each root 
has a white thready growth on it, virgin jungle, other 
trees healthy looking, those that have died have been in 
different parts of the land.” 

F. ‘ITsend some of the dead trees. They wera sixteen 
months oldandgrewon fivt well drained land, the trees 
were together. but neighbouring plants look quite healthy.” 


When a tree, which has been killed by this 
root disease, is pulled up, the cause of death is 
at once apparent. In many places there is a 
cobweb hke felt of whitish fungus, but in parts 
the fungus threads (mycetia) are closoly aggre- 
gated in straw-coloured strands, like stout cord, 
stretching somewhat irregularly over the surface 
of the root, 


If incisions are made in the tap root and stem, 
a discoloration of the wood will be observed in 
the former, but in the latter except occasionally 
for a little way above the collar. 


METHOD OF ATTACK. 


Some planters maintain that the tap root is 
first attacked. Considering the method of 
planting and for various reasons this seems 
unlikely ; as far as I have seen the lateral roots, 
and only those near the surface, are the first 
to suffer. The deeper lateral roots, or at least 
their extreme ends, are mostly free trom fungal 
threads even when the tap root is already 
covered with them. Often the tap and Jateral 
roots over one side only have been choked by 
the mycelia, the lateral roots on the other side 
being free, In such cases the side on which the 
diseased roots lie is always next a jungle stump. 
On different occasions | have traced the myce- 
lia along lateral roots to decaying jungle stumps. 
It may be taken as pretty certain that these 
stumps and logs are the original source of 
trouble, It is mostly impossible to identify 
them, but on more than one occasion | have 
found Meranti (Shorea sp.) and Merbau (Ajzzelia 
palembanica) offenders. The lateral roots of the 
para tree spread so fast that in a year or little 
more all jungle stumps are in contact with them. 
Buta root may be attacked before reaching an 
infected stump as the fungal threads can travel 
for some distance through the soil. 


The only occasions on which I found nursery 
plants attacked was when the nursery had 
been badly cleared and old stumps had 
been left in it, In many of these nurseries tha 


588 


respective managers had not suspected the pre- 
sence on their young plants of anything ini- 
mical. They were all quite healthy in appear- 
ance, but would have succumbed when planted 
out, and each diseased plant would have served 
as a centre of contamination from which healthy 
plants would have been infected. 


IDENTIFICATION OF FuNGUS. 


Fructifications (fruits), such as the usual 
‘* bracket mushrooms” found in abundance on 
the dead logs and stumps of a clearing, have not 
been noticed in association with this disease, 
nor has it produced spores (seeds) notwithstand- 
ing numerous infection experiments and long 
continued cultures in various nutrient media 
in the laboratory; consequently it is impos- 


sible to give it a scientific name, an 
omission which from the ° planter’s point 
of view is not of much moment. It is 


possible that a “bracket” fructification is 
formed, and it may be discovered when the life 
history of the parasite is more fully investigated. 
The planter will then know the cause of the ill 
health or death of a tree when he notices the 
‘* brackets” on adjoining dead wood. On the 
other hand the fruits may be so small as to be 
invisible to the naked eye; and they may be 
found on the living plant only or on dead wood 
only, 

This parasite appears to belong to the dan- 
gerous class of facultative parasites; that is it 
can live on dead wood (saprophyte), and if need 
be on living wood (parasite). 


Fomes semitostus, a‘ bracket” fungus, has 
been reported asa source of root disease here 
and in Ceylon. IJ have found it on oniy two 
occasions, and have not been able to connect it 
with the disease under discussion. 


REMEDIAL MEASURES. 


‘Though cure is almost impossibie prevention 
of further infection is fairly easy. Owing to the 
absence of seeds (spores) infection must take 
place underground, and only when a para root 
is in contact with a jungle stump or log support- 
ing the parasite. J'he under-ground strands of 
threads of many fungi, such as 4yaricus melleus, 
a dangerous parasite on oak trees in forests of 
the temperate zone, travel for considerable 
distances through the soil, but seldom at as 
great a depth as twofeet. The present fun- 

us appears to have such a capacity in only a 
limited degree. I have never found strands 
more than a foot from a piece of root or decay- 
ing log ; but the soil of arubber clearing, es- 
pecially when it is peaty, is full of roots and all 
kinds and sizes of decaying wood. The spread 
of the disease is likely tu be much slower than 
with those which attack leaves or other above- 
ground parts, where wind, animals and human 
agencies assist the dissennnation of spores. On 
the other hand living in the soil secures it from 
the destructive influences of sunshine and, in our 
climate, of drought. 


Tn many cases where close planting has been 
followed, managers pay no attention to trees 
dying here and there over the estate, looking 
on it rather as a premature removal of what 
may have to be cutout later on. Such in- 
difference is not wise, and may have costly 
results, Except when stagnant water is the 
source of chi the death of a young tree is, 


The Supplement to the Tropical Agriculturist 


according to my experience, generally due to 
root disease, which can be easily identified 
by the planter who is on the look out for 
it. If preventive measures are not taken the 
disease spreads and adjacent trees begin to die 
off. It is impossible to be too insistent upon 
the importance of treating every diseased tree 
as a possible centre from which maby more 
trees may be infected. 


As already mentioned the planter’s efforts 
must be directed to prevention. The diseased 
area must be isolated, and precautions taken 
against the possibility of the disease spreading. 


Attempts to cure are hardly practical, if in- 
deed cure is even possible, An application of 
lime to a tree but slightly attacked may some- 
times be successful. Lime is alkaline and an 
alkaline medium of this kind is not encourag- 
ing to the growth of fungi. It is advisable and 
beneficial to fork in unslaked lime round the . 
trees adjacent to one already killed by the fungus. 

The planter must aim at 


1. Starving the fungus by isolation and re- 


moving all wood on which it may live. 
oD 


2, Killing it by exposure to the sun and by 
applying lime. 

The diagram on this page indicates the 
methods to be followed, and which have been 
carried out with success by several planters. The 


® ® ® @ 8 


cs) & 
® e 
9 @ 
@ ® ® @ a 


black lines represent trenches : the dots trees ; 
the one within the inner circle representing the 
tree on which the disease has been discovered, 
the others are to all appearances healthy, If 
several adjacent trees are dead or known to be 
diseased then the 


INNER TRENCH MUST BE MADE 10 ENCLOSE THEM, 


The trenches should be 14 foot deep and 9 to 
12 inches wide. The earth taken out should be 
thrown to the inside of the trenches. The area 
enclosed by the inner trench should be turned 
over to a depth of two feet on three or four 
occasions at intervals of a fortnight, and roots, 
branches and wood of all kinds collected and. 
burned along with the dead tree. There are 
usually large logs which cannot be burned with- 
out endangering neighbouring sound’ trees, 
Such logs should at: least bo scorched and then: 


and Magazine of the Ceylon Agricultural Society. 


piled up on their ends. The entire tap root of 
the dead tres must be taken out. There is no 
occasion at this stage to leave a large hole where 
the treegrew. It is advisable, though. to dig 
out of the earth for a radius of a foot and toa 
depth of two feet deep round where the dead 
root was, and to burn all roots and pieces of 
wood turned up so that the bed for a new supply 
may be clean, The hole should be filled up 
again, care being taken not to fill in bits of wood 
so plentiful on every clearing. If the hole is 
left open, a certain area on which the excavated 
soil lies will escape being turned over. The 
circular trench should be cut carefully and as 
narrow as possible otherwise the earth taken out 
of it will cover the inside area so heavily that 
the ‘‘turning over’’ will not go down deep enough. 
Lime should be liberally applied and covered 
over at the first digging; it should be also 
scattered in the trenches, which must be kept 
cleared out to the proper depth; all logs or roots 
crossing them must be cut through. The object 
of the trenches isto prevent the fungal threads 
‘ from spreading as they are not, as faras my 
observations go, to be found at a greater depth, 
except on tap roots, than one-and-a-half or at 
most two feet. The inner trench isto prevent 
infection of the ring of trees adjacent to the 
diseased one, but as they may be already infected 
the outer trench is dug; only a few may be in- 
fected, consequently radial trenches are made 
as well. In practice it will be found impossible, 
owing to the intervention of huge logs and 
stumps, to dig trenches as regular as_ the figure 
indicates; the planter must use his discretion as 
to where he will cut them; knowing their object, 
he will have no difficulty in selecting the best 
positions. The stumps near the dead tree 
should be removed if possible; at least the soil 
should be cleared away round their roots as deep 
as the trenches, and an attempt made to burn 
them: even if they are not consumed completely, 
the fungus will be burned off. Their lateral 
roots should be cut off and destroyed. Jt would 
be well to 


ISOLATE ALL JUNGLE STUMPS WITHIN THE 
TRENCHES, 


These precautions must be carried out to 
their fullest if the disease is to be eliminated. 
Many planters are dissatisfied unless they 
are given a. simpleremedy which can be applied 
in a few minutes to a diseased tree. The pre- 
ventive measures here suggested require some 
labour, especially since dead trees generally 
occur singly and widely apart. For this reason 
and perhaps because they are not in the routine 
of work they are postponed, not carried out in 
their entirety, or totally neglected. Experience 
shows there is no saving in abridging the pre- 
ventive methods recommended, but in the enda 
distinct loss. More trees die down and longer 
trenches must ultimately be dug at greater 
jabour cost than if the full directions 
had been followed when the first dead 
tree was noticed. When unavoidably the 
lines of the scheme cannot be fully followed, 
the inner trench at leastshould be made and 
the work recommended to be done within it car- 
ried out. This curtailment must not be taken 
a8 recommended except in special circum- 
stances, and only as an irreducible minimum, 


589 


Owing to the amount of dead wood in and 
on the surface soil of an ordinary estate and to 
the length to which the lateral roots of para 
trees so quickly spread, there is 


LITTLE USE IN MERELY TURNING THE FUNGUS 
COVERED ROOTS 


of the dead tree up to the sun and dig- 
ging a hole about two feet square and two 
feet deep for a new ‘‘supply.” Notwith- 
standing advico to the contrary this is too often 
done. The old roots and dead wood around are 
most likely supporting the fungus, and as soon 
as these are reached by the young roots of the 
‘‘supply ” infection occurs, and ina couple of 
months there is need to put in another ‘‘supply.” 


The presence of root disease on a tree may be 
detected two months or more before it drops its 
leaves or is blown down: if it is shaken, it will be 
found to be markedly loose in the ground. Once 
a case of this disease has been noticed in a field, 
agood coolie might test the trees, say, once every 
week or fortnight, marking those he noticed loose 
for a closer examination by the manager, If the 
soil is carefully cleared away a little round a 
suspected tree the fungal threads will be noticed 
on one or more roots if root disease is present. 
When the tap root is not attacked, it may be 
possible to kill the parasite by cutting off and 
burning the diseased lateral roots and forking 
in plenty of lime round the tree. Itis safer and 
surer to take out the tree and proceed inthe way 
recommended above, as the source of the trouble 
is probably stiil existent on some neighbouring 
stump. I think that the idea of examination, 
by a coolie might be extended further and a 
periodical examination, say once a month, made 
of all trees from one to three years old, 

With regard to the 

PUTTING IN OF THE ‘* SUPPLIES,” 

this is dependent somewhat on the season, 
but at least eight or ten weeks should elapse 
before replanting. The trenches should be left 
open about three months; if any of the suspected 
ring has been infected, it wili probably show it- 
self before that time, but it would be wise to 
make an examination by clearing away the soil 
from the root to a depth of a foot or so when the 
fungal threads will be seen if the tree is infected. 
The upper six to ten inches of the tap root are 
first attacked. 

On account of the large continuous areas under 
rubber and our uniformly moist climate, an ap- 
parently insignificant disease may easily become 
epidemic if not grappled with in time, Planters 
should therefore 


IMMEDIATELY REPORT UNHEALTAINESS 


among their plants. Diseased specimensshould 
be sent and full information given. Unfor- 
tunately letters usually tell little more than that 
the plant died. It 1s better to err on the side of say- 
ng too much; nothing should be omitted because 
it seems trifling to the writer, it may instead 
be of considerable aid in diagnosing the disease 
or suggesting remedies. To help planters in 
describing diseased plants an 
‘INFORMATION FORM ’ 


has been drawn up and this form will 
be sent free to any planter. The Form is not 
meant to be exhaustive but rather to aid the 
planter in recording his observations; and 


590 


mention of special circumstances or points 
of interest in connection with a disease 
should not be omitted because they do not 
come within the answers, but should be inclu- 
ded as useful additional information. It is advis- 
able for a planter to describe the most con- 
venient way of reaching his estate from the 
nearest railway station jn case an officer 
may have to make investigations on the spot. 

Usually too little material is sent, and that in 
a bad condition. Specimens should not be sent 
in small envelopes as is too often done; in this 
way they arrive too dry or shrivelled up, and the 
quantity is usually too small. Moist specimens 
should be carefully packed in a ventilated box ; 
so should pieces of stem, branch or root. Leaves 
should be put out flat between sheets of news- 
paper cut to a convenient size and protected by 
cardboard on the outsides. Leaves should not 
be sert alone, bub with twigs. 

It is undesirable to send specimens in bags, 
as is frequently done. A stem or root should be 
fixed in a box by screwing a nail through one 
end of the box and into the wood of the plant. 
Specimens such as leaves and pieces cut out of 
root or stems, besides being forwarded in a dry 
state, should also be sent 1n alcohol—one part 
ordinary whisky or arrack added to two parts 
water, using if possible a fairly wide-mouthed 
but not necessarily large bottle: the cork should 
be sealed. 

Itis best nottosend aspecimen which has been 
dead for along time: on these numbers of diffe- 
rent post mortem fungi and bacteria are usually 
to be found, and the real source of trouble can 
seldom be separated. Specimens should if pos- 
sible be sent which contain more sound than 
diseased tissue: the boundary line between these 
two is the most useful for work in the laboratory. 
—Straits Agricultural Bulletin for November, 


ROOT DISEASE OF PARA RUBBER: 
AND BURNING OF TEA PRUNINGS. 


When we published the Malaya Mycologist’s 
lengthy article on Root Disease of Para rubber 
in the F.M.S., we asked if Mr. Petch would say 
how far the same disease had spread in Ceylon 
in the 2} years since the Ceylon Government 
Mycologist’s circular on the subject appeared. 
Mr. Petch has courteously replied and his letter 
is reassuring, as regards spread, though eradi- 
cation appears difficult.—He supports, too, the 
burning of tea prunings—dealt with in our 
columns. 

Note from the Mycologist. 
Peradeniya, Nov. 18th. 

Srr,—The root disease caused by Fomes semi- 
tostus is still confined to the areas in which it 
first appeared. It is proving rather difficult 
to exterminate on closely planted estates where 
the cost of removing jak stumps is considered 
prohibitive. It is scarcely possible to criticise 
the F.M.S. account until moreis known about 
the fungus. , : 

I am glad to see that the idea of burning 
prunings has obtained another adherent,— 
especially a chemist, for the chief objection to 
the practice is based on chemical considerations. 
Mr Green’s recommendation was withdrawn 
because of the ‘‘ loss of nitrogen” bogey. When 
we know (a) how much nitrogen is removed in 


The Supplement to the Tropical Agriculturist 


the prunings, and (b) what percentage of this 

becomes available when buried, we shall be 

able to decide whether its. value exceeds the 

value of the bushes killed by root disease and 

injured by shot-hole borer.—Yours faithfully. 
T. PETCH. 


MR. KELWAY BAMBER AND THE 
RUBBER EXHIBITION. 


Mr Kelway Bamber, Government Analyst, 
who recently left for the Rubber Exhibition in 
London, returned to Ceylon recently via Bombay. 


Seen by an Observer representative Mr Bam- 
ber, explained that his reasons for returning 
via Bombay and Tuticorin were partly that he 
wished to meet some friends and partly with the 
object of making some studies of the cotton 
and grain growing fields in Southern India. 

In reply to questions Mr Bamber said that it 
was probable that the knowledge gleaned would 
be useful in connection with experiments con- 
templated in Northern Ceylon. 

A Fine RussBer EXuIBITION. 

Mr Bamber said that he could not at present 
discuss the Rubber Exhibition fully. Stress of 
work was one reason and the fact that he had to 
make a Government repurt on the subject was 
another, 

‘‘It did an enormous amount of good,” he 
remarked. ‘‘ Many people had not the slightest 
idea of the methods of manufacture and the 
various form of manufactured rubber. The 
keenest interest was shown by great numbers of 
people, who patronised the Exhibition,” 

‘“Ceylon ? Well, I can only say just now that 
Ceylon made an excellent show. I don’t care 
to make comparisons, but the Ceylon article 
was well-represented.” 

“One of the disappointments to us was that 
there was not a Manufacturers’ Conference, at 
which, it had been hoped, we should have had 
an opportunity of thoroughly understanding the 
manufacturers’ point of view. However, this 
could not be arranged, and instead we simply 
‘met’ the manufacturers as the next best 
thing to a conference, and got their views on. 
various aspects of requirements and kindred 
subjects,” 

“Generally there was a large number of 
enquiries as to methods of manufacture, and 
the lectures, which were of a high class 
standard, were well attended and thoroughly 
appreciated.” 

“Which do you think were most striking in 
their standard of excellence ? ’ 

‘« | prefer not to say,” Mr Bamber replied. 

‘‘Tt would scarcely be proper, since I was in- 
cluded amongst the lecturers, But Ceylon 
people will have an opportunity of judgiug for 
themselves. They will all be published and | 
made available, together with the discussion on 
each subject.” 

‘‘With regard to the question of striking ex- 
hibits, and comparative shows, I will only say 
that the Rosehaugh Company’s stalls were fine. 
It was the general impression of manufacturers 
that the Rosehaugh clear blocks, were about 
the best,” 

M r Bamber would say no more. He was about 
afteran interview 


to depart for Peradeniya, 
with H.E. the Governor. 


and Magazine of the Ceylon Agricultural Society. 


NEW SYSTEM OF TAPPING. 


Hevea AND Crara, 


Messrs. Lee Hedges & Co. have issued a cir 

cular on this subject from which we quote :— 
Colombo, Nov. 12th, 1908. 

‘Ag a result of continuous experiments for some 
time past, a new system of extracting latex from 
Rubber ‘Trees (more particularly Hevea and 
Ceara) has been evolved for which the following 
are the chief advantages claimed. 


1. Cost of Plant does not exceed that of any 
other method in vogue. 

2. Extreme simplicity, obviating the neces- 
sity for trained labour. 

3. By adopting this system it is possibie to 
secure from Young Trees (3 years old and up- 
wards) which cannot under present conditions 
be profitably tapped—a remunerative yield at a 
low cost not possible by any other known method, 
and with little or no damageas compared with 


the best and most careful tapping practised 


hitherto with skilled labour. 


4, Larger yield per cooly. One cooly, man 
or woman, cancover at the very least twice as 
much ground as by any other method. Conse- 
quently, less than halfthe labour is needed to 
secure more than the same quantity of latex 
from any given number of trees. In some in- 
stance3, as much as‘3 times the ordinary yield per 
cooly has been secured with ease, in less time. 


To sum up the main advantages are :-- 
. Simplicity. 

. Reduction in cost of production. 

. Little or no damage to the trees. 

. Reduction in ‘labour force required. 
Quicker and increased returns. 


Dr. J C Willis, Director of the Botanic Gar- 
dens, Peradeniya, was invited to investigate the 
system and express his opinion thereon—which 
he has done in the following letter which we 
are permitted to quote :— 


“J have this morning seen 25 trees tapped by 
Mr——’s new method, and 25 of about the same 
size tapped in double basal Vs. The latter will 
have to be pared tonight. The yield in the 
former case wasexactly double of thatin the 
latter, viz: 17 ounces of rolled wet sheet against 
84 ounces, and was obtained in about 2/3rds of 
the time.” 

“T consider that the new method, if used to 
secure the same, ora moderately greater yield 
per tree, is less harmful to the trees, especially 
in the hands of an inexperienced cooly, than the 
existing methods of tapping by v’s. spirals, or 
herring-bones, and. itis well suited to young 
trees.” 

“ Considering that 25 trees in 100 minutes 
with one cooly yielded milk that gave 170z. wet 
sheet (12 0z. dry) I see no need for any exces- 
sive tapping. 3 tappings of a week each, with 
intervals between provided thatthe yields are 
approximately constant should yield as much or 
more than by the existing systems.” (Signed) 
Joun C W111, 


Director, Royal Botanic Gardens, 
27th October, 1908. 
It is proposed to make known this system on 
payment of a Fee... 


Oe to 


591 


Messrs BF L Clements and Joseph Fraser, 
whose opinions as practical Planters and Visit- 
ing Agents, itis thought will be geuerally ac- 
ceptable, were invited and have kindly con- 
sented to act in this matter, and it is understood 
that all those subscribing will abide by their 
decision, 

Directly a sufficient amount of support is as- 
sured, Messrs Clements and Fraser will make a 
practical test of the system under any conditions 
they may wish toimpose and in the event of 
their verdict being favourable full particulars 
and information, with a practical demonstration 
of the process if desired, will be given to all sub- 
scribers. Should however their opinion be ad- 
verse the deposits will be at once returned as 
mentioned previously. 

Wo may mention thatthe planter on whose 
behalf this proposal is made, has fixed, as a 
minimum limit of subscriptions, what must be 
considered as a very modest aggregate amount, 
in view of the benefits to be derived by the adop- 
tion of his idea, not the least of which will be 
the greatly reduced labour force as compared 
with that at present required. 


RUBBER SEED FOR OIL MANU- 
FAGTURING PURPOSES. 


Now that the demand for rubber seed is 
diminishing, or rather the supply growing 
more abundant, growers may be thiuking of 
utilising what seed they have, to obtain the by- 
product of oil. Any such should first read the 
letter we guote from the Malay Mail. It is 
argued, with figures, that the production of 
rubber seed oil is far less profitable than Mr 
Carruthers has made out. The demand for 
rubber seed according to the Singapore Botanic 
Gardens—has not decreased at al] in the tropics 
generally. Our remark on the natural decrease 
of demand of late, hasreference rather to Ceylon 
itself. In‘this connection it is of interest to read 
of recent success obtained by Singapore Gardens 
with seed sont so far afield as British Guiana, 
and the methods pursued in packing it. 


(To the Editor, ‘‘Malay Mail.’’) 


Sir;—In his Report for 1907 Mr. Carruthers 
states ‘‘that a profit per acre, after paying all 
expenses for picking, husking, etc., of at least 
$5 to $8 may be earned by estates with trees 
in full first bearing.” This statement—coming 
from an authoritative quarter—should have been 
supported by figures, as in the event of its 
proving illusory it can only lead to disappoint- 
ment and loss, through money being wasted 
on machinery. Indeed a plant for crushing 
rubber seed has already been imported, and 
is likely to prove a white elephant to the pro- 
prietor, as 1 contend that, under conditions 
obtaining at present, it will not pay to pick 
the seed for shipment to Europe # neither is 
local crushing likely to prove remunerative. 


In support of my contention I will give 
figures which have been carefully worked out, 
and which I think are correct. The quantity 
of rubber seed obtainable per acre cannot be 


592 The Supplement to the 
verified, the data on this subject being scant 
and unreliable, but my assumption of a produc- 
tion of 50,000 good seeds per acre is probably 
near the mark. ( 

For a cheap-priced article a low rate of 
freight to Europe is a sine gua non, and so long 
as linseed—against which rubber seed would 
primarily compete—can be shipped from Indian 
and Argentine ports at freights ranging from 
10/ to 20/ per ton, our ‘‘ conference controlled ” 
ports must necessarily be completely out of the 
running. Inthe ordinary course Port Swetten- 
ham, owing to its proximity toa large number 
of estates, would be the principal shipping port, 
and, as compared with current rates of freight, 
it is very unlikely that a cheaper rate than 50/ 
per ton would be quoted for decorticated rubber 
seed, measuring 60 c. ft. to the ton. 

Roughly 250,000 seed are required to make 
up the weight of one ton; but as the husk, 
which contains nooil and is of no value, is of 
equal weight with the kernel, 500,000 seeds 
will have to be treated to make up one ton of 
decorticated seed. Assuming that my estimate 
of 500,000 seeds as the yield of one acre be 
correct, it follows that 100 acres will yield 10 
tons of decorticated seed. 

The averaye price of linseed in London is 
about 40/ per quarter of 4101b or say £11 per ton 
ex quay, equal to about £10 cif. Itis claimed 
that rubber seed oil andcake are equal to the 
linseed products, but even if this were correct— 
which, especially as regards the cake, is open 
to doubt—no crusher is likely to pay the same 
price for a new article, as he would for such a 
well-known commodity as linseed. Inany case it 
is quite certain that rubber seed will always be 
worth at least £1 per ton less than linseed. 
Taking therefore £9 c.i.f. as the probable value 
of rubber seed, the yield from 100 acres would 
be £90. Deducting £25 for freight from Port 
Swettenham to London from the above amount, 
will leave £65 or $559 as the nett selling price. 
From thissum the following charges will have 
to be deducted :— 


Cost of picking and carrying to estate Sheds 


4 ets. o/o 5A $2 0 
Decorticating 20 tons at dols 7 per tun 140 
Gunnies for packing seed for shipment a Qt 
Packing, weighing, carting to station dols 4 

per ton Bry , : 49 
Railway freight, say 20 cts per picul a 31 
Shipping charges, commission, brokerages, 

insurance te f 80 

Total 518 


This would leave the planter a profit of $41, 
equal to 41 cents per acre, and barely sufficieat 
to pay for supervision. 

Tt must also beremembered that a large labour 
force of women and “chokras” would be re- 
quired for picking and handling the seed, pro- 
bably not less than 150 for about three months 
on athousand acre Estate and these can be far 
more profitably employed elsewhere.— Your,ete. 


R. G, PauMeEr. 


Brieh Estate, Perak, Oct. 31st, 1908. 
—Malay Mait, Nov. 4. 


CEYLON RESULTS. 
We have authentic figures of a: Ceylon experi- 
ment in extracting oil from Rubber seed. It took 
750,000 seed to give 8 cwt. of oi], worth about R140 


Tropical Agriculturist 


—a sum which did not, in the planter’s and mer- 
chant’s opinion, make the game worth the 
candle, Atarupee per 1,000 seed, the return 
would have been five times as much. As 1t 
stood, expenses and trouble were not considered 
to be much more than covered by the R140 
netted. 


RUBBER PREPARATION. 


SOME CONSIDERATIONS. 
By Mr. John Parkin, M.A. 


The International Rubber Exhibition, re- 
cently held in London, may be looked upon as 
marking the close of the first decade of the 
rubber planting industry. ‘Ten yearsago there 
was practically no plantation rubber on the 
market. No recognised method of tapping the 
trees or of preparing the commercial article 
from the latex had been introduced. Every- 
thing was in the initial stage. To one who had 
a little share in launching this new tropical 
enterprise on its successful career, the Exhibi- 
tion came as an agreeable surprise. Enthu- 
siasm was rekindled—so nauch so that I have 
had the audacity to take up my pen and write 
upon some matters affecting the preparation and 
quality of plantation rubber. It seems fitting 
at this period to pause and consider how far 
perfection has been attained in these respects. 


DEFECT IN PLANTATION RUBBER. 


Having in mind the fine samples of plantation 
rubber displayed at the Exhibition, it might be 
thought that planters had weli-nigh reached fin- 
ality in its preparation. The beautiful-looking 
pale crépe, clean sheets and biscuits, and trans- 
lucent blocksseem to the eye all that could be 
desired. What a contrast to the dark, watery, 
often dirty and malodorous native-collected rub- 
ber ! Yet appearances are often deceptive. The 
quality isnot quite so good as might be expected. 
Though plantation rubber has frequently ob- 
tained a higher price per lb. than the best Para, 
yet I beliove it to bea fact that the latter, if as 
pure and free from moisture, would command a 
better figure in the market, as it possesses 
tougher qualities. Fine Para, then, has some- 
what superior properties to the first. grade plan- 
tation rubber hithertosupplied. To what, it may 
be asked, is the defect in quality of the latter 
due ? Does it reside in the latex itself, or is it 
owing tothe method of preparation ? 


PosstBLE INFLUENCE OF CLIMATIC CONDITIONS. 


Climate may possibly have altered the charac- 
ter of the latex. For instance, an increase in 
resin might becaused. A poorer rubber would 
be the result. Analyses of samples do not, 
however, favour this idea, though I am not 
aware that any exhaustive and exact compari- 
sons between the resin-contents of these two 
kinds of ruabber—native and plantation Para— 
have been made. : 


AGE OF THE TREE2. 


The age of the trees is perhaps more likely 
than climate to affect the composition of the 
latex. Most of the plantation rubber is as yet ob- 
tained from trees 6 to 10 years old. Presumably, 
the native Para is chiefly collected from thicker 
and so older trees. It would be interesting to 


and Magazine uf the Ceylon Agricultural Society. 


abmit for testing purposes samples of planta- 
tion rubber, prepared, of course, in the same 
way, from trees of various ages. Personally, 
I should be rather surprised to find any marked 
difference in the quality of the rubber drawn 
from 10 year old trees as compared with that 
from 20 year old ones, all other conditions 
being equal. It is, of course, true that 
the latex from the shoots and leaves of 
Hevea does not afford good caoutchouc, but this 
comes from the laticiferous vessels formed in 
primary growth. In the secondary growth 
whereby the stem increases in thickness, the 
new laticiferous vessels which are continually 
being formed, contain probably from the begin- 
ning good caoutchouc. On this assumption, 
then, as soon as the few primary laticiferous 
vessels dry up and become obliterated by 
the expansion of the stem, the latex will give 
rubber of full quality, and continue to do so. 


Wounp RESPONSE. 

It has been suggested to me that the in- 
feriority of plantation rubber may be due to the 
over rapid formation of latex through excessive 
response to wounding. That is to say, the glob- 
ules, arise so fast that they have not time to 
mature into proper caoutchouc. This possibility 
does not appeal to me. Though the physi- 
ology, or shall I say, pathology, of wound res- 
ponse is still imperfectly understood, yet the 
phenomenon can hardiy be due to a rapid for- 
mation of new laticiferous vessels near the 
place of injury, for it is noticeable often after 
the lapse of 24 hours, a time too short one 
would imagine, even in the tropics, for a large 
addition of new tubes. It is more likely occa- 
sioned by an abundant infiltration of water into 
the neighbouring intact tubes, as well as perhaps 
into those which have been served, but have 
stopped bleeding through being plugged with 
hardened latex: On re-opening the wound, the 
greater turgidity of the vessels and their more 
liquid contents results in a much more copious 
flow of latex. Itisa recognised fact, I believe, 
chat the latex from rewounding is thinner, con- 
taining a lower percentage of caoutchouc, than 
that issuing from first cuts, but the weight of 
rubber obtained is greater, owing to the much 
increased flow. Exact experiments, however, do 
not seem to have been conducted to show the 
relation of rubber-weight to latex volume from 
a continuous series of tappings. A too frequent 
tapping may result inavery watery latex, which 
is not economical tocollect, Handy means have 
been devised for rapidly estimating the percen- 
tage of rubber ina sample of latex. With these 
planters could be guided. If the caoutchouc fell 
to, say, below 10 percent, then the tapping should 
be disccntinued, or the interval between suc- 
cessive tappings extended. 


But to return to the main point. Though it 
seems improbable that the quality of the caout- 
chouc should be affected detrimentally by 
climate, immaturity of the tree or excessive 
tapping, yot these possibilities should not be 
disregarded, but be made the subject of deci- 
sive experiment. 

MopDE or PREPARATION. 

Probably the defect in plantation rubber is 
largely due to the mode of preparation. It 
seems doubtful if the method of pulling and 
stretching the rubber clots into the crepe form, 


% 


593. 


or of pressing them into thin sheets or biscuits 
is a good one, A maximum amount of surface is 
thus exposed for oxidation, and further, perhaps, 
the vigorous manipulation itself hasan injurious 
effect on the elastic property of the rubber. 
Consequently the block form adopted by some 
planters seems preferable. But to produce.dry 
blocks which will not mould or purify, the 
rubber must first be obtained in thin sheets in 
order to be thoroughly dried, and these after- 
wards pressed into blocks, fhe supposed evils 
arising from thin rubber are thus only partly 
obviated. 
CurED Buiock RuseEr, 

Hence recourse must be had to the complete 
process devised at’ the Royal Botanic Gardens, 
Ceylon, nearly ten years ago, viz., coagulation 
by means of acetic acid with the addition of a 
preservative such as creosote. Block rubber can 
thus be made which need not be dry and yet 
will not mould. A sample of rubber thus pre- 
pared was shown on the Ceylon Government 
stall at the recent exhibition and manufacturers 
were said to have pronounced it to be the 
kind of raw material they desired. 


Rubber probably preserves its good qualities 
better in the presence of a certain amount of 
moisture. 


These considerations, then, point to the plan- 
tation rubber of the future being compressed 
direct from the clots into blocks of uniform size, 
and of a thickness bordering on an inch, which 
will allow the buyers to see at a glance that 
they are free from impurities, and also permit the 
superfluous water to evaporate fairly readily. 


Block rubber thus prepared should be sub- 
mitted in quantity to the manufacturers to be 
vulcanised and tested, so as to see how it com- 
pares with the best native Para, Inall tests of the 
commercial value of raw rubber, the final appeal 
mustalways be to the manufacturer; thechemist 
alone is not sufficient. Let us hope thereare 
English firms enterprising enough tocarry out 
these tests and so assist the planters, especially 
seeing that this new tropical cultivation is almost 
wholly due to British endeavour, 


SMOKING Process. 


The defect in plantation rubber as hitherto 
supplied has aroused incertain minds the idea 
that a smoking process based on the native 
method in use in the Amazon valley should be 
adopted, Though probably rubberas good as the 
best native Para might be produced by it, yet I 
think it would have distinct disadvantages from 
a planter’s point of view. A considerable waste 
would be likely to ensue in the manipulation. 
Even if that drawback was removed, the rubber 
obtained would be dark in colour owing to the 
smoke, whereas the manufacturers are greatly 
attracted by the lightly tinted plantation 
rubber now on the market. This kind 
allows articles to be made which are almost 
transparent, a distinct advantage in certain 
cases. Its quality is also more easily judged. 
Pale rubber seems, at the moment, destined to 
supersede the dark kind. 


Acetic Acip PRocgss, 

One advantage of the acetic acid process ig 
that, if the reagent is carefully used, every par- 
ticle of caoutchoue can be extracted from the 
latex, The liquid which is left behind should 


594 


be clear. If it shows much turbidity, then it 
means that acertain amount of caoutchouc is 
being lost, and this is owing to the addition of 
two little or too much acid—a point upon which 
managers of estates should keep their eye. 


Formic Acip. 


Formic acid has been suggested in more than 
one quarter as a substitute for acetic acid. 
may say that I have never experimented 
with this reagent, but it does not recom- 
mend itself to me for two or three reasons. 
It is more expensive and an unpleasant subs- 
tance to handle. Itis alsoa stronger acid, and 
so presumably more care would have to be ex- 
ercised in the amount requisite. Acetic acid has 
this great advantage that the quantity necessary 
can be considerably exceeded without ill effects, 
whereas with a stronger acid a slight excess 
means incomplete coagulation—and so waste, 


Dark RUBBER. 


The question of the dark colour often assumed 
by plantation rubber has recently received the 
attention of Mr Bamber, who has shown how it 
may be avoided. If the clots resulting from acid 
coagulation be dippped in hot water, the darken- 
ing is permanently prevented. The heat destroys 
the special ferment, oxydase as it is called, 
which in the presence of oxygen brings about 
this change ot colour. Dr. Spence, of the Bio- 
Chemical Department, Liverpool University, 
has also been investigating this matter and has 
come to similar conclusions. 


Hor Acip TREATMENT. 


In my experiments on Hevea latex, in 1898-9, 
L was never troubled by the rubber clots dark- 
ening through this cause, but then most of the 
rubber samples were prepared by hot and not 
cold acid treatment. Unless there is some 
serious objection to the hot treatment, it seems 
preferable, for the coagulation is brought about 
quicker and at the same time the oxydase is 
destroyed ; further, any foreign particles, such 
as fragments of bark, float to the top during 
the heating and can readily be skimmed off. 
Let me draw attention here also to the import- 
ance of thoroughly washing the spongy clots of 
rubber so as to remove all trace of acid. 


PRotTEID IN RUBBER. 


The coagulation of Hevea latex is due, as is 
now generally admitted, to the presence of a 
smal! quantity of soluble albuminous (proteid) 
matter which, on the addition of a slight amount 
of acid, comes out of solution and draws itself 
together into a clot, entangling in its meshes 
the globulesof caoutchouc. A spongy mass of 
rubber is the result. The wet clot soon moulds 
and purifies, owing to the proteid it contains. 
The addition of creosote prevents this, as it is 
detrimental to the growth of moulds and _ bac- 
teria, Castilloa rubber prapared by creaming or 
centrifugalisation will not mould as it is tree 
from proteid. 

The question arises, is the quality of rubber 
altered by the presence of tais small amount 
of coagulated proteid ? To ascertain this, rub- 
ber would have to be prepared free from pro- 
teid and compared with a sample made in the 
ordinary way. No rubber, as yet, has been 
directly prepared in Ceylon, or the East 


The Supplement to the Tropical Agriculturist 


enerally, from Hevea latex from proteid, The 
atex will not cream, neither will it undergo 
centrifugalisation in a separator.’ Mr Biffen, 
however, appears to have centrifugalised this 
latex in tropical America, judging by the ac- 
count in his paper on ‘‘Rubber Coagulation,” 
published in 1898, It was tried in Ceylon 
without success. Perhaps it might be worth 
while to attempt the separation in a machine 
revolving more rapidly than 6,000 revolutions 
per minute, If separation resulted, then rubber 
free from proteid could be prepared and com— 
pared with the coagulated kind and also with 
native Para. Thus some light would pro- 
bably be thrown on the effect of proteid on 
the quality of rubber. At any rate, this 
problem could now be studied in the case 
of Castilloa rubber. The presence in caoutchouc 
of a little proteid may have a beneficial effect 
on its properties. 


It would also be interesting to know whether 
the rubber of Castilloa would be equal in 
quality to that of Hevea, if both were of an 
equal degree of purity. Castilloa contains, as 
a rule, more resin, and this, of course, lowers 
its quality. But if the resin were removed, 
would its caoutchouc then be equal in quality 
to that of Hevea ? 


CENTRIFUGALISATION, 


To return to the question of centrifugalisa- 
tion, little appears to have been heard of this 
process, since it was boomed ten years ago. 
It certainly seemed a promising method for 
Castilloa latex. It may, of course, be in use 
in the plantations of this tree in Mexico, 
from which, judging by reports, a quan- 
tity of commercial rubber may be coming 
in the near future. Perhaps centrifugalisa- 
tion is a wasteful method. A certain number of 
the caoutchouc globules may remain in suspen- 
sion, just as in milk separation all the fat 
globules are not removed, if otherwise the fluid 
remaining would be clear. 


CORROSIVE SUBLIMATE. 


An easy way of preparing rubber from Hevea 
latex is by the addition of a small quantity of a 
solution of corrosive sublimate (mercuric chlo- 
ride), ‘The rubber clot is not only formed but 
“ cured ” at the sametime, as this reagent is one 
of the strongest antiseptics known. 


Of course, an obvious and serious objection 
to this treatment isthe very poisonous character 
ofthissalt. Still it might be interesting to 
know the manufacturers’ opinion of a large 
sample of rubber so prepared. tu 


ConcuupDING REMARKS. 


By way of concluding these considerations, it 
seems abundantly evident that in spite of the 
success already achieved by the rubber-planting 
industry, the time has not yet arrived for mana- 
gers. of estates to settle down to any one stereo- 
typed or rule-of-thumb method of rubber pre- 
paration. This is still in the experimental stage. 


Directors of companies and those responsible 
for estate supervision and control must be ever 
on the alert to try and adopt, if necessary, new 
methods, when brought to their notice by com- 
petent persons, Ifthey fall too early into one 


rer 


and Magazine of the Ceylon Agricultural Society 


groove, they may find their article commanding 
a less price in the future than that obtained by 
the up-to-date producers. Once the rubber from 
an estate becomes branded as inferior, it will be 
difficult for it to gain the respect of the market 
even when its quality is improved. 

Estates, however, in these matters of rubber 
preparation should endeavour to move forward 
as much as possible in conjunction, so that a 
rubber as uniform as possible in quality and 
shape may be placed on the home market. Uni- 
formity combined with first-rate quality and 
purity should be the aim. 

[We welcome this contribution from Mr, John, 
Parkin, M.a., who ten years ago, in Ceylon, con- 
ducted some. valuable experiments in con- 
nection with tapping Hevea trees and coagula- 
tion of various latices. Mr. Parkin was one of 
the first to note the wound response in Hevea ; 
his results largely influenced the methods 
adopted in the Kast, and our only regret is that 
he could not be prevailed upon to return to 
Ceylon and continue his useful work.]—Jndia 
Rubber Journal, Nov. 2. 


NOTES ON JAVA. 


A RECENT TOUR BY OUR “SENIOR.” 


The following is the continuation of some 
Wayside Notes on a Trip through Java made by 
our Senior. 

Something has to be said of our railway jour- 
ney from Soekaboemi—a lovely mountain town, 
2,000 feet up—to Maos almost on sea-level close 
to the Indian Ocean, and on the South-western 
side of one of the narrowest portions of the 
singularly long but comparatively very narrow 
slip of an island that Java is. While double the 
area of Ceylon and much more than double in 
extreme length (over 600 miles) Java is at some 
points not more than 40 miles in breadth. The 
railway from Batavia via Buitenzorg and on by 
Soekaboemi to Bandoeng passes through some 
of the finest mountain scenery in the island. 
The line never rises much above 3,000 feet; but 
there are ‘smoking’ or dormant 


VOLCANOES 


within ken all the way, and while some of these 
close by do not exceed Pidurutalagala’s 8,000 
feet,—farther away, we have many rising far 
above our highest in Ceylon, to 10,000 and 
12,000 feet above sea-level and marked by all 
that attractive outline peculiar to volcanic 
ranges. The smoking or active craters are 
supposed to bea safeguard against sudden 
eruptions, as enabling so much gas, &c., to 
escape. But one cannot forget ‘‘ Krakatoa” to 
the North of Java, with its terribleconsequences, 
crowned by the loss of 35,000 lives at the least; 
nor an eruption in Java itself so recent as 1901 
which cost nearly 200 lives. A considerable 
tunnel separates the plains or valleys of 
““Soekaboemi” (“desire of the world”!) and 
Tjiandjoer, noted for its far-extending luxuriant 
rice-fields, cultivated with a care as regards 
seed, transplanting, &c., quite unknown in 
Ceylon, From this point, there is an interesting 


595 


excursion to Sindanglaya, where there is a hill- 
residence of the Governor-General, Gardens and 
other attractions; but we do not leave our 
railway carriage and note on the main line as 
we continue some 
WONDERFUL SCENERY 

in hills, rivers, waterfalls and ravines crossed 
by viaducts, and altogether this mountain 
railroad is a credit to its Engineers. From 
summit level and minor stations we now descend 
to the plateau at Bandoeng 2,350 feet above 
sea-lovel. This plateau is surrounded by most 
picturesque mountain peaks and ranges rising 
from 5 to 8,000 feet. In one direction, ‘the 
five-topped mighty Malabar mountains (summit, 
7,650 feet)” are pointed out, chiefly interesting, 
because here lies—also on an upland plateau— 
the far-famed 


MALABAR TEA PLANTATION 


which gives the heaviest crops per acre of any 
tea plantation in the world, and the produce of 
which secures wonderfully good prices in the 
London market. I ought to have noted earlier, 
about passing on horseback through a succession 
of long-established prosperous tea gardens, as 
well managed now, with up-to-date machinery, 
and with as good teaas many in the higher 
districts of Ceylon, 


““ BANDOENG ” 


is a considerable town, the capital of the Fre- 
anger Regencies, with broad streets and many 
comfortable villas; a great training school for 
Javanese teachers; while here in July, there is 
a great gathering from far and near for the 
annual races, where Englishmen are, of course, 
well to the front, and specially, as represented 
by public-spirited Mr. Bingley and his ponies, 
and where every one says the great crowds of 
neatly-attired merry-makiny natives are always 
as extremely well-behaved as they are attractive. 
There is something very interesting about the 
Javanese: their features and appearance are 
tar more of the Hindu and Aryan, than of the 
Malay, type; but unquestionably the substi- 
tution of Mohammedanism for idolatry has 
strengthened their character and made them 
as a race more self-dependent and industrious, 
than are Hindus or Sinhalese as arule, Such 
is our thought from our reading, as well as from 
some, though very limited, observation. At 
Bandoeng, Mr. Tomlinson happened to join our 
train, and was full of information as to our 
surroundings, Malabar and other tea districts. 
We had previously learned much trom 


DurcH FELLOwW-TRAVELLERS 


—sugar, tea and coffee planters; and now a 
fine handsome Austrian busily engaged with 
coconuts and rubber, in a southern division, 
introduced himself and was full of interesting 
talk. ‘Where had he learned about systematic 
coconut planting ou a big scale?’ ‘Oh, from the 
Ceylon Coconut Manual’; and so for Rubber, 
he had got a copy of one of the early editions 
of ‘‘ Ferguson's All About Rubber,” going back 
to the ‘eighties.’ It was very amusing to note 
his interest when he discovered that he was 
talking to the responsible Compiler himself! 
and it was very difficult to decline his pressing 
hospitality as that of many other planters, 


596 The Supplement to the Tropical Agriculturist 


Dutch and other nationalities, during our far 
too short excursion. (In the Malay States, 
too, we came across several who had got 
their planting literature from Ceylon, and who, 
after Liberian coffee failed, wisely went in for 
Coconuts and Rubber.) We can quite believe 
that in the 


Ricu Soin or JAva 


in favourable situation, the coconut palm must 
flourish exceedingly; but our Austrian friend 
gave us figures tor the crops from his early 
bearing palms which we would rather not 
repeat until he has had some more experience 
on a wider scale. Solitary palms well looked 
after often develop heads of nuts that are out 
of all proportion to the return from any appre- 
ciable acreage. Bandoeng struck us as avery 
busy prosperous place, and for an hour we 
continued to pass through picturesque country 
till we got to Tjitjalanka, in the neighbourhood 
of which are extensive swamps unsurpassed for 
snipe shooting in the proper season! Then 
on to Tjibatoe we had magnificent mountain 
scenery, and at Padalarang there is a change to 
another line made by any who want to visit the 
pretty little town of 


GAROET 


—the centre of fourteen volcanoes of which 
‘“Golnoeng Goentoer” (Thunder Mountain) is 
chief, A great eruption took place here in 1772 
(from Papandajan, 8,000 feet) when 3,000 people 
perished. Form another active crater near by 
an eruption took place in 1882, but did not 
cause much damage. Following the main line 
we now begin to descend rapidly, and from 
Tjamis to Bandjar we enter on quite different 
country—lowlands and much of it uncultivated 
because deemed feverish and unhealthy by the 
people. It is here, however, that enterprising 
Java, Straits, and Ceylon planters have taken 
up land on a considerable scale for 


‘* RUBBER,” 


and soon (10 minutes) after leaving Bandjar 
Station, having been apprised beforehand and 
the train travelling slowly, we had a very good 
passing inspection of four of these large blocks 
of Syndicate’s or Company’s land and some 
extensive fields of rubber and also one or two 
with coconuts. These were in order on the 
left, A block to take up which a Syndicate had 
just been formed. Thé part we saw over was 
being cleared up and some portions indicated 
how heavy this work could be. On the right of 
the railway line and touching it was the block 
of the 


‘““Anves RUBBER COMPANY” 


shewing a splendid growth of rubber, the fields 
clean with a border of forest that indicated 
how rich the soil must be. The lay of the land 
appeared to be all that could be desired. 
Farther on, on the left was the ‘‘Langen Rubber 
and Coconut” property, chiefly belonging to 
Straits shareholders; while opposite this, on 
the right of the railway is the ‘‘Straits-Java” 
Rubber Company’s block. There is a little 
railway station in Langen which will serve for 
all four properties, and the river Tjidandoey 
runs round some of the properties. There were 
evidences of a Jarge labour force being at work, 


and no doubt justice will be done in developing. 
and keeping clean the cultivation in this 
district. The country thence continued flat and 
rather marshy and uninteresting, until we came 
on rice cultivation in the neighbourhood of 
Maos, our terminus for the night—since there is 
no night travelling on Java railways, Here at 


MaAos 


it can be decidedly warm, being nearly on sea 
level with a short branch railway to the port of 
pinlatiep, But a sea-breeze prevailing, we 
found the Government Hotel, with its many 
rather small bedrooms wondertully cool, and 
the catering by the ex-military Dutchman in 
charge, very fair. Two trains stop over ‘here 
for the night, and they often deposita consider- 
able number of hungry passengers, for whom a 
good dinner and early tea (the start being soon 
after 6 a.m.) are provided withthe accommo- 
dation at wonderfully moderate rates. "We had 
the pleasure on this last section up to Maos, and 
on next day, of the company of the 


CoMMERCIAL AGENT 


for the Orient of the Australian Commonwealth 
Government. Mr. Sinclair, of Scottish extrac- 
tion born in Victoria, has travelled much and 
observed closely both in the West and- Hast; 
but his duties now are chiefly connected, with 
Cochin China, Siam, Malaya, Sumatra, Java and 
Netherlands Indies generally as well as the 
Philippines, and undoubtedly trade is develop- 
ing between all these countries and Australia. 
In no land does Mr. Sinclair take so much in- 
terest as in Java, and he became as enthusiastic 
over the industry and comfort of the people and 
the prosperity of planters and merchants as 


Miss Marianne Nortu 


became over its natural attractions, when she 
wrote :— 


‘Java is one magnificent garden of luxuri- 
ance, surpassing Brazil, Jamaica and Sarawak 
all combined, with the grandest volcanoes rising 
out of it. . . . . . . . . Moreover, tra- 
vellers are entirely safe in Java, which is no 
small blessing.” 

I cannot say if Miss North was thinking of 
people or volcanoes in her allusion to safety, 
possibly the former in comparison, perhaps, 
with Sarawak and Borneo. 

After leaving Maos, we very soon entered on 
a rich, highly-cultivated and populous country. 
The very soil--volcanic ashes full of potash-— 
seemed rich enough to be worth shipping to 
fertilise the poor rice-fields and plantations of 
Lanka. We soon got into a great ™ 


SugGak AND TOBACCO, 


country. The huge Factory chimneys and ex-_ 


tensive buildings of the former. indicated the 
comparatively enormous amount of capital 
required for machinery, &c., by the sugar 
planter as compared with his neighbours in tea, 
coffee, cacao, coconuts or rubber. Clearly Sugar 
and Tobacco Planters. are the big men of Java 
in capital. The evidences of tobacco growing 
were seen in the many large, well- hatched 
drying sheds in the middle of extensive fields 
for the tobacco leaves to be spread out and 
prepared. It seemed as if the villagers grew 


and Magazine \of the Ceylon Agricultural Society. 


and delivered their crops of leaves to Central 
Factory Capitalists. Fields with rich crops of 
sugarcane were frequently passed and ‘‘ Decau- 
ville” tramways indicated that even in Java 
expedients to save transport and labour are 
quickly adopted. New Sugar factories in 
course of erection demonstrated a prosperous 
and progressive industry. We did not go on to 
the headquarters of the Sugar industry in East 
Java and the large busy Port, Soerabaya—more 
important commercially than Batavia; but we 
saw quite enough up to and around Djokjakarta, 
to realise how important is the production and 
export of Sugar to the leading division of 
Netherlands India. 


Our route from 
Maos sy Ratt To DsoKJAKARTA 


lay through the rich Kedoe district, passing by 
many prosperous towns and villages all more or 
less connected with flourishing, not to say 
wealthy, Sugar and Tobacco growing industries. 
There was, of course, at intervals, a good deal 
of rice as well as palms, and extremely neat 
were most of the native residences we saw, many 
like those of our own Kandyans, sheltered 
under groves of fruit trees. We had a good look, 
too, more than once, at considerable gatherings 
of the people for 


“Country Farrs,” 


where not only produce and manufactures, 
but live stock in abundance, ponies specially 
numerous, are bought and sold. ‘These as- 
semblages are peculiarly after the taste of the 
Javanese, and no intoxicating liquor whatever 
being consumed, the gatherings are most orderly, 
and the people dressed in heliday attire, quite 
picturesque. [Mr. Drieberg and the Agricul- 
tural Society should see to such ‘‘ Fairs” being 
added to Agri-Horticultural Shows and inno- 
cent games provided for both throughout our 
rural districts. ] 


* Dsoksa ” 


—to give the capital of the ancient Sultanate 
its short name—is a most interesting place, both 
historically and naturally. We arrived in the 
forenoon and found the representative of the 
principal Hotel (‘‘Mataram ”) intelligent and 
smart, speaking English well and who at once 
pointed out that with the short time at our dis- 
posal, we had better start for the 


Borro BoEDOER BuDDHIST RUINS 


before seeing the city, the Sultan’s Palace and 
domain (called Kraton) and the Dutch fortress 
Vredenburg. It may at once be mentioned that 
successive visits to these proved very interest- 
ing, and we wondered what certain Buddhist 
Associations in Ceylon would say if they wit- 
nessed the way in which very attractive bits of 
sculpture, sedent Buddhas, are used as orna- 
ments to gardens in this provincial capital, 
the grounds of the Dutch Residency, we 
think, being especially rich in these statues, 
no doubt brought from neighbouring old 
temples. The Sultan has some 15,000 retainers 
daicl lors about him—and keeps up a semblance 
of semi-independence, while occasionally there 
are rumours of plots and intrigues (the Chinese 


597 


being the latest alleged fomeutors*) ; but there 
is not the slightest risk of any successful emeute, 
even if all the representatives of the old Sultans 
or “hiefs were able to come together from their 
different districts. Tho Dutch keep a strict 
watch cn them al! aud their rules respecting 
the Chinese are very strict ; for, though a China- 
man may acquire property up to a big planta- 
tion; yet to visit the Jatter, or leave the town 
in which he is located, he requires a special 
“permit,” otherwise no railway ticket would be 
issued to him! There is no call for the slightest 
sympathy with the Sultans or ex-Rulers. For 
their treatment of the original 


Buppuaisr AND Hinpu DyNastTIEs 


that ruled and administered in this rich divi- 
sion of Java, was avything but considerate, 
and they ‘‘ converted” the whole body of the 
people at the point of the sword—the aban- 
donment of Buddha, or Vishnu, Siva, d&c., and 
the adoption of Mahomet or prompt extinction, 
being the alternatives. I do not say that even- 
tually the change was not for the benetit of the 
Javanese materially, physically and religiously. 
The Sultanates of Djokja and Soerkarta gave 
the Dutch ruch trouble in their early years of 
possession and their final and proper reduction 
was due to Stamford Raffles and his British 
troops who established a thorough peace and 
settlement for the first time throughout these 
South-Western provinces. Raffles and his staff, 
indeed, were the first to discover and describe 
the great Buddhist and Hindu Ruins within 
easy reach of Djokja. 


A coupie of hours on a slow train or steam 
tramway brought us in the heat of the day to 
Moentilan, where we had to engage a pony 
carriage (two willing but by no means over- 
strong ponies) to take us to the Ruins; buta 
ferry had to bo crossed, where a_ substantial 
bridge had been carried away by a flood. Our 
drive of some miles was through the Highlands 
of Kedoe, called the 


PARADISE OF JAVA, 
Richer, moro highly cultivated or more diver- 
sified country could not be desired. From the 
eminence on which the vast 
Borro-BoEDOER 


is situated, we hada viewonall sides of far- 
extending plains, here and there diversified with 
uplands and forest-clad sections, and it was 
quite clear that (as Bulwer Lytton hintsin ‘‘My 
Novel” referring to the sites of the old Abbeys 
and Monasteries) that the Buddhist Abbots and 
Monks in Java, selected the very centre—and a 


CHINESE INTRIGUING IN JAVA.—Java has still two 
native rulers in vassalage to the Dutch Government and 
they keep up great state, respectively, at Diocja and Solo. 
the one residing at Solo is now likely to get himself inte 
political trouble owing to his having received a visit re- 
cently from a Chinese Imperial Commercial Commissioner, 
who made a tour in Java. The Ruler showed the Com- 
missioner every honour and gave him valuable presents 
for the Empress-Dowager of China. Early in August, 
news reached Java that the Empress-Dowager would send 
a man-of-war there with an Ambassador to bring return 
presents to the Ruler, who intends to receive the man, in 
right royal style, he Ambassador is expected in Nov- 
ember. Among the honours in store for the Ruler is that of 
a high class Imperial decoration. The Samarang Locomotief 
points out that the Netherlands India Government has 4 
voice in the matter, and that the Ruler has no right to 
receive Chinese honours and dignities without the con- 
sent of tha Governor-General,—Straits Times, f 


598° 


commanding centre too—of the richest part 
of the island, for the site of their princi- 
pal and gigantic range of. temples. ‘' This 
most remarkable and magnificent monument 
Buddhism has ever erected, built in the 8th or 
9th century in purely Buddhistic style,” 
is estimated to cover the same area as the great 
pyramid of Ghizeh.. No mortar or coment ; no 
column, pillar or arch used in the building! 
In the far distance lay volcanic ranges sur- 
mounted by Merapi summit or crater 9,000 
feet (on the side of which Mr. Sinclair 
had some time before visited a fine coffee 
plantation) and Meerbaboe 10,000 teet; and 
three more volcanic mountains with their 
craters in evidence. Indeed, in clear weather 
9 voleanoe tops can be counted and we are 
told that on the Dieng plateau—some distance 
away—there are ruins of more than 400 Hindu 
temples—another authority mentions only six 
temples !—and the place has been compared 
to the American Yellowstone Park. Great stores 
of treasures in gold, silver and bronze found here 
are now in. the Batavia Museum. But between 
these ranges and the temple area lies many 
miles of fertile alluvial or volcanic ash plains 
studded with groves of fruit trees and palms, 
bananas and vegetables alternating with cereals, 
sugar, tobacco ‘‘ every patch of ground being 
onitivated like a tulip bed” asthe Dutch guide- 
book describes it. No description—and not even 
photographs—excellent as some of them are— 
give one a proper idea of the Boero- Boedoer won- 
derful mass of ruins situated on a terrace 375 feet 
in diameter, 97 feet high besides 55 feet of 
hillside-bank, with its ornate decorative stone- 
work; and yet as something must be said, we 
may as well quote what has been penned by 
an appreciative American writer as try to re- 
produce details from our own recollection and 
notes on Boero-Boedoer :— 


“The temple stands on a broad piattore and rises frst 
in five square terraces, inclosing ga leriss or professional 
paths between their walls, which are covered on each 
side with bas-relief sculptures. If placed in single line, 
these bas-reliefs would extend for three miles. The terrace 
walls hold four hundred and thirty-six niches or alcove 
chapels, where life size Buddhas sit serene upon lotos 
cushions. Staircases ascend in straight lines from each of 
the four sides, passing under stepped or pointed arches, 
the keystones of which are elaborately carved masks, and 
rows of sockets in the jambs show where wo d or metal 
doors once swung. Above the square terraces are three 
circular terraces, where 72 latticed dagabas (reliquaries in 
the shape of the calyx or bud of the lotus) inclose each a 
seated image, 72 more suddhas sitting in those inner, 
upper circles of Nirvana, facing a great dagoba, or final 
cupola, the exact function or purpose of which as key to the 
whole structure is still the puzzle of archeologists. This 
final shrine is fifty foetin diameter, and either covered a 
relic of Buddha, ora central well where the ashes of priests 
and princes were deposited, or is a form surviving from 
the three temples of the earliest primitive Kast. when 
nature-worship prevailed. The English Kagineers made an 
opening in the solid exterior, and found an unfinished 
statue of Buddha ona platform over a deep wellhole. 


James Fergusson calls Booro-Boedoer, the 
highest “development of Buddhist art.” Strictly 
speaking the Boero-Boedoer—or collection of 
Buddhas—is not a building: a small hill has 
been cut down and the earthwork surrounded 
by masonry, uncemented, unjointed, layer 
upon layer. It is supposed to have been built by 
some of the first Buddhist settlers from India as 
the resting place (dagoba) of one of the rooms 
containing a portion of the ashes of Buddha. 
InJuly, 1896, the King of Siam spent three days 
inspecting these ruins. Climbing to the very top 


The Supplement to the Tropical Agrioulturist 


by rough stone steps, the view is surpassingly 
expansive, varied and beautiful. There is a 
good ‘‘resthouse ’’ or hotel close'to the ruins 
and now care is taken by the Dutch authorities 
as to the conservation and even restoration 
(many artificers were at work on certain parts) 
of what wasnot so long ago, allowed not only: 
to waste, but to be broken up by all who wanted 
material or ornaments. On our way back, we 
visited nrel, 
Tue Tsanpi: MENDOET 


temple famous for its huge statue of Buddha, 
Il feet high, with highly decorated Bodhisatwa 
on each side, 8 feet high, in fact everything 
here was on a scaleto sink our Lanka ruins, 
temples and statuary into insignificance—save 
that not a single outside earthwork dagoba did 
we come across—nothing to remind us of the 
many gigauticartificial mounds which distinguish 
Anuradhapura. Returning to Djokja in time for 
‘‘tea”? —aud very good tes is everywhere served 
in Java,—the evening drive to the so-called 
‘*Water castle,” (Kasteel) to the outside at least 
of the Sultan’s elephants and tigers’ stables, 
and to the market plave was worthy of note, 
Djokja is a very healthy town with a fairly 
temperate climate, clean wide roads and many 
attractive buildings, fine Club, &c. The paiunt- 
ing of sarongsin the cottages of the Javanese 
is an industry well worth inspecting in and 
around Djokja: we afterwards saw this branch 
and many other diversified -native industries 
in full detail at an Industrial Exhibition for 
Java and its Dependencies, on our return to 
Batavia. Our next morning’s excursion was to 
the Hindu temples at 


BRAMBANAN (PARAMBANAM) 


only 40 minutes by train from the town. They 
are finely placed on rising ground overlooking 
a flowing river and a.wide highly cultivate’ 
plain ; but the outlook is not so magnificent 
as in the case of the rival Buddhist ruins. 
Originally it is supposed there were 150 temples 
big and little and certainly the heaps of stones 
testify to much destruction. Only 6 temples 
now stand in a courtyard—three and three. 
facing each other; while on a lower terrace 
stood the remaining 144 (36 to a side) smaller 
temples now demolished. 


THe THREE CHIEF TEMPLES 


face the Kast—Siva, Brahma, Vishnu—with the 
images mors or less preserved. Elsewhere is 
an image of Ganesha, the elephant-headed ; 
also of Doerga, 6 feet high, with8 arms. The 
temples are terraced and the walls shew lewd 
scenes in the sculptures, rather a contrast to the 
Buddhist pictured galleries at Boero-Boedoer. 
The Dutch military keeper told us of certain of 
the Javanese coming occasionally to worship, 
and make offerings (especially barren women) 
and many more out of curiosity (one tribe of 
Buddhists is said still to exist in a mountainous 
district). Capt. Georee Baker.of Bengal re- 
ported on the Parambanam ruins to Sir Stamford 
Raffles and declared that he had never in India 
met with such ‘‘ stupendous and finished ‘speci 
mens of human labour, crowded together inso 
small a compass.” Some distance away we 
visited another series of ruins connected with 
the famous ‘‘ Tjandi-Sewoe” or © A 


and Magazine of the Ceylon Agricultural Society. 599 


YTrousann ‘TRMPLES. 


The large inner temple with fine bas-reliefs 
in the corridors suffered greatly in the earth- 
quake of 1867. In the row of side temples there 
are still 25 Buddha images, showiug how much 
the two religions got mixed in Java, and, 
indeed, two miles from Parambanan there 
is a specially beautiful Buddhist temple but 
without any image. Our visit had to be a 
hurried one, in order to enable us to catch 
the evening train back to Maos, from thence 
next day traversing the same country upwards to 
Bandoeng and then taking a new route back 
to Batavia. We had occasion to remark 
on the goodness of the cart-roads, so far as 
we could see, the abundance of poultry (and 
especially of ducks in the lowerlying districts) 
and the general look of comfort about the people. 

On our return to Batavia, a great 


INDUSTRIAL Hx#IBITION 


afforded much interest —not the leastimportant 
stand being that of a Sinhalese, with his 
Assistants (the only representatives we saw in 
Java), whose Dutch card is worth reproducing:— 

R. P. Punchesingho. Juwelier, Tevens Handelaar in 
Edelgesteenten, uit de hand vervaardigde Ceylon-che Rant, 
enz. enz Houdt zich beleefd aanbevolen vocr allo svuorien 
van Reparaties Van Bijouterien togen billijken prijs, 
Kroekoet Huisno, 43, Telophoon No, Batavia. 

The well-stocked Museum afforded much of 
interest and instruction, and we had further 
opportunities of remarking on some of the 
splendid parks, buildings, villas and grounds 
which distinguish the attractive Veltevreden 
division of Java’s capital. Our voyage back 
to Singapore in a smaller German steamer 
was uneventful, save for accosting as a solid 


Dutchman, an indignant Scot all the way from | 


Ayrshire to do business in Netherlands India 
and then finding we made four at our table: 
the head of the. biggest Australian Steam 
Shipping Company, hailing originally from 
‘Auld Reekie,’ the son of an Aberdeenshire 
Peer, and a Highlander from the neighbour- 
hood of what Carnegie calls ‘‘the Venice of 
Scotland.” In Singapore, we owed much to 
the attention and hospitality of our old friend 
the Director of Public Works, who will be re- 
tiring on pension next year probably. ‘The 


Hon, Mr. Atex. Murray 


left his mark in Ceylon as one of our most 
capable officers, his invention of cement sluices 
for village tanks alone saving Government an 
enormous outlay from first to last, while his 
faithiul exposure of the scandalous case of P.W. 
mismanagement (and worse), in Uva, morited 
special recognition. A great inconvenience we 
found in Singapore was the distance between the 
G.P.O. and the Telegraph Office, and very soon 
a similar separation of two branches that ought 
always to be worked close together will be felt 
in Colombo. (Government House, the Colonial 
- Secretary’s residence and the Botanic Gardens 
occupy splendid sites in Singapore, which again 
is favoured in its 
RAFFLES LipraRy 


co; joined with the Museum.—Our voyage from 
Singapore with a pleasant call, at Penang, 
meeting old friends was a pleasant one in a good 
N.D.L. boat all the way to Oolombo. It only 
reraains to be said that ‘‘ five weeks” sufticed 


for the round trip to the Malay States, Singapore 
and Java and back (against ‘‘ six weeks” for the 
round of India in 1901). Of literature regard- 
ing Java, there is no lack: the Dutch Royal 
Mail Steamer Company besides having well 
found, comfortable new vessels are providing 
a series of convenient pamphlets for visitors :— 
Seven days in Java; and 10, 14 or 21; besides 
2 well-illustrated Guide for all Netherlands 
India. A little book published in its English 
translation in 1897 also purports to be a com- 
plete guide and there are guides to Batavia, 
Buitenzorg, the Ruins, &c.,—all in English 
with fairly good maps. ‘‘ Across the Equator: 
a holiday Trip in Java” is the title of a 96 
page pamphlet with illustrations by Mr. T H 
Reid of the Straits Times just out (July, 1908) ; 
but by far the brightest cleverest bit of writin 
on that part of the world, giving ‘‘ Notes an 
Impressions of a brief Holiday Tour through 
Java, the Eastern Archipelago and Siam” was 
by the Rev. Geo. M Reith, m.a., Scotch Chap- 
Jain, contributed in letters to the Singapore 
Free Press and to which the EHditor, our friend 
Mr. W Greme St. Clair (now getting on to be 
one of the veteran Editors in the Kast), in re- 
publishing in pamphlet form, gave the bappy 
title of 


** A PapRE IN PArRTIBUS.” 


This booklet deserves to be revised, brought up 
to date, and reprinted ere long, with suitable 
illustrations. 


‘* LANTANA ’’—A BLESSING OR THE 
REVERSE. 


We have been surprised that no’ one took 
up the challenge recently offered by a corre- 
spondentin our columns (November, 1908, p. 494) 
as to the spread of lantana being an unmitigated 
evil, more especially as in the few editorial remarks 
on the subject, the same view was taken. Of 
course, this is quite contrary to the old—and 
what had for many years become the ‘‘ ortho- 
dox”— view ofthe uses of lantana. Old coffee 
p'anters of the school of Tytler, Rudd, Wall and 
many more always declared that lantana was 
an undoubted blessing to the country, because 
it ‘‘rushed” in wherever abandoned cultiva- 
tion offered scope and the result of a certain 
number of seasons of lantana seeding and dying 
down was, in avery great measure, to renovate 
the soil and after a time to make it fit for cultiva- 
tion again. The correspondent, who bemoaned its 
invasion of gardens or clearings where it was not 
at all wanted, must have to look at this other 
view of the matter ; for, on the Kandy side 
and in many old districts, not a few object- 
lessons of good resulting from the spread 
ot lantana, can be pointed out. We are 
led to make these remarks by the receipt 
of the following very pointed and true re- 
marks from a proprietary planter of much 
experience North of Kandy. He is good 
enough to write :— 


‘*T saw somebody in your columns a short time 
back advocating a law for eradicating lantana 
because ‘it grows over poor villagers’ gardens, 
grass land, roads, &c,’ Real reason is they are 


COO 


too lazy to clear their lands: so why do it for 
them? Also in my opinion lantana is one of 
the finest things ever introduced! Lb is a per- 
fect land preserver and prevents most other 
noxious things from growing. | would almost 
as soon buy 10-year-old ‘ lantana’ Jand fcr plant- 
ing any product, for cardamoms for instance, 
as buy forest !” : 

—This is a truly valuable bit of planting ex- 
perience and should for ever prevent our lan- 
tana being spoken or thought of as an unmiti. 
gated nuisance, Tt is, indeed, very far from that, 


Nov. 24th. 

Dgar Sik,—The letter of ‘* Anti-Lantana” and 
that of ‘‘ North of Kandy Planter” reproduced in 
editorial go to show how apparently diametri- 
cally opposite statements can be made by looking 
at a subject from diametrically opposite points 
of view ! 

The fact is that lantana forms excellent secon- 
dary jungle, and much has been written in the 
past on this point : but as we all know, a plant 
out of place is a WEED, and as such cannot and 
must not be tolerated. 15,83 

No sensible man will object to the clearing 
away of lantana from road-sides aud similar 
situations where itis an unmitigated nuisance 
—keeping out light and air, harbourig insects 
and fungi, blocking drainage and suppressing 
the growth of useful grasses. 

I do not find fault with the man who looks 
out for lantana land for the cultivation of carda- 
moms, &c., or even grows the plant (where 

ossible) as 2 renovating rotation crop, but that 
is a very different thing from allowing lantana 
(or mimosa, or crotalaria—valuable mitrogen- 
gatherers) to over-run our highways and by-ways 
and invade our gardens.—Yours truly, 


BURNING PRUNINGS. 


Nov. 20th. 
Dear S1x,—One great objection to this opera- 
tion is the risk to the tea bushes. Cases are 
known where considerable damage has resulted. 


—Yours truly, PROPRIETOR 


{We understand that the information de- 
siderated by Mr. Petch as to how much nitro- 
gen is removed in the prunings, &c., has been 
fully worked out and 1s in the possession of a 
well-known proprietor and V.A., who is also 
a member of the Gangaruwa Experimental Com- 
mittee.—Ep., C.0.] 


CLEAN AND IMPERFECT WEEDING. 


A striking illustration of the value of quite clean 
weed :-ng is afforded by the case of two Ceylon es- 
tates of 600acres each. The one wasclean weeded 
at a cost of 50 cents per acre after being at- 
tended to fora few years. The other taken in 
hand when in a dirty state cost R150 per acre, 
and it can easily be seen which is the more 
economical—clean weeding from the beginning 
‘ or neglect of weeding. In 30 years there would 
be a saving of £45,000 through clean weeding. 


The Supplement to the Tropical Agriculturist. 


WEEDING ’. CROTALARIA. 


(To the Editor, Walay Mait.) 


Dear Sir,—The experiment mentioned in 
your leader of the 30th October, of a planter 
who gives the Director of Agriculture ‘‘carte 
blanche” to weed his estate for him [i,¢., an 
unnamed estate of 900 acres.—Ed. C.0.] will, no 
doubt, be followed with great interest by many. 


There are, however, a number of cbstacles to 
overcome which will be found more difficult than 
appeared at first sight. Leaving alone the risk 
incurred by a man allowing his estate to be 6 
perimented with by a non-planter who has never 
before done so ona largescale, leaving also alone 
the very difficult position of a scientist and 
Government officer embarking on an enterprise 
which has, to say the least of it, no precedent— 
let us merely assume thatall the preliminary work 
on that estate has been done satisfactorily. 
You will find that between now and that date 
at teast six months will have to elapse before 
any results can be shown to the anxiously wait- 
ing planter ; all those interested know that this 
delay means the spending or saving of many 
thousands of dollars. 


Having written a good deal about ‘Weeding 
v. Crotalaria,” I feel it almost a duty towards 
those interested in the question to produce 
proofs of my statements. Iam not ina position 
—fortunately—to show 900 acres. costing $3 
per month ; but Ihave in my charge, out of 
1,500 acres, some 300 which at one time, cost 
more than that and which, consequently were 
put under crotalaria, Ofthe latter I can show 
some 23 years old, 4U acres of one’ year andthe 
balance varying from eight months downwards. 
Contrary to the opinion of the average planter, 
as mentioned in your leader, no difficulty has 
been found in repeating on a larger scale the 
experiments begun on a small one. I feel con- 
fident that observations made on 300 acres 
would be quite as instructive, if not more so, 
than ifmade on four times the area, and 1 
therefore have much pleasure in inviting you, 
orany gentleman introduced by you or the 
Director of Agriculture, to inspect the crotalaria 
fields [ can show on my Company’s estates, here 
or in Perak. 


I was on the point of compiling some data 
and figures concerning the best way of plant- 
ing, quantity and cost of crotalaria seed re- 
quired per acre ; cost of planting and sup- 
plying ; weight of prunings obtained during a 
given period and extent of area which can be 
covered by same; also comparative growth of 
rubber and coffee surrounded by crotalaria or 
clean-weeded ; but as no doubt these figures, 
coming from the Department. of Agriculture, 
would be of greater weight, I shall be glad 
to allow the Director of Agriculture or a group, 
of planters to collect all these data here through 
a suitable person appo.nted by them. 


In the course of a few weeks conclusive 
information could be published which would 
settle, one way or the other, the burning ques- 
tion of ‘‘ Weeding v, Crotalaria.’’— Yours, etc., 
W. R, Row.anp, 


Perhenti:» Tinggi, Nov. 1st. 
—Malay Mail, Nov. 3, 


and Magazine of the Ceylon Agricultural Society. 


JODELITE. 


A Woop PRESERVATIVE. 


On page iii of this issue will be found an 
advertisement of Jodelite, a preparation which 
has been found by severe tests to be an effective 
preventative of dry rot, fungus and the attacks 
of white ants, by which in the tropics fur- 
niture and wood work generally get so badly 
damaged. From hygienic reasons a preparation 
which prevents dry rot is greatly to be de- 
sired. A bungalow affected by dry rot is gener- 
ally regarded as being unhealthy; we have 
even’ heard cases of ‘*Ceylon Sore Mouth” or 
“Sprue” being ascribed, to the fact that the 
patient had resided for a considerable length 
of time in a bungalow in which dry rot was 
established. Jodelite has been used with 
perfect success in remedying damp walls, for 
preserving wooden bridges and roofing, fences, 
etc., so that it should be of considerable inter- 
est to residents in tropical countries, especially 
to planters. 


PARA RUBBER CROPS. 


The proprietor of ayoung rubber plantation 
thinks itis quite time that some approximate 
estimates for yield per tree, according to size 
and age, should be furnished and he accord- 
ingly sends us the following table for the pur- 
pose of provoking discussion. He writes as 
follows :— 


‘*W ould enclosed table in the opinion of readers 
of your paper more experienced than myself 
in the yield of Para Rubber, be at all approxi- 
mately correct for the moister lowcountry 
districts of Ceylon? I shall be much obliged 
if you or they will correct my figures. Of 
course, trees vary very much, itis well-known, 
in their yield—size for size—and age for age ; 
but still taken over a sufficient acreage it 
seems to me that useful tables, fixing on an 
average, might possibly be formulated respec- 
tively for different altitudes and rainfalls for 
‘Ceylon Para.’ 


‘© A table of yield if one at all reliable can be 
formylated would be valuable in estimating-- 
both against value of property and crop. Lucky 
men indeed are those with Rubber in bearing, 
Likewise the man who read your senior’s book 
of 20 years ago, in good time and to such good 
purpose.” 


The table is as follows :— 


_* Para RupekR: AVERAGE YIELD IN PoUNDS 
Per TREE. 
4 a a H 5 a 
4 (4 3 v4 oS Gs] 
Oo oO oO Do oO QD 
a) a al ved im ma 
A a a a | a 
~ ~ oe) YY re and 
0 o ~ es) 5 > 
18 in. at 3 feet. 4 2-3 2-3 2-8 2-3 2-3 
Dalia , mean bl 11-8 11-8 11-8 11-8 
307153. (55 1 11-8 1 13 ipU ane 
36 yy ” oF 4 1 1} 2 2 
42 5, ” Tie Aue J 2 24 2h 
48 4, ” be! =? oo 2h 2% 3 


N.B.—Trees of the same size but aged would 
yield probably more than younger trees, hence, 
up to a point, I adopt asliding scale,” 


76 


601 


We referred the table to an experienced ‘ V. 
A.” for his opinion and this is very favourably 
and tersely expressed :— 


‘‘ This appears quite a fair estimate.” 


Another proprietary planter who saw the 
table, writes :— 


‘*T am afraid my experience is not sufficient 
to justify my giving an opinion. We have har~ 
vested (tapped, I should say) some trees on 

but notin sufficient quantity and in too 
irregular a system to form accurate data for 
publication, There were only some 200 trees 
or thereby I planted about 99. We tapped these 
two years ago and got about 4 to ¢lb, per tree, 
This year we have not tapped, as the small num- 
ber made it too expensive, to be worth while and 
at the time the estimate for the year was made 
out, prices were very low; so we concluded to let 
the trees have arun until a larger number came 
into bearing. Formy own part [ wished the 
planting of Rubber to go on from the time I 
commenced, but my opinion was overruled, and 
I, having only a third sayin the matter, could not 
get my wish. Had planting gone on, we should 
have had 400 to 500 acres, to tap or sell about 
the time Kepitigalla sold at such a high figure; 
butalas: they were not planted! ‘There is a 
saying of Mark Twain’s quoted by Rudyard 
Kipling in, ‘From sea to sea’ which is,— 
‘When you come to think of it, neither reli- 
gion, training, nor education avails anything 
against the force of circumstances that drive a 
man.’ * We have about 1,500 trees at tapping age 
now, 101 acres of very good clearings Rubber 
alone, and the whole of the Tea with the excep- 
tion of about 20 to 30 acres in rubber also.” 


PARA RUBBER TREES AND 
THEIR YIELD. 


With reference to the table of yields appear- 
ing above, an experienced rubber planter 
writes :—‘‘ I consider that rubber trees 18 in. 
in the 8th year should go on_ increasing in 
yield from 1°3 lb. to 2 lb. in the 10th year, 
those 24 in. should go on increasing in yield 
up to 24 lb. in the 10th year, and those 30 in. 
up to 2%. From those 36 in., 42 in. and 48 in. 
you should get quite 3 Ib. in the l0th year.” 


RUBBER IN PERAK: AN ASSAM PRO- 
PRIETOR IN GORRECTION. 


Doloo, Cachar, Nov. 12th. 


DEAR Sir,—Reverting to our conversation 
on Tea and Rubber topics when passing through 
Colombo last September, I am told you pub- 
lished it. 1 donot mind that, if you had given 
it accurately ; but from what I can gather irom 
those who read the article, I think you rather 
hashed it! I manage the Doloo concern, in 
ee IRE ONE CT 

* May be applied to rubber-planting and its 
chances ; but not to life and character generally 
—there is such a thing as braving and conquer- 
ing circumstanceg and wonderful sometimes, is 
aa expuiaive effect of a new affection,”— 

pb: C.0. 


602 


which rubber is doing well; but that concern, 
so far as I am aware, has no interest in Rubber 
in the F. M. 8. The conversation on cost of 
production you refer to as taking place between 
Mr Knight and myself, occurred between other 
planters and myself as far back as March 1906, 
while passing through the States. I have never 
met Mr Knight, but his name cropped up in our 
conversation when you asked if he were the ex- 
pert Ceylon planter sent to Jebong when that 
Company was formed. 


The figure of cost 9d for Jebong production was 
given to me by Mr Lauder Watson, a former 
Assistant Manager of Jebong and, I understand, 
also a large shareholder. Will you please 
publish the correction, lest Mr Knight may be 
looking out for me on my next visit to Perak?— 
Yours faithfully, 

A ROSE. 


[We are obliged for the above letter; as 
stated when Mr Knight's letter in correction ap- 
peared, we reproduced the gist of the informa- 
tion given us, as closely as possible. And we 
have no re-collection of asking (what we knew 
already !) who Mr Knight was.—EHd. C.0.] 


EXPERIMENTS WiTH PARA RUBBER 
CUTTINGS IN BURMA. 


Tavoy, Burma, Nov. 15th. 
Srr,—A letter of mine on Para Rubber cut- 


tings to the Ceyton Observer &¢T.A.some 8 months © 


or so ago having received undeserved attention, 
copied as it was into several papers and 
journals as an ‘‘interesting experiment,’ per- 
haps the following may further interest your 
readers. In June last, onthe 15th—to be exact, 
506 woody cuttings were made, and 25 green 
sappy ones. The latterall have failed, but of 
the former | have 389 plants which, if looked 
after in the hot weather, will probably give at 
least 350 sturdy plants by next June. [ say “if 
looked after,” advisedly, as I have no intention 
of doing so, but shall let them rip. The ex- 
periment was simply done as an experiment, 
and to see if my last year’s success in the 
cuttings put down was a flukeor not. Noone 
will, or need worry about cuttings, I take it, as 
long as seed is plentiful and fairly cheap. In 
the field I, three times, reduced double-headed 
plants which had been so sent out by 
tnistake from the nursery to one leader and 
stuck inthe cut-off shoot, ina pit, alongside 
a newly planted plant. In all three cases the 
shoots have struck and are locking as well as, if 
not better than, the plants alongside which 
they were put in. I attribute my success in 
cuttings to our very heavy rainfall (200 inches) 
as Para plants can readily be developed from 
cuttings grown entirely in water as hyacinths 
are at home, crotons and several other species. 
Certainly no credit is due to me: absolutely no 
trouble or worry was taken over the experiment, 
the cuttings being simply stuck into an ordi- 
nary nursery bed and no further attention paid 
except the usual weedings by the nursery 
coolies.—Yours truly, 


J. G. F. MARSHALL, 


The Supplement to the Tropical Agriculturist 


PRODUCTION AND UTILISATION OF 
WATTLE BARK—‘‘AGACIA 
DECURRENS.’’ 


New Galway, Noy. 18th. 


Dear Sir,—The ‘‘Natal Agricultural Journal” 
devotes nearly seven pages of the September 
number to theabove subject quoting from, and 
commenting on, an article in the Bulletin 
of the Imperial Institute; and although 
Ceylon is named as one of the bark- 
producing countries the information with 
regard to ‘‘ Bark extract” for tanning, etc., 
etc., which is so fully given is, I fear, of 
very little interest to Ceylon planters at present; 
as the cultivation of Wattles, so far as I know, 
has. not been taken up on a sufliciently large 
scale to make regular supplies of Bark available 
in saleable quantities. 


The latest recommendation with regard to 
Acacia Decurrens is, to plant it in hedges at 
intervals through the tea fields, as a source of 
green manure supply. If taken in hand at an 
early age, it would be quite possible to train 
them in bush form by constant clippings which 
would produce a valuable mould, and be much 
more beneficial to the’tea bushes than frequent 
doses of artificial stimulants.—-Yours faithfully. 


WATTLES. 


RUBBER NOTES. 


AREA UNDER INDIA 


RUBBER 1N CEYLON.— 


While the figures in the Ceylon Directory justify | 


the statement that there are the equivalent of 
the 180,000 acres planted with rubber in Ceylon, 
there are not a few practical men, we find, 
who doubt if a certain (even a considerable) 
percentage of what has been planted, is des- 
tined to come to maturity. Hence the incli- 
nation to reduce the estimate to 150,000 and even 
still lower. 
pilers can only print the figures received from 
the several districts, which will be amended 
as any portions of rubber succumb or die out. 


Tue Root DisEzasE oF Para RuBBER—accord- 
ing to Mr, Petch’s Peradeniya Circular of July, 
1906—had only been discovered on a few es- 
tates in one district in Ceylon. Will Mr. Petch 
be so good as to let the rubber-growing com- 
munity know now whether the disease has 


spread to other districts and shown any new ~ 


forms of development? If the matter is urgent, 
we would be glad, too, to hear direct of new 
remedies—or criticism on the Malaya scientific 
suggestions we publish. The question is 
brought prominently forward by the report in 
the Straits Bulletin of what seems to be fairly 
extensive trouble on rubber estates in the 
F.M.S. The complaiats sent in have not been 
in few or confined localities. We trust that 
Mr. Petch may be able to reassure us as to 
the area over which the same disease (caused 
by the Fungus Fomes semitostus?) has been 
making its appearance during the past 24 years. 

RuspserR IN Eucatyprus.—The white coating 
on the young leaves of Hucalyptus corymbosa, 
says Henry G. Smith in a communication tothe 
New South Wales Royal Society, yields to ether 
0°84 per cent of elastic substance and wax, the 


7s 


Still, of course, Directory com- .° 


and Magazine of the Ceylon Agricultural Society. 


latter amounting to 0°224 per cent. The elastic 
substance was found to be a good form of caout- 
chouc. Although no white coating can be de- 
tected in the adult green leaves, caoutchouc can 
be obtained by five minutes’ contact with ether. 
As the species descends, as in Z. cinerea E, pul- 
verulenta, E. globulus, etc., the ratio of the 
amount of wax increases, and in the several 
species last mentioned the white pulverulent 
appearance is due to a comparatively large 
amount of this wax, together with the elastic 
substance. The collection is too costly for the 
rubber to be of commercial value.—Chemist 
and Druggist, October 24. 


TEA AND SHOT-HOLE BORER: 


We are pleased to have the following intorma- 
tion from one who sees much of our tea country 
in the course of his duties :—‘‘ I do not think shot- 
hole borer is more serious than it was five years 
ago, although a possible larger acreage is infected. 
It varies with the season and to a certain 
extent with shade conditions. On well culti- 
vated estates the effect does not appear to 
be serious so far as the crops are concerned, 
but on places that have run down it un- 
doubtedly still further reduces yield.” 


A Remepy IN A New Beerite to BE IMPORTED. 


. We have received information as to shot- 
hole borer doing considerable injury to tea 
in districts around Gampola and to have 
invaded the Kelani Valley. But we believe 
it is little known in the higher districts. It 
seems that although Mr, E. E. Green (who, it 
must be remembered, is a practical planter as 
well as scientific Entomologist) at first re- 
commended ‘‘the burning of prunings,” he 
afterwards withdrew that recommendation in 
favour of burying and manuring ; 
has been matter of actual experience—we 
learn on good authority—that the borer 
keeps clear of, or does not at all like, tea 
that has been rendered vigorous by manuring. 
But the latest remedy talked of, is a beetle dis- 
covered in Saxony, Germany, and we understand 
the P, A. Committee have gone so far as to 
authorise a certain expenditure, to enable Mr, 
E. E. Green (now at home) to come back via 
Saxony and to carry with him to Ceylon a 
colony of beetles, provided he 1s satisfied that 
their introduction while proving actively ini- 
mical to the ‘‘borer,’’ may not be the intro- 
duction of an independent beetle pest. Rather 
a difficult matter to decide in Saxony, we 
should say ! 


-MANURIAL EXPERIMENTS IN 
TEA CULTURE, 


The Report of Mr C M Hutchinson, Scientific 
Officer to the Indian Tea Association, on the 
Heeleaka Experimental Station describing the 
investigations during the seasons of 1905, 1906 
and 1907, deals in great detail with the effects 
of manurial treatment on tea culture and should 

rove of much use to planters. It should be 
noted that the Heeleaka soils are in an advanced 
stage of exhaustion due to some forty years’ 


and it: 


603 


growth and cultivation of tea, and the manurial 
experiments were carried out on half-acre plots, 
which were treated with cattle manure, oilcakes, 
and artificial manures. Reviewing the results 
of the experiments referred to, Mr Hutchinson 
arrives at the following general conclusions :— 
(1) Oilcake, as a means of renovating old tea on 
such light soils as that of Heeleaka, is the most 
economical in use of any manure tried; (2) 
mineral manures, such as superphosphate, 
sulphate of potash, and nitrate of soda, can un- 
doubtedly be utilised successfully for the same 
purpose, though at a higher cost; (3) nitro- 
genous manures, suchas nitrate of soda and 
sulphate of ammonia produce a better effect if 
used in conjunction with superphosphate and 
potash, these latter in their turn being also 
dependent for their full effect upon the pre- 
sence of adequate supplies of nitrogen; (4) 
manures, such as oilcake produce a very much 
greater effect if applied in annual small doses 
than if put on in the same total amount at longer 


_Antervals.—Indian Trade Journal, Nov. 5. 


THE MAKING OF TEA CHESTS. 


In SoutHerN [np1a: CocHIn CHIEFLY, 


The Ceylon papers have recently been venti- 
lating the question of the supply of tea chests. 
‘A shortage in the imports of momi tea chests 
from Japan, which have been in considerable 
request of late years, gave rise to the discussion, 
anda suggestion has been put forward that 
wood should be imported from West Australia 
for the local manufacture of the chests. It has 
also been suggested that China should be in- 
dented upon in case Japan chests cease to be 
forthcoming. That there will also be a greatly 
increased 


DEMAND FOR CHESTS FROM RUBBER PLANTERS 


in the near future is anticipated, but these 
will have to be of a heavier type than the pre- 
sent tea box. Ceylon tea-packers also depend 
to some extent upon Southern India for tea 
chests. In 1906-07, there were exported from 
the Madras Presidency coconut oil casks and 
tea chests ofthe value of R1-22 lakhs against 
R1‘11 lakhs in the previous year; and of this 
total Ceylon’s takings amounted to the value of 
R110 lakhs, In 1907-08, the exports decreased 
in value to R97 lakh, but Ceylon again took the 
greater part, z.¢., to the value of R84 lakhs. The 
local requirements of tea chests on the part of 
the tea planters of this Presidency must also be 
considerable, the area under tea in Southern 
India having been gradually extending during 
the past few years. Patented and other foreign 
boxes, however, are to some extent used owing 

to the locally made article being diflicult to 

procure. Thereason assigned is that the wood 

from which tea chests are manufactured, viz., 

that of the Bombay Malabaricum, is becoming 

increasingly scarce, 


At one time, the industry of toa chest making 
was carried on regularly at various places on 
the Malabar Coast; but now it is practically 
confined to Cochin, where the required wood 
is still procurable in sufficient quantities, Be 
this as it may, it would appear that imported 
chests are gradually driving the native 


604 The Supplement to the Tropical Agriculturist 


article out of the market, for Mr C W EH 
Cotton, I,C.8., Director-General of Commercial 
Intelligence, in his Review of the Trade of 
India for 1907-08, mentions that there was in 
that year an increase of 14°3 per cent in the 
imports of tea chests which increase he as- 
cribes to the 


PREFERENCE EVINCED FOR FOREIGN BOXES, 


because the actual shipments of tea leaf were 
smaller in that year than in the previons 
one. These tea chests are manufactured exclu- 
sively from the wood of the Bonbay Malabari- 
cum, or silk cotton tree, known also as the pula 
or sim tree. It grows to a height of 100 
feet with large girth, the wood being white 
when fresh cut, but darkening on exposure. 
It isa soft and perishable timber, but beside 
being suitable for the making of tea chests, is 
also used as’ planking, packing cases, toys, 
fishing floats, water conduits and the lining of 
wells, The tree takes kindly to almost any des- 
cription of soil, and grows easily; so there seems 
to be no reason why its cultivation should not 
be systematically undertaken in those portions 
of the Presidency where waste spaces are to be 
found. A product of the tree which possesses 
some commercial value is the silk cotton which 
surrounds the seed and is commercially known as 
simal or red silk cotton. It is used as a substi- 
tute for feathers and down and is recommended, 
when properly carded, for the filling of quilts, 
otc. Italsois said to be better than wool owing 
to its being proof against the attack of moths 
and other vermin.—//, M, Nov, 17. 


TEA IN FORMOSA. 


In connection with the statements made 
during the last few years that the local authori- 
ties in Formosa were instituting reforms in 
connection with the tea-growing industry, a few 
details recently published as to these suggested 
reforms are interesting. The attempt to give a 
spurt to the tea trade of Formosa in 1906, the 
latest date for which statistics are available, 
took the form of a transfer of taxation. The 
Formosa local government changed the tea 
manufacturers’ tax so asto make it payable by 
the exporters instead of by the manufacturers, 
as was formerly the case. This tax amounts to 
6s. per picul (1334 lb.). In addition to this tax 
there is also imposed by the Government an 
export tax of 3s 4d upon every 1334 lb. During 
1906 the manufacturers’ tax and the export have 
brought a sum of £70,000 to the revenue. The 
authorities have made attempts to teach the tea- 
grower that the application of proper fertilisers 
will not only increase the crop but will not in- 
jure the flavour of the tea It has also been 
suggested to the grower as a wily step towards 
decreasing the cost of production, that inferior 
leaves, which at one time were almost a dead 
loss to the dealers, might be utilised in the 
manufacture of ‘tpouchongs” and black teas, 
This pouchong tea is an oolong, scented with 
the flowers of jasmine and gardenia, etc., and 
tinds a market with the Chinese population in 
the Straits Settlements, the Philippines, 
Hawaii, and also in some part of the United 


States, where the Chinese are in considerable 
numbers.. In 1906 as much as 4,300,000 1b. 
pouchong were exported from Formosa, about 
one-half the quantity being the product of the 
island. It is now the intention of the authorities 
in Formosa to 


SECURE A MARKET IN TURKEY AND RUSSIA 


for brick and black teas of Formosan produc- 
tion. In this manner it is hoped to utilise 
the tea dust, which at present finds no market. 
The exports of tea from Formosa during 1906 
amounted to 21,992,000 1b., valued approximatel 
at £700,000, of which the United States took, 
17,000,000 lb., against 18,000,000 lb. in 1905.— 
H, & C. Mait, Oct. 9. 


CULTIVATION UNDER CANVAS. 


Topacco More EsPecra.ty. 


The use of canvas has revolutionised the to- 
bacco industry, and by its assistance tobacco 
growers have been ‘enabled to produce. double 
the yield from the same ground. As a result of 
growing tobacco under canvas tents, the Ameri- 
cans, since they took possession of Porto Rico, 
have increased the tobacco export five times. 
This is partly due to increased acreage, partly 
to better methods of curing and manufacturing, 
but chiefly because the Americans have taught 
the tobacco planters a new trick, 


Five years ago no suitable tobacco for ‘‘wrap- 
pers,” as the outer covering of cigars is called, 
could be grown, but the American has’ shown 
what can be done by raising it under thin canvas 
cloth. Now the Porto Rico’s tobacco patch 
looks like a giant circus-tent covering hundreds 
of acres,—Sunday Circle. 


FISH PRODUCTS FROM BENGAL. 


The establishment of a Fisheries Department, 
the formation of a Fisheries Board, and the 
purchase of a well-equipped trawler, indicate 
the desire of the Government of Bengal to 
develop the trade in fish and our knowledge 
of new industries connected . therewith. Tho 
weekly excursions of the ‘‘Golden Crown” 
have already brought to light several residents 
in the Bay of Bengal that are new to science, 


and it is hoped that, as an important article of: 


food, its market price may through this means 
be brought within the reach ofall classes, But 
the eating of cheaper and better fish and the 
storing of new specimens on the shelves of a 
museum must not be regarded as the chief 
objects of this commendable enterprise. In 
other countries of the world the industries con- 
nected with fish products and refuse give 
employment to thousands of labourers and 
realise for the owners thousands of pounds 
sterling In India some of these industries have 
never been touched, and we may hope that this 
recent movement of Government may result in 
profitable outlets for capital and employment 
for fresh labour. 


From an American source we find that fish 
materials employed in the arts and industries 
may be roughly divided into five classes: (1) 
Oils, fats and waxes; (2) fertilisers from ‘refuse ; 
(3 skins of aquatic animals and. leathers; (4) 


| 


and Magazine of the Ceylon Agricultural Society. 


shells, scales, bones and ivory substitutes; (5) 
glue, isinglass and sponges. The total value of 
‘the annual product of these throughout the 
world roughly approximates $45,000,000, of 
which the United States contribute $11,000,000. 


_ Some of the most extensive fisheries of the 
world have been conducted for the purpose of 
supplying the oil-markets, Whale oil was one 
of the first of all oils to achieve commercial im- 
portance, and for over a century whale fishery 
ranked as one of the principal industries of 
America. The seal fisheries of Newfoundland, 
Norway and other Northern countries are de- 
pending for their prosperity on the oil obtained 
from the thick blubber underlying the skins of 
the animals. In the various cod fisheries the 
rendering of the livers into oil for medicinal as 
well as for technical uses is a source of great 
profit. . 


All varieties of aquatic oils deposit a solid 
fat or greaséo known as _ ‘‘foots” or 
‘*stearine,” somewhat similar to the tal- 
low of sheep and oxen. This is obtained 
in the process of refining the oils, and the 
yield sometimes reaches 20 per cent. of the bulk 
of the crude oil. It issold for a few pence per 
pound, and is used as a substitute for tallow 
from sheep and oxen in sizing yarns, as emol- 
lient in leather dressing and for various other 
technical purposes. 


Bleaching the various marine oils produces 4 
semi-solid fat known as ‘spern-soap,’ ‘whale- 
soap,’ ‘menhaden-soap,’ according to the variety 
of oil treated. This material is used in smear- 
ing sheep, washing fruit trees, and soap manu- 
facture. In fighting the mosquito-blight of tea 
it has been found by Mr Hutchinson that certain 
soap solutions are the most efficacious remedies 
known. It would appear that soap made entirely 
from fish-oil is probably one of the best for des- 
troying the pest in tea gardens, 


Fertilisers are made from shells, non-edible fish, 
especially the menhaden, and waste portions 
of edible species, The quantity of such fertilisers 
produced annually in the United States approxi- 
mates 420,000 tons worth $2,120,000. This is 
capable of great increase especially in the quan- 
tity of waste fish employed. Fish is used as 
a manure on the Malabar Coast and the plant- 
ing districts of Wynaad and Mysore, but hither- 
to no such industry has been established in 
Bengal. The refuse fish from the ‘‘ Golden 
Crown” might be worked up in some central 
factory dried and mixed with mineral compounds 
to form an excellent concentrated manure for 
all kinds of crops. 


Leather is made from the skins of practically 
all species of fish, but they usually rank as 
novelties among fancy leather dressers. Seal 
leather is produced in large quantities, averag- 
ing in value one anda half million dollars a year. 
The hide of the beluga or white whale is one of 
the best of skins for leather purposes. It is 
sold as porpoise leather, and probably $200,000 
worth is marketted annually. Among the 
aquatic skins used to a less. extent may be men- 
tioned porpoises, sharks and alligators, all of 
which are procurable on the Bengal littoral or 
in the Bay. 


605 


Glue-manufacture provides an outlet for the 
profitable use of much waste in dressing fish 
allied to the cod. The material was formerly 
discarded as useless, but now tens of thousand 
dollars’ worth of glue for postage stamps, court 
plaster, adhesive labels, for sizing straw hats 
and textile fabrics are manufactured from fish- 
skins. The product is said to be much stronger 
and more durable than glue made from the 
skins of mammals. At present it may be pre- 
sumed that every pound of fish-glue used in 
India is imported, while excellent material is 
available in the seas surrounding the peninsula. 


Isinglass made from the sounds or swim- 


ming bladders of sturgeon, hake and cod 
is used largely for clarifying fermenting 
liquors. A crude form of isinglass, we 


understand, is prepared by fishermen on 
the Orissa coast, but there is an opening for 
a larger industry where a refined article should 
be manufactured by some simple process. 


These are a few directions for extending the 
fish industry which might be followed by the 
new Fisheries Dapartment of the Government of 
Bengal. It will beimpossible to compete with 
temperate countries in their large enterprises, 
but in the matter of useful products, as fish oils, 
isinglass and fertilisers a commencement might 
be made during the present cold weather when 
climatic conditions are more favourable than 
any other time of the year.— Capital, Nov. 12. 


TROPICAL PRODUCTS OF FiJi. 


AnD RuBBER CULTIVATION, 


The Acting Colonial Secretary at Suva, in his 
report on Fiji for 1907, recently published by 
the, Colonial Office (Annuag Reports No $580), 
states that the cultivation of sugar, copra, ‘and 
green fruit (chiefly bananas) at present forms 
the staple agricultural industries of the Colony. 
There are six sugar mills in operation in the 
Colony. The total area of land under cane 
cultivation is estimated at 39,464 acres, from 
which 584,686 tons of sugar cane were produced 
in 1907. The area under coconuts is estimated 
at 28,634 acres ; but this represents Huropean 
cultivation only, no returns of the ,area culti- 
vated by natives being furnished. The total 
quantity of copra (the dried kernel of the coco- 
nut) exported aueing 1907 was 11,290 tons, 
valued at £182,788. The area under bananas and 
pineapples was 3,477 acres, but this does not 
include native cultivation. Considerable areas 
of bananas are cultivated by natives, who sell 
their produce to European agents for shipment. 
An inspector of fruit was appointed in January, 
1907, whose duty it is, under the Fruit Export 
Ordinance, to supervise the fruit export trade, 
A considerable paprorement in the quantity 
of fruit exported has resulted from this ap- 
pointment, 


There is stated to be a good opening in Fiji 
for the cultivation of such minor. products as 
hemp, ginger, limes, spices, tobacco, &c. The 
cultivation of rubber has hitherto hardly been 
attempted, but the results obtained at the ex- 
perimental stations, and on at least, two planta- 
tions, Jndicate that this valuable product can 


606 


be successfully cultivated. The growth of the 
existing trees shows that conditions are favour- 
able to both the Para and Ceara species. 
though the trees of the latter variety are more 
liable to damage from high winds. Large areas 
of land suitablefor rubber cultivation can be 
obtained at reasonable rates.—Board of Trade 
Journal, Nov. 5. 


PACKING PARA RUBBER SEEDS 
FOR EXPORT. 


The demand for para rubber seeds in different 
parts ofthe tropical world has become very con- 
siderable of late ; and as the seed of this tree 
deteriorates very rapidly after it s ~ipe and soon 
loses its germinating power, not easy to 
send large quantities over long distances without 
a large percentage of losses unless the packing is 
done very carefully and the best method adopted. 
Numerous experiments have been tried at the 
Botanic Gardens here in Singapore from time to 
time in order to find the best method of pack- 
ing the seed. Judging by reports received from 
different parts of the globe, the system we now 
adopt seems to be as nearly perfect as possible, 
aswill be seen by the following extract from the 
‘‘ Report of the Botanic Gardens of British 
Guiana for the year 1907-1908 ”:— 

“In May 10,800 para rubber seeds were received from the 
Royal Botanic Gardens, Singapore, from which 6,956, plants 
were raised i.e. 64°4 per cent of the seeds germinated after 
being 53 days on the journey. 

“In October and the beginning of November 52,000 seeds 
arrived from the same place and when sown produced 42,100 
plants which gives a germination of approximately 80 per 
cent. 

‘« These were received packed in one pound biscuit tins 
with burnt rice husk. Three tins were then enclosed in a 
canvas covering and were within the limit of weight allowed 
for by the Post Office, by which means they were sent. 

““The importance of obtaining Hevea brasiliensis seeds 
by post to avoid as far as possible any delay onthe jour- 
ney, as. well as the risk of being heated inthe hold of 
a vessel was pointed outin my last report. 

“This is further emphasized by the fact that at about the 
same time as our own seeds arrived a Water Street firm 
sent 10,500 para rubber seeds, packed in six kerosine tins 
which had travelled in the ordinary way as merchandise, to 
be grown for them at the Gardens. These seeds received 
the same careful treatment as our own but produced ‘only 
18 plants.’ ” 

This is an excellent record for seeds which 
were in the tins for over 53 days from the time 
of packing until their arrival in British Guiana 
and it 1s very doubtful if the 


80 PER CENT. GERMINATION 
has ever been or ever will be beaten for 
a journey of this length. I have seen many 
much poorer germinations on estates in the 
Peninsula where the seeds were actually grown, 
harvested and sown. From this and many 
similar results obtained by us in packing para 
tubber seeds we have every confidence in re- 
commending this system of packing to all who 
wish to send seeds over long distances and 
obtain the bess results. Equally satisfactory 
results have been obtained by using powdered 
charcoal as a packing material, but we find 


BURNT RICE HUSKS 
cheaper and also lighter which is a very 
important point in favour of its adoption 
when sending seeds by Parcel Post. As 
hundreds of thousands of seeds are now being 
shipped out of the Peninsula and as particulars 
of the best system of packing are constantly 


The Supplement to the Tropical Agriculturist 


being asked for, I give the following particulars 
which may be of some value:—Tins 12 in. x 8 in. 
x 5in. are used. These are made locally and 
cost about 20 cents each. Hach when properly 
packed holds 600 seeds and is within the Post 
Office regulation weight of eleven lb., for this 
class of parcel. In packing the seeds a layer of 
burnt rice husk is put on the bottom of the tin 
and then alternate layers of seeds and husk are 
added _ until the whole 600 seeds have been 
packed when the tin will be quite full. A 
lid is put on each tin but is not soldered down 
as we find that this prevents an excess of 
moisture collecting inside the tins and the 
burnt rice husk, is thereby kept at the proper 
degree of moisture. I should have mentioned 
that the burnt rice husk (or powdered charcoal) 
should be slightly moistened before packing in 
orderto keep the seeds in a fresh healthy state ; 
but care should be taken that not too much 
moisture is added or the seeds are liable to 
germinate and rot on a long journey. 


THE DEMANDS 


from the British Possessions and other 
Colonies in the tropics for para rubber seeds 
from the trees in the Singapore Botanic Gar- 
dens are steadily increasing. 400,000 seeds will 
be dispatched during the present year and many 
orders have been refused owing to our inability 
to supply the seeds. All our seeds are sent long 
distances on journeys of not less than one 
month packed as described above and it is 
extremely satisfactory to be able to state such 
results from this method.—T. W. Matin, Botanic 
Gardens, Singapore.—Strails Agricultural Bulle- 
tin, for November. 


GERMAN RUBBER MAGNATE IN 
CEYLON. 


VIEWS OF THE PROSPECTS OF THE 
INDUSTRY. 


EXTREMES IN Prices: 38s. 6D, A GooD 
WogkasLe MeEpium. 


Increased Qutput will Mean Extended Uses. 
Herr A. Prinzhorn, proprietor of an extensive 


rubber manufactory in Hanover, arrived recently - 


on a visit to Ceylon. He was accompanied by 
Mr. Hohlt, Acting Consul for Domingo at) Han- 
over, who isalso interested in the Rubber Indus- 
try, The two gentlemen were more on a pleasure 
than a business trip, but Mr Prinzhorn kindly 
accorded an interview to an Observer representa- 
tive. He is the Managing Director’ of the 
Continental Rubber and Gutta Percha Oo., 
Hanover, which employs some 4,500 men and is 
perhaps the largest rubber factory in the world. 
Mr Prinzhorn and Mr Hohlt went on _ to 
India where they stay for a fortnight, after 
which they visit some of the well-known rubber 
plantations in the Straits Settlements, and return 
to Ceylon with the same object, about the middle 
of February. Mr Prinzhorn then hopesto be able 
to avail himself of some introductions to Ceylon 
planters, given him by Mr Kelway Bamber whom 
he met at the Exhibition in London. 


es 


. 


‘ 


and Magazine of the Ceylon Ayricuttural Society. 


Questioned on the latter subject, Mr Prinz- 
horn said that there was no doubt the Exhibition 
was a good one and would have excellent re- 
sults. With regard tothe next one projected 
for 1910, it is his personal opinion that it would 
be a good move to amalgamate it with the great 
World’s Exhibition, instead of having two. 


“Para rubber has gone up 60 per cent. since 
March,” said Mr Prinzhorn. 


“What are the causes?” 


“It would be better if you asked me why it 
declined previously to then. It was, toa great 
extent, due tothe American crisis. The American 
factories were working only half-time in many 
cases, whereas they are now working full time. 
The prite was 2s 9d then,—much too low— 
and it is now about 5s which is much too high. 
I should think a fair normal figure would -be 3s 
6d to4s alb. While it is as high as at present 
there is not likely to be any increase in the 
uses of rubber.” 

‘¢ What will bring the price down ?” 

‘* An increased output of Plantation Rubber, 
every ounce of which that is sent over to Hano- 
ver, sells. Yes, I think the German manufac- 
turers like Plantation rubber, We can use 
for most of the articles that we manufacture, 
though not all. Ithink that the best Ceylon 
Rubber is equal to fine para rubber, Ceylon 
rubber is liked generally.” 

“In what form is 1t preferred 2” 


“Well, that is difficult to say, crepe or dry 
blocks,”’ 


‘‘ Well, the present good demand for rubber 
be maintained 2” 


‘* Yes, I think so, there is every reason for it 
doing so. It is partly speculation that causes 
the fluctuation in prices, so far as I can see. 


‘‘ Tf the output becomes largely increased and 
the price comes down, of course, many new 
uses for rubber will be practicable and the many 
substitutes for rubber which are on the market 
will disappear. 


‘* Where do you buy your rubber, Mr. Prinz- 
horn ?” 

‘*T buy in the cheapest market. When I can 
get it cheaper in New York, I buy it there ; if 
in London, then in London I buy. We use 
something like 200 tons of rubber a month 
in our factory.” 


BASAL RUBBER TAPPING AND 
PRICKING. 


We are advised by planters in the East that 
basal tapping and experiments with pricking 
are becoming more general. The basal tapping 
allows one to deal with the thickest bark on the 
tree and successive tapping lines can be added 
as the trees increase in size, so that there will 
be a definite number of tapping lines according 
to the ages of the trees. Most planters have at 
last recognised that they cannot be too careful 
in tapping operations and that the best work is 
that which removes the minimum quantity of 
bark and secures the maximum quantity of 
rubber therefrom. The prickers, which were 
first inyented, were provided with sharp 


607 


points ; these were apt to penetrate to the 
cambium and raise small pimples on the 
renewed bark, In other prickers — the 
sharp points have been destroyed and the 
laticiferous canals can only be cut by the sides 
of each tooth asthe pricker is rotated. The 
tendency when using the pricker is to run the 
wheel up and down the stem in order to get the 
last drop of latex from the bark. This repeti- 
tional incision of adjacent areas leads to macer- 
ation of the bark and subsequently to a nasty 
wound, If the prickeris simply used to give 
one downward or one upward stroke very little 
harm is done to the trees. The great advantage 
of the system of pricking is that latex is 
obtained with the minimum destruction of bark, 
a point which cannot be too strongly enforced 
on the minds of all who supervise such work. 
—India-lulber Journal, Nov. 16. 


NEW SYSTEM OF RUBBER TAPPING. 


Lowcountry, Nov. 27th. ° 

Sir,—An interesting circular was issued b 
Messrs Lee, Hedges & Co., Colombo, which 
you published extracts from recently, regard- 
ing a new method for tapping rubber trees. The 
claims for this new method are great ; one being 
that at least six times the ordinary yield has 
been obtained and in less time than by the 
old methods, Granted that this is so, what about 
over-production ? 


I am not aware of the method yet. I hope to 
be before long, and the offer made is a sporting 
one ; but it seems to me that the great danger 
of the system is the tapping of young trees, This 
isa method brought out by one planter and 
boomed by his interested agents; and, of 
course, it is nothing to him and them, provided 
he gets in the shekels, if immature rubber from 
very young trees is placed on the market ; they 
have got their boodle, and the good name of 
Ceylon rubber can go hang ! 


Not one, but many planters, scientific men, 
and those in the trade at home have all 
declared that rubber from young trees ts inferior, 
and it is well approved that young trees of three 
and four years of age should not be tapped. 
Here is an attempt to overturn all this, 


Dr. Willis, whose opinion I take it is worth a 
good deal, has approved the new system and 
allowed his recommendation to be used as an 
advertisement. Has the Director given -his 
opinion after carefully considering the subject, 
and what it may mean if Ceylon as a whole goes 
in for tapping young sapling rubber trees—? 
Has he examined and tested the rubber obtained 
from such young trees, and obtained expert 
home opinion on it, and the approval or other- 
wise of manufacturers as to whathior such rubber 
is of value to them—? Or has he been led to 
express his opinion on returns from old trees—? 
Dr. Willis says :— 


‘It is well-suited to young trees.” That is, 
Dr. Willis approves and recommends tapping 
young trees, three and four years old. This is 
very remarkable, as I—and others I could men- 
tion—have understood the Director of Pera- 
deniya to be against tapping young rubbers, 


608 


1 am not criticising in any biased way ; if the 
new tapping does prove really valuable and we 
can get good merchantable rubber fru: three to 
four years old trees, no one will be better 
pleased than myself—as I am interested in 
young, as well as old, estates. What I want is 
that this matter should be discussed—as it does 
affect, considerably, the planting interests of 
the colony. And I should like to hear what 
Dr. Willis may have te say on the subject.— 


Yours faithfully, 
HERRING-BONES. 


RUBBER IN THE COMING AGRICUL- 
TURAL EXHIBITION AT PARA. 


Sir,—Your readers will be interested to hear 
that an Agricultural Exhibition is to be opened 
at Para on the 22nd June, 1909, under the aus- 
pices of the Syndicato Industrial e Agricola 
Paraense. The following exhibits are solicited 
for the Rubber Section :— 

No. 1.—Tapping Implements. . 

No. 2.—Smoking apparatus for india-rubber. 

No, 3.—India-rubber blocking presses. 

No, 4.—Pails for carrying the latex. 

No. 5.—Other materials and accessories for 
the smoking of india-rubber. 

No. 6.—Cups for the latex. 

I extract from the circular issued by the Syndi- 
cate the following rules, which show the methods 
to be adopted :— 

All machinery, implements, utensils, photographs, de 
signs, cliches, etc., received by the Syndicate, for the exhi- 
bition shall becomeits entire property and the said Syndi- 
cate will undertake to make a propaganda of all these 
articles gratuitously among the principal agricultural cen- 
tres of this State. 

The Syndicate undertakes not to sell or dispose of, in any 
form whatever, the articles entrusted for its care {for 
exhibition. ie i : 

I trust that British engineers will be well to 
the front atthe Exhibition, and that plant and 
utensils similar to those being employed in the 
East will be in evidence, Trade in this quarter 
will have an important revival, and the market 
is not to be neglected,—Yours, etc., 

‘¢ PARAENSE.” 
—India Rubber Journal Nov, 16. 


THE DACOSTA PROCESS OF RUBBER 
COAGULATION, &C. 


F.M.S. Commissioner's SUGGESTION. 

Sir,—In the Da Costa process, the latex is 
coagulated by forcing into it a jet of steam and 
smoke, The idea may possible be correct, and 
certainly the rubber produced is of an en- 
couraging quality ; but it appears tome that the 
apparatus by which it is carried into effect is 
very inefficient. It is an ordinary vertical steam 
boiler, with an arrangement whereby a portion 
of the smoke is driven, by means of an injector, 
into the latex. I watched the apparatus at work 
at the recent International Rubber Exhibition, 
and naturally there was little or nosmoke pro- 
duced, because a boiler furnace is designed to 
produce heat and not smoke, the two things 
being inimical toone another. Further, when 
visible smoke was given off, it was largely com- 
posed of carbon, which appears to give the rub- 
ber the curious grey appearance which it has. 
Now I would suggest that the only way to carry 


The Supplement to the Tropical Agriculéurist 


this method into successful effect is to have two 
distinct fires, one designed to produce smoke 
and the other heat. Under these circumstances 
it would be possible to supply a smoke similar 
in character to that used in preparing the 
Brazilian rubber; that is one containing practi- 
cally no free carbon, but large amounts of those 
products of the destructive distillation of 
vegetable matter, which are required to coagu- 
late and cure the rubber. As I am not going 
out again to the East, and therefore shall not 
have an opportunity of trying this modification 
of the process, [ have decided, with your kind 
permission, to publish this suggestion, in the 
hope that someone may be induced to try it 
and report the results. ; 
L. Waray. 

—India-Rubber Journal, Nov. 16. 


USES OF PLANTATION PARA. 


(Lo the Editor, ‘‘India Rubber Journal.) 

Sir,—In your issue of November 2nd, and 
under the above title, Messrs Clayton Beadle and 
Stevens, referring to my paper on “‘ The Re- 
lation of the Manufacturer to the Consumer,” 
say :—‘' The author holds that plantation rub- 
bes is deficient in nerve or strength or resiliency 
as compared with hard cure.” I must ask you 
to permit me to say that it is simply not true 
that I have said this or anything of the kind. 
What I did say, under a paragraph headed ‘* A 
disadvantage of some Plantation Rubbers,” was: 
—‘ Although the advantages of plantation 
are both numerous and important, there is no 
use blinking the fact that much of the plan- 
tation rubber now being produced is in one 
respect decidedly inferior to the high class wild 
product, namely in regard to ‘nerve’ or strength 
or resiliency.” 

Toargue that because one particular brand of 
plantation rubber is excellent and gives results 
equal to fine hard cure, that therefore all (or the 
great bulk) plantation rubber is equally good, | 
is notonly childish, but opposed to the. facts 
There is one point on which every manufacturer 
with whom I have discussed this question (at 
the Rubber Exhibition and elsewhere) is agreed, 
and that isthat the plantation product varies 
very widely in regard to strength. If mdepen- 
dent confirmation of this were required it 1s to 
be found, curiously enough, inthe article by Mr 
John Parkin, in the same issue of the “ India- 
Rubber Journal” as that containing Messrs 
Beadle and Stevens’ letter—not to speak of the 
opinions which were gathered from manufac- 
turers by you, Sir, in reference to this matter, 
some little while back. The attitude of your 
correspondents reminds me of the patriotic 
Scotsman who said: ‘ There’s guid whisky, 
and there’s whisky that’s nae so guid, but 
there’s nae bad whisky,” but they appear to go 
one step further and tosay: ‘‘ There’s no plan- 
tation rubber that’s not ofthe highest quality.” I 
can only say that I wouldit were so and express 
the hope that in time it will be a fact: Meanwhile 
I demur to a theory which seems likely to mis- 
lead those to whom it is of vital importance to 
know the simple truth.—Y ours, etc., 


PHILIP SCHIDROWITZ. 
—India Rubber Journal, Nov. 16. 


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