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The Tropical Agriculturist 


Magazine of the Ceylon Agricultural Society. 


(FOUNDED 1881.) 


EDITED BY 
J. G. WILLIS, 


Director, Royal Botanic Gardens, Peradeniya. 


(R. H. LOOK, Acting Editor.) 


Vol, XXXIU. 


Containing Numbers | to VI,: January to June, 1909. 


44250 
A. M. & J. FERGUSON, 
COLOMBO, CEYLON. 


1909, 


INDEX 


TO THE 


TROPICAL AGRICULTURIST AND MAGAZINE OF THE 6. fh. 5. 
R. a bacic 
2 Acting Director, Royal Botanic Gardens, Peradeniya. 
Vol. XXXII: Nos. | to Vi: January to June, 1909. 


A, M. & J, FERGUSON, 
PROPRIETORS AND PUBLISHERS, COLOMBO, CEYLON. 


PAGE. PAGE. 
A. Borneo, Rubber Tapping in.. 785 

- Acid Soils, Treatment of, for Cultivation 192 Botany, Articles on the Literature of 
Action of Heat.and Antiseptics on Soils 359 Economic ... -71, 365, 456; 565 
Agricultural Bank, Barbados Sugar Daas 366 Breeding Plants as a Recreation 5: 256 

do Banks 366 British Cotton Growing Association, 3rd 
: do Education i in Ceylon 489, 490 Annual Beperie a ae 52) 
= - do do n Madras a... 71 Bullrush £ nae ee 457 
do do 5 = Sueebations for Burma, Teain ... 5 if 31 

a local Scheme of S 465 = 
de Experiments in Madaas .. 406 Cc. 

do — Implements, Simple a 89 Cabook or Laterite ae 179 
do Progress 379 Cacao and Grubs in J: amaica i, 191 
do Progress in Ceylon, Bar to 501 do Character of Criollo me 49 
do Research Work in Bengal 74 do Cultivation bet he 247 
Agricultuve and Electricity... 495 do Disease, Studiesin ... es BAST 
do and How to Teach the People Re se ig olen penientecnr Domina a 338 
do Captial in Rae do * do Grenada ge 339 
Sida Elementary 174 do do Guiana ist 340 
do in Ceylon, Improvement 0 of 105, 477 do do St. Lucia a 343 
do do Rural . 105 do Fermentation re * 35 
do in the N.C.P. 109 do Grafting... ws is 337 
; do in the Philippines, Elements of 316 do Industry of Bahia _... a 487 
ort do Literature of Economic .,.. 71, 365 do do The Be .. 141, 335 

456, 565 ect Pests of Bs ia 
oe Almond Tree, Cultivation of the ee 585 ve in rae ee Region As oe 
es Aloe Fibre Industry “ 526 do inthe Gold Coast  ... a 407 
American Coconut Oil Market 555 189 do inthe West Indies ee 47 
Andamans, Tea in the 600 do Parasitic Disease... ie 502 
= Andrographis Paniculata (Binkohomba) 362 do Plantations, Slavery on ae 369 
2 Annatto, Cultivation and Utilisation of 517 do Planting, Phe kwuture. of i 141 
do Varieties of os 71. do Pods, Soap from... 488 
_ Arrowroot Growing in Queensland... 236 do Production and Consumption of of 146 
Assam, Rubber Tapping Method of ... 221 do do of Brazil 4 104 
Attalea Cohune vera 223 do Slave Grown een Re 502 
' Austria and Hungary, What Forestry hi has do Thrips ae 5b 
: done for  _ : 160 do Trees, Cuts on, Dressings for... 4.05 
e5 Avocado Pear __... ees 26 179 Camphor and its By- products _ 215 
3 Sea do Exports a 406 
ie B. do French Synthetic... aap 286 
ft Banana, Flour __... ees 484, 497 do Increasing Production Of. 35. 122 
aaa do from Ceylon at Leicester... 402 do Japanese obi 285 
Bangalore Sericulture Farm Ree 557 do Trade, The Future ofthe .. 8 
= _ Bark Splitting of Rubber Trees wt 2800 Capital in Agriculture His be 1 
“ Barrydo” Tapping Knife . 592 Caravonica Cotton ee eb 231 
‘t Bean ” and “ Pea, > Misuse of Terms.. 458 do do andits Sponsors... 186 
Bees do not Injure Sound Fruit Sp 453 ae do Seed . 484, 594 
Beneficial Insects or Parasites, Notes do do onthe Market 204 
on the Value of Introduced 547 Carbon Bisulphides on Estates 592 
Bengal, Agricultural Research Work i in 374 Carruthers, New Appointment of Mr. J. ‘B. 196, 306 
Binkohomba eae alae Paniculata) 362 Cassava, Manioca or Tapioca is 32, 250 
zi Birds as Friends and Foes to eoeeuliure 48Ca Castilloa on the Isthmus of Tehuantepec 4 
‘ Board of Agriculture ; Minutes . 179, 459 do or Central American Rubber 3 
me do do Progress Report 180, 460 do Planting, Hints on ade 215 


me 
Re 


INDEX. 


Pace. 
Castor Oil Plant for Green Manure 495 
do do The 219 
Cattle in Ceylon, Improvement of 57 
Ceara or Manicoba Rubber 8s 
Ceylon Bananas at Leicoetns 402 
o Cattle, Improvement of 57 
do Coconut Oil Trade ... 504 
do do Planting and Cultivation 125 
do do Produce 492 
do Copra in 1908 : 90 
do Cotton Cultivation in ... 324, 406 

do Exports of the Products of the 
Coconut Palm 123 
do Future of Cotton Cultivation in in 85 

do Its Industries and Material Pro- 
gress eet ; 493 
do Palms 493 
do Tea Industry 493 
Charcoal Manure, J apanese | ‘System of 592 
Cherimoya io Aa ot 71 
Cholum or Jowar ae 361 
Cinnamon Oil Industry of Seychelles oe 286 
Citrate of Lime ... 46 
Citronella and Lemon Grass Oil, Ceylon 207 
do and other Grass Oils 83 
Citrus Fruits, Co-operative Marketing of 137 
do Industry for India... 560 437 

Clean Weeding on Rubber Estates 209, 211, 

281, 587 
Coconut Beetle in the Straits 408 
do — Big Crop of Fee 599 

do Desiccated’ in Ceylon and 
N.S.W. Manufacture of =: 498 
do Desiccating i in Australia 498 
do in B. E. Africa 4 306 
do in Ceylon as 305 
do in Fiji 305 

do in Laguna and Tayabas Pro- 
vinces ce 5 419 
do in Queensland ... 502 
do in the Dry Zone of Ceylon .. 26 
do Industry of Travancore. . 124 

do its Germination and Deteri- 
oration of its Products 10 
do Latest on Planting 83 
do Manuring of 82 
do Oiland Soapmaking in Ceylon 207 
do do in the U.S.A., Tax on 190 
do do Market, American ; 189 
do do Mill in Kuala Selangor .. 306 

do Palm, Exports of the Pro- 
ducts ofthe ... 123 

do Palm, Relation of Weather to 
Cro} 8 ae 27 
do Pest in Cochin ... 190 
do Planting and Cultivation 125 
do Produce, Ceylon ... 492, 493 
Coffee as a Catch-crop with Rubber... 408, 598 
do Scheme of San Paulo 582 
Coimbatore Agricultural College : 566 

do do do a Brief 
Note on or 3 176 
Coir Yarn, Fibre, &c. 207 
Commelina Nudiflora 279 
Compressed Tea in India _... 296 
Conference of Governors of U.S. A. 382 
Conservation of Land and Water 596 
do of Soil Moisture es 561 

do of do do and Eco- 

nomy in use of Irrigation Water 454 


Conservation of Timber sat Ke 439 * 
Co-operative Credit Society, Dumbara 177 7 
do Credit Societies in India 279, = 
370, 470 4 
Copras wenn, in 1908 - 90 7 
do Dutch Kast Indies 599 im 
do Edible Fat from y Be 395 5 
do Industry in Java nh 599 4 
do do in Singapore 104, mea 196 ( 
do do The 221 B: 
do Singapore, increasing Trade i in. 104 : 
Cork Tree Bark RS 503 
Corns on Horses’ Feet 554 4 
Cotton: British Cotton Growing Asso- = 
ciation: 8rd Annual Report 521 ee 
do Caravonica Seed ... ... 484, 504 
do Crop, Indian 18 | 5a 
do Cultivation in the “Kurunegala ] 
District 131 ‘ 
do Cultivation in the U. S., Notes 
on the Present Position of . 423 
do Cultivation: its Extension in 
Ceylon 5 324, 406, 410 
do Egyptian, in Sind . sat 18 
do ‘Growing in Cey lon 85, 185, 308 } 
do Land, Loguerneae Crops for... 64 ; 
do Plantations i in Egypt 204 j 
do Sea Island, in the W. I. 522 
Coughing Plant 503 
Covent Garden, Tropical Fruits in 238 
Cowpeas -. 133, 134 
Criollo Cacao, Characters of — 49 
Jrops on Coconut Palms, Relation of : 

Weather to ; 27 
Cultivation of a Sandy Soil 5p0 ‘581, 597 
Curvature in Para Seedlings «4.2800 
Cutch Trade, Present Position and Pros- , 

pects of vas eae 223 

D. 
Dairy Farming in Ceylon: Will it Pay 554 
Decay of Humus 502 
Departments of Agriculture and Planters 362 
Desmodium Trifolium (Undupiyali) 179 
Destroying the Mosquito 353 


Dhanicha (Sesbanea Aculeata) ey 71, 179 


‘‘Die Back” in Fruit Trees.. 484 siti” 
“Disease-Resistant Varieties of Plants, ~ 
Development of .». 165, 259 ae 

Doctor Francis Watts, C. M.G. is 467 

Dolomite asa 179 
Dominica, Cacao Ex eriments in 338 i: 

Drought, Fighting t a 496 
Dryland "Farming 66 — 
Dumbara Co-operative and ‘Branch So- , 
cleties ae Ase oe 


Durian of Varieties 
Dust Mulch, The 


E. 
Hatoe Fat Produced from Copra 
yptian Cotton in Sind... 
ae mentary Agriculture... 
Ensilage and how to make it 
Entomological Notes bs 
Kssential Oils : 
Experimental Farms, Scope ‘of 
do Station, Peradeniya 
Extraction of Oil from Seeds one 


INDEX, iii 
Paces: PAGE: 
F. Intensive Cultivation, Demonstration of 469 
oe: A New Tea a oO 88 Irrigation in Natal 200 oon 277 
ederated Malay States, ests in ii 191 eds, 
Feeding Value and Flavour of Nuts 436 J. 
Fermentation of Cacao sn ES 35 
ag of Coffee et 248 cars penonl Garde val ove i 
Fertility and peeuuring i en Be J panes Seaton’ of Charcous Manure .. 592 
Fertilizing of Eggs Ae 458 be 
Fibre Genctenee at Sourabaya in 1910 ... 398 grt ea eves me ss Bd 

do Industry, The NS, 931 : He aes 5 
Fig, Smyrna, a West Australia a jo,  Jowar or Cholum... ae a 
Fiji, Coconuts in.. ia 305 [SS 
Fire on a Rubber Plantation ss 503 K. 

Fodder, A New .. 495 Kapok: Tree Cotton 458 
Foot-and-Mouth Disease and Rinder pest 458 King Orange 458 
Forestry, What it has Done 160 Kolinchi—Tephr osia Pur purea (Pil). 179 
French Gardening see 560 71 Korea, Rice Production of . 398 
peut peowing = asec nes 3 a Kumbuk-—see Terminalia Arjuna. 

o Trees, “ ie-back ” ais 8 

do do Durian 4 458 L 

d do P O 599 : 

“io AS Eas Oronee ae 108 Lac in the Kastern Dun ... 216 
Fruits, Packing and Shipment of fe 147 ee "Mater a BS 
2 ] (6! 938 a er- ng a 1a an 

do , Tropical, in Covent Garden Tate oa Pest, The 81, 82 

Lemon Grass, Prospects of .. 459 
6. Lima Bean, The 280b, 480, os 
‘Germination and Plant Growth, Studieson 269 Jiime, Citrate of ... os, 
Governor’s Conference, U. 8. A. ne 382 do Cultivation, "A.B.C. of. ee 38% ies 
Grasshoppers. 361 do J uice, Concentration of at 46 
Green Manuring and Nitro-Bacterine . 505 ** Lime” : The Term 362 
do do , Castor Oil Plants as .. 495 do Crops for Cotton and 64 
o do ‘for Young Rubber 61,393,495, Liquid Manure for Tomatoes 362 
4 5 pre tacife 3: 505, a uavereure of Economic Botany and 
fo) (0) in Sou ndia ot I Agriculture : 71, 361, 456, 565 
do do in Tea 398, 495 Loans to Native Agriculturists ae 108 
ds de oe Seandens 393 Locusts on Lawns: A Cure., 591 
fo) ° assiflora Foetida _... 393 
Grenada, Cacao Experiments in ef 339 
Groundnuts (Arachis Hypoge) Notes Mi. 

on the Cultivation of ... 22,515 Madras, Agricultural Education in 71 
Groundnuts or Peanuts, ‘Origin and do Agricultural Committee’s Pro- 

Domestication in U.S. of bas 515 gress Report 498 
Guava Jelly, Method of Making Se 87 Maize, Cultivation and Marketing of ... 253, 343 
Guiana, Cacao Experiments in ae 340 Mangoes in Ceylon ay 78 
Gum Arabic " 179 do Rust on ty oe 55 

: Manioc or Cassava ase 02, 200 
H. Mehure: Artificial and Farmyard 173 
Heat and Antiseptics on Soil, Action of 359 on Artificial vs, Green and Cattle M3; is 
Hetianthus Annuus, The Sunflower 322 ge. pad, son Mout woes $62 
’ 00 oe to) ew Green, at the Government 
Heredity aie 568 
Hevea Mate in Brazil, Production of... 287 Ale _ Beet alas thomolicatioaek ane 
Horses, The best time to Water 358 7 ppac ono 
Foie Decay of 205 Manuring and Fertility ae 481 
PEtiGey Whist Forostiyhasdone for 160 gone ror Les oe) 
gary, at Forestry as done for. do Green fi 61 
ae (0) otes on 276 
I. do of Coconuts Fe 82 
Iluk Grass, how to get Rid of . 312,396 do Principles of ; 497 
In-Breeding : 451 Matches in the Be ppiner Some Facts 
eRe rege and Cultivation of Soil 563 about Res 473 
ndian Cotton Cro Aas 506 18 Mealie Hay a 244 

do Game Act, The don 267 Mexico asa Tea-growing Country 102 

do Sugar Industry res Hb 52 do _, Pulque Maguey of . 234 

as Ss ne 1907-8 . ae ae wee, Virus, ae the Destruction of 263 

ar cc a6 j Ulions an osquitos . exe 549 

do Wild Fowl 56 560 Minutes of Agricultural Board ... 179, 459 
Inheritance in Trees 540 Miscellanea: Chiefly Pathological ... 445, 544 
Inoculation of Leguminous Crops 453 Moisture in Soil, Conservation of Bs 561 
Insect Pests of Cacao 378 Money for the East Indies ... oe 103 

do do, Theory of the Parasitic Morris, Sir Daniel, K.c.M.¢, Bd 364 

Control of 395 is oo 53 Mosquito Trap, A Simple .,., 0 206 


ly INDEX. : 
: Pace. 
Mosquitos and Millions ... 549 Plant Breeding asa Retveation = 
do , Destruction of 206, 261, 353, 549 do do Improvement of Crops by J 
Mucuna Pruriens (Velvet Bean) ¥ 458 do Growthand Germination, Studies in 269 
Mullein: Verbascum Thapsus 179 do Pathslogy in its Relation to 
other Sciences ot 64 
N do that Coughs FB 503 
‘ Plantain Growing i in Mexico Bs 497 
Natal, Irrigation in 277 do Meal... 2 2b 
New Fibres for Paper 422, 519 do Meal Manufacture... 484, 497 
do Fodder, A 495 Plantation Rubber Conditions 
do Rubbers, The ve 41 do do Cultivation and 
do do Tapping Systems 82, 192, 385, Germany De ec a 100 
403, 409, 416, ae 504,593 Planting in Trinidad i 2, 500 
do Tea Fanner 83 Plough for Mudland a a 458 
Nitro-Bacterine and Green Manuring . Bn 505 Ploughin 170 
do do _ Experiments with 459 Ploughs, Dise and Moldboard, Compared 469 
Nitrogen and Nitragin 269 Poultry Experiments 266 
do to Cultivated Plants, aupPly of 86 Preserving Timber, Note on the Powell 
Notes and Queries 71, 179, 861, 457 Wood Process for 439 
Nutrition of Plants, Notes on 271 Prickly Pear as Foddor and Food for 
Nuts, Feeding Value and Flavour of ... 436 Man oe a 533 
Nyasaland, Failure and Fortune in 197 Produce Market, Colombouwe 303 
do Handbook of 500 do do London 80, 184, 280¢, 384¢ 
inetsee Progress Report of the Board of ee 
_ culture . 180, 460 
0. Pruning Orange Trees 599 
Ohia Ties and Lumber, Export of 540 Prunings, Burying vs. Burning 188, 289, 296 
Oil from Seeds, Extraction of s4  Pulque Maguey of Mexico 2 é 
do Palm African, and its Products 41g Purebred and Thoroughbred, The Terms 266 
do . (Eleis Guineensis) Cultivation 418 ———-- 
Old Hens for the Table AoA d 275 Q. 
Genes, Coorg and Nagpur 71 Qucen of Flowers, The Rose oA 250 
race arate ton ice ing Queensland, Arrowroot Growing in ... 236 
Ornamental Trees, Some other 280a Quinine’in India, Demandsior = _ 
Ornithology, a Suggestion op ... 78, 280a aS Saar 
Osteoporosis Bon 2 448 R. 
psa Rainfall 
Rasakinda—Tinospora Cordifolia 
P. Rat Problem, The 
Packing Fruit for Shipment 147 ~+Rats, Virus for the Destruction of 
do Para Rubber Seeds for Export 582 Records, Value of = 
Paddy Crops in relation to “Age”... 458 Rice Cultivation in Korea ... 
do Cultivation in Burma 432 do do in the United States... 
do do on the Sivagiri Home- Rinderpest and Foot-and-Mouth Disease 
Harm -. RG Bs 528 do Anti-Serum for 
do Transplanting ar Sei 529 do in the Philippines, Koch on 
do do in Madras Presidency 246 Ripening of Tropical Fruits 
Papaw or Tree-Melon Pe a 527 Rose, The Queen of Flowers 
Paper, New Fibres for oad .... 422,519 Rubber Area in Ceylon 
Para Region in Brazil 5 95 do Artificial, India ; 
do Rubber and Valorization 93 do as Foundations for Machinery 
Paraguayan Tea (Hevea Mate) 287 do Asphalt at Marseilles 
Parasites or Beneficial Insects 547 do Authority, Well-known, in 
Parasitic Control of Insect Pests 53 Colombo f 
do Disease which Kills Rubber. 502 do Bark Splitting of Trees 
Pathological Miscellanea 445, 544 do Bearing Age and Future Yields 
“Pea” and ‘‘ Bean” Misuse of Terms ... 458 do Bitinga on see 
Peradeniya Experimental Station 313 do British Guiana Output ao 
Pests in the F.M.S. 191 do Castilloa, Hints on Planting ... 
Philippine Agriculture, Elements of 316 do Caoutchoue de Para, Cultur du: 
do Bureau of Agriculture : Veteri- do Ceara in Christmas Island... 
nary work of the : 552 do do Tapping Systems of 
do — Matches in the 473 do Clean Weeding and azegn 
pickled Tea 491 Manuring for .. 
Farming in B.C. Africa... A 169 do Clean Weeding vs. Tephrosia... 
Pils: Tephrosia Purpurea (Kolinchi) 59 179 do Coffee as a Catch crop with 
ake e Cultivation in Ceylon on 196 do Creepers: a Landolphides 
do Industry, The Ate 195 do ae L. Dawie Bis 
do Record Weight of ot 196 do Crop Returns for 1908 wn 


INDEX, y 
PAGE, Pace, 
Early Tapping of... ae: 82 Hiber Ta ping Knife “‘ Barrydo” 592 
Estate Marks on Plantation ... 490 do Methods of Assam 321 
Exhibition and Mr. Bamber .,.. 317 do lo do of Hevea 
do , Some Notable Exhi- Brasiliensis nm 404 
bits & Mr. Bamber’s Processes 317 do do = Mycologist gives Warn- 
Experiment at Gannoruwa ... 205 ing on 582 
Exports, F.M.S. | se 102 do do New System of 82, 192, 385, 403, 
do Brazil, Municipal Tax- 409, 416, "482, 504, 593 
ation on... Ait 93 do do Neve System of Critics 
Hunt, A ... 6 eas 499 ondon 482 
in Bolivia oc = 288 do doy, Northwag System 82, 192, 
in Brazil... te 4 4 385, 403, 409, 416, 482, 504, 593 
in Ceylon A ie 390 do do Yields zs AF 598 
in Cochin hs cise 297 do do ons and Old 403 
in Colombia ute 5 594 do Trade of Brazil 4 
in Hast Africa aes wie 388 do Trees, Shaping Young 2987 
in Germany a6 Bo 286 do Vacuum Dred 92 
in Java ... ia as 389 do Weeding, Clean vs. Imperfect... 209 
in Madras 3 ae 406 Rubbers, The New 411 
in Malabar 590 185 399 = Rural Agriculture in Ceylon and its 
in Malaya eg cus 304 Improvement i 69 
in New Guinea ae 598 Rust on Mangoes 55 
in Nyasaland, and Planting are 88 
in Sumatra 583 
in the F'.M.S., Report by Direc: Ss 
tor of Agriculture 413 , 
in the Gold Coast ... 406 San Paulo’s Coffee Scheme .. 582 
in the Peruvian Andesand Amazon 579 Sandy Soils and their Improvement a8 307 
in the Straits es bas 588 Sapium, Mexican and Central American 
in Tonkin se Ab 92 Species of 122 
Industry of Japan ... ays 7 Scheme of Local Agricultural Education 465 
do Mr. Fritz Zorn on... 299 School Gardens ... eS; 189, 316 
Journal, A Story of Growth ... 317 do do in Jamaica ... 189 
Manthot Glaziovii, New Species of 319 do do Suggestions for As 316 
Market, London _... 198 do Gardening in the Philippines ... 573 
Notes 101, 102, 312 Seed Drill, A Home-made es 63 
Output, Ceylon and “Malaya 489, 495, 503s" Seychelles Cinnamon Oil Industry 286 
Pale and Valorisation 93 Shaping Young Rubber Trees 287 
do How to Obtain 408 Sheep Gut as a New Industry 206 
do Mr. Bamber’s Latest Views 484  Shot-hole Borer and Predaceous 
Para Cultivation... 388 Enemies 391 
do in the Amazon District, BoGWes euibelen soda Vegetable 68 
Future of . 595 Value of Ficcal 372 
do Packing Seeds for Export 582 silktarm | in Bangalore 557 
do Region in Brazil 95 Bisa Cultivation in the Bahamas 429 
do Yields of Wildand Planted. 507 do Hemp in German East Africa 330 
Pest, Chief, in the F. M.S. 300 Smyrna Fig in Australia 104 
Plants, Tapping Bs 458 Soap from Cacao Pods 488 
Planting in the World 198 do Making and Coconut- Oil 207 
Plantation, French Estimate of 599 do Manufactures in Tariff Revision 190 
Precocity in Rubber Trees _... 403 Soil, Cultivation of the, and Increased 
Price Conditions... 597 Yield é ee w- 563, 580 
Production, Minimum Cost of 300 do Inoculation ... a 87 
Pruning of tee te 300 do Testing 89 
Rambong, Record Price for ... 102 Soils, Action of Heat and Antisepticson 359 
Report, Figgis & Co’s 199 South Carolina Tea ie ; 599 
o , Gow, Wilson &Stanton’s 201 Soy Beans as a Forage Crop 143 
do ’ Lewis & Peat’s 202. Steam, Another Rival of 371 
do - Return of Mr. C. 0. - St. Lucia, Cacao Experiments in wa 343 
Macadam te 389 Story of Growth, A 317 
Rhodesian 500 bor 398 Straits, Rubber in the 588 
Rollers ... god nee 498 SugarinIndia ... 2, 600 
Root Disease of _.. 303 do Factory in South Arcot ” 600 
Species of Sapium, Mexican and Sugarcane Cultivation St 233 
Central American 122 do do in Cuba é 436 
Tanned Leather 99, 205,495 Sunflower Cultivation, A Plea for : 417 
Tappers in F.M.S., Scarcity of 300 do (Helianthus Annuus) : 322 
Tapping Criticism in London... 482 do: its Economic ae we 516 
o Experiments in Ceara 416 Sweet Potatoes ... B40 Te 
do _ in Borneo... ba 578 Synthetic Rubber Meeting ... vate ksy 


INDEX, 


Vir 
PAGE. 
T. 

Tamarind (Tamarindus Indica) 25 
Tapioca, Cultivation of Bs | 334, 532 
do in Travancore oa 334. 
Tapping Assam Rubber, Mcthod of 321 
do at High Elevations oe 500 
do Systems of Ceara Trees ae 511 
do Young Rubber __... a 82 
Tata Silk Farm in Bangalore 557 
Tax on Coconut Oil in the U.S.A. 190 
~ Tea Clean Weeding in 400 
do Cultivation in Natal 331 
do do in Ceylon and Caucasus 579 
do do in the Caucasus and Ceylon 579 
do Fanner, A New ae e 88 
do in Burma 31 
do in 1908 283 
do Bee Ceylon 4 493 
do in Jav ... 204, 392 
do ag Meeneral Review of * 392 
do inMexico . es 102 
do in Nyasaland 88 
do in South Carolina 599 
do in the Andamans 600 
do Man, Visit of a London 296 
do Manufactur e, Notes on.. 430 
do do in Darjeeling 430 
do Manuring in Culture 400 
do de Notes on 363 
do for 530 
do (aosquito Piet. 163 
do in 103 
do No es 103 
do Pest, A—The Lantana Bug 81 
do Pickled 491 
do Planting in Java 391 
do Prunings, Burning vs. Burying of | 91, 188 
do Report, °McMeekin & Co’s Annual 282 
do Sale Averages for 1908 . _ 309 
do Season in Japan 581 
Tephrosia vs. Clean Weeding i in Rubber 486 

Terminalia Arjuna (Kumbuk) Bark for 
Tanning ne 13 
Thoroughbred and Purebred 266 
Ticks on Dogs 263 
Timber, Conservation of 439 
do Famine, The Soni 348 

do Preserving, Powell Wood Pro- 
cess of 439 
Tinospora Cordifolia (Rasakinda) 458 
Tomato, Liquid Manure for 362 
do , Manure for 71 
Topping Rubber Plants 458 
Tortoise Shell 502 
Transplanting Paddy, Advantages of . 333 
Travancore, Coconut Industry of 124 
Treatment of Acid Soils for Cultivation 192 


Trees, Inheritance in ie 
Tropical Exhibition, The .... 
fe) Fruits in Covent Garden 

do do Ripening of 
Turmeric Cultivation in Burma 
Typha Augustifolia (Bullrush) 

U. 

Undupiyali (Desmodium trifolium) 
Utilization of Annatto oa 
U.S.A. Conference of Governors 


do Cotton Cultivation in the es 
do Domestication of the Peanut in 
do Market for Coconut Oil ; 
do Rice Cultivation in 
do Tax on Coconut Oil 


Vv. 


Vacuum Dried Rubber 
Valorization and Para Rubber ea 
Vanilla, How it is Grown in Hawaii ... 


Vaporite age at 
Vegetable Cultivation bs ons 
do Ivory .. Jen ; 


Velvet Beans y 
Veterinary Work of the Bureau of 
Augriculture of the Philippines ; 
virge for the Destruction of Rats and 
ice 


Vulcanization Tests i in Plantation Rubber 


W. 
Water and Waterin 
do Hyacinth Or inance. 
Watering Horses, Best Time for 
Wattle Bark, Indian ¥ 
do Industry for Ceylon 
Watts, Dr. Francis, ¢.M.G. 
Wax-Excreting Palms : 
Weed-eating Tropical Creeper, A 
do Suppressors db 
Weeding, Clean 
do on Malayan Estates 
What Forestry has Done 
Wild Fowl, Indian 
do Passion Flower (Passiflora fcetida) 
Will Dairy Farming in Ceylon Pay 
Wind-breaks for Orange Groves 


Y. 
Yarn, Fibre, Coir, &e. 


Yields, Cultivation of the Soil and 
Increased ABO 
Young and Old Rubber, Tapping of 
do Rubber Trees, Shaping 500 


209, 281, 


“ENV ATAVOINAING NO ‘T 
‘NOTAS9O JO 3NOZ Add SHL NI SLNNOSOD 


‘96 and apLA 


Ge = el = 


TROPICAL AGRICULTURIST 


AND 


MAGAZINE OF THE 


CEYLON AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY. 


Vou. XXXII, 


— 


COLOMBO, JANUARY 15rx, 1909, 


No. 1. 


Capital in Agriculture. 


‘As we have shown in detail in a book 
upon Agriculture in the Tropics, shortly 
to appear, progress in agriculture proper 
depends first upon progress or proper 
equipment in what we may call the 
preliminaries to Agriculture, These are. 
roughly : (1) land, (2) climate, (8) popula- 
tion and labour, (4) transport, (5) capital 
or money, (6) drainage and irrigation, 
(7) tillage, (8) education, and (9) crops. 
Now land, climate, population, trans- 
port (to a very large extent), irrigation, 
tillage (to some extent), education (to 
some extent), and crops are satisfactorily 
enough arranged in Ceylon. There 
remains capital. Asa late President of 
the United States remarked, finance and 
transport are the keys of progress. So 
convinced were we that this was th® 
only sound order in which to deal with 
agricultural problems, that the very first 
paper read at the first Meeting of the 
Board of -Agriculture was by ourselves 
on Co-operative Credit Societies, and we 
have preached this doctrine to some- 
what unwilling ears ever since, and 
have had something about it in practi- 
cally every number of the ‘‘T.A.” 


The tide is beginning to turn, and the 
Society is displaying an _ increasing 
interest in this question. It must be 
clearly recognised that no serious pro- 
gress is possible without money, but 
once the expenditure of money is started 
on the right lines, it breeds more 
money. At present the - villager is 
helpless in the grasp of the local money 
lender, and cannot afford to borrow a 
penny even if he thinks it probable that 
it might bring in twopence or three- 
pence. Manuring of rice, transplantation 
of rice, cultivation of vegetables, manur- 
ing of coconuts, sale of produce outside 
the village, and all other suggested im- 
provements demand money for a start. 

Mr. McCall gave some interesting facts 
about Egypt at the last Meeting of the 


' Board. There are no white planters 


there, and at first the natives were 
averse to manuring ; but, once convinced 
by ocular demonstration that it paid, 
and provided with the necessary money 
by Agricultural Banks or Soci ties, 
they took it up so strongly that within 
four years Egypt was consuming 
£175,000 worth of artificial manure a 


year. If the Ceylon villager is not to 
sink to the position of a hewer of wood 
and drawer of water, he must be helped 
to get financially upon his legs, and the 
new Government departure of loans to 
the agriculturists will be watched with 
great interest. How best to give 
security for the money will be one of 
the problems. It has been suggested 
that headmen, who are commonly men 
of more or less substance, should give 
the security, and lend to their villagers 
in cases where they feel that is safe. 
But so many villagers merely lease the 
land on which they work that there 
may be difficulty about the security, 


As Government is now going to attend 
to the money question with regard to 
paddy cultivation, we would recommend 
that the efforts of local societies be di- 
rected to other crops, to their establish- 
ment, their cultivation, tillage, and man- 
uring, and their sale in the best market. 
For all these ends money is necessary. 


There is an enormous difference 
between the agriculture of planters’ 
estates, whether European or native, 
and that of the villager—the former 


/ 


[JANUARY, 190% 


getting a larger return at less cost. But 
it must not be supposed that this is all 
due to the superior Education or training 
of the former; rather it is largely, at 
any rate, to be attributed to the fact 
that he has capital at his back. 


It may be well to remark that there 
are other preliminaries to agriculture, 
conspicuous among the.a being trans- 
port, and it will be idle to expect much 
progress in a village unprovided with 
roads. Here the most that can at 
present be hoped for is that the villager 
should get free of the incubus of 
debt. 


Education, again, is very important. 
Travelling about the country, and 
noting the signs of agricultural pro- 
gress, new crops, &c., and enquiring 
about them, we have very commonly 
found that they owe their origin to the 
local school garden, and are often, in 


fact, cultivated by a boy being educated — 


at the school. 


Tillage isa thing as yet mainly prac- 
tised in paddy-fields, but nothing can be 
done in the way of improvement with 
out money for a start. 


JANUARY, 1909.} | 


GUMS, RESINS, SAPS AND EXUDATIONS. 


CASTILLOA OR CENTRAL 
AMERICAN RUBBER. 


By WILLIAM FAWCETT, B.SC., F.L.S., 
Late Director of Public Gardens and 
Plantations, Deputy Chairman of the 
Agricultural Society, Jamaica. 


Para rubber (Hevea brasiliensis) has 
supplied such a very large proportion of 
the rubber used in the arts, the area of 
its natural habitat isso vast, and the 
tree has been planted so extensively, 
that the attention of growers of rubber 
has been mainly directed to experiments 
with italone. But, as the conditions for 
the successful cultivation of the Brazilian 
tree are not to be found everywhere in 
the tropics, it is well to experiment also 
with other plants, and the most pro- 
mising of these is perhaps the Central 
American rubber, a species of Castilloa. 

Species.—Some species of this genus, 
e.g., Castilloa tunu, are worthless as 
producers of rubber, and before using 
the seeds of any Castilloa. tree it is 
important to ascertain whether the 
latex of that tree yields rubber of good 
quality. Castilloa elastica is the species 


that has been considered the main 
source of Central American rubber. 
Professor Olsson-Seffer thinks that 


Castilloa luctiflora gives a more ample 
flow of latex. It is to be honed that he 
will favour us with the results of 
further investigations. 
Situation.—Experience in growing 
Castilloa under various conditions in 
Jamaica points to several factors as 
being important for the _ successful 
growth of the tree. It will not grow to 
advantage if the proportion of clay in 


the soil be too high, otherwise it does > 


not appear to be very particular. A 
loamy soil is the most suitable. The 
drainage must be good; the unsuit- 
ability of stiff clays may be due to the 
want of sufficient drainage, and may 
perhaps be overcome by making drains. 
The rainfall should be at least 70 in. per 
annum; but if less, and the deficiency 
can be supplied by irrigation, the trees 
will grow and yield quite as well. A tem- 
perature which varies between 70° and 
90° F. is suitable; the elevation is not 
material if the temperature does not 
fall much below the lower limit. 


Shade.—Castilloa trees are found in 
nature on the edge of forests and in 
clearings. Overhead shade is not re- 
quisite in the wild state, and has not 
been found essentialin plantations. The 


stem requires some protection from the 
sun, but this can be provided in plan- 
tations by the shade of the neighbouring 
trees. Overhead shade is not detri- 
mental if not too dense, but it lengthens 
out the bole of the tree unnecessarily. 


Clearing Ground,—If woodland has to 
be cleared, this operation should be 
done thoroughly from the first. Some 
recommend thata few trees should be 
left here and there to afford shade for 
the seedlings and young trees, but they 
must be got rid of eventually, and the 
cutting down and removing them leads 
to injury and destruction among the 
rubber trees. The large trees should be 
sawn into boards for the erection of 
sheds at a later period; the smaller 
timber will be useful as posts ; the small 
useless branches should be heaped and 
burned in such a manner as not to set 
fire to other trees or bush close by. The 
ashes are good manure, 


Distance apart and Catch Crops.—The 
distance at which Castilloa trees should 
be planted at first depends upon whether 
they are to be grown with bananas 
or other catch crop, or alone. If the 
soil is suitable for bananas, and the 
locality one where it will pay to grow 
them, no other catch cropis anything 
like as good. The bananas should be 
planted in March at distances of 15 ft. 
apart, and the Castilloa seedlings may 
be put out about September, each seed- 
ling in the centre of four banana plants, 
or, if the cultivator or plough is used to 
keep down weeds, the Castilloa must be 
planted in the banana rows between the 
bananas. The bananas may be grown 
for three or four years, and then they 
should be gradually thinned out as the 
Castilloa trees spread their branches. 
If bananas are not suitable, corn (maize) 
and gungo or pigeon peas (Cajanus 
indicus) may be used as catch crops 
and temporary shade. The fields should 
be lined out in March, and stakes put in 
to mark where the Castilloa plants are 
to be put out. Then the gungo peas 
should be sown so as to leave a clear 
space of 4 ft. round the stakes, and the 
corn not nearer than 7 ft. The gungo 
peas will not last more than two or three 
years, but by that time the young 
Castilloa plants will not require any 
more nursing: The corn will not inter- 
fere with the Castilloa if kept ata safe 
distance, and if there is a market for it 
the returns will help to pay expenses. 
Even if there is not a market for the 
gungo peas, they will increase the 
introgen content of the soil, besides 


Gums, Resins, 


forming a slight shade for the rubber. 
The cultivation of the soil will be of the 
greatest benefit to the growing rubber 
plants. If no catch crops are to be 
grown the distance for the rubber plants 
may be 6 ft. at first, to be thinned out 
eventually to 18 ft apart. 

Seeds.—The seeds are massed together, 
and are covered with an orange-coloured 
flesh. When ripe they drop from the 
trees, and if left undisturbed numbers 
of seedlings will soon spring up. Itis 
best, however, to collect themas they 
fall, and sow them ina seedbed. There 
should be no delay in sowing them, for 
they soon lose their power of germin- 
ating. Professor Olsson-Seffer was in- 
terested in some experiments to deter- 
mine the best ageat which to collect 
seeds from the trees. Until the result 
of these experiments is known, I should 
advise that seeds should not be sown 
from trees until they are fully six years 
old, when the latex has lost its resin. 


Sowing Seed.—The seed-beds should be 
thoroughly forked and raked until the 
particles of soil are quite small and fine. 
The seeds should be lightly pressed down 
so as to be just covered by the soil, and 
at a distance of about an inch apart from 
each other. A thin layer of dry grass 
may be scattered over the bed, and then 
a good watering given from a watering- 
pot with a fine hose. The soil should 
afterwards be kept only just moist. not 
too wet, and carefully weeded. When 
the seedlings are 3 or 4 in. high the soil 
may be loosened with a fork and the 
seedlings taken out, and either planted 
again in boxes ata distance from each 
other of 3in., or set out at once in their 
permanent places in the field. If they 
can be constantly inspected in the field 
and kept weeded, and the weather is 
favourable, itis better to put them out 
at once; but if not they may be kept in 
the boxes until they are6or7 in. high, 
and then transplanted, when they are 
not so liable to be the worse for any 
neglect in the open. It is still better to 
sow the seeds at once, as _ soon as they 
fall, in the permanent positions already 
marked out for them in the field. Three 
or four may be sown at the stake at 
about 3 in. from each other. 


Planting out.—If bananas have already 
been planted during the previous March, 
the fields should meantime have been 
run over with the plough or cultivator 
to keep down weeds, and to establish a 
dust mulch on the surface. The seeds 
may be sown as they fall, or the young 
plants may be put out about September, 
either in the rows between the bananas, 
so as to be 1a ft. apart when the bananas 
are removed, or they may be planted 
each in the centre of four bananas. 


[JANUARY 1909, 


Thinning out.—The seedlings should 
be continuously watched and carefully 
thinned out, leaving at the end of the 
first year only the most promising one 
at each stake. If none of the three or 
four has turned out well, supply from 
the nursery which had been made for 


the purpose.—Tropical Life, September, — 


1908, Vol. IV., No. 9. 
THE RUBBER TRADE OF BRAZIL. 


Ceylon rubber producers will be in- 
terested in a comment which appears 
in the Board of Trade Journal upon 
the trade in Brazil, Referring to the 
ready disposition shown among British 
capitalists to invest in the acquisition 
of Brazilian rubber-producing properties, 
the Journal shows that investments of 
this nature have not invariably been 
successful, and advises that such under- 
takings should be entered into with 
the greatest circumspection. It is 
pointed out that the remarkable develop- 
ment of the rubber trade in Ceylon 
and the Straits Settlements, as well as 
in Africa and Mexico, has made a great 
change in the position, and is likely to 
change it still further. Up to this time 
Brazilian producers have apparently 
attached little importance to possible 
competition from these sources, but now 
some among them are beginning to view 
the matter as fraught with more danger 
to the interests of their industry than 
they had supposed. It is even argued 
that within a period of ten years the 
practical monopoly of Brazil in this 
important and increasingly valuable 
production may be at an end. The 
Board of Trade commentator says it 
certainly appears that, other conditions 
being favourable, the systematic process 
observed in the countries named, to- 
gether with the greater cheapness of 
labour, transport, and other items 
affecting the industry will place these 
cultivators in a vastly superior position 
to those of Brazil, where the expenses 
in every branch of the industry are 
on an extremely high scale, and where 
the risks to health in the process of 
collection, with other contingencies, 
constitute a heavy handicap.—-Indian 
Agriculturtst, Vol. XXXIII, No. 9. 


CASTILLOA ON THE ISTHMUS. 
OF TEHUANTEPEC. 


By J. L. HERMESSEN, of Chiapas, 
Mexico. 
(Continued from page 513.) 


Much stress has been laid upon the 


danger, in tapping, of cutting through | 


the cambium layer into the wood; and 


7 
‘gh 
a 
‘9 
BY, 


* 


JANUARY, 1909.] 


it cannot be denied that incisions 
around the circumference of a tree, of 
such depth as to penetrate the cambium 
layer throughout its entire length, is 
apt to cause rot, in which certain insects 
are likely to deposit their ova, the 
larve proving in many _ instances 
destructive of, or at least injurious to, 
the trees,—this being particularly the 
caso where the “machete” was used 
as the tapping instrument. But with 
a modern tool of such design as_ to 
prevent too deep an incision being 
made, it has been found that a cut 
just impinging upon the cambium layer, 
and piercing it only at intervals, has 
not only given, the greatest amount of 
latex, but seems to be necessary to 
the formation of new bark. Any incision 
failing to reach and penetrate, at in- 
tervals, the cambium layer will result 
in a mere hardening of the surface of 
the cut without any attendant renewal 
of the bark. It has been noted by 
many that the touching or cutting of the 
cambium layer effects a restoration or 
new growth of the bark within a period 
of sixty days, the bark continuing to 
grew and fill up the entire incision 
within a year. 


Doubt yet exists as to the best time 
of the year in which to conduct tapping 
operations. Mr. James Collins, in his 
Report on the Caoutchoue of Commerce, 
published in 1872 under the auspices 
of the British Government, states that 
in Niearagua (where the climatic con- 
ditions are generally similar to those 
obtaining on the Isthmusof Tehuantepec) 
the most favourable time for tapping 
was during the months of March and 
April, when the change of foliage was 
taking place. The following quotation 
from Mr. O. F. Cook's monograph on 
Castilloa* also bears upon the point: 
“The indications are that (internal) 
pressure attains its greatest intensity 
in trees which are exposed for a part of 
the time to a relatively dry atmosphere, 
and which are accustomed, as it were, 
to pump water rapidly to supply the 
leaves. Such trees may, onthe contrary, 
yield no milk at all when the water 
supply is deficient. It may be expected, 
therefore, that open culture will require 
much more careful attention to the 
time of tapping.” The best results, 
thus far, have been obtained on the 
Isthmus of Tehuantepec from tappings 
made during the early months of the 
dry season (Febuary and March), before 


*“The Culture of the Central American 
Rubber Tree.” By O. F. Cook, Botanist in 
charge of Investigations in Tropical Agricul- 
ture, United States Department of Agriculture. 


' Washington, 1903. 


5 Saps and Excudations 


the weather has become very hot and 
when the coolest nists and mornings 
occur. In April and May, when the 
maximum temperatures of the year 
are attained, the deciduous character 
of Castilloa becomes most marked ; and 
this is the period during which the 
tree is generally supposed to be in its 
most quiescent state, and to have the 
last recuperative power. On the other 
hand, in the wet season planters are 
confronted by the physical difficulty 
of collecting the latex. Some contend 
that tapping can best be done durin 

the occasional (and very uneertain) 
rainless spells of the wet season; an 

it is upon the latter hypothesis that 
two tappings per year for Castilloa 
come within the range of possibility. 
It has been noticed that the latex is 
in a much more fluid condition during 
the early morning hours, turgescence 
increasing as the diurnal heat reaches 
its maximum. 


What the financial promoter and the 
expert prospectus-writer had long since 
settled to their own entire satisfaction 
and that of a trusting public, with 
the same fatuous positiveness as your 
orthodox theologian dogmatises on the 
future life—the question of yield—is still 
to the planter, who should know most 
about it, largely a sealed book. If he 
be honest, he will confess that he 
knows as yet very little aboutit. What 
he does know, however, is thata_ six- 
year-old tree will not give 1 Ib. of 
rubber. Trees of unknown age, in a 
state of nature, have yielded as much as 
4 and 51b. of rubber at one tapping ; 
and there are apparently well-authenti- 
cated records of yields of triple that 
quantity from very large and presum- 
ably very old trees. Undue weight 
seems to have been attached to the 
generalizations of Herr Th. F. Koschny, 
of Costa Rica, in this respect. Hisclaim, 
for instance, of a yield of 33 lb. of rubber 
from wild trees, 8 or 9 years old must be 
accepted cum grano salis. There are, as 
a matter of fact, no recognised means of 
definitely determining the age of wild 
rubber trees; the all-important element 
in the case in point is, therefore, hardly 
more than one of conjecture. 


With regard to cultivated trees, whose 
ages, with very few exceptions, have not 
yet passed the eighth year, there appears 
to be a strong disinclination on the part 
of planters in Mexico to tap their trees 
to the full extent of their possibilities, 
owing mainly toa reasonable fear that 
permanent injury may result through 
incautious tapping in the light of present 
knowledge; and since in the case of 
Castilloa, as with all caoutchouc-produc- 
ing genera, notable constitutional dif- 


Gu ms, Resins, 


ferences occur, both as to size of tree and 
yield of latex, under similar cultural 
conditions, the results obtained from 
individual trees do not form satisfactory 
evidence upon which to base a conclusion 
as to the average yield of many thousands 
of trees of like age. Hence, trial tappings 
of single trees, or groups of limited 
number, of equal age vary very consi- 
derably. Thus, we have trees, or groups 
of trees, producing 1, 2 and 3 oz. of 
rubber, others ranging as highas from 4 
to6oz. at one tapping. With such vari- 
able data to go upon, the difficulty of arri- 
ving atatrue average yield for a planting 
of perhaps half a million trees is obvious. 

Tentative experiments made in this 
district would indicate that trees grown 
under the most favourable conditions of 
soil, &c., may be tapped twice a year 
with equal results; but it would seem 
premature to say with assurance that 
the trees covering a large area could be 
safely subjected to such a drain upon 
their vitality until they had attained a 
greaterage. Torepeat, however, selected 
groups of trees of the age above men- 
tioned have withstood a second tapping 
in a year without visible injury. 

With regard to local soil conditions, it 
has been stated that ‘‘ the oldest portion 
of the Isthmus evidently began its 
superaquatic existence at.a compara- 
tively recent period—geologically speak- 
ing ”’*—.and that much of the geological 
formation of the Eastern Atlantic 
versant of the Mexican cordillera to- 
wards the Isthmus of Tehuantepec is of 
similar late origin is indicated by the 
presence of stratifications of marine 
shells and primordial ooze, where sub- 
sequent aqueous erosions have occurred, 
creating, in the cycle of topographic 
changes, more or less abrupt undulations, 
ridges and valleys, with occasional hills 
reaching to a height of 150 ft. between 
depressions. In the immediate neigh- 
bourhood of the sea and the riverine 
estuaries alluvial deposits are found, but 
these have proved unsuitable for most 
cultural purposes, owing to the shallow- 
ness of the water basin. On theapproach 
to the sierras, ‘‘mesas,” or benchlands, 
occur of an entirely different structure, 
these being made up of granitic or other 
primitive detritus, incorporated with 
abundant vegetable matter. Such lands, 
unfortunately, are not encountered in 
any large areas. The soil of the district 
herein referred to is composed of clayey 
loams, overlaid in parts with beds of rich 
black humus of the greatest fertility. 


* «© Report of Explorations and Surveys for a 
Ship Canal by the way of the Isthmus of 
Tehuantepec.” By Robert W. Shufeldt, 
cepien, United States’ Navy. Washington, 

2 


“ae 3 


6 [JANUARY, 1909, 


The climate of the Atlantic side of the 
Isthmus of Tehuantepec has three well- 

efined seasons-—namely, the wet season 
Proper, commencing usually the last week 
In May or the first week in June, andcon- 
tinuing till the end of October ; the lighter 
wet or “norther” season, extending 
over the months of November, December, 


January and February; and the dry » 


season, comprising the months of 
March, April, and May. The annual 
rainfall is between 90 and 120 inches, 
with a very favourable distribution, 
three-fourths of the total precipitation 
taking place between June and October, 
while from then on until the approach 
of the dry season frequent showers fall, 
with much mist and drizzle. No month 
of the year is wholly free from rain, 
occasional light showers occurring even 
during the height of the dry season, 
when the greatest heat of the year is 
experienced, the Mercury fluctuating 
between 80° and 90° F. in the shade, and 
sometimes marking 100°. Anappreciable 
diminution in temperature ensues dur- 
ing the wet months. the average range 
being from 75 to 85° E., while during 
the cooler months, from November 
to February, the average temperature 
is between 60 and 80° F., once ina while 
falling as low as 55° F. in the early hours 
of the morning. The lowest temper- 
ature recorded by one observer over a 
period of nine years was 50 
occurring in the month of January. .The 
relative salubrity of the climate of the 
Isthmus of Tehuantepec as a whole, as 
compared with that of similar latitudes 
elsewhere, is quite remarkable, this 
continent being cooler under the equator 
than any other, owing to the expanse 
of sea surrounding it and the more 
elevated configuration of the land. 


The vegetation of this region presents 
to the trained eye a strictly tropical 
aspect, the forest growth consisting 
almost entirely of tropical genera, such 
as mahogany, Spanish cedar, lignum 
vitae, giant representatives of the ficus 
family, the stately ceiba, with its wide- 
spreading, buttressed trunk; numerous 
examples of sapotaceous trees, ineclud- 
ing the lofty ‘‘Mamé” and the “chicle”’ 
(from which American ‘‘chewing-gum ” 
is made, and which also produces one 


of the best of all wild tropical fruits, ~ 


namely, the ‘‘zapodillo,” or, in the verna- 
cular ‘‘ chico zapote”); while many ano- 
naceous trees-occur, some of which bear 
edible fruits—close relatives of the 
famous custard apple, or ‘“ chirimoya.” 
Hard-wooded shrubs of various orders, 
and large-leaved plants from the under- 
growth, with scattered groups of deli- 
cate slender-stemmed palms, belonging 
principally to the genus Chamoedorea. 


F., this’ 


JANUARY, 1909. } 


Sheltered in the ravines, and generally 
near the edge of a water course, tree 
ferns add their feathery beauty to the 
leafy labyrinth of the jungle, notwith- 
standing the low elevation of 300 feet 
above sea-level. 


Clustering the more open parts, and 
fringing the banks ot rivers and streains, 
are groves of tall, graceful palms, incluc- 
ing Attatea cohune and the spiny Acro- 
convia; while now and then a royal palm 
(Oredoxa regia) rears his noble head 
over legions of lesser kind. (The writer 
is informed by a friend, who is more 
than an amateur botanist, that he has 
identified fourteen indigenous specimens 
of palm on the Isthmus of Tehuantepec.) 
Interlacing with fantastic festoons the 
upper branches of big trees, or reaching, 
like the halyards of a ship, to the earth, 
are great lianas, or climbing vines, 
which, when in flower, display enchant- 
ing colour effects, clothing the tops of 
the highest trees with brilliant mantles 
of purple, yellow, and crimson. These 
seem to be made up chiefly of representa- 
tives of the Leguminose and Bignonia- 
cece. Many trees, again, are adorned 
with a profusion of epiphytic growth— 
ferns, bromelias and orchids. Amongst 
the latter may be found Chysis bractes- 
cens, with its beautiful, waxy-white 
sepals and petals, and labellum tinged 
with yellow; the pretty and fragrant 
Epidendrum atropurpureum, H. cochlea- 
tum, EH. alatum, EH. radiatum, and &. 
stamfordianum ; a species of Oncidium 
very similar in foliage and inflorescence 
to the well-known O. cebolleta (found 
at higher altitudes in Mexico); O. luri- 
dum, MB sphacelatum, one or two showy 
species of Stanhopea, anda number of 
other genera of merely botanical interest. 
Four indigenous species of vanilla, 
including V. planifolia, also have their 
habitat in these forests. No attempts 
have been made, however, to cultivate 
the plant here. 


The writer desires to acknowledge his 
indebtedness to Mr. James C. Harvey, 
of Plantacion La Buena Ventura, Estado 
de Vera Cruz, for much of the informa- 
tion and data embodied iv the fore- 
going, as well as for valuable personal 
assistance rendered in connection with 
the subject.—Tropical Life, September 
1908, Vol., IV., No. 9, 


Saps and Haxudations- 


THE RUBBER CREEPERS C'A#PO- 
DINUS LANDOLPHIOIDES (HALL. 
F,) STAFF AND LANDOLPHIA 
DA WEI STAFF. 


(By E. GILG in Notizblatt kgl, bot. Gtns. 
Berlin, 1 Sept. 1908, sp. 69.) 


ABSTRACTED BY J. C. WILLIS. 


Dr, Gilg finds that Landolphia Dawei, 
found in Uganda by Dawe, andin San 
Thomé by Chavelier, also occurs in 
Kamerun, the German colony of West 
Africa. This species gives the best 
African rubber. He also finds that 
Carpodinus landol phioides occurs there, 


RUBBER INDUSTRY OF JAPAN. 


The following particulars relative to 
the rubber industry of Japan have been 
received by the Board of Trade from the 
British Commercial Attaché at Yoko- 
hama (Mr. HK. F. Crowe) :— 


The Osaka Asahi publishes an article 
dealing with the proposed establish- 
ments of two rubber factories, in which 
British, French, and Japanese capital 
will be invested. From this account it 
appears that a Frenchman who is in- 
terested in various other enterprises in 
Japan has arranged a combination with 
two British companies. One factory 
will be situated at Osaka and will make 
tyres and other rubber goods, while a 
smaller factory will be built at Kobe for 
the manufacture of rubber tubes for 
feeding bottles. The idea is to start 
with a moderately small capital of 
£75,000; as the business develops it is 
proposed to increase the capital and to 
start exporting rubber goods to China, 
Korea and other Eastern markets 


At the present moment there are six 
rubber companies in Japan with a total 
capital of £45,000. Of these the oldest 
and largest is the Japan Rubber Com- 


pany of Tokio, started in 1900 and 
having a capital of £18,000. 
The others are as follows :— 

Name. Town, Capital. 
Tokio Rubber Co. Tokio £8,000 
Meiji Rubber Co. Tokio £7 000 
Sakatsuchi Rubber Co. Tokio £8 000 
Japan Rubber Ball Co. Osaka £2,000 
Imperial Rubber Co, Osaka £2,000 


The raw material, on which there is no 
duty, is all imported from abroad. The 
following statistics show the quantity 


Gums, Resins, 


and value of the imports of rubber and 
rubber goods into Japan during the past 
three years, while it may be noted that 


the figures for the first five months of 
this year show a considerable advance 
over,those for the same period in 1907 :— 


CAOUTCHOUC AND GUTTA PERCHA, 


a ea 


1905. 1906. 1907. 
From 

Quantity. | Value. | Quantity. | Value. | Quantity. | Value 

ame Lbs. £. Lbs. PSE SE ae =, 
Straits Settlements 336,000 | 33,000 347,000 | 33,000 323,000 82,000 
Dutch India 28,000 | 3,000} 39,000 | 4,000 | 125,000 | 13,000 
United Kingdom 107,000 | 14,000 | 98,000 | 7,000 | 73,000 | 10,000 
U. S. of America 185,000 | 27,000 | 55,000 | 8,000| 95,000 | 15,000 
Other Countries 68,000 9,000 62,000 8,000 72,000 9,000 
Total... 724,000 | 86,000 | 601,000 | 60,000 | 688,000 | 97,000 
Plates and sheets 68,000 12,000 78,000 11,000 61,000 11,C00 
Tubes and rods 70,000 | 19,000} 57,000 | 14,000 | 60,000 | 13,000 
All other aT aa — — 17,000 4,000 


CaouTCHOUC AND GuTTA PERCHA MANUFACTURES. 


— 


From 1905. 
ze) 

United Kingdom 8,000 
eee ey oe 9,000 
United States of America... 2,000 
Belgium* Hee 5,000 
Other countries 4,000 
Total ... 28,000 


* Mostly balloons. 


1906. 1907. 
£, £, 
5,000 8,000 
14,000 16.000 
4,000 6,000 
9,000 5,000 
6,000 4,000 
38,000 39,000 


Bicycle tyres, etc., are not included in the above return; they come under 
the heading of ‘Bicycle parts and accessories,” but it is understood that the 
import of tyres 1n 1907 was £45,000, of which £23,600 worth was British, £19,000 
American, and the balance German.—Indian Trade Journal, Vol. X., No. 180, 


September, 1908. 
THE FUTURE OF THE CAMPHOR 
TRADE. 


Hor some time past the cultivation of 
the Camphor tree for commercial pur- 
poses has been carried on, even in For- 
mosa, its native country, under the fear 
of a diminishing _ trade. Synthetic 
camphor has been talked about for many 
years past, and, like the chemical pro- 
duction of indigo, which has threatened 
the Indian planters. with extinction, 
there has been and is still the fear of 
the triumph of the chemist over the 
planter in the future supply of the 
Camphor market. Incidentally it may 
be stated that under the new Patents 
Act, which came into operation recently, 
a factory has been erected chiefly for the 
chemical manufacture of indigo by a 
German firm on the Manchester Ship 
Canal near Chester, and no one can tel 


how soon a similar factory for the pro- 
duction of camphor may follow. 


The competition between the two. 
kinds of camphor is sufficiently apparent, 
when we find both products side by side 
in the London market, with a strong 
tendency by the makers of the synthetic 
product to bring the prices of their 
article considerably below those of re- 
fined natural camphor. With the pre- 
sent camphor supply in the hands of 
such shrewd commercial people as the 
Japanese, and with the introduction of 
the Camphor tree into various other 
countries, a process that has been going 
on for several years past, the future of 
the European trade has become a kind 
of Chinese puzzle. Thus the Japanese 
Minister of Finance, in an official report 
issued a short time since, drew attention 
to the circumstance thatif Japan wished 


JANUARY, 1909. ! 9 


to retain the control of the camphor 
trade in future years, and to meet the 
ever-increasing demand, she must bestir 
herself by extending the cultivation of 
the tree, which requires forty or fifty 
years’ growth before avy satisfactory 
return can be expected. Hefurther said 
that, while thus encouraging the pro- 
duction and manufacture of camphor, the 
Government intended also to promote the 
exportation of the finished article, and 
commissioners had been sent to Kurope 
and the United States to investigate the 
conditions affecting thedemand, About 
the same time that this Report was 
issued a statement also appeared from 
the United States Consul at Tamsui, of 
an interview with the chief of the 
Camphor Bureau of Formosa. 
it is stated that the manufacture of 
camphor in Formosa affects only those 
trees of fifty years old or upwards, inas- 
much asthe cutting down of trees of a 
less age is forbidden. Recent investiga- 
tions indicate that the supply of mature 
trees will, at the present rate of cutting, 
become exhausted in less than fifty 
years. The old trees now standing are 
confined to the mountainous eastern half 
of the islands in regions, for the most 
part, inhabited by savage tribes. These 
mountains are covered with dense 
jungles, and the work of making roads, 
in order that the camphor forests may 
be rendered available for profitable 
exploitation, must involve the expendi- 
ture of much time and labour, besides 
which the sanitary conditions of the 
country are such as to produce fever 
among the labourers. A thousand coolies 
_were taken by a Japanese company 
into the Daito prefecture a few years 
ago for the purpose of exploiting the 
camphor forests, and 33 per cent. of the 
workers were completely incapacitated 
by fever. The greater part of the 
camphor at present produced in the 
Island comes fromthe Toen prefecture. 
Between 1900 and 1906 the Japanese 
Government planted about three million 
young trees, and it is intended to follow 
this up by planting 750,000 in each 
successive year. 


There are said to be two distinct 
varieties of the Camphor tree grown, 
one prodacing the camphor of commerce 
and the other producing only camphor 


In this . 


Saps and Hxudattons 


oil. There would appear, however, to 
be some mistake in this, as will be seen 
later on. 


Private firms in Formosa wishing 
to engage in the cultivation of Camphor 
trees are supplied with young plants 
from the Government nursuries. Al- 
though the Customs returns for China 
show that 12,000 piculs of crude camphor 
were exported from that country in 
1906, yet the Kormosa authorities fear 
no competition from that source, and 
the reports of camphor planting in 
Ceylon, Florida, Texas, aud Mexico do 
not disturb the prospects of the 
Formosan product in the eyes of the 
authorities. They contend that the 
more Camphor trees planted the less 
likelihood there will be of the successful 
production of an artificial substitute. 


The subject is interesting from two 
points of view, First, it must be remem- 
bered that pharmaceutically genuine or 
natural camphor is alone acknow- 
ledged by the British Pharmacopoeia, 
while synthetically-prepared camphor is 
principally and increasingly in demand 
for the manufacture of celluloid and 
smokeless powder. Referring to the 
statement that two varieties of the 
Camphor tree are grown in Formosa, 
one yielding camphor and the other 
camphor oil, we may quote from a 
recent report of Sir A. Hosie, Acting 
Commercial Attaché to H. M. Legation 
at Pekin, where he says ‘‘ Not only is 
camphor distilled from the camphor 
wood chips upcountry, but the oil 
resulting from this distillation is brought 
to Foochow in airtight old kerosene 
tins, ve-distiiled, and made to yield some 
dC per cent. of its weight in camphor.” 


The process is described as a very 
crude one, the oil being poured into the 
retorts, and the distilled oil, after passing 
through the worm, is received into 
kerosene tins, which are placed in tanks 
ot water, where they stand for twenty- 
four hours to cool and to deposit the 
camphor in the bottoms of the tins. 
“The oil 1s then poured off and redis- 
tilled as many as sixteen or seventeen 
times, until the camphor has all been 
extracted.”—Gardeners’ Chronicle, Vol. 
XLIV., No. 3538, October, 1908. 


10 


vis 


(JANUARY, 1909. 


OILS AND FATS. 


RECENT RESEARCHES REGARDING 
THE GERMINATION OF THE COCO- 
NOT AND THE DETERIORA- 
TION OF ITS PRODUCTS. 


ABSTRACT BY C. DRIEBERG. 


The latest issue of the Philippine 
Journal of Science contains a series of 
notes on the sprouting of the coconut, 
on copra and on coconut-oil, which 
ought to prove of interest to the planter. 


The first of these notes treats of 
experiments made witha view to discover 
if the coconut, like the castor-oil bean 
and many other oil seeds, contains a 
fat-splitting enzyme capable of saponify- 
ing outside of the growing nut. 


A large number of tests were carried 
out, the details of which it would hardly 
prove of interest to traverse, but the 
result of seven months’ work in this 
connection was tothe effect that there 
was not the slightest proof of the 
existence of such an enzyme. The 
cause of the destruction of the fat 
which takes place in the growing nut 
has, therefore, to be sought for else- 
where. 


The second note deals with the changes 
accompanying the sprouting of the nut. 

As regards the milk—or, as we eall 
it, the ‘‘ water ”—(for coconut milk is, 
with us, the expressed milky juice of 
the meat or flesh) the total quantity 
showed a marked diminution from 374 
grammes in an unsprouted nut to noth- 
ing when the sprouts had attained a 
height of 93 centimetres. At the same 
time there is a decided loss of sugar, 
which falls from 2% and 2°3% in the 
milk of unsprouted nuts to 8% in that 
of the nuts with sprouts 88 centimetres 
in height. In the meat or flesh a 
definite loss in total weight is evident, 
since it drops from 475 grammes in the 
unsprouted nut to 148in the nut with 
sprouts 93 centimetres high. The loss 
appears to be due to direct absorption 
by the foot, the process taking place at 
first only in the portion of the meat 
near the latter, but increasing rapidly 
as the endosperm grows larger and 
comes in contact with the entire inner 
surface of the nut. 


The loss in weight of oil is fairly propor- 
tional to the loss in weight of meat, the 
percentage of oil in the meat remaining 
constant within the somewhat wide 


limits of individual variation. During 
the early stages of germination there 
is apparent a certain concentration of 
oil near the foot, with corresponding 
loss in that portion of the meat farthest 
away. 


Water is gradually lost by the meat, as 
well as all other parts of the nut, by 
evaporation through the shell and sprout 
during germination. The percentage of 
sugar decreases from 4% % in the 
unsprouted nut to 1:12 % in that with 
a sprout 938 centimetres long.. The loss 
is probably to be attributed to absorp- 
tion of sugar by the foot, as in all 
cases there is considerably less sugar 
in that portion of the nut in direct 
contact with the endosperm than there 
is in the parts farthest away from it. 


As regards crude fibre in meat no 
decided change in the proportion can 
beobserved. Itis absorbed at practically 
the same rate as the rest of the meat. 


In the observations regarding the 
changes taking place in the foot, it was 
found that the total weight increased 
from 19 grammes in the unsprouted nut 
to 228 grammes in those with a sprout 93 
centimetres high. There was apparently 
also a loss in the percentage of sugar 
(although not in its total weight) until 
the foot completely filled the nut, at 
which time there is rapid gain. This 
phenomenon is probably to be attributed 
to the fact that the foot at first draws 
its sugar chiefly from the milk, by which 
it is almost entirely summoned. How- 
ever, as it continues to grow, it soon 
exhausts the sugar in the milk, and 
only when it has completely filled the 
nut and come into intimate contact 
with the inner surface of the meat, has 
it an opportunity to continue the 
process:of sugar absorption and also 
of sugar creation, possibly from the 
oil, or possibly from oil and erude fibre. 


Ot crude tibre there was only a slight . 


increase to be noted. 


From the commencement of the ger- 
minating process oil from the meat near- 
est the foot is invaiably richest in fatty 
acids, and this difference becomes more 
marked as germination proceeds. It is 
only when the foot has come in complete 
contact with the meat that an increase 
in fatty acids throughout the whole 


nut is observed, indicating that oil, to — 


be in a condition for absorption, must 
be hydrolised. This hydrolysis may 


1 gramme = 15°43235 grains. 
1 centimetre = 3937 inches. 


JANUARY, 1909.] 


take place as the result of an enzyme 
in the foot, or be caused by one in 
the meat, which is dormant until 
rendered active by some product of 
metabolium in the foot. It is, however, 
not possible to prove by an _ increase 
in free fatty acid the presence of any 
fat-splitting enzyme in the coconut. 
Such an enzyme may exist, but under 
such conditions that any large excess 
of free acid must be used up by the 
growing plant before the process can 
continue. 

To summarize ina word the changes, 
determinable by chemical analysis, in 
the growing coconut :— 


Oil is lost by the meat; it is not 
taken up as such by any other portion 
of the nut, but is either oxidised to 
furnish energy for the growing plant, 
or is split up and transformed by 
progressive synthesis into sugar and 
finally into cellulose. Sugar is lost by 
meatand milk, but a corresponding 
quantity is gained by the foot, the 
total quantity in the nut remaining 
approximately the same. Asmall amount 
of crude fibre is lost by the meat, but 
a much larger quantity is produced in 
the sprouts and roots. 


Note 3 deals with the action on copra 
of micro-organism in pure culture. 


The Philippine Journal in 1906 recorded 
the fact that moist copra is attacked 
by micro-organisms with consequent 
splitting up and destruction of the oil 
—this action being most pronounced 
when the copra contains from 10 to 15 
per cent. water. Under these conditions 
the growth of mould predominated 
largely over that of the bacteria. With 
a much larger percentage of water, and 
when the bacteria were in excess of the 
moulds, the destruction of fat is greatly 
diminished. These observations led 
logieally to the conclusion that hydro- 
lysis of oil in copra was due to mould 
action alone, although the then available 
data did not exclude the possibility of 
symbiosis and interdependence, in this 
fat-splitting process, between moulds 
and bacteria. Dr. Edwards of the 
Biological Laboratory of the Philippine 
Bureau of Science, in pursuing further 
research into this question, separated 
some fifteen different organisms from 
mouldy copra and coconut meat, and 
finally succeeded in isolating in pure cul- 
tures the majority of the growths 
present. The identification of every 
organism was found to be impossible, and 
indeed the majority of them are probably 
new and undescribed. However, the 
main object of the experiment, viz., the 
differentiation between moulds and 
bacterial action has been accomplished. 


11 


Oils and Fats. 


Taking the total weight of dry copra, 
every active mould culture brought 
about a decided loss ranging from 5 to 
11 per cent., while only one bacterium 
was found to cause any appreciable loss, 


The moulds destroy a certain percent- 
age of the oil, and the greater portion of 
the loss is attributable to this cause. 
These losses, which represent 8-9 to 19:9 
per cent. of the original weight of oil, 
are accompanied by hydrolysis with the 
formation of fatty acids and glycerine. 


There seems to be no direct relation 
between the percentage of free fatty 
acid evolved and the total quantity 
of oil destroyed at the time, since low 
as well as high precentages of free 
acid show the same loss of oil. As 
already mentioned, only one bacterium 
caused diminution of oil, and this only 
to the extent of 4 grammes, which is 
less than that brought about by the 
mould with the weakest action, and 
the loss isnot accompanied by hydrolysis 
in this case, On the other hand, one 
bacterium appears to have caused a 
slight gain in total oil. The sugar is 
almost completely destroyed by all 
moulds, whereas bacteria may be said 
to produce no effect here. 


Looking at this matter from a com- 
mercial standpoint, it may be stated that 
mouldy copra must have suffered a loss 
in total oil-content which may reach the 
neighbourhood of 20% under the most 
favourable conditions, but certainly to 
an extent to be taken into account in the 
purchase of such copra. Such inferior 
produce undoubtedly cannot give as good 
a yield of oil as that which has been 
carefully dried and preserved. On the 
other hand, in the case of badly cured 
copra, if a sufficient quantity of water 
(about 15 %) is present, it is bacterial 
action and not mould action that will 
come into play ; so that no diminution of 
oil would be observed, though bacteria 
so disintegrate and change the copra 
thataslimy soft mass characterised by an 
objectionable odour, and difficult to work 
so as to procure pure oil reasonably free 
from acid, results. 


In the Philippines a large amount of 
copra is dried by means of fires in pits, 
the meat being placed on bamboo 
gratings above and the fuel beneath. It 
is not impossible that the smoking 
to which the copra is subjected has a 
slight antiseptic action which would 
tend to diminish the subsequent growth 
of oi1ganisms, and so to preserve the oil. 
Nevertheless, the arguments are all in 
favour of a clean white, prefectly dried 
copra, which will not afford a medium 
for the growth of organisms, unless the 


Oils and Fats. 


Conditions of shipping it are such as to 
allow of sufficient absorption of water to 
acilitate mould growth. 


To summarise this part of the paper :— 
Six ditferent moulds, any one of which is 
capable of hydrolysing and destroying 
fat, have been isolated from the many 
organisms growing on rancid copra. 
This fat-destruction is part of the life 
process of the mould, and is independent 
of bacterial action. 


Copra acted on by moulds was found 
to have suffered an almost total loss of 
sugar. The bacteria found on copra 
have very little effect on the quality or 
quantity of oil produced. Their effect 
is practically to produce _a more or less 
sour odour and bring about disintegra- 
tion of the meat. 


It is good commercial practice to 
prepare only the best, white, and per- 
fectly-dried copra. 


The fourth and last note deals with 
the production of freeacid in commercial 
coconut oil on long standing. Thirty- 
five samples of oil of various conditions 
were examined, and the table of results 
provided show the percentage of free 
fatty acids (as oleic) at the start, and 
after two months, four months, six 
months, one year and three years. 


The conclusion to be drawn may be 
stated as follows :—The deterioration of 
afreshly prepared commercial coconut 
oil is produced by at least three entirely 
independent processes, and may _ be 
divided into two distinct periods of time. 

The first, rapid splitting up of the fat, 
beginning immediately afterits expres- 
sion from copra and continuing for several 
months up toa year or more according 


12 


it 
‘ 


[JANUARY, 1909. 


to the nutritive matter present, is 
occasioned by moulds which are either 
pressed out with the oil together with 
sufficient sugars and albuminoids for 
their growth, or, in the case of hot 
pressed oils, enter the freshly prepared 
oil from the air. This action continues 
as long as sufficient nutritive material 
for mould growth remains in the oil. It 
may be completely checked by filtration, 
preferably after heating to 100° C. more 
thoroughly to coagulate albuminoids and 


to destroy any enzymes already secreted 
by the moulds. 


Toward the end of this first period, 
oxidation by the air sets in and may 
continue indefinitely. The rate of this 
process depends upon the amount of 
surface exposed to the air, compared 
with the total volume of oil, and may in 
extreme cases cause an exceedingly rapid 
deterioration. It may be entirely pre- 
vented by storing the oil in completely 
tilled receptacles impervious to air. 


Along with the two above-mentioned 
processes, a slight hydrolysis, due to heat, 
moisture and free acids already present, 
is constantly taking place. 
reduced considerably by filtration, which 
removes most of the water, together 
with the organic impurities, 


There is reason to believe that some 
hydrolysis is brought about by enzymes 
produced by the moulds, as unheated oils 
which have been filtered and rendered 
antiseptic increase in acidity somewhat 
more rapidly than do heated ones under 
the same conditions. However, this dis- 
tinction is not so apparent after the 
first year. 


Light has apparently no effect on the 
oxidation by air of coconut oil. 


It may be 


. 


. JANUARY, 1909.] 18 


DYES AND TANS. 


THE USE OF TERMINALIA ARJUNA 
BARK FOR TANNING. 


By D, O. Wirt, 1F.s. 


Until lecame tothe Nimar division of 
the C. P., the use of the bark of Terini- 
nalia Arjuna (Kohar) as a_ tanning 
material was unknown to me. 


That its use is far from general may be 
gathered from the fact that no mention 
of itis made in Watt’s Dictionary of 
Economic Products, Vol. VI, Part t, page 
16, nor in Brandis’ Forest Flora of the 
North-West and Central India, p. 225, 
though both authorities mention the 
bark as used medicinally. 


Its use would, therefore, seem tobe very 
restricted and hence of little importance, 
and in ealling attention to it, it is 
more with a view to point out a parti- 
cular form of damage that may be caused 
to our forests by its use than to assist in 
turther developing the industry. I will 
first give a briet sketch of the industry 
and the methods employed in the use of 
the bark. It is extensively used by 
chamars in the Nimar District for the 
tanning of hides, and especially by the 
shoe-makers of Burhanpur, a fairly large 
community, where its use first came to 
my notice. 


Removal and Collection of the Bark.— 
The bark is stripped from the trunk and 
main branches during the months of 

- Aprilto June. The period of the year 
is an important point to which I shall 
reter later. This time of year is chosen 
as the sap is then most activein the 
cambium layer and the bark separates 
more readily from the wood than when 
the flow of sap is at its lowest. I need 
hardly add the collectors strip off the 
entire bark, and are not in the least con- 
cerned with the immediate resuit, viz., 
the death of the tree, 


Treatment of the Bark.—The bark is 
then dried in the sun and pounded with 
mallets until reduced to shreds oras fine 
a consistency as possible. No further 
treatment is necessary. It is now ready 
for use, and is caretully stored away 
until required, great care being taken 
not to expose it to rain or damp. 


Process of Tanning.—l. Lime Treat- 
ment.—A fresh hide being taken, the 
inner side is well rubbed in with lime, 
tightly folded up, the inner side inside, 
and immersed in water contained in a 
broad-mouthed earthern pot or ‘“‘nand” 
for ten to twelve days, the hide being 


kept pressed down with a heavy weight. 
During this period it is taken out every 
third or fourth day, well shaken, and 
again rubbed in with lime and put back 
in the ‘‘nand.” About three seers of 
lime are rubbed into an average sized 
hide on each occasion. As many as four 
hides can be treated at the same time in 
this way. In place of the “‘nand” a pit 
two feet by two and half feet is some- 
times dug in the ground for the same 
purpose. When the above process is 
complete the hide is taken out, well 
kneaded with the hands aad the lime 
washed off with cold water. All shreds 
of meat that remain attached to the 
inner side are carefully removed with 
an instrument know as a ‘‘ rapi,” while 
the hair remaining attached to the skin 
is removed by scraping with a blunt iron 
blade (kulpi) worked with both hands. 
It is then once more washed with cold 
water. 

2. Dyeing.—The next stepis to give 
the hide the requisite colour. This is 
done by the aid of one or two dyeing 
materials, viz., the young leaves of 
Anogeissus latifolia (dhaura), of the 
mature leaves and twigs of Phyllanthus 
emblica (aonla). The leaves of the 
‘‘dhaura” are collected in the month of 
May when they are young and tender, 
and after being dried in the sun and 
pounded are ready for use. The 
*‘aonla” leaves and shoots, on the other 
hand, are collected in November and 
December when they are mature 
and tough. About four seers of the 
powdered ‘‘dhaura” or ‘‘aonla” leaves 
are put into a “‘nand” with cold water 
and well stirred in this solution, the 
hide now immersed and left for from 
6 to 8 hours. It is then taken out, 
wrung dry, and again immersed in a 
fresh solution. This process is continued 
every two or three days until the hide 
has assumed the required colour vary- 
ing froma pale yellow toa light brown. 
The length of time required to give the 
requisite colour may be from three to 
nine days, according to circumstances, 
Sometimes both ‘dhaura” and ‘aonla” 
leaf solutions are used alternately. 


3. Tanning.—The colour process being 
completed the hide is ncw ready to 
be tanned. Theedgesof the hide are 
brought together and stitched so as to 
form a sort of bhisti’s “mashak” cap- 
able of holding liquid, and termed 
‘“‘adhurhi.” It is then slung up to a 
post or tree and filled with water. Into 
this water is now thrown from 20 to 30 
seers of the prepared Kohar bark. An 


- 


Dyes and Tans. 14 


earthen vessel is placed underneath to 
catch any liquid that may leak out, 
which liquid is from time to time poured 
back into the improvised “‘ mashak,” thus 
keeping it. continually filled up. The 
object of this is to subject the entire 
skin to the action of the tanniag mate- 
rial held within in solution. The skin 
remains thus for two days, and on the 
third day it is inverted and left for 
another three days in this new position, 
while still fuli of the solution. In six 
days the process is complete, the solu- 
tion is drained off, the stitches holding 
the sides together are cut away, and the 
skin now converted into leather; after 
being dried in the sun it is ready for use. 


The above is a description of the 
ordinary process employed. It may, 
however, be varied by mixing with the 
Kohar bark ‘‘dhaura” and ‘‘aonla” 
leaves in the proportion of two of bark 
to one of leaves. 


Source of Supply of the Raw Materials’ 
—Having now described the process of 
using the bark, I turn to the question of 
the raw material from the forests or 
wherever it may be available. The first 
point to draw attention to is the loca- 
lity in which the Kohar tree (Terminalia 
Arjuna) is almost always found. In the 
C, P., I think, it is safe to say that 95 per 
cent. of the Kohar trees are to be found 
growing if not actually on the very bank 
of perennial streams and annual water- 
courses with half their root system 
exposed in the bed of the streams, yet 
seldom if.ever more than 20 feet from 
the edges of such streams. This pecu- 
larity of the tree is very marked. How- 
ever rich and moist the soil you will 
not find a Kohar tree, in this part of the 
country at any rate, far removed from 
a stream. The result as might be 
expected is that whether in forest or 
in open cultivated land, wherever a 
perennial stream flows or a stream that 
keeps pools of water in it here and there 
throughout the hot weather, the greater 
proportion of trees, say 75 per cent. 
growing along such streams, are Kohar 
trees. Itfollows then that all thesupplies 
of this bark must be obtained from trees 
erowing along the banks of streams and 
water-courses. As previously stated, 
the collectors of the bark are quite indif- 
ferent to the effect of their actions on 
the trees themselves, with the inevitable 
result that considerable numbers of 
Kohar trees are killed annually to sup- 
ply the chamars with the bark they 
require for their tanning process. The 
death of these trees is further hastened 
by the period of the year chosen to 
remove the bark, z.e., from April to June, 
when the hot scorching winds blowing 
at the season effectually debar the 


| JANUARY, 1909, 


damaged trees from any chance of re- 
covery. What is therefore happening 
is that streams and water-courses are 
rapidly being denuded of the tree 
growth growing along their banks. 


Influence of Tree Growth on Conserving 
Water supply.—Now a great deal has 
been written lately in the Indian 
Forester and elsewhere on the subject 
of the influence of forests on water 
supply and rainfall, and not without 
reason. 


I would specially mention ‘‘ Notes on 
the Influence of Forest on the Storage 
and Regulation of the Water Supply ” 
by Mr. S. Eardley-Wilmot, Inspector- 
General of Forests. (Forest Bulletin, 
No.9.) Not the least important point in 
this intensely interesting question is the 
influence of the growth in maintainiug 
an equable flow of water inthe streams 
and keeping up the ‘‘ spring level” of 
the water in the subsoil. It is unneces- 
sary to go into the arguments and 
reasons in support of these facts, they 
will be found fully explained in the 
literature referred to above, but they 
are incontestible facts. To put it 
shortly, by preserving the tree growth 
along the banks of streams you (1) 
mitigate the violence of the rush 
of water in the streams during the 
rainy season, (2) prevent erosion 
of the banks, (8) maintain a more 


equable flow of water in the stream, and ~ 


thereby (4) tend to lengthen out the 
period of flow, (5) assist in keeping the 
water in the subsoil at a higher tevel. 

Conversely by destroying the tree 
growth along these trees you obtain the 
very opposite effect. That this effect is 
baneful in itself goes without saying, 
but, and I wish to emphasize this point, 
it is particularly harmful in the region 
to which I am referring. 


Liability to Scarcity of Water in 
Regions where most Damage is done to 
Kohar trees.—In the Nimar district the 
rainfall is very scanty averaging about 
30 inches, but varying from as little as 
18 in. to over 50 in. The district is 
therefore peculiarly liable to scarcity 
of water. Now, the tract where most 
damage is done to the Kohar trees 
consists of hills of trap with the very 
poorest soil covering, large stretches of 
sheet rock being frequent. The tree 
growth on these hills is of the scantiest, 
consisting entirely of very open Salai 
(Boswellia serrata) forest. Along the 


base of these hills stretches a broad rich ~ 


valley intersected by streams and water- 
courses fed by the rain of these hills. It 
is not so long ago that most of this valley 
was under forest. Now, it is all given 
up to cotton cultivation, and practically 


Rah 


JANUARY, 1909. ] 


the only trees left in it are such as have 
survived along the banks of the streams. 
Here the destruction of Kohar trees is 
going on apace. From the nature of 
the soil covering and tree growth on 
these hills it is clear that during the 
monsoon the proportion of rain running 
off and not absorbed, will be much 
greater than from more favourably con- 
stituted forests as regards soil covering 
and tree growth, while the rush of 
water in the streams at any particular 
moment of heavy rainfall will also be 
greater. Under these circumstances the 
value of the existing tree growth along 
the streams in the valley is considerably 
enhanced, and it behoves us’'to maintain 
at all costs the maximum of such tree 
growth. 


Quantity of Bark used annually in 
Nimar.—It is estimated that about 
4,250 mds. of Kohar bark are annually 
usedinthe Nimar district for tanning 
purposes, 


An actual experiment made to ascer- 
tain the quantity of bark obtained from 
a mature and average sized Kohar tree 
showed the green weight of the bark 
removed to be 47 seers. The weight of 
this after drying was 21 seers. 


A reference to the ‘‘ Process of Tanning” 
will show, then, that the bark of one 
tree is not quite sufficient to tan one 
average-sized hide. 


Taking halfamaund (20 seers) as the 
average quantity of dry bark obtained 
from one tree, and the total quantity of 
dry bark used in the district in one year 
as 4,250 maunds, we arrive at the con- 
clusion that no less than 8,500 Kohar 
trees are annually stripped of their 
bark, and, as all this bark comes from 
Malguzari and Ryotwari areas, the 
damage done must be very extensive 
even after making allowance for such 
trees as recover from the treatment 
they are subjected to. 


Necessity for Kestricting the Removal 
of Kohar Bark.—Hither then the absolute 
prohibition of the barking of Kohar 
trees should be enforced or ‘steps taken 
to reduce the damage done to the trees 
toa minimum, In Government forests 
extraction of the bark is entirely for- 
bidden, but it is chiefly in the Malguzari 
and Ryotwari areas that the mischief is 
greatest. Undec the rulesapplicable to 
waste areas in Malguzari villages, the 
felling of any tree growth within 20 
yards of a stream in which water 
ordinarily remains till the month of 
January is prohibited. There is nothing, 
however, in the rules forbidding the 
barking of trees with its inevitable 
result the speedy death of the tree. 


Dyes and Tans. 


Orders have lately been issued by the 
Deputy Commissioner enjoining on all 
Malguzars the importance of maintain- 
ing, as far as possible, a permanent tree 
growth along streams and pointing out 
the damage done by the barking of 
Kohar trees, and recommending that at 
least one-third of the bark on any 
Kohar tree should be lett when barking 
the trees. It is questionable, however, 
whether the recommendation will be 
acted up to. It, would therefore be 
preferabie to absolutely forbid the 
removal of Kohar bark, and the chief 
point in favour of this prohibition is that 
the use of Kohar bark is not absolutely 
indispensable to the preparation of 
leather. 


Substitutes for Kohar Bark.—From 
enquiries made it has been ascertained 
that the tanning process can be carried 
out with the use of ‘‘dhaura” and 
‘““aonla” leaves only, and in certain 
parts of the district Kohar bark is sel- 
dom, if ever, used. It is said that Kohar 
bark used by itself produces a hard 
leather, and that therefore leaves of 
“dhaura” and ‘‘aonla” are mixed with 
it. The bark of Saj (Ternunalia tomen- 
tosa) is sometimes used in place of Kohar 
bark, but there are difficulties in its, 
removal from the treeand hence it is not 
much in favour. The fruit of Ghatbor 
(Zizyphus Xylopyrus) is also frequently 
made use of. It would appear that the 
use of Kohar bark is more a matter 
of habit than necessity. The chamars 
of Burhanpur tried very hard to get 
a reversal of the decision that no bark 
was to be extracted from Government 
forests, stating that their industry de- 
pended on the supply of this bark. Just 
about this time I had come across a 
number of bushes of Awli (Cassia 
auriculala), growing on waste land 
round the town. This species, as is 
well known, provides one of the best 
tanning materials and is largely used 
in the Madras Presidency, yet when 
asked aboutit the chamars of Burhanpur 
stated that they had never used it and 
did not even know of its value as a 
tanning agent. 


Cassia auriculata will grow equally 
well on dry stony soil and on _ black 
cotton soil, and there seems no adequate 
reason why it should not be grown in 
sufficient quantities to supply the 
chamars of Burhanpur with all the 
tanning material they require. There 
are several waste patches within the 
municipal limits which are eminently 
suitable for the growth C. auriculata, 
and, which, if planted, or sown up and 
properly managed, would in a very 
short time become a valuable source 


- a 
iy 


Dyes and Tans. 16 [JANUARY, 1909. | 


of revenue to the Municipality, besides 
supplying a cheap and excellent tanning 
material at the very doorsof the chamars 
who require it. The first crop of bark is 
obtainable when the shrub is five years 
old, so that: the initial cost of cultiva- 
tion is by no means prohibitive. 


Then, again, there is Acacia arabica 
(Babul) the bark of which furnishes 
an excellent tanning material. The 
Babul grows particularly well on black 
cotton soil, and as the valley at the 
entrance of which Burhanpur is situated, 
consists almost entirely of this soil, 
there would be no difficulty in growing 
this species. Tenants and ryots might 
be induced to plant their field bound- 
aries and hedges with Babul, and would 
always be sure of finding a market for 
the bark. 


Cost of the Bark.—The chamars, as a 
rule, extract their own bark obtaining 
licenses from the Malguzars at the rate 
of Rs.3 to 4 per ecart-load of dried 
bark. This means an average royalty 
of 8 annas per maund. 


Reasons for the Use of Kohar Bark.— 
The real explanation of the use of Kohar 
bark is that it is easy of extraction 
‘and has been obtainable in abundance, 
and the idea of any restrictions ona 
custom of long standing is of course 
repugnant to the ideas of any native. 
—Indian Forester, October, 1908, Vol. 
XXXIV. No. 10. 


[This is the Kumbuk tree of Ceylon, 
known to the Tamils as Marutn, and 
more commonly to botanists as Jerni- 
nalia glabra. \t is common in dry 
Ceylon and grows to a great size. The 
astringent bark is used, in medicine, but 
ne ° far as we know, for tanning. 
— 4D. 


INDIAN WATTLE BARK. 


‘“Wattle Bark” is the general name 
applied, both in commerce and the arts, 
to the barks of the various species of 
Acacia exploited within the tropics and 
elsewhere for the tannin which they 
contain. Over thearid sandy wastes that 
occur throughout the torrid regions of 
the globe, the thorny acacias instal them- 
selves on the banks and beds of rivers 
and streams and shallow depressions 
such as admit of the temporary lodge- 
ment of water during rain. In some 
situations during seasons of flood, they 
are frequently completely submerged for 
days, but recovering themselves from the 
depressing effects of the transitory deluge 


with seeming impunity, they flourish 
through the drier months of the year 
under conditions of climate untenable to 
all but very few species of broad-leaved 
trees. Indeed the rigors of climate to 
which the zones that constitute the 
habitat of the acacias are subjected, may 
be gauged from the fact that some of the 
species are unable to develop ordinary 
leaves. The phyllodes, which take the 
place of the latter, are suitable modifi- 
cations of the stem equipped to perform 
all the functions of the leaves they 
substitute. Although the foliar organs 
of most of the acacias are usually small 
and seemingly delicate, the profusion in 
which they ‘occur in the plant, their 
remarkable phyllotaxis or arrangement, 
and their incessant and vigorous activity 
throughout long and arduous periods of 
vegetation result in the formation, among 
the rest, of comparatively dense cortical 
layers surcharged with a variety of 
valuable substances of which the most 
important is tannin. When it is re- 
membered that the tropical acacias form 
a large and well distributed group of 
plants, it will be realized that the 
availability of tannin from this source 
alone is great indeed. Nevertheless, it is 
a notorious fact that only a few ‘species 
of the genus are exploited for the 
extraction of tannin. In India, again, 
with about eighteen species that are 
indigenous to the warmer parts of the 
country, 
(Willd., and Acacia catechu, Willd.,) are 
the only ones at present employed to any 
extent in the art of the tanner.. More- 
over, it must be further conceded that, 
so far from making the least attempt to 
commercially exploit the bark of th, 
indigenous acacias. we have permitteq 
ourselves, at considerable expense, t 
introduce four, and experiment with two 
of the so-called wattle bark trees of’ 
Australia. Introduced on the Nilgiri 
hills of Southern India in the early 
forties of the last century, these in- 
teresting and valuable exotic acacias 
required no less than a period of thirty 
long years to become acclimatized and 
completely naturalized. And even 
though as doubtless they do, the black 
and silver wattles of Australia (Acacia 
decurrens, Willd., and Acacia dealbata, 
Link.) yield relatively large quantities 
of tannin of a quality which is inferior to 
none, not only in India but wherever 
else the factors of soil and climate have 
been found to adequately suit their 
several requirements, their adaptability 
and general 
alone are circumstances which are un- 
worthy to be advanced against the 
serious consideration of the neglect to 
which the local species have been now 
and always consigned. 


: Is 
; re haa 


the barks of Acacia arabica, . 


excellence in themselves. 


JANUARY, 1909.] 


In endeavouring to invite public at- 
tention to the immense possibilities that 
lie in the direction of the systematic 
exploitation of some of the commoner 
Indian acacias as sources of tannin, it 
must be mentioned that the mocerate- 
sized, diffuse-branching, gregarious 
species, botanically known as the Acacia 
arabica, is certainly one of the most 
neglected but valuable. Although the 
quality of the bark of this acacia is 
inferior to that of the Australian wattle 
and even to that of the Acacia catechu, 
the extent of distribution of the species 
in India and the numbers in which they 
occur there are such as to warrant the 
eonelusion that its systematic exploit- 
ation for tannin-extraction is likely to 
meet with favourable results by retriev- 
ing in quantity whatit cannot in quality. 
The natural regeneration of the tree 
being easy but somewhat slow from seed, 
its artificial reproduction, for ecouomic 
purposes, could be more successfully 
accomplished by the creation and 
development of shoots and suckers from 
the stool. For this the tree requires to be 
coppiced at suitable intervals, from 
time to time. The safest period, con- 
sistent with utility, of the economic 
exploitability of the species, is said, on 
good authority, to be ten years,— 
the age at which the. bark has been 
found to be mature enough to contain 
tannin of sound and serviceable quality. 
At this age, too, the possibility is 
greater than at any other recently 
anterior one of obtaining an appreciable 
quantity (half a ton) of bark from each 
tree, that will have been coppiced. 
With the yield of tannin at 15 per cent. 
‘actual experiment giving 18°95) a tree 
would produce 168 pounds of the sub- 
stance at the close of the tenth year of 
its age. Thereafter, the yield, which 
improves with coppicing, would directly 
depend on the number, size, and vigour 
of the shoots which would be permitted 
to develop on the stool from those given 
out after each periodic felling, As 
regards the other Indian acacias, in- 
formation of a reliable nature relating 
to the yield of tannin from the bark is 
at present unavailable. The important 
Khair (Acacia catechu) itself is seldom 
looked upon as a source of tannin, 
outside the great and well known 
capacity of its wood as a yielder of 
catechu or catechu-tannin (catechin), 
No endeavour, beyond the local and, 
therefore, comparatively limited appli- 


cation of its bark as a tanning material, — 


has as yet been made in India. To 
obtain the catechu the tree is felled and 
its heartwood cut up into chips and 
boiled. The bark, however, with its 
stores of tannin, is usually left to rot on 


3 


17 Dyes and Tans 


the ground. Some idea of the extent to 
which this wastage of a useful and 
valuable raw material now takes place 
in the country may be gained from the 
fact that throughout the wide area of 
its distribution thousands of trees are 
annually felled. Why, when the wood 
is being boiled for catechu, or otherwise 
utilized throughout the country, the 
bark is not at the same time treated for 
the manufacture of an extract which 
assuredly contains a high percentage of 
tannin of good quality is a question 
which so far appears to have been pro- 
vocative of no reasonable or satisfactory 
response. The fact, at any rate, seems 
to savour of some of that sublimely 
supine indifference which the son of the 
soil has been proverbial for displaying 
in treatment of great and glorious 
heritage—a mine of wealth whose super- 
ficial veins themselves still largely wait 
upon his consideration. 

Besides the two indigenous acacias 
deseribed above as sources of tannin, 
the undermentioned Indian species, too, 
deserve our best attention in India :— 


(1) Acacia Farnesiana, Willd.—A low 
erect shrub or small tree occurring 
throughout the plains of India and 
Burma; it has bright yellow flowers 
that are fragrant and arranged in the 
axils of the leaves; it isarmed with long 
straight spines. 

(2) Acacia ferruginea, D. C.—A large 
deciduous tree with reddish brown 
bark; armed with short, hooked, double 
spines, the flowers occurring in axillary 
peduncled spikes. 

(8) Acacia jacquemontu, Benth.--A 
small elegant bushy shrub with smooth 
stem and straight, slender, shining 
spines; flowers like those of (1). 


(4) Acacia Latronum, Willd.—A small 
tree or shrub of Southern India, occur- 
ring in gregarious thickets; its flowers 
are given out in numerous spikes from 
the nodes of the branchlets when the 
tree is leafless and double spines are 
long and straight. 

(5) Acacia planifrons, W. and A.—A 
species similar to (4) in habit and dis- 
tribtuion but with grey lenticels in 
place of spines. (4)and (5) form fiattened 
tops that are very conspicuous and 
remarkably typical of the dry open 
forests in which they occur. 


(6) Acacia leuwcophica, Willd.—A large 
deciduous tree with short, straight, 
white spines, flowers in small heads 
borne on long terminal tomentose 
‘panicles. 

(7) Aeacia modesta, Wall.—A small 
tree with short, hooked, double spines 
and small sparse, greenish yellow spikes 
of fiowers. 


“Dyes and Tans. 


(8) Acacia Suma, Kurz.—A moderate- 
sized tree with glabrous. bark and 
tomentose branchlets, hooked double 
spines, and yellowish white flowers. 

(9) Acacia Sundra, D.C.—A large tree 


[JANUARY, 1909 
resembling Acacia catechu, but with 
dark brown branches and no pubescense. 
—A. M. S. in Capital.—Indian Agri- 
culturist, August 1, 1908. 


FIBRES. 


THE INDIAN COTTON CROP. 


The following first general Memoran- 
dum on the Cotton Crop of the season 
1908-09 has been issued by the Commer- 
cial Intelligence Department, India. 


The provinces dealt with in this memo- 
randum represent, on the average of the 
five years ending 1906-07 a total of 
15,007,700 acres under cotton, this being 
equal to 76 per cent. of the entire 
reported cotton area of India. The 


memorandum relates, however, mainly 
to the early crop and records acreage 
only. 

The total area at present reported is 
11,118,000 acres against 11,255,000 acres 
(revised figures) at the same date last 
year. There is, therefore, a net decline 
of 1°38 per cent, 

Noattemptis madeat this season to 
estimate the probable outturn; but. the 
present condition of the crop is reported 
to be generally good or fair, except in 
parts of Bombay and Burma. 


ESTIMATE OF THE AREA UNDER COTTON IN AUGUST. 


Provinces and States. 


Bombay (Decean)* ... ans 
Central Provinces and Berar ... 
Madras Aye 

Punjab ..\... 

United Provinces 

Burma ae 

Bengal an SF 

Eastern Bengal and Assam 
North-West Frontier 
Ajmer-Merwara 

Hyderabad 

Central India + 

Rajputana ... 

Mysore 


Total 


1908-09. 1907-08. 1906-07. 
Acres. Acres. Acres. 
1,240,000 1,275.000 1,700,000, 
8,279,000 4,015,000 4,684,000 

88,000 136,000 115,000 
1,353,000 1,104,000 1,413,000 
1,565,000 1,100,000 1,475,000 

203,000 198,000 186,000 

69,000 68,000 61,000 

81,000 59,000 57,000 

42,000 48,000 59,000 

31,000 11,000 12,000 
2,250,000 2,436,000 2,608,000 

35,000 466,000 00,000 

372,000 331,000 404,000 
5,000 $,000 2,000 
11,118,000 11,255,000 13,376,000 


* Including Native States. + Excluding Gwalior. 


—Indian Agriculturist, Vol. XX XITI., No, 9. 


EGYPTIAN COTTON IN SIND. 


The area in Sind under Egyptian cotton is about 3,700 acresin Thar and Parkar 
district.—Indian Agriculturist, Vol. XXXIII., No. 9, 


JANUARY, 1909.} 


DRUGS. 


QUININE IN INDIA. 


Quinine has become in the Indian 
mind the type and chief of Western 
drugs, says the Resolution upon the 
triennial report on the working of chari- 
table dispensaries in the Punjab. Mala- 
ria here as elsewhere is the chief 
scourge, and, with the habitual resort 
to quinine, the Indian has come to feel 
that it is on this that hospital treatment 
must rely. The result is that when the 
supply of quinine proves inadequate, 
as is often the case, there is disappoint- 
ment, as though no other treatment 


could be effectual, and doubtless the 
growing confidence in hospital treat- 
ment receives some check. One remark- 
able feature of outdoor medical relief is 
disclosed in the report, that is the num- 
ber of patients who did not see the 
doctor themselves but were represented 
by friends. This system so far from 
waning seems to grow, for in this case no 
fewer than 230,475 sufferers underwent 
‘‘absent treatment.” The proportion of 
those so dealt with varies so greatly in 
different districts as to suggest that 
tactful methods might effect some im- 
provements.—Indian Agriculturist, Vol. 
XXXITII., No, 9. 


20 


[JANUARY, 1909. 


EDIBLE PRODUCTS. 


POTENTIALITIES OF PLANTAIN 
MEAL. 


One of the greatest drawbacks to the 
economic development of India is that 
most of her potential industries are 
permitted to lie dormant till such time 
as foreign capital may happen to be 
introduced to work them. It is not 
because there is not sufficient capital 
in the country, but because the owners 
prefer to hoard or invest it in securities 
that cannot yield anything like the 
return a well-managed industry would 
be likely to do. To some extent this 
lack of enterprise is due to ignorance 
as to what industries hitherto unex- 
ploited would be likely to turn out 
profitable, but it is more frequently 
attributable to lack of initiative and 
disinclination to assume the role of 
the pioneer. From time to time we 
have drawn attention to what we believe 
to be suitable openings for Indian trade; 
and, amongst other minor industries, 
to the manufacture of banana or plan- 
tain meal. The flour of the plantain, 
under the name of “Bananine” and 
‘‘Banaharina” has been manufactured 
for several years in Central America 
and the West Indies, It is produced 
from partly ripe fruit by removing the 
skins, drying the edible portion and 
reducing it to powder ina grinding 
machine. The average weight of fruit 
required to produce 1 ewt. of flour is 
5 cwt., that is a yield of 20 per cent. 
In the Indian Trade Journal of January 
17th we mentioned that a company had 
been started in London to manufacture 
banana flour for bread, banana oats 
for porridge, banana custard powder, 
banana cocoa, banana cake and pastry 
flour, banana blane mange powder, 
banana jelly powder, banana health 
salts, ete., and it may have struck 
readers as curious that capital should 
be forthcoming for such a purpose in 
a country where the fruit does not 
grow, while in India, where the cultiva- 
tion of the plantain is universal, enter- 
prise of this kind on any considerable 
scale is practically non-existent. There 
may or may not be good reason for 
this; but the fact remains that for 
years past the health-giving and sustain- 
ing properties of banana meal have 
been known not only in civilized coun- 
tries, but also amongst the natives of 
South Africa, and presumably there is 
room for it in the list of the world’s 
edible products. The late Sir H. M. 
Stanley, during his equatorial travels, 
was so struck with the value of this 


product, that he expressed the opinion 
that, if only its virtues were publicly 
known, it would be largely consumed 
in Kurope, especially by children and 
persons of delicate digestion. 


There are a few scattered concerns 
in India, eg., at Saharanpur, where 
plantain meal is manufactured in a 
small way, but practically nothing seems 
to have been done to produce it ona 
large scale, and with such machinery 
as will turn it out in commercial 
quantities at the lowest possible cost. 
A European firm at Calicut, which has 
lately been examining the possibilities 
of this industry, has favoured us with 
asample of banana meal prepared by it. 
This sample Mr. Hooper, of the Indian 
Museum, has very kindly analysed for 
us with the following result :— 


Moisture ... Ai Dee 11°15 
Fat tae Fay Be 75) 
Albuminoids 3'31 
Carbohydrates 81:29 
Fibre ae ms a 90 
Ash Mac ys 2°60 

100:00 


‘“This analysis discloses,” says Mr. 
Hooper, ‘‘a starchy food with a small 
amount of nitrogen and very little 
fibrous matter. It is quite free from 
tannin, which is found in some samples 
as banana flour, and should be very 
digestible. Its composition is similar to 
that of the flour made from bananas in 
America, as the analyses of samples from 
Jamaica and Venezuela will show :— 


Jamaica. Venezuela, 

Moisture 15°00 149 
Fat ... we 14 5 
Albuminoids 32h 2'9 
Carbohydrates 73-92 77°9 
Fibre a. =—4°90 16 
Ashi. 1:96 2:2 

99-99 100°0 


“The Calicut product, it will be seen, 
compares very favourably with other 
meals in containing no tannin. Banana 
meal as an article of food, according to 
its analysis, occupies an intermediate 
position between the cereal flowers and 
arrowroot starches which should recom- 
mend it especially for infants and 
jnvalids.” 


In Venezuela, we believe, the retail 
price is about 5as. for 1 lb. packages, 
but in Caleutta the retail price for the 
same weight of plantain flour is rather 
high, viz., Re.1; but if more attention 


JANUARY, 1909.] 


were given to its manufacture, no doubt 
it could be produced locally at a more 
reasonable cost. It is believed that 
Rs. 360 per ton represents the average 
cost of production in Saharanpur, in 
Bengal, and Anuradhapura in Ceylon; 
and for foreignmarkets the cost of pack- 
ing, freight and shipping charges have to 
be addedtothis figure, say another Rs. 20 
per ton. The total cost should not ex- 
ceed Rs. 380 per ton orjust under 3 as. 
per lb., while the retail price in Caleutta 
works out at Rs. 2,240 per ton, leaving a 
margin of profit of Rs. 1,860 per ton or 
nearly 500 per cent. The wholesale 
price in Calcutta is not ascertainable, 
but even if itis as low as Rs. 600it would 
leave a handsome margin of profit. In 
small markets, of course, an insignificant 
increase of supplies has avery adverse 
effect on prices, and it has been pointed 
outtous that banana flour has been 
placed on the London market at £20 or 
Rs, 300 per ton (which is less than the 
cost of production in India), and even 
then it was doubted whether this price 
could be maintained in the face of a 
laige consignment. This is discouraging 
for manutacturers in India, for they 
must look for profit in the beginning to 
their export trade, at any rate until an 
indigenous demand has been created. 
Plantain flour, of course, cannnot hope 
tocompete with farinaceous materials 
selling in London at £6—£12 per ton, 
but that is no reason why it should not 
come to be recognised and appreciated 
as a dietetic luxury ; and if so, its price 
should be regulated not by that of 
wheat and rice flour and potato meal of 
a low nutrient value, but by that of 
superior products which command a 
more restricted but yetanample market. 
Upon this factor the establishment of 
the plantain meal industry in India on a 
scale commercially profitable would 
seem to depend. 


FRENCH EXPERIMENTS, 


It has been found from a series of 
experiments in French Guinea that an 
efficient and cheap way of manufac- 
turing plantain meal is simply to peal 
the bananas and dry themin the sun. 
The meal thus obtained is of excellent 
commercial quality. It is obvious, 
however, that this procedure can only 
be followed in tropical countries, so that 
an apparatus which permits of desicca- 
tion at any time is often necessary when 
business is to be conducted on a large 
scale. The principle on which these 
desiccators are constructed is very 
simple. Allthatis required is to circu- 
late hot air over the fruit to be dried. 
The apparatus consists of a furnace, in 
which any kind of fuel may be used, and 
a box arrangement in which are super- 


Hdible Products. 


imposed a number of trays of metallic 
net work through which the hot air 
from the furnace, freed from the gases 
of combusition, passes and dries the 
fruit. The trays containing the fresh 
plantains are placed in at the top of the 
apparatus and taken out at the bottom. 

he prices of such desiccators vary 
roughly from Rs. 800 to Rs. 750. Illus- 
trations of two such machines may be 
seen at this office. 


Further experiments carried out in 
French Guinea go to show that a hun- 
dred kilo (kilo, 2,204 lbs.) of bananas in 
bunches as plucked yield 65 kilos of 
peeled bananas, and these 62 kilos, 
treated in the machines mentioned, give 
about 19°5 kilos of plantain meal, Much, 
however, depends upon the method of 
desiccation. When the process is pro- 
longed in order to obtain a golden colour 
for commercial purposes the yield may 
be aslowas 14°32 kilos; and dried too 
fast not only is the weight seriously 
reduced, but the fruit becomes carmel- 
ised and depreciated in value. It will 
be seen that the yield of plantain flour 
under ordinary conditions, is roughly 
20 per cent., which agrees with Mr. 
Hooper’s estimate published in our 
issue of July 16, p. 62, that the average 
weight of fruit required to produce 
1 ewt. of flour is 5 cwt. It has also 
been ascertained in the course of 
the French experiments that although 
unripe and partially ripe bananas may 
be converted more quickly into meal, 
ripe bananas which contain more sugar 
give the best results. 


In a previous article on the subject 
we stated that the manufacture of plan- 
tain meal was being taken in hand by 
a firm on the Malabar Coast; and we 
may now add that the climate of French 
Guinea, where these plantain meal 
experiments were carried out, is not 
unlike that prevailing in Malabar, As 
in Malabar the year in Lower and 
Middle Guinea is divided into two well- 
defined seasons—six months of rain 
and six months of dry weather. The 
rain commences in the middle of May 
and end in November. During the rainy 
period the drying of the fruit is 
restricted by atmospheric humidity, and 
it is here that the artificial dryers we 
have referred to come into use. The 
average annual rainfall is abont 100 
inches.—Indian Trade Journal. 


PLANTAIN MEAL. 

Some interesting experiments have 
recently been conducted in FKrench 
Guinea in the manufacture of plantain 
meal of which profitable notice might 
be taken in this country. It has been 


Edible Products. 22 


found that the most cheap and efficient 
plan, in tropical countries at any rate, 
is simply to peel the plantains or bananas 
and dry them in the sun, the meal thus 
obtained being of excellent commercial 
quality. It has been found, further, 
that a hundred kilos (a kilo equals 2,204, 
lb.) cf bananas in bunches as_ plucked 
ought to yield 65 kilos of peeled bananas, 
and that these 65 kilos should give 
about 19°5 kilos of plantain meal. The 
yield of plantain flour, under ordinary 
conditions, is thus roughly about 20 
per cent. which agrees with the estimate 
arrived at recently by Mr. Hooper, of 
the Indian Museum, that the average 
weight of fruit required to producea 
hundredweight of flour is five hundred- 
weights. The manufacture of plantain 
meal has recently been taken in hand 
on the Malabar Coast, the climate of 
which closely resembies that of French 
Guinea, where the experiments referred 
to were carried out. The most interest- 
ing feature of the experiments, therefore, 
for indian manufacturers is that in 
connection with the artificial dryers, 
which it is essential to use in the rainy 
season. Those cost only from Rs. 300 
to Rs. 750, and illustrations of them are 
to be seen at the office of the Indian 
Trade Journal.—indian Agriculturist, 
Vol. XXXIII., No. 9. 


THE CULTIVATION OF 
GROUND-NUTS. 


Grounpb-Nuts AS A DRy LAND CROP. 


The spread of ground-nut cultivation 
has been steadily advancing during the 
last two years in all parts of the 
Presidency. In many districts this is 
quite a new crop, but it has been found 
so profitable, that, wherever it has been 
tried, and the local conditions have been 
found suitable, its cultivation has 
rapidly extended, Asconstant enquiries 
are being received asking for informa- 
tion regarding the cultivation of ground- 
nuts, the following general instructions 
have been written :— 


2. Climate and Rainfall.—The ‘‘Mauri- 
tius” variety of ground-nuts, which is 
the one now cultivated, takes from 5 to 
6 months to come to maturity. During 
the first two or three months of the 
crop’s growth, very little moisture is 
required; the plant can withstand con- 
siderable QGrought until it starts to 
flower and forms its nuts. Therefore 
sowing should be so arranged that the 
crop will receive the benefit of good 
rains during the last two to three 
months of its growth. Some districts 
get light rains during the south-west 
monsoon, but expect their season rain 


[JANUARY, 1909. 


in October-December during the north- 
east monsoon. Here sowing should be 
done in the end of July or beginning of 
August. In other districts showers are 
experienced in April and May, while the 
season's rain occurs with the south- 
west monsoon from June to September. 
Here sowing should be done as soon as a 
sowing rain falls in Aprilor May. Itis 
evident, therefore, that the farmer must 
decide for himself whether the rainfall 
is suitable, and, if so, what is the best 
time for sowing. 


3. Soil.—Ground-nuts should not be 
grown on a heavy stiff soil for two 
reasons. Firstly, though the plants 
appear to be growing well, the yield of 
nuts is small. Secondly, the difficulty 
and cost of harvesting the erop is too 
great to render the crop as profitable as 
other crops, which can be grown on 
such land. Sandy or loamy soils are 
perhaps best suited to this crop, and it 
is essential that the land should be well 
drained as the ground-nut does not like 
a soil where water can stand. In fact, 
when quite young, evena very heavy 
rainfall will often injure the crop and 
check its growth. 


4, Preparatory Cultivation.—It is 
most essential that the land should be 
properly cleaned and treed from weeds 
before this crop is planted; because, 
during the last two months of the cron’s 
growth it is impossible to doany weed- 
ing, and this, being the time when the 
season’s rain falls, is naturally also the 
time when weeds get ahold on to the 
land and thereby diminish the yield. 
Korai and Hariali are probably the two 
weeds which most affect the yield of 
the crop, and every effort should be 
made to destroy these by cultivation, 
when the land is fallow, %.e., during the 
dry season. If theland is clean, probably 
three ploughings and cross-ploughings 
will suffice. 


rad 


5. Manuring.—This should be done 
before the last ploughing and : cross- 
ploughing. If cattle manure or village 
sweepings are used, this should be 
spread evenly on the field, and not left 
in heaps to dry up with the sun. All 
large lumps of manure should be broken 
up so as to distribute the manure as 
evenly as possible, and as soon as itis 
properly spread, it should be ploughed 
in. It will always pay the cultivator to 
mauure his land for this crop. Cattle 
manure. village sweepings and ashes are 
always of value and can be applied at 
the rate of 15-20 cart-loads per acre. 


6. Seed.—_When purchasing _ seed, 
always buy the nutsin theshell, Ground- 
nuts for seed should always be saved 
from the previous season’s crop. The 


JANUARY, 1909.] 


nuts should be shelled by hand, and 
only good, sound, well-filled kernels 
should be used for sowing, All mouldy 
kernels should be rejected. 


7. Sowing asa Pure Crop.—The usual 
method of sowing consists of dropping 
the seed inthe plovgh furrow behind 
each plough. This is not only very 
wasteful of seed, but the plants are much 
too close together to develop properly, 
and it is impossible to do any after- 
cultivation except with the hand hoe, 
which is always expensive, while if 
exceptionally heavy rains are experienc- 
ed. the crop is often liable to become 
waterlogged. A better method of sowing 
is to drop the seed at intervals of 6-9 
inches according to the quality of the 
soil in every third plough furrow. In 
this way, only 10-12 Madras measures of 
kernels instead of 383 Madras measures 
are required to sow anacre, Hach plant 
has ample room to develop, and if care 
is taken to continue the furrows up to 
the edge of the field, after-cultivation 
ean for the first three months be done 
with the bullock-hoe or Danthelu. The 
inter-cultivation slightly raises the land 
along the rows into the wide low ridges, 
and this, besides keeping the soil mellow, 
considerably improves the drainage. 


8. Sowing as a Mixed Crop.—As 
ground-nutstakefivemonths togrow, itis 
the practice in the South Arcot District 
to take a catch crop of some cereal, such 
as cumbu or cholam, off the land at the 
same time, | For this purpose a3-4 month 
variety of such is usually chosen, so that 
the cereal crop can be reaped while the 
ground-nuts. which are dribbled in, after 
the cereal has sufficiently grown to shade 
the ground are still small. The method 
usually adopted is to sow the cereal 
broadeast, covering the seed with a light 
plough, after which the ground is levell- 
ed and the seed-bed is made firm by 
dragging a harrow made of thorn 
branches across the ploughing; when 
the cereal crop is6 inches or so high, 
opportunity is taken after a rain to weed, 
hoe and thin the crop. A second hoeing 
and even sometimes athird is given if 
rain occurs and cakes the _ surface. 
When the cereal is about to flower, the 
seed of the ground-nut is dibbled in by 
hand at intervals of about 9 inches 
apart. This careful method of cultiva- 
tion greatly benefits the cereal crop, and 
prepares the land for the subsequent 
crop of ground-nuts. Tenaior Ragi is 
often grown asa cereal on land com- 
manded by a well, instead of the 
ordinary dryland cholam or cumbu. 


9. Inthe case of Ragi, the crop is trans- 
planted after the land has been laid out 
into square beds and irrigated, aud the 


93 Edible Products. 


ground-nut is dibbled in later as des- 
cribed above at intervals of about 6 
inches. The Tenai is sown broadcast as 
in the case of cumbu and cholam, and 
after sowing, the land is laid out in beds 
for irrigation, if thisis found to be neces- 
sary. As the straw of this crop is 
brittle, and as it matures early, the 
ground-nut is naturally sown after the 


Tenai has been harvested either by 
hand or behind the plough. 
10. If ground-nut is to be grownin a 


district where the drill and the other 
implements for cultivation are used, the 
same system of taking a catch crop 
cereal could be adopted. The cereal 
could be sown in 18 inch drills and the 
ground hoed between the rows with the 
Danthelu or bullock hoe. At the right 
time the ground-nut could be dropped 
behind the plough in a furrow made 
midway between two rows of the cereal. 
After the cereal is reaped, inter-cultiva- 
tion can still be continued between the 
rowsof ground-nut. This method of 
cultivating a cereal ground-nut crop has 
been tried with success at the Palur 
Agricultural Station. 


11. After-cultivation.—The usual 
method of cultivation is to loosen the 
soil between the plants with the hand 
hoe. This means that coolie labour 
must always be available, or that the 
crop must suffer from want of cultiva- 
tion. Thescarcity of labour is one of 
the serious drawbacks to the present 
system of cultivating ground-nuts, and 
will always be so, especially in dry red 
soil tracts which cannot support a large 
population. Hence the .aethod of sow- 
ing the crop in rows and doing the inter- 
cultivation with the bullock hoe is 
strongly urged. Frequent hoeings, 
whether by hand or by the bullock hoe, 
are often necessary. No definite number 
of times for doing this can be given, as 
so much depends on the season, but it is 
safe to say that for the first three 
months hoeing should always be done as 
soon as the land is dry ‘enough after a 
good rain. This helps to keep the 
moisture in the ground, it enables the 
forming nuts to penetrate into the soil 
and it keeps down weeds. 


12. Harvesting.—The crop should be 
ready to harvest at the end of five 
months. The exact time must, however, 
be learnt by the cultivator himself. 
When the stalks to the underground 
pods have dried and the skin on the 
kernels has turned pink, the crop can be 
considered ready for lifting, but there 
will always be a few pods near the ends 
of the branches which are still quite 
young, when the bulk of the crop is ripe. 
The method of harvesting also varies 


Edible Products. 


with the local conditions of soil and cli- 
mate. Onvery loosesandy soil it will be 
found that by loosening the soil under 
each plant practically all the nuts will 
remain adhering to the branches from 
which they cau be picked, Often in 
South Arcot, on such light soil a mam- 
mootie is attached to a draught pole 
and worked like a plough through the 
crop to loosen the soil at a depth of 
about four inches. If the crop has 
become too ripe, or if the soil has baked 
hard, many of the nuts will be left in 
the soil; in this case it would be better 
to remove all the tops first, pick any 
nuts which adhere to them, then loosen 
the soil with a mammotie to a depth of 
4 inches, and have the crop collected 
by women, who carefully go through 
all the soil and pick out the nuts. 
When the nuts have all been collected 
they should be thoroughly dvied before 
storing, by spreading out in the sun. 
In the evening they are heaped up and 
covered with straw, and again spread 
out the following morning. This con- 
Pee until the ground-nuts are quite 
ry. 


18. VYield.—This naturally varies with 
the treatment. With good cultivation, 
sufficient manuring anda normal season, 
a vain-fed crop can be expected to pro- 
duce a crop of 700-1,200 Madras mea- 
sures. Many people who try this crop 
are at first encouraged by the large 
yields obtained from poor soil without 
any manure being applied, and are 
afterwards disappointed when the 
same treatment in the following season 
does not produce such heavy yields. 
As previously mentioned, it will always 
pay the farmer to manure his land for 
this crop. 


14. The Disposal of the Crop.—The 
ground-nuts themselves, as arule. find 
a ready sale, though sometimes in a 
new district, where the cropis unknown, 
there is difficulty. In such cases, the 
ground-nut oil is usually saleable, and 
the kernels can be crushed as any other 
oil seed in the ordinary country oil-mill. 
One hundred pounds of ground-nut 
kernels will produce from 36-40 pounds 
of oil. The cake which is obtained can 
be used either as cattle food, or it can 
be applied directly asa manure. In the 
South Arcot district many of the culti- 
vators apply ground-nut cake at the 
rate of one candy per acre to the wet 
lands for paddy, so that their village 
manure will be available for the culti- 
vation of the ground-nut crop; Experi- 
ments have been started at the Palur 
Agricultural Station to find out whether 
ground-nut cake will not be equally pro- 
fitable, when applied as manure to the 
ground-nut crop. Ground-nut straw, 


[JANUARY, 1909. 


when dried, makes excellent fodder for 
cattle, and should be mixed with the 
straw of cereals for feeding. ; 


IRRIGATED GROUND-NUTs. 

15. Ground-nut, as a dry irrigated 
crop, is now. extensively grown in the 
South Arcot District duving the hot 
weather months, and the rapid exten- 
sion of this cultivation shows how pro- 
fitable it must be from a monetary 
point of view. There seems to be no 
reason why this method of cultivation 
should not be extended to other dis- 
tricts, where the soil and water-supply 
are suitable even if the ground-nut, as 
a rain-fed crop, cannot be grown. 


_ 16. Thesystem of cultivation of the 
irrigated ground-nut crop in South 
Arcot is merely an adaptation of that 
adopted for the rain-fed crop, and as 
the expected yield ‘is greater the land 
is more heavily manured. The crop is 
usually grown mixed with ragi, the 
land being laid out into small square 
beds after sowing ragi broadcast, and 
the ground-nut dibbled in afterwards 
as described above. Occasionally, if the 
land cannot be prepared at the right 
season, ragi seedlings are raised in a 
nursery and afterwards transplanted. 
Sometimes the ground-nut is grown as 
a pure crop, the seed being dibbled in 
6-9 inches apart in the dry beds before 
irrigation, and watered immediately 
after the sowing is completed. Too 
close sowing is the principal objection 
to this method. The cultivator still con- 
tinues to plant the ‘‘Mauritius” nut at 
the same distance that formerly he 
planted the ‘‘country” ground-nuts, 
and seems not to have realised that, 
whereas the “country” ground-nut 
formed-its pods near the crown of the 
plant, and could therefore stand to 
some extent this close planting, the 
‘“*Mauritius” variety forms its nuts all 
along the main branches. Thus by plant- 
ing closely the Mauritius nut with its 
flat spreading habit soon covers the 
ground and the branches are thus forced 
to grow up into the air. With this 
close planting, proper weeding and hoe- 
ing soon become impossible, besides 
having all to be done by hand. In 
consequence, the soil becomes hard and 
caked, while weeds which have only 
been checked while the crop is young 
soon spring up when weeding has to © 
stop. This close planting also means 
a great waste of water. The whole 
surface of the ground has to be flooded, 
and unless the land is hoed by hand 
(an operation which is both expensive, 
if done thoroughly, and often requires 
more labour than is available), the water 
soon evaporates from the surface of 
the ground, thereby entailing much 
more frequent waterings. 


JANUARY, 1909.) 


17. Cultivation and  Sowing.—The 
method of cultivation adopted on the 
Palur Agricultural Station is still under 
trial, but there is every reason to believe 
that equally good, if not better, crops 
can be obtained at great saving of seed, 
water, irrigation, and hand cultivation. 
As recommended in the case of the rain- 
fed ground-nut crop, the seed is sown 
in every third plough furrow, the kernels 
being dropped at intervals of 6-9 inches 
in the furrow. Before sowing, the land 
is irrigated, and as soon as it is dry 
enough the surface is levelled with a 
harrow. The moisture in the soil is 
sufficient to germinate the seed, and 
when the crop is once up the rows 
can plainly be seen. 


18. After Cultivation and Irrigation. 
—Furrows for irrigation are opened with 
the country plough between the ground- 
nut rows, and water is allowed to run 
down these and thus irrigate the crop 
without flooding the whole surface of 
the land. Occasionally, if the land is 
not level, subsidiary channels have to 
be made across the rows from which 
the crop can be irrigated in each 
direction along the furrows. After each 
irrigation, as soon as the soil in the 
furrows is dry enough, the surface soil 
in the furrow is worked with a bullock 
hoe. This prevents the rapid evapor- 
ation of water from the surface, The 
next irrigation is not given until it is 
seen that the crop actually requires it, 
In this way for the first two-three 
months, irrigation should not be neces- 
sary more often than once a fortnight, 
and often the intervals between irriga- 
tions are considerably greater. The 
time between the irrigations must, how- 
ever, be left moro or less to the discretion 
of the cultivator, as this depends toa 
great extent on the texture of the soil. 
As long as the plants look vigorous 
and healthy in the early morning before 
the sun is hot, irrigation is unnecessary. 
Whenthecrop nearly covers the ground, 
it is not possible to continue working 
between the rows with the bullock hoe, 
and the furrows must then be left open 
after the last irrigation, sothat watering 
can be continued without disturbing 
the crop. During the last two months 
it will be found that more frequent 
irrigations are necessary. The plants 
are now forming their nuts and require 
a greater quantity of water. At the 
end of five months from the time of 
sowing it will be found that the majority 
of the nuts are fully formed, Irriga- 
tion must then cease in order to ripen 
off the crop, The harvesting is similar 
to that described above for the dry crop, 
except that the land must once more 
be irrigated to lossen the soil sufficiently 


4 


5) Edible Products. 


to lift the crop, The yield of the irri- 
gated crop will vary from _ 1,000-2,000 
Madras measures, and even yields of 
3,000 Madras measures are common, 
— Bulletin of the Department of Agr- 
culture, Madras, 1908. 


TAMARIND CULTURE. 


From time immemorial the tamarind 
ranks among the useful trees of India. 
There is scarcely any family of trees 
that are more generally useful in tro- 
pical climates than the tamarind tribe. 
The Arabs first learnt its essential 
properties from the Hindus, and thence 
it gradually made its way into Europe. 
It was at one time known as the Indian 
date among the ancient Arabs and the 
Persians. In EKurspe it became known 
as Tamarindus Indicus. It grows every- 
where in India with a little care. In 
preparing plantations the rainy season 
is the best one. The seeds should be 
strewn on damp soil, and after a lapse of 
two or three years the tree grows big 
enough. In the forests and hilly regions 
these trees abound in great many num- 
bers. The tree grows big within a few 
years and lives for a considerable length 
of time. The height of it varies from 75 
to 80 feet. The outspreading branches 
of these give a beautiful aspect. The 
circumference of the trunk is 24 
feet. The trees flower in the spring and 
fruits ripen in winter. From five to six 
maunds of fruits can be gathered from 
a full-grown tree. The tamarind fruits 
are used in preparing condiments and 
are exported in large quantities to 
foreign countries. The tamarind is the 
bare necessity of life with every Indian 
villager. He may live without mangoes 
or jack fruits, but this he cannot dis- 
pense with. From the green leaves to 
the outer husks are used as eatables by 
the Indian villager. There is a story 
current in Bengal about the usefulness 
of the tamarind. There lived at one 
time a logician in Nadia. He had one 
day no other articles of food except 
some rice in his house. When inter- 
rogated by his wife as to what she 
should prepare for curry, the logician 
got up in haste and directed his eyes 
towards the tamarind tree. His wife 
took itin her head and forthwith came 
out of the house to pluck some tamarind 
leaves wherewith to prepare a nice 
curry, When the logician returned 
home and sat down to dinner, her lov- 
ing consort got a dish of tamarind curry 
which he partook of with great relish. 
The logician, after eating to his heart’s 
content, remarked: ‘Ours shall be no 
want so long as this nectar-giving 


Edible Products. 26 


tamarind tree is in our house.” Though 
this ig current as astory in Bengal, to 
bring home to the mind of our men the 
usefulness of the tamarind, yet we can, 
by no means, overlook the importance 
underlying the properties of this tree. 


It has a good deal of medicinal 
properties conducive to human health. 
The green tamarind when eaten aids in 
the secretion of bile and is an antidote 
to rheumatism. The viscid substance 
of the ripe tamarind: when pasted over 
a boil helps to bring it to head soon. 
If applied at the top of a betel rind 
and placed a suppositoria on the anus of 
a child it will have the effect of loosen- 
ing its bowels.. The tamarind is required 
for preparing confectionaries and tartaric 
acid. A kind of medicated salt is pre- 
pared out of its husks burnt into ashes. 
The leaves, when applied, after it has 
been pestled over some parts of the 
body afflicted with pain, produce a kind 
of soothing sensation ; the salt prepared 
out of its ashes is a good medicine for 
dyspepsia. 


Place some leaves in hot water, and 
when they are well boiled put them 
on a cloth coloured in blue, and it will 
give a crimson hue. The silversmiths 
in the Deccan use a kind of acid pre- 
pared from the tamarind to brighten 
the gloss of silver. 


The stone of the fruit is generally 
thrown away as useless things by our 
men. Our countrymen do not know 
its proper use, Mr. David Hooper writes 
in the Agricultural Ledger, 1907, about 
the use of its stone. He says: ‘“ During 
the time of famine the poor people 
eat the tamarind stones.” The tamarind 
trees are mostly to be seen in Madras 
and Central India. 


The stones of the tamarind are first 
soaked in water for about half an bour 
and then boiled for eating. Some fry 
them first and then boil. When they 
are well boiled, take off the outer 
covering and the kernel will give a 
good relish when eaten. The kernel is 
sometimes dried in the sun_ or fried 
and then pulverised into fine flour. 
Cakes or bread can be prepared from 
this flour. 


Reports hi 
current with 
mental effects 
eaten. Cases 


have at some places become 

regard to the detri- 

of these stones when 
have ae geen fund 

here these stones when eaten have 
Peravenéss or gripes. We believe the 
outer covering in these cases was not 
removed prior to eating. It has been 
found upon experiment that the white 
kernel inside the stone 1s nutritive. 
According to the Ayurveda system of 


(JANUARY, 1909. 


science, these stones when pulverised 
are used in cases of rheumatism. Accord- 
ing to the Unani system of science, 
the pulverised powder is used in cases 
of ringworm. Dr. White says: “The 
powder can be used asa poultice over 
the boil.” 


From the pestled stones, when boiled, a 
sort of gruel is obtained, and this is much 
used in weaving silk cloth. It is also 
used for binding books and for making 
leather harness. Its sticky substance 
is again used for joining broken wooden 
bars, ete. {[t has become known from 
an account writtensome fifty years ago 
in an Agri-Horticultural Journal that a 
kind of oil was obtained from the stones 
of the tamarind. The quantity of oil 
obtained from the stones was small 
compared with the labour required to 
undergo for producing it, besides no 
standing business has ever been heard 
to have been lucrative from the sale of 
this oil. 


We, however, think that an industry 
can be easily got up in the market from 
the stones of the tamarind; in our 
ignorance we throw away much of the 
wealth lying at our door. The stones 
can be easily brought from the villages, 
and with the aid of an electric flour 
machine these can be pulverised into 
flour. A small capital is required to 
start a business. We hope some of our 
readers will make an experiment in this 
line of business.—Indian Heonomist. 


COCONUTS IN THE DRY ZONE 
OF CEYLON. 


By J. C. WILLIS. 


(Illustrated.) 


There appears to be an_ impression 
abrcad that the coconut will not grow 
in the dry country of northern Ceylon. 
That this is untrue may be seen bya 
visit to any village there, where the 
tree may be seen Aourishing in the 
neighbourhood of the tank, in which 
place it gets acertain amount of seepage. 


A little water, but only a little, is 
required for the successful cultivation 
of this tree. The photographs reproduc- 
ed with this article show the early 
stages of cultivation on the irrigable 
land at Maha-iluppalama Experiment 
Station, 11 miles from Kekirawa (north 
of Dambulla on the great North Road). 
The younger trees occupy 27 acres on 
irrigable land, about half a mile from 
the tank. The seed nuts were put into 
the nursery in August, 1907, and in April, 
1908, they were planted out in holes of — 
3 feet cube, partly filled with soil. 


COCONUTS IN THE DRY ZONE OF CEYLON. 


On IRRIGABLE LAND. 


o 
he 


Air 


JANUARY, 1909.] 27 


Drains were then cut, and they were 
watered from the tank ela, once a month 
for one day, until September, since when 
they have not been watered, and 
probably will not want any more. 


The older trees were planted out on 
six acres of unirrigable landin May, 1907, 
but about 200-500 yards from the tank, 
where there must probably be some 
seepage. They were watered at inter- 
vals of 14 days till the N. E. monsoon. 
In places they were watered twice in 
June and July, 1908, and have had no 
other water. The ground could not be 
cultivated till after the photograph was 
taken, but a space was kept weeded 
round each tree. 


The irrigable land is in a fine state of 
tilth, it will be noticed, the tracks of the 
teeth of the Plant Cultivator showing 
clearly. The unirrigable land has been 
tilled since the rains, but at the time of 
these photographs (Aug. 24, 1908) had not 
been tilled. 


These photographs show the possibility 
of cultivating coconuts successfully on 
the tank lands, with the use of the very 
smallest amount of water. The growth 
of trees at Peradeniya, from seeds from 
the same tree, and of the same age, is by 
no means so good. 


There can be no doubt that the irri- 
gable land of the dry zone is the “ best 
unrealised asset ” the island has, and we 
hope to see it the seat of a large agri- 
cultural enterprise. 


THE COCONUT PALM: ITS RELA- 
TION OF WEATHER TO CROPS. 


The following paper was. read by 
Mr. J. D. Vanderstraaten, at the meeting 
of the Board ot Agriculture on 3rd 
December, 1908 :— 


The want of literature ox the coconut 
palm has been often noticed, and is re- 
markable considering the great value of 
the palm to this Island. It not only 
contributes largely to the good of the 
people, and is directly or indirectly their 
chief cource of income, but it furnishes 
the Government with 12 per cent. of its 
Revenue through arrack rents, and 
supplies the magnificent Harbour of 
Colombo with more than half of its ex- 
port shipping tonnage, and may well, if 
the cultivation of the palm be encouraged 
and stimulated, supply quite two-third 
to three of the tonnage. The American 
Government, shortly after the acquisition 
of the Philippine Islands, began the 
scientific study of the coconut palm, 
which previously had not been, I believe, 


Edible Products, 


the subject of scientific investigation ; 
and itis very desirable that the Ceylon 
Government should, if it has not begun 
already, undertake researches into the 
life history and cultivation of the coconut 
palm on almost the same lines as the 
valuable researches concerning Para and 
other rubber-yielding trees. For, al- 
though the coconut palm is such a 
familiar tree to us all, as usual with all 
things with which we are familiar, 
accurate knowledge is wanting and much 
error prevails, some of aserious economic 
nature, é.g., it is generally believed by 
the larger proportion of coconut garden 
owners (am I overstating it when I put 
it quite as high as 90 per cent?) that 
manuring is ultimately and soon hurtful 
to the tree, even fatally so, though at 
first attended with some increase of crop ; 
this I say is a serious economic error, for 
the produce of the coconut plantations 
in the Island may easily be at least 
doubled by manuring the gardens. The 
experience of those who have cultivated 
and manured gardens previously innocent 
of either tillage or added fertilizers, has 
been that a three or even fourfold in- 
crease may be obtained and permanently 
maintained, without any shortening of 
the life of the trees. But, to convince 
the people of this and of it being quite 
within their means to properly cultivate 
their lands, it would seem necessary that 
a Government scientific department 
shouldcarry out experimextal cultivation 
and issue manuals in the vernacular, 
giving the results and all required 
directions. The advantages that would 
result to the country, to the Government 
and to the people within less than a 
decade, would be incalculable. 


Amongst other misconceptions about 
the coconut tree may be mentioned the 
general belief that each tree bears twelve 
bunches of fruit a year ; that heavy rain 
is beneficial, and the heavier the more 
beneficial; that, on the other hand, 
drought is hurtful, even drought of the 
kind that ordinarily prevails during the 
early months of the year. In this paper 
I propose to consider the relation between 
the weather and crops, and it is not 
inopportune, seeing that the rainfall this 
year has been throughout the Island 
much below the average, and in some 
districts the drought has been unpre- 
cedentedly severe, as in the Puttalm 
district. 


At the outset I must disclaim having 
definitely succeeded in tracing the exact 
time relative between the weather and 
crops. I. have formed a theory out of 
some data where many nezessary data 
are required for accurate conclusions. 
It is with a view to elicit discussion and 


Hdible Products. 


to have my theory confirmed by others, 
or satisfactorily controverted, that I 
venture to submit this paper. 


That there must be a relation between 
the weather und coconut cropsisa simple 
truism, but can we reduce it to rules for 
our guidance in estimating future crops 
or in devising measures to counteract the 
effects of unfavourable weather? The 

‘question is not one merely of the amount 
of rainfall in a single year (the tree is one 
that is blossoming and bearing fruit all 
through the year), but of the intensity 
of the rainfall at various times, of its 
distribution, of the degree of saturation 
of the soil, the variation in the saturation 
from thorough as in the early weeks of 
the monsoons to greater or less dryage 
during drought, of the variation in the 
temperature and moisture of the air, the 
degree of sunshine and light as affecting 
transpiration and the formation of 
chlorsphyl, and also the eletrical condi- 
tion of the atmosphere, 


We all know roughly that extreme and 
prolonged saturation of the soil, as also 
extreme and prolonged dryage, are 
equally unfavourable. We know that 
extreme heat and extreme cold, that a 
prolonged period of dark cloudy days 
are all unfavourable to the production 
of blcssom, while it has been generally 
noticed that a highly electric condition 
of the atmosphere is extremely favour- 
able, but here our knowledge ends. 
When we enter into details our opinions 
differ greatly. We have not before us 
allthe data for definitely framing our 
opinions, and it is extremely desirable 
that full observations should be carefully 
recorded of the various tactors that 
affect coconut crops. 


The experience of practical planters of 
the results of manuring and recorded 
observations of rainfall and crops should 
goa long way towards establishing a 
fairly workable theory on this subject. 
In manuring, especially in manuring a 
previously uncultivated garden, we find 
no increase in the crops during the first 
year, simply because the blossoms for 
the first year’s crops were all out and set, 
and in various stages of development 
already when manuring took place— 
perhaps after afew months we find less 
of the tender young coconut (kurum- 
bettis) falling, owing to the increased 
nourishment afforded by the manure, so 
also we notice a slight improvement 
in the kernel from the same cause. 
During the second and third years there 
is a marked and gradual increase of 
crop still due to the improved vigour of 
the trees and the consequent fertilizing 
properties of the pollen which otherwise 
would have been largely infertile. The 
increase of crop during the third year 


28 


may be quite double the previous yield 
or even more, but it is after the third 
year that the full effects of manuring are 
felt by the trees, the increase in nuts of 
previously unmanured gardens being 
quite four to fivefold. I was much struck 
with this fact when I first began coconut 
cultivation and unable to account for the 
long interval required for manuring to 
tell in the case of coconuts, till curiosity 
led me to dissect the heart or cabbage, 
the pol-bada, of a healthy tree which 
was blown down by high wind. Count- 
ing all the flowers from the one just 
opened to the smallest spathe in the 
heart or cabbage that could be examined. 
with a magnifying glass, I found 
there were thirty-four flower spathes in 
this tree, and the smallest spathe in 
the heart of the cabbage had clearly 
distinguishable miniature kurumbettis 
or female flowers. Now, taking sixteen 
as the average number of fresh branches 
(and each branch carries a flower spathe) 


put forth yearly by a healthy tree, we 


get two years and say twoor three 
months for the last distinguishable 
spathe to arrive at the crown of 
the tree and burst into blossom—to this 
must be added another ten to twelve 
months before we can gather the fully 
matured nuts from that branch. This 
gives us the period of three years at 
least, and I suppose a few months must 
be allowed from the beginning of the 
manuring period for the initial forma- 
tion of the flower spathe in embryo. IJ 
regret being unable to express myself 
in scientific terms. Scientists whom I 
have consulted tell me the flower spathe 
once formed inembryo, nothing can in- 
crease or diminish the number of female 
flowers it contains. May we not well 
conclude that rain or drought, too, in- 
creasing or retarding the flow of fluid 
(sap) in the trunk of the tree and 
otherwise affecting it, cannot increase 
or diminish the embryo female flowers 
already formed, and must therefore 
take the same timefor its operation as 
manuring. 


The records of crop and rainfall kept 
by some estates bearjout also, I think, the 
theory | have advanced. These records 
also [I think establish the fact that 
heavy and long continued_ rainfall, lead- 
ing to prolonged and undue saturation 
of the soil, prejudicially affect the for- 
mation of fruit blossoms; but when a 
period of dry, sunshiny weather, almost 
amounting to drought (as in the early 
months of the year), follows on such 
heavy rainfalls, the conditions are ex- 
tremely favourable. 

The coconut tree thrives best with its 
crown exposed to the sun and wind 
(favouring transpiration, and in conse: 


[JANUARY, 1909. 


| 
| 


January, 1909.1 29 


quence through the circulation of the 
sap the absorption of moisture from the 
ground. The rootof the tree should be 
in favourable soil with easy access to 
running water. 


We find the coconut tree flourishes 
into an average rainfall of 80 inches as 
in the Negombo district, and of about 
50 inches as in the Puttalam district, but 
if the occasional torrential downpours 
which go tomake up the total of 80 
inches in the Negombo district are 
allowed for, the average would be about 
50 inches—even 40 inches are not too low. 
It is necessary to avoid the extreme and 
prolonged saturation of the soil by 
drainage, when necessary, and the ex- 
treme dryage of the soil by tillage and 
mulching and also to increase the vigour 
of the trees by fertilizers to enable the 
roots to penetrate down in search of 
moisture when the surface supply is 
scanty in times of extreme drought. 


The drought this year has been excep- 
tionally severe. but when the land has 
been well tilled and mulchedI do not 
think any serious harm has been done. 
In the Negombo district I can only trace 
the present effect of the drought in the 
thinness of the kernel we have been 
desiccating lately. Where the coconut 
roots have had access to water I do not 
anticipate any shortage of crop three 
years hence, but quite the contrary. 


If owners of coconut gardens would 
even till their lands well (by ploughing 
or turning on the soil toa depth of 5 or 6 
inches) and spread coconut fibre refuse— 
a cheap and satisfactory mulch to be 
had for the cost of transport—or use 
some other mulchy substitute, they will 
not even suffer the loss of tender nuts 
dropping in consequence of any drought 
that may prevail. Mulching has this to 
recommend it, that it not only prevents 
rapid loss of the moisture in the soil by 
capillary attraction, and so conserving 
it for the use of the tree, but by obstruct- 
ing evaporation prevents the cooling 
down of the soil, which always requires 
to be warm for production of fruit 
blossoms. 


THE INDIAN TEA TRADE IN 1907-08. 


A PROSPEROUS YEAR. 

The following particulars are extracted 
from the *‘‘ Review of the Trade of India” 
in 1907-08 :— 

The Indian tea trade has enjoyed 
another prosperous year. The World's 
consumption has apparently caught up 
supply, and everything points to its 
increasing in the futurejat a correspond- 
ing ratio. The only ms 


Edible Products, 
DISQUIETING FEATURES 


of the year’s trading were the temporary 
inflation of values for lower grades of 
leaf, which have appreciated by 70 per 
cent. since 1906, at the expense of the 
better teas, and complaints of a general 
decline in quality; but the principal 
excuse for coarse plucking has been re- 
moved, now that tine market seems to 
have recovered its sense of proportion. 
In any event India could not hope to 
have benefited long by the extravagant 
rates for her poorer stuff, for they would 
have provoked the competition of the 
cheaper China tea and encouraged in- 
creased cultivation in Java. 


THE ADVANCE IN CONSUMPTION, 


which followed the reduction of the 
import duty in the United Kingdom to 
5d. per lb., has been maintained. In- 
ternal absorption is increasing and tea 
shops are now a common feature of many 
bazaars, particularly in Southern India; 
but it is in the expansion of the Con- 
tinental markets that the prospects of 
the Indian industry centre, and of these 
the Russian market in particular is 
showing remarkable development. The 
following table illustrates in the last 
three calendar years, compared with the 
year 1890, the astonishing growth in 
absorption of teas from India and Ceylon 
on the Continent :— 


1890 14,001,824 lbs. 
1905 129,881,250 ,, 
1906 oe ae 162,461,824 ,, 
1907 (estimated) ... 171,500,000 ., 


THE RUSSIAN MARKET 


is of particular interest and importance. 
Its development dates from the discovery 
that Indian dust gives a greater strength 
to ‘‘tablet” tea than Chinese. Indian 
tea reaches Russia not only by direct 
shipment, but also across the land 
frontier of India and by re-export from 
the United Kingdom, Germany and China. 
It has been estimated that Russia in the 
nine months ending September 30th, 1907, 
absorbed 30,542,081 lbs. of Indian and 
Ceylon teas as compared with 24,566,329 
lbs. for the same nine months of the 
previous year. These figures exclude 
imports of brick tea from China, in which 
Indian dust has been blended, estimated 
at 8,000,000, lbs. in 1907 or proportionately 
6,000,000 lbs. for the period January- 
September. Indiais encouraged to direct 
importaion into Russia by the pre- 
ferential duty on her tea and that of 
Ceylon carried by the Trans-Siberian 
Railway, and it is announced in this 
connection that a double service of 
steamers will be established next season. 


Edible Products. 30 


BETWEEN CALCUTTA AND VALDIVOSTOCK 
TO SAVE TRANSHIPMENT AT COLOMBO. 


The duty on tea in Germany was reduced 
in 1906 to 14d. per lb., and this, aided by 
a vigorous medical campaign against 
beer and coffee, is likely to encourage 
imports. Holland and Belgium are two 
other promising markets. As regards the 


COMPETITION WITH CEYLON, 


it remains to be seen how far the intro- 
ducticn of rubber there will ultimately 
affect production, for the cultivation 
tends to oust tea from lower levels where 
the yield is generally greater than at 


[JANUARY, 1909. 


RESULTS OF IMPROVED PROSPECTS 


in the tea trade are illustrated by the 
appreciation of shares in the market. 
Mr. George Seton has calculated that the 
shares of 170 Tea Companies registered 
in London have enhanced in value from 
£14,400,000 to £21,600,000, or by no less 
than 50 per cent. between January, 1905, 
and November, 1907. China supplied half 
the requirements of the United Kingdom 
twenty years ago ; in 1907, the proportion 
had been reduced to six per cent. and is 
only sustained at that level by the com- 
petitive price for lower grades of Indian 
and Ceylon teas. Theimports of tea into 
the United Kingdom in 1907 were as 


higher altitudes. The follows :— 
1906. 1907. 
Million lbs. Per cent. Million lbs. Per cent 
India 183°8 57-2 171°4 54 
Ceylon 106'3 33'1 107°5 33°9 
China 13:2 4°] is 18-8 59 
Java 12°6 3°9 ee 9°1 2:9 


The consumption per capita in the United Kingdom in 1907 was 6'19 lbs. as 
compared with 6°18 lbs. in the previous year. 


The following figures shew the quantity and value of tea exported from 


India in the last five years :— 


Quantity 
lbs. 
1903-4 207,159,793 
1904-5 211,887,158 
1905-6 214,228,788 
1907-8 227,021,657 


Value. 

Ss. &. 
8,55,79,3827 = 5,705,288 
8,46,54,867 = 5,648,658 
8,84, 76,037 = 5,898,402 
9,85,77,642 = 6,571,843 

10,80,03,486 = 6,866,899 


The figures for 1906-7 represented a record both in quantity and value, but 


the progress in quantity was not maintained in 1907-08, when it declined b 


6°63 


million lbs. or 2°8 per cent., though the rise in value was of Rs. 44:26 lakhs (£295,000) 
or 4'5 per cent.—the increase in specific value being one of about 7°6 per cent. 

The quantities of tea exported to the principal countries in the last three 
years have been as follows in thousands of Ibs. :— 


1905-6. 1906-7. 1907-8. 
United Kingdom 166,591 176,170 Ai 169,325 
Canada rey 15,019 14,515 i 4,731 
Russia Me 9,988 13,761 15,407 
Australia tes ae 7,729 9,499 11,090 
Turkey in Asia ~ 3,048 3,101 3,504 
Ceylon sa 2,101 4,818 8,881 
China 3,076 4,820 7,502 
Persia oy, 1,102 929 455 1,578 
United States... 2,175 1,739 sof 2,086 
Other countries 2,900 4,302 2,919 


Though the figures for the United 
Kingdom tend proportionately to re- 
duce. as direct shipments take the 
place of consignments to London on 
optional bills of lading, her share of the 
total exports stands at 746 per cent. 
The expansion in the Ceylon. and China 
figures is due to Russian requirements, 
and the heavy decline in direct ship- 
ments to Canada should not be regarded 
as an index ofa contracting market. 
Russia and Australia have made marked 
advances, ‘Lhe figures to Australia were 


swelled by a replacement of the ship- 
ment of 750,000 Ibs. lost by fire on the 
ss. Fortunatus. 


Another feature of the year’s trade 
which should be noticed is the increase 
in volume of sales by auction in 


CALCUTTA IN PREFERENCE TO 
MINCING LANE. 


aud London has further suffered as the 
emporium of imports into the United 
Kingdom by the competition of lower 


JANUARY, 1909.] 


freights with Glasgow and Liverpool. 
About 73,200,000 lbs. were auctioned in 
Caleutta during the past season, of 
which only about 20,000,000 lbs. went to 
London, and of the balance Russia (direct 
and through China and Ceylon) absorbed 
27? millions and Australia 10? millions. 


Edible Products. 


The prices realised in Calcutta have 

shown a greater advance on those of the 

previous year than those in London, and 

several ot the London-Assam Companies 

have found it profitable to auction their 

Loner grades of tea here rather than at 
ome. 


PRICES AT AUCTION IN CALCUTTA. 


Pekoe Souchong, 


: Souchong, Pekoe Net 
Broken Pekoe. Pekoe. Fannings Average | Vari- 
and Congou. Price. ation. 

Price Vari- | Price. Vari- Price. Vari- 

as. ps. | ation. | as. ps, | ation.| as, ps. ation, as. p. 
1904-05 ..., 5 10 100 5 4 100 4 6 100 5 4 100 
1905-06...) 6 3 107 BS ic eps 97 Pee 2 93 5 5 100 
1906-07 ...| 6 8 114 5 7 105 4 i 102 By eas) 102 
1907-08 ...1 7 2 128 6 10 128 Giese 137 6 68 125 


The average price realised in 1907-08 in London was 8'21d. per lb. as compared 


with 811d. per lb. in 1906-07. 


In spite of the efforts of the Indian Tea Association, estimates of production 
eontinue under suspicion of great inaccuracy, and for this the planters must be 


held chiefly to blame. 


The crop in 1907 was generally considered to be better than 
that of the previous year, except in Bengal. 


The table below gives approximate 


figures of the area, production and lavd exports during the last five years, and the 
actual figures of exports by sea during the same period :— 


Area. Production, Exports (Ibs.) 

acres, Se By land: y sea. 
1903 526,611 209,041,888 679,616 204,123,723 
1904 524,472 221,565,631 744,352 211,395,940 
1905 528,004 221,712,407 760,256 210,798,056 
1906 529,246 241,403,510 942,256 235,815,697 
1907 ae 586,652 248,020, 998 865,648 235,422,376 

The export trade is practically confined TEA IN BURMA. 


to three ports, Calcutta shipping, 73°9 


per cent.; Chittagong, 189 per cent. 


(almost eatirely to the United Kingdom), » 


and Madras, 6-2 per cent. Five years 
ago Calcutta claimed 838 per cent. of the 
total. 


The Coast shipments were in the last 
two years :— 


1906-07. 1907-08. 


Ibs. ~ Ibs. 
3,298,495 3,380,385 
1,185,327 854,117 
The recorded exports of Green tea by 


sea and by land during the last three 
years were :— 


From Bengal 
», Hastern Bengal 
and Assam... 


lbs. 
1905-06 2,183,940 
1906-07 2,034, 3884 
1907-08 1,806,081 


—Indian Trade Journal, September 3rd, 


It will be interesting to tea planters 
to note some figures on tea drinking in 
Burma given in the seventh triennial 
report just issued on Burma’s trans- 
frontier trade. Taking the population 
of the province as at the last census, 
the quantity of tea consumed annually 
is about two pounds per head of popula- 
tion. The advance in the consumption 
of wet or pickled tea was 398,000 pounds. 
During the financial .year 1907-08 the 
quantity of pickled tea imported from 
the Northern Shan States was 16,359,878 
pounds, and dry tea 2,477,952 pounds, 
besides 1,389,000 pounds imported by sea. 
The wet or pickled tea is considered a 
luxury by the Burmans. The trade of 
the province is altogether in a very 
healthy condition. The total value of 
the inland foreign trade shows an in- 
crease of 376 lakhs, or 34°76 per cent, over 
the figures of the previous triennium. 
Ot this amount 164 lakhs represents the 
value of silver, and the remainder 


Edible Products. 


merchandise not including timber. Im- 
ports contributed 20°73 per cent. and 
exports 52°47 per cent. to the increase. 
Elephant stealing in the forests of Siam 
hampered the imports of teak timber, 
and the great murrain among cattle in 
Western China and the Shan States 
accounts for a heavy decline under that 
head, but the total trade for the official 
year 1907-08 amounted to 534 lakhs, an 
increase of 9°46 per cent.—Indian Agri- 
culturist, Vol. XX XIII., No. 9. 


MANIOC OR CASSAVA. 


By EDWIN B, CoPELAND. 
(Continued from p. 529.) 


CLIMATE AND SOIL. 


Manioc is essentially a tropical crop. 
Even the hardiest varieties are killed by 
any frost that kills tomatoes. As a 
result, growers in the United States 
must use the earliest varieties and 
harvest their crops in from seven to nine 
months after planting. The average 
yields with decent cultivation are not 
over five tons of roots per acre. This is 
as high a yield as c ould be counted on in 
the Philippines in the same time; in the 
variety thatis raised here, it is after 
this age is passed that the most rapid 
growth occurs. As the plant is repro- 
duced by stem cuttings, it is necessary 
ina country subject to frosts to bury 
the stems during the winter. This 
makes seed material somewhat expen- 
sive and of low vitality, so thata con- 
siderable percentage of the cuttings set 
out are likely not to live, and this in 
turn leaves vacant spots in the field and 
cuts down the yield. Itis only in lands 
nearer the equator, where the temper- 
ature is comparatively uniform and 
moderately high, that manioc can 
develop with its characteristic luxu- 
riance. An altitude of 3,000 feet is the 
upward limit of the common occurrence 
of manioc in Hawaii;inthe Philippines 
its culture for food can well be carried 
higher. 


Aside from the fact thatit must be 
warm, manioc is very modest in its 
demands upon the climate. To drought, 
the arch enemy of most cultivated 
plants, it is fairly immune. For the 
month or so after the cuttings are 
planted, they need as much rain as do 
most other plants at the same stage of 
growth, After this time, a moist 
temperature and occasional rain pro- 
mote a most thrifty growth and _ the 
succulence of the roots. Roots used for 
food have a better texture in wet seasons 
than in dry. Dry weather, however, 


| JANUARY, 1909. 


at least such dry weather as occurs in 
the Philippines, never kills manioc, and 
rarely, if ever, comes near stopping its 
growth. The typical insular climate, 
with a moderate amount of moisture in 
the air at all times, is most favourable 
formanioc. Never is it seriously injured 
by any drought occurring in these 
Islands, and it is likewise not hurt by 
heavy rainfall, unless it grows in heavy 
and undrained soil. 


As is true of all drought-resisting 
plants, manioc wants all the light it can 
get, and plants at all shaded or planted 
too close together must not be expected 
to be very productive. The ideal soil 
for manioc is rich, fairly deep, and open. 
Since very rich soils are often compact 
and heavy and undrained, and since its 
tolerance of drought makes it thrive 
better than most cultivated plants on 
sandy soils, these are in many places 
regarded as especially favourable to it. 
The roots do not endure standing water 
in the ground around them; low, heavy 
soils should therefore be drained or 
used for some other crop. When heavy 
soil is used in Jamaica, manioc is planted 
in raised ridges, and this is the general 
practice in the French West Indies. 
The harvesting of the roots will ob- 
viously be easier and more complete in 
light than in heavy soil. 


As to the demands of manioc on the 
food in the soil, there are two opposite 
opinions, some writers claiming that it 
is conspicuous among cultivated plants 
for the rapidity with which it exhausts 
the soil; others, that it is like other 
starchy crops in taking very little from 
the ground. The former view is 
supported by, and is probably due to, 
the fact that in the Straits Settlements, 
Africa, and to a great extent inSouth 
America, manioc is raised on forest 
clearings, which are used a few times 
and abandoned, When starch became a 
staple product of the Federated Malay 
States, a large amount of land was cut 
over in this way and then abandoned, 
with the result that the destruction 
of the forest was out of proportion to 
the permanent agricultural develop- 
ment. The Government met this diffi. 
culty by refusing to lease Jand for 
manioc cultivation unless some _per- 
manent crop, such as coconuts or rubber, 
are planted at the same time, and this 
regulation has been widely const:ued as 
evidence that manioc is a robber crop. 
But it is no peculiarity of manioc that 
it thrives best on virgin soil. Various 
Philippine crops, including upland rice, 
are raised according to exactly the 
same system, and one of the hardest 
problems in forest regulation here has 


JANUARY, 1909.] 


been the constant abandonment of 
plats of cultivated land and_ the making 
of new “caingins” or clearings for 
temporary use. Chemical analyses do 
not at all support the view that manioc 
isa hard crop'on the soil. . The total 
ash in the roots is commonly less than 
2 per cent. of the dry weight, and the 
nitrogen hardly more than 0° per cent. 
Manioce does use nitrogenin the forma- 
tion of hydrocyanic acid, beside in the 
Ways common to most plants, and 
may therefore exhaust this food dispro- 
portionately. This danger can be avoid- 
ed by raising a leguminous crop with 
the manioc or alternating withit. The 
most promising leguminous crop here is 
the mongo. Unless the soilis rich in 
lime, the addition of this cheap food will 
be good for both the mongo and manioc. 


ENEMIES. 


A scale in Africa causes yellow spots 
on the leaves and leaf-minor lives in 
them, but neither causes appreciable 
damage. The same is true of insects 
which occasionally gnaw them. Old 
roots left in the ground in the Philip- 
pines are often chambered or consumed 
by insects, but young or fresh roots are 
never attacked. 


Leaf-spot fungi occur in the Malay 
States, Africa, and, America, but no- 
where do appreciable damage. The only 
known serious disease of manioc is a 
leaf curlin East Africa, called by the 
natives ‘‘maratschi.” It is a communi- 
cable disease, but no micro-organism is 
known toecauseit. No variety of manioc 
is free from it. A Madagascar variety 
called Mpesazi, is the least generally 
attacked. A sound plant of this variety 
twelve months old may have 12 kilograms 
of rooots, but the average yield of 
thirteen plants with the leaf-curl was 
only 0°41 kilogram. 


No disease of manioe is known in 
the Philippines. Their most dangerous 
enemy here isthe hog. Wild hogs do 
considerable mischief when they get 
access to manioc, but they of course can 
be kept out by good fencing. 


CULTURE. 


Knowledge of what is really best in 
the culture of manioc is very limited, 
the plant never having received a frac- 
tion of the study which has been 
bestowed on all the important crops of 
temperate lands. On manioc we have 
for the most part only scattered observa- 
tions, and these are not always _ too 
reliable. In the equatorial belt, where 
manioc thrives best. the most usual 
treatment of it is the most complete 
neglect. The only attention it usually 
receives in the Philippines is sticking 

5 


38 Edible Products. 


the cuttings into the ground and digging 
out the roots; and in parts of India, 
Africa, and South America it receives 
no more care. The most careful study 
has been given it in Florida and Jamaica ; 
in the former all the conditions are very 
different from those here, and in thé 
latter the subject most studied has been 
the selection of varieties. 


Manioc is in practice always reproduc- 
ed by stem cuttings. Seeds are used in 
the Government work in the United 
States in attempts to secure new and 


-sweeter varieties, and in German Hast 


Africa in attempts to secure immunity 
from disease. So far as limited and 
unsatisfactory experiments show, the 
seedlings are likely to have sweeter 
roots than their parents. However, in 
Paraguay the seed of the sweet culti- 
vated varieties is said to be very 
unreliable and likely to produce poison- 
ous roots. The stems will grow if 
used as soon as cut and are presumably 
most vigorous then; but they have 
stood shipment from Jamaica to India, 
and in Paraguay have been kept alive 
through six months of hot weather, 
provided the epidermis was not bruised 
or broken and they were kept dry. 


Only sound stems of sound plants 
should be used. Cuttings 10 to 20 
centimeters. long will produce thrifty 
plants. Some writers advocate the use 
of longer ones, and it may be that their 
use where there is plenty of material for 
propagation will give the plants a 
stronger start. The cuttings are buried 
horizontally in some places, placed erect 
with the lower end in the ground in 
others, and planted obliquely in still 
others; they grow everywhere. The 
crop will perhaps be more easily har- 
vested if the cutting is not erect. If it 
is erect it is advisable to plant in the 
ground the original lower end, so that 
the polarity of the cutting will not have 
to be overcome when it begins to grow. 


Statements as to the proper distance 
between plants differ widely, and this 
depends of course upon the soil and 
climate, and upon the natural growth 
of the variety planted. - On good soil a 
distance of one meter in each direction 
can be recommended for the Philippine 
variety; this puts 10,000 plants on one 
hectare of even ground. If more room 
for cultivation in one direction is desired, 
the same stand can be obtained by putting 
the rows 125 centimeters apart and the 
cuttings 80 centimeters apart in the rows. 
A somewhat more ample spacing is better, 
if a short-lived catch crop is interplanted, 
Some writers condemn the use of any 
other crops with manioc, but it seems to 
me that if well chosen they have decided 


Edible Products. 34 


advantages. Theuse of cane in this way— 
as is practised, for instance, in Mauritius 
and Reunion—is distinctly bad from the 
standpoint of either plant, for they 
compete throughout their lives and reach 
their greatest development at the same 
time. Maize is used on a plantation in 
Basilan, and is harvested and out of the 
way before the manioc needs all the 
space. But if a catch crop is to be used, 
there is no reason why it should not be 
one which, like mongo or some other 
legume, will leave the soil actually 
bettered by its presence. There is at our 
door a market for mongos as human food, 
and there are various legumes which 
produce a fodder which could be mixed 
with the waste from the starch mill to 
make a well-balanced fodder for beasts. 


While, so far as I know, no comparative 
tests have been made, there is no doubt 
that thorough ploughing and harrowing 
have the same general effect on manioc 
that they have on other crops. In the 
case of manioc, hard ground not only 
prevents the proper growth and activity 
of the feeding roots, as it does for other 
crops as well, but it interferes directly 
also with the development of the part of 
the plant to be harvested. Even if the 
fleshy roots became as large in hard and 
uneven ground—-which they could not— 
they would still be less valuable, for it is 
much more difficult to clean and peel an 
irregular root than a stout, symmetrical 
one. Moreover, as has been seen, the 
bark and cortex are strong in hydrocyanic 
acid, while the starch is cunfined to the 
fleshy interior; therefore a stout and 
symmetrical root, having less surface in 
proportion to its bulk, will contain the 
least poison and the highest percentage 
of starch, while an irregular root or a 
very long one, such as may grow where 
the ground has been cracked, will be 
comparatively bitter and weak in 
starch. 


While ploughing is, in the abstract, 
desirable, we may as well recognize 
frankly that on freshly cleared tropical 
land it does not pay. The laborious 
removal of stumps and roots, work to 
which the native labour is not used, costs 
fully as. much here as in the United 
States; while if fresh growth is kept 
down, termites and the teeming organ- 
isms of decay will destroy almost every 
kind of wood completely within a year 
or so. The land can be ploughed for 
subsequent crops. Hand cultivation is 
cheap here, and can be made to give very 
good results. When manioc is planted on 

» unploughed land each cutting should be 
set into a spot of thoroughly worked 
ground 20 centimeters deep and at least 
30 centimeters in diameter. The plants 


[JANUARY, 1909, 


should be in rows, as regular as possible. 
Because of stumps a given area will take 
less plants than could be put into land 
well cultivated. 


If mongo is interplanted with manioc 
the two should be planted at the same 
time, so that the mongo may mature and 
be harvested before the manioc needs its 
room. It, as has already. been suggested, 
the rows of manioce be 125 centimeters 
apart and the cuttings 80 centimeters 
apart, two rows of mongo, themselves 30 
centimeters apart, can be planted between 
each two rows of manioc. The two crops 
will need but little more cultivation than 
should be given manioe alone. Whether 
or not the mongo is present, the land 
should be thoroughly cultivated not more 
than one month after planting, making 
the ground soft and fine, and killing all 
weeds—a weed is a plant of whatever 
kind which grows where it is not wanted, 
At this first cultivation itis advisable to 
hill the manioc slightly. 


Mongo needs cultivation twice within 
the first two months, while manioce 
might do with one, but will certainly 
grow better for the greater attention. 
After the mongo is removed the ground 
will still want to be cleaned and worked 
once. After the plants are four or four 
and half months old they take care of 
themselves. 


The roots areready to be used for 
human food at any time after they are 
five or six months old. Sometimes all 
the roots of a plant are taken at once, 
sometimes they are dug one at a time. 
In these young roots the percentage of 
sugar is probably as great as it ever 
becomes, but they are relatively weak 
in starch, and less woody than older 
ones. The roots of the Philippine varie- 
ties are probably best suited for direct 
use as human food when they are not 
more than nine months old, although we 
have seen succulent roots on plants said 
to be sixteen months old, from which 
other roots had been removed earlier. 
In Hawaii, two year-old roots are often 
hard and _ fibrous, containing little 
starch, One African variety is edible 
when six years old. For making meal 
or manutacturing starch the reots ecan- 
not profitably be gathered until they 
are well beyond the best age for direct 
use as human food; thus, in one African 
district they are eaten fresh when about 
nine months old, and not used until 
twelve to fourteen months old for 
making meal. In some parts of the 
Philippines the roots are said to be 
grated and eaten when three years or 
more old. 


(To be continued.) 


JANUARY, 1909.] 35 


THE FERMENTATION OF CACAO, 


By Oscar Lorw, Physiologist. 


(Concluded from page 534.) 


Since a moderate brown colour is also 
produced in white ‘‘nibs,” free of cacao 
red, it follows that the brown colouration 
is not due exclusively to a change of 
eacao red. If the production of the 
colour is due to an incomplete oxidation 
ot the tannin, then there will be less 
tannin found in the cured cacao than in 
the fresh cacao. This agrees, indeed, 
with some analytical determinations of 
J. B. Harrison, published by Hart. The 
fat content is assumed not to change 
during the curing process, and this is in 
all probability the case. The data com- 
piled under this condition are as follows 
for Calabacillo cacao :— 


ANALYSES OF CALABACILLO CACAO. 


1 : Fresh. Cured. 

Constituents. Panice “Pat ct. 
Fat Ans ee AO 255 29°25 
Tannin A ne 5°00 361 
Cacao red ... 2°95 1:39 
Theobromin sae 1°35 1:00 
Caffein oA ae ‘ 03 
Starch sg 3°76 Rae 
Glucose 0:99 0°60 
Hemicelluloses 5-11 3°74 
Woody fibre 3°03 2°78 
Protein 6°69 4°42 
Amido compounds 33 2°06 


A part of the changes brought about by 
curing is probably due to the action of 
the living cells in the seed, before they 
are killed by the rising temperature. 
This would account for the decrease of 
starch, glucose, and hemicellaloses, which. 
may be consumed by the respiration 
process, but the other changes are due to 
several enzyms. A _ proteolytic enzym 
brings on the decrease of protein and the 
corresponding increase of amido-com- 
pounds, while oxidizing enzyms, generally 
liberated from the protoplasm upon 
its death, cause the decrease of tannin 
and cacao red and their change to other 
compounds. The most conspicuous 
changes are, therefore, only possible after 

the death of the protoplasm which isa 
desirable factor, Hence, it is a mistaken 
idea of Zipperer that the changes are due 
to a germination process of seeds. He has 
even attributed the rise of temperature 
of the fermenting pulp cacao to this 
process, considering it analogous to the 
behaviour of barley on the malting floor, 
This error can only be explained by the 
fact that he has never witnessed the 
fermentations of cacao or coffee; for 
germination changes are not in the least 
apparent, 


Edible Products. 


Another result is the change of flavour. 
In the fresh state the seeds have a raw 
bitter, and astringent flavour, while after 
fermentation and drying the bitter and 
disagreeable taste has entirely disap- 
peared. This change is doubtless due in 
a certain measure to the decrease of 
tannin ; that is, to its change by oxida- 
tion to abrown substance, as inthe case 
of the persimmon fruits, mentioned 
above.* The flavour of the fermented 
beans is still far different from that of 
the prepared cacao product, which is 
produced by roasting the fermenting 
beans; hence a part of the taste must be 
due to changes caused by the heat of the 
roasting process. 


The presence of oxidizing enzyms in 
the seeds of cacao can be proved by the 
usual reaction. Upon moistening a 
freshly cut section of cacao seed with 
tincture of guaiacum resin, just after 
taking the seed from the ripe fruit, a 
blue colour is rapidly produced, first 
and most intensely in the chalaza of 
the embryo and gradually spreading 
over the entire seed tissue; also, the 
placenta shows soon an intense blue 
colour. Whena cross section through 
the whole fruit is moistened with 
guaiacum tincture, the chalaza of the 
embryo and the interior soft stratum of 
the fruit shell become rapidly and 
intensely blue, then follow in order the 
colouration of th2 convulsions of the 
cotyledons, of the seed and the tissue of 
the hard outer shell. Finally, the whole 
surface of the section of the seed and 
exposed tissue of the testa become blue ; 
but the slime tissue or pulp around the 
testa remains perfectly colourless, 
presenting a most striking contrast. 


If the tissue of the seed is crushed 
with some water in a mortar, the filtered 
liquid will show no blue colouration on 
addition of guaiacum tincture and shak- 
ing with air, while the unfiltered liquid 
will become blue very soon. This shows 
an exceptional case, namely, that the 
oxidase (laccase) is present in an inso- 
luble state and perhaps held in combi- 
nation with an _ insoluble  protein.t 
Upon standing the blue colour, obtained 
with the unfiltered liquid, will gradu- 
ally disappear, except on the surface, 
but on adding afew more drops of the 
reagent and shaking, the intense blue 
colour reappears. This phenomenon is 
due to the presence of a reducing com- 
pound in the juice. 


*The opinion of Harrison mentioned above 
that the decrease of the astringent taste is 
dueto a hydrolysis is erroneous and would be 
without analogy. 


_ {This recalls the existence of a soluble and 
insoluble form of catalase, 


Edible Products. 86 


In testing for a second oxidizing 
enzym, the peroxidase, the tissue of the 
seed, crushed witha little water, was 
heated for five minutes to 75° C, and one 
portion of this liquid was filtered, the 
other not. The test with guaiacum 
tincture yielded no blue reaction in 
either liquid, proving that the oxidase 
was killed, while on addition of a little 
paroxid of hydrogen the unfiltered juice 
gave an intense blue reaction and the 
filtered juice showed only a trace. This 
difference proves that the peroxidase, 
like the oxidase, was present, but 
retained as an insoluble compound—an 
exceptional case. 


Reactions with guaiacol were also 
tried, This substance produced no 
coloration when applied by itself, but 
in conjunction with hydrogen peroxid a 
red colour turning to brown was soon 
produced in both the hard as well as 
the soft layer of the fruit shell. Later, 
in the testa and the; seed in general, as 
well asin the slime tissue covering the 
testa, only a weak, reddish coloration 
was produced. This peroxidase reaction 
agrees also with that just mentioned, 
in so far as the slime tissue gave only an 
exceptionally weak reaction compared 
with all other parts of the fruit. The 
slime tissue of the coffee fruit is also 
poorer in oxidase and peroxidase than 
the other tissues. 


The further generation of the charac- 
teristic aroma of cacao is of great im- 
portance. Is this process due to the 
action of an oxidizing enzym or to that 
of a hydrolizing enzym, and does the 
fermentation influence the generation 
of aroma only indirectly by the develop- 
ment of heat or directly by furnishing 
some compound? Or, is the roasting of 
the fermented cacao beans alone res- 
ponsible for the aroma? The investiga- 
tions thus far made do not solve this 
problem satisfactorily. It may be men- 
tioned, however, that Hart agrees with 
Chittenden, .who declared that after a 
certain stage of the fermentation ‘‘ the 
cotyledons are found separated and the 
vinous liquor of the pulp, which passes 
through the membranous covering, 
occupies this space as well as the cavities 
between the convolutions. unis ee Eis 
it is which hasso marked a physiological 
influence and affects its flavour, the bean 
being, as may be said, ‘stewed in its own 
juice.’” 


According to the laws of osmosis some 
acetic acid aud some alcohol from the 
fermenting liquor will doubtless enter 
through the testa and come in contact 
with the cotyledons, which thereby may 
be killed, if the temperature of the 
fermenting mass has not already accom- 


(JANUARY, 1909, 


plished this. The reaction of the cotyle- 
dons after drying the fermented beans 
is acid, but whether thisis wholly due 
to the entering acetic acid may be doubt- 
ful, since the reaction is weakly acid in 
the fresh state. A stronger acid reaction 
is shown by the slime tissue. 


The expression ‘‘stewed in its own 
juice” used by Chittenden can hardly 
be admitted, since the juice of the pulp, 
after being entirely decomposed by 
yeast and bacteria, is certainly not the 
‘‘own juice” of the cotyledons. Still, 
that author attributes to it the gener- 
ation of the flavour. 


The opinion of J. B. Harrison that the 
decrease of tannin during the fermenta- 
tion process stands in relation to the 
development of aromais certainly far 
from the mark, as tannin cannot 
produce ethereal oils by an oxidation or 
fermenting process. Only colour and 
taste stand in this relation to the tannin 
content. 


Several experiments were made by 
the writer with an aqueous solution of 
1to4 per cent. acetic acid containing 
from 8 to 5 per cent. of alcohol in order 
to imitate the composition of the 
fermenting pulp juice. After twenty to 
thirty hours’ digestion of pulped cacao 
at 40° to 45°C. it was observed that the 
pulp had died and shrunk to skinny 
masses, partly separating in small 
pieces, but mostly still firmly adhering 
to the testa. It appears that for bring- 
ing about an easy separation of the dead 
pulp from the testa a bacterial enzym is 
necessary, as in the case of coftee 
fermentation. It was further observed 
that the amount of acetic acid, which 
entered by osmosis through the testa to 
the coytyledons, was not sufficient ‘to 
kill the oxidizing enzym, since the 
freshly cut surface of these seeds rapidly 
turned brown on exposure to the air. 
On the other hand, it was observel that 
when the freshly cut surface of the 
seeds so treated was moistened with 4 
per cent. acetic avid no further change 
by oxidatiou took place. In this case 
the oxidizing enzym was killed. 


Itis stated by Hart that ‘‘ of late years 
there has been a large amount of inquiry 
for cacao which is but slightly fermented 
or not fermented at all.” This renders 
it very probable that the decomposed 
juice of the slime tissue is not required 
for the generation of the aroma as was 
supposed. Indeed, the true aroma of 
cacao is faint before roasting the fer- 
mented beans. The case is, therefore, 
similar to that of coffee, and is different 
from that of tea. With tea the aroma 
is the result of the action of ahydrolizing 
enzym, yielding the volatile tea oil, as 
was shown by Katayama. itt: 


we 


January, 1909.) 


That the aroma of the cacao is chiefly 
produced during the gentle roasting 
process is the opinion of manufacturers 
of chocolate from the fermented beans. 
The fermentation seems, indeed, to have 
nothing at all to do with the production 
of aroma. Seeds simply dried in the 
sun and then gently roasted may yield 
an especially rich and aromatic chocolate, 
as Safford* has also indicated. Hart 
says: 

No adulteration ~ * * isequal tothe 
flavour of the virgin cacao, provided the 
essential oil has not been destroyed dur- 
ing the process of roasting, during which 
process it appears to be developed.t 


The question now arises, which com- 
pound yields the aroma in the cautious 
roasting of the fermented cacao beans ? 
It is certainly not.a glucosid, for neither 
the testa nor the cotyledons of the beans 
develop anything like a cacao flavour 
upon being boiled for some time with 
dilute sulphuric acid (8 to6 per cent). 
The same negative result was obtained 
by boiling those materials with moder- 
ately concentrated solution of caustic 
potash. It seems probable that it is a 
certain concomitant of the fat which 
causes the production of the flavour, 
after being moderately oxidized during 
the drying of the beans. Only seeds 
which the oxidizing enzyms have pro- 
duced changes can yield the true aroma 
by roasting, not the fresh beans.} 


In the manufacture of the cacao 
powder of commerce the fat of the 
cacao is removed more or less, since a 
suitable powder cannot otherwise be 
obtained, but in the direct manufacture 
of chocolate this removal of the cacao fat 
cannct be justified. Itis claimed that 
cacao fat or cacao butter is difficult 
of digestion, but in reality cacao butter 
is as easily digestible as cow's butter. 
Besides, the removal of fat also diminishes 
the aroma of the chocolate. In _ the 
manufacture of chocolate in Porto Rico, 
fermented cacao seeds are placed in a 
small baker’s oven for about one hour, 
until the testa have become very brittle 


* Compare the quotation in the introductory 
remarks to this article. 

+ These words contradict his other opinion, 
however, quoted above in regard to the in- 
fluence of fermentation on aroma. 


+ Fresh beans were crushed, washed with 
alcohol, and extracted with either. Neither the 
extracted fat nor the seed powder developed on 
moderate heating any flavour resembling that 
of cacao; only the alcohol extract yielded thus 
avery faint flavourof cacao. On evaporation of 
the alcoholic extract another aromatic odour is 
noticed. 


Edible Products. 


and can be easily removed. This roast- 
ing temperature is kept considerably 
lower than that required for baking 
bread. The cacao butter is not removed 
in Porto Rico, and therefore the chocolate 
manufactured there has an exquisitely 
fine aroma, 


SUMMARY. 


_ The fermentation process itself is due 
in the first place to yeast cells which 
multiply rapidly in the saccharine juice 
oozing fromthe pulped cacao and produce 
alcohol and carbon dioxid. In the second 
place bacteria participate, which develop 
rapidly after a certain time, and change 
the alcohol formed by the yeast by 
oxidation, either wholly or partly, into 
acetic acid. These processes cause a 
rise of temperature and the death of 
the cells of the seed and slime tissue, 
whereupon the juice of the slime tissue, 
more or less altered, collects at the 
bottom of the receptacles, together with 
the acetic acid produced. 


The chief object of the fermentation is 
to shrink the slime tissue or pulpat- 
tached to the testa of the seed, allowing 
the remnants either to be washed away, 
as is doue in Ceylon, or dried upon 
the seed forming an irregular brown 
film upon the testa. The advantage of 
thus changing the voluminous slime 
tissue lies in the increased facility of 
quickly drying the seed. In this regard 
there exists a close analogy to the 
fermentation of coffee. The loosening 
of the adhesion between seed and its 
envelope and the hardening of this 
envelope (testa) are claimed as further 
effects of fermentation. 


_ The fermentation has also an indirect 
influence on changes going on within the 
seed, inasmuch as by the temperature 
produced (40° to 50° C.) the cells of the 
seed are killed, thus liberating the oxi- 
dizing enzyms, which cause the forma- 
tion of the brown colour, by oxidation 
of the tannin of the seed. This brown 
colouration is increased during the 
drying process and finally by the 
roasting. ; 


The taste of the raw cacao bean is 
not only altered by the partial oxidation 
of tannin during the fermentation or 
sundrying of the seed, but also by 
products of roasting. 


The action of oxidising enzyms, as 
well as the final roasting process, play 
a part in the development of the aroma, 
—Porto Rico Agricultural Experiment 
Station. For 1907. Issued May 4th, 


ry 


Edible Products. 
A. B. C. OF LIME CULTIVATION, 


(Continued from page 538.) 


CROPS. 


Generally speaking, the main flower- 
ing period of the lime is from February 
to June. Inthe rainy season, extending 
from June to December, a week of fine 
weather will often cause the lime trees 
to put out afew clusters of flowers, and 
it is from these minor flushes thata few 
fruits are procurable all the year round. 
The main-crop season extends, as a 
general rule, from June to December. 
Whether the main crop is early or late, 
whether the bulk of the crop ripens in a 
short period, say, from six to eight 
weeks, or is prolonged over several 
months, or whether there is an early 
crop in July and August followed by a 
distinct second crop in November and 
December, depends chiefly on the local 
weather conditions and on the vigour of 
the trees. 


Accurate observations of the length of 
time from flowering to the maturity of 
the lime fruit do not appear to have 
been made, but itis usually placed at 
five months. It depends upon the local 
climatic conditions and upon the vigour 
of the trees. 


The yield per acre of fully established 
lime estates varies greatly. Good estate 
cultivation should produce from 150 to 
160 barrels of fruit per acre annually, 
but there ismuch cultivation that does 
not yield higher than from 80 to 100 
barrels of fruit per acre. A barrel of 
limes gives from 73 to 8 gallons of juice, 
but the acidity of the juice varies 
according to the rainfall. An estate 
with a low rainfall may average 14 oz, 
citric acid per gallon of juice, while 
another with a higher rainfall may 
average 120z. In the very wet districts 
in the hills the acidity is as low as 10 oz. 
per gallon, 


The yield per acre of a lime plantation 
is sometimes expressed in barrels of fruit 
and sometimes in hogsheads of concen- 
trated juice. Neither conveys much 
meaning unless accompanied by the 
acidity of the raw or concentrated juice. 
It: would be better expressed as pounds 
of citric acid contained inthe concen- 
trated juice, for it is evident that a 
return of 200 barrels of lime per acre 
viving juice testing 14 oz. per gallon is 
very different to the same return per 
acre in barrels giving juice testing 10 oz. 
per gallon. Similarly with concentrated 
juice, some estates concentrate to 100 


[JANUARY, 1909, 


oz. per gallon, others to 120 or 1380, and a 
few to 140 to 150 oz. It will be seen that 
there is a wide difference between hogs- 
heads of concentrated juice testing 100 
oz. per gallon and others testing 140 oz. 


About eight-ninths of the lime juice 
produced in Dominica is concentrated 
for sale to citric acid makers ard to 
cotton bleachers. The remaining one- 
ninth is exported as raw lime juice for 
making cordial. The establishment of a 
citric factory in Dominica will tend 
probably to reduce somewhat the pro- 
portion of concentrated juice, for this 
factory takes the juice after the 
essential oil has been expressed and 
before concentration in the usual course 
is begun. 


The standard at which concentrated 
lime juice is sold is a pipe of 108 gallons 
testing 64 oz. to the gallon. Its equi- 
valent is a 52-gallon hogshead, the pack- 
age used in the West Indies testing 
133 oz, to the gallon. 


Limes, when ripe, fall from the tree, 
and are collected from the ground by 
women and children into heaps. The 
usual price paid for collecting the lime 
is at the rate of 8d. per barrel, but this 
rate is increased when they have to be 
carried for long distances. 


——————— 


The fruits are then put into carts and 
taken to the mill house for the extrac- 
tion of the juice. 


MACHINERY REQUIRED, FURL, ETc. 


Many of the old three-roller sugar 
mills placed in position when sugar was 
the staple crop are still in use to-day 
for crushing limes. The sugar mill with 
iron rollers adjusted to crush limes has 
answered admirably where the lime 
juice is concentrated. These are usually 
driven by water power on large estates, 
and in some instances by cattle. On 
small estates, mills worked by hand 
power are in use. 


a a 


Ee ee eee 


The machinery required for dealing 
with lime juice consists of a three-roller 
mill (iron rollers may be used where the 
juice is concentrated, but they should be 
of granite when raw juice is prepared 
for shipment for making cordial) driven 
by steam, water, or cattle; a press for 
extracting any juice that may be left in 
the skins after passing through the mill; 
storage vats; a copper still; three copper 
taychesin which to boil the juice; and 
coolers, 


Tron rollers should be washed down. 
after use to prevent the acid eating into 
the iron, and when raw juice is exported 
for making cordial, the juice should be 
run to the settling vats through earhten- 


JANUARY, 1909.} . 39 


ware pipes. It should not be allowed to 
come in contact with metal. 


Works should be arranged so that the 
mill house is on higher ground than the 
boiling house. The juice on leaving the 
mill then runs by gravitation to the 
storage vats, from the vats to the still 
and from the still to the copper tayches 
where it is concentrated. It is then 
placed in wooden or copper coolers, and 
is finally run into hogsheads for ship- 
ment. 


Concentration of lime juice in copper 
or wooden vessels fitted with steam coils 
has been recommended, and would no 
doubt be an improvement on the present 
system. Itis not now likely that any 
great effort will be made to improve the 
present system of concentrating juice, 
as the manufacture of concentrated juice 
may subsequently be superseded by the 
manufacture of citrate of lime. 


The Dominica Planters’ Association 
when furnishing information for the 
revision of the pamphlet entitled Hints 
to Intending Settlers, Dominica, wrote 
that ‘for lime cuitivation a mill, mill 
house, two tayches, battery, and boiling 
house large enough for adequate storage 
room would cost about £3800.” The 
above estimate includes a small copper 
still. 


The detailed estimate is as follows :— 


oe 

1 Copper tayche (£0 gallons) ... 25 
1 ” Se COUW, Gina) bates «OO 
Handmill ... Nee ane 30 
Vats ve we si. 10 
Still (80 gallons) a a 80 
Building ... see 2 ee ZO 
Total ... £3805 


The above is the minimum for a begin- 
ner. Later, as the crop increases, the 
works would need enlargement, and a 
copper still and three tayches of a larger 
size would be required. 


The above plant could deal satis- 
factorily with the crop produced from 
10 to 12 acres, but would after about 
the first two crops be quite insufficient 
to deal with the produce of 50 to 60 
acres. 


The Hon. J. C, Macintyre states that 
the requirements of a plantation of 50 
to 60 acres, turning out from 100-129 


Edible Products. 


hogshead would be as follows :— 


& 
Three-roller horizontal mill (rollers 
2 feet 6inches by 18-20 inches) say 300 
Power plant for same and installa- 


tion (5 H. P. oil engine) ee 150 
Two storage tanks of 1,000 gallons 
_ capacity : 20 


Copper still 00 gallons) with cop- 
per cap and pewter worm Xo. |, B00 

Three copper tayches (120, 150 an 
200 gallons) ... oe sia 

Buildings (boiling house, mill 
house, and storage room) to- 
gether with erection ... Bee 600 


Total” “2 £1,520 


In many of the West India Islands, old 
sugar millscan be bought at very much 
less than the original cost, and the out- 
lay may thus be reduced. 


Most of the machinery on lime planta- 
tions in Dominica is driven by water 
power, but it is doubtful whether this 
source of power will be made use of 
on new plantations, except on those 
that are particularly favourably situated 
for its installation. In most situ- 
ations, the cost of building an aqueduct 
would be considerable, and the cost of 
even a moderate-sized wheel would cer- 
tainly be greater than for an oil engine 
or equal horse-power. 


It is thought that when circumstances 
are favourable, a Pelton wheel would 
probably be the cheapest form of power, 
both in cost of installation and in cost 
of running. 


For boiling down the juice very con- 
siderable quantities of fuel are required. 
It takes from one cord to 23 cords of 
wood (according to the quality of the 
fuel and the degree of concentration of 
the juice) to boil down sufficient juice to 
filla hogshead. On some estates fuel is 
very scarce and costs from 8s. to 10s. a 
eord. On others, wood is plentiful and 
costs from 38s. to 4s. a cord. 


When concentrated juice is selling at 
normal prices, that is, from £12 to £12 
10s. per hogshead testing 133 oz. to the 
gallon, the cost of fuel together with the 
cost of the packages and the high freight 
that has to be paid on liquid produce 
have to be seriously considered. The 
industry under such conditions cannot 
be said to be a particularly attractive 
one. At present prices are high and 
may remain so for several years. 


On estates where fuel is scarce, it has 
been recommended that several pieces 
of quick-growing eucalyptus might be 
planted in odd corners of the estates. 


Edible Products. 


These grow rapidly and ratoon well 
when cut. Once established, they 
would bear being cut over every two or 
three years, while native trees that 
have been cut down are not ready for 
cutting again for at least ten years. 


The fuel question is an important one 
in the manufacture of concentrated juice, 
and even if citrate of lime supersedes it, 
the fuel question will remain. To make 
citrate of lime, and todry it, will require 
as much, probably more, fuel than the 
present system of concentrating juice. 


LIME PRODUCTS. 
FRvITS : GREEN LIMEs. 


The early shipments of green limes 
from Dominica were made during 1891, 
when 99 barrels of fruit were shipped. 
From this small beginning, the present 
considerable business in green limes 
with New York and London has been 
developed. The export of this fruit 
during 1907 was 18,311 barrels, valued at 
£6,409. 


The American market demands a 
small fruit packed in well ventilated 
barrels, and the London market a large 
fruit packed in small crates of a capa- 
city of one cubic foot. A barrel holds 
from 1,400 to 1,600 fruits varying accord- 
ing to the size of the limes, and a crate 
from 200 to 240. 


Green limes are picked from the trees, 
and are allowed to quail for several days 
before they are packed. The lime, how- 
ever, does not apparently require the 
same degree of quailing as the orange 
does to ensure its arrival on the market 
in good order. Each fruit must be wrap- 
ped in paper, and should be very _care- 
fully packed, Very great care is_re- 
quired in gathering, handling, wrapping, 
and packing, to ensure the best results. 

The lime is used for the same .purposes 
asthe lemon. It iscertainly displacing 
the lemon, to a considerable extent, in 
the United States. 


PIicKLED LIMES. 


In Dominica a small business is done 
in shipping limes pickled in sea water. 


These limes gochiefly to Boston. The 
trade is only a small one, and during late 
years the export of pickled limes has 
fallen off somewhat. This is probably 
not due to a decreasing demand for 
pickled limes, but rather to increasing 
shipments of this product from other 
West India Islands. The average annual 
export of pickled limes from Dominica 
for the five-year period ending 1896, was 
1.505 casks, for a similar period ending 
1901, 1,117 casks, and for five years 
ending 1906, 1,000 casks. A cask holds 


about 2,000 limes, 


40 


(JANUARY, 1909. 


For pickling, the finest specimens of 
sound yellow limes are selected and 
placed in vats into which sea-water is 
pumped. 


In two or three days, this water is run 
off and fresh sea-water pumped in. This 
process is repeated several times until 
the limes are cured. The fruit is then 
placed in casks which are in turn filled 
with sea-water to which a small amount 
of salt has been added. The casks are 
then closed, and are ready for export. 


Raw LIME JUICE. 


Lime juice intended for making cor- 
dials and for flavouring confections 
requires very caretul preparation. 


The limes should be washed before 
being crushed in mills fitted with granite 
rollers. Only the first juice obtained 
by lightly crushing the fruit through 
the first rollers is used. The second 
juice and the press juice which are 
weaker in acid are used for concentra- 
ting. 


The first mill juice is carefully strained 
and placed into puncheons when quite 
fresh. Formerly it was run into vats, 
and after settling the clear juice was 
placed in puncheons or hogsheads for 
export. 


It is wellknown that raw juice care- 
fully strained and placed in packages 
when quite fresh will keepin good con- 
dition tor a considerable time, but if lime 
juice is exposed to the air it will gra- 
dually lose its acidity. 


The raw juice trade is in the hands of 
two or three firms and _ probably dif- 
ferent methods are employed in each 
case. 


CONCENTRATED LIME JUICE. 


Limes are grown chiefly for the pro- 
duction of citric acid only a small pro- 
portion of the total crop being used for 
lime juice cordials and for the green 
lime trade. In the West Indies the juice 
is concentrated in order to reduce bulk 
before shipment to the citric acid 
makers. 


It is usual to reduce by boiling 600 gal- 
lons of lime juice to 50 gallons of the 
concentrated product. Some estates, 
however, concentrate 10 to 1, others at 
9 to 1, instead of 12 tol. Mven with low 
concentration there is a considerable 
loss of acid. When concentration is 
carried on to 180 and 140 oz. to the gallon, 
the loss of acid is very great, 


Planters can now test their own lime 
juice in the bci.ing house and thereby 
suve a considerable destruction of citric 
acid during concentration, by means of 


eee ee, eee 


JANUARY, 1909.] 


a citrometer or an ordinary specific 
gravity hydrometer, A description 0 
a scale prepared by Dr. Francis Watts 
for use in ascertaining the strengths of 
solutions of citric acid and of lime juice 
by means of a hydrometer will be found 
in the West Indian Bulletin (Vol. V, pp. 
236-40), while a similar hydrometer 
method is described in the Agricultural 
News (Vol. VI, p. 149.) The following 
extracts are taken from these articles :— 


‘In preparing concentrated lime juice 
the concentration should be carried on 
until a citrometer floating in the hot 
juice (at boiling heat) indicates a density 
of 60° 


‘Asthe citrometer is an instrument 
but little known, difficulty has at times 
been experienced in procuring it. Its 
use, however, can be dispensed with, 
and anordinary specific gravity hydro- 
meter the nature of which is universally 
understood, can be substituted, by 
making use of the fact that 60° on the 
citrometer is equivalent to 1°243 on a 
specific gravity hydrometer. 


‘In this connexion the following scale 
may be useful :—- 


50, citrometer 1°202 sp. gr. 


51. >” = 1 207 93 be) 
52o Pr) = 1211 3? 9? 
580 29 oa 1°215 ” 99 
54, 99 = 1°219 3” 99 
55° 3A = 1°2238 ot, mess 
56° 0 = 1:227 ee 
57° ” =a e235) 33 29 
58° 99 = 1 285 99 29 
59° A = 1°239 she ts 
60° - = 1:248 alesWine> 
61° Ae = 1:248 Taney, 
62° ” = 1°256 29 ” 
63° a = 1:260 ae pes 


‘Suitable specific gravity hydrometers 
graduated from 1°200 to 1°300 specific 
gravity ean be obtained from makers of 
scientific instruments at a cost of about 
2s. each.’ 


Lime juice for concentration should, 
when leaving the mill, be carefully 
strained in order to remove all the seeds, 
before it is run into vats. From the 
vats it isrun into the still to obtain the 
oil, and afterwards to the tachyes to be 
concentrated. 


It has lately been shown (West Indian 
Bulletin, Vol. VIII, p. 171) that lime 
juice, carefully strained, and then settled 
after distillation has obtained a special 
market, and commands higher prices 
than ordinary concentrated juice. 
Every effort, therefore, should be made 
by planters to ship a high-class product, 

6 


Edible Products. 


The juice is shipped to New York or 
London in hogsheads of 52 gallons, 
where it is tested and paid for according 
to the citric acid contents. 


Buyers in London and New York pay 
for citric acid, and not for impurities in 
the juice. The presence of the latter 
causes great trouble to manufacturers 
of citric acid, and tends to bring prices 
down. Lime juice shouid therefore 
never be concentrated in iron tayches, 
as the iron combines with it and lowers 
the value of the product. 


Concentrated juice testing 100 to 105 
oz. per gallon made of well strained and 
carefully settled lime juice is a black 
and heavy, but not a dense, liquid. 
When no care is taken to strain or settle 
the juice, the product is black, and as 
thick as molasses at the same degree of 
concentration. 


CITRATE OF LIME. 


In the manufacture of citrate of lime, 
the juice on leaving the mill is carefully 
strained, then distilled to obtain the 
oil, and afterwards while still hot, it is 
run into a wooden vat to be neutralized 
with chalk. Before running into the 
mixing vat, it would be an improve- 
ment if the hot juice were passed 
through filter bags. (West Indian Bul- 
letin, Vol. VIII, p. 167). At present 
lavigated chalk is imported, but it is 
hoped later to use mainly lime made 
locally from coral. It is generally stated 
that the process of neutralization should 
be finished with chalk, but one authority 
has said that finishing with lime, even 
when chalk has been used to start with, 
is to be recommended as there is thereby 
asaving of time and a clearer indication 
isobtained. Neutralizing vats are fitted 
with perforated steam coils in order to 
keep the juice hot, and toactas agitators 
during the time chalk is being added, 
during the washing process, and until 
the citrate is finally run into the filter 
bags. They must be large enough to 
prevent loss from overflow by the foam- 
ing effervescence which takes place when 
ehalk is added. 


Dr. Watts writing on this matter 
says :— 

‘A sufficient quantity of chalk is made 
into acream with water and the mixture 
poured cautiously into the juice with 
constant stirring, proceeding cautiously 
as the acid is neutralised. To ascertain 
how much chalk is to be used it is best 
to proceed as follows: When the greater 
part of the chalk has been added, the 
mixture is well stitred and the efferve- 
scence is allowed to subside; a small 
quantity is then taken out and tested 
by the addition of a little of the mixture 


.Edible Products. 42 


of chalk and water; if this produces 
an effervescence, more chalk must be 
added to the main quantity, proceeding 
cautiously and testing intervals, until 
no effervescence is produced. A further 
test is now made—a little of the mixture 
is withdrawn and heated; as soon as 
bubbles of gas cease to be given off, 
a few drops of acid (fresh lime juice 
will answer) are added. This will pro- 
duce a slight effervescence if chalk has 
been added in right amount, and a brisk 
effervescence if too much has been used. 
In the latter case, more juice must be 
added to the mixture and the process 
of testing repeated.’ 


If you add too little chalk to your 
lime juice, you lose someacid. Ifyou 
add too much, it gives the manufacturer 
trouble by wasting his sulphuric acid. 
The buyers of citrate of lime have 
determined to. penalize anything con- 
taining an excess of over 2 per cent. 
of chalk. 


After neutralization, the citrate is 
allowed to subside, and the mother 
liquor is run off through a tap fitted 
in the side of the vat. Hot water is 
then run in and steam turned on to 
thoroughly wash the citrate. The wash- 
ing should be repeated several times, 
the citrate being allowed to subside and 
the water run off between each washing. 
Finally it is agitated and run through 
a lower cap into the filter bags to drain. 
Afterwards, it is placed in a press to 
extract as much moisture as possible, 
and then at once conveyed to the drier. 


Recent experiments by Dr. Watts 
show that the use of centrifugals is to 
be recommended for removing the water 
from citrate in place of the press. 
Citrate can conveniently be washed with 
a small quantity of hot water while 
in the centrifugals, and when the mois- 
ture has been removed by them, it can 
be dried, in a much shorter time. 


When thoroughly dried, it should be 
placed in aroom to cool before being 
tightly packed in barrels, hogsheads, 
or puncheons for export. It is very im- 
portant thatthe citrate be thoroughly 
dried. If this is not done, much acid 
may be lost. 


Citrate of lime when prepared in the 
above manner is a white powder and 
should contain about 64 per cent. of 
citric acid. 


Citrate of limeis twice as bulky as 
concentrated lime juice, but it is not 
expected that freight on citrate will be 
higher than on concentrated juice, as 
shipping companies give a preference to 
the dry over the liquid produce, 


wy 
Ey 


JANUARY, 1909. 


_ The manufacture of citrate in Dominica 
is as yet only in the experiment stage. 
Probably many improvements will be 
made in the process as time goes on. 


At present the great requirement is a 
drying machine that will dry citrate in 
a few hours without any loss of acid. 
The driers chiefly in use now are modelled 
on the cacao drier described in the 
West Indian Bulletin (Vol. II, p. 178). 
The process inthis class of drier takes 
too long. and the consumption of fuel is 
too great, for the most economical  pro- 
duction of citrate. If centrifugals were 
generally adopted and an improved 
drier brought in use, the manufacture of 
citrate of lime on large estates would be 
considerably simplified. 


(To be continued.) 


SWEET POTATOES. 
(Continued from p. 548.) 
BEDDING THE SEED. 


in the warmer portions of the sweet- 
potato-growing district the seed should 
be bedded when danger of frost has 
passed. In the northern portion of the 
area the seed should be placed in the 
hotbed from the 20th of March to the 
10th of April, after the temperature of 


the bed has fallen to 80° or 85° F. and ~~ 


become regular, 


If possible, select a warm, 
day for this work, in order that the 
seed potatoes and the bed may not 
become chilled. The soil to be used for 
covering the potatoes should be sifted 
beforehand and placed in piles in the 
bed, where it will have become warm 
and in good condition for use. Leaf 
mould is perhaps the best material with ° 
which to cover the potatoes, but where 
this cannot he obtained a fine, rich, 
sandy loam is the best substitute. 


Before placing the seed in the bed, an 
inch or more of the finely sifted covering 
material should he spread evenly over 
the surface of the regular soil in the 
bed, The potatoes are spread upon this 
bed, each one being placed by hand so 
that they will not touch, and about one- 
half of the bed surface is covered. If 
extra large potatoes are employed for 
seed they may be split lengthwise and 
placed with the cut side down in the 
bed. When the potatoes are in place, 
cover them to a depth of about 3 inches, 
water by using a sprinkling can, and 
then watch the temperature of the bed 
carefully until the potatees have formed 
an abundance of sprouts. 


sunuy 


mee 


JANUARY, 1909. | 


TEMPERATURE OL THE PLANT BEp. 


As noted above, the temperature of 
the plant bed should be about 80” or 85° F. 
at the time the seed is bedded, and 
should gradually fall until it remains 
stationary at 58° or 60° Ff. at the end of 
six weeks, or before planting-out time. 
A thermometer should be kept plunged 
in the soilof the bed and the temper- 
ature noted every day for the first ten 
days or two weeks. If the manure 
hotbed is not located ina well-drained 
situation there is danger of soil water 
getting in with the manure and either 
destroying the heat altogether or start- 
ing asecond fermentation which will 
cause the temperature to run too high 
and injure the potatoes. The air tem- 
perature beneath the sash or other 
covering should run between 60° and 
80° F., and during bright days it must 
be controlled by ventilation. As the 
time for planting in the field or garden 
draws near, the plants should be given 
more exposure to harden them _ to 
outdoor conditions. 


MOISTURE REQUIREMENTS OF THE 
PLANT BED. 


The amount of water required by the 
plant bed will depend somewhat upon 
the method of heating employed. With 
a steam-heated or furnace-heated bed 
more watering will be necessary than if 
the ordinary manure hotbed is used. 
The watering given when the potatoes 
are bedded will generally be sutficient 
to last for several days, but after the 
plants begin to form leaves and the 
cover is left off during the greater part 
of the day, watering will be necessary 
every day. The water should never be 
poured on in a solid stream, but by 
means of a sprinkling can or a rose, or 
nozzle, on the end of a hose. Where 
very large plant beds are employed it 
will be necessary to keep some one in 
almost constant attendance to care for 
the watering, heating, and ventilation. 
The success of the crop depends largely 
upon the character of the plants, and 
proper management of the plant bed is 
essential to the production of the right 
kinds of plants. 


“DRAWING” THE SETS. 


‘““ As a general rulesweet potato plants 
are set in the field shortly after a rain. 
In order to avoid delay in planting, the 
hands should begin to get out the 
sets as soonas the rain ceases falling 
and place them iu crates or baskets 
ready for transportation to the field. 
The sets are not all produced at once, 
and only those that have formed good 
roots are ‘drawn,’ the others being 
left until later. In‘ drawing’ the sets 
the seed potato is held down with the 


45 


Edible Products, 


one hand while the plants are removed 
with the thumb and finger of the other 
hand. It often happens that five or six 
plants will cling together at the base, 
and these should be separated in order 
to avoid loss of timein the field. Where 
plants are to be set with a transplanting 
machine it is essential that they should 
be in the best possible shape in order 
that they may be handled rapidly by 
the boys who feed the plants into the 
machine. The roots should all be kept 
in one direction, and if the tops are 
long orirregular they may be trimmed 
off even by means of a knife.” 


While ‘‘ drawing” the sets it is a good 
plan to have at hand a large pail or 
a tub containing water to which there 
has been added a quantity of clay and 
cow manure which has been stirred until 
it forms a thin slime. As the plants are 
pulled from the bed they are taken in 
small bunches and their roots dipped 
into this mixture. This process, termed 
*“puddling,” covers the roots with a 
coating which not only prevents their 
becoming dry in handling but ensures 
a direct contact with the soil when 
they are planted in the field or garden. 
After removing the sets that are ready, 
the bed should be watered to settle the 
soil where it has become disturbed and 
then left for the younger plants to 
develop. 


PACKING PLANTS FOR SHIPMENT. 


In preparing sweet potato plants for 
shipment or for sale, they are ‘“‘ drawn” 
from the bed and tied in bunches of 100 
each with soft string. Sweet potato 
plants will not withstand excessive 
moisture and should always be packed 
while the tops aredry. A little damp 
moss or paper may be placed in the 
crate or basket and the roots bedded 
in it, but the tops should remain dry 
and have free ventilation. Ifthe roots 
of sweet potato plants are carefully 
puddled without the mixture coming 
in contact with the tops, they will keep 
in good condition for a week or ten days. 


PREPARATION OF LAND FOR SWEET 
POTATOES. 

The character of soil devoted to sweet 
potato culture is generally quite easy 
to prepare. In preparing land for plant- 
ing sweet potatoes the plowing and 
fitting are practically the same as for 
corn. It should be borne in mind, 
however, that the work necessary for 
thorough preparation will be well repaid 
by the increased ease in handling the 
crop later. It is always desirable that 
a crop like sweet potatoes be grown 
as a part of‘the regular farm rotation. 
In the northern portion of the sweet- 


Hdible Products. 


potato-growing area the crop will occupy 
the land the entire growing seasons, 
and a three or four year rotation should 
be practised. Where the climate will 
permit, a crop of early snap beans, peas, 
or cabbage may precede the sweet pota- 
toes, but in many case the land should 


not be planted to sweet potatoes oftener 
than onee every three vears. A good 
rotation is to devote the land to corn 


one year. sowing crimson clover in the 
alleys between the rows at the time 
the corn is given the last cultivation. 
During the following spring the crimson 
clover should be turned under and 
sweet potatoes planted; then in the 
autumn, after the potatoes are harvested, 
the land may be plowed, fitted, and 
sown to rye or winter oats with plenty 
of grassseed. In this way, crop of grain 
may be obtained during the time that 
the grass is becoming established. Allow 
the land to remain in grass one or two 
years and then repeat the rotation. 
Where cornis followed by sweet potatoes 
in the rotation, stable manure should 
be applied while fitting the land for 
the corn, and commercial fertlizers 
should be applied with the sweet potato 
orop. 


As previously mentioned, the depth 
of plowing.has considerable influence 
upon the character of the product. 
The usual depth of plowing in preparing 
land for corn will prove satisfactory for 
sweet potatoes. The tact that sweet 
potatoes are not planted in the field until 
quite late in the spring makes it possible 
for the grower to select a time when con- 
ditions are favourable for the prepara- 
tion of the land. Plowing may be defer- 
red until the soil has become sufficiently 
dry to break up fine and mellow. It is 
important that the land should be har- 
rowed within a few hours after plowing ; 
further fitting may be deferred until 
later, and if the soil is inclined to be 
lumpy the work of pulverizing may best 
be done shortly after a shower and while 
the lumps are mellow. When the pri- 
mary work of preparation is finished, 
the soil should be mellow to a depth of 
6 or 7 inches and the surface smooth and 
even. Subsequent handling of the soil 
preparatory to_ planting will depend 
upon whether ridge or level culture is to 
be followed. 


APPLICATION OF FERTILIZERS. 


" For the general good of the land com- 
mercial fertilizers should be applied 
broadcast, but the majority of farmers 
feel that they cannot afford to do this 
and that the quantity that they are 
able to apply ‘will give greater returns 
when placed in therow. Thisisa matter 
for the decision of each grower and will 


[ JANUARY, 1909; 


depend greatly upon the capacity of the 
soil under consideration for retaining 
fertilizers from year to year. 


PREPARATION FOR PLANTING. 


_ After plowing and fitting the land it 
is generally allowed to lie several days 
before being put up in shape for planting. 
If level culture is to be practised, 
the only thing necessary will be to 
run the harrow over the _ soil once 
and then mark in both directions at 
the desired distances for planting. 
The marking is generally done with 
either a one-horse plow, a_ flat-soled 
marker. or a disk marker. The disk 
marker is well adapted to this work, 
as it throws up a slight ridge which fur- 
nishes fresh earth in which to plant. 
Some growers who practise level culture 
mark the ground with a small one-horse 
plow and throw up a slight ridge upon 
which to plant; behind the plow a roller 
is used to compress this ridge to a low, 
flat elevation. 


Where the more universal ridge method 
of planting is employed the soil is thrown 
up by means of a turning plow or a disk 
machine. The ridges should be made at 
least one week or before planting, in 
order that the soil may become settled 
and compact. The majority of sweet- 
potato growers make the ridges when- 
ever the land is in good condition to 
work and then either roll or drag the 
tops just ahead of the planters. By 
using a roller the ridges at one operation 
can be rolled and marked the proper 


distances for planting. A drag suitable 


for smoothing the tops of the ridges can 
be easily constructed by cleating together 
three pieces of 2 by 4 inch scantling. 


SETTING THE PLANTS. 


The success of the crop depends largely 
upon the way in which the plants start 
after being removed from the bed and 
set in the field or garden. Practical 
growers always plan to set the plants 
during a ‘“‘season” or period when the 
conditions are suitable to a quick start 
into growth, either just before a rain or 
as soon afterward as the soil can be 
worked. The method of setting will de- 
pend entirely upon local conditions and 
the acreage to be grown, the essential 
features, however, being to get the roots 
in contact with moist earth and the soil 
firmly pressed about the plants. 


The use of water around the roots of 
the plants is desirable under most cir- 
cumstances, as it not only moistens the 
soil but assists in settling it about the 
roots. A large quantity of water is not 
necessary, one-half pint to each plant 
being generally considered sufficient. 


sien) 


JANUARY, 1909.! 


DISTANCES TO PLANT. 


Where level culture is practised, the 
plants are set from 24 to 30 inches apart 
in each direction. On the eastern shore 
of Virginia the greater portion of the 
crop is planted 24 inches apart each 
way, requiring about 11,000 plants to an 
acre. By planting 30 inches apart each 
way, only about 7,000 plants are required 
to set one acre. Where the crop is 
grown on ridges it is customary to have 
the ridges from 36 to 42 inches apart 
from centre to centre and to place the 
plants 14 to 18 inches apart in the row. 
By this method an acre will require 
from 8,000 to 12,500 plants. An acre of 
good sweet potato land will readily 
support 9,000 to 11,000 plants, and the 
number most commonly planted by the 
several methods will fall within these 
figures, 


When planting for level culture the 
location of the plants will be indicated 
by cross marks, but for planting upon 
ridges itis necessary to provide some 
means of indicating the distances. This 
may be accomplished in severel ways, 
but a roller hafing cleats nailed at equal 
distances around its surface is desirable 
and serves the purpose of both rolling 
and marking the ridges. Another 
device is contructed along lines similar 
to those of the ordinary wheelbarrow, 
pegs being placed upon the rim of the 
wheel to mark the planting distances. 
In using the wheelbarrow marker it is 
simply pushed along the top of the ridge. 
Another device of this class is con- 
structed by placing three or four wheels 
upon along axle and drawing it witha 
horse, the wheels being so arranged 
that they can be set at any point on the 
axle to provide for change in width 
of row. 


A very cheap and efficient can marker 
be constructed of 1 by 38 inch laths. 
This marker can be used to indicate 
planting distances along one row, or by 
dragging it across the ridges the entire 
field can be marked before beginning to 
plant. The machine transplanters are 
provided with a spacing device which 
indicates the distance between plants; 
also with a row marker to show the 
location of the next row. 


SETTING By HAND. 


Where a few hundred plants are to be 
grown for home use orif only an acre 
or two are to be planted, the hand 
method of planting will answer every 
requirement. A trowel or a dibble is 
used for opening the soil to receive the 
plant, and the earth is closed about the 
roots by a second thrust with the imple- 
ment, or the heel of the shoe is used _ to 
press the earth about the plant. For 


Edible Products. 


hand planting, the plants are dropped 
ahead of the ‘‘dibblers” by boys and 
girls. Seven thousand to ten thousand 
plants, or an acre, is an excellent day’s 
work fora planter when everything is 
in good condition. Where a few 
hundred plants are set in the garden it 
is always desirable to water them before 
closing the earth about the plant. 


PLANTING WITH TONGS. 

Setting by hand is at best a back-break- 
ing process, and numerous devices have 
been invented to save the bending of 
the body in hand planting. One of the 
simplest of these is a pair of wooden 
tongs with which the plant can be 
caught by the root and thrust intothe 
soil. The plants are either dropped 
ahead or carried in a small basket 
strapped to the waist of the operator. 
The tongs are provided with a spring 
to throw the jaws apart, and are held 
in one hand while the plants are inserted 
with the other hand. In case the plants 
are dropped ahead, the root portion is 
grasped between the points of the tongs 
without the use of the hand. 


An implement, known as a shovel, 
which is sometimes used in conjunction 
with the tongs, consists of a piece of 
lath sharpened toa flat point. This is 
used toopen a hole in the soil ready 
for the plant. In using the tongs and 
shovel, the plants are dropped as for 
hand planting. The person doing the 
setting carries the tongs in the left 
hand and the shovel in the right. The 
plants are picked up by means of the 
tongs, while a hole is made by inserting 
the shovel in the soil at the point where 
the plant is to be set. The plant is then 
inserted and the earth closed about it 
either by a second thrust of the shovel 
or by the foot of the operator. A man 
who is expert in the use of these home- 
made tools can set plants quite rapidly 
without bending the body sufficiently 
for the work to become tiresome. 


A tool that is sometimes employed 
where vine cuttings are planted is a 
long dibble ora cane havinga notch 
covered with cloth or leather in the 
lowerend. The droppers lay the cuttings 
across the row atthe proper distances 
and the planters place the notch over 
the middle of the cutting and force it 
jato the soil with both ends protruding. 


SETTING WITH MACHINES. 


Where a large acreage is grown, the 
work of setting the plants in the field is 
greatly facilitated by the use of trans- 
planting machines, of which there are 
several makes upon the market. The 
essential features of these machines are 
a device to opena small furrow, a tank 


Edible Products. 46 


for the supply of water, and disks or 
blades for closing the soil about the 
plants. Withwa transplanting machine 
itis not necessary to wait for a ‘‘season.” 
as the machine automatically throws 
a small quantity of water around the 
roots of each plant as it is being set. In 
operating these machines it is necessary 
to have a steady team and two active 
boys who are trained to drop the plants 
at proper intervals, as indicated by a 
spacer on the machine. Under reason- 
ably favorable conditions, a machine 
will plant from 38 to4 acres a day. In 
addition to being labor savers, these 
machines do the work better and more 
ery, than itis ordinarily done by 
aand. 


The plants can be set without the use 
of water, but the results are more satis- 
factory where the water is used. A 
number of our most successful growers 
use water when setting after a rain, 
claiming that the water has the effect 
of settling the soil firmly about the 
roots of the plants and that they 
start into growth much more quickly. 
Where the full amount of water is 
used it will be necessary to provide 
aman and team to hold the water to 
the machine, but by this method plants 
may be set during dry weather without 
the loss of more than one plant out ot 
every one hundred. 


The majority of the transplanting 
machines are designed for planting either 
on the tops of ridges or on the level. 
The cost of setting an acre with one of 
these machines, using water, should be 
figured on the basis of two teams with 
drivers and two boys for a period of 
three or three and one-half hours. If 
water is not used there will bea saving 
of at least one team and driver; also the 
time required for filling the tank on the 
machine. 


CULTIVATION OF SWEET POTATORS. 


The methods of handling a crop of 
sweet potatoes do not differ materially 
from those employed with ordinary farm 
and garden crops. Within a few days 
after planting, a sweep or onehorse plow 
should be run in the alleys to break 
out the strip of earth left in ridging, 
The loose earth in the alleys should 
be worked toward the rows until a 
broad, flat ridge is formed upon 


which a small-tooth cultivator can be: 


run quite close to the plant. After 
each rain or irrigation the soil should 
receive a shallow cultivation, and during 
dry weather frequent’ cultivations 
are necessary in order to retain mois- 
ture. About two hand hoeings are 
generally necessary in order to keep the 
rows free from weeds and the soil loose 


[JANUARY, 1909. 


around the plants. As hand labour is ex- 
pensive, it should be the aim to perform 
the greater part of the work by means 
of horse tools. Where sweet potatoes 
are planted in check rows and worked 
in both directions the hand work re- 
quired will be reduced to a minimum, 
but a certain amount of hoeing is always 
necessary. 


When the vines begin to interfere 
with further cultivation the crop may 
be “laid by,” 7.e., given a final working 
in which the soilis drawn well up over 
the ridges and the vines then allowed to 
take full possession of the land. Todo 
this it is often necessary to turn the 
vines first to one side of the row and 
then to the other by means of a stick or 
a wooden rake. After “laying by,” 
very little attention is required until 
time for harvesting the crop. ; 


Toots ADAPTED TO SWEET POTATO 
CULTIVATION. 


Aside from planting and harvesting, 
the work of caring for a crop of sweet 
potatoes can be done almost entirely by 
the use of ordinary fapm and garden 
tools. A two-horse riding cultivator is 
desirable for the general cultivation, 
and one having disks instead of hoes 
will serve for throwing the soil toward 
the rows. For the work of “ laying by.” 
a single-row celery hiller is suitable or a 
one-horse sweep-stock can be fitted with 
sloping boards and used for this purpose. 
Many growers use a small one-horse tur- 
ning plow for the final cultivation, 
going twice in each alley and working 
the soil toward the plants. 


(To be continued.) 


. 


CITRATE OF LIME AND CONCEN- 
TRATED LIME JUICE, 


Dr. Watts, Government Chemist and 
Superintendent of Agriculture for the 
Leeward Islands, briefly reviewed the 
position of the Lime Juice Industries of 
Dominica and Montserrat :— 


During the past year little additional 
nformation had been obtained and 
reference should be made to the article 
prepared for the last West Indian 
Agricultural Conference and published 
in the West Indian Bulletin, Vol. VIII., 
pp. 167-9. 


Concentrated juice prepared from 
lime juice that has been carefully 
strained and then settled, after distilla- 
tion, has obtained a special market for 
direct use in various arts and manu- 
factures in the place of crystallized citric 
acid. It commands relatively higher 


' 


JANUARY, 1909.] 47 


prices than ordinary concentrated juice, 
and therefore every effort should be 
made by planters to ship a high-class 
product. 


The use of centrifugals in drying 
citrate had given very good results. 
Centrifugal-dried citrate contained much 
less water than the ordinary pressed 
product, and was in a better physical 
condition. Samples of different types 
of citrate now exhibited show clearly 
the better condition of the centrifugal 
dried citrate, and would indicate when 
citrate of ‘lime is made on a large scale 
the use of the centrifugal instead of 
the ordinary process is to be recom- 
mended. 


Mr. Joseph Jones, Curator of the 
Botanic Station, Dominica, gave the 
following information in respect to the 
progress made in the manufacture of 
citrate of lime in Dominica during the 
past year :— 


During 1906, the year in which citrate 
of lime was first exported from Dominica, 
728 ewt. of this product was exported, 
During 1907, 2,388 cwt. of citrate of lime 
was shipped, showing an increase over 
the export of 1906 of 1,660 cwt., a very 
satisfactory advance. 


Up to the present time only one firm 
has been engaged in making this product, 
but it is probable that another estate 
may shortly commence its manufacture. 

The great drawback in making citrate 
in Dominica at present is the cost of 
drying the product. What is required 
is efficient machinery for cheaply and 
quickly drying the citrate withont loss 
of acid. When such an apparatus can 
be obtained without too great a cost, 
the chief obstacle in the making of 
citrate of lime by estates will have 
been removed, 


Should such machinery be of too costly 
a character for estates making 80 to 
100 hogsheads of concentrated juice to 
instal, then we may expect to see the 
development of factories at suitable 
points in the several districts for the 
purchase of lime juice from adjoining 
estates to be made into citrate of lime. 

Information as to the cultivation of 
the lime and to the manufacture of its 
products has been prepared in co-oper- 
ation with the scientific officers on the 
staff of the Imperial Department of 
Agriculture, and will shortly be issued 
in pamphlet form.*— West Indian Bul- 
letin, Vol. IX., No. 2 


* A.B.C. of Limo Cultivation, Pamphlet No, 
53, issued. in March, 1908.—Hd, W./,B, 


Hdible Products. 


THE IMPROVEMENT OF CACAO 
PLANTING IN THE WEST INDIKS. 


By J. H: HART, F.L.S., 


Superintendent, Royal Botanic Gard ens, 
Trinidad. 


Cacao estates in Trinidad are largely 
planted on what is known as the con- 
tract system. Under this system the 
proprietor gives out certain areas toa 
contractor, and after the land has been 
cleared at the expense of the owner, the 
contractor enters into possession for 
usually about five years. During this 
time the contractor drains the land and 
grows certain crops for his own benefit, 
and at the same time plants cacao as 
laid down by contract. When the 
lands are taken over by the owner from 
the contractor, 1s. tols. 3d. is paid for 
each full bearing tree, half that price 
for each half tree, and a quarter for 
each quarter tree. 


The general adoption of this system 
appears to depend upon the fact that 
under it less immediate expenditure of 
capital is incurred, and. the planter 
when he has paid for the trees at the 
end of the term, should immediately 
obtain some return for his money, for 
many of the trees should be commencing 
to bear, Briefly, the proprietor gives 
the land for five years for the cultivation 
of food products, with some few restric- 
tions, in return for the labour expended 
in planting and rearing the cacao trees 
with addition of a bonus per tree at the 
end of the term. 


In Tobago, the contract system is not 
generally adopted, and some estates are 
formed by the owners, There is but 
little difference to be noticed between 
aun estate planted under contract, and 
one planted by an owner. The actual 
method of planting under both systems 
is identical; the same class of tree is 
planted, the same shade is used, and the 
same technic is adopted in both cases. 


The methods pursued in other places 
vary somewhat from those described, 
but are in principal fairly identical. 

There is no reasonable doubt that 
although the contract system may have 
its advantage as affording a cheap 
means of establishing a plantation, it is 
not one which provides for the scientific 
treatment of ‘the cacao tree, as it is 
based entirely upon growth from seed. 
The cacao tree grown from seed varies 
in vigour and _ productiveness, and in 
size, colour, and flavour of its produce. 
The seed of red pods may produce trees 
bearing yellow ones, and those from 
yellow may produce trees possessing red 


Edible Products. 


ones. In the seed itself there is great 
variation in size, colour, flavour, and 
number of seeds to a pod, 


These variations, left to themselves, 
are (following the accepted doctrines of 
our best botanists) sure to tend toward 
deterioration; but properly guided they 
afford the means of not only maintaining 
a standard but of improving. that 
standard in any desired direction. 


At the present time Trinidad cacao 
is an interminable mixture of various 
types near to, and far from, the original 
strains. The better types prevail where 
a preponderance of the better kinds 
were first planted, aud the poorer types 
in those districts where numbers of in- 
ferior strains are present. 


It would appear that there is little 
cacao true to the original types of old 
authors, and although the various 
strains can be recognized, it is much 
more easy to notice the variation that 
has occurred, even during the last two 
decades. Trinidad Criollo can still be 
recognized generally, but the bottle 
neck of that variety is now to be seen 
plainly marked in varieties where the 
Forastero strain predominates. The 
Venezuelan Criollo may be seen ap- 
parently true in form and colour with 
the accepted type, but on examination 
shows that the plants may have coloured 
instead of white beans, 


I suggested in 1897, thatit was urgently 
necessary when raising from seed, to be 
extremely careful in selecting from the 
very best trees, but 1am now quite con- 
vinced that. this method, while being 
better than no selection at all, is quite in- 
sufficient to secure the highest class of 
produce, and that vegetative production 
by budding or grafting must be adopted 
if cacao is to be improved along scienti- 
fic lines. In 1897, it was not certain 

‘that budding or grafting was practi- 
cable with cacao, but it has since been 
proved that they may easily be per- 
formed. Recently I prepared an article 
on cacao improvement that was pub- 
lished in the Trinidad Bulletin, Vol. 
VII., p. 183. In this was described in 
detail the method necessary for the 
improvement of plantations. 


The principle points are (1) the entire 
abandonment of propagation from seed 
except for the purpose of raising new 
and improved varieties, (2) improvement 
by the aid of hybridization or seminal 
variation, (8) the selection of standard 
varieties trom present fields showing 
desired characters in order to propagate 


from them by grafting or budding, and 


(4) the characters to be used in making 


48 


[JANUARY, 1909. 


the selection should be high vitality, 
good bearing qualities, good habit and 
form, and a high quality of produce. 


At the Conference held at Trinidad in 
1905, I presented a paper on the special 
qualities of plants. In it I presented 
arguments to show that special qualities 
are inherent in each and every indivi- 
dual plant, which remain constant 
through its life and may be propagated 
indefinitely for centuries ; and 1am more 
than ever confident that if these views 
are brought into practice in the working 
economy of cacao estates, a very great 
improvement in the quantity and 
quality of the produce obtained would 
rapidly follow. One treein the Botan- 
nical Department, Trinidad, produced 
in 1907, 15 lb. 9 oz. of marketable cacao, 
and it would appear desirable that such 
a tree should be among the selected 
varieties to be reproduced by vegetative 
reproduction. 


In cacao plantations there are trees of 
a high class, and also many of an inferior 
type. The latter, being as a rule ot 
greater vegetative vigour, tend to domi- 
nate, and gradually may push out the 
better strains. In the following gener- 
ations, when again reproduced by seed, 
deterioration necessarily occurs and a 
large number of interbred varieties is 
produced. 


It is satisfactory, however, to note 
that not a few planters are alive to this 
danger of deterioration in quality, and 
have imported of the best strains 
from the mainland of South America. 
Even these show considerable variation. 
These importations, nevertheless, are of 
superior quality, and they must have an 
effect, though a limited one, inimproving 
the standard quality of Trinidad cacao, 
The improvement can ouly be a tran- 
sient one, as the inferior kinds, being 
the more vigorous, and inthe majority, 
will again, in time, dominate the better 
qualities. lf, however, selections are 
made of the most distinct forms, and 
these are propagated solely by vegeta- 
tive reproduction, the improvement 
would most assuredly be a permanent 
one, and when once standard and 
selected kinds are propagated by this 
method alone, and not by seed, deteri- 
oration would cease, and no change in 
the quality of produce could occur, 
except that induced by unfavourable 
weather, accidents during curing, or by 
unfavourable situations. 


Trinidad cacao has obtained a name 
for certain good qualities, but manu- 
facturers cannot use Trinidad cacao 
alone. They require other and often 
higher-priced qualities to mix with it 


JANUARY, 1909.} 


to obtain the eecessary blends. The 
average grower may be content with his 
returns, but why should not West 
Indies, with her excellent facilities for 
growing cacao, be possesed of and grow 
all the various kinds needed by the 
manufacturer to make the required 
blends, for the production of high-class 
chocolate and cocoa? Or why should 
not the West Indies possess sufficient of 
each kind to be able to start successfully 
the local manufacture of various cacao 
products? 


. It cannot be done to-day, because 
several of the special qualities necessary 
for making the flavours now recognized, 
and demanded, are absent from West 
Indian cultivation. Therefore it is 
important to encourage the introduc- 
tion of plants of all the foreign cacaos 
which are necessary for the preparation 
of the manufacturers’ blends. They 
should be kept pure by. reproduction 
solely by budding and grafting. 


The West Indies would then be able to 
put into the hands of the manufacturer 
all that he needs in the way of qualities. 


It may be said that prices of Trinidad 
cacao are at present satisfactory. But 
will they always be so? Every endea- 
vour should be made to take advan- 
tage of every improvement to raise the 
quality of cacao, as in years of bad prices 
it is well known that certain brands sell 
at higher rates than others, because the 
manufacturers require them, and that in 
general a pure brand or well-known 
mark is accepted at higher prices than 
ordinary mixed strains. Thereis nothing 
to be said against a grower who wishes 
and prefers to grow alow-grade cacao, 
but it is fairly clear that his returns will 
not equal those obtained by the growers 
of high-class produce, and even these 
will fetch more if kept pure by vegeta- 
tive reproduction, as they can be better 
relied on for strength and evenness of 
quality. 


The question of the production of high- 
class cacao of the various market quali- 
ties appears to be a very desirable one; 
and should be the aim of cultivators who 
wish to attain to a high standard. 


DISCUSSION. 


THE PRESIDENT: I am glad to take 
advantage of this opportunity of ex- 
pressing the general fesling in the West 
Indies in regard to Mr. Hart’s long 
and useful career in connection with 
agriculture. Mr. Hart spent the earlier 
years in Jamaica where he was connected 
with my Department there. He has 
since been in Trinidad, and there can be 
no doubt whatever as regards the earn 
estness and thoroughness with which he 


7 


49 Hdible Products. 


has carried on his work. Iam very glad 
of this opportunity of putting that on 
record, and also of thanking him for this 
very useful, and, I think, very suggestive 
paper which he has presented before the 
Conference to-day.— West Indian Bul- 
letm, Vol. IX., No. 2, 


THE CHARACTERS OF CRIOLLO 
CACAO. 


By J. H. HART, F.LS., 


Superintendent, Royal Botanic Gardens, 
Trinidad. 


Criollo cacao, as represented by the 
specimens exhibited, may be divided 
into three sections: (1) 'Trinidad Criollo, 
@) Venezuelan Criollo, and (8) Nicaraguan 

Jriollo, 


Trinidad Criollo is supposed to be 
indigenous to Trinidad. The specimens 
exhibited are the produce of trees grown 
from pods selected by G. Kernaham, 
Esqr., taken from original forest in the 
district sf Manzanilla, Trinidad. Some 
of the pods were yellow, and some red, 
It has been found that seeds from yellow 
pods are able to produce trees bearing 
red pods, while those from the red pods 
often produce trees bearing yellow pods. 


The generally light colour of the beans 
and their form are characteristic of the 
variety, while the bottle-necked appear- 
ance of the pods is a leading feature by 
which they may be recognized. This 
type of Criollo cacao is not quite as 
vigorous as are the Forastero and 
Calabacillo types, and though a fairly 
good bearer, does not yield as well as 
those kinds. 


Venezuelan Criollo differs in form 
from that of Trinidad, as the stalk end 
is blunt and_ rounded instead of being 
bottle-necked. The beans are larger in 
size than those of Trinidad Criollo, and 
differ somewhat in form: but like the 
Trinidad kind, the beans when cut show 
a white or nearly colourless interior. 


Specimens of this kind of Criollo cacao 
grown in Trinidad havebeen produced 
from seed obtained from one of the best 
Venezuelan estates, The produce shows 
considerable variation both in outside 
colour and form of the pods, as well as 
in the colour of the beans. They are 
not prolific bearers, but the quality of 
the produce is of the highest class, and 
estates possessing this strain can obtain 
high prices. 


This kind is also known under various 
other names such as Caracas, Borborata, 
etc., etc, 


Edible Products. 5 


The Nicaraguan Criollo differs some- 
what from the Venezuelan in form of 
ods. The size of the bean is also much 
arger. The colour of the beanis white 
and not so often shaded with colour as 
the Venezuelan, and Trinidad Criollos. 


The pods are rather more pointed in 
form than the Venezuelan, but much 
resemble them in other respects. 


The beans produced by this kind are 
probably the largest of any known 
valiety of Theobroma cacao, and com- 
pare very closely with those produced 
by Theobroma pentagona, a species with 
which it may have become hybridized 
in Nicaragua. The bean of the Nicara- 
guan Criollo, like that of Theobroma 
pentagona, is, for its size, light in 
weight. It possesses a flavour of very 
high standard and takes_much less time 
to cure than ordinary Trinidad cacao. 
Propagated by grafting and kept pure, 
this cacao promises to become a valuable 
acquisition to West Indian plantations. 


GENERAL REMARKS. 


Grown as seedlings, these three 
varieties are not heavy bearers and as 
crop producers cannot be compared to 
the stronger growing strains of Foras- 
tero and some other varieties. All three 
kinds possess valuable characters, and 
it is highly probable that when grafted 
on the stronger stocks, their yield would 
be materially increased, and they would 
become a valuable asset to the West 
Indian cacao. planter.—West Indian 
Bulletin, Vol. [X., No. 2. 


ENSILAGE AND HOW TO MAKE IT 


The preservation of fodder in the 
shape of ensilage with all its succulent 
prices retained, has been thoroughly 
tested by so many practical men in 
other countries that its value as a factor 
in economical stock-keeping has been 
proved beyond question, In Ceylon, so 
far, the subject seems to be little under- 
stood and, as far as I learn, nothing 
practical has been done. To_ properly 
appreciate the practical details of the 
process it is necessary to understand 
at least the outlines of the theory. We 
aim at the preservation of green or 
succulent fodder, and the more we can 
diminish or prevent the changes which 
such substances naturally undergo when 
cut or gathered into heaps the better 
will be the quality of our silage. To 
do this effectively we have to learn 
what these changes are, and how they 
are brought about. Weknow that when 
green fodder is cut and placed in a 
heap it soon begins to heat and undergo 
changes. This rise of temperature and 


[JANUARY, 1909, 


these changes are due to oxidation and 
the presence of minute living organisms, 
termed bacteria. These bacteria, fer- 
ments, or microbes are everywhere 
distributed in the atmosphere, endless 
in variety and infinite in number, 
Pasteur has shown that these ferments 
or microbes require air in their first 
generations or when their work begins, 
but that afterwards they can go on 
multiplying generation after generation 
without air—that in fact fermentation 
is directly the result of their breathing 
the combined oxygen of certain organic 
substances, such for example of sugar 
in the absence of free Oxygen. When 
the green herbage is placed in the silo 
or stack 


IMMENSE NUMBERS OF THESE MICROBES 


will be in contact with it or on it, and 
in the free air in the spaces through- 
out the mass. In the presence of this 
free air they begin their multiplication 
and work, but as we have seen the 
work is continued and becomes more 
manifest when the free oxygen among 
the contents of the silo or stack has 
been exhausted, unless in the mean- 
time the germs have by a rise of 
temperature been killed. It has been 
found that a temperature of 120 deg. 
Fahr, or thereabouts is sufficient to kill 
these ferments, and it is desirable there- 
fore that the temperature of every silo 
or stack should exceed that range. If 
it does not the organisms live on and 
work on, and through their vital fune- 
tions change valuable food stuffs and 
produce acetic acid, the acid of vinegar, 
buric acid, the acid which gives the 
rancid flavour to butter, and lactic acid 
or the acid of sour milk, The feeding 
value of the silage is consequently 
diminished in proportion to the degree 
of this fermentation. When the fer- 
mentation has been allowed to continue 
in this manner, sour ensilage is the 
result, and it has accordingly less fatten- 
ing value than sweet silage although 
it is valuable to the dairy farmer for 
milk production. But there is another 
cause of change in the cells of the 


‘plants ensilaged, and it is that which 


is believed to bring abdut the rise of 
temperature. When the crop has been 
cut and has begun to wilt, the cells 
would appear to continue living, and 
that for some time until through desica- 
tion ov otherwise the contents cease 
activity. While thus living their vital 
functions are reversed, instead of absorb- 
ing carbonic acid gas and giving out 
oxygen—the normal function of plants 
—they now absorb oxygen and give 
off carbonic acid. This is known as 
intercellular oxidation, and when the 
herbage has been carted to the silo 


oe hem 
oa ” ; 


JANUARY, 1909.] 


or stack shortly after being cut, and 
while the cells are still living, this 
oxidation is the cause of the rise of 
temperature. By means of it also the 
starchy substances of the cells are 
changed into sugar, and the sweet 
flavour of sweet ensilage is the result. 
When the cells continue living and 
oxidation continues alcohol is formed 
and the feeding value is accordingly 
diminished. But when the heat evolved 
by this process of oxidation has raised 
the temperatureto 122° Fahr. the vitality 
of the cells is destroyed, and further 
oxidation accordingly ceases. There are 


TWO WAYS OF STORING SILAGE, 


in the stack and pit. The former has 
the advantage of its cheapness, but 
experience has shown that it is far 
more difficult to handle and that the 
results are not so good, while the waste 
is great and that it requires pressure. 
In the pit or silo it is much easeir to 
regulate the temperature, and there is 
far less waste while no pressure at all 
is necessary. There are also two kinds 
of ensilage made, the sweet and the 
sour, the former for fattening and the 
latter for milk production. For the 
making of silage the crop must be cut 
when there is the most sap at maturity. 
This is best ascertained by experience 
which agrees with the average of 75 per 
cent. of moisture. A practice adopted 
by many practical men is to take a 
quantity of the grassin the hands and 
twist it like arope so that if moisture 
drops from it freely it is time for cut- 
ting: Ifthecrop is not caught at the 
right period there is aloss of nutritive 
value in the silage in proportion to the 
delay, for at this stage the assimilative 
process of the plant has practically 
ceased, and its energies are devoted to 
the transference of the nutritive mate- 
rial from the leaves and stems to the 
seed. If cut too early and crop has too 
much moisture it will be difficult to get 
the temperature to rise sufficiently high. 
The result would be as explained above, 
that the fermenting germs will not be 
killed and in conjunction with oxidation 
ane nutritive value is greatly lessened. 


MAKING SILAGE IN THE STACK, 


the spot chosen must be One most con- 
venient for stock to feed. The stack 
should be as large and square as possible 
otherwise there is much waste. Rapid 
work for sour ensilage and slow tor 
sweet, temperature from 80 to 90 degrees 
for the former and 125 to 140 degrees 
Fahr. for the latter. Ifsour ensilage is 
being made and the temperature is 
found to rise above 90 degrees the stack 
must be stamped down until the tem- 


a) | 


Edible Products. 


perature is lowered. To test the tem- 
perature from time to time a simple con- 
trivance can be made. Ten feet length 
of gas-piping with a steel point welded 
on to it is driven into the stuff to any 
depth and a small thermometer let 
down by means of a string. If the tem- 
perature is allowed to go too high the 
silage becomes dark coloured, dry and 
almost charred, but this contingency 
can always be prevented by adding 
further green stuff, or, if the stack is 
finished, putting on weights. While 
building the stack or filling the silo 
great care should be exercised to have 
the distribution even, not lumpy, and 
to have the stuff wel trampled round 
the sides. If this is not done the air 
gets in round the walls, and here and 
there well into the mass, and destruc- 
tion follows accordingly. The bacteria 
present originally and the cells of the 
plants ensilaged will have been killed by 
the high temperature, so that if the air 
be allowed ready access thereafter a 
fresh infection of microbes and fungi 
is admitted, and decomposition more 
or less results. Stacked silage has many 
apparent attractions for a_ beginner 
because of its supposed cheapness. Ex- 
perience has proved that 


THE PIT IS BETTER AND MORE ECO- 
NOMICAL. 


The waste in astack is very great. As 
a rule the surface of a stack to the depth 
of about a foot or more is rotted and 
completely spoiled. This waste with the 
annual cost of weighting down the stack 
and then removing the weights, and 
the considerable loss that comes subse- 
quently from the exposed condition of 
the stack are all which more than 
compensate for the supposed cheapness 
in the first instance of the stack itself. 
For weighting stacks all sorts of mate- 
rial can be used—stones, bags of earth, 
kerosine tins filled with earth or con- 
crete, logs of timber, etc., aiming at 
about 200 lbs, per square yard. There 
are also many mechanical devices con- 
trived and used. If ensilage is to be 
made in silos or pits the construction of 
them should be on the highest land 
available as there is less chance of soak. 
age, a pit 15 by 15 feet will hold 50 tons 
of silage. The pit must be bricked and 
roofed over. The same principles apply 
tomaking as in the case of stack, but 
of course in an airtight silo it is 
much easier to regulate temperature 
and. thus either to make sour or sweet 
as desired. It is much the best process 
to chaff the stuff into the silo especially 
heavy stuff like maize. Short grass 
needs no chaffing. I made pit silage for 
some years with maize and other crops 


fe 


Edible Products. 


with the very best of results. With a 
pit no pressure is necessary. Spread 
the stuff evenly, taking the temperature 
now and again. If temperature rises 
cramp it down all over specially all 
round the edges, and when the crop is 
all in and the temperature is bound 
to keep right, cover with some straw, 
and in three months the result will be 
first class ensilage. 


CROPS FOR SILAGE. 


Any vegetation that stock will eat 
in its natural state will make good 
ensilage, and it will be much improved 
by the operation. It is said that cattle 
assimilate silage better than they do 
any other food, the reason being that 
the change effected in the silo is nearly 
or quite that which is brought about 
in the first stomach of the cud-chewing 
animal. Maize makes a specially good 
silage and can be highly recommended. 
As regards other material, experience 
cau only show what other Ceylon crops 
makes the best silage. In conclusion I 
may sum up the whole process in the 
following facts :— 


(1). Appropriate crops combining suc- 
culence and maturity. 


(2) To harvest when the crop has 
about 75 per cent. of moisture in its com- 
position. 


(8). The staking, or chaffing and 
filling of the silo, to proceed sv that the 
temperature of the material reaches 80 
degrees and does not exceed 90 degrees 
for sour, while 125 to 140 degrees Fahr. 
for sweet. 


52 


"a rin ee -] 


[JANUARY, 1909 


(4). Careful attention to details until 
the temperature remains at the desired 
point,—P. G. SCHRADER in Ceylon Inde- 
pendent, Nov. 27th, 1908. 


SUGAR IN INDIA. 


Anything which can be done to encour- 
age the sugar industry in India should 
be welcome, for its progress is slow and 
the enormous imports from Java show 
no sign of falling off. In the Indian 
Trade Journal particulars are given of 
a process for utilizing the waste products ° 
of manufacture, the residue of the cane 
after it has passed through the mill. At 
present this is useless except when 
dried for fuel, but it is said to have 
qualities which make it valuable for 
paper manufacturers. A Trinidad sugar 
planter has invented a process by which 
the crushed canes are converted into 
paper pulp, and he is now working sugar 
and paper mills in combination. The 
new pulp is worth £5 per ton, and as 
there is a general shortage of wood 
fibre for paper-making the new product 
commands a good sale. It issuggested 
that experiments should be tried in 
India whereby the waste products of 
our sugar-mills could be utilised in the 
manner described, Perhaps the Agri- 
cultural Department may take up the 
matter and obtain particulars of the 
Trinidad process with a view to its 
adoption in India.—Indian A griculturist, 
Vol. XXXIII, No. 9.) 


JANUARY, 1909.] 


53 


PLANT SANITATION. 


THEORY OF THE PARASITIC 
CONTROL OF INSECT PESTS, 


All who have recently discussed the 
question of the possibility of controlling 
insect pests by the use of parasitic or 
predaceous insects or by fungous or 
bacterial diseases, have failed to consider 
the subject from a very important point 
of view. 


The conditions determining the life or 
death of insects are much more com- 
plicated than is usually appreciated, 
and the individual factors in the problem 
are far from independent. The correct 
estimation of this interdependence of 
the causes of death in insects is of 
vital importancein this connection. The 
efficiency of each factor is so influenced 
by the efficiency of the others that the 
elimination of one cause of death or the 
addition of an entirely new natural 
enemy will usually have but a slight 
poet upon the rate of survival or none 
at all. 


The reproductive powers of most or- 
ganic beings are very great. Were 
not all creatures liable to die prema- 
turely, that is, before they repro- 
duced themselves, reproduction would of 
necessity have been limited to two off- 
spring from each pair. Whenever re- 
production is at a more rapid rate itisa 
prima facie evidence that the chance cf 
premature destruction requires it and 
the greater the reproductive power the 
higher this normal death rate. Were 
conditions otherwise, rapid extinction 
or enormous increase would result, The 
fact that species maintain themselves 
for ages with the rate between the 
birth rate and that of premature death 
not varying anappreciated fraction of a 
per cent. is very evident. 


This balance between birth and death- 
rates ismuch greater than the numerical 
stability. For instance, in the case of a 
species increasing a hundred fold in a 
generation, an average disturbance of 
only a hundredth part of a per cent. in 
this ratio—.e,, if onthe average one more 
individual inten thousand should come 
to maturity—this would result in nearly 
tripling the numbers of individuals 
within a, hundred generations, and one 
tenth of one per cent. augmentation— 
e.g., if one more in a thousand should 
survive—would be an increase in num- 
bers amounting in the same period to 
nearly fourteen thousand fold. 


DISTURBING, CONTRIBUTING AND 
EFFECTIVE HACTORS. 


The various causes of death may be 
classed into two groups; first, those 
that des troy all insects in a certain con- 
dition or position, irrespective of the 
numbers present (for instance, frost, 
which might kill the same proportion 
whether there was but one to the acre 
or a hundred thousand); and second, 
those that are more and more efficient 
as the numbers increase. This is true 
in general of predaceous and parasitic 
insects and of diseases. Causes of death 
of first class will aid in maintaining the 
balance in an insect tothe extent they 
are uniform in their action, the regular- 
ly recurring winter, for instance; but 
are usually erratic and_ disturbing 
rather than balancing. Those of the 
second category, however, iall tend 
towards balance and their efficiency is 
attested by the approximate balance 
maintained in nature. Probably in all 
cases numerous parasites “and pre- 
dators and other factors of this same 
class contribute to form the controlling 
environment of an injurious species, 
and each factor has a different potenti- 
ality. Those of the second category can 
be further subdivided into two classes, 
the contributory and the effective. In 
the former class, the efficiency increases 
with the increase of the host, but not in 
a sufficient ratio to ever overtake it. 
Thus with the host at one hundred per 
acre it may destroy one third. at two 
hundred four ninths, at four hundred 
thirteen twenty-sevenths, etc., never 
reaching fifty per cent. Any series that 
does not ultimately pass the percentage 
of normal death rate is incapable of 
itself diminishing the numbers of its 
host. Its only effect is inslowing down 
the rate of increase until some effective 
factor becomes operative or until a dis- 
turbing factor like frost produces a 
general destruction. 


The effective class of factors is that in 
which the ratio finally reaches one 
hundred percent, Thus with the host 
at one hundred per acre it may |destroy 
say one half, at two hundred three 
quarters, at four hundred, seven 
eighths, ete.; finally reaching a fraction 
so large that only those survive that 
are necessary to maintain the species. 


Every factor of this class has its 
particular point of balance, One may 
overtake the host at two hundred per 
acre and another only at two million 


Plant Sanitation. 


per acre, but both be finally efficient, 
Toamember of this class of checking 
factors, Mr. Elwood Cooper, the former 
Horticultural Commissioner of Cali- 
fornia, would apply the term ‘“ the true 
parasite,” and those alone he would 
consider worthy of importation. 


To determine at any time the status 
of an insect we should have to know the 
percentage of efficiency of each factor 
under the existing numerical promi- 
nence of the host, and in order to prog- 
nosticate the future we should need to 
know the ratio of increased or decreased 
efficiency of each under the changed 
numbers of the host. 


None of these factors can ever be 
determined with any greas degree of 
accuracy because they are each involved 
in as complicated a system of inter-rela- 
tions and in many cases the efficiency 
ot a check against any one insect is 
profoundly influenced by the ups and 
downs of numerous other insects that 
serve as alternate hosts. 


The complication of the subject indeed 
is so great that accuracy even of obser- 
vation will beimpossible, but the failure 
to reckon with all the factors of the 
problem will make conclusions of little 
significance. 


The inter-relation of factors may be of 
the most complicated nature; for in- 
stance, a parasite which of itself might 
be wholly inefficient due to its slow 
rate of reproduction as compared with 
‘that of its host, might be rendered very 
efficient by the co-operation of a con- 
tributing factor which could only delay 
the rate of increase. 


It will thus be readily seen that the 
efficiency of all these tactors working 
together is neither the sum nor the 
average of the potential efficiency of 
each, though much nearer the latter 
than the former. Many writers have 
assumed that by adding anew parasite, 
its efficiency was simply added to that 
of others previously existing. This 
supposition ic certainly far from the 
theoretical conception of the inter-rela- 
tions of species as presented above, and 
has not been borne out in actual ex- 
perience. 


RELATION OF LIFE CYCLE oF Host. 

Thus far the insect whose control is 
sought is conceived of as existing in but 
one condition. The growth and trans- 
formation of insects add still further 
complications to the subject. The 
checks are not simultaneous in their 
action, but at each stage in the progress 
of its development the insect lives in a 
different environment. The parasites, 


54 


[JANUARY, 1909, 


for instance, that affect the egg will find 
the next generation of eggs perhaps 
more profoundly influenced by the 
checks that have operated during the 
remainder of the life of the insect than 
anything they have accomplished, and 
so perhaps with the checks operating at 
any stage. <A serious attack of one 
parasite during early larval life might 
result in protecting the insect from still 
more efficient destroyers in the late 
larval stage and really cause more to 
come to maturity. 


SUGGESTIONS FOR LABORATORY STUDY. 


We can eliminate most causes of death 
under artificial breeding conditions and 
often produce one hundred per cent. of 
survival. When this can be done we 
are in a position to begin the experiment 
of testing first one ata time each cause 
of death, then to study their inter-rela- 
tions or the simultaneous or alternating 
effects of two of these factors, in the 
case of parasites studying as thoroughly 
in detail also their environment. Until 
considerable work of this kind is done 
the basis for our theories will not have 
been well enough established to deserve 
a place as science. 


HiconoMic RELATIONS. 


The power of an insect todo damage 
isdue asa rule to the number present 
during their chief feeding period, and 
may be quite independent of the num- 
bers that finally come to maturity, and 
is absolutely independent of the ratio 
between birth and death rates. A 
temporary disturbance of this rate pro- 
duces increase or decrease and may 
place an insect suddenly in the destruc- 
tive class or remove it, but while an 
insect maintains itself in injurious 
numbers the ratio is as lowas though 
the insect were rare. 


In the case of most of our injurious 
insects the natural increase is more than 
a hundred fold, so that less than one 
per cent. is in these cases the established 
average rate of survival. This is true 
even of such recently introduced pests 
as the gypsy and brown tail moths, and 
the boll weevil, everywhere, except 
when the conditions are temporarily 
disturbed by efforts at control and along 
the border of the infested area where 
the insects are invading new territory.* 

*This invasion of new territory probably 
involves but a narrow strip. Inthe case of the 
boll weevil the extreme annual migration is 
about the width of two counties. The total 
extension of this insect into new territory only 
requires an average survival of about two per 
cent. in the outer two tiers of counties. 


JANUARY, 1909.] 


This being the case it will be evident 
that the effective portion of the work of 
any introduced parasite lies within the 
fraction of one per cent. that would 
otherwise survive. It therefore follows 
that, should an insect be introduced that 
would destroy fifty per cent. of the pest, 
more than forty-nine per cent. of this 
fifty per cent. issimply the destruction 
of individuals that would have died 
from other causes. The real question to 
be settled, therefore, becomes whether 
the new insect replaces a more ora less 
efficient cause of death. The apparent 
per cent. of efficiency is really no criter- 
ion whatever of the value of the intro- 
duction. That which we are desiring to 
secure is the reduction of the numbers 
especially during the period of injury, 
and therefore the only significant datum 
is the determination of the relative 
abundance maintained by the injurious 
species. The number of any particular 
parasite isnot evena safe index of its 
role in the maintenance of this status, 
unless one were able to accurately weigh 
its efficiency as contrasted with that 
which it replaced. 


All entomologists appreciate that 
natural enemies are largely, if not the 
only controlling, factors that maintain 
the present status of insect abundance, 
but do not so uniformly appreciate that 
the change of status though related is 
nevertheless essentially a _ different 
problem.—c. W. WOODWORTH, University 
of California, in Science, Friday August, 
21, 1908, New Series, Vol. XXVIII., 
No. 712. 


RUST ON MANGOKS, 


Lovers of the succulent mango will be 
concerned to hear that it is liable to be 
a victim tothe notorious ‘red rust, ” 
which is one of the worst blights of the 
tea crop. What is worse, although this 
discovery was made as long ago as 
August, 1905, when many valuable 
xmango orchards at Malda were attacked, 
we learn from the Biennial Report of 
the Imperial Department of Agriculture 
that nothing has been done yet to dis- 
cover a suitable treatment for the 
disease, as prolonged investigation on 
the spot would be necessary before any 
suggestion for treatment could be 
made”, and ‘“‘this is not possible at 
present,” though why we are not told. 
One would think, however, that the 
mango crop is of sufficient importance 
to justify such an impossibility being 
speedily overcome. In the meanwhile 
it is slightly consoling to know that the 
conditions determining virulence are 
local. The features of the disease, in 
fact, correspond closely to those ob- 


Plant Sanitation 


served on tea, and, like the latter, 
serious loss is confined to certain 
districts, though the alga, its cause, is 
widely distributed over India.—Indian 
Agriculturist, Vol. X XXII., No. 9. 


CACAO THRIPS. 


By H. A. Battou, M. Sc. 


Kntomologist on the Staff of the Im- 
perial Department of Agriculture. 


The cacao thrips is probably familiar 
to every grower of cacao in the Islands 
where this insect occurs. Since it first 
appeared as a pest in Grenada it has 
been more or less prevalent from time 
to time in different places. 


It has been found that thrips becomes 
numerous enough to attract attention 
only when, for some reason, the cacao 
trees are not in the most vigorous con- 
dition of growth. 


Some of the influences which tend to 
reduce the vitality of the cacao trees 
and thus render them more susceptible 
to the attacks of thrips may be men- 
tioned—seasons of drought, lack of 
drainage, lack of tillage, lack of ferti- 
lity and of humus in the soil; and, in 
fact, anything which causes a check in 
the growth or produces an_ unhealthy 
condition of the trees is liable to pro- 
mote the development of thrips. 


On the other hand, anything that 
tends to improve in a general way the 
vigour and healthfulness of the cacao 
trees would be expected to assist in 
reducing and keeping down the number 
of thrips, In all cases where it had 
been tried it has been found that any 
improvement of the conditions of the 
trees that are suffering from thrips 
results in diminished numbers of, and 
lessened injury by, these insects. This 
improvement may be brought about by 
attending to drainage, by better cul- 
tural methods, such as tilling the soil, 
pruning out dead wood, improving the 
soil by the addition of- manures and 
humus to give greater fertility and 
better aération, and to increase the 
moisture-retaining properties in times 
of drought. 


Experiments in Grenada, St. Lucia, 
and Dominica have all given results 
bearing out these statements, and from 
observations on estates where, although 
no experiments have been carried out, 
improved cultural measures have been 
adopted, it has been found that attacks 
of thrips have been less frequent and 
less severe, and in certain instances 


Plant Sanitation. 


thrips’ attacks have ceased or have 
become much reduced with the advent 
of rains after a drought. 


The description of cacao. thrips, its 
habits and manner of attack, and the 
remedies to be used in its control have 
appeared in the publications of the 
Imperial Department of . Agriculture 
(West Indian Bulletin, Vol. II, pp. 175, 
289; Vol. III, p. 285; Vol. VI, p. 94; Vol. 
VIII, p. 148; Agricultural News, Vol. 
LED, p. 90) and are only briefly reviewed 

ere. 


Thrips are smal] insects of the order 
Physopoda. The cacao thrips [Helio- 
thrips (Physopus) rubrocincta} is from 
1-18th to 1-25thinchinlength. The adults 
are dark-brown or black, the young are 
pale-green or yellowish-green with a 
bright-red band across the abdomen. 
These insects make minute incisions in the 
plant tissues on which they feed. They 
are generally to be found on the under 
surfaces of the leaves and on the pods. 
They injure the plant by feeding on the 
sap, and the incisions made by them 
may afford entrance to fungoid diseases. 


The pods are discoloured by these 
attacks, and it often happens that pods 
picked as ripe are merely discoloured. 
‘his sometimes occasions considerable 
loss. This however is less a source of 
loss than formerly, as cacao pickers are 
learning to be careful, and discoloured 
pods in thrips-infested areas are tried, 
before being picked, by scratching or 
slightly cutting the surface so that the 
tissue just under the skin can be seen. 


It will sometimes happen that cacao 
thrips will occur in such abundance 
that it is desirable to spray to bring 
them under control as quickly as pos- 
sible, while the effects of cultural 
methods are becoming apparent. For 
this purpose any of the sprayers of the 
knapsack or barrel types might be 


used. The following mixtures are recom- 
mended as being useful in this con- 
nexion :— 
1. Rosin WASH. 
Powdered rosin ... Aaa cn al lay 
Caustic soda (77 per cent.) ... 1 ,, 
Fish oil ne .. # pint. 


Mix these, cover with about 2 inches 
depth of water, and boil till all is 
dissolved. Then add water very slowly 
to the liquid, keeping it continually 
boiling until the whole is made up to 
about 3 gallons. This is stock solution. 
For use, add 6 gallons of water tol 
gallon of stock solution. 


Amount of wash, 21 gallons. 


[JANUARY, 1909. 


2. KEROSENE EMULSION. 


& lb. 
2 gallons. 


Hard soap 
Kerosene 


Boil the soap in 1 gallon of water till 
itis dissolved. Take it off the fire, at 
once pour in the kerosene and churn the 
mixture witha force pump or syringe 
for ten minutes. This is stock solution. 
Add 9 gallons of water to 1 gallon of the 
stock solution. 


3. KEROSENE EMULSION WITH WHALE 
Or SOAP. 


Use 11b. whale oil soap in place of 4 Ib. 
hard soap and make and use as in No. 2. 


4, ROSIN AND WHALE OIL SOAP ~ 


COMPOUND. 
Rosin Hes 4 lb. 
Washing soda... Ds: Sues 
Whale oil soap ... vos LOM 


With the rosin and soda make 4 gallons 
of rosin compound stock solution as 
above. Stir the whale oil soap in 5 
gallons of hot water ; mix the two while 
hot. ‘This is stock solution. To every 
gallon add 4 gallons of water. An 
alternate method is to make the cosin 
compound stock solution, For use, mix 
1 gatlou with 10 gallons of water and stir 
in 251b. of whale oil soap. Every 45 
gallons of wash should contain the above 
ingredients, however mixed. 


Of these, Nos. land 3 are recommended 
as likely to be most effective. 


DISCUSSION. 


Hon, H, Grahame Lang (Grenada) said 
that in Grenada some years ago they 
suffered badly from attacks of thrips; 
but now they had found that whenever 
thrips appear, it was due to some 
cultural defect. As soon as the land was 
well tilled, the thrips disappeared. The 
chief cause was want of a system of 
proper drainage. To get rid of thripsa — 
good system of cultivation must be 
adopted. The burial of husks or shells 
should also always be insisted upon on 
cacao estates. 


Mr. J. H. Hart (Trinidad) said that 
their experience of thrips was that it 
was a matter of no consequence what- 
ever to cultivation in Trinidad. There 
was some there, but they attributed 
their comparative freedom largely to 
the presence of shade.—Journal of the 
Imperial Agricultural Department for 
the West Indies. Vol. IX, No. 2. 


Bae 


- 


JANUARY; 1909. ] 


57 


LIVE STOCK. 


THE IMPROVEMENT OF CATTLE 
IN CEYLON. 


What has struck me forcibly for some 
years is that absolutely nothing has 
been done to improve the breeding of 
the cattle in the island. The present 
state of this valuable country’s asset 
is in a most deplorable condition and 
is getting worse year by year. The 
village cattle, generally speaking, are 
almest beyond description, ill bred, 
emaciated, stunted beasts—a good num- 
ber of them being about the size of 
a Lincoln ram. Estate cattleare a little 
better, but as a rule (as the cattle are 
kept for manurial purposes and estate 
work) no trouble is taken—such as cas- 
trating, and only keeping bulls sufficient 
for stud purposes, the innovating of 
fresh blood, the not  over-stocking 
of the estate, the making of provision 
for the dry seasons in the form of sweet 
ensilage &c., &c. Thisis a subject well 
worthy of the attention of our CGovern- 
ment, and our progressive Governor. I 
am sure that,if a feasible scheme is 
placed before him (not of course ona 
tco elaborate scale), he would without 
doubt, seeing that it is an absolute 
necessity for the economy and progress 
of the country, find the wherewithal 
for the successful carrying out of it. 
I will now try and explain what I mean 
by my previous statement ‘that itis 
an absolute necessity for the economy 
and progress of the country.” 


(1) Q. From where does a large pro- 
portion of our draft stock come ?—A. 
—From India. 


(2) Q. From where does our dairy 
stock come ?—A.—Mostly from India and 
a few from Australia. 


(3) Q. From where does a portion 
oF ont killing stock come ?—A.—From 
ndia. 


(4) Q. Why is India our chief sup- 
plier ?—A.—Because we seem to have 
allowed cattle breeding to look after 


- itself, 


(5) Q. What is the quality of our 
beef supply ?—A.—Bad, very bad, and 
general tasteless, tough and without 
at. 


(6) Q. What constitutes our home- 
bred killing stock ?—A.—Generally cast 
on wore bulls and other half-starved 
cattle. 


8 


(7) Q- What is the meaning of ‘the 
economy ofa country” ?—A.—The keep- 
ing of as much money as possible in the 
country. 


(8) Q. Has anything been done to 
carry out this economic question as far 
as cattle are concerned ?—A.—Absolutely 
nothing. 


(9) Q. Is it possible for this draining 
of our money to India to be stopped ? 
—A.—I feel certain that it can be done, 
(not at once of course), not only from 
an economic point, but also from a pro- 
gressive point of view, if a thoroughly 
workable scheme is started, and worked 
out by capable hands. 


Now, the question is—how is this to 
be done? In my humble opinion the 
first thing necessary is the establish- 
ment of a Government stock farm under 
the management of one who thoroughly 
understands the breeding and manage- 
ment of stock, the growing of permanent 
pasture and green fodder, ensilage mak- 
ing, milking and training of dairy cattle, 
ploughing, the thorough tilling of land 
for agricultural purposes, machinery, 
&e., &c.,—in fact a qualified practical 
agriculturist. This farm should be gran- 
ted about 800 to 900 acres of land, if 
possible near an irrigation tank, in a 
district physically suitable. Now I will 
give you a list of the implements, &c., 
that would be necessary for the working 
of this farm. 


One small traction engine. 

Three American ‘Planet Junior’ 
ploughs. 

One set disc harrows. 

One roller. 

One single ‘*‘ Planet Junior” cultivator 

One chaff cutter (for ensilage making), 

One hay knife. 

Six hay forks. 

One small circular saw and bench. 

Two double bullock carts. 

One waggon to be used as a cart for 
the engine. ; 

Three pairs heavy Indian or other 
draft bulls. 

A supply of cattle medicines. 


All the above mentioned, except the 
engine, do not cost much. 


Once the land is secured a portion of 
about 800 acres must be felled and burnt 
off (after securing sufficient timber for 
fencing and building purposes.) Now 
must be started the extracting of the 
stumps. This asaruleisa very expen- 


Lave Stock, 58 


sive operation, but it can be done with 
economy by the use of asimple imple- 
ment called the ‘‘ forest devil” or better 
still by a traction engine (as an engine 
would ultimately be necessary this will 
not be an additional expense) the first 
portion to be cleared of stumps being 
a 10 ft. roadway round the boundary. 
Now wewant asmall circular saw for 
the economic handling of our fencing 
posts. Once the posts are ready and 
they have been dropped along the fenc- 
ing line by means of the engine and 
a simply constructed waggon, stump 
extracting and fencing can go ‘on 
together. The wire for the fences 
should be ordinary iron wire which 
should be passed through holes in the 
posts and can be stretched with a 
simplehome-made contrivance to any 
strain. Isay plain wire as cattle are 
liable to injure themselves with barb 
wire, one barb wire being nailed right 
on the top ofthe posts to prevent any 
jumping. The buildings necessary are 
not many or expensive—a decent wattle 
and daub bungalow for a manager, a 
smaller bungalow for the conductor, 
lines sufficient to hold 16 coolies, an im- 
plement shed, afew open cattle sheds 
for rainy weather, three bricked ensilage 
pits witha roof over it with an engine 
shed close by (more than likely the 
bricks can be made on the spot.) Once 
the grabbing of stumps is in progress 
a plan must be conceived for the suit- 
able laying out of the land in pad- 
docks, some for permanent pasture and 
others for greentodder and silage. As 
soon as about 40 acres are ready, other 
conditions being suitable, ploughing and 
the preparation of land for sowing the 
first silage crop must be started, 
When this is ready, a crop of maize can 
be drilled in three feet apart, and be 
kept free from weeds, and the land in 
a thorough erated state. by means of 
the ‘‘Planet Junior” single cultivator 
mentioned in thelist of implements. 
While this crop is growing the silos 
must be got ready to receive it. 1 
may state here, as there seems to be 
considerable doubt as to how ensilage 
can be made successfully, that silage 
making has gone far beyond the stages 
of experimenting. The ancients stored 
their grain in pits or silos, and during 
at least the last 100 years the possibi- 
lity of making ‘sour tray ” or “cattle 
salad” from green herbage by burying 
in trenches in the ground has been 
known and more or less practised in 
Australia and elsewhere. Colonel Bur- 
natey, in his ‘‘Rideto Khiva,” noted 
the people between Kasala and Khiva 
uncovering silage from such trenches. 
It was not till about 1875 that the 
practice began to be adopted by pro- 


Fe) eee 
4 4 pai eS 


[J ANUARY, 1909. 


gressive agriculturists in France, Eng- 
land, and later in Australia, and now 
in most countries it is a recognised 
rural economy. 


As thestump extracting progresses, 
subdivision fencing and plouging can 
proceed. Another all-important ques- 
tion—a plentiful supply of good drinking 
water must now be settled beyond doubt 
in the paddocks for permanent pasture ; 
either in the form of catchment-dams, 
or if that is not possible it will have to 
be pumped from wells into overhead 
tanks by means Of a wind mill, thence 
to flow as required into self-regulating 
troughs. 


Once there is sufficient fodder, then 
must be introduced the cattle which are 
to form the nucleus for improving the 
cattle in Ceylon. Too much stress can- 
not be laid on the most careful selection 
of the cattle, but I cannot go into that 
matter deeply in this article, but suffice 
it to say that cattle of three different 
types must be provided for—dairy cattle, 
cattle for killing and draft  pur- 
poses, and travelling cart for trotting 
cattle, 


For dairy purposes a cow is wanted 
that will not make fat but milk, not a 
cow with alarge carcase that requires a 
large quantity of food to support it, but 
a cow that pays its way. lor instance, 
acow that will not give one and halt 
to two gallons of milk is not worth its 
keep, especially in town dairies where 
they have to be hand-fed. Cattle for 
killing and draft purposes must have a 
big carcase and so are naturally big 
boned, the size of carcase being specially 
necessary for the former, and for the 
latter a combination of both for the 
drawing of heavy loads. Travelling 
eart or trotting cattle must be finer 
boned and less in weight, but with 
retentive power for a long journey. 
No doubt some readers will say :—How 
are all these essential points to be got? 
First of all by the careful selection of 
the best breeds having these necessary 
traits, and then by skilful crossing to 
produce what is required. I may state 
that cattle can be ‘‘made to order” by 
careful crossing. I would suggest the 
procuring for a start of 25 head of cattle 
comprised of the following breeds :— 
Ayrshire or Jersey (milk types), short- 
horned or Hereford (beet and. draft 
types) and some of the best Indian cattle 
pertaining to these two types. 


Now, a good portion of the farm is 
fenced and cultivated with permanent 
pasture, and green fodder crops, the 
silos are full, a good supply of water is 
provided, a typical lot of cattle have 


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4 


JANUARY, 1909.) 


been introduced; everything now rests 
in the hands of the skipper of this well 
equipped and well manned ship, [say 
without any hesitation that if it isin 
capable hands, in four years.’ time it will 
start paving the royal road of improving 
the cattle in the Island. This, of course 
cannot be done asif by a magician’s 
wand but by slow and sure progress. It 
cannot be expected that what has been 
going backwards for decades can be set 
right in a year or two, but I have no 
hesitation in saying that 10 to 15 years 
will show very beneficial results. Now 
the question is: Can this be practically 
done? Imust own that this is a very 
difficult question, but I shall make some 
few suggestions which no doubt can be 
vastly improved on by better brains 
than mine. 


I would suggest that stud bulls be sent 
from the farm (the progeny of the 
imported stock)in the hands of trained 
instructors, to different districts (accord- 
ing to bulls available), and that cattle 
owners be allowed the free use of the 
animals for stud purposes. The in- 
structors will teach the people the objecz 
of this mission, instruct them as to the 
best methods of improving their own 
herds, tell them of the better prices that 
can be obtained by breeding better 
cattle, tell them of the large quantities 
of milk that can be got, try and induce 
them as an object-lesson to visit the 
farm, and in fact ina hundred and one 
ways show them that this is being done 
for their advantage, and teach them to 
help themselves. I am certain that 
plenty of advantage will be taken of the 
free stud bnills, whichis undoubtedly a 
very good start. Things must not by 
any means be allowed to flag; every- 
thing must be kent up to almost boiling 
point. The local branches of the Agri- 
cultural Society must be shaken up from 
their lethargic state, and induced to 
preach and inevery way possible drive 
into the people the advantages of im- 
proving their cattle. They can also 
help by getting up Agricultural Shows 
where prizes are offered for the best 
types of cattle under the new process. 
The farm will have its best on exhibit 
at these shows. The Parent Society will 
no doubt give all the aid it possibly can, 
as no doubt it will at once see the great 
importance of the subject, even sur- 
passing that of agriculture, and silk- 
worm growing. I am sure that the 
greatest enthusiast of the two fore- 
going subjects willagree with me that 
this is a subject before which theirs 
must take a back seat, as itis one of 
vital, importance to the welfare of the 
whole Island. Even the goddess of 
nicotine that so many of us worship 


59 Live Stock. 


many times a day must take a back seat, 
to the goddess that supplies lactic fiuid, 
and the gods that renovate the lost 
energies ot the human man, and promote 
the motive power for either drawing 
him or his werldly possessions. 


There is no doubt that ocular demon- 
stration is of far greater importance 
than preaching; especially when dealing 
with the ignorant masses, this must be 
taken full advantage of in driving out 
the prejudices and lax methods of the 
people. Now ina very few years the 
farm will not only be able to supply 
free sires, but be able to sell both stud 
bulls, and dairy cows, as well as some 
draft cattle, etc. Infact. ina very few 
years it will be a self-supporting in- 
stitution not only paying its way but 
having a balancein hand and year bys 
year enlargening its scope of useful- 
ness, to ultimately have to its credit 
that it was by its means that the 
cattle of Ceylon were brought up to a 
high standared of perfection, 


The farm could be worked to some 
extentin conjunction with the Colombo 
Government Dairy inasmuch as supply- 
ing them with cows, which no doubt are 
now procured at big prices from India, 
and also be made the Colombo Depét for 
stud bulls and cattle for sale, etc. Once 
the farm is thoroughly established and 
paying its way other smaller farms 
must be started in other districts, under 
the supervision of trained young men 
from the parent institution. This is of 
great importance as they will not only 
teach the people how to improve their 
stock by breeding, but will teach them 
how to grow food, and make silage. 
These farms should experiment and find 
out what grass, etc., do best in the 
particular districts. Teach the people 
how land istobe prepared for cultiva- 
tion, induce them to visit the place and 
see how things are being done, in fact 
lay down the foundation of real agri- 
cultural instruction and development, 
A certain number of farm implements 
of the most suitable types (which have 
been tested at the parent farm and 
found to be the ideal necessity) can he 
lent to the people free of charge, and 
they be taught the useof them. Agri- 
cultural banks so much discussed alittle 
while ago can be started in a small way 
in conjunction with the farms, first of 
all by lending first-class seed grain and 
other suitable seeds, to be returned with 
a small percentage of interest, and there 
is nosaying how tarthese and other allied 
institutions can be developed, they are 
carried out in a practical manner, by 
thoroughly experienced agriculturists 


Inve Stock. 60 


Another important needis that the 
breeding of heavy draft cattle will 
supply us beasts of a certain weight to 
draw agricultural implements; at present 
it is found not possible to work 
the best and most economic ploughs, etc. 
(as for instance the disc plough imported 
by Government and found unworkable 
as per report of the last Agricultural 
Board meeting) because draft power of 
sufficient weight is not available. 
Estate proprietors will, no doubt, avail 
themselves of the advantage, as it will 
pay them to plough the land rather than 
turn the soil by coolies, as is at present 
done, the work being done better, and 
at less than half the price.—Ceylon 
Independent,” October, 22, 1908. 


The Government Veterinary Surgeon 
Remarks with Regard to this :— 


As regards cattle the question is more 
a matter for private enterprise. Cattle 
owners do not take sufficient interest in 
the matter themselves and will not do 
so, however much demonstration is given 
to them. 


Ceylon is nota “ grazing” country, and 
beyond the forests there is very little 
for cattle to live upon. Once land is 
clearedt ea, coffee, coconuts, rubber, etce., 
are grown, and there is no grazing for 
cattle. Native cattle used even to 


(JANUARY, 1909. 


scanty fare starve by scores. Excellent 
cattle, both Indian and European, have 
been imported for years but speedily 
degenerate. It therefore seems useless 
to breed and supply cattle requiring 
more and better food. 


Many owners, when asked if they want 
a stud bull sent to their districts, say 
they do not, as the cost of feeding larger 
animals is prohibitive; and, in those in- 
stances where good bulls have been sent 
to a district, the result has generally 
been a failure—the bull eventually dying 
due to want of good food. 


Any land-owner opening up land as a 
farm would be deserving of every assis- 
tance and would no doubt get it. Then 
comes the question of market, it is very 
doubtful if paying prices could be 
obtained. 


G. W. STURGESS. 
Government Veterinary Surgeon. 


[This question of the more and better 
food wanted by better cattle is usually 
lost sight of by advocates of ‘‘improve- 
ment.” It must be clearly recognised 
that agricultural matters are, like a 
game of spillikins, fitting into one 
another in an extraordinary way, and 
it is consequently impossible to make a 
sudden and rapid advance.—ED. } 


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Se eC CU eC Cc ehlc er 


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ashciameel 


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A Bh ' 


JANUARY, 1909.] 61 


WIND-BREAKS FOR ORANGE 
GROVES IN PORTO RICO, 


Orange cultivation is an industry of 
considerable promise in Porto Rico, and 
numbers of plantations are now being 
set out. A pest which is causing a good 
deal of trouble in the citrus groves is 
the orange mussel scale (Lepidosaphes 
beckii, (Mytilaspis citricola), and the 1907 
Report of the Agricultural Experiment 
Station of the island mentions that 

xperiments are in progress to determine 
he best methods of dealing with these 
insects. Spraying with kerosene has 
given fairly satisfactory results. It is 
stated, too, that Porto Rican planters 
now recognize that wind-breaks on the 
wind-ward side of the citrus groves play 
an important part in checking the 
spread of the scales. The following 
notes on this point are taken from the 
report :— 


Wind-breaks are divided into two 
classes—permanentand temporary. Per- 
manent wind-breaks are generally plan- 
ted on the outer borders ot the groves, 
while temporary wind-breaks are planted 
between the rows of trees. There are 
several plants which grow very quickly, 
and afford good temporary wind pro- 
tection, namely: bananas, sugar-cane. 
pigeon peas, and the China berry or 
Barbadoes lilac (Melia Azedarach). Tem- 
porary wind-breaks should not remain 
between the rows more than three years 
and in the case of bananas a furrow 
should be ploughed on each side, thus 
preventing the roots from sapping the 
soil around the orange trees. 


For permanent wind-breaks at the 
present time the mango seems to be the 
best, but in setting out the young trees 
they should be headed as low as possible. 
Bamboo is also being planted, and if the 
cuttings are set out during the rainy 
season they start much quicker... These 
should be planted close together, so as 
to form a hedge. 


When brush land is being cleared for 
planting, it is advisable to leave a strip 
of uncut timber 20 feet wide every 300 to 
400 feet. The results obtained from 
wind-breaks are very marked, certain 
groves which were wind-swept and were 
not growing at all having been brought 
into excellent condition. In almost 
every grove in the island marked im- 
provements have been observed as the 
result of planting wind-breaks. In 
certain areas there may be found trees 
producing from 1 to 2 boxes of fruit, 


while trees not more than 50 to 70 feet 
away, and of the same age as the former 
but without wind protection are fre- 
quently noticeable, which, from their 
development, might not be more than 
a year old. On the latter the branches 
are blown to one side and covered with 
scale. Trees protected from the wind 
require less spraying, and the fruit is 
free from  scars.—Agricultural News, 
Vol. VII., No. 165; August, 1908. 


GREEN MANURING. 

In India manuring is yetin its empiri- 
cal stage. The science of manuring, its 
mode of action, the improvements of 
the methods available and the return to 
the soiloft all that is taken from it are 
not sufficieutly known. The use of 
green manures might be especially re- 
commended to the Indian agriculturist, 
especially on account of his poverty. 


Green manuring consists of growing 
acrop of some sort, usually a legumi- 
nous one, and ploughing it into the soil at 
the time of flowering. Modern science 
has up to now determined ten chemical 
substances in plants, viz., carbon, hydro- 
gen, oxygen, nitrogen, sulphur, pihos- 
phorus, potassium, calcium, magnesium, 
and iron, Of thesechemical ingredients, 
nitrogen, with which organic matter is 
closely associated, has been generally 
recognised to be the most important. 
The growing of leguminous plants be- 
tween the lines of the staple crop has 
been found conducive to the accumu- 
lation in the soil of a sufficient store of 
organic matter and nitrogen. Nitrogen 
in its free form is largely presentin the 
atmosphere ; but the plants have not 
got the power to utilise it. The diffi- 
culty is that they require a medium to 
render nitrogen available to themselves. 
An experienced agriculturist describes 
the utility of leguminous crop in this 
respect thus :—‘ First rains, lightenings 
and other natural causes tend to unite 
the free nitrogen with hydrogen, oxy- 
gen and other substances and com- 
pounds, which falling down along with 
rain, enter the soil and mix with the 
earth (technically called metallic bases ) 
and forms salts of nitric acid. Hence 
the starvation of the plant for nitrogen 
in the presence of plenty of free nitrogen 
in the atmosphere. _ It requires a medi- 
ator and a process before the nitrogen 
can be of usein itsformation,...... 
Of the several thousands of natural 
orders of plants, modern science has 
determined that a certain natural order 


Scientific Agriculture. 62 


known as leguminous (Pulse order) has 
the power of utilising the free nitrogen 
of the atmosphere into its own consti- 
tuents. This it does either directly by 
making the free nitrogen unite with its 
own substances or indirectly by making 
it unite with other substances in the 
air and then utilising it for its own 
purpose.” 


Green mauuring is not a new system 
of manuring for India. It appears to 
have existed in various parts of India 
from very early times, though its 
rationalistic explanation in the light 
of agricultural chemistry was _ not 
known. Itisthesame as what is known 
as the “ Pachaithol valar” in Malabar, 
Travancore and other places on the 
West Coast. Leaves of certain kinds of 
trees, such as Portia or Silanti (Thes- 
phesa populnea), Erukku (Calopropis 
gigantea) Mango ( Nanagifera indica.) 
Avarum (Cassia agriculata) are in 
these places commonly used as manure 
for field crops. A few months prior to 
the cultivation of the staple crop, horse 
gram is usually grown in the fields 
with a purpose to produce leaves to 
get them ploughed into the soil. In the 
case of the trees mentioned above, their 
leaves are chopped and applied to the 
soil soon after ploughing, in order that 

they might mix with the earth and 
decay. In some cases a few of the 
staple plants are taken en masse from 
the ground and in that spot cropped 
leaves with mud are put in and over 
this the plants are placed so that they 
might strike root below in the manured 
ground. Even leaves of ordinary jungle 
trees are largely used as manure. Thus 
it will be seen that our old farmers had 
some idea about the utility of the appli- 
cation of green leaves to the soil. They 
knew that when some plants were 
plouged into the soil or are simply raised 
on it, the soil becomes exceedingly pro- 
ductive. But it was only atthe end of 
the last century that the German 
chemist made some investigations on 
the subject and discovered that these 
leguminous plants develop certain nodu- 
les at their roots which serve to accumu- 
late millions of nitrifying bacteria. 
This genus of plants known as legumi- 
nose ( Pulse order ) were found to enrich 
the soil in which they grew. They 
have the peculiar power to absorb from 
the atmosphere more nitrogen than 
they require. They take just what they 
want for their growth and leave the 
surplus in the soil, In the above, we 
have shown what “Green manuring ” is. 


One of the important properties 
of green manure is_ nitrification. 
Besides . nitrification it has also other 


JANUARY, 1909. 


properties. When the various parts 
of these: leguminous plants get de- 
composed and get mixed with the 
soil the particles of the soil are made 
to recede from one another, and as a 
result the soil gets loosened. Thus these 
green manures serve to assist in the 
physical growth of the staple crop. 
Again, the decomposition of vegetable 
substances causes the evolution of car- 
bonic acid. Plants, we know, are unable 
to assimilate any substance except in 
solution. Itis for this reason that water 
is so necessary to plant life. The pre- 
sence in the soil of carbonic acid or its 
source in the form of decomposing plants 
is highly useful for the healthy growth 
of plants; for carbonic acid has the 
property of dissolving various com- 
pounds which are insoluble in water. 
Side by side with these advantages, there 
is, perhaps, one minor disadvantage. 
The decomposition of organic substances 
also causes the evolution of sulphurated 
hydrogen, which is extremely injurious 
to plant life. But the evil effects of 
this gas might be considerably minimised 
by turning up the earth more frequently 
ee when other manurial agents are 
used. 


Various plants are used as green 
manure. Which of them is best cannot 
be definitely said. It largely depends 
upon the nature of the soil and the 
variety of the staplecrop. For instance, 
horse gram, which is known to be a good 
green manure, proves a failure when 
tried on a crop of black gram. In a 
lecture delivered by Mr. Herbert Wright 
some time ago he mentioned the use of 
Crotaralia striata, ground-nut, dadaps 
and albizzia as green manures best suited 
for tea plantation. They are found 
equally useful in the case of coffee, 
cocoa and rubber. There are other green 
manures, such as mimsoa pudica, certain 
varieties of cassias, tephrosia purpuera 
and Sesbania Grandiigna, which might 
be used with great advantage in coconut 
and tobacco plantations. Mr. Wright 
is a staunch advocate of ‘‘Green manur- 
ing.” He believes ‘‘ that the growing ot 
leguminous crops, besides enriching the 
soil when dug in, keeps the temperature 
of the soil more uniform in both the 
damp and dry seasons, breaks the force 
of rain and reduces the amount of wash, 
prevents the loss of plant food by the 
percolation of water and drainage, and 
helps to keep the weeds in check.” Of 
the green manures ‘mentioned above, 
Crotalaria striata is not very commonly 
used as green manure. The seed of 
Crotalaria striata is sown broadeast and 
the plants may be uprooted within six 
or eight months after sowing. It yields 
a large amount of a green organic 


a a ee ee 


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4 
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B 
3 
; 
3 
| 
5 


JANUARY, 1909. 


matter, giving over 6 tons per acre. 
Six tons of green organic matter as 
manure are equal to more than 100 lb. 
castor cake. Its use as green manure 
is confined to some Ceylon tea _ plant- 
ations and on a small scale to some of 
the tea districts in India. Groundnuts 
have been found of greatest advantage 
for the purposes of green manure. This 
plant has a trailing habit. It does not 
grow beyond a height of one foot and 
it dies down in six months, It can thus 
be dug in with the soil very easily. 
Further, the cultivation of this plant 
is very simple, the seeds being simply 
thrown into the holes of an inch deep. 
The one great advantage the ground- 
nut thrown has over Crotalaria is its 
small amount of tissue and its very 
thin stems and leaves, which are readily 
taken up by tea or other plants. It has 
been found that ground-nuts provided 
a large quantity of nitrogen, 9,000 Ib. 
of the green material yielding as much 
nitrogen as 1,500 lb. castor cake. The 
Albizzia, which belongs to the genus 
known as Albizzia moluccana, is not 
much of a success asa green manure. 
Crotalaria is much superior to _ the 
Albizzia in the matter of the supply of 
the organic matter, Of course, in the 
absence of other green manures it may 
be used in tea plantations. In addition 
to those mentioned above, there are 
a lot of other legumes. Cajanus indicus 
(Dal) is a very useful plant that might 
be profitably used asa green manure. 
This plant, though not a native of 
India, has become well acclimatized, 
having been introduced into India from 
tropical Africa some 3,000 years ago. 
It can be cultiyated at a small cost. 
With the beginning of the rainsit might 
be sown, aid cut down as soon as the 
crop begins to ripen. This plant is 
known by various names. It is known 
as Thovaray in the Malabar district on 
the West Coast. There are many other 
plants of the pulse order that might 
be used as greenmanures. Experiments 
are being made in the cultivation of 
some of these plants as green manures 
in the hope of discovering something 
which do better than any of the above. 


Thus far about green manuring and its 
advantages. We shall now point out 
another feature of green manuring. 
Great care should be taken in the choice 
of the plants for purposes of green 
manuring. In some soilscertain of these 
leguminous plants do not develop 
nodules at their roots. This means that 
these plants are abstracting nitrogen 
from the soil instead of adding to it. 
The development of nodules depends 
upon the nature and variety of the soil; 
and, as such, every leguminous plant, 


63 Scientific Agriculture. 


before being cultivated as green manure; 
must first be experimented upon. 
Again, in the matter of examination of 
roots for nodules, it must be remembered 
that all excreseences that may be seen 
at the roots of plants cannot be taken 
for nitrogenous nodules ; for there had 
been instances in which such excre- 
scences which might appear at first sight 
to be real nodules were producted by 
nematodes. The subject of nematodes 
and the incalculable mischief wrought 
by them to plantations is still engaging 
the attention of agricultural experts in 
India. A bulletin on nematodes issued 
by Mr. C. A. Barber some five or six 
years ago, gives a large fund of informa- 
tion on the subject. In his opinion the 
remedy is to destroy every plant infested 
with this tiresome pest. The best way 
to distinguish nematodes from nitro- 
genous nodules is to examine the roots 
with a microscope. To the naked eye 
the differences may not be visible. 
There are two kinds of nitrogenous 
nodules, one nearly globular in form and 
the other flat and grooved, having the 
appearance of minute finger-like projec- 
tions from a common centre. 

On the whole it might undoubtedly be 
said that green manure is cheaper and 
in many respects better than other 
varieties of manure. Green manuring 
has been found especially useful in the 
case of lands reclaimed from jungle for 
cultivation. It proves beneficial to such 
lands in many ways. The fertilising 
ingredients which would otherwise have 
been washed away are utilised by these 
green plants. Further, they add to the 
quantity of carbon in the land. All 
possible endeavours should therefore be 
made to induce our ryots to go in for 
the use of green manures more largely 
than they do at present, especially in 
view of the fact that in India the soil in 
many places has already begun to feel 
the strain of cultivation to which it has 
been almost continuously subjected 
during centuries.—Indian Agriculturist, 
Vol. XXXIII., No. 7, July, 1908. 


A HOME-MADE SEED DRILL. 

A very useful home-made seed sower 
used at the Church Training Farm, 
Apollo Bay, is illustrated. It is used 
for sowing in drills seed suchas maize, 
peas, beans, de&c. Its construction is 
very simple, as it consists of a plain 
wheel, or the end of an old cask with an 
ordinary sized milk dish screwed on one 
side, with a square hole cut through 
both for a piece of wood 2 inches x 2 
inches for an axle; half round holes 
should be punched with a hollow wool 
about 3 inches apart 1 inch from the 


Scientific Agriculture. 


MiLK DISH: HALF 


Rounp HOLES 
PUNCHED 3 
APART 71 FROM 


OUTER EDGE. 


outer edge before the wheel is screwed 
on, leaving a lip to open and close to 
regulate the quantity of seed to be sown. 
A. round hole large enough take a7 lb. 
treacle tin should be cut about 14 inches 
from the top and tacked in the hole for 
filling the sower. Two battens about 5 
feet long with two cross pieces may be 
used for handles. The machine is 
wheeled along the furrow and sows very 
regularly.—Journal of the_ Department 
of Agriculture of Victoria, Vol. VI., Part 
10, 10th Ocober, 1908. 
W. H.D. 


LEGUMINOUS CROPS FOR 
COTTON LAND. 


In the West Indies Sea Island cotton 
is chiefly grown as a subsidiary crop 
to suyar-cane and not as a main crop. 

In the Sea Islands, however. and in 
Carolina and Georgia, where Sea Island 
cotton is grown atall, it usually forms 
the most important and profitable crop 
in the rotation. Under these conditions, 
one of the chief points needing atten- 
tion by the cotton farmer is the best 
means of maintaining the fertility of 
the land for cotton cultivation. 


Artificial manures are frequently 
applied, but in Farmers Bulletin 302 
of the United States Department of 
Agriculture—‘Sea Island cotton,’ it is 
stated that one of the chief factors for 
keeping the land in good condition is 
the adoption of a rotation in which 
leguminous crops are prominent. Cow- 


peas, velvet beans, and peanuts, all of 
which have been recommended for 
cultivation in the West Indies, are the 
chief crops of this kind grown, being 
found to give excellent results on the 
light soils most suitable for Sea Island 
cotton, and the rotation frequently 
extends over no more than two years, 
cotton being planted in one season, and 
a mixture of corn and cowpeas the 
second year. 


On the whole, it is stated, the cowpea 
(Vigna catjang) is the most popular 
and widely-grown leguminous crop for 
growth on Sea Island cotton land. The 
peculiar advantages of this crop are 
that the plant is well adapted to poor 
land, it is easy to cultivate, and the 
produce is valuable as food for man 
and stock. The Iron cowpea is specially 
recommended for growth in connexion 
with cotton. 


The velvet bean (Mucuna pruriens, 
var. utilis) is another crop which con- 
stitutes a valuable source of humus, and 
adds a large amount of nitrogen to 
the soil on which it is grown, This 
plant grows very vigorously, and _ its 
vines afford excellent fodder for stock. 
The plant, too, is immune to most 
diseases.—The Agricultural News, Vol 
VIL, No. 165. August, 1908. 


PLANT PHYSIOLOGY. 

What we do not know about plant 
physiology will require the writing of 
many books and the realization of 
much experience before (lhe agricultural 


; 
q 
; 


JANUARY, 1909.] 6! 


world will reach common ground in 
relation thereto. Animal physiology, 
including human physiology, has been 
making rapid strides, through the last 
two or three decades, largely because 
of its investigation along industrial and 
economic lines. So far as the work has 
been left to the medical fraternity, un- 
happily, they have not been able to 
develop much that is new; they, as a 
rule, being not only overworked, but 
underpaid in their ordinary vocation. 
The investigations of animal life by our 
scientific agricultural institutions have 
done much to aid humanity. 


All of this, however, left plent physio- 
logy in the background and, as we now 
stand, we hardly know how plats live, 
breathe, drink, eat and die, as apparent- 
ly they allmust do, and probably simi- 
larly to all other living beings. In a 
recent issue of the West India Agricul- 
tural News there is reprinted from the 
Memoirs of the Department of Agricul- 
ture in India an article entitled ‘‘The 
Toxic Substances Excreted by the Roots 
of Plants.” We reprint thisin another 
column in this issue, but desire to cast 
our opinion against the accuracy of its 
conclusions, even if we have to use the 
Scotch verdict of ‘‘ not proven.” [Given 
in the last issue, page 563. | 


The general tenor of the argument 
used is that some crops are found to do 
very poorly after certian other crops, 
when grown upon the land the follow- 
ing year. The inference is that the pre- 
vious crop has secreted some toxic ele- 
ment inthe soil inimical to the more 
recently planted crop. The first refer- 
ence is made of cotton crops grown in 
Egypt, in which a certain grass was 
permitted to grow as a weed. It is 
recognized everywhere that grasses are 
inimical to the best growth of our so- 
called hoed crops. Just why this is, it is 
difficult to determine with the data we 
have, but we are led to believe that the 
grasses growing in with other crops 
consume the air, moisture and plant 


Scientific Agriculture. 


nutrients of the soil and, generally, 
being indigenous, they are quite hardy 
and difficult to extirpate and survive in 
the contest that they are making with 
the cultivated crops, unless positively 
hoed out. 


Why one crop following the other 
should be bettered or injured because of 
the previous crop, is not so well under- 
stood. It is understood that alegumi« 
nous crop enriches the soil and that any 
crop following it will probably be much 
benefited thereby. Sweet potatoes are 
not leguminous and yet we know that 
sugarcane will generally do very well 
in land that has been in sweet potatoes 
the previous year. We presume that 
this is owing to the fact that the 
sweet potatoes occupy the ground 
to some depth, and in their planting, 
cultivation and harvesting the soil will 
receive a degree of tilth not ordinarily 
given to standard crops like sugarcane 
and cotton. Weare very much inclined 
to think that the author of the article in 
question is guessing at his conclusions, 
and this particularlyas given in the 
fourth statement that the substance 
excreted by all crops is probably iden- 
tical. All plant analyses show that the 
plants consume different quantities of 
the mineral constitutents of the soil. 
If the plant absorbs all of its nutrition 
mineral constitutents included, through 
its roots and in solution with water, 
then the excretion is, we belive, sent 
into the air through the leaves. And 
we believe that the apparently toxic 
effects of previously grown crop, on 
given lands have their origin in the 
exhaustion of the lands by the growth 
of such crops rendering them less fit for 
the successful production of subsequent 
crops. Everyone interested in scientific 
agriculture will do well to read the 
article herein referred to, as it comes 
from what is persumed to be a scientific 
agricultural authority in Bombay, Bri- 
tish Kast India,—The Louisiana Planter 
and Sugar Manufacturer, Vol. XLI., 
No. 8. August. 22, 1908, 


665 


[JANUARY, 1909, — 


MISCELLANEOUS. 


DRY-LAND FARMING IN THE 
MADRAS PRESIDENCY. 


By H. C. SAMPSON, B.SC., 
Deputy Director of Agriculture, Madras. 


(Li llustrated.) 


Dry-land farming in the Madras Presi- 
dency offers great scope for investiga- 
tion and improvement. In many dis- 
tricts such as Bellary, Cuddapah, Ananta- 
pur, Kurnool, Guntur and Nellore, the 
implements in use are admirably adapted 
for dry-land farming, but in the south, 
the plough and the land-hoe are the 
oy common implements used for dry- 
ands. 


Successful dry-land farming is inti- 
mately connected with the conservation 
of soil moisture, and the object of this 
article is to show how far this can be 
accomplished by judicious tillage under 
the conditions prevailing in the Madras 
Presidency. Before discussing the sub- 
ject further it is necessary to explain 
the meaning of the term “soil moisture ” 
as well as its sources and how it may be 
retained or lost. Soil moisture is the 
water which is held in the soil after the 
surplus has been allowed to drain away. 
This is necessary to dissolve the plant 
food which is in the soil and to convey 
it to the plant roots, but the surplus of 
drainage water is inimical to the healthy 

‘growth of plant as it prevents the 
aeration of the soil. 


The sources of soil moisture are 
rain, subsoil water and atmospheric 
moisture. 


Rain is the chief source, and it is of the 
greatest importance that the land should 
be prepared to receive it. A hard-baked 
surface cannot absorb much water; 
therefore, the surface should be loosened 
by tillage so that the rain can penetrate 
the soil. Subsoil water is another im- 
portant source. Not only does the sub- 
soil relieve the soil of its surplus water, 
but it can replenish the soil moisture 
when helped by proper cultivation. 


Besides these two main sources, the 
soil can by its hygroscopic properties, 
not only absorb moisture from the air, 
but can retain this in considerable 
quantities if a good tilth is secured. 
Thus, in parts of Madras the heavy dews 
which are experienced are of great 
value. 


The retention of soil moisture can be 
assisted by surface cultivation which 


gives a loose surface soil or dry mulch. 
Deep cultivation and a firm soil will 
assist in keeping the soil particles to- 
gether, and thus cause a more even distvri- 
bution of moisture through the soil. 


The following deseription will show 
how these principles are carried out in 
the dry-land cultivation of Madras. For 
this purpose the Presidency can be 
roughly divided into two tracts. In the 
former draught implements other than 
the plough are used, and in the latter the 
plough is, as a rule, the only draught 
tillage implement. 


The former includes the black cotton 
soils of Bellary, Cauddapah, Anantapur, 
Kurnool, Guntur, and part of Nellore, as 
well as the lighter soils of these and of 
the Kistna district. 


In the black cotton soil of this tract 
two types of plough are used. One, a 
heavy wooden plough which has now 
been largely superseded by a heavy iron 


one, and the other a much lighter | 


wooden plough. The heavy plough is 
only used once every five or six years, 
and is followed by a very heavy bullock 
hoe, known as a “‘ Bara-Guntaka ” which 
works to the same depth as the plough- 
ing. What benefit is derived from this 
latter operation is difficult to see. The 
plough works the soil to a depth of a 
foot or more. Ploughing is done during 
the hot weather and huge dry clods of 
earth are poised up and beneficially ex- 
posed totheair. In other years either the 
light country plough or the bullock hoe 
called a Guntaka is used for preparatory 
cultivation. (Plate X VI.—vide p. 67.) 


In the lighter soils of this tract this 
deep ploughing is not practised. 


Preparation for Sowing.—This work is 
usually done with the bullock hoe or 
Guntaka. If worked after the land has 
been ploughed, it isa very useful imple- 
ment. It makes a fine firm seed-bed and 
brings any larger clods of earth to the 
surface which are broken down by 
subsequent rains. The practice of work- 
ing the soil with the Guntaka without 
previous ploughing is sometimes prac- 
tised. This is objectionable as only the 
surface is loosened and the soil below 
remains hard set and lacks aération. 
Occasionally, when the rains are very 
late, some such method of cultivation 
has to be resorted to, but the ‘‘ Gorru” 
or seed drill without the bamboo sowing 
attachment is preferable to the Guntaka. 
(Plate X VII.—vide p. 67). Insome places 
this is weighted with stones and worked 
across the land in both directions, and 


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thus a large area can be worked in a day, 
and often the ploughing rain can be 
utilised for sowing the crop, 


Sowing.—The seed is sown with the 
drill. 
tages over broadcast sowing. It regu- 
lates the space for each plant. Sowing 
can be done when the land is com- 
paratively dry, asthe drill can be set to 
sow at the depth where there is most 
moisture. Good germination is assured 
gad there is a considerable saving of 
seed. 


A fter cultivation.— Several implements 
are in use in different parts for this 
work, but the best are the Dunthalu 
which is used in the Bellary District, and 
a small Guntaka, which is a similar 
implement with a wider blade, and in 
the case of cotton and red gram is often 
ussd after the cereal catch crop has been 
reaped. The others work deep and 
throw the soil up round the plants form- 
ing ridges and furrows. . The Dunthalu 
consists of aset of three to six small 
bullock hoes which are jattached to 
a wide yoke pole and is drawn by 
two bullocks (page 67). Each hoe or 
danthi has an iron blade some 9 inches 
wide, which the driver guides between 
two rows of the crop. The hoeing is 
done after a good rain has fallen, but as 
a rule the farmer does not seem to realise 
that the operation is just as necessary 
when the surface has caked after a light 
rain, and,in consequeuce, this implement 
is seldom worked more than two or 
three times.* 


Throughout the Tamil country and in 
Malabar the plough is, with few excep- 
tions, the only tillage implement for dry 
cultivation. In Malabar the conserva- 
tion of soil moisture is not so essential 
owing to the heavy and continuous rain- 
fall during the growing season. Plough- 
ing commences with the close of the 
monsoon, and is continued afterwards 
until the early sowing rains commence 
in April and May. Inthe dry Eastern 
Tamil country the rainfall is limited, 
and does not admit of repeated plough- 
ings before the sowing rains. The land 
is usually left untilled until a ploughing 
rain falls, when as large an area as 
possibleis ploughed. Aboutfour plough- 
ings are usually given. The ryot then 
waits for a sowing rain when the seed is 
sown broadcast and lightly ploughed in. 
The subordinate pulse crop, usually 
Cajanus indicus or Dolichos lablab, is 
sown immediately afterwards, the seed 
being dropped behind a light plough. 
Ina few districts the value of a firm 
seed-bed is appreciated, and after sowing, 
the soil is made firm by dragging a 
roughly made brush harrow across the 


This practice has many advan-, 


(JANUARY, 1909. 


ploughing. In parts of Tinnevelly also 
the ryots cultivating red soil have an 
implement made like a large wooden 
rake which is used to break the surface 
crust and assist the growth of the young 
crop. hen the crop is established, 
the plough is worked through it. This 
rough and ready method of cultivation 
gives a good crop in good seasons, but if 
the rain fails, the result is often a partial 
or complete failure. 


In parts of South Arcot this practice 
of ploughing through the crop has been 
entirely given upin favour of the more 
efficient practice of hand hoeing. Here 
the dry cereal is considered as a catch 
crop for the groundnut crop, the seed of 
which is dibbled in after the cereal is 
well established. The land is often hoed 
two or three times. The first hoeing 
includes weeding and thinning, while 
the others are mainly for loosening the 
soil surface, and is done even if the land 
is perfectly free from weeds. The in- 
troduction of the harrow into the Tamil 
country would bean immense advantage. 
If used instead of the plough, the surface 
soil alone svould be loosened and thus 
the soil moisture would be better con- 
served. The ground would be left level 
instead of in ridges and furrows, which 
are always objectionable in the case ot a 
dry crop asthe ground soon dries out 
and subsequently rain runs down the 
furrows before it can soak in. If the 
harrow were used instead of the hand 
hoe, the cost of the work would be 
greatly reduced and the farmer would 
be able to complete the work in less 
than a quarter of the time. The time 
that this operation takes is of great im- 
portance on the lighter soils. A harrow 
made in the shape of an equilateral 
triangle has been found to answer this 
purpose well, and is not too expensive or 
too elaborate for the ordinary culti- 
vator. This and other implements used 
in dry cultivation are illustrated.—Agri- 
cultural Journal of India, Vol. IfI., 
Part [., January, 1908. 


AMBALANGODA VEGETABLE SHOW. 


HELD UNDER THE AUSPICES OF THE 
WELLABODA PattTu (GALLE) Locat BRANCH, 
19TH Dec., 1908. 


This show was opened by the Government 
Agent, Southern Province, and was attended 
with success. It was the second Show for 
the year, the first being held at Hikkaduwa 
in the latter part of February. 


The exhibits were confined to vegetables, 
of which there were large collections. Consid- 
ering the lateness of the vegetable season, 
the exhibits were good. Many of the exhibi- 


« 
—— oe 


‘ 
; 
4 


JANUARY, 1909.] 69 


tors had also competed for the awards for 
the Vegetable Gardens and Transplanted 
Paddy plots for which separate prizes were 
given. 

In judging I had the kind’ co-operation of 
Mr. de Livera, Atapattu Mudaliyar, Matara, 
and Mr. J. M. Wickramaratne, Proctor. The 
awards included four cash prizes and two 
certificates, and three special awards were 
recommended for single specimens of capsi- 
cum, snake gourd and tea. 

Capsicum, chillies, pumpkins, cucumbers, 
melons, brinjals, kekiri, and bread-fruits 
made a very good show. 

Of yams there were excellent collections, 
sweet-potatoes and cassava being parti- 
cularly good, 

Some good oranges and jak-fruits 
also found among the exhibits. 

N. WICKRAMARATNE, 


Agri, Instructor: 


were 


RURAL AGRICULTURE IN CEYLON: 
AND HOW IT MIGHT BE IMPROVED, 


THE DISCUSSION. 

The reading of the paper on the above sub- 
ject (given on page 569 of the Dec. issue) by 
Mr, W. A. de Silva, before the meeting of the 
Board of Agriculture on the 3rd December. 
was followed by the following speeches — 


Dr. WILLIS AND THE NEED 

FOR AGRICULTURAL ‘* PRELIMINARIES ”’ 

Dr. Wiis :—I think, Sir, it is a very 
satisfactory sign of the times that the Soc- 
iety is beginning to realise clearly that before 
you can make progress in Agriculture you 
have to make progress in the preliminaries 
of agriculture. In Ceylon we have hardly 
yet got through the preliminaries, and yet 
we have been trying too much to attend to 
the agricultural part. With regard to Kuro- 
pean planters they have passed, so to speak, 
through the preliminaries ; but the native 
cultivators have not, and it is consequently 
almost idle to introduce new things amongst 
the villagers, because they have not got the 
necessary preliminary conditions to go on 
with. The two principal things on which 
the whole industry rests are 


FINANCE AND TRANSPORT, 


and unless we have sound conditions as 
regards these it is hopeless to go ahead to 
any serious extent and get the people to take 
any great interest in growing things which 
must be sold in outside markets. Consequent- 
ly it is a very good thing to see that these 
papers tend to increase generally the interest 
taken in the question of the small co-opera- 
tive systems for the supply of money. I use 
the word in a broad sense. It may be in the 
supplying of paddy seed, in manures, in sell. 


Miscellaneous 


ing produce in Colombo. It may be anythin& 
you like, but the central principle is co-opera- 
tion amongst the poorer classes, to enable 
them to carry out what would otherwise 
require the capitalist to put through. In 
this country I have been trying to induce 
town Societies, who have, presumably, a 
little money, to help their village brethren— 
for whose benefit, after all, we were estab- 
lished, —by starting co-operation for the sale 
of produce and the supply of manures, and 
soon. The ordinary villager has no money 
at all, and consequently he cannot hope to 
do anything beyond live from hand _ to 
mouth, I think, therefore, it is very satis- 
factory indeed to see the tendeney which is 
coming over the whole country to attend 
to these preliminaries. Transport, thanks to 
Government, is very well developed on the 
whole in Ceylon and there are sufficient, 
villagers along the branch roads and railways 
to carry out any agricultural improvement 
that is necessary. ‘The essential weak point 
of the whole Ceylon system of agriculture is 
money. To raise the people to a higher 
plane you must first of all attend to the 
preliminaries of agriculture, and find them 
money, This must be forthcoming before 
you go ahead in agricultural matters strictly 
so called. *(Hear, hear.) 
GOVERNMENT'S ATTITUDE, 

H. EK. the GOVERNOR :—Equally with Dr. 
Willis I welcome the appearance of two 
papers such as those under discussion. 
Members may recollect that when I assumed 
the administration of the Colony I hesitated, 
as naturally I would do for some little time, 
to give an expression of opinion regarding 
the agricultural requirements of the Colony. 
However, you gentlemen have seen, and the 
community generally have seen, rather 
lengthy references to loans to native agricul- 
turists in the despatches which I sent to 
the Secretary of State. The Secretary of 
State has approved of the proposal that 
funds shall be voted to assist agriculturists, 
but he requires regulations on the subject 
to be submitted to him. It is particularly 
valuable tome as the Governor of the Colony 
to have papers before me such as those which 
have been read or taken as read, and 1 
may say I shall welcome any expression of 
opinion and recommendation from those who 
are qualified to write upon the subject and 
advise how best agriculturists can be assisted 
in such a manner that we do not pauperise 


* It may make matters clearer if we add the 
following note. The preliminaries to agriculture are 
land, climate, labour, transport, capital, drainage 
irrigation, tillage, education, and suitable crops. 
The most important are land, capital, education 
and transport, so far as Ceylon now is concerned 
and until the villager has land ayailable, transport 
facilities, and capital to work any improved 
method or new crop, he cannot progress beyond 
his present state. We called attention to this at 
the very first meeting of the Board,—Z£d, 


Miscellaneous. 


them more than these poor fellows already 
are. We want toincrease their self-respect 
and at the same time deliver them from the 
clutches of the money-lender. It was at a 
very early meeting of this Society that I 
referred to the system of usury going on 
in this colony. It was my endeavour to 
grapple this ogre of usury, but when it 
came to prospective legislation I found the 
whole matter was rife with difficulty. It was 
in consequence of this that I came to the 
opinion that it was the Government them- 
selves who must come to the assistance of 
the people—train the people, educate the 
people, help the people. As Mr. de Silva 
has said, this must be done on strict business 
principles, It must be done by co-operation 
with the people, working with the people, 
and the people themselves must do a great 
deal to come to the state of perfection to 
which Mr. de Silva points out now exists 
in Denmark. We have of course a very up- 
hill game to fight. Our Ceylonese cultivators, 
unfortunately, are extremely apathetic 
and have to be shown the value of labour. 
I quite fall in with Mr. de Silva when he 
says their efforts through the year should 
not be devoted simply to the paddy patches, 
but that they should go in for other means 
of making a livelihood. It may yet be 
found that by improving the state of agricul- 
ture generally that the solution of the 
food question is not to be found altogether 
in the extension and development of rice 
fields, but that other food products may 
be raised such as Indian maize, which is 
not received with that disfavour which it 
once was. As I say, the members of the 
Society and the Government,—everybody 
concerned who takes an interest in agricul- 
ture—have a weary, stiff problem before 
them in order to bring this lesson home 
to the people. For instance, Mr. de Silva 
points out quite rightly the wretched yield 
of rice per acre. What is that due to? It 
is duein a great measure because the people 
will not transplant the paddy, except in 
a few districts such as Kegalla and on the 
South Coast, but will still insist on scatter- 
ing the paddy broadcast and rearing it in 
a way which gives small returns on a 
wasteful expenditure of seed paddy. H. E. 
then repeated that he would be only too 
glad if communications such as he had re- 
ferred to were sent to his Private Secretary. 


THE QUESTION OF BURMA RICE. 


Mr. F. C. RoLEs :—Your Excellency, may 
I be allowed to make a few remarks on 
Mr. de Silva’s paper? My attention has 
just been directed to a reference in the 
paper to the subject of Burma rice. That 
is a subject of much and of growing 
importance. I have hada few words with 
Mr. de Silva and pointed out to him that 
there is no prejudice amongst the labourers 
against Burma rice. Itis the raw product 
only that they object to because of their 


[JANUARY, 1909. 


method of boiling once in 24 hours. Steamed 
rice has been imported from Rangoon, which 
has been highly reported on by a number of 
estate superintendents, kanganies and coolies, 
The remarks regarding white Burma rice, 
farther on in the same paragraph, has re- 
ference torice which has been imported, 
here for many years. It is used for con- 
fectionery and hoppers and not on estates, 
and it is white Burma rice because the inner 
skin has been removed; that skin is left on 
in cargo, or Loonzain rice, which is the kind 
of rice required for consumption on estates. 
By a second hulling the number of paddy 
grains can be reduced to a minimum of 2 per 
cent. If that paddy is steamed first and 
hulled afterwards it is entirely acceptable to 
the consumer. Now it is simply a question 
of price and further efforts are being made, 
as a sequel to the discussion of the subject in 
Ceylon and in Rangoon and neighbourhood, 
in steaming on a small scale. At the present 
time there are small shipments in the off 
season; and considerably increased quantities 
are expected in the coming season. (Hear, 
hear.) 


AN EGYPTIAN AGRICULTURALIST’S VIEWS, 


Mr. J. S. J. McCall:—Your Excellency, 
gentlemen: Althouh a visitor, 1 would like 
to saya few words in answer to this question 
of loans to agriculturists, as we had the 
very same problem in Egypt, where I 
was Agricultural Lecturer for three years. 
We could not get money to improve matters. 
But, by the Government taking an interest 
in the subject, we managed to get the leading 
agriculturalists in the country—those who 
had the money—to form among themselves 
an Agricultural Society, and a large num- 
ber to. put money intothis Society. The 
Society purchased manures from the 
manure firms, guaranteed their purity, distri- 
buted them to the different villages, and sent 
men who were qualified to deal with the 
question of manuring to superintend the 
application of the manures to the village fields. 
At first the manures lay by the hundredweight 


in the villages, and the villagers said : ‘‘ We 


will not touch them, We have been culti- 
vating rice, wheat, barley and the different 
crops of the country for centuries, and we 
are not going to alter our methods”—in the 
true Mohammedan style. The Society 
replied: ‘* We will present to you these 
manures. You may apply them to half 
your fields, the other half do with as hitherto 
in your methods and compare results. If 
your crops suffer from the application of the 
manures, we, as a Society, will guarantee 
to compensate you, but if the crop benefits 
over the price of the manure we will ex- 
pect you to pay us the price of the manure.” 
That was the state four years ago, and the 
result was that last year the Khediveal Agri- 
cultural Society imported £175,000 sterling 
of artificial manures. and could not supply 
the natives quick enough. We absolutely 


+ ‘i Bi fl 


JANUARY, 1909.! 


could not get the manure into the country 
quick enough; and the effect of manuring 
on the general agriculture of the country 
was that, four years ago, the price of straw, 
etc., in Egypt was nearly double the price 
that it is at the present day, as the increase 
of crop owing to the beneficial action of 
the manure put a larger quantity of pro- 
duce on the market. Some people might 
think that this. would result in no benefit to 
the cultivator ; but that would be a mistaken 
idea, as artificial, manures applied carefully, 
in the correct proportions and the correct 
manures to the correct crops, seldom give 
less than 100 per cent, on the cost of the 
manures. The natives of Ceylon know 
nothing about manures, but that is not to 
their discredit. Only 10 years ago in Great 
Britain there were very few farmers who 
knew anything about artificial manures, 
Some people have the idea that manures 
are very flexible quantities: this is also a 
fallacy, as a manure has only a definite value 
and can only give a definite increase, and this 
increase to alarge extent is dependent on the 
right manure being put to the right crop, 


Dr. Witiis—referring to what Mr, Mc- 
Call had said—remarked that he had been 
round the districts where at present artificial 
manure is unknown. Some said they knew 
nothing about itand some said once manur- 
ing was started they must goon with it. 
That was of course true. It was an essential 
condition to progress in anything. He 
said it had been pointed out, and the 
suggestion he thought was a sound one, that 
it would payin the long run if the Par- 
ent Society in Colombo were prepared 
to supply local societies with small quantities 
of selected manure for trial in the districts. 
That might be tried on the lines Mr, McCall 
spoke of. 


NOTES AND QUERIES. 

G. E.—The Centre of Agricultural 
Education in the Madras Presidency is 
Coimbatore, where'there is a College and 
a farm of 450acres, Apply to the 
Principal for syllabus. The course is a 
three years’ one. ; 


W. DE S.—The cultivated anatto bears 
a pink flower, but there is also a white 
variety. It is the former that is 
commonly cultivated, but the white 
flowered variety is found semi-wild in 
India, the natives believing thatit is 
indigenous. The principal use of the 
dye is for colouring butter and cheese. 
It isusually dissolved out with olive oil. 


ToMATO.—The following system of 
manuring tomatoes is reeommended by 
the Queensland Agricultural Journal :— 


2 parts nitrate of soda,2of bone meal, 


Miscellaneous. 


3 of kainit, 4 of superphosphate. Apply 
1 oz. per sq. yard weekly, slightly cover- 
ing, from the time the plants are estab- 
lished till the fruit has set, 

DanicHA.—This is an Indian name for 
Sesbanea aculeata, which is well thought 
of asa green manure and is also a fibre 
plant. It is closely allied to our 
* Katurumurunga” and is being grown 
experimentally at the Government 
Stock Garden. 


B,—The author of ‘The French Garden” 
is C. D. McKay, F.R.H.s. He describes 
the work as‘‘A diary and manual of 
intensive cultivation.” The book can 
be consulted in this office. 


F, KE. F.—No, the cherimoya will not 
do at Colombo elevation, so that you 
may not grow this delicious fruit in 
your own garden. 

M. G.—The Coorg is a much smaller 
orange than the Nagpur. The latter is 
more after the styleof our best King 
oranges. 


““CHow McLuiER.”’—This is being tried 
at the Government Stock Garden. The 
plant belongs to the cabbage family, 
Its value is as a cattle food. 

GARDENER.—Have you tried bone 
meal? I would recommend your giving 
up heavy applications of cattle manure 
for a time, as the orange trees have 
most probably had enough of. nitro- 
genous food and want more of. phos- 
phate for fruit formation. 


THE LITERATURE OF TROPICAL 
ECONOMIC BOTANY AND AGRI- 
CULTURE. 


SCEOND SERIES. 


By. J. C. Wiis. 
_We propose to go on publishing this 
literature, which we find is regarded as 
very useful by many correspondents 
scattered over the world, and begin to- 
day a Second Series. 


While at first these lists were con- 
cerned almost purely with economic 
botany. they have gradually had other 
subjects added to them. The date of 
each new heading may be ascertained 
from the dates of the articles mentioned 
under it, and noattempt has been made 
to go back. 

Mr. Lock, who will act for me during 
my absence, having undertaken to keep 
up the lists of literature, there will not 
be the same gap as there was in 1902-8, 


Miscellaneous. 


It may be worth remarking that under 
such heads as Sugar, Vines, etc., no 
attempt is made to keep up with tem- 
perate-zone literature. 


Aberia—cf Fruits. 


Willis, Miscellaneous Economic 
Plants I. Aberia. ‘“T.A.” Oct. 
1908, p. 339. 


Acacia—cf. Tans. 
Catechu and catechu boiling: La- 
tham in Ind. Forester, May 1906, 


p. 248. 
attles. Queensland Agr. JI. Dec. 
1898, p. 467. 


Cultivation of Australian wattle. 
U.S. Dept. Agr. B. P. I. Bull. 51. 

Wattle bark. Queens]. Agr. Jl. Dec. 
1904, p. 730. ; 

L’exploitation de la Cassie dans le 
bassin mediterranéen. Journ. dd 
Agr. Trop. Aug, 1906, p. 289. 

Ueber Rinde und Gummi der Ger- 
berakazie (A. decurrens) Der 
Pflanzer 16. 12. 05, p. 353 

L' acacia a tan au Natal. Journ. @’ 
Agr. Trop. 1906, p. 272. 

Maiden. Wattles and wattle-barks. 
Sydney 1906. i : 
Ueber | black-wattle-wirtschatt in 

Natal. Tropenpfi. 1906, 445. 

Ueber black-wattle-wirtschaft in 
Sud-Afrika. Ber. Deutsch Ost- 
Afrika Oct. 1906, p. 1. | 

The wattle bark. ‘‘T,A,” Apr. 1906, 


p. 209. ; 

Acacia Catechu. Agric. Ledger, V. P. 
Series 95, 1906. 

Die Gerberakazie. Tropenpfl. 1906. 
p. 578. 


Zimmermann. Ueber die Keimung 
der Samen von Acacia decurrens 
nach behandlung mit_concentreir- 
ter Schwefelsiiure. Der Pflanzer 
1906, p. 305, 

Wattle growing. Journ. Dpt. Agr., 
Vict. 1907, p. 432. ‘*T.A.” Sept. 1908, 


p. 219, : 5 
Wattle cultivation in German East 
Afrika. Bull. Imp. Inst. 6, 1908, 
OMA.” Aug. 1908, p. 121. 
Indian wattle bark. Ind. Forester, 
Oct. 1908, p. 612. i 
Gerberrinde. Der Pflanzer 1907, p. 
202. ‘ 
he Wattle industry in Natal. 
3 «mm. A.” Agr. 1908, p. 378. ( 
Botanisches iiber Gerberakazien. 
Tropenpfi. Feb. 1908, p. 24. | 
Production and cultivation of wattle 
bark. Imp. Inst. Bull. 6, 1908, 
p. 157. “TA. Nov, 1908, p. 419, 
Indian wattle bark. Ind. Agric. Aug. 
1908, p. 240. 


Aeschynomene.— 
Note sur le Sola ou A. aspera. Bull. 
Jard. Col. Sept. 1906, p. 248. 


[ JANUARY, 1909. 


Agave.— 


Miscellaneous. cf. Sisal Hemp, 
Fibres, etc. 

Agaves and soil denudation. Agr. 
News. Mar. 1908, ‘‘T.A.” Aug. 1908, 
p. : 

The pulque maguey of Mexico, do, 
Sept. 1908, p, 287. 

Endlich, Der Ixtle und seine Stamm- 
pilanzen. Beih z. Tropenfi. IX. 5, 
Oct. 1908. 


Agriculture—General.— 


Cultivation of the soil. Rep. Farmers’ 
Inst. Ontario, 1898-9, p. 100. 
Zur aberiutr ase: Tropenfl. 4, 1900, 


p. 39. 
Campbell system of soil culture. Ind. 
_ Agric. Mar. 1900, p. 90. 

Windmills in India. Ind. Agric. 
Aug. 1908, p. 288. 

Recent work in Agricultural Science. 
EK. S. Record. June, July 1907. 

Results in investigations in soil 
management. Year-book U.S. Dept. 
Agr., 1903, p. 159. 

A few points regarding conservation 
of soil moisture. Milne. Agr, Jl. 
Ind, July 1908, p. 220. “‘T.A.” Nov. 
1908, p. 463. 

Science in Agriculture. Helms. Agr. 
Gaz. N. S. W. Aug. 1908, “'T.A.” 
Nov. 1908, p. 466. 

Dry land farming in the Madras 
Presidency. Sampson. Agr. J]. Ind 
IIT. 1968, p. 33. 

Note on Agriculture in Japan. 
Nicholson. Madras Govt. Press. 
reviewed by Shearer in Agr. Jl. 
Ind. III, 1908, p. 58. 


Agricuiture.—Education, Schools, ete. 


Agricultural Education in theSehools. 
Trans. Mass. Hort. Soc. 1908, p. ILI. 


Agriculture.—Finance, Markets, ete. 


See Ind. Agric. 1904, p. 171. (Ind. 
Govt. bill.) 

A suceessful agricultural bank. do, 

. 236. 

Raiffeisen agricultural banks. W. 
Ind. Bull. 6, p. 129 

Agricultural Banks for Ceylon. 
“T.A,.” Sept. 1906, p. 268. 

Agricultural credit in Germany, 
“TA,” June 1906, p. 125. 

Agricultural credit banks. “T.A.” 
Apr. 1906, p. 249, 

Farmers’ cooperative societies, do. 


. 254. 

Guancmitive eredit and the United 
Provinces, India. do. Oct. 1906, 
p. 330. ; 

Cooperative credit and the central 
bank. Ind. Agr. Jl. 2. p. 47. 


Agriculture.—Organisation, Depart 
ment,ete. ; é 
The U.S. De ot Agriculture, 


pt. 
Main. Agr. Jl. Ind. III. 1908, p, 24. 


JANUARY, 1909.] 


Agriculture.—Tools, ete. 
Machine for cutting guinea grass. 
Agr. News, 1904, p. 21. 
Ploughs and _ ploughing. 
Agr. Jl. June 1904, p. 457, 
Agricultural tools. “ T.A.” Apr. 1906, 
p. 199. 


A leohol.—Manufacture, etc. 

A review of the present condition of 
the spirit industry in the Philip- 
pines, Manila Daily Bull. 3.11.07, 
“T.A.” July 1908, p. 63. 


Aleurites.—cf. Oils. : 
The Candlenut tree. Ind. Agric. Mar, 
1908, p. 81. «T.A.” Aug. 1908, p. 120. 
Les Aleurites de Yonkin. Bull. Ke. 
Indoch., 1908, p. 425. 
Aleurites moluccana. Agr. Ledger 

4 of 1907. V. P. Series 108, 


Allspice.— 
Pimento growing in Jamaica. do. 
VII 1908, p. 5. “TA.” June 1908, 
p. 545, t ¢ 
The pimento industry in Jamaica. 
“TA.” Supp. Dec. 1907, p. 134. 


Andropogon.—Misc. & General. cf. Citro- 
nella, Lemongrass. 
Kuskus root. ‘“T.A.” Apr. 1908, p. 
319 (from Agr. News.) 
Annatto.—cf. Dyes. 
Cultivation and utilisation of annat- 
to. Imp. Inst. Bull. 6, 1908 p. 171. 
““T.A.” Nov. 1908, p. 418. 


Argania.—ef, Oils. 
L’Argan. Les vegetaux utiles de 
l Afrique trop. francaise IT. 1907. 
Argemone.—cf. Weeds. 


Argemone mexicana. 
of 1907. V. P. Series 104. 
Sept. 1908, p. 215. : 

Noteon Argemone mexicanan Maiden. 


Queensl. 


Agr. Ledg. 57 
rT A.” 


Agr. Gaz. N. S. W. Oct. 1908, p. 
829. 
Arrowroot.— 
A leaflet on Arrowroot. Drieberg. 


“TA.” July 1908, p. 65. 


“THE QUEEN OF FLOWERS.” 


A sudden gush of light and odours bland, 
And lo—the Rose ! the Rose ! 


The rose has very justly been desig- 
nated the Queen of Fiowers. So full of 
beauty and charm is the rose, and so 
numerous are the _ points of interest 
connected with it, that chapters could 
be written about it. In all ages and 
by universal consent, throughout the 
civilised world, undisputed precedence 
among fiowers has been conceded the 


Miscellaneous, 


rose, “ Queen of them all.” The favour- 
ite flower for all time, as such it has 
place in general literature that no othe 
pine can rival. In the sacred writings, 
y classical authors, by the poets of all 
countries, this ‘‘Queen of Flowers” i 
the epitome of beauty and fragrance, 
the emblem of refined sensual enjoyment, 
‘richer and sweeter far than aught 
betore.” The rose is woven in the 
ancient Greek Anthologies. In the 
Planudean Anthology occur some beauti- 
ful couplets ascribed to more than One 
writer in which the wish is breathed : 


Oh that I were yon blushing rose, 
Which even now thy hands have pressed, 
That 1 might love in sweet repose, 
Reclining on thy snowy breast ! 


Plato presents a lovely picture of the 
God of Love laid asleep among roses, 
with the bees settling upon his lips ; and 
there is a favourite passagefrom Julian - 


Twining a wreath, [ found one day, 
Love that among the roses lay. 


Therose was dedicated to Awrora as 
the emblem of youth; to Venus of 
beauty ; and toCupid of fugacity and 
danger. The latter is said to have given 
it asa bribe to Harpociates the God of 
Silence, hence the saying ‘‘under the 
rose.” Modern feelings have run into 
the same sort of amorous fancy as that 
of the earlier writers, for have we not 
Romeo in Shakespeare expressing the 
wish ‘‘Oh that I were a glove upon that 
hand,” etc, Burns who it is thought 
knew little or nothing of the Greek 
anthologists seems to have fallen into 
their style and instinctively adopted 
their spirit : 


Oh that my love were yon red rose 
That grows upon the castle wa’, 
And I myselfa drop of dew, 
Into her bonny breast to fa’! 


_ And we have writers all along descant- 
ing on the admirable qualities of the 
rose. It has been the subject of scientific 
monographs and of floricultural disquisi- 
tions, and many are the writings extant 
about it. The species which has been 


CULTIVATED FROM THE HIGHEST 
ANTIQUITY, 


is supposed to be Rosa Centifolia, the 
Cabbage or Province Rose, a flower 
which possesses in an eminent degree 
the admirable qualities of the tribe 
Roses have been grown for so many 
centuries and have been crossed and 
recrossed so often that itis difficult to 
refer the cultivated forms to their wild 
prototypes. The older roses are thought 
to have orginated from R&R. gallica, a 
native of Central and Southern Europe, 


Miscellaneous. 


R. Centifolia, a native of the Caucasus, 
contributing its share. Under natural 
circumstances rose flowers do not secrete 
honey, the attraction for insects being 
provided, according to Muller, by the 
colour and perfume and the abundance 
of pollen for food. 


The cuitivation of the rose affords 
employment to thousands of human 
beings— cultivation for the table and 
for the manufacture of attarand rose 
water. R. damascene is cultivated in 
somo parts of Roumelia and in India, 
chiefly near Ghazipur, for the purpose 
of making attar and rosewater. Drury 
mentions that it takes 200,000 roses to 
yield the weight of a rupee in attar and 
this quantity sells on the spot for R100. 
In Europe rose water is chiefly produced 
from R. Centifolia, grown for the pur- 
pose at Micham, and much more abun- 
dantly in the South of France. Conserve 
of roses and infusion of roses, two 
medicinal preparations retained for 
their agreeable qualities rather than for 
any special virtue, are prepared from 
the petals of KH. gallica, says an old 
writer. Conserve of dog roses is made 
trom the; ripe hips of the dog rose, 
R. eanina. Its only use is 


IN THE MANUFACTURE OF PILLS. 


The cosmopolitian character of the rose 
is wellknown and it flourishes equally 
well in sub-Alpine as in equatorial re- 
gions; and the patient skill of cultiva- 
tors has been successful in depriving it 
of one of its attributes—it has ceased to 
be an emblem of Summer, ‘‘ pride of the 
Summer, garden queen.” By making 
careful selections of species and rearing 
hybrids, varieties deservedly called Per- 
petual have been obtained, and, so far 
as cold countries are concerned, roses 
can be got now at any season. 


Of all plants grown in Ceylon for the 
sake of their flowers, as in other coun- 
tries, none have gained so much admira- 
tion as the rose. It has been rightly 
said that a garden without roses is a 
misnomer. But how many there are in 
this country who, possessing the 
material, do not set about in the right 
way of doing things. By tar the most 
effective way of growing roses is to have 
them distributed through every part of 

. the garden. 


The rose is propagated by seeds, cut- 
tings, layers and suckers (in the case of 
plants on their own roots), and by bud- 
ding and grafting. Seed-sowing is only 
had recourse to with a view of obtaining 
improved varieties. Layering is per- 
formed by simply bending the shoot or 
shoots, desired to root down to the 
ground, cutting the same half way 


[JANUARY, 1909. 


through longitudinally and pegging it 
down at that point, so that the wounded 
surface shall come in contact with the 
sandy soil, watering in dry weather 
to keep the soil moist. After it has 
rooted effect separation witha clean cut. 
Budding and grafting are the modus 
operandi generally followed at the per- 
petuation of the rose and many choice 
trees and shrubs as well. These methods, 
however, had better be left to expert 
growers, and we will proceed to the 


UNIVERSAL SYSTEM OF PROPAGATION. 


There is no difficulty in raising one’s 
own roses from cuttings. The cutting 
should be prepared by clipping off side 
shoots, but do not remove the leaves; 
six or eight inches is long enough for a 
cutting ; see that it is cut off straight at 
the base just below aknot or bud, or 
left as it has been slipped off the branch 
taken off with a heel, that is with a little 
of the old ripened wood attached. 


The rose grows vigorously in most kinds 
of soil. Good ordinary garden soil will 
produce the rose large enough, but to 
grow it into perfection abed should be 
previously prepared. The rose does best 
in a light free soil, a little fresh, amended 
from time to time with some well- 
decomposed manure. A calcareous soil 
is especially recommended. Delicate 
varieties do best in fertile, sandy soils, 
and in peat earth. The dog rose grows 
vigorously in stiff earth. For nearly 
all roses, however, the soil can scarcely 
be too rich. The plants delight in a 
stiff loam liberally incorporated with 
manure, and no excellencies of variety, 
climate, or culture can compensate 
for the absence of this indispensable 
resideratum. Where the natural soil is 
light and sandy, the whole bed should 
be removed toa depth of two feet, and 
replaced with the richest natural fibrous 
loam at hand, or leaf mould, thoroughly 
mixed with decomposed dung. The 


MOST SUITABLE SOIL FOR GROWING 
ROSES 


in the ground is that which is called a 
clay loam, that is, which is neither 
black soil nor sandy soil. A clay loam 
is more retentive and does not dryso 
soon as sandy soil. A sunny position 
with free wind is desirable; shade 
and closeness induce a number of 
fungoid and insect diseases. Thorough 
preparation of the soil with manure is 
desirable however suitable the soil itself 
may be. The bed should be clear of the 
roots of surrounding trees which would 
impoverish the soil and rob the plants 
of the nutriment intended for them. 
This could be guarded against by cutting 
a deep drain round the beds. After the 
bed has been prepared open a shallow 


. 
; 


<> wet 


4 


January, 1909.] 


trench, about six inches deep across it 
and place the cuttings inclined against 
the steeper side four to five inches apart 
about which sprinkle some sand, river 
sand for preference; fill in with the soil 
and press firmly around the cuttings. 
Open the next line about seven inches 
distant and proceed in the same manner, 
finally passing the watering-can lightly 
over the bed. Most rose growers prefer 
pot culture, evidently with the object of 
being able to move the plants from place 
to place. But the bloom of pot plants 
is not always so satisfactory as those 
from plants grown in the ground. The 
soil for pot plants should be made up of 
river soil or alluvial loam, failing this, 
loamy cabook material, and half manure. 
If the manure is not old, earthworms 
and white ants are generated; and old 
mannre will sometimes contain the 
larvee of the Chafer Beetle—destructive 
to rose trees by eating the root. The 
best planis to spread out the manure 
and let the birds aud chickens pick up the 
grubs and sift it before using. Soil, too, 
sometimes contains the eggs of earth- 
worms and in that case it should be 
incinerated. Burning the soil would 
effect great improvemeut in the case of 
clay soil, rendering it light and less 
retentive of moisture. The addition of 
leaf mould would greatly improve the 
quality of the potting soil. Itis obviously 
necessary 


AFTER PLANTING CUTTINGS 


that they should be kept shaded and 
the ground kept moist until they make 
steady young growth. Cadjans or 
bamboo tats would do very well for 
shading; and once the slips have estab- 
lished a footing the sunshades should 
be removed. The rose plants, like most 
other, should be judiciously watered 
and notswamped. In Nature vegetation 
makes little progress during incessant 
rains ; but as soon as the rain ceases and 
the sun shines, the grass and weeds, and 
cultivated crops spring up. In _ like 
manner, if the soil round the rose plants 
is kept continually damp and the sun 
and air not allowed to circulate through 
it, the plants are sure to be unhealthy.— 
HortTuvs in the Ceylon Independent. 


THE ROTATION OF CROPS. 

This is one of the oldest phases of 
good kitchen gardening, yet it is safe 
to say that none is less pertectly under- 
stood by the majority of cultivators. 
The reasons for this failure on behalf of 
cultivators to grasp the elements of the 
rotation of crops need not be sought for 
in vain, the chief one being that hard- 
and-fast rules cannot be laid down 


75 Miscellaneous. 


concerning what particular crop shall 
succeed an existing one, and also that in 
many cases the grower has only a pactial 
control over circumstances, and con- 
sequently is obliged to do the best he can 
with the soil at his command. 


At the outset it may be as well to 
briefly consider the principles which 
underlie the retation of crops. The 
chief object with most cultivators in 
changing crops is to get the best possible 
results from the soil, the idea being 
that different classes of plants require 
different kinds of food for their upbuild- 
ing; and there is, no doubt, a lot of 
wisdom insuch acourse, Another point, 
however, which is frequently overlooked, 
but which is equally or even more 
important, is the fact that certain 
diseases and pests attack certain plants 
only. and therefore by keeping these 
plants off the ground for two or three 
years a disease may beeradicated. Club- 
root of the Cabbage family is a disease 
which may be mentioned as an example. 


As previously stated, a cultivator 
frequently has to do the best he can 
under existing circumstances, and often 
these are such as to render it imperative 
to overlap crops which would be much 
better if given entirely fresh ground. 
There are, however, many gardens 
wherein it is possible to give the various 
plots a change of crop each season, and 
wherever such a course is possible every 
effort should be made to adopt it. 


As the question is naturally a very 
complicated one, only general indications 
and hints as to carrying out the work 
can be given; but these, coupled with 
intelligent application, will, I hope, 
prove of some use to amateurs and 
others who have only given the matter 
a passing thought. Taking the Cabbage 
family first, it has been proved that all 
the members thereof require practically 
the same kinds of food, and in addition, 
as previously stated, all are subject to 
attacks of club-root and other diseases 
and pests which do not attack some 
other classes of plants; hence it would 
be unwise to let a crop of Cauliflowers, 
for example, to be followed by spring 
gabbages, as the former will. to a great 
extent, have exhausted the soil of those 
particular foods needed by the Cabbages, 
and any disease which might have been 
present on the first crop would almost 
certainly make a host of the second. In 
practice it is found to bea good plan to 
let deep rooting crops, such as Parsnips, 
Carrots or Beetroots, follow any of the 
Cabbage family. 

Potatoes, again, are another crop which 
ought not to occupy thesame ground 
two years running, as they are veritable 
gluttons so far ag potassic manures are 


Miscellaneous. 


concerned, andin practice it has been 
proved that much better results can be 
obtained by only cropping a certain plot 
with potatoes once in three years. Any 
of the Cabbage family, Peas, Beans or 
Onions may, with advantage and 
satety, follow Potatoes, Carrots, Parsnips 
Beetroots or Celery. Generally speak- 
ing, Beans should not follow Peas nor 
vice versa, and this applies to any kinds 
which are closely related or belong to 
the same family, hence Tomatoes should 
not follow Potatoes. The same general 
remarks apply to flowers, and any Sweet 
Pea enthusiast, for instance, will avoid 
growing his favourites on the same soil 
two years running if he possibly can. 

In gardens where rotation is impossible 
of course the food difficulty is overcome 
to a great extent by judicious manuring, 
but the question of disease or insect 
attack can be only thoroughly dealt 
with by keeping a_ particular plot free 
from a crop that is likely to be attacked, 
for several years.—Garden, Vol. LXXIL., 
No, 1923. September, 1908. 


SIXTEENTH ANNUAL AGRICUL- 
TURAL CAMP MEETING FAIR AT 
CALHOUN, LOUISIANA. 


ln organizing the several experiment 
stations of the State of Louisiana some 
twenty years ago, Governor McEnery 
and Dr. W. C. Stubbs selected a site in 
the hills of Ouachita parish in North 
Louisiana for an experiment station, 
which should be adapted to the needs of 
the hill-farmers in contradistinction to 
those of the alluvial lands and the 
prairie lands and the pine flat lands. 
Right from the start the station at 
Calhoun became one of the most popular 
in the State and excellent results were at 
once perceptible. The entire farming 
community within reasonable reach was 
affected by the station’s influence along 
educational lines in improved farming, 
and that good work has been going on 
ever since. An Agricultural Society was 
organized, which held monthly meetings, 
and this brought in hundreds and some- 
times thousands of visitors to the 
station. This led in turn to agricultural 
camp meetings, and finally toa Camp 
Meeting Fair, the various visitors bring- 
ing in from their farms specimens of 
their home products; and now the annual 
fair on the experiment station grounds 
at Calhoun has become a permanent 
feature, and the display of Louisiana 
products there would satisfy the most 
sceptical as to the capacity of our State 
to produce almost any known agri- 
cultural product, and to produce it, if 
you please, in the hills of North Louisiana, 


76 : [JANUARY, 1909. 


where the lands are not considered as 
fertile asthe alluvial lands. Ina test 
made some years ago of the amount of 
corn grown comparatively, Governor 
M. J. Foster was one of the Examiners, 
and by actual test, measurement of the 
land and weight of the corn gathered, it 
was found that the production of corn 
equalled over a hundred bushels per 
acre. Of course no such crop is grown 
generally in the hills of North Louisiana, 
nor anywhere else in the United States, 
but it shows what can be done there 
with intense culture.—Zowisiana Planter 
and Sugar Manufacturer, Vol. XXXXL., 
No. 13, September, 1908. 


AN AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE 
FOR BENGAL. 


The new Agricultural College at Sa- 
baur, of which Sir Andrew Fraser laid 
the foundation-stone recently, is an 
undertaking which ought torouse the 
utmost enthusiasm throughout Bengal. 
Itis almost the first step towards the 
establishment of genuine technical edu- 
cation in this Province. that is, education 
which applies the results of scientific 
research to a great staple industry, and 
which enables those engaged in that 
industry to do their work scientifically. 
When the College is completed, Agricul- 
ture, which is the chief industry of 
Bengal, will begin to receive upon an 
adequate scale the benefits of modern 
science. Hitherto, though agricultural 
training has not been wholly neglected, 
the effcrts made in that direction have 
been tentative and have been rewarded 
with indifferent success. As Mr. Gour- 
lay mentioned in his admirable sketzh 
of the course of events which has led to 
the establishment of a College, officers of 
the Provincial Service were sent to Ciren- 
cester to be trained, and later instruc- 
tion in agricultural subjects was givenat 
Sibpur. But the results were not satis- 
factory and the Province gained little 
except, perhaps, the services of the 
late Mr. N. G. Mukerji. Agriculture in 
Bengal may. therefore, be said to be 
now atthe opening of a new era. No 
pains have been spared to secure a site 
for the new College where it will be 
easily accessible, and where land will be 
available on which as many as _ possible 
of the principal crops of the Province 
can be experimentally cultivated, These 
conditions are fulfilled at Sabaur. As for 
the College itself, it isclear from Mr, 
Gourlay’s lucid description that every 
need of the agricultural student has 
been carefully anticipated. If thechoice 
of the staff is equally felicitous, Bengal 


ee eee eee 


ee ee 


“st Qe. € 2> 


te a : = 


JANUARY, 1909.] 


will have an ideal institution, and we 
hope that Mr. Gourlay may be as fortu- 
nate in this respect as in others. He 
will, of course, realise that while high 
scientific attainments are desirable quali- 
fications, as is equally necessary that 
“the professors should be capable 
teachers, endowed with sympathy and 
with the gift of winning the confidence 
of their students. <A blunder in the 
selection of the staff willlargely neutra- 
lise all the work that has hitherto been 
done. But, given the right men at the 
head, what may not be accomplished? 
Capable teachers will attract capable 
students. Thisisa point of great import- 
ance. It must be remembered that 
agricultural science has yet to justify its 
existence in this country, and, mainly 
because its practical advantages are not 
appreciated, the education given has so 
far failed largely to appeal to the right 
kind of student. Sir Andrew Fraser 
wisely said that he does not believe 
that the best men for the purpose in 
view are those who, having received a 
certain amount of arts training, are sent 
abroad for agricultural education. 
“These men are not hereditary agri- 
culturists. They have no interest in 
agriculture. They have not the agri- 
cultural instinct. They know nothing 
about the land or about agriculture.” 
It may be added that they know little or 
nothing about the ryot, and are not 
likely to be able to exercise any influence 
over him;and, when all is said, if agri- 
culture is to be improved it must be 
improved with the help of the cultivator, 
Sympathetic and practical teachers may, 
however, be expected to attract the 
hereditary agriculturists, who will find 
no difficulty in recognising in competent 
instructors men who know more about 
their own industry than they themselves. 


Th Miscellaneous. 


Such students, when secured, will, in 

r. Mann’s phrase, be ‘‘a body of men 
who will be apostles of a better agri- 
culture to every corner of the country.” 
They are wanted, as Sir Andrew Fraser 
sagaciously points out, to replace the 
experts that are now imported. Agri- 
culture, at least, must be a Swadeshi 
industry, and ‘‘ we shall never,” to quote 
the Lieutenant-Governor’s words, “ have 
full advance in agriculture in the pro- 
vince until we are able to enlist men 
trained on the land, and educated mainly 
within the country, to do the great part 
of the work.” We are glad to see that 
the Government have set before them 
this ideal, which ought to go far to win 
for the new_ institution a wide popu- 
larity, and which is in any case a eondi- 
tion of any real and permanent success. 
Students of the type indicated are also 
needed as managers of estates ; while, if 
they are themselves zemindars or heirs 
of zemindars, the training which they 
will receive will scarcely fail to result in 
improved methods of cultivation and 
more profitable crops. Nor willthe ryot 
be without his share of the benefits of 
the new scheme. Agricultural teaching 
in schools isat present of a jejune and 
useless character, mainly owing to the 
want of qualified teachers. We may 
reasonably assume that the activities of 
the new College will directly or in- 
directly tend to remove this defect. 
Further, Mr. Gourlay looks forward to 
the day when in each sub-division there 
will be an expert working in co-oper- 
ation with the local agricultural associa- 
tion. It will be admitted thas if these 
objects can be achieved, the province 
has seldom received a greater boon than 
the Agricultural College whose walls are 
steadily rising at Sabaur.—Indian Agri- 
culturist, Vol. XXXIII., No. 9. 


Correspondence. 


WILD PASSION FLOWER. 


Peradeniya, 8th December, 1908. 


Sir,—At a time when there is a great 
demand for seeds and plants of the Wild 
Passion Flower (Fassiflora fatida), 
which, it isclaimed, keeps down weeds, 
some information as to the identity of 
the plant will perhaps be useful. Dr. 
Trimen, in his “ Flora of Ceylon,” says 
that it is extremely common in Cylon, 
and has spread into the forests of the 
low country whereit has the look of a 
native, and that it is indigenous to 
Tropical America. 


The Sinhalese low-country name of the 
plant is Binpuhul (bim=ground, and 
puhul=pumpkin) owing perhaps to the 
similarity of its fruit to a miniature 
pumpkin; or Bedipuhul (bédi=jungle), 
Itis commonly kuown under the term 
Padagédi owing either to the rather dis- 
agreeable smell of the involucre of the 
fruit, or to the crackling noise of the 
fruit when crushed. In up-country it is 
also known by the term Delbatu(del=net, 
and batu=fruit of Solanum xanthocar- 
pum) because the fruit resembles that of 
S. canthocarpum, being enclosed in a net- 
like construction, The fruitwhen ripe is 
eaten by the natives: itis of a sub-acid 


Correspondence. 


flavour. In Tamilit is known as “ Punai- 
pudukku. 


T. D. S. DHARMASENA. 


[These native names, which are new to 
us, should prove useful for collection of 
seed.— Ep. | 


“JAFENA” MANGO. 


Jaffna, 19th December, 1908. 


Sir,—I send you a small article re 
‘‘Mangoes”; if you consider it to be 
useful information please publish it in 
your next issue and oblige. 


C. M. SINNAYAH, 


(Article.) 


Sir,—I have noted your editorial 
remark on my article on ‘“‘ Mangoes in 
Ceylon” published in your issue for 
November last. My suggestion was 
based on the information contained in a 
price list issued by Dé & Co., Seedsmen 
of Caleutta. This Company advertises 
the sale of *‘ Japan Manyo” grafts and 
also of “Java Mango” grafts. That 
kind known in Colombo as ‘Jaffna 
Mango” is known here by the name 
‘Colombo Mango.” As Java belongs to 
the Indo-Malaya regions, I presume that 
the so-called ‘“ Jaffna Mango” originally 
came in from Java.—C.M.S. 


[The so-called Jaffna Mango is extremely 
like the Alpbonse of Bombay, but a 
detailed study of the numerous mangoes 
is required, a work which would occupy 
a botanist for months.—Eb.] 


THE 


ORNITHOLOGY: A SUGGESTION. 


Demodera, 29th Dec., 1908, 


Sir,—I think some description of the 
birds of Ceylon (with illustrations 
if possible) would be of great interest to 
a very large number of residents and 
others, and might aid your circulation. 
Where original notes are not possible. 
extracts from Legge’s books (which are 
beyond the reach of mostof us) would 
be most acceptable. 


Animals might also be included, also 
reptiles. 
H. B. T. BOUCHER. 


[I should very much like to include 
articles on Birds and other Animals, but 
unless I copy out ‘‘Legge” etc,, do not 
know how to getthem. Canyou suggest 
any one who would write ?—ED.] 


Vat 


[JANUARY, 1908. 


78 
TILLAGE AND SOIL FERTILITY. 


Mocha, Maskeliya, 3rd Dec., 1908. 


Sir,—I enclose a cutting from the 
‘‘London Times” of 2nd November for 
insertion in the ‘“' 7. A.,” if suitable. 


R. MACLURE. 
(Article.) 


From the prominence given to experi- 
ments in mauuring it might be inferred 
that the crop-producing capabilities of 
the soil depended entirely upon the ferti- 
lizing materials it received. To form 
such a conclusion, however, would 
be to arrive at an erroneous con- 
ception of what constitutes good farm- 
ing. The judicious use of both farm- 
yard and artificial fertilizers is a vital 
factor in profitablearable farming, but 
at least equally important and far-reach- 
ing inits influences is the tillage of the 


jand itself. Itisa fact, recognized by 
most of the leading farmers, though 
overlooked by (an equally large 


number, that thorough cultivation not 
only exercises as powerful an effect upon 
the welfare of the crops as the manures 
applied, but also directly controls the 
results obtained from the manures. 
Yet our agricultural colleges ia their 
experiments both on the college farms 
and at the scattered experimental areas 
under their supervision confine their 
attention almost exclusively to the use 
of manures. 


DEFECT IN EXISTING EXPERIMENTS. 


The apparent neglect of influences 
affecting the physical condition cf the 
land is in some degree unavoidable. It 
isnot always convenient to carry out 
tillage investigations, few of the col- 
leges having the facilities and equip- 
ment necessary for work of the kind. 
'The defect, in fact, is more the fault of 
the State than of the educational insti- 
tutions, in denying them the funds 
essential for such inquiries. It would 
be unfair to the teaching establishments 
toconclude that they were indifferent 
to, or ignorant of, the influences of 
efficient cultivation. As a rule they 
appreciate the beneficial effects of a 
well-prepared tilth as fully as the most 
enlightened farmer, but although they 
endeavour to impress the point upon 
the students in theclass room, they sel- 
dom possess the opportunity for demon- 
strating the truth of their teaching on the 
field, and herein lies an imperfection in 
our agricultural educationa! system that 
must be rectified if we are to hold our 
own withcountries in which the land 
and the claims of those who derive their 
living from it receive more adequate con- 
sideration. The Americans arefar abead 


@ 


% 
E 


JANUARY, 1900.) 


of usin their recognition of the impor- 
tance ot the physical condition of the soil, 
and as aresult they have taught us many 
lessons, and can teach us many more, 
bearing on this aspect of farming. 
There may be some truth in the conten- 
tion that the more settled climate of 
America simplifies adherence to a fixed 
:ystem of management in that the 
farmers can tell pretty accurately before- 
hand the kind of weather to expect, and 
thus can make their plans as to plough- 
ing, cultivating, and harrowing with a 
degree of certainty and precision im- 
possible in this country. he influences 
of a well-regulated climate, however, are 
not exclusively on the side of the farmer. 
Hecan count just as certainly upon 
protracted periods of drought and 
scarcity as he can upon seasons favour- 
able to the growth of the plants and the 
cultivation of the land. Harming under 
such conditions demands at least as 
much resource asin a land where the 
raintall, the frosts, and the sunshine 
occur in less well-appointed sequence. 
Manuring is of little avail in counteract- 
ing adverse climatic influences, and the 
only hope of mitigating the stunting 
effects of the rainless periods lies in the 
thorough pulverization of the land. 


AMERICAN EXPERIENCES. 


The Americans long ago discovered 
that the defects of their climate could 
be minimized by good cultivation, and 
pursuing investigations in this direction 
they have succeeded in largely over- 
coming muny of the obstacles which at 
one juncture seemed so momentous. It 
is not alone in counteracting the effects 
of drought that the American farmers 
have proved the importance of thorough 
cultivation ; butit may almost be said 
that they have succeeded in making til- 
lage do for them what we expect from 
manures. Land regularly under cultiva- 
tion requires to have its stores of plant 
food replenished from artificial sources 
atintervals, but the lesson inculcated 
by the American experiments is that the 
amount of plant food ina good medium 
soil is almost inexhaustible and only 
requires to be liberated vy tillage in 
order to be made available for the 
plants. 


79 Correspondenc®, 


The British farmer relies in increasing 
degree upon manures to make his land 
productive, and our system of experi- 
mentation encourages the belief that 
manuring is the first point in good 
farming. A moment’s consideration of 
the question, however, will show this to 
be a wrong interpretation of the correct 
erder of things. Not the manuring of 
the land, but its cultivation, is the 
foundation influence. The benefits deriv- 
able, not necessarily from deep tillage, 
but from the reduction of the rooting 
acea to a fine tilth, are many and im- 
portant. In the first place, the germina- 
tion of the seed and the development 
and spreading of the roots are accelerated 
in inverse proportion to th2 resistance 
they meet with in the soil, and if no 
other advantage were conferred, this in 
itself would be sufficient to justify the 
eontention that the cultivation of the 
soil is the pre-eminent factor in arable 
tarming. But the influences of a well- 
prepared tilth extend much further. 
The nutritive ingredients latent in the 
soil are set free to be acted upon by the 
natural fertilizing agencies in the form 
of bacteria or even chemical processes, 
and rendered available as plant food, 
and thus the fertility of the land as well 
as its physical condition 1s improved. 
Moreover, whatever farmyard and arti- 
ficial manures are applied are more 
readily assimilated by the well-prepared 
than by the indifferently-tilled soil, and 
the net results are increased production 
and a saving in expensive manures, As 
indicating that the advantages of good 
cultivation are appreciated by at least 
some of our farmers, one who has had 
varied experience in the management of 
heavy soils recently gaveit as his opinion 
that efficient tillage was the key to 
successful arable farming. He uses both 
farmyard manure and aartificials in 
liberal quantities—of the former in fact 
as muchas he can—but he has found 
that expenditure in manures is a doubt- 
ful investment unless the physical con- 
dition of the land is carefully looked 
after. His experience is consistent with 
sound reasoning, and it would be well 
for farmers in general: if they more 
adequately recognized the truth of these 
remarks, —London Times, Nov,, 2, 1908. 


ALOES, Socotrine cwt. 
Zanzibar & Hepatic ,, 
ARROWKOOT (Natal) Ib. 

bEES’ WAX, 
Zanzibar Yellow 
Bombay blesched _,, 
a aaa :s 
Madagascar 
CAMPHOR, Chane rmosa ,, 


CARDAMOMS. MALAbar 
Tellicherry 


” 


Mangalore ,, 
Ceylon. - Mysore ” 
Malabar. 


cwt. 


80) 


(JANUARY, 1909, 


MARKET RATES FOR TROPICAL PRODUCTS. 
(From Lewis & Peat’s Monthly Prices Current, London, 9th December, 1908.) 


QUALITY. 


Fair to fine 
Common to good . 
Fair to fine , 


Slightly drossy to fair .. 
Fiir to good 

D r’ to good genuine .. 
Dark to good palish 
Crude 

Fair average quality .. 
Gocd to fine bold 
Middling lean 

Good to fine bold 
Brownish 

Med brown to fair bold 
Smal) fair to fine pinay 
Fair to good 
Seeds 


°Cs a 95s 


*/20s a 828 6d 


2d a 4d 


nom. 
135s nom. 
ts 10d a 2s 
1s 6d a Is 8d 


-|48 a 2s 6d 
ls 6d als 9d 


2s a 3s 2d 
is 6da 3s 6d 
ls 4d a 1s 5d 


QUOTATIONS. 


£6 53 a £6 7s 6d 

£710s a £7 12s 6d 
£510s a £6 2s 6d 
£6 2s 6d a £6 12/6 


is 8dals 10d 


Long Wild”,, /Shelly to good .-|6d_a is 10d 
CABLOR OIL, Calcutta ,, Ists and 2nds +-/22d a 3d 
CHILLIES, Zanzibar owt, Dull) to fine bright «1208 a 358 
tp 7 
COON LS Crown, Renewed 32d a 7d 
Org. Stem [2da6d 
Red Org. Stem [igd a 43d 
Renewed 3d a 53d 
Root | lida 4d 
CINNAMON,Ceylon Ists| Good to fine quill jiudais 4d 
per lb 2nd+ Py er da 1s 2d 
3rds . a 73d a 113d 
4ths 62d a 9}a 
Chips, &e .|Fair to fine bold 2a Bid 
CLOVES, Penang ¥b.|vull to tine bright bold|1\4 a is 
Amboyna -|Dull to tine 73d a 9d 
Ceylon : oo» CB aos ida vd 
Zanzibar Fair and fine bright 5d a 51d 
Stems Fair 2d 
Coe yina Plantation ewt.| Bold to fine 110s a 112s 
Medium to good 8's a 108s 
Native Good ordinary nominal 
Liberian he te yy |Fair nad Bold 42s 6d a 46s 6d 
lon Plant. ,, |Special Marks 74s a 90s 
COCOA, Cey Red to good 688 a 748 
Native Estate », |Ordinary to red 408 a 65s 
COLOMBO KOOT », |Middling to good l5sal7s 6d 
CKOTON SEEDS,sift. cwt. Dull to fair 3sa 35s 
CUTCH Fair to fine dry 2is a 23s nom. 
GINGER, Bengal ’ yough,, Fair 80s nom. 
Calicut, eu 4. |Smallto fine bold 72s 6d a 85s 
Small and medium 48s a 65s 


Cochin wen 


”? 


Japan ” 


AMMONIACUM » 
ANIMI, Zanzibar » 


GUM 


Madagascar 


ARABIC F.I, & Aden 
Turkey sorts 


Ghatti ” 
Kurrachee a 
Madras + 
ASSAFQ:TIDS “ 
KINO lb 
MYRRH, picked ewt 


Aden sorts ,, 
OLIBANUM, drop ee 
pickings ,, 
siftings ,. 
INDIA RUFBEK lb. 
Ceylon, str its, 
Malay Straits, etc. 


Assam 


Rangoon 


Common to fine bold 
Small and D’s 

Unsplit 

Sm. blocky to fair clean 
Pale and amber, str, srts. 
Bs little rei 
Bean and Pea size ditto 
Vir t« g od red sorts 
Med. & bold glassy sorts 
Fair to good palish 
red 
good pale 


” 


Ordinary to 


Sorts to fine pale : 
Reddish to good pale ... 
Dark to fine pale i 
Clean fr. to gd. almonds 


Fair to tine bright 
Fair to fine pale 
Middling to good 
Good to fine white 
Middling to fair 
Low to good pale 
Slightly foul to fine 


5, Ceara 
Crepe ordinary to fine.. 


Fine Block 
Scrap fair to fine 
Plantation 


323 6d a 35s 
33s 
288 


45s a 608 nom, 


£16 a £18 
£13 a £15 
75s a £12 
£9 a £12 
£7 a£x 15s 


. |£4 a £8 10s 


£4a £7 10s 


25s a 3zs 6d nom. 


31s a US 


20s a 30s 


..|158 a 25s 


854a 100s 


vom, stony to good block}z5s a 75s 


6d a 9d 
80s a 90s 
50s a 65s 
40s a 55s 
5s a 45s 
10s a 208 ~ 
13s a 15s 


Fine Fara bis. & pope lew aa 3d 


Be 3 5s 6d 
7d 


‘ls 8d a4s 
8s 9d 


Fair II to good red No,1/2s a 3s 


ss 0 


28 6d a 2s 8d 


{17s a 42s 6d nom. 


” 


” 


\OIL OF ANISEED 


Rorneo 

Java 
Penang 
Mozambique 


Nyassaland 
Madagascar 


New Guinea 
INDIGO, K.I. Bengal 


| 


per lb. 
Java 


/MYRABOLANRS, 
Bombay 


ewt 


” 


Bengal 
NUTMEGS— 

Bombay & Penang ,, a 
NUTS, ARECA cwt. 


” 


| NUX "VOMICA, Cochin 


Bengal 
Mavras 


per cat. 


” 
” 


CASSIA 
LEMONGRASS 
NUTMEG 
CINNAMON 
CITRON ELLE 
ORCHELLA WEED—cwt 
Ceylon 
Zanzibar. 


” 
” 


PEPPER - (Black) lb. 
Alleppee & Tellicherry 
Ceylon 
Singapore 

Acheen & W. C. Penang 
(White) Bingapore ne 

Siam #, 
Penang - 
PLUMBAGQO, lump owt. 


chips 
dust 
/SAGO, Pearl, large 
medium 
small soe 
SEEDLAC cewt. 


SENNA, Tinnevelly lb. 


SHELLS, M. o’ PEARL— 
igyptian cwt. 
Bombay 
Mergui 

Mamlla 


” 
” 
” 


Banda x 
TAMARINDS, Calcutta... 
er cwt. Madras 


TORTOISESHELL— 
Zanzibar, & Bombay lb. 


WAX, Japan, squares 


QUALITY. 


INDIARUBBER.(Contd.J}Gommon to good 


Good to fine red 


Fair to tine red Kall 
Sausage, fair to good _ 
Fair to fine ball 


Fr to fine pinky & whitelzs gq 
Majunga & blk coated ..J25 34 a 2s 9d 


Niggers, low to goud 
Ordinary to fine ball . 


Shipping mid to gd violet 3s 5d as lod 
Consuming mid. to gd./35 1d a 3s 4d 
Ordinary to middling |2s 9d a 33 


Oudes Middling to fine 
Mid. to good Kurpah 
Low to ordinary 

Mid. to fine Madras 


MACE, Bombay & Penang}Pale reddish to fine 


Ordinary to fair 
” », good pale 

UG and Coconada 

J ubblepore 

Bhimlies 

Rhajpore, «c. 

Calcutta 

64’s to 57’s 

110’s to 66’s 

{60’s to 115’s 

Ordinary to fair fresh 

Ordinary to good 


” a” 


Fair’ merchantable 
According to analysis 
Good flavour & colour 
Diugy to white 
Ordinary to fair sweet 
Bright & good flavour 


Mid. to fine not woody. 
Picked clean flat leaf 


” 


Fair So 
», LO fine bold heavy .. 


Milaling to ae small 
Dull to tine bright 


a} 2 


Oi Jdinary i) gd. soluble 


Fair greenish 


Small to bold 


Stony and inferior 


Small to bold 


Hickings ~- |58 6d a 228 
TURMERIC, Bengal ewt.| Fair 183 
Madras ,, |Finger fair to fine bold) 9s a 21s 
Do. __ ,, |Bulbs [b right 15s a 178 
Cochin __,, |Finger 148 nom 
Bulbs + (188 
VANILLOES— |b. 
Mauritius .. 1sts|Gd cry stallized 34 a82 in|7s a 14s 
| Madagascar ... } 2nds|Foxy & reddish 34a ,,|6s a 10d 
Seychelles. érds\Lean and inferior . (68 a78 6d 
| VERMILLION et Fine, pure, bright 


Good white hard 


— ee 


+:(2sa 38 4 
J.ow white to prime ted ls 6da a 8d 


a E o 
wiry Mozambique 


= a ve BA 
Dull to fine ei (22d a 33d 
Fair to fine a5 -- (49d a 8d 
Fair Ne see oo /OO 
Fair 44d 


Ordinary to fine bright|7s a 15s 
{Bull to fine .. . 


Good to fine bold green|5d a7d 


Commonspeckyand small]14d a oid 


” ais 19s a £5 108 
%» ” mee oie £62/6a £7 15s 
Ler to good +/£5 lus a £9 
orts +1253 a 30S 
Mid.to fine br k not stony; We al4s me 


‘148 a 68 


QUOTATIONS. 


9d a 2s 6d 


+138 3d a4s 3d 
38 3d a 4s 2d 
2s Oda 3s 9d 


ls a 2s 2d 
38! da 3s 8d nom 


2s 6d a, 2/8 nom. 
2s 8d a 2s 6d 

1s 6d a 2s 2d 
1s 5da 2s 4d 

1s 5da 1s 10d 
1s 2d als 6d 
lsldals6d 


6s a 6s 6d 


25s a 40s 
16s a 30s 


14s a 16s 


en 


£5 a£6 nom. 
3id a 44d 


60s a £5 10/nom 


8s 6da 26s 


THE SUPPLEMENT TO THE 


Tropical Agricu 


turist and Magazine of the G. A. 8 


CompiteD sy A. M. & J. FERGUSON. 


No. 1,] 


JANUARY, 1909. 


[Von. IV. 


A TEA PEST: THE LANTANA BUG. 


We invite the careful attention of all our 
planting readers to the letter of Mr. Henry 
A. Beachcroft, Chairman of the Planters’ 
Association of Ceylon, announcing the develop- 
ment of the Lantana bug’s taste forCeylon’s staple 
product, which appears on this page. It is not 
impossible that the prevailing prolonged drought 
may tosome extent be responsible for the appear- 
ance of the bug at this time. Be this as it may 
Mr. Bamber has promptly recommended means 
of dealing with the unwelcome invader and 
it is hardly necessary to impress upon planters 
the importance of adopting these measures 
wherever they see indications of the pest. 
Orthezia insignis, the scientific appellaticn of 
the Lantana bug, is declared by Mr. Harold 
Mann, in ‘‘Tea Pests and Blights” to be ‘‘a 
very troublous pest a dreadful 
scourge and must be dealt with promptly 
should it appear.” ‘To the naked eye” he 
adds ‘‘it looks like little particles of white 
wax” Inan important number of the Kntomo- 
logical series of the Memoirs of the Depart- 
ment of Agriculture in India on ‘' The Coc- 
cide attacking the Tea Plant in India and 
Ceylon’ by Mr. E. E. Green, F.£.8.,F.z.8. and 
Mr. Harold H. Mann, D.Sc., Mr. Green writes 
as follows :— 

As regards tea in Ceylon, there have been 
one or two scares from the sudden appear- 
ance of Orthezia imsignis on fields adjoining 
lantana scrub. Tea so affected is certainly 
warranted to cause alarm. This pest affects 
the young shoots of the plant and is found 
to be swarming even on the flush. It is fortu- 
nately a conspicuous insect and cannot well 
be overlooked. The several outbreaks that 
have occurred have always received prompt 
attention, pruning and burning being the treat- 
ment adopted. At the same time the bound- 
aries have been cut well back and fired. Such 


ll 


measures have invariably been successful in 
checking the pest and preventing its recurrence, 
It appears that Orthezia does not readily 
adopt a tea diet; but it is probable that if 
left undisturbed on the tea, subsequent genera- 
tions of the insect would soon accustom 
themselves to the change of food plant. 


MR. BEACHCROFT’S LETTER. 


Kandy, Dec. 10th. 

Sir,—Mr. Kelway Bamber imforms me that 
in a district lately visited by him tea is being 
seriously attacked by Lantana bug which would 
seem to have recently developed a taste for 
our staple product. 

Mr. Bamber advises that repressive meas- 
ures should be immediately taken by cutting 
down all tea trees and all neighbouring Lan- 
tana affected by the bug and carefully burn- 
ing all cuttings. 

The matter will be brought before the 
Committee meeting of the Planters’ Associat- 
ion to be held on January 8th next, but 
roeantime it is important to ascertain whether 
other districts are affected and planters, who 
have noticed any tea in their districts suffer- 
ing from a similar cause, will, if is hoped, 
at once give information to the Secretary of 
the Planters’ Association.—I am, Sir, yours 
faithfully, 

HENRY A. BEACHCROFT, 
Chairman, Planters’ Association of Ceylon, 


A LANTANA PREVENTIVE, 


Central Province, Dec. 12th. 

Drar Sir,—I note in your issue of yesterday 
that the Chairman of the Planters’ Association 
and Mr. Kelway Bamber sound the note of 
alarm re Orlhezia insignis or the Lantana Bug, 
attacking our tea bushes virulently. I believe 
the appearance of this bug on our coffee trees 
weakened by attacks of leaf disease was noted 


82. The Supplement to the Tropical Agriculturist 


after a very dry year. In one season it did 
more harm to coffee than two seasons of leaf 
disease. Would not planting of wild sun-flower, 
intheplace of the lantana rooted out, prevent 
the growing again of lantana ? Does wild sun- 
flower (I do not know its botanical name) cause 
much harm to tea adjoining it ?—Yours truly, 


ENQUIRER. 


THE GOVERNMENT MYCOLOGIST ON 
“LANTANA BUG ON TEA.” 


This letter, which follows, should be read and 
re-read by all planters who have (and even more 
by those who have uot yet) noticed this 
trouble on their estates or near their bound- 
aries. From one of the most affected pro- 
perties the specimens sent to Mr Petch prove 
to be green bug; and though serious (for it 
did such harm to coffee) he considers it not 
so deadly as if it were the Lantana bug itself, 
involving widespread and costly wrestling with 
Lantana. But is Mr Bamber mistaken in 
reporting that estates have been badly affected 
by Lantana bug as well ?—Meanwhile Mr Petch 
describes concisely what green bug looks like, 
and in more detail what the remedy is and how 
it must be applied. Let every planter respond 
to the Mycologist’s call: ‘It is imperative 
that this pest shall be taken in hand at once, ’ 
and search for and tackle the insidious enemy, 
Lecanium viride. Both the Entomologist and 
his locwm tenens being away, it is fortunate that 
the Mycologist instead was able to givea prompt 
and authoritative statement on this pest. 


Peradeniya, Dec. 22nd. 

Sir,—Since the publication of Mr. Beach- 
croft’s letter +e Lantana bug on tea, IL have 
obtained specimens from one of the worst 
affected estates. Though the appearance is the 
same as that of the blight on Lantana, a closer 
examination shows that the insect in this case 
isnot ‘‘Lantana bug” (Orihezia insignis), but 
“Green bug” (Lecaniwm viride), As ‘‘Green 
bug” was one of the chief insect pests of coffee, 
this makes the case rather more serious, though 
it limits the work required to suppress the pest, 
because we have not to deal with the Lantana of 
the whole country. 


It is also reported that the same pest is 
attacking roses, and killing ‘‘ Madras thorn.” 
As all these black fungi look the same, this 
statement cannot be accepted unless supported 
by specimens. These fungi live on the secre- 
tions of seale insects, and the insects, as a 
rule, are different on different species of plants. 
It is more probable that favourable weather 
conditions have led to the development of large 
numbers of the various scale insects which 
attack different plants in the district in question. 


As far as can be ascertained, ‘‘ Green bug ” 
has taken about two years to spread to its pre- 
sent extent in the affected district. This again 
is a more serious feature, for it shows that the 
present attack cannot be attributed altogether 
to abnormal weather conditions during the 
current year, but is rather the result of a steady 
advance of the;pest. 


In addition to pruning, and burning the 
prunings, as recommended by Mr Bamber, the 
bushes ought to be sprayed, after pruning, with 
kerosene emulsion, which is made as follows :— 


‘* Kerosene 2 gallons 
Water 1 gallon 
Soap + pound 


‘* Boil the soap in water until all is dissolved ; 
then, while boiling hot, turn it into the kero- 
sene, and churn the mixture constantly and 
forcibly with a syringe or force pump for five 
minutes, when it will be of a smooth, creamy 
nature, If the ernulsion is perfect, it will adhere 
to the surface of glass without oiliness, As it 
cools, it thickens into a jelly-like mass. This 
gives the stock emulsion, which must be diluted 
with nine times its measure of warm water 
before using on vegetation. The above quantity 
of three gallons of emulsion will make thirty 
gallons of wash.” 


The wash should be applied by means of a 
sprayer fitted with a Vermorel or Cyclone 
nozzle: the simple jet used in spraying cacao 
pods is useless in this case. There is a 
sprayer on the market which automatically 
emulsifies the kerosene and thus renders the 
addition of soap unnecessary, but it is not likely 
to be available locally. 


it is imperative that this pest should be taken 
in hand at once, before it has spread to other 
districts. Though it may not kill out the tea 
bush, it effectually stops flushing. For the bene- 
fit of those who are not acquainted with ‘“‘preen 
bug,” it may be stated that its presence is in- 
dicated by the appearance of a black mould 
which completely covers all the green parts of 
the bush. The green, oval insects are usually 
found onthe under-surface of the leaves and 


along the shoots. 
T. PETCH, 


Government Mycologist. 


THE EARLY TAPPING OF RUBBER. 


Dr. Willis’s Reply. 

7th December, 1908, Royal Botanic Gardens, 
Peradeniya. 

Dear Sir,—With reference to your letter* 
of 30th ultimo, I would refer your correspon- 
dent to my published remarks. I have always 
been against the tapping of trees below 5 or 
6 years old, and I call a young tree anything 
under 10 years.—Yours faithfully, | 

JOHN C. WILLIS, 
Director, R.B.G. 

[* A letter signed ‘‘ Herring Bones” on page 
607 of our December issue asked what exactly 
Dr. Willis referred to as ‘‘ young rubber ” in 
connection with the New tapping system appro- 
ved by Dr. Willis, and being made known by 
Messrs. Lee Hedges & Co. Will ‘‘ Herring 
Bones” sayif he is satisfied >—Ep. C.0.] 


TAPPING YOUNG RUBBER: AND 
MANURING OF COCONUTS. 
Dec. 9th. 
DeaR Sir,—I was interested to read Dr. 
Willis’s letter giving his views on what is young 
rubber. 1 would not putthe limit for tapping 
age as high as the Director does; 7 years, of fair 
average growth, is old enough for trees to have 
excellent rubber, 


and Magazine of the Ceylon Agricultural Society. 83 


But, my point Dr. Willis fails to take up, 
viz., that his approval of tapping young trees 
is being used to uphold the tapping of sapling 
rubbers, 3 years old, which is detrimental to the 
interests of our industry. Messrs. Lee Hedges 
& Co. are quite in their rights to make use 
of Dr, Willis’s approval of their system, but he 
should not allow it to be used unless strictly 
as he meant it. While writing, I may also allude 
to another point. The Director, as Editor of 
The Tropical Agriculturist, has stated that there 
is practically nothing new to write about coco- 
nut cultivation! May I give him a suggestion? 
Tell us about coconut manuring; the literature 
on that pointis not exhaustive, I was only 
recently discussing the matter witha friend, 
and our discussion on the right methods of 
manuring coconuts would have made an_inter- 
esting article. But your space is limited.— 


Yours truly, 
7 HERRING BONES. 


LATEST ON COCONUT PLANTING. 


The veteran Mr. W. H. Wright of Mirigama 
now &8 years of age, whose coconut property 
is a model of its kind and who usually picks 
an average of 110,000 to 115,000 nuts per month, 
told us some days ago he is only picking 50,000 
per month at present ; and that crops are short 
all over the island. At Veyangoda the dessica- 
ting mills have had a temporary cessation of 
work for want of ‘nuts, sellers preferring to 
sell the copra at present prices. Mr. Wright 
picks twelve crops a year: six small ones 
from November to April, and six larger from 
May to October.__He has just now some fine 
shows of blossom on his Brazil Nut and 
English (eating) Chestnut trees, promising 
fruit before long. 


Matara, Telijjawila, Dec. 17th. 


Dear Sir,—The information about coconuts 
from Mirigama is interesting. Short crops seem 
to be universal, but I think there was an im- 
provement this year compared to the crops in 
1906. Twelve crops a year are not known in 
this district—six being the usual number, of 
which those in May and July are the biggest. 
They are about three times the number plucked 
in the first and last cropsof the year. There are 
signs of good crops in 1909, due, of course, to 
the very favourable weather we have been 
having.— Yours faithfully, 

JAS. A. WICKREMERATNE. 


II. 
Marawila, Dec. 16th. 
Dear §1R,—The November number of the 


Tropical Agriculturist reminds me of the old . 


issues before it degenerated into a rubber jour- 
nal, There are in it many valuable articles 
which I commend to the cluse study of coco- 
nut planters. I refer to the very valuable and 
practical articles on pages 457-469. 

The statement, ‘‘It is a well-known fact that 
a soil on which plants are growing, loses much 
more water by evaporation than does a bare 
soil,” reminded me very forcibly of wy valued 


friend the late William Jardine, who consis- 
tently asserted that coconut estates will be all 
the better for being free of grass and herbage, 
Of course, this is not practicable, as cattle are 
an esseptial of coconut estates. But this can 
with advantage be carried out on new clearings, . 
where absence of a good pasturage will not 
attract cattle as greatlyas now. What has Mr. 
Carruthers to say to this? 

Some of the coconut estates that suffered 
greatly from the drought had a thick carpet of 
rank hrold growing on them. If this had 
been clean weeded, the soil would have bene- 
fited greatly by the stirring it would have 
received, however slight it might have been, and 
the trees, from the mulch of grass which could 
have been placed in a circle round them. 

The Government should have printed in the 
vernaculars the article on ‘‘ Leaf manuring in 
South Canara” and circulated broadcast all 
the island over. Perhaps it is not so necessary 
in the Tamil-speaking Northern and Eastern 
Provinces as in the other provinces. As far as 
my observation has gone, in those provinces the 
careful and intelligent cultivation one notices 
amongst the ryots in Southern India, is prac- 
tised by their Tamil brethren with whom they 
are closely allied. No vegetable matter, no 
garden sweepings, no cadjans from the roofs 
and fences is allowed to go to waste or is burnt. 
Everything goes to the manure heap, and 
eventually to the fields. The Sinhalese goiya 
never cdloes that. He has always dirt in the 
wrong place. Agricultural Instructors can be use- 
fully employed travelling about the country and 
giving plain, practical lectures on paddy culti- 
vation. Mr Milne, in the article on ‘* Conser- 
vation of soil moisture,” has a good word to say 
for the native plough. It must be understood 
that the Indian plough is a far more effec- 
tive implement than the Sinhalese plough. 
Both are _ practically ‘‘cultivators,” but the 
former, being broader, does more econo- 
mical work. <A great waste of power is 
involved inthe use of the Sinhalese plough, 
which stirs the soil along to the width of a 
couple of inches. As is suggested in the article, 
a harrow or cultivator might usefully replace 
the Sinhalese plough. One something like this 
rough sketch will be useful and not too heavy. 

The dots will represent the tines 
and the dotted lines the course 
they will take. As will be seen, all 
the ground between the lines at 
the base of the triangle will be bro- 
ken up. Thecultivator need not 
. be more than 9 or 12 inches wide, 
~ —Yours faithfully, 

B, 


CiITRONELLA AND OTHER GRASS OILS 


We gather from the interesting circular on 
citronella oil, &c., by Mr. J. F. Jowitt, B.a., that 
the patana and abandoned plantations in the 
Morawakkorale are admirably adapted for the 
cultivation of oil grasses. Haputale is too dry ; 
but Mr. Abbot of Malabar says: ~‘'1000z, ‘of 
oil per acre at 8d.an oz. pays handsomely as it 
can be turned out for 2d. Even at 34d an oz. it 
pays.” I fancy Morawakkorale has a better 
climate for oil-producing grasses than Malabar, 


84 The Supplement to the, Tropical, A griculturist.. 


EXTRACTION OF Oil. FROM SEEDS. 


A New Meruop. 


Referring to the various articles on oil ex- 
_ traction from seeds which have appeared from 
time to time in the Indian Trade Journal, 
Mr. Louis Hoffmann, Chemist and Oil Mill 
Engineer, who is interested in oil extraction 
by chemical solvents and whose Calcutta address 
is care of Messrs. MacBeth Bros. & Co., writes 
to say that the present methods employed 
in the milling of seeds are not only quite 
out of date but result in a poor return, great 
waste, and an unnecessarily heavy bill for 
labour. After dilating on the loss India sus- 
tains by shipping her oil-seeds to be worked 
in other countries, the writer proceeds :— 


The manufacture of oil seeds and the treat- 
ment of oils for various purposes is still in its 
infancy in India. I will not go as far into anti- 
quity as to dwell upon the ‘‘Checkao ” mills of 
the Coromandel Coast, but point atthe plants 
in working operation in Calcutta, called ghan- 
nies. Whata waste of money, material, labour, 
steam! Weseea large area covered with some 
hundreds of revolving pots, each holding but a 
few pounds of seed. Apart from the considera- 
ble cost of such a large plant, the repairing and 
labour runs into large figures. A powerful (of 
course non-condensing) engine is the moving 
spirit in the show. The whole place is dirty 
and greasy and looks anything but like a mill. 
The oil oozing out at the bottom of the grinding 
pots is led into a small tank to be sold in its 
crude state. I have seen one native concern 
called an oil mill; I donot yearn to see another. 


There are also mills worked by Europeans 
for the purpose of crushing linseed, Even in 
these I noticed a great indifference as regards 
saving labour, cleanliness, and working on 
modern lines. It seems to me that it is rather 
a question of getting through a larger quantity 
than the plant is supposed to do, than of making 
a profit by careful work. No wonder that lin- 
seed crushing does not pay ! What a difference 
between the plants at present in use as com- 
pared to the latest extraction plant by chemical 
solvents! This plant—suitable for treating oil- 
seeds, oil-cakes, fish bones, etc., say 400 tons per 
week—consists of 

A “‘BATTERY” OF 5 EXTRACTING POTS, 
each capable of holding about 3 tous of 
the material to be dealt with. The shape 
of those pots is cylindrical and they are 
arranged vertically in one line. The seed passes 
through a pair of horizontal rollers and is car- 
ried up by an elevator and thence conducted 
by a conveyor over the ‘‘battery”. It drops 
through the open manhole into the pot and, 
when full, the former is tightly closed and the 
operation begins. ) 
extraction, it is paramount that the material 
to be separated from the oil is perfectly dry. 
Fresh seed or cake always contain a certain 
amount of moisture, which must be removed 
as the tiny water-cells prevent the benzine from 
attacking and solving the oil-bearing cells. Some 
makers of extraction plants of ancient date 
dry the material in a drying apparatus, which, 
apart from the cost of the plant, increases the 


In order to ensure perfect - 


cost of steam, and yet seldom secures perfect 
drying because the size of the drying lene is 
generally inadequate to deal with large quanti- 
ties in a short time. Hence this money is mostly 
thrown away. Other makers do not even attempt 
to dry and the result is unsatisfactory extrac- 
tion. ‘This difficulty has been solved by a new 
patent (Middleton-Hoffmann’s) in a very imge- 
nious and yet simple way and the drying and ex- 
tracting proceed at the same time. 


From an elevated benzine tank the solvent 1s 
led down into the bottom of the extracting pots. 
Inside each pot is a steam coil. As soon as the 
liquid benzine touches the pipes, it evaporates 
and the gas penetrates the crushed seed. In 
about an hour the vapour works its way right 
through the whole pot continuously condensing 
and evaporating the whole time until the whole 
of the contents is uniformly heated from 105¢ to 
110° C. During the condensing a certain per- 
centage of oil is solved which collects at the 
bottom of the extractor; and while the 
heated vapour rushes through the seed, every 
trace of moisture is removed and carried’ up 
with the solvent vapour to be liquified again in 
the condenser and. separated from the solvent 
by means of aseparator acting upon the diffe- 
rent specific gravities of water and benzine. 
In this single operation about 80 per cent, of oil 
is extracted. As soon asthe condensing of the 
vapours begins, which is a certainty that the 
drying is complete, the liquid benzine-pipe, 
leading to the bottom of the extractor, 1s closed 
and the solvent tank is connected with the tap 
of the extractor letting the solvent run down 
through the warm crushed seed. The oil left 
in the seed is rapidly and completely solved and 
carried down towards the bottom of the ex- 
tracting pot. Other makers of ancient plants 
now draw off the solution and distil the ben- 
zine until the extraction is finished. The great 
fault in this system is that during the greater 
portion of the process 90 to 98 percent. of 
benzine has to be distilled in order to obtain a 
few percent. of oil. Loss of benzine and steam 
is the natural consequence. 


Another feature of this new plant is that the 
solution is conducted from the first pot into the 
second, where the benzine is allowed to be 
thoroughly saturated before it is drawn into the 
still for distillation. This concentrating process 


is continued by coupling on the third and fourth _ 


pots. Meantime (for about three hours) fresh 
benzine having cortinuously been playing on 
the first pot, there is practically no oil left in 
the seed. In order to get the liquid benzine out 
of the seed, the steam coil is again heated and 
forces the liquid benzine to evaporate. Then 
live steam is introduced which carries along the 
benzine vapour ; and, as the seed is above 100 
C., the steam passes through without conden- 
sing. This finishes the process. The manhole 
above the bottom plate is then opened and the 
perfectly dry, odourless meal is removed. The 
other pots are treated in the same way and an 
ideal extraction is obtained. 


The extracting process lasts from four to six 
hours according to the oily contents of the seed. 
The principal matter is the selection of the right 
quality of solvent, as many failures are traced to 
the purchase of cheap and unsuitable: benzine, 


ae 


ee 


and Magazine of the Ceylon Agrieultural Society. 85 


The advantages of extraction by solvents are said 
to be: (1) Unfailing yield of the whole of the oil 
contained in the seed, and independence of the 
vagaries of workmen. (2) Cheapness in working 
compared with the pressing system. Four hands 
sufliceto work the largest plant. The loss of solvent 
should not exceed } per cent. on the weight of 
the material treated. The cost per ton of seed 
treated is said: to be about R3 against R13 by 
pressing. The meal and the oil are perfectly 
free from the smell of the solvent, and the oil 
is bright and clear. The meal is perfectly dry 


and is saleable immediately after being bagged. - 


The cost of an extraction plant is said to be 
about one-third of the price of the usual pressing 
plant.—Indian Trade Journat, Dec, 3. 


RUBBER EXHIBITIONS IN EUROPE. 


Colombo, Dec. 18th. 


Dear Sir,—We have much pleasure in enclos- 
ine a copy of a letter addressed by Mr. Walther 
Freudenberg of Bremen to the India Rubber 
Journals in England and on the Continent, 
which no ‘doubt will be found to be of great 
interest to. your readers, many of whom are 
engaged in this important industry in this 
island.—We are, dear Sir, yours faithfully, 


FREUDENBERG & Co, 


(Copy.) 
The Editor, India Rubber Journal, London. 
Bremen, 23rd Nov. 1908. 
Dear §1R,—There can be no doubt that 
another Rubber Exhibition in London in 1910 
would be a mistake in view of the Brussels Ex- 
hibition during the same year. This Belgian 
show will be largely patronised by the Contin- 
ental manufacturers and the Colonies and 
naturally a simultaneous Exhibition in London 
would be-doomed to failure. 


From an English point of view there ought to 
be no hesitation in deciding in favour of Brus- 
sels; for important reasons: English people 
must, naturally, wish to push the produce 
of their own Colonies in preference to that 
from foreign countries. In this produce 
from English colonies, the Plantation Rubber, 
the Continental manufacturers evince the 
greatest possible interest ; more so, it seems 
to me, than other manufacturers. Therefore it 
is reasonable and desirable that the excellent 
samples which were so much admired in London 
should next time be shown here if possible in 
an enlarged edition. 


The English Trade has had its chance last Sep- 
tember. Not every man interested in rubber on 
the continent has been able to go to London; but 
very few will miss going to Brussels. 


The opportunities for the producers to meet 
the manufacturers are bound to be better in 
Brussels than they would be in London. Already 
some of the improvements in Plantation rubber 
can be traced to information and advice given by 
competent people over here. I hear on good'autho- 
rity that great efforts, will be made at Brussels 
to have the Agricultural department up-to-date. 
The, next International Agricultural Congress 
isto be held there at the time of the Exhibition, 


_and at moderate cost, 


A section will be arranged for Tropical Agri- 
culture and a special subsection for Rubber. 
Powerful influence is at work making such 
preparations as will ensure a complete success, 


Therefore I say: Brussels and not London, 
and I am sure you will be doing all concerned 
a great service by using your influence to have 
the London idea dropped. Especially as the 
Belgians will naturally throw their powerful 
Colonial and Mercantile interests in the balance 
in favour of Brussels.—I am, Dear.Sir, yours 


faithfully. 
WALTHER FREUDENBERG. 


THE FUTURE OF COTTON-GROWING 
IN CEYLON. 
H, B, THE GOVERNOR CALLS FOR A REPORT BY 


AN EXPERT, 
It has been matter for wonder among many 


‘agricultural visitors to the island, especially 


those who have gone so far afield as the North- 
Central Province and noted its rich, black, 
loamy soil, that not more has been done in 
development of a cotton industry in this Colony. 
The experiment station at Maha Illupalama, 
however—so efficiently carried on by Mr. C. J.C. 
Mee, who has been in charge also of the work 
at Gangaroowa for nearly two years now—is 
itself an abundant proof, under the Peradeniya 
Botanic Gardens Department, of what can be 
done in this country in cotton culture under 
suitable conditions. In view of results com- 
paratively satisfactory in growth and yield 
we are not surprised 
to learn that H.E, Sir Henry McCallum is not 
satisfied withthe small advance made in this 
Colony in Cotton Cultivation. The Governor is 
anxious to know whether still further improve- 
ment might not be arrived at, such as would 
attract marked attention to the product and 
bring about the investment of capital in the 
Province referred to with a view to cotton pro- 
duction on an appreciable scale. To this end 
he has wisely taken advantage of the Cotton 
Expert in our midst, fresh from considerable 
Egyptian experience of the product. We 
refer to Mr. J. Stewart McCall, the future 
Director of Agriculture in Nyassaland, whose 
three months in the Colony came to a close, 
on January 10th when he sailed for Mombasa 
(via Aden), His Excellency. has called for 
a report from Mr. McCall on the work 
being carried on at Maha Illupalama and on 
the prospects of development of the cotton 
planting industry inthe North-Central Province; 
and *Mr. McCall paid a visit to the scene of 
Mr. Mee’s chief work, with the latter gentle- 
man, Mr, M Kelway Bamber and others in con- 
sultation. The presence of the other gentlemen 
referred to, with Mr. McCall, will add distinctly 
to the value of the results of the detailed enqui- 
ries and observations made on the spot; and 
we look forward with much interest to the report 
when issued, which may take the form of a 
special paper to be read at next meeting of the 
Agricultural Society if it does not appear as a 
Sessional Paper. 


86 The Supplement to the Tropical Agriculturist 


Meanwhile, it is of interest to learn that 
our visitor—as far as he has been able to judge 
from the figures, so carefully kept by Mr. Mee 
—is of opinion that even at Maha Illupalama 
the output might be more than doubled without 
injury to the crop. Instead ofa yield of 130 lb. 
per acre, by doubling the present amount of 
planting per acre, he thinks a yield of 300 lb. 
cotton fibre might safely be obtained. This, 
at prices approaching the valuations of 
samples sent home, namely 9d. per |b., means 
something like £11 5s. per acre. And as the 


clearing of the land at Maha IJlupalama has . 


not cost more than R25 per acre, the small 
additions of what would doubtless be reason- 
able rental charged by Government, and 
cost of planting, picking, ginning, d&c., a 
handsome profit per acre should be left. For 
here in Ceylon there is one initial advantage 
as compared with Egypt; there for the rich, 
artificially fertilised soil a rent of £8 per acre 
is charged, and though the returns in Egypt 
from cotton amount to as much as £20, the 
clear profit taken works out to an average of 
but £4 10s per acre. The same profit, at the 
very-least, Mr McUall is convinced, would 
be obtainable here; but probably, on im- 
proved methods of planting, &., a great 
deal more. Here, of course, the one thing 
required and desired is suitable labour that 


will accommodate itself to the  cendi- 
tions and climate; and our visitor thinks 
that with due selection exercised, the 


right ‘kind of coolies could be obtained from 
South India. Mr Mee’s experimental work, 
as far as it has gone, Mr McCall considers, 
will be of immense help to him in iuvesti- 
gating the results as well as conditions of 
Jocal cotton-growing—about which Dr. H 
Marcus Fernando is almostthe only proprie- 
tary enthusiast so far—and in preparing his 
report. Heis also fully assured that there is 
a great future before the industry in this 
colony, which will be duly entered upon as 
soon as hesitating capitalists have the requisite 
information laid before them, coupled with 
encouraging terms for land afforded by the 
Ceylon Government. It may not be the best 
part of the country for the white man to make 
his home in, as a planter for any length of time 
together; but if there really is money to be made 
in cotton there, Mr McCall believes, the minor 
drawbacks of climate will not deter him from 
devoting energy and capital to what is already 
80 promising a product. 

For all he has heard from Mr Mee, Mr 
McCall thinks cotton—if only people here really 
knew about it and had the enterprise to 
grow it on a reasonable scale—would be the 
making of the North-Central, and part of the 
Northern Province. The soil is admirably 
suited and—unlike Egypt where the soil, Mr 
McCall says, is not fertile but is treated with 
vast quantities of imported manure—calculated 
to yield well with comparatively little attention. 
He thinks that tobacco experiments here are a 
mistake. The tobacco market is so strongly 
controlled ; any output here, however improved, 
is bound tobe ‘cornered’ and fair value will 
not be paid to the growers. Butin the case 
of cotton good prices can always be realised 
if grown from well-selected seed, Selection is 


important because even in America, where 
Egyptian cotton is very popular, much weed- 
cotton (Hindi) is found with the pure Egyptian. 
Egyptian growers cut out the weakly plants 
and too often the Hind: cotton is thus allowed 
to survive. Mr McCall recommends Egyptian 
cotton for Ceylon, we understand, for he says 
Sea Islands (in spite of topping the market) 
never grows elsewhere like it does in Sea 
Islands themselves.—Mr McCall will be writing 
shortly a report on his impressions of the three 
mouths he spent here. This should be of 
high interest to Ceylon agriculturists. It will be 
forwarded to the Colonial Office direct. 


THE SUPPLY OF NITROGEN TO 
CULTIVATED PLANTS. 


It was the great Chemist, Baron Liebig, who 
enunciated the mineral theory on the assump- 
tion that all the requirements of cultivated 
plants were met by the large supply of nitrogen 
present in the atmosphere and that the only 
fertilisers necessary to meet the exhaustion 
that follows cultivation are those made up of 
mineral compounds. It was not very long 
before Liebig’s theory was completely exploded, 
and the fact came to be recognised that the bulk 
of the nitrogenous food of plants was mainly 
obtained from the organic compounds in the 
soil though a small amount was derived from 
the atmosphere in the form of ammonia and 
nitric acid (resulting from decay of organic 
matter on the earth) ; while special though 
limited supplies were made directly avail- 
able by electric disturbances which brought 
about the combination of nitrogen and oxygen 
in the air. Within recent times, the discovery 
of Hellriegel established the fact that certain 
plants are able to increase the soil nitrogen 
by the aid of bacteria contained in the tubercles 
on their roots, since these organisms were 
capable of bringing about the combination of 
nitrogen and oxygen, In spite of all these re- 
sources, agriculture—i.¢., intensive agriculture 
—needs the addition of large supplies of nitro- 
genous fertilisers, of which the nitrate depo- 
sits of Chili are perhaps the chief source of 
supply. Bunt it has been declared by com- 
petent authorities that the exhaustion of these 
deposits was not very far off, and that the 
wheat supply of the world would be. seriously 
reduced thereby, unless the aid of science— 
in increasing nitrogenous plant food—was 
pressed into service. Though many practical 
men are of opinion that the views of Sir William 
Crooke and Professor Sylvanus Thompson (the 
authorities referred to) are pessimistic, scientific 
workers have already discovered more than one 
means of drawing upon the large stores of 
elementary nitrogen in the atmosphere and 
so increasing the nitrogenous food of plants. 

One of the more important processes by which 
this increase is brought about is the Brikeland- 
Eyde process, which gives rise to the product 
known as Norwegian Saltpetre. This consists 
ofthe combination of Nitrogen and Oxygen by 
means of an electric current, the pee 3 
formation of Nitric Acid, and (by treatment wit 
limestone and caustic lime) the sete ere e- of 
Nitrate of lime as the ultimate’ product, . The 


—_, 


and Magazine of the Ceylon Agricultural Society. 87 


chief factory, which carries on the manufacture, 
is Notodden, where the power is supplied by the 
Tinnfos Waterfall. A simiiar factory is being 
erected in Italy. The quality ofthe Nitrate 
produced is said to be equal to that of Chili 
Saltpetre, and the cost of production about half 
that of placing the latter on the market in 
Christiania. 


Another method of fixing atmospheric nitro- 
enis the electric heating of calcium carbide 
in a stream of atmospheric nitrogen which 
results in the manufacture of calcium cyana- 
mide. ‘This fertiliser is found in the market 
under the name of “Nitrolin” or ‘‘lime 
nitrogen.” The industry was first started at 
Piano d’Orta in Italy, 
lowing in Austria, France, Germany, America 
and Norway. The Thwaite System of Electro- 
culture—consisting of the direct application of 
the rays of electric light—has the same object 
in view. The method is under trial at the Royal 
Botanic Gardens in London. 


Still another scientific aid towards the pro- 
duction of improved crops is what is known as 
radio-culture. By the employment of coloured 
glass it has been found possible not only to 
influence the development and growth of plants, 
but also bring about changes in form of both 
flowers and leaves. Radio-culture has, however, 
still to emerge from the experimental stage. 


Reference has already been mace to Lem- 
shorn’s experiments in Hlectro-culture. In place 
of Thwaites’ operations under glass, Lemshorn 
works entirely in the open with the use of a 
wire net stretched above the field, so that a 
current can be made to traverse the net from 
s building outside the field. The rea! value of 
the process has yet to be demonstrated, though 
the effect is probably the generation of ozoue 
aud nitric acid and the stimulation of the 
growth by the drawing up of the sap from 
the roots upwards. in France, the question of 
utilising atmospheric electricity has received 
considerable attention, and by the setting-up of a 
kind of lightning couductor (geomagnetifere) in 
the centre of a field, and connecting it with 
wires running through the soil, very successful 
results are reported to have been obtained. 
Such are some of the means by which science 
has attempted, and with a considerable measure 
of success in many cases, to come to the aid of 
Agriculture and keep up the supply of nitro- 
genous plant food which is so liable to ex- 
haustion in the soil. 


SOIL INOCULATION. 


As the results of experiments conducted at 
Rothamsted, it has for some time been estab- 
lished that the cultivation of plants of the legu- 
minous order can be greatly facilitated by the 
process of ‘‘goil inoculation ”’ 


WITH NITROGEN-FIXING BACTERIA, 


As is now generally known by those 
interested in the application of chomistry 
to agriculture this is rendered possible by the 


other factories fol- °* 


fact that the leguminous plants, which include 
clovers, vetches, peas and beans among import- 
ant farm and garden crops, are provided with 
nodes upon their roots by means of which the 
bacteria supply the free nitrates in a form which 
the growing plant can take up. Ina lecture on 
this subject delivered on Thursday, in the rooms 
of the Royal Botanic Society in Regent’s-park, 
under the title of ‘‘ Plants and their Allies,” Mr 
W B Bottomley, F.c.s., Professor of Botany at 
King’s College, described the results which he 
has so far gained from experiments timing at 
establishing the possibility of similar methods of 
treatment in the case of plants not of the legu- 
minous order. Sofar, these experiments have - 
been chiefly on a laboratory scale, and it has yet 
to be completely demonstrated how far soil in- 
oculation can be practised on a paying com- 
mercial basis in the case of field and garden 
crops not of the leguminous class. It was 
noted that four non-leguminous plants, one of 
which is the common alder, are provided with 
nodes upon the roots resembling those of 
the dequminosae in outward appearance, and, as 
it appears, in function, though their structure 
is distinctly different. Young alders responded 
by increased growth to the process of inocu- 
lation in the same way as clovers or vetches. 
Further experiments in the inoculation of many 
widely different plants have been of a very 
interesting and encouraging character. It is 
claimed that plants of such varied nature as 
oats, onions, turnips, roses, peach trees, and 
even ferns have all shown a remarkable increase 
of vigour in growth when subjected to soil 
inoculation. Specimens and photographs were 
exhibited illustrating the results obtained. 
There is thus a strong indication tbat the prac- 
tica] benefits of soil inoculation may not be con- 
fined to the leguminous crops. In order to 
show what plants respond to this method of 
treatment sufficiently well to admit of its being 
generally adopted, it is now necessary for the 
experiments to be extended more generally 
from the laboratory to the field and garden. For 
this purpose the collaboration of farmers and 
gardeners who are interested in the subject is 
much desired by the prosecutors of the experi- 
ments.—London Times, Dec. 5. 


TO MAKE GUAVA JELLY. 


Sandwich Islands Method. 


Honolulu, Hawaii, Nov. 20.—Several of the 
pineapple canneries of the territory are experi- 
menting in a small way in making guava jelly 
and other fruit preserves, the idea being to find 
something on which the plants may be kept 
running between the seasons of the principal 
fruit. In some districts of the Territory the 
guava fruit grows wild over hundreds of acres 
and fruits continuously. The expense for the 
raw product would consequently be limited to 
the cost of gathering it. Jelly from this fruit ig 
already well known in main land and European 
markets, and it is believed that all that could 
be produced here would find a ready sale,— 
Hawai Promotion Committee Press News Bureau, 


gg The Supplement to the Tropical Agriculturist 


TEA AND CEARA RUBBER IN 
NYASSALAND. 
Mlanje, Nov. 11th. 

Dar Srr,—I note various articles in the 
T, A. now and again about Nyassaland and 
its progress. Itis only right that, as ‘‘H. B.” 
has written such glowing accounts of the 
tea industry, he should give full parti- 
culars as to his exact acreage in bearing 
and as tothe yield per acre, If you look up 
some of the 7.A.’sand Observers, you will very 
likely see that —-— estate had some 200 acres of 
tea a good few years back, but it now seems 
to have dwindled down to a smaller acreage; 
also the number of acres in bearing is too funny 
for words. I ask how any planters, if they put on 
a gang of men, women and boys without any 
past experience to prune and pluck, could ex- 

ect really good results?—Also, if the place 
has been planted under a forest 6 ft. apart both 
ways, and coffee in between the lines? Then, 
supposing a planter had 180 acres of tea 
planted some years ago, say 5, and put a gang of 
women and children in to take off all the bud 
and low leaves over the 180 acres, and the planter 
were to say he had only 30 acres in bearing and 
that the remainder was growing, is that the way 
to boom tea in an unknown country? I have been 
here for the past 5 years and have now planted 
150 acres of tea according to Ceylon methods. 
I am at present unable to give the exact 
yield per acre. Some of the first planted 
bushes are 8# ft. in diameter, and I kave some 
thousands very nearly the same. I prune asI was 
taught by the lateMrT N Orchard of Hewaheta, 
near Kandy. Now I do not wish to mislead 
planters in any way, but my honest opinion is 
that there isa great future for the tea here if 
we get the right stamp of settlers, and who 
understand the tea industry. Also, they 
would need more than the few hundreds 
“H. B.” speaks of. I would say that £1,500 
to £2,000 was more like it. Some time 
ago I wrote about the prospect of tea in 
this country, but do not mistake me. At 
present the yield per acre is unknown. 
However, it is pretty certain that the tea 
manufactured is very good. Mr Cross, an old 
Ceylon planter, was much taken with it, and 
although the mode of manufacture is most 
primitive, it is well sought after by the public. 

Then again as for Ceara Rubber being a dead 
failure, the statement is a little incorrect. My 
Company havesome hundreds of acres of it newly 
lanted; also a certain well-known Company not 
ar distant from here have had most promising 
results from their tapping, so much so, that they 
are extending their acreage this coming season. 
T ask, does this spell failure ? j 

For young men to come to this country, 
without the capital I speak of and the ability 
to work hard, spells ruin ; we have had many 
undesirable characters whose stay has been 
short and merry. I hope in afew years to be 
able to give accurate figures of acreage and 
yield per acre; also the result of'rubber tapping, 
but at present we live and hope. If we get 
men with capital—also a knowledge of tea and 
rubber, our future is avery bright one. Iam 
sanguine of tea—as my bushesare excellent andmy 
ield peracre forthe past year is most satisfactory; 
but untill can give absolute figures, no more, 


The climate is quite all right, if the planter | 


is careful with himself and keeps from drink; 


- but without hesitation I say ‘‘drmk” spells 


death here ina few years. Personally, I keep 
excellent health.—Yours faithfully, 


PLANTER. 


oe 


A NEW TEA-FANNER. 


MACHINE WHICH GRADES AND FINALLY SIFTS TEA, 


A number of tea planters spent an interest- 
ing half-hour yesterday afternoon at the works 
of Messrs. Marshall, Sons & Co., Engineers, 
Clive Street, Calcutta, inspecting a new machine 
designed to obviate all necessity for hand-sifting 
or ‘‘sooping” tea. ‘The deflector Tea-Fanner, 
as it is called, removes from whole grade teas all 
the dust, fluff, flat leaf, red leaf and ‘‘fannings,” 
and from dust teas it cleans the dust, removes 
all the sand, stone and heavy rubbish, and also 
the fluff and light fibre matter. 

Mr. McDonald, the patentee, and Mr. Guise, 
of Cachar, both experienced tea planters, ex- 
plained the machine to the gentlemen present, 
and also gave a practical demonstration of what 
it will do. The tea, partially sized from any 
ordinary tea sifter, is fed into a movable hopper, 
fitted with a light and new automatic feed. As 
it falls from the hopper the tea is caught ina 
reciprocating, graduated-mesh screen, after 
which it enters the winnowing chamber. The 
air current from the fan carries it forward on to 
deflecting screens, which arrest the fall of the 
tea, guide it backwards, towards the fan, and re- 
deliver it into another compartment. This win- 
nowing process is repeated three or four times, 
and then the tea drops down on to cloths spread 
underneath the machine. The tea can be sepa- 
rated into any required number of grades ‘at the 
wish of the operator, and all dust, fluff, fibre 
and other matter which detracts from the value 
of the tea in the market is removed. 

Yesterday the machine certainly did its work 
well. It graded the tea to a nicety, leaving it 
in separate heaps—one of pure tea, and others 
in various stages of purity, right down to the 
dust and fluff. It answered all the tests made 
on it perfectly, and certainly seems destined to 
revolutionise the work of finally sifting and 
grading tea. 9 

At present this work is mostly done by coolies 
or women, who sit in the factory, and sift the tea 
by hand. It is calculated that the new machine 
will do away with from 35 to 50 per cent of the 
coolie labour now employed in sorting. A good 
deal depends on the class of tea to be handled, 
and it is, therefore, difficult to fix on an average 
hourly capacity. As much as six to eight or 
even ten maunds an hour have been successfully 
cleaned, but as little as three to four maunds 
per hour, where specially fine work is required, 


has been approved. Generally speaking, how-. 


ever, in a factory where medium fine leaf is 
manufactured, and a similar style of sifting 
adopted, one machine would about suffice for a 
crop of from three to fourthousand maunds. 

It accomplishes its work in a rapid, cleanly 
and efficient manner; it is easy to work (its 
inventor says two children can work it); it is 
easily erected and takes up little space ; and its 
price is R750, packed and delivered,—States-, 
man, Dee, 12. 


* 


and Magazine of the Ceylon Agricultural Society. 89 


THE IMPROVEMENT OF CULTIVA- 
TION OF CROPS BY PLANT 
BREEDING. 


Now that we have amongst us an expert in 
Plant Breeding (in the person of Mr. R. H. 
Lock, who is known to the scientific world as 
the author of ‘‘ Recent Researches in Heredity, 
Variation and Evolution,”) it will be of interest 
to inquire shortly into the significance of the 
work which Mr. Lock is engaged on. Looking 
only at the agricultural aspect of this question 
of breeding we may state that there are three 
waysin which improved strains of plants can be 
secured—(1) by selection, (2) by mutation and 
(3) by hybridization. 

Selection is the picking out for further 
breeding of those individuals which approach 
most nearly to the type forming the breeder's 
ideal. Selection, of course, presumes variation, 
Individuals, possessing the desired charactors in 
the highest degree, are picked out, and by 
breeding through many generations, improve- 
ment inthe direction sought is secured. It 
should be stated, however, that variation may 
be of two kinds due to : (1) acquired characters 
brought about by external causes and, there- 
fore, distinguished as acquired variation, 
being neither inherited nor heritable ; (2) in- 
herited characters brought about by causes 
inherent in the individual organism and hence 
sometimes distinguishable as genetic variation. 
Practically we have no means of distinguishing 
between these tivo, save by the test of actual 
breeding. The object of such test should be to 
discover the existence of inherited (and herit- 
able) characters ; selection being made depen- 
dent not on the excellence of the individual, 
but on that of its progeny. 

Mutations are what are more familiarly known 
as ‘‘ sports,” due, so far as we know, to acci- 
dental and uncontrolled causes, though be- 
lieved to be possibly induced by changes of 
environment. These sudden and striking varia- 
tions must be constantly watched for, and re - 
ported to Mr. Lock at the earliest opportunity, 
ason them depend great possibilities in the 
improvement of plants. 


Hybridization or cross-breeding may be de- 
fined as a ‘‘reshuffling of the various unit charac- 
ters present in individuals, so as to bring about 
re-combinations of characters already in exis- 
tence.” The possibilities of evolving permanent 
results by this means have been greatly in- 
creased by the discovery of the Mendelian law. 
The principles of scientific breeding, are the 
outcome of the work of Gregor Mendel, an 
Austrian monk, in the garden of his Monastery; 
and it was not until 1900 that his records 
were unearthed, and biologists began to 
realise their value and recognise that a new 
avenue to scientific research—of the utmost 
importance to agriculture and stock-breeding 
—had been opened to them. 


Plants and animalsare now regardedas built up 
of distinct unit characters, each pair of which is 
inherited according to certain definite principles, 
the different pairs being generally inherited 
independently of one another. New characters 
resulting from a cross, if capable of fixation, 


12 


may be fixed in the second generation after 
the cross—no elaborate process of selection 
being required, provided that the members 
of the generation are tested individual by 
individual. It need hardly be said that it is 
no easy matter to distinguish an individual 
which will breed true from one which will 
not, since it may be pure or impure as re- 
gards its dominant character; and the point 
can only be satisfactorily settled in plants by 
growing a further generation, 

It is this preliminary but indispensable pro- 
cess of ‘‘ analysis” that constitutes the chief 
difficulty in plant breeding operations, for the 
process is often of great complexity, demanding 
accurate work and familiarity with the subject. 

Upon the results of such investigations as 
Mr. Lock is engaged in does the progress of 
practical agriculture depend, and it is to be 
hoped that before long tho island will have 
good reason to congratulate itself upon the 
work of its expert in plant breeding. 


TESTING SOILS, 


The Bureau of Soils of the United States 
Department of Agriculture has during the 
last few years been making experiments with 
a view to improve and simplify the pot met- 
hod of testing soils. They have evolved the 
paraftined wire basket method, which is des- 
cribed as a promising method of investigat- 
ing soils, either as to present fertility or 
as to the effect of additions of fertilisers. 
The process is as follows:—‘‘Into small 
baskets made of wire netting they put less 
than a pint of soil. The basket is then 
dipped into molten paraffin to coat the sides 
and bottom of the soil with paraflin, so as to 
exclude the air. Six seeding wheat plants are 
set out in this soil, and the surface of the soil 
covered with paratlined paper, excepting a nar- 
row slit, through which the wheat plants pro- 
ject. hus the evaporation from the soil is 
almost completely prevented, excepting such 
evaporation, called transpiration, as takes place 
through the plants. The leaves continually give 
of water which the plants keep continually 
drawing up through roots and stem from the 
soil. The amount of this transpiration can 
readily be determined by occasionally weighing 
the soil, They found that the more fertile the 
soil, the more rapid this transpiration. Within 
from three to six weeks this has gone far 
enough to give the necessary indications.” 
Tt seems hopeful that we have in this a 
method whereby we can test a- coil within one 
or two months’ time and learn whether it is 
fertile, or to what fertilisers it responds best. 


SIMPLE AGRICULTURAL 
iMPROVEMENTS. 


For Rice GRoweERS AND Orusgrs, 

The Eastern Bengal and Assam Department 
of Agriculture has just issued a pamphlet on 
“A Few Simple Agricultural Improvements” 
which experience has shown to be practicably 
profitable and within the means of the ryots. 
Theso are : (f The use of bone-meal and ‘salt- 
petre as manure for transplanted winter rice; 


90 The Supplement to the Tropical 


(2) the use of green manuring for transplanted 
winter rice; (3) the use of oil-cake as manure; (4) 
the proper conservation of the excreta of cattle 
as manure ; (5) the introduction of the Naini Tal 
and Patna varieties of potato; (6) the use of 
theiron mill for crushing sugarcane; (7) the 
use of the shallow iron-pan for boiling jaggery; 
and, (8) the cultivation of fodder for cattle. 
—WM. Mail, Dec. 24. 


CEYLON COPRA IN 1908, 


REMARKABLE INCREASE ABOVE 1907. 

In placing the following figures of the quantity 
of copra exported from Ceylon during 1908, it is 
necessary to observe that the prices for copra 
ruled low from January to September. The low 
rates, of course, were depressing to owners and 
speculators who are chiefly interested in the 
preparation of thisimportant commodity for the 
Colombo market. The tightness of the local 
money market and the depressed state of general 
trade of the country were due, in great measure, 
to the low values which prevailed during these 
months for the products of the coconut palm. To 
add to it, the utter depression in the plumbago 
. trade, in which the well-being of a large number 
of people is so dependent for their living, caused 
no little anxiety. In October a more assuring 
feeling began to show itself and prices for copra 
began to firm up—until R60°75 was reached on 
the23rd December. This enhanced rate this year 
is nowhere to be compared to the record price 
of R86 obtained in February, 1907. 

In 1907 to Dec. 14th we had exported to the 
United Kingdom 2,645 cwts copra. In 1908 
the total quantity exported amounts to 26,563 
cwts., showing an increase of 23,918 cwts. 
From Singapore to the United Kingdom up to 
27th November, 1908, 88,365 piculs were exported, 

In 1907 as far as 14th December we exported to 
the Continent of Europe 334,262 cwts. In 1908 
the total quantity exported amounted to 663,687 
ewts. There is a further quantity of about 
8,000 to 10,000 ewts. to be shipped to 31st De- 
cember, 1908, which will bring to a grand total of 
about 673,687 cwts., showing an increase of 339,435 
ewts. Germany, Denmark, Belgium and Russia 
having contributed so conspicuously in the in- 
erease of the export this year. Spain, itis to 
be regretted, not having purchased anything, 
though 1,000 cwts. were exported in 1907. From 
Singapore to the Continent of Europe up to 27th 
November, 1908, 834,098 piculs were exported. 

Judging from the animated state of the city 
since beginning of December up till the moment 
we go to press, we have reason to congratulate 
the varied inhabitants of the island, that the 
revival of trade—which caine into evidence from 
October—has considerably improved their pro- 
spects and those of the richer and enterprising 
classes trading in the products of the island. 


COPRA AND COCONUT OIL TRADE OF THE 
PHILIPPINES. 


In 1907: By Actine ConsuL-GENERAL Horne, 
Copra.—Copra rises to second place in the 
export trade on account of the unprecedented 
prices ruling. The quantities exported have 
not altered materially in the threg years, but 
rices have risen steadily from o.oo ¢.3'7 per 
Ib. (about 14d to 1#d), 


griculturist 


Coconut Orn. —This export industry has great 
possibilities judging from statistics for the past 
three years. Coconut oil has always had a large 
domestic consumption; its entrance into the 
export trade is a recent development. It is 
computed that, seven years after planting, a 
coconut tree yields 1 peso (2s) per annum, and 
it is gradually being realised that under such 
conditions coconut plantations on a big scale are 
a very profitable investment. 


CAGAO IN THE AMAZONIAN REGION 
OF BRAZIL. 


It is worth while copying the information 
respecting cacao given in the Consular Report 
on the District of Para in 1907, because it 
shows how little is done there in cultivaton and 
how much is gained from the indigenous cacao 
as from the indigenous (wild) rubber. Here is 
what the Consul reports from his own obser- 
vation and experience :— 


Cocoa.—During the recent journey of 1,600 
miles up the Amazon and one of its main tribu- 
taries, while cocoa trees were to be seen growing 
(often submerged in the flood of the river) around 
the huts of the semi-aquatic riverain dwellers, 
there was no where any semblance of what in 
Africa would be termed a ‘ plantation.” The 
trees grew haphazard, as near the waterside as 
possible, and invariably on a level liable to 
annualinundation. Beyond the immediate limits 
of the river bed subject to this periodical over- 
flow the ground often rose in swelling ridges cap- 
able of easy cultivation. In a local commercial 
report of the present month of May, 1908, it is 
stated that ‘‘the cocoa crop of the Lower Ama- 
zon for the present year will be a very poor one, 
The gatherers have informed the dealers that the 
high river this year has destroyed half the 
crop, and that with the fall of the water the 
rest will be wholly useless.” Were anything 
like organised agricultural life existent along 
the Amazon and its waterways, the output of 
cocoa and a wealth of other food supplies would 
be merely a question of the application of 
human labour. The only plough I have seen 
at work in the Amazon was at Itacoatiara, some 
750 miles up the river, on a fazenda (estate) 
worked byan old American resident, who came 
to this region some 50 years ago. This gentle- 
men, with little or no capital, but the intelli- 
gent industry of hisown hands and later that of 
his sons, has createda home life on the most 
comfortable scale, and while producing almost 
all the food his household needs, he exports a 
considerable share and obtains from tobacco 
alone a profitable export stock. The cocoa tree 
grows wild along the Amazon, and, like much 
else that civilisation today enjoys, we owe our 
knowledge of this beverage to the native Indians. 
The methods of production today are, I believe, 
little in advance of those the early settlers must 
have adopted from the native. Not only is 
systematic cultivation largely wanting, but the 
manner of collecting and drying the bean leaves 
much to be desired. It is only another proof of 
the natural wealth of the Amazon Valley that 
despite this apathy and want of system the out- 
put of cocoa should be so considerable. In the 
middle of the last century, when slave labour 


and Magazine of the Ceylon Agricultural Society). 91 


prevailed, cocoa rivalled rubber as one of the two 
chief articles of export from Para. The yield 
varied greatly in different years, and the fluctu- 
ations of price did not follow the abundaice or 
scarcity of the crop. From figures supplied by a 
former United States Consul in Para we find 
that in 1856-58 the cocoa yield of the Para dis- 
trict was as follows :— 
WEIGHT oF Cocoa Exports. 


Ib 8 
1856 . 4,343,136 99,247 
1857 7,428,48) 2 8,926 
1858 --6 133,013 


a Not stated. 


Beside the figures of today these figures show 
that practically no development of cocoa raising 
has taken place during the last half-century. 
With the growth of the rubber trade and the 
yearly widenmg areaof search for the Hevea 
and kindred milk-yielding trees nothing has 
been attempted to put agriculture, the basis of 
all sound development, on a healthy footing. The 
following table, giving the apparent shipments 
of cocoafrom Para during recent years, has been 
compiled from unofficial sources :— 


Cocoa Exports viA Para, 


Total Total, 
Metric tons, Metric tons. 
1902 - 4,441 1905 4,265 
1903 afer Oued. 1906 » 2,152 
1904 5,191 1907 2,501 


Novre,—Product of the two States of Amazonas and Para, 
The cocoa shipped in 1907 came in the follow- 
ing proportious from the two States :— 


Tons, ae 
Para is 2,625 131,273 
Amazonas So 876 43,810 
Total he 3,501 175,083 
Note.—The value is calcuiated at an exchange of 1s 
3 5-32d 


Of this total 2,639 tons were exported to Eu- 
rope (almost all to France) and 862 tons were 
exported to the United States. Of the 
cocoa from the State of Amazonas 96 tons 
were shipped at Manaos and 78) tons at 
Itacoaciara or (Serpa). In Amazonas the cocoa 
crop is very much smaller than in the State of 
Para, aud the annual shipments from Manaos 
are insignificant, almost all the cocoa from this 
State being shipped from Serpa to Para. This 
is not due to the absence of cocoa trees in 
Amazonas, for in the report on the State of 
Amazonas compiled by the late Mr Vice-Consul 
Temple in 1900 (No. 530 Miscellaneous) he shows 
that the plant grows extremely well, andin many 
places wild, and that the little attention paid 
to it is due to the want of labour: 


GREEN MANURING IN SOUTH INDIA. 


Tinnevelly Bridge, Nov. 29.—Today a deputa- 
tion met H.E. Sir A. Lawley on various settle- 
ment questions. . . . The Deputation urged 
that the Forest Department should grow ‘‘ kol- 
ingi” (wild indigo) and avarai on the forests, 
in the plains, and on the hills, and supply them 
to the raiyats at a nominal fee, and should 
give the raiyats licenses to cultivate these, and 
similar manure-yielding trees in forest areas, 
subject to the necessary restrictions. It was 
pointed out to the Deputation that the Forest 
Department was aiready making experiments 
in growing shrubs for supplying manure leaves, 
but the Deputation urged that the oxperimenst 


should be carried out ngap ths, foot-ef gho hills, 
either by the raiyats or ‘ny: the Forest Ycpart- 
ment. His Excellency asked thé District’ Forest 
Officer to endeavour to meet this request. One 
of the members of the Deputation offered to 
supply the District Forest Officer with some wild 
indigo seeds for the purpose.—Madras Times. 


THE BURNING OF PRUNINGS. 


INSTEAD OF MIXING WITH LIME AND 
BURYING. 


Mr. Joun Hucugs, F. 1. c.—who is Agricul- 
tural Analyst for Herefordshire—writes from his 
Analytical Laboratory, 79, Mark Lane, London, 
E.C., under date December 10th, 1908 :— 

‘In the Overland Observer Nov. 13th, 1908, on 
page 1,700, [ was much interested in reading 
certain remarks on the importance of burning 
prunings in order to check the enormous in- 
crease of the Sbot-hole Borer in Tea. Indeed, 
according to the statement of Mr. Hohl, ot 
Messrs. Freudenberg, the enormous increase 
in the ravages in tea caused by this borer is 
largely due to the indiscriminate burying of 
prunings from tea ; for though lime be used, 
it cannot penetrate the young stems and shoots 
in which the shot-hole borer is established, 
As your readers may remember, I have, from 
time to time, strongly recommended the bur- 
ning of prunings as opposed to the burying of 
them after the sprinkling of lime, It is not 
considered desirable to bury ordinary hedge 
trimmings in this country ; and, if farmers were 
recommended to do so, they would simply 
laugh at their adviser, Why should tea prun- 
ings be buried in Ceylon with the extra cost of 
the addition of lime brought from a distance ? 


“On the 23rd December, 1903, the writer ad- 
dressed a short note to the Ubserver, pointing 
out that the indiscriminate burying of prunings 
from teainall kinds of soil and under varying 
climatic conditions was likely to lead to most 
unsatisfactory results ; for damp, green leaves 
associated with small and large branches, if 
buried in a naturally damp ferruginous soil in 
a wet district, were more likely to produce 
fungoid disease than to supply plant food to 
the tea shrub. 

‘©On 23rd March, 1906, a somewhat similar 
communication was addressed to the Observer 
and attention was called to the statement of 
Mr. Joseph Fraser as Chairman of the Pita- 
kande'fea Company who, atthe annual meeting, 
mentioned that all the prunings had been 
buried at a cost cf 5°58 cents per lb. It is 
now more than 31 years sinee L first visited 
Ceylon officially on behalf of the Planters’ Asso- 
ciation and I have continued to take a deep 
interest in the coffee and tea industry of the 
evergreen Island. I hope, therefore, that in 
supporting Mr. Hohl’s suggestion that planters 
should burn their prunings rather than bury 
them with lime, my views will be accepted as ex- 
pressing a carefully considered opinion on a 
very important planting operation,” 

We cordially commend to the attention o 
all planters the above expression of opinion, 
based upon long experience and experiment, 
as expressed by so expert an authority as Mr. 
Jobn Hughes, 


a 


99 “The Supplement to the Tropical Agriculturist 


ae eG Talawakele, Dec. 11th. 


Dear Srr.—We venture to think that the 
enclosed letter will interest you sufticiently 
to give it your careful perusal. 

Mr. Livingston is a Consulting Hngineor 
in London of very high standing and has had 
perhaps more experience in Vacuum Drying 
Plant than any qualified Engineer at Home. 
Our own practical experience in curing Plantat- 
ion Rubber goes to shew that the value of 
rubber dried in these machines has not yet been 
fully appreciated by the brokers. Rubber dried 
in Passburg’s Vacuum Chamber cannot be 
injured in Vacuum.—We aro, dear Sir, yours 
faithfully, 

BROWN & DAVIDSON, LTD. 


WACUUM DRIED RUBBER. 


(True Copy.) 
19th November, 1908. 


Dear Sirs,—I am informed that Vacuum 
Dried Plantation Rubber, if sent for sale as 
taken from the Vacuum drying chamber, does 
not secure such a good price, owing to the 
sheets being sent adhering together, 


If the buyers understood that this adhesive- 
ness did not arise from ‘‘ tackiness” or from 
overheating, but arose from the uniform con- 
dition of Vacuum dried rubber, on the surface, 
as well as between the surfaces, then I think 
that this condition of adhesiveness would 
appreciate rather than depreciate the price, 


By the old method of drying, the washed 
sheets, crepe or towels were hung up and exposed 
for weeks to currents of warm air, The oxygen 
in the air coming in contact with the surface 
of the warm moist rubber, sets up a certain 
chemical action, called, I understand, oxidation, 
which altered the nature and composition of the 
surface of the rubber, making it feel hard to the 
touch. Owing to-this action on the surface, such 
sheets lost their tendency to adhere together. 

Even if a heavy pressure be employed to 
force them into blocks, such blocks when cut 
through shew quite clearly the surface 
lines of the sheets composing them, because 
the rubber between differs in its composition 
from that of the surface of the sheets. 

On the other hand, when the sheets are placed 
in the Vacuum Chamber, the air is rapidly ex- 
hausted, and before the rubber has got warmed 
up, most of the air with its oxygen has been 
removed, and chemical action upon the surfaces 
of the rubber cannot take place at all, or only 
to such a slight degree as not to be perceptible. 


The surfaces remain quite soft and elastic to 
the touch, quite different from the hard rigid 
feel of air dried sheets.—Owing to the surfaces 
not having been oxydised such sheets adhere to 
each other, and if they are pressed together in 
the Blocking Press, immediately after having 
been removed from the Vacuum drying cham- 
ber they cohere ‘or amalgamate together so 
closely, that the block thusformed becomes one 
homogeneous mass of rubber ; when cut through 
it is scarcely perceptible that it has been com- 
posed of a number of sheets. 

These blocks, Iam told, havea ready sale and 
secure best prices. 


Lam informed that if the Vacuum dried sheets 
are not blocked, but are exposed to the air after 
being taken from the Vacuum Chamber for sufti- 
cient time to practically oxydise the surfaces, 
or if they are mechanically treated so that the 
surface has a soft elastic feeling removed, and 
the property of adhering together is lost, they 
secure better prices. 

This has the appearance that having secured 
a stiperior article, it is being converted into an 
inferior one, owing to a misunderstanding as to 
the reason of the sheets adhering together. 


Vacuum drying chambers are very largely used 
by manufacturers in this and other countries, 
and they are quite accustomed to the making of 
Vacuum dried sheets adhering together, just as 
they are taken from the Chambers. The block- 
ing is quite to be understood as it is convenient 
for transport and also for storing, as the mini- 
mum surface is exposed to the action of the air. 


I have written you thus fully, because you 
will come in contact with the buyers, and may 
be able to clear away the prejudice which ap- 
pears for no valid reason to exist against these 
Vacuum dried sheets, and so prevent the ex- 
pense incurred by the subsequent treatment to 
which they are subjected.—Yours faithfully, 


(Signed) JAES LIVINGSTON. 


RUBBER IN TONKIN. 
According to the ‘Kew Bulletin,” a new rub- 
ber tree from Tonkin has now been recognised 
as a member of the genus Bleekrodea (Moracea). 
The tree occurs practically all over the province 
of Bao-Kan and in the adjoining southern parts 
of the circles of Bao-lane and Cao-bang. It is 
rapid growing, much branched, and attains a 
height of 40 to 50 teet. From a single tree, 14 
feet in diameter, as much as 1 |b. of latex was 
obtained in the spring, which yielded 67:6 per 
cent. of caoutchouc. The rubber is indistin- 
guishable from Para rubber. This rubber tree 
was described in the ‘‘ Bulletin Economique ” 

of July last.—H and C. Mail, Nov. 20. 


WEEDING EXPENSES ON MALAYAN 
RUBBER ESTATES. 


(Yo the Editor, ‘‘ India Rubber Journal.) 


Dear Sir,—Many of your readers being much 
interested in plantation rubber in the ques- 
tion of the cost of bringing an acre of the same 
to a production stage, l enclose for your infor- 
mation a copy ofa letter* from Mr A B Lake, 
which I understand has appeared in the Straits 
papers, on the subject of clean weeding. As a 
planter of many years’ experience in the 
Straits, I can only endorse Mr. Lake’s remarks 
on the subject and add my note of warning.: 
In theory, of course, Mr. Carruthers is right. 
I can point to various fields of rubber on the 
estates in my charge which, owing to lack of 
funds, at one time were allowed to get weedy 
and the weeds periodically dug in. The trees 
on these fields show better growth, age for age, 
than those on adjoining fields, which were kept 

* Reproduced in T.A, and Magazine of C.A.S, page 489, 
Noy., 1903. 5 Tee 


and Magazine of the Ceylon Agricultural Society. 93 


clean weeded, but the expense renders the 
system prohibitive. It comes to this, on a 
clean estate it is possible to estimate to 
within a pound or two what the capital ex- 
penditure per acre will be, whereas on a dirty 
estate it is impossible to estimate atall. Mr. 
Lake refers to Mr Carruthers’ article as being 
‘very plausible.” I think he must mean ‘ very 
convincing.” I would point out that it is a 
dangerous practice for theoretical experts in 
Mr, Carruthers’ position to publicly advocate 
a method which has not yet practically been 
proved a success on a large scale. 


C, Matcomm CuMMING. 
—India Rubber Journal, Nov. 30. 


MUNIGIPAL TAXATION OF BRAZIL 
RUBBER EXPORTED. 


H.M. Consul at Para (Mr. R Casement, c.M.c.) 
reports that the State Legislature of Para are 
considering a propesal to fix the limit of 
municipal taxation of rubber, upon export from 
the place of origin, at 150 reis (abont 2d.) 
per kilogramme. At present, according to a 
correspondent of the ‘‘Folha do Norte” of 
Para, each municipality claims tho right to levy 
whatever tax it may please, and this claim is 
said to be supported by the State Constitution. 
H.M. Consul adds that should the project 
under consideration becomes law, the reduction 
of this local municipal taxation to a fixed and 
uniform charge would be of great advantage 
to the rubber industry of the lower Amazon. 
— Board of Trade Journal, Nov. 12. 


The article we reproduce from the Jndia Rub- 
ber Journal (Nov. 30) in our daily and T. A. is one 
which is to the utmost interest to Rubber Gro- 
wers. If shows how Brazil is doing its best, in 
anticipation of the immense competition of the 
future from the Eastern plantation product, to 
control the European rubber market; but also 
sets out the various weak points in the taxation 
and valorisation schemes proposed, 


MUNICIPAL AND FEDERAL TAXES. 


It is quite obvious that the Governor of the 
State of Para and those who took part im recent 
discussions relating tothe Municipal and Federal 
taxes on rubber are quite cognisant of the future 
prospect for their staple product. They have 
been fully informed of all changes likely to affect 
their main source of revenue, and from the begin- 
ning of the Eastern plantation industry have 
manifested adeep interest in all that has oc- 
curred, Attracted by the premium obtained for 
Para grades from plantations, the authorities 
offered special encouragement to those who could 
improve the method of preparation with a view 
to obtaining higher prices for thoir admittedly 
superior product. Now a much more serious 
position has to be faced, for it is known to all 
our readers that Eastern planters have estab- 
lished estates capable of annually producing, 
when mature, as much, if not more, rubber 
than the whole of Brazil. A decline in price to 


about 3s per lb. for plantation rubber can be 
faced with equanimity by every wise investor 
in Hastern plantations; but such a price, even if 
it only prevailed for afew months, would again 
place the Brazilian authorities in a very difficult 
position. It has been previously pointed out, 
officially, that the prime cost of fine Para rub- 
ber delivered at the primary markets is not less 
than 23 34d per lb., and that when the Federal 
and State taxes are taken into account, any 
MARGIN IN FAVOUR OF THE PRODUCER 
DISAPPEARS, 


presumably so long as rubber sells at or about 
3s per |b. The low prices of a year ago led to 
many bankruptcies, and the Governor of Para 
has had in view the formation of a ‘Credit 
Hstablishment” to assist Brazilian producers, 
providing a tax on the new product (31,000 to 
32,000 tons) at the rate of 80 reis per kilo be 
collected and deposited in the banks and ear- 
marked for the service of a huge loan sug- 
gested by him. We are not quite clear as to 
whether it was intended that this tax was to 
be imposed in addition to that passed by the 
Chamber vt Deputies, or to be recouped from 
the same. 


The causes underlying the recent activity 
among the Legislative Councils in Para are by 
no means obscure. In fact some serious 
change must be effected at an early date if 
the various commercial departments are to 
be kept running on smooth and progressive 
hnes. It will be recalled that during the 
period of depression of about a year 
ago the ‘' India Rubber Journal” announced 
that various English firms had, in con- 
junction with others, petitioned the native 
states with the object of inducing the authori- 
ties to give some relief by reduction of taxes or 
granting of subsidies to collectors and exporters 
of rubber, It is possible that the subject matter 
of this petition and the recent financial crisis 
prompted the Governor of Para to outline his 
colossal scheme. What the final result will be 
we do not care to predict, as—after conferring 
with responsible parties in England and the 
Continent of EKurope —we are more impressed 
with the absence of any authenticated plans 
than with the real value of the fragmentary 
(letails supplied to us. 


Municipal TAXES, 


The Governor of Pava, in his speech, advo- 
cated a system, not of valorisation, for he repu- 
diated the term, but one tending at least to a 
levelling up, of prices. Several counter propo- 
sals have been put forward, one limiting the 
municipal duties on rubber to 150 reis per 
kilo (say, 1d per Ilb.), and another impo- 
sing the differential tariff detailed elsewhere. 
The proposals outlined in the Governor’s 
speech have, in consequence, been _ set 
aside. The bill stipulating that no municipality 
in the State of Para shall be allowed to impose 
a higher duty than 150 reis per kilo, has, we are 
informed, become law. It 1s, however, impossi- 
ble to say what the municipal taxes on exported 
rubber at present amount to. There are 51 
municipalities in the state of Para, and, ac- 
cording to information supplied by H.M. Consul, 
no one in Para is ina position to state just what 
tho taxes levied by each municipality may be, 


i 94 The Swpplement to the Tropical Agriculturist. 


it is pointed out in an editorial in the ‘ Fotha 
do Norte,” of the 10th October, that the State 
Federal Congress is not empowered to legislate 
in monetary matters for the municipalities, and 
it, therefore, remains to be seen whether the 
new law can be made operative throughout the 
State. In any case the reduction of the muni- 
cipal duty to this figure seems a petty enough 
concession when the vast preponderance of the 
Federal tax is considered. 


There would be little criticism of the recent 
policy of the Para Government on this side if 
this were the only measure passed by them. 
But such is unhappily not the case. 

GRADUATED TAXES: 18 To 22 Per Cenr. 

We have information from Brazil which in- 
dicates that action has been taken which gravely, 
compromises the position of the manufacturer, 
the exporter, and in the long run the  pro- 
ducers. Within a few days an enactment 
striking at the very roots of the rubber-ex- 
porting industry as at present established has 
been passed by the Congress and Senate of 
the State of Para. 

The terms of the new act empower the Para 
Government to grant to locally organised 
syndicates, concerned with the collecting of 
rubber, a reduction on the export duty on fine 
and entrefine Para rubber, according to scale. 


The reduction is by no meansso large as we were 
led to anticipate ; if the scheme is ever put into 
practice the effect will probably be more limited 
than the exporting syndicates in Para imagine. 


A privileged syndicate has been formed 
which proposes to negotiate direct with the 
consumers; it is suggested that they will send 
representatives to Liverpool and New York who 
will accept shipments and guarantee their dis- 
posal at the best rates. Tho legality of this 
measure, like that limiting municipal duties, 
seems, from advices we have privately received, 
to be doubted in some quarters. On the 
other hand, a distinguished Brazilian states 
that it is within the letter, though not the 
spirit, of the law. 

The new development has naturally aroused 
a storm of criticism from all quarters. It is 
pointed out by our ‘contemporary, ‘‘ Le Brésil,”’ 
that this combination will affect English, Ger- 
man, American and French exporting houses 
who serve as middlemen between the Amazon 
and its export markets, and who finance the local 
collectors ; these houses are understood to have 
protested direct and to have urged their govern- 
ments to intervene. We do not believe that the 
protests of the export houses at Para will have 
a good effect ; as for government protests, we 
are advised that they will not be listened to at 
all, even if lodged. 


First Errects. 


Now let us assume that the approved valori- 
sation scheme will be given a trial at an early 
date. What will its first and subsequent effects 
be ? How will it affect manufacturers and Has- 
tern planters? It will be observed that the 
graduated tax is arranged so that when raw 
rubber pricesare high, the exporters will benefit 
in a two-fold way: (a) by their extra commission 
due tothe enhanced price of rubber; and (b) 


reduction in export tax. When prices are low, 
the exporters, depressed by the immense reduc- 
tion in commissions, will be further affected 
because, whatever they export, at the low price 
will be taxed at the maximum rate. 


It is therefore quite obvious that every en- 
couragement is intended to be given to export 
large quantities of rubber at times like the pre- 
sent, when prices are above the average. It is 
equally clear that following increased production 
and exportation under the artificial stimulus, 
stocks in Americaand Europe will rapidly rise, 
and very soon bring down the price; when that 
time arrives, the supporters of the above scheme 
presumably hope to curtail exportation until the 
value of raw rubber is raised to, or above, 3s per 
lb. It isa courageous speculation, and is, in our 
opinion, not likely to prove very satisfactory. It 
is an effort to maintain prices irrespective of 
genuine demand, and against which campaigns 
can easily and effectively be organised. 


LIMITATION OF THE SCHEME. 


The valorisation scheme, as outlined, has such 
potent limitations that we are amazed that it 
should have been so favourably received, ex- 
cept it was regarded, in the eyes of the syndi- 
cates and exporting houses in Para, as\an 
experiment worthy of a trial. In the first case 
the power of the graduated tax is limited on ac- 
count of the fact that a total difference in ex- 
port duty of 4 per cent will only operate when 
the price ofrubber ranges from, approximately, 
3s to 3s 6d per lb. The proposed differential 
tax, since it does not offer a further reduction 
when fine hard Para is about 3s 6d, is of but 
little value at the present time. If it had been 
in operation during 1908 it would have had 
some effect from January to June; but since 
then, and probably up to the New Year, no 
change of tax was, or will be, possible: further- 
more, during January to November, 1907, and 
the whole of 1906, the tax would have been the 
same—18 per cent—owing to fine hard Para 
during those periods being above 3s 6d per Ib, 
The operations of the tax when prices are at the 
maximum can be watched complacently by the 
exporters, but when the very opposite condit- 
ions prevail the scheme, as outlined, will recoil- 
ot its supporters. 


Another point which appears to have escaped 
notice is that wild Para, though at present 
ruling the market, will soon be in an entirely 
different position. An attempt to regulate the 
output in order to raise or control the price of 
the wild product can, perhaps, be safely made 
now, but in a very few years plantation sup- 
plies will be far greater than any difference in 
supply which the differential tax may effect. 
Plantation rubber will soon be arriving in 


large quantities, and will be a far more weighty’ 


consideration in causing increase of, or main- 
taining, stocks than the extra amount ex- 

orted under the proposed minimum tax from 
Para. The reduced price of rubber in the 
future will be very seriously controlled by 
the large production of Para grades from Hast- 
ern plantations, and the value will, in all pro- 
bability, be brought down to the minimum. If 
the differential taxes are not altered, the mani- 
pulators of the wild supply will be embarrassed, 


i 


and Magazine uf the Ceylon Agricultural Society OF 


as itis quito probable that tine hard Para wiil 
be brought down to 2s. 6d. per lb. If a tax of 
22 per cent. is put up against rubber at that 
price, it is obvious that Eastern plantations will 
be in a very strong position. 


WILL THE SCHEME BE ENFORCED ? 


We have conferred with parties who are 
vitally connected with the Para trade, and shall 
take further steps to ensure the widest publicity 
being given to what we considera dangerous 
and impossible proposition. Many people do 
not believe that the scheme will ever be put 
into force ;if atrial is made, it is anticipated 
that it will only be for a very short period, and 
that within a year or so from now an entirely 
different scheme, involving radical changes in 
the present system, will be put before the 
authorities. Weshould have thought that the 
experience with coffee would have prevented 
the Para Government from attempting to inter- 

ere with rubber ; evidently this is not the case, 

and merchants and dealers may have to face 
unsettled conditions during the coming year. 
In the end we feel sure that, as with the Gov- 
ernment’s coffee experiment, the scheme will 
place themin a worse position than they have 
ever been in before. We are of the opinion that 
too much importance should not be attached to 
the new proposals, in view of alternative plans 
which will soon be submitted to Government. 
Inthe meantime we expect that an initial re- 
duction of the municipal tax will probably take 
effect, and that taxes will subsequently be still 
further reduced in order to maintain the export 
trade in a sound condition. Very little good 
can accrue from the bolstering-up scheme we 
have referred to ; in fact, the entire abolition of 
export taxes alone will never place the Brazilian 
rubber trade in a position to successfully com- 
pete with Eastern plantations. If any readers 
disagree with this criticism we need only 
remind them of the prime cost of, and export 
taxes on, wild Para rubber, per lb., and ask 
them to compare same with the cost of produc- 
tion, even now, on Eastern estates, and the taxes 
at present imposed on plantation rubber.— 
Inaia-Rubber uournal, Nov, 30. 


RUBBER AREA IN CEYLON. 


Nov. ‘26th 


Dear Siz,—It 1s rather a big ‘‘orcer” to 
take off well-nigh 30 per cent of the rubber 
area as not likely to mature. The wish must 
be father to the thought. No doubt a good deal 
will fail especially in the drier districts, of Para 
—for Para is a moisture-loving tree if ever 
there was one. But I donot think that more 
than 20,000 acres are required to cover all 

_ losses, though, of course, that certain climates 
and districts will favour ‘‘ latex” has yet to be 
proved. Fortunate are all the men who have 
already proved their fields and, therefore, know 
they are in fora good thing.—Yours, 


PLANTER. 


THE PARA REGION OF BRAZIL. 


INTERESTING [LNFORMATION. 


Some time back in the Session of 1906,* the 
General European Member asked in the Legis- 
lative Council that the Government should 
request the Colonial Office to move the Foreign 
Office to invite special reports from Consular 
Agents in rubber growing countries, in view of 
the growing importance of the Industry in 
British Eastern Colonies. The request was 
complied with, and not a few reports in regard 
to Kast and West Africa, Central America and 
Mexico and South America have been the out- 
come from time to time. Perhaps, the most 
interesting Consular Report, however, that has 
reached our hands is ‘tA Report for the year 
1907 and previous years on the Trade of the 
Consular District of Para, edited at the Foreign 
Office and Board of Trade,” and presented to 
Parliament in September, 1908. We have read 
nothing which has given so vivid a picture of 
the conditions of the Rubber-gathering industry, 
and all that depends upon it, in the Amazonian 
and adjacent districts; while there is also a 
good deal of information in respect of cacao, 
Brazil nuts and other exports. We are told 
at the outset that the unit of Brazilian cur- 
rency is the paper milreis generally reckoned 
at ls 3d; the gold milreis at par being 2s 3d. 
A conto of reis ‘‘often used in Brazilian reckon- | 
ing is 1,000 milreis.” The language of the 
district as of all Brazil is Portuguese, and no 
other language is used in business matters or 
daily intercourse. ‘‘Documents in English are 
of little or no use.” ‘* A knowledge of Portu- 
guese is essential for the conduct of all business 
matters.” Next come some technical paragraphs 
which may be useful for reference and are, 
therefore, given verbatim :— 


Indiarubber, although invoiced by weight in 
kilos. and so always appearing on official tables 
of export, is actually made up and shipped in 
wooden cases, each case containing a quantity 
dependent in weight on the quality of its contents. 


* The Hon. the GENERAL EurRoPEAN MEMBER— 
asked:—If Government is inclined to move the 
Secretary of State for the Colonies to induce the 
Foreign Office authorities to urge British Con- 
sular Agents, stationed in foreign rubber-grow- 
ing countries—namely, Brazil, Mexico and other 
Central and South American States, as well as 
in the Congo State, German, French and Portu- 

uese West and East Africa, and in Java and the 

hilippines—to endeavour during the present 
year to obtain as full information asis possible, re- 
specting the local position of the Rubber industry 
how far cultivation has extended and how far the 
export of rubber from cultivated trees contrasts 
with that of wild rubber, and what aro the pro- 
spects of acontinued supply of raw rubber. 

The Hon. the Lizur.-GoverNor:—Government 
has no objection to asking for the information 
which the Hon, Member desires to have. 


96 The Sunplement to the Tropical Agriculturist 


Tho Jocal or Para rubber is exported in cases 
of the following weights :— 


Weight of Case 
for Shipment. 
-Islands— Kilos. 
Fine and extra fine SS ewLO) 
Coarse Bos .. 300 
Cameta Sad aie 300 
Tocantins, Caucho ball... 330 
Up-river— 
Kine and extra fine... 
Coarse + ; re 
Caucho ball “¢ 160 to 1700 
Caucho slab ae 
aOptional. 


Caucho slab is sometimes, I beliove, shipped in 
bulk in the slabs of raw rubber just as it is pre- 
pared in the forest from the trees. 


The area of the Consular District of Para is 
given at 1,360,000 square miles, and the popu- 
lation at 1,200,000 or less than 1] per square 
mile. This division is equal in extent to one- 
third of the whole of Brazil; but owing to 
rubber, it is by far the most productive 
per head of population. The total value of all 
Brazilian exports in 1905-06 equalled 864 mil- 
lions of milreis or 34 per head of a population 
of 254 millions. During this year the Amazon 
Valley exported in value 2404 millions of milreis 
or equal to 224 per head! The Amazons is 
known by the settlers as the Red-Mar or river 
sea, or the Mediterranean of South America. 
This grand system of inland navigation is not 
explained by the great volume of freshwaters 
coming down in the Amazon ; but by the sea 
penetrating along the dead-level of the Amazon 
Valley which extends from the Andes to the 
Atlantic. At Manaos, 867 miles beyond the port 
of Para, the Customhouse jetty is only 81 feet 
above sea level ; but ocean-going vessels of 3,000 
tons now navigate all the way to Iquitos in 
Peru close upon 2,300 miles from the Atlantic ; 
and we read that Messrs. Booth & Co., Limited, 
of Liverpool, can book passengers there not 
only for Iquitos, but put them in the way of 
1,000 more miles of navigation in launches and 
canoes on Peruvian rivers beyond Iquitos, and 
finally of crossing the Andes and descending 
by railway to Lima on the West Coast. This 
was done not long ago by an English gentleman, 
his wife and a medical man who reached Lima 
10 days after, leaving their canoe on the banks 
of the riverPachetea. Sixty years ago, the great 
bulk of the population were pure Indians, and 
the “lingua general” (a2 composite tongue) was 
almost universal. Today, pure Indians have 
quite disappeared from the river and waterways 
and are only to be found in smal] numbers far 
in the intericr; and Portuguese and a mixed 
race, Indians and Negros, all speaking the Portu- 
guese tongue, universally prevail throughout 
the rubber regions. The actual rubber workers 
are called ‘‘ seringueiros.” so-called from the 
Portuguese term for the latex, which is ‘‘ se- 
ringa.” Wonderfully small is the band who 
actually collect the enormons total of Amazonian 
products put on the markets of the world, valued 
in 1906 at £13,684,264. There isa constant flow 
of pure Portuguese as well as of Brazilians into 

this Amazonian region ; but the population does 


not much increase, because of the heavy mort- 
ality from yellow fever, especially, Para itsell, 
90 miles south of the equator, is 2 fine tropical 
city of from 130,000 to 180,000 people of whom 
25,0.0 are pure Portuguese who hold all the 
shops, Manaos has 52,000 people with a similar 
proportion of Portuguese. In 1907, Para re- 
corded 3,741 deaths against only 2,752 births. 
The city has scme beautiful avenues, fine com- 
mercial streets, charming squares and gardens, 
and mango trees grow Pesky. in the suburban 
streets. Electric trams, lighting and gas are 
due to British enterprise, there being 35 miles 
of trams. Water supply in quality good ; quan- 
tity sometimes runs short. Cost of living is 
abnermally high. At one time rice was exported 
from the Amazon region: now rice is imported 
and sells very high. 


In 1850, the State of Para had only 16,000 
people : the increase is solely due to Rubber, 
The first record of this product in expor 
occurs in 1830, when 156 tons were shipped. 
In 1840 this had risen to 388, and in 1850 to 
1.467 tons. In 1861 the export was 2,118 tons, 
in 1870 it equalled 6,591, in 1880 the figure 
was 8,679, and in 1890 16,394 tons ; while here 
is the latest return given in the Consular 
Report :— 

In 1897-98 these figures had increased to 
22,218 tons and in 1899-1900 to 28,695 tons. 

The figures for subsequent years are as 
follows :— 


The following figures—1900-08—represent the 
total export from all the Amazon region, and 
include rubber from the Acré Federal terri- 
tory, Peru and Bolivia. 


Total Rubber Exports from Amazon Valley 
during the Years 1900-07. 


Crop year— Tons. 
1900-01 HD 27,650 
1901-02 ae 29,971 
1902-03 ie 29,890 
1903-04 A 32,590 
1904-05 a 33,090 
1905-06 off 34,680 
1906-07 is 37,540 
1907-08 36,200a 


a The figures for April, May and June, 1908, 
are only estimated to arrive at this total. 


Next, we may quote remarks following on 
figures for consumption which have a peculiar 
significance to Kastern planters of rubber :— 


It is estimated that the quantity of rubber 
annually used in the world’s industries re- 
presents a value of 25,000,000. The annual 
consumption has been for the last tour years 
as follows :— 


Tons. 
1903 ae ae 50,384 
1904 ve = 55,275 
1905 Hh aa 61,397 
1906 65,000a 


a Estimated. 


When it is reflected that almost the whole 


of this great quantity represents a production 
from non-cultivated sources, itis legitimate to 


—— 


ie 


and Magazine of the Ceylon Agricultural Society. 97 


speculate as to the future of the world’s 
rubber trade when cultivated rubber begins to 
play an important part in the sources, of supply. 

Tropical America contributes 63 per cent. 
of the world’s total—all of it wild rubber 
gathered in swamp and forest from virgin soil; 
Africa comes next with 34 per cent., collected 
by even more primitive methods in still 
wilder regions; leaving to Asia the modest 
contribution of 3 per cent., but all of it the 
product of careful cultivation, supported by 
capital and scientific application of labour. 
That this agricultural outlay in Ceylon, 
Malaya and elsewhere, where rubber planta- 
tions are being systematically extended, must 
in future years largely influence the supply of 
rubber cannot, I think, be disputed. In the 
entire absence of agricultural effort, and in 
relying solely upon a wild forest growth, it 
cannot be maintained that the Amazon Valley, 
great as are its natural resources, is playing 
the part in this great industry assigned to it 
by so lengthy and so pre-eminent a lead. 


Then there isa further reference of interest;— 

Owing to the great depreciation in the price 
of rubber which set in during the latter part 
of 1907 the valnes have greatly diminished 
within the last. year, although the output 
shows some increase of exported rubber. This 
depreciation, it is feared, must continue, and 
pending its duration the purchasing power of 
the Amazon communities will necessarily be 
greatly restricted. How great the Joss to 
the local community has been may be gathered 
from the figures herewith which give the 
“ erops” of local Para rubber (the Ilhas, 
Itaituba and Caucho) and their sterling values 
for the seasons 1899-1900 to 1907-08. 

Comparative Returns of the Value of the 

Para Rubber Orops from July, 1899, 
to June, 1908. 


Crop 
Crop year— Tons. & 
1899-1900 9,957 2,862,400 
1900-01 9,247 2,647,185 
1901-02 LO SS3 40 2,109,020 
1902-03 11,336 3,059,003 
1908-04 11,362 2,807,641 
1904-05 11,740 3,462,391 
1905-06 11,882 3 623,440 
1906-07 11,467 3,391,849 
1907-08 8,816 1,763,200 


The foregoing table deals with the purely 
local supplies of Para rubber proper. Con- 
siderable quantities of rubber are shipped at 
Para, beside that dealt with above ; and if we 
contrast the total export trade of the State 
of Para, including up-river rubber, with that 
of the State of Amazonas for the last five years, 
we get the following comparative table :— 

Total Export Trade of Amazonia.« 


State of State of 
Para. Amazonas. 
& £ 
1903 4,047,312 5,725,703 
1904 4,681,184 6,258,713 
1905 6,408,219 6,930,378 
1906 6,659, 424 6,618,817 
1907 6,054,693 7,238,554 


a Includes produce of every description. 


138 


Finally, on this topic of trade, we have the 
following :— 


Through such a period of acute depression 
the rubber trade of the Amazon Valley is now 
passing, Competent judges assert that the 
loss up to the end of the rubber ‘‘ safra,” or 
crop of 1908 (June 30th), will amount to not 
less than 3,000,C00/, solely due to the fall in 
prices on the foreign markets. Some recovery 
has been experienced of late, and while this 
report is under preparation the market quota- 
tions offer a more hopeful outlook. Of the 
total shipments of rubber in 1907 16,326 metric 
tons went to the United States and 20,894 
metric tons to Kurope. 


Then comes some interesting information, 
giving us a peep at the inner working of the 
rubber industry in the Amazonian region :— 

Term ‘‘rubber estate.”—The term ‘rubber 
estate,” frequently used in references to the 
staple product of this district, would seem to me 
to stand in need of some correction, or at least 
explanation. As employed, it is misleading to 
European readers, who understand by the term 
““estate’’ a property of scrupulously defined 
limits, exactly defined area and clearly estab- 
lished title deeds. In none of these particulars 
does the average Amazonian rubber-producing 
tract fulfil the Kuropean standard or definitions. 
The limits of a district appertaining to an in- 
dividual and worked by his employés in the 
manner so fully described by Mr. Vice-Consul 
Temple on page 11 of the Miscellaneous Report 
No. 530 (1900), are such as the swamp, the im- 
penetrability of the forest, the lack of rubber 
trees, or the absence of neighbouring claims 
assign it. Very many of the so-called rubber 
estates are in the nature of claims set up by 
‘‘pre-emption” toa prescriptive right rather 
than by title deeds to a constitutional property. 
While Iam not acquainted with the terms of 
Brazilian land legislation, it is apparent to the 
most casual observer that no legislation could 
have possibly conferred individual rights of 
ownership over the vast tracts of desulate swamp 
and forest. The ‘‘seringueiro,” who today works 
a certain district of Upper Amazon forest, does 
so by a right that is not challenged rather than 
by one that is not challengeable. It is the right 
of the first comer, or, indeed, not of him, but of 
the stronger first comer. The native Indian 
owned the lands under recognised tribal rights 
up to the beginning of the last century. ‘n 1848 
the naturalists Bates and Wallace observed 
during the course of a journey to the Tocantins 
the manner of extracting and_ preparing the 
juice of the symphonia elastica, and the former 
thus records in precise terms the elementary 
rights of proprietorship on which the modern 
rubber trade has been erected. Speaking of the 
islandsin the lower stream of the Tocantins 
close to Para itself, he says: —‘‘ They are covered 
with a most luxuriant forest, comprising a large 
number of indiarubber trees. We found several 
people encamped here, who were engaged in 
collecting and preparing the rubber, and thus 
had an opportunity of observing the process. 
: The symphonia elastica grows only on the 
lowlands in the Amazon region. . .. The trees 
seem to beno man’s property hereabout, The 
people we met told us they came every year to 


98 The Supplement to the Tropical Agriculturist 


collect rubber on these islands as soon as the 
waters had subsided, namely, in August, and 
remained till January or February.” Itis upon 
precisely such a basis as this that the whole of 
the rubber production of the Amazon Valley to- 
day rests. Nowhere does any plantation or 


cultivation of rubber trees exist, and it is from . 


the many untapped trees in the wilds that today 
the chief portion of the world’s supply of rubber 
is drawn. [raise this point not to reflect in 
any way upon the validity of the claim the 
‘“seringueiro” or proprietor has established to 
work the trees ofa certain district, but to em- 
phasise the fact that the term ‘ estate” and the 
idea of settled ocenpation the word calls up is 
misplaced when applied to the immense areas 
of isolated swamp land and virgin forest where 
for a season of each year a few hardy, fearless, 
scattered immigrants, whose homes are literally 
thousands of miles away, cut the trees they have 
marked for tapping and collect the juice on be- 
half of an absentee proprietor. 


* * * * * 


The following is a further extract from Mr, 
Consul Casement’s report on the Trade of the 
Consular District of Para for 1907. 


The rubber gathering industry and education. 
—An aspect of rubber production that calls for 
comment is that where the Amazonian popula- 
lation is engaged in this labour there public 
instruction is almost non-existent. This does 
not apply only to the far-off interior regions 
whence the chief supplies of rubber are now 
drawn and where, obviously, schools have not 
yet been founded and must await the growth of 
a settled population. In 10 small townships in 
the State of Para, situated in the rubber zone, 
all of them within easy distance of the capital, 
in a region long since settled, where the popu- 
lation relies on rubber production for their 
livelihood, we find that with a population esti- 
mated at 53,539 in 1890 the number of scholars 
who matriculated at their public schools in the 
first quarter of 1901 was only 480, or 0°9 per cent. 
approximately. Turning to 10 similar town- 
ships in the vicinity of the capital, where there 
is no rubber and where the population relies on 
fishing, labouring employment, general dealing 
or agriculture for its subsistence, we find that 
with an estimated population of 61,031 in the 
same year (1890) the number of children who 
matriculated in the local schools was 3,831 for 
the same quarter of 1901, or 6:0 per cent. In 
view of such figures it may be questioned 
whether the universal subjection of this popula- 
tion to the spell of rubber production is alto- 
gether good for the people or the future of their 
country. Instruction, save in the capital, must 
necessarily be backward, apart from the hind- 
rance to education presented by the prevailing 
industry in its isolating effect on the lives of the 
people. 


A further peep is got from the statement that 
while motor-cars are coming into use in the 
towns of Para and Manaos, the absence of sufii- 
cient roadway in these cities prevents any large 
cevelopment in their import; the only roads 
are swampy tracks through forest, nearly all 
travelling being by water. The enormous size of 
trees in Brazilian forests is referred to—50 to 60 


feet in girth and 200 feetin height asa maximum 
—but strangely enough, notwithstanding a great 
variety of forest timber, pine and lumber are 
imported up to nearly 9,000 tons a year. One 
explanation is the following :— 


A considerable amount of wood is us 
locally for the packing of rubber for export. 
Rubber is done up in large cases, and for this 


purpose stout but light wood is required. I ~ 


understand that some of the local woods are 
now beginning to be used, but, as a general 
rule, the rubber cases are still made from 
imported lumber. 


Finally, we have to consider ‘how far railway 
development between Amazonas (Brazil) and 
Bolivia and in the recent acquisition of ‘‘ Acre,” 
and trade development beyond Iquites (Peru) 
will lead to an increase in the export of rubber, 
Of “‘Acré territory” we are told that since 
by treaty Brazil acquired its sovereignty from 
Bolivia, signed Novovembr, 1903,—in return 
for a payment ot £2,005,000 and £147,891 to 
the Bolivian Rubber Syndicate asjfull compen- 
sation,—the output has been as follows :— 


Metric Tons. 


1903 us ils 201 
1904 Ne wie MEO 
1905 we we 4,472 
1906 a ws 4,046 
1907 ‘ 5,228 


In 1905 the export duty was 18 per cent. 
ad valorem on the official value of the rubber 
at Para, a rate that was raised for 1906 and 
1907 to 238 per cent., at which figure it still 


stands. Previous to 1905 the duty had been ~ 


one of only 15 per cent. ad valorem. 


All the above is shipped through the port of 
Para. There is also a prospect of develop- 
ment through a Tocantins Railway (81 miles) 
to avoid falls on the river of that name and 
open up a productive district. But the greatest 
development is expected along the great 
Madeira river (2,000 miles long) into Bolivia 
with the help of the Madeira-Mamoré railway, 
240 miles, to avoid a whole series of cataracts, 
rapids and waterfalls, Bolivia is shut out from 
the world by the Andean system on the West, 
so that goods from the Pacific cost £25 
per ton per carriage to La Paz, whereas if 
this railway is made from the Atlantic, the 
cost will be under £7 per ton. Already 2,500 
tons of rubber (beside cacao and nuts) come 
by this road, by which half is from Bolivia 
to the Amazon; but the difficulties of 
carriage through the rapids, &c., are enormous. 
Here is the Consul’s anticipation :— 


Bolivia, with an area of some 570,000 square 
miles, contains a population of 2,000,000. The 
States of Para and Amazonas, with an area 
of not less than 1,200,000 square miles, or 
more than one-third of the entire superficies 
of Brazil, can count between them probably 
no more than 650,000 inhabitants. Yet with 
this scanty population and fully 200,000 of it 
locked up.in unproductive residence in the 
cities of Para and Mandos, these two States 
place upon the markets of the world not less 
than 11,000,000 per annum of rubber and 
other products. The River Purts (Acré) alone 


and Magazine of the Ceylon Agricultural Society. 99 


gives some 1,500,0002 worth of rubber annu- 
ally to the State of Amazonas, a production 
due to the greater extent of navigable water- 
way this river offers, although by no means 
the largest of the affluents of the Amazon. 
Accessibility means produce throughout the 
Amazon Valley, and with facilities of trans- 
port increased, and it is to be hoped also 
cheapened, the production of this unrivalled 
region must year by year develop. Today it 
is rubber alone, but there are so many other 
natural products of the soil that could be 
turned to profitable account were labour more 
plentiful and cheaper, that it cannot be doubted 
that Bolivia, where these more favourable 
conditions already exist, will develop her 
natural resources with surprising rapidity once 
the waterways ofthe Upper Madeira are con- 
nected with the lower reaches of that river. 


All this shcws how enormous are the resources 
of this vast and exceptionally rich South 
American region and how serious must be the 
struggle before it gives up its pre-eminence 
in respect of the chief supply of rubber for 
the world’s use. 


In conclusion it is well to put on record, 
for reference in the Tropical Agriculturist Supple- 
ment, two tables which areappended to the Con- 
sular Report :—Table 1.—Receipts of Rubber at 

Para during the Year 1907. 


Islands Direct 
Month, and Itaituba. from Madeira Jurua 
Cameta. Manaos. River. River. 
Kilos. Kilos. Kilos. Kilos. Kilos 
Jan. 997,784 110,479 1,595,806 a 205,624 
Feb. 752,441 154,296 1,685,455 54,529 361,394 
March 629,855 102,162 2,536,834 at 132,218 
April 526,122 49,004 1,332,987 210,212 635,775 
May 436,173 25,337 805,128 153,384 95,521 
June 462,077 43,747 313,182 73,301 36 
July 613,078 76,795 374,015 9,020 
Aug 628,984 95,498 379,110 79,464 3 
Sept. 782,238 99,017 1,091,852 20,693 4,661 
Oct. 1,012,446 90,413 1,288,741 173,119 ae 
Nov. 854,782 62,552 1,364,919 75,309 a 
Dec. 907,543 59,613 $12,370 ; 99,386 
Total 8,603,523 968,913 = 1,3610,399 $48,991 1,634,580 
Peruvian 
Month. Purtis and Javary Caucho. Total. 
River. River. 
Kilos. Kailos. Kilos. Kilos. 
Jan, 258,147 164,159 448,000 3,780,000 
Feb. 549,120 468,765 £99,000 5,025,000 
March — 1,112,520 111,411 1,295,000 5,920,000 
April 582,108 73,792 1,090,000 4,500,000 
May 195,267 19,190 370,000 2,600,000 
June 22,248 120,445 415,000 1,450,000 
July 7,092 3 240,000 1,320,050 
Aug. 44,204 142,740 230,000 1,600,000 
Sept. 91,650 183,929 156,000 2,430,000 
Oct. 272,444 192,837 270,000 3,00'),000 
Nov. 239,434 311,004 192,000 3,100,000 
Dec. 26,174 289,914 275,00u 2,500,000 
Total 3,400,408 2,078,186 6,480,000 37,525,000 


Rubber Exports during the Year 1907. 


_ Rubber. Caucho. 

America, Kurope. America. 
Kilos. Kilos. Kilos. 
Para 8,034,787 7,299,085 521,159 
Manaos 6,708,224 6,614,790 1,040,147 
Iquitos | 20,224 2,048,357 531 

Itacoatiara us 63,299 A 

Total 14,763,235 16,025,531 1,561,837 


es a 


Caucho, Total, 

Kurope. America, Europe, 
Kilos. Kilos. Kilos. 

Para 1,353,504 8,555,946 $,6 2,589 
Manaos 2,462,306 7,748,371 9,077,096 
Iquitos 1,051,061 20,755 3,099,418 
Itacoatiara 1,838 Ae 65,137 
Total 4,868,709 16,225,072 20,894,240 


Notst.—The foregoing table iscompiled from 
figures supplied by one of the chief exporting 
firms of Para and Manaos. Ina Governmens 
return giving the crop figures for the ‘‘ Safra”’ 
or crop year July let, 1906, to June 30th, 1907, 
the total quantity is stated at 37,835 000 kilos. 


RUBBER-TANNED LEATHER. 


Mr J A R Clark writes — 
‘*C/o Messrs Henry 8 King & Co., 65, Cornhill 
London, llth Dec.—By Mr $ Baynard Smith, 


of West Haputale, 1 have sent out some 
Rubber ‘Tanned-Leather 


| SAMPLES FOR THE COLOMBO MUSEUM 
ang\1 have asked him to show youthe Leather 
rst, 

‘* As this Rubber-Leather Tanning brings a 
new use for the rubber, the planters ot Ceylon 
should be greatly interested. Many of the old 
Ceylon planters are interested with me in the 
Syndicate and early in January we are br.nging 
out a large Company [Capital £250,000.--A. M. 
& J. F.] as you will see by the enclosed draft of 
our prospectus. The Board isnot yet fixed, 
but we shall have some of the best business 
men in Mincing Lane interested in Rubber and 
in Leather. 


‘*T also enclose particulars for which our 
Rubber-Tanned Leather will be used. I think 
it will be most valuable for Planters’ Boots, 
Capes, Trunks, Leggings, &c., being perfectly 
waterproof and I doubt if the White Ant will 
touch it. [I encluse you a piece which I would 
be greatly obliged if you would test and see if 
the White Ant will attack our Leather. 


“You will remember me as the son of the late 
Robert Colvin Clark of Colombo, and I was for 
some time in the early 60's with John Martin on 
Mount Vernon. Should any of your friends take 
shares, they might send applications through 
me, Over 60,000 are already subscribed for.” 


RUBBER ASPHALTE AT MARSEILLES, 


Sir Henry Blake’s view about the use of rub- 
ber for paving purposes finds confirmation in the 
report of the American Consul-General af Mar- 
seilles, who states that rubber asphalte paving 
must be regarded very seriously as a substitute 
for the more usual form of asphalte paving, 


Experiments with a rubber asphalte pave- 
ment, covering periods of six years, have been 
completed in several cities throughout France 
including Paris and Lyons, and as far as can be 
ascertained, good results have been obtained, 
The observations of this form of pavement 
according to the Consul General, satisfy those 
interested in the subject that its completed 
surface resists ordinary wear more satisfactorily 
meu a covered by @ patent.—H. & C. Mail 

6c, 25, 


100 The Supplement to the Tropical Agriculturist 


GERMANY AND PLANTATION 
RUBBER CULTIVATION. 


DEEPENING INTEREST. 


We announced in our December issue that 
Herr Adolph Prinzhorn, Director of the great 
Continental Caoutchouc Works at Hanover, 
would be returning to Ceylon before long 
after touring India and the Rubber districts 
Farther East, and would make known for the 
benefit of Ceylon planters certain improve- 
ments to be aimed at and—we presume— 
capable of attainment, in the preparation of 
their raw rubber here. This itself is an addi- 
tional sign of the interest in plantation rubber 
coming to be shown on the Continent at the 
present stage of the industry—an even more 
emphatic proof being the very fact that so 
‘big ” a rubber manufacturer as Herr Prinz- 
horn should think it worth while to take the 
present trip. His tour is, curicusly enough, 
co-temporaneous with those of Mr. Arthur 8. 
Morrison, Director of the Leyland and Bir- 
mingham Rubber Co., and of Mr. Pattrick Millan 
Matthew, Chairman and Managing Director of 
the Victoria Rubber Co., Ltd., Leith, N. B., 
who was in Cclombo some days ago homeward- 
bound from the Malay States and transhipped 
(Of the movements of the former we have not yet 
heard.) Though wedid not personally meet him, 
hear that while in Colombo, Mr. Matthew— 
who had seen some fine rubber in Malaya, 
including one 15-year-old tree which had given 
50 tb. dry rubber in one year—gave it as his 
opinion that the ultimate killing out of the 
wild rubber industry by the ‘* plantation ” 
was regarded by him as a certainty; 
and that it was only a question of time 
himself thinking it would probably not be 
consummated for another twenty-tive years. 
No wonder, therefore, that Continental as well 
as British users of rubber on a large scale are 
coming out to make certain for themselves 
the extent (in acreage) and resources (in capa- 
city for big yields) of plantation rubber in the 
Kast. Mr Matthew, we hear, has interests in 
plantations in Johore and has recently made 
a tour of estates in Malay Peninsula. He 
is very satisfied in every way with the prospects 
of the plantation industry and says that the 
rubber can be used for any purposes, and in 
some trials made for the sake of comparison the 
plantation product gave better results than the 
Brazil rubber. From plantation rubber he has 
turned out splendid ‘‘thread rubber,” which is 
a very high test. As regards the age of the 
trees, and its influence on the quality of the 
rubber, he is of opinion, from his experience, 
that after, say, eight years, the rubber is of full 
strength, and there is little difference between 
the rubbers of trees 8, 12 and 15 years of age. 
Mr Matthew is also of opinion that all rubber 
should be shipped in the form of crépe, 
and does not favour biscuit, sheet, etc. He 
also advises-—-and is, we hear, very  parti- 
cular upon this—that every estate should 
mark its rubber with its stamp. This can 
easily be done by the ereping machine. The 
reason is that there are in England certain small 
firms who are offering to manufacturers and 
others lots of ‘‘plantation crépe rubber,” very 


little of which has evercome from any planta- 
tion. A small percentage of it is plantation 
rubber, and this is blended and mixed with 
African and other low grade rubbers, washed 
and creped, and then offered as the genuine 
article from the Hast, at a handsome profit to 
the blenders. Mr. Mathew’s firm has had re- 
peated offerings of this sort, and he thinks it 
would be of great service to the plantation in 
dustry if all rubber were marked with the estate 
mark. We commend this suggestion to all 
planters. And in this connection it is not gener- 
ally known how much local growers owe it te Mr 
Walther Freudenberg of Bremen that so much 
interest has come to be taken ‘in the British 
cultivated product. For some considerable 
time now Mr. Freudenberg has been drawing 
the attention of manufacturers in the Father- 
land to the increasing acreage being put under 
rubber everywhere in the Hast, and to the 
consequent certainty of increasing supplies in 
the future even if the use of plantation rubber 
were to be for the most part experimental just 
at present. He has, too, followed the esti- 
mates of acreage cultivated very closely, in- 
cluding that in our 1908-9 Directory ; and am- 
endations obtainable from time to time are 
promptly communicated to the authorities in 
Germany. Jn our statement what was estimated 
for India and Burma was put roughly at 28,000 
acres. This will have to be appreciably in- 
creased when the estimate is made up afresh 
next year; for Messrs. Freudenberg & Co. lately 
received the following carefully detailed esti- 
mate of South Indian Rubber Hatate acraages, 
compiled by a leading firm in Cochin, and of 
which, at our request, Mr. H. Woltersdorff, 
Manager of Messrs. Freudenberg & Co.’s Ex- 
port Department, has courteously afforded a 
copy. Itis of special interest, and—if planters 
will assist us to the full extent required—we 
will endeavour to produce a similar table for 
the (2) 150,000 acres in this colony in due 
course. We reproduce it in full:— 


SoutH Inpran Rupper Hstates. 


Acreages and Ages. 


District, Six Five Four Three Two One 
years years, years, years. years. year, 
& over, 

Mundaykayam a7 an 226 752 2,280 2,482 
Peermaad 14 ae na ae 199 262 
North Travancore a 200 78 436 424 
Cochin FS oe A 47 968 733 
South Travancore Fe 12 245 1,076 1,573 1,181 

Total 1} 242 671 43,953 5,456 5,082 

1908. 


Plant- Total Tea Re- 
ing. under with serve. ‘Total, 
Rubber. Rubber. 


District. 


Mundaykayam 1,894 7,634 Pe 4,569 12,203 
Peermaad a0 4624 As Ae 4625 
North Travancore 1,181 2,549 5 1,805 4,304 
Cochin 200 1,948 0, 2,148 


a6 20) 
South Travancore 694 4,781 1,603 7,304 13,688 


Total 3,969 17,3745 1,603 13,878 82,855} 


Malabar 2,000 acres between 5 estates, all Para Rubber, 
none in bearing. 

Mr. Woltersdorff at the same time sends us 
what is of decided interest, too,—the exports of 
rubber from Burma, as follows :— 


1904 5. 1905 6. 1966-7. 1907-8. 
127,792 lb. 174,608 lb. 178,712 lb, 182,384 Ib. 


a 


and Magazine of the Ceylon Agricultural Society. 


The. 1907-8 figures are up to end of March. 
From April to October exports amount to 
18,042 lb.; 19,712 1b.; 9,184 lb.; 12,880 lb. ; 
12,656 lb. ; 1,680 1b.; and 112 lb. respectively. 
All the rubber exported from Burma is wild 
rubber. <A few plantations are being worked in 
the vicinity of Shwegyin and Tavoy, but are 
not yet in bearing. 


NOTES ON RUBBER PRODUCTION. 


A SoutH AMERICAN’S VIEWS. 


The tullowing, by a South American planter 
in a financial contemporary, will be of interest:— 


The amount of absolute inaccuracy written 
aud published with regard to rubber production 
in South America and the Mid-Hast demands 
some serious notice. First, as to the Amazon, 
writer after writer states that if the price of 
rubber falls to 2s 6d per pound the collection of 
wild rubber will cease. For some forty or fifty 
years the price of ‘Para hard” rubber was 
about 2s per pound in the market. Iam at the 
present time collecting many thousands of 
pounds of wild Hevea rubber at a cost of Is 6d 
per pound, ls of which is paid in trade, ata 
considerable profit, The trouble in Brazil with 
regard to prices is not the cost of collection, 
which can easily meet the Mid-Kast competi- 
tion, for the simple reason that one good 
Amazon tree will yield as much latex as six 
good Mid-Hast trees. The trouble is not there, 
butin the habits of the Brazilian of annexing, 
under the head of charges—export duties, legal 
and otherwise—every penny of the value of the 
rubber. I doubt ifthe Brazilian Government 
is in a position to abate a single penny of taxes 
and daties. As to the Mid-Hast—-I write in no 
hostile sense, but when the rubber experts talk 
glibly of 10,000, 20,000, and 30,000 tons of rubber 
per annum from the Mid-Kast, they are simply 
indulging in idle dreams. Not in our day, nor in 
half-a-century, will the Mid-East produce 30,000 
tons of rubber. Some 4,000,000 to 5,000,000 
trees are being now tapped in the Mid-East for 
a production of about 3,000,000 lb. The pro- 
duction, therefore, is considerably under 1 lb. 
per tree. Assuming that they were to collect 
from 20,000,000 trees—which will be many years 
hence—it is only then a bagatelle of less than 
16,000 tons, At present the output is under 
2,000 tons, out of over 70,000 tons of rubber. 
Again, there are not wanting evidences of the 
difficulties attending new-fangled ideas as to 
growing rubber. Drain and dry your Jand, as is 
being done in the Mid-East, and you will invite 
the attention of various species of the ant and 
dozens of other enemies of the rubber trees. 
The home ofthe rubber tree is low, swampy 
land, where, preferably, the land is submerged 
for a portion ofthe year, and is always damp 
enough to prevent the underground burrowing 
of its enemies. Many of the best-posted Amazon 
experts treat with profound distrust the idea 
that you can grow Hevea on drained and dry 
ground and not diminish the production of 
Jatex and increase the percentage of resin—and 
also lose hundreds of thousands of trees by the 
attacks of enemies.—Z. & C. Hepress, Dec. 11. 


101 


RUBBER AS FOUNDATIONS FOR 
MACHINERY. 


The principle underlying the system of rubber 
foundations for heavy machinery is the same as 
that which explains the adhesion of two abso- 
lutely even glass plates that have been pressed 
together, namely the air pressure acting with a 
force of about 14]b. tothe square inch; the 
force of such adhesion may further be increased 
by inserting some fluid or gelatinous substance 
between the surfaces. In erecting machines 
upon rubber foundations the rubber sheeting 
acts to a certain degree as a compensating 
medium to the small unavoidable inequalities on 
the foot of the machine and on the bed; by the 
weight of the machine the air between the bed 
and the rubber sheeting on the one hand, and 
the sheeting and the machine foot on the other, 
is expelled and all three are iminovably con- 
nected. In many cases, where the foot of the 
machine is hollow, the airis partially exhausted 
by pumping, in place of its complete removal, 
The practical utility of this theory has been 
shown by Baron von Rugen, the 


INVENTOR OF THE ‘‘VACUUM FOUNDATION,” 


who has successfully installed small and large 
machines with the help of his system without 
any other necessary connections. Further, 
large power machines have been successfully 
mounted in this way; for example, a Borsig 
steam engine of 45 to 60 h.p. stood rigid without 
vibration, and, when brought to a standstill by 
the application of brakes, it was found that it 
had not moved from its position. In Germany, 
Switzerland, and Russia, heavy and light machi- 
nery erected on these rubber foundations is 
giving great satisfaction. Borsig and Krupp 
machines are tested thereon, It is hardly 
necessary to enumerate further the 


ADVANTAGES OF THE SYSTEM 3 


there being no need for sunk foundations a 
great monetary saving is effected and the fitting 
up of machines is made incomparably quicker. 
There 1s no injury to the floor of the factory, 
vibration being reduced to a minimum, which 
tends also to the good condition of the 
machinery and buildings and to the welfare 
of the workmen. The legal aspects are also 
interesting: since machines set up on the 
““von Rugen ” vacuum foundation are not fixed 
to the buildings, they in no way form 4 part 
thereof, For the introduction of the invention, 
says the Gummi-Zeitung, ; 


A COMPANY HAS BEEN FORMED, 


the ‘* Von Rugenische Vacuum Fundament- 
Virtriebs Gesellschaft m.b. H.,” Berlin, Pots- 
damerstr. 134. The use of the sheeting is pro- 
tected by patent, and, as is the case with a 
series of pharmaceutical and technical prepara- 
tions, tho buyer acquires the right to employ 
this principle of foundations by the purchase 
of rubber sheeting bearing the stamp “ Rugen- 
Fundament.” The license for the use of tho 
system is also only obtainable by the purchase 
of the sheeting and belongs to its possessor,— 
Matay Mail, Dec. 19. 


102 The Supplement to the Tropical Agriculturist 


ARTIFICIAL INDIA RUBBER. 


AND HOW TO MAKE IT. 

1. Heat together 6 pounds of gelatine and 
6 pounds of glycerine, until they forma vis- 
cous mass. Then add 1 pint of linseed oil and 
continue to heat until the mixture becomes 
homogeneous. Next add 25 ounces of formal- 
dehyde or, preferably, of trioxymethylene in 
powder, previously well mixed with half as 
much manganese dioxide. Heat until all is dis- 
solved, then pour into moulds and allow to cool. 

2, The process is the same as above, except 
that the oil is mixed with 1/10 its weight of 
sulphur before it is added to the mixture, and 
that the manganese dioxide may be omitted. 
The casting, after it has cooled and hardened, 
is removed from the mold and heated to 300 deg. 
¥. for an hour, in order to enable the sulphur 
to act thoroughly on the oil. In this way articles 
of imitation vulcanised rubber can be made. 

3. This process differs from the last by the 
incorporation of 8 per cent. of tar, in addition 
to the 10 per cent, of sulphur with the oil. 
The toughness of the product may be increased, 
without affecting its compressibility, by mixing 
with the mass, while it is still in a viscous 
state, short fibres of wool, cotton, etc. It is 
then vulcanised as in process No. 2,—South 
Chima Morning Post, Dec. 14. 


RUBBER NOFES. 


Referring to a sample of the rubber lors- 
teronia floribunda prepared in Jamaica, the 
plant of which is said to grow profusely in 
the limestone district of the island, the ‘‘ Bul- 
letin of the Imperial Institute” says: ‘The 
rubber was submitted for commercial valuation 
to brokers, who reported that it would prob- 
ably realise 2s. 4d. per lb. in London, with 
fine hard Para from South America quoted at 
3s. 53d. perlb. The result of the examination 
of this sample of Forsteronia rubber con- 
firm the conclusions drawn from _ previous 
investigations. There is no doubt that the 
rubber furnished by this vine is of good quality, 
and, if obtainable in quantity, it would be 
readily saleable. Up to the present time the 
absence of a regular and sufficient supply has 
been the principal hindrance to the commer- 
cial exploitation of the rubber from Forsteronia. 

Some particulars showing the rapid develop- 
ment of Southern Nigeria during the past year 
have just been published in a Colonial Office 
report on the district. The quantities and value 
of rubber exported during the period, compared 
with the previous year, were: 2,843,800 lb., 
valued at £245,000, in 1907, and 3,434,300 |b., 
valued at £307,000, in 1906. The decrease in the 
export 1s due, says the report, to the fact that 
tapping has been prohibited in some of the 
principal rubber districts. Officers of the 
Forestry Department give instruction to natives 
as to the best means of tapping and preparing 
rubber for the European market. All the rubber 
exported at present is forest produce, There 
are large tracts of land in well-situated areas 
throughout the country suitable for planting 
Para rubber, and plantations of Para and Fun- 
tumia Elastica rubber started in recent years in 
the Central Province are doing well.—(Home and 
Colonial Mail, Nov. 27th.) 


RECORD PRICE FOR RAMBONG. 


5s. 2d, Per Lb. 

A rubber record for the planting districts of 
Deli has just been established. The Rambong 
rubber of the United Serdang (Sumatra) Rubber 
Plantations, Ltd., prepared according to an ap- 
proved local method, has just sold, in London, 
at 5s. 2d. per lb. This is the highest price ever 
paid in London for Rambong rubber. On another 
day of the sale fine hard cured Para was quoted 
at 58 4d per lb.—Malay Mail, Dec. 28. 


F.M.S. RUBBER EXPORTS. 


_ Monruiy StatEMEN?T. —The monthly compara- 

tive statement of cultivated rubber exported 
from the F.M.S. during 1908 and 1907 has been 
issued from the office of the Commissioner of 
Trade and Customs, The statistics of rubber 
exported are as follows : 


° yo i 
> ae S 
Tw OR oS 
=) oe pee ee! 
ba i KB fat 
oO Oe ® oO og 
2.98 ral 3.8 xe) 
M°E ~'s 4 ae 
ms on 
oS Hs 2. 
Perak .. 45,669 393,515 224,746 


Selangor .-- 208,382 1,872,923 1,073,509 

Negri Sembilan... 62,563 496,228 461,942 

It will thus be seen that Selangor has an 
increased output of 799,414 lb., Perak of 168,769 
lb. and Negri Sembilan of 34,286 lb. The total 
export for November was 316,614 lb. excluding 
the Pahang export, and the total increase to 
date exceeds 1,000,009 lb. It is pointed out that 
of the rubber exported from Selangor in Nov- 
ember, 16,136 lb. were produced in Negri Sembi- 
lan.—Malay Mait, Dee. 1}. 


CEARA RUBBER IN CHRISTMAS 
ISLAND. 


Mr Tait writes :—‘t The few plants we have 
here are makiug good growth, having reached a 
height of 12 feet and a girth of 7 inches, at 3 
feet from the ground, at nine months old ; from 
all accounts this seems a fair growth.” 


This certainly seems satisfactory considering 
the peculiar nature of the Christmas Island 
soil. The whole island consists of three raised 
coral-reefs rising from sea level to about 1,100 
feet altitude. Over this coral rock lies a layer of 
phosphate of alumina which is of some depth 
near the settlement. During the dry season, the 
country gets very dry and owing to the nature 
of the rock the water sinks through till it ar- 
rives at the volcanic rock which forms the base 
of the island at sea level. In such a peculiar 
soil and climate it is almost surprising that 
anything grows well, but the whole island is 
forested with large trees; and vegetables, limes, 
papaya, and other fruit trees grow well on the 
rich brown soil near the settlement. Para 
rubber has been planted as well as ceara, but 
it is probable that the latter will prove the most 
suitable. 


H. N. Rivtey. 
—Straits Agricultural Bultetin, for Dec. 


and Magazine of the Ceylon Agricultural Society. 


TEA NOTES. 


‘Mrxico as A TRA-Growrne Country.—With 
the object of securing reliable information as to 
the possibilities of agricultural development in 
Mexico, the Government of that country com- 
missioned a foreign expert to investigate agri- 
cultural conditions in various tropical and sub- 
tropical countries. According to the latest re 
port of the British Consul-General at Mexico 
City, this expert has recently returned, and now 
advises the Government to establish a Mexican 
Department of Agriculture. He urges that 
Mexico has special advantages for the growing 
of tea, cacao, rice and fruit of many kinds. 


Tue Disposat or Tea Prunines.—In referring 
recently to the views of Messrs. Joseph Fraser 
and Bamber, Dr. Willis and Mr. Petch on the 
disposal of tea prunings—whether by burying 
or burning—we alluded to the last-named 
as being inclined (at any rate 18 months ago) 
to support burying, except where a field is 
subject to root disease. We are, however, 
reminded by one who has followed the Govern- 
ment Mycologist’s work closely that we would 
be wide of the mark if we assumed that Mr. 
Petch believes in burying prunings under any 
circumstances. We certainly did not assume 
this, for his paper of May 1907 was very strong 
against burying where root disease existed ; 
he also pointed out the difficulties often ex- 
perienced in securing rapid decay of prunings 
buried in holes. Mr. Petch has, we hear, 
rather been devoting himself to urging the 
burning of them for the last four years and 
holds there is as yet no evidence whatever 
in favour of burying: that, in fact, there is 
scarcely a set of figures dealing with any 
cultivation in the Island which will bear 
five minutes’ examination: and that until 
Mr. Joseph Fraser submits his figures to 
criticism, they must scientifically be regarded 
as non-existent! The Experiment station 
Committee, we believe, have not always found 
figures reliable facts to go upon; and what 
passes for experiment in tropical agriculture 
has before this been proved to be futile imitation. 
We trust, however, that Mr. Joseph Fraser 
may have something to say on the subject ere 
next Pitakande meeting comes along. 


INDIAN TEA ASSOCIATION. 


(Meeting at Calcutta on Dec. 22.) 
Mosguriro Buicur. 

In connection with the pamphlet recently 
published by Mr Antram on Mosquito Blight, a 
letter of 17th December from Messrs Shaw 
Wallace & Co. was read. They urged the im- 
portance of joint action being at once taken by 
Proprietors to deal with the blight in view of 
the danger that, if remedial measures are de- 
layed, it may increase to an alarming extent. 
They emphasised the point made by Mr Antram 
in regard to the necessity for thorough satura- 
tion of the bush in spraying, and expressed the 
opinion that the Committee should impress on 
Proprietors that spraying should be pursued 
with more ‘vigour and perseverance than 
hitherto, and that every precaution should 
be taken to ensure thoroughness, But 


103 


even spraying to this* extent would not, in 
their viow, be sufficient, unless the blocks of 
tea treated were absolutely isolated: and it 
was with this in mind that they suggested that 
if headway against the blight were to be made, 
joint measures inthe affected districts would 
be imperative. As they pointed out, it would 
be hopeless to carry out protective measures, 
however complete, in any one garden, if the 
surrounding gardens took no steps and re- 
mained a recruiting ground for fresh infection. 
‘They considered that members should be cir- 
cularised with a view to inducing them to com- 
bine in the matter.—The points raised by 
Messrs. Shaw Wallace & Co. were discussed at 
length by the Committee who were in com- 
plete agreement as to the desirability of ener- 
getic combined action being taken on the lines 
indicated. The only question was as to how far 
planters would undertake the expense of spray- 
ing areas not obviously suffering from the 
blight.—Asa preliminary step it was suggested 
that some group of gardens in ove of the attected 
districts might be approached with a view to 
get them to combine and take the most thorough 
measures—especially in the matter of spraying 
the whole area of their tea—for one or two 
seasons. If this could be arranged and the 
method were found to be effective, the Com- 
mittee would be enabled to recommend a similar 
policy to all members of the Association with 
much more confidence. Before, however, taking 
any steps towards having the idea put in force, 
it was decided to send to the two Branches and 
to the Dooars Planters’ Association copies of 
Messrs Shaw Wallace & Co’s letter explaining 
to them the Committee’s views and asking their 
opinions on the feasibility of such a scheme as 
that suggested. Messrs Shaw Wallace & Co. 
were to be thanked for their letter and to be in- 
formed of the action taken, 


MONEY FOR THE EAST INDIES. 


Easier to get than for the W. I. 

‘“‘Theobroma,” writing to the ‘‘ Standard,” 
says:—‘‘Speaking at a dinner given at the 
recent Rubber Exhibition, Sir Henry Blake 
observed that ‘it seemed much more difficult to 
get money in London for the West Indies than 
for the Kast.’ This is undoubtedly the case, for, 
whereas 

HARDLY A WEEK PASSES WITHOUT SOME 
IMPORTANT PLANTING COMPANY 

being successfully floated in connection with 
Ceylon, the Malay States, or the Dutch East 
Indies, he would be a bold man who relied on 
public support for a similar undertaking in the 
Antilles or British Guiana. Probaobly the vicis- 
situdes of the sugar industry are largely respon- 
sible tor this caution on the part of capitalists, 
but in many of the islands this product is only 
of secondary importance, while in others it is 
ractically non-existent. I would suggest the 
ormation of a committee to investigate and de- 
termine the causes of the financial disability 
under which the West Indies labour, whether 
political, administrative, economic, geographi- 
cal, climatic, or racial, and to correct any erro- 
neous ideas which may exist in the popular mind 
as to their productive capabilities.”—J/. and C. 
Mail, Dec, 25. 


104 The Supplement to the Tropical Agriculturist 


BRAZIL PRODUCTION OF COGOA. 


Rio de Janeiro, Nov. 23.—Cocoa is one of 
Brazil’s staple export products, and represents 
for the State of Bahia what coffee does for Sao 
Paulo. Its production is steadily increasing, 
and, although no official or private statistics re- 
cord the growth of the internal consumption of 
cocoa, this is to a considerable extent confirmed 
by the increased inter-state trade and the erec- 
tion of new chocolate factories during the past 
tew years. The State of Para ranks second in 
the production of cocoa, followed by Amazonas 
and Pernambuco, but the output of both these 
States is small when compared with that of 
Bahia, and atthe same time very irregular. In 
1902 the production of cocoa in Bahia was 
16,197,000 kilos, and since then it has steadily 
increased, reaching in 1906 a total of 22,914,000 
kilos. On the other hand, the production in 
Para has gradually fallen from 4,372,000 kilos in 
1903 to 1,752,000 kilos in 1606. In Amazonas 
and Pernambuco production has been erratic. 
In the former State the total in 1908 was 
587,000 kilos, in the following year it rose to 


over a million kilos, but in 1906 it fell to 357,000 — 


kilos. Pernambuco, which in 1903 only pro- 
duced 15,000 kilos, was credited with a pro- 
duction of 114,000 kilos in 1905. In the fol- 
lowing year, however, the total production de- 
creased vy more than 50 per cent. 
EXPORTS AND PRICES. 

Official statistics show the following export 

movement during the past five years :— 


Kilos. Value. 
1903 At 20,899,643 ofa £1,012, 224 
1904 50 23,160,028 at 1,095,535 
1905 ‘ie 21,090,088 Es 1,039,535 
1906 ae 25,135,307 ' 1,386,441 
1907 ve 24,897,249 AG 2,186,265 
48,794,498 
4,880,000 f 


53,674,498lb, = nearly 500,000 ewt. in 1907. 


Notwithstanding the smaller clearances in 
1907 when compared with those of the previous 
year, it will be noticed that in value they show 
a large increase, which is due entirely to the 
sharp advance in prices last year. According 
to official records, the current price of Bahia 
cocoa in 1905 was Rs. $585 per kilo; in 1906, 
Rs. $587; and in 1997, Rs. 1 $056. The average 
price of cocoa in 1907, as compared with that 
for 1906, shows the extraordinary increase of 
Rs. $469, equivalent to 79-90 per cent. 


France was at one time the largest purchaser 
of Brazilian cocoa, but in 1906 she surrendered 
that distinction to the United States, with 
Germany second. In 1903 exports to France 
reached a total of 8,294,000 kilos, but since then 
they have shown a steady falling off, and in 1906 
the total had declined to 5,283,000 kilos. Hx- 

orts to the United States have increased from 
5,263,000 kilos in 1903 to 8,894,000 kilos in 1906, 
while shipments to Germany rose from 3, 122,000 
kilos in 1903 to 7,190,000 kilos in 1906. Exports 
to Great Britain in 1903 totalled 2,177,000 kilos ; 
in 1904, 2,071,000 kilos ; in 1905, 1,250,000 kilos ; 
and in 1906, 2,020,000 kilos. 

During the first quarter of the current year 
exports of cocoa amounted to 9,276,043 kilos, 
which is an increase of 4,127,434 kilos (80°17 


per cent) on the corresponding period of last 
yoar. The average price of Bahia cocoa during 
the first quarter of 1907 is officially registered as 
$912 reis per kilo, and for the same period this 
year as $903. 

PRospKcrs OF THE INDUSTRY. 


The prospects for this product are, on the 
whole, encouraging, because consumption is 
steadily growing and keeping pace with the in- 
creased production. So far, its commercial 
development has only been fostered by private 
enterprise, but in view of the proposed coffee 
propaganda scheme by the States of Sao Paulo, 
Rio de Janeiro, and Minas Geraes, fostered by 
the Federal Government, it would be well for 
the Government of Bahia to take similar mea- 
sures to advertise its principal export product. 
—London Tmes, Dec. 18. 


THE SMYRNA FIG IN WEST 
AUSTRALIA. 


In August last the Department of Agriculture 
coramunicated with the Commissioner of Horti- 
culture, California, with a view of making ar- 
rangements for the introduction of the Caprifine 
insect of the Smyrna fig. Information has just 
been received from Mr Ahrhorn, Deputy-Com- 
missioner, San Francisco, that such arrange- 
ments have now been made, that he will himself 
attend tothe shipments on the Californian side 
and that he will do everything to make them a 
success. These insects are expected to arrive in 
the course of the summer, and they will be for- 
warded to the experimental station at Hamel, 
where a plantation of both Capri and Smyrna 
figs was established a few years ago. These trees 
are now bearing, and ready for the insects. The 
communication received from California further 
states that the Blastophaga, which is the name 
of the insect, was some time ago sent to Mr 
Lounsbury, Government Entomologist, Cape of 
Good Hope, and was successfully established. 
Mr Lounsbury also writes to the department 
that he will gladly supply insects as soon as pos- 
sible. The Smyrna fig has a world-wide reputa- 
tion, but, unfortunately, it has the peculiarity of 
dropping before maturity unless previously ferti- 
lised by the insect referred to, which winters 
inside the Capri fig.—Westralian paper, Dec. 5. 


SINGAPORE’S INCREASING TRADE 
IN COPRA. 


In reviewing the trade of Singapore for the past 
year the Straits Times (Dec. 31) states that the 
exports of copra continue to furnish  satis- 
factory returns, again showing an enormous 
advance over previous years, and establishing a 
record for at least the last half of a decade. 
There is an increase of some 90,000 piculs 
shipped to Great Britain and to the Continent 
of Europe, the United Kingdom receiving 
something like 63,000 piculs more than in 1907, 
and the Continent of Hurope importing about 
30,000 piculs over the quantity received last 
year. During 1903, only 5,041 piculs of copra 
were exported from Singapore to Great Britain, 
and 581,251 piculsto Europe, while during the 
year just closing the figures will be about 9u,000 
and 85,000, respectively. 


de 


PASSIFLORA EDULIS. 


The above jllustration is of the perennial climber com- 
monly knownas the Passion-fruit or Sweet Cup. It is 
reproduced from a photograph by Mr. H. F. Maemillan, 
Curator, Royal Botanic Gardens, Peradeniya, who men- 
tions in his circular on Fruit Culture that the plant is an 
introduction from Brazil, and is now found growing practi- 
eally wild upeountry, producing two crops a year. The 
fruits, which are slightly fragrant, and contain a pleasant 
juicy pulp, are occasionally found in Covent Gardens, 
where they sell at.a shilling or more a dozen. The local 
price is about Re. 1 per 100. 


A Sm 0a el 


TROPICAL AGRICULTURIST 


AND 


MAGAZINE OF THE 


CEYLON AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY. 


Vou. XXXII, 


COLOMBO, FEBRUARY 15tn, 1909, 


Improvement of Agriculture in Ceylon. 


As we are leaving the colony in the 
middle of February, and shall be away 
for a year, we have thought it well to 
put down some of the opinions at which 
we have arrived upon this question, and 
to complete the symposium by a paper 
by Mr. Schrader, which appeared in the 
‘‘ Independent,” and which is worthy of 
eareful consideration. 


While away we hope to visit Agricul- 
tural Colleges, Experiment Stations, etc.. 
in Egypt, Italy, Austria, Germany, 
Britain, the United States, and Canada, 


and may be able to write occasional 
articles upon them for the T. A. Incase 
of anyone wishing to write as regards 
any subject they may desire enquired 
into, anaddress which will always find 
us will be—Gonville and Caius College, 
Cambridge. 


We hope also, while on leave, to find 
time to write the bulk of an elementary 
treatise upon Nature Study, and the 
outlines of Agricultural practice, for use 
in Ceylon Schools. 


ee 


Agriculture in Ceylon and its Improvement, 


By J. C. WILLIS. 


Ceylon agriculture may be sharply 
marked off into two classes—estate 
agriculture and peasant agriculture. 
There are great differences between 
these in efficiency and result, and one 
is liable hastily to generalise, and say 
that it is all owing to the superior 
industry and intelligence of the Huro- 


who manage the bulk of the 
former. That this is not entirely the 
explanation, however much _ truth 
there may be in it, may be seen 
by omitting the European altogether 
and comparing the native capitalist 
or estate agriculture with that of the 
villager. 


peans 


106 


The difference is decidedly more 
marked than in the countries of Hurope 
or America, where the small agricul- 
turist can often hold his own very well 
by co-operation, against the big one, 
without having to do as in Ceylon, live 
on his own products. 


To get at the real explanation, we 
must analyse the whole subject. Before 
progressive agriculture, 2. e,, agriculture 
on other lines than ‘‘ grow what you 
want, and consume all you grow,” can 
go on, there must be satisfactory con- 
ditions as regards what we may call 
the preliminaries to agriculture, 

The chief of these are land, climate, 
soil, drainage, irrigation, cultivation, 
crops, transport, capital and education. 

Now land is plentiful enough, and 
usually easily obtained or available in 
Ceylon, and the climate is nowhere 
unsuitable to the growth of crops, when 
once the best crops have been discovered. 
The soil is generally good enough, and 
drainage and irrigation are sufficiently 
attended to. Crops are plentiful, nearly 
all of any value either existing in the 
island from ancient times, or having 
been introduced by the Botanic Gardens 
in the last 70 years. 


There remain then for consideration 
transport, capital, and education, Now 
the provision of transport facilities has 
for very many years been regarded as 
a eardinal point in British colonial 
policy; in fact it has been expressed 
in the form that the first element of 
civilisation is roads, the second roads. 
and the third more roads. Education 
also has been liberally provided, and 
with the extension of School Garden 
work the necessary agricultural bias is 
being given. Already, in districts where 
there are such gardens, one sees many 
new products or types of cultivation, 
and on enquiry usually. finds that they 
owe their origin to the School Gardens, 
Later on, a more definite agricultural 
teaching will be required in the higher 
schools, but for the present the school 
garden is enough. 

There remains, then, practically un- 
touched, simply the provision of capital, 
and it is inthis that the great difference 
between the capitalist ‘“‘ planter ”—be he 
European or native—and the villager, 
lies. The latter has steadily gone down 
to a very low agricultural level—if in- 
deed he ever were above it—and has 
no capital at his back. Now, any agricul- 
tural enterprise requires some_ capital, 
for the land must be prepared and the 
crops given time to ripen. If the culti- 
vator have no capital, he must have 
‘ yecourse to the local moneylender, and 
from him borrow seed, or advances to 
cover the period of ,waiting, or what 


ff 


[FEBRUARY, 1909. 


not, or he must sell the crop before it 
is ripe, of course at a great discount. 
In actual fact, in about 80 different 
places in which we have enquired, the 
usual rate of interest quoted has been 
50 per cent. The lowest was 40 per cent. 
and the highest 75 per cent., but as the 
interest was generally collected with 
the principal, long before the lapse of 
a year, these rates are really higher. 
It is idle to gird at the moneylender 
for such rates. His business is to get 
what he can, and when the villager 
can only give such scanty security, he 
must pay high interest to indemnify 
the lender for the risk. Were it easily 
possible to lend at lower rates, one would 
oxpery to hear of its occurrence some- 
imes. 


So long as the villager is thus help- 
lessly in the grasp of the moneylender, 
so long can he do practically nothing in 
the direction of agricultural progress, 
however willing he may happen to be. 
When we add to this the general apathy 
and inefficiency he displays, and what, 
for want of a more accurate term, we 
must call his indolence, it may be readily 
seen that agricultural progress among 
the peasantry of Ceylon is a thing to be- 
hoped for, but not to be expected till the 
clutch of the usurer is relaxed, and then 
but slowly. 


To endeavour to improve local agri- 
culture, other than capitalist agriculture, 
without taking the subject in proper 
logical order, is to beat the air. One 
man introduces good European ploughs. 
Without capital the peasant cannot 
afford such tools, while at the same time, 
they make too violent a step forward to 
be applicable. They cut through the 
plough-pan of the paddy field, and let 
the water out. Another man introduces 
a new vegetable or other crop. Is the 
villager to sacrifice crops, already yield- 
ing a return, to experiment with some- 
thing untried? He cannot doso with- 
out more capital. A third man proposes 
to teach agriculture in the village 
schools. Whereare the trained teachers, 
and how is the trained boy to apply his 
knowledge unless he has money? Ifhe 
bas money, and succeeds, his success 
simply goes to emphasise the difference 
already existing between capitalist and 
villager. 


Practically every improvemeutin agri- 
culture demands money at the start, 
though it may prove very profitable 
later, and itis but rarely that it yields a 
profit that will pay the Ceylon money- 
lenders’ interest, 


We may roughly represent the present, 
and the possible, state of affairs by the 
following diagram :— 


Frervary, 1909.] | 107 


level 4 
of capitalist agriculture 


level 3 


of existing peasant agri- 
culture in Hurope, 


level 2 


below which real ‘‘agri- 
cultural” progress is 
impossible, 


level 1 


A A of existing peasant agri- 


culture in Ceylon, 


A 


Provision of land, &c, 

irrigation 
drainage 
crops 
transport 
capital 
education 

B 
Careful study of crops—new or improved—on Experiment Stations, with a view to 
making out their suitability to Ceylon, profitableness, &c, 
Ditto tools, to gradually improve native implements. 


Ditto methods, to gradually improve native methods of cultiva- 
: tion, manuring, harvesting, preparation, prevention of 
disease, &c, 
Ditto cattle, to gradually improve native breeds, 


Improved and more agricultural education, 
1 


Agricultural teaching by field demonstration. 


And so on, 


Given all of A, coming in at level 1, it may be raised to 2, at which the other's 


will begin to come in as shown. 


All A should go together, similarly all B. 


' 


108 [FEBRUABY, 1909. 


Until the provision of all the items A 
has been attended to, village agriculture 
in Ceylon must remain at the low level 
1. Given these, asthe people get out of 
the clutches of the moneylender, it will 
rise to 2, and then improvement in agri- 
culture, properly so called, begins. 


This improvement must be of the 
most gradual kind, and every step must 
be carefully tested by thorough experi- 


ments before being recommended for 
adoption, Improvement of cattle must go 
hand in hand with improvement of the 
tools they are to use, and with improve- 
ment of their food supply, and so on. 


This must suffice as a brief indication 
of what we are convinced, after 12 years’ 
study, is the logical order in which to 
attend to the improvement of Ceylon 
agriculture. 


Loans to Native Agriculturists. 


Given that loans of money are to he 
made, whether by Government or Agri- 
cultural Co-operative Societies, to vil- 
lage agriculturists, the question comes 
up of how best to manage it, and how 
to obtain good security, forin the case 
at any rate of a Government loan, it 
would be unsound finance to advance 
against no security. 


The essential features of the Raiffeisen 
loan schemes (by means of local Agri- 
cultural Co-operative Societies )—which 
have been so wonderfully successful in 
Europe, and are now extending in India— 
are that the lending by any given soci- 
ety is confined to the village where that 
society is located, that it is managed by 
a local committee who understand as 
thoroughly as possible the financial 
status and reliability of each borrower, 
and that the liability is unlimited, so 
that in the event of loss, it falls upon 
each member of the society in propor- 
tion to his holding. 


The question then is—Can these prin- 
ciples be applied to local conditions? We 
are decidedly of opinion that the strict 
localisation of loans should be carried 
out. Let for each small district a local 
committee be formed, with the Govern- 
ment Agent as Chairman, and the local 
headman as deputy chairman, and let 
this committee be responsible for the 
making of the loans, which must of 
course be absolutely confined to their 
own district. 


The next item is the recovery of the 
debt owed by the villagers. We would 
suggestfor this the revival of the old 
levy of 10 % of the crop. This is a tax 
the villager well understands, and there 
would be no grievance in its revival, if 
done soon, while the outcry that might 
be raised against its being reinstituted 
asa tax would fall to the ground if it 
were simply revived for repayment of 
loans, Butas the least that could use- 


. WILLIS. 


fully be advanced to the villager would 
be the value of his seed paddy—say Rs. 2 
to Rs. 4.50 per acre—it is doubtful if the 
10 % tax on the crop, which in many 
districts is barely ten-fold, would repay 
the loan with interest at say 123 %, 
which must always be charged. We 
would suggest a 15 % return or even 
more in most cases, and where this 
proved to be much too much, some 
might be returned to the cultivator. 
By this means the villager should in a 
few years get sofar rid of the load of 
usury that at present oppresses him, 
that he might be able to consider the 
question of actual ‘‘agricultural” im- 
provement. Probably only a few at 
first would in any case be willing to try 
improved crops, tools, manures, or 
cattle; but let these succeed and others 
would follow. 


Next as regards security for the debt. 
We would suggest, as has already been 
done by Mahawalatenne R. M., that the 
greater headmen, as deputy chairmen of 
the local committees, give security for 
the amount to beadvanced. This they 
will very commonly beable todo, and 
if they are at first debarred from 
advancing more than the value of the 
seed paddy, while the 10% levy is 
pledged for their repayment, there 
should be no difficulty about this. 


The 10 %, 12} % or other levy would 
obviously not bring in exactly the 
amount necessary for repayment, but 
the figure should be fixed at the nearest 
23 % above what is necessary; e.g., if 
13 % were considered needful, repayment 
should be by a 15 % tax. 


In this way the local committee would 
come into the possession of funds of 
their own, and these might be again 
lentin any way that seemed best to 
them, adhering strictly to the principle 
of local loans and unlimited liability, 
and at an interest of say 123%. As the 
Government is about to lend for paddy 


FEBRUARY, 1909.] 


cultivation only, these loans might be 
for other or new crops (é.g., to start 
sweet potato growing in the district), for 
better tools(e.g., asociety might purchase 
a disc harrow or other tool and lend it 
out to its members), forsupply of manure 
(by purchasing manure from Colombo 
and advancing it to members, to be 
repaid at crop time), for provision of 
stud bulls, cocks, pigs, etc., for sale of 
local produce in the Colombo or Kandy 
markets, or for other purposes. But 
the important thing at the commence- 
mentis to get the villager. gradually 
free of the exactions of the money-lender, 
as has been explained in another place. 


109 


This must be done gradually, or a 
new class, that of distressed money- 
lenders, will come upon the scene, and 
we would suggest beginning with the 
advance of seed paddy only, against the 
security of the headmen, through local 
committees, the money to_be_ repaid 
by a definite tax in kind upon the 
p roduce. 


We would confine loans at first strictly 
to the ordinary villager, and decline to 
advance any money to the richer 
people, unless at so high arate of in- 
terest that they could not profitably 
lend it out again. 


Agriculture in the North-Central Province. 


By J. ©. WU£LLIs. 


In this paper we are, of course, merely 
taking the North-Central Province as a 
type of the low-lying irrigable country 
of Ceylon, which stretches from Ham- 
bantota round the mountains to the 
north to Chilaw, and these remarks will 
apply to most of it. 


This country is occupied by a very 
small population (leaving the coastal 
districts of Batticaloa, Jaffna, and Chi- 
law out of consideration ), probably not 
much over 200,000 in all, though the 
area is over 13,000 square miles. or more 
than half of the island. Now, in the 
olden days of the Sinhalese monarchy, 
this was the populous and wealthy 
part of Ceylon, while the mountain 
zone and the west—now the home of the 
great tea, coconut, cacao, rubber, 
and other industries—were a poverty- 
stricken and neglected region. 


Now, there is no reason why there 
should not to-day be a great population, 
and large industries, in this now desert- 
ed land. The important thing is to 
analyse the position carefully, and to 
set to work in the proper logical order. 


_ At present the North-Central Province 

‘is largely occupied by a good-humour- 
ed, fairly honest, but lazy Kandyan 
population. By the opening of the irri- 
gation works they have been practically 
freed of the great amount of disease 
which formerly devastated the country, 
and have become, for villagers, fairly 
prosperous. 


Looked at agriculturally, they have 
afew conspicuous faults. They waste 
a great »mount of water upon their rice 
crops, which they grow mainly in the 
dry season with tank water. They cul- 
tivate other things mainly on chenas. 
They do not grow more paddy than 
they want, and often leave the fields 
bare for long periods, 


Now the last-named of these faults 
is one of character and temperament, 
and cannot be easily altered, but the 
two former depend mainly on the agri- 
cultural conditions of the country. 


A comparison of any other of the 
outlying thinly populated districts will 
show the same faults in operation. 
There is evidently some general cause 
forthem. They depend, in general, upon 
the fact that in all such districts one 
finds, uvon the whole, less capable and 
less successful agriculturists, who live 
as muchas they can upon the natural 
capital of the country. 


This natural capital in Ceylon is 
simply land or soil, water, and forest, 
The native of the North-Central Pro- 
vinee, like any one else, has of course 
taken the best land for his rice crops, 
and to that there cannot be the slight- 
est objection. He then, however, pro- 
ceeds to grow his other crops largely 
upon chenas, and for this he uses the 
best land he can find, and ruthlessly sacri- 
fices the other item of capital—forest. 
After a couple of chena crops the land is 
left to lie fallow in scrub fora good 
many years before the process can be 
repeated, There is neither need nor 
space to go into details in a paper like 
this, which is simply- giving a general 
sketch without argument. 


To turn now to more detail about the 
other two faults mentioned, and first 
the fact that rice is grown mainly with 
tank water in the dry weather. The 
Jaffna man who visits the North- 
Central Province is at once surprised by 
this; he, without tanks, and in a drier 
country, must grow during the North 
East rains. The ordinary unthinking 
man puts it down to dislike on the part 
of the villager to being out in the rain 
or to some such cause. Experiment, 


110 {Frprvary, 1909. 


conducted at Maha-iluppalama, in the 
North-Central Province, have shown the 
true reason. Village rice sown broad- 
east in a field simply supplied with rain 
water has grown well enough, but has 
become a mass of weeds, which cannot 
be removed without great trouble and 
damage to the crop. Whereas, if the 
land is completely softened by the 
rains, and well ploughed, tnen left to 
soak, and kept always soaked, weeds 
do not get much chance. This is the 
real explanation. To improve on the 
present methods sowing in the rains is 
not enough. The land must be tilled 
before the rains, and the crop must be 
transplanted in rows, so that weeding 
between can be carried out. This means 
greater expenditure, in keeping the land 
tilled all the year round, in transplant- 
ing, andin weeding. This means capital, 
which the villager has not got, so has 
to live upon the natural capital of the 
country. 

Now turn tothe chena. The land is 
cleared of trees, up to acertain size and 
burnt off. Before the weeds begin to 
grow, the crop is thickly broadcasted on, 
and gives a good return on the fresh 
forest land. But the weeds grow, and 
it only occasionally happens that the 
villager can afford, from his indolence, 
enough labour to partially clear for a 
second crop, which of course is not so 
good as the first. The land is then allow- 
ed to grow up in scrub, which keeps 
down the small weeds, and after a few 
years can be again cleared at far less 
eost than weeding would involve, while 
it has had the advantage of a kird of 
fallow. 

Land which natives and Kuropeans 
alike said was only fit for chena is now 
being continuously cultivated at Maha- 
iluppalama and _ yielding good crops. 
But without capital, which is the un- 
derlying secret of success there, the 
villager of the North-Central Province 
is as helpless asa baby to do anything 
but chena, as he is helpless to grow rice 
with the rains, and he must not be 
blamed for his present methods. 


Another point about chena is the 
effect on the soil. To keep the natural 
capital of the soil unimpaired, either 
rotation, manuring, or chena must be 
practised, and as a capital is wanted for 
the two former (as has already been 
indicated) the last is the only possible 
resource. 

We have now to consider the problem 
of what is to be done to get_the inhabi- 
tants of the North-Central Province out 
of this state of things. If left as they 
are, progress will be as it has always 
been—very slow. With the opening up 
of the country by transport facilities, 


capitalists will gradually be attracted 
into it, but the villager willnot progress. 
It therefore becomes a question whether 
attention is to be devoted wholly to the 
capitalist, or whether the villager, and 
people like him, are to be helped also, 
and whether they are to be directly 
helped, or assisted to help themselves. 
The latter is what we personally vote 
for, but this question is one for the 
Government, and has only to do with 
agriculture in that its solution is an 
essential to progress in the latter.“ In 
the old Sinhalese days, it is probable 
that the villager was at least upon as 
low a level as at present, and the kings 
helped them by compelling them to 
make tanks, which greatly increased the 
natural capital of the country, by 
making water available at any time, 
instead of only in the last few months 
of the year. 


Whiletheoretically, no doubt, it would 
be better to aid the villagers already 
existing in the North-Central Province 
to supply themselves with capital, im- 
PIONS their agriculture, and take up the 

alance of the available land, in practice 
this would take centuries, and is too 
long to wait. 


The villager should be settled upon his 
own land, and a sufficient area reserved 
about him, which he will at first of 
necessity chena, but which he will, as he 
gets more free of the money-lender, gra- 
dually be able to lay down to permanent 
cultivation. Now,there is little doubt 
that he is so indolent that he would 
prefer to go on indefinitely upon the 
present lines, and compulsion must be 
brought to bear upon him. We would 
suggest that, provided he has been sup- 
plied with the means of getting cheap 
capital, the chena area be reduced by 
25%, say, every sixth year, till he has 
only 25% left. He will thus be compelled 
to lay down, the land to permanent crop- 


‘ping. We would attach the chena area 


to the village as a whole as common land, 
and stipulate that part of it have the 
trees sufficiently thinned out to cause it 


to form good pasturage, and of course © 


make the area large enough to allow of 


room for other crops when the necessary - 


proportion of the 25% remainder was 
given to pasturage, In this way the 
chena difficulty might be gradually got 
over. At present the villager must 
chena, but the land will stand per- 
manent cropping. 


It must be rememhered that for annual 
crops—which are much better suited to 
the small capitalist than perennials, such 
as rubber or tea or cacao—the chena 
land must be irrigable. Pasture, on the 
other hand, need not he so, 


FEBRUARY, 1909.) 


We would suggest, as he becomes 
more free of money difficulties, gradually 
curtailing the amount of water allowed 
to the villager for his rice land, and the 
upplication of some at least of the saving 
to his ‘‘common.” So long as_ the 
present rate of water consumption is 
allowed, so long willit be impossible to 
Open up any seriously larger extent of 
country. Water must be available 
before land can be opened. 


Experiments should be set on foot to 
determine the minimum water that can 
be allowed to the villager. They should 
then be limited, at first to say 25 % more 
than that, and the amount gradually 
decreased, thus setting more water free 
for other land. 


The local villagers being few in num- 
bers, lazy, and improvident, other 
people should also be induced to settle, 
and here comes 1n another very import- 
ant consideration. The newcomers 
should be settled in entire villages of 
one race or caste, and by the mixing of 
peoples thus brought about, the general 
standard of living will be raised, and 
some variety introduced into the local 
agriculture. At the same time, among 
the villages thus formed, blocks of land 
should be reserved for capitalists, and 
land in them only sold in large pieces. 
In this way the villager will have object- 
lessons at his door, and the capitalist 
village labour. 


Every village thus formed should be 
given some common land, part of which 
should be devoted to pasturage, part to 
crops that can be marketed elsewhere, 
i.e-, in general the crops that can be 


11, 


sold to the local capitalist estates; and 
a definite water supply should be allotted 
to the common. Communal tools might 
also be obtained by co-operation among 
the villagers, or by a 10 % tax on the 
produce. 


In laying out the villages, they must 
be divided by road reservations, in 
which, as_ traffic increases, actual roads 
can be made, though at first mere clear- 
ing of the track (pin-para) would suffice. 
This is very important. Transport faci- 
lities are one of the indispensable preli- 
Minaries to progressive agriculture. 


There remains then the attracting of 
capitalists. Just as with the villagers, 
the first to come are often small ones 
crowded out of other parts of the 
country. To attract these is something, 
but more rapid progress will be made if 
larger can be also got to come. The pre- 
liminaries of land, labour, transport, 
and, above all, guaranteed water supply, 
must be carefully attended to, and 
capital will then be attracted to grow 
rubber, coconuts, cotton, and other 
things. Under some of the tanks the 
land should be saleable only in large 
blocks and no small holders allowed. 


This will serve as a brief indication 
of some of the lines upon which we 
would propose to work, and a careful 
consideration of the whole question 
during this year will be time well spent. 
The general lines we have been laying 
down are developed at greater length in 
a book upon “ Agriculture in the Tro- 
pics,” to appear within the next few 
months, and which those interested in 
tropical agriculture may find of interest 
to study. 


The Teaching of Agriculture and how to Teach the People. 


AN OBJECT-LESSON FROM AUSTRALIA. 


In my article on “The Improvement 
of Cattle in Ceylon,” I made the follow- 
ing statement: ‘‘ There is no doubt that 
ocular demonstration is of far greater 
importance than preaching, especially 
when dealing with the ignorant masses. 
This must be taken full advantage of in 
driving out the prejudices and lax 
methods of the psople.” This shail be 
my text for this article, and I feel certain 
that it is the only way of starting to 
improve the obsolete and ignorant 
methods of the people. We know that 
the most approved methods of the 
present day of teaching infants is by 


means of object-lessons. In the same 
manner the only way to teach the grown 
up ignorant agricultural infants is by 
the same methods. NowI will forma 
short resumé, as farasI know, cf what 
has been done in the past. A School of 
Agriculture was started in Colombo 
under the able guidance of a graduate 
of an English Agricultural College, but 
it was a failure--why? In the first 
place the country (was not ripe 
enough for an = institution of that 
nature, the right stamp of students 
were not attracted, and most of those 
that came there came to receive a 


112 


cheap education, and on leaving the 
institution they turned to every walk of 
life—except agriculture, We know that 
once the son of a village ‘“‘gamarala” 
dons a pair of trousers and a coat, he 
does not care for his village life. In the 
second Place Colombo or any city isin 
no way adapted for an Agricultural 
school. Rural work ° 


MUST BE CARRIED ON AMID RURAL 
SURROUNDINGS, 


where there will be sufficient land for 
the actual carrying out of agricultural 
operations in every branch, the students 
playing the principal part. The late 
Colombo School of Agriculture did not 
apparently pertain to teach practical 
agriculture, except in the form of 
cultivating a few vegetable plots, which 


was absolutely valueless. The next 
thing was agricultural education in 
the form of School Gardens. They 


are no doubt excellent in their way 
and for the object in view, but 
not of sufficient weight by them- 
selves, to reach the mass of agricul- 
turists. Then we had the starting of 
the Agricultural Society by Sir Henry 
Blake, our late Governor. The Society 
publishes a very good journal, holds 
monthly meetings at which are read 
numbers of valuable papers, etc., and 
also have around it numbers of branch 
societies doing similar work, but the 
main object, that of reaching the agri- 
cultural masses, is lost sight of. Now we 
are coming into a new era under our 
progressive and practical Governor who, 
no doubt, willdo his best to give us 
something that will reach the masses. 
In starting agricultural instruction and 
development in CeylonI do not think 
wecan do better than be guided by 
what has been done in other countries. 
As I am able to speak with some 
authority on 


WHAT HAS BEEN DONE IN AUSTRALIA, 


having had the opportunity to spend ten 
years there, all the time actively 
engaged in agricultural pursuits, I will 
refer to what has been done there. The 
agricultural masses of Australia were 
at one time ignorant, as far as modern 
scientific agriculture was _ concerned. 
They ploughed and sowed the same 
crops year after year on the same land, 
and could not understand why the land 
would not produce the same quantity 
of grain per acre asit did years back. 
They used no modern labour-saving 
appliances. They could not understand 
that rotation of crops, green fallowing, 
artificial manuring, the proper treat- 
ment and application of farm-yard 
manure, etc., would be beneficial and 
would be their salvation, They looked 


[FEBRUARY, 1909. 


down on scientific cultivation which 
they called ‘“‘new fangled ideas.” The 
Government had a hard task to perform, 
but they went aboutitin avery prac- 
tical way. They started establishing 
experimental farms right in the heart 
of great agricultural centres. These 
farms were Zhuge object-lessons, Land 
similar to that worked by the farmers 
was cultivated under ‘“‘new fangled 
ideas.” Everybody, of course, was 
curious to see the result, while at the 
same time being certain that the whole 
thing would be a failure. By and by, 
as time went on, some of them started 
visiting the Government farms, and 
were shown round by the managers who 
took the opportunity of explaining the 
why and wherefore of things being done, 
told them of the number of bushels per 
acre the lust wheat crop yielded, ex- 
plained the methods adopted in making 
farmyard manure, the amount of labour 
saved by the use of certain implements, 
etc., etc. The visitors went back and 
pondered over 


WHAT THEY HAD SEEN AND HEARD 


and naturally talked about it to their 
brother-farmers, who, in their turn, 
visited the farms, and so on, and so on. 
Later on the majority came to the con- 
clusion that there was something in 
these ‘‘new-fangled ideas” and went for 
help and advice to the managers which, 
of course, was most readily given, and 
gradually modern methods began to be 
adopted, the farmers finding that by 
their adoption the crops were doubled, 
and that the use of labour-saving ap- 
pliances put more money into their 
pockets. The experimental farms then 
started taking in afew students, as the 
farmers wished their sons to receive 
modern training, and, of course, the scope 
of these farms only permitted practical 
agriculture being taught. As things 
went on the time became ripe for the 
stablishment of Agricultural Colleges 
where a student could receive both 
scientific and practical training. In the 
State of Victoria, where I spent most of 
my time, the first College started was 
the Dookie Agricultural College, where 
I graduated. This College was, first of 
all, an experimental farm, then an experi- 
mental farm with a few students, 
and lastly an _ Agricultural College. 
It had attached to it 4,700 acres of 
land, and only received, while I attended 
it, forty students. Since then the 
number of students has beer doubled. 
At this institution every kind of tarm- 
ing was carried on and taught, the course 
being two years. A student in case of 
failure to pass examinations was allowed 
a further year, bit at the expiration of 
that period had to leave. The 


Pat Nk =—5 8 


FEBRUARY, 1909. 


STUDENTS WHERE DIVIDED INTO FOUR 
CLASSES, 


two junior and two senior—one junior 
and one senior being out working on the 
farm every day, while the other two 
were attending lectures, the subjects 
comprising the breeding of horses, cattle, 
sheep, and pigs, irrigation, drainage, 
arboriculture, ensilage-making, the grow- 
ing of serial crops and their man- 
agement, Chemistry, Botany, Geology, 
Zoology, Entomology, English, Natural 
Philosophy, Book-keeping, Surveying, 
Horticulture, Viticulture, Apiculture, 
and Olive-oil making. Four professors 
lectured on these subjects, while there 
was a separate outdoor staff to teach the 
practical work. The outdoor working 
day consisted of eight hours, the stu- 
dents actively carrying out all the dif- 
ferent farm operations, the staff only 
teaching and seeing that the work was 
properly done. Every season about 500 
acres were put under serial crops and 
about 60 under silage crops; vineyard 
work was carried on, and wine made from 
80 acres; dariying was carried on, about 
twenty-five cows being milked daily, the 
milk being turned into butter and 
cheese; olive oil was made; orchards 
were attended to; about 4,000 sheep 
were shorn; pig breeding was carried 
on, and poultry’ received atten- 
tion. Large experimental plots were 
worked. Black+smithing and carpentery 
were taught, all repairs to machinery 
being done on the place. Other farm 
operations too numerous to mention were 
earried on. All this work was done by 
the students, and done well, and the 
farm paid its way. When a student 
finished his course and went out into the 
country, he was a power in the land, he 
was a thorough master of his profession. 
Later on Victoria found it necessary to 
open another College. The other States 
started on similar lines, and all of them 
have now large flourishing 


AGRICULTURAL COLLEGES AND 
EXPERIMENTAL FARMS, 


yearly sending out young men to teach 
and to work for the country’s good and 
their own. It was by ocular demonstra- 
tion, by means of huge object lessons, 
that Australia the great Agricultural 
continent started teaching her sons 
modern, scientific agriculture. And I 
think my readers will agree with me 
that this is the only way it can be done 
in Ceylon. Ofcourse we don’t want 4,700 
acres of land; 100 acres with some paddy 
Jand would suffice for our experimental 
farms. Too much stress cannot be laid 
on the choice of the men who are to 
manage and work these places, as on 
them and on them alone depends the 


13 


118 


success of the undertaking. Personality, 
ability, education, a thorough mastery 
of practical work, and men not ashamed 
to take off their coats and show the 
people how certain operations have to 
be done, all these essentials must be 
embodied in those who are to have in 
their hands the future destinies of the 
improvement of agriculture in the 
Island. Soon we shall find, as Australia 
did, that the masses who are by nature 
agriculturists will take interest in the 
object lessons, and give the new methods 
atrial. Once they do that and find it 
paying they will naturally enlarge their 
scope of operation, and will, in a short 
time, come to the conclusion that there 
is money in new methods. They will 
then want their sons taught the new 
methods, and, by and by, when these 
sons are turned out of the experimental 
farms and work 


THE LAND OF THEIR FOREFATHERS, 


they will find more money coming in. 
Their training will have taught them to 
work to the very best advantage, and 
when these young men in_ their turn 
have sons of their own old enough to 
receive agricultural training, %.e., about 
16 years of age, during which time they 
received a good elementary education, 
then will be the time for Ceylon to open 
her first agricultural school, and in time 
turn out, as Australia is doing, hundreds 
of young men yearly, who will ‘‘ go out 
into the land and make it bring forth 
fruit abundantly.” 


THE SCOPE OF EXPERIMENTAL 


FARMS, 


In the foregoing article I suggested that 
“100 acres of high land with some 
paddy land would suffice for our experi- 
mental farms.” The question will arise, 
“What is to be done on these lands’? 
In other words, in what form are these 
object-lessons to be placed before the 
grown up agricultral infants of Ceylon ? 
Itis important that these farms should 
be worked on business-like principles, ~ 
Everything done should be within 


the scope of those who are to be 
taught, and induced to adopt the 
new methods. The produce must be 


commodity, and must 
show profit. Otherwise the farms 
would be useless. They must be worked 
with economy. A strict account of ex- 
penditure should be kept, so that the 
actual balance after the sales can be 
made public. A great object-lesson is 
to show the people how much money 
these new methods will put into their 
pockets. The following is a 
LIST OF THE IMPLEMENTS, ETC., 


a marketable 


114 


necessary for each farm :— 


One “forest devil” or stump extractor, 
three ploughs for high land, three 
ploughs for paddy land, two sets of 
harrows, one roller, six hay forks, one 
paddy-field_ leveller, one hay knife, 
one paddy-threshing machine, six long- 
handled shovels, three scythes, two 
double bullock carts, one ‘planet 
junior * single cultivator and three pairs 
heavy draft bulls. 


THE QUESTION OF PADDY CULTIVATION 


—how to grow more paddy than is now 
done—should be brought home to the 
villager. It is a question that appeals to 
most people when the greatly increased 
cost of rice has to be considered. It is 
a question that the planters would like 
to see solved, as it touches them sorely 
when they have to retail rice to coolies at 
less than cost. In fact, it is a national 
question and worthy of the attention 
of Government. We have the land, and 
it only requires proper cultivation. to 


bring about the necessary results. The 
Government is yearly spending large 
sums of money on irrigation works. Of 


what use are irrigation schemes if the 
greatest question of all—that of teaching 
the people to make the land productive— 
is left untouched? The paddy land of 
the farm should be entirely fenced in 
and judiciously subdivided so as to en- 
able cattle to be run on the stubble 
without interfering with other cultivat- 
ed portions. The plough must be light, 
but able to turn soil to at least a depth 
of four inches. It must have two handles 
and one pole. It is absolutely impos- 
sible to do good work, i.e., cutting and 
turning over every inch of the soil with 
straight furrows at an even depth with 
even the English-made ploughs sold in 
Colombo with one handle and a pole, 
asthe pole makes the plough far too 
sensitive to every movement by the 
cattle, and with one handle it is im- 
possible to steer it. The ploughs should 
have the usual beam as used for horses, 
to which should be hooked ona chain 
to take the place of the pole, and to the 
end of the chain the yoke. In these 
matters I am nottheorising but speak 
from personal experience. The ordi- 
nary native plough is, of course, out 
of question as it does not plough but 
scratches the surface. The first process 
of preparing land for paddy is to repair 
the bunds and clean out the channels, 
for which work I would introduce the 
long-handled shovel mentioned in my list 
of implements to take the place of the 
Ceylon mamotie. The shovel does the 
work sooner and better, and is a far 
handier tool to use. The fields should 
then be inundated and the water allow- 
ed tostand a sufficient length of time 


‘Se =a eae eal 41 | ce) ple ee 


(FEBRUARY, 1909. 


to killthe weeds. After this the water 
should be turned into other fields, and 
when the land is sufficiently dry, plough- 
ing should commence. The ploughman 
should turn upthe soil toa depth of 
about four inches. If necessary it might 
be cross ploughed. The land should next 
be levelled and the seeds sown. I am 
not a_ believer in the transplanting 
process, advocated by many, but itis 
entirely a question of “will it pay?” 
If it does, certainly do so. But I believe, 
if the two-handed system of sowing is 
adopted, as is done in sowing’ wheat in 
other countries, transplanting will not 
be necessary. This and other matters 
the experimental farms should very 
soon solve beyond question. Once the 
seed is sown and until harvest time 
judicious irrigation where possible is 
about all that is necessary. In the 
matter of harvesting scythes can be 
very well used. A man can do four 
times as much work with a scythe as 
can be done by the small sickle now 
used, except on land where water is 
lying and it would not be judicious to 
wet the heads. The introduction of 
hay forks, and a threshing machine 
will, with the greatest deal of economy, 
and in the shortest time, have the paddy 
in bags ready for market. It is out of 
the question for every man who culti- 
vates paddy to own a_ threshing 
machine. But, as is done in other coun- 
tries, once these machines are found 
to pay, travelling machines will do the 
workatasmallcharge. There are other 
matters which will have to be attended 
to as they turn up—judicious manuring, 
bare fallowing, and, if possible, the 
growing of other crops, forage, etc. 


DRY GRAIN CULTIVATION. 


For this and other work to be detailed 
later, one hundred acres should be felled 
and burnt off after securing sufficient 
timber for building and fencing purposes. 
The land should be fenced and sub- 
divided into paddocks of twenty acres. 
All the stumps should be extracted. 
This is a most difficult and expensive 
operation. It can, however, be done 
cheaply and expeditiously and quicker 
with the ‘‘ forest devil” mentioned in my 
list of implements. The subdivision of 
land is necessary for running cattle on 
the stubble or feeding off green fallow 
cecops, etc. The villager usually cultivates 
some dry grainonchenalands. The land 
is lightly hoed and the seed scattered. 
The result naturally is very poor. He 
also has a belief that the land can only 
be cultivated for about three seasons. 
after which he allows it to grow back 
into jungle, What he has to be taught 
is that dry grain can be grown, and 
grown with excellent results on the same 


De TA ‘id Vy ree 
ani . , 


Fesruary, 1909.) 


land year after year, if he cultivates the 
land properly and follows out a system 
of rotation of crops, with judicious green 
manuring, ete. The land on the farm 
must be ploughed to a depth of at least 
four or five inches. The plough used for 
the work must be of a little heavier type 
than that used on wet, clayey paddy 
land. After ploughing the harrow is put 
on which will stir, pulverise and level 
the land thereby making a good seed- 
bed. The roller will then follow. With 
regard to the effect upon the crop of 
pressing the soil about the stems and 
roots of the plants, all who are familiar 
with gardening works know. The plant 
cannot grow well if the soil does not 
support it in a fixed_ position, while 
alternating rainy and dry weather will 
draw the soil away and destroy the 
close relation between soil and plant 
necessary for the process of vegetation. 


lhe roller counteracts this and 
establishes close contact between soil 
and stem and roots. The _ seed is 


now sown and covered. Once the plants 
have established themselves and attained 
a certain height, the harrow is put over 
the growing crop, This loosens the soil 
thereby breaking up the capillary tubes 
and minimising evaporation. The har- 
vesting could be done in two ways either 
with a reaping machine orascythe. I 
would not suggest the reaper as it would 
be very injudicious with the object in 
view to introduce anything that the 
villager cannot buy or improvise. So 
far the only expensive implement he 
will have to procure is the plough. A 
serviceable set of harrows can be turned 
out by a village blacksmith, and a_ very 
good roller can be made out of a log of 
wood. Ploughs should be sold to vil- 
lagers at cost price to be paid for by in- 
stalments. As years goonand the people 
become more prosperous and have learnt 
the first lessons of the utility of modern 
implements, then can be introduced seed 
drills, reaping machines, disc harrows, 
threshing machines, etc. 
CATTLE, 


The experimental farms can be run in 
conjunction with the ‘‘Stock Farm” sug- 
gested in my article on ‘‘ The Improve- 
ment of Cattle in Ceylon.”—vide page 
57 of last issue. A certain number 
of cattle are necessary for economic 
purposes. There is always the stub- 
ble to be utilised and crops vnder 
green fallow to be fed off. It is neces- 
sary to have draft power available. The 
raising of cattle would also show the 
people the economy and profits of mixed 
tarming. 

PIGS AND PIG BREEDING. 


We all know the difficulty of procur- 
ing a good piece of pork, so much so, that 


115 


wherever a good pig is secured for 
butchering, it is specially advertised 
in the papers. Why should not good 
and cheap pork be always available ? 
At present, except by a few individuals, 
pig breeding in any systematic way is 
unknown. Two pairs of pigs, one of 
Berkshire and the other a Poland China, 
would suffice for each farm. <A small 
portion must be specially fenced off for 
this purpose, and special root crops, etc., 
grown to feed them. In some instances 
it will be found that certain crops bring 
in more money if sold in the form of pigs. 
There is also a lot of otherwise waste 
matter on a farm that would make good 
pig feed. By judicious breeding and by 
the economic growing of food, and the 
utilising of otherwise waste material, 
it will be found that pig breeding is a 
valuable adjunct to mixed farming. 
There is no doubt that in some districts 
the villagers are prejudiced to rearing 
pigs, but time will break through these 
barriers, especially when they see money 
in the business. 


POULTRY REARING. 


This is a much neglected but very im- 
portant branch of farming and must 
receive special attention. People living 
in towns and even in the country know 
the exorbitant prices demanded for 
poultry and eggs. Except by a few 
poultry fanciers no systematic breeding 
and raising of poultry is attempted. 
It should be the duty of the farm to 
carry cut poultry rearing in a syste- 
matic manner, so that the people may 
be taught how to conduct a paying busi- 
ness on alarge scale. Poultry can be 
turned to a source of profit at very little 
expense. The best breeds have to be 
selected whether they be for eggs or 
table purposes. Then proper attention 
has to be paid to feeding, hatching, rais- 
ing, fattening, etc. Perhaps no depart- 
ment of a farm takes in capital to begin 
thanthat of poultry. The returns are 
rapid and to a small farmer this is a 
matter of much importance. The poul- 
try may be classed into (1) table fowl, 
(2) the general purpose towl, and (3) 
the egg producer. lt is- necessary to 
secure young vigorous birds to breed 
from, and each season fresh males 
should be introduced, of a different 
strain, so as to prevent in-breeding. 
To impiove our native fowls the largest 
hens must be selected and mated with 
vigorous. cockbirds of the following 


breed :—Dorkings, Indian game, Or- 
pingtons, Plymouthrocks, Langshans, 
Wyandottes. Fresh cock birds of any 


of the above breeds should be introduced 
each season so as to improve the size 
and prevent in-breeding. Kood can be 
grown on the farm, the sun-flower seed 


116 


makes an excellent diet ; it will also be 
found more than likely that some dry 
grain would pay better in the form of 
poultry tood. 


ORCHARD WORK. 


About ten acres of land should be 
reserved for this purpose, and planted 
with the best known varieties. There 
is always a good market for first-class 
fruit. Budded orange, Jemon, and 
West India lime trees can be procured 
from Australia. I planted the Washing- 
ton navel orange, and the Sicilian lemon, 
with the best of results, only losing 
two plants out of 75; they are all bearing 
heavy crops now. Grafted or budded 
mango and other tropical fruit trees 
can be grown. Once they come into 
bearing, a nursery can be laid out where 
young budded plants can be propagated 
for sale, or, still better, for free distribu- 
tion among the people. Intense culture 
is necessary for successful fruit growing, 
yearly ploughing and eonstant cultiva- 
tion (by means of the “ Planet Junior” 
cultivator mentioned in the list of imple- 
ments) is also necessary: It is very 
important, especially in dry districts, 
that the roots be kept below six inches 
from the surface. The above mentioned 
cultivator is a wonderful little machine, 
it will not only stir up and _ pulverise 
the soil to any required depth, thereby 
conserving the moisture, and also allow- 
ing a free circulation of air so neces- 
sary for bacteriological reasons, but 
with certain attachments will keep the 
place entirely free from weeds. 


EXPERIMENTAL WORK. 


This class of work can only be done on 
farms of this nature, as private in- 
dividuals cannot as a rule afford the 
time or money for this purpose. In the 
paddy-fields a portion should be reserved 
for this work, where different varieties 
of paddy could be grown for the purpose 
of testing the growth and yield. Itis 
only in this manner that the best 
varieties suitable for the different dis- 
tricts can be found out. There is vast 
scope for experimenting on high land. 
New products and the suitability of the 
different varieties of indigenoue crops 
for the different parts of the Island can 
only be found out by this means. India 
supplies us with many things that might 
be profitably grown here, such as onions, 
chillies for drying, coriander and the 
various other seeds that are in daily use 
in every household for making curries. 
Surely some if not all of these will grow 
in different parts of the Island. The 
castor oil plant is known to grow 
here, but it has not been utilised asa 
product. The cultivation of flax is 


(FEBRUARY, 1909. 


worth atrial. It is known to grow in 
different parts of the Island. The fibre 
is valuable for cordage making, while 
the seed is of great value, as the well- 
known linseed oil so generally used all 
over tke world is abstracted from it. 
The best known varieties of grain and 
fruit have been the results of cross 
fertilization, either by the hand of man, 
ov by accident. This most fascinating of 
the botanist’s art opens up a wide field 
for the most interesting of experiments. 


MANURES AND MANURING. 


Thisis a subject that requires the most 
careful attention, as it is by the economic 
and judicious use of manures that we 
can give back to the soil that which has 
been converted into saleable produce. 
Proper cultivation and rotation of crops 
will no doubt for some time result in 
good crops, butit stands to reason that 
a time will come when we must give 
back to the soil what we have taken 
away. Judicious manuring before the 
soil gets thoroughly exhausted is 
necessary. There are three ways of re- 
plenishing the soil—by green manuring, 
farm-yard, and _ artificial manuring. 
The first collects nitrogen from the air, 
and, if not fed off, supplies also humus so 
necessary to soils of a sandy nature. 
Farmyard manuring consists of every- 
thing that would decay when put into 
properly constructed pits under cover 
and allowed to decompose. If properly 
handled it comprises the most valuable 
of manures at  practicelly no cost. 
Artificial manures require special ex- 
perimenting to ascertain what tthe soil 


requires. Chemical analysis shows us 
what is in.the soil, thereby what is 
deficient, but it does not tell us 


whether certain properties in the soil 
are in a state that the plants can utilise 
them. Itisonly by means of experimen- 
tal plots that the quality and quantity 
of manures required can be ascer- 
tained. 


AGRICULTURAL BANKS. 


These banks should go hand in hand 
with agricultural instruction. It seems 
like putting the cart before the horse to 
establish agricultural banks before the 
people are shown how to make _ their 
lands productive. Teach the people how 
to turn the money to be borrowed into 
profitable use, then there is a greater 
chance of their being benefitted, as they 
will have a chance of establishing 
themselves with the aid of this money, 
and in a little time become independent 
of borrowing, except for enlarging 
their scope of work, as the new methods 
would bring in money where it does not 
do so now: 


Frpruary, 1909.) 


HOW TO IMPROVE THE LOT 
OF THE VILLAGER. 


For the successful treatment of the 
great malady that agriculture is suffer- 
ing fromin Ceylon, it is necessary to 
study the diseased subject and the 
disease closely from every point of view. 


The villagers can be divided into three 
classes : (1) the ‘‘ gamarala” or large land 
holder, (2) the small land holder, and (8) 
the so to speak serf class, who lives on 
the gamarala’s land and receives a share 
of the produce in proportion to the land 
he cultivates. The gamaralais, asa rule, 
aman above want, he gets his land 
cultivated by the serf class at little or 
no expense tohimself, except the seed 
paddy and the cost of feeding those that 
are invited to helpin harvesting, etc. 
His land does not produce more than 
those of other villagers, but as the 
extent of his cultivation is greater, 
he usually accumulates more paddy and 
other grain, ete., than his actual needs ; 
healso gets alotoft grain by lending 
seed atinterest. The second class, the 
small holder, is the unfortunate who 
leads a hand-to-mouth existence, who as 
a rule does not produce sufficient for his 
subsistence, and is more than likely in the 
hands cf the wily Moorman boutique- 
keeper. The last, the serf type, is the 
worst off—he has to get his seed from 
the gamarala, which decreases his share 
of grain in proportion, and is, as a rule, 
in debt to his landlord either in grain 
or money, and also is in the hands of the 
Moor trader, so that when he receives 
his share at harvest nearly all of it goes 
to pay his debts, asin a good number of 
cases it does not suffice todo so, and so 
he is in a chronic state of debt. 

Tam ofopinion that by the introduc- 
tion of a 


SUPERIOR SYSTEM OF CULTIVATION 


and by the establishment of a system of 
village banks, the gamarala could be 
evolved into an independent farmer, the 
second class could make a very com- 
fortable living, and the third class be 
placed above want. 


Now, let us see what the faults are 
that have got to be remedied of the 
village cultivator (from an agricultural 
point of view). In doing this I cannot 
do better than quote Dr. Willis from 
the July 1906 number of the ‘‘ Tropical 
Agriculturist.” He says :--‘‘The native 
is very conservative, and objects to any 
interference with his time-honoured 
ways.” 

“Another great obstacle is the in 
dolence of the villager.” ‘Yet another 
obstacle, and pehaps the greatest of all, 
s the poverty of the village cultivator,” 


117 


THESE FAULTS 
are nothing more than must be ex- 
pected, as the villager has been  pro- 


gressing backwards for over two cen- 
turies, Although three European nations 
held sway, not one of them gave or 
has given the impetus necessary. Also 
these faults are nothing more than 
what all the civilised agricultural nations 
suffered from, the difference being that 
in the temperate zones it is only by 
human exertion that the soil can be 
made to produce, also the necessity of 
large quantities of farinaceous and animal 
food to generate the necessary heat of 
the body to withstand the extreme 
temperature ; while in the tropics nature 
is more magnanimous—for example, the 
jak, breadfruit, and other economic 
trees thrive without any attention which 
greatly assists the villagers to eke outa 
meagre existence, and the non-necessity 
of heat generating foods has made the 
villager what he is to-day, and he is 
erroneously put down to be indolent. 
The Sinhalese villager is not by nature 
an indolent man; history proves to us 
that he was not indolent in the days of 
the Sinhalese Kings—when Ceylon was a 
granary and even exported grain, when 
he built the great irrigation tanks and 
schemes such as the Giants’ Tank and the 
other stupendous works that are a marvel 
in construction and skill ; he has graduat- 
ed down to the stage he is in to-day, 
it might have been that if the im- 
portation of rice, etc., was not a possi- 
bility and was an unknown quantity as 
in the days of old, he would not have got 
so recklessly careless in his modes of 
cultivation, ete. 


MODERN CIVILIZATION HAS DIFFERENT 
EFFECTS 


on different people ; for example, modern 
civilization in the form of bad whisky 
and rumand the supplying of clothes 
and food to the aborigines of Australia 
is killing them off so fast that this cen- 
tury will see them practically , extinct. 
In Ceylon the effect has been that the 
country, coming under EHuropean rule, 
stopped the forced labour that was ex- 
acted by their own kings which forced 
them to be industrious, and it also made 
possible the buying of food stuffs, 7.e., 
(imported rice, etc.,) which in the days of 
old they could only produce by their own 
exertions. Modern civilization also tend- 
ed tolower the self-pride of the Goigama 
caste, inasmuch as the cultivator and 
cultivation of the soil was not looked up 
to and kept up to that degree of reverence 
and honour that it received at the hands 
of their own kings and the other people; 
other trades and professions, very 
naturally were and have been looked 
up to with the result that agriculture 


suffered and the cultivator became a 
callous and careless individual. At 
present he does not cultivate his soil 
even according to the system that has 
been handed down to him, he does it in 
a much cruder and half-hearted man- 
ner, hence the results of about eight 
bushels per acre of paddy. The question 
might well be asked whether it is pos- 
sible to rescue this degenerated agricul- 
turist 2 It is possible ; but no doubt the 


PROGRESS WILL BE SLOW 


for the start we cannot and must not 
expect any magic-wand results, For 
this malady we must formulate a com- 
plete course of treatment to be carried 
out by the right stamp of men ina 
thoroughly systematic manner. If any 
halt-hearted remedy is started and 
carried by inexperienced men, as has 
been done before, failure is sure to 
follow, and it most certainly would be 
better if never started at all, as itonly 
does great injury to 
AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION 


and leaves a very bad impression on 
the minds of those to whom it was 
meant as an impetus. Ascheme was, I 
believe, started some years back and 
ended in a failure. Quoting from an 
article by Dr. Willis in the July 1906 
number of the “Tropical Agriculturist ” 
—he says: “The teacher who has been 
toan Agricultural School has usually 
the characteristic faults of the college- 
trained native of Southern Asia. He has 
learnt great deal of book knowledge on 
many topicsconnected with agriculture, 
but has little ovr no notion of how to 
apply any of it practically or suit it to 
local needs. If he is sent to teach, he is 
often dogmatic in the lecture-room and 
a failure in the field. If he is provided 
with an experimental garden for actual 
demonstration purposes, heis liable to 
make a still worse exhibition of incom- 
petence, or to fall under temptation to 
misappropriate the produce.” A scheme 
of this kind was tried some years ago 
in Ceylon, and its epitaph was written 
by Mr. F. R. Ellis in the words ‘ Govern- 
ment has not very long ago got rid of 
the last of a happy band of youths who 
fora series of years received a good 
salary for cultivating Crown land with 
cattle supplied by Government and ap- 
propriating the produce to their own 
use.’ In the above quotation we see 
very clearly depicted that it was not 
the system of educating the people by 
means of experimental farms that was 
a failure, but that it was entirely the 
gross incompetence of the instructors, 
and the lax supervision that enabled 
the appropriating of the produce. To 
a very great extent these instructors 


118 (FEBRUARY, 1909. 


cannot be blamed for incompetence, as 
the training they received at the late 
School of Agriculture was faulty. The 
late Colombo School of Agriculture 
(although having a highly qualified 
Manager) was where these young men 
received their training ; the school was a 
failure owing (as already pointed out in 
the foregoing article) tofirst, the coun- 
try not being ripe enough for an insti- 
tution of that nature; second, the right 
stamp of students not being attracted ; 
third, Colombo or any other city is in 
no way adapted for an agricultural 
school, as it must have attached to it 
sufficient land for the actual carrying 
out of agricultural operations in every 
branch, the students playing the princi- 
pal part. I also pointed out—and in it 
mostly lies the cause of the student’s 
incompetency—the late Colombo School 
of Agriculture did not apparently pre- 
tend to teach practical agriculture, 
except in the form of cultivating a few 
vegetable plots, which was absolutely 
valueless. Then, again, the instructors 
of this institution cannot be blamed, 
as, was it possible for the greatest agri- 
cultural teacher extant to teach 


PRACTICAL AGRICULTURE 


in the confined limitts of the late Agri- 


cultural School? ‘It was the formu- 
lated system of training that was 
wrong,” and it behoves us to closely 
study and analyse these faults so as not 
to repeat them again. ~- Agriculture 
cannot be taught if theory and. practice 
are not combined; the students must 
actually carry out all agricultural 
operations not on small experimental 
plots but on fairly large areas of land 
in relative size to the usual size of the 
farms in thecountry. The man who 
has never handled a plough or other 
farm implements, who has not taken 
part in the daily routine work of a 
farm, who has not worked in the har- 
vesting and threshing of grain. ete., is 
no more fit to go out into the country 
and teach the people agriculture than 
is an ordinary sailor of a battleship 
to take charge and work the ship during 
an engagement. Then, again, it must 
not be forgotten that there are two 
types of 


AGRICULTURAL INSTRUCTORS : 


one the professor who may not be a 
good ploughman, and who does not 
understand the handling practically 
of complicated agricultural machinery, 
such as a threshing machine, reapers 
and binders, combined harvesters, etc., 
who has never milked a cow, or used the 
modern dairy machinery, ete., etc., 
but who, from personal observation for 
long years, understands theoretically the 


FEBRUARY, 1909.) 


mechanism and the use of them. These 
professors have nevertheless their science 
degrees at some University, and devote 
their lives to the deepest study of the 
sciences and to research work, These 
men are absolutely necessary to fill the 
chairs at the Universities, and for 
research work, and as lecturers at the 
Agricultural Colleges, etc. These men 
would be a failure if they were sent out 
into the field to carry out practical 
agricultural operations, to the dairy to 
work the cream-separator, pasturising 
machinery, or make the butter, or work 
all day, for example, handling timber and 
feeding a circular saw, etc. In the same 
manner a student at any first-class 
Agricultural College receives only a 
sufficient 


KNOWLEDGE OF THE SCIENCES 


to help him in what is to be his vocation, 
i.e., that of producing from the land; he is 
not turned out a complete lecturer on 
the sciences, but as the man who can by 
peactical demonstration prove the com- 
bination of science and practice. Send 
him to the field, and he will carry out 
any and every agricultural operation, 
he will drive and repair when necessary 
all the agricultural machinery, he will 
work all dairy machinery and turn out 
first-class butter; he is physically fit for 
the hard toil that practical agriculture 
means; atthe same time he will give you 
the scientific why and wheretore of 
every operation he is carrying out. It 
is through him that the professors of 
agriculture make practical use of their 
deep study and investigation and benefit 
the world. During his life he studies 
the latest methods formulated by the 
research of the professors, and so is able 
to keep up with the progress that science 
is making. Both these classes are abso- 
lutely necessary to form the grand chain 
of agricultural progress, but they must 
not be confounded and mixed up as is 
generally done, especially in a country 
like Ceylon, where yet agriculture and 
the modes and means of teaching it, etc., 
is little known and often confounded in 
a hopeless tangle. 
Now thatI have classified 
THE VILLAGE CULTIVATOR, 

described his maladies, and also pointed 
out some of the causes of the 
failures of the past treatment that 
was prescribed for him, it now remains 
for me to formulate a scheme which 
would formacomplete course of treat- 
ment and how it should be carried out. 
In doing sol cannot do better than quote 
from the “Tropical Agriculturist” of 
July, 1900. After referring to the failure 
of the Agricultural Commission that had 
been sitting at the time ‘to enunciate 


119 


a practical scheme for dealing with the 
native agriculture of the country,” it 
goes on to state:—‘‘In this connection 
we might refer to another scheme which 
we understand has been forwarded to 
Government, the author of which is Mr, 
Elliott, the late Government Agent of the 
Southern Province, who since his retire- 
ment has been working as a private 
agriculturist ; and so having experience 
(and that varied and extensive) of native 
agriculture both as an official and an 
unofficial, is eminently qualified to advise 
on a question of this nature, We 
understand that Mr. Elliott deprecates 
the merging of the interests of what is 
known as Kuropean agriculture with 
those of native agriculture, as there is 
so little in common between the two. 
Besides, the former has its own powerful 
machinery inthe Planters’ Association 
of Ceylon to protect its own interests, 
while the Government of the Colony has 
liberally provided help in the appoint- 
ment of a number of expert scientists to 
further protect those interests. Mr. 
Elliot’s scheme provides for are-organis- 
ed central school of agriculture, which 
already exists,and a central experimen- 
tal farm not far from Colombo, with 


BRANCH EXPERIMENTAL GARDENS 


allover the country. His whole scheme 
is caleulated to directly reach the village 
cultivator.” These views of Mr. Elliott 
are immensely valuable as they come 
from a practical agriculturist and a 
man who has studied the people of the 
country. Mr. Elliott’s views on experi- 
mental gardens all over the country 
is exactly what I depicted in my articles, 
but we differ as far as the Agricultural 
School is concerned. [ stated and say 
again that the starting of agricultural 
schools should come as a resultant of 
the experimental farms, as the people as 
children must be educated first by the 
Kindergarten method in the village 
schools, then by the experimental farms, 
and, in the course of some years, when 
they have to some extent adopted 
modern methods and show signs that 
they want further education than what 
can be taught at the experimental farms, 
then is the time to start Agricultural 
Colleges (certainly not in Colombo) fully 
equipped with a lecturing staff and an 
outdoor staff to instruct the _ science 
and practice of agriculture. 


Now I come to the most difficult part 
of the course of treatment, that is, of 
procuring qualified practitioners to carry 
out this treatment. I have stated above 
that ‘‘Too much stress cannot be laid 
on the choice of the men who are 
to manage and work these _ places, 
4.e,, (experimental farms), as on them 


120 


and on them alone depends’ the 
success of the undertaking. Personality, 
ability, a thorough mastery of practical 
work, and men not ashamed to take 
off their coats and show the people 
how’ certain operations have to be 
done, all these essentiais must be 
embodied in those who are to have in 
their hands the future destinies of the 
improvement of agriculture in the 
Island.” Inthis matter we cannot do 
better than 
COPY JAPAN. 


She taught her people by import- 
ing instructors. and sending her sons 
into the best schools of the world; 
the imported instructors were  re- 
tained until she was able to _ pro- 
duce properly trained sons of her 
own. She had the same difficulties 
as we will have: that the foreign 
instructors had to work in a_ new 
country, and did not understand the 
language, ete., but still the scheme was 
an entire success. In importing instruc- 
tors we must go to a country as 
tropical as possible, and [ do not think 
we can do better than procure our 
instructors from Queensland; it is a 
semi-tropical country and grows most 
of the produce and fruits that we do, 
It has anexcellent Agricultural College, 
of course it would be a mistake to 
procure men who have just finished their 
course at the College; we must have 
men who have had further experience 
in the world of farming. It will be 
found that these men will soon adapt 
themselves to the conditions and re- 
quirements of agriculture in Ceylon and 
do good work. In recommending the 
Queensland College, [am not speaking 
from personal knowledge. Victoria, 
the most go-ahead of the Australian 
States, was first to start agricultural 
edueation and has two colleges; I know 
her institutions thoroughly. have 
also visited the colleges of New South 
Wales and South Australia—undoubt- 
edly the sister-State Queensland is run- 
ning her College on the same principles 
and socan be relied on. It would also 
be advisable (as I notice India has done 
in sending some students to America 
for agricultural education) to send a 
number of young men to the Queensland 
College or any other sister institution, 
so that they may form the agricultural 
instructors of the future. Surely it is 
within all possibility that the Ceylon 
Government can make arrangements 
with the Federal Government to allow 
the students to gain access into the 
country for a stated period 
FOR EDUCATIONAL PURPOSES. 


There is an erroneous idea current 
that the non-transplanting of paddy is 


[FEBRUARY, 1909. 


the chief cause of the miserable results 
now obtained by the cultivators of 
that grain. There is, no doubt, that 
broadcast sowing causes the wasteful- 
ness of a lot of seed, and itis for this 
reason that seed drilling machines are so 
extensively used in other countries, 
Broadcast. sowing of paddy in Ceylon 
certainly does mean the loss of a certain 
amount of seed grain, but it is by no 
means the chief cause of the present 
poor results. Every practical agricul- 
turist knows that to produce a _ success- 
ful crop every operation must be syste- 
inatically and thoroughly carried out. 
The principal operation is the prepar- 
ation of a good seed bed. If this is not 
thoroughly done, the seclected seed, the 
drilling in of it, and the irrigation, 
ete., will not and cannot produce a 
good crop. I cannot prove this iy a 
better way than by showing the 


RESULTS OF MY OWN EXPERIMENTING, 
Attached tO a coconut estate 1 was 
superintending was some 13 acres of 
paddy land under a tank that also 
belonged to the estate ; this paddy land 
had always been cultivated by villagers 
on the share system. On my taking 


“charge, for the first season I allowed the 


villagers tocarry on their operations 
and closely studied their methods of 
work and the results, etc. The result 
was 14 bushels of paddy per acre. There 
happened to be on the place some Eng- 
lish-made ploughs witha pole and one 
handle. I tested one of these ploughs 
and found that it was absolutely im- 
possible to do good work with it, as I 
found the plough was far too sensitive 
to every movement of the cattle, owing 
to the pole, and that it was impos- 
sible to steer it with one handle, and 
also without a front regulating wheel 
that it was impossible to regulate the 
depth, so I set to work toalter it. I 
cut off the pole to about the usual length 
of the beam of the ordinary plough 
used with horses elsewhere, to the end 
of this beam I fastened a device to 
which could be easily attached a chain 
to take the place of the pole, then, as 
the plough had no colter, I had to get 
one made—or rather pretty well do all 
the making myself, as the village black- 
smith, though an excellent man, was very 
dense in understanding the making of 
what he never did before; luckily, 
blacksmithing had been a part of my 
agricultural education, sobetween the 
blacksmith and myself the colter, the 
front guiding wheel, and the necessary 
fixings, etc., were made and another 
handle fixed on. On testing the impro- 
vised plough I found that I could do 
some fairly good plonging. I had made 
up my mind to try some experimental 
paddy growing to test some theories I 


FEBRUARY, 1909. | 


had formulated—the theories were that 

by the constant seratehing of the surface 

by the native system of ploughing the 
PLANT FOOD OF THE SURFACE SOIL 


to the depth of their scratching 
was exhausted, but below that, in 
the soil that had not been touched 
there remained a _ plentiful supply 
of dormant plant food that could 
be made available; that paddy, like all 
cereal crops, require a well-prepared seed- 
bed free from weeds; that every oper- 
ation must be as carefully and systemati- 
eally done asinthe growing of wheat. 
Assoonasmy plough was ready and 
found workable, I improved the irriga- 
tion channels, asI found that the old 
modes would waste too much of the 
precious tank water. I then wet the 
land sufficiently for ploughing. I 
ploughed 3 acres of this land doing most 
of the ploughing myself—ploughing toa 
depth of 5 to 6 inches, I then allowed it 
to remain a bare fallow. When a good 
crop of grass and weeds had grown 1 
concentrated a number of cattle on it 
and kept them there until they had 
eaten up everything eatable. I then put 
ona ‘Planet Junior” Cultivator that I 
had procured from Australia and 


STIRRED UP THE SOIL 


which also stirred into the soil any 
cattle droppings; then I again allowed 
the weeds, ete., to grow and repeat 
the same operation, and so on until 
the time was ripe for the sowing of 
another paddycrop, I then flooded the 
land, and as soon asit was dry enough 
to permit working, I cross-ploughed, 
put the cultivator on the ploughed land, 
smoothed it and sowed the seed, The 
sowing I did myself by the two hand 
method of broadcast sowing as practised 
in other countries ; all I did afterwards 
was to irrigate when I thought it was 
necessary. This land I may say was 
not first-class paddy land asit was sandy; 
the villagers helped me to make the 
channels and drive the bulls, etc.; they 
cultivated the rest of the landin their 


14 


_similar 


121 


own way, their land being superior to 
some extent, as it wasless sandy and the 
bottom fields had no sand at all. The 
harvesting and threshing was done by 
the villagers in their usual way, only 
the produce of my three acres being kept 
separate—the result was that the time- 
honoured scratching customs produced 
14 bushels to the acre, while my experi- 
ment resulted in 31 bushels to the acre. 
As soon as the harvesting was over, I 
again wet the land and ploughed it and 
kept on the feeding down of the weeds 
by cattle (which also added some manure 
to the soil) and the cultivating by means 
of the ‘“‘ Planet Junior” Cultivator until 
the next year’s sowing came round. I 
repeated my first performances and was 
pleased to find an increase in the 
results, as the 


HARVEST YIELDED 354 BUSHELS PER ACRE. 


Drilling would have no doubt saved 
some seed, but if every plant had been 
transplanted,I am certain I could not 
possibly have got these results except 
that the seed-bed had been carefally 
prepared, and I had by _ cultivation 
made the plant food available. I tried 
experiments with dry grain 
cultivation and found also that dee 
ploughing and cultivation would ici 
very good results, while the villager, 
with his light-holing, got results that 
hardly paid for his trouble. 


P. G SCHRADER. 
—Ceylon Independent. 


(So far as agricultural education is 
concerned, this article is admirable ; but 
without money the ordinary cultivator 
eannot afford to try improvements. 
How. for instance, could he puta culti- 
vator—a machine we know to yield 
excellent results—upon his land without 
money to buy it? Money isthe great 
desideratum at present, and then, after 
afew years’ agricultural improvement, 
properly so-called, and more agricultural 
education, will come in.—Kp. | 


Le acne [FEBRUARY, 1909. 


GUMS, RESINS, SAPS AND EXUDATIONS. 


THE MEXICAN AND CENTRAL 
AMERICAN SPECIES OF SAPIUM. 


By H. PITTiER : 
ABSTRACTED BY J. C. WILLIS. 


In “Contributions from the U. S. 
National Herbarium,” Vol. XII., 1908, 
Mr. Pittier describes the species of 
Sapium. They appear in many forms 
and are difficult to classify, but he 
groups the nine Central American forms 
(there are fifty-eight species in the 
genus) as follows :— 


1. S. pleiostachys, Schumann and Pit- 
tier, a new species. 

2. S.anadenum, Pittier, new. 

3. S. mexicanum, Hemsley. 

4. S. theocarpum, Schumann and Pit 
tier, new. 

5. S. pediullatum, Huber. 

6. S. Pittieri, Huber. 

7. S. pachystachys, Schumann = and 

8 


° 


Pittier, new. 

. S. Oligoneurum, Schumann, new. 

7. S. sulciferum, Pittier, new. 
Whether any are rubber-yielding 

species is uncertain. 


INCREASING CAMPHOR PRODUC- 
TION. 

A considerable ariounit of interest has 

of late been shown in camphor cultiva- 


tion by planters incertain British colo- 
nies, and the latest issueof the Bulletin 


of the Imperial Institute (Vol. VI., No 
2)contains a short article reviewing the 
recent advances that have been made in 
the production of this article. 


In 1907 the world’s consumption of 
camphor was estimated at about 
10,600,000 lb. About 70 per cent. of this 
quantity was utilized in celluloid manu- 
facture, 15 per cent. in the preparation 
of disinfectants, etc., 138 per cent. in 
medicinal preparations, while the re- 
maining 2 per cent. was utilized in the 
manufacture of explosives. 


The area under camphor cultivation 
in Ceylon is extending, and plantations 
of the camphor laurel have of late years 
been established in the Federated Maley 
States. In the United States expe1iments 
in the growth of the tree arein progress 
in Michigan, Florida, and California. 
India and German Kast Africa are other 
parts of the world in which it is hoped 
to develop a camphor industry. 


Inereasing supplies of the product, too, 
may be expected from China and Japan. 
Formosa has in the past been the chief 
source of supply, and in 1907 produced 
5,088,918 lb., as against 4,040,888 lb. in 1906. 
The progress that is being made in China 
in this connexion may be judged from 
the fact that while the exports from 
Foochow in 1905 amounted to 4,805 ewt., 
they had increased in 1906 to 138,585 ewt. 
—Agricultural News, Vol. VII., No. 167, 
September 19, 1908. 


4 . Ny 
4 \ 


Fresruary, 1909.) 


123 


: OILS AND FATS. 


THE COCONUT PALM. 


EXPORT OF THI: PRODUCTS OF TH 
Coconut PawLM IN 1808 IN EKxcluss OF 
THE Exports OF 1907 BY CWwTs, 683,875. 


The complete export returns of the 
Ceylon Chamber of Commerce made up 
to 8lst December, 1908, are now before 
us. In going through the tigures which 
refer to the export of copra, coconut oil, 
desiccated coconuts and coconut poonac, 
we are confronted with the powerful 
illustration of the declaration by the 
ancient Polynesien, that ‘‘ he who plants 
a coconut, leaves for his children home, 
raiment and food.” 


It will be in the recollection of readers 
that the year 1908 was ushered on in 
with depressed prices tor copra, coconut 
oil, desiccated coconuts and poonac, the 
depression having dragge on until 
September of that year. During these 
months of depressed prices, cultiva- 
tors, owners of large acreages of land 
planted with coconut, speculators in 
copra, were reduced toa state of great 
apprehension and anxiety. In addition 
to the low prices which then ruled, the 
tightness of the local market made the 
prospects of the capitalists and the 
wage-winners most gloomy and dis- 
heartening, particularly in view of the 
fact that copra fetched in Mebruary, 1907, 
the unprecedented price of Rs. 86 per 
eandy. Thediscouraging state of things 
which actually began about the latter 
part of the year 1907 was due to a very 
considerable extent to the financial 
erisis in America, which continued until 
about September, 1908. The expected 
and most welcome revival in general 
trade began to assert itself in October 
last year, and gave fresh hope and 
vigour to those of weaker heart. In fact, 
itis a matter for congratulation that 
the improvement in the value of copra, 
a commodity of great importance to 
the natives as Well as to European 
merchants, who are exporters and owners 
of oil mills, has firmed up to the com- 
paratively remunerative price of Rs. 62 
to Rs. 63°50 per candy as reported in these 
columns of the 23rd forestate copra- 
Heer OO was paid on the 23rd December 
ast :— 


Readers are referred to the sub-joined 
statement for particulars as to the com- 
parative quantities of the coconut 
products exported from the island to all 
parts of the world during the years 1906, 
1907, and 1908 :— 


In 1906 coconut oil, copra, de- 


sciccated nuts wna Cocos 

poonac to the extentouf ewts. 1,429,807 
In 1907 3 9 des 1,299,417 
ity 1908 9 99 1,988,292 


Last year’s exportation shows a note- 
worthy increase of cwts. 688,875 as com- 
pared with 1907. The exportation_in 
1906 was ahead of 1907 in quantity. We 
have the satisfaction of the record for 
price, yiz., Rs. 86 for copra to the credit 
of 1y07. 


Subjoined are quantities of copra, 
coconut oil, desiccated nuts, and coconut 
poonac exported in 1908 to the United 
Kingdom, the Continent of Europe, and 
to other countries :— 


CEN. DE CEaGIN: 
Copra. Oil Nuts Poonac 
Cwts. Cwts. Cwts. Cwts. 
United King- 
dom ... 80,534 333,250 124,505 252 
Austria __...102,017 67,788 2,789 — 
Belgium _...114,937 38,192 8,233 136,928 
France .. 12,595 — 
Germany ...230,358 15,670 40,200 167,460 
Holland... — 5,247 8482 — 
Denmark ... 89,842 745 = 2,278 2 
Italy ... 6,000 1,129 1,234 — 


Russia ...182,400 2,795 — — 
Spain we = 3,398 = 
Norway and 

Sweden... 3,271 506 — 
America ... — 166,145 42,402 — 
Australia, 


62 35,944 9,587 — 
768,795 670,12L 244,734 304,642 


Grand Total ... Cwts. 1,988,292 


These figures shew that Germany was 
the largest purchaser of copra in 1908, 
next comes Russia, then Belgium and 
Austria (Belgium though a smaller 
country has beaten Austria in the 
purchase of copra by ewts. 12,920), 
Denmark ewts. 89,842. Erance and Italy 
take the lowest position in the order of 
quantity. 

Of Coconut Oil Ceylon exported to the 
United Kingdom cwts. 338,250, nearly 
twice as much as was exported to 
America, which comes next in import- 
ance, Austria taking third position in 
the order of importance, whilst Belgium 
comes next to Austria with ewts. 38,192, 
and Germany fifth in order ‘with cwts. 
15,670. 

It must not, however, be forgotten 
that the resources of the coconut palm 
are not exhausted with the four chip¢ 


Atrica, ete. 


Ree Pe 


Oils and Fats.] 


products dealt with in the foregoing, 
According to the export returns for 1908, 
rope, coir yarn and fibre, which are 
included, were exported to the United 
Kingdom, Continent of Europe, Aus- 
tralia, Africa, &c. to the appreciable 
total of cwts. 305,641. Added to this 
the exportation of nuts numbering 
21,188,692, which taken roughly at 
250 nuts to a cwt. without shells the 
result will be cwts. 84,755, more or 
less. In fact, the exportation of the 
products of the coconut palm in 1908 
makes a grand total of cwts. 2,378,688, or 
tons 118,934.—Morning Leader, 27th 
January, 1909. 


THE COCONUT INDUSTRY OF 
TRAVANCORE. 


The whole of the picturesque and pros- 
erous strip of littoral known as the 
Malabar Coast has the appearance of 
one vast umbrageous coconut forest. 
The southern half of this forest lies in 
the Native State of Travancore, the 
prosperity of which, admittedly great, 
depends primarily on its coconut in- 
dustry. Itis difficult to ascertain the 
exact area under the palm, combined as 
it is in most portions of the State with 
various other sorts of cultivation, from 
addy on the margin of the lakes and 
agoons, and jak and plantain in the 
valleys, to tea and cardamoms and 
rubber on the magnificent hills and hill 
slopes. One estimate gives about 2,5U,000 
acres under palms, A fair idea of what 
the coconut means to Travancore may 
be formed, however, from the fact that 
the exports for 1903 were approximately 
acrore of rupees worth of all kinds of 
coconut produce, to say nothing of the 
internal consumption which is itself 
very great. Further, apart from those 
actually engaged in palm cultivation, 
such as land owners, tenants, labour- 
ers, etec., the coir icdustry alone in the 
State supports 133,027 persons accord- 
ing to the last census. 


Within recent years this important 
and profitable industry has received 
@ serious check from a cryptic disease, 
which still remains to'be accurately 
diagnosed, although Dr. Butler, Im- 
perial Mycologist, who recently visited 
the State to study the disease, has ex- 
pressed the opinion that the disease is 
due to the roots of the palm being 
rotted by the attacks of a parasitic 
fungus which appears to be botryodip- 
lodia. It is a most insidious disease as 
will be evident from the fact that though 
one particular locality has been affected 
for thirty or forty years, serious notice 
was not taken of the blight until about 


124 (Fesrvary, 1909. 


eleven years ago. The extent of the 
damage already caused may perhaps be 
gauged, writes Dr. Butler, by the fact 
that, in spite of the rise in prices in 
recent years, the trade in coconut pro- 
duce accounted only for 32 per cent. of 
the entire State export in 1905-06, against 
an average for decades past of nearly 
50 per cent. 


According to the Travancore Adminis- 
tration Report for 1906-07, just issued, 
the total volume of the external trade 
of the State was valued at Rs. 3,21,00,042 
against Rs. 4,51,75,203 in the previous 
year, and of this total, the value of the 
export was Rs, 1,97,56,050, or 61 per cent. 
as against 63 per cent. in the previous 
year. Itis true that the trade in the 
produce of the coconut tree embraced, 
as in the palmy days, nearly one-half of 
the entire exports and showed a net 
increase in value of Rs. 4,88,923, but it 
would be a great mistake to ascribe this 
upward pull to the rehabilitation of the 
coconut cultivation and industry. It 
was actually due to the maintenance of 
thevery high prices which have been 
ruling some two or three years now for 
most descriptions of coconut produce. 
Should prices fall, the compiler of the 
Travancore Administration Report will 
find himself singing a less cheerful tune 
regarding the influence of coconut 
products on the material prosperity of 
the State. These coconut products, for 
which export values are separately 
given are copra, coconut oil, coir, fibre, 
and coconuts. Under the first and last 


of these heads, there was avery appreci- 


able fallin value, while under coir and 
fibre the increase was _ considerable, 
having been as much as something like 
Rs. 6 lakhs over the previous year. In 
the absence of an explanation, I would 
hazard the one that the increase might 
only have been due to accumulated 
stocks of the previous year having been 
got rid of, and not to any marked 
increase of production during the year 
under review. 


Travancore imported in 1906-07 rice 
and paddy of the value of Rs. 33,88,888, 
tor though rice is the staple food of the 
people it is grown to a considerably less 
extent than the necessary local demand. 
Tobacco was imported to the value of 
Rs. 26,385,525, and piece-goods, thread 
and cotton to the aggregate value of 
Rs. 22,09,580. If in an article on the 
coconut industry of Travancore, I in- 
troduce statistics relating to the imports 
of other articles, itis in order to give 
point to the following remarks of 
a former British Resident, and to 
thereby furnish the reader with an 
even better idea of all that the coconut 


Fesrvary, 1909: ] 


means to Travancore! ‘‘Without the 
money obtained by the export of 
the eoconut the peopie otf Travan- 
core could not buy from Burma the 
rice that keeps them alive, or from 
Jaffna the tobacco that keeps them 
contended ”—nor, to this may be added, 
the piece-goods wherewith they make 
their sparse yet picturesque cloth- 
ing. Without the coconut palm, 
Travancore would be almost a beggar 
among Native States, and every well- 
wisher of this beautiful, old-world little 
principality must hope, therefore. that 
science will soon be able to devise means 
and measures to successfully combat the 
disease that is doing such damage to 
coconut cultivation in the State. This 
disease has been found to be infectious, 
and as coconut cultivation is virtually 
continuous for the whole length of the 
littoral, the desire to find a thorough 
remedy will be sincere, outside Travan- 
core as well.—Indian Agriculturist, 
October I, 1908. 


COCONUT PLANTING AND 
CULTIVATION. 


By P. G. SCHRADER. 


As there is in fact such a diversity 
cf opinions expressed, and methods 
employed, in the planting and culti- 
vation of the coconut, the great 
backbone of the Ceylonese planting 
communities, it would be interesting 
and highly instructive if those who 
adopted the different methods would, 
through the medium of this ‘‘ the people’s 
paper,” give their experience, with 
methods employed, reasons and results. 
At present there does not seem to be 
any two planters that adopt the same 
methods, although they may be working 
similar land under similar conditions. 
Each planter seems to consider his 
method the right one and doggedly sticks 
toit. Surely this should not be so in the 
enlightened 20th Century. Experience 
teaches us that it is by the interchange of 
opinions that the greatest industries 
have been built up to what they are 
‘to-day. And it also shows that nothing 
has reached a state of perfection, but 
that progress always continues, so that 
every individual must, to succeed, keep 
up with the progress of the time. Itisa 


MISFORTUNE AMONG THE CEYLONESS& 


that it does not seem to be yet possible to 
have any united action for the progress 
of any common cause. Caste, difference 
of nationality, self-formulated status 
and other such absolutely foolish and 
outside matters, mar what might be to 


125 


[Oilsiand Fats. 


the mutual benefit of all concerned. 
Surely none of these reasons should come 
in the way of an exchange of opinions 
and ideas, ete., through the columns of a 
public newspaper. Anyway I hope that 
others will agree with me that the 
method is worth a trial. There is no 
doubt that a lot of eccentricities have 
been tried on the coconut palm. 
Legend says that one planter started a 
process of pruning ; while another used 
soap and scrubbing brushes on the trunk 
to keek away fungus growths. Yet 
another made the startling announce- 
ment that he had found out a method by 
means of which he could make every 
female Hower turn into a matured fruit. 
It is no doubt a very good thing that the 
coconut palm defies all the harsh treat- 
ment it has, and is, receiving. Most of 
the small village cultivators do not 
cultivate at all; and I have often seen 
some coconut land under dense jungle, 
with the palm defying neglect and _ pro- 
ducing a fair number of nuts. I will 
now give some idea of what I mean by 
the diversity of 
METHODS EMPLOYED BY DIFFERENT 
PLANTERS. 


In laying out a nursery some prefer a 
shady place, others open land; some 
plant the nuts on end. others place them 
on the side; some plant touching each 
other, others leave a foot or 18 inches 
between the nuts ; some water the grow- 
ing plants, while others are of opinion 
that it is not good todoso, and so on, 
In planting in the field the distance 
apart from plant to plant varies, from 
24 feet to 80 feet. The depth of holes 
for planting too vary, from a3 feet cube 
to 6 inches. Some place the plants in > 
circular holes with a diameter of 
from 6 feet to8 feet and from one foot 
to 18 inches deep. Some think it neces- 
sary to sprinkle salt on the surface 
after planting, others salt and ashes, 
etc., etc. In weeding some believe in 
clean weeding ; others let the weeds grow 
up and weed once a year; yet others 
adopt a middle course, between the two. 
Some bury the weeds with the fallen 
coconut leaves in large trenches between 
the rows of trees ; others burn the leaves, 
weed, etc., and sprinkle the ashes round 
the trees ; while some mix theashes with 
manure, ete, ete. In cultivation some 
turn up the entire soil; others turn the 
soil round the tree to an extent of 6 ft. 
from the base leaving a space of one foot 
at the base; others again leave 18 
inches and two feet at the base 
and turn up 7 feet, 8 feet, ete. In 
manuring with cattle manure some 
trench round the trees and tie cattle 
throughout the year, turning the 
manure into the soil and replacing 


Oils and Fats.| 


the earth taken away by trenching, 
when able, i.e-, when there is rain. 
Others don’t trench. They tie theeattle 
and turn the soil when able. Some tie 
two head of cattle fora week; others 
for lesser or Icnger periods, ete. There 
is also a diversity of ways in the 
application of artificial manure. Some 
do not believe in it at all; some spread 
the manure on the surface and turn the 
soil, the space left at the base of the tree 
varying from one foot to two feet, ete., 
and turning up from 8 to 9 ft. ete. Some 
trench round the tree and apply the 
manure. They 


TURN THE SOIL TO A MAMOTIE DEPTH, 
and replace the soil that has been 
removed; others leave two feet at the 
base and dig a trench a foot deep and a 
foot wide, put the manure into it, and 
cover. Someuse forks, others ply the 
mamotie, and so on. There is also a 
diversity of opinion and method in sup- 
porting bunches, In picking the crops 
some use long bamboos with a knife 
attached; others insist that the men 
should climb the trees jand pick the 
nuts, etc. In turning the nuts into copra 
even some large proprietors entrust 
thousands of rupees worth of produce 
to badly constructed and the most 
inflammable of drying sheds, storing the 
dried material in stores of a primitive 
and inflammable nature. Surely each 
and all of these methods cannot be right 
and yet wrong. I will now give 


AN ACCOUNT OF THE METHODS 
I HAVE ADOPTED 


and my reasons for doing so,andI only 
hope others will do the same for mutual 
benefit. I by no means contend that my 
methods are theright ones. Hight years 
ago I took charge of a coconut property 
of over 600 acres, without any previous 
experience in coconut planting, trusting 
to my scientific training, knowledge and 
experience in agriculture and horticul- 
ture gained in Australia, and also hop- 
ing to learn the methods adopted by 
others. But, to my great surprise, I 
found that there was no fixed principle 
or method employed. No two planters 
even under similar conditions of soil 
and climate adopted the same method. 
There is no doubt that all cultivators of 
the coconut and other palms are to a 
great extent moving as it were in the 
dark, as there is no scientific data to 
work on, no records of research as a 
guidance. All that can be done at 
present is toapply scientific data_estab- 
lished for general agricultural and horti- 
cultural purposes in other countries, 
combined with what experience itself 
has taught us. But what I contend is 
that even this little has not been done 
in any systematic form as far as the 
coconut tree is concerned. 


126 (FEBRUARY, 1909. 


NURSERIES. 


For this purpose I trench the soil to a 
depth of 2 fc. T dig and throw away 
from the land to be trenched 2 ft. « | ft. 
depth of soil; then L dig up the remain- 
ing L ft.; another 2 ft. of surface soil 
adjoining is dag up to a depth of 1 ft. 
and throwu into che previous tren zh, 
and the bottom of this new trench is 
turned up to adepth of 1 ft. and soon 
until completed. At the end there will 
be wanting 2 ft. x 1 ft. depth of soil, 
which is replaced by the first spadefuls 
of soil that were thrown out. I adopt 
this method as all young plants require 
a good free depth of soil to enable the 
young roots to easily make their way 
in search of food. For, as J stated in a 
previous communication, a soil well tilled 
makes the dormant plant food, by 
means of nitrification, and by other 
chemical changes that take place by its 
exposure to atmospheric influences, more 
available and in a soluble form to be 
easily taken up by the young plants. If 
the young plants receive any check it 
retards their growth, and once dwarfed 
they never entirely recover. For plant- 
ing I chose the best round nuts from 
trees about 380 years old, the nuts being 
from those bunches that are ripe at the 
time of picking. I plant the nuts stalk 
end up, leaving about half aninch out 
of the ground and a space of 18 inches 
between them. At every third row I 
allow a pathway 2 ft. 6 inches wide for 
the purposes of subsequent weeding and 
watering. I now cover all the seed beds 
with ordinary dry coconut leaves to 
prevent the direct rays of the sun acting 
on the part of the nut above the surface 
and also as a mulch for conserving 
moisture. lalso keep the place weeded, 
and water it at intervals during the dry 
months. The distance of 18 inches 
between the nuts [ consider necessary 
as feeding room for the young plants, 
as well as for a free circulation of air 
so necessary for the well-being of all 
growing and living things. Watering 
Cl consider necessary to make the plant 
food soluble and to prevent any re- 
tarding growth. The results I find 
highly satisfactory. 


PLANTING. 


In laying down the plants in the field 
I place them 27 ft. apart as being some- 
thing betwixt and between the various 
distances generally adopted. I also eon- 
cluded from personal observation that 
it gave sufficient feeding ground for 
the roots, as well’'as air and light so 
necesSary for vegetation. The coconut 
holes are 4 ft. square at the surface, 
graduating down to 3 ft. square at the 
bottom. The depth of the hole 8 ft. 
For the purpose of getting through the 


re oh ti Ae An aaa Ba Ros 2 Si ae 
eat eh 


Reervary, 1909.) 12! 


work fast and being accurate, I make a 
number of light frames of the top and 
bottom sizes, which enable the men to 
mark out in the first place a proper 
square that would be at right angles to 
the holes that have been dug, and the 
ones to be dug, and the 3ft, frames would 
guide them as to the accuracy of the 
bottom. In low lying land the holes 
are cut to various depths, from 1 ft. 
2 ft. 6 inches, and in some instances the 
nuts are planted on the surface. This 
land I subsequently drained, throwing 
the earth up and thereby raising the 
land where the trees were planted. 
The drains at the same time drew away 
all superfiuous moisture. 


THE YOUNG PLANTS 

are carefully dug out of the nursery 
taking care that only the best plants 
are taken up, and any broken’ or 
damaged roots trimmed. One _ foot 
of surface soil is, returned to the 3 
feet deep holes, and in it the young 
plant is placed and staked, taking care 
that the soil round the plant is firmly 
tramped down, leaving just the top of 
the nut showing. The soil I was dealing 
with was asandy loam with a good free 
gravelly sub-soil—there being in most 
parts of the land 3 to 4 feet of good 
surface soil. There is no doubt that one 
must be guided by his soil and sub-soil 
as to the depth of planting. As for 
example, if the sub-soil is one of cold 
clay which is as a rule impervious to 
water, and is not physically fit for 
planting, if it has tobe planted, surface 
planting is the only way, backed up by 
a thorough system of drainage. 


WEEDING. 


On the subject of eradicating weeds I 
was taught (Ist) not to allow the weeds 
to go toseed, (2) tostudy the nature of 
the plant, (3) not to allow any plant_to 
breathe too long, (4) to weed clean. No. 
1 needs no explanation. No. 2 is very 
important as some plants wili die when 
cus at surface level, while to others 
surface cutting will act as a pruning and 
will make them grow better; others 
again grow from cutting. So each has 
to be treated according to its nature. 
As regards No.3 the leaves being the 
breathing pores of the tree the constant 
cutting down after the weed was grown 
to about 5 inches, weakens the consti- 
tution of the plant and in times it dies 
out. This has been done with great 
success in Australia, where it was found 
impracticable to root out certain weeds 
on very large areas, No. 4 is equally 
important, as by careless weeding one 
cannot eradicate weeds, as the plants 
left will run to seed and the seed become 
plants before that portion has its turn 
again. I applied these methods according 


[Oils and Fats. 


to the nature of the weed [ had to deal, 
with the result that what was a very 
weedy estate became practically clean. 
I do not approve of burying the coconut 
leaves, etc., in trenches in the middle of 
the rows, as I consider that the expense 
would be greater than the _ benefits 
received. Dry vegetable matter as a 
rule does not contain any valuable plant 
food except potash. I chop up the 
leaves with mamoties and burn them 
with the weeds in suitable heaps, and 
scatter the ashes around so that the 
potash would percolate into the soil by 
the rain. 
CULTIVATION. 


I was taught, and experience has 
proved, that intense culture with deep 
cultivation is necessary for successful 
fruit growing, for the reason, (1) that 
the feeding roots could travel easily 
without resistance in search of food; (2) 
that it meant-anaccess of airso neces- 
sary for nitrification and for other 
chemical changes that would take place 
by atmospheric influences, etc, by which 
means the dormant plant food becomes 
available ; (8) that it meant the reserva- 
tion of moisture by means of breaking 
up the capillary tubes in the soil and 
thereby minimising evaporation; (4) 
that it prevented the washing away of 
plant food as the rain would penetrate 
into the ground instead of running 
away. Ifound that I could not carry 
out all these principles on the coconut 
estate, so [I set to work to adopt as much 
of them as possible. I found that the 
soil had been turned round the trees in 
certain portions, tothe extent of 5 feet 
leaving one foot at the base ofeach. For 
the first wet. season I continued this 
system, as my labour conditions, etc, 
would not permit anything more. The 
next season I left 18 inches at the base 
of the tree, and turned the soil 7 ft. 
round thetree. I later on increased it to 
8and 9ft., my object being to continue 
increasing so that ultimately the two 
circles of the opposite trees would meet, 
and the entire 


FEEDING GROUND BETWEEN THE TREES 


be cultivated, The cost of turning 
soil 9 ft. leaving 18 inches at the base 
was a little over 2 cents per trees as 
a cooly could do 16 trees a day, wages 
at 388 cents per day. I imported a 
splendid double farrow plough from 
Australia which I worked with a team 
of four buffaloes, but asthe buffaloes 
required too many men to drive, and «as 
they could not be worked during the 
hotter parts of the day, I hired an 
elephant paying Rs. 5 per day, and, feed- 
ing it on coconut leaves, I found that 
with the elephant 1 could plough four 
acresa day. The heavier soils require 


Oils and Fats.) 128 


more cultivation than those of a sandy- 
nature. In the same way sandy soils 
would be injured by too much cultivation. 


MANURING. 


1 found the practice in existence of 
tying during the nights two head of 
cattle a week toeach tree, ina basin 5 ft. 
round the tree. This was done right 
through the year, and when the wet 
weather came on, the soil in the basin 
was turned up amamotie depth, and 
the soil which had been originally in the 
basin was put back. There is adiversity 
of opinion among the highest agricul- 
tural authorities as t> whether fresh 
dung is better than decomposed farm- 
yard manure. High authorities dis- 
agreeing, each having good reasons for 
and against, I came to the coaclusion 
that both systems are good if properly 
adopted. So during the wet weather, 
and as long as the soil was moist enough 
fortucning, I tied two head of cattle a 
week toa tree, and atthe end of that 
period turned in the manure after dis- 
tributing it in the basin, and returned 
the soil taken away by ‘‘basining.” At the 
same time I turned up another 8 ft. of 
soil outside this radius. But tying the 
cattle to trees during the dry weather 
and waiting for the wec weather to 
turn the manure into the soil, did not 
seem to me at all correct, for by that time 
all the valuable properties, or most of 
them in the manure had evaporated, and 
all that remained was a hard mass more 
fit for fuel than manure, which when 
buried would not decompose for years. 


BY THE SYSTEM OF BASINING 
also a large number of trees would 
receive material injury, for in the fisrt 
place a great number of feeding roots 
are cut away which in itself gives a shock 
to the tree. Then the cattle tramping 
in the basin for a week solidifies the soil, 
thereby increasing evaporation and 
also preventing the below ground feed- 
ing roots having easy access in search 
of food. I constructed some 
MANURE PITS WITH A ROOF 

in different parts of the estate, so 
that the material would be as close as 
possible to the land to be manured. I 
tied two head of cattle to trees in the 
neighbourhood of the pit, and every 
third dayI had the dung collected by 
women and thrown into the pit, taking 
the precaution to sprinkle a sufficient 
quantity of kainit to prevent the loss of 
nitrogen. [ changed about using the 
trees, as farasI could, taking care not 
to get too far from the pit. This was 
done with the object of allowing the 
liquid manure in the form of urine to 
benefit more than one lot of trees. I 
also carted to the pit any straw or other 
waste material that would decompose 


[FEBRUARY, 190d. 


and form manure. When the wet 
weather came I carted the manure from 
the pit to the trees to be manured, 
spread five ordinary garden baskets full 
round each tree, and turned the soil to 
a distance of 9ft. I used cattle manure 
once, and the next time artificial for 
reasons given in my article on “ Artificial 
and Farmyard Manure, ete.” In the 
application of artificial manure I had to 
be guided by the amount of money I 
was allowed to spend for manuring, so 
Iecould only apply the two principal 
necessities—phosphorie acid in the form 
of bone dust, and nitrogen in the form 
of castor cake, at the rate of 3 lbs. of the 
former to 6 of the latter. I got the two 
manures separately as it is cheaper that 
way than buying the mixed, The cooly 
measured the two and mixed them up 
before use. I spread the mixture on the 
surface over a 6 ft. radius leaving one 
inch at the base of the tree and turned 
itin. Then 1 turned over another 3 ft. 
outside this radius without manure. 
Later on, I sprinkled as much ashes as I 
could possibly collect around each tree 
to supply the necessary potash. 


I give below an 
ACCOUNT OF THE ACTUAL COST, 
ect., which might be of interest to some. 


Rs. Cs. 
Cost of manure, 94 cwt. bone 
dust at Rs. 76 per ton Fee Ph 
187 cwt..castor cake at Rs. 67 
per ton see .. 626 45 
Freight and expenses of can- 
gany to Colombo to come 
with manure aa 12, 2 Ghee 00 
Supervision of application ... 12 50 
Cart hire and labour on estate, 
handling manure ... cope a LOE E ROO 
2,218 trees by contract at 6 cts. 
per tree ro «otis 8 
1,302 trees by estate coolies at 
3 cts, per tree a reget) 6 
1,244 29 
Less discount on manure 49 18 


3,520 total trees costing... 1,195 11 
Cost per tree 31 cts. 
39 », acre at 70 trees, Rs. 21°70. 
At a later period I was able toapply a 
more complete manure consisting of the 
following mixture in the proportion of :— 
200 lbs. rape cake. 


150 ,, fish manure. 

200 ,, bone phosphate. 
50 ,, sulphate of potash. 
300 ,, kainit. 


Applying 10 Ibs. of the above mixture to 
a tree and working it out with actual cost 
of manure and labour, etc., it comes to :— 
Cost per trees 41 cts. 
acre at 70 trees, Rs. 28°70. 


39 29 


ii ie ae 


FEBRUARY, 1909. | 129 


The reason for applying a large per- 
centage of kainit was to supply sodium 
chloride (common salt) to the soil. This 
I think of great importance to lands 
away from the sea. Kainit contains 
over 30 per cent. of salt. 


A cooly could easily manure twelve 
trees per day, 7.e., measuring and mixing 
the manure, spreading, turning in the 
manure toa6 feet radius, and turning 
unother 3 feet outside this radius; this 
means, wages being at 33 cents per day, 
that each tree costs a little less than 
8 cents. Turning the sods competely 
over thereby burying the grass and 
manure, I consider very important. 
This is easily done except on estates of 
a sandy nature, by removing the first 
lot of sods and turning the second lot 
into the trench, working from the base 
of the tree to the outer. I also found 
that two or three coolies turning the 
soil at one tree simultaneously could do 
better work, and the work does not seem 
so tedious, as one cooly working at each 
tree by himself. 


PLANTING VACANCIES. 


I had to do this ona large scale, as on 
taking a census of the estate I discovered 
that there were about 3,500 vacancies, 
and as [ had over 200 head of cattle to 
protect the plants from, I adopteda 
method that.had been carried on before ; 
that of using husks stacked up around, 
asafence. I found this an excellent plan, 
as it not only acts as a fence but as a 
mulch in conserving moisture. I carted 
five cart-loads of husks to every vacancy 
and had them stacked round the holes 
when convenient. When the wet 
weather came I planted. Results were 
astonishing, and the method is to be 
highly recommended ; only care must be 
taken that the stacking is well done, 
starting with a good broad base and 
gradually thinning. Otherwise, the first 
bull that comes along and tries to get 
at a dainty morsel growing inside, 
knocks down half the fenceand makes 
endless work. 


PICKING, 


I do not believe in picking by means 
of a long bamboo witha knife attached, 
as the trees do not get cleaned, and the 
pickers are liable to cut down immature 
bunches, which is undoubtedly a serious 
loss. I persisted in the climbing process 
which, although a little more expensive, 
is I consider cheap and safe in the long 
run. Iconsider nothing requires such 
careful supervision as the getting of the 
right bunches picked, as after all, the 
labour and expenses on anestate is for 
the purposes of getting the best fruits 
at harvest. 


15 


PROPPING BUNCHES, 


This I found absolutely necessary, as 
certain young trees have long fruit 
stalks, and these stalks being weak could 
not support the weight of the bunches, 
A little experience and _ observation 
taught me that the propping requires 
careful attention, forif itis not done 
carefully and thoroughly more harm 
than good would be the result. Luckily, 
I had a large reserve jungle to procure 
my props from, and so had the pick and 
choice of the best sticks and was not 
limited to number. My experience has 
taught me that the props used should be 
of the strongest willowy timber; that 
the ends should be carefully pointed ; 
that the props should not be longer than 
is absolutely necessary for the particular 
bunch and the situation of the bunch; 
that the bunch should only be very 
slightly raised; that the point of the 
prop should be very securely driven into 
the trunk of the tree, and that the 
FORK OF THE PROP SHOULD BE INSERTED 

INTO THE CENTRE OF THE BUNCH 
and not at theend. The cutting, point- 
ing and propping cost for 11,160 props 
is Rs. 74°51, the work being done by 
trained Tamil coolies under direct super- 
vision. Trees from 20 to 25 years old 
seemed to getover this propping stage. 
I should think that in selecting nuts for 
the nursery, if they were chosen from 
trees that always.had short tough fruiz 
stalks, we would be able to reproduce 
‘chips of the old block” and propping 
becomes a thing of the past. Propping 
becomes a serious question on some 
estates, as props of any kind are getting 
scarcer and searcer, and prices higher 
and the sources are getting less and 
further away. It would be a great boon 
to most planters if some inventive genius 
would produce a suitably cheap, pliable, 
imperishable substitute to the jungle 
forked-stick now used, I read in an 
English magazine that railway rails 
were being manufactured out of com 
pressed paper; if that is possible, it 
should make excellent props with the 
addition of a steel point. 


DRYING. 


It seems a great pity that no better 
process has been introduced than the 
present method of smoking, Thesystem 
is scientifically incorrect and risky, but 
I suppose, with the usual backwardness 
of Ceylonese enterprise, it will be a long 
time yet before we get anything better. 
I had a great deal of experience in dry- 
ing apricots, peaches, raisins, pears, 
plums, ete., which wasentirely dried by 
the suninaclimate where the average 
rainfall is 14 in., and the thermometer 
very often registered 120°in the shade. 
The fruit was exposed to the sun on 


Oils and Fatst 


»Oils and Fats, 130 


wooded trays after being subject to the 
fumes of sulphur during the night. 
Copra drying is much easier as the nut 
is not so perishable and does not require 
such careful handling as fruit. It is, 
however, very important that the dry- 
ing ground be large and open, so that the 
copra gets the direct rays of the sun 
‘during the greater part of the day. It 
is impossible to turn out first-class copra 
ona small faulty shady ground. Care 
must be taken not to break even during 
the best of sunny weather more nuts 
than the drying shed would hold in case 
of rain. 


FAULTILY CONSTRUCTED DRYING SHEDS 


are an abomination and a_ source 
of great dissatisfaction. Well con- 
structed drying sheds should be the first 
consideration of a proprietor, as other- 
wise badly dried copra is the unsatis- 
factory result anda source of dissatis- 
faction both to the proprietor and 
superintendent, although unfortunately 
the latter would more than likely get 
the blame, although expected to make 
‘bricks without straw.” As the saying 
goes, that the ‘‘ proof of the pudding is 
the eating of it,” this article would not 
be complete without giving some idea 
of the results of my work. I was able 
in three years to reduce my labour staff 
from sixty to forty all told, which 
meant thirty actual labourers, the other 
ten being watchers, carters, etc. 
THE NET PROFIT 
when I took charge was Rs. 9,000 per 
annum, and four years afterwards it 
amounted to Rs. 29,000 per annum, 
after erecting some permanent build- 
ings, planting 24 acres of new land, and 
doing other permanent work such as 
drainage, constructing bridges, and 
making roads, ete. 
In CONCLUSION 


I consider that there are various pro- 
blems to be solved in connection with this 


(FEBRUARY, 1909, 


industry, and as no individual proprietor 
has either the time or money needed for 
experimenting purposes, it should be 


THE DUTY OF GOVERNMENT 


as isdonein other countries, to carry 
out expriments and show the people 
the best methods; for instance, supposing 
a land under coconuts was a clay loam, 
what would be the result if the land was 
yearly ploughed to a depth of 8 to 
10 inches, and during the dry months if 
the soil was constantly kept stirred up 
by means of a set of disc harrows or 
other cultivating machines? Expe- 
rience has proved beyond question in 
other countries that in planting this 
process is absolutely necessary, as it bene- 
fits the trees, thereby greatly increas- 
ing the yield. But whether it would 
benefit the coconut tree and make it 
yield sufficiently to cover the increased 
cost of cultivation as well as to give an 
increased surplus, isa question that can 
only be proved by experiment. Then 
again ploughing is no doubt better and 
would be cheaper than hand work if 
only suitable ploughs with suitable 
motive power could be procured. Un- 
fortunately we have neither at present. 
The ploughs in use at present with one 
handle and a pole does a half ploughing 
half scratching business to an uneven 
depth of not more than 3 to 4 inches, 
which is practically useless. These 
ploughs are absolutely faulty in  con- 
struction, and I defy any ploughman to 
do good work with them, leave alone the 
ordinary estate cooly. 


in fact the whole question evolves 
down to this. Do‘*we get as much as 
could be possibly got out of the coconut 
palm, or would better modes of cultiva- 
tion greatly increase the yields both in 
quantity and quality ? 


P. G. SCHRADER. 
—Ceylon Independent. 


% 


Freprvuary, 1909.] 


131 


FIBRES. 


COTTON CULTIVATION IN THE 
KURUNEGALA DISTRICT. 


By Dr. H. M. FERNANDO, M.D. 

Dr. Willis has stated that an experi- 
ence extending over three years is neces- 
sary to makea definite pronouncement 
as to the results of cotton cultivation. 
In this Paper I venture to embody the 
experience gained in cultivating this 
product inthe Kurunegala District for 
five consecutive years. 


START. 


A commencement was made in 1903 
ona very small scale with Upland 
cotton, and the indigenous’ variety 
known as Kidney cottor, which grows 
so freely asa perennial in village gar- 
dens. In 1904, with selected seed sent 
by the Cotton Growing Association, 
a definite series of experiments on a 
larger scale was started with the 
following varieties of cotton :— 


(a) American Upland. 
(6) Sea Island. 

(c) Egyptian Mit-Afiffi. 
(d) Kidney, 


About ten acres were devoted to each 
variety, and the resulting crops were 

inned and baled by _ hand-machinery 
forwarded to me by the Cotton Grow- 
ing Association, to whom the cotton 
was consigned for sale and report. 


The results of the sale, although the 
quantities were not sufficiently large 
to attract proper competition amongst 
buyers, were eminently satisfactroy. 
The Upland and Sea Island varieties 
fetched higher prices than the average 
prices of the British cottons grown in 
America, and the Egyptian cotton was 
quite equal to the average samples pro- 
duced in Egypt. 


THE OBJECT OF THE 1905 EXPERIMENT 


was to find out which of the varieties of 
cotton fetching a ready sale in the mar- 
ket of the world was best suited to 
the district in which the experiment 
was conducted. 


It was also essential to determine the 
proper season of the year tc commence 
the planting. 


_ The Upland variety reaches maturity 
in the shortest time, requiring about 
four and a half months only for the 
crop. The Sea Island needs about five 
months, whilst Egyptian cotton re- 
quires about a month longer. In well- 


drained land all the varieties demand 
plenty of rain for growth and matur- 
ation, and an assured period of dry 
weather to follow to enable the crop 
to be picked without damage. 


YIELDs. 


The Egyptian variety gives the 
heaviest yield, and the Sea Island the 
smallest. As the latter fetches the 
highest prices it was found that it was 
the most remunergtive to grow. 


The distribution of rainfall and dry 
weather obtaining in the district ren- 
dered it absolutely necessary to plant 
cotton with the North-east monsoon 
rains in October and November, and 
depend on the February-March drought 
for the crop. These weather conditions 
precluded the successful cultivation of 
the Egyptian variety, Since 1905 only 
Sea Island cotton was cultivated as an 
annual crop. 


The land at my disposal consisted 
of either virgin forest, or chena, gener- 
ally undulating. Owing to the nature 
of the land, the number of stumps on 
the ground, and the fact that cotton 
formed a catch crop amongst rubber or 
coconuts, the only attention the cotton 
received after planting was clean weed- 
ing. Efficient cultivation of the soil 
which is essential to the proper growth 
of cotton was not carried out. Even 
under such adverse conditions of growth 
the yield of lint per acre, which varied 
from 11C to80 pounds in different years, 
was satisfactory. This yield was ob- 
tained over an area of about fifty acres 
each year, and fetched prices varying 
from 10d. to 1s. per pound. 


PESTS: THEIR PREVENTION. 


Every variety of cotton, grown in the 
wet zone in Ceylon, is inclined to be- 
come a perennial. This habit of the 
plant must be systematically checked 
if success in cotton cultivation isto be 
secured. After thecropis gathered, the 
plants should be rooted out, or allowed 
to be eaten up by cattle or goats. The 
necessity for this is due to the fact that 
cotton is highly susceptible to insect 
pests, and if it is grown asa perennial, 
the indefinite multiplication of insects, 
with a permanent food supply at their 
disposal, will ultimately ruin the culti- 
vation. Treating cotton as a six months 
crop every year is the best means of 
fighting its) insect enemies, In the 
Kurunegala District at least two kinds 
of insect pests were met with, The 


Fibres. 


eaterpillar which feeds on the leaves 
is not a very serious menace. It can be 
effectually and economically kept at 
bay by theuse of the Paris-Green Spray, 
consistently applied from the time it 
makes its first appearance. On the 
other hand, the insect which destroys 
the bolls appears during the period 
that the bolls are formed, and can only 
be prevented from multiplying indefi- 
nitely by preventing the cotton plant 
from assuming a perennial character. 


CorTrron SUCCESSFUL ROTATION CROP. 


From the above considerations it will 
be evident that cotton cultivation may 
be carried on in Ceylon with profit if 
planted in flat lands capable of easy cul- 
tivation as an item in a series of crop 
rotations. In districts where the rain- 
fallis sufficient, and its distributions 
favourable, the crop may be grown as 
in America and in West Indies without 
irrigation. Onthe other hand, where 
irrigation water is available, the most 
favourable conditions exist for the 
carrying on of this cultivation—condi- 
tions simillar to those that prevail in 
Egypt. I have no hesitation in stating 
that with proper cultivation and under 
irrigation a crop of 250 to 300 pounds of 
lint per acre may easily be gathered 
with the Sea Island variety, and perhaps 
490 pounds or more with the Egyptian 
cotton, Such acrop at present prices 


182 


_ [Fervary, 1909. 


would yield a very handsome profit and 
one sufficient to attract capital to 
remote and unopened districts, provid- 
ed, however, labour is available. 


JAFFNA A SUITABLE CENTRE, 


In the Jaffna peninsula, on the other 
hand, where labour is plentiful, and 
where the sytem of farming is such that 
cotton can easily represent an item of 
ordinary cultivation, this product may 
be grown with greater success than 
perhapsin any other part of the Island, 
Now that tobacco cultivation is no 
longer profitable, I would suggest that 
cotton be grown in place of tobacco. 
Cotton requires less water and infinite- 
ly less care and attention than tobacco, 
whilst the present prices promise greater 
profits. The surface-wells so prominent 
in the Northern Peninsula are admir- 
ably suited to the irrigation of cotton. 


MARKET FOR COTTON. 


Hitherto considerable difficulty exist- 
ed in the sale of produce by small 
farmers, as there were no local buyers 
for the unginned produce. The pioneer- 
ing work that has already been done 
has encouraged the British Cotton Grow- 
ing Association to set up a local ginning 
plant through their agents in Colombo, 
who are prepared to help all growers, 
however small, to sell their produce at 
the best market rates. 


AN = )A 


‘Fesrvuary, 1909,) 


138 


EDIBLE PRODUCTS. 


COW-PEAS. 


By Ligeut.-Cou. J. R. Y. GOLDSTEIN. 


Departmental experience with cow- 
peas has shown them to be a most pre- 
carious crop under ordinary field condi- 
tions. They are most sensitive to Jate 
frosts, and even a cold day checks them 
severely. As a commercial crop they 
are not held in high estimation, although 
for green manure or fodder they are of 
great value. Under irrigation in the 
Goldburn Valley excellent crops have 
been grown. 


Last season varieties were supplied to 
Lieut.-Col. Goldstein, who 
undertook to test them at the Chelten- 
ham Convalescent Home for Men. Con- 
‘sidering the nature of the soil and the 
unwonted dryness of the season, the 
results, as given in the following report, 
are of value: — 


It will be remembered that the winter 
of 1907 was sodry that the subsoil was 
deprived of its annual wetting, Conse- 
quently, spring and summer growth was 
unusually backward, and was further 
injured by the absence of summer rains, 
The cow-peas sown late suffered like 
other vegetation, and there were many 
gaps in the lines. But, being drought- 
resistant, the bulk of them came 
through the dry season satisfactorily. 


The four varieties supplied were, New 
Era, lron, Wonderful, and Whip-poor- 
Will. The parcel of Iron contained peas 
of two colours, though evidently true to 
name ; these I separated and sowed in 
distinct plots to test for ‘any difference, 
naming them provisionally, ‘‘ White 
Iron,” and ‘Red Iron.” The result 
showed the dark to be a fortnight later 
than the light pea, but the difference 
may have been accidental and will be 
tested further. All the peas were sown 
on 18th October, and they ripened seed 
in the following order :— 


WhitelIron 15th Feb., 1908 106 days, 
New Era ... 21st ,, oe 2g 
Red Iron ... 24th ,, ried Wiss Bea 
Wonderful 28th ,, > D1OFe: 
Whip-poor- 

Will «. 19th; March, ,, 139. ,; 


All continued to produce pods until 
16th April, when they were ploughed 
in by mistake, but previous experience 
in Gippsland goes to show that cow- 
peas will produce pods until stopped by 
cold. The pods were gathered weekly 
and careful records kept. The heaviest 


gatherings were obtained during the 
third and fourth weeks in March and 
the first week in April. 


White Iron and Red Iron are similar 
in growth and yield, plants about 20 
inches high, ripening seed early, and 
bearing pods in succession for about 
three months; pods about 7 inches long, 
containing 12 to 16 seeds of medium size. 
Imported seeds are deep brown in colour, 
some being cream-coloured. 


New Era, the second earliest, is a low- 
growing, slender bush with delicate 
foliage, small pods and seeds ; pods about 
6 inches long, thin, containing 12 to 16 
seeds, brown in colour and mottled. 


Wonderful, third in order of ripening, 
has robust and spreading growth, with 
strong branches and large leaves, cover- 
ing the ground quickly; plants about 
14 inches high ; pods about 8 inches long, 
thick, containing 12 to 18 medium-sized 
peas, flattened at the ends, colour 
reddish brown. 


Whip-poor-Will, a late variety, is 
strong in growth, withan abundance of 
large foliage; branches spreading and 
numerous; height about 18 inches; pods 
about 9 inches long, fleshy, containing 


2 to 18 large peas, kidney-shaped, brown 
mottled. 


A STRONG PLEA FOR THEIR CULTURE. 
Cow-Pea plants grow vigorously until 
they commence bearing, then slowly until 
April, when they start a second growth, 
throwing out branches with a running 
habit, soon forming a densely-matted 
mass of rich, succulent herbage suitable 
for fodder, ensilage, or green manure, 
The plants are specially suitable for 
making into stack ensilage, which may 
be done in the paddock where grown, 
thus reducing labour, bringing ensilage- 
making within the scope of any small 
farmer, and thereby inducing that class 
to adopt the making of ensilage regu- 
larly. When ploughed under, for green 
manure, the soft, sappy mass rots very 
quickly, so that any other crop may be 
sown almost immediately. It is this 
quality, of speedily breaking up inthe 
soil, due to the luxuriance of its second 
growth, which constitutes much of 
the value of cow-peas for manurial 
purposes. It has been claimed for 
this plant that, under favourable con- 
ditions, two sowings can be grown 
successively in one season, which further 
heightens its value for restoring humus 
to hungry and worn-out soils, It 


Edible Products. 


also gives a heavy dressing of nitrogen 
to the soil, which benefits the following 
crop, and even when the plants have 
been cut for fodder, the remainder, when 
ploughed under, is much more useful 
than the dry stubble of any other crop, 
Cow-peas should be sown as early in 
spring as possible, but where there is 

anger from hard frosts, sowings may 
be delayed until later. They will 
flourish in all parts of Victoria, from the 
Murray to the sea, and will succeed in 
the poorest soils and the driest seasons. 
In rich soils, they should be sown 2 feet 
apartin the row, rows 3 feet apart. In 
ordinary soils the plants may be closer 
in the row, say 18 inches apart; and in 

oor soils 12 inches in the row, and 30 
inches between rows. 


American farmers regard cow-peas 
with much favour and grow them largely 
for many uses, but green manure is the 
main purpose. American cattle and 
sheep Asian well upon the fodder, the 
plant being rich in albuminoids and 
carbohydrates. In the household, the 
green puds are found to be equal to 
French beans, while the dry peas are 
used to replace haricot beans for table 
use. Their long period of bearing—cow- 
peas podding freely for three or four 
months during the hottest summer— 
should commend this plant to our 
market-gardeners. For seed, cow-peas 
are very profitable, yielding from 20 to 
40 bushels per acre. The retail price 
here, at present, is about 30s. per 
bushel, while field peas are about 4s. 6d., 
with a similar yield of seed. This great 
difference should give large profits to 
growers of cow-peas for some consider- 
able time. But, even were the price to 
be reduced to that of ordinary peas, the 
cow-pea would still be the more profit- 
able crop to grow; its superiority being 
manifest from its not drying up after 
its seed has been ripened, and by the 
value of the second crop of material for 
fodder or for manure; material, perhaps, 
of nearly equal money value to that 
obtained for its previous crop of seed. 
What greater inducements can Victorian 
farmers require to make them give cow- 
peas a trial ? 


Although this plant is called a pea, the 
seed isshaped like abean. Botanically, 
it is closely allied to the Dolichos. It is 
described under thename of Catiang 
sinensis, synonym Vigna sinensis. It 
has been in use for food purposes fora 
thousand years or so; itis the Chowlee 
of India, the Tow Cok of China, the 
Caffre bean of the Cape, and now the 
Cow-pea of the United States. There 
are several varieties, with seeds varying 
widely in shape and colour, white, grey, 
brown, and black, with many inter- 


134 


[FEBRUARY, 1909+ 


mediate shades and markings. It is one 
of those tropical plants, like maize, 
which grow well in cool climates and 
ripen their seeds freely. 


I am not aware that any extended 
attention has been directed by scientists 
to changes of colour in seeds growing 
under varying conditions, but the 
changed colours under the present tests 
are too remarkable to be passed over. 
All peas pproduced from dark-brown and 
from reddish seed have come white; 
there is not onc dark seed in the produce 
from either Iron or Wonderful. In New 
Kra, the brown has disappeared, the 
produce showing a rather pleasing shade 
of grey ; Whip-poor-Will, a dark seed, 
has produced’ buff-coloured peas. As 
it is the red colour which has vanished, 
the change may possibly be due to 
the absence of iron from _ the soil. 
Cheltenham soil is almost entirely 
composed of a silicious sand containing 
no iron; but, as most manures contain 
some iron, the disappearance of red from 
the colouring of all these peas seems to 
me to indicate clearly the extreme 
poverty of the particular soil in which 
they were grown. It will be interesting 
to experimeut this season with appli- 
cations of iron sulphate in different 
proportions, At any rate, present 
results are so striking that they should 
be worth placing on record, not only 
because they show the impoverished 
condition of the soil, but also because 
they go to prove, incontestably, that 
cow-peas can be depended upon to 
produce fair crops in poverished and 
poor sJils, even in very dry summers. I 
propose to continue tests this year, 
adding three other varieties, and sowing 
a month earlier than last season.— 
Journal of Agriculture, Victoria, 10th 
November, 1908, Vol. VI. Pt. II. 


COW-PEAS, SOY-BEANS, VELVET 
BEANS. 

With the exception of lucerne, we are 
unable in this climate to grow any per- 
manent leguminous crop as a change of 
feed for pigs. 

In mixed farming the value of cover 
crops in replacing the fallow is now 
being generally conceded. It is neces- 
sary to differentiate from those used as 
catch crops and for green manuring. 


Cover crops check evaporation, pre- 
vent the soil baking, also the loss of 
plant-food by excessive rainfall in wash- 
ing the soil or leaching and they afford 
green, succulent food for stock. 


Plants belonging to two groups are 
available for this purpose. The first are 


ooh) ih Reames» 
5 CL ae 
Mi 3 ~ 


¥ 


FEBRUARY, 1909. ] 135 


those known as the legumes, which 
possess the specific function of assimil- 
ating or storing nitrogen in the soil. 
They include clovers, cow-peas, Canada 
field peas, vetches, soy beans, velvet 
beans, lupins, and Beggar weed (Desmo- 
tium tortuosum), The second group are 
non-leguminous and embrace rye, wheat, 
barley, oats, buck-wheat, rape and 
mustard. 


The cow-pea is looked upon as the most 
useful. It forms asucculent, relishable, 
nutritious forage for sheep, cattle, and 
pigs during the hot summer months. 
At that period all other palatable 
fodders of high protein content are not 
available and the natural grasses and 
herbage are dry. 


Cow-peas as a drought-resisting fodder 
Stand unrivalled. They have been used 
in India and other notoriously dry 
countries for centuries. They have 
acclimatised well here. The roots of 
the plant, like that of lucerne, penetrate 
deeply into the subsoils, in a vigorous 
fashion searching for plant-food and 
moisture, and at the same time opening 
up the subsoils and rendering them 
porous and available for the storage of 
moisture and air. The roots attack the 
stores of phosphoric acid and potash, 
dissolving them for their own use as well 
as for subsequent crops. 


The characteristic nodules of legumes 
are found freely distributed along the 
roots, and in these the bacteria are 
engaged in assimilating atmospheric 
nitrogen and promoting nitrification ; 
inert plant-food is made soluble and a 
source of root nourishment. 


The roots and stubble are ploughed 


in with the excreta from the grazing 
animal. Itis approximately estimated 
that the former alone give to each acre 
24 lb. nitrogen, mostly gathered from 
the air, and return 6 1b. phosphoric acid 
and 15 lb. potash, largely drawn from 
the subsoil, and in a form readily assimil- 
able by the next crop. The organic 
matter provides humus and increases 
the moisture-holding capacity of the 
soil. Whilst the plant is growing the 
thick rich spreading foliage covers the 
ground, arrests evaporation, stops the 
growth of weeds, and keeps the soil in a 
loose friable condition. 


It is anideal cleansing crop and pays 
its way in furnishing stock fodder, and 
in addition the soil is enriched with 
humus, nitrogen, potash and phosphoric 
acid, fertility is restored, and the land 
effectively manured for a main crop. In 
short, to use a familiar farmer's phrase, 
the land is brought into ‘‘ good heart,” 


Edible Products. 


As a food for stock, particularly pigs, 
during the latter part of summer we 
have had abundant evidence of its flesh- 
producing capacity, and, as with lucerne, 
its power to provide a suitable inter- 
mixture of lean flesh in bacon and pork. 
Young pigs three months’ old, when 
building up frame and tissue, make ex- 
cellent progress on cow-peas balanced 
with rye, wheat, barley, potatoes, or 
maize. Theration can be modified to suit 
the needs of the animal as it approaches 
the fattening stages. The foliage of the 
plant may be utilised for providing 
green forage, or allowed to ripen suffi- 
ciently for hay or silage, or the beans 
can be used as pig-feed. As a fodder 
the yield per acre varies, and is deter- 
mined by the variety grown, soil, culti- 
vation, and climate. At this College 
quantity has ranged from 4 to 12 tons of 
green feed per acre. The composition 
will average as follows :— 


Water 84 per cent, 
Dry matter 16 : 4 
100 
The dry matter contains :— 

Fat tee a6 ‘4 per cent. 
Protein ae . od tf 55 
Carbohydrates est Wid one 9 yee 
Mineral ash ... Hern wie Lx os by tie 
Nutritive ratio 1:3°3 


Vari- 
ation ranges between two distinet 
classes, cne class being upright in 
growth, compact, bushy in habit, and 
without runners; the other producing 
long, trailing vines, or runners, and 
spreading well over the soil. 


The first or bush varieties are noted 
for their heavy, quick growth and suc. 
culence. Amongst these the following 
have proved most successful on this 
farm—Poona and Chinese Mottled. In 
hot dry districts, with a sparse rainfall 
cow-peas take longer to mature. The 
best sorts are thoseof trailing or recumb- 
ent habit. They possess a deep root- 
growth and are better enabled to with- 
stand drought. The sorts recommended 
are—Black, New Era, Clay, Whip-poor- 
Will, and White. It should be remem- 


Edible Products. 


bered that cow-peas readily alter their 
habits in response to local conditions of 
soil and moisture. 


The seed-pods range in length from 4 
to 16 inches. These, with the seeds, 
are of all sorts, shapes, and colours. 
Each sort varies in time of maturing, 
habit of growth, ripening and other 
features. It is best to select tested 
varieties for the main crops and to con- 
duct tests with new sorts on ‘a’ small 
scale. 


The most satisfactory variety subject- 
ed toaseries of trials here for the past 
six years is Poona, an upright, bushy 
plant, of vigorous and dense growth. 
This was. originally imported by the 
late Mr. Farrer, from the Department 
of Agriculture of India. We have had 
a yield as high as ten tons to the acre 
from it. Cow-peas revel in heat and sun- 
light, and will thrive ona wide range 
of soils; generally they do best on light 
soils. The light sandy loams at this 
College have always afforded good re- 
turns from this plant. The only soil in 
which it will not respond is that which 
is constantly wet. In all cases the 
soil should be deep, well drained and 
mellow. 


On impoverished soils the crop is one 
of the safest and most certain renova- 
tors. Being a hot-climate plant it is 
necessarily very susceptible to frost, and 
planting should not commence until 
frosty weather has passed. November 
is usually the month to sow the main 
crop, although successful crops have 
often been secured from October sow- 
ings. Fresh sowings may be continued 
until February. The soil must be well 
cultivated and brought into a fine con- 
dition of tilth. Where manure is re- 
quired, the best stimulant to rich 
growth can be secured from an appli- 
cation of fertilizers affording phosphoric 
acid and potash. This is supplied by the 
following :-- 


Superphosvhate, 200 lb.; Muriate of 
potash, 100 lb. per acre spread broadcast. 
In some soils—clay loams—itis found 
essential to release plant-food by dress- 
ings of lime at the rate of half to one 
ton per acre, 


The hest practice is to sow the cow- 
peas indrills 2 ft.6in. apart, the seed 
6 to 8 inches from each other, and 
covering with soil about 2 inches. 


The use of a maize drill fitted with a 
plate having ¢ inch holes facilitates 
sowing. 


Cow-peas germinate quickly on moist, 
well-prepared soils. The whole crop 


186 


[FEBRUARY, 1909, 


grows rapidly and evenly. Shallow cul- 
tivation should be followed once a 
month with secuffler or cultivator until 
the plant is developed. 


Of late years the practice of sowing 
climbing varieties of cow-peas with 
maize or sorghum has been adopted with 
very goodreturns. The yield peracre, in 
many instances, has been doubled. For 
conservation as silage this class of crop 
is becoming increasingly popular, especi- 
ally the combination of maize with cow- 
peas,-seeing the increase of protein by 
ihe latter asissts to balance the food 
constituents. 


In using the crops for hay the best 
time to cut is when the first pods beign 
to ripen. Like Red clover it is liable to 
heat if carted and stacked too early. 


The cut hay should be left exposed to 
the sun for a few hours, and then put 
into cocks for thiity-six to forty-eight 
hours. 


Care should be observed in drying not 
to allow the leaves to become brittle. 


If the hay be too moist when stacking 
it is likely to become mouldy. It should 
be carefully stacked and protected from 
the weather. 


The following statement of the ana- 
lyses of cow-pea hay and lucerne hay 
SOW their respective merits for stock 
feed :— 


Mois- Pro- Carbo- 
ture, tein. Fat. hydrates, Ash. 
% % % % % 
Lucerne hay .. 6°95 16°48 2°02 42°62 7-40 
Cowpea hay .. 10°29 19°72 4:04 45°15 9°10 


Soy oR SoJA BRAN. 


This plant comes from Japan, and of 
late years has attracted attention as an 
annual leguminous plant which produces 
the richest of all beans in protein and 
fat. It closely resembles the cow-pea, is 
of bush form, erect, hairy, branching 
freely and growing to a height of 2 to 
5 feet. 


The seed pods are clustered on the 
main stems and branches. are 1 to 2 
inches long, and contain from 1 to 3 
seeds or beans. 


They give a greater yield of beans 
than cow-peas. They are not trailing in 
habit, hence are more easily harvested. 
They mature early, but last lounger than 
cow-peas, and afford alonger season for 
pigs to feed on them. Hither the green 
forage, hay, or beans should be associ- 
ated with other foods owing to their 
richness. In feeding the bean it should 
not be more than one-fifth of the total 
ration. As high as ten bushels of beans 


FEBRUARY, 1909.] 


to the acre have been harvested here. 
These are classified as the richest of all 
natural vegetable foods, and should be 
used to strengthen the ration in protein. 
With their aid pigs can then be fed 
with potatoes, maize, barley, rye, or 
other starchy foods. As a green forage 
crop they are highly appreciated by 
pigs, and afford a more nutritious diet 
even than cowpeas. The plant can be 
converted into hay in asimilar way to 
that of cowpeas. 


As silage it has been foand most suc- 
cessful when mixed with twice its 
weight of green maize. 


The soy bean requires a good loamy 
soil well drained, although like the cow- 
pea it is adapted to a wide range of soils. 

A deep, firm, well-tilled, moist seed- 
bed is required here. It should be 
ploughed to a good depth about the 
end of July or beginning of August 
and worked (harrowed and volled) to a 
fine tilth. Should fertilisers be required, 
use that recommended for cow-peas. 
The seed should be sown when all 
chances of frost are over;as a rule the 
beginning of October is best when some 
warmth is in the soil. 


Sow in drills 2 ft. 6 in. to 3 ft. apart. 
One plant should be permitted to grow 
every Ginches. Krom 8 to 10 1b. of seed 
per acre is needed. Shallow cultivation 
should follow until the plants are well 
grown, The quickly maturing plant 
and pods ripen in from seventy-five to 
ninety-five days. It is a good drought 
resister. 

As a food for pigs, either as beans, 
green forage, or hay, it has a high repu- 
tation. The animals fatten quickly, are 
always thrifty, with strong appetites; 
the hair and skin acquire a glossy look, 
and the skin feels as if they were fed on 
oil meals. 

VELVET BEAN. 


So far this leguminous plant has only 
been grown in an experimental way to 
test its capacity as a fodder, but suffi- 
cient data. have been secured to war- 
rant extended trials for its useas green 
summer forage, for green manuring, 
and as a cover crop. 


Its leading drawback is that it requires 
along summer for its proper develop- 
ment, as it is a native of Incia and 
thrives well in a hot, dry climate. 


Both plant and bean are useful as 
fodder tor stock, and pigs relish the 
food and provide good returns onit. It 
grows freely on light, sandy land, pro- 
vided it is fairly well-drained. When 
moisture is available with summer heat 
the plant produces enormous yields, 
Under ordinary conditions it will give 
a return above the weight of cow-peas 

16 


18 


lod 


4 Fdible Products. 


per acre. The plant grows in a trailing 
state and produces vinee running from 
29 to 30 feet in length; they twine 
around any obstacle, and are often 
grown In conjunction with maize. 


It is a heavy cropper and has been 
known under favourable conditions to 
produce thirty tons of green forage per 
acre. The seed may be sown inthe warm 
districts in October. The roots go well 
down into the subsoil ard necessarily 
require a deeply ploughed soil. The 
seed should be sown in drills3 ft. 6 in. 
apart with a space of one foot between 
each. The best fertiliser is :— 

Superphosphate . 150 lb. per acre. 

Sulphate of Potash ... 80 ,, 6 

Cultivation should be pursued as long 
as the plant growth will permit. Owing 
to the entanged nature of its growth 
it is difficult to cut for stall green feed- 
ing or hay. It is therefore best used as 
a grazing crop, and the pigs should be 
turned in to eat it off.—Agricultural 
Gazette of N.S. Wales, Vol. XIX., Part 
10, October, 1908. 


THE CO-OPERATIVE MARKETING 
OF CITRUS FRUITS. - 


THE CALIFORNIA E'RUIT-GROWERS’ 
EXCHANGE, 


The Honourable the Minister for 
Agriculture is in receipt of a letter from 
Mr. A. Downe, a resident of Los Angeles, 
California, who recently visited New 
South Wales, and made a careful inspec- 
tion of the citrus groves of the County of 
Cumberland. Mr. Downe has an orchard 
of some 24 acres at Duarte, California, 
and can therefore speak as a fruit- 
grower to fruit-growers. Mr. Downe 
refers to the prevalence of fumigating 
with cyanide in preference to spraying, 
declaring that the latter process has 
been abandoned, as it causes ‘‘die back” 
of the fine twigs and sprouts. 


The freight from California to New 
York is 4s. 6d. per 100 lb. box a distance 
of 3,000 miles. 


Oranges are shipped east to New York 
and London and throughout Canada, 
and arrive in condition. 


The new crop for next year promises 
to be a heavy one, probably the heaviest 
for years, due no doubt, Mr. Downe says, 
to liberal fertilising and fumigating. 

The marketing of the enormous crop 
is as important as growing it, and 
California fruit-growers have established 
the California Fruit-Growers’ Exchange 
to perform this work. As there is 
nothing of this kind in existence in this 


Fdible Products. 


State, the need of such a corporation was 
apparent to Mr. Downe; he _ has, there- 
fore, been to no little trouble in collecting 
information on the subject. From a 
pamphlet issued by the California Fruit- 
Growers’ Exchange, forwarded by Mr. 
Downe, the following is taken :— 


“Twenty-five years ago the annual 
total shipments were scarcely twenty 
carloads. Fifteen years ago the annual 
shipments were approximately 4,000 car- 
loads, or slightly in excess of a million 
ee quarter boxes (a box holds 2 cubic 
eet). 


“Since that time there has been an 
increase from year to year, until the 
average of the last three seasons has 
reached the vast volume of 30,000 car- 
loads, or 11,000,000 boxes yearly. The 
net f.o.b. value of the crop of 1906 has 
been conservatively estimated at twenty 
million dollars. 

“When citrus fruit-growing in Cali- 
fornia emerged from the stage of 
experiment and past time into that of 
profit-seeking, the problem of marketing 
immediately confronted the growers. 
They were thousands of miles from the 
populous centres in which their fruit 
must find consumers, and they had 
practically no home markets nor agencies 
through which they could convert it 
into ready money at remunerative 
figures. It is true there were speculators 
in the field, but their offers to buy were 
at very low prices, and only spasmodic 
at best. This is not strange as the 
speculators were but go-betweens, and 
the markets being undeveloped they 
could only offer for the most part to 
take the fruit on consignment for 
grower’s account. If passing the specu- 
lator by, the grower sought relief by 
consigning his produce to the market 
himself, he was little, if any, the gainer. 
These were the conditions in the early 
nineties, when the citrus fruits of 
California orchards were less than one- 
tenth the present value. 


«““Various expedients were resorted to 
for the betterment of these conditions. 
Speculators attempted to form a compact 
to apportion among themselves the 
territory where the fruit was grown, to 
fix maximum prices to be paid for fruit, 
and also to establish f.o.b. prices, regular 
credits and equalise distribution in 
consuming markets. Growers’ and 
speculators together sought to regulate 
prices, consignments, and other im- 
portant questions. The most disastrous 
year so far as net returns were concerned 
that the citrus fruit industry in this 
State has ever experienced was 1892-3, 
In Riverside and all other sections, where 
there was any quantity of fruit to ship 


138 


at the time, account sales in ‘red ink” 


were received without number. Inmany - 


instances growers not only furnished 
their entire crops for nothing, but were 
also required to pay freight and packing 
charges, which the gross sale of their 
fruit did not cover. All of these efforts 
to improve marketing conditions were 
inadequate and short-lived. In the very 
nature of things they could not be more 
than partially successful, since the in- 
terests of growers and speculators are 
necessarily divergent on important 
points. In several localities a few 
growers had associated themselves to 
secure better packing facilities, and for 
mutual protection. In some instances 
these associations had marketed on a 
mutual basis. 


“As a result of the above-mentioned . 


failure of speculative shifters to sell the 
year’s crop at fair prices, and particular- 
ly stimulated by the association ex- 
periences, large percentage of growers 
sought to solve the vexed problem by an 
enlargement of the association idea.” 


“A Convention of Growers assembled 
at the Chamber of Commerce, Los 
Angeles, on the 4th April, 1903, the 
declared purpose of the meeting being: 


“To provide for marketing of all 
the citrus fruit at the lowest possible 
cost under uniform methods, and in a 
manner to secure to each grower a 
certain marketing of his fruit and the 
full average price to be obtained in the 
market for the entire season.” 


“Following the recommendations of 
this Convention of Growers, organisation 
of associations and district exchanges 
was effected in all the principal citrus 
fruit districts, the packing to be done by 
the association at cost, and the marketing 
through an executive committee, com- 
posed of one member from each district. 
This arrangement for the marketing of 
the fruit continued during two seasons, 
viz., those of 1893-4 and 1894-5, but not 
being entirely satisfactory, on October 
21st, 1895, the Southern California Fruit 
Exchange was organised, since which 


date the marketing of the fruit controll- | 


ed by the various district exchanges and 
their associations has been conclusively 
in the hands of the Southern California 
Fruit Exchange, and its successor, the 
California Fruit Growers’ Exchange, 
except during the period of seventeen 
months, from April Ist, 1903, to August 
8lst, 1904, during which time the 
Exchange interests combined in the sale 
of their fruit with the principal non- 
Exchange shipping interests under the 
name of the California Fruit Agency. 
The net results obtained during the 
Agency period were not satisfactory to 


[FPEBRUARY, 1909. iL 


4 
¢ 


; 
i 
i 


FEBRUARY, 1909.) 


the growers, and on September Ist, 1904, 
the Exchange resumed the sale of the 
fruit it controlled, independently of any 
other factor. 


“On resuming itsmarketing operations; 
the Exchange passed the following re- 
solution as a basis on which to operate :— 


‘On May 20th we issued acircular, 
advising all growers of the dissolution 
of the California Fruit Agency, to take 
effect September Ist next. 


‘Upon the formation of the California 
Fruit Agency, every effort was made to 
sell the fruit f.o.b, California. All 
agents were instructed to push this 
policy, and imen were employed as 
salesmen in the Sales Department of 
the Agency who possessed ability and 
much experience in that line, and who 
have been in the employ of the leading 
packers, as their salesmen for many 
years. 

‘Immediately after the California Fruit 
Agency was organized, April Ist, 1903, 
f,o.b. orders for fruit (usual terms of 
inspection, ete.) were only received in 
limited numbers, and not sufficient to 
move a reasonable percentage of the 
crop—although climatic conditions in 
California were most iavourable to 
restrict shipments. It soon became 
necessary, in order to move the crop, to 
ship, and attempt to make sales in 
transit, or sell the fruit delivered at 
market value at the point and time of 
delivery. 


‘Our crops are now so large that all 
markets should be constantly supplied 
with their full quota of fruit in order to 
consume the output. This distribution 
can be better accomplished by those 
most directly interested,—the growers 
themselves. The citrus-fruit-grower is 
no longer independent of his neighbour 
as to marketing his crop, but each one 
is dependent upon the other, especially 
in sofar as systematic distribution is 
concerned. 


‘The Southern California Fruit Hx- 
change is composed only of growers 
who recogniseall legitimate dealers in 
the trade, and who are organised for 
the purpose of disposing of their pro- 
ducts in all markets of the country 
upon the most advantageous terms, and 
to secure distribution to the trade at 
the least expense compatible with the 
best service, securing to the consumer 
the fruit at reasonable prices, and to the 
grower the best average returns, 


‘When the Southern California Fruit 
Exchange resumes its selling operations 
on September Ist next, in the absenc- 
of other instructions from, or a change 
of policy being inaugurated by the 


189 


Edible Productss 


growers themselves through their re- 
presentatives on its Board of Directors, 
the Management will endeavour to sell 
the fruit in such amanner as will bring 
the most money for the product, confin- 
ing itself neither to cash sales in Cali- 
fornia, f.o.b. sales California (subject 
to inspection, draft attached to bill of 
lading), or sales delivered, nor to any 
other onemethod. Its agents and repre- 
sentatives will be instructed to secure 
all orders possible from fruit, allowing 
the customer to take his preference as 
to whether he wants these orders to 
be for spot cash, f.o.b., usual terms, 
or delivered, subject of course to the 
confirmation of the Exchange or Asso- 
ciation shipping. 


‘Growers or Associations of growers 
not connected with the Southern Califor- 
nia Fruit Exchange have the opportu- 
nity now to associate or to form new 
associations according to their pre- 
ference, ro add to conditions existing in 
their localities. 


‘Believing that in co-operation with 
each other, the best net results to the 
growers can be obtained, we appeal to all 
present Hxchange members and others 
interested in maintaining values of 
orchard property to put forth every 
effort to secure as large a membership 
as possiblein our associations and ex- 
changes.’ 


“On March 27, 1905, the California 
Fruit Growers’ Exchange was_ incor- 
porated, and on September Ist following 
succeeded to the business of the Southern 
California Fruit Exchange. This change 
in name was deemed advisable in 
order that the market organisation of 
itself might in name, as well as in fact, 
become general throughout the State 
rather than remain local to Southern 
California. 


“The Exchange was founded upon the 
theory that every member was entitled 
to furnish his pro rata of the fruit for 
shipment through his association, and 
every association to its pro rata of the 
various markets of the country. This 
theory reduced to practice gives every 
grower his fair share, and the average 
price of all markets throughout the 
season. 


‘Another cardinal provision of the 
plan was that all fruit should be mar- 
keted on a level basis of actual cost, 
with all books and accounts open for 
inspection at the pleasure of the mem- 
bers. These broad principles of full co- 
operation constitute the basis of the 
Exchange movement. 


“The Hxchange system 


} : is simple, 
but quite democratic, 


The local associ- 


Edible Products. 


ation consists of a number of growers 
contiguously situtated, who unite them- 
selves for the purpose of preparing their 
fruit for market on a co-operative basis. 
They establish their own brands, make 
such rules as they may agree upon for 
grading, packing, and pooling their 
fruit. Usually these associations own 
thoroughly equipped packing-houses. 

“All members are givena like  pri- 
vilege to pick and deliver fruit to the 
packing-house. where it is weighed in 
and properly receipted for. lHvery 
growet’s fruit is separated into different 
grades, according to quality, and usually 
thereafter it goes into the common pool, 
and in due course takes its percentage 
of the returns according to grade. 

“Any given brand is the exclusive 
property of the Association using it, 
and the fruit under this brand is always 
packed in the same locality, and there- 
fore of uniform quality. This is of great 
advantage in marketing, asthe trade 
soon learns that the pack is reliable. 

“There are more than eighty associ- 
ations covering every citrus fruit district 
in California, and packing nearly two 
hundred reliable and guaranteed brands 
of oranges and lemons. 


‘““The several associations in a locality 
unite to form the local Exchange, which 
serves aS a medium, and to a certain 
extent as a buffer between the associ- 
ations and the general Exchange. 

“The California Fruit-Growers’ Ex- 
change, referred to above as the General 
Exchange, consists of thirteen stock- 
holders, all directors, and all selected 
by the local Exchanges. In other words, 
the severa] local Exchanges designate 


one man each from their membership as. 


their representative, and he is elected a 
director of the California Fruit Growers’ 
Exchange. By this method the policy- 
making and governing power of the 
organisation remains in the hands of 
the local Exchanges. 


“From top to bottom the organisa- 
tion is planned, dominated, and in 
general detail controlled absolutely by 
the fruit-growers, and for the common 
good of all members. No corporation 
or individual reaps from it either 
dividends or private gain. 

‘““Sofar we have dealt almost exclu- 
sively with the organisation of the Kx- 
change, its co-operative aspects, and 
general policy at home. Equally impor- 
tant is its organisation in the markets. 

‘“‘ Seeking to free itself from the shift- 
ing influences of speculative trading, 
by taking the business out of the hands 
of middlemen at home, the Exchange 
found it quite as important to maintain 
the control of its own affairs in the 


140 


[KEBRUARY, 1909, 


markets, It never contemplated the 
opening of either retail or jobbing 
houses, but to put the fruit into the 
hands of the legitimate dealers first 
hand. For this purpose the Exchange 
established a system of exclusive 
agencies in all the principal cities of the 
country, employing. as agents active, 
capable young men of experience in the 
fruit business. Most of these agents are 
salaried, and have no other business of 
any kind to engage their attention, and 
none of the Exchange representatives 
handle any other citrus fruits. These 
agents sell to smaller cities contiguous 
to their headquarters, cr in the territory 
covered by their districts. 

“Over all these agencies are two 
general or travelling agents, with 
authority to supervise and check up the 
various offices, These general agents 
maintain in their offices at Chicago and 
Omaha a complete bureau of informa- 
tion, through which all agents receive 
every day detailed information as to 
sales of Exchange fruit in other markets 
the previous day. Possessing this data 
the sellingagent cannot be taken advant- 
age of as to prices. If any agent finds 
his market sluggish and is unable to sell 
at the average prices prevailing else- 
where, he promptly -advices the head 
office in Los Angeles, and sufficient fruit . 
is diverted from his market to relieve 
it and restore prices to normal level. 
In actual practice approximately 40 per 
cent. of all the fruits shipped by the 
Exchange is sold by public auction at 
point of consumption, and of the remain- 
ing 60 per cent. the greater part is sold 
at private sale at a price agreed upon 
between the seller and purchaser at 
point of arrival on market conditions 
as they prevail at that time. Through 
these agencies of its own the Exchange 
is able to get and transmit to its 
members the most trustworthy informa- 
tion regarding market conditions, visible 
supplies, &c. This system affords a 
maximum of good service at a minimum 
cost. The volume of the business is so 
large that ‘a most thorough equipment is 
maintained at a much less cost to growers 
than any other selling agency can offer. 


“During the fourteen years of co- 
operation in the marketing of citrus 
fruits under the Exchange system, the 
output of the State has increased from 
4,100 cars in 1892-3 to 31,791 cars (including 
Northern California shipments) during 
the season of 1904-5, with a prospect of a 
still further increase in the volume of 
shipments in the very near future. 


‘‘Marketing the fruit for its growers 
at actual cost, the Exchange has been 
able to bring about a great reduction in 
packing and selling charges, with the 


FEBRUARY, 1909.] | 141 


result that the average cost per box of 
both packing and marketing oranges to 
Exchange growers has during recent 
years averaged around 35c. as against 
75¢, per box at the time the Exchange 
was organised, when the charges by 
speculative shippers for packing alone 
was 40c. to 50c. per box, to which was 
added for selling 7 to 10 per cent. 
commission on the delivered price. 


‘This co-operative movement is no 
longer an experiment, organised upon 
lines materially differing from any other 
co-operative organisation; all the details 
had to be worked out with extreme care 
and caution. To have failed would have 
been to utterly demoralise the citrus 
fruitindnstry, as there were no adequate 
marketing facilities. Serious blunders 
in the execution of the plan would have 
been almost equally disastrous. Natur- 
ally this Growers’ organisation has met 
with very strenuous and, in some in- 
stances, bitter opposition from the 
speculative elementsin the fruit trade. 


“The Exchange is nota Trust. It 
neither seeks to control production, nor 
arbitrarily to fix prices. It does, of 
course, undertake, so far as possible, by 
a simple method of co-operation, to 
displace the competition of one grower 
With another in the matter of packing 
and marketing their fruit. By purely 
economical, as distinguished from trust, 
methods, it ensures to every grower the 
full reward of growing good fruit, and 
to every association the benefit of 
good grading and packing.—Agricul- 
tural Gazette of New South Wales, Vol. 
XIX., Part II. 


THE KUTURE OF CACAO PLANTING. 

In a paper on this subject in the 
Journal of the Royal Horticultural 
Society, Mr. H. Hamel Smith points out 
the analytical and experimental ways of 


YIELD OF CURED CACAO 


Edible Products. 


Ceylon are penetrating to the West 
Indies, and he thinks that soon planters 
will pay more attention to judicious 
manuring and grafting, to pests, and 
the adoption of vacuum driers to the 
reduction of shade and mixing of planta- 
tions.—Ep. 


CACAO INDUSTRY. 
RESULTS OF THE RECENT EXPERIMENTS 
WITH CACAO IN THE West INDIES. 


DOMINICA. 
MANURIAL EXPERIMENTS. 
By FRANCIS WATTS, C.M.G., D.SC,, 
F.1.C., F.C.S., 

Government Chemist and Superinten-: 
dent of Agriculture for the Lee- 
ward Islands. 
EXPERIMENTS AT BOTANIC STATION. 

The experiments conducted by Mr. 
Joseph Jones at the Botanic Station, 
Dominica, have been carried on for a 
number of years on uniform lines and 
furnish information of considerable 
value. They consist of five plots, each 
of approximately quarter acre, which 
since 1900 have annually been manured 
as follows :— 

Plot No.1 ... No manure. 

» » 2 « 4ewt. basic phosphate, 
$cewt. sulphate of 
potash per acre. 


» » & .. 4ewt. dried blood per 
acre. 
» » 4 .. 4cwt. basic phosphate, 


lS ecwt. sulphate of 
potash and 4 cwt. 
dried blood, per acre. 

» 95 9 «- Mulehed with grass 
and leaves. 


_The yield of cacao has _ been recorded 
since 1902-8, and the results are summa- 
rized in the following table :— 


IN PouUNDS PER ACRE, 


Plot 1, Plot 2. Plot 3. Plot 4. Plot 5. 
Vou Phosphate Dried blood,| Mulched 
: | No Manure. and Dried | phosphate | with grass 
| potash. blood. _and potash.) and leaves. 
1902-3 nl 1,138 1,540 1,491 1,599 1,800 
1908-4 Boe 822 1,170 1,182 1,069 1.092 
1904-5 oe 1,009 1,179 1,182 1,418 1,338 
1903-6 eS 1,122 1,105 1,231 1,506 1,724 
1906-7 a 1,095 1,285 ‘ 1,134 1,461 1,743 
Total for five Ri Tia 

years. Te 5,186 6,279 6,279 7,053 7,197 

Average for | : “ae 
five years, ...| 1,087 © 15256 1,224 1,411 1,489 


Edible Products. 


The results clearly show the value of 
manures for cacao. During five years, 
the use of phosphate and potash has 
increased the yield of dry cacao 219 lb. 
per acre per annum over the yield of the 
plot receiving no manure. Similarly, 
the use of dried blood, primarily a nitro- 
genous manure, has increased the yield 
by 187 1b., while the combination of the 


142 


[FEBRUARY, 1909. 


two sets of manure (t.e., phosphate, 
potash and dried blood) has increased 
the yield by 374 lb. The mulching has 
shown the greatest gain, namely 402 lb. 
per acre per annnim. 


By putting the moderate valuation of 
6d. per lb. on cured cacao, a figure much 
below market value, we may obtain an 
idea of the monetary aspect of the case :— 


Average Value per 
annual acre of 
yield per Gain in dry increase Gai 
| acre of cacao per acre over no- Cost of aS 
Plot. | cured. over a meu manure, rahe: 
cacao manure plot, plot, per acre. : 
during in pounds. at 6d. per manuring. 
five years, lb. of cured 
| in pounds. cacao. 
Ss d. Ss. d. S. d. 
1 1,037 ae nes eaeee: ve 
2 1,256 219 190 6 45 3 64 3 
3 1,224 187 0% 6 36 0 57 6 
4 1,411 3874 187 0 81 3 105 9 
5 1,489 402 20) 9 60 0 141 0 


The above figures hardly do full justice to the full gain resulting from 


mulching, the results of which are only apparent after some time. 


teresting therefore to make a comparison based on last year’s crop only :— 


Yield 


Gain 


It is in- 


Value Gain 
per acre per acre per acre Cost).of or loss 
Plot of cured over no- of increase | WARES per acre 
cacao, in manure over no- : by 
| pounds. plot, in manure Der Bere: manuring. 
1906-7. pounds. plot. 1905-6, 
Shame S d, S. d. 
1 1,095 ae 5 MA 
74 1,285 | 190 oh 45 8 + 49 9 
3 1,184. | 39 19 6 360 — 16 6 
4 | 1,461 366 183 0 81 2 + 101 6 
5 | 1,748 | 648 3824 80 60 O + 264 0 


The last two tables should be studied 
together. 


The mere consideration of the yield of 
cacao does not fully explain the condition 
of the plots and the changes taking 
place thereon. 


When the general health and growth 
of the trees on the plots are taken into 
account, itis at once seen that the in- 
dividual trees on the mulched plot are 
much finer and are better developed 
than those on the other plots; the soil 
also is better than thatof any other 
plot. It is moist, friable, and full of 
humus, and in a_ better condition 
generally, which would appear to ensure 
good crops for some time tocome. It is 


also significant that this plot is well 
covered by trees planted at the rate of 
108 per acre, while the plot receiving no 
manure requires 178 trees per acre, or 
nearly 70 per cent. more, 


Nextin general health and condition 
may be placed plot 4, which received 
phosphate, potash, and dried blood. 
This plot requires at the rate of 124 
trees per acre to coverit. The number 
of trees on the other plots is as follows: 
Plot 38, 1389 trees per acre; plot 2, 155 
trees per acre; and plot 1, 178 trees per 
acre. " 


As the general rule of these experi- 
ments, planters are recommended to 
manure their cacao trees. 


- Fepruary, 1909. 


Organic manures such as pen manure 
and liberal mulchings are doubtless the 
best and most remunerative. Where 
these cannot be obtained in sufficient 
quantity, it is essential to give manures 
containing nitrogen and phosphate, and 
in many cases it willbe well to supple- 
ment mulching with moderate applica- 
- tions of nitrogen and phosphate. 


Phosphate may be given with advantage 
in the form of basic phosphate in appli- 
eations of from 1to4 ewt. per acre. A 
sufficient application in most cases will 
be lewt-. peracre annually for several 
years. 


Nitrogen may be given in the form of 
sulphate of ammonia at the rate of from 
1 to 2 ewt. per acre, but nitrogen should 
be given preferably in aform in which 
it is more slowly available, suchas dried 
blood, at the rate of 2 to 4 ewt. per acre. 


With the development of the cotton 
industry in these islands considerable 
quantities of cotton-seed meal may be 
within reach, This forms avery useful 
source of nitrogen, and may be used at 
the rate of from 3 to 6 ewt. per acre. It 
introduces fair quantities of phosphate 
and potash as well as nitrogen. 


The present experiments afford uo_ 
evidence as to the value of potash and 
phosphate independently of each other. 
- The soils of Dominica are, however, 
fairly well supplied with potash, and it 
is not likely that this constituent is 
urgently wanted. In the event of 
planters desiring to experiment with 
potash, it is believed that small dressings 


148 


Edible Products. 


GOVERNMENT PLOT AT PICARD. 


This plot was started in 1900, in order 
to ascertain whether cacao could be 
grown on thelow lands at Picard. At 
the time the plot was laid out, the 
general opinion was that this district 
was not suitable for cacao. Largely as 
the result of the success of these experi- 
ments considerable areas of cacao have 
been planted in the neighbourhood, and 
the success attending the newly-estab- 
lished fields justifies the action. This 
area is now regarded as one of the most 
promising districts in Dominica. 


The plot consists of one acre divided 
into four sections. In the early stages 
the whole of the plot was manured with 
pen manure and dried blood. Iu 1903 
the area was divided into four plots, 
each of } acre as follows :— 


A. Receving pen manure. 

B. Receiving 2 ewbt. per acre of sulph- 
ate of ammonia. 

C. Receiving 4 cwt. per acre of basic 
phosphate. 

D. Receiving 4 cwt. per acre of dried 
blood, 

These manures are applied annually. 


The southern part of plot D. is found 
to rest on a gravelly subtratum; pro- 
bably the old river bed extended to this 
point. From 1905 this poor portion has 
been dressed with pen manure in an 
attempt to restore fertility, 


The firstsmall pickings were gathered 


of from 3 tol ewt.of sulphate of potash in 1904-5. The yield from the plots have 
will prove sufficient. ibeentsr. 
Number of Number of Number of Equivalent to dry 
Plot. pods pods. pods. cacao in 1906-7, 
1904-5 1905-6. 1906-7. in pounds. 
: 8 819 883 68 
2. 1 235 598 46 
C. 138 390 733 60 
D. 6 133 493 38 
Petal ae es 1,077 2,707 212 


The trees receiving pen manure have a’ 


very fine and healthy appearance, and 
they have given the largest yield of 
cacao. 


The trees receiving sulphate of ammo- 
nia also present a very fine healthy 
appearance, but they have not yet come 
into such heavy bearing as the trees 
receiving either pen manure or basic 
phosphate. 


The plot receiving basic phosphate 
has given alargereturn, and the trees 


looking excellent condition. The foliage 
is perhaps not so heavy asin the plots 
receving pen manure or ammonia. The 
plot experienced no lack of nitrogen, as 
it has received a large number of green 
deessings from the careful manage- 
ment of the weeds which have grown 
upon it and have been turned in. The 
plot does not show indications of fall- 
lng off such as are referred toin con- 
nexion with the basic phosphate plot 
in the large series of experiments at 
Picard. It must, however, be remem- 
bed that this plot, with the others, 


Edible Products. 


received good dressings of pen manure 
and dried blood in the first two years 
of its existence. 


The dried blood plot, as explained 
above, is rather uneven, but there are 
some good trees upon it. 


These four plots have been carefully 
worked on the system which involves the 
careful use of weeds as green dressings. 
The growth of the weeds has been 
watched, and assoon as they reached a 
moderate size they are cut down and 
either spread as a mulch or forked in. 
(See ‘Manurial Value of Weeds in Cacao 
and Lime Orchards, West Indian 
Bulletin, Vol. V., p. 287). 


The results obtained on these plots, 
and the excellent condition of the soil, 
would appear to show that while pen 
manure when available is most valu- 
able in cacao orchards, still the condi- 
tion of the soil can be maintained and 
improved by judicious green dressing 
with weeds. The experiments should 
be continued for some years, for it 
will be interesting to see if the ferti- 
lity of plots B. and C., receiving part 
of manures with ammonia and phos- 
phate respectively, will be maintained 
without any other application. 

LARGER MANURIAL EXPERIMENTS 

AT PICARD. 

The experiments conducted in co-oper- 
ation with Mr. Sowray, the representa- 
tive of Messrs. Rowntree & Co., have 
given interesting results. These consist 


144 


[FEBRUARY, 1009, — 


of twelve plots. Each plot, which is + 
acre in extent, contains sixty-four trees 
and is separated from its neighbour 
by two rows of cacao trees. Plots 3 and 
6 are separated from 7 and 10 by 
three rows. 

Measured by the number of pods pro- 
duced, the results show in an unmistak- 
able manner that manures are beneficial 
and remunerative in the establishment of 
young cacao. Judged on this basis, it is 
seen that pen manure has given the best 
results, the yield of pods of this season 
from this plot being two and a half 
times that of the plot without manure. 


Dried blood has resulted in large 
returns and so has bone meal. 


Each of the constituents of manures 
(phosphate, potash, and nitrogen, (as 
ammonia) has increased the number of 
pods ina marked degree, and this has 
been the case whether these constituents 
have been used singly or grouped in 
various ways. 


Plot8, receiving potash only, has given 
an abnormally high yield and must be 
disregarded for the moment, 


Plot 2 shows a considerable increase of 
crop as the result of the use of basic 
phosphate; plot 6 shows that the crop is 
only slightly increased by the addition 
of potash, while plot 4 shows that the 
addition of ammonia considerably in- 
creases the yield. 


For easy comparison the results may 
be arranged as follows :— 


| Yield in 
| Number of | Gain over |terms of dry 
Plot | Manure. pods per | no-manure | cacao per 
plot. plotsin pods.| acre in 
pounds. 
Plot 12. No manure 740 = 228 
9 | Compost 704. 36 215 
1 | Bone meal 1,742 1,002 530 
2 Basie phosphate af, 1,179 439 362 
4 | Basic phosphate and ammonia | 1,596 856 490 
6 | Basic phosphate and potash ° ... 1,184 444 264 
3.| Potash A F Lei2T 987 562 
5 | Potash and ammonia 1,619 879 ‘498 
10 | Ammonia er ay 1,160 420 356 
11 | Basic phospate, potash and 
ammonia ane 1,488 748 458 
8 | Dried blood 1,644 904 506 
7 | Pen manure 1,871 1,181 576 


The above. conclusions are confirmed by the comparison of plots 10, 11, 
and 12. Theaddition of ammcnia to plot 10 has greatly increased ihe yield as 
compared with plot 12 receiving no manure, while plot 11, receiving phosphate 


and potash in 
most probably to the phosphate. 
which received bone meal. 


addition to nitrogen, shows a still further increased yield, due 
Further confirmation is obtained from plot 1, 
Bone meal contains both phosphate and nitrogen. 


This 


FEBRUARY, 1909. } 


‘plot has given a very large return, These 
facts go to prove that nitrogen and phos- 
phate are the constituents most required, 
while the effect of potash is doubtful. 


The best returns of all are obtained 
from the use of pen manure which 
contains nitrogen, phosphate, and _ po- 
tash, and in addition large quantities of 
organic matter. This latter substance 
greatly improves the texture of the soil 
and so adds very materially to its 
fertility. Dried blood has also given 
good results. This manure contains 
nitrogen, phosphate and potash with 
organic matter. The general results 
with compost plot 9, have not been 
satisfactory ; either the compost has 
not been sufficient, or it is unexpectedly 
slow in its action. 

(1) Very vigorous, with fin 
healthy foliage and 
robust trees, 


(2) Good, with healthy foli- 


age and robust trees. 


(8) Fair 


(4) Lacking vigorous 
growth, foliage poor. 


Judged by theappearance of the trees, 
we get a great deal of light thrown on 
the effect of manures. The best results, 
taking both the vigour of the trees and 
the yield of cacao into account, have 
been given by the use of pen manure. 
The yield is the highest of all the plots 

‘and the trees are the most vigorous. 
Next to this we must place the bone 
meal and the dried blood plots. Both 
these manures convey to the soil nitrogen 
and phosphate. Following these come 
plot 10, ammonia; and plot 5, ammonia 
and potash; and then plot 4, with 
ammonia and phosphate; and plot 11, 
with ammonia, phosphate, and potash. 

After these, we come to a group where 
the trees obviously lack vigour, and 
where we may soon look for a decided 
falling off. The striking feature in this 
group is that none of the plots have 
received any nitrogenous manure. It is 
tu be noted that this group includes plot 
2, phosphate ; plot 3, potash ; and_ plot 6, 
phosphate and_ potash, all of which 
have given good numbers of pods, and 
which, judged from the crop returns 
alone, would be regarded as satisfactory. 
They cannot he regarded as satis- 
factory, however, and a falling off in 
crop is anticipated. The group includes 
plot 9, compost; and plot 12, no-manure. 

17 


14 


e 
\ Plot. 7. 


5 Kdible Products, 


Estimating the effect of manures on 
young cacao trees by taking account 
only of the yield of cacao is likely to 
be fallacious for more than one reason. 
In the early stages there is likely to be 
irregularity in the manner in which 
young trees come into bearing, while 
some manures may tend to foree the 
trees into early bearing and lead to 
early exhaustion. It is therefore neces- 
sary to add to the statement of the yield 
of cacao, observations as to the general 
condition of the trees. When this is 
done in connexion with these experi- 
ments we alrive at very interesting re- 
sults. 

The plots may be roughly grouped 
according to jthe health and vigorous 
appearance of the trees :— 


Pen manure 


J 


Plot 8. Dried blood. 

Plot 1, Bone meal. 

Plot 10. Ammonia. 

Plot 5. Ammonia and potash. 
\ Plot 4. Ammonia and phosphate 
J Plot 11. Ammonia, phosphate, 

and potash. 

Plot 9. Compost 

Plot 2. Phosphate 
rPlot 3. Potash 
| Plot 6. Phosphate and potash 
J Plot 12. No manure. 


The lessons from these experiments 
already begin to be valuable and may 
be summarized thus :— 


Manures are useful in establishing 
cacao fields. Pen manure, when obtain- 
able, is likely to give the best results. 


Efforts should be made to increase 
the humus in the soil as much as 
possible, Manures_ supplying organic 
matter are desirable as they tend to 
maintain the supply of humus. Nitro- 
genous manures are essential ; without 
nitrogen the trees lack vigour. Phos- 
phatic manures increase the crops, but 
should not be used without nitrogen. 
It would probably be good policy to use 
nitrogenous and phosphatic manures 
together. The effect of potash is not 
very clear. It is probably notat present 
urgently required as a manure. 


It is recognized that some of the plots 
are not likely to improve under the 
manurial treatment they are receiving, 
but their retrograde movement, should 
it occur, will throw valuable light on 
important points bearing on the manur- 
ing of cacao. This will entail some loss 
upon owners, butit is hoped this pros- 
pective loss may be faced for the sake 
of the valuable information likely to be 
obtained. 


Edible Products. 


It should be observed that these ex- 
periments are carried onin afield where 
Mr. Sowray is putting into practice the 
suggestions to use weeds intelligently so 
as to inerease humus. 
lowed to grow toa moderate height, and 
are then either cutlassed down or bedded 


The weeds are al- 


146 


in withthe forkas occasion requires. The 


[FEBRUARY, 1909. — 


The following Tables are Extracted from “ Gordian” :— 


general results have been very good and 
the field is improving steadily. When it 
was first laid out, attempts were made to 
keep weeds down thoroughly (clean weed- 
ing), and the soil was deteriorating. 
altering the method of working surpri- 
singly good results followed. 


(To be continued.) 
PRODUCTION AND CONSUMPTION OF CACAO, 


On 


PRODUCTION. 
| 1908. 1904. 1905. 1906. 1907. 
| Kilos. 
Brazil .--| 20,900,000 23,160,000 21,090,000 | 25,135,000 | 24,528,000 
Santhome al 22,050,000 20,496,000 25,669,320 | 24,619,560 | 24,193,980 
Kicuador | 23,005,042 28,564,128 21,127,833 | 23,426,897 | 19,670,571 
Trinidad ...| 13,821,660 21,878,260 22,017,770 | 12,983,467 | 18,611,480 
Venezuela _ ee} 12,550,963 18,048,838 12,700,555 | 12,864,609 | 13,471,090 
British West Atrica .| 2,580,682 5,772,597 5,620,240 9,738,964 | 10,474,795 
Dominican Republic... 7,825,000 13,557,739 | 12,604,418 | 14,312,992 | 10,151,374 
Ceylon = 3,075,828 3,254,800 3,224,886 2,509,622 4,699,559 
Grenada -| 4,827,575 6,009,755 5,796,575 4,931,530 4,612,100 
Fernando Po | 1,499,050 2,010,766 1,862,945 1,557,864 2,488,821 
Jamaica : 1,696,700 1,650,C00 1,357,630 2,505,608 2,218,741 
German Colonies 918,414 1,109,153 | 1,454,153 | 1,367,977 | 1,966,236 
Haiti : 2,175,000 2,531,363 2,848,200 2,107,905 1,850,000 
Dutch East Indies 1,469,679 1,018,006 1,080,094 1,849,847 1,800,150 
Cuba 2,540,114 2,697,025 1,767,666 3,271,969 1,689,663 
Surinam : 2,224,668 854,034 1,681,851 1,480,568 1,625,278 
French Colonies 1,180,000 1,215,000 1,179,401 1,262,090 1,387,214 
St. Lucia mt 785,000 00,000 700,000 716,200 750,009 
Dominica ; — 493,311 589,378 572,948 580,000 
Congo State | see! — 231,382 194,638 402,429 548,520 
Other Countries ee) 800,000 800,000 800,000 1,000,000 1,000,000 
125,925,770 151,152,152 |144,812,553 |148,618,046 | 148,267,537 
CONSUMPTION. 

1908. | 1904. 1905. 1906. 1907. 

ee | cre 

Kilos. | 
United States 27,201,883 | 982,164,156 85,231,645 | 37,948,575 | 37,526,505 
Germany 21,654,400 | 27,101,400 29,633,100 | 85,260,500 | 34,515,400 
France 20,741,500 | 21,794,500 21,747,600 | 28,403,800 23,180,300 
England 18,681,192 | 20,542,504 21,190,712 | 20,182,040 | 20,159,472 
Holland 10,780,474 | 12,184,400 10,787,400 | 11,224,000 12,219,249 
Switzerland 5,856,500 6,839, 100 5,218,400 6,466,900 7,124,200 
Spain 6,026,752 5,816,359 6,101,712 | 5,636,821 5,628,239 
Austria Hungary 2,034,600 2,510,100 2,668,500 2,312,800 3,471,700 
Belgium 2,767,791 2,792,008 3,018,997 | 3,861,686 8,258,967 
Russia 1,900,680 2,055,700 2,227,680 | 2,670,940 2,473,380 
Italy 468,200 479.600 971,500 | 1,885,000 1,455,500 
Canada 585,646 | 600,000 654,088 1,085,182 1,115,957 
Denmark 1,150,100 | 996,000 1,125,000 | 1,190,000 1,100,000 
Sweden 774,673 870,914 896,162 1,057,218 696,455 
Norway 439,818 472,137 493,813 580,043 524,718 
Australia 443,963 500,000 450,000 386,497 400,000 
Portugal 136,354 140,000 138,000 145,604 150,000 
Finland 61,031 63,099 60,000 86,252 103,804 

121,725,502 187,921,977 {142,564,809 {154,783,858 [155,098,841 


wa fr 
a ved ¥ 


Kesruary, 1909. ] 


PACKING AND SHIPPING 
OF FRUITS. 


THe AVOCADO. 


First, we will consider the avocado, 
which has always been considered a 
difficult fruit to ship. Ido not consider 
it such. I consider that the avocado is 
a comparatively easy fruit to ship if it 
is handled in the proper way. 

The picking of the fruit should be 
done within as short a time as possible 
previous to the sailing of the steamer. 
The avocado begins to soften very 
rapidly after itis picked, and as soon 
as that softening process begins, your 
troubles begin. Youcannot then arrest 
successfully the maturing process and 
preserve the fruit. You should get 
it into cold storage as rapidly as 
possible after picking, and I would say 
that under our present facilities it is 
not quite safe to pick the fruit and 
place it in cold storage and then take 
it out to putit in the steamer, because 
the refrigerating compartment of the 
steamer, where you put your fruit in, 
has to be kept opea for the reception of 
other fruit, and your fruit which has 
become chilled then becomes warmed 
again and then chilled, and these rapid 
changes in temperature are greatly con- 
ducive to the deterioration of the fruit. 
The fruit should be cut with great care 
so as to avoid bruising. Perhaps it 
seems superfluous to say this, yet I have 
seen people who are in the fruit business 
handling avocados in a way in which 
a good down-east farmer would not 
treat his potatoes; I have seen them 
packed in boxesand specimens dropped 
from this height (indicating about 34 to 
4 feet) on to a concrete pavement floor 
and then picked up and put in the 
boxes as first-class merchantable avo- 
eados. That won’t do. They must be 
handled with extreme care to avoid all 
bruising. The stems should be cut, as 
IT have told you should be done in the 
ease of oranges and lemons. Cut the 
stem comparatively near to the fruit 
and don’t put in leaves—do not cut the 
stems long soas to include the leaves; 
about a quarter of aninch oran eighth 
of an inch is sufficient, that is, beyond 
the natural joint. The packing should 
be done also with care. [ have brought 
here a fewcrates to illustrate the dif- 
ferent possible packages, This crate (in- 
dicating) holds approximately twenty- 
four avocados. There isa smaller crate 


which we have used which holds a 
dozen. It is exactly the same as half 
of this. This crate is more useful in 


sending smaller shipments that are going 
for private orders, In this crate you 
will see that the fruits are only one tier 


147 


Edible Products. 


deep. All fruit should be wrapped with 
rather thin and yet strong paper. They 
should be placed so as to pack snugly. 
Tf you will recall the shape of the 
average avocado you will notice that it 
can be adjusted to a box of this size, 
even though it be a little smaller in dia- 
meter or alittle larger. The adjustment 
can be done by means of tilting. If the 
avocado is long you can place it like 
that (indicating) if it is wide, it can be 
tilted a little lowerand the next one be 
put this way (indicating); if this is point 
up, the next one can be point down, and 
you can tilt it just as muchas is neces- 
sary, the only requisite of the box being 
that it must be high enough to receive 
the avocado if it is lying directly on its 
side. These boxes we fourd were not 
quite large enough to receive the largest 
avocados. I would say, do not put any 
paper between the fruits. I found in 
San Francisco that many of our shippers 
from here were sending the fruits up 
there in orange crates and larger boxes 
than that and packing paper, wads of 
paper, in between the fruts. Doubtless 
the idea was to keep the fruit from bruis- 
ing, but what is the result? You have 
a solid mass of fruit and paper packed 
closely together; the circulation of air 
is rendered impossible, and it is about 
like trying to refrigerate a wad of 
cotton—you can’t get the refrigeration 
into it; rather you can’t get the heat 
out of it, you do not get the circulation 
of the air, the cold air, about the fruit. 
And there is no need of this paper if the 
fruit is carefully placed so as to be snug. 
Do not put in any leaves, The shipping 
must be in refrigeration only. When 
we first commenced shipping, people 
told us that we could not ship in 
refrigeration without the fruit all turn- 
ing black. That depends upon the 
refrigeration. But ventilation is out of 
the question, ventilation without refri- 
geration is out of the question—the 
fruit will all arrive in the market 
in a condition too soft to be received 
by the wholesale trade. A great deal 
of it may arrive there in suitable con- 
dition for eating, but the trade will not 
take it in thatform. The avocado will 
endure retrigeration for a term of 
three weeks any way. The exact time 
we have not determined, but we have 
determined that it will not endure 
refrigeration as long as most temperate 
zone fruits. The first deteriorating 
effect of refrigeration is observable in 
the darkening of the flesh close to the 
seed, and then the flesh begins to turn 
rancid; but it is perfectly safe to send 
them as faras San Francisco or as far 
as New York, so far as the time ele- 
ment is concerned, The temperatures 


Edible Products. 


that are best adapted for the refri- 
geration of avocados has not been deter- 
mined. We have carried them as low 
as between 40 and 45 and as high as 50. 
Fifty degrees I am satisfied is too high. 
Our next hope is to try them between 
45 and 50, and I think that somewhere 
in there we will find the optimum tem- 
perature. The temperature must be con- 
stant, for variations intemperture, as I 
have said, are deleterious to all fruits. 
HANDLING THE FRUIT IN THE MARKET. 
It is necessary when the fruit arrives 
in the market, if there is not asale for 
it immediately, that it should be stored 
in refrigeration. If it is exposed, even 


in San Francisco where it is cool, the 
ripening process begins, and, as I have 
said before, once they get well 


under way it is difficult to arrest them 
and preserve the fruit. Itis necessary, 
therefore. for the fruit to go into cold 
storage if there is not immediate sale 
for it. As tothe market demands for 
avocadys in San Francisco: As _ to 
colour they prefer a green avocado. 
I don’t know why, and I don’t think 
they do, but they have been getting 
green avocados from Tahiti, and _ pos- 
sibly that may be the reason; but thatis 
their preference at present. In other 
parts of the United States, well, from 
Pitsburg west they have no perference. 
because they scarcely know the avocado 
—it is an unknown article—butin San 
Francisco it isa known fruit and that 
is what they are calling for—green fruit 
—although they will take the red or 
the brown. I think that that is a 
matter, however, in which a change 
could easily be brought about, provid- 
ed our best avocados should turn out 
to be the brown or the red. Some of 
our best varieties may be these. The 
market demands that the fruit be 
firm asI have already told you, You 
cannot put fruit beginning to soften on 
the market. In the first place, it is a 
high-priced fruit, and the buyers who 
handle the fruit, will not take the risk 
of buying fruit, at a high price which, if 
it is not sold within a day or two is 
going to be a dead loss; but if the 
fruit is firm, it will sell and sell at a 
good price. 


We should be careful, in 
avocados, to send only those 
quality. That is important. 
makicg our reputation, and we 
make a good one. The prices which 
this. fruit receives in San Francisco 
range from a dollar and ahalf to two 
dollars and a half per dozen, Fruits 
that are of good quality and firm will 
sell for $2:50 per dozen. As to the sell- 
selling agent, [ think I will postpone 


sending 
of good 
We are 
want to 


8 


[FEBRUARY, 1909. 


a discussion of that question until we 
come to a later part of the evening when 
we are talking of the marketing of other 
fruits since the problem is the same, 


Tot MANGO. 


The marketing of: the mango is about 
the same as that of the avocado with 
the following exceptions:—The crates 
while they must be small, need not be 
so smallas in the case of the avocado. 
Two or three layers will be endured 
a great deal better in the case of the 
mango than in the case of the avocado, 
but you must be careful not to pack 
them in large packages. The refri- 
geration can be more prolonged in the 
case of the mango thanin the ease of 
the avocados. The mango can_be kept 
for at least six weeks safely. The mar- 
ket demands for mangoes are nil. There 
are no:demands. In San _ Francisco 
where the fruit comes in spasmodically 
from Tahiti and from Mexico, the sale 
is a fairly ready one, rather slow, but 
the supply is not constant; and, the sup- 
ply being inconstant. there is no con- 
stant demand, for that isa principle in 
fruit marketing ; a constant demand pre- 
supposes a constant supply. The mango 
weevil is perhaps, our greatest enemy 
at the present time, our greatest obsta- 
cle in the way of a mango _ shipping 
industry. We have the mangoes, 
we have the varieties, and we know we 
can grow them. We know also that 
such fruit can be sold, though there is 
no market now or a very limited one, 
but a market for such fruit as the mango 
can be created. But the mango weevil 
is present here as you know. The 
larvee hatches in the egg in the seed, and 
because it is in the seed you cannot 
examine the exterior of the fruit and 
know whether you have the mango 
weevil or not, and hence the inspectors 
on the mainland feel that it is a very 
important thing that they should see 
that the mango weevil does not get into 
California and thence into the whole 
United States. It is not yet determined 
whether the mango weevil will affect 
other fruits than mango ornot. I be- 
lieve the entomologists tell us that it 
has not been reported upon any other 
fruit or plant than the mango. Yet 
eareful men wish to avoid all chances, 
and we will have to expect that our 
fruits will be carefully examined when 
they reach San Francisco, and if they 
are infested with the weevil they will 
be turned down. 


THE PAPAIA. 


The picking of the papaia for the San 
Francisco or for any shipping market 
should be done when the faintest things 
of yellow appear. As in the case of the 


Feprvuary, 1909.1 


avocado, it should be picked as_ nearly 
as possible to the time of the sailing of 
the ship. In picking the papaia the 
stem should be cut about an inch or an 
inch and a half long. Here there is 
opportunity for some latitude, as the 
length of the stem may be varied 
slightly to facilitate the packing of the 
fruit. This crate (indicating) is adapted 
to the packing of the smaller papaias 
of the long type. If the papaia does not 
just fit here in its length, you can make 
some slight differences in the cutting, 
cut the stem half an inch longer or half 
an ineh shorter and this crate accommo- 
dates them. The papaia should be hand- 
led with carealso. The wrapping should 
be done with rather heavy paper and it 
is preferable to have it glazed, because 
if any fruit begins to decay or to get 
soft, an unglazed paper will allow the 
moisture to pass through to the adjoin- 
ing fruit more quickly than the glazed 
paper will. The shipping must of neces- 
sity be in refrigeration. Ventilation 
alone is again out of the question in the 
case of the papaia, and extreme care 
is necessary on the part of the steam- 
ship agents and everybody who handles 
the fruit to see that it is not bruised. 
Picking upacrate of fruit and letting 
it drop an inch or an inch and a half 
jars the fruit and bruisesit, The papaia 
is unknown in the markets, butit isa 
taste which is rapidly acquired, as you 
know, by almost everybody. lEvery- 
body who comes to the islands either 
enjoys the fruit at first contact or very 
rapidly acquires the taste; and I believe 
that a good market for papaias could be 
worked up, particularly during the 
season when the cantaloupes cannot be 
found in the market. 


THE BANANA. 


The banana should be cut before it 
becomes too ‘‘full,” as the term is used. 
You will recall that a banana when itis 
immature has ridges—corners—on it. 
When it becomes fully mature and.the 
fruit begins to turn yellow, those ridges 
on the Chinese variety and also on the 
Blue-fields or Jamaica variety 
appear. When the fruit has become 
fully rounded it is too far advanced for 
shipping. Nobody can describe the 
stage of maturity at which itis best to 
cut the fruit—that has to be determined 
by experience. The fruit must be cut 
while it still retains the ridges, but the 
degree of maturity will depend upon the 
distance to market. The wrapper.— 
Grass has been used as a wrapper. 
Banana leaves are more commonly used 
and are very much preferable. The 
banana leaves may be kept drier than 
the grass, Grass has a tendency to 
absorb moisture and to hold moisture 


149 


dis- * 


Hdible Products. 


and dampness, and that causes the fruit 
to sweat and causes the ‘Ripe Rot” to 
develop, the fruit to turn black and to 
soften. Mistakes were made, particu- 
larly in the Hilo banana trade, in ship- 
ping the fruits in moist grass, On the 
mainland last summer I found a banana 
drum being used for the shipping of 
bananas from the great central markets 
into the tributory territory. These 
drums were constructed of heavy card- 
board, and were just large enough to 
contain a single bunch. They are made 
of two sizes, large enough to contain a 
single bunch. Around the top of the 
drum the top hoop held a strong piece 
of paper in place, which was drawn up 
from the top of the drum and tied to 


the stem of the banana, and that 
was the way in which the fruit was 
carried—by its stem, Whether that 


would be practicable for our shipping 
Ido not know. I have sent for some of 
these, and we hope to have them on 
hand and give them a closer examination, 
and possibly we may be able to give 
them a trial. They are also making a 
similar drum ont of veneer instead of 
the paper. Refrigeration is absolutely 
not adapted for the banana. Bananas 
shipped in refrigeration turn black and 
never ripen. The‘ banana trust,” as it 
is called—the United Fruits Company— 
ship their bananas across the hot plains 
in the summertime with ice—in the ice 
bunkers of the refrigerating cars—but 
they are always watched; frequently 
the doors are opeu, the ventilators are 
opened. These trains are always accom- 
panied by an attendent, who sees to it 
that the temperature never gets down 
below. The ice is simply to overcome 
the intense heat and hold back the 
ripening a little. 


The Bluefields versus the Chinese 
variely for shipping.—The Chinese 
banana, as you know, is very subject to 
what is known as the “Ripe Rot” 
disease. That is the fungus disease that 
causes the banana to become spotted, 
speckled with little black specks. When 
the disease spreads and the black specks 
become united, it forms large blotches, 
which in the last stages of the disease— 
I mean the fruiting stages of the fungus 
—produce a reddish, roseate tinged spot 
where the black spot was previously. 
That you may not have noticed, but if 
you will get some bananas and allow 
them to ripen and rot, if they have these 
black spots I think you notice finally 
this red fruiting stage of the fungus. 
The Bluefields banana is quite resistant 
to the disease and, as a consequence, it 
arlives in the market in a bright yellow 
form. Sometimes you see black spots 
on them where they have rubbed to- 


Edible Products. 


gether or where they have rubbed 
against the next bunch, because they 
are shipped naked, without any wrap- 
ping, but this is due to bruising. The 
Bluefields or Jamaica variety holds to 
the bunch better than the Chinese. 
There has been a complaint against some 
of those that we have grown here. 
Though that complaint may be due in 
part to our soil and climate, I believe 
that it has been due to hanging the 
bunches the wrong way. The Chinese 
banana is hung in one direction and the 
Bluefileds in another, as I will show you 
in the slides later. A Bluefields banana 
hangs close up to the stem of the bunch, 
and as it grows from the tree, the in- 
dividual fruits come out like that 
(indicating)and goup. Now if you hang 
the bunch up that way in the market, 
when the fruits begin to ripen, the 
weight simply breaks them off; if you 
reverse the thing—hang them up by the 
smaller end—they hang more naturally 
and their weight is a pull rather than a 
thrust and they will stand it. 


The capacity of the pacific coast for 
bananas, as nea as Iam able to estimate 
it from the information which I have 
gathered in many cities on the western 
slope, is about 826,000 bunches per annum, 
and of these Hawaii ships about 15,000 
bunches a month. You will see that our 
competitors ship a great many more 
bananas all the way from New Orleans 
or Mobile than we ship from here, and 
pay high freight rates on them, too. 
There isa freight rate of about $1:25a 
hundred, if I recallit, from New Orleans 
to any pointon the Pacific coast. The 
cooking bananas have not got into the 
market at all. I believe there is an 
opening for cooking bananas in the 
markets. Some of our ‘‘maia maoli,” 
the variety that is most commonly used 
for cooking, the common cooking banana 
of our markets, I believe would find a 
ready sale in the mainland markets if 
the people ever became acquainted with 
them. There certainly is no fruit more 
delicious when properly cooked thana 
‘*maia maolli.” 


THE PINEAPPLE. 


There are a great many points to be 
considered in the proper shipping of 
pineapples. Here, again, I want to 
emhpasize the matter of the care of 
handling. The packing of a ton or a 
ton and a half of pineapples on a wagon 
loose, rubbing against each other, over 
rough roads and perhaps without springs 
on the wagon, certainly is not the 
advantage of the fruit. In all experi- 
ments we have found that pineapples 
cut with long stems carry to the market 
in very much better condition than 


150 


[FeBRUARY, 1909, 


those that are cut with short stems. 
Now, as to packing: At the present 
time the large portion of our  pine- 
apples that go to the market as fresh 
fruit are packed in a erate that is in 
my opinion entirely too large for the 
fruit. We have the most delicate, the 
most delicious and the largest fruit, the 
best pineapples that are commonly 
found in the markets. We put them 
into the largest crate—the largest 
package—of any pineapples that go 
into the market. We are at the ex- 
tremes in both ways: the best fruit, 
the poorest package. Several attempts 
have been made to use other erates, 
and some of them are an improvement. 
There is a crate devised by Mr. 
Byron O. Clark (who is present with 
us,to-night) which is an improvement 
in that it contains much less fruit and 
has rounded corners so that it does 
not receive as many opportunities to 
have the staves split off. It comes as 
near the advantages of the round or 
barrel form of any crate that we 
have tried. As to packing material, 
there appears to be very little differ- 
ence whether we use excelsior or dried 
wild grass, provided the latter is per- 
fectly dry. ‘The danger with grass is 
in using it when it is not perfectly dry. 
The paper wrapping should be heavy, 
and as in the case of the papaia, it is 
better that it should be glazed. Hach 
wrapper should be large enough to 
cover the whole fruit, including the 
base, but not necessarily the crown; 
it can be pressed about the crown and 
made tocover the stem. It is import- 
antthat there should be a solid pack, 


There is nothing here (on the black- 
board) in regarding to shipping, but I 
believe that that is our most import- 
ant problem at the present time, that 
is, to get suitable shipping facilities. 
What we need is steamers that will 
carry the fruit with gcod ventilation, 
keep the fruit cool and keep the circu- 
lation of air about it. Another need 
of equal importance is an organization 
which can place in the important main- 
land market representatives to handle 
our fruits, an organization to act as 
the representative of the Hawaiian 
growers. What [ am saying nowin 
regard to pineapples applies to every 
fruit that I have discussed, but it is 
most practicable at the present time in 
the case of pineapples, because that in- 
dustry has grown to assume such large 
proportions, Icannot stop to tell you 
all the reasons for this. I have brought 
here a number of bulletins at Mr. Pope’s 
suggestion, bulletins covering the sub- 
ject of citrus fruits, which I have 
discussed with you, and also the mango, 


FREBRUARY, 1909, | 


and this bulletin on the marketing of 
Hawaiian fruits. In the latter part of 
this you will find’something of my ideas 
in regard to the marketing systems and 
the absurdity that appears to me to be 
involved in the so-called ‘‘Commission 
System ”’—‘‘ consingnig system,” and a 
better system whichI think ought to 
be inaugurated. I think we will take the 
few minutes that remain to run through 
a few of the sildes which will illustrate 
some of the things which I have said. 


A number of slides of the different 
fruits were then exhibited, with explan- 
ations by Mr. Higgins. 

In answer to a question as to the 
advantage of sealing the ends of various 
fruits with sealing wax or other sub- 
stances to prevent diseases, etc., the 
speaker said that it had not as yet 
been determined definitely whether 
such sealing was an advantage or not ; 
that experiments would have to be 
conducted with the different fruits and 
sealing materials to decide that point. 
The advantage would bein preventing 
infection, but in many cases the spores 
would have gained entrance before the 
sealing process had begun.—Hawiian 
Forester and Agricuturist, Vol, V., No. 5, 
May, 1908. 


SWEET POTATOES. 


(Concluded from page 46.) 
HARVESTING SWEET POTATORS. 
TIME FOR DIGGING SWEET POTATOES. 


The harvesting and marketing of 
sweet potatoes direct from the field 
begins about the middle of August and 
continues until the crop is all disposed 
of or placed in storage for winter 
marketing. During the early part of 
the harvesting season the yield is light, 
but us arule the prices paid are good. 
The supply for home use and _ those 
potatoes that are to be kept in storage 
should not be dug until just before frost. 
In the localities where frosts do not 
occur until quite late in the season the 
sweet potatoes ripen and the vines show 
a slight tinge of yellow when ready for 
handling. 


EFFECT OF FROST ON SWEET POTATOES, 


The foliage of the sweet potato is very 
tender and is easily injured by frost. 
A light frosting of the leaves will do no 
harm, but should the vines become 
frozen before digging they should be 
cut away to prevent the frozen sap pass- 
ing down to the roots and injuring 
them. Where there is a heavy yield of 
potatoes the soil is frequently cracked 
or the ends of the potatoes protrude 
above ground and are liable to injury 
from severe frost. 


151 


Hdible Products. 


If on account of rainy weather or for 
any other cause the potatoes cannot be 
dug before frost or immediately after- 
wards, the vines should be cut away 
and the potatoes removed at the first 
opportunity. If cold weather continues 
it may be necessary to draw a little 
extra soil over the hills to protect the 
potatoes, or the vines may be piled in a 
ridge over the row. A very slight frost- 
ing of the potatoes will cause them to 
decay within a short time after being 
placed in storage. 


METHODS OF HARVESTING SWEET 
POTATOES. 


For digging a small area of sweet 
potatoes, the spading or potato fork jis 
suitable. When digging by hand, the 
work will be greatly facilitated by first 
throwing a small furrow from one side 
ot the row by means of a one-horse turn- 
ing plough. The removal of sweet pota- 
toes from the soil in large quantities is 
generally accomplished by the aid of 
sweet potato diggers or ploughs. These 
implements are provided with two 
sharp rolling coulters that cut the vines 


ahead of the plough, and differ from the 


ordinary plough in having a moldboard 
that does not turn a furrow and termi- 
nates ina number of rods or an exten- 
sion of the moldboard for separating the 
potatoes from the soil. 


Where no special digging device is 
available, the ordinary two-horse turn- 
ing plough is frequently used, a rolling 
coulter being attached to the beam to 
cut the vines. After ploughing out the 
sweet potatoes it will be necessary to 
stir the soil in order to fird those that 
become covered, The machines em- 
ployed for handling Irish potatoes may 
be used for digging sweet potatoes, but 
are not entirely satisfactory for this 
purpose, as they bruise and otherwise 
injure sweet potatoes. 


It is desirable that the soil should be 
comparatively dry at the time of harvest- 
ing sweet potatoes, and bright, drying 
weather is essential to the proper hand- 
ling of the crop. Sweet potatoes differ 
from Irish potatoes inthat they are not 
so easily injured by sunlight. However 
they should not be exposed for any 
length of time if the sunshine is very 
warm. During the handlingin the field 
it should be the purpose to remove all 
soil and surface moisture from the pota- 
toes. Sweet potatoes should not lie 
exposed upon the surface of the ground 
during the night. 


MARKETING DIRECT FROM THE FIELD. 


Where sweet potatoes are grown in 
large quantities for early marketing 
it is the practice to dig, pack, and load, 


Rdible Products. 


all on the same day, direct from the 
field. As the potatoes are gathered up 
behind the diggers they are sorted into 
the various grades and packed into 
ventilated barrels ready for — ship- 
ment, When the barrels are packed 
in the field they are as a_ rule 
covered with burlap or similar material. 
In parts of New Jersey the potatoes are 
sorted in the field and gathered into five- 
eighths-bushel baskets, in which they 
are hauled to the depot platform, where 
they are packed into bariels and headed. 
More than one-half of the commercial 
crop is marketed direct from the_field 
without the use of packing sheds or 
storage of any kind other than that 
provided by the transportation com- 
panies. 


GRADING AND PACKING, 


In sorting sweet potatoes preparatory 
to packing, about four grades are recog- 
nized as fancy, primes, seconds, and 
eulls. Those packed as fancy include 
only the most select, both in size and 
shape. The primes include all those 
adapted to general first-class trade, 
while the seconds include the smaller 
and more irregular stock which goes to 
a lower priced trade. The culls are not 
marketed unless good stock is exceed- 
ingly scarce, andasa rule are used for 
feeding to hogs. 


Sweet potatoes are usually shipped in 
barrels holding eleven pecks each. Some 
markets require that the barrels be 
faced and headed, while for others the 
tops are slightly rounded and covered 
with burlap. Small lots of extra-fancy 
sweet potatoes are sometimes shipped 
in one bushel-crates having raised tops : 
also in patent folding crates. 


Throughout the process of handling 
care must be exercised to see that the 
sweet potatoes do not become bruised, 
for upon this their shipping and keeping 
qualities greatly depend. 


STORAGE OF SWEET POTATOES. 
Methods of Storing. 

Unlike most perishable products, the 
sweet potatoe requires warmth and a 
dry atmosphere while in storage. The 
method of storing will depend both upon 
the locality and the quantity of potatoes 
to be cared for. The temperature and 
conditions of a rather living room are 
admirably adapted for keeping sweet 
potatoes intended for home use in the 
North, while in the South they may be 
placed in pits or stored in outdoor 
cellars. The home supply may be placed 
in crates and stored inaloft over the 
kitchen part of the dwelling. Sweet 
potatoes should not be stored in bags or 
in barrels without ventilation. 


152 {PEBRUARY, 1909. 


PITS AND CELLARS. 


Where large quantities of sweet 
potatoes are stored for winter market- 
ing, the method employed in the 
Southern States is to place them in out- 
door pits and cellars, while at the North 
some form of heated storage house will 
be required. Whether the storage be in 
pit, cellar or house, a dry, warm atmo- 
sphere with ventilation is essential to 
good keeping. 


Storage pits should be located where. 
the drainage is good. First, a little of 
the surface soil is thrown back to form 
a level bed 8 or 10 feet in diameter, then 
two small trenches crossing each other 
at right angles in the centre of the bed 
are excavated and some boards laid over 
these. At the point where the trenches 
cross, a loosely nailed 4 by 4 inch box 
is set on end to form a flue up through 
the potatoes. The earth floor of the pit 
should be covered with2 or 3 inches of 
hay, leaves, or pine straw, and the 
potatoes piled ina large, conical heap 
around the ventilator flue. When the 
heap is of the desired size, the potatoes 
are covered with hay or pine straw, and 
soil to the thickness of 5 or 6 inches is 
added, but the trenches and flue are 
kept open until it is necessary to close 
them to keep out the frost. In the 


South sweet potatoes are frequently — 
kept throughout the winter by this 
method. 


OUTDOOR CELLARS. 


This form of cellar, built entirely 
above ground, consists of a line of posts 
through the centre supporting a ridge 
pole upon which is placed one end of 
planks or puncheons with their opposite 
end resting on the ground on either side 
of the ridge. The ends of the inclosure are 
boarded u2, adoor being provided in one, 
and the structure covered with sod to a 
thickness of 5 or 6 inches. The sweet 
potatoes are stored upon the earth floor 
aud the door is kept open for a time for 
ventilation. If the house exceeds a 
length of 12 or 14 feet, a top ventilator 
should be provided. 


VARIGTIES OF SWEET POTATORS. 


Of the large number of varieties of the 
sweet potatoe there are not more than 
ten that are now of great commercial 
importance in the United States. For 
the market that requireadry, mealy- 
fleshed potato those varieties belonging 
to the Jersey group are suitable. For 
the southern trade and where a moist- 
fleshed potato is desired these commonly 
designated as yams are in damand. 
Among the Jerseys that are extensively 
grown are the’ Big-Stem Jersey, the 
Yellow Jersey, and the Red Jersey. 


FEBRUARY, 1909.] 


The principal varieties of the yam group 
are the Southern Queen, the Pumpkin 
Yam, the Georgia, the Florida, and the 
Red Bermuda. Of the varieties men- 
tioned there are a large number 
of special strains, known under many 
local names. 


In the selection of varieties for home 
use one must be governed largely by 
locality. Asarule those of the Jersey 
group will thrive farther north than 
those of the so-called yam types. For 
market purposes the particular variety 
or strain grown in the vicinity should be 
first selected, and afterward other 
varieties may be experimented with ina 
small way. 

The following brief descriptions of a 
few of the leading varieties may be 
of assistance in selecting those best adap- 
ted to various conditions of soil and cli- 
mate :— 


Big-Stem Jersey.—This variety is the 
most popular among the growers who 
are supplying the northern and eastern 
markets. It is a form of the Yellow 
Jersey, having been selected for its pro- 
ductiveness and dry, yellow flesh. The 
vines are slender and long; the potatoes 
are of spindle shape and inclined to grow 
rather large; colour of potatoes yellow ; 
colour of flesh light yellow or deep cream. 
While this variety yields heavily. it is 
unfortunately a rather poor keeper, and 
its flesh is inclined to become dry and 
“punky” toward spring, It will thrive 
well toward the north, but is better 
adapted for use as acommercial variety 
than for home consumption. 


Yellow Jsrsey.—The vines of the 
Yellow Jersey variety are long and more 
slender than those of the Big-Steam 
Jersey, and the potatoes are of spindle 
shape, but much smaller; otherwise the 
two varieties are very similar in 
appearance. The flesh is dry and mealy. 
This variety is a fairly good keeper and 
retains its quality well. Itis adapted for 
home use and thrives under a wide range 
of conditions, but does not yield heavily 
enough for commercial purposes, 


Red Jersey.—This is similar to the 
Yellow Jersey variety, except that the 
roots are red anditis more productive 
under most conditions. It is suitable 
for home use. 


Southern Queen, or Hayman.—The 
vines of this variety are strong and vigor- 
ous; the potatoes are large, thick, and 
blunt at ends or of short spindle shape; 
the colour is white or light cream, while 
the flesh is of cream colour, becoming 
darkened in cooking, moist, and very 
sweet. This variety ismost extensively 
grown for market purposes where a 

18 


153 


Edible Products, 


sweet, moist-fleshed potato is demanded. 
The Southern Queen yields well, is an ex- 
cellent keeper, and is adapted for both 
marketing and stock feeding and for 
home use in the South Atlantic and Gulf 
Coasts States, but it does not mature 
when grown in the extreme North. 


Pumpkin Yam.—The vines are vigor- 
ous, short, sometimes of a bunch habit. 
The potatoes are of short spindle shape 
or quite round, witha dull yellow colour 
on the outside. The flesh is orange or 
sometimes yellow and marbled with 
orange; it is moist and has a flavour very 
similar to that of good squash, This 
variety yields well and is adapted to 
home use and to stock feeding throughout 
the South. 


Georgia, or Split-Leaf, Yan.—The vines 
of this variety are slender and long; the 
potatoes of medium size, spindle shape, 
yellow, the flesh a light yellow, marbled 
with salmon. The quality of this variety 
is excellent and very sweet, but it isa 
light yielder. It isa splendid sort for 
home use throughout the South Atlantic 
and Gulf Coast States. 


Red Bermuda.—The Red Bermuda 
vines are large and vigorous. The 
potatoes are usually large and overgrown 
with heavy ridges and veins. Thecolour 
of the potatoes is rose red; flesh, creamy ; 
quality fair but not so sweet as Southern 
Queen. This variety is a heavy cropper 
and suitable for feeding to stock. Itis 
one of the fewso-called yams which 
thrive in the northern portion of the 
sweet. potato area. 


Florida.—The vines of the Florida 
variety are large and vigorous. The 
potatoes are rather large, light salmon 
yellow, smooth and regular, of short 
spindle shape, with light yellow flesh. 
This variety is not so sweet as the 
Georgia and is inclined to be dry and 
mealy. It yields fairly well and is 
adapted for home use, 


Pierson.—The vines of the Pierson are 
similar to those of the Red Bermuda 
variety. The potatoes are light yellow, 
of short, spindle shape, very rough, with 
cream-colored flesh. This sort is exten- 
sively grown for the earliest market, 
but itis of only fair quality. It yields 
wellif allowed to remain until late in 
the season. 


Black Spanish, or ‘** Niger Choker.”— 
The Black Spanish vines are very long, 
vigorous, and dark purple incolour. The 
potatoes are long, cylindrical, crooked, 
or bent; dark purple in colour, with 
snowy white flush and poor quality. 
This variety is grown mostly for stock 
feeding. 


Edible Products. 154. 


Shanghai.—The vines of the Shanghai 
variety are large and _ vigorous; the 
potatoes long, cylindrical; the outside 
colour almost white, The flesh is 
creamy white, becoming darker in cook- 
ing. When baked the flesh is somewhat 
dry and mealy and the flavour rather 
poor. This variety yields fairly well 
and is adapted for use as stock food in 
Gulf Coast States. 

Cost OF PRODUCTION AND RETURNS. 

The cost of growing an acre of sweet 
potatoes will vary with the cropping 
plan and the extent to which the crop is 
grown. On an average the cost of 
growing an acre of sweet potatoes in the 
regular commercial district is about as 
tollows :—Rental of land, $8;, ploughing 
and fitting, $5; fertilizers, $20 ; 10,000 
plants, $10; planting, $5; cultivating, $9 ; 
digging and marketing, $25; total, $78. 
An average yield of sweet potatoes is at 
the rate of one barrel to 100 hills or 100 
barrels to an acre. The price per barrel 
paid the grower is seldom less than $1°25, 
and $2°50 or $3 is notuncommon. During 
good seasons the net. profit from one 
acre of sweet potatoes is about $75. 
While occasionally the net returns are 
from $100 to $150 an acre for a single 
season, there are seasons of crop failure 
or overproduction when very little, if 
any, profit is realized. 

The sweet-potato growers on the 
eastern shore of Virginia asa rule plant 
about 10 acres insweet potatoes, and this 
constitutes their money crop. The 
remainder of the cleared portion of their 
small farms is devoted to corn, pasture, 
and hay, all for home use. Here the 
sweet potato crop is grown almost 
entirely without the aid of hired help, 
and the cost of production does not 
exceed $40 an acre. Where the crop is 
stored the gross returns are greater, but 
the cost of production is increased pro- 
portionately. 

UsEs OF SWEEr POTATOES. 


The uses of the sweet potato as 
a table vegetable are too important 
and too well-known to require more 
than brief mention in a publication of 
this character. In preparing them for 
the table they are baked, boiled, fried, 
or braised, while for pies they are used 
inthe same manner as pumpkins. 

A number of attempts have been 
made to build up an industry for the 
production and sale of desiccated sweet 
potatoes and sweet potato flour. There 
is doubtless a great field for this class 
of goods, especially for export and for 
ship supplies. 


Usis For Stock Foon. 


The vines of the sweet potato when 
properly cured make a medium grade 


’ produced, 


of hay for feeding to cattle and sheep. 
In the green state the vines are eaten 
by sheep, cattle and hogs, but their feed- 
ing value is comparatively small. The 
potatoes are fairly well adapted to feed- 
ing to range cattle, sheep, and hogs. 
although their nutritive value is quite 
low, and they require the addition of 
cotton-seed meal or grain to make a 
balanced ration. On farms where sweet 
potatoes are grown extensively the 
culls are fed to hogs, together with a 
oue-third or one-half ration of corn. 


By employing one of the heavy- 
yielding varieties of sweet potatoes, 
such as the Southern Queen or the Ber- 
muda Red, and drying and pulverizing 
them, a splendid stock food may be 
duc especially when _ sufficient 
grain is added to form a balanced ration. 


The principal uses of sweet potatoes 
are, however, for the table, and the de- 
mand for this purpose is rapidly in- 
creasing. 


From the fact that by the aid of 
commercial fertilizer alone sweet pota- 
toes can be grown on comparatively 
poor landand largely by the use of 
labour-saving machinery, this crop may 
in a great measure solve the problem 
of how to occupy the ‘‘ worn-out” cot- 
ton and tobacco lands of the South, 
especially if employed in a rotation 
including corn, peanuts and grass. By 
the perfection of some means by which 
sweet potatoes could bedried and con- 
verted into a condensed stock food on 
the farm, they in conjunction with corn, 
peanuts, and a littie hay would serve 
to keep the stock on southern farms in 
good condition during the winter. 


When removed fromthe ground the 
sweet potato contains about 71 per 
cent, of water, 1°5 per cent. of protein, 25 
per cent. of nitrogen-free extract, and 
0°35 per cent. of fat. It will be noted 
that both the protein and fat content 
of the sweet potato are compara- 
tively low. The analysis of peanuts 
shows that the protein and fat are both 
quite high, and by combining them 
with sweet potatoes at the rate of one 
bushel of peanuts, ground in the shells, 
to three bushels of sweet potatoes are 
nearly equal to one bushel of corn in 
feeding value, but in order to make 
them satisfactory as a stock food it 
is necessary to add peanuts, cotton- 
seed meal, or grain. 


USE FOR PRODUCTION OF ALCOHOL. 


The starch and sugar content of sweet 
potatoes varies considerably in differ- 
ent varieties, but as a rule they con- 
tain about 16 per cent. of starch and 4 
per cent, of sugar, making a total of 20 


FEBRUARY, 1909. 


er cent. of aleohol-producing material. 
tis possible that sweet potatoes will 
become one of thechief sources of de- 
natured alcoholin the United States, 
but at present the methods of manu- 
facture have not been sufficiently per- 
fected to warrant their use for this pur- 
pose ona farm or community basis.— 
O. S. Department of Agriculture. Farm- 
ers’ Bulletin, 324, Sweet Potatoes. 


A. B.C. OF LIME CULTIVATION. 
(Concluded from page 42,) 


HAND-PRESSED LIM® OIL. 


_ Lime oil is used in perfumery and for 
soap making. The hand-pressed _pro- 
duct is obtained by pressing the limes 
by hand over an ecuelle pan. The ecu- 
elle is ashaliow, concave, circular cop- 
per pan studded with blunt spikes on 
its concavity and with a receptacle at 
the base to catch the oil. The work of 
obtaining hand-pressed oil is done by 
women, who usually select the best limes 
and pass them quickly with a circular 
movement over the blunt spikes, ex- 
erting sufficient pressure to break the 
oil cells in the skin of the limes. The 
oilruns into the receptacle and is col- 
lected from time to time in bottles, It 
is then settled, and afterwards is passed 
through filter paper into copper vessels. 
These vessels are usually exported in 
boxes. 


A barrel of limes will give from 3 to 
44 oz. of oil by this process, and the 
usual price paid for extracting the oil 
is ld. per oz Atthis rate, women who 
have become expert by practice at this 
work are able during the height of the 
crop season to earn good pay. 


The yield of oil varies according to 
conditions of moisture. In _ localities 
where the annual rainfall is from 60 to 100 
inches, the citric acid content of the 
juice of the fruitis high, and the yield 
of oil from the rind of the fruit low. 
Where the rainfall is high—say, from 130 
to 200 inches—the citric acid content is 
low and the yield of oil high. 


DISTILLED LIME OIL. 


When lime juice is to be concentrated 
it is first distilled in order to obtain the 
oil. In thecase of estates which ship 
raw juice, the scum that collects on the 
juice in the settling vats is alone distilled. 


The oil is exported in either copper or 
tin vessels which are packed in boxes. 
It costs less to produce than _ hand- 
pressed oil, but commands a lower price. 


Stills fitted with steam coils are the 
best, but itis only in a very few cases 
that steam is available on estates. 


55 KHdible Products. 


The yield of oil by distillation is from 
3 to 50z. per barvel of limes, or taking 
80 barrels of fruit to make one hogshead 
of concentrated juice, from"15 to 25 Ib, 
per hogshead, according to locality and 
conditions of moisture. A gallon of 
distilled oil weighs 9 lbs. 


Appendix I. 
CITRATE oF LIME. 


The following information on citrate 
of lime has been obtained by the Impe- 
rial Department of Agriculture from 
manufacturing chemists in London and 
New York :— 


Messrs, Sydney Harvey & Co., 48, 
Mark Lane, London, E.C., write as 
follows :— 


‘Citrate of Lime is preferred to con- 
centrated juice by our acid makers, 
because the tormer is more easily worked, 
and is altogether a more satisfactory 
article to deal with, and to the producer 
himself, citrate of lime is also a better 
article. In the first place, a higher 
price is paid for citrate of lime than for 
juice, and there is a considerable saving 
in freight, casks, and loss by leakage. 


‘Up till a few years ago, the whole 
of the Sicillian production was in con- 
eentrated juice, but when the makers 
once realised how much more satis- 
tactory citrate of lime was, the making 
of concentrated juice ceased entirely, 
and now we receive from Sicily some- 
thing like 5,000 tons of citrate of lime. 


‘There is no chance whatever of the 
demand for citrate of lime falling and 
returning to concentrated juice, We 
believe that more citric acid can be 
saved in making citrate than in concen- 
trating juice.’ 


The Powers-Weightman-Rosengarten 
LORRY Philadelphia, write as fol- 
OWS :— 


‘The cost of a citrate plant cannot be 
very great, and we believe the money 
spent in installing the same would be 
quickly returned through the increased 
economy and efficiency. 


‘Citric acid contained in citrate of lime 
sells at a higher price than that con- 
tained in concentrated juice. We would 
give preference to citrate as against 
concentrated juice, and the tendency is 
strongly setin that direction and will 
remain so. 


‘We have never determined — the 
saving in making citrate, but have 


always considered it to be at least 10 per 
cent.’ 


Edible Products. 156 


The following circular on citrate cf 
lime isissued by the above Company :— 


‘In some places citrous juices are 
simply concentrated in copper kettles 
over an open fire. This concentrated 
juice is placed in suitable containers and 
shipped to us. We cannot recommend 
concentration, as some of the acid is 
destroyed, and the evaporated juice is 
not as valuable per unit of citric acid 
contained, as the product we now des- 
cribe, viz., calcium citrate. 


‘Calcium citrate is a combination of 
calcium and citric acid. Its most useful 
property is the fact that it is in- 
sOluble in hot water; hence, when the 
proper calcium salt (chalk, whitening or 
slaked lime) is added toa boiling liquor 
containing citric acid, the liquor is 
robbed of its acid, and the latter is 
recovered in the form of calcium citrate. 


‘It is necessary to have a steam boiler 
useful for generating steam rather than 
for power; the steam from this boiler is 
used :— 


1. To heat the juice in a still in order 
to drive off the oil. 


2. To keep the juice boiling hot whilst 
it is converted into calcium citrate. 

8. To heat water with which the 
calcium citrate is washed. 

4. To heat the driers 
product is dried. 


‘We now describe the method for 
producing calcium citrate from limes, 
waste lemons, etc. This method might 
be subject to changes according to con- 
ditions with which we are not at present 
familiar. 


where the 


The material is pressed between the 
rollers of an old sugar mill; a cider press 
will also sutfice. The juice is run into 
the still (made of copper or lead), where 
a short boiling removes the oil which is 
eollected at the end of a copper con- 
denser ; the boiling juice is run through 
strainers made of brass wire into suitable 
wooden tanks, where it is neutralized 
with chalk of lime ete. During neutral- 
ization the mass is kept as hot as 
possible by means of a jet of live steam. 


‘When the operation is complete the 
contents of the tank are permitted to 
settle; the clear liquid is syphoned off 
and run away, boiling water is added to 
the sediment, steam permitted to play 
through the mass; and after permitting 
settlement, the wash water is run away. 
The hot mass is now run into filter bags, 
which are securely closed, and placed in 
a convenient press (a cider press is 
sufficient). The expressed pulp is now 
placed on the driers, and when dry is 
packed into suitable containers, 


ele a ae Co) eee 


[FEBRUARY, 1909. 


‘The drying is carried out in flat, 
deuble-jacketed pans, made of wrought 
or cast iron, which areso arranged that 
the pulp may be easily worked over 
with a spade and thoroughly dried. 


‘The difficult part of the operation is 
to ascertain the point of neutralization, 
viz., that point when enough chalk or 
lime has been added to ensure full 
combination with the acid, and yet not 
enough to causea great excess. With 
a little experience this point is easily 
found by testing a sample of the contents 
of the vats. A sour taste indicates that 
the acid has not all been converted into 
citrate, and more chalk must be added. 
When the sour taste is replazed by a 
distinctly disagreeable characteristic 
taste, the acid has been removed from 
the liquor. 


‘A further test is to take from the vat 
a sample of the clear liquor and also a 
sample of the sediment. If, when more 
chalk is added to the hot sample of clear 
liquor, effervescence takes place, there 
is still free acid in solution, 


‘If, on the other hand, hot raw juice 
isadded to the sediment and decided 
effervescence takes place, there is an 
excess of chalk present.’ 


Appendix ITI. 
CULTIVATION OF LIMES AT MONTSERRAT. 


The following particulars have been 
supplied-by Mr. W. Robson, Curator of 
the Botanic Station, Monsterrat :— 


The plantations are chiefly confined to 
the sheitered valleys aud slopes of the 
lower lands. In addition to the natural 
shelter, belts of white cedar (Tecoma 
leucoxylon) are frequently used. This is 
practically the only plant used as a wind 
break, and it is planted at distances of 
about 150 yards, either in single rows or 
in double rows about 4 feet apart. 


Seeds are sown in small nursery beds 
and remain there until ready for trans- 
ferring to the field. No transplanting 
into nursery beds is done. In some 
instances planting is successfully done 
at stake in the field, when several seeds 
are sown at each stake and only the 
most vigorous of the seedlings allowed 
to grow. 


Showery weather is chosen for plant- 
ing, and small beds are made with a fork 
in which to put the plants. A distance 
of 18 feet by 18 feet is the most general 
for planting, although in the drier dis- 
tricts 12 feet by 12 feet is practised. 


For the first two years of growth, 
cotton has been successfully grown as a 
catch crop. 


FEBRUARY, 1909.) 


Hoeing isdone at intervals of about 
six weeks or two months, and in the dry 
season more frequently. The method of 
keeping a circle clean around each tree 
and cutlassing the remainder of the field 
is not adopted on Montserrat planta- 
tions. 


Appendia ITT. 
Exports oF LIME PRopUCTs. 


Details of the exports of lime products 
from the Islands of Dominica and Mont- 
serrat are given in this Appendix in 
tabular form. 


Table I. gives thelime products from 
Dominica for the years 1892-1895 inelu- 
sive. Exports of concentrated juice, 
raw juice for cordial, hand-pressed oil, 
distilled oil, pickled limes, and green 
_ limes are given. In addition to these, 
222 gallons of lime cordial of a value of 
£33, and 733 ewt. of citrate of lime 
valued at £1,503 were exported in 1906, 
and 6,352 gallons of cordial, of a value of 
£958, and 2,388 ewt. of citrate of lime, of 
a value of £7,761 were shipped during 
1907. These amounts have been included 
in the total values that are given for 
these years. 


There are also given in this table 
columns that show the total estimated 
crops of the several years in barrels of 
lime fruits and in gallons of lime juice. 
In 1892 itis estimated that 58,616 barrels 
of limes were produced, while in 1902 
this had inereased to 249,178. In that 
year, however, a severe gale and attack 
of scale insects affected the lime cultiva- 
tions to such an extent that the crop of 
1903 was nearly 50 per cent. less than 
thatof the previous year. A gradual 
recovery has been made since then, until 
in 1907 we find that the cropis estimated 
at 272,229 barrels. 


Table II. gives the exports of lime 
roducts for Montserrat for the years 
1892-1907. Where figures are not given, 
information has not been obtainable. 


(Tables follow on next twe pages. | 
Appendia IV. 
USEFUL REFERENCKHS. 
GENERAL, 


The lime industry in Dominica, Timehri, 
1888, p. 81. 


The West Indian lime, Kew Bulletin, 
1894, p. 118. 


157 


Edible Products. 


The West Indian lime, Journal of 
aig ee Horticultural Society, Vol. XX XII., 
p. 172, 

CULTIVATION, ETc. 

Cultivation of limes in West Indies, 
Agrizultural News, Vol. II., p, 85. 


Planting lime trees, Agricultural News, 
Vol. IV., p. 215. 


Lime cultivation, Agricu/tural News, 
Vol. V., p. 148. 
VARIETIES. 
Spineless limes, Dominica, Agricultural 
News, Vol. 1., p. 180. 


Limes at Dominica, Agricultural News, 
Vol. II., p. 37. 


Spineless limes, Report on the Botanic 
Station, etc., Dominica, 1906-7, p. 15. 


PRODUCTS. 
_ Concentrated lime juice (ascertaining 
its strength by means of a hydrometer), 
Agricultural News, Vol. [V., p. 349. 


Concentrated lime juice (ascertaining its 
strength by means of a hydrometer), 
West Indian Bulletin, Vol. 1V., p. 286. 


Lime juice concentration, West Indian 
Bulletin, Vol. VIII., p. 171. 


Citrate of lime and concentrated juice, 
West Indian Bulletin, 
Vol. VI, p. 808. 
Do do do do 
Vol. VIILI., p. 167, 


Do do Agricultural News, Vol. 
L, p. 99. 

Do do Preparation of, West 
Indian Bulletin, Vol. 


IIL., p. 152. 


Citrate from Dominica, Agricultural 
News, Vol. V., p. 824. 


Do from Seychelles, Agricultural 
News, Vol. VI., p. 27, 

Do in Sicily, Agricultural News, 
Vol. VI., p. 83. 

Do » West Indian Bulletin, Vol. 
VII, p. 381. 

Do , Dominica, West Indian Bulle- 


tin, Vol. VILI., p. 170. 


Imperial Department of Agriculture 
for the West Indies. 


A.B.C, of Lime Cultivation. Panvphlet 
Series, No. 53. 


[FEBRUARY, 1909, 


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TIMBERS. 


WHAT FORESTRY HAS DONE. 


The following extract is reprinted 
from Circular 140, Forest Service, U.S. 
Department of Agriculture :— 


(Continued from page 450, Nov. 1908.) 


AUSTRIA AND HUNGARY. 


AUSTRIA. 


In Austria, which has been independent 
of the German Federation only since 
1866, forestry has, in the main, followed 
German lines. Austria-Hungary is one 
of the largest exporters of wood, and the 
yearly exportations reach 3,670,000 tons. 
Germany takes more than halt of tthe 
exports, and the rest is distributed to 
Italy, Russia and Switzerland. 


Austria has 24,000,000 acres of forest, 
of which only 7 per cent. belongs to the 
State and 58 per cent. is private land. 
Communal and entailed forests make up 
the remainder. Of the private forests 
34 per cent. is in estates ranging from 
20,000 to 850,000 acres in area, and for 
the last fifty years at least 75 per cent. of 
the total forest area has been held in 
large, compact bodies. These large 
blocks are naturally favorable to forest 
management. Private forestry is further 
encouraged by the system of forest 
taxation, which relieves forests in 
which forestry is practiced. In the 
United States there are many enormous 
private forest holdings on which forestry 
would unquestionably be practiced were 
it not that excessive or ill-devised forest 
taxation effectually discourages it. 


The total net revenue from the 
Austrian State forests is over $5,000,000. 
The net yearly revenue per acre of 21 
cents is comparatively low, due mainly 
to the facts that only fifty-six cents per 
acre is expended upon the forest, and 
that most of the area is located in the 
rugged Alps and Carpathians, where 
administration and logging are costly. 


The present forest department was 
started in 1872 in response toa popular 
outery against the policy of selling 
State lands. That policy resulted in 
reducing the area of State forests from 
10,000,000 to a little over 7,000,000 acres 
during the first half of the nineteenth 
century. The administration was re- 
organized in 1904, and now has three 
departments—administration proper, re- 
forestation and the - correction of 
torrents and forest protection. 


Forestry is successfully practised on 
60 per cent. of all the Austrian forests 


and on 82 per cent. of the private forests, 
and excellent results have been secured 
by co-operation between the State and 
private persons in forest management, 
particularly under the law of 1888. The 
most conspicuous fruit of Austrian 
forestry, however, is the reforesting of 
the ‘ Karst.” The karst was a stretch 
of barren lands in the hilly country of 
Istria, Trieste, Dalmatia, Montenegro, 
and neighbouring territory along the 
shores of the Adriatic Sea. It comprised 
some 600,000 acres. Kor centuries it had 
furnished the ship timbers and other 
wood supplies of Venice, but excessive 
cutting, together with burning and 
pasturing, the evil results of clearing, 
and the natural condition of the land, 
had left it a waste almost beyond re- 
covery. Many laws had been passed 
from time to time to stop the forest 
havoe, but without real effect till 1865. 
In that year the Government, persuaded 
by the Forestry Association, began to 
offer help to landowners who would 
undertake forest planting, Taxes were 
remitted for periods of years, technical 
advice was given, and plant material as 
well as money was supplied. Further 
laws were found necessary in 1882 and 
1887 to meet the objection of stockmen. - 
A6 the present time over 400,000 acres, or 
two-thirds of the Karst, have been 
brought under forest, in part by plant- 
ing, at a cost of from $8 to $10 an acre, 
in part by protection and the natural 
recuperation so made possible. 

This work has been carried on under 
the direction of the ‘‘forest protective 
service,” which was first created for 
Tyrol in 1856 as a result of floods in the 
Tryolese Alps in 1851, and was later 
(1871-1874) extended to the rest of the 
Empire. This service, which is distinct 
from the State forest administration, 
has also been especially helpful in 
encouraging private forestry. Though 
at first regarded with hostility, it 
is now held in high regard on the 
strength of the work it has done and is 
doing. 

Harmony of interest between the State 
and private forest owners, which the 
whole Austrian forest policy favours, is 
notably secured by the encouragement 
of the wood export trade through such 
provisions as reduced freight rates, the 
absence of export duties, and moderate 
forest texation. 


A ‘“‘reboisement” or reforestation law, 
based on that of France, was passed in 
1884 to control torrents. - This law 
carries an annual appropriation of 
$100,000, and the planting work, like that 


FEBRUARY, 1909.}/ 


on the lands of the Karst, is carried on 
under the direction of the “‘ protective 
service.” For the regulation of the 
lower rivers $1,350,000 was appropriated 
at the same time, and of this sum $400,000 
has been successfully expended on _ re- 
forestation. 


HUNGARY. 


Hungary has 23,000,000 acres of forest’ 
of which the State owns 16 per cent. ; 
corporations, 20 per cent,; churches, 
cloisters, and other institutions, 7'5 per 
cent,; 4nd private persons the remain- 
der. From $10,000,000 to $12,000,000 worth 
of wood is annually exported. 


About half of all the Hungarian 
forests are under working plans, by 
which the eut is regulated so as to 
provide for a sustained yield, and the 
present annual cut of 1,000,000,000 cubic 
feet is believed to be considerably less 
than the wood actually produced. The 
State forests yield $600,000 net annual 
revenue. 


The management of all co-operation 
and protection forests has been super- 
vised by the Government since 1879, 
and all so-called ‘absolute forest land,” 
in other words, land unfit for farming, 
must be reforested within six years 
after itis cleared. Three-fourths of all 
the forest land of Hungary, including 
private as well as_ public forests, falls 
under the classification of absolute 
forest land. Moreover, all mountain 
forests are required to be managed 
under State working plans. Two-thirds 
of all the Hungarian forests are brought 
under this sort of State supervision. 
Forest planting is encouraged by State 
nurseries, at which 10,000,000 seedlings 
are raised every year for free distri- 
bution and by bounties paid for forest 
Pen established on private waste 
ands. 


Hungary has some 600 square miles of 
shifting sands and waste lands, like 
those of the Landes of France. The 
work of reclaiming these was planned 
by the law of 1788. Actual planting was 
begun in 1817. By 1869, 20,000 acres had 
been forested, and parts of the planta- 
tions were beginning to yield a profit. 
The work of reforesting is constantly 
going on. 


NORWAY, SWEEDEN AND DENMARK. 
Norway. 

Only 21 per cent., or 20,000,000 acres of 
Norway is in forest. The State owns 
less than 2,000,000 acres of this. Of the 
forest region one-half has to import 
timber, one-fourth has sufficient for its 
needs, and one-fourth is able to export 
over 1,000,000 tons, valued at $18,000,000 a 

19 


161 


Tinvbers. 


year. Nearly two-thirds of the exports 
goto England, and most of the rest is 
divided up between Belgium, Australia, 
France, Holland, Germany, and Den- 
mark. The total annual cut, one-fifth 
of which is exported, is about 500,000,000 
cubie feet. It exceeds by 1,500,000 cubic 
feet the amount of wood grown by all 
the forest in the same time. In other 
words, the cut is far too heavy to last, 
so that a reduction of wood exports is 
inevitable, 


Forestry ic onalow level. The various 
provisions for the better use and pro- 
tection of the forests which began three 
hundred years ago, have been of too 
half-hearted a nature to meet the situ- 
ation. There is a forest service, but the 
officers are few and underpaid, and the 
districts under their care—sometimes 
several million acres to each—are far 
too large for effective work. Moreover, 
there are difficulties over the forest 
rights which were earlier granted to 
encourage the development of the 
country, but which are now greatly in 
the way of establishing property rights 
and organizing an administration. 


Since 1860 the State has been buying 
cut-over lands in order to plant them to 
forest where forest protection is needed, 
and from $15,000 to $20,000 a year has 
been spent in this way during recent 
vears. 


The communal forests are supervised 
by the Government, and are usually 
managed by the foresters with a view 
simply to supplying local needs. Sale 
outside the parishes are permitted only 
where there is more than enough for 
these needs. 


SWEDEN. 


Sweden has nearly 50,000,000 acres of 
forest, covering nearly 50 per cent. of 
the total land area. Since the English 
import duties were abolished in 1866, 
the wood exports from Sweden have 
steadily increased, till now Sweden 
stands next to Russia, the world leader, 
in wood exports with $54,000,000 worth 
a year, representing nearly 4,500,000 tons. 
England takes half of this, followed by 
France, Denmark, Germany, Holland, 
Cape Colony, Australia, and ..South 
America. The total cut from the forest 
" estimated to be near 1,000 million cubic 
‘eet. 


The State owns about 13,500,000 acres, 
or 32:2 per cent., and controls 4,000,000 
acres more. The State lands are, in the 
main, of lesser commercial value, and 
this fact, together with the existence 
of logging rights granted in the past, 
keeps the net income for the present 
down to 12 cents anacre, Nevertheless, 


Timbers, 162 


since 1880 the net revenue from the State 
forests has risen from $300,000 to nearly 
$2,000,000 a year. 


Up to five hundred years ago Sweden 
was overburdened by forests, but by 
that time cutting and wasting had gone 
so far that the wilful setting of forest 
fires was forbidden. In 1638 overseers of 
communal forests were appointed in 
order to conserve supplies of wood for 
charcoal used in the iron industry. A 
general law followed in 1647, and a 
director of forests in the two southern 
districts was appointed in 1720. All 
through the eighteenth century restric- 
tions upon forest use were in force, 
Toward the close of the century there 
was, indeed, a premature scare over a 
possible timber famine. Yet, despite 
this legislation, and much legislation 
which followed, waste continued to go 
on. While measures were being passed 
to conserve the forests, the communal 
forests and town forests were actually 
being sold. It was not till the law of 
1903, which went into effect in January, 
1905, that a satisfactory policy was 
secured. In geueral, this requires the 
practice of forestry. Asin Russia, pro- 
vincial forest protection committees 
have to approve the local felling plans. 
A diameter limit is set, below which 
trees may not be cut. Clearings are 
forbidden and cleared land, unless used 
for other purposes, must be reforested. 
Pasturing is restricted where it would 
do harm. 


In the past thirty-five years the State 
has increased its forest holdings by 45 per 
cent. through the purchase and reforest- 
ing of wastes and sand dunes and by the 
settlement of disputed titles. The pur- 
chases amount to over 600,000 acres, for 
which an average price of $5°30 an acre 
was paid. 


Lumbering is carried on much as it is 
in the United States. The State, as a 
rule, sells stumpage, and the timber is 


i a ir 


[FEBRUARY, 1909. 


removed by contractors. Management 
is by no means so detailed and intensive 
as in Germany or France. The trees 
which are to be cut are marked, but no 
attempt is ordinarily made to prepare 
complete working plans. Only a 
moderate amount of planting is done to 
secure the future crop, and natural 
reproduction is mainly relied upon. 


Forest fires continue to do great 
damage, especially in the northern part 
of the country. A forest patrol is doing 
effective work, however, in checking the 
spread of fires. 


DENMARK. 


Denmark has about 600,000 acres under 
forest, of which the State owns over 23 
per cent., or 142,000 acres. About 75,000 
acres of wastes are in process of reforest- 
ation. 


The need of wiser forest use was felt 
in the eighteenth century, and by 1781 
the State forests were placed under 
administration. But the clearing of the 
forest continued at sucha rate that in 
1805 it was provided that the still exist- 
ing forests of beech and oak should be 
maintained forever. Further, provision 
was made as tothe selling of the pea- 
sants’ farms, so that they should not be 
accumulated in large holdings 
which the peasants would have to 
depend for their wood. 


Since 1820 the forest area has been 
increasing. At present reforesting is 
adding to it very considerably. Nearly 
200,000 acres of heath have been planted 
in the last forty years. To this work 
of reclamation the State contributes 
$40,000 a year. 


In State forests, as well as i nthe com- 
munal forests and the farmers’ woodlots, 
forestry is carefully and profitably prac- 


tised.—Hawatian Forester and Agri- 
oul Faas. Vol., V., No. 8, August, 
1908. 


upon 


Frervary, 1909.) 


163 


PLANT, SANITATION. 


THE TEA INDUSTRY. 


THE MOSQUITO BLIGHT. 


By C. B. ANTRAM, 


Entomologist to the Indian Tea 
Association. 


From past observations and our ex- 
periences of the year 1907, with regard 
to Mosquito blight, it would seem that 
everything depends upon the climatic 
conditions prevailing during the first six 
or seven months of the year, whether 
the pest becomes serious or otherwise 
from about July onward to the end of 
the season. Without doubt the blight 
has this year been as serious as in any 
year since its first discovery, and in July 
reports began to come in from nearly 
every part of the tea districts that 
‘* Mosquito” was damaging the bushes to 
such a degree, that certain gardens were 
practically closed for the remander of 
the season. This was’the case, not only 
in one corner of a district, but in several 
widely separated portions of the whole 
tea area, the blight generally being, on 
most gardens, worse than in previous 
years. In one or two instances only 
(where the insect had in past years given 
trouble) were the reports tavourable in 
that there had been no appreciable loss 
incrop. The following extracts from 
letters received from planters giving 
their opinions as to the reason for the 
current year’s excessive attack of Mos- 
quito blight are interesting and point 
tothe one idea that “ Blight” is con- 
trolled in a very great measure by 
climatic influences, — 


ONE CAUSE oF Mosquito BLIGHT. 


One Manager writes from Assam, 
under date the 24th September, 1907 :— 


“IT am of opinion that the cause of 
Mosquito blight appearing so early and 
in such a severe form this season is 
entirely due to weather conditions. The 
cold damp weather which prevailed 
during the months of May, June, and 
July, seems to have been especially 
favourable to the successful develop- 
ment of the pest, and were it not for the 
fotunaie occurrence ofa spell of sun- 
shine and heat in August which checked 
its progress, the loss of crop would have 
been considerable. As it is, I only 
estimate a loss of about 200 to 300 
maunds, while in the last five years the 
loss has been nominal. Bar a few 


isolated patches, at the end of each 
season, the pest has done little or no 
harm here for the last seven years, [| 
may mention that the temperature for 
the last five years has not been so low 
in May, June and July, as it has been 
this year. My experience is that absence 
of sunshine is invariably favourable to 
the development of the pest.” 


Another planter writes:—This year 
is one of the worst in this district (Dar- 
rang) for Mosquito blight since 1902, the 
weather being socool and dull for the 
last three months until the 11th August 
when we had a change,” ete.. etc. 


It is quite certain that the attack of 
Mosquito as it appeared this year in the 
Dam-Dim district of the Duars could 
hardly have been worse, several gardens 
in the north-west corner of the district 
becoming practically closed towards the 
end of July and in August. On visiting 
these gardens in August it was found 
that manufacture had come practically 
to a standstill, leaf only being available 
from a few acres of tea. ‘‘ Gray blight ” 
in the case of oneor two estates was 
also greatly responsible for the closing 
of those gardens, and ‘‘ Red Spider” had 
helped in the first instance to weaken 
the bushes. 


The greater area of tea in that part 
of the district is planted with a low jat 
bush, which, asis well-known, is much 
favoured and first attacked by the 
blight. Those portions planted with the 
indigenous and better jats were last at- 
tacked, andin some instances blocks 
have been left almost entirely free from 
attack, although situated in the centre 
of the affected area. This, without 
doubt, points to the advisability of gradu- 
ally uprooting the poor jat hybrid 
bushes and by replanting with high- 
class materials. : 


EFFECT OF SCARCITY OF LABOUR. 


The scarcity of labour in that part of 
the district did not permit of * thinning 
out” the bushes at the pruning season, 
and itcan, therefore, be easily under- 
stood, when the nature of the growth of 
China hybrid and low jat bushes is con- 
sidered, that the mosquitoes had a sure 
place of refuge in the heart of the 
bushes where very little could get at 
them to destroy them. The _ iusects 
sheltering in such a place would be en- 
tirely protected from wind and rain. 
Storms, which were this year of a very 
mild nature, did not destory wholesale 


Plant Sanitation. 164 


the newly-hatched out bugs as would 
have been the case in seasonable weather, 
and if the bushes had been thinned 
of some of their branches and useless 
twigs. 


It was particularly noticeable on one 
of the gardens in the district where 
some replanting had been done with 
high-class tea that the young plants 
were practically untouched by the 
mosquito, although the block was right 
in the centre of the block with the 
blight, and to all appearances closed for 
the season. 


There seemed to be no reason why 
these young plants should not have been 
attacked, even toa small degree, as the 
mosquitoes must have been starving on 
the surrounding tea, but the fact that the 
replanted area (10 to 15 acres?) was not 
attacked helps to confirm what has been 
written in the above paragraph, namely, 
that the bushes on the replanted area, 
although showing plenty of foliage and 
offering food for apparently starving in- 
sects, had—first, no unnecessary wood 
about them,and second, no cluster of 
closely growing stems near to the ground 
like the surrounding poorer jat tea, thus 
allowing the passage of light and air 
through their whole system of branhces. 
No immature mosquito can live on a 
bush under these circumstances, as 
wind and heavy rain alone would des- 
troy them. 


This isin support of the suggestion 
that those gardens subject to attack by 
Mosquito blight, should, in the first 
instance, do special careful ‘‘ thinning 
out” at the pruning season in order that 
the severer storms of wind and rain may 
kill off the greater number of young 
freshly-hatched-out mosquitoes and en- 
able spraying with Kerosine Emulsion 
and the catching of the insects by coolies 
to be carried out more effectively. 


Tur Use oF KEROSINE EMULSION. 


This brings me to the matter of spray- 
ing with Kerosine Emulsion. Up to the 
present no better remedy than this, to- 
gether with the collecting of the insect 
by hand, has been found,; and it is my 
opinion that it will be along time before 
a better remedy will be discovered ; but 
at the same time I do not think spray- 
ing with Kerosine Emulsion has, on any 
garden, been carried out ina thorough 
and proper manner. Alsolam perfect- 
ly sure that there are many gardens 
which have spent thousands of rupees 
every year in spraying with Kerosine 
Emulsion without realising any appreci- 
able benefit from the process. When 
the habits of the tea mosquito, as given 


(FEBRUARY, 1909. 


below, are taken into consideration, I 
think this will be brought home to many, 
and the following may be of use in the 
future treatment of the pest. 


The general custom cf insects, on 


being disturbed, is to retire to places of 


safety, and this is particularly the case 
with the tea mosquito. Where the mos- 
quito occurs, so long as the bushes are 
not thoroughly cleaned out at the time 
of pruning, the difficulty of eradicating 
it will be realised. In spraying, no soon- 
er does the spray touch tke bush than 
the insects either fall to the ground or 
retire into the heart of the bush, where, 
according to the way in which spraying 
has been done inthe past, the insecti- 
cide does not reach all of them. Every- 
thing, therefore, depends upon the 
manner in which spraying is conducted, 
and, provided that a thorough cleaning- 
out of the bushes has been carried out 
in pruning, the emulsion will be able to 
reach every part of the bushif applied 
as now suggested. Itis not sufficient to 
only spray the top and sides of a bush, 
it must be thoroughly saturated with 
the solution—the leaves, both upper 
and lower sides, the stems, the soil and 
“Jabra” at the foot; and the nozzle of 
the sprayer should be placed right in- 


side the bush, the spray being directed ~ 


upwards. The bushes cannot be too 
much _ saturated. It is so important 
that the upper side of the leaves should 
be spraycd upon more than a very little, 
because each leaf acting as a drain, the 
liquid runs off one on to the next below, 
and so on till it reaches the ground 
round the outside of the bush. This is 
almost an entire waste of material, as 
the insects have by this time left the 
surface of the bush and will be found in 
the centre of it or at the collar in the 
“Jabra” at the foot. The young flush 
must, of course, receive the spray, and 
that thoroughly. 


WHEN TO SPRAY THE BUSHES. 


Better results will be obtained if the 
spraying is conducted during the heat 
of the day, when the insects, both im- 
mature and adult, are protecting them- 
selves from the sun, inside the bushes, 
and it goes without saying, of course, 
that the freer a garden is of jungle at the 
collar of the bushes the better will be 
the effects of spraying. 


To thoroughly saturate the bushes and 
the “Jabra” atthe foot of them with 
the mixture, in the manner. above sug- 
gested, the cost of spraying per acre will 
become rather more expensive than for- 
merly, but this can partly be remedied 
by adding more water to the mixture, 


Frprvary, 1909] 


which atthe same time will be a wise 
procedure owing to there being a certain 
amount of risk in burning the bushes 
by saturating them with the liquid 
atits usual strength. Further, if this 
thorough style of spraying be carried 
out, I think it willbe found that very 
much less money will be required for 
collecting the insects by hand. 


This manner of spraying should be 
done at least twice in the year if not 
more frequently, and if one application is 
not found sufficient—at the usual time 
after pruning when the bushes are first 
breaking out, and again, if one necessary, 
about one month afterwards. So soon 
as the insects are noticed to be feeding 
and are about in any numbers, then is 
the time to spray thoroughly without 
sparing the liquid. 


AN IMPORTANT POINT. 


An important point to observe in deal- 
ing with an epidemic of this kind is to 
thoroughly treat the whole of the 
affected area in the space of afew days, 
as the quicker the “ round” ofthe garden 
is made, the more thorough check will 
it be to the deposition of eggs. 


In the life-history of the Tea Mos- 
quito it may not be known that the 
feeding period of an individual lasts 
for 2} months. 


Without taking into consideration 
the hybernating period of the insect 
during the cold weather months, mature 
or winged individuals kept in captivity 
in the Insectarium at Kanny-Koory, 
lived for 62 days, and if we add to this 
the period spent in the immature or 
larval form, which is roughly 10 days, 
we find, at the height of the season, a 
single insect lives for quite two-and-a- 
half months. Add to this the fact that 
an insect will make as many as 125-150 
punctures in the leaves every 24 hours, 
and the damage done to the bush can be 
imagined.—The World, December, 1908. 


DEVELOPMENT Or DISHASE- 
RESISTANT VARIETIES 
OF PLANTS. 


By H.S. Jackson, Newark, Del, 


[Given before the Massachusetts Horti- 
cultural Society, March 14, 1908. | 

While the subject which I have 
selected may not be of special local 
interest, I believe it to be of sufficient 
general interest to merit a discussion 
before any body of men interested in 
any branch of agricultural science. In 
the entire discussion of the development 
of disease-resistant varieties, | may not 


165 


Plant Sanitation. 


mention any special crops which are of 
particular interest to Massachusetts 
Horticulturists, for this phase of plant 
breeding is not sufficiently developed as 
yet toenable us to direct the grower 
how to proceed to obtain results, except 
with very few crops. The study of the 
development, by man, of disease resist- 
ance in plants is yetinits infancy. 
propose to discuss the subject in general, 
and to give a review of what has already 
been accomplished by horticulturists and 
plant-breeders in developing plants 
resistant to specific diseases. 


We must first get a definite idea of 
what is meant by disease resistance in 
plants. We must distinguish it from 
hardiness. Hardiness is a general term. 
A hardy variety, as generally considered, 
is merely one that is less susceptible to 
cutting frosts, drought, or extreme 
changes in temperature; in short, one 
that is capable of withstanding adverse 
climatic conditions in a state of health. 
A disease-resistant variety for our 
present purpose may be defined as one 
that shows resistance to the attack of a 
specific disease due to a_ specific 
organism. 


In this age of intensive agriculture, 
with our advanced and _ increasing 
knowledge of the principles of culture 
and fertilization of all sorts of agri- 
cultural crops, the question of the health 
of the plant is recognized as one of 
paramount importance. We know that 
under certain conditions, if we give our 
plants the proper food and the proper 
cultivation, we may expect a reasonably 
healthy crop. Neglect these factors and 
we know that we may expect an un- 
healthy crop. We know that soil, plant- 
food culture and weather conditions all 
have their influence on the health of 
plants. 


We have come to learn, however, that 
we cannot control many specific diseases 
by cultural methods. We must resort 
to spraying and seed or soil treatment 
of various kinds. We know that we can 
control apple, scab bitter rot of apples, 
black rot of grape, and many _ other 
similar diseases with Bordeaux Mixture. 
We have come to realize that spraying 
of certain crops is a necessity to success- 
ful culture. The successful apple grower 
sprays as faithfully as he prunes. The 
successful potato grower, in sections 
where late blight of potatoes is pre- 
valent, sprays as_ regularly as _ he 
cultivates, and is always assured of a 
crop. The farmer who wishes a crop of 
oats free from smut knows that he may 
obtain such a crop by proper treatment 
of seed before planting. The market 
gardener who grows cabbage with the 


Plant Sanitation. 


best success knows that he must treat his 
cabbage seed with formalin or corrosive 
sublimate as a precaution against the 
introduction of the bacterial rot. 


There are a host of diseases which 
might be mentioned for which some 
specific treatment is in common practice. 


Why then is it necessary for us to 
have resistant varieties? Spraying is a 
nuisance at best, and any man who has 
had any actual spraying to do would 

ladly eliminate this not inconsiderable 
item of labour and expense. The second 
reason is that, while spraying may be 
profitable for the large grower, parti- 
cularly the man who makes a speciality 
of some one crop, it frequently is not 
profitable for the small grower. The 
man who grows afew apple trees, a few 
acres of potatoes, tomatoes, cucumbers 
and other vegetables in proportion, 
frequently has to give up the cultivation 
of any crop that is repeatedly attacked 
by aserious disease. Spraying frequent- 
ly is not profitable for men who carry 
on diversified farming. I do not wish to 
be misunderstood in this connection. 
When the mere item of added expense 
of materials and labour necessary to the 
spraying alone is considered, we will 

nd that spraying is profitable in most 
cases even for the small grower. 


The labour question, however, adds 
another factor. When it is possible for 
the small grower or the man who carries 
on diversified farming to obtain addi- 
tional labour of the right sort at any 
time, he can spray his various crops with 
profit, but when labouris limited and the 
grower must depend on his steady labour 
todo the spraying, he will usually find 
that to carry on the work properly other 
important things must be neglected. 
Spraying must be done at the right time, 
or itis of no value. The third reason is 
that there are many diseases which 
experimentally can be controlled, but 
not profitably. Asan example, we may 
mention the rust of wheat and many 
other diseases of fieldcrops. The fourth 
reason is that certain very serious 
diseases have never been satisfactorily 
controlled even by experiments. To 
this class belong such diseases as peach 
yellows, crown gall, and various soil rots 
and wilts. 
plants belong to this class. 


METHODS. 


In order to develop varieties resistant 
to disease, several methods of work are 
open to the investigator :— 

(a) Selection of individuals. 

(6) Selection of varieties. 

(c) Hybridization followed by selec: 
tion of varieties and individuals, 


Most bacterial diseases of | 


166 (FEBRUARY, 1909, 


SELECTION OF INDIVIDUALS. 


Every grower of plants has doubtless 
observed that in a field of a crop suffer- 
ing from an epidemic disease, certain 
individual plants may show more or less 
resistance to the disease. By selecting 
seed from such plants we would expect, 
if the resistance is an actual one, to have 
offspring which would inherit the 
character of resistance. By repeated 
selection through several generations, 
always saving seed from the most 
healthy plants, we would expect to 
gradually develop a variety or strain 
much more resistant than ordinary one. 
This has been practically tested in a 
number of cases and found to be success- 
ful. Mr. P. K. Blynn, of the Colorado 
Experiment Station, has obtained most 
satisfactory results by this method in 
selecting a strain of cantaloupe known 
as the pollock strain, resistant to the 
very serious leaf spot disease due to 
Macrosporium cucumerinum. 


SELECTION OF VARIETIXS. 


In order to obtain results by this 
method, all the vatieties of a crop obtain- 
able are grown on infested ground in 
order to study their relative resistance 
to disease. Experimenting in this way 
some variety may prove exceedingly 
resistant to the disease in question and 
further work rendered unnecessary 
except to keep the variety pure. Usu- 
ally, however, all commercial varieties 
will be more or less susceptible. If such 
is the case, then the varieties least sus- 
ceptible must be studied further and 
selection of individuals proceed as in 
the first method. 1 believe that the 
most certain and best results are to be 
obtained by combining the first method 
with the second. That is, select the 
most promising varieties with which to 
practise individual selection. 


HYBRIDIZATION. 
In case no varieties give promise of 
resistance, hybridization, or crossing, 


may give satisfactory results. It fre- 
quently happens that wild species which 
may be worthless commercially, but 
closely related to cultivated forms, 
show marked resistance to diseases which 
seriously attack the latter. Sometimes 
we may havea variety which is worth- 
less commercially, but which is known 
to be strongly resistant. If such a 
resistant species or variety be crossed 
with a profitable commercial variety, 
and a close study of the resulting off- 
spring be made, some desirable new 
variety thus produced may show marked 
resistance. A notable example of this 
method of procedure is the work of 
Mr. W. A. Orton with water melons, 


iis: aie BY at OURS as a Sb 


FEBRUARY, 1909.1 


Water-melons in the South are seriously 
attacked by a soil disease (Neocosmos- 
pora), which it has been impossible to 
combat satisfactorily. Mr. Orton first 
made a study of all varieties of water- 
lemons and related plants obtainable, 
and found that all commercial varieties 
were almost equally susceptible. He 
found, however, that a form of citron 
(hard fleshed melon) was very resistant, 
but worthless commercially. He crossed 
this with commercially desirable varie- 
ties. The seed resulting from this 
cross, when planted the next year, re- 
vealed the fact that he had obtained 
about a thousand new varieties, most of 
which were either worthless commer- 
cially or non-resistant. He selected a 
few of the most promising of these for 
further study, and found that he had 
one variety commercially desirable, 
profitable, and strongly resistant, 


WHAT HAS BEEN DONE. 


Let us see what has been accomplished 
toward obtaining practical results in the 
breeding or selection of disease-proof 
varieties. I will speak briefly of some 
of the most notable results obtained in 
this country or applied to American con- 
ditions. It is not my purpose to review 
the observations (and they are many) 
on resistant varieties of vegetable or 
fruits that are in common use, but to 
confine myself to a discussion of the 
outcome of definite efforts to obtain 
varieties resistant to specific diseases. 


WHEAT. 


We will agree that to spray a wheat 
field for rust would be out of the ques- 
tion from a practical standpoint, even 
though such treatment might rid the 
crop of the disease. It is evident that 
in sections where wheat rust is especially 
prevalent, disease-resistant varieties of 
wheat would be of special value. Inves- 
tigations have been made in Kurope, 
Australia, and the United States for 
the purpose of obtaining rust-resisting 
wheats. More or less success has been 
obtained by all investigators, Carlton, 
working in this country, has made a 
study of all available varieties from all 
countries and has found that certain 
varieties of the Durum wheats are most 
resistant to the black stem rust. In 
this connection the recent work of R. H. 
Biffen on the hybridization of wheats 
bids fair to have a far-reaching influence 
on future work in developing immune 
varieties. Hefound that susceptibility 
and immunity in certain varieties of 
wheats are definite Mendelian charac- 
ters, the former being the dominant one. 


CLOVER. 


Messrs. Bain and Essary of the Ten- 
nessee Hxperiment Station have con- 


167 


Plant Samtation 


ducted experiments in selecting and 
developing a variety of red clover resist- 
ant to a new fungus disease belonging 
to the anthranoses, that has for several 
years threatened the cultivation of red 
clover in Tennessee and the South. 
They have practised selecting seed from 
individual plants which survived in a 
field very seriously attacked by the 
disease and have obtained very satis- 
factory results. 


Cow PEA. 


This plant suffers in the South from 
two serious troubles, a wilt disease and 
a nematode root gall. Varieties have 
been studied and the Little Iron cow- 
pea has been found to resist the attack 
of both these diseases. 


POTATORS. 


Various potatoes resistant to the late 
blight have been known for many years 
in Europe. Recently the study and 
selection of resisting varieties have 
secured considerable attention in this 
country. Jones and Stuart, working at 
the Vermont Experiment Station, have 
had very favourable results in selecting 
varieties resitant to this trouble. The 
work on potatoes resistant to this 
disease has been largely a study of 
varieties. Itis still in progress, In con- 
nection with the work with late blight 
attention has been paid to sorts resis- 
tant to scab. The Ohio and other Sta- 
tions have had marked results in select- 
ing varieties and individuals resistant 
to the early blight (Alternaria) which is 
not easily controlled by spraying. 


TOBACCO. 


This crop is attacked in Connecticut 
by a serious wilt disease. By selecting 
seeds from individuals which have sur- 
vived in a field nearly totally destroyed 
by the disease, Shamel and Cobey have 
succeeded in developing resistant strains. 
A similar disease in North Carolina has 
been investigated in the same way with 
very favourable results. 


This plant is also attacked by 
Nematode worms, which cause gall-like 
swellings on the roots. Experiments 
are now underway by officials of the 
U.S. Department of Agriculture for the 
selection of varieties resistant to this 
trouble. 


COTTON. 

Very satisfactory results have been 
secured in selecting varieties resistant to 
the wilt of cotton in the South. The 
work has been carried on by W. A. 
Orton of the Department of Agriculture. 
He has found that several varieties of 
Egyptian cotton, as well as one Upland 
cotton, give great promise of resistance. 


Plant Sanitation. 


He suggests crossing the different resis- 
tant sorts, especially resistant varieties 
of different races, with the hope of 
obtaining varieties which will combine 
the good qualities of both races. 
Mr. Orton’s investigation of cotton 
resistant to the wilt fungus revealed 
a very important fact. He found 
that even with the most _ resistant 
sort grown on infected land, infection 
occurred in the rootlets, but the fungus 
was notable to gain entrance to the 
main root system, and therefore could 
not spread in the plant. The resistance, 
then, in cotton to the wilt fungus is not 
caused by some peculiarity of the root 
which prevent the entrance of the 
fungus into the tissue, but to some 
undetermined character which prevents 
the spread of the fungus toany extent 
after it has gained entrance to the 
tissue. 
W ATER-MELON. 


\n account has already been given of 
the success of Mr. Orton in obtaining a 
wilt-resistant variety of the water-melon 
by hybridization with the citron. 


CANTALOUPE OR MUSK-MELON. 


The work, previously mentioned, of 
Mr. P. K. Blynn, special agent of the 
Colorado Station, in developing the 
Pollock strain of the cantaloupe resistant 
to leaf spot disease due to Macrosporium 
is especially notable, as it is, perhaps, 
the most successful attempt yet made in 
this country to develop a variety resis- 
tant to a leaf parasite. The strain is a 
result of careful selection of seed from 
resistant vines. 


ASPARAGUS. 


It is well known that the Palmetto 
variety of asparagus is especially resist- 
ant to rust. It is, however, not a 
desirable variety for canning. In Cali- 
fornia, R. E. Smith of the State Experi- 
ment Station, is engaged in developing 
a variety which will combine rust 
resistance with the qualities desired 
by canners found in the Conover’s 
Colossal. 


VIOLET. 


Violets grown in greenhouses are 
especially subject toa leaf spot disease 
known as Alternaria viale. Itis known 
among violet growers that the Lady 
Hume Campbell variety is the most 
naturally resistant variety in culti- 
vation. This natural resistant has been 
greatly increased by carefully selecting 
the most resistant plants from which to 
propagate. 


FRUITS. 


Little work has been attempted to de- 
velop disease-resistant varieties among 


168 


(FEBRUARY, 1909. 


the fruits. As Ihave previously stated, 
the development of disease resistance is 
a comparatively new undertaking for 
plant-breeders. That is,it has beena 
relatively short time since horticul- 
turists and plant-breeders have under- 
taken, with a definite idea in view, to 
develop varieties resistant to specific 
diseases. Perhaps this is why little 
work has been accomplished among the 
fruits. Obviously it would take a longer 
period to obtain results in developing 
varieties of perennials than annuals, and 
the plant-breeder will naturally select 
for study those problems which give 
promise of solution in the shortest time. 
It is, however, a matter of common 
observation that some varieties of cur 
tree fruits are more resistant to certain 
of their maladies than others. For 
example, in Delware, it is known that 
among apple varieties the Lily of Kent 
is above all others most resistant to scab 
and bitter rot, while the Jonathan is 
especially susceptible to rot. The whole 
Winesap group is said to be relatively 
resistant to rot but susceptible to seab, 
while the York Imperial is resistant to 
scab. Among pears the Keiffer is known 
to be resistant to fire blight, while the 
Bartlett and others are very susceptible. 
A host of such observations might be 
cited to show that among our tree fruits | 
there is varietal variation as regards 

resistance to disease. 


There are some diseases of tree fruits 
which are especially troublesome and 
impossible to combat satisfactorily, for 
which it would be highly desirable to 
have resistant varieties. I refer parti- 
cularly to the peach yellows. The 
observations of Professor E. W, Morse. 
reported in the Bulletin of the Bussey 
Institution, indicate that individual 
peach trees from which to ‘propagate 
may be found which are resistant to 
yellows. Since no satisfactory method 
has ever been tound to combat. this 
dread disease, the study of the problem 
of prevention from this standpoint is 
highly desirable. 


Another disease of great importance 
is the crown gall of raspberry and black- 
berry. This is a very serious trouble 
in infested districts. In Sussex County, 
Delware, the raspberry industry, once 
very large, has been practically wiped 
out by this trouble. Since the organisms 
of the disease are retained in the soil 
and attack the roots or crown only, no 
preventative measures are practicable. 
It seems highly desirable to attack the 
problem of the treatment of this disease 
by the selection .or breeding of disease- 
resistant varieties. ; 


(To be comtinued.) 


FEBRUARY, 1909.} 


169 


LIVE STOCK, 


RINDERPEST. 

In view of the popularity attained 
amongst cultivators throughout India 
by the anti-rinderpest inoculation treat- 
ment, the demand for serum has_ be- 
come larger than the Muktesar Labor- 
atory can meet. Steps, therefore, are 
being taken to ascertain the feasibility of 
establishing an independent laboratory 
in the Madras hills, where the serum 
for South India could be manufactured. 
It is necessary for this purpose to find 
a locality where a breed of cattle exists 
(asin the case in the Naini Tal Hima- 
layas) sufficiently susceptible to the 
disease to supply material for the serum, 
and investigations to this end are in 
progress.—_Indian Agriculturist, Vol. 
XXXIII., No. 9. 


PIG FARMING IN BRITISH EAST 
AFRICA. 


A REVIEW. 


We have to acknowledge the receipt 
of a nicely got up booklet entitled ‘‘ Pig 
Breeding and Feeding in East Africa” 
by J. EH. Prossor, adviser in Swine Hus- 
bandry and Bacon-curing to the Uplands 
of Hast Africa Syndicate, who has 
devoted his life to this branch of farm- 
ing. The author, in transmitting the 
work, writes:—‘‘I have been looking 
into the figures giving the quantity of 
bacon imported into India—over £70,000 
annually—and it has struck me that 
a country like India should grow its 
own pork as the heat suits pigs in this 
country (British Hast Africa), and, now 


that refrigeration has been brought to 
its present standing, there is no diffi- 
culty in curing in any climate or at 
any temperature. I shall be glad to 
exchange any information with you.” 


Pig rearing has, so far as we know, 
never been taken up as a serious busi- 
ness in the Island; but, judging from 
a perusal of Mv. Prossov’s work, there 
would seem to be no reason whatever 
why it should not prove a successful 
venture. 

No systematic farmer in any country is 
without pigs. In Ireland the pig is look- 
ed upon as ‘‘ the gentleman who pays the 
rent” ;in Denmark as ‘‘the Savings bank.” 
In America, pigs are found to pay when 
other animals do not, proving there and 
elsewhere ‘‘the farmers’ friend.” As 
regards East Africa, after a careful 
study of the conditions, Mr. Prossor 
says: ‘‘ITam certain that once the set- 
tlers knew that they have a regular 
and sure market, provided they breed 
and feed the right sort of pig, they will 
find that there is no class of stock that 
will pay them better and turn over 
the cost ina shorter time.” And in his 
book Mr. Prossor proceeds tc instruct 
the reader on all matters connected 
with selection, feeding, &c, so that one 
cannot go far wrong if he carefully 
studies the facts and figures in the 
manual referred to. In Ceylon there 
would appear to be as great facilities 
in the matter of food, &c., as in the 
colony regarding which the expert re- 
ports. We shall be glad to give any 
information on this subject that read- 
ers who are interested in it may desire 


170 


itd 


eo Pe eee 


[FEBRUARY; 1909, 


SCIENTIFIC AGRICULTURE. 


ON PLOUGHING. 


Weare all familiar with the phrase, 
‘A little farm well tilled.” That short 
sentence describes the modest wish of 
everyone who launches intoan agricul- 
tural career. Having got the ‘‘little 
farm,” the wish expands into a ‘big 
farm,” and, by keeping the “ little farm” 
well tilled the “big farm” may become 
an accomplished fact. Tillage in agri- 
culture isa most important operation, 
its object being, of course, to bring the 
ground into that state of tilth best 
suited to the growth of grass and crops. 
In order to obtain this tilth, the employ- 
ment of many kinds of implements are 
required, and the first of theseis the 
plough. Itis not now regarded as the 
most important, because the cultivators, 
grubbers, disc harrows, and similar im- 
plements reduce the ground toa proper 
condition fora seed bed, even if the 
ploughing has been badly done. There 
can be no doubt, however, that the 
plough isa very important machine in 
agriculture, and must continue to beso 
till the end of time. It is the most 
ancient implement known, but within 
the last century it has been improved 
very much indeed—in fact, there are 
few machines which have been more 
altered in its appearance and in its work. 
Wood has been replaced by iron; steel 
has taken the place of iron ; and mechan- 
ical laws have been applied to make 
the implement easier to pull and more 
effective in its work. As the years go 
on, new principles are being applied, and 
there are now quite a number of 
different kinds of ploughs on the market 
and in general use. There are the ordi- 
nary single and double furrow ploughs 
(swing ploughs are rarely seen now- 
a-days), digging ploughs, subsoil ploughs, 
gang and stump-jumping ploughs, one- 
way or hillside ploughs, multiple 
ploughs, and, last of all, disc ploughs. 
Some of these, as their name denote, are 
special-purpose ploughs, and with these 
there is no necessity to deal in the 
present article. 


Single-furrow ploughs are not used 
except on small holdings and in gardens. 
They are now fitted with wheels, which 
keep them steady and at a uniform 
depth. Swing ploughs are balanced by 
the ploughmen, and require more skill 
in their management than wheeled 
ploughs. Single-furrow ploughs are 
often used for opening lands or striking 
out, and also for finishing. They are 


also used for such work as potato-plant-. 
ing ae ough the double-furrow is also 
used. 


The double-furrow plough has for 
long time been the principal kind o 
plough used in New Zealand. It is now 
in some districts being superseded by 
the treble-furrow, which is in reality a 
double-furrow with another beam and 
mould-board attached. The principle is 
exactly thesame. The idea of the extra 
furrow is to give the larger teams, which 
must be used in cultivating and drilling, 
sufficient work todo when ploughing. 
It is not so long ago that three and four 
horse teams were in vogue. Nowa days 
the five and six horse team is in 
more general use, because of the extra 
strength required to haul up-to-date 
cultivators, disc harrows, and drills. 
Then, again, dig ger and disc ploughs are 
being used very largely, and _ these 
demand larger teams than the old four 
horse team. 


A plough is, in reality, a combiration 
of instruments fastened toa beam. The 
most important of these instruments are 
the coulter or skeith, the share or sock, ~ 
the mould-board or breast, and the 
bridle, Other parts are added, accord- 
ing to the kind of plough desired, but 
usually there is a lever and a steering- 
rod. It is not necessary for me, I 
suppose, to describe the function of each 
of these parts. Before describing the 
different kinds of work done by several 
kinds of ploughs and the uses of each, I 
will give a few of the terms used in 
ploughing. 


There are two principal methods of 
ploughing—viz., in landsand round-and- 
round. The former method is used on 
flat land and on undulating downs, 
while the latter is used in steep localities. 


With practice, a perfectly straight 
furrow may be maintained, and witha 
little patience almost ary plough may 
be set to cut and throw all its furrows 
alike and evenly. The turning-voints 
at the ends of the ‘‘lands” are called 
‘“‘headlands,” and it is important that 
youths starting to plough should be 
taught to keep their furrows square with 
the headland, and the headlands them- 
selves the same width right through. A 
plough cannot do good work uuless it is 
kept in good order, and every ploughman 
should know how to keep his plough 
wheels packed and his skeiths running 
true. For skeiths, I find the ‘‘cones” 
the best kind of axle to use. Skeiths 


Reka a aT bat aad y 


FreRuARY, 1909.] ved 


should not be used among stones, nor 
should they be used in frosty weather, 
as they are liable to get damaged very 
seriously. The ordinary double and 
treble furrow is mostly useful for 

loughing in the autumn, when it has to 
Be fallow through the winter for turnips 
or oats in the spring. Lea ploughed for 
wheat should be turned the round-and- 
round method. In this case it is a lazy 
man’s method. It continually moves 
the land towards the fences, while 
denuding the finish in the middle of the 
paddocks of soil. This applies also, of 
course, to ploughing steep country 
round-and-round, but it is unavoidable 
in this instance. By ploughing in lands, 
good drainage may be effected ; the land 
ean be effectually cross-ploughed, and 
the land can be kept fairly even and 
level by altering the place for striking 
out.and finishing. The crown of the 
land is the high ridge formed by marking 
out, or striking out, as it is usually 
ealled. This marking out is called 
“feeding.” The open furrow between 
the lands is called the ‘‘finish.” The 
furrows may be either gathered towards 
the crown of the land, or they may be 
scattered till an open furrow or finish 
results. In gathering, the team pulls to 
the right; ‘‘gee-back” is the command 
given by the ploughmen. In scattering, 
the horse turns to the left, or ‘come 
here,” as their driver would say. There 
are also several kinds of furrows, chief 
among which is the rectangular furrow, 
made by a fat-cutting share and an 
upright coulter or skeith; a high-cut 
furrow, obtained by using a share raised 
on the wing side, and a skeith or coulter, 
cutting a furrow at an angle. The 
digger plough has a furrow peculiarly 
its own, which I will attempt to describe 
later on. 


I have said that the single-furrow 
plough is very frequently used for 
marking out and finishing lands. This 
operation may, however, be done equally 
well with a double or treble furrow 
plough; and there are very few who 
now trouble with a single furrow for 
marking out. Some prefer three horses 
for striking out witha double furrow, 
but it may be done, with practice, with 
any team. Now that the seed is usually 
drilled instead of being sown broadcast 
on the furrow, there is not somuch used 
from the utility point of view for 
straight ploughing. Ploughing matches 
are going out of fashion, except in parts 
of South Canterbury and Southland, but 
it would be wellif our agricultural and 
pastoral societies took the matter up. 


Stubbles ploughed from autumn oats 
should be ploughed with an ordinary 
double-furrow or with one of the many 


1 Scientific Agriculture. 


kinds of multiple ploughs now being 
used. These multiple ploughs are princi- 
pally useful for stubble work, and for 
turning over land out of turnips for 
either rape, grass, or oats. Oats are 
shallow-rooted, and therefore the digger 
may be reserved for the deeper-rooted 
wheat. Sometimes a mistake is made by 
ploughing too deeply for oats and for 
turnips. dry season comes, and the 
roots fail to reach the subsoil, Had the 
land been ploughed fairly shallow, say 
three or four inches, the roots would 
have reached the stored-up moisture, and 
would have givena good crop. Moreover 
being shallow rooted, they get the 
benefit of animal droppings and decaying 
vegetation when the furrow is fairly 
shallow, and also of the work of soil 
bacteria which are always more active 
se the surface than lower down in the 
soil. 


I have mentioned digger ploughs 
several times, and will now endeavour 
to describe them and their functions. 
They are daily coming into more extend- 
ed use, and in parts of Canterbury and 
Southland are thought very highly of 
indeed. Personally, I may say that some 
ten years ago I tried them, but was 
disappointed at the result, and gave 
them up. Some half-dozen years ago we 
had some very wet seasons, and I found 
that the digger would work where the 
ordinary plough would _ not. They left 
the ground in good condition for sowing 
grain on, and the crops did well. The 
secret of the whole matter was that the 
ploughs were being worked at too greata 
depth when they were previously being 
used. The breat or mould-board has a 
kind of shin on it which acts as a coulter, 
A skim coulter takes the place of the 
usual skeith or long coulter. This skim 
coulter assists in cutting the furrow, 
but most of the vertical cutting is done 
by the shin on the mould-board. The 
horizontal cutting isdone bya broad 
share, which forms the forepart of the 
mould-board. The shape of the mould- 
board is different to that on the plain 
double-furrow. It is much shorter, is 
slightly disked, and then takes an out- 
side curve. The earth is thrown out- 
wards and over, and is not compressed 
or packed. It is left in much the same 
condition as it would be if dug witha 
spade. The land _ lies loosely, and frost 
can get into it. The water runs through 
it, and there is no solid furrow to be 
worked down. As I have already in- 
dicated, the digger can be worked in 
stiff, clay soils in wet weathe1, when 
the plain plough would have to remain 
idle. It does a great amount of after- 
cultivation. A stroke of the tines or 
discs before the drill, and a couple of 


Scientific Agriculture 
where in other cases scarifiers and 
rollers would have to be used. The 


digger buries grass and weeds deeply 
down, so that they do not get a chance 
to grow through the furrows. More- 
over, the vegetation gets rotten about 
the time the ear of cornis filling, and 
helps materially to form food for the 
plant at a time when it requires it. 
There is, as already stated, a danger of 
turning up too much sour land, so that 
the seed does not grow away quickly. 
This must, of course, be guarded against. 
The plough will plough no deeper than 
where itis set. I know of people who 
quickly discard the digger because they 
cannot make them do good work. The 
fault is, very often, that an attempt is 
being made toturn overa furrow too 
wide for the depth. The resultis that 
the desired crumbling, feathery state of 
the land isnot attained. As a rule, 
people do not, on clay lands, desire to 
plough deeper than 6 or 7_ inches. 
Roughly speaking, 1 inch of depth re- 
quires 2 inches of width. Thus a furrow 
6 inches deep should not have a greater 
width than 12inches. A furrow 6 inches 
by 15 inches would bea failure, in my 
experience. In marking out, the front 
wheel should be lowered in order that 
the front plough shall not plough too 
deeply, and throw up too higha ridge. 
In finishing, much the same method is 
adopted as with an ordinary plough. 
It is well to repeat that the first time of 
ploughing must not be too deep. The 
soil on the top after ploughing is all 
brought up from the bottom of the 
furrow. A paddock may easily be 
spoiled for a year or two because of too 
deep ploughing with the digger. They 
are often spoken of as horse-killers, but, 
as a matter of fact, they are not more so 
than an ordinary plough. They certainly 
require more strength, but they will 
turn over four acres a day, where an 
ordinary plough will only do between 
3and 33 acres in the day. In ground 
where they have never been used before, 
the work is harder than on land where 
they are frequently used, because there 
is a certain amount of subsoil to be 
turned up for the first time. In ordinary 
cases five horses will work them as 
easily as four will work a plain plough, 
and, asI have said, they will do from 
half acre to one acre more work. The 
mould-board is shorter, but there is less 
friction, because it hasonly to clear its 
way, whereas a plain plough has to be 
dragged through the ground like a 
wedge. 


{shall conclude by saying something 
about the latest pattern of plough—the 
disc plough. They are coming into use 
slowly, and are excellent for certain 


172 


[FEBRUARY, 1909. 


kinds of work on certain kinds of land. 
For cross-ploughing in autumn they do 
good work, breaking up the ground 
thoroughly so that but little after-work 
is needed to make a good seed bed. 
They do well on stubbles in the autumn, 
and get overalot of ground in aday. 
They are made somewhat on the principle 
of the disc harrow, and require more 
power than an ordinary plough. If they 
are set narrow, and the ground is level, 
four horses will make them on stubble, 
turnip land, or fallow, and five on lea 
land. Generally speaking, however, 
they require five horses for the former 
kind of land and six on the latter, 
especially if the ground is hilly. They 
ave not suitable for turnip land which 
has been tramped and poached by stock 
in the winter, as they leave the ground 
too lumpy and rough. It is on _ the 
twitchy land that the disc plough is 
most serviceable. In fact, it will throw 
about land infested with couch, yarrow, 
and other plants with creeping roots in 
splendid style, where a plain furrow 
plough will scracely touch it. Paddocks 
which have been given up as unworkable, 
by reason of a mat of twitch or couch, 
have been brought into eultivation 
again by thedisc plough. It throws 
the furrows in the air, and leaves them 
lying uy to the sun and weather in such 


a manner that the plants are half-killed 


before after-cultivation is started upon. 
Moreover, the furrow, instead of being 
packed hard, so that no disc harrow or 
cultivator can touch it, is left so that 
these implements can smash them about 
splendidly. Some farmers break up 
twitchy land with the ordinary plough, 
and then put the disc plough on to 
cross-plough, with very satisfactory 
results, In my opinion, the disc plough 
is an implement that materially reduces 
the fear that twitch and couch, and such 
like weeds will utimatelv get possession 
of our arable lands,—A NEw ZEALAND 
FARMER in “The New Zealand Farmer,” 
—Queensland Agricultural Journal, 
Vol.XXI., Part 4, October, 1908. 


THE DUST MULCH. 

Direct evaporation from the soil can 
be checked by keeping the upper 2 or 
3 inches of the surface well cultivated, 
soas to form a dust blanket, or dust 
mulch. When the ground is kept 
covered with a thick layer of dry, loose 
soil, evaporation is slight, but when the 
soil surface is not kept dry and locse, 
evaporation goes on very rapidly. The 
tools required for maintaining the dust 
mulch are a common harrow, a weeder, 
and various forms of cultivators. The 
strokes after, is all that is required, 


Frsrvuary, 1909.] 


fact that the soilin the vicinity of San 
Antonio is heavy, together with the 
comparative rarity otf high winds, 
makes it possible to maintain an effec- 
tive dust mulch and to accumulate in 
the soil enough moisture to carry ona 
crop to maturity even if little rain falls 
during its growth. 


_ After the dust mulch has been des- 
troyed by a rain, evaporation from the 
supply of water in the soil begins as 
soon as the rain ceases, and in cases 
where the weather immediately follow- 
ing the rain is hot and windy this 
loss of moisture becomes exceedingly 
great. On the heavy soils of San Anto- 
nio a light rain, as for instance 0°1 to 0°4 
inch, reduces rather than increases the 


173 


Scientific Agriculture. 


total amount of soil water. This is 
apparently due to the fact that such 
light rains are only sufficient to establish 
capillary connection between the sur- 
face soil and the moisture in the lower 
soil, and before the surface is dry 
enough to permit cultivation some of 
the moisture has been drawn from the 
supply below and dissipated into the 
air. A rain of less than 0:1 inch is 
usually sufficient to establish such capil- 
lary connection, and is therefore harm- 
less. Even a heavy rain, unless followed 
immediately by cultivation to renew 
the dust mulch, may result in a reduc- 
tion rather than in an increase of the 
amount of soil moisture. Such a case 
is illustrated by Table 1. 


TABLE 1.—Soit MOISTURE IN AN ORCHARD AND A CORNFIELD CULTIVATED ON 
JUNE 5 AND JUNE 3, 1907, RESPECTIVELY, ILLUSTRATING THE EFFECT OF 
EARLY TILLAGE AFTER RAIN, 


\ 


Orchard. Cornfield. 
Depth in feet. aMoistute Moisture Moisture Moisture 
May 28. June 6, May 28. June 6. 

Per cent. Per cent. Per cent. Per cent. 
, 223 229 18°3 20°0 
: ase Bhi tag 21:2 21:2 18.4 18°6 
one oe oe 19°6 17'8 15°6 15°3 
Average 21°0 20°4 17°4 18:0 

) 
On May 29, 1°2 inches of rain fell, FARMYARD AND ARTIFICIAL 


which should have raised the moisture 
content of the upper 38 feet of soil 2°7 per 
cent. had it all been absorbed. Seven 
days after the rain, in the absence of a 
dust mulch the moisture content of the 
first 3 feet in the orchard was 0°6 per 
cent. less than it had been before the 
rain. Had this field been harrowed two 
or three days after the rain there would 
have been an increase in the amount of 
water in the soil instead of an actual 
decrease. In a near-by field of corn 
which was cultivated two days earlier 
than the orchard there was an increase 
of 0°6 per cent. of moisture over what 
was in the soil May 28.—KExtract from 
U. S. Department of Agriculture, B. of 
oe Ind. Bulletin, No, 18, September, 


[The work of the San Antonia (Texas) 
Experiment Station in 1907.] 


[The lesson of this article badly needs 
taking to heart in Ceylon.—ED.] 


MANURE, 


TILLAGE AS A MANURE. 


APPLICATION TO COCONUT CULTIVATION. 


Is it more profitable to use famyard 
manure—i.e., cattle and other dung 
mixed with straw, waste herbage, and 
refuse properly decomposed in a pit— 
than artificial is a question that should be 
of great interest to all planters and agri- 
culturists. Artificial or special manures 
contain but few of the constituents re- 
quired for plant nutrition, and are 
applied to those crops which require 
more of a certain ingredient than the soil 
contains. Farmyard manure on _ the 
other hand is a general manure, con- 
taining all the constituents required 
by plant life. Artificial manures are 
much quicker in action than farmyard, 
and are an essential auxilary to general 
manures. A general manure may be 
used year after year on the same land, 
but artificials, if used exclusively, would 


Scientific Agriculture. 174 


ultimately exhaust the soil. | The 
minimum of any one essential ingre- 
dient rules the crop. Jt does not matter 
how great a quantity of the other con- 
stituents may be present, good crops 
cannot be obtained if one substance is 
deficient. When this is the case a 
special manure produces as good effect 
as a manure containing everything 
necessary to plant growth. The world’s 
experience has proved that it is not 
advisable to continuously apply_ farm- 
yard manure. If a field was dressed 
every year with farmyard manure, 
after a timethere would bein the soil 
constituents more than are necessary, 
and a large store of fertility would have 
accumulated. And though the field 
may be said to be in a high state of 
fertility crops will not prove as _satis- 
factory as might be expected. This is 
because alarge quantity of food is 


LYING IN A DORMANT CONDITION 


in which state plants cannot assimilate 
it. In such cases a special manure 
which would convert dormant material 
into active matter suitable for plant 
nutrition is valuable. Instances of the 
above are sometimes seen in land in 
high condition from previous manuring. 
Asa rule an application of nitrate of 
soda will cause the crop to grow and 
bear vigorously, the plants making use 
of the hitherto dormant matter. The 
difference betweer the nitrogen in the 
nitrate of soda and the nitrogen in 
farmyard manure is that in the former it 
is immediately available and is taken 
up at once by the roots, whereas in farm- 
yard manure the nitrogen is partly 
locked up and is only made use of as 
it becomes available. The effect of a 
dressing of nitrate of soda is not seen 
beyond the cropto which it is applied, 
whereas the effects of a dressing of 
framyard manure is seen for many 
years after. Another thing which must 
not be forgotten when comparing arti- 
ficial with farmyard manure is the 
mechanical effects produced by the 
latter in the soil, artificial having no 
such effects. By the fermentation of 
farmyard manure in the soil its texture 
becomes improved. Carbonic acid, the 
most powerful disintegrator known, 
is evolved, and helps to break up the 
soil and release the stores of food it 
contains, much more effectively than 
any process of ploughing and cultiva- 
tion. 
TILLAGE OF MANURE. 

There is, as a rule, a large quantity of 
undeveloped natural fertilisers in most 
soils. If nature were not very conser- 
vative the careless agriculturist would 
rob the soil of its most valuable consti- 


[FEBRUARY, 1909, 


tuents faster than he does, either by 
carrying plant food off, or allowing it 
to leak or wash away. It is noticed that 
organic matter, as soon as it ceases to 
live, is revolved into its original ele- 
ments, and that these elemerts in most 
cases combine with bases—the phos- 
phoric acid with lime, the potash with 
silicates, and so on—and when combined, 
they are often so securely locked up 
and preserved that this plant food is 
not available unless the cultivator does 
something to help along the natural 
processes. The cultivator has in most 
cases taken from the land the plant- 
food which is easily available, has often 
robbed it of its humus, hence its mois- 
ture-holding capacity. The crops then 
suffer from two distinct causes, first a 
lack of a full supply of available plant 
tood, and second from lack of moisture, 
Tillage makes the plant-food more avail- 
able. To provide the moisture and not a 
sufficent amount of available plant-food, 
would be like giving a horse all the 
water it requires, but not enough paddy 
and grass. 


NO ONE CAN FORETELL 


how much cultivation will be necessary 
to secure maximum crops. In some soils 
the plant-food is extremely lazy, in other 
soils it may be deficient rather than lazy. 
The soil that contains an abundance of 
dormant plant-food is more valuable 
than that which contains asmall amount 
of available food. In the case of annual 
crops the reason why soluble plant-food 
is frequently so beneficial is because the 
plants when youtg cannot secure from 
unaided soil sufficient nourishment, and 
they become dwarfed, and never entirely 
recover. Ifa sufficient supply of plant 
food has not been provided for the 
young plants by tillage, it is always well 
to add available plant food which may 
serve as a Starter. A young calf cannot 
be well nourished on straw. <A grown- 
up animal may subsist fairly well upon 
this coarse food ; but the calf must have 
a starter, that is, food that is easily 
digested, as milk. Thesame with plants. 
Only by experiment can it be positively 
determined whether expense should be 
incurred for extra tillage or for the 
purchase of available plant-food. Ex- 
perience seems to indicate that the extra 
tillage is the most rational method of 
indirectly supplying nourishment where- 
ever it is certain that there is an 
abundance of lazy plant-food in the soil. 
In some cases large crops have been 
received by means of superior tillage 
on land of moderate fertility. On other 
soils, without doubt these results could 
not be reached without some added 
plant-food, but often in soils that are 
only moderately productive a great 


FEBRUARY, 1909.] 


increase in production can be secured by 
the more thorough tillage of the soil. 


COCONUT CULTIVATION, MANURE AND 
TILLAGE. 


In applying the above general remarks 
to coconut cultivation, I think my 
readers will agree with me that in most 
Cases our coconut estates do not receive 
the great impetus necessary for success- 
ful results with economy,—(1) either by 
making the dormant plant-food in the 
soil available by the addition of special 
ingredients to convert the dormant 
matter into active plant food, (2) or by 
judicious manuring, (8) or by tillage, 
turning up and stirring up the dormant 
plant-food which by nitrification and by 
other chemical changes caused by 
atmospheric influences, causes the sleepy 
plant-food to turn into active life. The 
first method seems hardly to be taken 
advantage of-at all. Of course, it is 
possible that a lot of practical planters 
may not be aware of this method, and in 
the other case, those that are aware of 
it may not consider that research by 
tedious experiments is worth the trouble. 
If one would take the trouble to think a 
little deeply on the subject, he will come 
to the conclusion that there is more 
than likely a large accumulation of 
dormant food in his soil, and that it is 
more economical to add one or two 
ingredients to convert that which is now 
not available, into available, food, 
rather than to go tothe heavy expense 
of buying a complete manure. The 
second method, that of artificial manur- 
ing,is largely carried out, but in all cases 
I donot think it receives the careful 
study itshould do. Some planters have 
gotinto their heads that artificial manur- 
ing only is necessary for their estates, 
but I think a perusal of the first portion 
of this article will prove to them that 


BOTH ARTIFICIAL ‘AND CATTLE MANURE, 
‘applied judiciously, and at suitable 
intervals, will give better results at 
much less expense. With reference to 
tillage I make bold to say that the culti- 
vation usually carried out on coconut 
estates is absolutely inadequate, The 
methcd usually adopted is to turn the 
soil round the trees to a distance of six 
feet from the base, leaving a band a foot 
or eighteen inches at the base untouched. 
In some few instances seven to eight 
feet is cultivated. Why should not the 
whole land be turned up to as great a 


175 Scientific Agriculture. 


depth as possible. Why do we leave from 
25 to 30 feet between the rows of trees ? 
Is it not as feeding-room for the roots of 
the trees? If thatisso, is4ft. 6to5 ft. 
of actual cultivation sufficient? No doubt 
alot of planters will say that this reads 
wellonpaper, but is not practicable— 
that of turning up the entire soil on ac- 
count of the heavy expense. It would, 
however, be found cheaper to extend the 
cultivation, so that the whole land is 
well turned up rather than go to the 
much heavier expense of supplying com- 
plete artificial fertilisers. Tillage—which 
makes the plant-food more available, 
and in most cases, where only a few feet 
of the soil round the tree is cultivated 
from the time of planting—is all that 
is required for a long time 


TO PRODUCE GOOD CROPS. 


For nitrification or the action of minute 
bacteria on the soil which produces a 
process of fermentation, itis necessary 
that air should penetrate into the soil, 
as without air the bacteria cannot 
exist inits first generation. The effect 
of this process of fermentation is to 
render assimilable the otherwise dor- 
mant nitrogen, the element of value in 
the organic portion of the soil. There 
is no doubt that ploughing would be 
cheaper and undoubtedly better than 
hoeing, ete., by hand as it would be more 
uniform in character, and the plough 
would turn up the soil to aneven depth. 
Every planter knows that a lot of bad 
work can be done by hand work, as it 
is impossible to supervise every indivi- 
dual cooly, but unfortunately we have 
not yet reached the stage where we 
have both the plough and motive power 
to turn up the soil to an even depth of 
about 8 to9 inches. There are plenty 
of first-class ploughs available in other 
countries and can easily be imported, 
but we have not at present the animal 
power capable of drawing them. But 
I feel sure that, if proprietors of coco- 
nut estates thoroughly understood the 
great advantages gained by properly 
ploughing their land, they would not 
allow this stmublingblock to stand in 
their way for very long, as heavy draft 
cattle can be imported in the first 
instance from India or elsewhere, and 
judicious breeding would supply fresh 
cattie for later periods. 


P. G. SCHRADER. 
—Ceylon Independent. 


176 [FEBRUARY, 1909. 


MISCELLANEOUS. 


A BRIEF NOTE ON A VISIT TO 
COIMBATORE AGRICULTURAL 
COLLEGE, 


In the course of a short holiday in 
South India between the 17th and 25th 
of December last, I took the opportunity 
of spending a day in Coimbatore and 
visiting the Agricultural College there. 
The main building, which is an imposing 
structure, is still incomplete, but work 
has already commenced with the first 
batch of twenty students who were 
admitted last July. Itis intended to take 
in twenty each year, limiting the full 
complement to sixty. The course of 
study will thus extend over three years. 
At present no fees are charged, but 
students are expected to defray the cost 
of their own board in the hostels provided 
for them on the premises. Each block 
consists of six rooms with a kitchen and 
dining-room, to enable men of different 
castes to make suitable arrangements for 
their own dieting. The monthly cost to 
a vegetarian is about Rs. 16. Athletics 
is a part of the curriculum. In addi- 
tion to their theoretical course, the 
students of the College are expected to 
take part in all the ordinary farm oper- 
ations, such as ploughing, sowing, weed- 
ing, &c., and in their second and third 
years to cultivate a plot of land them- 
selves, 


The farm attached to the College, 
which is situated about three miles away 
from the town of Coimbatore, consists of 
450 aeres, of which 5. acres are devoted 
to wet cultivation, chiefly paddy; of 
the balance 300 acres are available for 
dry land cultivation, about 127 of which 
consist of the well-known black cotton 
soil. There are other kinds of soil as 
well—varying from sandy to stiff clay 
loams. These high lands depend on the 
water supply of ten wells on the premises. 
Wells are not what we generally know 
them to bein this country, but consist 
of excavations of considerable capacity, 
suitable for the working of water lifts, 
and costing anything up to Rs. 2,000 or 
even more. The farms arethus suitable 
for a variety of crops and for different 
methods of cultivation. Among the 

rops | saw were sorghum, ground-nut, 
paddy, kurakkan, dhall, cow-pea, sugar- 
cane, cotton and plantains. Sorghum is 
avery important cultivation, both as a 
grain and fodder crop. 


There would seem to be two draw- 
backs in the natural condition at Coim- 
batore, viz., the small annual rainfall 
(about 20 inches), and the somewhat 
saline character of the water ; but appar- 
ently neither of these is considered of 
any importance by the _ authorities. 
I was greatly interested in the large 
and varied collection of implements 
and other labour-saving applianeces— 
different types of the plough, culti- 
vator, harrow, etc.—of both local and 
foreign make. What particular imple- 
ments are suitable for a given district 
will of course depend on the character 
of the soil to be worked and the nature 
of the cultivation required. The prac- 
tical methods followed on the farm are 
those found to be best suited to the 
locality, but these would naturally need 
modification when introdueed into other 
districts. The object of the instruction 
given in the College is to enable the 
students to think out their own parti- 
cular difficulties and apply the bhest 
means from their own special ciccum- 
stances with a view toimprove the yield 
of the land. 


Though my visit was made during the 
vacation, I was fortunate in meeting the 
Principal (Mr. Sreppersay Dr. Barber 
(the Government Botanist), and Mr, 
Harrison (the Agricultural Chemist). 
These three officers constitute the 
present European staff of the College. 
To each is attached one or more intel- 
ligent native assistants whose work is 
controlled and directed by the Professors 
—the agricultural work being under the 
supervision of Mr. Shepperson himself, 
who has the qualification and experience 
of a teacher. All the Professors and 
their assistants are resident on the pre- 
mises, the extent of accommodation 
allowed to each native assistant varying 
with the status to which his salary enti- 
tles him. 


I understood from the Principal that 
he would be prepared to consider ap- 
plications for admission into the Col- 
lege from Ceylon students, though the 
vacancies for such would probably be 
very limited. For the present I think 
this Society would do well to offer one 
or two. scholarships to promising 
Ceylonese students to enable them to 
undergo a course of trainin at the 
Coimbatore College, while an Agricul- 
tural Scbool or College for Ceylon might 
be modelled on the same lines. 


C. DRIEBERG, 
Secretary, C, A. S. 


FEBRUARY, 1909.1 


THE DUMBARA AGRICULTURAL 
SOCIETY AND THE CO-OPERATIVE 
CREDIT SOCIETY OF DUMBATA, 


PROGRESS REPORT 1907-1908. 


(Submitted at a General Meeting held 
on 6th February under the presidency 
of the Hon’ble the Government Agent, 
C. P; 

Th Dumbara Agricultural Society 
was established in April, 1906, and the 
Co-operative Credit Society in August, 
1906. There are 230 members in the 
Register of the Agricultural Society, of 
whom 50 are members of the Credit 
Society. : 

Two general meetings and six com- 
mittee meetings were convened during 
the year 1907-1908. 

The following experiments were con- 
ducted by the members of the Society :— 

1. Artificial manure on tobacco under 
the supervision of the Hon. Secretary. 
The manure was applied to a plot of 
three acres; and two other plots, one 
with cattle manure and another with- 
out any manure, were also planted 
for the purposes of comparison. The 
results were very satisfactory. Although 
the application of cattle manure was 
effective in producing leaf of the 
same size as those in the artifici- 
ally manured plot, yet the leaf in 
the latter plot was finer in texture 
and of uniform colour and quality. The 
tobacco grown with artificial manure 
fetched better prices, nearly double the 
price for which the tobacco grown on 
unmanured plot was sold. ae 

The Korale of Pallispattu West is now 
making an experiment with artificial 
manure supplied by Messrs. Freudenberg 
& Co. onpaddy, The manure has been 
applied to a field of two pelas in extent, 
while a plot of similar extent has been 
sown without any manure. 

Large quantities of vegetable seed 
ordered through the Parent Society, and 
grafted mango and orange plants have 
also been distributed in the district. | 

Of the Exhibits sent by this Society 
to the Mysore Dassara Agricultural and 
Industrial Exhibition last September, a 


177 


Miscellaneous. 


bronze medal was awarded for tobacco 
supplied by the Hon. Secretary, a prize 
of Rs. 10 for jaggery supplied by the 
Arachchi of Wattegama, and an honour- 
able mention for cardamoms. 

The most important practical aid to 
agriculture has been given by the 
Co-operative Credit Soviety. The paddy 
in the Madugoda store was increased by 
30 bushels during last year, and there 
were at the end of the year 105 bushels, 
including interest, About 150 persons 
have participated in its benefits, and the 
people whoat first looked at the venture 
with suspicion are now beginning to 
understand its benefits. The Lekam- 
mahatmeya of Talagune, who isin charge 
of the paddy store, deserves the thanks 
of the Society for the unselfish interest 
with which he has been doing the work 
of distributing and collecting paddy, 
without any remuneration, The success 
of a Credit Society, as of any organisa- 
tion for that matter, mainly depends on 
the self-sacrificing work of one or two 
individual members, and the Society was 
lucky in obtaining the services of the 
Lekammahatmeya_ when the original 
storekeeper, W. W. Tikiri Banda, who 
successfully pioneered the movement, 
died last year. 

Twenty-six persons have received cash 
loans to the extent of Rs. 1,275 for 
the purpose of planting tobacco. In- 
stances are not wanting where persons 
who were unable to get out of the 
clutches of the money-lenders every 
year they planted tobaccu have been 
able to pay off their former debts 
after borrowing money from _ the 
Society. The material prosperity of at 
least a portion of the district is mainly 
due to the Tobacco industry, and it 
therefore deserves to be helped and 
fostered in every manner possible, 

The balance sheet prepared to the end 
of the year 1908 is a very satisfactory 
one, The gross profits of the Society 
were Rs. 172'20, out of which Rs. 56°40 
has been paid as interest to depositors, 
a paddy bin was erected at Madugoda 
costing Rs. 45, and, after deducting 
cost of printing, &c., there is a nett 
profit of Rs. 38°81. 


BALANCE SHEET, 1908. 
CasH AccouNT, 


| Rs. |cts. 

To Amount of deposits eS TONE OO: 
,, Agricultural Society’s funds 96 | 41 
», Agricultural Show, 1907, balance! 197 | 21 
5, Interest recovered on loans 122, | 00 
», Interest due to Depositors 42, | 60 
Total...Rs. |1,178] 22 


—— 


Rs. | cts, 
By 80 bushels of paddy 140 | 00 
», Cost of printing and books 23 | 49 
», Paddy bin at Madugoda 45 | 00 
», Interest on Deposits 56 | 40 
» Hxtras ..| 02] 00 
», Loans outstanding ...| 250 | 00 
» Amountin Ceylon Savings Bank} 50 | 00 
», Cash in hand see} 611 |, 38 


Total...Rs. |1,178, 22 


Miscellaneous. 


178 


[FEBRUARY, 1909, 


PADDY ACCOUNT 


To Paddy purchased 
», Interest recovered 


[Bus Laha. 
Te 


Total... Rs. 


Bus‘| Laha. 
‘By Loans outstanding 88 6 
1 | ,, Wastage 3 5 
», Paddy in Store 13 0 

; CN eae 


Prorit AND Loss Account, 


Totaleakiss “105 iL 


To Interest recovered on Cash loans) 122 
a a i on Paddy ,, 
25°1 bushels at Rs, 2. per bushel.) 50 


Total...Rs.'| 172 | 20 


DRAFT ORDINANCE. 
[Ceylon Government Gazette (Hatra- 
ordinary) No. 6298, February 9th, 1909. ] 


MINUTE. 
The following Draft of a proposed 
Ordinance is published for general infor- 
mation :— 


AN ORDINANCE TO PREVENT THE INTRO- 
DUCTION AND DISSEMINATION OF THE 
PLANT KNOWN AS THE WATER Hya- 

CINTH. 


Preamble.— Whereas it is expedient to 
make provision to prevent the introduc- 
tion into, and dissemination in, this 
Island of the plant known as the water 
hyacinth: Be it therefore enacted by 
the Governor of Ceylon, by and with the 
advice and consent of the Legislative 
Council thereof, as follows : 

Short title.-—1. This Ordinance may be 
cited as “The Water Hyacinth Ordin- 
ance, 190 .” 

Definition.—2. In this Ordinance the 
expression ‘‘ the water hyacinth” means 
the plant botanically known as Wich- 
hornia crassipes, and inciudes the seed 
and every part of the plant. 

Prohibition of importation or posses- 
sion of water hyacinth.—3, (1) It shall 
be unlawful for any person— 

(a) To import the water hyacinth into 
Ceylon; or 

(6) To possess or keep the water hya- 
cinth, or allow the same to grow in or on 
any place belonging to him or under his 
control or management. 

Duty of land-owners to destroy plant.— 
4. Where the water hyacinth is growing 
in or on any place, it shall be the duty 
of the person to whom such place be- 
longs, or who has the control or manage- 
ment thereof, forthwith to cause the 
same to be completely and effectually 
destroyed by fire. 


Rs. |cts. 

By Interest on Deposits 56 | 40 
», Printing and Books 23 | 49 
». A Paddy-bin | 45 | 00 
»» Sundries eel a OO 
» Wastage of Paddy bus, 3'5 atRs.2| 7 | 00 
+» Nett Profit Gears il G3ll 
Total...Rs. | 172 | 20 


Penalties.—5. Any person who— 

(1) Imports the water hyacinth into 
Ceylon; or 

(2) Possesses or keeps or allows the 
same to grow in any plaze belonging to 
him or under his control or manage- 
ment; or 

(3) Fails forthwith to destroy in 
manner prescribed by section 4 any 
water hyacinth which may be found 
growing in any such place as aforesaid— 
shall be guilty of an offence, and shall 
be liable on conviction thereof toa fine 
not exceeding two hundred rupees. 

Power of Customs Officers to destroy 
plant on importation.—6. It shall be 
lawful for the _ principal officer of 
Customs at any portat which any water 
hyacinth may be landed to destroy the 
same, and no person shall be entitled to 
compensation for any water hyacinth so 
destroyed. 

Powers to extend certain provisions to 
other noxious weeds or plants —7. (1) It 
shall be lawful for the Governorin Hxecu- 
tive Council by Proclamation to declare 
that the provisions of this Ordinance— 

(a) Prohibiting the importation of 
the water hyacinth ; 

(b) Imposing a penalty on persons 
importing the said plant ; 

(c) Empowering Customs Officers to 
destroy the said plant on importation— 
shall extend to any noxious weed or 
plant specified in the Proclamation and 
to the seed or any part of such plant. 

(2) Upon such Proclamation the above- 
mentioned provisions of this Ordinance 
shall apply, mutatis mutandis, to such 
weed or plant. ! 

By His Excellency’s command, 
HuGH CLIFFORD, 
Colonial Secretary, 
Colonial Secretary’s Office, 


Colombo, February 3, 1909. 


i 
bom Ks 


FeBruary, 1909.) 


Statement of Objects and Reasons. 


The object of the Draft Ordinance is to 
prevent the introduction into, and disse- 
mination in, this Island of the plant 
known as the water hyacinth (/ich- 
hornia crassipes), which might, it is 
feared, make its way into the inland 
waters of the Island, and, being of rapid 
growth, impede their navigation. 

2. The Ordinance prohibits—- 

(1) The importation of the plant, and 
empowers the principal officer of Cus- 
toms at any port at which the water 
hyacinth may be landed to destroy the 
same. 

(2) Any person from possessing or 
keeping or allowing the plant to grow 
in any place belonging to him or under 
his control or management, and casts 
upon him the duty of destroying it 
by fire. 

3. The term ‘water hyacinth” is 
defined to include the seed and any part 
of the pliant. 

4. Any person importing or not 
destroying the plant becomes liable to a 
fine not exceeding Rs. 200. 

5. Power isalso taken to extend by 
Proclamation the provisions of the 
Draft Ordinance prohibiting importa- 
tion to any noxious weed or plant to be 
specified in such Proclamation. 


ALFRED G. LASCELLES, 
Attorney-General. 
Attorney-General’s Chambers, 
Colombo, January 21, 1909. 


NOTES AND QUERIES. 


B, I'.—‘‘ Dhaincha” is the subject of a 
special note elsewhere, which please 
consult. The plant occurs as a weed in 
Ceylon, but does not appear to have 
attracted any attention as a_ soil 
renovator, or even for its fibre. 

M. B. F.—No mineral phosphates occur 
in Ceylon. You can verify this fact 
by referring to the Mineralogical Depart- 
ment. You are probably thinking of 
Dolomite, which is a double carbonate of 
lime and magnesia. Even sulphate of 
lime, so far as I am aware, has never 
been found in the Island. 


DESMODIUM TRIFOLIUM, recommended 
by Mr. Carruthers as a green manure, 
is the Sinhalese “hin undupiyali,” 
commonly found growing among grass. 


Low Country.—Yes, the rainfall last 
“year was very short of the average. 
According to Hort records the average 
for 39 years is 86°87; but the record for 
last year was only 58°41. 


179 


Miscellaneous. 


N. D.—Laterite is another name for 
“*Cabook,” and is generally taken to be 
decomposed gneiss rock. 


C.—Other names for the Avocado 
pear is “alligator pear” and‘ butter 
fruit.” [tis called a salad fruit, I suppose, 
because it is eaten with salt and pepper— 
sometimes also with a little vinegar— 
like a salad, and is not as sweet as dessert 
fruits generally are. It appears, how- 
ever, to be steadily gaining popularity. 

A. P.—Gum arabic is the product of a 
species of Acacia knownas A. arabica 
(Tamil ‘‘ Karuvel”). It is rarein Ceylon, 
but very common in India under the 
name of ‘‘ Babul.” 


KouincHl, or Kolinji, is Tephrosia 
purpurea (Sin, pila) much esteemed, 
specially in the North of the Island, asa 
green manure. 

K. H. P. K.—Mullein is found growing 
about Nuwara Eliya. I donot know of 
any native name ; botanically it is 
Verbascum Thapsus. Cc. D. 


BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. 


MINUTES OF THE 44TH MEETING. 


The 44th Meeting of the Board of 
Agriculture was held at the Council 
Conger on Thursday, the 4th February, 
1909. 


His Excellency the Governor presided. 

There were also present :—The Hon’ble 
the Colonial Secretary, the Hon’ble the 
Controller of Revenue, Sir Solomon Dias 
Bandaranaike, Drs. Willis and H. M. 
Hernando, Messrs. R. H. Lock, M. K. 
Bamber, W. D. Gibbon, Dunuwille 
Disawe, Dan Joseph, Mudaliyar Tudor 
Rajapakse, J. D. Vanderstraaten, G. W. 
Sturgess, . A. de Silva, Francis 
Daniell, E. Cowan and L. W. A. de Soysa. 

As Visitors.—Messrs. M. Suppra- 
maniam and G. H. Perera. 

BUSINESS, 

1. Minutes of the meeting held on 
December 8rd, 1908, were read and con- 
firmed, : 

2. Progress Report No. 43 was adopted. 

3. Statements of Expenditure to the 
end of December, 1908, and January, 1909, 
were tabled, 

4. Dr. Willis read three papers enti- 
tled respectively, 

(a.) Agriculture in Ceylon and its 
improvement, 

(b.) Loans to Native Agriculturists. 

(c.) Agriculture in the North-Cen- 
tral Province, 


Miscellaneous. 


H. EK. the Governor, the Hon’ble Mr. 
W. H. Jackson, Messrs. W. D. Gibbon, 
W. A, de Silva and J. D, Vanderstraaten 
offered remarks on the papers. 

Dr. H. M. Fernando’s paper on ‘‘ Cot- 
ton Cultivation in the Kurunegala dis- 
trict,” and the Secretary’s ‘‘Note on a 
visit to Coimbatore” were taken as read. 

The Hon’ble the Colonial Secretary 
occupied the chair during the latter 
part of the meeting, as H.K. the Gover- 
nor was obliged to leave in order to 
receive an official visit. 

The Hon’ble Mr. A. Kanagasabai 
moved a resolution that Rs. 250 be voted 
annually for an Experimental Garden at 
Jaffna. On the suggestion of the Chair- 
man the subject was referred to the 
Finance Committee. 

In view of Dr. Willis’ approaching 
departure on leave, Dr. H. M. Fernando 
proposed, and Mr. F. Daniell seconded, 
a vote of thanks to the Organising Vice- 
President for the interest he had taken 
in the work of the Society since its 
inception. 

The Chairman heartily commended 
the vote to the meeting, and it was 
passed with acclamation. 


CEYLON AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY, 


ProGRESsS REPORT XLIII. 


Membership.—The following members 

have joined the Society since the last 
meeting of the Board held on December 
8, 1908 :—V. S. Andriezen, C. F. Hutchin- 
son, Gordon Windus, C. Colling, C.A. H. 
Wittachchy, Simon S. Dabre, S. O. Siri- 
manne, A, Rama Rao, R. Elwes, C. Ers- 
kine, R. J. Booth, E.M. Keyt. G. A 
Coombe, C. & S. Popoff Bros., and V.S. 
Wickramanayake. 
Movements of Officials.—The Organiz- 
ing Vice-President madea tour of the 
Province of Sabaragamuwa in Novem- 
ber, and held meetings of the Ratnapura, 
Kuruwiti Korale, and Balangoda Branch 
Societies, at which profitable discus- 
sions took place. The meeting at 
Balangoda was a particularly large and 
interesting one. The Secretary visited 
Kandy, Dumbara, and Kegalla, and was 
on a_ fortnight’s leave in Southern 
India, during which he paid a visit to the 
Agricultural College at Coimbatore. 

Branch Societies.—The  Bopagoda 
Society held a well-attended meeting on 
December 24, Mr. D. M. Karunaratne, 
President of Village Tribunals, in the 
chair. It was resolved to invite the 
Secretary of the Parent Society to in- 
spectthe Experimental Garden; to hold 
an Agri-Horticultural Show in August, 
1909; to bring to the notice of the Gan- 
sabhawa the irregularity of tank water 


180 


(FEBRUARY, 1909. 


supplies, and the necessity for repairs to 
irrgation channels, as wellas for the en- 
forcement of rules for cultivators where 
neglect is apparent. 

The Wellaboda Pattu (Galle) Society, at 
a meeting held on November 28, 1908, 
resolved that the draft rules for the 
establishment of a Co-operative Credit 
Society, submitted by the Secretary, 
be adopted and printed in Sinhalese 
and circulated, with a view to the enrol- 
ment of members ; that Government be 
approached on the question of leasing on 
easy terms fields lying along the river, 
and also with regard to the arrange- 
ments for the working of the Irrigation 
Ordinance, which has already been intro- 
duced into the district. The following 
programme was adopted _ for the current 
year :—A Cattle Show; Vegetable Show 
in December; work in connection with 
three pasture lands already allowed by 
Government on special terms; the en- 
couragement of sweet potato cultivation 
in fields between the paddy crops. Each 
member undertook to start a vegetable 
garden. 

Agri-Horticultural Hahibition.—The 
following awards have been made for the 
Ceylon exhibits sent to the Mysore 
Dassara Exhibition held in October 
last :—Dumbara Branch: bronze medal 
for tobacco; money prize for jaggery; - 
honourable mention for cardamoms. 
Jaffna Branch: honourable mention for 
tobacco, and money prize for jaggery ; 
certificate of honourable mention for 
arecanuts. A fuller report is awaited. 

Anuradhapura.—At a public meeting 
held in December it was decided to 
hold an Agri-Horticultural Show in 
May during the Wesak festivities. 

The Kandy Agri-Horticultural and 
Kanydan Art Exhibition has been fixed 
for the Perahera season in August. 

A Show in Negombo will be held in 
June. At a preliminary meeting held 
ou December 16, under the presidency 
of Mr. E. B. Denham, District Judge, 
a strong Committee was appointed to 
carry out details, which will finally be 
discussed at a meeting to be held on 
Feburary 6. 


Ambalangoda Vegetable and Paddy 
Show.—This Show was opened by the 
Government Agent, Southern Province, 
on December 19, and was voted a success. 

The Show proposed to be held at Han- 
guranketa has been definitely fixed for 
May 28 and 24. 

The Show fixtures for 1909, number 
over thirty, | 

Paddy Cultivation.—Messrs. Freuden- 
berg & Co. submitted for approval a 
pamphlet they are issuing on the sub- 
ject of paddy cultivation and manuring. 
A handy and practical work of refer- 


FEBRUARY, 1909. ] 181 


ence on the chief native industry of 
the Island isa great desideratum, and 
the publication will no doubt be much 
appreciated. In addition to other use- 
ful information, the brochure treats of 
the principles of manuring, and should 
prove specially useful in inculcating 
correct ideas regarding a subject upon 
which, as a rule, the most hazy notions 
obtain. 

Transplanting in Paddy Cultiva- 
tion.—Mudaliyar J. A. Wirasinghe of 
Rayigam korale reports that the follow- 
ing persons have undertaken experi- 
ments in transplanting in that korale:— 
Vel-Vidanes of Kehelpanawa, Bellapi- 
tiya, Mileniya, and Dambagoda; Vidane 
Arachchi of Yolagala division; EH. Don 
Cornelis Appuhamy of Werewatta—all 
for the yala season. 

Drought-resisting Paddy fron. Burma. 
—A small supply of a drought-resisting 
seed paddy called Taung-deik-pan has 
been received from the Agricultural 
Department of Burma. This paddy is 
said to be generally sown in June and 
transplanted in July, comes to maturity 
in October, and is harvested in Novem- 
ber, The seed will be available for experi- 
ments in thedry districts, and applica- 
tion for small quantities should be sent 
in early. : 

Siaty-days’ Paddy for Hambantota.— 
The Honorary Secretary of the Ham- 
bantota Society has secured through the 
Society a supply of sixty-days paddy 
for the experiment during the next 
maha season. 

Experimental Gardens.—It is proposed 
to start an Experimental Garden in 
Jaffna, to be placed in charge of the 
Society’s Agricultural Instructor sta- 
tioned there, and worked under the 
aupices of the local Agricultural Society. 
The idea originated with the Govern- 
ment Agent of the Northern Province. 

The Balangoda Garden has now made 
a good start; the Organizng Vice- 
President, who inspected it during his 
tour in November, reported that he 
found itin very good order, 

The Bandaragama Garden continues 
to progress satisfactorily. 

The Kegalla Garden has not yet passed 
through the preparatory stage. 

Experimental Garden in Chilaw Dis- 
trict.—It is proposed to establish a gar- 
den at Rajakadaluwa, close to the 
school, where a site has been selected 
by the Assistant Government Agent. 
With the appointment of an additional 
Agricultural Instructor, it will be found 
possible to make a start with the next 
monsoon. 

Annatto Seed.—An application for 
pele product has been received from 

ndla. 


Miscetlaneoiis. 


Ceylon Kekuna Nut.—This oil nut is 
the subject of inquiry from abroad, and 
particulars of quantities available, &c., 
are being ascertained. 

Daincha Seed.—A supply of daincha 
seed (Sesbania aculeata), recommended 
as a green manure in paddy lands, has 
been received from India. 

Chou Méellier.—The Secretary for 
Agriculture, Melbourne, has kindly sent 
some seed of this new fodder plant 
belonging to the Kale family, and small 
quantities will be available for purposes 
of experiment. The seed sown at the 
ovenniont Stock Garden has come up 
well. 

Ground Nuts.—Mr. K. Bandara Bed- 
dewela, writing on December 29, 1908, 
reported that the four pounds of 
Senegal ground-nuts supplied by the 
Society were planted on June 26 in 
well-tilled soil, from which a crop of 
onion was removed. They were pulled 
up on the 26th instant, almost exactly 
six months from planting, and after 
drying, the gross result was 56 lb. of 
nuts, which he considers a very satis- 
factory result, in addition to the ameli- 
orating effect of the crop on the land. 

Australian Maize.—The maize seed 
distributed at the end of the year com- 
prised three varieties, viz., 90-day 
maize, 180-day maize, and white horse 
tooth maize. They were sent to Ba- 
dulla, Nuwara Eliya, Ratnapura, Ke- 
galla, Anuradhapura, Jaffna, Kurune- 
gala, Chilaw, Puttalam, and Mannar. 

Papaya Seed.—Seed of the Ceylon 
papaw has been in demand from Manila, 
Bengal, and Burma. 

Agricultuarl Work in the Maldives. — 
Requests have been received from these 
islands for cotton, tobacco, and teak 
seed through the local representative 
of the Maldivian Government. 

Tobacco.—Seed of the Alcasian variety 
of tobacco was supplied by Messrs. 
Freudenberg & Co., and experimental 
sowings were made in different localities. 
The cured leaves were from time to 
time submitted through Messrs. Freu- 
denberg for_a_ continential report. 
Writing on January 8, the local firm 
furnished the following report from 
Mr. Walther Freudenburg on samples 
grown at Udappu and Chilaw :—‘‘The 
two samples sent in vary in quality, 
one of them being rather black. My 
broker reports on them as follows :— 
‘The two samples of tobacco submitted 
are inferior in quality to those sent 
earlier in the year (from Welimada and 
Badulla). Whilst the latter showed 
rather broad brown leaves with thin 
ribs, which, if further improved, would 
no doubt find a market here, the samples 
now sent would fetch very little owing 


Miscellaneous. 


to the narrowness of the leaf and thick 
ribs, and it is difficult to name a price 
for them. These leaves are useless for 
wrappers, and as fillers are of very little 
value. On the other hand, the taste and 
flavour of this tobacco seem to show an 
improvement on the types previously 
sent.’ ” 

A tobacco leaf expert in Loudon, to 
whom samples from Jaffna and Chilaw 
were submitted for valuation, reports as 
follows :- 

‘‘ Samples of Ceylon tobaccos duly to 
hand. I have been waiting for the 
further samples, ov would have answered 
earlier. I have carefully examined 
these eight samples, and with  re- 
ference to Jaffna 1 to 4, smok- 
ing kinds, I think there are good pros- 
pects in the near future for this class 
of tobacco, if they could be handled as 
follows. In the first place, the tobacco 
would have to be stripped and dried 
down, soas not to contain more than 
12 per cent. of moisture, and packed in 
tubs or hogsheads of about 8 to 10 cewt. 
each, and would realize on the present 
market about 53d. to 63d. per English Ib. 

«4. Jaffnad and 6, chewing tobacco. 
These would have to be treated in a 
similar way, and would realize 55d. to 
6d. per lb. 

“ B. Chilaw.—These two grades are 
very fine tobaccos, and would be very 
useful for the Irish roll trade, but these 
would have to be dried down to 12 per 
cent. of moisture and well butted—that 
is, the thick part of the stalk cut off. 
These would fetch about 6d. to 63d. per 
English lb. on the present market. _ 

“As you will understand, British 
manufacturers are very conservative, 
and itis very difficult to get them to 
change their operations and to try new 
growths of tobacco; but I think the 
opportunity for the latter is approach- 
ing on account of the Tobaccc Trust 
controlling the American market and 
running prices up. You will readily 
see that the tobacco markets vary con- 
siderably according to the demand. as 
they often jump a penny per lb. or drop 
a penny per lb. Of course, none of 
these tobaccos are suitable for cigars. I 
shall be very pleased to see what you 
can do in cigar tobacco, : 

“ Apologizing for not answering your 
letter before, but I am still awaiting 
your further types of tobaccos_ which 
you mention in your letter of Septem- 
ber 29, and shall always be happy to 
give you what information lies in my 
power at any time.” 

Mr. K. B. Beddewela reports :—‘‘I have 
inspected the Dindigul tobacco plants 
on my Ulapane property. Those plant- 
ed early are doing well, but the growth 
of the plants recently planted is poor. 


182 


[Feprvary, 1909. 


I havesome more plants available for 
planting out, and shall be glad to send 
them to any who has ground ready 
and favourable weather. I intend allow- 
ing some of the tobacco to run into blos- 
som with a view to raise seed. A sample 
of cured leaves will be sent you, but if 
youcan get a cure effected by an experi- 
enced hand I shall be glad to send leaves.” 

Fruits of Heritiera  littoralis.—The 
Secretary, thinking that there might 
possibly be a use for these fruits for the 
manufacture of pipes (after the style of 
the Calabash gourd pipe), submitted a 
small lot to Messrs. Miller & Co., who 
forwarded them to London and obtained 
the following report :— 

“Seeds of the Heritiera littoralis.— 
We have had a personal interview with 
Messrs. Frankau & Co. in regard to this 
matter, and they are satisfied that there is 
no chance of doing any business whatso- 
ever withthese, They tell us that, in the 
first place, the colour is against them, 
but the chief objection is that the filling, 
which would be necessary to prevent the 
wood burning, would require to be of 
such a thickness that there would be 
absolutely no coom left for the tobacco. 
We will hold the samples here for a 
further opinion, but we ourselves are 


‘inchined to fully agree with Messrs. 


Frankau & Co.’s opinion that there is no 
future whatever before this article.” 
Dioscorea: Ipomcea digitata.—A sam- 
ple of this yam, called in Sinhalese 
“ Kiribadu,” was submitted for analysis 
to the Agricultural Chemist, who has 
furnished the following report on it :— 


Yam. Per cent. 
‘« Moisture ... 9°00 
Total ash Abe 3°50 
Soluble ash (water) 1:40 
Insoluble ash : 2:10 
Ether extraction 2:00 
Fibre 5°38 
Nitrogen 1°32 
Proteids 8°25 
Ash containing— 
Lime : 5.2.) O328 
Magnesia ... . =—0'48 
Potash 4 sec) OG 
Phosphoric acid dae AOEAO, 
Insoluble matter 0:44 


IT have examined the above sampleand 
find the ordinary food analysis does not 
show anything distinctive, such as high 
proteids, flesh-forming material, or high 
bone-forming material.” 

The flour from the yam is very highly 
thought of in native medicine, and is 
prescribed for debilitated patients 
(especially children) by some practi- 
tioners of European medicine. 

Agricultural Implements: Ploughs.— 
The Manager of Messrs. Walker, Sons & 
Co., Ltd., writes to say that very 


AU eee : | 
+ gael 


FEBRUARY, 1909, | 


favourable reports have been received 
by them of the work of the ‘‘Cingalee” 
plough in the Chilaw District. 

Hornby’s Mower.—Messrs. Brown & 
Co., Ltd., writing on the 4th instant, 
says:—‘‘One of our clients has got 
us to import for him from England 
a Hornby’s mower to be worked by 
bullock power, and which he proposes 
to use for cutting down weeds, &c., on 
his coconut plantation. We would like 
to have it tried before having it sent on 
to his estate. and we write to ask if you 
would have any objection to his doing 
so om your grounds (Government Stock 
Garden). No doubt you will be interest- 
ed in the experiment.” The implement 
will be tried shortly. 

Oil Mills.—It may interest those desir- 
ing information to know that Messrs, 
Walker, Sons & Co.arein a position to im- 
port Donaldson’s patent oil mills—handle 
infront at Rs.170and handleat back at Rs, 
155—delivered at Caleutta. These mills 
are reported to be largely used in India, 
and are considered suitable for replacing 
the ‘chekku” mill of the country. 

Messrs. Brown & Co. quote Rs. 1,250 
for a plant consisting of hand power 
copra breaking mill, copra reducing mill, 
cast iron pan or heating kettle, hydrau- 
lic press with ram, hand power hydraulic 
pressure pump. In this plant it is neces- 
sary that the copra should be passed 
twice or thrice through the copra 
breaker before going to the reducing 
mill, and first pressed cold, the cakes 
afterwards being passed through the 
machine and heated in the kettle and 
then pressed asecond time. The plant so 
worked is said to give a high yield of oil. 

Dise and other heavy Ploughs —The 
Superintendent of the Experiment 
Station at Maha Illuppalama. reporting 
on the heavy disc and furrow ploughs 
in use in South Africa, says :—They are 
excellent provided one has horses, or in 
the case of Ceylon, bulls of sufficient size 
and strength. I1 find that even Coast 
bulls costing Rs. 190 to Rs. 225 cannot 
manage to work with a single plough, 
which cutsa furrow of more than 6 in. 
breadth and 5 in. deep—I mean under 
general conditions. I understand that 
Egyptian cattle, which I have seen from 
photographs, are probably as heavy as 
English Durhams or Shorthorns, could 
drag avery heavy plough. Mr. J. S.J. 
McCall, late Lecturer at the Khedival 
College and cotton expert, and now on 


andis my informant. As regards the 
dise plough, as it has to cut from the top, 


it is of necessity a rather heavy imple-— 


ment. Mr. Kelway Bamber sent one 
here, and it weighs over 500 lb., as 
against my Own improved and specially 


188 


Miscellaneous. 


built EKnglish ploughs which weigh 
about 125 to 140 lb. I reduce weight’ toa 
minimum, and use the best material I 
ean find. By using wheels on the 
ploughs and the _ best English steel 
plough points, the plough, owing to its 
construction, pierces the ground to the 
required depth, which is regulated by 
adjusting the wheels, and so tears up 
and turns over the soil. But, of course, 
a time will arrive when the local breeds 
of cattle have been improved by selec- 
tion and various other measures now 
neglected and then these excellent and 
up-to-date gang ploughs and discs will 
replacewhat I am at present using.” 

Coca leaves from Ceylon.—A trial ship- 
ment of coca leaves was sent through 
Messrs. W. H. Davies & Cc., who, writing 
on September 29, reports that dull, thin, 
broken leaves were valued at 8d. to 33d. ; 
dull, thin, broken brown 3d. ; dark 13d. 

Kola Nuts.--The same firm sent a con- 
signment ofkola nuts, which are reported 
to have fetched (fair clean) 2d. per lb. 

Manure for Tobacco.—Mr. S. Chelliah, 
the Society’s Agricultural Instructor at 
Jaffna, obtained from Messrs. Freuden- 
berg & Co. a ton of special artificial 
manure for tobacco, to meet applications 
from local growers, who seem to be 
much interested in the manuring of 
crops with chemical fertilizers. 

Agricultural Instructors.—Two new 
Agricultural Instructors, in terms of the 
resolution adopted ata recent meeting, 
have been appointed, one (Mr. S. R. 
Breckenridge) for work in Tamil dis- 
tricts, the other (Mr. W. Molegoda) for 
Sinhalese districts. The former has 
been sent for a term to the Nerth- 
Central Province, aud the latter will 
chiefly work in the Kandyan country. 

Publications.—An Agricultural Calen- 
dar in English was published and issued to 
members early in the year. Those who 
may not have received copies are request 
ed to communicate with the Secretary. 

A Sinhalese leaflet on the continuous 
cultivation of chena lands isin the hands 
of the printer. 

A Sinhalese Calendar isin preparation, 
and will issue shortly. 

Invportation of Seeds and Plants.—A 
circular inviting applications for vege- 
table seeds to be imported from England, 
and for grafted plants of the famous 
Alfonso mango, has been issued. The 
seeds and plants will be distributed in 


time for planting during the April rains. 
his way to Nyassaland as Director of ~ 
Agriculture, is at present in the Island, — 


Continuous Cultivation of Chena 
Lands.—lIt is intended to initiate a series 
of demonstrations during the next. mon- 
soon, probably in the Kurunegala and 


Chilaw Districts. 
C. DRIEBERG, 


| Secretary. 
Colombo, February 4, 1909, 


MARKET RATES FOR TROPICAL PRODUCTS. 
(From Lewis & Peat’s Monthly Prices Current, London, 20th January, 1909.) 


QUALITY. QUOTATIONS. 
ALOES, Socotrine cwt.|Fair to fine + 19C8 @ 958 
Zanzibar & Hepatic ,, |Common to good +1903 a 853 
ARROWROOT (Natal) !b.|Fair to fine --/o"d a 4d 
BEES’ WAX, ewt. 
Zanzibar Yellow _ ,, |Slightly drossy to fair .. |eg 75 6d a £6 10s 
Bombay bleached _ ,, |Feir to good 7 £7 10s a £7 12s 6€ 
i, unbleached,, |D. rk to good genuine ../9510s a £6 2s 6d 
Madagascar » |Dark to good palish [py7s6da £612/6 
CAMPHOR, Formosa ,, |Crude 2 135s a 145s 
China » |Fair average quality .. |}393 6d 
CARDAMOMS, Malabar |Gocd to fine bold 93a 28 5d 
P Middling lean 1s 7d a ls 10d 
Tellicherry |Good to fine bold -log 8d a 28 8d 
Brownish . - lig 7d a 2s 
Mangalore ,, {Med brown to fair bold|gg 04 a 3s 2d 
Ceylon.- Mysore ,, |Small fair to fine plump |i. gda, 3s 6d 
Malabar . Hair to good «lig 5d a 1s 6d 
3 Seeds *-ls 1d ais lid 
i Long Wild”,, |Shelly to good --l6d ais 10d 
CAB'LOR OIL, Calcutta,, {ists and 2nds --/22d a 3d 
CHILLIES, Zanzibar cwt.|Dull to tine bright ++/30s a 353 
SINCHONA BARK.— lb. 
Ceylon Crown, Renewed 38d a 7d 
Org. Stem |od a 6d 
Red Org. Stem [13d a 43d 
Renewed 3d a 54d 
Root | lida 4d 
CINNAMON,Ceylon Ists|Good to fine quill 10d als 4d 
per Ib 2nde ” %» 9d a 1s 2d 
ards ” ” 74a a 114 
4ths} 45 ” 63d a 9d 
Chips, &c..|Fair to fine bold 2d a Bid 
Ib.|Dull to fine bright bold}101 a 1s 


CLOVES, Penang 


Amboyna He 
Ceylon oe 


Zanzibar 
Stems 
COFFEE 
Ceylon 


Native 

Liberian PH 
COCOA, Ceylon Plant. ,, 

Native Estate 
COLUMBO ROOT 


CULICH 


GINGHR, Bengal, rough, 
Calicut, oe A A 
oe 


Cochin Rough ,, 


Japan ” 
@UM AMMONIACUM ,, 


ANIMI, Zanzibar 


Madagascar 


4KAKIC F.7. & Aden 
Turkey sorts 
Ghatti 
Kurrachee 
Madras 

ASSAF(ETIDVA 


KINO 
M.\RRH, picked 


A 
OLIBANUM, drop 


pickings 
siftings 
INDIA RUKBEK lb. 
Ceylon, straits, 
Malay Straits, ete. 


Assam 


Rangoon 


.|Fair 


” 


ON SEEDS, sift. cwt, 
arts . |Fair to fine dry 


»» |Reddish to good 
»» |Dark to fine pale or 
» |Clean fr. to gd. almonds 


Dull to tine 
Fair and fine’ bright 


Special Marks 
Red to good 
Ordinary to red 


Middling to good 
Dull to fair 


Fair 

Small to fine bold 
Small and medium 
Common to fine bold 
Small and D’s 
Unsplit 

Sm. blocky to fair clean 


ary cb little red 
Bean and Pea size ditto 
Fair to good red sorts 
Med. & bold glassy soits 


Sorts to fine pale 0 
ale ... 


cwt |Fair to fine pale 
den sorts ,, 


Middling to good 


»» {Good to fine white 


Middling to fair 
Low to good pale 
Slightly foul to fine 


», Ceara ,, ” 
Crepe ordinary to fine.. 
Fine Block Ao 


184 


40s a 65s 


l5sal7s 6d 
30s a 35s 
21s a 23s nom. 


25s a 608 nom. 


£138 a £15 
75s a £12 
£9 a £12 
£7 a£8 15s 


. |£4 a £8 108 
..|£4 a £7 LOs 
25s a 3¥s 6d nom,.|SHELLS, M. o’ PEARL— 


81s a 5Us 


..|17s a 42s 6d nom. 


20s a 30s 


” 
” 


Fine Para bis. & sheets|5s 1/d 


Fair II to good red No.1)|2s a 2s 6d 


2s 38d a 2s 6d 


——_—— | ——__- 


INDIARUBBER.(Contd.) 
Borneo 
Java 
Penang 
Mozambique 


Nyassaland 
Madagascar 


New Guinea 
INDIGO, E,I. Bengal 


FEBRUARY, 1909. 


QUALITY. QUOTATIONS, 
Common to good 9d a 2s 6d 
Good to fine red ..|2sa 3s 4d 


Low white to prime red/ls 6d a 2s 8d 
Fair to fine red Ball .../3s 2d a4s 2d 
Sausage, fair to good ..\3s 2d a 4s 

Fair to fine ball - {28 Oda 8s 8d 
Fr to fine pinky & white}2s ¢d a 3s 4d 
Majunga & blk coated ..}2s 3d a 2s 9d 
Niggers, low to good ls a 2s 2d 
Ordinary to fine: ball ../3s?da8s 8d nom 
Shipping mid to gd violet}3s 5d a 3s 10d 
Consuming mid. to gd./3s 1d a 3s 4d 
Ordinary to middling |2s 9d a 3s 
Oudes Middling to fine |2s 6d a 2/8 nom. 


Mid. to good Kurpah 2s 3d a 2s 6d 
Low to ordinary 1s 6d a 2s 2d 
Mid. to fine Madras /1s da 2s 4d 
MACE, Bombay & Penang|Pale reddish to fine [1s 6d a 1s 10d 
per Ib, Ordinary to fair 1s 2d als 6d 
Java are », good pale ie a 1s 6d 
Bomba ae 4 
MYRABOLANES, — cwt|UG and Coconada 58 a 586d 
Bombay , Jubblepore 489d a 6s 3d 
Bhimlies 4s 6d a 78 
Rhajpore, &c. 4s 6da6s 3d 
Bengal ,, (Calcutta 53a 58 6d 
NUTMEGS— Ib. |64’s to 57's 1s 4d a 1s 5d 
110’s to 65’s 


Bombay & Penang BP 


é d 
160’s to 118’s re ah 


NUTS, ARECA ewt |Ordinary to fair fresh 13s a 133 
NUX VOMICA, Cochin |Ordinary to good 93 a, 11s 6d 
per cwt. Bengal ” ” 6s a 6s 6d 
OIL OF NIST Fair’ merchantable gs aoa. 2 
CASSIA ” |According to analysis |4s 4d a 4s 8d 
LEMONGRASS ” |Good flavour & colour |9d a 24d 
NUTMEG ” |Dingy to white 13d a 2d 
CINNAMON ” |Ordinary to fair sweet |2id als 
CITRON ELLE x Bright & good flavour ls 2d 
SCE eee Mid. to fine not woody.. |12s5 6d a 17s 6d 
Zanzibar. * Picked clean flat leaf .../nom. 


PEPPER -— (Black) Ib. 
Alleppee & Tellicherry 
Ceylon 
Singapore ae 

Acheen & W: C. Penang 
(White) Singapore 
Siam 


” 


Penang 
PLUMBAGO, lump cwt. 


chips 
dust 
SAGO, Pearl, large He 
medium . 
small ae 
SEEDLAC ewt. 
SENNA, Tinnevelly lb. 


wiry Mozambique] , 


” 


i>} 
2 


ir . /34d 
,, lo fine bold heavy ..|3}d a 4d 
leek 


Dull to fine .. — .,./8d_a 33a 


Fair to fine ae .. (49d a 8d 
Fair fo en (exh 
Fair 43d 


Fair to tine bright bold|35s a 45s nom. 
Middling to good small|2s a 40s 

Dull to fine bright ..|158 a 30s 
Ordinary to fine bright)7s a 15s 

Dull to fine .. [14s a 16s 

12s 6da 15s 

p Hy lisa 133 
Ordinary to gd. soluble |70s a 100s nom, 
Good to fine bold green|5d a7d 

Fair greenish 34d a 43d 
Commonspeckyand small/13d a 23d 


Egyptian cwt.|/Small to bold .. 253 290s nom 
Bombay ¥ ” “e 263 a £5 10s 
Mergui ar ” ” eee --|26a £7 
Manilla ns Fair to good --|25 a £8108 
Banda ,, [Sorts oe +1253 2308 nom 
TAMARINDS, Calcutta...|Mid.to fine bI’k not stony|11s 213s 
percwt. Madras |Stonyand inferior  ..|43 a 5s 
TORLOISESHELL— 
Zanzibar, & Bombay Ib. |Small to bold «-]12s a 26s 
Pickings -- |5s 6d a 19s 6d, 
TURMERIC, Bengal ewt.|Fair 18s 
Madras ,, |Finger fair to fine bold)9s a 21s 
Do. __,, |Bulbs [bright|15s a 173 
Cochin __,, |Finger .. 1158 
Bulbs » (188 
VANILLOES— Ib. y 
Mauritius .. 1sts|Gd crystallized 3} a84 in|7s a 14s 
Madagascar ... | 2nds|Foxy & reddish 34a ,,|6s a 10d 
Seychelles... 8rds}Lean and inferior +. (68 a 7S 
VERMILLION .. Fine, pure, bright 23 9d a 23 10d 
WAX, Japan, squares Good white hard «+ [539 


THE SUPPLEMENT TO THE 


Tropical Agriculturist and Magazine of the C. A. 8 


Comritep By A. M. & J. FERGUSON, 


No. 2.] FEBRUARY, 1909. [Vou. IV, 


FUTURE OF COTTON GROWING view that this species of seed is becoming 


IN CEYLON. harder to get—the Sea Islanders having made 
ia : a@ monopoly of it and by restriction of sale pre- 
MR. STEWART McCALL'S REPORT. venting overproduction, The fibre is used al- 


i : ’ most entirely for fine work, the making of lace, 
Mr. J, Stewart McCall, arrived in Ceylon in &e., and has been known to fetch as high as 2s 
October last for three months’ study of local gq per Ib.] The species of cotton Mr. McCall 
tropical agriculture before proceeding to take recommends for growth here is Egyptian, a kind 
up.the pene of Hingenor CP erenlcare DEN yassa: which increases in popularity with growers 
Jland. His visit to the island may prove to have and manufacturers every year, It should be 
marked the initiation of a practically new indus- planted in February, because it is not essential 
try here—the growing of Cotton. As westated 4, have wet weather follow its planting, and 
already Mr. McCall proceeded to Maha’ Ilupal- it ought to be grown under carefully regulated 
Ghigo eg before Christmas to visit une Gove irrigation. The provision of this in the North- 
ernment Station and report Seon Ou eR: Central Province with its abundant tanks should 
growing as at present carried onthere, and gene- 144 he dificult; but that the irrigation wants 
rally on the suitability and facilities for growth some regulating may be argued from the opinion 
of the product in the North-Central Province. Gf Mr McCall that whereas the paddy-grower 
In reply to an official request the expert ots something like 75 inchos of water a year 
consented to his report being published—so jy ought—with duo utilisation of the wet aes 
that local readers and embryo cotton-growers _ +) be able to grow his paddy on 20 inches, 
will benefit by its appearance. supplied periodically at the proper times, The 

Briefly we may state that Mr. McCall North-Central Province soil, generally, while in 
has been exceedingly pleased with all he has most respects suitable for cotton, is deficient in 
seen of the Province as comprising the very lime; and to remedy this Mr McCall recom- 
country in which to grow Cotton—much of it mends manuring with basic slag. As to cost of 
resembling some of the Cotton-growing land clearing, labour obtainable cn contract for 
he hasseen in Texas. But agreatmistake, he planting and other operations—allowing for all 
finds, has been made in planting it alloub of these, according to actual figures Mr Mee has 
season at Maha Illupalama, and ithasbeentoo afforded—the expert finds that the cost of 
widely planted—so that the average yield has production ought to be under sixpence per Ib. 
only been about 130 lb. cotton fibre per acre, and this—with the cotton fetching 9d per Ib. 
whereas, having gono into alidetails, Mr. McCall (which the only consignmont sent home has 
puts the minimum yield that should be obtained obtained) ot considerably above this, with tho 
on the same land—by altering the season for improved cultivation suggested, there will be 
planting, by planting closer together and selece quite a fair margin to the producer, The 
ting plants better—at 300 lb. per acre. About planting in February will render possible the 
7 per sent. of weed cotton has been allowed harvesting during the dry months of August 
to grow up among ‘the good plants ; and efforts and September—another essential, for wet 
have been made with Sea Island cotton, which weather will half ruin any cotton crop at the 
has never done and never will do brilliantly harvesting time. Mr McCall attributes the 
(our visitor thinks) outside Sea Island itself. fact that cotton-growing has nover caught on in 
[There is no harm, indeed, from that point of Ceylon before, to the absence of any enterprising 


24 


186 


planter or well-travelled official who has studied 
the conditions of growth in other countries and 
been able to point out which of them obtain here. 
As for unhealthiness, Mr. McCall thinks that 
in the N.-C.P., with a neatly built bungalow on 
carefully drained land and with mosquito-proof 
rooms—these are an essential, he considers— 
life would be as healthy as in any stretch of low- 
country in Ceylon; more healthy, he believes, 
than much of the Kelani Valley and Sabara- 
gamuwa, Incidentally our visitor notices that 
there are two other products for which the 
Proyince is eminently suited—namely, Coco- 
nuts and Ceara Rubber. One 16 months old 
tree of the last-named, at Maha Iilupalama, he 
mentions as showing enormous growth; and 
with careful tapping, such as will not kill the 
tree, there ought to be a future for it, too, 
in the Province—-but pre-eminently it is the 
Province for cotton. We cordially wish Mr. 
Stewart McCall a successful career as Director 
of Agriculture in Nyasaland, and hope he will 
revisit this Colony in a few years when per- 
haps he will be able to see for himself some 
practical fruit of the Report he has just pre- 
pared ; and possibly—after added experience in 
Central Africa (which more nearly approaches 
Ceylon climate, we expect, than Egypt where 
he has been latterly)—to advise further on the 
development of the industry. Its initiation, 
we know, is handicapped by the current suc- 
cess of ‘Tea, Coconuts and Rubber; but for those 
who want quicker returns than these provide, we 
can advise few things more satisfactory than 
Cotton—grown, cultivated and harvested on the 
lines of the Report. 


CARAVONICGA COTTON AND ITS 
SPONSORS. 


INTERNATIONAL COTTON COMPANYS OPERATIONS. 


Ittis avcurious coincidence that ou the heels 
of Mr, Stewart McCall, who has just reported 
on the prospects of cotton-growing for Ceylon, 
should come—from Queensland—the well-known 
inventor of Caravonica Cotton, Dr. David 
Thomatis ; but: it is more curious still that 
they should be meeting at Aden next week 
and travelling thence to Kast Africa, by Ger- 
man steamer. It remains to be seen whether 
Mr. McCall will be persuaded as to the merits 
of the bigger-yielding species, and get it taken 
up in Nyasaland, rather than the Egyptian variety 
which he at present favours. Dr. Thomatis 
called on us on Jan. 15th on his passage through 
by the N. L.;‘‘Roon” and surprised us by 
what he told us of the way the hybrid cotton 
he has bred has been taken up on the Conti- 
nent. Himself coming of Scottish and Italian 
percentage, he appears to have combined the 
persistence of the one race with the ingenuity 
of the other; and it has only been the work 
of about five years to bring to perfection the 
cotton, which—grown at his plantation at 
Cairns—has already made his name famous. 
It has been tried in South India; but—Dr. 
Thomatis thinke—its failure there must have 
been due to unseasonable planting or unsuit- 
able rainfall. lu Queensland, he says, where 


The: Supplement to the Tropical Agriculturist 


they have anything from 138 to 200 inches 4 
year, the rain falls practically all during the 
four months January to April, and the crop- 
ping conditions are excellent. Having made 
(Jueensland his home, the land of his adoption, 
and of his unique work, the producer of Cara- 
vonica wished to open up land on a large 
scale there; he would have been supported to 
the tune of several millions sterling, had he been 
allowed by the Australian Goverument to im- 
port some thousands of Indian coolies for the 
purposes of cotton-growing. But Australia— 
against its own interests, as we hold, but yet in 
favour of such colonies as Ceylon which feel 
each strain 1 labour-recruiting competition !— 
refused to allow black labour in for the enrich- 
ment of even its most tropical colony, Queens- 
land. The capital has, therefore, been diverted 
elsewhere, 


Caravonica, as produced by Dr. Thomatis, has 
fetched the highest prices, 1s 2d to 1s 5d per Ib. 
and over ; but, being so tine, has not found great 
favour ir. Lancashire, where it is still considered 
a fancy class of cotton, and too fine for ordi- 
nary work, Much machinery in Lancashire has 
been altered to suit Egyptian cotton, which is 
finer than American; we wonder whether the 
turn of Caravonica will similarly come later on 
at the hub of the cotton-spinning world? On the 
Continent, meanwhile, it has been widely taken 
up; in France, the silky Caravonica is used for 
making all the finer classes of cotton goods— 
while another kind of ‘ woolly’ cotton, which Dr. 
Thomatis has also bred, is widely used as a substi- 
tute for wool. Butit is in Germany that the | 
inventor has been received with open arms ; 
and at Berlin, are to be found the headquarters 
of the Syndicate, called the International Cotton ° 
Company (‘‘ Der Baumer Gesellschaft Caravoni- 
ca’’) which has been formed in the past year. 
The Company, comprising several Huropean 
banks and leading Cotton men on the continent, 
is designed to control and direct the produc- 
tion of Caravonica cotton—through recognised 
and approved landowners and agriculturists. 
If has a capital of some £6,000,000 to £7,000,000 
and willlend money at 3 per cent and provide 
seed. The only restrictions are that no seed 
must be sold or disposed of to any one out- 
side the Company, though as to the disposal 
of the cotton itself the Company makes ro 
restriction. It is, however, willing to buy it—or 
act as selling agents when desired. Asked how 
the disposal of seed could be so controlled over 
the wide field of operations proposed, Dr. 
Thomatis said the Company would be dealing 
with honest men, to whose interest it would be 
not to dispose of the seed except as their credi- 
tors (the Company) required. Dr, Thomatis is 
Advising Director to the Company and_ while he 
has left a Manager in charge of the plantations 
(once his own) in North Queensland, he is now 
enroute to Dar-es-Salaam, German East Africa, 
to select land—either already occupied by set- 
tlers, orto be occupied, to be cultivated with 
the new product. Already, he says, some 750,000 
acres are under preparation in the Soudan, to 
grow it; while Kastern Cuba is the other (fourth) 


large centre where its culture will be carried 


on. The ‘‘ Fram,” the vessel from Norway of 
Arctic exploring fame, has recently taken 


and Magazine of the Ceylon Agricultural Society. 


6u to 70 Norwegian families to settle in the last- 
named country on chosen land expressly to 
grow Caravonica. [The Berlin office telegraphic 
address, t may be incidentally mentioned, is 
composed of the first letters of the four offices 
of the Company: Berlin, Alexandria, Cairns, 
and Dar-es-Salaam, G.E.A.—Ber-al-ca-dar, if 
we remember rightly.] Dr. Thomatis tells us 
he was somewhat disappointed at the result 
of the experiment in Ceylon—the effort of Mr. 
J. W. Chas. De Soysa not representing, he 
thought, what could still be done with season- 
‘able planting and the most careful attention. 
Possibly Ceylon was not the right climate 
for it, as the fibre produced here showed 
some degeneration from the parent stock. 
But for those who are willing to try again, 
Dr. Thomatis thinks there would be no difti- 
culty in supplying seed through the Ceylon 
Agricultural Society to approved growers and 
lending the money required on the Company’s 
easy terms. The Agricultural Society would 
do well to approach the Head Oftice of the 
Company—‘‘ Der Baumwohlgesellschaft  Cara- 
vonica,” 86 Constanzerstrasse, Berlin W_ (15) 
—and obtain full particulars at an early date. 
{t would be interesting if those who are per- 
suaded by Mr Stewart McCall’s forthcoming 
Report on the conditions of the North-Central 
Province, to take up cotton growing, wero at first 
to grow both the Egyptian species and Caravon- 
ica hybrid and compare results—with a view to 
further operations. Caravonica is said to yield 
one ton to theacre (2,240 lb.), about 90 per cent 
of pure fibre being obtainable from a properly 
grown crop, against a minimum ot 300 Lb per 
acre which Mr McCall thought probable here 
with Egyptian and 130 lb. per acre actually ob- 
tained at Maha Illupalama so far. ‘‘ Caravonica 
fetches over six times the price and gives two 
or three times the yield,” Dr. Thomatis said, 
on hearing the Ceylon figures. 


ORCHELLA WEED. 


The Imperial Institute, London, reports a 
shortage of this dye-weed and enquires whether 
any merchants in the island would be willing 
to take the necessary steps to resume theex- 
port of the weed from Ceylon. This Colony 
was rather noted for its orchella weed at cone 
time, we believe, and in a work of reference 
we see that in 1851 in the Great Exhibition 
some specimens were exhibited from Ceylon 
whose estimated value was £389 per ton. In 
the ‘‘nineties’’ we believe the trade in orchella 
was very brisk. A great dealof it used to be 
gathered in the Jaffna Peninsula. where it 
grew on trees, and was sold by the 
natives to merchants in Colombo for from 
four cents to six cents. The weed is called 
in Tamil ‘‘Marappasi.” The market price 
varies but in 1889 £60 per ton was received 
for the Ceylon article in London. In view of 
the interest that is likely to be revived in this 
commodity by the Imperial Institute’s inquiry 
we quote from an article |by the late Mr. 


187 


Henry Meade, written probably about 60 years 
ago, an interesting reference to orchella weed. 


Some INTERESTING Facts, 


We quote the following from the Tropical Agri- 
culturist, Oct., 1889, as of special interest at 
this time, in view of the report that there is a 
shortage of the Weed in the London Market :— 


At the head of the list of Dye Stuffs stands 
the “ Roccella Tinctoria ” and ‘* Roccella Fuci- 
formis,” the Orchella weed of commerce. This 
article was first exported by myself, in the 
beginning of 1859 ; it was found growing in great 
abundance at Calpentyn, and over a range of 
about fifty miles of the narrow strip of sand, 
which lies between the Calpentyn lake and the 
sea. HMnormous filaments of the ‘‘ Tinctoria, ’ 
some of them as much as eighteen inches in 
length, by three-quarters of an inch in breadth, 
were found hanging in clusters on the decayed 
branches of the oldest mango trees, whilst the 
mimosas and several varieties of ‘“‘asclepiadece ’’ 
furnished varieties of the ‘‘ Fuciformis,’ still 
more valuable, The Palmyra trees and Coconut 
trees were found to be thickly clothed with the 
lichen, except in those instances where they 
had been frequently climbed. There was scarcely 
a tree or bush that was not covered, more or 
less, with the Roccella, of the worth of which 
the people were wholly ignorant. It has now 
become a regular article of commerce. Except 
on the tract of seaboard, stretching from Chilaw 
to Tangalle, the whole line of coast exhibits 
Roccellas, growing more or Jess luxuriantly, but 
always confined to a narrow belt of vegetation 
within the influence of the sea air, On the salt 
marshes of the western coast, and on the 
boarders of the lagoons it is invariably found, 
and there is a large growth on the eastern side 
of the Peninsula at Trincomalee, and about the 
leways of Hanbantota. Where the roots are not 
torn off, it is reproduced yearly. Though every 
variety of Roccella is well worth gathering, 
there are some kinds that are much more valu- 
able than others ; and the following simple test 
will enable anyone to ascertain the comparative 
richness of the colouring matter which they con- 
tain. Fill a bottle half-full of water, put as 
much of the lichen in, as will leave room to 
shake the contents of the bottle thoroughly, and 
add as much spirits of ammonia as will make 
the liquor unpleasantly pungent, Shake the 
bottle occasionally during six or seven days, 
opening it now and then to admit the air, and at 
the end of that time the water will exhibit 
arich purple colour, deepening in intensity for 
about a fortnight when the maceration is com- 
pleted. A comparison of the result of different 
experiments will show the volourific value of the 
various kinds of weed, and the test is one that 
never fails. If a lichen fails to impart colour to 
a mixture of ammonia and water, it is not a dye 
stuff, whatever else it may be good for. The 
Orchella dye requires no mordant. To fix the 
colour on cloth it is merely necessary to pour the 
solution above-described into boiling water, and 
immerse tha wool or cotton to be dyed in it 
for half-an-hour. The dye is not a permanent 
one, but its extreme beauty will always make it 
acceptable to manufacturers, who use it’ to 
impart a finish to their goods, 


188 
MANURE. 


Any information on this subject should be 
gladly read by agriculturists, so the following 
paragraph may strengthen planters in their 
appreciation of bulky manure versus artificials : 

Much to the surprise of those connected with the 
Cleansing Department of Leith, a sudden demand has 
arisen for the street sweepings, agriculturists now show- 
ing a preference for this kind of manure. No less than 
eighty tons of street sweepings are collected in the town 
per day, and the fact that this is now so easily dis- 
posed of would seem to suggest that farmers are viewing 
with less favour artificial manure, the cost of which is 
of course, so much greater. 

I donot know whether my persistent writing 
against artificial manures and in praise of bulk 
is bearing fruit amongst the farmers near 
Leith ; but I can see, with pleasure, the good 
effect produced in my own neighbourhood. 
Frequently I am told by some neighbour that 
he has taken my advice and, for several 
years, has spent nothing on artificials, but 
plenty on feeding stuffs, so that his cattle 
manure is far superior to what it used to 
be, and the crops he is growing have im- 
proved in alike ratio. Naturally 1 am pleased 
to know that I have been of good service to 
my neighbours, and, naturally, the manure 
merchants don’t like me for having burst up 
their little game. The street sweepings of Leith, 
mentioned above, should be very valuable, as I 
know how much benefited land is by being top- 
dressed with the scrapings off a turnpike road. 

CosMOPOLITE. 


BURYING VS. BURNING PRUNINGS. 

Lindula, Jan, 14th. 
Srr,—As regards burying prunings my advice 
is ‘‘don’t.” My experience of it, and thank 
goodness a very small one, is thata 19 acres 
operated on “‘ moreover basic slag” has ever since 
been a martyr to leaf disease (grey blight). 
Luckily I read Dr. Watt shortly after the experi- 
ment; that put me off it for ever. He says, and 
I believe truly, the roots take up disease from 

the leaves.—Yours faithfully, 

E. R. WIGGIN. 
THe Economic DisPosat or Tra PRuNINGs.— 
There can be no doubt about Mr E R Wiggin’s 
opinion on this matter, It is expressed else- 
where with an emphasis, which to borrow a 
musical phrase, somewhat suggests the pro- 
cess of ‘‘ forcing the note.” The tendered 
advice, judging from Mr Wiggin’s experience, 
may be very good for estates upcountry ; but 
we know there are those who will question 
its value to lowcountry properties. As a 
matter of fact, we have heard very keen advo- 
cates of burying prunings admit that on 
upcountry estates, where the decomposition 
of prunings is likely to extend over a con- 
siderable time, there may be a danger of root 
disease being started. On lowcountry estates, 
where decomposition is rapid, it is held that 
no such danger exists; and for every estate 
upcountry where burying prunings has been a 
failure, a case in the lowcountry can probably 
be quoted where the result has been conspic- 
uously successful, The estate of Mahawale for 


The Supplement to the Tropical Agricullurist 


instance is a case in point. That estate was 
at one time considered a poor one. Prunings 
have been buried since 1904. Artificial manure 
is also applied and albizzia leaves buried ; and 
the following table, showing an annual increase 
in the crops, indicates that the burying of 
prunings has had anything but an untoward 
effect on the tea :— 


1904 ... 482 lb. per acre. 
1905 ... 552 ,, ‘s 
1906 VOBTSICN ws 
1907 . 746 ,, a 


1908 ne As 8078; td . 
The cost of production on this estate is 23°38 
cents per lb. but that includes the supervision 
of 650 acres ot rubber. If this were deducted, the 
cost would approximate 22 cents. ‘¢ Quod cibu 
est alvis, aliis est atre venenum” appears to be 
true of estates as of individuals; the question, 
therefore, seems more or less to resolve itself into 
this: that what can be practised with safety and 
much benefit on some estates, may be attended 
with the most disastrous results if tried on 

others where different conditions prevail. 


THE COPRA INDUSTRY. 


IN SINGAPORE. 


It has been brought to my notice on one or 
two occasions recently that the Singapore market 
price of Copra is nearly always less than that 
quoted for Ceylon and the Pacific Islands, In 
order to ascertain’ the reason of this I recently 
made careful enquiry into the state of the 
market and the quality of the Copra offered for 
sale. What surprised me most was the very 
poor quality of the Copra imported from the 
surrounding Islands and the Malay States com- 
pared with that from Java and other Dutch 
Islands. After examining numerous samples 
taken from consignments from many different 
parts I am not surprised that Singapore prices 
do not compare favourably with those of other 
markets, ‘There are several causes which 
account for the inferior quality and price of 
local copra. The principal cause appears to 
me to be the absence of some systein of super- 
vision over the native and Chinese Growers. 
I believe that in Java and other Dutch Islands 
the Dutch Government examines all Copra for 
export and only that which is up to standard 
quality is allowed to be shipped. This, in a 
great measure, accounts for the excellence 
of Dutch Copra. The second cause is that 
it is a common practice to pick the coconuts 
before they are quite ripe, thus accounting for 
the large quantities of thin, soft and decaying 
Copra on the market. Quantities of good ripe 
Copra are frequently ruined by mixing it with 
this half-matured stuff. The third reason is 
that the Copra is badly dried. That said to 
be sun-dried is only partially dried and as soon 
as put in bulk becomes mouldy and _ rots. 
That said to be kiln-dried is practically roasted. 
A fourth—and by no means least important— 
reason is the absence of any form of beneficial 
cultivation on the estates. In the majority of 
instances trees are never by any chance manured, 
nor is any form of beneficial cultivation prac- 
tised. The result of this neglect is an inferior 


and Magazine of the Ceylon Agricullural Society. 


Copra, poor in oil-producing qualities. I am 
now referring to Malay and Chinese owned 
estates which comprise practically the whole 
industry. It is well-known that European 
owned estates produce Copra of the very highest 
quality; but, unfortunately for their owners, 
the poor quality determines the market ear 
Ceylon Copra obtains a better price, chicfly 
because the large majority of coconut estates 
there are owned by Huropeans and under 
European management and every care is taken 
to turn out Copra of first quality. The Pacific 
Islands Copra maintains its advantage in price 
principally because Messrs Lever Bros. and other 
well-known soap manufacturers have extensive 
interests there. They have representatives on the 
spot who insist on first-class Copra being sup- 
plied and in return pay the highest price. The 
difference in price between good and bad Copra 
in Singapore is about $1 per picul. The present 
price for first quality is about $7°50. As the 
price rises, it is customary for many native and 
Chinese growers to resort to the injurious 


PRACTICE OF RUSHING QUANTITIES OF UNRIPE, 
BADLY DRIED COPRA 


on the market in order to catch the higher 
rate. This is a practice which cannot be too 
strongly condemned. The principal sources 
of supply are Dutch Borneo, the Natunas and 
Anambas Islands, Johore, the Malay Peninsula, 
and the Dutch Islands generally. Singapore pro- 
duces over 3,000 piculs of Copra per month, chiefly 
from Tanjong Katong and Passir Panjang. This, 
with the exception of a small quantity from 
European estates, is badly dried and contains 
a large percentage of unripe nut. Dutch Copra 
trom Billeton and Banka is principally kiln- 
dried and arrives clean, well-dried and of good 
quality. That from Padang, Sumatra, is in 
small pieces, well-ripened, dry, dark and oily in 
appearance and contains more oil than any 
other Copra imported to Singapore. This is due 
to careful cultivation and none but well matured 
nuts being gathered. The Celebes give us a 
good Copra, well dried from fully matured nuts, 
yields an excollent oil and shews careful pre- 
paration. Asahan exports fine large Copra, ripe 
and fairly well dried both by sun and kiln. 
Pontianak produces dry Copra of fair quality 
containing a small percentage of unripe nut. 
Saigon (Singkawang; Coprais of good quality, 
dry, and shews careful preparation. ‘l'ernate 
Islands Copra is very good, generally dry. 
Kelantan Copra is good but that from Johore, 
(Batu Pahat) is very wet, unripe and mouldy. 
Rhio sends good samples of Copra, but occasion- 
ally the quality canuot be depended on. | have 
recently seenshipments from Malaccaand Muar 
which were very bad indeed: in fact, it is said 
that Copra from these two places is the worst 
sent in to Singapore. In one store I saw several 
lots heating s» badly that it was impossible to 
bear the hand between the sacks. (Quite half 
was unripe and little or no attempt had been 
madeatdrying. [am informed on good autho- 
rity that the quantity of bad Copra from 
Malacca is steadily increasing. 


Selangor Copra from native and Chinese 
sources 18 of fair quality but contains a good 


percentage of unripe nut, also sand and other 
impurities, 


189 


The exports of Copra are to Russia, France, 
Spain and other continental ports and recently 
to the United Kingdom. The exports of coco- 
nut oil from Singapore in 1907 reached 159,801 
piculs of which 40,163 piculs were imported 
chiefly from Pontianak. 


The imports into and exports from Singapore 


in each of the 5 years 1903 to 1907, and for 9 
months of 1908 are : -- 
Imports. Exports. 
Year. Piculs, Value. Piculs. Value, 
1903 752,371 6,090,581 628,099 5,214,877 
1904 643,603 5,234,079 493,364 4,165,987 
1904 923,99 7,107,328 776,285 6,086,476 
1906 635,385 6,215,593 427,47 -8,62',755 
1907 927,652 8,571,039 654,869 6,303,115 
9 months of 1908 897,175  6,20°,535 = 781,U57 9,529,955 


The Director of Agriculture has stated in his 
annual report for 1907 that this important 
branch of the Agriculture of the Federated 
Malay States has increased in acreage by seven 
per cent. during that year, and that the total 
area under coconuts at the end of the same 
period was 112,500 acres. These facts and the 
above figures demonstrate the importance of 
the Copra Industry to the Peninsula and sur- 
rounding Islands and also shew that there is a 
renewed interest in not the least important of 
our agricultural staple industries. Itis hoped 
that this renewed interest will bring about 
better cultivation and induce growers to take 
more pains in the preparation of their produce 
for market, / T. Witson Main. 


—Straits Agricultural Bulletin, Jan. 


SCHOOL GARDENS IN JAMAICA. 

For the encouragement of school gardens in 
Jamaicathe Governor of the colony has sanctioned 
the award of a number of prizes to be made at the 
and of the present year. These awards consist of 
seven first prizes of £5 and seven second prizes of 
£2, afirstand second prize respectively to i given 
in each of the seven districts of the island super- 
vised by one of the School Inspectors. 


AMERICAN COCONUT OIL MARKET. 


INCRESING USES AND DEMAND. 


Chicago, Dec. 16, 1908.—The demand for 
coconut oil has firmed up and prices are higher 
than they have been for some time. Thisisa 
condition that was hardly looked for by the 
trade. Not within many years: has 


THE OUTTURN OF COPRA 


the raw material from which the oil is 
made, been as large as it has within the past 
year. Every island in the Pacific from which 
the trade receives copra contributed more thau 
its usual quota, Importations into this country 
have been very liberal, though forming a smail 
part of the total productions. The two mills on 
the Pacific Coast have been kept in constant 
operation during the greater part of the present 
Season, and the production of the domestic oil 
is reported to have been much heavier than it 
was last year. And yet, in spite of the larger 
yield of copra, in spite of the greater production 
of oil, the demand for the latter is now so keen 
that makers and importers alike are forced to 


190 The Supplement to the 


advance their prices. ‘This is declared to be due 
to the larger uses to which the oil is now being 
placed. The 


EDIBLE OIL IS BECOMING MORE AND MORE 


A FACTOR 
in the trade. The candy manufacturers 
are using it to a greater extent than 


ever before, the biscuit manufacturers are 
finding more use for it every day, and the oil 
is now being devoted toa great extent to the 
making of butter, which shows chemical com- 
binations very similar to those of the ordinary 
commercial cow butter. Of course, the chief use 
of the oil as yet is in the manufacture of soaps, 
where the demand is greater than ever. Russia 
is declared to be a heavier user of the oil for 
this purpose ‘than ever before. With all the 
increase in the supply of copra, the absorption 
is said to have more than kept pace. 


California oil is a product which under the 
present conditions can hardly compete with the 
regular Ceylon and Cochin oil handled by the 
importers, except in the territory west of the 
Missouri River. The great cost of freight keeps 
the American makers out ofthe Eastern and 
Middle West markéts, Kansas City being about 
as far east as the California makers can come. 
Now and again a carload is sold in Chicago, but 
this is the exception rather than the rule. 


The recent appearance of a representative of 
one of the Western coconut oil manufacturers 
before the Ways and Means Committee of Con- 
gress, advocating 


THE PLACING OF A DUTY ON THIS OIL 


raises a question as to the advisability of a 
tariff. The position of the makers of the oil can 
be well understood, When it is considered that 
a shipment of oilcan be made from Marseilles 
to Chicago cheaper than it can from San Fran- 
cisco, it canbe seen that the chances of the 
American makers, whose factories are located 
on the Pacific Coast, to be near the base of 
supplies competing with the French broker, are 
very slight. The difference in the freight rate 
from the Pacific Coast to Chicago, and the rate 
from New York to Chicago, is about 48c. in 
favour of New York. Itis urged that a tariff of 
3c. per pound on the oil wovld place the oil 
manufacturer in a position where he would have 
an even chance with the foreigner. It isa well- 
understood tact that the operations of the bigger 
mill of the two on thecoast have been carried 
on at a loss, simply because the oil could not be 
sold in the country of its production outside of 
a limited area—an area where the demand for 
the oil is not the heaviest. If the theory ofa 
tariff is to build up infant industries, it is urged 
that here is an industry in an infantile condition 
which might be made a big factor in the employ- 
ment of many men inthe future. Without that 
tariff, there can be little chance for a broaden: 
ing of the market, the makers urge. 


Chicago price for East India Cochin is 7#c., 
and for Ceylon Cochin, 7ic. spot and Jan-March. 
California Cochin is quoted at 74c,, and Ceylon 
at 63c.—New York Oil Reporter, Dec. 21. 


Tropical Agricultwrist 


THE U. S. A. SOAP MANUFACTURES 
IN TARIFF REVISION. 


OpPosING THE TAX ON Coconut O11 ENTERING 
THE U.S. A. 


Washington, Dec. 4.—An important confer- 
ence of leading representatives of the soap 
industry was held in this city on Monday of 
this week for the purpose of arriving at a basis 
for the representations which the soap trade 
desires to make to the Ways and Means Com- 
mittee with respect to the revision of the 
Dingley tariff act. The coconut oil producers, 
appeared to regard the revision of the Dingley 
act as affording an excellent opportunity to 
secure protection not only for factories operat- 
ing in the United States, but for those recently 
established in the Philippine Islands, The re- 
presentatives of the latter factories were careful, 
however, to state that their proposition for a 
relatively high duty on coconut oil when im- 
ported into the United States from a foreign 
country was conditioned upon the establishment 
of free trade between the United States and the 
archipelago. Itis assumed that m connection 
with the general revision of the existing tariff 
law Congress will authorise mutual free trade 
with the Philippines, except in sugar and to- 
bacco, upon the importation of which certain 
restrictions will be imposed, and itis obvious 
that the duty on foreign coconut oil with free 
oil from our insular possessions would give a 
tremendous boom to the Philippine factories 
established within the past year or two. 

The soap men have viewed these developments 
with considerable apprehension, and at their 
conference in this city they did not hesitate to 
denounce the efforts to impose duties on the 
raw materials of the soap industry and to insist 
that the tax thereon be entirely eliminated. — 
New York Oil Reporter. 


A GOCONUT PEST IN COCHIN. 


A Sprcrant Report. 


The Cochin Gazette received today contains a 
Special Report by an officer of the Madras 
Department of Agriculture on the Pura Lepida 
found affecting coconut treesin Cochin. The 
Report after detailing the systematic position, 
records of occurrence, distribution, life-history, 
food plants and enemies of the pest, goes on to 
deal with the nature and extent of its attack 
on the coconut palms of Cochin. The last 
section of the Report deals with remedial 
measures, in which the investigator says:— 


‘Considering the height to which the coconut 
palm grows and the great extent of the foliage 
to be reached, none but very powerful spraying 
machines can be of any use. Hence under 
present conditions, checking the pest with 
insecticidal sprays is out of the question. The 
best method, as to checking the increase of the 
pest, would, on the part of the Jand-owner, be a 
careful look out for the appearance of the pest 
and prompt action finding it out. The infested 
fronds must be cut down and instantly burnt; 
the cocoon must be carefully looked for on the 
crown at the base of the leaf stalks and after 


and Magazine of the Ceylon Agricultural Society. 


being collected must either be buried deep into 
the soil and trampled, or summarily consigned 
to the fire. It was found from enquiry that the 
post in question was no new thing in the State. 
Some of the people aftirmed that the same pest 
had about 10 or 15 years ago appeared on and 
caused much damage to trees in the narrow strip 
of land between the sea and the backwaters, to 
the north of British Cochin, From the Report 
of the Superintendent of Agriculture, it may be 
seen that the pest had been observed some 30 
years ago in some localities. From this it is 
evident that the pest is neither a new nor 
a rare thing in the Cochin State. It seems to be 
always present in that vast coconut forest, 
breeding normally in small numbersin some cor- 
ner or other, and only sporadically increasing so 
as to become a very serious pestto small areas. It 
seems ordinarily to be keptincheck by its bracon 
parasite. he presence of a hyperparasite on the 
latter is again an indication of the long stan- 
ding establishment of the pest andits parasite 
within the Coconut belt. The trees attacked, 
in general, completely recover, death occurring 
only in very rare cases. The increase of the pest 
can, moreover, be easily checked by cutting 
down affected branches and burning them. Again 
the pest is one thatis very slow of increaseas may 
be inferred from the long duration of its pupal 
period. Under these circumstancés, the nature 
and habits of the pest do not seem to justify the 
wholesale panic felt by some of the suffering pro- 
prietore since it is by no means such a dangerous 
and invidious foe as the fungus causing the 
coconut palm disease.”—Jf, Mail, Jan. 6. 


PESTS IN THE F.M. S. 


A New ORDINANCE TO PREVENT INTRODUCTION, 


Nearly all the Colonies especially those of the 
tropics have now regulations as to the import- 
ation of plants or seeds from countries in which 
there is any animal or plant pest affecting these 
plants, and through which the disease is likely 
to beintroduced. These regulations are intended 
of course to protect cultivated plants only, and 
are usually, but not always,enforced when there 
is a definite disease affecting an extensive culti- 
vation in the country of the would be exporter, 
and the same cultivation without the disease in 
the country to whichit is intended to export 
the plant. Thus Jamaica for many years prohi- 
bited the importation of any living plants 
of whatever kind from any country which there 
was cultivated coffee affected with Hemilesa 
Vastatiz, and thus kept the disease out of the 
country fora considerable period. There are 
diseases which no man can possibly prevent 
the invasion of as the distances which spores of 
fungi can float on the wind is very great and in 
countries at all contiguous they can drift across 
ifthe wind is suitable. The bee hawk moth, 
the caterpillar of which was so destructive to 
the coffee some years ago inSelangor, is also a 
very long flyinginsect. I foundit quite abundant 
in Christmas island over 200 miles from the 
nearest land it could have come from. 


But these are rather exceptional cases and 
most plant diseases appear to be accidentally 
imported by man. Inthe interests therefore of 


191 


the great areas of cultivations of plants now- 
a-days, it is essential to prevent as much as 
possible any disease that has unfortunately ap- 
peared in one country from invading another. 


Hitherto there has been no ordinance per- 
mitting the Colony to refuse to allow to be 
imported diseased plants, and it became clearly 
desirable that it should have this power. Hence 
at the suggestion of the Director of Gardens 
the following Ordinance has been passed :— 


STRAITS SETTLEMENTS ORDINANCE 
No. XIII oF 1908. 


An Ordinance to prevent the introduction into the Colony 
of pests and insects destructive to trees, plants and crops. 


Itis hereby enacted by the Governor of the Straits 
Settlements with the advice and consent of the Legislative 
Council thereof as follows :— 


1. This Ordinance may be cited as ‘The Destructive 
Pests Ordinance 1908.” 


2. The Governorin Council may from time to time 
make such orders as may to the Governor in Council ap- 
pear expedient for preventing the introduction into the 
Colony of any insect, fungus or other pest destructive to 
agricultural or horticultural crops or to trees or plants and 
for preventing the spreading in the Colony of any such 
insect, fungus or other pest. 


3. Any such order may prohibit orregulate the landing 
inithe Colony of any tree or plant, or the leaves, branches, 
stems, roots, seeds or fruit of any tree or plant, or any 
vegetable substance or other article the landing whereof 
may appear to the Governor in Oouncil to be likely to in- 
troduce such insect, fungus or other pest and may direct 
or authorise the treatment or destruction of any such 
article, if landed. Any such order may also direct or 
authorise the treatment, removal or destruction of any 
crop, tree plant, or substance on which the insect, fungus 
or other pest in any stage ofits existence is found, or by 
means of which it may appear to the Governor in Council 
to be likely to spread, and the entering on any lands for 
the purpose of suchtreatment, removal or destruction, or 
for the purpose of any examination or inquiry authorised 
by the order or for any other purpose of the order. 


4. The Governor in Council may from time to time make 
orders for the payment of compensation in respect of any 
crop, tree, plant or other substance destrcyed under the 
provisions of this Ordinance. 


5. Any person acting in contravention of any order under 
this Ordinance shall be guilty of an offence, and shall be 


ape upon conviction to a tine not exceeding five hundred 
ollars. 


Passed this 11th day of September, 1908. 
A. H. LEMON, 


Clerk of Councils, 
Straits Agricultural Bulletin, for Dec. 


CAGAO AND GRUBS IN JAMAICA. 


Hundreds of cocoa trees in Jamaica, we read, 
are dying from a root trouble which is said to be 
caused by the attacks of asmall white grub, This 
grub is of the same nature, if not identical, with 
the larvae of the orange weevil, the “ Fiddler ” 
bug. Small doses of lime spread over the soil in 
the radius of the trees is found to do good, but is 
not entirely effectual if the trees are badly at- 
tacked. The best way that has so far been 
found to get rid of the grubs, so as to kill 
them wholesale, is by the use of Bi-sulphide of 
Carbon. For 10 years back it has been em- 
ployed to kill weevils in grain and the ants 
which make nests at the roots of fruit trees. Tt 
is a volatile gas, heavier than air, so that when 
applied on the top of a barrel of corn or on the 
top of an ant hill, or around the roots of trees, 
it sinks and kills all animal life below, within 
limits of course. To apply this to a cocoa 
tree, or to every cocoa tree ina plantation, is abig 


192 


operation; and a doubtful one, because a few 
drops of it are not guaranteed to kill the grubs 
through the whole soil radius of a cocoa tree, 
and too much of it may dainage the trees. It 
is, however, recommended to be tried on trees 
that are thought to be attacked by beginning a 
yard out from the trees and at intervals round 
each tree, ramming the fork in the soil, then 
dropping a few drops of the Bi-sulphide in the 
hole made by the prongs of the fork, drawing 
earth over the holes at once. 


THE NEW RAPID SYSTEM OF 
TAPPING RUBBER. 


We understand that the report on the new 
system of extracting latex, referred to the 
Messrs. Lee Hedges & Co.’s circular of Novem- 
ber, (see page 591 of December T. A.) which 
has been prepared after witnessing a demons- 
tration shortly before Christmas, has reached 
Mesers. Lee Hedges & Co. from Joseph Fraser 
and Clements. It is not above-named for a copy 
of for publication. Weunderstand, however, that 
—though, of course, it is too soon yet to obtain 
evidence as to how often the same surface may be 
tapped by this system in a year, without injury 
to the tree, or as to the effect on the tree after 
some years of numbers of tappings, the advan- 
tages claimed have been established, namely : 
1) cost of plant not above usual current methods; 
2) simplicity ; 3) reduced cost of production ; 
4) little—or no apparent—damage to the trees ; 
5) labour-saving ; and 6) quicker and possibly 
increased returns, We believe the system can 
be much varied or modified at will and is not 
expected to be more fatal to the tree than 
other methods (possibly the reverse) if it be 
not employed entirely in order to extract the 
maximum of latex in the minimum of time. 


Jan. 7th. 


Dar Sir,—In connection with the new tap- 
ping system of Messrs. Lee Hedges & Co., on 
which Messrs. Joseph Fraser and Cloments’ 
report is eagerly awaited, it is of interest to 
recall! that Mr. Petch, the Government Myco- 
logist, has spoken against the use of the 
pricker on several occasions, and, I understand, 
he has not yet seen any reason to alter his 
opinion. . I hear, too, that the new method 
of tapping rubber, which is now being boomed, 
involves the use of the pricker. If it does, the 
inventor must wait until he can demonstrate 
what is the condition of the tree two years 
‘after tapping, before he can_ speak of the 
success of his method. But Dr. Willis has 
_ given his approval of the system, though I 
cannot discover that he has considered _the 
pathological side—the structure and reactions 
of a Hevea tree. I am strongly of opinion that 
the use of the pricker causes the formation 
of lumps on the renewed surface and makes 
it untappable. You have only to look at the 
trees Mr. Herbert Wright tapped at Henarat- 
goda two years ago.—I am, yours faithfully, 


EXPERIENTIA DOCET. 


The Supplement to the Tropical Agriculturist 


THE TREATMENT OF ACID SOILS FOR 
RUBBER AND OTHER CULTIVATIONS. 


A series of experiments have been begun 
by the Department of Agriculture on some low 
lying flat land which has abnormally acid soil, 
rendering it unfavourable for the rapid growth of 
root growth of rubber or other cultivated plants. 
The presence of a too large proportion of acid 
in peaty soils is due to the existence of a 
large proportion of humic acid which is a 
brown or black substance produced by decay- 
ing vegetable matter. This decomposition is 
greatly facilitated by heat, air, and moisture 
and by the presence of putrefying nitroge- 
nous matter. The conditions in many clear- 
ings in Malaya are therefore specially suited 
to the formation of an excess of humic acid 
which exists in many places to such an ex- 
tent that the roots of young rubber are 
not able to grow and the plants grow 
without vigour and in some cases succumb. 
Such soils are physically and in other respects, 
most suitable for healthy and rapid growth of 
rubber and when the amount of acid has been 
reduced they often produce exceptionally fine 
rubber. The question of the naturalisation of 
such soils in the shortest time is of great im- 
portance. The only method used at present is 
to allow the sun free access to the soil and by 
this means and plentiful drainage to gradually 
eliminate a proportion of the acid. This is 
however a lengthy and not always successful 
method and a much quicker plan is to add 
such proportion of basic substance such as lime - 
as is needed to neutralise the acid in the coil. A 
very large supply of natural phosphate is being 
extracted from Christmas Island and can be 
delivered comparatively cheaply at 8. 8. and F. 
M.S. ports. This raw phosphate not converted 
into the superphosphate will be tried on acid 
soils. The advantage in using this manure is 
that the raw[pbosphate i.¢., phosphatic rocks 
exactly as they are obtained in nature is cheaper 
than the manufactured superphosphate and the 
acid in the soil of the superacid lands will con- 
vert the phosphate into superphosphate and by 
so doing the soil will more rapidly lose its 
acid and become neutralised and the available 
plant food in the soil greatly increased. The 
costs of such an application of raw phosphate 
will be determined by experimenting with 
different quantities per acre to discover 
the smallest amount necessary to render the 
soil favourable to root growth of rubber. 
In certain cases the lack of vigour in_ the 
growth of young rubber on acid soils has been 
attributed to dampness of soil, fungi or other 
diseases of the roots and it will be well if in 
cases where there is reason to suspect that 
the chemical condition of the soil is the cause 
of the lack of progress of rubber plants a 
portion of the field be treated to reduce the 
acidity. On some of the super acid soils a 
litmus Pape pressed against a handful of the 
damp soil gives in a short space of time, some 
few minutes, a marked acid reaction i.e. is 
changed to a pink colour. This may be used 
as a rough test of the relative amount of 
acidity in the soil. 

J. B: CARRUTHERS. 
—Agriqultural Bulletin, for Jan., 1909. 


and Magazine of the Ceylon Agricultural Society, 


CROP RETURNS IN 1908. 


VattamBrosa.—Mr, H. Case, Acting Mana- 
ger, Vallambrosa Rubber Co., Ltd., send us 
the following crop returns :—Crop 1908-1909: 
December, 32,242 lb.; previously, 169,731 lb.; 
total 201,973 lb. At corresponding period last 
year 164,814 lb. 

Matacca Russer Pranrations.—Mr. J. H. 
Jackson, Managing Director, Malacca Rubber 
Plantations, Ltd., informs us that the output 
of dry rubber for December was 8,500 lb, 
making a total for the year of over 46,000 lb. 
as against an estimate of 30,000 Ib. 

Inco Kennera.—The output of, dry rubber 
from Inch Kenneth Rubber Estates, Ltd., for 
December was 3,115 |b. 

Lineer Prantations.—The output of rubber 
from the Linggi Plantations last month was 
33,000 lb., making a total for 12 months of 
271,500 1b.—-Malay Mail, Jan, 5. 

BaLgownize Rupper.—The harvest on Bal- 
gownie estate for December according to the 
manager’s report was 4,178 lb. dry rubber. 
—wS. Ff, Press, Jan. 6. 


Koata Lumpur Russer.—The yield of dry 
rubber during December was 17,1731b., making 
for the first six months of the company’s finan- 
cial year a total of 92,888 lb. The estimate made 
in June last for the whole of the year, ending 
June 30, 1909, was 107,000 lb, 

Sumatra Para RupBER PLantations.—The 
manager advises an output of 5,940 lb. dry 
rubber from the company’s property for the 
month of December. 

DaMANSARA (SELANGOR) RuBBER.—The crop 
of rubber for the twelve months ended Decem- 
ber 31 last is 124,710 lb. against 57,376 lb. for 
the year 1907. 


BanpaRaroLa Czeyion,—A cablegram received 
from the manager in Ceylon gives the total 
crop figures for the season just closed as: Tea, 
747,000 lb.; cocoa, 489 cwt. 


CoNSOLIDATED MALAY Russer Estates.—The 
crop of rubber secured in December amounts 
to 16,819 lb; making the total crop for the year 
to December 31,111,585 lb. dry rubber, com- 
pared with 63,615 lb. in the corresponding 
period.—H «& C Mail, Jan. 8. 

Aneuo-Matay.—Messrs Harrisons and Cros- 
fieldinform us that the output of the Anglo- 
Malay Rubber Co. Ltd., for December was 34,863 
lb. dry rubber. The total output for the year is 
349,450 lb., against an estimate of 335,000 Ib. 
—Malay Mail, Jan. 6." 

UniteD SeRDANG (SuMATRA) RuspBer.—The 
accounts for the fifteen months ended August 
31 show a net profit of £8,434. The directors 
propose to write off £2,196 to depreciation, &c., 
and reduction of development expenses, and 
recommend a dividend of 5 per cent, carrying 
forward £4,984. 

Sumarra Russer.—The manager estimates 
that the revenue from coffee during the current 
year will be more than sufficient to meet the es- 
tate expenditure. A census of the rubber trees 
taken by the manager is reported by him to show 
a total at May 31, 1908, of 173,079. Since the 


23 


198 


opened land was surveyed in November, 1907, 
66 additional acres have been opensd and 
planted, making the total area opened and 
planted at May 31 last 1,811 acres. It is in- 
tended to bring the amount up to 2,100 
acres during the current financial year, The 
growth of both the rubber and the coffee 
1s satisfactory, 


RUBBER PLANTING IN THE WORLD. 


PrERAK.—We have just received a letter dated 
3rd Jan., 1909, from Taiping, Perak, in which the 
writer states :—The growth of Rubber is very 
rapid. Applications for large areas of land for 
Rubber are still coming in to Government. A 
Mr. Ross, who has already 800 acres planted, is 
applying for another 600.—Cor. 


Borneo.-—As a proof how eminently suitable 
British North Borneo is for the cultivation of 
Para rubber, it is stated that sixty trees, about 64 
years old, in the Government Experimental 
Gardens at Tenom, on the railway, produced 
last year 107 lb. of rubber, or an average of about 
13 lb. per tree.—H & C Mail, Jan. 8, 


In JAvA AND SumatTRA,—Rubber Cultivation 
is expected to show considerable development in 
thefuture. At the present time it is estimated 
that in the Netherlands East Indies over 87,500 
acres are devoted to rubber, of which 57,000 acres 
are situated in Java, Many of theold plantations 
consist of Ficus elastica, but latterly the Para tree 
has been extensively planted.—H ¢ C Mail, Jan. 8. 


Souru AcHEEN.--Inthe Tamiang district, South 
Acheen, rubber cultivation is going ahead so far as 
labour difticulties will allow. The planters freely 
avail themselves of Achineselabourers, They are 
found to be far preferable to Malays, who will 
not work on the fields if they can help it, so long 
as fishing gives them a means of livelihood. The 
Governor of Acheen, who lately visited the dis- 
trict, was much struck by seeing how Achinese 
could be utilised for estate labour, and promised 
to do his best to open up Tamiang for planters. 
—Straits Limes, Jan, 23, 

A Brkp’s Eye ViEw oF RUBBER PLANTING, — 
Anyone travelling on the branch ofthe FM SR 
which connects Kuala Lumpur with Port 
Swettenham has been able during the last few 
years to observe from his seat in the railway 
carriage the different stages through which a 
rubber estate passes from the clearing of the 
virgin jungle to the tapping of the established 
trees. In addition, says a correspondent, the 
traveller can now see in practice several exam- 
ples of the clean weeding and weed exterminator 
theories, some estates with nothing but bare 
earth under the trees, others with crotalaria and 
others with passion flower.—Matau Mail, Jan. 18, 


RuBBER IN TRINIDAD.—A gentleman who was 
recently in Trinidad and proposesto return with 
a view to settlement in the colony, writes from 
Mexico, where he was staying on a rubber estate 
of 400,000 trees as follows to a Trinidad paper : 
—‘‘]T thought it might interest you to know 
that the ten-years-old Rubber Trees (Castilloa 
elastica) here are not larger if so Jarge as those 
of four years old of which I took photographs 


194 


at New Lands and they are certainly not 
as heaithy locking. This 1s the home of the 
Castilloa, and it grows wild in the woods but 
from what I have seen ofit inCeylon, the Malay 
States, etc., I should decidedly say that it does 
best in Trinidad, if New Lands Rubber be 
taken as a sample.” 


Stack Estate MANAGEMENT IN JAVA.—On an 
estate in Asahan, Delhi, which is managed by 
a company domiciled in Germany, serious com- 
plications have arisen, The outlay on the spot 
has, of late increased so alarmingly that the 
directors sent out two delegates to inquire 
what had brought on this untoward result. 
Commenting on this incident, the Deli Courant 
calls attention to the lack of control over certain 
estate managers who are left free to charge 
the property with outlay which should be 
placed to their personal account. This is done 
mostly froia carelessness rather than out of set 
purpose. So loose is the system that the 
auditing of estate books is seldom given thought, 
though stricter control would check mismanage- 
ment, lavish outlay, and uncalled-for expendi- 
ture.—Straits Times, Jan. 20. 


QUEENSLAND,—Though still in the experimen- 
tal stage, is making progress. Six varieties of 
rubber-producing plants now under cultivation 
are admittedly likely to be of use to the country, 
and are growing well. As yet only four have attain- 
ed maturity. The Ceara rubber has only been 
spasmodically tapped. While under ten years 
of age or so, experiments have been unsatis- 
factory; but as they increase in years, the flow 
of latex seems to increase, and to flow for a 
longer period after the bark is cut. On the Ram- 
bong trees experiments have indicated that, 
with cultivation, a size may be attained rend- 
ering it both possible and worth while to com- 
mence tapping operations at nine years or so 
of age, and possibly earlier. The large trees 
growing in Queensland are some 16 years of 
age, and will give as much as 5 1b. of dry rub- 
ber per annum. Tapping operations are sys- 
tematically carried out on the small plantations 
of Para rubber trees, which are now eight years 
old, in the Government Tropical Nursery in 
Kamerunga.—L & C Express, Jan. |. 


Sr. Lucia.—Rubber plants (Castilloa, Hevea 
and Funtamia) have been raised in considerable 
number at St. Lucia Botanic Station, and some 
estates have made experimental plantings. In 
1906-7, the number of rubber plants distributed 
from the station was 18,167, of which, however, 
only some 7,0C0 were planted in theisland. In 
1907-8, the total number sent out fell to 7,438, of 
which only about 2,000 were distributed locally, 
and the Curator states that at present there is 
practically no demand for rubber plants at St. 
Lucia. The plantings already made will continue 
to be kept under observation and experiment, and 
a good stock of plants still exists at the Station. 
A consignment of ten packages of seeds of 
‘© Hevea brasiliensis,” comprising a total of 
2,059, was received from Ceylon in the past year. 
The seeds were packed in charcoal dust, and 
were altogether about two months in transit, 
Of the seeds received, 947, or about 46 per cent., 


germinated, Observations on the condition of 


The Supplement to the Tropical Agriculturist 


the packages on arrival indicate that the best 
results were obtained from the seeds in those tins 
in which, on arrival, the charcoal dust was dry. 
The Curator, in his latest Annual Report, 
expresses the opinion that Castilloa rubber trees 
will thrive exceedingly well in St. Lucia, if due 
consideration is given to the selection of suitable 
soiland locality.—W.I. Agricultural News,Dec.12. 


RUBBER PRicEs IN Lonpon Durine 1908.—We 
are indebted to Messrs. Baxendale and Devitt 
for the following figures, shewing the average 
price per lb. in London during the past year 
of fine plantation Para rubber :— 


JANUARY—JUNE, JULY—DECBMBER. 


s. d. s. d. 
January 3 63 July - 4 14 
February © 3 3 August - 4 1 
Mare 3 5} September 4 2 
April 3 6 October - 4 7% 
May - 311: November bn 
June - 4 December 5 4 
Average per lb. 3 7k Average » 4 7} 

8.d, 


Mean Average for 1908 = 4.14 per lb. 
Mean Average for 1907 = 5.1} per 1b. 


The lowest price realised in public auction 
was 3s. per lb. on February 21st and March 
6th ; and the highest, 5s. 10d. per Ib. on 
November 13th, 


Wortp’s Surety in 1908.—London, Jan. 5.— 
The receiptsof rubber for December were 3,300 
tons and the visible supply 3,288 tons against 3,722 
at thesame date last years the world’s supply in ~ 
and the estimated consumption 67,000 tons. 
1908 was 55,800 ton. the average price for planta- 
tion rubber was 4s. 1?d.—Malay Mail. 


S. NiegeRra.—Rubber is an important item in 
the export trade of Southern Nigeria, and it is 
consequently interesting to note that the planting 
of rubber trees by the natives has been steadily 
encouraged by the Forestry Department, and that 
in some districts the plants are doing very well, 
and give good promise for the future. According 
to Mr. Birtwistle, the Government Commercial 
Agent, it is now generally realised that not until 
the rubber trees are owned by individuals, who 
will see that they are duly protected, can this 
industry in Nigeria be looked upon as one ofa 
permanently-progressive nature. Thousands of 
trees in the forests, which are practically a ‘‘no 
man’s land,” are destroyed each year by over- 
tapping, and, although every effort is made by 
the Forestry Department to regulate the gather- 
ing and to prevent indiscriminate bleeding, the 
task in so large a country and amidst dense 
forestsis an extremely difficult one. Incidentally 
it may be observed that a decade ago the ex- 
ports of rubber from one province alone averaged 
over five million pounds weight per annum.— 
Haé C Mail, Jan. 1. 


Sincaporr Ruspper Factory.—The Neder- 
landsche Gutta-Percha Maatschappij (Nether- 
lands Gutta-Percha Company) report tor the 
business year 1907 a deficit of 101,661°154 florins, 
which, added to the former deficit, brought the 
total to 249,358°574 florins. The deficit for 1907 
includes 13,001°323 florins written off for de- 
preciation, 


and Magazine of the Ceylon Agricultural Society. 


The directors state that the decline in selling 
prices of gutta-percha caused a loss as to the 
product in stock at the beginning of the year. 
There waslarge expenditure in starting the rub- 
ber goods factory, at Passir Panjang. The hope 
is entertained that better conditions will now 
prevail. Additional capital has been provided, 
and profits are looked for from the Singapore 
plant, as well as from the leaf gutta business, 
which is the primary object of the company. 
The idea is being considered of manufacturing 
goods from the company’s own raw product, 
The gutta-percha plantations were extended to 
285 bouws[402°82 acres], and 15 bouws have been 
planted in Hevea rubber—about 20,000 trees— 
which number this year is to be increased to 
75,000. The greater part of the gutta-percha 
has been interplanted with cinchona (quinine), 
and 5,500 florins, net, was derived during the 
year from the sale of bark. The plantations are 
in south-west Java, and the administration in 
Holland.—Sétraits Times, Jan. 11. 


THE PINEAPPLE INDUSTRY. 

THe PingaPrLe Inpustry—is the subject of 
an informing article reproduced on this page. 
Who is there that grows pines on a large 
scale in Ceylon?—and what has he to tell us 
about them ? We protest against Ceylon pines 
being called insipid, even if they have not the 
flavour of those fine specimens which cost half- 
a-crown or more at home. 


That there is a huge demand for first-class 
pineapples in India, and almost a total absence 
of supply, will not be readily denied. To be 
sure, pineapples are grown more or less exten- 
sively in almost every part of India; but, in the 
vast majority of cases, not the slightest attempt 
has been made to improve the quality of the 
fruit in any way and the actual result is that the 
pineapples generally offered for sale in most of 
the bazaars of India are not worth eating, and 
would not be used except as cattle fodder in 
countries growing good quality pines. It is not 
that the pineapple is new to India; asa matter of 
fact, it has been grown ir this country for 
several hundred years, and in small tracts on the 
Malabar Coast, in parts of Northern Bengal and 
in places of Assam it has been brought to a 
certain state of perfection. But the demand for 
Indian-grown pineapples with any semblance of 
flavour 1s so greatly in excess of the supply that 
unripe and often 


INSIPID PINEAPPLES FROM THE STRAITS SETILE- 
MENTS, CEYLON AND MAURITIUS 

find a ready sale at 2to 4 annas each. On the 
other hand. we have heard of a small garden in 
Northern Bengal growing luscious pineapples 
which has no difficulty in selling them at 8 annas 
apiece. The same sort otf thing is probably 
done in other parts of the country on a small 
scale, but the broad factis, as Sir George Watt 
tersely puts it in his revised edition of the Com- 
mercial Products of India, just issued : ‘‘ Little 
orno effort has been put forth either to im- 

rove the quality or to develop on a commercial 
hana the industry of pineapple growing, which, 
it would appear, might be originated with ad- 
vantage to India and profit to those concerned.” 


195 


It may be interesting at this stage to make a 
rapid survey of what has been done in other 
countries in establishing the pineapple industry 
on a commercial basis. Fifty years ago the pine- 
apple was unknown in Florida: today one may 
stand on any elevated position on the East 
Coast of Florida and look out for miles over 
solid fields of pineapples, no other cultivated 
crop being in sight. The red Spanish pineapple 
comprises about 98 per cent. of the total plan- 
tings, Abbaschi, Smooth Cayenne and Porto 
Rico making up the remainder. The crop an- 
nually produced is considerable, being more 
than half-a-million crates, each crate Tholdiad 
from 18 to 48 pineapples according to size. In 
pe ilalp the preserving and tinving of pine- 
apples is a large and growing industry. In 
1906 we tind that 707,495 cases of preserved 
pines were shipped from that port, while the 
export for 1907, the latest figures available, com: 
prised 845,976 cases. There is avery large de- 
mand for preserved pineapples in the United 
Kingdom and on the Continent and this demand 
Singapore largely supplies, Florida chiefly con- 
fines herself to the export ofripe fruit. Buta 
more striking example of what can be done in 
establishing a pineapple industry on a sound ba- 
sis in a short space of time is furnished by the 
Hawaiian Islands, which promise to outstrip 
both Florida and the Straits Settlements at an 
early date. Here the industry was only started 
about three years ago; but, under the gui- 
dance of an enthusiast, has made such gi- 
gantic progress that the output of preserved 
pineapples in 1910 is estimated at 24 million 
cans. In 1907 the output was 190,000 cases, 
each containing 24 cans, but this is less 
than half the estimated output for last year. 
Already Bonolulu claims to be in_ pos- 
session of the largest canning factory in the 
world. This factory is to be capable of 
handling 20 solid car-loads, or 300 tons of fruit, 
in 10 hours, or at the rate of half-a-ton a minute, 
When running to capacity it isexpected that the 
factory will turn out between five and six thou- 
sand cases of canned pines every day. And what 
can be done on acommercialscale in Honolulu, 
Florida and the Straits Settlements can pro- 
bably be also done in a greater or lesser measure 
in [udia, which boasts of every kind of climate, 
from the mildest to the most severe. 


A point in favour of the pineapple industry ig 
that it is a comparatively simple one. The pines 
may be grown upon land that will produce ordi- 
nary vegetables, provided such land is well 
drained even in times of excessive rain. To 
obtain the very best results, however, a friable 
soil and a porous subsoil are essential. Such 
land stands drought well, as capillary attraction 
is good under such conditions. In Florida pine- 
apples are planted 18 to 24 inches apart, but in 
the Bahama Islands as many as 20,000 pines 
are planted on a single acre, each plant pro- 
ducing one pineapple. This number of pine- 
apples at 8,4, 2 or even 1 anna each would leave 
a handsome margin of profit per acre. But it 
is not only from the pineapples that tho profit 
ismade: there are by-products. Pineapple 
fibre fetches about £30 per ton in tbe London 
market ; and, according to Sir George Watt, 
there is a considerable demand for it in part of 


196 


Northern Bengal and the Deccan. In the Hono- 
lulu preserving factory large quantities of juice 
are obtained by crushing the course and parings 
by running them through rollers of the sugar 
mill type. The refuse may be used as fuel for 
the furnaces, while the juice may be converted 
into pineapple brandy, vinegar syrup and 
extracts; and it has been recently suggested 
that possibly pineapple sugar might be made 


by boiling the juicein avacuum to the crystal- 
lising point, 


Such isarapid glance at the pineapple in- 
dustry as practised in the countries named ; and 
it may possibly be worth the while of some one 
to consider whether it could not be successfully 
established in one or more parts of India. We 
may add that the imports of fresh fruit into 
India last year were valued at R2,85,381, and, 
although the imports of pineapples are not 
separately recorded in the Customs returns, the 
figures go to show that there is a substantial 
demand for fresh fruit which, under present 
conditions, this country is unable to supply.— 
Indian Trade Journal, Jan. 21. 


PINEAPPLE GROWING IN CEYLON. 


We asked recently whether there was any- 
one in Ceylon who grew really first-class pine- 
apples. We have since had the opportunity 
of seeing and tasting a very fine large pine, 
prown on Mr. Jacob de Mel’s well-known 
estate, Lilukewella, eight miles from Kurune- 
gala, on the Kandy road. We are told that 
very much larger ones are frequently grown on 
the same estate, though this was well over 12 
inches long and 18 inches in circumference. If 
pineapples of such size, quality and richness of 
flavour can be produced in Ceylon, sureby it 
would be worthwhile for the industry to be 
taken up here on a large scale by some enter- 
prising agriculturist. Mr. de Mel’s are of the 
kind known as Kew pines, and are far more 
worth growing than the ordinary common little 
country pineapple, such as is commonly sold 
in the markets in Colombo and Kandy. 


RECORD WEIGHT OF PINEAPPLE. 


Jan. 28th, 

Dear Sir,—The ordinary weight of a good 
Kew pine (Smooth Cayenne)—as grown here at 
the Government Stock Gardens—is 15 or 16 lb. I 
find ina Royal Botanic Garden’s circular (series 
1, No. 15) the statement that the fruits of this 
variety sometimes weigh over 20 lb., but no 
definite maximum figure isgiven. Last year Mr 
WA de Silva, Veterinary Surgeon, Columbo 
Municipality, sent me a fruit, grown in his pro. 
perty at Waga, which turned the scale at 21 1b 


_ A few days ago, however, Mr M Suppra- 
maniam, Broker, of Colombo, brought me one 
which, on being carefully weighed, was found 
to be 24lbs 5% oz. 


Has this record been beaten P—Yours truly, 
C, DRIEBERG, 


The Supplement to the Tropical Agriculturist 


THE STRAITS COPRA INDUSTRY. 


Why not D.C. Nut? 


Viewing the increase that. Singapore has 
established in its trade in copra, which is yearly 
expanding, a correspondent thinks it is sur- 
prising that local merchants do not import 
machinery for desiccating coconuts. This has 
been found to be a large and profitable indus- 
try in Ceylon, and might conceivably do as 
well in the Straits.—L & C Express, jan. 1. 


MR. J. B. CARRUTHERS’ NEW 
APPOINTMENT. 


Mr. J. B. Carruthers, formerly Mycologist to 
the Ceylon Government and at present Director 
of Agriculture and Government Botanist in the 
F.M.S., has, accepted a postin Trinidad. Mr. 
Carruthers has done excellent work both in 
Ceylon and the F.M.S. and tropical agriculturists 
in the East generally will regret.that his services 
are being transferred to the other side of the 
globe. What the precise post Mr. Car- 
ruthers has accepted is we are not told; but 
it is thought at the Secretariat, and we think 
it very likely, that he has been selected to 
succeed Mr. J H Hart, v.1.s., as Superintendent 
of the Royal Botanic Gardens at Port of Spain, 
Trinidad, who after 32 years of valuable work 
to Tropical Agriculture recently retired. A 
new Department of Agriculture has recently 
been formed in Trinidad and in the latest papers 
to hand we note that subject to the approval ~ 
of the Secretary of State for the Colonies, His 
Excellency the Acting Governor has appointed 
Professor P. Carmody, F.1.c., F.¢.s., to be 
Director. This appointment (which Professor 
Carmody will hold in addition to his office as 
Government Analyst and Professor of Chem- 
istry) will date from November Ist last. The 
following previously separate Departments 
have been amalgamated to constitute the new 
Department of Agriculture: (1) the Govern- 
ment Laboratory; (2) the Botanic Gardens 
(including the Experimental Station, Trinidad ; 
Rever estate, Trinidad; and the Botanic 
Station, Tobago); (3) the Government Stock 
Farms at Trinidad and Tobago, and (4) St. 
Augustine estate. 


Jan. 27th. 

Duar Sir,—That is interesting news you 
published stating that Mr Carruthers is going 
to Trinidad to succeed Mr Hart, as Direc- 
tor of the Botanic Gardens, etc. I1t seems 
almost a pity that Mr Carruthers has been 
moved so soon from the Malay States, where he 
is in the early stages of a lot of experimental 
work, which he has now no chance of bringing 
toa conclusion, and of which there will 
likely be no results as his successor will, in’ all 
probability, not continue on the same lines, As 
he stated at the Ceylon Rubber Exhibition, he 
hasa number of rubber experiments in hand 
and these will takesome yearsto bring to any 
result; his departure will be a loss to Malaya 
planters. In the field of literature, too, .Mr 
Carruthers has been active, and has shared the 


and Magazine of the Ceylon Agricultural Society. 197 


Editorship of the “Straits Agricultural Bulle- 
tin,” which is a very useful planters’ periodical. 
Butin Trinidad he will have the editorship of 
another Agricultural Bulletin which, under Mr 
Hart, has done very well; and Mr Hart filled 
each quarterly number almost’ entirely by him- 
self ; the volumes ofthe Bulletin are a monu- 
ment of useful work done by him. 

Mr Carruthers has good knowledge of rubber, 
cacao and coconuts as cultivated in Ceylon and 
Malaya which will be very useful in his new 
career, for these products are being extensively 
done in Trinidad. Rubber there is coming to 
the fore. Cacao is a very paying product though 
some Ceylon methods might well be adopted, 
and coconuts are a product which is likely to 
be extended. Asa botanist Mr Carruthers will 
have great scope; and his home in Trinidad 
will be among most pleasant surroundings. He 
is certain of the good wishes of many Ceylon 
friends including numerous planters,— Yours 
faithfully, 

ADMIRER. 


FAILURE AND FORTUNE IN 
NYASALAND. 


“H. B.” responds to the criticisms in these 
columns (October, 1908) that he had not told us 
yet of any fortunes made in Nyasaland, while writ- 
ing ofits advantages. From what he says, tobacco 
would seem to be the most paying crop ; while 
cotton has not been a success, We wonder if 
the latter has been wrongly planted ? How- 
‘ever, it will not be long now before Mr. 
Stewart McUall, the new Director of Agricul- 
ture, who believes it is the product for the 
country, arrives on the spot to show the plan- 
ters how it should be grown and harvested. 


Mlanje, December, 1909. 

In my hints to new-comers and investors, who 
might be inclined to try their fortune in Nyasa- 
jand, appearing in your issue of October last, 
there was no reference to past failures, but 
simply facts as they exist at present; but as 
‘“Sceptical” refers to the 

NYASALAND COFFEE CO.’s FAILURE 
in 1901 without even paying a dividend to the 
shareholders, I feel bound to reply—as it is 
very probable ‘‘Sceptical ” was a shareholder, 
and I myself was their V. A. When the 
Nyasaland Co. was formed and during the 
first few years of its existence, coffee was, to 
all appearance, to be the future industry of the 
country; and from crops that had been se- 
cured from various estates, there was no getting 
over the fact that money invested in this pro- 
duct was to all appearance safe, and bound te 
yield good interest in the course of time, 
Jt is very doubtful if one man could be found 
in or out of B.C, A., who, in view of the 
circumstances surrounding the industry at the 
time referred to, was then bold enough to 
give an adverse epinion to the general one: 
that B. C. A. was the home of the coffee tree, 
and that there was a fortune in it. As time 
went on, however, we began to make dis- 
coveries that there were 
NATURAL ENEMIES 

of the coffee tree to contend with, of no trifling 
nature. The larger the area that was opened up, 


the more and more numerous those enemies be- 
came, until they proved too much for the 
coffee enterprise, and the result was wholesale 
abandonment all over the country. Not only 
the Nyasaland Co., but many others had to 
close down after years of hard honest work, 
which did credit to those who struggled to make 
coffee pay. A great many 
FINE BRICK BUNGALOWS 

and godowns standing in the bush in the different 
districts throughout the country bear evidence 
of the confidence in the coffee enterprise, Nya- 
saland planters were not satisfied, like Ceylon 
pioneers, with a wattle and daub house to 
begin with and wait to see whether the estate 
was going to pay or not, for many of the houses 
cost £500 to £600 and more—bhefore even a berry 
of crop was harvested. To sum up the failure 
of coffee in this country. If a coffee clearing 
is opened and comes into bearing during 
years that are ‘unfavourable’ for the deve- 
lopment of insect pest, especially thrips (which 
is mostly ruled by the early or late bush fires 
and monsoon rains), a heavy crop and, perhaps, 
two, can be secured ; but on the other hand, if 
the season is favourable for breeding those in- 
sects, the leaves and bark of the young wood 
and berries are so damaged by their sinking 
and puncturing the sap-cells, that one may as 
well cut down the plants and let a sucker 
grow up, for they are damaged for life, This 


ACCOUNTS FOR MANY COFFEE CLEARINGS NEVER 
‘ GIVING A CROP 
in Nyasaland and even after cutting down the 
trees the suckers have been also damaged in 
the same way. 
COTTON, 
Cotton, for some who have been years in this coun- 
try, has been a complete failure ; and for others, 
it has given a very paying crop, indeed, but the 
risks, of course, are a great deal too serious for 
small capitalists. Was it not Mr J W Home who 
had to abandon the cotton industry in the bed of 
the Muturajawela tank, Ceylon (after spending 
some £7,000), owing to insect pests, in the ’six- 
ties or seventies? ‘‘Sceptical” wants to hear of 
PLANTERS WHO ARE GETTING BIG RETURNS IN 
THIS COUNTRY 
at present. He might as well ask a man for 
his Bank balance. The planters that are left 
here are men of small means, who have managed 
to tide over the coffee crisis, with few excep- 
tions; but Ican mention one not very far away 
from here, who sold about 7 tons of tobacco at 
7d per lb., which cost very little to grow and put 
on the market. I know another, who got 11d 
per Ib. for 12 tons, aud yet another, who sold 20 
tons of cotton at 74d perlb. 7 tons of tobacco 
fetched 1s 13d per lb. not very long ago. Chil- 
lies, I have just got the account sales for — tons, 
sold at 56s per cwt. I could tell you of many 
who have not only made a living here, but have 
been able to clear out of the country with a few 
thousands ; but not fortunes, that people are 
usually in such a hurry to secure. How many 
of the Ceylon planters made’ fortunes out of 
Coffee, or even Tea? The writer thought that 
10 years was enough to make a fortune in 
Ceylon and 5 years in Nyasaland; but, alas! 
—the schemes of mice and men! 
H. B, 


198 
THE LONDON RUBBER MARKET. 


SOME HINTS FROM THE BROKER 
TO THE PLANTER. 


We have now received, and in most cases place 
before our readers, the annual reports on tha rub- 
ber market during 1908 issued by the principal 
firms of rubber brokersin London. ‘They con- 
tain, as far as we can discern, nothing that can 
be regarded as discouraging to the producer of 
plantation rubber in the East. In fact in every 
case confidence in the great promise of the 
industry is unmistakeably indicated ; and, in 
not a few, invaluable hints are given to planters 
regarding the form in which the raw product 
is most acceptable to the manufacturers. The 
interest of the trade in the plantation article 
is broadening in proportion to the increase of 
supplies ; and there is every reason to justify 
the conclusion that, when still greater quanti- 
ties are put on the market, a correspondingly 
ready demand will be experienced for it. ‘The 
production and imports into London of plan- 
tation rubber during 1908 are given by Messrs. 
Lewis & Peat as 2,100 tons against 1,250 tons in 
the preceding year. At the present time no 
department of the trade has refrained from 
handling plantation rubber,and the above-named 
firm assures us *‘ with confidence that now, 
practically all manufacturers, large and small, 
use plantation rubber and are likely to do so 
more and more.” The large rubber firms are 
making arrangements to deal with larger 
quantities when the supplies increase as they 
must do enormously during the next few years. 
This is a gratifying and tangible sign of 
practical interest in cultivated rubber, which 
ought to stimulate planters to produce only 
the best. It is very important at this stage 
that the good impression made by the plan- 
tation product should be maintained, and by 
the adoption of the hints given by the London 
brokers the quality improved and made still more 
acceptable. The more important of the recom 
mendations may be emphasized here. Messrs. 
Figgis & Co. state that the manufacturers showed 
a decided preference tor plantation rubber in 
the form of Sheet, Biscuits and Crépe, and 
with regard to the latter, planters are warned 
that ‘‘it should not be drawn out too thin 
or have visible air or steam bubbles in it.” 
There seems to be a very ready demand 
for pale pure Crepe, provided the preparation 
has been thorough. Lhe firm quoted strongly 
advises planters to wash and clean the rubber 
thoroughly and to prepare as large a proportion 
as possible of good colour and not to send 
to London many qualities or small lots. Block, 
they say, ‘‘has not beer in favour generally; and 
unless clean resilient hard quality can be sent, 
it may be better to ship as Crépe or sheet. 
Pack it in good dry condition (excess of resin 
much objected to.) Into strong cases of 1 ewt. 
to 2 cwt. each. No paper, fuller’s earth, &c., 
to be used. Keeping different qualities and 
colour separate; where practicable, keep im- 
mature separate ; to send separately dirty bark 
“pieces, and to wash out all the bark in Crépe, 
Block and Sheet. All fine qualities should be loose 
Crépe, Sheet or Biscuit—not run to a mass,” 


The Supplement to the Tropical Agriculturist 


These instructions are clear and definite and to 
comply with them ought not to seriously tax 
the resource of the planter. Messrs. Gow Wilson 
and Stanton point out that while some samples 
of plantation rubber have been pronounced 
to be equal in all respects to fine Para, in certain 
cases weakness and variation of quality are still 
complained of, and they say “it is very 
evident that every effort must be made to 
raise the standard quality to a higher level.” 
Messrs. Lewis and Peat point out that in the 
case of ‘‘sheets’” a regular standard quality has 
been established, making business easier both 
for sellers and buyers. This firm also strongly 
recommends planters to prepare their scrap in 
Crepe form, taking care not to roll too thin, which 
makes it weak and brittle. Scrap Crepe, they 
say, ought to be hard. strong and gristly. Pre- 
pared thus, scrap realises higher prices. They 
also point out that very fine pale worms com- 
mand a very high price; but that as the quan- 
tities increase, the quality—as far as colour is 
concerned—is not as good. There appears to be 
apprehension that with quantity will come less 
regard for quality on the part of the producer. It 
is in the Ceylon planter’s interest that he should 
strive to allay this fear. As to the market itself 
it is very satisfactory to find the statistical 
position so sound and to know that this is not 
due to any marked falling off in supplies but to 
the steady improvement in the trade absorbing 
the surplus stocks. The world’s supply in 1908 
was about 65,000 tons, against 69,000 tons in 
1907 and 65,000 tons in 1906. The consumption. 
in 1908 is estimated at about 67,500 tons; - 
and on this point Messrs. Lewis and Peat, 
give the cheering assurance that although 
“Production must increase enormously during 
the next few years, even now the trade is ready 
to cope with it whatever its dimensions.” 
The past year therefore, with its unexampled 
fluctuations, was not entirely without points of 
advantage for plantation rubber. The recovery 
made by the market in the second half of the 
year was remarkable and he would indeed be 
deemed ‘‘a cheery optimist” whoa year ago 
ventured to predict that 1908 would close 
as favourably asit did. At the present moment 
the market is quite as satisfactory as any 
reasonable person could hope for and better 
than most of us anticipated it would be a year 
ago. We then had low pricesand large stocks: we 
now havelow stocks and,comparatively speaking, 
high prices. The future not being born, we are 
not going to christen it. But without laying 
ourselves open to the charge of making unduly 
optimistic prognostications, we may say that if 
the expert opinion of these London Brokers 
is to count for anything, the outlook is dis- 
tinctly promising. We have heard it stated 
locally that one Ceylon estate has sold its crop 
forward at 5s per Ib. If this is correct, one buyer 
at any rate anticipates a high level of prices 
to be maintained during 1909. Whether prices 
tise or fall, however, planters cannot do better 
than carry out to the best of their ability the 
useful instructions conveyed to them by the 
Brokers in London. By so doing they will secure 
better prices for themselves and, what is still 
more important, help to establish for all time 
the reputation of Ceylon Plantation rubber, 


and Magazine of the Ceylon Agricultural Society. 


MESSRS. FIGGIS & CO.’S REPORT. 


Fine Brazit, AMAzonas, BoLiviaANn, PERUVIAN 
AND (WiLD) Meptiom. 


1908 will be remembered as a year of record 
variations in values and enormously increased 
price at the close, compared with the beginning 
of the year: also the constant large demand 
for fine Para, which al! countries have wanted 
in Jarger proportion than formerly. Asa result 
the advance today compared to this date last year 
is ls 8d per lb. on fine Para, but only 6d to 1s 
on Negrohead and 10d on Caucho Ball. For the 
reasons stated in our last annual, prices declined 
last January and February, several American 
factories continued closed ; consequently too 
much Rubber was lefton the English market. 
On 2lst February we had the lowest prices of 
the year, Hard Fine Para being sold at 2s 9d, 
scrappy 2s. A recovery soon ensued, and as 
detailed beiow, prices advanced 1s per lb. With 
eager American Regine and cornering of large 
bear operators, we had a further great advance 
in November, prices then being about double 
those of February 21st. Mediums were only 
saleable at very low prices till November, 
and the disastrous results to importers aud 
holders, seriously restricted imports, resulting 
in stocks being abnormally smallnow. English 
consumption of Rubber has been very large, 
that of France and Germany good, Russia only 
moderate, and America much less till quite 
recently. We think invisible stocks must be 
large in America, owing to her very free buying 
this last three months. The European stocks 
are exceedingly small. The world’s supply of 
about 65,000 tons has been all consumed. In 
1907 we had 69,000 tons, 1906 65,000 tons, and 
we begin this year with very small stocks of 
all Rubber (especially mediums). 


‘‘Slab Rubber” was scarce and sold well, 
‘* Ball” plentiful (and of good quality) and 
very ready sale. ‘‘ Tails” only saleable at low 
prices, The supply of mediums was much 
smaller. West Coast African declined. 


_ W.C.A.—Only 14,000 tons against 17,000 tons 
in 1907, 17,200 tons in 1906 and 17,500 tons 
in 1905. 
VISIBLE SUPPLY lst JANUARY, 1909. 

Of Para and Peru- 1919, 1908. 1907. 1906. 1905. 1904, 

vian tons 3,188 3,722 2,162 2,874 2,666 3,262 
Including America ,, 1,305 1,210 1,160 1,600 1,830 1,480 
1908 Brazil& Bolivia 

(from the Ama- 

zonas) We 
Including Peruvian&Caucho 

via Iquitos and Manaos 7,460 7,160 6,250 6,100 4,399 

This year’s crop was very good quality. All 
fine should be cut and carefully sviccted before 
shipment. Caucho Ball increased and of usefui 
ates: Bolivia increased. Mollendo sent less, 

enezuela via Orinoco more. Ceara and Mani- 
coba great reduction. Pernambuco and Assare 
small supply but sold cheaply. Mattogrosso 
crop was fair but quality not so good. Manga- 
beira, from Santos and Bahia, less supply and 
cheap. 


CENTRAL AMERICA,—Supply greatly declined. 
Mexico moderate supply. Columbia small 
lots, and part poor undesirable quality. Keua- 
dor was fair quality, also Nicaragua. We had a 


38,160 37,520 34,520 34,420 30,385 


199 


few lots of Plantations from these countries, and 
estimate 20,000 acres planted there. 


1908. 1907. 1906, 1905. 1904, 


WEST COAST AFRICAN 
(total about) tons 
including Benguela and Mos- 
samedes tons 1,690 1,700 1,450 1,650 1,600 
Loanda tons ae 70 900 700 800 950 
Congo and French Congo tons 5,900 6,000 5,900 5,650 5,800 


Qualities have somewhat improved, but prices 
were low for Niger, Gold Coast, Accra and 
Lagos. (Good qualities from the Cameroons, 
Sierra Leone, Gaboon and Conakry sold at high 
prices. 

The French Congo & Soudan, mostly from 
Senegal via Bordeaux, sold fairly. 


About 1,050 tons, against 1,200 tons 1907, 1,300 
tons 1906, 1,250 tons 1905. 


liverpool imports WC African 2,580 tons, 
against 3,740 tons 1907, 4,770 tous 1906, 4,700 
tons 1905. 


Antwerp imports, mostly from Congo, 4,900 
tons, against 5,000 tons 1907, 5,700 tons 1906. 


14000 1700) 17200 17500 18000 


Kast Coast AFRICAN.—“anzibar, &c., rather 
less; prices show an advance for the yoar of 
nearly 1s 3d per lb; quality has been fair. Nyassa- 
land very littl, Mombassa and Lamu fair, 
Uganda small. Abyssinian supply is increasing, 
quality middling, i 

Madagascar — Great reduction of supply, 
prices close showing arise of 1s. perlb. Nig- 
gers—Some lots nice clean sold well. Rangoon 
small, Assam much decreased. Penang greatly 
reduced; much higher recently. Supply of Java 
was small, but planting is going on freely, and 
we may expect increased supplies. Borneo very 
little and sold cheap. Tonkin and French 
Cochin China did not increase, but sold well. 
New Guinea sent us none. Pontianak has been 
abundant and fairly high. 


REVIEW or PaRa Prices For 1908, 


The prices in January, 1908, were 3s. 5d. per 
lb, for fine Hard Para, 3s. 2d. Soft tine; Negro- 
head, scrappy 2s, 10d., Cameta 2s. 04d., Island 
2s., Caucho Ball 2s. 9d. With no American 
demand and full supplies we declined on 2\st 
February to the /owest of 1908—2s, 9d. Hard fine, 
2s. Negrohead Scrappy, and Caucho Ball; prices 
advanced 4d, perlb. in a fortnight, and late 
in May fine Hard was sold up to 3s 11d, 
Scrappy at 2s 74d; then at 2d less; but 
in early July at 4s and 28 9d. In the 
latter half of July and August we fell to 3s 
$d, and Ball 2s 6d. American large steady 
buying setin during September and October, 
resulting in large business up to 4s 6d and 3s 1d, 
whilst in November, with ‘‘corner of bears” and 
large American demand, we sold at the highest 
price of the year—tine Hard up to 5s 5d, Scrappy 
at4s 13d. With less forced buying prices de- 
clined 5d, and we closed the year with tine Hard 
5s 1d to 5s 2d, fine Soft 4s 104d, Negrohead 
scrappy 3s 10d, Cameta 2s 7d, Island 2s 5d 
Caucho Ball 3s 74d. ’ 


Batata—in fair supply, and fairly steady ; 
Sheet 2s 6d down to 2s 3d, Block 1s 64d up to 
ls 93d, closing at 2s 34d and Is 84d to 1s 9d, 
Gutta Percha of slow sale throughout the year, 


200 


PLANTATION RUBBER 
BRITISH MALaya: 


GROWN IN CEYLON AND 


(Federated States, Perak, Malacca, Johore, 
Straits), Sumatra, Java, India, &. 


44 & 45, Fenchurch Street, London, Ist 
January, 1909.—The acreage under Rubber 
Plantation (partly mixed with other products) 
is now nearly 500,000 acres. 

Tons Tons - 
Exported from (Ceylon w India) 350 against 230 in 1907 
Exported from Malaya, Wc. 1450 against 780 in 1907 


1800 - 1010 
Exported from Ceylon (and India) 160 in 1906 70 in 1905 
Exported from Malaya, &c. 850 in 1906 75 in 1905 
510 145 
There has been a further general improve- 
ment in preparation, less of inferior and 


“tacky,” much more of fine clean crépe—some 
of very good colour realising high prices—and 
nice resilient sheet. 

The enormous variations and great advance in 
prices since early October (fully detailed over 
leaf), have resulted in very high ‘‘average price” 
for Plantation during recent inontiis but, as we 
formerly predicted, the difference in value corn- 
pared with fine Para Brazil Rubber, lessens 
with the larger supply of Plantation. 


Manufacturers have shewn a decided prefer- 
ence for Sheet, Biscuit and Crepe; the latter 
should not be drawn out too thin or have visible 
air or steam bubbles in it. Some lots of strong 
thick Crépe sold very well. 

We think it has been profitable to planters to 
wash’and clean the rubber thoroughly, and to 
prepare as large a proportion as possible of gcod 
colour—also not to send many qualities or very 
small lots. Block has not been in favour gene- 
rally, and unless clean resilient hard quality can 
be sent, it may be better to ship as Crépe or 
sheet. 

Pack it in good dry condition (excess of resin 
much objected to.) 

Into strong cases of 1 cwt. to 2 cwt. each. No 
paper, fuller’s earth, &c., to be used. 

Keeping different qualities and colours sepa- 
rate, where practicable keep immature separate; 
to send separately dirty barky pieces, and to 
wash out all the bark in Crépe, Block and Sheet. 
All fine qualities should be loose Crépe, Sheet or 
Biscuit—not run to a mass. Our 


LONDON CHARGES 


are very small. Brokerage 4 per cent., AJl 
Samples are paid for, and_the only deduction 
is—Discount 2} per cent. Draft (on all Rubber) 
4 per cent. 

Smoked rubber appears to have greater re- 
siliency and to be more suitable for many pur- 
poses than unsmoked. ‘* Smoking” prevents 
the ‘“‘ proteins ” in rubber from decomposition, 
and generally from ‘‘ tackiness.’’ All fine rubber 
from Para is smoked. 


During last January and February we had de- 
cline in markets (from the values of Ist January, 
viz., fine Para 3s. 5d., fine Plantation 3s. 11d_), 
owing to the withdrawal from purchasing Rub- 
ber by America, and the continued closing 
there. of many factories. 


The Swpplement to the Tropical Agriculturist : : 


The lowest price was 21st’ February, when 
fine hard Para was sold at 28 -9d. good sheet 
Plantation (Malay) at 3s 14d. America showing 
signs of revival, values rapidly recovered, and 
advanced 1s per lb. by middle of May. Prices 
were irregular till 6th October, when Plantation 
sheet sold at 4s63d, Para 48s 44d. With 

A STRONG AMERICAN DEMAND AND GORNER | 

OF ‘* BEARS,” ' 
by 10th November the price was a further 
is per lb. higher, and 17th November 
the highest price of the year obtained, viz., 5s 
5d fine hard. Para, whilst sheet Plantation 
realised 5s 9d to 5s 10d. Values feil subse- 
quently, and today fine Plantation is 5s 34d, fine 
Hard Para 5s 1d to 58 2d, fine Soft 4s 94d. 


The rapid fluctuations and extraordinary rise 
in values appear hardly due to natural or 
normal causes, but the world’s demand has 
been more than equal to the reduced supply, 
and at some periods our stocks have been re- 
markably small, especially of fine Para. Total 
stocks now are smaller than for many years. 

Notwithstanding the serious losses in Brazil, 
the supply from the Amazonas has increased, 
but there has beena large reduction of Mani- 
coba, Mangabeira and Pernambuco. Brazil 
exported 40,000 tons. 

Our doubts as to Synthetic rubber have 
proved to becorrect. Itisnot mentioned now, 
and common substitutes have been neglected 
though cheap. A large trade in reclaimed 
rubber, and quality improved. 

Rambong has sold fairly well, especially small 
lots of nice hard clean. Castilloa in small sup- 
ply, but not liked even at low prices. 

The world’s supply in 1908 was about 65,000 
tons, against 69,000 tons in 1907, and 65,000 tons 
in 14906. Consumption we estimate was about 
67,500 tons. Of 

RuBBER PLANTED 


we estimate in the Hast nearly 500,000 acres — 


19 8. 1907. 1906. 
Ceylon 180,000 acres 150,010 1 0,000 
Malaya, Malacca, &c. .. 183,000 ,, 100,000 90,000 


(containing about 2) million trees, not two million 
tapped in 1908) 


1908. 1907. 1906. 
Borneo and New Guinea .. 10,0.0 acres 9,000 8,: 00 
Dutch East hon 
60,090) 30,000 
Java f sce tra f %C- 90,000 ,, 70,000 25,000 
India and Burmah « 80,000, \a55 


Mexico, Nicaragua and Honduras have plant- 
ations but are not increasing:—probably by 
now 20,000 acres planted; also Colombia, 
Ecuador, Bolivia and Peru. 


India is extending, probably about 30,000 
acres planted. Somein Burmah and Mergui: 
the Philippines (small as yet), Samoa, Hawaii, 
and beginning in New Guinea and other Islands, 
Queensiand and Seychelles. The West Coast of 
Africa has plantations, and more progress has 
been made in the Congo region and German 
West Africa, also in British East Africa, 
Uganda, and the West Indies probably 2,000. 
acres. 

Brazil exported in 1908 about 40,000 tons 
against 41,500 tons in 1907, Manicog¢a seriously 
decreased, also Guayule from Mexico, largely 
used in America and the Continent. Prices of 
Guayule are very much lower and quality im-. 
proved ; probably 2,000 tons were made, = 


and Magazine of the Ceylon Agricultural Society. ° 


(In Tons)—(LNcLupine CaucHo), 
Sraristics ror tHE Monta or December. 


1908, 1907, 1906, 1905. 
300 = 38,300 against 2,560 2,610 3,270 


Para, Caucho. 
Receipts at Para 3,000 


Shipments to Eu- 


rope 630 100= 730 do 1,580 1,090 1,460 

do to America 2,160 120 = 2,280 do 900 1,970 1,540 
American 

Imports 2,260 80 = 2,340 do 1,060 2,110 1,360 

do Deliveries 2,350 85 = 2,435 do 1,100 2,190 1,290 
Liverpool 

Imports 777 121 = 898 do 1,212 829 1,240 

do Deliveries 791 119= 910 do 920 917 1,206 
Continent 

Imports 240 50= 290 do 600 5°O0 570 

do Deliveries 240 50= 290 do 5:0 490 670 


VISIBLE SuPPLY.—Ist Jan. 1909, 1908, 1907. 1906. 


pee Eis 
Para, Caucho. 
Stock in England, 
Para 1st hands 128 _ 769 273 352 
an ond: 147 — 154 104 221 
Caucho —_ 348 499 25 61 
» in Para lsthands 200 10 = 240 10), 180: 
2nd ,, 490 90 460 490 560 
5, in America 260 1250«270 =«:19) S250 
,, on Continent 10 10 210 70 50 
Atloat—Europoe 870 80 €89 530 590 
», America 850 70 240 470 660 
2,455 733 
Total Visible Supply, 
including Caucho 3,183 3,722 2,162 2,874 


Crop SratisTics—30TH JUNE, 3lst Dec, 


1908. 1907. 1906. 1905. 
Para. Caucho, 


Para Re- Aran? 14,060 roy 15,750 14,240 14,720 11,690 


ceipts 1907 12,540 1,70 

Para Shipments 
Europe 5,710 1,270 6,980 8,190 6,630 8,324 
America 8,020 390 8,410 5,550 7,830 5,845 
England Landings net 5,328 6,748 4,664 6,037 
‘ Deliveries net 7,160 5,851 5,487 6,119 
America Landings net 9,920 5,470 7,870 5,330 
; Deliveries net 9,345 5,770 8,230 5,880 
Continental Imports net 1,210 | 1,805, 1,529. 1,930 
Deliveries net 1,410 1,765 2,010 2,(00 


Total stock. 


SSS 
Imported. Delivered. 1908, 1907. 1906. 


LONDON - 
Tons, Tons. Tons, Tons, Tons. 
Para - oe ne es 2 if 
Pplantacion, Ceylon and 
Malaya 143 166 149 144 71 
Rangoon and Assam — 3 4 57 = 122 
“enang 25 9 49 195 142 
Borneo il 13° 34 77 57 
Mozambique 35 21 45 110 29 
Madagase : 6 8 14-163 )—136 
W,L. andSouth American 13 23 45 i44 73 
Mattogrosso 17 26 14 bys 10 
African 1 2 24 50 20 
Various Go etd ne 4 9 
251 271 378 1003 691 
LIVERPOOL— 
Para 777 791 275 921 370 
Peruvian 121 1.9 318 499 25 
Mollendo | 22 15 8 7 4 
Manigoba, Ceara, Manga-= 
beira, Fernambuco, &e. 2 46 133 526 292 
Carthagena, etc. Aa on Se 8 ats 
African 210 275 368 304 287 
1132 1246 1132 2265 978 
Total (England) 1383 1517 1510 3268 1669 


S Fiaais & Co., Brokers, 
Street, lst January, 1909, 


26 


London: 44 & 46, Fenchurch 


201 


REPORT BY GOW WILSON AND 
STANTON, LIMITED, 


13 & 23, Rood Lane, London, E.C., December 
31st, 1908. 


Tue Years Saues,—The quantity of Plan- 
tation Rubber brought to auctionin London 
during 1908 was 24,647 packages, amounting to 
1,2954, tons, compared with 15,380 packages, 
weighing S14 tons during the previous year. 
The auction average price for 1908 of all grades 
was 4s/13d per lb. 


MARKET Conpirions.—The period under re- 
view has been ono of marked changes. The 
industry at the beginning of the year was still 
suffering from the set-back in prices which took 
place during the latter part of 1907; both stocks 
and visible supplies greatly exceeded require- 
ments, and there was little inclination on the 
part of buyers to operate with any freedom, 


During the summer, however, a gradual im- 
provement was steadily taking place, and while 
in February the price of Fine Hard Para had 
receded to 2/9 (the lowest quotation for over 
sixteen years), by the beginning of August it 
stood at over 4/ per Ib,, and in the middle of 
November reached 5/43, which was the highest 
price recorded for more than two years. 


The statistical position is now ona sounder 
basis than it has been for some considerable 
time past, owing not to any marked falling off in 
supplies, but tothe steady and continual im- 
provement intrade, which has resulted in the 
absorption of surplus stocks, more especially in 
America where for some months past stocks in 
warehouse have been negligible. 


THE POSITION OF THE PLANTATION RUBBER 
InpustRY—has become more important, owing 
to the increase in production, and in many in- 
stances a marked improvement in preparation 
of the Rubber has been readily appreciated by 
buyers. Itisa gratifying fact that some sam- 
ples of Plantation Rubber have been pronounced 
to be equal in all respects to Fine Para, but on 
the other hand, complaints as to weakness-and 
variation in quality are still too numerous, and 
it is evident that every effort must be made to 
raise the standard quality to a higher level. 


VARIETIES ON THE Marxet.--As the quantity 
of Plantation Rubber produced has been in- 
creasing, various new forms and methods of pre- 
paration have been tried and a large number of 
different varieties have consequently been put 
on the market. This has led to some confusion, 
and it is advisable that the number of different 
forms and grades should be reduced as far as 
possible consistent with proper sorting. 


Biscuits, Sheet, Crepe and Scrap continue to 
meet with steady support, but a noticeable 
feature has been the increase in the proportion 
of Crepe, owing to more estates having started 
the use of machinery. Though certain buyers 
continue to take Sheets and Biscuits in pre- 
ference to Crepe, the demand for the latter has 


_ been well maintained, and very satisfactory 


prices have been paid for the more carefully 
prepared samples, 


202 . 


The enquiry for very pale pure Rubber which 
has been in evidence for some time past con- 
tinues, and premiums of up to about 4d. per lb. 
over ordinary Fine quality Plantation Rubber 
have been readily paid for increasing quantities. 
Up till now the supplies of such Rubber have 
only been small, but the uses for it may still 
expand considerably, and there should be room 
for a largely increased supply in the future. 


For all kinds of Crepe, provided preparation 
has been thorough, there is a good sale, and 
prices even for the lower qualities have com- 
pared very favourably with those for other grades, 


Propuctrion oF PLantatTion RuBBER.—From 
the table below it will be seen that the total 
production of Ceylon and Malaya Rubber for 
1908 was about 750 tons in excess of that of the 
previous year, The bulk of this increase has 
been derived from Malaya, Ceylon only show- 
ing a small expansion. Owing to the rather 
large area of land which was put under cul- 
tivation in the East during 1902-1903, we antici- 
pate that a relatively greater increase in sup- 
plies will be seen in 1909, while in a few years 
time the production of Plantation Rubber is 
likely to form an appreciable proportion of the 
world’s supply. 

xports of Plantation from Malaya and Ceylon: 


The Supplement to the 


in Tons. 
SINGAPORE, PENANG, CEYLON. TOTAL, 
1905 Ao 83 ae 47 75 205 
1906 827 58 146 631 
1907 649 236 248 1,133 
*1908 570 364 1,90) 


aa wOGG! ye fee a i 
4 ahe becember figures are estimated. 

Tur Para Crop.—Contrary to expectations, 
the shipments of Amazon Rubber from Para 
so far this season (i.¢., since July Jst, 1908) have 
exceeded those for the same period of the pre- 
vious season. This is to some extent accounted 
for by the supplies having come down from the 
forests more rapidly than usual, and it does 
not follow that the total crop will be larger 
than last season’s, whilst on the other hand, 
stocks throughout the world have been materi- 
ally reduced. 


SHIPMENTS FROM PARA DuRING THE Last 
Ten Seasons: IN Tons. 


1899-00 26,870 19°4-95 33,100 
1990-01 27,807 1905-06 34,852 
1901-02 ene 29,937 1906-07 37,641 
1902-03 «. 29,821 1907-08 36,470 
1903-04 .. 80,535 | a1908 Six months 


July to Dec. 15,715 
a December figures are only up to the 30th. 
Table showing Total Quantity and Average 
Price of Plantation Rubber offered at 
Auotion during the last 3 Years. 


£ . Quantity int 
fils uantity in tons . ‘S 
22 y a 96 
S53 Cey- Ma- To- 33 28 
¢% lon. laya tal 6g GE 
at Ze ag 
ist Jan. to 81st 

Dec,, 1906 6,462 98} 250; 8483 4,180 5/6} 

do 1907 15,380 1923 6214 814 7,888 4/95-8 
do 1908 24,647 200 1,0053 1,295 16,018 4/1} 


6 TONS OF LANADRON BLOCK! 


The closing sale of the year passed off witha 
fairly good demand for all descriptions except 
Sheets and Biscuits for which, in some instances, 
competition was rather slow. The market has 


Tropical Agriculturist 


been quiet since the holidays, but prices have 
been rather firmer, and quotations at today’s 
auction marked an irregular advance of from 1d 
toin some cases 2d per lb on last sale rates. A 
large parcel of Lanadron Block weighing about 
6 tons was partly sold at from 5/10 to 5/104 per 
lb., this being the highest price of the sale. The 
next best figure was 5/7 ?, which was realised 
for some Gikiyanakande Worm. The highest 
price for Crepe was 5/63 paid for a small parcel 
of C.M. R. E.—Deec. 31st. 


LEWIS AND PEAT’S REPORT. 


FRoM CEYLON, THE STRAITS AND MALAY 
STATES FoR 1908. 


6, Mincing Lane, London, Jan. 1. 

The satisfactory feature of the past year is the 
marked increase in the production and imports 
of Plantation Rubber, viz., 2,100 tons against 
1,250 tons in 1907, and the very large increase in 
the number of buyers and consumers, who now 
use Plantation sorts, keenly competing for them 
at the London auctions and by private treaty. 
Instead of increased supplies adversely affecting 
the market, consumers, who have taken to using 
it, have been more and more interested in it, 
from the fact that they are able now to depend 
upon getting what they want regularly and in 
increasing quantities, which at first with only 
small supplies was a difliculty. The larger 
quantities catalogued at the fortnightly sales 
which averaged something like 100 tons per 
month have been readily taken. The private - 
business between the sales has also developed 
considerably, and we now have a regular and 
open market for all qualities. We may say 
with confidence that now, practically all manu- 
facturers, large and smai!, use Plantation Rub- 
ber and are likely to do so more and more. In 
consequence of the growing importance of Plan- 
tation Rubber, the largest and most important 
firms in the trade being best able to judge of 
its preat future, have made and are makin 
their arrangements to handle and deal with it 
in greatly increased supplies. Production must 
increase enormously during the next few years 
but even now the = : 

TRADE IS READY TO COPE WITH IT 
whatever its dimensions. Throughout the year 
fluctuations in the price of rubber have been 
very great, and during the American depression 
and cessation of buying, heavy stocks of all 
grades including medium and wild rubber ac- 
cumulated enormously; at one time the stock of 
mediums alone in Europe amounted to some 10 
or 12,000 tons and was for some time practically 
unsaleable. With the fine para crop coming in 
and being pressed for gale, the price dropped to 
2/9 perlb., the lowest price touched for 10 or 12 
years—and as there were scarcely any American 
orders, European buyers had to take the bulk of 
the pee This decline in fine para brought down 
the values of plantation and of all grades—but 
with a good European demand throughout and a 
revival of American orders—quite 
A SENSATIONAL REACTION 

set in about the middle of the year, and 


_ prices rapidly advanced pence per |b. almost 


without a break until November, when fine para 


and Magazine uf the Ceylon Agricultural Society. 


touched 5/5 per Ib. and plantation 6/, With the 
greatly enhanced values of fine para and the en- 
ormously increased consumption shown by the 
hoavy deliveries to all parts, consumers turned 
their attention to medium grades, and the whole 
of the enormous accumulated stocks disappeared 
and went into consumption. These facts speak 
for themselves and show the very healthy state 
of the rubber trade generally, notwithstanding 
the constant complaints of bad trade and siack 
business. Nine months ago we had enormous 
stocks and low prices; today we haveexceedingly 
small stocks and excellent prices aud a good de- 
mand, One result of the very heavy decline in 
the values early in the year of medium 

rades and wild rubbers (other than para) 
Baa unquestionably been to enormously decrease 
the production and collection of a great many 
sorts, and hence our stocks have not been re- 
plenished by them, and it is very doubtful if 
they will be, if supplies of Plantation are avail- 
able and suftticient to meet the present largo and 
ever increasing demand. It is impossible to 
give any forecast as to prices in the future, but 
we are of opinion that fluctuations will not be 
heavy for some time to come, and we look for a 
continued good demand both for Fine Para and 
Plantation, a demand sufticient to take and con- 
sume at satisfactory prices all that the Amazon 
and Plantations are likely to send us at present. 


BISCUITS 


only come in small quantities now, and no doubt 
this form of preparation will give way to sheets 
or Crépe which are far easier to manufacture 
and handle on the Estates. Tho very finest and 
palest Warriapola biscuits have always sold at 
fancy prices for special purposes. We have also 
had good lots from Sorana, Tallagalla, Dens- 
worth, Doranakande, Syston, Arapolakande and 
Langsland. 


SHEETS 


have come in increasing quantities and a regular 
standard quality has been established, making 
business easier both for sellers and buyers, 
Consumers can now depend upon their purchases 
and get larger and increasing quantities with 
but a comparatively small variation in quality 
and loss in weight. In this grade, colour has 
made but little difference in the price, buyers 
rather going by the strength and condition, The 
best known marks came from Vallambrosa and 
Highlands and Lowlands Estates, and their 
shipments have been most regular in quality and 
of considerable size. Amongst the best stan- 
dards attained we may also mention Perhentian 
Tinggi, Bukit Rajah, Jugraand Deviturai. The 
Penang Sugar Estates have also sent some re- 
matkably good lots, 


CREPE, 

The bulk of the Plantation Crop now comes 
in this form, and wethink it can be taken as the 
most satisfactory preparation, Now that the 
quality and colour is more even and the parcels 
larger, buyers can repeat their orders and be 
snre of what they are buying, and an order for 
five or ten tons can now be executed for a single 
grade with comparative ease, The quality 
shipped during the year has beon excellent and 
the colour has much improved, Tho very fine 


203 


pale, in some instances almost white, has realised 
extremely high prices, and there isa large and 
increasing demand for this quality for special 
uses. The medium and mottled is always readily 
saleable. Asto the good dark grades, there are 
many new buyers constantly enquring, and 
these qualities more than any other are being 
used instead of the better wild rubbers, Among 
the many fine marks that call for special men- 
tion the following have been specially notice- 
able : Jebong Crépe, which is almost white, but 
no longer stands alone, as several other éstates 
are now producirg quality and colour equally 
good. Rosehaugh, fine thick Crépe is most 
popular and one of the best preparations we get. 
Damansara, Matang, Malacca, Sungei Kapar, 
Pataling, Linsum, Linggi, Tarentang and Ather- 
ton are all coming to the front both in the quan- 
tity and quality of their shipments. 


Biock. 


Inthismode of preparation Lanadron Estate 
still leads, and the shipments have greatly im- 
proved during the year, the colour being much 
paler than it was in 1907. Weare glad to notice 
some nice samples from other estates quite as 
good in quality, but only in very small lots as 
yet. Very high prices have been paid, and 
there are now iarge and regular buyers of fine 
clean palish. 


Woks, 


Very fine pale still commands a very high price 
but we regret to see that as the quantities 
increase the quality as far as colour is concerned 
is not as good; only a small proportion turns 
out almost white as wanted. Gikiyanakande 
estate still sends the bulk of this grade, but 
several other éstates, including Talduwa, have 
shipped some very fine though small lots, 


SCRAP 


—has sold extremely well throughout the 
year, both in ordinary crinkly scrap form 
and in brown Crépe. In Crépe form scrap cer- 
tainly realises a better price; we would strongly 
recommend planters to prepare it in this way, 
taking care not to roll too thin which makes 
it weak and brittle. Scrap Crépe should be 
hard, strong and eristly, 


CASTILLOA, 


Only small shipments from: plantations ave 
coming as yet, but the sheets from Amban- 
ganga estate in Ceylon show what can be done, 
and the rubber from this tree properly pre- 
pared is nearly oqual in quality to ordinary 
’ara sheets and biscuits. Nothing of any 
note has come from Java and Sumatra so far, 
and we have only received small lots from the 
West Indies. The improvement in preparation 
of small lots from Tobago is most gratifying, 


RAMBONG 


(Ficus Elastica)—is nowa most popular grade 
and has realised splendid prices throughout 
the year. It is most liked in Crépe form. 
Some very fine lots recently realised up to 4s 
84d per Ib. There is a good and increasing 
demand and any quantity will be welcome, 


204 


The closing quotations are :— 

Per lb. 
5s 4d to 5s 43d 
5s 3d to 5s 7d 
4s 6d to 5s 0d 


For Sheets and Biscuits 
Crépe, good and fine pale 
s, Mottled and dark 


Scrap 3s 9d to 4s 4d 

Worms 5s 4d to 5s 7d 

Block 5s 10d 

Rambong, Crepe 4s 4d 

- Scrap 4s 0d 

Fine Para (Amason) 5s 13d 
London Stock of Plantation Rubber :— 
1908. 1907. 1906. 

31st December 186 tons. 145 tons. 78 tons. 


For the fortnightly fluctuations in prices both 
for Wild Para and Plantation for the last four 
years, see our special Chart. 

Lewis & Prat, Brokers. 


ON THE MARKET. 


An advertisement appears elsewhere, announ- 
ces another source from which this seed is obtain- 
able and this advertiser informs us that his isa 
highly cultivated Caravonica cotton seed and that 
heintends to keep on improving both texture and 
yield as much as possible and to supply reliable 
seed only. His present crop he has not yet 
finished picking, but a parcel of 25 cwt. seed 
cotton he ginned for seed gave a return of 49°5%, 
and an equally good return is anticipated from 
the remainder of the crop. 


COTTON PLANTATIONS IN EGYPT. 


The benefits of the Assouan Reservoirs are 
plainly shown in the comparative list which we 
publish below of the cotton area cultivated 
before and after the Reservoir :— 


Urrer Keoyrr. 
Years Fed. Kantars 
1902-3 95,356 471,150 
1907-8 313,956 1,278,000 
LowWER Eeypr. 
1902-3 1,180,324 5,367,640 
1907-8 1,289,268 58,222,000 


—LEgyptian Post, Jan, 14. 


PRODUCTION AND EXPORT OF 
JAVA TEA 


is undoubtedly on the increase and Java 
must be reckoned with for the future as an 
important factor in the world’s supply. The 
figures we publish elsewhere, show an increase 
during 1908 of 74 million lb, over the crop 
of 1907—a 25 per cent. increase! The 
monthly crop returns have shown a steady 
increase, which indicates that the advance will 
be permanent. Nor has the production of Java 
yet reached its full capacity; A number of 
estates will only return larger yields with 
increasing age. Java's tea shipments to 
England from ist January to 3lst December, 
1908 are 12,629,513 lb. against 9,167,312 lb, for 
the corresponding period of 1907. To. other 
countries they have been 36,579,536 lb. against 
29,288,402 |b. Holland takes 44 million half- 
kilos more than in 1906, England about 1 
million and Russia nearly half-a-million more 
than in 1907. We commend the figures which 
appear elsewhere to tho attention of ‘‘the 
trade” and growers in Ceylon, 


The Supplement to the Tropical Agriculturist. 


JAVA TEA EXPORTS IN 1908. 


[‘‘ BurEAU Tra-ExPeERt.”’] 
Circular No. 98 Bandoeng, 20th Jan., 1909. 
Java Tea Exports to end of Dec.—in Half-Kilos, 


Year Holland England Russia Australia 
1908 18, 237,684 11,481,376 1,172,860 306,636 
1907 14,245,883 8,333,920 739,602 658,322 
1906 13,899,976 9,942,764 563,110 162,232 
1905 +e 138,199,354 8,246,498 1,109,060 211,854 
1904 ase — — _ =_ 

1903 oe - —_ - —e 

1902 eee —_ _ _ _— 

1901 aa - _ —= = 

Singaporea Other Total Half 

Year ports Kilos English lb. 
1908 1,873,788 182,148 33,254,124 H K 36;579,588 
1907 1,795,296 850,966 26,624,002 H K 29,286,406 
1906 204,064 186,972 24,959,108 H K 27,455,012 
1905 294,676 346,492 23,408,324 H K 25,749,156 
1904 ae = = 22,519,144 H K 24,771,058 
1903 ale = = 20,347,598 H K 22,382,357 
1902 CoO _ _ 15,315,886 H K 16,880,474 
1901 — al 15,214,234 HK 16,735,657 


a Singapore figures are for transhipment prob- 
ably to Russia (via China ports), 


Nore.—With very large December shipments 
amounting to 3,407,00) H.K., which are the 
largest monthly figures on record, the total in- 
crease in the Java crop for 1908 has finally 
proved to be 6,630,000 H.K. or 7} million English 
pounds more than in 1907. 


This is an extraordinary advance to be made 
in one year (a 25 per cent increase), especially 
when it is considered that last year exports were 
only 26,624,000 half kilos—which relatively small 
figures should not allow for the large differences - 
that are possible in the Calcutta exports of some 
220,000,000 English pounds or the 180,000,000 
pounds from Colombo, 


Crops have shown steady increase during each 
month of the year, which is a sure sign that the 
increase will bea permanent one and that the 
increased exports are not due to better con- 
ditions either climatic or local, but to the natu- 
ral increase from new areas of tea and froma 
large number of estates which are still coming to 
their full producing figures with increased age. 


There seems to be an idea that the Java figures 
are never made up with perfect accuracy, but 
the above figures must be taken as being as 
nearly correct and official as is possible under 
the present conditions of shipment and custom 
house returns. 


Tea Shipments in 1907 and 1908 from India, 
Ceylon, North China and Java, 
To England. 


British India 1st April to 15th December 1908 142,483,992 
yF= 1907 136,574,880 

Ceylon lst May to 21st December 1908 69,900,000 
= 1907 69,779,598 

Shanghai 1st May to 11th December 1908 7,410,461 
a 1907 9,948,552 

Java 1st January to 31st December 1908 12,629,513 
=u- 1907 9,167,312 

Total 


To Other English 

Countries. pounds, 
British India 1st April to 15th Dec. 1908 44,417,497 186,901,489 
—),- 1907 44,516,865 181,091,745 
1st May to 21st Dec. 1908 37,086,046 1(6,986,046 
—— 1907 36,596,627 106,376,225 
1st May to 11th Dec. 1908 44,525,504 51,933,965 
a= 1907 40,751,889 50,700,441 

lst Jan. to 3ist Dec. 19 8 23,950,023 36,579,536 
= 1907 20,119,090 ~2u, 486,402 


_ H, Lampe, 


Ceylon 
Shanghai 


Jaya 


and Magazine of the Ceylon Agricultural Society. 


RUBBER-TANNED LEATHER. 


Paragraphs have appeared recently in the 
press, from which it will have been gathered 
that the satisfactory tanning of leather by means 
of rubber, which has for many years been re- 
garded as a practical impossibility, has at length 
been successfully achieved, and will shortly be 
undertaken on a commercial basis, It is possible 
the new invention may have, at a later date, 
some effect upon the raw rubber market ; that 
being so, planters will naturally wish to know 
what tanned rubber leather really is, what are 
its uses and its claims, We are now in the 
position of being able to afford full details to 
our readers. The invention, we understand, 
consists of a process for permeating hides 
and skins with pure rubber—the result being 
the substance known as Rubber-Tanned Leather 
and alleged to possess qualities vastly superior 
to those of the ordinary bark-tanned leather. 
Increased life, resiliency, durability, toughness, 
pliability, softness and water-resisting qualities 
are claimed to be imparted in the rubber-tanning 
process, giving a commercial value to the new 
product far beyond that of any leather at pre- 
sent known to the market. In the preparation 
of ordinary bark-tanned leather, the cells of the 
hide or skin are filled with chemicals, oils and 
other substances that add considerably to its 
weight; while, as is well-known, the harmful 
effects produced far out-weigh any advantages 
claimed for the process, a rigidity being given 
to the leather which only remains so long as 
itis kept dry and inno sense does it become 
waterproof. In rubber-tanued leather it is ex- 
plained, the effect produced is almost entirely 
the reverse, the principle involved being to 
effectually cleanse the pores of the skin and to 
extract therefrom all toreign and superfluous 
fatty matter so that the cells may become avail- 
able for the absorption of the rubber, The result 
is the production of a material which is practi- 
cally waterproof, and which, while claimed to be 
incomparably more durable than the ordinary 
commercial leather, is at the same time sott 
and pliable, qualities which remain some of its 
distinguishing features even after immersion for 
lengthened periods in water, and render it avail- 
able for the manufacture of many articles for 
which ordinary leather is wholly unsuitable or 
unsatisfactory. We have seen the reports of 
many eminent authorities on the utility of the 
new process, so that the statement of the manu- 
facturers may be accepted when they declare : — 


“Leather so treated has been abundantly 
tested and proved and is suitable for the manu- 
facture of many articles cf domestic and com- 
mercial use, including boots of all classes, and 
particularly Army boots; mining, sluicing and 
seamen’s boots, where water resistance and soft- 
ness are essential ; the leather cover for spindles 
in cotton manufacture; pump valves; washers ; 
seat rings; covers for footballs, punching balls, 
tennis balls and others ; harness including Army 
harness ; saddlery ; belting and lacing for machi- 
nery : portmanteaux ; solid leather trunks; gig 
aprons ; leggings ; bags ; soles for use in shoeing 
horses to protect the frog and for minimising the 
jar on hard roads and streets; fire hose ; bicycle, 
motor and Automobile tyres, in seamless and 


205 


jointless bands, practically unpuncturable, motor 
strips on the tyres carrying the studs ; &e., &c., 
and in fact for every article to which leather is 
applied. In all the articles mentioned, tough- 
ness and durability, softness and water-resisting 
qualities are essential, andareattained by rubber 
tanning. The leather can be dyed to any 
of the colours that are most used. Weight, so 
detrimental to the essentials of the products, is 
avoided, whilst a much greater superficial area, 
weight for weight—a most important consider 
ation for buyers in bulk—is obtained, rubber- 
tauned leather in most cases giving almost 
double area, pound for pound, as compared with 
ordinary bark-tanned leather, whilst its dura- 
bility is enormously increased.” 

A considerable quantity of raw rubber will, 
we suppose, be required for the tanning process, 
Any extra demand for rubber which this may 
create will, however, we fear, be more than 
counteracted by the fact that if the new sub- 
stance fulfils all the claims made for it, articles 
manufactured from it will supplant many at pre- 
sent made almost entirely from rubber. The 
owners of the new process claim great saving in 
cost by the use of rubber-tanned leather, Rubber 
tanning, they say, though a little more costly 
than chroming, is less so than bark-tanning 
while the rubber-tanned product is greatly 
superior to both. An important factor in the 
case of rubber-tanned leather, as compared with 
bark-tanned leather, is the very short period of 
time required to produce the former, the result 
being that there is no locking up for lengthy 
periods, as in the case of bark-tanned leather, of 
large amounts of capital represented by stocks 
in process; while bark-tanning requires anything 
from 5 to 12 months, the rubber-tanning process 
occupies at the outside from 5 to 7 weeks only. 
A large saving in interest on capital is thus 
effected, while a much superior article, it is 
claimed, is at the same time produced, 


GANGARUWA RUBBER EXPERIMENT. 


With regard to the rubber experiments at 
Gangaruwa, all the Hevea and Castilloa trees 
have been planted fifteen by fifteen. The former 
were measured when 34 years old and the 
girth averaged about 10 inches. The total 
number of Hevea trees in the station is 1,305 
which in a short time will be bringing in a 
substantial revenue. There is a plot of 130 
Castilloa trees on level ground, six years old 
and the average girth here is 18} inches. The 
gradual deterioration in the Castilloa trees 
planted on the slopes as they go up was re- 
marked upon, and this is illustrated by the 
table, given below, supplied to our contem- 
porary by Mr Lock, No. 1 row being the 
bottom one, and No. 7 the topmost row. The 
effect is seen in the number of trees as well 
as inthe girth. They are all six years old: 
and above them 1s pure jungle :— , 


Row. No. of trees. — Average girth, 
1 52 iad 235 
2 50 ty 22% 
3 51 sid 22° 
+ 47 Gos 21 
5 46 aie 17 
6 re 44 re 17k 
7 ous 34 ose 16 


206 
A NEW INDUSTRY FOR INDIA. 


In our iesue of Nov. 5th (p. 117) we stated 
that it might interest those concerned to know 
that a London firm was prepared to pay as much 
as 12s per lb for dried sheep gut, by which is 
meant the long intestine of the sheep, cleaned, 
split, and dried on frames, The labour in con- 
nection with this industry, we said, was believed 
to be insignificant ; and we added that, as the 
product required was probably often wasted in 
this country, the matter seemed to be worthy of 
attention, particularly so as the price offered 
seemed to be quite liberal. This paragraph 
attracted considerable attention in India and 
Burma, as well as in some Native States. The 
‘fact seems to be that hitherto, in many parts of 
India, sheep gut has been wasted simply because 
no market was known to exist for it, and appar- 
ently no particular efforts were made to dis- 
cover one. As an instance of this, it may be 
here recorded, on the authority of Mr. R Burn, 
IL.C.S., District Officer of Gonda, who has written 
to us on the subject, that at the time the para- 
graph appeared in the ‘‘ Indian Trade Journal” 
sheep gut was selling in his district at from 
2 pice ($d) to 1 anna 3 pies (17d) per seer of 2°06 
Ib. There is reason to believe a similar state 
of affairs exietsin very many other districts in 
India, and more particularly perhaps in Burma. 


The numerous letters we have received on 
this subject show, we think, that there 
are in India both readiness and ability to 
engage in this particular industry ; bat 
it is evident that the persons interested in 
the matter have no adequate knowledge as to 
how the gut should be handled and _ prepared 
in order to suit the requirements of European 
markets. This difficulty we shall now endea- 
vour to remove ; and, what is perhaps more im- 
portant, expand the scope of the industry by 
the inclusion of cattle gut, cattle tail hair, and 
lamb gut. Cattle gut iscomposed (a) of a long 
curly gut measuring about 30 yards; (db) a 
straight gut measuring 10 to 12 yards ; (c) abung 
measuring from 1 to 14 yards, and (d) a throat 
of weasand of about 1 yard. As regards (a), this 
should be cleaned and scraped soon after the 
animal is slaughtered. Itis then biown, or filled 
with air, either by a _ pipe-stem blower, 
or a steam blower, the ends of the gut, 
of course, being tied to keep the air in. 
Next it is placed over rope lines to dry in 
the open. The drying process is completed 
quickly inIndia. The gut is then deflated by 
pricking the tied ends witha pin, and is placed 
in a suitablechamber or box where a vessel con- 
taining afair quantity of powdered sulphur is 
kept burning for at least 12 hours. This treat- 
ment renders the gut immune against moths, 
etc. Itis then made up into hanks of 20 yards, 
in one or two pieces; or in balls of 200 yards, and 
is then packed in pressed bales containing 
10,000 yards which is equivalent to 500 hanks 
or 50 balls. The canvas cover should be lined 
with strong tar-coated packing paper. We can 
furnish the address of a London firm which is 
prepared to take 50 pressed bales per month 
and pay as much as £12 per bale according to 
colour, width, length, strength, etc. The narrow- 


The Supplement to the Tropical griculturist 


er this gut is, the more value it has. As to (), 
this should be scraped and cleaned as in the 
case of (a), but should not be blown or dried. 
On the contrary, it should be thoroughly salted, 
made up into hanks of 16 yards and packed in 
tierces of about 200 hanks with a sufticient 
amount of salt or pickle to act as a preservative, 
The market value is from 1s, to 1s. 1d. per hank 
according to colour, width, strength, flaying, 
length, etc., but in this case the wider the gut the 
more value it has. The bungs (c) are scraped and 
salted, as in the previous case, and made into 
bundles of 10 pieces and shipped in tierces con— 
taining an unlimited number. The value varies 
from 12s, to 15s. per hundred pieces. The wea- 
sand (d) is thoroughly cleaned, blown and dried 
as in the case of (a), and is then packed in bales 
of 50 bundles, each containing 25 pieces. The 
value varies from about 8s. to 10s. per 100 pieces. 


Now as to sheep gut. By this is meant the 
loug cucly gut measuring about 30 yards. If 
fairly wide, say about #-inch or above, it should 
be scraped, cleaned and salted and then made 
into bundles of 100 yards, composed of lon 
strands well sprinkled with salt and pickle an 
placed in air-tight tierces of about 100 bundles. 
The value of this article varies from 1s. 9d. to 
28, 6d. per bundle. 


The wider the gut, the higher the price. [f, 
however, the gut is only narrow, it should be 
treated as lamb gut, which, after being cleaned 
and slit openthroughout its entire eri is 
placed on wooden frames and dried in the open 
air. Itis then packed in hanks of about 2 lb. . 
and putin tin-lined cases of 100 bundles with a 
thorough sprinkling of naphthaline balls to pre- 
serveit against vermin, In this case the value 
varies from 7s. to 12s. per lb. according to colour, 
length and strength. In the matter of sheep and 
lamb gut the London firm we have referred to 
is prepared to purchase all the goods of this 
class that may be offered ; but dealers on the 
look out for top prices should bear in mind 
that special care must be taken when cleaning 
the gut not to cut holes in the skin, or to affect 
its strength by over-scraping. 


By cattle tail hair is meant the hair clipped 
off the end of the tail, washed, thoroughly dried 
and packed, preferably in a hydraulic press, into 
bales about 3cwt. The market value of this is 
about Is. per lb. according to length, colour 
and condition. A light colour is preferred. 
With these particulars before them, we trust 
that those interested in this special trade will 
be able to supply the London market with 
exactly the class of goods that is required. 
—Indian Trade Journal, Jan, 14 


A SIMPLE MOSQUITO TRAP. 


ees 


Mr. Lefroy of the Indian Entomological De- 
partment has devised a simple and cheap mos- 
quito trap, which is said to have been found 
highly effective. A small box, 12 by 9 inches, 
fitted with a hinged lid, is provided with a 
small opening over which moves a sliding cover. 
The box is lined with dark ereeu baize and 
has a tin floor, The trap is placed in a shady 


and Magazine of the Ceylon Agricultural Society. 


corner of the room, and the mosquitoes on en- 
tering the house in the morning seclude them- 
selves inthe box to escape the sunlight. When 
duly settled the lid is shut and about a tea- 
spoonful of benzine injected into the box. We 
learn that in the course of a month, no less 
than 2,300 mosquitoes succumbed to the benzine. 
We expect to see the trap go with a boom.— 
Indian Planters’ Gazette, Jan. 9. 


SOAP AND COCONUT OIL. 


In a letter to the London Z'imes of Jan. 5th, 
John Knight (Limited) of Royal Primrose Soap 
Works, gives the following information :— 


The price of cottonseed oil in January last 
year was £22 7s 61 per ton at Hull; it has 
fluctuated shghtly throughout the year, and on 
December 8lst the price was £23 per ton—the 
average pricefor the year being £22 10s 3d per 
ton, as against an average price of £26 per ton 
for 1907. Palm kernel oil, which at the begin- 
ning of 1908 was worth about £26 10s per ton, 
fluctuated considerably during the year until 
December 3lst, when it rose to about £27 10s 
per ton. Coconut oil, which at the beginning 
of 1908 was worth about £28 10s per ton, has 
likewise fluctuated during the year, until on 
Dec. 31st, it was worth about £30 10s per ton. 


Coconut oil, with a poor Ceylon crop of nuts, 
may go high still. 


COIR YARN, FIBRE &c. 


In their annual report quoted in the London 
Tumes, 15th January, Messrs. Bastone and 
Firminger say:—Palmyra Fibre has taken 
an irregular course during 1908, and closing 
prices mark a reduction of £4 per ton com- 
pared with end of 1907. At the drop the mar. 
ket is quietly steady. Stock in London public 
warehouses shows some increase, viz., 483 tons, 
as compared with 324 tons a yearago. Bristle 
Fibre.—Retrogression in consumption has con- 
tinued. There has been over-supply and dulness 
has continued throughout Current values, £14 
to £21 per ton, as in quality. Kitool Fibre,— 
Business difficult at a drop averaging 1d per lb. 
Coir Yarn (Cochin and Ceylon),—Our forecast.of 
last year has been fully borne out. Medium and 
common qualities, in consequence of the de- 
pression in the manufactured articles, were diffi- 
cult of sale and prices marked a general decline 
of about 25 per cent. With regard to the better 
quality yarns recovered in the late autumn, clos- 
ing practically without change on the year. Coir 
Fibro (Cochin).—Supplies have been about ade- 
quate to demand, and prices have been fairly 
steady closing practically without change on the 
year. Ceylon Mattress Fibre.—Continued heavy, 
supplies being pressed for sales caused continu- 
ous decline in values, which on the year registers 
30 to 40 percent, and the year closes with still 
heavy stocks in shippers’ hands. Coir Rope.— 
Shipments have been considerably short of the 
normal supplies, and stocks having become ex- 
hausted prices advanced 15 per cent to 20 per cent, 


207 
GOVERNMENT STOCK GARDENS. 


A New FErti.isEr. 

The Dhaincha or sesbania aculeala, a new 
fertilising plant, was planted at the Government 
Stock Gardens a few weeks ago and has 
sprouted up splendidly, The roots of these 
plants become full of well-developed nodules 
which when squeezed throw ovt a fluid which is © 
really protoplasmic and consist of innumer- 
able bacteria, As a green manure for rice fields 
this plant is said to be the best, and its intro- 
duction locally should be attended with splendid 
results, The mango grafts in the Gardens are 
also doing splendidly. The rubber, now going 
on to four years, is doing fairly well, the growth 
being slow, due to the sandy soil. 

Mr W Malegoda, the successful candidate 
in the recent examination, is attached to the 
Gardens to be trained. 


CEYLON CITRCNELLA AND LEMON 
GRASS OIL. 


INTERESTING REFERENCES IN Messrs ScHIMMEL 
& Co,’s Semi-Annuat Report. 

We have received the semi-annual report 
of Messrs, Schimmel & Co, of Miltitz, (near 
Leipzig), London and New York covering the 
period from May to October 1908. It is an 
elaborate volume and as usual contains much 
of interest to merchants and planters en- 


gaged in the preparation and export of 
Citronella, Lemongrass and other essential 
oils. In the introduction reference is made to 


‘‘the general depression which since the date of 
our last report has made itself felt more and 
more on all the World’s markets and has not 
passed over our branch without leaving its im- 
print behind. Hand in hand with the rapid fall 
in the bank rates which occurred on every side, 
and which proved sufficiently clearly a relaxation 
of the spirit of enterprise in commerce, came 
a gradual decline in the values of most 
materials; and although the turnover during 
the period covered by the present report shows 
quantitatively only an immaterial falling-off as 
compared with that of the previous year, it is 
very probable that the financial results, in view 
of the depressed prices which had almost 
everywhere to be reckoned with, may here and 
there to a notinconsiderable extent, fall short 
of those obtained in 1907.” A speedy revival 
in trade is, however, predicted, and among the 
most promising signs is reckoned the gradual 
‘‘healthy re-awakening of commerce and _in- 
dustry in the United States.” 


In the section of the report, ‘‘Commercial 
notes and scientific information on essential 
oils,” a good deal ofspace is devoted to Ceylon 
Citronella Oil; but before referring to these 
paragraphs we may quote the following re- 
ference to the general state of the market :— 
“Business in this important article can 
only be characterised as extremely quiet and 
lifeless ; the sales were small, and (as far 
as old stocks are concerned) were throughout 
at aloss, Under these circumstances it is not 
surprising that, as already predicted in our 


208 


April report, the prices show no fluctuations 
worth mentioning. The present quotations are 
just about the same as six months ago, viz., 11 d. 
cif,, and there do not appear to be at this mo- 
ment any grounds from which a serious harden- 
ing ot the prices for forward delivery could 
be deduced.” Referring to the exports from 
Ceylon, a table is given showing a con- 
siderable increase, on the 1907 figures and on 
this the report states: ‘‘ Although there is 
no question of an increased export as com- 
pared with the previous year, which might de- 
press the quotations, we have yet to reckon with 
the comparatively small amount of interest dis- 
played in this article by the wholesale soap in- 
dustry, especially in the United Kingdom, which 
will also during the next few months scarcely 
lead to any better position of the citronella 
market.” Then follows a curious reference to 
adulteration of Ceylon Citronella Oil by arrack 
as follows :—‘‘ We may mention here, for curio- 
sity’s sake, that the London Custom house re- 
cently seized and rejected a rather large parcel, 
because the oil was adulterated with alcohol. 
The examination showed about 8°/. alcohol ! 
We may add in explanation that Ceylon 
produces yearly large quantities of very cheap 
arrack, and that it was here probably a question 
of this adulterant. In view of the easiness with 
which even smal! admixtures of alcohol can be 
detected in essential oils, the export firms in 
Galle will probably have no difficulty in pre- 
venting the native traders who are respon- 
sible for this, from continuing this practice.” 
It may not be generally known, that in 
Germany citronella oil has recently been ad- 
mitted asa denaturing agent, and the decree of 
the Prussian Treasury to this effect is quoted 
verbatim. The step we note has taken on the 
recommendation of the Association of Soap 
Manufacturers of Berlin. Until further notice 
the decree permits the denaturing of fatty oils 
with Ceylon citronella oil in the quantity 200 
grams to 100 kilos of the goods to be denatured. 
Reference is also made to the discussion at the 
February meeting of the Agricultural Society of 
Ceylon on ‘‘Schimmel’s Test.” We quote fer 
the benefit of those interested the folllowing :— 


According to Kelway Bamber this test is in- 
sufficient for judging the oils, and should be 
amended. Bamber also hopes to be able to 
find a satisfactory solution of the question, C 
P Hayley and others, however, lay stress on 
the fact that the Chamber of Commerce at 
Galle has unanimously declared that the test 
satisfies all practical requirements, and that 
in view of the energy displayed by the buyers, 
coarse adulteration is at present only rarely 
met with, Moreover, the consumers are sgatis- 
fied with the oil now exported. If absolutely 
pure oils were wanted, it would only be neces- 
sary to offer higher prices, corresponding to the 
higher cost of production. 


These last remarks can hardly be considered 
satisfactory. In our opinion it would be more 
correct if everyone endeavoured to place only 
pure oils on the market, and for this reason 
one must welcome Bamber’s efforts and give 
them every possible support. 1tis to be hoped 
that they will also have the desired effect. Our 


The Supplement to the Tropical Agriculturist 


own experience is that the quality of the Ceylon 
citronella oils has not yet improved as much 
as might be desired, 


According to The Chemist and Druggist A 
W Winter is reported to have stated in Ceylon 
that neither pure Mahapengiri oil, nor a mix- 


‘ture of the latter with Lenabatu oil will pass 


Schimmel’s test ; but thisis clearly due to a 
misunderstanding, as the Mahapengiri oil (Java 
citronella oil) originating from Java, which is 
the only one to be considered for commercial 
purposes, readily and completely dissolves in 
80 per cent. alcohol, and it would be very 
strange indeed if the same species of grass 
yielded in Ceylon a so ditHcultly soluble oil, 
that it could not even pass Schimmel’s test 
In the meantime the above statement has been 
corrected by Samaraweera of Weligama, but 
notwithstanding this we have taken steps to ob- 
tain from Winter an authentic Mahapengiri 
oil distilled by himself, in order to enable us 
to clear up this question. 


With regard to Lemongrass Oil Messrs Schim- 
mel & Co. state that since their last report in 
April no change worth mentioning has come 
in the market quotations; the price fell to about 
12d to 2d per ounce. The quantities shipped 
from Cochin China from Ist Juiy, 1907, to 30th 
June, L908, were about 6,082 cases against 6,239 
cases in the same period 1906-7 and 2,259 cases 
in the same period 1905-6. The future prospects 
are not, however, gloomy. The report states :— 


It is not impossible that with an im- 
provement in trade generally, the price of 
lemongrass oil will move upwards, for the con- 
sumption of this oil is on the increase, and has 
on the whole been able to keep pace with the 
supplies, in spite of the depression of the last 
six months. For this reason the visible stocks 
have remained comparatively small. The large 
imports from the West Indies which about a 
year ago were accumulating in London, and 
which helped to bring about the sudden drop 
from about 9d in 1905-6 to 2d in 1908, are said to 
be now for the greater part cleared, and will 
probably not be repeated so quickly, as the pro- 
ducers, at the present depressed quotations, can 
no longer make both ends meet in this trade. 


THE TROPICAL AGRICULTURIST AND 
MAGAZINE OF THE C.A.S. 


We would invite attention to the advertise- 
ments in this issue and tothe notice of the 
appointment of Messrs. Maclaren & Sons, Ltd., 
37 & 38 Shoe Lane, London, as sole Agents 
in Great Britain for the Tropical Agricultu- 
rist. All orders and enquiries from subscrib- 
ers and advertisers should be addressed to 
them. 

Bound copies of Volume XXXI, of the 
“oT, A.” (July to Dec. 1908), with full index, 
can now be purchased at Rs, 1U or 18s. 6d. 
sterling, 


7 


TROPICAL AGRICULTURIST 


AND 


MAGAZINE OF THE 


CEYLON AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY. 


Von. XXXII, 


COLOMBO, MARCH 15ru, 1909, 


No. 3. 


Reviews. 


CLEAN WEEDING. 


1. The Annual Report of the Director 
of Agriculture Ff. M.S. for 1907. 

2. The Cultivation of Passiflora Foe- 
tida and Micania Scandens. (Circulars 
and Agricultural Journal of the HK. B. G., 
Peradeniya, Vol. IV., No. 16. 


We take it that agriculture may be 
defined, for practical purposes, as the 
art of making a profit by the cultivation 
of land, and that it is the proper object 
of the agriculturist to obtain the largest 
possible permanent profit off a given 
area of ground. In other words, agri- 
culture is the art of making land as valu- 
able as possible in respect of the crops 
which it iscapable of growing. Itis not 
the planter’s function to concern himself 
with the beauty of the landscape either 
by respecting the natural vegetation or 
by neglecting to tap natural sources of 
water power ; for example: as in other 
forms of business, soin agriculture, the 
question to be decided in the case of any 
given proposal is, will it pay ? 


Just as much asin any other agricul- 
tural operation, the question of weeding, 
or of weeding in a particular way, must 
be decided from this point of view. The 
question before us then is, does clean 
weeding pay? And we think the answer 
is obvious that this depends upon the 
circumstances of the particular case. 
We are told on all hands that clean weed- 


ing is cheap weeding, and many people 
seem to think that the whole philosophy 
of weeding is summed up in this phrase. 
But we are not prepared to agree that 
even this idea might not be better ex- 
pressed. Weare not surethat another 
expression is not preferable—if you go in 
for clean weeding at all, do it thoroughly . 
If it is decided inany particular case 
that clean weeding is the best policy, 
then the more thoroughly it is carried 
out the cheaper it will be in the long run. 


Let us trace the origin of the idea of 
clean weeding. It is clearly derived 
from the methods of temperate agri- 
culture, and is particularly applicable 
to the case of annual crops. Where any 
kind of an annual cropis grown it un- 
questionably pays to keep theland clean, 
If weeds are allowed to seed or spread in 
any quantity, trouble rapidly multiplies 
itself. We might almost say that agri- 
culture in the strictest sense, that is to 
say field cultivation, consists in the first 
instance in the extermination of weeds. 
We think it may be taken as generally 
agreed that, in the case of short-lived 
crops, weeding cannot be carried out too 
thoroughly. 

When one comes to consider the 
question of crops which are to occupy 
the ground permanently, or for a con- 
siderable number of years, the question 
of what will pay best is not so immedi 
ately obvious. We require to proceed 
somewhat cautiously when we find that 
men of considerable experience hold 


210 


apparently diametrically opposite views 
with regard to the question of clean 
weeding as applied to the ease of per- 
manent tropical crops. 


Let us go back for a moment to home 
experience. We find that fruit trees at 
home are grown in one of two ways. 
Orchards are either laid down in grass, 
or they are combined with the cultiva- 
tion of vegetables. Where fruit trees 
are grown by themselves and without a 
catch-crop of any kind, weeding is only 
resorted to in cases where large tracts 
of level land can be dealt with by means 
of machinery, as is done in parts of the 
U.S. A. Weeding by hand is certainly 
never dreamt of. 


Returning to the consideration of 
tropical products. It is clear that the 
same rule applies as at home to crops 
which only occupy the ground for a few 
months. Grains and vegetables, cotton, 
tobacco and other annual crops require 
cultivation and the thorough extermin- 
ation of weeds. But when we pass on to 
the consideration of more permanent 
crops like tea and cacao, we find that a 
number of separate points have to be 
taken into consideration. In the case of 
every such crop the question of the 
growth of leguminous plants age a source 
of nitrogen and organic matter and the 
question of forking or other methods of 
cultivation have to be considered in 
their relation to the process of weeding 
proper. But more than this, weeding 
on tea estates is a problem intimately 
bound up with the question of the 
management of labour. and that is a 
problem upon which we do not propose 
to intrude upon the present occasion. 


The controversy over weeding relates 
chiefly to rubber, and itis to the ques- 
tion of clean weeding rubber that we 
propose to devote our attention just 
now. Here, again, the question of weed- 
ing cannot be considered without at the 
same time taking account of the kindred 
processes of tillage and the growth of 
leguminous crops. 


The question of catch crops, too, de- 
mands attention. And there can be no 
doubt that the growth of a suitable 
catch crop under conditions of thorough 
weeding and cultivation is a process 
which will pay ifasuitable crop can be 
found, and if it can be disposed of at a 
profit when grown. Unfortunately 
these conditions are not always realis- 
able in Ceylon. 


Apart from the question of catch crops, 
does it pay to clean-weed a plantation 
consisting simply of rubber? In the 
face of the assurance of such authorities 
as Mr. Carruthers and Mr. Kelway Bam- 


(MARCH, 1909. 


ber that in most cases it’does not, it may 
appear superfluous to discuss the matter 
any further. But, on the other hand, 
many experienced planters tell us that 
we must clean-weed, and besides we are 
anxious to thresh the matter out for 
ourselves. 


We feel bound to giveitas our own 
impression that, where rubber is planted 
on level ground and stumps can be got 
rid of within practicable limits of cost, it 
will pay tocultivate and weed a rubber 
estate with modern machinery. But it 
is no doubt the case that on a majority 
of estates, owing to the nature of the 
ground, the size of stumps and general 
monetary considerations, such a method 
will be found impracticable. 


Itis the contention of Messrs, Bamber 
and Carruthers that rubber can be 
grown with hardly any diminution in 
size, and at a much smaller cost as com- 
pared with clean weeding, by a pro- 
cess which consists essentially in the 
growth and encouragement of selected 
weeds. The method consists in weeding 
only a narrow strip down each row of 
trees, and encouraging between the rows 
the growth of some creeping plant 
which will smother and eventually kill 
all other forms of vegetation. 


A point upon which Mr. Bamber lays 
special stress is the use of the green 
creepers themselves as a mulch to be 
applied round the bases of the rubber 
trees, Here, again, we see the impossi- 
bility of regarding the weeding question 
asa thing by itself, the advantages and 
disadvantages of removing weeds must 
be considered in connection with other 
Operations not strictly comprised under 
the head of weeding. 


In the ‘report and circular before us 
various advantages are claimed, and we 
think with justice, for this method of 
dealing with weeds. The creepers speci- 
ally recommended for this purpose in 
Ceylon are the wild passion flower— 
Passiflora fotida and Mikania  scan- 
dens. The latter might recently have 
been observed in the act of demonstrat- 
ing its powers of smothering other 
vegetation to a marked degree by anyone 
travelling up or down the railway _ be- 
tween Kandy and Polgahawela; and the 
former is also abundant, though less 
rampant, in the neighbourhood of Pera- 
deniya, Extracts from Mr. Carruthers’ 
repcrt will be found on a later page 
of the present issue of the 7.A., and 
Mr. Bamber’s circular has recently been 
published by the Royal Botanic Gar- 
dens Department. Wemay leave them 
to tell their own story, confidently re- 
commending both these essays to all 
who are interested in the planting of 
Hevea rubber. R. H. L, 


Marcu, 1909,] 


211 


GUMS, RESINS, SAPS AND EXUDATIONS., 


IS CLEAN WEEDING ADVISABLE? 


(Extract from the Report of the Director 
of Agriculture, F.M.S., for the year 1907). 


The remarks in my last report as to 
the value of a green manure plant, of 
which I gave examples, in the place of 
the general habit of regularly scraping 
off weeds and allowing the sun and rain 
free access to the soil, had little or no 
effect at that time, but the desire to cut 
down expenses has caused the sugges- 
tion to be reconsidered. 


Weeding on most of the rubber estates 
inthe Federated Malay States is the 
item costing most annually. This sum 
isspent on labour, and represents in 
many cases 70 per cent. or more of the 
total labour of the estate. 


The object of the rubber planter is to 
obtain as quickly as he can vigorous 
trees of as large agirthas possible, at 
the smallest cost, and in order to effect 
this he keeps his fields as clear of weeds 
as possible and so allows the rubber tree 
to have all the moisture and _ plant-food 
available in the soil. 


That clean weeding will show a better 
result in the growth of the rubber trees 
than allowing all and any weeds to grow 
continuously, can no doubt be proved. 
In Perak, however, some of the estates, 
from want of money or shortness of 
labour, have not been able to keep their 
plantations clear of weeds and have 
abandoned weeding. In some cases the 
weeds are checked by being regularly 
cut, but in others nothing at all has been 
done to eradicate or discourage the 
weeds. 


The growth of trees on such places is 
somewhat poorer than trees in similar 
conditions which have been kept free 
from weeds, but the vigour and girth of 
trees where the weeds have been allowed 
to grow is not so markedly different as 
the disciples of clean weeding would 
expect to see. 


. The belief in clean weeding is a tradi- 
tion handed down from English farming 
to tea and coffee planting in the Hast ; 
good farming is associated with absence 
of weeds. In Europe, the farmer of 
cereals and other crops does not practise 
the method of using certain plants as a 
substitute for weeds. There are various 
reasons why clean weeding in such crops 
is a good policyin Europe, but annual 
crops have to be treated differently 
from permanent cultivations, and the 


conditions of labour, cultivation, plant 
growth and especially climate are 
entirely different in the tropics from 
those in temperate climates and conse- 
quently methods have to be modified. 


The objections to clean weeding in 
rubber cultivation in the Kederated 
Malay States and removal of all protec- 
tion from the surface of the soil, are 
that it allows a large amount of percola- 
tion, of heat radiation and of evapor- 
ation of moisture, also that heavy rainfall 
on all but flat surfaces always results in 
the constant removal of very large quan- 
tities of top soil, which are either carried 
away in streams or transferred to the 
drains, Itis not easy to estimate the 
loss that takes place in tropical climates 
where soils are allowed to remain ex- 
posed and frequently scraped. An im- 
mense amount of plant-food is continu- 
ally also lost through percolation and 
drainage; the greater part of this is 
absorbed by the roots of any plants 
growing on the surface, and when the 
leaves and stems of these plants are cut 
this is to a great extent returned to 
the soil. 


With the soil protected from the rays 
of the sun the conditions of moisture 
and temperature are most favourable to 
the development of bacteria which are 
responsible fur the liberation of plant 
food. Infclean-weeded land the top two 
inches or more of soil are, because of 
admission of heat and light, made impos- 
sible for feeding roots and the prepar- 
ation of food forthem. When the ground 
is covered this surface layer is kept 
moist and useful for the feeding roots. 
A considerable area is thus added to the 
area of soil available for rubber roots 
and the growth of the trees is improved, 


In addition to arguments for clean 
weeding there is a local one, the danger 
of the ground being taken possession of 
by ‘‘lalang” (imperata arundinacea), a 
pestilent weed, which once allowed to 
invade a plantation can only be eradi- 
cated at enormous expense. This plant 
is ubiquitous, is always one of the first 
to cover newly-opened land, and by far 
the most difficult weed to eradicate, 


The experience gained in the use of 
tapioca as a catch crop in rubber, which 
obtains on some thousands of acres of 
rubber showing excellent growth, is 
another argument in favour of keeping 
the soil covered up. Few, if any, crops 
take more from the soil than tapioca, 
but this loss of valuable plant-food in 
the soil is to a great extent compensated 


Gums, Resins, 


for by the advantage of keeping. the 
soil from the sun and rain. The girths 
of young rubber trees grown with 
tapioca is in many cases as large as those 
of trees in similar land, clean weeded, 
and without any other crops. 


The position thus is: Clean weeding is 
a costly process, which ensures quick 
growth ot young rubber trees and pre- 
vents the land being taken possession of 
by undesirable weeds. On undulating 
land it causes loss of top soil, and on all 
land it means loss of moisture in the 
surface layers of the soil. 


Rubber plants usually grow better in 
clean than in weed-covered land, because 
the plant-food and water present in the 
soil is all available for the rubber and is 
not used by the roots of various other 
plants which are useless to the planter. 


The high cost of weeding and the fact 
that, with a not too abundant supply of 
labour, the majority of coolies are 
employed at this work, both point to 
the desirability of some other method 
not less helpful to the growth of young 
rubber, if such can be found. 


Though figures of cost of weeding vary 
very greatly, on some estates the cost 
two years after the land has been 
opened is not under $2 per acre per 
month, or $24 per year, This represents 
on an estate of 1,000 acresa cost of 
$24,000 per year, and a probable cost for 
weeding of nearly $100,000 before the 
rubber is in bearing. 

In labour it represents a continual 
force of about 250 coolies working for 
3800 days in the year. 

I have for the last three years been 
investigating the question of asubsti- 
tute for weeds which will reduce the 
wage bill without reducing the rapidity 
with which the rubber trees grow, and 
mentioned in my annual report for last 
year three plants which observation and 
experiment show to be suitable and 
therefore worth a serious trial on every 
estate. 


These three plants belong to the order 
Leguminos, the clover, pea and crota- 
loria tribe,a group of plants many of 
which are characterised by the posses- 
sion of bacteria on their roots. These 
bacteria, the life history of which has 
been investigated fully by a large 
number of botanists and agriculturists, 
live in what is technically called sym- 
biotic relationship—7.e., both host plant 
and bacterium being of mutual service 
to each other. In a report of this 
character itis unnecessary to more fully 
explain this point, but it will suffice to 
say that the bacteria which form charac- 
teristic nodules on the roots of the host 


“ie 


212 [Marcu, 1909. 


plant, take nitrogen from the air, and 
this nitrogen is afterwards available 
in the soil as plant-food. The amount 
of nitrogen thus added to the soil 
varies with the species of the bacteria 
and their numbers, but in the case of 
one of the plants hereafter mentioned 
experiments have shown it to be as 
much as 200lbs. per acre per year. 


Leguminous plants which possess these 
bacteria may therefore be considered 
as friends and not as foes, as_ useful 
plants and not as weeds in a rubber 
plantation. 


In order to get the maximum of benefit 
from these plants it is necessary to cut 
them down periodically and leave them 
lying on the ground. Thelength of time 
they should be allowed to grow depends 
on the vigour of the plant, in most cases 
about nine months. 


This cutting down need not be an ex- 
pensive operation, as it is not intended 
to eradicate the plant, but only to allow 
the green parts to form amulch on the 
surface of the land and thus return 
something to the soil. 


The operations of weeding must, as the 
planter knows to his cost, be carried on 
periodically and not be delayed, or the 
weeds will get out of hand, and the cost 
of eradication be very greatly increased 
or made well nigh impossible, but the 
cutting or hacking down the leguminous 
green manure plants may be postponed 
without danger until such time as labour 
is available for the purpose. 


The three plants which seem to me 
most suitable in Malaya for the purpose 
above mentioned are: Crotalaria striata, 
Mimosa pudica and Desmodium trifto- 
rum. 

Crotalaria striata is a quick-growing 
vetch-like plant with trifoliate darkish 
green leaves. In good soil with sufficient 
rainfall it grows to a height of 6 feet in 
about a year. When sown sufficiently 
thick it completely covers the ground 
within a few weeks, so that the clearing 
is like a good lucerne or vetch crop in 
Europe, and the surface of the ground is 
not seen at all. 


It has been proved by experiments 
with this plant in Ceylon that 14,000 Ibs. 
of organic matter were formed by crota- 
laria under cacao, and the nitrogen in 
this organic matter was equal to that in 
1,7000 lbs. of castor cake or 700 lbs. of 
nitrate of soda. Other plants—weeds 
—cannot get enough light under the 
dense cover of the crotalaria, and new 
weeds are kept out as their seeds cannot 
reach the ground which is so _ well 
covered. If the crotalaria is sown in 
good growing weather, and if the land is 
clear of all weeds, no further weeding 


: 
’ 
“ 
: 


Marcu, 1909. j 


should be necessary, but in the case of 


land which is thoroughly permeated 
with the underground stems of lalang 
or with the roots of other weeds it 
may be found that during the first two 
or three months weeding is necessary. 
The crotalaria seed is sown broadcast. 
As to the quantity to be used per acre it 
is better to sow more than is necessary 
than to leave bare patches where weeds 
ean thrive. Mr. Lauder Watson, who is 
the first Federated Malay States planter 
to use this plant in rubber planting, 
informs me that on Lauderdale, where 
photograph of crotalaria was taken, 
he used about 7lbs. I have seen good 
results from using only 4 lbs. per acre, 


Mimosa pudica, the ‘‘ sensitive plant,’ 
which was another of the plants sug- 
gested in the last annual report, is in 
many ways the best of all plants to put 
down as a substitute for weeding. In 
many cases it has taken less trouble to 
establish this plant than ecrotalaria, and 
it thrives extremely well in the Malayan 
Peninsula on varying soils. ‘I'he peculiar 
habit of shutting up its leaves when 
touched is in its favour. When rain 
falls at all heavily the leaves shut and 
the water reaches the soil at once, but 
when the sun shines again the leaves 
open up and protect the soil from its 
rays. 


My experience of this plant is_ that 
while it grows well on sloping and dry 
land it seems to enjoy more moist 
conditions and can be seen in great 
vigour in ravines and flat places where 
the moisture is more abundant. 


Desmodium triflorum, asmall creeping 
shamrock-like clover, has the advantage 
that it grows only a few inches high and 
covers the ground with a turf easy 
and pleasant to walk on. It is, however, 
more difficult to establish, and as it seeds 
very sparingly, it is not easy to obtain 
any quantity of seed for planting. On 
one estate some two hundred acres has 
been successfully laid down with this 
plant by taking it from neighbouring 
waste land and planting it as soon as 
the land was cleared. 


The question of the best method of 
establishing one or other of the substi- 
tutes for weeds or clean weeding is being 
experimented on both at the Experi- 
ment Plantations of this department 
and by various planters who are alive 
to the great advantages to be gained 
if they can cover their ground with a 
friendly plant. By far the best time 
to establish one of these plants at a 
minimum costis directly the land has 
been burnt off. In virgin land after 
burning no seeds of herbaceous plants 
are alive in the soil, and any seeds sown 


215 


Saps and Exudations. 


or plants planted have no competitors 
and quickly take possession of the soil. 
Having once got the plant established 
all the danger of lalang or other weeds 
gaining an entrance, and the immediate 
necessity of putting rubber in is over, 
since the fields do not get any worse, 
but rather better for the reception of 
the rubber plants; and the cost of cut- 
ting away the crotalaria, mimosa or 
other plants to putin lines and holes is 
very little. Drains are not necessary or 
even useful, and thus another expense 
is saved. The only weeding necessary is 
in case jungle trees or shrubs sprout, and 
these can easily be noticed among the 
prevalent growth of a single plant and 
removed. No_ soil is lost from the 
beginning of the opening of the land, 
aud the gain in this to the roots of the 
ruober plant is not to be neglected. 


The chief arguments, and they are - 
many and constant, against the adop- 
tion or even the trial of the abandon- 
ment of weeding in tavour of a green 
mabure are: That it has never been 
done in rubber or in other’ tropical 
products, an argument which is always 
used to disccurage any new departure. 
That the plants suggested will take 
possession of the land to the exclusion 
of other plants—weeds. This can be 
met by an appeal to experimental piots, 
and as far as I have observed where 
care is taken and money spent, even 
in two or three-year-old clearings, these 
plants can be establishedina short time. 


It must be remembered that even if 
30 per cent. of the surface of the land 
is covered by harmful weeds, and the 
rest by one selected plant, it is probable 
that the rubber will grow more vigor- 
ously than in clean weeded fields, and 
with no cost for weeding. 


That the thorns on the Mimosa will be 
a nuisance’ to coolies getting about the 
estate. This argument is used without 
considering that by putting in green 
manure, the number of coolies whose 
work will take them. into the field is 
very small and their legs can be pro- 
tected. The only reason why coolies 
are needed ina field properly covered 
by the green manure is to search 
for white ants and to put in any 
supplies; the latter work will very 
probably be lessened by the fact that the 
shaded ground gives very much better 
conditions for the growth of the young 
rubber plants than its exposure to sun 
and rain. 


That the appearance of an _ estate 
would be against it in the eyes of a 
valuer, The answer to this is that when 
the valuer or retired planter, to whose 


Gums Resins, 


mind such methods are worse than 
sacrilege, sees that the growth of the 
trees is as good as before,and remembers 
the money that has been saved, he will 
no longer consider bare soil the acme of 
zood planting. 

The chief argument thatI have per- 
sonally met with among planters is 
“Yes, if you could convince my ‘V.A.’ 
or my Directors, but unless they are 
convinced I am _ powerless,” but this 
difficulty can be removed by the planter 
clearly showing by measurement of trees 
and tigures of decrease of cost-on a small 
plot that the method is correct. Itis 
difficult to remove fixed and long stand- 
ing views as to tropical cultivation from 
the minds of men who have experience, 
but the stern tacts of dollars and cents 
saved without diminution of vigour in 
the rubber trees when shown will 
convert. 


Before leaving this question I may be 
allowed to quote from Dr. E. B. Vorkee’s 
recent work on agriculture published 
during last year. 

This is written in regard to American 
agriculture, where the conditions are 
not so unfavourable for clean weeding 
as in tropical countries with a heavy 
rainfall. 

“¢ To keep the land constantly occupied 
with growing plants is particularly im- 
portant, both in the hot summer and in 
fall and spring. The covering of the 
land in summer prevents the temper- 
ature rising so high as to destroy the 
organisms iu the soil, while the covering 
in fall and spring prevents the mechani- 
cal losses that occur from wind and rain 
and by the carrying away of food in the 
soil water.” 

Dr. Alfred Russel Wallace, whose 
name will always be associated with 
Malayan regions, writes to me in regard 
to the protective forest belts which 
have been, and are being, laid out 
through the Federated Malay States: 
“They prevent the loss of soil which can 
never be replaced.” The italics are Dr. 
Wallace’s. Thisis also true of the soil 
lost by clean weeding. 


On some estates there are growing 
among the weeds leguminous plants 
which possess nitrogenous nodules on 
their roots, and it may be possible in 
these cases for coolies to be shown how 
to leave these plants in weeding, so that 
ina short time they may get entire 
possession of the field and weeding may 
be discontinued. Leguminous plants can 
often be recognised by those unacquaint- 
ed with botany, their leaves being 
divided, and in appearance like those 
of the vetch, pea, mimosa, cassia or 
crotalaria, 


214 


[MarcH, 1909. 


As the chief cost of an estate until its 
profit-earning period is that of weeding, 
any suggestion as to the reduction ot 
that prime expense should meet with 
consideration. 


If every estate would set apart a 
portion of their newly-opened clearings 
for an experiment with a green manure, 
keeping a record of the cost of putting 
the land into Crotalaria, Mimosa, 
Desmodium and whatever other useful 
plant is selected, and recording the 
money spent on adjoining land cultivated 
on the existing clean-weeding method, 
and carefully measuring the trees on 
each place to see the relative progress, 
I have little doubt that the benefit of 
keeping the soil covered, instead of 
constantly scraping off the weeds, will 
be seen. 


That the planter should adopt sugges- 
tions made by scientific experts without 
weighing them carefully is not to be 
expected, but what is wanted is that 
each practical man should satisfy himself 
by careful trial that this proposal in 
regard to cultivation of rubber estates 
is feasible. 


Even if this experiment results ira 
loss of money and the destruction of a 
few acres of rubber he cannot be blamed 
in making it, considering the large 
economy thatis to be effected if it is 
proved to be successful. 


WEED KILLING BY SPRAYING. 


The experiments in regard to the 
eradication of lalang and other weeds 
by means of spraying with a solution 
of arsenite of soda were carried on 
both by the department and by several 
planters with encouraging success. 
The difficulties in regard to the pro- 
hibitive cost which was charged locally 
has been to some extent overcome, and 
supplies of this substance were obtained 
from Calcutta at one-fifth of that charged 
in the Federated Malay States. 


This cost is, however, too great ; it can 
be obtainedin England at a cost, in- 
cluding freight to Port Swettenham, at 
about 12 cents perlb. Asthe chief cost 
in this method of destroying weeds is 
the cost of the material used in the 
spray, it is mostimportant to obtain the 
arsenite of soda as cheaply as possible. 
The difficulty in regard to sprayers has 
also been toa great extent overcome, 
and though itis not yet possible to get 
suitable sprayers locally, yet some 
English and American machines at 
varying prices from $1 for hand sprayers 
to $250 for steam power have been in- 
vestigated and shown to be suitable to 
the purpose. 


~Marcu, 1909.] 


While the use of arsenite of soda was 
first investigated, as mentioned in my 
last report for the eradication of the 
most pestilent weed, lalang (/mperata 
arundinacea), this method of getting rid 
of weeds is still more efficacious in the 
ease of other weeds submitting a larger 
and flatter surface to the spray. The 
leaves are all killed within 48 hours, and 
should be left to rot onthe ground and 
not pulled out or scraped away; by 
this means the soil is protected from 
rain and sun, andif the plant becomes 
green it can be again sprayed. The cost 
of this method of destroying weeds 
necessarily varies with the character of 
the fields to be sprayed, but in most 
eases with hand atomiser sprayers the 
cost should not be 50 cents per acre 
where very weedy, and on ordinary 
fields probably not more than 10-15 cents. 


A series of experiments near the labora- 
tories of the department are in progress 
to estimate the cost of eradicating lalang 
by the following processes :— 

1. Spraying with arsenite of soda; 

2. Digging and picking out all roots 

3 ne re-chungkoling ; 

4. The introduction of Passiflora 
foetida, ‘‘ wild passion flower,” a 
vigorous creeping plant which 


smothers lalang and can itself be 
easily removed. 


These are being carried out in various 
ways on some ten l-acre lots and the 
exact cost in each case recorded. The 
lalang, which has been in possession of 
the fields for some years, is tall and 
vigorous, typical of thousands of acres 
which are to be found throughout the 
Peninsula. 


HINTS ON PLANTING CASTILLOA. 


By F. G. Scott. 


On ordinary Cacao soils Casli/loa elas- 
tica should be planted about 20 ft. apart, 
and on very rich soils about 30 ft. 
When possible, holes should be prepared 
in March, about 8 feet deep aud 2 feet 
wide, and filled with equal quantities of 
earth and stable manure which would 
help the young plants to become quickly 
established. They should be putin about 
three months after preparation of the 
holes so as to allow the earth to settle, 
which would be in June, the beginning 
of the rainy season when the field has 
received one or two showers, for if plant- 
ed later it might become too saturated 
and would tend to rot the young root- 
lets, consequently killing the plants, 
which is often the case when forming 


215 Saps and Hxudations. 


estates. If the plants are in bamboo 
pots it should be always removed as it 
allows the plant to spread its roots much 
quicker. The best way to remove the 
pot is to take hold of it in the left 
hand anda cutlass in the right; allow 
it to be at right angles to your body, the 
plant facing you, and give three fairly 
quick sharp blows with the cutlass so 
as to strike it in a different place each 
time; then remove the three broken 
pieces together with the small gravel at 
the bottom of the ball, taking care that 
the earth does not break up. 


Castilloa elastica grows best under 
partial shade, and would thrive well 
along the boundaries of a cacao estate, 
provided they are planted at proper dis- 
tances and not intended as wind-breaks. 


Where trees are exposed to wind 


‘Funtumia elastica could be planted 


with advantage, not only as a wind- 
break but as a rubber-producing plant.— 
Trinidad Botanical Department No. 60, 
October, 1908. 


CAMPHOR AND ITS BY-PRODUCTS. 


DISTRIBUTION OF CAMPHOR TREES. 

The growth of this important tree is 
limited in Japan to the south of 36° north 
latitude. On the south coast of the Main 
Island, Shikoku, and Kyushu, the trees 
are met with only in the compounds of 
shrines or temples, or in gardeus, where 
they have been preserved from felling. 
As the distillation of camphor became 
common, the felling of the trees in- 
creased, and forests of this valuable trees 
were greatly reduced in area, but a few 
old specimens were fortunately pre- 
served. 


The propagation of this tree is in no 
way neglected, so that the production of 
camphor will increase in the course of 
years. Formosa has at present an exten- 
sive supply of these trees, as there, in 
districts not yet explored, huge trees are 
still found in their primordial luxuri- 
ance, 


CAMPHOR-TREE PLANTING. 


In raising camphor trees, seedlings 
are obtained by sowing the seeds 
directly in a wood. Small holes are 
dug in an already well-grown forest 
of evergreen oaks or red pines, and 
four or five seeds are put in each 
hole. The shelter of the trees favours 
the growth of the seedlings, 


In fifty years trees so planted will 
attain a diameter of one foot when 
they are large enough for the produc- 
tion of camphor. In many places 
attempts have been made to grow 


Gums, Resins, 216 


the tree by transplantation, but with- 
out suecess, In other places, in order 
to obtuin leaves to produce camphor, 
the so-called ‘‘ coppice-planting” is 
practised, and it will be of advantage 
to this industry. 


CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF CAMPHOR. 
Every part of a camphor tree contains 
camphor, which is obtained by dis- 
tillation. Camphor is a white semi- 
transparent amorphous substance with 
a specific gravity of 0°987, and with 
a peculiar smell. Whenit is tasted it 
gives a sharp flavour, turning into a 
cool one. When plunged into water 
it forms circles, and when lighted it 
burns, floating on water. It is almost 
insolub.e in water, but readily dis- 
solves in alcohol, ether, acetone, 
chlorotorm, acid, and volatile oil. 


Camphor is found as crystals in the 
tissue of the woud, and by double distil- 
lation is separated from the crude oil, 
the product of the first distillation. It 
is an oxidized product of camphor- 
genotol, which forms the principal of the 
camphor oils of commerce. 


CRUDE CAMPHOR.—This substance is 
obtained as crystals by the distillation 
of camphor chips or camphor leaves in 
the presence of water vapour. It is 
separated as such after sufficient distil- 
lation, and subsequent liberation of 
water and oil. It is adark-coloured sub- 
stance, and fuses at 170° C. 

CrupE CAMPHOR O1L.—This substance 
is obtained as a liquid in the separation 
of camphor, with which it comes out 
simultaneously. Camphor and other by- 
products are afterwards separated fiom 
this substance. 


WHITE O1L.—This is a white oil with 
a specific gravity of 088 at 15°C., 
obtained by sublimating crude camphor 
oil. It distills below 188° C., and is used 
in soap-making, &c. 


ReEpD O1n.—This substance, like white 
oil, is obtained from crude camphor oil. 
It has a specific gravity of 1°020 at 15° 
C., and fuses at 170° C. 


Biack O1L.—This substance also is 
obtained from crude camphor oil. It is 
a black liquid, having a specific gravity 
of 1:007 at 15° C.; it is extensively used in 
varnishing substances. 


TURPENTINE.—Like varnish, this sub- 
stance is obtained from white oil and is 
extensively used for medical and indus- 
trial purposes. 


SuFFROL.—This is a colourless trans- 
parent substance obtained from red oil. 
It has a specific gravity of 1:108 at 15° C. 


(Marcu, 1909, 


It fuses at 225°C. It is extensively used 
in making perfumery and soap. ‘ 


DISINFECTOR.—This substance was dis- 
covered by Dr. Shimoyama Junichiro 
in 1901. It is obtained by the partial 
distillation of red oil with which a few 
other ingredients have been mixed. It 
is a brownish, heavy liquid, having a 
specific gravity of 1:082 at 15° C., with 
very strong antiseptic properties. A 
solution of one part in 100 of water easily 
kills the cholera bacillus and the plague 
pact The price in Kobe is 0°35 yen 
per Ib.* 


Insgector.—This substance was also 
discovered by Dr. Shimoyama Junichiro, 
and is obtained by a process similar to 
that used in obtaining ‘‘disinfector.” It 
has a specific gravity of 0°987 at 15°C.; 
mixed with water it presents a milky 
white appearance, and is strongly anti- 
septic. A solution in 100 parts of water 
is efficient in killing insects injurious 
to various farm crops. The price in 
Kobe is 0:24 yen per lb. 

REFINED GRANULAR CAMPHOR.—This 
is a product of sublimation of crude 
camphor. It fuses at 174°C. The price 
in Tokyo is 0°85 yen per lb, 

REFINED CAMPHOR.—This substance 
is the refined product of ordinary crude 
granular camphor by sublimation and 
subsequent compression. It fuses at 
175° C., and costs 1:00 yen per lb. in 
Tokyo. 

REFINED CAMPHOR TABLETS.—(‘“ Fuji- 
sawa Camphor”).—This form is obtained 
by the distillation of crude camphor 
under suitable pressure. The price in 
Tokyo is 1°70 yen per lb. 

By the provisions of the Law of the. 
thirty-sixth year of Meiji (1908) the sale 
of camphor produced in Japan is mono- 
polized by the Government, by means 
of restricting the sale of crude cam- 
phor and camphor oil. 


The annual production of camphor in 
Japan is 6,000,0001lb., and is exported in 
great quantities; 1,500,000 lb. is pro- 
duced in the Main Island, Kyushu, and 
Shikoku, and the remaining 4,500,000 
lb. in Formosa.—Tropical Life, Vol. IV., 
No. 12, December, 1908. 


LAC IN THE EASTERN DUN, U. P. 


By G. N. GRAHAM YOUNG. 

The life history of the insect is now 
well known, but there are some facts I 
would place on record gleaned from in- 
vestigations made personally in the 
Eastern Dua, 


* One Yen = 2s. 04d. 


MARCH, 1909. | 


In this locality there are two broods, 
and the lac is collected during the first 
half of July and from the last week of 
October to the end of the first of 
November. The young swarm generally 
by the end of the second week of July 
and of the first week in November, but 
the time of swarming varies consider- 
ably in different seasons. A good deal 
depends onthe weather, fora normal 
season the broods swarm during the 
periods mentioned above, but should 
the season bea dry one, and the rain 
hold off, theswarming will be delayed. 


About six weeks to two months after 
swarming the males appear, but they 
are few in number in proportion to the 
females, so that in order to fertilise 
every cel], each ¢ must be able to im- 
pregnate 1009. Males without wings 
are to be seen in both broods, but they 
are scarce in proportion to the winged 
forms. Itis erroneous to contend that 
one brood is winged while the other is 
not. 


The cells are attended by several 
species of ants, some of large size, and 
these swarm over the branches in 
myriads, but appear to do absolutely no 
damage to the insects. On thecontrary 
they afford the cells a considerable 
amount of protection by attacking and 
driving off any insects that happen to 
alight on the branches. Asa proof of 
my statement I would ask the reader to 
grasp atwig containing lac and note 
the behaviour of the ants. I think he 
would not care to repeat the experiment. 
It would serve no good purpose to 
attract the ants from the trees by 
placing something more toothsome at 
the roots, and the cost would probably 
take away all the profit. The presence 
of antsis an indication that the lac is 
healthy, and vice versa. 


The pests most to be feared are moths, 
and ot these I have noticed species 
Gal:ria and Enblema. The larvee of 
these are to be found in both broods and 
practically all the year round, There 
appear to be several generations of 
these moths in the year, for I have 
found larve in several stages of develop- 
ment as well as pupe in a single stick 
of the lac and at different times of the 
year. Inthe first week of April I got a 
group of twelve white eggs, which were 
laid on the side of my rearing jar by a 
Enblema sp. moth which issued in the 
third week of March. A new species of 
Ichneumon fly has been reared from 
infested lacand has been sent to England 
to be named. This fly, it is hoped, is 
parasitic on the Enblema sp. The 
damage done by these moths is very 

8 


217 


Saps and Exudations. 


considerable, and 1 have known them to 
entirely destroy the cells on a tree. 
These moth pests are certainly on the 
increase, and given favourable con- 
ditions they may entirely destroy the 
lac in aforest. The next greatest enemy 
to lae is frost, In the Dun lac is pro- 
duced entirely on B. frondosa which is 
badly affected by frost, and almost all 
the tender twigs are killed by it 
during the winter, so that only one 
good crop can be expected annually. 
Fire does a great deal of damage, 
if the area is not carefully  pro- 
tected. Wind may do serious damage 
at the time of swarming, and violent 
wind is always harmful] ; a gentle breeze 
though greatly helpsin the spreading 
of the young from tree totree. Inthe 
ease of drought, the insects may be 
killed at the time of swarming. Monkeys 
do not, as is supposed, eat the lac, but 
if they are watched it will be noticed 
that the damage done is only out of 
curiosity and wanton mischief, 


At Pathri in the Saharanpur district 
there isa large forest area which is 
composed almost entirely of B. frondosa, 
which would yielda large quantity of 
‘lac were ittaken in hand. Some experi- 
ments have lately been carried out 
by private individuals, but owing to 
the adverse conditions made by the 
Forest Department they have been 
compelled to abandon the experiments. 
One of the conditions laid down was 
that grazing be allowed, and this re- 
sulted in the forest being burnt and 
entailed a heavy loss on the experi- 
menter. 


Brood lac should be cut from the trees 
about a week before the swarming 
begins. In order to fix on the correct 
time itis only necessary to break open 
afew cells and examine them with an 
ordinary magnifying glass, when if the 
young can beclearly seen and if the 
colouring matter has become of the 
consistency of treacle, they are within a 
week of swarming. 


When infesting trees, say, of an 
average height of 25 feet and well 
branched, itis sufficient to apply 4 lbs. 
of brood to each tree. The brood should 
be tied lightly in bundles, each bundle 
to contain three sticks, about a foot 
long. These bundles should be tied on 
the upper surfaces of the branches, and 
about three-fourths the way up and 
near the tender twigs. Itis not of any 
advantage to use straw with the bundles, 
but care should be taken that the sticks 
of brood lac lie along the upper surfaces 
of the branches to which they are tied. 
The bundies of brood should be fixed by 
a tie at either end and not in the middle, 


Gums, Resins, 


The lac froma Ficus sp. have been 
_known to take splendidly on B. frondosa ; 
and the B.frondosa lac young have 
been carried by the wind to the garden 
lichi tree and thrived so well as to 
necessitate the infested branches being 
cut in order to save the fruit. 


Onan average it costs Rs. 20 to produce 


218 


2 
¥ 
z 
3 


R ». Bi ok ‘ 
[MARcH, 1909. — 


a maund of lac, and the price obtained 
varies from yearto year. Last year 
Mr, Ollenbach got Rs. 80 per maund, 
and this was offered only Rs. 25. The 
Indian markets offer very miserable 
rates, but a good price can generally 
be obtained from foreign countries.— 
phe) Infe, Vol. 1V., No. 12, December, 


ae 
he 


Marcu, 1909.] 


219 


OILS AND FATS. 


THE CASTOR-OIL PLANT. 


(Ricinus communis, L.) 


By HAROLD CUZNER, 


Bureau of Agriculture. 


The castor-oil plant (tangan-tangan, 
Tagalog), the seeds of which furnish the 
castor-oil of commerce, is probably a 
native of Africa, although it is found 
growing wild in many tropical countries. 
It has been so long in cultivation that 
nothing is accurately known as to its 
original habits. Long before the Chris- 
tian era it was cultivated in India, and 
its medicinal properties were known. 
Its seeds have been found in ancient 
Egyptian tombs, and its cultivation is 
described in the writings of the Romans. 
In Europe it was cultivated by Albertus 
Magnus, Bishop of Ratisbon, in the 
middle of the thirteenth century, and it 
was known as a garden plant in the 
time of 'Turner (1568), who mentions the 
oil as ‘‘oleum cicimum vei ricinum.” 


At the close of the same century 
Gerardi was familiar with this plant 
under the name of ‘‘ricinus” or ‘“ kili,” 
the oil of which, he states, was used in 
the treatment of diseases of the skin. 
After this the plant seems to have fallen 
into complete neglect, in 1761 the seeds 
being rarely found in druggists’ shops 
and the oil scarcely known. In 1764 it 
was again brought to notice by Peter 
Cavinano, a physician who had practised 
for some time in the West Indies, in an 
article entitled, ‘*Dissetration on the 
Oleum Palmz _ Christi, sive Oleum 
Ricini,” in which he recommended it as 
a purgative. 


The seeds were admitted to the Lon- 
don Pharmacopeeia in 1788, and direc- 
tions given for preparing the oil. At 
this period and tor many years there- 
after the small supply of oil required in 
Europe was obtained from Jamaica, but 
it has gradually been displaced of late 
years by the product of the East Indies 
and India, where, it is stated, 830,000 
acres were devoted to the growing of 
the bean in 1890. 


The plant is also cultivated in Africa, 
Italy, Central and South America, and 
China, and in the United States in 
Kansas, Oklahoma, Wisconsin, Oregan, 
and California. In these Islands it is 
not cultivated, but has grown wild in 
all parts of the Archipelago, and in 
some sections of Negros and Midanao is 
Tear ae to be taking possession of the 
and, 


There are two forms of the plant, 2.e., 
the large and small-seeded varieties. 
The large-seeded varieties give a rather 
large amount of inferior oil, which is’ 
used for lubricating, ete., while from 
the small-seeded varieties the medicinal 
oil is obtained. 


Kurz states that the plant yields a 
white resin, but as no other writer 
alludes to this it may be said not to 
exist in any quantity worth considering. 


Aside from its use as an oil plant, its 
principal value is as a food for the “eri” 
silkworm in Assam, though itis stated 
that paper pulp may be made from the 
stems and bark. 


The seeds yield, on the average, from 
46 to 53 per cent. of oil, though there 
are occasional records of 60 per cent. 
It is a thick, viscid oil, with a specific 
gravity of about 0:964, The pharmaceu- 
tical product is almost colourless, 
while the inferior grades are of a 
greenish-yellow hue. The odour and 
taste vary from the nearly odourless and 
tasteless oils of the better grades to the 
nauseating ones of the poorer grades. 


It is used for dressing leather, for 
lubricating, and, in India, to some 
extent for lighting purposes. Soap 
anda mordant for Turkey red dye are 
also made from the oil. 

The oil saponifies easily with caustic 
soda and yield aclear, soluble product 
which is used in the manufacture of 
the cheaper grades of transparent soap. 
However, itis not likely to be looked 
upon with much favour for this pur- 
pose, asit has a tendency to become 
rancid in keeping, and owing to its 
being extremely soluble, as stated above, 
it is very wasteful. 

The mordant for the Turkey red 
dye is made by treating the oil with 
sulphuric acid in the proportion of 
four parts of oil to. one of acid, It 
should be stirred continually until 
thoroughly mixed, to avoid a rise in’ 
temperature; then allowed to stand 
twenty-four hours and washed to get 
rid of any fatty acids. 

The exportation of oil and beans from 
India for the years 1885-1887 is given 
as follows :— 


, Oil. Seed. 
Year. (Gallons) (Cwt). 
1885 3,207,045 476,396 
1886 1,190,885 670,53 
1887 2,676,012 610,893 


Various investigations have been made 
from time to time as to the value of 


Oils and Fats. 


220 


“BEd 


the cake remaining after the oil is observed, but the digestive co-efficient 
paracied, for feed eon {eee but was found to be low, owing, it was 
they have not proved altogether satis- thought, to the large percentage of 
factory. The Jr. Pharm et Chin. fone ieee 


28 
(1891), No. 12, records a case of the poison- 
ing of two cows fed on the cake :— 


On the day after feeding, the temper- 
ature of one cow rose to 39°6° C., a 
bloody diarrhoea set in, and the yield 
of milk fell off from 11 to 5 liters per 
day. The animal recovered in ten days, 
when a second feeding was given, with 


seed coat in the meal. 


While there is no doubt that the 
cake contains good fertilizer material, 
it has been found to be a more ex- 
pensive source of nitrogen than cotton 
seed cake, as is shown in the report 
of the Connecticut Experiment Station 
for 1897:— 


the result that one of the cows lost Ree Nitrogen Cost of 
its four months’ old foetus, and high Fertilizer. (per cent). nitrogen 
fever and slight diarrhoea were induced. (cents). 
Both animals were emaciated and Cotton-seed meal 6°92-8:02 116 
showed starring coats and dull eyes. Castor cake 4°51-4°02  18°5-21°1 


Attempts have been made to extract 
the poisonous principles, and some 
have been successful, as it has been 
fed in amounts varying from 1 to 3 
kilos per day, mixed with chopped 
straw, without any bad effects being 


In actual field experiments with: 
tobacco at the Connecticut Experiment 
Station it has also proved defective 
when the cost and grade of tobacco 
produced are considered, as will be 
seen from the following table :— 


Number of 
Nitrogen pole-cured Holds fire 
per acre Yield (number leaves leaves per (seconds). 
Source of nitrogen. (pounds.) Wrapper. pound. 
Long Short Long | Short 
Per wrap- wrap- wrap- wrap- 
Total. Long Short cent. — per. per: per per 
Cotton-seed meal ... 105 1,615 740 245 #61 66 89 14 15 
Castor pomace ... 105 1,760 803 203 60 59 84 10 15 
Cotton-seed meal... 175 1,673 795 276 64 61 85 12 14 
Castor pomace . Ia 157007) “769 267 61 62 81 10 13 
Cotton-seed meal ... 210 1,839 957 268 = 67 60 85 10 15 
Castor pomace ... 210. 1,863") 996 271 68 60 84 10 12 
During a period of five years, castor clean cultivation until the plants shade 
pomace produced an average of lll the ground, and that the rows be 4, 


pounds more tobacco than cotton-seed 
meal, the increase in value being $13°87. 
Two hundred pounds of nitrogen 
in the form of castor pomace costs 
$840 more than the same amount in 
cotton-seed meal, so that the net 
profit, provided the quality of the 
crop were the same, would have been 
$5°47, but this was not the case. 


Another use that is sometimes made 
of the cake in India is for making gas 
to illuminate the railway stations. 

CULTIVATION. 


The method of cultivation followed 
in Madras, outlined in a circular of 
the Royal Botanic Gardens, Ceylon, is 
probably as good asany. There the land 
is ploughed twice after rain, and the seed 
dropped in the furrow and covered by 
the plough following. A month later, 
when the plants are a foot high, the 
land between the rows, which are a 
yard apart, is ploughed again. The crop 
of beans is often followed by either pea- 
nuts or corn. 


The only improvement to be suggested 
on this method is that the field be given 


instead of 3 feet apart. 


In Hawaii, according to Agricultural 
Press Bulletin No. 2, quite a different 
system is followed on some farms situ- 
ated near the sea level. After prepar- 
ing the land, the seeds are planted at 
distances of 15 feet in rows 20 feet apart, 
which gives 150 plants to the acre. As 
soon as the plants are 2 feet high the 
terminal bud is ripped off so as to force 
the production of lateral shoots, which 
are in turn shortened to compel the 
plant to branch as much as possible and 
keep down the height, so that the spikes 
may be harvested tiom the ground and 
in order to increase the number of bear- 
ing shoots. 


The plants begin to flower when from 
eight to nine months old, and the seed 
matures in about ten months. During 
the growing period the plants should be 
well cultivated. Under this system the 
crop is kept growing and should pay 
commercially for from five to seven 
years, but during that time must receive 
occasional dressings of manure, 


{Marcu, 1909. oF = 


$75 to $80. 


Marcu, 1909.] 231 


The spikes or seed clusters should be 


gathered as soon as ripe, which is indi- 


cated by their beginning todry up, split 
open, and throw out the seed. 


After picking, the spikes may be 
spread on a_ piece of hard, smooth 
ground and turned occasionally so that 
they will dry rapidly. Where there is 
danger of rain while the seeds are dry- 
ing, it is necessary to have a proper 
house with shelves made of slats on 
which the spikes can be placed and 
stirred cccasionally, the openings 
between the slats allowing the beans to 
drop through into a trough below where 
they can be easily collected. 


Profits from the crop are not gener- 
ally large, as 12 bushels to the acre is 
considered an average yield in the 
United States, and they sell there for 
from $0°75 to $1 per bushel. In Hono- 
lulu, however, the crop is stated to be 
from 2,500 to 3,000 pounds per year, 
while the maximum yield for Madras 
varieties is given at from 400 to 450 
pounds per acre. The Honolulu report 
goes on to state, however, that the 
gross returns per acre seldom exceed 
From this it would seem 
that as the plants must be grown on 
good land in order to produce a success- 
ful crop, it is hardly to be reeommended 
toan already flourishing community ; 
though a rank, strong-growing plant, it 
does not necessarily deplete the soil 
badly, as all the plant food taken up by 
the leaves and stalks remains in the 
field, only the spikes and seeds being 
removed, and these spikes or their ashes 
may be returned to the field after the 
beans have been threshed out. 


It has been found that 100 pounds of 
dry spikes yield about 55 pounds of 
beans and 45 pounds of pods. As to 
whether or not it will pay the cultivator 
to return the pods to the field may be 
judged from the amount of fertilizer 
contained in them. Hight hundred 
pounds of dry pods contain about13 
pounds of nitrogen, 46 pounds of potash 
and 14 pounds of phosphoric acid, thus 
more than equaling in fertilizer value 
the same weight of ordinary wood ashes 
worth $10 per ton. One thousand 
pounds of beans, on the other hand, 
remove 80 pounds of nitrogen, 4 pounds 
ef potach, and 14 pounds of phosphoric 
acid. 


ENEMIES OF THE CASTOR PLANT. 


The circular of the Royal Botanic 
Gardens of Ceylon gives two insects as 
being injurious to the plants, one a 
caterpillar, Huproctia guttata, Wlk., 
which, though omniverous, shows a 
partiality for the leaves of the castor 
plant, and the other, the green fly, 


Oils and Fats. 


Empoasca jlavescens, Fabr., which was 
observed to be much more injurious to 
some varieties than others.— Philippine 
Agricultural Review, Vol. 1, No. 9. 


THE COPRA INDUSTRY. 


By T. Winson Main. 

It has been brought to my notice on one 
or two occasions recently that the Sin- 
gapore market price of Copra is nearly 
always less than that quoted for Ceylon 
and the Pacific Islands. In order to 
ascertain the reeson for this I recently 
made caretul enquiry into the state of 
the market and the quality of the Copra 
offered for sale. What surprised me 
most was the very poor quality of the 
Copra imported trom the surrounding 
Islands and the Malay States compared 
with that from Java and other Dutch 
Islands. After examining numerous 
samples taken from consignments from 
many different parts I am not surprised 
that Singapore prices do not compare 
favourably with those of other markets. 
_ There are several causes which account 
for the inferior quality and price of 
local copra. The principal cause ap- 
pears to me to be the absence of some 
system of supervision over the native 
and Chinese growers. I believe that in 
Java and other Dutch Islands the Dutch 
Government examines all Copra_ for 
export and only that which is up to 
standard quality is allowed to be ship- 
ped. Thisina great measure accounts 
for the excellence of Dutch Copra, The 
second cause is that it is common prac- 
tice to pick the coconuts before they 
are quite ripe, thus accounting for the 
large quantities of thin, soft and decay- 
ing Copra on the market. Quantities of 
good ripe Copra are frequently ruined 
by mixing it with this half-matured 
stuff. _The third reason is that the 
Copra is badly dried. That said to be 
sun-dried is only partially dried, and_as 
soon as put in bulk becomes mouldy 
and rots. That said to be kiln-dried is 
practically roasted. A -fourth, and by 
nO means least important, reason is the 
absence of any form of beneficial culti- 
vation on the estates. In the majority 
of instances trees are never by any 
chance manured nor is any form of bene- 
ficial cultivation practised. The result 
of this neglect is an inferior Copra 
poor in oil-producing qualities. I am 
now referring to Malay and Chinese- 
owned estates which comprise prac- 
ticaly the whole industry. It is well 
known that European-owned estates 
produce Copra of the very highest 
quality, but unfortunately “for their 
Owners, the poor quality determines the 
market price, 


Oils and Fats. 


Ceylon Copra obtains a better price 
chiefly because the large majority of 
coconut estates there are owned by 
Europeans and under European man- 
agement, and every care is taken to turn 
out Copra of first quality, 


The Pacific Islands Copra maintains 
its advantage in price principally because 
Messrs. Lever Bros. and other well- 
known soap manufacturers have exten- 
sive interests there. They have repre- 
sentatives on the spot who insist on first- 
class Copra being supplied, and in return 
pay the highest price. 


The difference in price between good 
and bad Copra in Singapore is about 
$1 per picul. The present price for first 
quality isabout $7°50. As the price rises 
it is customary for many native and 
Chinese growers to resort to the inju- 
rious practice of rushing quantities of 
unripe badly dried Copra on the market 
in order to catch the higher rate. This 
is a practice which cannot be _ too 
strongly condemned. 


The principal sources of supply are 
Dutch Borneo, the Natunas and Anam- 
bas Islands, Johore, the Malay Penin- 
sula, and the Dutch Islands generally. 


Singapore produces over 3,00C piculs 
of Copra per month chiefly from Tan- 
jong Katong and Passir Panjang. This, 
with the exception of a small quantity 
from Kuropean estates, is badly dried 
and contains a large percentage of un- 
ripe nut. 


Dutch Copra_ from Billeton and 
Banka is principally kiln-dried and 
arrives clean, well.dried and of good 
quality. 


That from Padang, Sumatra, is in 
small pieces well ripened, dry, dark and 
oily in appearance and contains more 
oil than any other Copra imported to 
Singapore. This is due to careful culti- 
vation and none but well-matured nuts 
being gathered. 


The Celebes give us a good Copra, well 
dried from fully matured nuts, yields 
an excellent oil and shews careful 
preparation. 


Asahan exports fine large Copra, ripe 
and fairly welldried both by sun andkiln. 


Pontianak produces dry Copra cf tair 
quality containing a small percentage 
of unripe nut. 


Saigon (Singkawang) Copra is of good 
quality, dry, and shews careful pre- 
paration. 


222 


(Marcu, 1909. 


Ternate Islands Copra is very good, 
generally dry. Kelantan Copra is good, 
but that from Johore (Batu Pahat) is 
very Wet, unripeaudmouldy. Rhio sends 
good samples of Copra but occasionally 
the quality cannot be depended on. 


Ihave recently seen shipments from 
Malacca and Muar which were very bad 
indeed, in fact it is said that Copra from 
these two places is the worst sent in to 
Singapore. In one store I saw several 
lots heating so badly that it was im- 
possible to bear the hand between 
the sacks. Quite half was unripe and 
little or no attempt had been made/at 
drying. Iam informed on good authority 
that the quantity of bad Copra from 
Malacca is steadily increasing, 


Selangor Copra from native and 
Chinese sources is of fair quality but 
contains a good percentage of unripe 
put, also sand aud other impurities. 


The exports of Copra are to Russia, 
France, Spain and other continental 
ports, and recently to the United 
Kingdom. The exports of coconut oil 
from Singapore in 1907 reached 159,801 
piculs, of which 40,163 piculs were im- 
purted chiefly from Pontianak. 


The imports into and exports from 
Singapore ip each of the five years 1903 
to 1907, and for nine months of 1908 are :— 


Year. Imports. 


Piculs. Value. 
752,371 6,090,581 
648,603 5,234,079 
923,991 7,107,328 
1906 685,885 5,215,598 
1907 927,652 8,571,039 
OF1908 ;S9T175 6,205,535 
The Director of Agriculture has stated 
in his annual report for 1907 that this 
important branch of the Agriculture of 
the Federated Malay States has increas- 
ed in acreage by seven per cent, during 
that year, and that the total area under 
coconuts at the end of the same period 
was 112,500 acres. These facts and the 
above figures demonstrate the import- 
ance of the Copra industry to the 
Peninsula and surrounding Islands, and 
also shew that there is a renewed in- 
terest in not the least important of our 
agricultural staple industries. 


Exports. 
Piculs. Value. 
628,099 5,214,877 
493,364 4,165,957 
776,285 6,086,476 
427,307 3,620,755 
654,869 6,303,115 
781,057 5,529,955 


1905 
1904 
1905 


It is hoped that this renewed interest 
will bring about better cultivation and 
induce growers to take more pains in 
the preparation of their produce for 
market.—Agricultural Bulletin of the 
Straits and F.M.S., Vol., VIII., No, J 
January, 1909. 


Marcu, 1909.] 228 


DYES AND TANS. 


A NOTE ON THE PRESENT POSI- 
TION AND FUTURE PROSPECTS 
OF THE CUTCH TRADE 
IN BURMA. 


By R. S. TROUP, F.C.H., 
Imperial Forest Economist. 


Recent drop in the quantity and value 
of cutch exported._Some apprehension 
has of late been caused by a marked 
decrease in the quantity and value of 
cutch* exported from Burma during 
recent years, for which various reasons 
have been assigned, and asa result of a 
detailed enquiry which I have recently 
had occasion to make in the matter, it 
may be of interest to consider the facts 
elicited, particularly as to bearing on 
the probable future of the cutch trade. 
A glance at the figures in Appendix A. 
will show that the net export value of 
Burma cutch is now considerably less 
than it was ten to fifteen years ago ; it 
reached avery low figure in 1904-05, but 
has recovered slightly since then. The 
coasting trade, on the other hand, does 
not show the same marked tendency to 
decline in net value, though the quan- 
tity now handled ismuch less than it 
was formerly. 


Drop in local prices.—The local up- 
country prices of cutch have also shown 
a serious decline. Thus at Pakokku, one 
of the local centres of the ecutch trade 
in Upper-Burma, cutch sold a few years 
ago at Rs. 50 per 100 viss, + whereas of late 
the price has dropped to Rs. 25 to Rs. 30. 

Temporary fluctuations in the value 
of cutch have been of frequent occur- 
rence in the past, and are bound to 
continue so long as the supplies fluctu- 
ate so much as they have done and 
still continue todo. Thisis inevitable, 
because there is but a limited consump- 
tion of cutch, and any production ex- 
ceeding this amount is followed, as a 
matter of course, by a decline in price. 
The permanent decli.e observed for 
years past is a more serious matter. 


* Cutch is a brownish coloured extract obtained 
by boiling chips of the heartwood of Acacia 
Catechu, Willd. (including two varieties, A. cate- 
chuoides, Benth., and A. Sundra, C.D,). The 
liquorobtained by the boiling is further boiled down 
to the consistency of syrup, poured into moulds, 
and allowed to harden. The valuable constituents 
of cutch are a tannin and a crystalline substance 
known as catechin, andthe value of cutch as a 
tanning and dyeing agent depends on the amount 
of these two substances. 


+ 1 viss=3°65 lbs, avoirdupois. 


Money sunk in cutch plantations and 
reserves.—Any tendency towards a per- 
manent decline in the cutch trade is a 
matter which closely concerns Govern- 
ment interests. Up to 1907 cutch plan- 
tations aggregating 8,656 acres have been 
created and maintained at a total cost, 
to date, of Rs. 1,46,044, in addition to 
which 6,696 acres of mixed teak and 
cuteh plantations have been formed and 
maintained at a total cost, to date, of 
Rs: 1,00,487: charging half of the latter 
sum to cutch, it will be seen that about 
two lakhsof rupees have already been 
spent on cutch plantations. 


Besides this, considerable sums have 
been spent in forming and maintaining 
natural reserves of cutch forests, sothat 
any permanent decline in or total cessa- 
tion of cutch trade will bea matter of 
grave corcern, 


Factors which may account for the de- 
cline in the cutch trade.—Several reasons 
have been suggested to account for the 
decline in the cutch trade. Some of 
these are of little value, but there are 
three factors which are worth examining 
in some detail, and as will be seen 
below, the tiue reasons for the decline 
in the trade are to be foundin acom- 
bination of three factors, which are (1) 
the limited uses and demand for eutch, 
(2) substitutes for cuteh, (3) adulter- 
ation and faulty manufacture. 


(1) Limited uses and demand for 
cutch.—Owing to the introduction of 
cheaper substitutes, the quantity of 
Burma cutch now consumed is consider- 
ably less thanit it was some years ago, 
The world’s annual consumption of 
Burma cutch probably does not now 
exceed 4,500 tons per annum, and when 
this demand is satisfied there is no other 
outlet for cutch. Moreover, the price 
must bea low one to tempt importers 
to purchase in anticipation of future 
requirements, as the -cost_ of keeping 
cutech in store in Great Britian, and 
the loss in weight during about. six 
months, adds some 10 per cent. to im- 
porting prices. As thespeculative value 
of cutch is thus a low one, and as the 
quantity of cutch manufactured fluctu- 
ates a good deal year by year, the mar- 
ket prices of the product must, in view 
of the restricted demand, also fluctuate 
proportionally, and this fact explains 
to a great extent the ups and downs 
of the cutch market at comparatively 
short intervals, though it does not 
entirely explain the drop which has 
taken place for a long series of years; 


Dyes and Tans. 224 


the latter drop is due rather to the in- 
troduction of cheaper substitutes. and 
to the extensive adulteration which 
took place some yearsago. Cutch is 
now used chiefly for curing or pre- 
serving fishing nets, ard sails, the ob- 
ject of cutching nets being to prevent 
them from heating, and if they do 
heat, to prevent the heat from rotting 
the fabric. Dyers have almost entirely 
discarded cutch for aniline substitutes. 

(2) Substitutes for cutch.—The chief 
products which have severely competed 
with Burma cutch are mangrove cutch 
from Borneo and elsewhere, and aniline 
dyes. 


Mangrove cutch.—It is believed to be 
ejyme twenty years since mangrove cutch 
was first introduced to the fishing in- 
dustry in Great Britain, but it was not 
till 1898, as the result of very extensive 
advertising, that it was used to any 
greatextent. It hasalso gained a fvot- 
ing in Holland during the past few years, 
but is not very largely used. Few 
fishermen use mangrove cutch alone; 
some will not use it atall, while others 
use a proportion mixed with Burma 
eutch, Mangrove cutch is obtained at a 
considerably lower price than Burma 
ecutch, and is Jess liable to fluctuations 
in price. Although as a preserving 
material for fishing nets it is inferior to 
Burma cutch, still it finds favour to 
some extent because it dissolves readily 
and gives a red solution without any 
residue. As mangrove cutch does part 
of the work for which Burma cutch is 
used, it affects principally the cheaper 
qualities of the latter, and lessens the 
consumption of the cheaper grades of 
Burma cuteh. For this reason it is 
most advisable to keep the standard of 
Burma cutch at the highest possible 
level. Mangrove cutch is manufactured 
from the bark of mangroves, the chief of 
which are Ceriops Candolleana and 
Rhizophora spp. The trade in this cutch 
in the Straits is an extensive one, the 
amount passing through Singapore 
alone being over 20,000 cwt. annually. 
The imports into Singapore are from 
Borneo, Labuan, Sarawak and other 
localities, not from the Federated Malay 
States, whilst the imports into Penang 
are mostly from Sumatra. A large 
proportion of the mangrove cutch 
imported into Singapore is used locally 
and not exported. 

The Divisional Forest Officer, Rangoon 
Division, reports a local manufacture of 
mangrove extract which is not exported 
but is used locally for curing fishing 
nets and sails; a similar extract is pre- 
pared in Arakan. 

Analysis of mangrove cutch.—A sample 
of mangrove cutch received from the 


a 
. ¥ 
“qrre 


[MaRcH, 1909. 


Straits was subjected tc analysis by 
Mr. Puran Singh, Acting Imperial Forest 
Chemist, who reports on it as follows :— 


“<The sample of mangrove cutch shows 
little resemblance with cutches of Acacia 
and Gambier. Itdoes not answer the 
general tests for cutches. It is entirel 
soluble in cold water, while good date 
is almost entirely insoluble in cold 
water. It has no crystalline principle 
like catechin and appears to be a sort of 
tannic acid which in dilute solutions 
givesavery dirty green colour witha 
dilute solution of ferric chloride, while 
catechu-tannin gives in dilute solutions 
a fine green colour. It has been tried by 
Messrs. R. B. Brown and Hummel for 
dyeing, and they report on it favourable 
asa dyeing agent. I cull the following 
remarks from the reports of the Im- 
pera Institute, London, for the year 
1908 :— 


‘<The Mangrove Cutch behaved during 
the dyeing process very similarly to 
theBull-cutch, the chief difference being 
that in the first operation the cotton is 
stained a very much more reddish-shade 
than that given by any other cutch 
examined. These dyeing experiments 
show that the Bulland the Mangrove 
cutches may be considered as belonging 
to group II, indeed they may be placed at 
the head of this class, since after twice 
dyeing they give much darker colours 
than any of the rest.’ 


“Asa tanning agent itis notso favour« 
able asit produces very inferior leather 
of red colour. However, it is very much 
recommended for producing sole leather 
as the latter tanned by it is com- 
paratively more tight and durable.” 

Aniline dyes, —Dyers have now almost 
ceased using cutch in favour of aniline 
colours, and it is only the continued 
development of the fishing industry 
which has saved the cutch trade from 
extinction. The following extract, from 
the journal of the Society of Chemical 
Industry, affords information on the 
subject :— 


‘*Catechu ; Substitutes for—, and their 
application in Calico Printing. G. 
Grieder. Firber Zeit. 1901, 12, (1), 7—9. 
Catechu, which was formerly largely 
employed in dyeing and printing of cot- 
ton fabrics, has_been largely replaced 
in the former industry by these sub- 
stantive colours, which acquire the 
requisite fastness by an after treatment 
with metallic salts, or by coupling with 
diazotised paranitraniline. In ealico 
printing it has been superseded by 
alizarins or other colours which are 
fixed by metallic oxides on steaming. 
In the printing of hosiery fabrics, such 
as flannelette, iv is still employed to 


"y 


wr re 


Marcu, 1909.] 225 


a considerable extent in Russia, Italy, 
Germany and Austria, on account of its 
cheapness and fastness. 


‘One of the chief defects of catechu 
is the tendency of the prepared colour 
to undergo oxidation before it is used 
for printing, owing to the combined 
action of the air and the copper sulphate 
present in the colour. A finely divided 
precipitate is thus produced, rendering 
the colour gritty and unfit for use. Cate- 
chu printing colours which have not 
been sutficiently boiled, or do not con- 
tain sufficient acetic acid, are liable to 
deposit crystalline catechin, with the 
same result as above. The oxidising 
agents used for developing the colour 
are also liable to bring about tendering 
of the fibre, especially if chlorates are 
employed. These and other defects 
have led many printers to seek for satis- 
factory substitutes. Among those of 
recent introduction are Fast Brown 
J. A. and Fast Brown R.S. (A. Huillard), 
which are apparently prepared from 
natural dyestuffs, and have the same 
defects as catechu. Another substitute 
is catechu Brown O.S. C. (O. Starcke 
and Co.); this yields smooth and stable 
printing colours, and the shade can be 
varied at will by the addition of colour- 
ing matters capable of being fixed with 
chromium acetate, this being the only 
substance necessary to be added to the 
thickened colour. 


“Printing Brown P. M. B. (P. and M. 
Bohme) greatly resembles the colour 
just described, and yields’ shades 
which are fast to washing and to 
acids.—R. B. G.” 


(8) Adulteration and faulty nanu- 
facture.—Hnquiries have been addressed 
to many of the leading cutch importers 
and users, and their unanimous opinion 
is that the quality of cutch manufac- 
tured now-a-days is superior to what it 
was some years ago, when adulteration 
was freely practised on alarge scale. 
There can be no doubt that this adulter- 
ation did a great deal of permanent 
harm to the cutch trade, which can 
never hope to regain what it has lost, 


-as this adulteration was one of the 


primary causes which led dyers to for- 
sake cutch for aniline substitutes. The 
chief fault to be found with the cutch 
now manufactured is that some of it 
contains an undue amount of moisture. 
It has frequently been suggested that 
cutch, though it may be pure when it 
leaves the manufacturer’s hands, is 
often subject to adulteration by the 
brokers through whose hands it passes. 
To test the accuracy of this statement, 
samples of cutch were obtained from 
cutch-boilers’ camps and from the 
brokers’ warehouses in Rangoon and 


29 


Dyes and Tans. 


subjected to chemical analysis. In each 
case the samples were taken haphazard 
from the stocks in hand. The results 
of the analysis are given in Appendix 

As the total number of samples 
received was only six, these results can 
hardly be taken to prove very much, 
but as far as they gothey give no indi- 
cation that the cutch is adulterated by 
the Rangoon brokers before shipment; 
on the other hand, the inferiority of the 
sample from Promeiudicates that in that 
particular instance adulteration had 
taken place during manufacture. There 
is undoubtedly room for improvement 
in the manufacture of cutch, whereby 
the proportion of soft cutch may be 
reduced to a minimum. 

Effect of the new cutch rules.—Prior to 
the Ist October, 1904, Government 
revenue on cutch was collected by the 
issue of licenses at fixed rates per 
cauldron of given capacity used in the 
boiling of cutch. Such licenses were 
applicable only to cutch trees growing 
on public land, no licenses being re- 
quired and no duty being leviable in 
the case of trees cut on tenanted land. 
As this system was productive of much 
abuse on the part of cutch boilers, who 
habitually stole trees on public land in 
order to remove and convert them cn 
their own holdings, it was resolved to 
levy an export duty, at the port of ship- 
ment, on all cutech manufactured iz 
Burma and exported by sea. The new 
system was introduced on the Ist 
October, 1904, the export duty being 
fixed at Rs. 4 per 100 viss, which is equi- 
valent to 365 lbs. avoirdupois. Licenses 
for boiling cutch are still issued, but no 
payment is required for these licenses 
when issued in areas outside reserved 
forests. The chief object of issuing 
these free licenses is to prevent the 
extermination of cutch trees on lands 
which are likely to be constituted 
reserved forests. The direct effect of 
the new cutch rules will be the rapid 
extinction of cutch trees on lands not 
included in reserved forests and on 
lands the reservation of which is not 
contemplated. Even under the old 
system of prepaid licenses the extinc- 
tion of cutch trees on such lands would 
have been merely a matter of time, as 
the large areas'to be patrolled and the 
numerical weakness of the forest staff 
would have militated against any syste- 
matic protection of cutch trees, while 
at the same time Government would 
have been deprived of a large proportion 
of its legitimate revenue. From the fore- 
going remarks it will be seen that at the 
present time cutch trees outside reserved 
forests are undergoing the process of 
rapid extinction ; this is inevitable, and 
it would have been inevitable under the 


Dyes and Tans. 


old rules also. In some localities cutch 
boiling is an extinct industry, and in 
others it willsoon be so. Against this, 
however, is to be weighed the fact that 
there are large stocks of natural cutch 
trees within reserved forests; these 
have in many reserves been left un- 
touched for years, and will afford a 
permanent future supply. In addition 
to this many of the cutch plantations 
are approaching maturity, and will still 
further ensure a regular yield of cutch, 


Future supplies of cutch.—It is im- 
possible with data at present to hand to 
form anything like an accurate estimate 
of theannual yield of cutch which is 
likely to be afforded when the present 
stock of trees outside reserves has_ be- 
come exhausted. Whatever the actual 
future supplies may be, however, they 
will at all events be far more regular 
and less fluctuating when the reserves 
come to be worked under fixed work- 
ing-plans than they have been in the 
past or are likely tobe during the next 
few years, 


The depletion of cutch trees as affect- 
ing the local population.—The deple- 
tion of cutch trees in unclassed forests 
is likely to produce distress in the 
poorer districts where cutch boilers 
cannot find employment in reserved 
forests. The manufacture of cutch is 
carried out chiefly in the drier parts of 
Burma, where cultivation is not always 
in a flourishing state, and where a cer- 
tain porportion of the people resort 
to cutch-boiling as a means of live- 
lihood. Where cutch reserves exist in 
sufficient extent, however, there should 
be no distress if these forests are ina 
condition to be worked under regular 
working-plans. Another adverse effect 
of the depletion of cutch trees will be the 
loss to the cultivator of the wood which 
supplies him with his harrow teeth. 

Catechin-free cutch.—A few years ago 
experiments with cutch were made at 
the Imperial Institute, London, and 
the results are embodied in the Imperial 
Institute Technical Reports and Scien- 
tific Papers of 1903, on page 229 of which 
the following passage appears :—‘* Since 
ecatechu-tannic acid possesses greater 
colouring power than catechu, it is 
evident that the cutches which are more 
lustrous, more soluble, and richer in 
catechu-tannic acid are the most valu- 
able for the purpuse of dyeing cotton.” 

In the hope that a manufactured form 
of cutch containing no catechu might 
prove of value, samples of catechin-free 
cutch were recently prepared at the 
laboratory of the Imperial Chemist, 
Dehra Dun, and were sent for trial 
to Great Britain. They were. however, 


226 


found to possess no special advantage, 
either for dyeing or for curing fishing 
nets, and in this connection it is of inter- 
est to quote the views of a well-known 
British firm on the subject :—‘ For our 
part we consider catechu a valuable 
property in Burma cutch, when cutch 
is used for curing or preserving herring 
nets. We understand when eutch 
liquor is cold, itis the catechin which 
formsa sort of limey deposit. Some 
fishermen object to this limey substance 
on their nets, but those of greater ex- 
perience recognise that when the nets 
are covered with this limey appearance, 
these are the nets which after being 
in the sea prove to be the best cured. 
The nets may be drawn out of the cold 
liquor covered with this limey sub- 
stance and, so far as colour is con- 
cerned, with little appearance of having 
been in cutch, but after a few trips to 
sea, the colour develops to almost jet 
black, asure sign that the nets have 
been well cured. Consequently, our con- 
vinced opinion is that catechin in Burma 
cutch isa valuable property when the 
cutch is to be used for preserving 
herring nets, and makes Burma cutch 
of greater value than cutch made from 
Mangrove, Hemlock, ete.” 


Future prospects and measures recom- 
mended.—It is impossible to foretell with 
any accuracy what the future of the 
cutch trade will be, but as far as present 
indications go it is probable that the 
price of cutch will find a still lower per- 
manent level. In case extensive adulter- 
ation or faulty manufacture will mean 
the doom of the cutch trade, for whereas 
high grade cutch finds a ready mar- 
ket, inferior cutch cannot compete with 
cheaper substitutes. It will further 
be of advantage to keep the supplies of 
cutch as regular as possible; this can- 
not be done with any certainty for some 
few years yet, but when reserved for- 
ests come to be systematically worked 
the supplies of cutch should be fairly 
regular. 

The chief measures necessary for the 
future maintenance of the cutch trade 
in Burma are (1) to prevent adulter- 
ation and faulty manufacture, and 
to keep the standard of cutch as_ high 
as possible, and (2) to avoid any hiatus 
in the production of cutch between the 
time when the cutch trees are depleted 
outside reserves and the time when 
they come to be regularly worked within 
reserves; for this reason it is highly 
desirable that all workable cutch areas 
within reserves should in good time be 
brought under the provisions of work- 
ing-plans in those localities where the 
trees outside reserves are approaching 
extermination. 


{MaRcH, 1909. 


ye 


J 
P 
aa 


MARCH, 1909. ] 


| 227 


Dyes and Tans. 


APPENDIX A, 


Statement showing the quantity of cutch exported from Burma during the years 
1894-95 to 1906-07, 


ForeEIGn. COASTING. Toran. 
Year. pease |S. 

Value. Quantity. | Value. Per |[Quantity.| Value. | Per 

Rs. Tons. Rs. Ton. Tons. U8: Ton. 

1894-95... 22, 34,516 d 3,989 | 14,95,102 374. 9,513 | 37,29,618 | 392 
1895-96... 33, 52,484 3,333 | 13,06,637 392 11,160 |46,59,121 | 417 
1896-97 ... 22,90, 365 e 1,620 | 6,832,916 | 390 7,473 | 29,23,281 391 
S798... 18,58, 752 614 | 2,30,219 | 375 5,435 | 20,89,043 | 384 
1898-99 ... 12,77,985 655 | 3,06,521 | 467 3,730 |15,84,506 | 424 
1899-1900 24,34,101 e 1,159 5,76, 171 497 7,461 30, 10,272 403 
1900-01... 18,42, 063 BYP 1102, | 5,30, 730 481 6,05] 23, 72,793 392 
1901-02 .. 11,94,898 : 770 3.21987 | 417 4,043 | 15,16,135 | 375 
1902-03 ... 13,18,921 953 | 4,20,208 440 4,413 | 17,39,129 394 
1903-04 ... 19,11,943 3 1,322 | 5,36,387 405 6,814 | 24,48,330 359 
1904-05 ... 9,31,596 U 779 | 3,12,749 | 401 3,797 12,44, 345 327 
1905-06 ... 8,48,887 | : 755 | 3,59,069 | 475 3,478 | 12,07,956 | 347 
1906-07 ... 15,53,470 | 868 | 3,61,905 | 417 5,640 |19,15,375 | 339 


APPENDIX B. 


Note on the analysis of six sanvples of 
Burma Cutch by Mr. PURAN SINGH, 
Acting Imperial Forest Chemist, Dehra 
Dun, 9th September, 1907. 


I beg to submit herewith the chemical 
analysis of six samples of Burma Cutch 
sent by you to my office. 


It will be seen from the table given 
below that some of them are very 
moist; 11—13 per cent. I think should 
be the limit of total moisture in a good 
sample of cutch. No. 2 and No. 3 
exceed this limit by 5 and 8 per cent., 
while No. 4 and No. 6 by as much as 
21—25 per cent. The sample of cutch I 
extracted from Acacia wood in my 
laboratory shows an average of 12°965 
per cent, of moisture. 


Argued from the percentage of ash 
residue the sample No. 2 is very impure. 
The normal limit of ash is given at 
5 per cent., and the percentage of ash 
in sample No. 2 exceeds this limit by 
10 and the samples No. 3 and No. 4 
by 2 per cent. 


_ The catechin value of these samples 
is generally good excepting that of 
No. 2, which comes only to 5:2 per cent. 


The method adopted for the determin- 
ation of ecatechin is one of my own, 
and the relative merits of this process 
and that already known by acetic ether 
extraction, Iam to discuss in a separate 
pamphlet on the subject. 


ButI may note here in passing that 
the catechin value found by me is 
higher than that found generally by 
the acetic ether process, as in the lat- 
ter the complete isolation and extrac- 
tion of catechin does not take place 
as belived, for pure catechin goes with 
ether rather reluctantly, while in the 
menstruum used by me it dissolves 
with extreme ease. 


The tannin value of these samples is 
also fairly good, excepting that of the 
second sample, which is only 21°2 per 
cent. The percentage of insoluble 
organic matter is within its limit in 
all these samples excepting that of 
the second, which runs up to 25 per 
cent. 


On the whole I find that excepting 
samples No. 2and No. 6all the samples 
are good. No. 2 is very deficient in 
tanin value, while No. 6 is very moist 
and its tannin value is, comparatively, 
very low. 


Dyes and Tans. 


Whence received. 


Deputy Conservator 
of Forests, Lower 
Chindwin Division, 
Upper Burma 
(straight from ma- 
nufacturer). 
Deputy Conservator 
of Forests, Prome 
Division, Burma 
(straight from ma- 
nufacturer.) 
Tablet cutch from 
Rangoon — Broker, 
received from the 
Conservator of For- 
ests, Pegu, Circle, 
Rangoon. 

Block cutch from 
Rangoon — Broker, 
received from the 
Conservator of For- 
ests, Pegu Circle, 
Rangoon.’ 
Divisional Forest 
Officer, Mu Divi- 
sion, Upper Burma 
(straight from ma- 
nufacturer.) 


to 


> 


from 
Broker, 


Soft cutch 
Rangoon 


ests, Pegu Circle, 
Rangoon. 


received from the 
Conservator of For- 


General cles- 
cription. 


In large cakes, 
solid, brittle, 
dack brown ; 
in powder 
whitish gray. 


Dark red com- 
act mass, red 
in powder. 


Dark, elastic, 
| unpulveris- 
able. 


Dark brown, 
liquid extract 
consistence, 


Square blocks, 
brick red co- 
lour at sur- 
face, reddish 
brown in the 
centre, hard, 


brittle, red- 
dish brown 
when  pow- 
dered. 


Dark colour, | 
semi-fluid 
mass of honey 
consistence. 


11°110 


16°825 


32°06 


12°305 


36°665 


15°065 


3°095 


2°13 


Catechin. 


24-2 


QA]. 


bo 
= 
to 


49°0 


57'3 


39°0 


24°0 


17°6 


21°443 


Insoluble 
organic 
matter 


2411 


0°362 


1°06 


19°3 


/51°80 


or 
or 
oO 


5b'4 


51°07 


REMARKS. 


Very good. 


Bad. 


Good. 


Very good. 


Good. 


Fairly good, 
but too 
moist. 


eer Ae aa 


MARCH, 1909.1 


229 


FIBRES. 


“LALANG,” IMPERATA ARUNDI- 


NACEA, Cyrill) AS A PAPER-MAKING 
MATERIAL. 


By G. STEWART REMINGTON, 


One of our correspondents sent asam- 
ple of lalang grass recently to HKngland, 
and has received the following report, 
also samples of paper made from lalang 
grass entirely and half lalang and half 
cotton :— 


Certificate of Analysis. 
This is to certify that the above sam- 


ple has been carefully examined with 
the following results :— 


This grass was forwarded to ‘The 
Aynsome Technical Laboratories” for 
investigation, that its commercial use 
as a source of pulp for paper-making 
might be ascertained. 


The object of the present report is to 
draw attention to the importance and 
value of this grass as a pulp-pioducing 
material, and to indicate its chief char- 
acteristics and economic value. 


Ihe sample was a pale buff colour, 
lustrous in appearance and of fair 
strength, of the order of Gramineze. 


“The chemical examination furnished 
the following results, the percentages 
other than that of moisture being ex- 
pressed on the dry material :— 


Moisture BREA | 
Ash | as ee 414. 
Loss on L. Hydrolysis ey O76 
Loss on B. Hydrolysis . 46°65 
Loss on Mercerisation Si Oe 
Loss on Acid Purification... 0°95 
Gain on Nitration teste) 
Cellulose a . AT 41 
Length of Ultimate Fibre 1:20 m.m, 


The ultimate fibre obtained from this 
grass is very similar in most respects to 
Ksparto; the yield of bleached fibre being 
about the same. This is a favourable 
indication inasmuch as ‘‘ Hsparto” is 
one of the best known and most useful 
sources of supply to the trade. The 
fibres as seen under the microscope 
are short, smooth, cylindrical, fairly 
uniform in diameter, gradually taper- 
ing to rounded extremities; they also 
occur together in little bundles. The 
pulp will be found to contain a number 
of small cuticular cells which do not 
however shew in the finished paper. 
The fibres are stained a pale yellow with 
iodine solution, which fades more 
radidly than is usual with coloured 
pulps, 


The results obtained from the chemi- 
cal analysis show the grass is capable 
of yielding a good quality of cellulose, 
suitable in every way for the manu- 
facture of paper. Although the grass 
is very susceptible to the action of 
dilute alkalis, the final product is ex- 
ceptionally pure and readily resolved. 


From observations noted during this 
preliminary examination the following 
scheme was adopted for the production 
of the pulp on a large scale. 


PROCESS. 


The available grass in its natural con-_ 
dition weighing 400 grams (14:1 0z.) was 
inaclean state, and required little treat- 
ment beyond cutting into small pieces’ 
ready for boiling. It is usually neces- 
sary on a large scale to pass the material 
through some type of cleaner to _ re- 
move dirt andadventitious matter. The 
grass was then thoroughly wetted and 
soaked until it became soft and pliable. 
It was placed ina boiler of the spherical 
type, covered with water and digested 
with caustic soda corresponding to 15 7 
on the grass treated for a period of ten 
hours under a pressure which was kept 
constant at four atmospheres; an even 
temperature about 135° C, being main- 
tained. 


Owing to the quantity of material at 
our disposal being somewhat limited, 
it was only possible to conduct one 
experiment, consequently a good margin 
in the use of caustic and a degree of 
general treatment was allowed. 


The pulp obtained after washing was 
of good uniform quality and colour. 
The yield agreed very closely and was 
only slightly higher than the prelimi- 
nary chemical analysis shewn, which in- 
dicates complete reaction in the digester. 


The pulp was carefully beaten for 
about an hour and at the same time 
bleached, chloride of lime being used for 
the purpose; 10 parts of dry powder 
being used for 100 parts of pulp. 

The stuff was taken from the beater 
and _ well washed, and subsequently a 
small quantity of loading was gradually 
added and the whole agair beaten for 
half-an-hour. At this stage of the oper- 
ation the rosin size was introduced and 
the decomposition of the soda resinate 
completed with the calculated quantity 
ofalum. The amount of size used cor- 
responded to4% on thedry pulp present, 
the total time occupied in preparation 
of the pulp for running on the machine 
being two hours, 


Fibres. 


PREPARATION OF PAPER. 


No great difficulty was experienced in 
running the pulp; it retained, however, 
a considerable quantity of water after 
passing the suction-boxes, and in conse- 
quence it was found necessary to keep 
the press roll down hard. On a large 
machine this precaution would not be 
necessary, aS more suction-boxes are 
available and complete control is 
assured. 


The paper was passed over nine eylin- 
ders at a pressure of about 8 lbs. to the 
square inch, then through one calendar 
and finally reeled off. In asimilar man- 
ner a second sample was prepared, using 
a mixture of half pulp obtained from 
the lalang grass and half cotton beaten 
together. The paper obtained from this 


blend could prove very useful as a high- 


class wrapping paper, it being stronger 
and possessing a comparatively high 
resistance to folding as will be seen in 
the following table of physical tests 
done on the finished specimens of papers. 
The paper made from ‘‘all-grass” pulp 
would with judicious treatment for 
improvement of colour be very suitable 
for printing purposes. 

The following table of figures was 
obtained and compiled from tests and 
analyses made on the air-dried finished 
papers :— 


to os 
q go 
= pesiaey 
fo] ne) 
4 Ho 
2 4 
Ss oe 5 
: . q 
Fhysical Properties :— 
Breaking strain (lbs.) 8°37 8°88 (way of machine) 
Stretch (°%) Me a203 0) 1635 
Rubbing test ee el 151 
Thickness. (inches) le? ules 


125 235 


Chemical Constituents :—Per cen 
Rosin Size PAA) OY Wenig 


Ash (Natural and ; a the 
loading) 301 1:94 CTY 
Moisture 10°40 3-68) paper, 


The addition of cotton to the pure 
lalang fibre has the effect of improving 
its resistance to crumbling, and aiso in 
a lesser degree its tensile strength.— 
Agricultural Bulletin of the Straits and 
eH S., Vol. VIL, No. 12, December, 


PAPER FROM RICE STRAW. 
Some time back inquiries were made 
by persons interested in the rice growing 
industry of this colony as to whether 
the rice straw could not be utilized for 
the manufacture of paperin the same 
way asthe straw of other cereals, viz., 


230 


[MARCH, 1909, 


rye, wheat, oats and barley is employed 
in countries where these are grown. 
The following note from the ‘‘ Louisiana 
Planter and Sugar Manufacturer,” Vol. 
XL., No. 25, provides an answer to this 
question, and shows that by the estab- 
lishment of a pulp mill, paper pulp might 
be produced locally for shipment to 
paper mills to be there manufactured 
into paper. 


‘Rice farmers have long been in 
search for some better use for the straw 
than feeding it to stock for which it is 
worth very little in the way of nourish- 
ment. Recent advices from Beaumont, 
Texas, state that Mr. W. D. Wing, a pro- 
minent capitalist of Bangor, Maine, be- 
came interested in the proposition of 
making paper pulp from rice straw, and 
to ascertain the elemental qualities of 
the straw in this respect he sent some of 
the straw to a chemist for pulp mill in 
Boston, and had some sample paper 
made from the straw. During his recent 
visit Mr. Wing exhibited these samples. 
Notwithstanding they were made 
entirely by hand in a laboratory, the 
samples proved to be excellent quality 
of paper, capable of retaining ink and 
suitable for many purposes for which 
paper is used. 


Mr. Wing owns a large amount of 
stock ina pulp mill in Maine, and is 
therefore interested in this matter from 
another standpoint than to merely make 
use of the rice straw. His experiments 
thus far have proved conclusively that 
rice straw will make an excellent pulp 
for making paper, and it is his idea that 
a pulp mill should be built in this terri- 
tory, and perhaps several mills in 
different sections of the rice belt for the 
purpose of utilising this straw. He does 
not go into the question of building 
paper mills here, for the reason that 
paper mills are very expensive, and 
there may be many questions involved 
in the operation of a paper mill which 
are not involvedin a pulp mill. At any 
rate, Mr. Wing for the present is inter- 
ested in thepulp proposition, and his plan 
roughly outlined is to establish these 
mills, making the pulp from the rice 
straw, and ship to the paper mills in the 
New England States. 


From estimates so far made Mr. Wing 
believes that the farmer can net $2 per 
ton for the straw on the farm. This 
does not include hauling, palin and 
shipping, but means that the rice farmer 
will receive $2 for each ton of rice straw 
produced. 

Mr, Wing has arranged to ship a large 
quantity of straw to his mill and 

demonstrate satisfactorily what sort of 
paper can be made frcmthe straw. Mr. 
Wing is not speculating lightly in this 


8 Vee 
\ 


Marcu, 1909. ] 


matter, but is thoroughly interested, 
and if his expectation as to the merit in 
the straw prove out, he will lose no time 
in building his pulp mill somewhere in 
the belt and will ship the pulp to the 
mill in the north. In addition to the 
value of the straw for paper making, 
Mr. Wing finds that there is a large 
quantity of rice leftin the straw, and 
from this he believes very many articles 
of trade, such as alcohol and feed-stuffs 
can be n.ade. In fact, Mr. Wing believes 
that rice straw can be utilized almost as 
much as cottun seed, which not so many 
vears ago were thrown away, as many 
farmers now living can remember, As 
there are about 60,000 acres of rice 
planted in Jefferson County each season, 
it will be seen that there is produced 
about 120,000 tons of rice straw, which, at 
$2 per ton, will yield $240,040, which 
has heretofore and would otherwise 
be thrown away.’”-—-“ Abbeville Meri- 
dional.”—Journal of the Board of Agri- 
culture, British Guinea, Vol. LI., No. 2, 
October, 1908. 


CARAVONICA COTTON. 

In Monte Cristo, in the most easterly 
part of Cuba, 1,500 feet above sea-level, 
was last autumn planted about fifteen 
acres with Caravonica silk, and about 
fifty acres with Caravonica wool-cotton. 
Although the pianting could not be done 
till the first days of December, as the 
seeds ordered from Australasia did not 
come before that time, the result is most 
satisfactory for both varieties, The 
trees have borne and are stiJl bearing 
very richly. Samples of the cotton 
have been sent to several experts in 
America and KEKurope, and from. all 
quarters the cotton has been praised for 
strength, gloss, and length of staple. 
By this enterprise it seems to be proved 
that of all kinds of cotton, known 
up to date, the Caravonica is the best 
one for planting in Cuba, as it pos- 
sesses a considerable power to resist 
drought, storm and insect pests, 


We have planted our trees at the dis- 
tance of 7 by 7 feet, but according to our 
experience we will recommend planting 
8 by 8 feet, as even at this time--in the 
middle of September—most trees have 
grown toa height of 11 by 12 feet, some 
of them are still higher. We shall have to 
prune them rather severely for giving 
them more sunlight and facilitate the 
picking. 

After all, the enterprise seems to bea 
very profitable business. new area is 
cleared, and when planting the new 
acreage—which planting is to take place 
in September--we shall have the great 


231 


Fibres. 


advantage of using our own selected and 
acclimatised seed.—_CUBAN CORRESPON- 
DENT. 

This is a very interesting result. Cuba 
is cooler than Jamaica, and at 1,500 
feet the elevation would be equal to our 
2,000 feet.—Journal of the Jamaica 
Agricultural Society, Vol. XII., No. 11, 
November, 1908. 


THE FIBRE INDUSTRY. 


By LEONARD AcutTt, J.P., Tongaat. 


This industry is not attracting the 
attention in Natal which it deserves, 
and I do not think the area of land 
devoted to aloe-planting is on the in- 
crease. It is true that extension to some 
extent is being carried on on the South 
Coast, but, on the other hand, some 


large plantations both on the South 
Coast and in Zululand have been 
abandoned. 


Since my first visit to Mauritius, [ 
have naturally taken an interest in fibre, 
and it is with much disappointment that 
I have seen so little doing. I pen these 
notes in the hope that they will result 
in more being done to increase our 
acreage of aloe in the near future. 


ITam_not wishing to alter anything 
which I said last year in my ‘“‘ Report on 
the Fibre Industry of Mauritius,”* but I 
merely wish to emphasize a few points. 
which, though I mentioned them in that 
report, appear to me to be worthy of 
special attention. 

In that report (page 1208) I said 
“The main danger we have here 
threatening any aloe plantations is that 
of fire. The cultivation of Creole aloe 
need only be of the roughest possible 
description, but a rough cultivation in 
this country means a quantity of grass 
and debris which becomes dangerously 
inflammable in the winter. In Mauritius 
this does not occur, the grass and debris 
is not, beyond the small patches, in- 
flammable at any time of the year. 
Therefore (in Natal) either cultivation 
would have to be done to keep down the 
grass, or we should have to be careful to 
prevent outside fires coming in, and 
keep all roads and paths in the plant- 
ations themselves free of inflammable 
material.” 

Now, the first of the above two alter- 
natives is, at the best, costly, and the 
other is dangerous and means a great 
risk, which is not good enough business to 
attract capital, and it is more than 
probable that losses by fire have con- 
tributed largely to the failures of some 


* October Journal, 1907, page 1199, 


Fibres. 


fibre companies or syndicates in our 
Colony, and the greatest care will have 
to be exercised in the selection of land 
and locality for fibre culture, and the 
most favourable circumstances secured 
for cultivation and protection from fire. 


I would not be taken in any way as 
wishing to discourage the making of 
plantations. Let us by all means proceed 
along the lines of regular and systematic 
planting and cultivation of aloes for 
fibre-making, and let us be most careful 
in selection of land, There is a great 
future before the enterprise, but in 
watching the progress and prospects of 
the industry in Natal I am inclined to 
attach more importance than I did last 
year toa point which I touched on in 
my report in the following words :— 


‘1 do not doubt that there are many 
districts in the upper part of the country 
in which aloes would do well, Many 
parts of the ‘Thorns’ certainly would 
suit, and there are thousands of acres 
which are fit for no other crop, by reason 
of stones and poor rainfall.” 

Now, these thorn lands more nearly 
approach the conditions under which 
we find aloes growing in Mauritius in 
that the ground is rich and the climate 
dry. Moreover, in some districts in 
Natal I have in my mind’s eye, the 
stones are so thick that there is never 
sufficient growth of grass to make such 
a fire as would injure the aloe plants, 
but the hills are covered with a growth 
ot native aloes, brambles, etc., against 
which the Furcrea would hold its own, 
and if afew thousand “ bulbils” of this 
aloe were planted by everybody owning 
a thorn farm, or even if the bulbils were 
dropped about, the country would ina 
few years be as much covered with fibre 
aloe as the Island of Mauritius is to-day, 
and a revenue would be obtained at any 
time when other work was slack. The 
cost of cutting the leaves and bringing 
them out of stoney places would be 
great, but against that would have to be 
set the fact that they had cost nothing 
to grow and the collection of the leaves 
would probably be a class of work which 
would suit the kraal Kafirs, men, boys, 
women and girls. Planting, or broad- 
casting, the ‘“‘bulbils” would be necessary 
atfirst, but once the plants were old 
enough to throw up the “poles” with 
their crop of bulbils the aloe would 
spread with great rapidity, as the bulbils 
would be carried by the winds, and 
would hold their own against any 
native plants. 

I have mentioned the idea to several 
«thorn ” farmers, and I hear that Messrs. 
Evans, Worthington & Walters at their 
farm ‘‘N’Kashin” are taking the matte1 
upand getting up bulbils from the coast, 


202 


a ae | 


-{Marca, 1909, 


and I feel sure that they will have cause 
to be thankful that they started the 
work. What a field there is in the 
growth of wild aloes in this manner! 
and without taking up land on which 
something else can be grown. 


When one contemplates the poten- 
tialities of fibre culture in this way, one 
wonders that the idea does not seize upon 
the mind of the people, but to dip in 
Jordan is, of course, too absurdly simple. 


Hundreds of thousands of acres of 
practically desert country in the valleys 
of the Tugela, Umvoti, Bushman’s, and 
Blue Krantz Rivers might be utilised, 
and Zululand’ could spare as many acres 
more and not miss them. 


I find in my report the following 
paragraph :— 

“T think this would be a crop which 
the native might be encouraged to grow. 
Young plants might be scattered broad-~ 
cast in kloofs and sheltered spots in 
locations; and the aloe might take 
charge of such places as it has done to 
such an extent in Mauritius, and prove 
a source of income in afew years’ time, 
and make productive alarge area of land 
on which nothing else can be produced.” 


I cannot imagine anything better that 
could be done for our natives than 
covering large tracts of location lands ~ 
with aloe; in course of time a large 
tonnage of leaves would be available, 
and men would not be wanting to put 
up machinery and pay a fixed price per 
100 lbs. for the leaves, and thus give 
employment to the swarming population. 


The * bulbils” are generally procurable 
for afew shillings per thousand on rail 
at coast stations. 


I trust that these few notes will induce 
everybody with suitable land to plant if 
only a sackful of plants, which can be 
done at any time of the year when 
plants are procurable. Another way in 
which to cover one’s land quickly would 
be to get some well grown aloe plants 
from the coast ; these would flower in a 
year or two and give enough plants to 
cover a large area of ground. 


If Mauritius, a small island, only 34 
miles by 22 miles, containing only 456,320 
acres, can on its waste land produce 
£100,000 worth of fibre, asit has done, 
although the value of the output for the 
last four years was only £45,000 a year, 
what could Natal produce on its 16,000,000 
acres, exclusive of Zululand ? 


A great industry is ready to our hand 
and one not requiring a large outlay. 
Let us put out our hands and take what 
is so obviously within ou reach.—Natal 
Agriculture Journal Vol. XI., No. 12, 
December, 1908. 


Marcu, 1909.] 


233 


EDIBLE PRODUCTS. 


SUGAR CANE CULTIVATION. 


PRACTICAL INFORMATION FOR 
BEGINNERS. 


We have received a considerable num- 
ber of requests during the last few 
months, more particularly from persons 
who have taken up some of the new 
sugar lands on the Zululand coast, for 
information with regard to sugar-cane 
growing, and, in accordance with these 
requests, we have pleasure in publishing 
some ofthe most useful of the infor- 
mation which we have immediately 
avaliable. Inthe February and March, 
1905, issues of the Journal there were two 
instalments of an interesting article by 
Messrs. A. N. Pearson and Alex. Pardy, 
on ‘‘The Sugar Industry of Natal,” and 
in the course of that article some 
practical information was given with 
regard to the preparation of the soil, 
manuring, planting, weeding and trash- 
ing, harvesting, ete. Those issues of the 
Journal are, however, now out of print, 
and we accordingly republish such of 
the information given as will be of most 
practical value to beginners and others. 

In early issues of the Journal further 
articles on sugar-cane cultivation will 
appear. 

VARIETIES OF CANE. 


Besides the Green Natal, supposed to 
be indigenous, many imported varieties 
of cane have been introduced. At one 
time a variety known as China cane was 
extensively grown, but it suddenly 
succumbed to a species of smut, Ustilago 
sacchari, and had to be discarded. The 
other varieties tried are principally 
Lousier, Fotiogo, Bois-rouge, Imperial, 
Tamarand and Belle-ougete, said to be 
from Mauritius; Ribbon, Bourbon Yellow 
and Bourbon Purple, probably from 
Bourbon ; also White Queen (one of. the 
best in good seasons), Port Mackay, Gold 
Dust (white and red), and Rose Bamboo, 
None cf these are now generally 
cultivated; they have almost every- 
where been supplanted by a variety the 
correct name of whichis unknown, but 
which is here called Uba, a name, it is 
said, formed of the only letters remain- 
ing legible on a damaged label attached 
to the variety on its first arrival in the 
country.’ Mr. Medley Wood thinks it 
was introduced by Governor Sir Charles 
Mitchell, who, on returning from a visit 
to India in 1884-5, brought two Wardian 
cases containing cane plants, only three 
of which were alive. These were pro- 
pagated by Mr, Wood, the resulting 

30 


plants being given to Mr. Anthony 
Wilkinson. It is generally admitted, 
however, that this cane was introduced 
in quantity by Mr. De Pass of the 
Reunion Estate. From a milling point 
of view, this cane is undesirable; it is 
thin, tough, wiry and fibrous, and the 
juice, it is said, needs special care in the 
treatment ; mill managers say that from 
10 to 80 per cent. more mill power is 
required for this cane than for any other 
variety. But the planters like it, since 
it endures the uncertainty of the Natal 
climate better than any other variety yet 
tried; it is hardy, bears frost and 
drought, stools prolifically, recovers 
readily from locust attacks, is subject to 
no fungus pests, and but little damaged 
by white ants and the borer. It is 
successfully grown on the highlands of 
the interior as forage for cattle. 


Within the last few’ years several 
varieties have. been introduced from the 
West Indies, British Guinea, Mauritius, 
Queensland and Honolulu, the Depart- 
ment of Agriculture having co-operated 
with the planters for their importation. 
The Inanda Association have taken a 
leading part in this movement, and 
several of the canes have been propagated 
for distribution on their behalf by Mr, 
H. W. James,.of Verulam. Some of those 
from the West Indies were sampled by 
the Department of Agriculture and 
analysed. 


Hitherto it has not been the custom to 
analyse Natal canes, the chemist, in fact, 
being. but little recognised by the in- 
dustry, and therefore no exact com- 
parisons of the juice of the different 
varieties as grown in Natal can be made. 
The following few statements of analysis 
are, however, available :— 


Uba Cane. 
Average. Maximum. 

Total solids in 

juice (per cent.) .... 20°32 22°79 
Sucrose (per cent.) ... 18°61 20°79 
Glucose (per cent.) ... 18 “21 
Non-sugars (per cent) 1°53 173 
Glucose ratio » 1°00 1:30 
Purity wcob OLSGe 9] 2° 
Per cent. of juice in 

cane ... 84°28 2°30 
Per cent of fibre in 

cane vis, lowhe 17:70 


The above analyses show a large pro- 
portion of fibre in the cane, but indicate 
no inferiority in the juice; in fact, the 
quality of the juice, so far as disclosed 
by analysis, would not be readily sur- 
passed anywhere. 


Edible Products. 234 


The West Indian canes grown by Mr. 
James for the Inanda Association gave 
results as follow :— 

B.109 D.95 B.15 
Total solids in juice 


(per cent.) ... 15:31 17:04 16°78 
Sucrose (per cent,) ... 12°68 15°83 15°19 
Glueose (percent.) .... 1°78 28 37 
Non-sugars (ver cent.) 85 O2u ez 
Glucose ratio fe A417 78 2:46 
Purity 82582. 192:9° 1 90°6; 


The samples were gathered unseason- 
ably, and the juices were dilute, but the 
purity and glucose ratio of the last 
two samples were good. In fact, the 
analyses generally show that, so far as 
quality is concerned, the soils and 
climate of Nataladmit of cane being 
grown here as well as elsewhere. 

SOILS. 

The soils of the planting districts vary 
considerably, there being light grey 
sands, red sands, light loams, chocolate 
loams, sandy clays of all degrees of tex- 
ture, grey alluvials and black alluvials. 
Many of these soils may be on the one 
farm, and even in one cane field. The 
prevailing soil is a red or chocolate 
ferruginous sandy loam, light in texture 
and easy to work whenonce broken up. 
This class of soil is often very fertile 
when first cleared of bush, and has been 
known to give yields in good seasons of 
four and five tons of sugar crystals per 
acre from the plant canes. At one time 
the cane was grown exclusively in_ the 
alluvial flats, some of which have been 
in continuous cultivation for 40 years, 
and still yield well. But many are of 
poorer quality, and as crops grown in 
them are subject to flood and frost, it 
has been found advantageous to plant 
on the hills, even on the steeper slopes 
where only hand labour can be applied. 
According to Mr. Wm. Campbell, 
‘“tambootie grass” land is excellent for 
cane. 

PREPARATION OF THE GROUND. 


In newly-cleared bush land the canes 
may be planted without ploughing. The 
bush having been cut, the timber stacked 
and the scrub burnt, holes may be 
grubbed out with hoe and axe, and the 
cane planted straight away. Grass land, 
however, requires to be broken up, 
allowed to lie for a time, and then cross 
ploughed and harrowed. For planting 
old cane lands the ratoons are ploughed 
out—with the mould board plough, and 
recently with the disc plough—and the 
land is then cross ploughed and harrowed. 


MANURES. 


Very little manure is used other than 
mill refuse, but in the reighbourhood of 
Durban stuff is carted out from the 


Corporation stables, and in afew cases 
small quantities of artificials and bone 
dust are applied. Kxperiments now 
being conducted by the Department of 
Agriculture, both on the Coast Experi- 
ment Farm and on private farms, suggest 
that many of these lands may be mate- 
rially benefited by the judicious applica- 
tion of phosphatic manures. 


PLANTING. 


_ The cane is planted in rows five or six 
feet apart, or even nearer in poor land, 
and further apart in very rich land. 
The land is either drilled out with the 
drill plough working 9 or 10 in. deep, or 
it is holed out in lines by hand hoes, holes 
being made 1 ft. wide, 8 or 10 in. deep, 
and 15 to 2 ft. long, a space of from 6 to 
18 in. being left between each. Some- 
times whole canes are used for planting, 
these being laid two together in the 
drills; or the canes are cut into lengths of 
five eyes to each: many, however, prefer 
only the tops which have been cut off 
when the canes are harvested for the 
mill. These are laid, two, three or four 
together, in the holes or drills, at dis- 
tances of 1 to2 ft. apart. The cuttings 
or sets having been planted are loosely 
covered with about an inch of soil. As 
the young shoots grow up, the covering 
of soil is increased until the drills or 


holes are filled. The shoots appear in ~ 


from 10 to 20 days. according to the 


-weather and the vitality of the sets. 


The general time for planting is August 
to September, but it may be done as late 
as December and January— Natal Agri- 
cultural Journal, Vol. XI., No. 12, 
December, 1908. 


(To be continued.) 


THE ‘“PULQUE MAGUEY” 
OF MEXICO. 


Under the title ‘The Century Plant 
and some other Plants of the Dry 
Country,” Professor William Trelease, 
ot the Missouri Botanic Gardens, con- 
tributed a highly interesting paper to 
the ‘“‘Popular Science Monthly” of March, 
1907, dealing with the various agaves 
found in Mexico and their characteristics 
and uses. This paper includes a lengthy 
account of Agave atrovirens, or the 
“‘pulque maguey,” from which the na- 
tional alcoholic drink of Mexico is pro- 
duced. The details given below as to 
the methods followed in the manufac- 
ture of pulque, and the extent of the 
trade in this product, are extracted from 
Dr, Trelease’s article :— 


South of the city of Mexico, centreing 
about the little town of Apam, the 
species of agave is almost exclusively the 


[MarcH, 1909. 


> 
4 


= ple — re aa eh 


MARCH, 1909. | 


dark-green giant A. atrovirens, though, 
as with extensively cultivated plants 
elsewhere, itis grown in numerous hor- 
ticultural varieties which look much alike 
to the botanist but are distinguished by 
the planter. Over thirty such forms are 
Said to be planted in the plaius of Apam. 


As one passes to the colder regions of 
the north or descends from the table- 
land into the hot country, still other and 
different looking species of the same type 
replace A. atrovirens, which, however, 
far outnumbers and surpasses them all 
initsaggregateimportance. These plant- 
ations of A. atrovirens are the basis of 
the pulque industry of Mexico—at once 
a large item in its agricultural wealth 
and one of the greatest curses of its 
labouring population. 


The present traffic in pulque is large. 
, Something over 5,000,000 barrels of it are 
used in the Mexican republic every year, 
of which quantity about half is consumed 
in the capital city, and much of the re- 
mainder in Puebla and the other large 
' cities of the central plateau. Cheap as 
it is (for it sells for from 1 to 3 cents of 
Mexican money for a large glass), its 
aggregate value amounts. to several 
million dollars per year. Special trains 
are run into the city of Mexico every 
morning for its delivery, as is done with 
_ the milk supply of American cities, In 
the Apam district the plantations are 
chiefly found on the large haciendas or 
estates. 


The “ pulque maguey” is a large plant, 
and its rosette of thick leaves, though 
appearing to lie next the ground, is really 
spaced along a stout trunk as large as a 
small barrel. The whole, charged with 
sap, weighs several tons. If left to itself, 
as it is in gardens on the Riviera, where 
it is called A. salmuiana, like the century 
plant Agave americana, it produces a 
gigantic scape, topped with a candela- 
brum of flowers, when somewhere in the 
neighbourhood of fifteen years old. This 
is never permitted on the large plant- 
ations, for the plant possesses its maxi- 
mum value when it has reached vege- 
tative maturity and the scape is about to 
develop. At the critical moment, known 
from the appearance of the central bud, 
this is cut out, andashallow cavity is 
made in the crown of the trunk, which 
is covered by a stone, pieces of maguey 
leaves, or other protection. Into the 
cavity so formed the sap exudes. 


It is removed two or three times a day, 
the surface being scraped and the cavity 
slightly enlarged each time, until at 
last nothing but a thin shell of the trunk 
remains, the leaves meantime having 
given up their content of fluid and dried 
to their hard framework—as happens 
naturally during the flowering period of 


235 Hdible Products. 


all the larger agaves, when the reserve 
of sap is drawn into the rapidly growing 
scape and flowers, 


For a period of three months or more a 
good plant yields a gallon or two of sap 
daily, and its total value may be not far 
from 10 dollars on an average, from 
which it will be seen that a large maguey 
plantation represents a considerable item 
in the assests of a landed proprietor of 
the plains of Apam. 


The fluid which collects in the hollow- 
edtrunk of a cut maguey plant, and is 
gathered in the manner described, is 
called ‘“‘agua miel,” or honey-water, be- 
cause of its sweetness; 9 or 10 per cent. 
of its weight is sugar, and this furnishes 
the basis for the alcoholic fermentation 
which is the chief factor in its con- 
version into pulque. The ‘‘agua miel” 
of the Apam district is thin, clear, 
and colourless, and possesses a rather 
pleasant taste. 


The fermentation practices in pulque 
making are still mostly primitive. I 
have hada Mexican gentleman tell me 
that, although when the agua miel was 
gathered and fermented with due clean- 
liness he considered it a delicious drink, 
he would not think of touching pulque 
as offered, for instance, at the railway 
station at Apam. The vats used in the 
fermentation are of ox-hide stretched on 
frames, and they are usually 3 or 4 ft, 
wide and nearly asdeep. Fermentation 
is begun by the introduction of a starter 
or ‘‘mother of pulque,” obtained by 
perliminary fermentation, and is car- 
ried on either without, or at most with 
little, artificial control of temperature, 
aud under conditions of positive or nega- 
tive cleanlinesss which differ with the 
various haciendas, 


When marketed, the pulque is a white, 
decidedly viscous fluid containing about 
8 per cent, of alcohol ; fermentation has 
not been solely alcoholic, however, and 
its flavour is in part due to changes 
wrought by bacteria of several kinds 
which are introduced with the starter in 
company with the yeast. Continuation 
of the action of these collateral ferments 
causes the beverage to spoil ina day or 
two under ordinary conditions. 


Where the maguey, though capable of 
cultivation, yields a lesser or inferior 
product, agua mielis often more appreci- 
ated in its unfermented state. As hawk- 
ed around the streets of Monterey, for 
instance, in porous earthenware recep- 
tacles, it is a cool, yellowish fluid, that is 
very refreshing on a hot day, and the 
limpid, yellowish, cidery, foamy product 
of its fermentation in the north is fre- 
quently more to the taste of the foreigner 


Fdible Products. 236 


than the white, viscous, odoriferous 
pulque of the Apam district—which alone 
pleases the adept. 


Considerable medicinal virtue has been 
claimed for pulque, and some efforts 
have been made to specially prepare, 
bottle, and pasteurise it for medicinal or 
even table use; but, except in the region 
of its production, where it is the com- 
mon beverage, the bulk of it is used as an 
intoxicant, pure and simple. From it is 
also produced a rather small quantity of 
distilled liquor—‘‘ mezcal de pulque.” 


Mezcal is a term applied comprehen- 
sively to the liquor obtained by distil- 
lation from the fermented juices of 
ayaves. Four or five million gallons of 
it a year are produced, and its value may 
amount to some 2,000,000 dollars. The 
centre for the manufactue of this be- 
verage is to the west of Gudalajara, and 
the town of Tequila, situated there, has 
given its name to the higher grade of 
liquor, which is clear, smoky, rather 
smooth, and with a characteristic essen- 
tial flavour; it usually contains 40 or 
50 per cent. of alcohol, and, like pulque, 
possesses certain medicinal properties. 


Mezcal issoldcheaply. Itis to be found 
everywhere, and contributes largely to 
the demoralisation of the native labour- 
ers, who often drink it to excess. 


To supply the distilleries at Tequila, a 
considerable acreage is planted to mezcal 
agaves. Those chiefly used for the pur- 
pose belong to a well-marked, narrow- 
leaved species, which a few years ago 
received the appropriate and distinctive 
name A. tequilana.—Queensland A gricul- 
tural Journal, Jan. 1909, Vol. XXIL., Pt. 1. 


ARROWROOT-GROWING IN 
QUEENSLAND. 


The cultivation of arrowroot in this 
State dates back to 1864, It was then 
grown at Oxley Creek by Major A. J. 
Boyd, who manufactured the commercial 
article by the primitive process of 
grating the bulbs and purifying the 
starch by straining it several times 
through linen stretched over tubs. The 
product was then readily sold at Is. per 
lb. Later on Mr. Boyd sold the bulbs to 
Mr. Grimes, who also grew arrowroot at 
Oxley and on the Brisbane River, where 
he erected the first arrowroot mill 
installed in the State. The bulbs were 
sold at £2 10s. per ton; and on the then 
virgin scrub soils between Oxley Creek 
and Rocklea, or Rocky Water Holesas 
the place was then called, the return was 
enormous. Mr. Grimes grew both the 
Marauta and the Canna edulis, but the 
former, owing to the small production 
of bulbs, was found not to be profitable. 


‘ 


[Marca, 1909. 


At the present day all the arrowroot 
manufactured in Queensland is produced 
in the Albert, Pimpama, and Nerang 
districts. At Pimpama the Messrs. 
Lahey had extensive plantations and a 
well-equipped manufactory. Ornieau, 
where a considerable quantity of arrow- 
root is grown, was taken up under the 
old ‘Sugar and Coffee Regulations,” by 
Major Boyd, who erected asugar mill 
and grew cane for several years. He 
named his plantation ‘‘ Ormeau,” hence 
the name of the railway station on the 
South Coast line. A very interesting 
account of the arrowroot industry, by 
H L.—presumably Mr. Leahy— 
appeared in the ‘ Brisbane Courier” of 
17th October last, and we reproduce it as 
showing the rise and progress of the 
industry since its initiation :— 


GROWERS AND PRICES. 


At present the growers are all situated 
about Yatala, Pimpama, Ormeau, and 
Nerang, and the principal ones are 
Messrs. J. Latimer and Sons, Doherty 
Bros., R. Doherty, Mayes, W. Murtha, 
Mills, J. Bull, and Mrs. Clarke. The 
total area under cultivation is about 200 
acres, and Messrs. Doherty Bros. and R. 
Doherty are the largest growers, having 
between them about 100 acres, while 
Messrs. Latimer Bros., at Nerang, have 
35 acres. The other growers cultivate 
10 to 15 acres each of this product. The 
yield ofthe marketable product ranges 
from 15 to 30 ewt. per acre, and the total 
production is about 690,000 lb., or just 
the same as was estimated by Mr. 
Samuel Grimes, in an article written by 
him on arrowroot cultivation in 1888. 


_The price to the grower varies con- 
siderably. Two years agoit brought 
about £10 a ton, but this year the 
demand has increased, and fully £20a 
ton has been obtained. The demand has 
been largely stimulated by the spread of 
the knowledge that arrowroot is quite 
equal to starch for most kinds of 
laundry work, while even at present 
prices itis only half the cost. As_ its 
value as starch becomes more widely 
known, there is little doubt that a 
market will be developed fora largely 
increased supply. Taking the figures 
for last year, we find that 1,284,815 lb. of 
starch, valued at £17,375, was imported 
into Queensland, mostly from Victoria, 
and much of thiscould no doubt be 
replaced by the cheaper and equally 
effective arrowroot for all classes of 
laundry work, except cold starching— 
that is, in the case of such articles as 
shirt fronts or collars. Although its 
use asa starch is by no means new, 
the knowledge of it has in the past been 
limited and it is only recently that it 


MARCH, 1909.1 


has come into popular vogue. for years 
past arrowroot has_ been utilised chiefly 
for culinary purposes, such as the manu- 
facture of superior quality biscuits, 
light cakes, and easily digested foods 
for invalids. 


MARANTA AND CANNA. 


The Queensland arrowroot is really 
the starch product of a bulb of the 
Canna tribe of plants—namely, Canna 
edulis. Thisis mentioned particularly 
because it differs from Bermuda arrow- 
root, and cannot be sold in Great Britain 
as arrowroot without some qualifying 
term attached, such as ‘‘Queensland 
arrowroot” or ‘* Australian arrowroot.” 
How this has come about is rather 
interesting. When the Drugs and Hood 
Act was passed by the Imperial Parlia- 
ment, it was specified that arrowroot is 
the product of the plant Maranta 
arundinacec. That is what Bermuda 
and Mauritius arrowroots are made 
from; and manufactured arrrowroot 
from the Canna edulis was then practi- 
eally unknown in Great Britain. How 
little actual difference there is between 
the two is indicated by the following 
analysis, taking the best Bermuda 
arrowroot (Maranta arundinacec) at 2s. 
6d. per lb., and the Queensland arrowroot 
(Canna edulis) at 2d. or 3d. per lb, :— 


Bermuda Queensland 

Arrowroot. Arrowroot. 
Moisture... 13:00 to 16°50 17°36 
Starch es 82°24. 81°52 
Ash *124: 142: 
Proteids 052 078 
Fibre 4:09 to 1:20 “20 
The result is, therefore, chemically 


about the same, particularly in regard 
to starch, which is the chief constituent. 
There is a little more moisturein the 
Canna, and more fibre in the Maranta. 
Under the microscope the Canna arrow- 
root shows a more silky texture, and the 
grains are slightly coarser. 

The Maranta arundinacee 
equally well in Queensland with the 
Canna edulis, and arrowroot-growers 
have at various times cultivated it. It 
has been known as white arrowroot 
(from the colour of the bulbs), while the 
present article is called purple arrow- 
root. The reason that Maranta has 
never become popular here is that it 
yields only half the quantity of arrow- 
root given by the Canna, and the 
growers could get no more for the 
product; and also because the excess of 
fibre in the Maranta made the matter of 
treatment more difficult. 


METHODS OF CULTIVATION. 


A visit to some of the arrowroot farms 
has just been made to ascertain how the 


grows 


237 


Hadible Products. 


industry is progressing, and how itis 
being conducted. There is a similarity 
among them all. The rich alluvial 
pockets along the banks of creeks are 
the growing grounds. A manufacturing 
plant, comprising boiler, engine, pump- 
ing, pulping, and straining machinery 
is required, which costs about £500. 
Then there has to be a drying ground, 
with the requisite frames, and a shed 
for storage and packing purposes. 


The bulbs of the Canna are sown in 
prepared ground from September to 
December, when the weather is showery, 
the rows being 6 ft. apart and 4 ft. 
between the plants, The usual cultiva- 
tion follows to keep the ground clear of 
weeds until the plants get tuo big. A 
field of Canna presents a pretty sight, 
the broad leaves of dark-green giving a 
fine impression of richness, and some- 
times also scarlet flowers are to be seen 
on the plants. From six to eight 
months brings the crop to maturity, and 
a little frost is then beneficial by shrivel- 
ling up the tops and concentrating the 
starch in the bulbs, The tops are eut 
off by means of a cane knife or bill hook, 
and the bulbs—something like potatoes, 
but larger—are then dug as required 
for milling. 


PROCESS OF MANUFACTURE, 


The bulbs are carted to the milland 
shovelled into a root-washer—a trough 
10 ft. or 12 ft. long, through which water 
is continuously flowing, and in which a 
splindle revolves and works the bulbs 
up to the end of the trough, There an 
elevator receives them and carries them 
up to themill. There they are grated in 
a grinder, or perforated wooden drum, 
revolving at great speed, and the pulp 
passed through to a sieve of perforated 
metal, clean water all the time falling on 
the pulp. A beater forces the farina and 
water through the sieve, while the fibre is 
discharged on toa dump. The farina 
from the sieve goes into a revolving 
copper drum, which has.also perforated 
sides, and this takes away some more 
of the impurities, while the farina goes 
down into a long trough, through which 
a stream of water is constantly running. 
The arrowroot settles at the bottom of 
the trough, and after some hours of 
washing is dug out and put into tubs, 
or other troughs, and more clean water 
with it. _ That is repeated three times, 
the farina during the last having to 
pass through asieve of a fine muslin. 
After that the arrowroot is dug out, 
placed on calico sheets, and put out 
on frames to dry. The whole process, 
from the digging of the bulbs to the 
drying of the prepared  arrowroot, 
occupies about twenty-four hours. 


Edible Products. 


It will easily be seen that it is of 
little use trying to manufacture arrow- 
root unless there is a plentiful supply 
of good clean water. Mr. J, Latimer, 
who had eight acres under arrowroot 
at Yatala this year, was working his 
mill two or three days a week, and pro- 
ducing about half a ton of arrowroot 
aday. Todo this, he estimated that 
24,000 gallons of water were used in 
eight hours. 


The refuse, fibre, and pulp are carted 
back to the fields for use as manure. 


After drying, the arrowroot is ready 
for bagging, and it is put in sacks lined 
with calico ready for market. Most of 
the arrowroot is brought to Brisbane 
by steamers on account of the cheaper 
freights. By railway from Stapylton to 
South Brisbane (24 miles) the freight is 
8s. per ton, and 2s. 6d. more has to be 
paid for cartage to business places in 
the city—a total of 10s. 6d. per ton if by 
rail. By steamer from Yatala_ the 
freight is 5s. per ton and Is. 6d. a ton 
cartage from the wharf to the stores— 
total, 6s. 6d. By train the cost from 
Nerang is 12s., andby steamer 8s.;so that 
the advantage of water carriage will 
easily be recognised in the case of pro- 
ducts which leave only a small margin 
of profit. 

Mr. T. Doherty, one of the principal 
growers, remarked that arrowroot gave 
about the same return as corn or pota- 
toes, but it wasasurer crop. It would 
stand flooding that would kill potatoes, 
and dry weather would not affect it so 
adversely as it would corn. 


At the Melbourne Exhibition, 
Murtha received the gold medal for 
arrowroot, and J. Latimer the silver 
medal; and at Karl’s Court Exhibition 
(London), in 1889, Messrs. J. Latimer and 
Sons received asilvermedal and diploma 
for their exhibit of arrowroot. 


EARLY HISTORY oF ARROWROOT. 


The name of Mr. Samuel Grimes has 
long been connected with arrowroot 
manufacture, and he assisted it along 
very materially in years past. At the 
present time, Mr. J. Latimer is prob- 
ably the grower who has been longest 
in the business. He related how in 1868 
he went to Messrs R. and G. Board’s 
plantation, Malungmavel, to _ erect 
some machinery for the sugar-making, 
and also to put up an arrowroot manu- 
facturing plant of a primitive type. 
Messrs. Board had ten acres under 
arrowroot, and they then got £40 per 
ton for it. At that time Mr. Grimes 
was also growing some. In those days 
the whole of the product went to Mel- 
bourne. As sugar was then paying 
very well, Messrs. Board relinquished 


W. 


238 


{MarcH, 1909. 


arrowroot growing, but Messrs. Grimes 
and Lahey continued with it, and 
soon afterwards some small growers 
began to raise the bulb. Since then it 
has continued to be a small farmer’s 
crop, largely on account of labour con- 
ditions making it unremunerative to 
pay much outside the grower’s family. 
The 200 acres grown this year will 
probably produce 250 tons of market- 
able arrowroot, worth approximately 
£5,000. There are areas of suitable 
land with good water available in the 
district to widely extend the industry 
should the demand justify it, and 
no doubt the day will come when much 
of the starch used in Australia is manu- 
factured in the same district, from 
arrowroot, potatoes, maize, and other 
products which flourish so well there.— 
Queensland Agricultural Journal, Vol, 
XXII., Part I, Jan. 1909, 


TROPICAL FRUITS IN COVENT 


GARDEN. 


According to a leading fruit salesman 
in Covent Garden, ‘‘the demand for 
rare tropical fruits is increasing.” Not 
many years ago the Banana, for instance, 
was a rare fruit in England. To-day the 
fruits are within the reach of all classes, 
being retailed in every greengrocer’s 
shop, as well as in the costermonger’s 
barrow. Moreover. Bananas are now 
imported not only in the fresh, but also 
in the preserved state, as well as in the 
form of flour. The imports of this 
fruitin the fresh state have in a few 
years increased by millions of bunches; 
at certain seasons special express trains 
are provided for the speedy and safe 
conveyance to London of West Indian 
Bananas arriving at Bristol. A similar 
story could be told of Pineapples, which 
are now becoming a popular fruit in 
England being imported from the 
Canary Islands, Straits Settlements, 
West Indies and Natal. The culture of 
Pineapples in English hot-houses is no 
longer necessary, although it affords an 
interesting pursuit to those who can 
afford it as a luxury. , 


The principal hindrance to the in- 
creased importation of tropical fruits 
lies in the fact that they decay so readily 
after reaching acertain stage of ripeness. 
This difficulty is, however, being over- 
come to some extent by means ot effective 
cold storage on board ship, and by rapid 
sea transit. It is to these circumstances 
that we chiefly owe such recent intro- 
duction from tropical climes as the 
Mango(Mangifera Indica), Avocado-pear 
(Persea gratissima), Grape-fruit, Cheri- 
moyer (called Custard Apple in Covent 


Marce, 1909.) 


Garden), and Passion fruit (Passiflora). 
So far, the demand for these ‘fancy 
fruits,” as they are called in the trade, 
is limited, and the prices charged for 
them are high. As the fruits, however, 
become better known and the means of 
transport more perfect, it is reasonable 
to suppose that they will become popu- 
lar, and with a greater demand they 
could be sold at lower prices. Itis often 
said that the chief recommendation of 
most tropical fruits lies in their novelty, 
Although this may be admitted in some 
cases, there are striking exceptions. It 
is true that the taste for certain tropical 
fruits has to be acquired, but in the 
case of the Tomato, an acquired taste 
has been followed by the immense popu- 
larity of this fruit. It has been said by 
travellers that the three most delicious 
fruits in the world are the Pineapple, 
Cherimoyer, and Mangosteen (Garcinia 
Mangostana). The Mangosteen is as yet 
practically unknown in Kurope, but its 
good qualities may be judged from the 
opinion of Dr. Abel who said that “of 
eastern fruits the celebrated Mangosteen 
is first in beauty and flavour.” Another 
authority declared that ‘‘the flavour of 
the Mangosteen partakes of the com- 
bined taste of the Pineapple and Peach, 
and other equally good but inexpres- 
sible qualities.” A peculiarity of this 
fruitis that a large number may be 
eaten at once. Therefore, one can under- 
stand why these are always charged for 
as extras on hotel menus in Ceylon. 


Covent Garden, the great horticul- 
tural market of England, affords a 
special opportunity of forming an ac- 
quaintance with tropical fruits which are 
seldom seen elsewhere in this country. 
Rare tropical nuts and fruits may also 
be seen and tasted at Shearn’s Fruit- 
arian Restaurant in Tottenham Court 
Road, where numerous dainty dishes 
are made entirely of fruits. 


The following sorts have recently 
been noted in Covent Garden, and it 
may be of interest to give a few of the 
particulars concerning these as well as 
descriptive notes from my own expe- 
rience in the tropics :— 


Manco (Mangifera indica),—This ts a 
medium-sized or large tree; the fruit 
varies from the size of a plum to that 
of alarge goose’s egg; very juicy and 
often of a delicious flavour; it is very 
popular in the Eastern tropics for 
desert and for making chutneys. The 
fruits seen in Covent Garden are usually 
brought from the Canary Islands, and 
they are small, They are sold wholesale 
at from 4s. 6d. to 6s. per dozen, good 
specimens being retailed occasionally at 
2s. to 3s. each. 


939 


Edible Products. 


AVOCADO-PEAR (Persea gratissima).— 
A small evergreen tree, having fruits 
similar to large green pears, sometimes 
streaked with red. It isa salad fruit 
rather than dessert; the pulp is of the 
consistency of firm butter, and is scooped 
out with aspoon, being flavoured with 
vinegar, pepper, and salt. This fruit 
has recently become popular in America. 
It is regularly imported to London from 
the Canary Islands, and finds ready 
buyers in Covent Garden at 4s, to 6s. 
a dozen, but good fruits are sometimes 
pou’ at the price of 2s. to 2s. 6d. 
each, 


GRAPE-FRUIT (Citrus decumana var). 
—A globular fruit resembling a large 
orange, to which it is allied. It is im- 
ported in cases of 50 to 100 or more 
fruits, according to their size, and the 
fruits are retailed at 6d.to 10d. each. 
This fruit comes chiefly from Florida, 
where it is very popular. American 
residents in London are the principal 
buyers. ‘‘ Grape-fruit” is an American 
name, the fruit being a variety of the 
Pomelo or Shaddock. 


POMEGRANATE (Pudica granatwin).—A 
shrub or smalltree, with showy scarlet 
flowers. The fruits are large and 
globular, about 3 inches or more in dia- 
meter, sometimes ofa bright red or 
orange-yellow in colour. The interior 
consists of numerous, closely-packed, 
large seeds, which are coated with an 
acid, juicy, and astringent pulp. Pome- 
granates are imported from South 
Europe andithe Mediterranean, occasion- 
ally retailed in London at about 6d. to 
10d, each or {cheaper. 


PERSIMMON (Diospyros Kaki).—A small 
bushy tree of the Ebony family, The 
fruit is the form of a moderately-sized 
apple, bright orange-yellow in colour, 
with ashiny rind. The pulp, yellowish 
in colour, is ofja peculiar astringent 
flavour, for which a taste has to be 
acquired before it canbe enjoyed. The 
fruit has an attractive appearance, and 
it travele well. Persimnions are sent to 
Covent Garden from- South Europe, 
neatly packed in tissue paper and 
shavings, in boxes containing about two 
dozen fruitsin each. The fruit sells at 
about 8d. to 10d. ‘each. 


CHERIMOYER OR CUSTARD APPLE 
(Anona Cherimolia).—A large heart- 
shaped, dull-green fruit, the rind ‘of 
which has the appearance of being 
formed of scales. The interior contains 
white granular sweet pulp, somewhat 
resembling custard. Weekly consign- 
ments arrive in Covent Garden from 
Madeira during the winter months. The 
fruits are retailed at about ls. or more 
each, being sometimes sold in West End 


Edible Products. 240 


shops at double or treble this price. 
Cherimoyers do not travel well, and a 
large proportion of every consignment 
arrives in London in an unsaleable con- 
dition. 


PASSION-FRUIT (Passifloria edulis).— 
The fruit of a pretty climber, of the size 
of a large Plum, purple when ripe; the 
interior consists of sweet acid pulp in- 
termixed with the seed; this, beaten 
up with a pinch of bicarbonate of soda, 
forms a delicious drink. When ripe, the 
vind soon shrivels, giving the fruit an 
unfavourable appearance; hence it is 
not suited to the Hnglish market. 
Trial shipments have been made from 
Australia which transport well, but the 
shrivelled appearance of the rind is 
usually against its sale. In Covent Gar- 
den the name “ Passion-fruit” is given 
-to another species of Passiflora, which 
seems to be the Sweet Cup. 

SwEET Cur oR WATER LEMON OF 
JAMAICA (Passifloria laurifolia),—The 
fruit of this is of the size of a duck’s egg, 
the rind being smooth and of a_ pale 
amber colour. It is imported regularly 
from Madeira, where it is known by the 
name ‘‘Maracugia.” The fruits are re- 
tailed in London at 6d. to 8d. each. Both 
this and the preceding species are some- 
times known in Covent Garden by the 
name ‘Granadilla,” a term which is 
more correctly applied to Passiflora 
quandrangularis. 

MONSTERA DELICIOSA.—A very hand- 
some creeper, with huge leathery, curi- 
ously perforated leaves. The fruit is 
like a long, green cone, from 8 to 15 
inches Icng; it is pleasantly fragrant 
when ripe, and partakes of the flavour 
of Pineapple ; but the small, black hairs 
attached to the edible portion cause an 
uncomfortable sensation in the throat. 
The fruits arrive in Covent Garden from 
the Canary Islands, and occasionally 
from Jamaica, and are soldat Is. 6d. 
to 2s. 6d. each, 

GUAVA (Psidiuin Guava).—A small 
tree. The fruit variesin size accord- 
ing to variety, but usually it is oval 
and about the size of a medium Pear. 
It is renowned for making jelly, but 
is not popular for dessert. Yet the 
fruit has avrived in London from Ma- 
deira in increasing quantities during 
the last few years; itis said to sell at 
2s. 6d. to 3s. 6d. a dozen. 


Brazit Nut (Bertholletia excelsa).— 
A tall, handsome tree of Brazil. The 
fruits are globular in shape and dark 
brown, 4 to 6inches in diameter, with 
a thick, woody husk; this contains the 
hard-shelled seed, which are the Brazil 
Nuts of commerce. They are commonly 


retailed at 6d. to 8d. a pound, according 

toquality. These are used at some res- 

tame instead of suet for making pud- 
ings. 


SouarRi Nut or Butter Not (Caryocar 
nuciferun).—A lofty, handsome tree, 
with large opposite leaves, native of 
tropical’ South America. It produces 
large, dark-brown fruits of the size’ of 
a child’s head, and similar to the Brazil- 
nut fruit. It contains about four large, 
kidney-shaped seeds; these have a red- 
dish, woody shell, which can only be 
broken by an axe or similar implement. 
The seeds are the Butter Nuts of shops; 
each contains’ a large, white kernel, 
which has a very pleasant, nutty flavour. 
The nuts are sold in England at about 
3d. or 4d. each. 


CasHnw Nut (Anacardium occiden- 
tale.\—The fruit of a moderate-sized 
spreading tree. It consists of two dis- 
tinct parts--a much-enlarged. succulent, 
green receptacle, at the end of which is 
the hard, brown, kidney-shaped fruit. 
The latter contains the Nut, which when 
roasted is very palatable. These Nuts. 
though scarcely known in = Covent 
Garden, are imported from India and 
the West Indies by afew dealers, who 
find no difficulty in disposing of good 
samples at 6d. to 8d.a lb. The Nuts 
will keep in good condition for several 
years it kept dry. Asample ten years 
old was exhibited at the recent Colonial 


' Fruit,Show at the R. H. S. Hall. 


GROUND Nut oR MonKEY Not (Ara- 
chis hypogea).—A small, leguminous 
annual, which has the peculiar habit of 
burying its young pods underground, 
where they develop and ripen; these 
are forked up when ready for harvest- 
ing, cleaned, sorted and exported in 
their small, grey, papery shell. They 
keep good for a long period, and are 
generally seen in small lots for sale in 
greengrocers and fruiterers’ shops, the 
retail price being about 38d. to 4d. a lb. 


Licni or Lircut (Nepheliwn Litchi).— 
A celebrated Chinese fruit borne on a 
medium-sized tree. The Lichi is usually 
of the form of a small Plum, with a thin, 
brittle shell of a reddish colour, covered 
with wart-like protuberances. It is 
filled with a sweet, jelly-like, opaque: 
pulp, and is held in great esteem for 
dessert and preserves in China. Lichies 
are Cou ane in London at ls. to Is. 6d. 
per lb. 


Loquat (Photinia Japonica).—A small 
Japanese tree. The fruit resembles a 
small Apple or Medlar, and is of a sub- 
acid flavour, It is sometimes imported 
from South Europe. 


- 


7 
- 
¢ 


FOIA it SF NBS as 


wat Pn a se oe 


Marcs, 1969.] 


In addition to the foregoing fruits, 
there are those which have become 
standard commodities, such as Oranges, 
Dates, Figs, &e. Of equatorial or strictly 
tropical fruits, however, there yet 
remain unrepresented in Covent Garden 
@ number which are of excellent quality, 
and which could not fail to become 
popular in Europe if they could only 
be imported in good condition. The 
celebrated Durian fruit, for instance, is 
itself ‘‘ worth a journey to the East to 
enjoy the pleasure of eating it,” in the 
estimation of so high an authority as 
Dr. Russell Wallace. Notwithstanding 
its very offensive odour, the Malays 
attribute marvellous properties to this 
fruit, and when it is in season they 
camp out in families so as to enjoy it. to 
the full. The following fruits are all of 
excellent quality, and worth the atten- 
tion of epicures and dealers in tropical 
fruits. 


Dorian (Durio zibethinus).—A gigan- 
tic, quick-growing, handsome tree, thriv- 
ing only in moist and hotdistricts. The 
large oblong fruits, which are covered 
with formidable spikes, are borne mostly 
on the stouter branches, each weighing, 
when ripe, several pounds. The edible 
portion is the peculiar, fat-like, creamy 
substance in which the seeds are em- 
bedded. In spite of its odour, Europeans 
and others soon acquire a taste for it, 
often preferring it to all other fruits. 
Locally, the fruits are sold at the equiva- 
lent of 1@d. to Is 6d. each. This fruit 
has probably never been grown in 
Europe; indeed it may be questioned 
whether it has been seen there in an 
edible condition. 


MANGOSTEEN (Garcinia mangostana).— 
A medium-sized, slow-growing tree, with 
large, handsome leaves. The pretty, 
smooth-skinned fruits are of the size of 
Apples, perfectly round, and purple 
when ripe. Surrounding the seed isa 
snowy-white substance, which has a 
delicious flavour and melts in the mouth. 
The fruits aresold at about ls. to Is. 4d. 
perdoz. They are always charged for 
asextraat hotels in Ceylon. <A few 
specimens of this fruit were once grown 
in the conservatory at Syon House Gar- 
dens, near London, and were, I believe, 
presented to the late Queen Victoria. 


SAPODILLA OR NaseBERRY (Achras 
sapota).—A small, slow-growing tree. 
The fruits vary from round to oval in 
shape, and are about the size of small 
apples. When ripe they become soft 
and of a dull-brownish colour, the skin 
being very thin. The brownish pulp is 
of a sweet delicious flavour. Few tro- 
pical fruits can equal this one as a 
dessert fruit. Iam not aware that it 
has ever been seen in Europe. 


1 


2AL 


Edible Products 


PapaAw OR IREE-MELON (Carica 
papaya).—A small herbaceous tree, with 
large palmate leaves; the large, hollow 
fruits are roundish or oblong in shape, 
10 to 15 inches long, resembling a Sweet 
Melon. They are very refreshing, and 
are said to be an excellent aid to diges- 
tion. Vegetable pepsin (papain) is ob- 
tained from the fruit in an unripe state. 
The leaves have the property of render- 
ing meat tender if wrapped in them for 
a short time. 


TREE TOMATO (Cyphomandra betacea). 
—A shrub or small tree. The fruit is of 
the form of a hen’s egg, and is produced 
in large numbers. Orange-yellow or 
reddish-purple, when ripe, it has a very 
pleasant, slightly acid flavour, and is 
used as dessert or stewed. Though of 
the tomato family and resembliug the 
tomato in the interior, it has no resem- 
blance to it in flavour. The tree is 
suited to sub-tropical conditions, and 
the tree bears transport well. 


RAMBUTAN (Nephelium lappaceum).— 
A large, spreading tree. The fruit is 
orange-yellow or bright-red, about 2 
inches long, of an oval form, and covered 
with long, soft, fleshy spines of the 
same colour as the rind. Surrounding 
and adhering to the seeds isa white, 
aciduous pulp, which is pleasant and 
refreshing, 


PURPLE GUAVA (Psidium Cattleya- 


num),—A small, slender tree with 
smooth bark and shiny leaves. The 
fruits, which are produced in great 


abundance, in two cropsa year, are 
readily distinguished from the common 
guavas by their deep, claret-coloured 
rind. They are filled with a juicy, very 
agreeable, acid-sweet pulp, 

The following fruits have an import- 
ant economic value in the tropics, but, 
owing to their perishable nature, are 
not exactly suitable for importation to 
this country :— 


BREAD-FRUIT (Artocarpus incisa).—A 
medium-sized, very handsome tree, with 
large, shining, deeply-cut leaves. The 
fleshy, oval fruit is of the size of a Musk 
Melon, pale green in colour;it consists 
of a solid mass of succulent pulp, which, 
when sliced and roasted, is said to 
“resemble the crumb of a new loaf.” 
It isesteemed asa vegetable for curries 
andis prepared and eaten in various 
other ways. The Rev. Ferminger, who 
partook of the fruit in Ceylon, con- 
sidered it “hardly distinguishable from 
an excellent butter pudding.” This 
fruit forms the principal diet of the 
natives of the South Sea Islands. On 
the recommendation of Captain Cook, 
the explorer, special expeditions were 
gent by the British Government to the 


Edible Products. 


South Sea Islands for the purpose of 
transporting live plants of the bread- 
fruit tree to the West Indies, where the 
tree is now established and commonly 
cultivated. The best varietiesdo not 
bear seeds. The tree is largely grown 
along the south-western sea-coast in 
Ceylon. 

JAK-FRUIT (Artocarpus integrifolia).— 
This enormous truit, which may weigh 
anything up to 112 lbs., is borne on the 
trunk and older branches, sometimes 
at the base of the trunk, or even under 
the ground surface. it is always green, 
with a white or cream-coloured, fleshy, 
solid mass of pulp. Inshapeit is usually 
oblong and irregular, though sometimes 
almost round or oval. The succulent 
vind consists of somewhat hexagonal 
knobs. In Ceylon the Jak-fruit forms 
an important article of food to the 
natives. Itiscut up into sections and 
sold in every bazaar or boutique at a few 
cents per portion. When ripe, the 
whole fruit has an overpowering odour. 
The large, oval seeds are roasted and 
eaten in curries. 

GRANADILLA (Passiflora quadrangu- 
luris).—A strong-growing climber, bear- 
ing large, oblong, greevish-yellow fruits, 
not unlike small vegetable marrows, 
‘which are hollow when ripe and contain 
@ mass of purplish, sweet acid-pulp, 
mixed with the flat seeds. In an unripe 
State the succulent portion of the fruit 
is boiled and used as a vegetable. The 
fleshy, tuberous root also furnishes an 
article of food. 

HOoOUDAPARE (Dillenia indica).—A me- 
dium-sized tree, with large, hand- 
some, serrate leaves, native of Ceylon 
and other parts of tropical Asia. It 
produces a profusion of large, round, 
green fruits, each about 3 inches in dia- 
meter, being very juicy and acid. The 
fruit is formed by the much-enlarged, 
fleshy, closely-imbricate sepals; it is 
used for making jelly and a cooling 
drink, also as a vegetable in curries. 
The tree is suited to most districts at 
medium elevations, and is often culti- 
vated both for ornament and its fruit. 


H. F. MACMILLAN, B.L-s. 
—The Gardener’s Chronicle, Vol. XLIV.. 
‘No. 3548. December, 1908. 


RICE CULTURE IN THE UNITED 


STATES. 


‘ Rice growing has become an important 
‘industry in the United States, notably 
‘in Louisiana, Texas, the Carolinas and 
‘Georgia. Lowlying lands, easily irri- 
‘gated and drained, naturally constitute 
the chief part of the area given over 


242 


[Marcu, 1909. 


to rice culture, and it is stated that the 
best results are obtained on medium 
loamy soils, underlaid by a stiff subsoil. 
A rice that has given excellent results 
in the States is a Japanese variety 
known as “Kiushu.” Carolina Golden 
rice is also tamous for its yield and 
quality, 


A British consular report (No. 625, mis- 
cellaneous series) was issued some time 
ago, giving afull andelaborate account 
of the methods of cultivation, irriga- 
tion, harvesting, thrashing, ete., in 
general practice among the rice growers 
of the States. The following extracts, 
which may be of some interest to cul- 
tivators in British Guiana and other 
parts of these colonies where rice is 
grown, have been taken from this report. 


For purposes of irrigation, rice fields 
are surrounded by a marginal canal, and 
are divided up into strips of land about 
50 feet wide and of various lengths by 
ditches which extend from the marginal 
canal on the side of the field to the 
marginal canal on the other. These 
ditches are about three feet wide and 
three to four feet deep. 


The surface of the field should have a 
uniform grade in order to be properly 
irrigated. An uneven surface requires 


more labour, produces smaller crops, and 


in the end damages the crop itself. Too 
much water in some places and too little 
in others soon show injurious effects on 
the soil. On sucha field the crop does 
not ripen uniformly, the field shows 
alternate patches of yellow and green, 
and the grain when harvested is found 
very inferior in quality. The planter 
whose crop is uniform in quality knows 


.the value of applying water evenly over 


the entire surface. The rice lands of the 
Gulf and Atlantic states have a very 
gentle slope and do not, as a rule, require 
much grading, 


Drainage is very essential to rice 
culture. Planting, cultivating, and har- 
vesting all depead to a_ considerable 
extent on drainage. On grounds in- 
sufficiently drained planting is never well 
done, for the ground cannot be put in 
condition, cultivation is greatly impeded, 
men cannot go on the fields to work, the 
ground cannot be stirred, and weeds and 
noxious grasses flourish. 


Before the crop can be harvested, it is 
necessary that the field be drained. When 
the land is wet the harvester works at 
a great disadvantage, the fields are dug 
up by the labourers, aud the surface be- 
comes sodden and sour. On account of 
insufficient drainage, grain has otten to 
be taken from the fields to some high 
place where it is stacked and.cured. ° - - 


raat 


Marcu, 1909] 


In the Carolinas and Georgia the lands, 
asa rule, are prepared for planting in 
December end January. The ground is 
ploughed three or four inches deep, run 
over with a disk harrow, and then by a 
roller which breaks up the cluds and 
makes the surface level andcompact. In 
different sections the time of ploughing 
varies and the methods differ. Insome 
instances the soil is so stiff that it is 
necessary to flood the fields before they 
ean be ploughed. 


Riceisa shallow feeder. Some planters 
are therefore of the opinion that deep 
ploughing is unnecessary. It might 
appear, however, that deep ploughing 
would give new land each year for the 
plant, In upland culture the land is 

repared as it is for corn, and in North 
Garonne the crop is raised in much the 
same way. 


On lands that are flooded by rivers 
which carry a rich sediment, sufficient 
nutritive material may be deposited to 
insure its continued fertility. On lands 
not so favourably situated the soil be- 
comes greatly impoverished if some ferti- 
lizer is not used. Many different kinds 
of fertilizers are inuse inthe rice belt. 
Among these are cotton seed meal, dried 
blood, bone meal, kainit, and tankage. 
The last named is a special mixture for 
these lands. Most fertilizers contain a 
large percentage of potash and are 
spread with very satistactory results. 

Rice is generally planted with a drill 
in rows which are 14 inches apart, and 
covered by means ofaharrow. The drill 
is gauged to putin from 54 to 81 pounds 
of unhulled seed to the acre. In sume 
fields trenches about 2 inches deep and 
14 inches apart are made with trenching 
hoes and the seed dropped in and covered, 
Sometimes, in what is known as the open 
trench method, the trench is left open 
in order to save time and labour, the 
seed having been clayed in order to 
prevent it from floating when the field 
is flooded. Claying consists in stirring 
the seed in clayed water until a coat of 
clay covers each grain, 


In the North Carolina uplands the 
common corn drill is used in planting. 
Planting with a drillinsures equal dis- 
tribution, one of the essentials for the 
greatest productivity of a given piece 
of land. The amount sown per acre 
varies, the average, however, is esti- 
mated at thiee bushels. 


One of the most important features in 
the culture of rice is flooding. Many 
planters flood the field immediately 
after the seed is sown, planting and 
watering on the same day. This first 
water, called the ‘‘ sprout flow,” protects 
the grain from the birds and causes ger- 


248 


Hdible Products. 


mination. The sprout flow is left on the 
field till the seed sprouts. In early 
planting this requires from six to eight 
days. Rice planted in June sprouts in 
twenty-four hours. When the sprout 
flow is taken off the field remains with- 
out water until the plants come up, and 
the rows across the field can be plainly 
seen when the water is again turned on. 
This is called the “stretch flow,” and 
remains on the field until the plants are 
5$ or 6inches in height, This requires 
from two to six days, the time depend- 
ing very largely on the weather condi- 
tions. The stretch flow serves the 
double purpose of rendering nourish- 
ment available to the rice plant and of 
impeding and destroying the growth of 
weeds and injurious grasses. 

When the plants have grown sufficient- 
ly high under the stretch flow, the water 
is gradually lowered to an average depth 
of four inches, where it remains from 
thirteen to thirty days, according to the 
strength of the soil, the condition of the 
pea and the temperature. Thestretch 

ow is taken off, and the following period 
of forty or fifty days, when the crop 
grows under dry conditions, is known as 
the ‘‘dry growth.” During this period the 
crop is cultivated with horse and hand 
hoes. All weeds, grasses, and self-grown 
rice are uprooted and the ground is 
thoroughly stirred. It is during the dry 
growth that conditions are most favour- 
able for grubs, and an intermediate flow 
is sometimes necessary to protect the 
erop from these pests. 


When the plants begin to joint, the 
“harvest flow” is turned on. first the 
water is raised until it covers all the 
high places in the fields, and is held so 
for three, four or five days, after \which 


‘it is lowered to the level reached by the 


stretch flow. Ina few days the water is 
again raised till it almost touches the rice 
heads, where it remains until the grain 
is ripe. The harvest flow extends over 
sixty-five days, and in order that the 
water may not become stagnant it is 
shifted every ten days. When the grain 
is ripe the heads bend low. The field is 
then drained for harvest. 


Rice iscut when the straw barely begins 
to colour, when the lower partof the head 
(about one-eighth) is still ‘‘in the milk. ” 
If cutting is delayed until the entire head 
is quite ripe, the quality is inferior and 
the quantity greatly reduced by the loss 
incurred by shelling out in handling. 

It is cut 10 or 12inches from the ground, 
leaving a high stubble on which the grain 
is laid to cure. In about twenty-four 
hours, when the grain is thoroughly dry, 
it is bound into sheaves, tied with straw, 
and shocked, or stood upright in the sun 
to dry. As soon as possible the sheaves 


Edible Products. 


are taken in carts and wagons to the 
thrashing mill, one of which is placed on 
each plantation. 


Thrashing is done on nearly all plant- 
ations with a steam thrasher. The 
machines are stationary and very large. 
Thrashing mills are erected on canals or 
on the banks of streams, in order that 
boats may come to the mill and carry 
the produce to market. In the process 
of thrashing, tbe grain is thoroughly 
cleansed by fans and screens, which re- 
move all the light and inferior grains, 
chaff, etc., from the marketable article. 
This is then carried by elevators into 
large bins, where itis stored. Great care 
is taken that the grain be thoroughly dry 
before thrashing. 


The rough rice or paddy, as it is taken 
to the mill, has two coverings—a thin, 
close cuticle, encased by a coarse, thick, 
stiff husk. Milling consists in removing 
these coverings. In the process 20pounds 
of husks are taken from 100 pounds of 
paddy. 


The grainis usually brought to mill 
in boats and taken from the boats by 
elevators. The first operation the paddy 
undergoes in the mill consists in reclean- 
ing, after which it passes between 
milling stones, distant from one another 
by about two-thirds of the length of the 
grain. These tear off the husks, and as 
the product passes over screens and 
bellows, the chaff and grain are 
separated. The grain is now placed in 
mortars, wherein the cuticle is removed 
by pounding with pestles. When the 
cuticle is removed, the contents of 
the mortar form a mixture of rice 
flour and chaff. This now _ passes 
over ‘flour screens,” by means of 
which all flouris removed. The “chaff 
fan” is then used, and the rice, deli- 


vered as clean grain, is run into 
cooling bins. In the preceding process 
so much heat has been generated 


that cooling is necessary. For about 
nine hours the grain remains in the 
cooling bin, after which one more separ- 
ation takes place. By means of ‘‘ brush 
screens ” the large rice is separated from 
the smaller and the little flour that has 
not yet been removed is brushed from 
the grain. The product is now ready 
for the final process, polishing. 


The commercial article is always 
polished. This consists in giving the 
grain a glossy appearance, and makes 
much difference in the market value. 
The process that gives the gloss removes 
much of the most nutritious parts of the 
grain, including nearly all of the fats 
and most of the flavour. The food value 
of rice flour is many times greater than 
the food value of the polished product. 


244 


[MARCH, 1908, 


Polishing is effected by pieces of skins 
passing over the rice, and by giving a 
thin, fine coat of paraffin. Within a 
cylinder of wire gauze revolves acylinder 
of wood, around which sheepskins are 
tacked, wool inside. This gives a soft 
surface, over which tanned skin, worked 
toa velvet-like softness, is fastened. The 
grain, with apiece of paraffin, is put into 
the largecylinder. The cylinder revolves, 
and, passing the soft surface over the 
grain, gives the pearly lustre.— West 
Indies Agricultural News. 


MEALIE HAY. 

A paper read at the September meet- 
ing of the Upper Albany Farmers’ 
and Fruit Growers’ Association, by 
Harry H. Harps, Sunnyside, Gra- 
ham’s Town. 


In presenting this paper for your con- 
sideration and discussion, I make no 
claim to being an expert, neither do I 
claim to having discovered anything 
new ; but, having made the experiment 
and not having seen any report pub- 
lished of any such fodder prepared in 
the same way, in this Colony, I offer 
you a rough detail of my experience 
in arriving at the result, feeling that 
this fodder is one that has a great 
future before it, and is one that can be 
prepared and is within the scope of any. 
The ground on which this hay was 
grown (about 7 acres) was under oats 
and just after the oat-hay was off was 
disced. One-eighth of it was manured 
with stable manure, one quarter kraal 
manure (cattle) and the balance had no 
dressing, but the whole had 100 lbs. to 
the acre of Thomas’ phosphate applied 
mixed with fine kraal manure. The 
mixing of the dry kraal manure was 


done to facilitate the application. 


The ground was ploughed and harrow- 
ed in December, the seed—presumably 
a bastard Hickory King—was drilled in ° 
on the 9th of that month, the seeds 
dropping about 6 inches apart and 3 
feet between each row. The seeds ger- 
minated and the plants grew well 
enough up to acertain time when, as 
you allare aware, we had a very dry 
spell and the growth stopped. , Not- 
withstanding the showers we had after- 
wards, the stalks did not make much 
further growth, and at the time of cut- 
ting did not average more than 8 ft. 6 in. 
high. In addition to the want of rain, 
the high winds destroyed a large pro- 
portion of the leaves. In the meantime 
the horse cultivator was put through 
twice between the rows, and the rows 
were hand-hoed once, and the stalk 
eut out about 76 inches apart. - 


hea 


- Marca, 1909,} 


On the ist of June the stalks were 
eut with the sickle, and at the time 
weré fairly free from excessive moisture, 
but the leaves were green to a certain 
extent. 


I found from experience that it would 
be more economical in every way to 
use a small chopper or a sickle with 
half the blade broken off, so that the 
stalks could be chopped instead of the 
usual sickle action. Not only is this 
quicker, but the stalks can be cut level 
or even below the surface. As soon as 
the stalks were cut they were carried 
to the different spots where the stooks 
were built. You will note that the 
stalks were not allowed to remain on 
the ground any time, but whether it 
would be an advantage to let them do 
so and wilt, especially if the leaves are 
very green, remains to be proved. 
Unfortunately, Idid not try any this 
way, so cannot compare results, but 
tomy mind it would be worth while 
making the experiment. 


The way the stooks were built was 
as follows :—A_ stake was driven firmly 
in the ground, and about 20 stalks 
placed upright round it and tied fast to 
it, other stalks were added evenly until 
adiameter of 4to 5 ft. was attained, 
any small or short stuff placed on 
the top. Athateh of stalks was then 
made and the stook was complete. 
The main point in building these stooks 
is tokeep out any rain. At the time 
of cutting the stalks, the grain on the 
cobs was dented and had lost its milki- 
ness. 


On the 29th of June, four weeks after 
cutting, we started to strip off the cobs 
and harvest the hay. The stalks being 
all one way, the boys had only to 
break the stooks, place an armful in 
front of them and with a piece of hard 
wood, pointed, proceed to rip open the 
leaves, take out the cob and throw it 
on oneside, The stalks, as they were 


. stripped of the cob, were drawn towards 


them until a fair size bundle could be 
made, say 15 to 20stalks, when they 
were tightly tied together and placed 
on one side, loaded on the wagon, and 
stacked in an open shed. 


The cropis more easily handled, and 
there is less waste by the breaking of 
the leaves when handled in this way. 

The cobs were then collected, put 
into bags—for the convenience of hand- 
ling—and placed into a hock to dry in 
the same way they are usually treated, 


When the stooks were opened, the 
perfume was the same as the best of 
grass or lucerne hay, and the cobs 
when stripped were fresh and_ bright 
but the grain had ripened, and little, if 
any, difference could be detected from 


245 


Edible Products. 


grain taken off when the cobs are 
allowed to ripen in the usual way. 
There is, of course, no secret to account 
for the fact of the grain ripening after 
the stalk is detached from its roots. 
You will all know, it is a well-known 
fact, that most plants with seeds on, 
when cut at the proper time, although 
the seed is not ripe, and, if extracted 
from tne pod, will shrivel and loose its 
germinating power. But being attach- 
ed to the plant, the sap secreted in 
the tissues is sufficient, and does ripen 
the grain. 

The actual result of the experiment 
is that approximately the same weight 
of grain was harvested as would have 
been head the cobs remained on the 
stalks standing on the lands to ripen, 
and in addition, 5 tons of excellent fod- 
der was added to the credit of the crop. 


In 1907 J also experimented on a much 
smaller scale inthe same manner, but 
instead of thatching the stooks merely 
stood the stalks round after fastening 
afew together in the centre, the con- 
sequence was most of them blew down 
and the rain spoilt the whole of the hay. 
The cobs were, however, taken off and 
dried. 

The following is ananalysis of Hick- 
ory King mealie stalks as green fodder, 
taken from an Australian journal, the 
yield per acre being 26} tons :—Moisture, 
8248; Ash, 1°66; Protein, 2:10; Crude 
Fibre, 4°91; Nitrogen free, extract of 
Sugar Starch, ete., 8°37; Ether Extract 
of Fat, etc., 0°53. 


Comparison with such a commonly 
used food stuff as Bran will perhaps 
best serve to illustrate the feeding value 
based on weight of crop and nutritive 
value. Taking the average analysis 
of Bran as containing: Protein, 11:2; 
Carbohydrates, 42:2; Fats, 25; and 
allowing it to be worth, say, £6 10s. 
per ton, then the commercial value of 
green fodder would be as 5 tol of Bran. 
We must not overlook the fact that 
the foregoing figures compare green 
fodder, containing $25 per cent. of mois- 
ture with bran. 

IT have referred to the making of hay 
from the ordinary crop, sown for grain 
only, the side suckers being taken off as 
is the usual way. What can be done 
if seed is drilled closer for fodder only 
isshewn bythe record of 26} tons of 
green fodder per acre. The hay is eaten 
readily by horses, mules, pigs and 
ostriches, and they do well on it. It is 
chaffed inthe ordinary way by a chafi 
and prickly pear cutter. Tomy mind 
there isno reason why this product, 
after having been properly cured, 
should not keep either stored or stacked 
in the open, equally aslong as Iucerne 


Edible Products: 


or anv other hay. Its possibilities if 
shredded and compressed, or if mixed 
with other fodders and compressed, are 
great and worthy of being exploited. 
If during the coming season all of you 
will experiment for yourselves and in 
due course give our Association the 
benefit of your experience, I am 
sure it will be greatly appreciated and 
be of great benefit to us all. [I am 
indebted toMr. C. W. Mally, Hastern 
Province Entomologist, for the general 
idea of the experiment and also for 
many useful suggestions. 


At asubsequent meeting, Mr. Hards 
submitted the following :— When reading 
my paper on Mealie Hay at our last 
meeting, I promised tolet you know 
the result of the analysis of this fod- 
der. I now submit a summary of re- 

ort received through the Agricultural 

epartment from the Government 
Analytical Laboratory on the analysis 
of samples of Mealie Grain and Cob, and 
Mealie Hay submitted by me from the 
bulk of crop harvested and referred to in 
that paper. For the purpose of com- 
parison I also submit the analyses of two 
other important fodders, viz., Lucerne 
Hay and Cape Oats. The analyses are 
taken from the Cape Agricultural Jour- 
nal, and the latter represents 52 samples 
from eleven districts including Alex- 
andria. These tables are well worthy of 
your attention and consideration, bear- 
ing as they do upon the feeding value of 
the fodder in question, viz.. Mealie Hay. 


ANALYSIS. 


Mealie Hay. 
Cob and Leaves and Lucerne Cape 


Grain. Stalks. Hay. Oats. 
Moisture 25°37 16°33 14:3 9°85 
Proteids 9-16 7°82* 14:7 9:53 
Fat 1°57 1°25 2°€ 6-03 
Ash 1°24 8°91 6°3 ee 
Carboydrates, in- 
cluding Fibre 62°66 65°69 28°5 60°77 
Fibre LO 21°33 33-7 ~=—:10°20 


Agricultural Journal, Cape of Good 
Hope, Vol. XXXIII., No. 5, November, 
1908. 


* [In order to avoid misunderstanding and pos- 
sible disappointment it is as well to point out that 
the comparison of a single analysis, as given above, 
with an average cf 52 analyses, of other fcdders, is 
misleading, and can have very little actual value. 
The sample of mealie hay or stover (leaves and 
stalks) submitted was evidently abnormal, 
possibly owing to conditions which were not 
fully known: The proteid content of 7°82 per cent. 
approaches very near to the maximum shown in 
analyses published by the United States Depart- 
ment of Agriculture. But the average shown by 
the American investigations sinks to between 2 and 
3 per cent., & condition which would probably be 
found similar in Africa, were an equal number 
of samples analysed and an average struck of the 
whole, The proteid contents of field-cured stover 


246. 


(MARCH, 1909, 


PADDY IN MADRAS PRESIDENCY. 


(Hetract from Report of the Madras 
Department of Agriculture, 1907-8.) 


_ Pappy.—This, the most valuable and 
important crop of the Presidency, is 
now receiving the attention it deserves. 
Experiments are being made on all the 
wet land farms to ascertain the best 
number of seedlings to plant in a buneh, 
and the best distances for planting. Mr. 
Sampson was the first to commence 
these experiments on some of the House 
Farms under his management under the 
Court of Wards. Their object is, firstly, 
to see whether better crops, 4.é., crops 
yielding more grain of better quality, 
cannot be got by allowing each plant 
more room for the proper development 
of its root system; as many as fifty 
tillers have been observed on a single 
plant which had full room for develop- 
ment; and, secondly, to save waste of 
seed. The cost of weeding is reduced, 
and possibly an economy of water can 
also be effected. As much as 150 lbs. of 
seed is sown per acre in parts of the 
Presidency. In the Southern districts 
probably the average is not less than 
86-100 lbs. per acre. Itis believed that 
20 lbs. of good seed would be ample. On 
the Saidapet Farm 38-90 acres planted at 
the rate of 11°5 lbs. of seed per acre gave 
anormal crop. If, as seems to be the 
case, equally good or better crops can 
be raised without any extra cost, with 
the smaller seed rate, the saving of 
60 lbs. of seed per acre would meana 
large addition to the food supply of 
the country. It is estimated that the 
area under paddy inthe Presidency is 
about 7,400,000 acres, 


On the Coimbatore Farm the singly- 
planted plots gave, on the whole, results 
equal to those planted on the local 
system. Mr. Shepperson’s interesting 
account of his experiments, in the 
Administration Report, is typical of the 
work being done on allthe farms. At 
Palur singly-planted Banku paddy asa 
“Kar” crop gave 1101 M.M. per acre 
against 740 M.M. of local Kar paddy 
planted in the local way. In the Tinne- 
velly district, where the seed rate is 


in America are shown to vary from a minimum 
of alittle over one per cent. to something over 
8 per cent., with an average of between 2 and 3 
per cent., Mr. Hards’ sample thus comes just 
under the maximum, butto get anything like an 
exact notion of the feeding value of this fodder, it 
would be necessary to sample a number of such 
crops for analysis and find the average. It would 
have been better and more satisfactory had this 
been done in this case instead of basing deduotions 
on the results of the analysis of one sample only, 
— Ed: Agricultural Journal.) 


~ 


Marc, 1009. | 247 


150 lbs. per acre, the demonstration of 
the advantages of single-planting of 
addy by the brothers Dharmaranga 
Basa, Deputy Collector, and Chelvaranga 
Raju, of the Agricultural College, on 
their own land at Palamcottah has 
attracted much attention, and it is 
estimated that 2,000 acres were planted 
in this way last year. A similar move- 
ment isin progressin the Tanjore and 
South Arcot districts, where a small 
landowner near Chidambaram, named 
Abaranam Pillai, discovered the advan- 
tages of the system for himself. 


The exact amount of seed necessary, 
and the exact distance for planting has 
to be determined separately for each 
locality. 


The question of the proper treatment 
of paddy lands in the dry season is also 


- being studied ouall the farms where 


there is wet land. This includes the 
subject of green manuring and plough- 
ing up of fallows. Insome parts, e.g., 
in Kistna and Coimbatore the ryots 
declare that the latter practice is in- 
jurious. In others, asin Malabar, itis 
regularly practised on the best lands. 
Arrangements are being made at Coimba- 
tore and Samalkota for a series of experi- 
ments on the amount of water required 
to produce a full crop of paddy. 


CACAO CULTIVATION. 


Way REFORM Is DELAYED IN 
San THOME. 


At the invitation—embodied in a some- 
what lengthy but carefully-worded 
letter to the Press on the San Thomé 
labour question, signed by a number ot 
influential men including, among others, 
Messrs, R. C. Lehmann, M.P., Ramsay 
Macdonald, M.P., Henry W. Nevinson 
(who investigated the matter on the 
spot, and published his impressions first 
in Harper's Magazine, and later on in 
book form), and Mr. St. Loe Strachey— 
we, in company with 400 to 500 others, 

athered together at the Caxton Hall, 

estminster, to attend ‘‘a public meet- 
ing for the discussion of the subject.” 


We quotein inverted commas the actual 


words of the invitation, as we agree 
with our opponents that -no discussion 


_ was allowed until it was too late, 2.¢., 


after the resolution to be laid before Sir 


._ Edward Grey (Secretary of State for 
'' Foreign Affairs) had been agreed to, and 
“> @ deputation nominated to approach him 


on the subject. 


Being. deeply anxious for a radical 
reform in the whole question of so-called 


Edible Producis 


‘indentured labour” in Portuguese 
African territory, we were most disap- 
pointed at the results of the meeting, 
results which were entirely due to lack 
of judgment on the part of the Chair- 
man, who seemed unable to realise that 
the converted audience infront of him, 
anxious to get home to their dinner or 
catch a train, wasas nought compared 
to the opposition who went away, we 
take it, well satisfied with the results of 
the meeting. Kar better that the meet- 
ing had never been held than to refuse— 
politely, but none the less firmly—under 
the plea of want of time to allow an 
amendment to be discussed by the 
opposition, whose arguments are prob- 
ably so weak as to rather tend to bene- 
fit us by being advanced, but which can 
cause us much trouble by being sup- 
pressed. As one opponent stated, no 
practical man wants to waste time talk- 
ing at the end of a meeting, as the Chair- 
man proposed, when the resolution had 
already been passed, and it was too late. 
People who cannot be inconvenienced by 
missing their trains should not pretend 
to interfere in these complicated inter- 
national labour questions, If they 
imagine such matters can be settled by 
two hours’ talking on one side of the 
question only, they are seriously mis- 
taken. As a result of this mistaken 
policy of the Chairman, backed up, it is 
true, by the majority of the meeting, 
unsavoury truths about the state of the 
indentured labour in our Colony of 
Nels were brought prominently for- 
ward. 


We can only hope that some indirect 
good may come from attention called at 
the meeting to the Natal scandal, a 
matter that might probably not have 
been dragged out so aggressively as it 
was, in speeches more eloquent, telling, 
and far less tedious than were some of 
those devoted to the real object of the 
meeting. 

We feel sure that every one present 
had read the articles and letters pub- 
lished on the subject, and attended with 
their minds pretty well made up one 
way or other, the same as ourselves. 
We, therefore, were surprised that 
nearly two hours were devoted to 
converting thealready converted, whilst 
We were most anxious to hear what the 
Opposition had to say. We did not 
want to be told two or three times over 
what wealready knew. We went hoping 
to learn some points from our opponents 
as to why there is any need to buy San 
Thome cacao at all until the state of 
slavery is eradicated to the uttermost 
end, when our own British Gold Coast 


- Colony will be producing less ‘‘hammy” 


and altogether a sweeter and more 


Edible Products. 348 


neutral bean to the tune of 30,000,000 lb. 
this year, and our total Colonial output 
amounts at least to 100,000,000 lb. during 
an average year’s crop. Against this 
the total consumption in the United 
Kingdom for 1907 was only 44,500,000 lb. 
(=19,842 tons) raw cacao. Another 
question that we hoped to extract infor- 
mation upon was, why San Thome 
insists on using labour that at present 
costs, according to Mr. Nevinson, from 
£35 to £40 per head—a labour unwilling 
and home sick, and therefore very in- 
different whilst alive, and which appa- 
rently takes the first opportunity that 
presents itself to die? It cannot al- 
together be the climate. Can it be that 
the treatment is not so rosy in reality 
throughout the Island as a whole as it is 
reported to be, in one or two cases, on 
paper? Whatever the reason is, it must 
bea very strong one. What it is we 
went to the meeting to find out, but 
were unable todo so. So we lost much 
time that we could ill-afford, but worse 
still, we consider the cause got two nasty 
knocks that will take it some time to get 
over. If only the conveners of this 
meeting had left Mr. William Cadbury 
and Mr. Joseph Burtt to fight the battle 
alone, this would not have happened. 
Everybody at the meeting agreed that 
these two are strong fighters with right 
and might (in the shape of the trade 
boycott) on their side, and this being so 
what better champions could the cause 
wish for? Why call public meetings, 
and run the risk of making our oppo- 
nents’ weapons still more formidable 
than they are at present.— Tropical Life, 
Vol. IV., No. 12, December, 1908. 


THE FERMENTATION OF CORFEHE. 
(By Oscar LoEw, Physiologist.) 


The so-called fermentation of coffee 
has thus far not been investigated, and 
has been defined sometimes as an 
“aleoholic fermentation necessary to 
remove the saccharine matter.”* “Such 
saccharine matter, however, should be 
easily removable by simply washing 
with water. Upon close examination 
the writer concluded that the aim of 
the “fermentation” is the removal ofa 
slimy stratum firmly adhering to the 
parchment envelope of the seeds. The 
removal of this is necessary because the 
drying of the seed envelope would other- 
wise be very much retarded, and because 
a bad flavour may finally be imparted to 
the seeds by the partial decay of the 
slimy stratum during the drying process, 


* Cf. Watt. Dictionary of the Economic Products 
of India. Calcutta, 1899, vol. 2, p. 476. 


(Marcu, 1909. 


The process will be explained by examin- 
ine ne anatomical structure of the 
ruit. 


Just below the skin of the fruit and 
extending between the enveloped seeds 
is a fibrous tissue containing sweet juice. 
This pulp, together with the skin, is 
easily separated by mechanical means 
from the seeds. which are enveloped in a 
hard parchment. Adhering to this parch- 
ment is astratum of very slimy cells, the 
slime layer. 


The preparation of coffee for market 
requires the following manipulations :— 


(1) Pulping to secure removal of the 
skin with the adhering tissue. 


(2) Fermentation to separate the slimy 
layer from the parchment envelope, 


(8) Washing away the loosened slime. 


(4) Drying the envelope around the 
seeds, preparing for the necessary brittle- 
ness for the next operation. 

(5) Hulling or milling, consisting in 
the removal of the parchment envelope, 
with subsequent subjection toa fan to 
blow away particles of parchment 
envelope and silver skin. 


The entire fruit is often called ‘‘cherry” 
from the similarity of form and colour. 
The expression ‘‘ pulped coffee” signifies 
seeds in the parchment envelope with 
slimy layer. ‘‘Coffee in parchment” 
means the product after pulping, fer- 
menting, and drying. The ‘ bean” 
means the seeds deprived of parchment 
and silver skin. 

Fruits of red or yellow colour should be 
picked for pulping, as only such furnish 
seeds of the desired bluish-green colour. 
Green unripened fruit containing a hard 
pulp and little or no sugar should be 
excluded, but such fruit cannot he 
entirely avoided since some unripened 
seeds will drop off in gathering the 
ripened ones. 


The fruits are well moistened with 
water when passing through the pulper, 
which easily separates the skin and 
fibrous layer. Attached to the pulper is 
a conical sieve (separator) placed ina 
horizontal position, which retains the 
fruits which have accidentally escaped 
pulping, and they are carried back to 
the pulper.” 

*It has been proposed to dry the pulp and 
bring it into commerce as a cheap substitute for 
coffee. When pressed well to remove the caffein 
and mixed then with molasses it might serve asa 
food for hogs. Greshoff holds that the best appli- 
cation is as a manure and gives the following 
composition in the air-dry state: Caffein, 1:1; 
carbohydrates, 23°3; albumin, 7‘6 ; cellulose, 16°) ; 
water, 14:9; fat, 3°3; ash, 69. i ee 


; 
. 
‘ 


ial 


Marcu, 1909.] 


In order to understand the ferment- 
ation process, it must be remembered 
that on the surface of all sweet fruits 
are a great many yeast cells and bacteria. 
When by the pulping the sweet juice is 
forced out and spread all over the 
separated skin, and over the pulped 
coffee, it is not surprising that these 
organisms develop rapidly. The sweet 
juice not only contains sugar but 
also some nitrogenous and _ mineral 
matters required for the development of 
organisms. 


An examination of the skin witha 
high magnifying power several hours 
after pulping shows numerous cells of 
Saccharomyces, which in form resemble 
chiefly Saccharomyces ellipsoideus and 
sometimes also S. apiculatus. 


Numerous bacteria are also present. 
Alcoholic fermentation can soon be de- 
tected by the vinous odour, and the fact 
that the fermentation produces heat ex- 
plains why the temperature of such a 
heap of pulp rises considerably after a 
time. A heap of nearly 30 centimeters 
in height showed after sixteen hours a 
temperature of 41°C. atan air temper- 
ature of 26°C. Later, acetic acid isformed 
and the red colour of the skin changed to 
a brownish one. 


When the pulped coffee, on the other 
hand, is examined, a few yeast cells and 
bacteria are noticed on the slimy stratum 
after one hour, while after sixteen hours 
an immense increase has taken place, and 
not oaly is considerable alcohol formed 
by the yeast cells but also acetic acid by 
certain bacteria. Mycoderma and the 
mycelium of fungi are occasionally seen. 
Litmus is reddened intensely and the 
odour of acetic acid readily discernible. 
At the same time another volatile pro- 
duct is formed in small quantity, which 
modifies somewhat the acid odour. 


The alcoholic fermentation of the sugar 
adhering to the slimy stratum, as well 
as the further oxidation of the aleohol to 
acetic acid, and finally the respiration 
process carried on with considerable in- 
tensity by all these organisms, cause a 
rise of temperature, depending upon the 
depth of the stratum and thetemperature 
of the surrounding air. The heaps of 
pulped coffee are generally 1 to2 feet high, 
In such heaps the temperature was found 
after fifteen to sixteen hours to range 
from 34° to 42° C. at an air temperature of 
25° to 29°C. 


The alcoholic and acetic fermentations 
proceeding in the heaps of pulped coffee 
are, however. not the most essential 
phenomena ; the most important point is 
that the slimy stratum is separated from 

32 


249 


Edible Products. 


the parchment envelope. It is by no 
means dissolved, but merely loses its firm 
adhesion and is left loosely spread upon 
the parchment coffee so thatit can easily 
be washed away by a current of water 
and the parchment coffee dried. 


Neither the acetic acid nor the enzyme 
already present in the slime causes the 
separation of the slime layer, as tests 
have shown. 


Freshly pulped coffee was kept in 
dilute acetic acid (about 1 per cent,) at 35° 
to 40° C., and another portion in some 
water containing a few drops of ether to’ 
prevent bacterial growth. In both cases 
the slimy layer was found still firmly at- 
tached to the parchment after twenty 
hours. This leaves no other inference 
but that a peculiar enzyme dissolving the 
adhesive substance (a carbohydrate ?) be- 
tween the parchment and the slimy 
stratum was furnished by the bacterial 
growth, or, what is less probable, by the 
yeast cells. 


The ‘‘fermentation” should not take 
longer in Porto Rico than fifteen tu 
twenty hours, while in some sections 
of Central America, as Guatemala, it 
must be carried on for two days. 


Undue prolongation of the ferment- 
ation must be avoided, as otherwise a 
brown colouration of the parchment and 
of the seeds is produced and the seeds 
further acquire a disagreeable odour— 
two circumstances which render the pro- 
duct unfit for the market. 


After the fermentation and washing 
the parchment of the coffee is readily 
dried, either on cement floors exposed 
to sun and air, or better in rotating 
eylinders through which warmair passes. 
At a certain degree of dryness the parch- 
ment becomes brittle and breaks easily 
in the milling process, which thus re- 
moves the parchment envelope and silver 
skin from the seeds. In fact. the milling 
must be done while the parchment is 
still warm. 


This milling isin many cases done in 
London, and not in the country where 
the coffee is produced. Better preser- 
vation of shape and colour of the bean 
has been observed, when the latter is 
protected for atime by the parchment 
envelope. The cost of transportatior is 
in this case a little higher, but it does 
not come into consideration, as from $2 
to $3 more has been realized per hundred- 
weight for eoffee thus treated than for 
that cured in Central America. 


In reviewing the so-called ferment- 
ation of coffee, the conclusion is inevit- 
able that alcoholic and acetic ferment- 


Edible Products. 


ations are not of direct benefit, but 
only indirectly, inasmuch as heat is 
thereby produced which supports the 
action of a body (enzyme) furnished by 
the bacteria, which dissolves the adhesive 
substance between parchment envelope 
and slimy layer.—Philippine Agricul- 
tural Review, Vol. I., No. 9, September, 
1908. 


eS 


MANIOC OR CASSAVA. 


By Epwin B. CoPpELAND. 


(Concluded from page 24.) 


_ The best time at which to harvest 
the roots for starch manufacture ought 
to be very carefully determined locally 
wherever the manufacture of starch 
is an industry. In the Straits Settle- 
ments the Chinese are said to wait until 
the roots are eighteen months old, while 
the European planters harvest their crop 
in about ten months. In determining 
the most popular age, various factors 
must be considered—the weight of roots, 
their starch contents, and the rental of 
the land, or its productivity if replanted, 
being the most important. The weight 
and the content of starch depend upon 
the variety grown, the climate and 
season, and the cultivation. The de- 
pendence upon variety and season is 
well shown in the following table repre- 
senting the yield of five native Jamaica 
varieties. The 1907 crop had an excep- 
tionally wet season, 


Bulletin, Department of Agriculture, 
Jamaica, 5 (1907) 78, Cassava Trials in 
1907. H. Cousins. Of twenty-two 
varieties, only the five which gave the 


largest yield of starch in 1907 are 
copied here :— 
Starch per acre. 
1907. 
Tubers 
(tons). % lb. 
Luana Sweet ... 13°3 33°61 ~—-10,015 
Duff House 114 »=35°69 9,114 
Black Bunch of Keys 11 4 34:85 8,899 
Brown Stick ... IDI 34°37, 8,777 
Blue Top 11:3 3 34°62 = 8,768 
1906. 
12 18 

mos. mos. 

(1b.). (Ib.). 
Luana Sweet 5,022 7,102 
Duff House . "4,107 12,682 
Black Bunch of Keys 2,388 8,894 
Brown Stick 2,384 8,927 
Blue Top 5,636 15,818 


There were five other varieties in the 
1906 crop whose yield of starch when 


2 


0 


{Marcg, 1909. 


eighteen months old was over five tons 
per acre. As between twelve and 
eighteen months, the general result is 
that tor the sake of greater yield it is 
decidedly better to leave the plants a 
year and a half. Conditions in the 
Phillippines are the same. While the 
percentage of starch, a scant ten in the 
roots of 5-month-old plants, reaches 
its maximum at about ten months, the 
most rapid growth of the roots is then 
only well under way. The percentage 
of starch begins to decrease, at least 
sometimes, before the plants are twelve 
months old, but the total amount con- 
tinues toincrease rapidly, and the slight- 
ly increased woodiness does not seriously 


‘interfere with its extraction. 


When manioc is raised for food, the 
roots are dug like potatoes for use as 
wanted. When it is grown on a large 
scale, the plants are sometimes pulled 
by hand from very light soil, but the 
work is done much more easily by the 
use of a lifter. Thesimplest lifter is a 
straight wooden stick, 2 or 3 meters 
long, strong enough so that it will not 
break, which is used as a lever. The 
fulcrum end rests on the ground, and 
is provided on the underside with an 
old spade blade or some other flat kody . 
to prevent its sinking in. Near the ful- 
crum end is fastened a hook or other 
grappling device. By lifting the long 
arm of the lever and shaking the plant 
is pulled out of the ground reasonably 
free from adhering soil. If some roots 
break off they are dug individually. 
When the field is in sufficiently good cul- 
tivation to permit ploughing, a furrow 
is run alongside of each row, making 
the roots pull up more onellg and with 
less breaking. 


The yield of manioc has been the 
subject of day dreams. Semler, not too 
positively, cites a New Caledonia plan- 
tation whose yield in two years ranged 
from 25 to 250 metric tons of roots per 
hectare. Reports in German Hast Africa 
sent to the Experiment Station at 
Amani range from 2'5 to 225tons. Such 
reports as these larger ones must be 
duc to mistake or misunderstanding, or 


_to computing the yield per hectare 


from that of a few exceptional plants. 
Single plants indubitably have produced 
twenty-five kilograms of roots, and 
10,000 such plants on a hectare would 
yield 250 tons. But such yields do not 
occur. The yield of some notably good 
Jamaica varieties has already _ been 
given. Twenty-five Colombian varieties, 
grown in Jamaica in 1907 produced 3'1 to 
13°3 English tons per acre. From Florida 
there have been reports of 30 or 40 tons 


Marcu, 1909. | 


per acre, and the average near the Lake 
Mary factory, where the figures should 
be reliable, has been given as 9 and 10 
tons ; but the average cropin the United 
States is not believed to be more than 
5 tons. In Pondicherry 5 metric tons is 
the maximum crop expected from a 
hectare of well-manured plants irrigated 
five or six times a month during the dry 
season. In Ceylon and Java the yield is 
expected to be above 25 tons per hectare. 
A test crop ten months old at Hue was 
14:44tons per hectare. There are no 
data as to the actual yield of any con- 
siderable acres in the Philippines, but 
from the unanimous opinion of growers 
and from our own observations and 
weighings of apparently representative 
plants, itis our opinion that 25 tons per 
hectare is a very low estimate of the 
yield fairly to be expected from a crop 
a year o1 upward old. 


Many analyses showing the starch 
content of manioc have been published, 
but it is not worth while to copy them 
here. Data onthe best Jamaica varie- 
ties have already been given. The 
matter of business interestis not the 
absolute starch content of the roots, but 
the amount which can be obtained by 
practical manufacturing methods. This 
of course depends on how much isin the 
roots, but to a greater extent still upon 
the method used in its extraction, and 
the thoroughness with which it is worth 
while to extract must be settled locally 
according to the value of the starch and 
the cost of producing the roots. For 
this reason the same methods are by no 
means to be recommended for all parts 
of the world. The highest starch con- 
tent Ihave seen published is 36°5 per 
cent. ina Colombian variety grown in 
Jamaica in 1903 and called ‘‘Governor 
Hemming”; four years later the same 
valiety contained only 30°17 per cent. 
By commercially feasible treatment we 
obtained here more than 31 per cent, of 
air-dry starch, in one test. 


STARCH MANUFACTURE. 


The first step in starch manufacture 
is always and everywhere the same, the 
roots are washed clean. If any dirt 
finds its way into the mill, it will stay 
with the starch through the whole 
process of manufacture, and be init at 
the end. A very little dirt destroys the 
perfect whiteness of the starch, and only 
perfectly white starch can be soldat a 
good price. The washing can be done 
by hand or in a mechanical washer. 
Mechanical washing of most roots and 
in most places is much the cheaper, but 
the great and irregular size, of manioc 
roots offers some difficulty. When the 


251 


Edible Products, 


roots have been thoroughly washed, it 
is customary to peel them removing the 
bark and cortex which contain no starch 
and atthe same time to get rid of any 
last particles of dirt. If the roots are 
kept moist until decay begins the cortex 
will slip off readily in the hands, but 
this course is not to be recommended. 
If the roots are perfectly clean the 
removal of the bark and cortex is un- 


necessary, for they contain nothing 
which discolours or mixes with the 
starch. : 


The starch in the roots is contained in 
the cells of the pith. The starch grains 
are very minute, decidedly smaller than 
those of potato starch, and the cells 
containing them are also smaller. For 
this reason and because the roots are 
more woody than the tubers of potato, 
it is more difficult.to extract the starch 
completely. The walls must clearly be 
broken to let the starch escape; the 
starch in any unbroken cell is lost with 
the fibrous part of the roots. The walls 
are broken by decay or by scraping, 
rasping, or crushing the roots. 


The practice of letting the roots decay 
has been in use among the poor Chinese 
of the Malay States since about 1891 
in making a low grade of tapioca, 
but not in the manufacture of saleable 
starch, A Dutch writer, de Kruijff 
(Teysmania, 1906, No. 8), has recently 
stated that by letting the walls decay it 
is possible to secure the starch very 
completely and of as good quality as is 
obtained by other processes. Anyone 
adopting this method will wisely try 
it at first on a very small scale, 


The old Chinese method in the Straits 
Settlements, when that district first 
took a prominent place in the manu- 
facture of starch and tapioca, was to 
wash the roots, peel them, wash them 
again, grind or crush them between 
rollers, strain out the fibrous part of the 
pulp with asieve which permitted the 
starch to pass through with the water, 
let thestarch settle, draw off the water, 
and wash until clean and dry. This was 
all done by hand. In the factories of 
Europeans steam power is in use and the 
roots are pulped by scraping. 


Elaborate machinery for starch man 
facture has naturally been developed 
special adaptation to corn and _ potatoes. 
The first attempts at manioc starch 
mills on the same scale were made in 
Florida about a decade ago. The Lake 
Mary factory. put in potato-starch 
machinery, and with it was unable to 
get more than 20 per cent. of the starch 
from roots containing fully 27 per cent. 
They have since made improvements— 


Hdible Products. 


circumstances and the will of the planter 
which at least, for the most part, should 
be used in potato-starch manufacture as 
well—by which, with cheaper plant and 
at a lower running cost, they get nearly 
or quite 25 per cent. The new process is 
the work of Archbold, who published a 
brief description of it in the Journal of 
the Society of Chemical Industry (1903, 
p. 63-66), The washed roots are scraped 
and milled. The pulp is then driven 
upward by a stream of water against a 
wire-gauze diaphragm, through which 
the starch and water pass. Instead of 
having the starch settle in still tanks, 
the milky mixture of starch and water 
is piped to near the bottom of a tank 
which has the form of a large inverted 
cone, in which the mixture flows up- 
ward. Asthe cone widens upward the 
rate of flow decreases until it becomes 
so slow thatthe starch settles against 
it; only the dirty water flows off at the 
top, and the starch is drawn off below. 


To insure the quality of starch, there 
is one condition more important than 
all others—an abundance of clean pure 
water. The pulp must be thoroughly 
washed to separate the starch from the 
waste, and then the starch needs from 
two to sometimes as many as eight 
washings. If there is any evident im- 
purity in the water. the starch may be 
relied upon to take it up. It is of course 
expected that the starch will be free 
from all particles of cellulose or wood ; 
this is easily managed by the use of a 
sound fine sieve, whether of cloth or wire. 


The completeness with which the 
starch can be extracted depends on how 
completely all the celisare broken, In 
the fotato-starch factories and in 
Florida, the comminuation of the roots 
is accomplished by a rotating cylinder 
set with blades with saw-like edges. A 
cheaper mill can be made by filling a 
sheet of iron or tin with holes by 
driving a nail into it, driving it 
always in the same direction. The 
sheet is then fastened around a cylinder. 
I quote from Bulletin 106, Bureau of 
Chemistry, United States Department 
of Agriculture, page 28 :—‘‘ A two-horse- 
power gas engine was used for grinding, 
the mill consisting of a revolving drum 
covered with a sheet of roofing tin punc- 
tured to make a grating surface. Over 
this a hopper was arranged, the whole 
resting on a suitable frame. This mill 
cost, when complete, with shaft, boxings, 
and pulley, $10, and would grind. one 
ton of tubers in one and a half hours.” 


The quality of the work of such a mill 
depends onthe fineness of the projec- 
tions and the speed of the rotation. 
cylinder with fine teeth will not 
work as fast as one with coarse 


252 


[MaRcu, 1909. 


teeth; but it will not use much more 
power in milling a given weight of roots, 
and for the sake of greater capacity it 
has only to be made longer. With such 
a cylinder whose projections are more 
than one millimeter high, not more than 
24 per cent. out of 381 is likely to be ex- 
tracted. With a cylinder whose projec- 
tions are less than 0°5 millimeter high 
it is as easy to get 3 or 4 per cent. more. 


In the Philippines the roots can be 
produced at so low a cost that the use of 
expensive machinery for the extraction 
of the last possible percentage of starch 
would be foolish. The money that would 
be spentin the purchase and operation 
of such machinery will give a much larger 
return in starch if it is spent in producing 
morerocts. The process of manufacture, 
as it can most profitably be carried out 
here, reduces itself to this :— 


1. Cleaning the roots perfectly. 


2. Milling them on the rough cylinder 
just described. 


3. SCREENING THE PULP.—This is sim- 
ply and thoroughly done by running it 
through a trough with sieve bottom of 
cloth or wire. To make it screen well and 
quickly, the trough should be shaken and 
fine jets of water should play upon it. 


4, SETTLING.—Concrete tanks will, 
without doubt, prove most* economical. 
For fast work in washing they should 
be shallow. 


5. WaASHING.—After the water is run 
off, preferably by means of cocks in the 
sides of the tanks, the starch must be 
washed with clean water and allowed to 
settle, and this must be repeated until itis 
perfectly white. To keep the starch from 
making a hard sediment and not being 
washed except on the top, each tank 
should have a stirring paddleor set of 
paddles which will best be worked by 
hand. Care must be taken that no dirt 
can fall or blow into the tanks. 


6. DryiIna.—How this is done will 
depend upon local conditions, but wil 
usually prove unsafe to rely upon the 
sun. If adrying house is used, it must 
be absolutely free from smoke and dust. 


CoOsT OF PRODUCTION. 


It would not be without interest, if 
it were possible, to make a detailed 
statement in support of theassertion that 
manioec production in the Philippines 
is remarkably cheap. But as soon as 
such statements become really detailed, 
they cease to have more than a very 
local value, and fit only the case of the 
individual whose experiments they re- 
present. The cost of management and 
the items chargeable as interest, deterior- 
ation, and rent depend so entirely upon 


Marcu, 1909.) 


that a general statement of them is 
valueless. Government land suitable for 
manioc culture is available in most parts 
of these Islands, and can persumably 
be leased for 50 centavos per hectare, 
per annum, or bought at10 pesos per 
hectare. <A higher charge can legally 
be made, but it is not customary. Omit- 
ting these items a statement which I 
believe orginated in 1900 in the Leers- 
burg (Florida) Commercial, and has been 
copied widely, put cost of production in 
Florida at $14'65 per acre. This included 
$4 for fertilizer, but did not cover the 
cost of digging the roots. In Jamaica, 
it was stated in 1904 as a summary of all 
estimates and experience that ‘‘ Cassava 
should cost, for cultivation only, £3 13s. 
to £5 2s. per acre, according to locality 
and circumstances. 

A Mindanao ovlantation, paving its 
labourers 60 to 75 centavos a day, has 
found its expense to be, in round 
numbers, as follows :— 


Per hectare. 


Stems for seed Pil 
Clearing ae Ae ses ie 20 
Planting ae Mm! ey. 20 10 
Cultivation, twice oe see 20 

Total ... ae 51 


or about P21 per acre. This provided 
for clearing coarse brush land, and the 
purchase of “seed.” which is necessary 
only in the establishment of the indus- 
try. Harvesting the roots will cost ap- 
proximately P25 per hectare, making the 
field expenses for the first crop P76. 
Five dollars a ton was the price ori- 
ginally paid by the Florida factories for 
the fresh roots; this has since been 
lowered, but the factories have increased 
their own areain cultivation. At this 
price, keeping the very low estimate of 
25 tons, the crop would be worth P2350. 


SOME QUOTATIONS ON MANIOC, 


The treatment of maize for starch and 
glucose is tedious and costly, whilst the 
process for cassava products is simple 
and cheap and the resulting products 
purer. Cassava is the cheapest known 
source of starch, costing at the above 
market values (45 cents per bushel in 
Chicago for corn) and existing methods 
of planting, one-fourth as much as maize 
starch, (Archbold, Journal Society 
Chemica] Industry, 22 (1903), 64.) 


All kinds of stock eat it with relish 
and thrive upon it much better than 
when confined to any dry feed. (Tracy 
in U.S. Department Agricultural Farm- 
ers’ Bulletin, 167, 1903.) 

For the production of starch and glu- 
cose it surpasses all other plants in the 
quantity producible per acre, and at a 


253 


Edible Products. 


minimum cost. (Robert Thompson, in 
the Gardeners’ Chronicle, 1903.) 


The Indians of Columbia, who perform 
tremendous journeys among the moun- 
tains carrying immense weights, subsist 
largely on cassava, or yucca, as it is 
there called ; so do the [ndians of Guiana ; 
while the mendioea and farrinha (cas- 
sava and farina) are the chief support 
of the labouring people along the river 
Amazon, whose strength and endurance 
on scanty portions of farinha and fish 
and nothing else save pacovas, or plan- 
tains, have been the marvels of travellers 
in these regions. (Journal, Jamaica Agri- 
cultural Society, 1902,) 

Its returns per hectare are so enor- 
mous, that it is hardly possible that it 
will have any rival. The product of a 
hectare of manioc is enormous, and, by 
manufacturing, returns of 500 pesos a 
hectare should be obtained with cer- 
tainty. (G. Hismann, in Der Pflanzer, 
1905.)—Philippine Agricultural Review, 
Voi. I., April, 1908, No. 4. 


THE CULTIVATION AND MARKET- 
ING OF MAIZE, ° 


(Continued from page 550.) 


Aree Production, Year’ 
Tons. 
British India ... 5,961,487 — 1904-5 
Canada :— 
Ontario 289,456 — 1906 
Quebec 128,506 — 1900 
Manitoba 624615 —= 1906 
New Brunswick 2 1900 
Nova Scotia ... 177 — 1900 
British Colombia le 1900 
Prince Edward 
Island an 37 — 1900 
Total 824,732 
Canada (Census of 
1901) a 360,758 — 1900 
Australia :— : 
New South Wales 189,353 148,386 1905-6 
Queensland ... 139,806 99,198 1906 
Victoria 22 11,785 17,175 1905-6 
Western Australia 43 12 1905-6 
Total 340,987 264,771 
New Zealand 10,485 16,961 1905-6 
Natal 395-182 125,222 1905 


The tropical and sub-tropical parts of 
Africa seem likely to prove very suitable 
localities for the growth of maize, and 
if the natives are encouraged to grow it 
in excess of their own needs, and. bring 
it to market in good condition, the 
export trade should show a great deve- 


Edible Products. 


Jopment in the future. The following 
figures show that there are already signs 
of a developing industry in this grain 
in West Africa :— 
Imports into the United Kingdom of 
Maize from British West Africa. 


Nigerian 

Gold Coast. Lagos. Protec- 

torates. 

Tons. Tons. Tons. 

1902)... 0:5 2, a 
1903" %.€. -— 40 = 
19045 °° 2.6 95 3,035 = 
1905 sts 8 5,195 335 
1906 — 7,100 400 


The total exports of maize from 
Southern Nigeria in 1906 were 138,074 
tons, valued at £37,386 ; of this 7,792 tons 
valued at £21,948 went to the United 
Kingdom. In the course of 1906 Lagos 
was amalgamated with and included in 
‘*Southern Nigeria,” which explains the 
apparent discrepancy in the above sets 


254 [ Ataacd: 1909. 


of statistics. In 1907 the exports of 
maize from Southern Nigeria were 9,891 
tons, valued at £28,521 ; of this 6,990 tons 
valued at £19,620 went to the United 
Kingdom. 


Value of Maize exported from Southern 
Nigeria, including Lagos :— 


Year. £. Year. Ep 
1900 ... 198 1904 16,114 
1901 <.. ‘820 905 32,503 
1902... 161 1906 37,386 
1908 ... 2,215 1907 28,521 


During the five years 1902-6, the im- 
ports into the United Kingdom from 
Australia, New Zealand, the Cape of 
Good Hope and Natal were intermittent 
and not very considerable—the largest 
annual import recorded being 1,475 tons 
from Australia in 19083; but now South 
Africa has entered the field as an 
exporter of maize tothe United King- 
dom, as the following table giving the 
exports for 1906 and 1907 shows :— 


Exports of Maize from South Africa. 


a ES 


Via Cape Colony. Via Natal. 
Destination. | i 
Quantity. | Value. Quantity. Value. 
1906. | 1007. ; 1906. 1907. 1906. | 1907. 1906. 1907. 
Tons. | Tons. £ 5 ae oe one, £ , se if 
United Kingdom ...; — 2,446 — nl . ’ 6 
New South Wales ..-| — — ae — —- 491 = 2,612 
Victoria a ee 513 — 3,484 = ee uot — 
Belgium eel = ~- —_ — _ 13,489 Bes: 58,958 
Germany ee) O'l — = — 5,924 a 26,263 
Holland a == _ O1| 259 1 940 
Canary selands wel —- } = = — | 896 = 3,955 
eS, eX- | 
See aine Bardah Ss. | 45 133 | 349 879 423 120 2,501 165 
African Colonies ( | 
Total | 45 | 3,092 | 349 | 18,044 424 38,273 2,504 | 171,169 


a 


he exports via Beira and Delagoa 
ee are HOE included in the above, but 
they only amounted to6 tons in 1906, 
and 26 tons in 1907. 

The prices in 1907 for mixed American 
Re ox ship, ranged from 20s. to 29s. 
per 480 lb., and for La Plata maize, c.i-f,, 
from 20s. 3d. to 28s. per 480 lb. 

Maize (Zea Mays, Linn.) is the largest 
of the cereal plants, growing to a height 
of some 10 or 12 feet, but sometimes 
reaching 20 feet or more. The male 
flowers form a tassel at the top of the 
stalk, whilst one or more spikes of 
female flowers are formed lower down, 
and when fertilized and ripened form the 


ears or cobs; these are compact cylinders 
some 6 to 9 inches long, composed of 
eight or more longitudinal rows of 
grains, yellow or white in colour, adher- 
ing to a fibrous core; the cylinders being 
covered with leaves forming a sheath or 
husk. Different varieties, however, 
vary greatly in their colour and dimen- 
sions. 


Composition.—The grain of maize is 


covered with a smooth hard skin, inside - 


which is the germ in juxtaposition to 
the main portion or endosperm, which 
is partly opaque white and partly trans- 
lucent; the translucent portion being 
yellow in the yellow variety. The 


ite en ee 


MARCH, 1909. | 


composition of the whole grain is as 
follows :— 


per cent. 

Moisture 10°75 
Proteins Ne 10°00 
Oil a 4°25 
Starch, ete. ler 71°75 
i‘ibre nis 1°75 
Ash aes 1°50 

10000 


In various samples the percentage of 
proteins may vary from 4 below to 3 
above the figure given above; that of 
the oil from 14 below to 43 above, and 
that of the starch, ete., from 9 below 
to 53 above. 


The grain of maize does not differ 
much in its percentage composition from 
that of wheat, but the proteins (te., 
the nitrogenous substances or “ flesh- 
formers”) are largely ‘‘ zeins,” which do 
not yield the same elastic dough that 
the proteins of wheat and rye give, and 
consequently maize meal does not give 
such a satisfactory bread, To obviate 
this a proportion of wheat or rye flour 
is sometimes mixed with the maize 
meal for  bread-making. Although 
maize yields inferior bread, many other 
satisfactory forms of food can be pre- 
pared from it by skillful cooking. 


The whole grain is made up of 5°6 per 
cent. skin, 10°2 per cent. germ, and 84°2 
per cent. endosperm, and these differ 
considerably in their composition, 


Percentage Composition of Water-free 


Subslance. 
Whole : Y FEindos- 
grain. Skin. Germ, perm. 
Proteins 12:7 66 Zien alee? 
Oil 4:3 16 29°6 15 
Starch, ete. 793 74:1 44:7 85:0 
Fibre 2:0. 16:4 2-9 06 
Ash 17 8} 11 0-7 
100'0 100°0 100:0 100°0 


The proteins and oil are thus concen- 
trated in the germ, the fibre in the skin, 
and the starch in the endosp. ii. 


In the process of milling the grain is 
usually first kiln-dried, which facilitates 
the separation of the skin and lessens 
the vitality of moulds; the skin and 
germ are then separated, and the endos- 
perm is ground into products of varying 
degrees of fineness. The offal amounts 
to from 30 to 85 per cent. of the weight 
of the whole grain. The separated 
germs are submitted to hydraulic 
pressure to obtain the oil they contain; 
very large quantities of this are pro- 
duced in the United States, and it is 


255 


Hdible Products. 


used as an edible oil and for making 
margarine and sott soap. Other pro- 
ducts manufactured from maize are 
starch, glucose, and an alcoholic drink 
known as ‘‘ Bourbon whisky,” 


Varieties.—The varieties of the maize 
plant are very numerous, _ several 
hundreds having been recorded, and the 
differences between them are also great; 
thus as regards height they vary from 
18 inches to 20 feet or more; in length 
of cob from 1 to 16inches ; in the number 
of rows on the cob from 8 to 24; and in 
individual cobs from 4 to 48; the grains 
may weigh from 46 to 1530 grains weight 
per 100; the time taken to ripen may be 
from 1to7 months; and cobs of other 
colours besides white and yellow are 
known. 


The different varieties have been 
divided into seven classes according to 
the nature of their grains, namely :— 


1. The pod corns: these are curious 
varieties in which each grain is enclosed 
in a pod or husk ; these are perhaps the 
original form of the plant. 


2. The pop corns: in these the cob 
and grains are small, and the endosperm 
is mostly horny and translucent, there 
being little or no opaque — starchy 
portion; when heated over aifire they 
burst, with the formation of a white 
starchy mass, which is eaten as a sweet- 
meat. 


3. The flint corns: in these the starchy 
portion of the endosperm is enclosed in 
the horny portion. 


4, The dent corns: in these the 
starchy portion of the endosperm is not 
enclosed by the horny portion, but 
reaches to the summit of the grain, and 
the horny portion is at the sides; as 
the starchy portion shrinks in drying, 
the summit of the grain is drawn in and 
an indentation is produced. 


5. The soft corns: in these the endos- 
perm is all starchy, and there is no 
horny portion. 


6. Thesweet corns: these are charac- 
terised by the translucent horny appear- 
ance of the grains, and by the latter 
having a more or less wrinkled or 
shrivelled condition. 


7. The starchy sweet corns: in these 
the grain externally resembles sweet 
corn, but the lower half is starchy.— 
Bulletin of the Imperial Institute, Vol. 
VI., No. 3, 1908. 


(To be continued.) 


256 [MAROH, 1909. 


HORTICULTURE. 


PLANT BREEDING AS A 
RECREATION. 


By R. H. Lock. 


Iam afraid the Compilers of the 
Dimbula Desk Book, who asked me 
for a short article on plant-breeding, 
will be disappointed when they see my 
title. No doubt they expected momen- 
tous sentences on the improvement of 
Dimbula’s staple crop. Well, Iam not 
going into all the reasons which make 
the improvement of tea by breeding 
methods an undertaking of quite stu- 
pendous difficulty. Moreover, even if 
[ were hawking a variety of the most 
super-execllent flush and flavour, I 
doubt whether Dimubla planters would 
be prepared to dig up their present 
bushes and start all over again. 


So Iam going to confine myself toa 
few words about what can be done by 
any lover of flowers in any garden, 
however small. For myself I know of 
few more pleasurable joccupations than 
this of aiding, or even, as one may 
sometimes think, thwarting Nature in 
the production of new kinds of plants. 

The tools of this craft are few and 
simple. A small pair of forceps or 
tweezers is required to extract the 
stamens from a flower under oper- 
ation. Bags made of muslin, or of 
paper rendered waterproof by soaking 
in paraffin, are necessary to prevent the 
interference of insect visitors. String 
and labels—the labels that I use are of 
a bright scarlet colour and visible from 
afar—and in the case of the more serious 
observer, a note book, complete the tale 
of plant-breeding requisites. 


The pursuit which Iam venturing to 
recommend has for its object the produc- 
tion of new kinds of flowers, by com- 
bining together the characters of two 
or more distinct strains. The combin- 
ation can be made by dusting the pistil 
or receptive part of one flower with 
the pollen or fertilizing powder taken 
from another. When this process has 
been carried out successfully, the for- 
mer flower gives rise to a fruit, the 
seeds of which develop into plants with 
all kinds of new potentialities. 


One or two precautions must be taken 
if we are tomake certain of success. 
The plant’s own pollen must be pre- 
vented from reaching the receptive sur- 


face; and this can usually only be done 
by removing the anthers from the 
flower before they have had time to 
burst and shed their pollen abroad. In 
many cases the anthers open whilst 
the flower is still a bud, and then we 
are obliged to force the bud open in 
order to remove them. Afterwards the 
emasculated flower must be covered 


| with a paper or muslin bag to ward off 


insect visitors. 


The removal of the anthers is most 
easily done with forceps, and the same 
tool may be used for dusting on the 
proper pollen when the flower is ready 
to receive it, a whole stamen or anther 
being carried from the pollinating 
parent to the se2d parent and applied to 
its stigma. The covering bag is taken 
off temporarily during the pollinating 
process and afterwards replaced, and 
should not be removed again until the 
fruit has set. Atthe time of makin 
the cross a label should be attache 
bearing the names or descriptions of the 
parents. 


The seeds obtained in this way by 
crossing may or may not grow into 
something new and beautiful. Very 
frequently it is nescessary to wait for 
a second generation before any striking 
novelties make their appearance. It 
the seeds of the cross-bred plant are 
gathered, and carefully preserved and 
sown, the plants which now develop are 
almost certain to exhibit quite novel 
combinations of the colours and other 
characteristics of their parents; and if 
the operator is lucky he may be re- 
warded with a new strain of plants of 
real beauty and value, and one which 
in some cases, by careful selection, can 
be got to breed true. . 


We may try our hand in this way 
upon almost any kind of flower which 
already exists in more than one variety. 
Or we may make the attempt to cross 
together a pairof distinct species ; but 
in this latter case the result is much 
more doubtful. The most remarkable 
result obtained in this manner by an 
amateur in Ceylon isto be seen in the 
beautiful series of shoe flowers raised 
by Mr. T. C. Huxley when in residence 
upon Peradeniya Estate. <A certain 
amount of success is now heing met 
with in the attempt to grow hybrid to- 
bacco plants in the Peradeniya Gardens. 


As a hobby this kind of work has 
much to recommend it to all but the 
exceptionally active. It is both pleasant 


ie iA 


+ 


‘ibaa ila 7 re 


Marca, 1909.} 


and healthful to potter about among 
brightly-coloured and sweetly-scented 
flowers. In fine weather the pursuit has 
hardly any drawbacks for the amateur 
who is content to dispense with the 
formidable task of keeping accurate 
records. 


Such records represent the serious side 
of the work. | For nearly all the pro- 


257 


Horticulture, 


gress, which is being made in different 
parts of the world towards the produc- 
tion of new and useful strains of every 
kind of economic plant, is being made 
by the application of methods closely 
similar to those of which I have now 
given a brief account. The methods of 
the foremost plant-breeders only differ 
from these in elaboration and exactness 
—Dimb ulla Desk Book, 1909. 


PLANT SANITATION. 


STUDIES IN CACAO DISEASE. 


By J. H. Hart, F.Ls. 


In our present article there is no inten- 
tion to create a scare or to lead planters 
to become unduly anxious for their cul- 
tivation, but merely to present actual 
facts which should be known to _ every 
one interested in the Cacao Industry. 
There can be no doubt, however, that 
the destructive microscopic parasites 
causing disease in cocoa are plentiful 
and persistent, and that the amount of 
damage they are capable of causing is 
not fully recognised or realised. Among 
these diseases, one of the most promi- 
nent is that described in Stockdale’s 
pamphlet as causing “Brown Rot” of the 
pod, and ‘‘Die back” of the branches. 
This fungus is a ‘‘facultative para- 
site,” or one which, though at first 
a “saprophyte,” or grower upon dead 
matter, can, and does afterwards, 
become a very destructive parasite. It 
is described by Howard, Stockdale and 
others as bearing two kinds of spores, 
by the growth of which it spreads 
rapidly, how rapidly will be seen later. 
The first is one-celled and “hyaline” or 
colourless, while the second is brown in 
colour and once septate or divided into 
two cells, the latter being the mature 
stage of the former. These spores can 
both germinate on any wound or abray 
sion of the Cacao tree. Stockdale re- 
records that ‘‘Howard’s experiments 
pointed to this fungus being a wound 
parasite and capable of affecting sickly 
trees.” It is scientifically known as 
Diplodia cacaricola P. Henn. Recent 
experiments with the two forms of 
spores show that the hyaline spore does 
not germinate so quickly as the mature 
form, and grows from one point only 
until it approaches maturity, when it 
may grow fromtwo points. The mature 
spore, however, produces growth from 
each of its cells, at or about the same 
time, The rate of growth made in our 
cultures of the two forms is as follows: 
For erie feet or immature spores 1'55 


hours, while the mature spores have 
germinated ina single hour. This result 
differs, however, from Howard’s, which 
is possibly to be accounted for by a 
difference in the medium (culture fluid) 
used in the experiments. Iam not aware 
what was used by Howard, but that 
used by the writer is made from material 
of a half ripe cacao pod. This is first 
pounded to a_ pulp, which becomes 
mucilaginous when mixed with water. 
The material is then strained through 
fine cloth and the resultant liquor is 
boiled and allowed to cool, By this time 
it has lost its mucilaginous character 
and has assumed the colour of brown 
sherry, It is then filtered and afterwards 
sterilised in flasks, and when cool is 
ready for use, and drop and tube cultures 
can readily be made by infecting it with 
spores of either form. It has been found 
that pods can readily be inoculated by 
inserting a minute quantity of the spores 
into a small cut, that the disease rapidly 
destroys them in a few days, and that 
a heap of empty shells rapidly rots 
when infected and will produce myriads 
of spores. Specimens have recently come 
to hand which show that this disease is 
present in some pods which to the ordi- 
nary observer appears perfectly healthy. 
It has been found in the branches 
of trees of fairly vigorous growth, and it 
has been found in the branches, stems 
and roots of young trees three to four 
years old, which are said to have died 
from ‘‘root dsease.” In the pods the 
presence of the pest is generally dis- 
covered by the appearance of brown 
spots which precedes the rot, but this 
is not always the case, as pods apparently 
sound will develop ina damp chamber 
the characteristic fructifications of the 
fungus. In ‘Root disease” the first 
indication of mischief is shown by a 
yellowing and rapid drooping or wilting 
of the leaves, on the appearance of 
which the damage is complete and the 
tree rapidly becomes dead and dry. The 
fungus, however, can be found by placing 
pieces of the wood and bark in damp 


Plant Sanitation. 258 


chambers, when the ‘‘ pycnidia” hither- 
to unseen under the bark, develop and 
discharge the spores in spiral or contort- 
ed, gummy threads, which, though white 
when first exuded, rapidly become dark 
brown or nearly black as they assume 
the mature two-celledform. Inthe roots 
of trees lately examined, there was 
strong evidence that young trees had 
become infected through cutlass wounds 
made in the stems just at the surface of 
the ground by workmen when “brushing” 
or “billing” down the tall weeds which 
flourish in young plantations. Certain 
mites were noted during our studies 
which carried some of the spores attached 
to the hairs of their bodies, showing 
the possibility of transferring spores 
from one point to another by insect 
movements. 


It may be noted that in recent writings 
reference is made toa fungus determined 
ag Lasiodiplodia sp., but that all 
writers have, to the present time, been 
careful to place it among the so-called 
fungi imperfecti, which means, that its 
history is imperfectly known. Our exa- 
mination of the original specimens, how- 
ever, showed nothing more than the 
organs of Diplodia cacaoicola P. Henn, 
and hence it would appear that this fun- 
gus is accountable for ‘‘Pod disease ”— 
‘“‘ Brown Rot,” for “Stem disease ”’—Die 
Back,” and also for the ‘‘ Root Disease ” 
of young plantations. The same fungus, 
or possibly one nearly allied, has been 
detected by us on Castilloa elastica, 
causing a disease of the roots, on sweet 
Orange stem affected with ‘‘Root Rot” 
and on the fruit of Clusia rosea in the 
open forest ; which latter appears to be 
strong evidence that the fungus is indi- 
genous to the colony and widely distri- 
buted, although only brought to notice 
during recent years. It will be further 
noticed that in lectures recently deli- 
vered no mention is made of any disease 
eaused by Diplodia cacaoicola, and that 
the greatest amount of disease is attri- 
buted (even canker) to the action of 
Lasiodiplodia sp., for the determination 
of which American botanists appear to 
be responsible, but which may probably 
prove to be a form of, if not actually 
identical with, our long known Diplodia 
cacacicola. 1t will be remembered that 
the identical sample on which the deter- 
mination was made, was collected by 
the writer, who found nothing more in 
it than could be most properly ascribed 
to Diplodia. It is possible, of course, 
that some points found by others. have 
been overlooked by him, but in any case 
itis desirable that such points should 
be fully worked out, so as to confirm 
the determination, or to rid us of what 
may prove to be only the bogey ofa 
disease. 


[Marca, 1909. 


J 


With regard to measures to be taken to 
control or prevent the spread of diseases 
caused by Diplodia, 1am in full accord 
with Stockdale, who writes: ‘This 
disease does not readily attack trees in a 
vigorous condition: of health, Every 
effort should therefore be given to 
thorough cultivation, all diseased bran- 
ches should be cut out and burned, and 
all wounds, should be followed by an 
application of coal tar or some similar 
(antiseptic, J. H. H-.) substance.” The 
rapid growth made by the spores, which 
it has been seen are capable of infecting 
a tree in asingle hour, clearly shows how 
important is sich advice as that given 
above, and not alone by Stockdale, but 
by all writers, among whom there is 
an agreement of opinion which neces- 
sarily adds to its importance. When it 
is seen and realised by the planters 
how dangerous must be the practice of 
leaving naked cuts or open wounds with- 
out a covering of antiseptic dressing, 
how dangerous to leave quantities of 
dead branches of prunings in the field 
capable of propagating the fungus by 
millions of spores, each capable of re- 
producing the disease in an hour, and 
how still more dangerous it is to Jeave 
heaps of empty pods infected with fun- 
gus to act as nurseries for the spread 
of the destructive organisms of such 
a fungus, they will readily forgive the 
earnestness which has induced students 
of such facts to lay them before the 
public. When the enemy is known and 
also the principles which retard, delay 
or negative his power for mischief, a 
much better fight can be maintained 
than would be possible were we in 
ignorance of the cause. 

So far as we are yet aware, no appli- 
cation can be applied which would con- 
stitute a radical cure; but, nevertheless, 
planters may, by keeping a course of 
high cultivation and by adopting 
“‘hygienic” and ‘‘ preventive ” measures, 
do much to prevent such diseases spread- 
ing and to secure a certain amount of 
immunity for their estates, and they 
certainly have it in their power to pre- 
vent such disease attaining to epidemic 
proportions. Further studies of con- 
trolling influences should be made, many 
of which are probably at work though 
still unrecognised—such as the destruc- 
tion of spores by insects—the ‘‘mite” 
and the ‘‘ cockroach” and certain fungi 
parasitic on the pest; but there are 
many other natural enemies to the 
gvowth of this fungus still awaiting dis- 
covery. It iscertain that under given 
conditions fermentation is very destruc- 
tive to fungus spores; and points to the 
most suitable method of getting rid of 
the empty pods as disease producers, by 
utilising them for manurial purposes 


Marcu, 1909,} 


and regular plans should be made for 
treating them on these lines rather than 
continuing the neglectful method of 
leaving naked heaps in the field which 
commonly prevails. At present the 
disease does not seem to gather much 
headway, and this is probably due to 
natural checks upon its spread. The 
principal destruction by it appears to 
occur on poorly cultivated or inferior 
soils. Many planters contend that it is 
not present, but there are few estates 
on which it cannot be found. It is not 
recognisable to the naked eye until the 
result of its mischief is evident in the 
death of the pod, branch and root, but 
nevertheless, it can be found by the 
expert in unsuspected places where un- 
favourable seasons would cause it to 
show itself with destructive effect, and 
unless a proper watch is kept upon its 
action and progress, together with that 
of the equally insidious Canker fungi 
or Nectrias (from which, however, it is 
absolutely distinct), it is possible that 
it may become a very serious matter to 
that section of the planting community 
who are dilatory and unwilling to adopt 
hygienic measures, and are generally 
neglectful in the management of their 
estates. At thesame time there is every 
reason to hope that, given clean, well 
manured, well drained and well culti- 
vated estates, where hygienic methods 
obtain, planters have no need to become 
alarmed. One fact is certain, as seen in 
our last dry and unfavourable season. 
Those estates where bad pruning, bad 
drainage, etc., prevail and where ‘pick, 
pick, and keep on picking” is the first 
order of the day, will most assuredly be 
those which will afford no encourage- 
ment to the planter. It may be men- 
tioned that Diplodia, though better 
known than Lasiodiplodia, is still placed 
by some authors also among Fungi 
imperfecti, and it is to be understood 
that there is much more to be learned 
about its history and habits than has 
yet appeared. Since commencing this 
article we have seen Diplodia on the 
Grape vine and on grains of Corn, and 
literature shows that in Kurope species 
of it attack the Holly, Lilac, Chestnut, 
Mulberry and various conifers. It is 
also reported to attack the Avocado 
pear, the Sugar cane and the Mango.— 
Agricultural Society of Trinidad, Vol. 
VIII., Pt. 11, November, 1908. 


8) Plant Sanitation. 


DEVELOPMENT OF DISEASE- 
RESISTANT VARIETIES 
OF PLANTS. 


By H.S. Jackson, Newark, Del. 


(Concluded from page 168.) 


An interesting application of disease- 
resistant varieties illustrating one of 
the uses to which such varieties may be 
put isseen in the American grape wines 
used as stocks on which to graft the 
European wine grapes. Many years ago 
an American vine insect known as the 
Phylloxera was introduced into Europe 
where it spread with great rapidity. 
Its most serious damage was done by 
its ravages on the roots. It soon wiped 
out many of the largest vineyards of 
France and other European countries. 
For a time it looked as though the whole 
vine industry of Europe was threatened, 
The matter was thoroughly investi- 
gated, and it gradually became known 
that certain American vines were com- 
paratively resistant to the attacks of 
this insect. Someone conceived the 
idea of grafting Kuropean varieties on 
American stocks. After many failures 
it was found that if certain strains of 
Vitis riparia and V. rupestris, both 
native American grapes, were used as 
stocks, that very little trouble was ex- 
perienced from the Phylloxera. In Cali- 
fornia growers of European grapes have 
had the same trouble with practically 
the same results as regards successful 
treatment, 


In France great success has been met 
with by Millardet in hybridizing the 
American with European grapes for the 
purpose of uniting the Phylloxera-resist- 
ing qualities of the former with the 
wine-producing qualities of the latter. 
He has also succeeded in combining the 
above qualities with resistance to the 
downy mildew. 


This brings us to the question—Is it 
possible to obtain disease resistance in 
an individual of one variety or species 
by grafting on an individual of another 
variety or species? There is some 
evidence in the affirmative, but the 
question isat mostadisputed one. It 
is worthy. of careful investigation. If 
such be the case, would the induced 
immunity be transmitted to offspring 
or to cuttings? If so, then we must 
admit the existence of graft hybrids, 
which most plant-breeders are not 
willing to do. 


While comparatively little has really 
been done in the actual development of 
disease-resistant varieties, enough has 
been accomplished to indicate the possj- 


Plant Sanitation. 


bilities. We are able at the present 
time in certain sections of the country 
to advise growers of certain crops what 
varieties to plant in order to insure a 
crop. relatively resistant to some 
specific disease. 

At first thought there would seem 
to be almost no limit to the practical 
results obtainable. There are certain 
valid objections, however, which stand 
out prominently and which cannot be 
overlooked. 


DIFFICULTIES AND OBJECTIONS. 


In view of present-day knowledge no 
one will deny that all our common 
plants vary, and every grower of plants 
knows that cultivated varieties are 
specially given to variation. How many 
of us, however, have ever given thought 
to the fact that the organisms causing 
the diseases of our cultivated plants 
may also vary? Isay “fact ” advisedly, 
for there is an abundance of evidence to 
prove that fungi and bacteria are 
capable of as wide variation compara- 
tively as weare familiar with in the 
most variable of cultivated plants. 

That fungi vary in form when grow- 
ing under different conditions, has been 
repeatedly proven. I wish to point out 
that fungi vary in their physiological 
characteristics and in their degree of 
parasitism. I wish that time would 
permit me to go into a detailed dis- 
cussion of this interesting subject, but 
I will content myself with saying that 
the breeder of resistant varieties has 
this difficulty to contend with: The 
organism which he has been endeavour- 
ing to evade by the development of 
resistant varieties may in time vary 
in the direction of greater virulence, 
and his carefully selected variety become 
as susceptible as was the original stock. 
In support of this objection, the history 
of the Keiffer pear may be cited. 
When first introduced it was especially 
resistant to the bacterial disease known 
as fire blight, which in some sections 
has prevented the cultivation of any 
variety except the one under discussion. 
There seems to be considerable evidence 
to show thatit is much less resistant 
to the disease than formerly. particu- 
larly in southern Delaware. A promi- 
nent apple grower of Kent County, 
Delaware, who has practised spraying 
against apple scab for nearly twenty 
years, recently expressed the opinion 
that apple scab was muchharder to 
control now than when he began to 
spray, and said that he believed it was 
to variation on the part of the scab 
organism in the direction of greater 
virulence. The history of the coffee leaf 
disease in Ceylon is also in support of the 
objection. 


260 


[MARCcH, 1909. 
Another serious objection has fre- 
quently been raised. Will resistant 


varieties developed in a given locality 
and ina praticular soil retain their resist- 
ance if transferred to another climate 
and to soil of a very different character ? 
Doubtless some of the varieties of 
certain crops so far developed will retain 
their resistance througha fairly wide 
range of conditions, but some may be 
found wanting. The person who intro- 
duces a disease-resistant variety should 
test his production for several reasons, 
and under a variety of conditions. 


The objection has been raised that 
resistant sorts are inferior. This is 
frequently the case. In the develop- 
ment of immune varieties the market 
requirements must be keptinmind. It 
is, however, something gained to have 
developed a variety showing high 
resistance to some malady, even if the 
variety is worthless commercially, for 
this sort may then be used as one parent 
in crossing with commercially desirable 
varieties. 

Another difficulty in this work which 
presents itself is that most of our culti- 
vated plants have more than one 
parasitic organism attacking them. 
Some plants have a score or more 
such diseases. A plant-breeder usually 
develops his immune variety in some 
particular section to the most serious 
disease in that locality. When the 
variety is transferred to another section 
where another disease is the prevalent 
one, he may find that the plant is not at 
all resistant to the second trouble. 


Ward, Salmon, and others have shown 
that there exist what have been termed 
biological forms of certain species of 
fungi, that is,a species of fungus may 
include certain forms, one of which is 
able to infect only a certain species or 
group of species of host plants, while 
another may infest other species not 
infected by the first form, ete. These 
forms are indistinguishable from each 
other morphologically. In developing a 
resistant variety of plant in one locality 
we may be developing resistance to only 
one biological form of the fungus. 
When we transfer the variety we may 
encounter another form of the same 
fungus to which our plant will be 
susceptible. 


Salmon also points out. the possibility 
of there being strains of the same fungus 
having great virulence. 


CAUSE OF IMMUNITY. 


So far I have omitted any reference 
to the cause of disease-resistance or 
immunity. It is perhaps beyond the 
scope of this talk to go into any detailed 


Marca, 1909. ] 


discussion of this phase of the subject. 
Very little is really known about it. 


Some writers claim that in certain 
eases anatomical characters have some 
influence on the degree of attack by 
fungus parasites. For example, a thin- 
skinned potato may be more subject to 
seab than a potato having a_ thick skin. 
This point does not seem to be satis- 
factorily proven, The researches of 
Marshall Ward and others tend to show 
that immunity of the host plant to some 
true obligate parasites is not due to 
any peculiarities of anatomy, as abund- 
ance of plant hairs, thickness of cuticle, 
or number of stomates per square inch, 
but has to do with the attraction or 
repulsion offered by the cells of the 
plant to the feeding organs of the 
attacking organism. A fungus may 
enter the plant but not be able to 
develop after entrance. This attraction 
or repulsion offered to the feeding 
organs of the fungus is believed to be 
due to certain little understood chemical 
substances present in the cells of the 
plant. In_ selecting disease-resistant 
varieties, we are probably selecting 
those which contain chemical substances 
which inhibit the growth of the organism 
we are endeavouring to evade. 


There is need of much more investiga- 
tion and study on this phase of the 


subject. When we know more about 
these chemical substances we can, 
perhaps, proceed more intelligently. 


The recent work in breeding increased 
protein in corn, sugar in beets, etce., 
shows us that there is variation in the 
amount of chemical substance in plants, 
and that this variation can be directed 
along desired lines by intelligent plant- 
breeders. 


ARTIFICIAL IMMUNITY. 


{f natural immunity is due to chemical 
substances present in the cells of the 
plant which prohibit the growth of the 
disease-producing organism, the question 
arises as to the possibility of producing 
an artificial immunity in an individual 
by treatment with chemicals which will 
combine or mix with the cell sap and 
act in the same way as the obscure 
chemical substances present in naturally 
immune individuals. Can we produce 
an artificial immunity in a plant by 
inoculating such chemical substances 
into the tissues or inducing the plant to 
absorb them through its roots ? 


There have been many experiments 
conducted to test the effect of intro- 
ducing chemicals directly into the tis- 
sues, butso far without any practical 
results. Interesting effects from the 
plant physiologist’s standpoint have 


261 


Plant Sanitations 


been recorded, but no one has ever satis- 
factorily treated any specific diseases 
by these methods. 


There has been some work published, 
notably that of Massee working in 
England, and Beauverie and Laurent in 
France, indicating that immunity to 
specific diseases may be produced by 
watering the soil in which plants are 
growing with solutions of chemical sub- 
stances having fungicidal properties. 
Massee succeeded in rendering tomato 
and cucumber plants immune to certain 
greenhouse diseases by watering them 
regularly with a solution containing one 
part of copper sulphate to 7000 parts of 
water, later he increased this to the 
proportion of 1; 6000, 


Whether the study of the develop- 
ment by artificial means of disease-re- 
sistant individuals, as indicated, will be 
productive of any practical results has 
yet to be demonstrated. This work is 
yet in the experimental stage. The 
work that has already been recorded 
needs verification, and there is much 
more to be done. There is excellent 
opportunity for investigation in this 
field by the plent physiologist and plant 
pathologist. 


I hope that I have succeeded in show- 
ing my audience some of the possibilities 
of this phase of plant-breeding work, and 
that I have not given a false impression 
as to the ultimate utility of disease- 
resistant varieties. I wish to lay parti- 
cular stress on the objections which I 
have mentioned. At this stage of the 
work we cannot say whether the difficul- 
ties will be surmounted, or whether they 
willin time make the continuation of 
the study impracticable. 


In resistance we have not a cure-all. 
It is, however, a prominent adjunct to 
the increasing number of methods of 
treating plant-diseases. 


Some phases of the work of developing 
disease-resisting varieties are very sim- 
ple, and I hope that [have shown that 
any intelligent grower may add to the 
sum of our knowledge of this subject by 
careful observation of varieties or by 
selecting seed from individuals which 
have survived an epidemic, 


DISCUSSION, 


William H. Spooner remarked that 
the fire blight of pears in this section of 
the country seems to affect some varie- 
ties more seriously than others. In his 
own experience he had noted that 
Superfin and Urbaniste were affected 
the most, while Bartlett, Anjou, and 
Merriam had very generally escaped the 
blight. 


Plant Sanitation. 


Robert Cameron said that Prof. Jack- 
son’s lecture was very interesting, 
although it did not contain much that 
was very pew. Thesudjectis as old as 
the oldest plants we have on the earth 
at the present time. All the plants we 
have now are those that survived the 
numerous diseases and enemies they 
had to contend with in the ages that 
are past, and itis all a question of the 
survival of the fittest. We can never 
expect to have plants without disease. 

He said that he was much interested 
in the reference to disease-resisting vio- 
lets and cantaloupes, and would like 
more information concerning them. In 
the matter of the coffee leaf disease to 
which the lecturer had referred, he 
stated that at one time in the Kast 
Indies the Arabian coffee was almost 
destroyed by a fungus disease, but the 
industry was saved by substituting 
another species, the Coffea Liberica, 
which was a more robust and a large- 
growing plant than the Coffea Arabica. 

Mr. Spooner called attention to the 
fungus disease of the holly-hock, and 
asked if some one could give a remedy 
for if. 


262° i [Marca, 1909, 


Mr. Cameron, in reply to Mr. Spooner’s 
inquiry, stated that hollyhocks raised 
from seed sown early in January and 
grown, along in a moderately warm 
house, made good material for planting 
out in May, and that plants grown in 
this way were more thrifty and less 
subject to the attacks of disease. 


James Wheeler said that much trouble 
was experienced by growers from the 
fungus diseases of plants, and that the 
only thing to do by way of a_ remedy 
was selection and new stock. This was 
very well, however, for annuals, but, 
what shall we do for apples and pears, 
for which there does not seem to be any 
cure? Whatcan be done to save our 
trees? 


Mr. Cameron replied that many of the 
diseases that attacked our plants were 
often blessings in disguise. The gypsy 
and brown-tail moths have been a great 
expense, but we have learned a lesson 
that by spraying our orchards we are 
able to raise much better fruit. Wecan 
control disease but we cannot cure it. 
—Transactions of the Massachusetts 
Horticultural Society, 1908, P. 1, 


Marca, 1909,] 268 


PESTS. 


TICKS ON DOGS. 

Valuable dogs are often killed owing 
to the attacks of scrub (not cattle) ticks, 
If the ticks are promptly removed a dog 
will usually recover, but if they are not 
detected the animal rarely survives. In 
the case of woolly-haired dogs the insects 
are difficult to find, in which case the 
dog may be sheared and the ticks re- 
moved. They should not be forcibly 
pulled off, as the mandibles are in- 
variably left in the animal’s skin, and 
the mischief goes on. Insects breathe 
through their bodies, hence, if the pores 
are closed by the application of oil, 
turpentine, or kerosene, the tick dies, 
and may be extracted entirely. If the 
ticks cannot be found, the following dres- 
sing will be of some service :—Soft soap, 4 
oz. ; Kerosene, one teacupful ; water, one 
quart. Boil the soap and water together 
until the soap is dissolved. When cool, 
add the kerosene, and agitate the mix- 
ture thoroughly for five minutes with 
a rod. Washthe dog all over with some 
of this mixture. Give internally 3 to 
10 gr. of iodide of potassium in two table- 
spoonfuls of water.—Queensland Agri- 
cultural Journal. 


VIRUS FOR THE DESTRUCTION 
OF RATS AND MICE. 


By H. EK. ANNRETT. 


Professor of Comparative Pathology, 
University of Liverpool. 

Kindly favour me with a small space 
in your columns to explain the true 
nature of the “Liverpool” virus for 
mice and rats, which, according to the 
editorial paragraph appearing in the 
Journal of October 31, p. 1894, is supposed 
to have been directly associated with an 
outbreak of illness in a business establish- 
ment in the city last July. 


The virus is manufactured, under my 
superintendence, by the Incorporated 
Liverpool Institute of Comparative 
Pathology, founded for the furtherance 
of the study of comparative pathology 
in all its branches, and especially for 
research into the relation of the diseases 
of animals to those of man, and devoting 
any profits which may accrue from the 
sale of its commercial products to 
research in the subject of comparative 
pathology, which up to the present, no 
such profit accruing, has been assisted 
largely by donors and subscribers. The 
virus as issued by the Institute is 


¢ 


certainly nota culture of the Bacillus 
enteritidis (Gaertner), nor can the 
“‘Danysz” bacillus in the form with 
which [ have carried on extensive in- 
vestigations, and as issued by Danysz 
Virus Company, Limited, London, be 
identified with Gaertner’s bacillus. 


The Danysz bacillus and the Liverpool 
virus bacillus were obtained originally 
from the intestinal contents of rats (the 
‘“ratin” bacillus, issued as a rat virus by 
the Ratin Company, London, was, [ 
believe. isolated from the urine of a child 
by Neumann); and the virulence and 
efficiency as vermin killers of these 
original strains has been maintained for 
a period of six months or seven years 
by suitable subcultures and passages 
through various animals. 


These bacilli are members of a very 
large group of allied organisms to which 
the name “ Salmonella” has been given. 
In this group are included at present: 
The bacillus of hog cholera (Salmon 
and Smith); bacillus of swine fever 
(MacFadyean); B. swipestifer (Schiitz) ; 
bacillus of peste du pore (Ligniéres) ; 
B, paratyphosus *‘ B” of several authors 
(Brion and Kayser, Schottmiiller, &c.) ; 
B. icteroides (Sanarelli); B. enteritidis 
(Gaertner); bacilli from various cases of 
meat poisoning (Van Ermengen, Aertryk, 
Trautmann, Giinther, &c.); bacillus of 
psittacosis (BGhme) B. typhi murium 
(Loeffler) ; bacillus of rat virus (Danysz 
and others); bacilli of ‘* Ratin” No. I. 
(Neumann); bacillus of septicaemia of 
valves (Thomassen); bacillus of diarrhoea 
and dysentery of calves and other 
domesticated animals (several authors). 


From a rough glance over this list, it 
will be readily perceived that the 
organisms are practically all of intestinal 
origin, and haveavery extensive dis- 
tribution in Nature. Observations tend 
to indicate that they are ordinarily 
harmless inhabitants of the normal in- 
testinal tracts of man and animals; 
put occasionally, under circumstances at 
present but little understood, take on 
pathogenic properties, the manifes- 
tations of which exhibit a large degree of 
specificity, for the species from which 
the organisms were originally derived. 


The differentiation of members of this 
list into two groups, of which the 
B. enteritidis (Gaertner) forms the type 
of one, and the bacillus of hog cholera, 
or the B. typhi murium, may be taken 
as the type of the other, is not a 
very difficult task for any bacteriologist, 
by appropriate cultural, biological, an d 


Pests. 


other methods; but to distinguish 
between the various members of these 
groups presents very considerable diffi- 
culty, and entails laborious and tediou 
serological operations. 


Not having yet had the opportunity 
of perusing Professor Klein’s report, nor 
the detailed account of his experimental 
work, I can only relate here those 
results which I have obtained from a 
very long and extensive experience with 
the Liveryool virus as have any bearing 
on the question of disease in the human 
subject produced directly or indirectly 
through the injection of this organism. 
I ought, however, first to mention that I 
have recently become aware of records 
of cases of meat poisoning in man by 
the use of cultures of the B. typhi 
murium (Loeffler), which have been ‘‘ put 
down’ for rats and mice in Japan and 
other countries. 


I have records of cases in which the 
rat virus has been more or less deli- 
berately injected by adults and_ by 
children without the slightest deleterious 
effects; and in the six years during which 
the virus has been sold for the des- 
truction of the vermin, in very large 
quantities (some 10,000 tubes per annum), 
and must have been handled on very 
frequent occasions in such a way as to 
be inadvertently and directly introduced 
into the mouth, I have received records 
of only two cases in which the virus 
was suspected of having been asso- 
ciated with any gastro-intestinal or other 
troubles, Careful enquiry into these 
cases was made, with the result that in 
one case the evidence was absolutely 
useless, and in the second case, the meat 
which was supposed to have conveyed 
the infection had been kept for several 
hours in evidently insanitary  sur- 
roundings subsequent to cooking. In 
neither of these cases was any ex- 
perimental evidence forthcoming. 


From these cases, and probably from 
the circumstances of the present out- 
break, it can be fairly inferred that due 
regard to ordinary commonsense sanitary 
precautions, in the prservation of meat 
and other foods, in pantries, kitchens, 
restaurants, and other places, would 
obviate any possibility (if such exists) 
of contamination with micro-organisms 
which may perhaps have a pathogenic 
action for man, but which have been 
fourd to be of very considerable benefit 
to mankind in general in destroying 
filthy verminous animals, whose very 
existence is a perpetual menace to the 
public health, especially. of the in- 
habitants of large cities.—British Medical 
Journal. 


264 


(Marcu, 1909. 


HOW TO VANQUISH THE 
MOSQUITO. 


An American paper says thata very 
simple and perfectly effective method of 
destroying mosquitoes is to make use of 
permanganate of potash. Two and a 
half hours are required for the develop- 
ment of the full-grown mosquito from 
the larva. It can be instantly killed 
either in itsinfancy, or at maturity, by 
contact with minute quantities of this 
chemical. A solution of the salt, con- 
taining only one part in 15,000 of water, 
distributed in. swamps and waterholes 
where mosquitoes breed, will render the 
development of the larvie impossible. 
A handful of permanganate will oxidise a 
10-acre swamp, kill all its embryo insects, 
and keep it free from organic matter 
at a cost of 25 cents (123d.). An effica- 
cious method is to scatter a few crystals 
wide apart. A single pinch of perman- 
ganate has killed all the germs in a 1,100- 
gallon tank. The above isfrom ‘‘ The 
Public Health Journal,” U. S. A. 


Some years ago we noticed large 
numbers of mosquito larva ina small 
waterhole at Nundah. A few months 
later none were to be found in it, but 
by some means or other (probably by 
the help of birds or cattle, carrying fish 
spawn on their feet), this waterhole 
became alive with briliantly-coloured 
fish, about 2 in. long. Doubtless these 
little fish destroyed the larvs. Con- 
firmation of this theory we now find in 
an article in the London ‘ Times,” re- 
published in the ‘Journal of the 
Jamaica Agricultural Society” for Sep- 
tember, 1908. It is as follows :— 


“Ithas long been known that Bar- 
badoes is the only West Indian island 
thatis absolutely free from malaria 
and from the presence of the anopheles 
mosquito. Major Hodder, R. H., in 
his report to the War Office three 
years ago on the drainage works that 
were then being carried out in St. 
Lucia, came to the conclusion that there 
was some hitherto undiscovered reason 
why the anopheles tailed to propagate 
its kindin Barbadoes where the culex 
was abundant. It appeared from his 
observations that the anopheles could, 
or did, only breed on the ground level ; 
none of its larv® being found in tanks 
which were raised afew feet from the 
earth, nor even in those which were 
actually resting on the ground. The 
culex can, on the other hand, breed in 
the gutters on the roofs of high build- 
ings as easily as in the low-lying swamps 
and pools. My friend Mr. C Kenrick Gib- 
bons, who had givena good deal of 
attention tothe matter pointed out at 


Marcu, 1909.] 


once that the pools and swamps in this 
island were stocked withswarms of a 
tiny fish (known locally from_ their 
vast numbers as ‘millions,’ and that 
their favourite food was the larve of 
the mosquito. Itis obvious that any 
species of that insect which is unable to 
breed above the ground level must fall 
aprey to this enemy. The fish has 
been identified by Mr. __ Boulenger, 
F.R.S., of the British Museum, as 
Girardinus poeciloides, Some specimens 
were successfully got to England, and 
flourished forsome time in the insect 
house at the Zoological Society’s Gar- 
dens. Mr. Gibbons’ suggestion that the 
‘millions’ should be imported into 
malarial distrits in other islands has 
been acted upon, and with felicitous 
results, For instance, the Country 
Health Board of Antigua, ‘being con- 
vineed of the useful pazt played by 
these fish in consuming mosquito larvee, 
have arranged for their systematic tis- 
tribution throughout the ponds and 
streams of the island.’ Similar news 
comes from Jamaica, whither a consign- 
ment of the fish was sent in November, 
1906. The Secretary of the Agricultural 
Society writes that the tanks at the 
Titchfield Hotel are full of them, and 
that he had been informed that there 
had been a marked diminution of fever 
round about, the ‘millions’ evidently 
accounting for the mosquito larve. 
They have also been sent to Colon and 
to British Guiana. One cannot help 
wishing that these useful little fish 
were given a trial in the deadly districts 
of Africa. Like the malarial mosquito, 
the insects which convey the terrible 
diseases which are endemic there pass 


34 


26 


5 Pests. 


the larvee stage of their existence in 
water. One may add in this connec- 
tion that the Swedish Consul at Frank- 
fort has discovered a small fish (‘ the 
blue-eyed’) which feeds on mosquito 
larvee, and that, at the request of the 
Italian Government, some are to be, or 
have been, sent to the Campagna, where 
so much has been done in recent years 
to diminish malaria.” 


_ To this, the editor of the Jamaica 
journal above mentioned adds :— 


In many of our streams and ponds 
here, the same little fish called ‘‘ mil- 
lions” in Barbadoes and ‘“‘ ticky-tickies” 
here are found, and many people have 
used them in their tanks, The consign- 
ment mentioned as having been got 
from the Barbadoes was closely ex- 
amined, and the ‘‘ millions * found to be 


identical with our ‘“ ticky-tickies.” 
Tanks are very favourite breeding 
places for mosquitoes, and we are 


afraid it is only afew who appreciate 
the necessity of preventing the mosqui- 
toes breeding—for their own comfort 
and well-being. Weare glad to draw 
the attention of every reader to this 
fact, that the little ‘‘ ticky-tickies” live 
on the larvee of mosquitoes, and that 
in districts subject to these insects, and 
where tanks and ponds are _ used, this 
litte fish should be put in these. This 
does not, however, do away with the 
fact that mosquitoes breed wherever a 
little stagnant water collects, and care 
should be taken to prevent this, as far 
as possible, by cleaning these places 
with kerosene.—Queensland Agricul- 
tural Journal, Vol. XXII., Part 1, 
January, 1908, 


Bee 


266 [MaRcH, 1909. 


LIVE STOCK. 


SOME POULTRY EXPERIMENTS. 


By H. W. HAWKINS, Poultry Expert. 


From time to time statements have 
appeared in various publications, that 
Leghorns and Wyandottes are  pre- 
eminently the best for all-round purposes, 
and farmers have been advised to keep 
no other. Itismy duty to again point 
out this erroneous idea. In the first place, 
locality is of great moment when recom- 
mending breeds. For example, no one 
who knows anything about the business 
would urge the farmers in the Buffalo 
Ranges to keep Leghorns, neither would 
he be wise to recommend them in many 
parts of Southern Victoria, for the good 
reason that they feel the cold weather 
more than any’ other breed. The cold 
has a deleterious effect, and mortality 
would be a serious factor to reckon with. 
The Leghorns are peculiarly adapted to 
the more arid north, and for egg pro- 
duction are equal to any known breed, 
provided they are rightly selected. 


Equally good results may be looked for 
by keeping Black Orpingtons in the 
cooler climates. When their second 
season of usefulness has passed, they will, 
by judicious feeding, bring good _ prices 
in the market. The flesh of the Orping- 
ton is, at 2} years, much more eatable 
and succulent than that of the Leghorn, 
which is fibrous, dry and tasteless after 
the second season has passed; in fact, 
the Leghorn was never intended for the 
table. 


To determine the question, I have 
during the past few months conducted 
exhaustive experiments as to the quick 
maturity of the breeds under review. 
Attention has also been paid to the all- 
important breed with which we hope to 
build up an export trade, the Dorking- 
Game, and which, at the recent World’s 
Poultry Congress, was recognised as 
being the breed par excellence. 


DETAILS OF EXPERIMENTS. 


Pen. Breed. No. of Date No. 
Eggs. Hatched. Hatched. 
1 White Leghorn 12 Sept. 2ist 10 
2 Silver Wyandotte 12 mA 8 
3 Black Orpington 12 ap 11 
4 Silver Dorking- 
Game 12 50 12 


The 41 chicks were placed in four pens 
of 50 x 20, each having precisely the same 
food, viz.: oatmeal, stale bread crumbs, 
lightly boiled sheep’s liver, finely sliced 
onions, bonemeal and charcoal, with 
plenty of skim milk to drink; grit and 


shellalways being available. At the end 
of four weeks the cockerels were weigh- 
ed, and the following table shows the 
results :— 


Breed. Age. Weight. 
Dorking-Game ..- Lmonth 19 ozs, 
Black Orpington ... PP) 18 
Silver Wyandotte ... »» 14 
White Leghorn of i ae 


At six weeks they were again placed on 
the scales, when considerable increase in 
weight was noticeable. 


Breed. Age. Weight. 
Dorking-Game 6 weeks 263 ozs. 
Black Orpington ... ” % 
Silver Wyandotte ... 30 LON; 
White Leghorn ... % 5, ae, 


A fortnight later, bringing them up to 
eight weeks old, they were again weigh- 
ed and it was found that the increase 
had been well maintained. 


Breed. Age. Weight, 
Dorking-Game 8 weeks 32} ozs. 
Black Orpington ... Bf 262 ,, 
Silver Wyandotte... 99 


White Leghorn _... AD 183 A 


The result of the two months’ test 
clearly indicates that the Dorking and 
Orpington are two of the most profitable 
breeds to keep. Whilst the amount of 
food consumed by each pen was the same 
each day, the gain in flesh varied con- 
siderably. In addition to the rapid in- 
crease in weight, we must not overlook 
the fact that both breeds are excellent 
layers of fair-sized eggs, and when bred 
early in the season are good winter 
layers. 

The time is not far distant when 8 to 10 
weeks’ chicks (broilers) will become as 
popular here as they are in America to- 
day.—Journal of Agriculture of Victoria, 
Vol. VII., Pt. 1, January, 1909. 


THOROUGH-BRED AND PURE- 
BRED. 


We note the practice of using the 
word ‘*‘thorough-bred” in speaking of 
puie-bred animals is becoming more 
common here. The Agricultural Society 
made recommendations to the Govern- 
ment that the duty on imported pure- 
bred stock for breeding purposes should 
be withdrawn, and this wasdone. But 
we find the Customs authorities using 
the word ‘‘ thorough-bred ” animals, and 
insisting on that word being used when 
we pass the documents for stock im- 
ported. This is a ridiculous state of 


he 
— 


— i 


Marcg, 1909.] 


matters, and as there is altogether a 
great deal of misconception and con- 
fusion oes to the proper nomenclature 
to use, we publish the following ex- 
planation :— 


The term ‘ thorough-bred ” should be 
applied to no animal buta thorough- 
bred horse ; it is the distinct and specific 
name of that breed of horses. There ave 
Hackney horses, Clydesdale horses, etc.; 
and there are Shorthorn cows, Jersey 
cows, ete., not thorough-bred Hackneys 
nor thorough-bred cows. ‘The term 
‘“‘pure-bred” is the proper word to use 
to indicate that the animal is not mixed 
in its breed; such asa pure-bred Hack- 
ney horse, a pure-bred Shorthorn cow, 
a pure-bred Southdown sheep, a pure- 
bred Berkshire pig, a pure-bred Leghorn 
hen. 


To use the term ‘‘a thorough-bred 
Hackney” could only mean that the 
animal was across between a thorough- 
bred stallion and a Hackney mare. To 
use the term ‘‘ thorough-bred Shorthorn 
cow” in this light is therefore non- 
sense; it would mean a cross between 
a thorough-bred horse and a Shorthorn 
cow. 


“Pure-bred” is a clear, lucid, and 
expressive term; it means an animal of 
the same type and character through 
many generations. belonging to one of 
the known breeds, and every recognised 
breed has its record. ‘‘Stud-book” 
when applied to the horse ; ‘‘ Herd-book ” 
when applied to the cow ; ‘‘ Flock-book ” 
when applied to sheep and goats. 


When the parents are pure-bred on 
one side, such as when a Shorthorn bull 
is put toacommon cow, the progeny is 
a “half-bred.” If a Shorthorn bull was 
used on a _ half-bred Shorthorn cow, 
the progeny would be termed ‘three- 
quarter bred,” that is a three-quarter 
bred Shorthorn. 


When both parents are pure-bred, but 
of different breeds, such as a Shorthorn 
bull put to a Jersey cow, the progeny 
wuuld be termed a ‘‘ Cross-bred.” When 
the breed goes further than a ‘‘ quarter- 
bred,” but is still known, the animal is 
called a‘‘Mixed breed.” When the 
breed is so mixed that it cannot be 
followed, wein Jamaica use the term 
‘*“Common”; for instance a ‘‘common” 
cow;a‘‘common” pig. In the United 
States they use the term ‘“‘ grade” for an 
animal that is partly of one particular 
breed, such as a grade Shorthorn, 
a grade Holstein, and this is a good 
word as describing stock that is being 
graded up.—Journal of the Jamaica 
Agricultural Society, Vol. XII, No, 11, 
November, 1908, 


267 


Live Slock., 
THE INDIAN GAME ACT. 


REVISED DRAFT. 


Sir Harold Stuart in circulating a 
revised Draft Bill for expression of 
opinion makes the following observa- 
tions :— 

The replies to the Home Department, 
letter No. 1082-90, dated the 28rd May, 
1904, with which a Draft Bill was 
circulated, disclosed a strong concensus 
ot opinion in favour of protective legisla- 
tion, while indicating a considerable 
divergence of opinion on the principles 
of the Bill. In the light of the criticisms 
offered, and after a careful consider- 
ation of the whole matter, the Govern- 
ment of India have arrived at the con- 
clusion that the line of action originally 
contemplated should be undertaken to 
afford protection to those wild birds and 
animals which are threatened with 
extermination. 


A revised Draft Bill has accordingly 
been drawn up, and I am directed to 
circulate it for the further critisism and 
opinion of Local Governments. The 
revised Bill defines game and_ takes 
power for Local Governments to declare 
a close time during which it will be 
unlawful to capture, kill or dealin any 
specified kind of game or the plumage of 
any specified bird. Fish have been ex- 
cluded from the scope of the proposed 
law, as their case can be suitably provid- 
ed for by rules under the Indian 
Fisheries Act. The Bill also provides a 
general exception in favour of the 
capture or killing of game in self-defence 
orin protection of crops or fruit, and 
gives power to the Local Government to 
apply its provisions to birds other than 
those specified in the definition. It may 
be noted that clause 3 corresponds sub- 
stantially to clauses 5 and 7 of the 
original Bill, which were generally 
approved, and that clause 5 corresponds 
to clause 18 of that Bill, which also met 
with general approval. Clause 7, which 
applies only to birds, is far less sweeping 
than clause 2 (1)and 7 of the original Bill. 
In short, the present Bill embodies in an 
improved and simplified form those pro- 
visions of the original Bill which met 
with general acceptance. The Govern- 
ment of India consider that the proposed 
law will for the present be sufficient to 
restrict the indiscriminate slaughter of 
game, if it is combined with suitable 
restrictions imposed by rules under the 
Forest Acts in force in the different 
provinces, 

The legislation contemplated is likely 
to be of limited application, as it is pro- 
bable that in many parts of India the 
protection afforded by forests to species 


Inve Stock. 268 


threatened with extinction will make it 
unnecessary to apply the measure, should 
it be passed into law. It may, however, 
be argued that the proposed Bill, so far 
as it goes beyond the scope of the Wild 
Birds Protection Act, 1887, and especially 
in its application to deer and other 
animals which are liable to injure 
growing crops, is open to the objection 
stated in the Home Department Resolu- 
tion No, 1471-81, dated the 29th August, 
1885, 
TEXT OF THE BILL. 


The following is the text of the Bill :— 

Whereas itis expedient to make better 
provision for the protection and pre- 
servation of game; itis hereby enacted 
as follows :— 


Short title and eatent. 

1. (1) This Act may be called the 
Indian Game Act, 1908; and (2), it ex- 
tends to the whole of British India, in- 
cluding British Baluchistan, the Santhal 
Parganas and the Pargana of Spiti. 

Definition. 

2. In this Act—‘‘ game” means all 
kinds of the following birds and animals 
when in their wild state, namely— 

(i) bustards, ducks, floricans, geese, 
jungle-fowls, partridges, peafowl, phea- 
sant, pigeons, quail, sand grouse, snipe, 
’ spur fowl and woodcock ; 


(ii) antelopes, asses, bison, buffaloes, 
deer, gazelles, goats, hares, oxen, rhino- 
ceroses and sheep. 


Close time. 


3. The Local Government may, by 
notification in the local official Gazette, 
declare any period of the year to bea 
close time for any specified kind of game 
throughout the whole or any parts of 
its territories; and during such period 


and within the areas specified in such 
declaration, it shall be unlawful— 


(a) to capture or kill any such game; 

(b) to dealin any such game; 

(c) to deal in the plumage of any birds 
specified in such notification captured or 
killed during such close time. 


Penalty for illegal capture or killing 
of, or dealing on, game. 


4, Whoever does, attempts to do, any 
act in contravention of section 8, shall be 
punishable— 


(a) on the first conviction, with fine 
which may extend to fifty rupees ; and 


(b) on the second conviction, with im- 
prisonment for a term which may extend 
to one month, or with fine which may 
oxen to one hundred rupees, or with 

oth. 


Presumption of commission of 
certain offences. 


5. Where any person is found in pos- 
session of any game recently captured 
or killed, the Court may presume that 
he has captured or killed such game. 


Saving. 
6. Nothing in this Act shall be deemed 
to affect the capture or killing of game 


in self-defence, or in bona fide protection 
of a standing crop or growing fruit. 


Application of Act to other birds. 


7. The local Government may, by 
notification in the local official Gazette, 
apply the provisions of this Act to any 
kind of bird other than those specified 
in section 2, which in its opinion it is 
desirable to preserve from extinction. 


Repeal. 


8. The Wild Birds’ Protection Act 
1887, XX. of 1897, is hereby repealed. 
—Indian Forester, Vol. XXXV., No. 1, 
January, 1909. 


[MarcH, 1909. , 


Marcu, 1909.] 


269 


SCIENTIFIC AGRICULTURE. 


STUDIES ON GERMINATION AND 
PLANT-GROWTH. 


SUMMARY. 


Soil which has been heated without 
drying to temperatures from 60° to 150° 
Belates unfavourably towards the ger- 
mination of seeds, the total seeds ger- 
minating decreasing (in most cases), and 
the time necessary for their germination 
increasing, with 
heating. The average results are suffi- 
ciently regular to show that the alter- 
ation in the soil must begin at temper- 
atures as low as about 30.° 


Sterilised seeds behave in the same 
way as unsterilised ones, except that 
the time required for germination is uni- 
formly longer. Thisis due toan alter- 
ation in the seeds by the sterilising agent, 
and not tothe destruction of bacteria, 
for sterilised seeds do not recover their 
property of ready germination on being 
re-inoculated. Various sterilising agents 
were examined, but mercuric chloride 
was the only one found to be satis- 
factory and efficient. 


The retarding effect on germination 
produced by heating the soil cannot be 
explained by an alteration in the bacte- 
rial condition of the soil, for the alter- 
ation extends progressively at temper- 
atures beyond that sufficient to destroy 
all bacteria ; moreover, no similar results 
are obtained with sand, even when this 
has been thoroughly impregnated with 
soil-bacteria to start with; also, re- 
inoculating previously sterlised seeds 
has no effect on their germination; and 
many seeds, after sterilisation, will ger- 
minate freely in a sterile medium. 


By heating the soil, an increase in its 
soluble constituents occurs, especially in 
the soluble organic and nitrogenous 
matter, and the increase in either of 
these has been found to be directly pro- 
portional, within the limits of experi- 
mental error, to the increase in the time 
required for germination. The latter 
increase appears, therefore, to be due 
to the formation of a nitrogenous com- 
pound in the soil, which is inhibitory 
towards germination. This compound 
is sufficiently stable in solution for an 
extract of heated soil to affect an un- 
heated soil when itis added to this latter ; 
it also does not seem to be destroyed 
when the soil containing itis keptat a 
low atmospheric temperature for some 
months; but at a higher temperature, 
and in the presence of sufficient mois- 
ture, it generally loses some of its inhi- 
bitory properties, probably through 
oxidation, 


the temperature of. 


The inhibitory substance is not of an 
acid nature. 


Soils from different localities favour 
the germination of seeds to different 
extents, the extent varying (in the three 
instances examined) directly with the 
amount of soluble organic matter in the 
soil ; but, on heating these soils to the 
same temperatures, their action is 
exactly reversed, the soil richer in solu- 
ble organic matter forming, on heating, 
a large proportion of inhibitory matter, 
and becoming, therefore, less favour- 
able to germination. 


The experiments do not settle defi- 
nitely whether any of the inhibitory 
substances is ever present in soils before 
artificial heating, but it seems probable 
that such is the case. 


The temperature of heating at which 
the inhibitory substance is formed in 
greatest quantity is about 200°; it dimin- 
ishes in amount as the temperature is 
further raised, till it disappears entirely 
at a low red heat, such burnt soil behav- 
ing in nearly the same way towards ger- 
mination as does unheated soil. 


The substance which is inhibitory as 
regards germination need not neces- 
sarily be so as regards plant growth, 
or it may become destroyed before 
growth becomes active. Its presence 
results in an increase in the soluble 
nitrogen in the soil, and this may be 
the chief, if not the sole, reason of the 
increase of growth of non-leguminous 
plants in heated soil, Preliminary ex- 
periments with apple-trees have led to 
similar results, there being a large 
increase in growth, in leaf-formation, 
and in the percentage of nitrogen in the 
leaves, when the trees were grown in 
heated soil. The increase, also, was 
greater as the temperature of heating 
had been higher. 


The heated soils, however, behaved 
towards the starting into growth of the 
tree in the same way as they did 
towards the germination of seeds, this 
starting into growth having been con- 
ee ekg pelaved hes the heating.— 

oburn acpermmental Fruit F ; 
19th Report, 1908. ate 


NITROGEN AND NITRAGIN. 


By ALFRED J. EWART, D.SC,, PH. D., 
F.L.S., 
Government Botanist and Professor of 


Botany at the Melbourne University. 
The chemical element nitroge 
an essential part in the Bei reeltioniee 
all plants and is especially abundant in 


Scientific Agriculture. 


buds, seeds, flowers, growing tips, and, in 
fact, in all parts rich in the living plant 
substance, protoplasm. Hence a steady 
supply of nitrogen must be obtained in 
the food of plants, although in this res- 
pect the plant is far less wasteful than 
the animal and may use the same nitro- 
gen over and over again once it has been 
absorbed. The source of the plant’s 
supply of nitrogen is almost solely from 
the nitrates of calcium, magnesium, 
potassium, and sodium which are con- 
tinually being produced in the presence 
of the requisite bases in every fertile 
soil during the decomposition of its 
nitrogenous humus. The nitrogen of 
this humus is oxidized in the presence of 
free oxygen by nitrifying bacteria, 
which are present in all ordinary soils. 
Ultimately nitric acid is formed, usually 
with ammonia and nitrous acid as inter- 
mediate products, and this nitiic acid 
combines with the alkaline bases present 
in the soil to form nitrates. 


This process is a continuous one, and 
takes place most rapidly when the soil 
is warm, moderately moist and well 
aerated. Itstops, or becomes very slow, 
if the soil is at all acid, completely dry, 
very cold or in a swampy, badly aerated 
condition owing to an excess of water. 


When a soil dries up in which nitrti- 
fication has been active, the nitrates may 
sometimes be so abundant as to form an 
efflorescence on the surface of the soil. 
Since all these nitrates are, however, 
soluble in water, any heavy shower otf 
rain will tend to wash out the excess of 
nitrates from the soil before the roots 
have time to absorb them. Hence there 
is far less danger of loss, and a more 
permanent effect is produced when the 
nitrogen needs of the plant are supplied 
by the bacterial oxidation of humus 
manures applied to the soil, than when 
the same amount of nitrogen is directly 
applied in the form of a dressing of 
Chilian saltpetre (sodium nitrate). 

Although the air, which contains four- 
fitths by volume of nitrogen, represents 
an enormous total amount of this ele- 
ment, it is not directly of use except ina 
few specialcases. Ordinary green plants 
can make no use whatever of the free 
nitrogen of the air. It enters the plant, 
and is found dissolved in the. sap in 
every part, but cannot be assimilated or 
used as food any more than horses can 
digest the sand which they often 
swallow when grazing. Every thunder- 
storm, however, and also certain slow 
chemical processes of oxidation like 
that of phosphorus in moist air cause 
the oxygen and nitrogen of the air to 
combine, ultimately forming nitric acid, 
which is washed down by the first 
shower of rain. In thesame way, when- 


270 


ever the air contains ammonia derived 
from manure heaps, or from decaying 
animal or vegetable matter, this is 
washed down by the rain, and oxidised 
to nitric acid and nitrates in the soil. 


The amount of combined nitrogen avail- 
able for the plant’s use which reaches 
the soilin this manner, although quite 
appreciable, is never more thana small 
fraction of that removed from the soil 
by drainage and by the crops. Under 
the most favourable circumstances it 
does not represent more thana tenth 
or twelfth of the annual loss of nitrogen 
from a well-drained, cultivated soil with 
an average rainfall, and is usually 
considerably less. 


Certain organisms exist, however, in 
most soils which have the power of 
assimilating the free nitrogen of the air 
and ultimately enriching the soil with 
combined nitrogen available for the 
plant’s use. The most important of 
these organisms is Clostridium Pasteuri- 
anum, an anzerobic bacterium, which is 
unable to exist in ordinary soils unless 
supplied with free nitrogen and unless 
associated with certain other micro- 
organisms. The latter shield it from the 
oxygen of the air, which is poisonous to 
this organism. If all the required con- 
ditions were fulfilled, soils containing 
this bacterium might gain from 20 to 
30 lbs. of nitrogen (=120 to 180 Ibs. of 
sodium nitrate) per acre per annum. As 
a matter of fact, the actual gain due to 
the presence of this and similar micro- 
organisms appears usually to be ecom- 
paratively small, partly because the con- 
ditions are rarely the best possible and 
partly becausé denitrifying bacteria are 
usually also present which set free the 
combined nitrogen of the soil and may 
in some cases cause a loss instead of a 
gain to occur. In addition, the con- 
ditions which favour the fixation of 
nitrogen by soil bacteria not dependent 
upon leguminous plants are, in general, 
not the most cuitable ones for the 
development of ordinary crops. 


Itis well known that leguminous plants 
differ from ordinary ones in having the 
power of assimilating the free nitrogen 
of the air, and hence can exist on the 
poorest and sandiest soils where nitrates 
are practically absent or very deficient 
in amount. They have, however, this 
power only when peculiar tubercles are 
developed on their roots which contain 
nitrogen fixing bacteria derived from 
the soil or originally present on the 
coats of the seed. These root tubercle 
bacteria penetrate the young roots and 
there give rise to tubercular swellings, 
in which the bacteria are nourished and 
carry on the assimilation of free nitrogen’ 
for the benefit of the plant hearing 


= 


iy peat aR i A et me vy eek sé 
1 * ’ 


rg 


Marcu 1909,] 


them, If the root tubercles are not 
formed, then leguminous plants areas 
dependent upon supplies of combined 
nitrogen (nitrates, etc.) as are ordinary 
plants, so that whenever a leguminous 
crop, which usually does well on a parti- 
cular soil in the.absence of nitrates, fails 
to grow well, the first investigation to 
make is to pull up some of the plants 
and see whether the failure is due to 
the absence or deficiency of root nodules. 
In this connection it must be remembered 
that the use of nitrates as manures 
tends to suppress the formation of 
root nodules, since these are then less 
necessary. 

Ifa leguminous crop fails owing to 
the non-formation of root tubercles, it 
may succeed if the necessary bacteria 
are supplied to the soil or young seed- 
lings. The root tubercle bacteria appear 
all to belong to a single species, Bacillus 
radicicola. but several varieties grow on 
different plants, and these are not 
mutually interchangeable. Thus, the 
variety from the pea will infect the 
bean, but not clover. The soja plant of 
Japan usually forms no tubercles in 
HKurope, although they are abundantly 
produced in Japan, where the appro- 
priate variety of bacterium occurs. In 
such cases the bacterium may be supplied 
to the soil from a plant of the same 
kind as that whichis to be grown by 
crushing its root tubercles to a thin 
paste with cold water and either spray- 
ing the diluted mixture over the land or 
soaking the seeds init before planting. 
A single large root tubercle may contain 
several million bacteria, and only one 
bacterium is needed to start each fresh 
root tubercle, so that the root tubercles 
from a small number of plants would be 
sufficient to infect an acre of soil or 
several bushels of seeds. Once added to 
the soil they appear, however, to die 
out before long in the absence of an 
appropriate host plant, so that the direct 
application to the soil usually involves 
considerable waste and may be quite 
ineffective. 


Cultures of nitrogen fixing bacteria, 
usually termed mitragin,*” iinve been 
placed upou the market and extensively 
boomed both for direct application to 
the soil and to the seeds before planting. 
These culturesare only effective when 
they contain the particular variety of 
bacterium required, and they are no 
better than the material which can be 
derived directly from the rovt nodules. 


* A very unfortunate term, well adapted for 
booming acommercial product, but highly con- 
fusing to farmers since ‘‘ nitragin’’ is the phonetic 
spelling of the chemical element, nitrogen, as 
customarily pronounced, and all farmers now realize 
the importance of nitrogen in plant nutrition. 


271 


Scientific Agriculture. 


The cultures soon lose their efficacy, 
and in many cases have been shown to 
niet none of the required bacteria 
at all. 


In fact, in certain cases, unscrupulous 
persons have taken advantage of a 
useful scientific discovery to make money 
by palming off worthless rubbish upon 
jarmers eager to adopt scientific methods. 
It cannot be too strongly emphasized 
that no heavy outlay for a_ supply of 
“‘iitragin” is justified unless the farmer: 


Firstly, is unable to grow certain 
leguminous crops satisfactorily, even in 
the presence of lime, potash and phos- 
phone acid in sufficient amount in the 
soil. 

Secondly, finds by direct observation 
that this is due to the non-formation of 
root tubercles. 


Thirdly, is unable to procure a supply 
of the same plant-bearing living root 
tubercles which can be directly used for 
infecting the seed or soil. 

Some of the forms of “‘nitragin” have 
been supposed to contain the bacteria 
which live freely in the soil and enrich 
it with nitrogen, This is probably a 
misstatement. In any case, the use of 
such cultures would not be profitable, 
because these soil bacteria are usually 
present in all soils capable of maintain- 
ing them, and when added to a soil from 
which they were originally absent, they 
usually rapidly tend to disappear again. 


Further, the net result of the activity 
of soil bacteria in rich, well-manured 
soils is to producea loss rather than a 
gain of nitrogen, and hence no advan- 
tage is to be expected by the addition of 
cultures of any kind of bacterium to 
such soils. 


To sum up, in the present condition of 
our knowledge, the use of ‘‘ nitragin” in 
agriculture is not at present to be re- 
commended except under very special 
conditions. Even then thesame results 
might be obtained by the far better and 
cheaper methods indicated above.— 
Journal of Agriculture of Victoria, Vol. 
VII., Pt. 1, January, 1909. 


NOTES ON THE NUTRITION OF 


PLANTS. 


By T, WILSON MAIN. 


A knowledge of the physical properties 
of soil and the substances necessary for 
the effective nutrition of plants is of the 
utmost value to the Agriculturist. In 
practice soils become impoverished, more 
or lessrapidly, according to the require- 
ments of the various crops, and as no soil 


Scientific Agriculture. 


ean endure for any lengthof time the loss 
of mineral substances which go to form 
part of the crop, without being replenish- 


ed, it is necessary to replace these by - 


applying manures. 

It has been shewn by chemical analyses 
that only a small number of substances 
are necessary for the growth of culti- 
vated plants. The essential nutritive 
substances which must always be present 
in sufficient quantity andin soluble form 
are hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, sulphur, 
phosphorus, carbon, potassium, iron, 
calcium, magnesium, and probably chlo- 
rine. In addition to these there are 
several subsidiary substances which are 
always present in the tissues of plants 
but not indispensable for growth, such as 
sodium and silica, also such admixtures 
as zine, copper, cobalt, aluminium, man- 
ganese, etc., according to the nature of 
the soil, 

All plant tissues contain oxygen, hydro- 
gen and carbon. 

Carbon is the chief constituent of all 
vegetable tissues forming about one-half 
of their dry weight. The leaves absorb 
the carbon from the atmosphere in the 
form of carbonic acid which is decom- 
posed in the cells of the leaves under the 
influence of light, giving back oxygen to 
the air. 

Oxygen and hydrogen are taken up by 
the roots in the form of water which is 
necessary for the conduction of the 
nuritive salts from the soil to all parts of 
the plant. The bulk of this water is 
ultimately given off through the pores 
of the leaves in the form of vapour. 

Nitrogen is the substance chiefly re- 
quired for the building up of young 
tissues and is always present in the pro- 
toplasm of the cell and other albumin- 
oids. Most plants obtain their nitrogen 
from the nitrates and ammonic salts of 
the soil. Manures suitable for supplying 
fresh nitrogen to soils are usually in the 
form of compounds containing ammonia 
or other complex organic compounds. 
Leguminous plants are, however, able to 
take up nitrogen through their leaves 
from the atmosphere. {mn practice we 
make use of this peculiar property of 
Leguminose. in green Mmanuring our 
crops by sowing such plants as Crotalaria 
striata, Tephrosia purpurea, Desmodium 
heterophyllum, Desmodium triflorum, 
ete., etc., either in conjunction with 
crops such as rubber or alone. 


If we examine the roots of any one of 
the above mentioned plants and other 
Leguminose which have been grown in 

oor soil we find the roots bear numbers 
of curious tubercles. The tubercles are 
in greater numbers the poorer the soil 
is in humus and soluble nitrogenous sub- 


272 


{Marcg, 1909, 


tances especially nitrates. In fact it 
has been proved that leguminous plants 
shew a healthy development and yield 
a good crop in asoil almost devoid of 
nitrogen. 


These tubercles contain colonies of 
bacteria which by some peculiar means 
assimilate the nitrogen obtained from 
the air and convert it into plant food. 
These organisms multiply and enrich the 
soil in which the plants grow, hence the 
custom of manuring by some leguminous 
green crop. 


This form of manuring crops has 
many points to recommend it. The 
planter is saved the expense of weeding, 
his soil is always moist and protected 
from the scorching sun; wash by heavy 
rains is prevented, etec., Crotalaria striata 
and Tephrosia purpurea are fairly tall 
growing plants, and should be kept 
dwarf by periodically pruning their 
tops to a reasonable height, say three 
feet. Desmodium heterophyllum is the 
best of this genus for sowing as a green 
manure. It is not a tall grower and 
does wellinalmostany soil. Desmodium 
triflorum is often recommended but is 
comparatively rare. 


For other than Leguminous plants 
nitrogen in the form of nitrates is 
generally regarded as the best form of 
nitrogenous food to apply to the soil. 
The nitrogon for fertilizing purposes. 
especially in farmyard manure or decom- 
posing vegetable matter, is not in the 
form of nitrates, but either in the form 
of ammonia or other organic compounds, 
and before itis taken up by the grow- 
ing plant the ammonia is changed into - 
nitric acid by means of ferments or 
micro-organisms in the soil. The three 
conditions which exert a marked in- 
fluence on this nitrification are heat, air 
and moisture. This shews us the reason 
why thorough tillage is essential to 
good cultivation. The loosening and 
breaking up of the surface soil allow the 
admission of the necessary oxygen and 
regulates the supply of heat and _ mois- 
ture. When the soil is saturated with 
moisture, or on the other hand is 
allowed to become very hard and dry, 
nitrification is retarded and is in dan- 
ger of being permanently stopped. 


Thenitrifying organisms in the soil can- 
not develop in the presence of a free acid, 
and it often happens that a soil becomes 
sour being overcharged with nitric acid. 
In cases of this kind the application of 
lime will counteract the acidity and 
restore the soil to a healthy state. Most 
soils, however, contain a sufficiency of 
lime for this purpose, and it needs only 
to be applied in rare instances, 


MARCH, 1909. | 


Sulphur and phosphorus are both 
taken from the soil by plants. Both 
substances are found in the form of 
calcium salts. Sulphur is found largely 
in the form of gypsum. Phosphorus is 
found in most soils in combination with 
iron. Plants deficient in phosphorus 
assume a red appearance. 


 Potassiun. is essential to all plant life 
in the formation of carbohydrates such 
as starch, sugar, and cellulose. If potas- 
sium is absent from the soil the growth 
of plants stops and the leaves refuse to 
continue their functions, that is the for- 
mation of starch within the chlorophyll 
grains (green colouring matter). 


Magnesium enters a plantin the form 
of sulphates and phosphates as also does 
calcium to which it is closely allied. 
Magnesium is said to work with nitro- 
gen in the tormation ot chlorophyll and 
protoplasm, 


Tron is widely distributed in soils, and 
is also necessary for the formation of 
chlorophyll of plants. 


All combinations of lime that are 
necessary for plant nutrition have their 
origin in calcium which is chiefly of use 
in strengthening the fabric of the plant. 
Besides this it is valuable in fixing 
oxalic acid, which although produced 
by most plants is poisonous to them. 


The subsidiary nutritive substances 
such as sodium and silicium also play 
their important parts in the growth of 
plants. Sodium is taken up by most 
plants in the form of common salt which 
in itself bas considerable manurial value 
when applied to soils for certain crops. 

Silicium is always present in soil as 
silicia, and like lime is used tostrengthen 
the cell walls. 


Other substances of this class are occa- 
sionally present in plants, but are not 
sufficiently fimportant to require men- 
tion in detaii here. 


The question of how to replace those 
nutritive substances which are ab- 
stracted from the soil during the growth 
of plants is an important one to the 
agriculturist, and embraces the all-im- 
portant subject of manuring. Green 
manuring has already been touched on, 
other manures are generally divided into 
three kinds, vis. (a) Stable ov Farm-yard 
manure, (6) inorganic manures, (c) organic 
manures. 

Stable manure contains all the food 
substances of plants, and when available 
is the best means of replacing those sub- 
tances which have been exhausted from 
the soil during the growth of the crop. 
In this country it is not obtainable in 
sufficient quantities, unfortunately, to 


30 


273 


Scientific Agriculture. 


supply anything like the demand, but 
when possible it should be used in pre- 
ference to all others. 

Bones for field crops or fruit trees are 
extensively used as manure. The fertiliz- 
ing qualities are lasting when the bones 


-are used in a crushed state and more 


active when in the form of powder. 
Bones contain large quantities of phos- 
pvhoric acid which is a valuable fertilizer. 
Bone meal has for many years been suc- 
cessfully used on sugar and coconuts, and 
is recommended as a splendid manure 
for all estates. It can be shipped direct 
from home (which is advisable) or obtain- 
ed in Penang or Calcutta. 

Guano is a well-known and valuable 
manure, being the excrement of birds. 
Many of the limestone caves in Perak 
and Selangor contain deposits of bat- 
guano which can generally be collected 
on payment of a small fee. It is a quick 
acting and very powerful manure. Its 
beneficial effect on green crops and 
grass land is rapid and very marked. Up 
to the present time I have. not heard of 
it having been used on rubber or coconut 
plantations, but I feel sure that if suffi- 
cient quantities can be obtained it will 
be a valuable manure for these purposes. 


Leaf mould is invaluable as a manure 
either as a mulch round the roots of rub- 
ber and coconut trees or when dug into 
stiff soils. Large quantities of leaves 
are obtainable on every estate, and these 
when thoroughly decayed form a cheap 
and most effective manure. 


Many artificial inorganic manures are 
now in favour. It is true they do not, 
like stable manure, contain all the food 
substances required by plants, but they 
contain the most important ones in a 
more concentrated form. The strength 
of artificial manures and their adap- 
tability for certain crops is determined 
by their analysis which all respectable 
dealers supply with their goods. -All 
substances entering into plant food must 
be in a state of fluidity or in the form of 
gas or air, therefore the chief recom- 
mendation of an artificial inorganic 
manure should be its power of yielding 
as much soluble matter as possible to the 
roots, and that in a gradual manure. 


Ammonia is one of the chief component 
parts of all manures and has a powerful 
stimulating action on the growth of 
plants. It is supplied in inorganic man- 
wee chiefly in the form of ammoniacal 
salts. 


Potassium appears in commerce in the 
form of potassium sulphate. If the soil 
is not rich in lime itis advisable when 
manuring with raw potassium sulphate 
te add a considerable quantity of quick 

ime, 


Scientific Agricuiture. 274 


Phosphoric acid is obtainable in 
various forms. Quickest effects are ob- 
tained from superphosphates. If it is 
necessary to add nitrogen to the soil as 
well as phosphoric acid, a mixture of 
ammonium sulphate and _ superphos- 
phates can be used. A well-known man- 
ure containing those properties is Peru 
Guano. 


Slag, which is a byproduct ofiron works, 
contains from forty to sixty per cent. 
phosphate of lime together with silica, 
oxides of iron, magnesium, sulphur, etc. 
This is an effective manure for damp 
soils. In dry soils the action is much 
less rapid. 


Wood ashes form an excellent manure, 
being exceptionally rich in potash. The 
layer of wood ash and charcoal left on 
a clearing after a burn-off is very bene- 
ficial to the young crop. Charcoal has 
the property of absorbing ammonia and 
other gases and again giving them off 
as plant food. 


Salt is a useful substance not only asa 
manure on some soils but for the exter- 
mination of slugs, worms and larve of 
different kinds. 


Lime is not naturally found in a free 
state but in combination with (carbonic) 
acid forming what is known as ear- 
bonate of lime or chalk. 

Quick lime is formed by driving off the 
earbonic acid by burning. It is ex- 
tremely caustic and quickly decomposes 
vegetable and animal matter, hence its 
value as a fertiliser for soils containing 
large quantities of peat, consisting of 
roots and fibres, that would otherwise 
remain a long time in an undecomposed 
state. Caution is necessary in applying 


[MaRcH, 1909. ae 


lime to some soils as it possesses the 
property of setting free ammonia, one of 
the indispensable constituents of plant- 
food. Lime is also a valuable fungicide. 


In this country plant-food substances 
are easiest obtainable in combination in 
the form of one of the many artificial 
manures now onthe market which are 
composed in such a manner as to contain 
as near as possible in a concentrated 
form the quantities of each substance 
necessary for the healthy development 
of plants. 


When ordering manures it is always 
advisable to order direct from home 
from some firm of good repute. 


The present prices of these manures 
may stand in the way of their being 


’ generally used, but it is reasonable to 


suppose that, if a demand arose, ship- 
ments could be made from home at 
reasonable rates. 


The good effects of manures on coco- 
nuts is indisputable, and from what we 
at present know the yield of latex from 
para rubber trees is considerably in- 
creased by their application, and it is 
possible that the quality is also im- 
proved, but this, I think, is an open 
question at the present moment. At 
any rate further results of experiments 
will be waited for with interest in order 
to find out whether the rubber is equal 
in quality or better than that from 
unmanured trees, and whether the extra 
yield will justify the extra outlay. I[ 
don’tknow that these points have b2en 
demonstrated up to the present time, 
but everything points to such being 
the case.—Agricultural Bulletin of the 
Straits and Ff. M. States, Vol. VII., No, 
12, December, 1908. 


ia} lil " 


Marca, 1909.] 


275 


COOKERY. 


OLD HENS FOR rHE TABLE. 


When hens have reached theage of 
between two anda half to three years 
of age itis high time to get rid of them 
and supply their places with younger 
birds. hatis to be done with them? 
The accepted opinion is that they are 
too toughfor the table. If, however, 
they are properly killed and cooked they 
are perfectly eatable. In the first place, 
before being killed they should be kept 
without food for a day and a half, when 
they will keep fora long time in cool 
weather. When drawing them, instead 
of making a large eut and inserting the 
whole hand to withdraw the intestines, 
the plan recommended in an English 
poultry journal is as follows :— 


Lay the fowl breast downwards, pick 
up the skin on the back of the neck, 
slip the point of the knife through, and 
cut towards the head so asto leave a 
piece of skin about 8inches long. Fold 
this back until the neck is bare close up 
to the body. There is a spot which 
shows whiter than the red of the neck. 
Nick on both sides, andthe joint will 
easily break. Put the knife underneath 
the neck and scrape toward the _ head, 
and cut off the skin at the same length 
as the other, thus leaving two folds to 
cover the broken joint, so as to hide the 
red and make the front of the dressed 
fowl more presentable. Set the bird on 
its stern, take the crop in the torefingers 
of the right hand, and work the outer 
skin away fromit all round. A_ finger 
inserted into the front cavity will work 
the crop quite clear, and it can then be 
drawn out. Now take the fowl so that 
its back lies balanced in the left hand. 
Insert the middle finger of the right 
hand, and pass it tightly round so as to 
break all adhesions and thoroughly 
loosen all internals from the breast. 
Turn the fowl overin the hand. The 
lungs lie in cavities on either side of the 
backbone near the base of the wings. 
These may be loosened by inserting the 


end of the finger in the cavities and 
levering them out. Push the finger in 
asfaras possible, make a hookof the 
end joint, and draw back, pressing close 
upon the backbone so as to break all 
attachments. 


Now set the bird on its neck end, press 
the thighs well forward until the feet 
are at the neck end. Take hold of the 
rectum with the thumb and forefinger 
of the left hand, and lift soas to almost 
take the weight of the bird. Make a 
slight incision, keeping the edge of the 
knife up, well toward the tail. Inserta 
finger aud press down tightly along the 
backbone, so as to detach the large 
intestine. Then curve the finger, and 
loop up the tail. Now the point of the 
knife may be placed under it and the 
rectum cut clean out. This isa neat and 
perfectly clean way. As the fowl now 
lies on its back the gizzard is on the 
right side. Work a finger round the 
gizzard and loosen what is called the 
apron fat. Then, if the two thumbs are 
brought to the front of the gizzard 
(whilst the hands surround the body) it 
can be forced out through the small 
orifice. If the bird is held with one hand 
and the gizzard steadily pulled with the 
other, all the intestines, heart, liver, and 
lungs will come out clean, providing the 
loosening at front has been properly 
done, without putting the hand in the 
bird or making a large, unsightly hole. 
These fowls should be boiled slowly for 
two hours the day before they are to 
be served, then allowed to cool in the 
water, and the next day put on and 
boiled slowly for 14 hour. ‘These will 
be so tender that the flesh will slip off 
the bones if one is not careful in carving. 
Another way is to put them in asteamer 
for three hours, and roast them the 
next day. 


An old hen may be made quite tender 
by boiling it for three or four hours 
with a couple of good-sized papaw 
leaves.—Queensland Agricultural Jour: 
nal, Vol. XXII., Part, January, 1909, — 


2 


6 


'(Marcu, 190% 


MISCELLANEOUS. 


NOTES ON MANURING 


By ARTHUR E. DIXON, F.G.S., M.E. 

To restore fertility to the soil is the 
object of manuring, which consists in 
adding some substance which shall itself 
serve directly as a food for the plant, or 
shall so modify by chemical action some 
material already present in the soil as 
to convert it intoa state in which the 
plant may take on some advantage. 

Deterioration is quickly taking place 
on allland that is exposed to the sun 
and rain of this climate, and we are 
under the necessity of placing food in 
the ground tor the crop we are going to 
prodtice. The following are substances 
which may be added as direct food for 
plant life :— 


1. Gypsum, or sulphate of lime. They 
are capable of decomposing the carbon- 
ate of ammonia which ‘is either brought 
down by the rain or evloved by putre- 
faction in the soil, and of converting it 
into sulphate of ammonia. 

2. Phosphate of Lime, or bone ash, 
which is most commonly converted into 
the scluble superphosphate of lime by 
sulphuric acid before being used as a 
manure. Its action is slow and healthy. 

3. Chloride of Sodium, or common 
salt, serves as a source of sodium in 

ontact with carbonate of lime. 

4. Nitrate of Soda, yielding both soda 
and nitrogen as food for the plant is 
quick inits action. 


5. Silicates of Potash and Soda are 
useful for all cereals. 

6. Green Manuring, or plant life 
ploughed into the ground and left to 
decay: 

7. Bones, which furnish carbonic acid 
and ammonia by the putrefaction of 
their gelatinous matter, supply as well 
phosphate of lime. 


8. Urine, yielding much carbonate 
of ammonia by the decomposition of the 
urea and uric acid and an abundance 
of the phosphates and other saline 
matters required, by the plant. To use 
this much-neglected manure _ cattle 
kraals might be cemented out and 
drainage made into a receiving pit, 
when such liquid urine, watered over 
the upspringing plant life, would give 
a much heavier yield of crop. 

9. Lime acts chemically upon the 
constituents of the soil so as to render 
them more serviceable to the plant, 
and modifies in avery important man- 
ner both the organic and mineral por: 


tions of the soil. Its action on the 
former consists in promoting decay; on 
the latter it asserts the decomposition 
of minerals, particularly those which 
contain alkalies, converting them into 
soluble forms. 


10. Fallow Ground. In some eases 
fertility is restored to exhausted soil by 
allowing it to lie fallow fora time so 
that, under the influence of air and 
moisture, chemical changes may take 


place and again replenish food for the 


plant. This does not necessitate in all 
cases that cultivation shall cease, but 
that a rotation of cropping shall be pro- 
perly carried cut. The possibility of 
this rotation is partly accounted for 
by the difference in the mineral food 
removed from the soil by different 
crops, Thus turnips require alkali and 
lime, wheat much alkaliand silica, bar- 
ley lime and silica, clover lime. Sugar 
and starch are constructed in the plant 
from carbonic acid and water. That 
gluten and added life result from the 
mutual compounding soil with ammo- 
nia, phosphoric acid, and phosphates, so 
that itis well to study what each plant 
requires, so as_ always to keep your 
land stocked with abundant life. Those 
who take this trouble,and use useful 
manures and sound cultivation will in 
thelong run be the most benefited by 
having heavier crops of better quality, 
with smaller acreages under cultivation, 
and food for every season of the year. 


There are kyanite, lime, gypsum, soda 
and alkali deposits in this country 
awaiting development for the use of 
the agriculturist. There is needed a 
revolution in the way farm yards and 
stables are worked and built, so that 
the thousands of pounds’ worth of 
manure be not wasted while the owner 
is buying the imported article. 


If the system of rotation were adopted, 
the utilization of farm yard manures 
acted upon, and the local deposits 
developed, yeilding cheap and useful 
manure, we would see that our exports 
would be increased. 


It would seem that only adverse cir- 
cumstances and hard times would bring 
about progressive movements in farm- 
ing, but it is helpful to see that in 
certain districts there are progressive 
farmers who are irrigating, manuring 
and cropping their land, and many who 
see their development are looking into 
the matter, and itis to be hoped that 
each farmer will so educate his children 
that they will be able to know fo 


Rar mn iy ee 


es 


+ 


March, 1909.) 


‘themselves what is best for their land 
and not be dependent on the wits of 
others or live on the imports from 
foreign countries, but become _self-de- 
dendent.—Natal Agricultural Journal, 
Vol. XI., No. 12, December, 1908. 


pee eee 


IRRIGATION IN NATAL. 


By JAMES PENISTON, Weenen. 

We have several irrigation  settle- 
ments in Weenen county— Winterton, 
Weenen, and Tugela Irrigation Works, 
and the Mooi River Works, and there isa 
lot of irrigation going onat Muden. At 
the latter place there are seveial men 
who goin for irrigation in a sensible 
manner and also a few in Weenen and 
at Winterton, but the great majority 
just turn the stream of water on to 
the land at the highest part and 
divide it, or let it divide itself and 
allow it to run, doing at the rate of 
perhaps an acre aday; and some even 
go as far as letting the water run 
night and: day. Inconversation, these 
men will say “ they let the water sleep 
on the land.” 


It is hard to calculate the amount of 
damage done to the land by such 
practices. A few remarks on the proper 
mode of irrigation may be of some use to 
the new settlers; and at the same time 
if some of the old settlers would give 
the right way of irrigating a trial I 
teel confident they would soon forsake 
the old method, which only benefits 
one class of the community, viz., the 
manufacturers and merchants who sell 
fertilisers. Besides this, it ruins the 
land, making the crops uneven and 
generally washing all the best of the 
land to the lowest corner of the field. 


In the first place do not have _ too 
strong a stream in the plough furrow; 
just what itcan carry nicely without 
overfiowing is enough, The furrows 
should be from ten to fifteen ‘yards 
apart. This depends greatly on the 
amount of fall thereis. Onsome land 
the furrows can be as far as twenty 
yards apart. Now, take fifteen yards 
—always judging by the lay of the 
land—down the furrow and put a sugar 
bag half full of earth in the furrow, 
and stop any water that overflows 
with a spadeful of earth. The water 
will, of course, soon fill the furrow and 
should move steadily over the land to 
the next furrow. Now remove the bag 
of earth and place it a few yards lower 
down the furrow. By keeping steadily 
at this an energetic man can _ irrigate 
three acres a day and doit well, leaving 
the ground in the same condition as a 
good rain would, 


277 


Miscellaneous, ° 


But the furrow one is irrigating from 
must not be too long or it will wash 
deep. This can be avoided by having a 
furrow on the outside of the land and a 
cross furrow through the land. It is clear 
water that does the most harm to the 
land. Whenthe river is full or very 
muddy is the best time to irrigate; 
one can see the reason why by taking a 
glass of the muddy water and letting it 
stand fora day or two; there will then 
be a silt at the bottom of the glass, 
which will give an idea of the amount 
of silt which would be left on an acre 
of ground. When irrigated with muddy 
water by the above method there is no 
washing away of the soil, as each time 
the obstruction in the furrow is removed 
the water just sinks away. Now in the 
old way consider the amount of seed 
trodden down by the men who are irri- 
gating: every time one of the men puts 
his foot down hedrives the seed a foot 
to eighteen inches at least into the mud, 
where it has not the slightest chance of 
ever working its way through the soil. 


Many people will say irrigating turns 
mealies yellow and spoils them. That 
is the case when the land has too much 
water, t.e.. been badly irrigated. Pro- 
perly irrigated water can never do 
damage to mealies, and irrigated pro- 
perly at the right time makes a great 
difference in the number of muids per 
acre. Again in irrigating land before 
ploughing many people will plough the 
land before it is dry enough. One can 
easily test this: take a spade and dig 
out a spadeful he.‘e and there; if it is fit 
for the plough, on turning over the 
spadeful the ground should, though 
moist, crumble and divide easily at the 
touch of the spade. Furthermore, where 
crops are planted in line, irrigating and 
the horse hoe must go hand in hand. 
Atter each time the land is irrigated, 
just as soon as it is dry enough, horse 
hoe the land and use the same test as 
for ploughing land, after irrigation, 
mentioned above. Land horse hoed at 
the proper time after irrigating will 
do without water for a much longer 
pipe than land irrigated and not horse 

oed. 


In properly laid out land one should be 
able to do many acres of land without 
getting his feet wet, but in uneven 
ground one must have a native with 
him to irrigate patches that are left 
owing to the unevenness of the land; but 
make him do it as quickly as possible 
and get him out of the wet ground as 
soon as youcan, By the old method one 
will often see a white man with trousers 
turned up above his knees and two or 
three Kaffirs walking aboutin the wet 
ground and making it more fit for 


Miscellaneous. 78 


making bricks than for growing crops. 
Irrigating thus the water will sink to a 
great depth, and much more water is 
used than should be, besides much harm 
being done to the land. Also, after such 
an amount of water has been put on 
perhaps a heavy rain sets in—in fact 
there seems to be no judgment used in 
many cases. The more water put on and 
the stronger the current in the furrows, 
of course, the sooner the land is irrigated, 
no matter how the land has been churn- 
ed by the bare feet of the men, or how 
many pools of standing water there are 
left behind, or how much land is washed 
away. Properly irrigated land should 
look as if there had been a nice rain, not 
as it does in many cases as if a river 
had run over it. 


Col. Corbett, the irrigation expert, 
when he was here expressed surprise at 
the amount of water used per acre, but, 
as events have shown, very little notice 
has been given to his remarks, and as 
there are a lot of people taking up irri- 
gable land I hope these notes may be of 
some good. Very many acres of the land 
at present under irrigation will have to 
be manured before many years are over. 
I have had many years of experience in 
irrigating, and 1 would impress on all 
new settlers the utmost necessity of 
being careful not to put tou much water 
on to their lands. If they do, it will 
mean a large expenditure in the near 
future in manure. It will lessen the 

ield per acre and sour the land so that 
it will take much time and expense to 
remedy the harm done by over irrigat- 
ing or flooding the land.—Natal Agri- 
cultural Journal, Vol. XI,, No. 12, 
December, 1908. 


THE TROPICAL EXHIBITION, 

This number closes our fourth year of 
issue. during which all who have come 
into contact with us, either as adver- 
tisers, subscribers, correspondents, or 
collaborators, have given us credit, to 
the fullest degree possible, of being a real 
live paper, withan energetic pushing 
staff behind it. But we are not satisfied. 
There is still far too greata gap of 
ignorance and indifference between the 
public on this side and many of the 
centres where we circulate. 


As explainedin our September (1908) 
issue, we send out our numbers so closely 
that we cannot execute orders for the 
1908 volume complete. not having a 
single copy of the September issue for 
that year left on hand. Anyone having 
a copy of this number that he does not 
require will perhaps be kind enough to 
return it to us. 


Returning to the cause of our dis- 
satisfaction, we mean to remove that 
to a very great extent by July next. In 
July will take place at Olympia, where 
our successful Rubber Exhibitlon was 
held in September, the Travel and 
Tropical Exhibition, to which we have 
called attention several times. The 
“Travel” Section we are leaving mainly 
to Mr. Manders and his friends, but in 
the Tropical Section we hope to include 
all our friends, and those who work with 
us in other ways than calling attention to 
their firms by means of our advertising 
columns. The Royal Mail Company, 
for instance, in whose boats one of 
our earliest subscribers has crossed the 
Atlantic some seventy-four times, will, 
we hope, take a prominent position, 
Notonly has this company the contract 
for carrying His Majesty’s mails to 
Brazil, Uruguay, and Argentina, but it 
dominates, together with our old friends, 
Messrs. Scrutton, Sons and Co., the 
Central American and West Indian 
carrying trade as well. Steamers also 
run the whole length of the ' Pacific coast 
of America, and by their Orient exten- 
sion will take you to the far Kast, or to 
the near Hast, as Moroceo, and other 
centres. Under their Chairman, Mr. 
Owen Philipps, M.P., whom we induced 
to join the Committee of the Rubber 
Exhibition, this company has thrown 
out its lines until they practically 
embrace the whole of the tropical and 
sub-tropical zones. They certainly must 
be induced to come in, and bring of their 
best from the centres whose produce 
they are handling more and more every 
year. Nothing advertises a line so well 
in the eyes of the travelling public (and 
all the greatest travellers, tourists, 
globe-trotters, and merchants are in- 
terested in the Exhibition) as typical 
exhibits from the various centres with 
which one of these giant companies 
trades, The long list of places on paper 
to which their boats go appeals to no 
one, but when such a company exhibits 
in the Tropical Section, and shows the 
raw material and manufactured goods 
from every part of the world, they 
can, and certainly will, increase their 
business two and three fold. We there- 
fore trust that our good friends the 
Royal Mail-Orient Line will take as 
promineut a part in our Tropical 
Exhibition as Brazil did atthe Rubber 
Show last year. 


Brazil isa country with magnificent 
resources, that should, and we feel certain 
will, again take a commanding space to 
help boom its exports, as coffee, cacao, 
rubber, hides, &c., on the one hand, 
and advertise its possibilities for the 
capitalist, large and small, on the other, 


[Marcn, 1909, i‘: 


MARCg#, 1909.) 


With its settled government and rising 
value in lands, Brazil has a _ splendid 
future, but the British public, as a 
whole, know nothing of all this. Not 
one man in a _ hundred even’ knows 
of the splendid Exhibition that has 
been held in Rio this year. From 
an architectural and artistic point of 
view, this Exhibition rivalled our 
beautiful White City, whilst’ for 
scenic effect the background of verdure- 
clad hills rising from the Paria 
Vermelha, or Red Beach of Rio, made 
a more finished panoramic effect. 
Such indifference is most regrettable, 
but it only requires the Brazilian 
Government to do as our go-ahead 
Australian Colonies are doing, and make 
an exhaustive show of what Brazil 
has to offer to the capitalist, the agri- 
-culturist, the hunter, the traveller, and 
others, to make the English as ready to 
invest money in Brazil as they have 
been in the sister State, Argentina. It 
is just the same with Colombia, one of 
the finest countries in the world, full of 
gold and other minerals, with rubber 
and cacao of a quality unequalled by 
any country; but sans capital, sans 
railways, sans transport facilities, sans 
everything to make it as it should 
be, and what its energetic President, 
General Reyes, wishes it to be, the 
Pearl of the Latin American States. 
Only by advertising the possibilities and 
exhibiting the produce of such a country 
can that end be attained. 


These are only three instances, but 
there are many more, and T'ropical Life 
hopes to induce these and all the others 
to take part in the Tropical HNxhibition. 
—Tropical Life, Vol. IV., No. 12, Decem- 
ber, 1908. 


COMMELINA NUDIFLORA, LINN. 


By T. WILSON MAIN. 


Owing toa startling paragraph in the 
Westminster Gazette in August, we had 
several enquiries about Commelina 
nudiflora, Linn., and its wonderful pro- 
perties. 

It is spoken of as ‘‘a wonderful tro- 
pical creeper,” ‘‘ Weed-eating plant,” 
ete., etc. Itis said to bea splendid plant 
for destroying lalang, and has _ been 
recommended to owners and managers 
of rubber plantations for this purpose. 
How such an unobtrusive little plant 
should have gained such notoriety is 
quite remarkable. 


The habit and growth of this little 
creeper makes it quite unfit for such 
purposes, In the first place it grows 


279 


Miscellaneous. 


best in damp swampy places, generall 

in small patches here and there or be 
the sides of ditches or small streams, and 
I have never seen it growing on dryer 
lalang land or in conjunction with lalang. 
It is not by any means a robust grow- 
ing creeper, never rising more than six 
or eight inches from the ground, and 
does not even possess the property of 
climbing over other vegetation. It is 
this property of climbing over other 
plants and smothering them which 
recommends a plant as an eradicator of 
lalang, fo. texample, Passifiora fetida 
recommended by many becaause it pos- 
sesses this habit. 


Commelina nudiflora belongs to the 
natural order Commelinacee, and is 
found throughout the hotter parts of 
India from the Punjab to Ceylon and 
Singapore. The stems are creeping and 
rooting at the nodes. Leaves glabrous 
scaberulous or _ puberulous ciliate. 
Spathes acute, base round or cordate, 
glabrous or pubescent, striate; peduncle 
$-j in., cymes 2, branches 1-3 fid. Smaller 
petals blue, outer pale or white.—Agri- 
cultural Bulletin of the Straits and F. 
M.S., Vol. VIII., No.1, January, 1908. 


CO-OPERATIVE CREDIT. 


THE MOVEMENT IN INDIA. 

Continuing his lectures on higher com- 
mercial and economic subjects, Profes- 
sor Lees-Smith, at the Byramji Jijibhoy 
Institute, Bombay, on Friday evening, 
delivered the fifth discourse of the series 
dealing with the subjects of Co-operative 
Credit Societies. In the first place, he said, 
he wished them to mark that Co-oper- 
ative Credit Societies were self-govern- 
ing institutions. In Germany ina model 
rural society there was first a General 
Assembly consisting of all who belonged 
to the society. Within that General 
Assembly was a Committee of Super- 
vision elected by the General Assembly, 
and within the Committee of Supervision 
was asmaller body still, the Directors, 
who were the actual organisers, who 
were the actual men who conducted the 
operations. There were in Germany, as 
there were here, rural societies for the 
agricultural districts and urban societies 
for the towns. The great figure, the 
poineers of the rural societies, was 
Raffeisen, and the founder and creator of 
urban Societies was Schulze Delitzche. 
He might mention for the credit. of his 
native land that the idea of the Societies 
was borrowed from the English Friendly 
Societies. In the German Agricultural 
Societies, practically speaking, there was 
no share capital. The money with which 
they conducted their operations consist- 


Miscellaneous. 280 


ed entirely of deposits, but the fact 
that they had the great idea of co- 
operative credit behind them made the 
investment of money in them safe. In 
fact, the ordinary peasant invested his 
money, his savings in the Agricultural 
Societies with just as much confidence 
as he would invest them in Government 
securities, and there was just as much 
reason for that confidence, for ex- 
perience showed that he never lost his 
money. The money which was obtain- 
ed in this way was lent out in various 
directions, and the average amount of 
the interest which was charged for it 
was from four to five per cent. ~ In the 
bulk of cases the security on which 
the money was lent consisted simply of 
a personal pledge, but one or two ofa 
man’s friends stood security for him, 
undertaking to meet his obligations if 
he did not do sohimself. The result was 
of course that the man always had close 
to his side one or two men who were 
keenly interested in seeing that he spent 
the money productively, and they really 
acted as the watchdogs of the society. 


THE MORAL ASPECT. 


But there was one feature of the 
German system which had not deliber- 
ately been introduced into the country 
at present. Raffeisen laid it down that 
whatever security a man offered, even if 
he were millionaire, he should not be 
admitted toa Society unless he wasa 
decent man. So that to be a member of 
a Raffeisen Society was a testimony of 
thoroughly good character, Raffeisen 
always worked through the religious 
sense, and the first article in the creed of 
his societies was that their object was 
the improvement of the situation of the 
members—both material and moral. In 
the Urban Societies Schulze Delitzche 
laid down the principle that every 
member must purchasea share in the 
society, but the share could be paid for 
gradually, and the minimum was not 
a high figure. As one would expect the 
bulk of the deposits in the urban societies 
consisted of small savings, and it was 
‘surprising as an indication of their 
‘security to find how small was the in- 
terest they paid on those savings—from 
‘8to 34 per cent. He found that the 
‘average rate of interest on which the 
German societies lent money out was a 
little over five per cent. In coming to 
the consideration of co-operative credit 
societies in this land itself it was wise to 
realise the difference between the con- 
ditions here and in Germany and to re- 
member that the structure of societies 
here could not be exactly identical with 
their structure in European countries. 
But what would impress one in com- 
-paring the conditions was that India, 


[MarcuH, 1909. 


from the very nature of its circum- 
stances, ought to be afar more fertile 
field for these societies than Kuropean 
countries. The great bulk of the in- 
habitants of India consisted of just that 
class of men amongst whom the societies 
had been successful in Europe. In 
Europe, after all, although there were a 
large number of peasant proprietors 
they did not constitute the most im- 
portant section of the population, but 
India was a land of peasant proprietors, 
When one dealt with them one dealt 
with two-thirds of the population. The 
sy;tem of co-operative credit societies in 
India was still on a tiny scale, but 
although it was in its infancy, looking at 
the results even of the last twelve 
months, it had a future full of possi- 
bilities and full of hope. 


THe SUPREME Facts. 


In his sixth lecture, Professor Lees- 
Smith said he proposed to discuss the 
effects of tariff upon the trade of the 
nation and praticularly upon the trade 
of India. He wished first of all to warn 
them that it would be a very inadequate 
and narrow discussion of the -subject 
which treated it by itself. The tariff 
system of a nation had to be treated 
as apart of its whole economic policy, 
and, therefore, before coming to the 
actual subject of preferential Tariffs and 
Swadeshism, he would try to indicate 
the part which the Tariff must play in 
the task which as a nation they had in 
front of them. He must, therefore, 
begin by a wide survey of the economic 
conditions of the land, and give some 
general account of the economic problems 
and the economic difficulties with which 
they had to contend. He warned them 
that on this account he -would not 
reach the question cf tariffs in that 
lecture at all. The supreme fact about 
the economic condition of the land, as 
he had previously stated, was that two- 
thirds to three-fourths of the popula- 
tion were engaged in one single industry 
—that of agriculture. It was difficult 
for the ordinary observer in England to 
recognise, even when he was told the 
fact, that the bulk of their inhabitants 
lived in over half a million villages, each 
of them containing less than five 
thousand inhabitants scattered over 
an area of the earth’s surface as large 
as Kurope, excepting Russia. One heard 
of the changelessness of the Est, but 
the phrase did not refer to the city 
populations of India, but to the tinhabi- 
tants of the distant villages. It was 
worth while to point out that although 
it might be true that one wave of ad- 
ministration after avother had broken 
over .those distant villages, and that 


~_ 


' 
b 
e 

7 


Marcu, 1909.3 


still they had remained unchanged. But 
the British administration, whatever its 
faults. had set an inevitable mark upon 
this land, and whatever the future 
might hold, that mark would never be 
wiped out because it had one great wea- 
pon, one great dissolvent which would 
revolutionize the life of the village asit 
had revolutionized the life of the town; 
it would create a different villager asit 
had created a different townsman. Once 
they had asystem of widespr2ad edu- 
cation throughout this land, then, 
whatever the future might hold, they 
must be sure that the land and _ its 
inhabitants would never be the same 
again. 


2800 


Miscellanzous: 


Proceeding to deal with the question 
of famines, the lecturer said that the out- 
standing fact which had to be realised 
now was that mainly by railways and 
partly by irrigation for the first time 
the problem of famine had been turned 
into a soluble one. The _ problem of 
famine had now been transformed into a 
problem of acute unemployment. They 
could never prevent drought as they 
could now prevent unemployment, but 
they were nowin a position when they 
were looking forward to the time when 
deaths from famine consequent upon 
drought would be as rare as were deaths 
from unemployment in EKngland.—Times 
of India Mail Kdition January 16th, 1909. 


Correspondence. 


ORNITHOLOGY. 


Mocha, Maskeliya, 19th February, 1909. 

Sir,—I was glad to see you approve of 
Mr. Boucher’s suggestion to include 
articles on birds in the 7.4. They play 
their part in agriculture, and sometimes 
a very important part. I would suggest 
your taking the commonest birds first, 
one at a time, giving us what Legge says 
about them, and then perhaps some of 
your readers might add some up-to-date 
information about them. 

A contributor to the ‘‘Times of 
Ceylon,” the “Manin the White Hat,” 
could, | am sure, give many interesting 
notes. 

R. MACLURE. 


[We hope to be able to carry out some- 
thing of the kind.—Ep. ] 


SOME OTHER ORNAMENTAL TREKS, 


Kandy, 14th January, 1909. 

Sir,—Referring to Mr. Macmillan’s 
letter of 20th October last, in the 7.A. for 
December, I did not mean to imply that 
the Parkia Roxburghti was introduced 
into the Island by the late Col. Byrde, 
but that he first planted that in Kandy. 
I do not quite see how, therefore, the 
statement that ‘the trees at Kandy 
were introduced by the late Col, Byrde” 
is misleading, It does not imply | that 
they were not obtained from the Pera- 
deniya Gardens. Similarly as regards 
the other trees, with the exception of 


the small-leaved or ‘‘ Marsh” Mahogany, ° 


which appears to have been introduced 
by Mr. Dyke, through the instrument- 
ality of the Botanic Gardens. The 
macrophylla came from Henaratgoda. 


J. P. LEWIS. 


BARK-SPLITTING OF RUBBER 
TREES. 


Tavoy, Burmah, 10éh, July. 1907. 


Sir,—There is one other thing [I 
fear I must trouble you about which I 
am worried with rather, that is, the 
bursting of the bark of some of my 
rubber trees. What happens is, one day 
you notice a crack 2 to7 inches long in 
the bark of a tree, this opens out and 
the bark. expands, standing away in 
each side, well separated from the tree. 
In the course of time fresh bark is 
formed from the cambium, the old stuff 
dies off, and the wound gets entirely 
covered over—having underneath, how- 
ever, [fear,a more or less extensive piece 
of dead tissue. <A rather bad scar is left, 
but otherwise the tree seems alright. Is 
this a kind of canker or a simple burst- 
ing of the bark owing to excessive sap 
pressure? (an unlikely event I should 
think, however). I shall be extremely 
obliged for an opinion as to treatment 
and cause of this. It is entirely my 
3-year old trees which have suffered, and, 
as the vigour of the tree seems in no 
way impaired, I have been naturally 
very loth to cut them down. The 
attacked trees are practically in a group 
on a hillside witha better aspect. 

J.G. F. MARSHALL. 


{I have never seen anything answering 
to this description in Ceylon, and there- 
fore cannot hazard any reason. It is, of 
course, impossible that the tree should 
burst owing to pressure of the sap. I[ 
may take this opportunity of pointing 
out that itis quite impossible to diagnose 
diseases at a distance of a thousand 
miles ; even it specimens are forwarded, 
they accumulate a host of fungi jp 


transit, and the cause of the disease is 
lost in the crowd. It is only in rare 
cases that the specimen arrives in such a 
condition that a correct diagnosis is 

ossible; and even then the disease 
as tobe one already known to us. I 
would suggest that Burmah correspon- 
dents, should send their specimens to the 
local Department of Agriculture.—T. 
Percn. | 


CURVATURE IN PARA SEEDLINGS. 


Tavoy, Burmah, 30th June, 1907. 


Sir,—Out of a _ con- 
signment of Para seed _ 
from Ceylon, received last © {| 
October, about 10 per cent. 
have come up with roots 
bent more or less like the 
accompanying diagram,— 
some not so bad, some 
worse. Canyouaccount for 
this? The nurseries were 
well dug over before being 
made up into beds and 
the seed sown side down- 
wards, so my managing Diagram referred to. 
partner assures me. Inthe 
sample sent one can possibly under- 
stand the first turn, but not the second. 


In no publication on rubber have I 
yet seen it stated how seed should be 
sown—I mean in what position; and, as 
a beginner at the game, I shall be glad for 
information. 


BURMAH. 


(Curvature of the seedling stem is of 
fairly frequent occurrencein Ceylon nur- 
series of Hevea. In some cases the stem 
makes three or four complete turns 
before assuming a vertical position, and 
the loops afterwards fuse into a solid 
mass. Such plants should of course be 
discarded. All the cases submitted have 
been discovered only when the plants 
are wanted for planting out, and some 
of the specimens were 12 feet high. The 
early growth does not seem therefore 
to be much affected, but the plants can- 
not be expected to make vigorous trees. 
The cause of this curvature must be 
sought when the seedlings first appear 
above ground, and since in all cases up 
to the present it has not been noticed 
until the plants were more than a year 
old. no reason can be assigned. Of 
course no matter how the seed is 


planted, the young stem (plumula) has | 


SIREN CPM Ca SUB UE ait WU 


2800 ' [MarcH, 1909. 


to curve out of the seed. But whether 
these cases represent a persistence of 
this original, necessary curvature, or 
whether there are other external causes 
has yet to be ascertained. The com- 
mon explanation—that the seed is plant- 
ed the wrong way—is quite at variance 
with botanical theory.—T. PETCH.] 


THE LIMA BEAN. 


Kandy, 14th January, 1909. 


Sir,—I write to draw the attention 
of the Society to the desirability of 
inducing the residents of Kandy and 
the villagers of the neighbourhood to 
cultivate the ‘‘Lima bean” (Phaseolus 
lunatus) for the Kandy market instead 
of the insipid French bean of which tons 
are to be seen daily coming into Kandy, 
and with which the residents have to be 
content as, practically their only staple 
vegetable. What is wanted is a variety 
of vegetables. As the Lima bean is an 
excellent vegetable, there would be 
certain to be as good a market for it as 
there is now for the French bean, if not 
much better. The very reason the 
latter is so much cultivated is appa- 
rently because it grows very quickly. 
There are several varieties of dambala 
or berry, and you could let us know 
which are best worth cultivating. I 
annex a list of those I have seen in the 
neighbourhood of Kandy. They all 
grow well there. If the Kandy and 
Dumbara Agricultural Societies could 
obtain a supply of the seed of the Lima 
bean, something might be done. 


J. P. LEWIS. 


Awara dambala, large pods, a bush, not 
@ creeper. 

El dambala, small pods, 5 inches long, 
both pods and berries eaten. 


Kos-eta dambala (Kos-eta=Jak seed), 
small pods, 2 to 384 inches long, 
berries eaten. (? Lima beans.) 

Ratu damala, pods 4 to 5 inches long. 
with reddish tinge at end and along 
sides, pods and berries eaten. 


Datuk dambala, large pods with four 
indented edges (hence the name) 
seeds in centre of the pod. 

Machchu Kotte, recently introduced 
into neighbourhood of Teldeniya by 
Tamil tobacco growers from India, 
pods about {2} inches, berries eaten. 


Re 


2 
A 


ALOES, Socotrine cwt. 
Zanzibar & Hepatic ,, 
ARROWKOOT (Natal) Ib. 
BEES’ WAX, ewt. 
Zanzibar Yellow fs 
Bombay bleached ,, 

as unbleached,, 
Madagascar 
‘CAMPHOR, gs epan Hf 


CARDAMOMs, Malabar 


” 


Tellicherry 


Mangalore ,, 
Mysore 
Malabar 


Long Wild ” 
CASTOR OIL, Calcutta 
CHILLIES, Yanzibar ewe. 
SINCHONA BARK.—Ib. 


Ceylon, - 


Ceylon 
‘CINNAMON,Ceylon Ists 
per Ib. 2nds 
ards 
4ths 
Chips, &c,. 
CLOVES, Penang Ib 
Amboyna 
Ceylon 
Zanzibar 
Stems 
‘COFFEE 


Ceylon Plantation cwt. 


Native 
Liberian ” 
COCOA, Ceylon Plant. ,, 
Native Estate , 
COLUMBO ROOT ts 
CROTON SEEDS,sift. cwt. 
CUBEBS 
GINGEk, Bengal, rough, 
Calicut, oe As 


oD 


Cochin Mea ghiss 


Japan 
GUM AMMONIACUM | AB 
ANIMI, Zanzibar 


Madagascar 


4BABIC F.1. & Aden 
Turkey sorts 
Ghatti 
Kurrachee 
Madras 

ASSAFCETIDA 


KINO 

MYRRH, Ered cwt 

n sorts ,, 

OLIBANUM. art es 
Bickings 

siftings 
INDIA RUKBER Ib 
Ceylon, Straits, 
Malay Straits, ete, 


» 
9 


Assam 


Rangoon 


. |Fair to pood 


QUALITY, 


Fair to fine 
Common to good 
Fair to fine 


Slightly drossy to fair ... 
Fair to good 

D rk to good genuine .. 
ark to good palish 
Retined 

Fair average quality 
Gocd to fine bold 
Middling lean 

Good to tine bold 
Brownish 

Med brown to fair bold 
Smal} fair to fine Bae 


280c 


MARKET RATES FOR TROPICAL PRODUCTS. 


(From Lewis & Peat’s Monthly Prices Current, London, 17th February, 1909.) 
a a TT 


I9Cs a 958 
“120s a 8438 


2ad a 4d 


£510s a £6 58 


Is 5d als 7d 
132s ¢d 

2s a 2s 6d 

Is 7d a 1s 10d 


*/2s 8da 2s 8d 


Is 7d a 2s 

2s 2d a 3s 2d 
ls 7da 38s 6d 
ls 6d a 1s 7d 


Ordinary’ to good pale 


Sorts to fine pale : 
Reddish to good pale ... 
Dark to fine pale , 
Clean fr. to gd. almonis 
com, stony to goa block 
Fair to tine bright 

Fair to fine pale 
Middling to good 

Good to tine white 
Middling to fair 

Low to “good pale 


Slightly foul to fine 
Fine Para bis. & sheets 
>, Ceara 
Crepe ordinary to fine. 
Fine Block 
crap fair to fine 
‘Plantation 


Seeds "lis i: da 2s 
Shelly to good -- 16d als 10d 
ists and 2nds --(24d a 3d 
Dull to tine bright +/3Cs a 358 
Crown, Renewed 32d a7d 
Org. Stem |2d a 6d 
Red Org. Stem |13d a as 
Renewed 3d a 54d 
Root lgda dd 
Good to fine quill lWdals 4d 
” ” ad a 1s 2d 
a aa 73d a iid 
” ” bid a 9d 
Fair to fine bold 2hd a 3id 
-{Dull to tine bright bold}lud a 1s 
-!Dull to fine 7ad a 9d 
: ” ” s ida 9d 
Fair and fine bright aid : 1 sid 
-|Fair 2d 
Bold to fine 110s a 1!2s 
Medium to good 8vus a 1088 
Good ordinary nominal 
Fair to bold 43s a 50s 
Special Marks 738 a 88s 6d 
Red to good 65s a 71s 6d 
Ordinary to red 42s a 648 
Middling to good lisal7s 6d 
Dull to fair 3S a 35s 
Ord. stalky to good 70s a 80s 
Fair 30s nom, 
Small to fine bold 658 a 85s 
Small and medium 48s a 52s 
Common to fine bold |35s a 41s 
Small and D’s 35s 
, |Unsplit 30s 
Sm. blocky to fair clean}25s a 60s nom. 
Pale and amber, str. srts.|€16 a £18 
i little red/£13 a £15 
Bean and Pea size ditto|75sa £12 
Voir t: god red sorts {£9 a £12 
Med. & bold glassy soits|£7 a £5 15s 
Fair to Bond palish .,./£4a £8 10s 
red £4a £7 10s 


32s a 5Us 


..|208 a 42s 6d nom 


20s a 30s 
148 a 25s 
85-a 103 
258 a 75s 
6d a gd 
80s a 90S 
50s a 65s 
40s a 65s 
258 a 45s 
10s a 20s 
13s a 15s 
bs 5d 
5s 52d 
5s ads 7d 


” 


” 


.{58 10d. 
48 2da4s 9d 


3s 3d 


Fair II to good red No.1 


” ” 


2s a 2s 6d 
2s 3d a:s8d 


QUOTATIONS. 


£6 12s 6d a £6 15s 
£710s a £7 12s 6d 


£67s6da £6 15s 


|SEEDLAC 


New Guinea 
INDIGO, KI. Bengal 


MACE, Bombay & Penang 


per Ib 

Java 

Bombay 
MYRABOLANES, — ewt 

Bombay Aq 
Bengal oH 
NUTMEGS— 

Bombay & Penang ,, 99 
NUTS, ARECA ewt. 
NUX ’"VOMIGA, Cochin 

per cwt. Bengal 

Madras 
OIL OF ANISEED _,, 
CASSIA a 
LEMONGRASS a 
NUTMEG 3 
CINNAMON 
CITRON ELLE 
ORCHELLA WEED—ewt 
Ceylon AY 
Zanzibar. a 
PEPPER - (Black) lb. 


Alleppee & Tellicherry; 
Ceylon 
Singapore 


as || 
ang, | 
PLUMBAGO. aiip vente 


chips 
dust | 
SAGO, Pearl, lurge 
medium 
small 
ewt.| 


SENNA, Tinnevelly 1b 


258 a 3Zs 6d nom.|/SHELLS, M. o’ PEARL— 


Egyptian cwt. 
Bombay 
Mergui 

M- nilla 


” 
” 
” 


Banda BH 
TAMARINDS, Calcutta... 
per cwt. Madras 
TORLOISESHELL— | 
Zanzibar, & Bombay lb. | 


TURMERIC, Bengal cwt. 

Madras 
Do. 

Cochin 


VANILLOES— 
Mauritius 
Madagascar ... 
Seychelles 

VERMILLION . 

WAX, Jaj;an, squares 


6rds 


Acheen & W. C. Penang Dull to fine 
(White) Singapore ,, |Fair to fine 
a |Fair 


. {Dull to fine 


Niggers, low to good 
Ordinary to fine ball . 


Consuming mid. to gd, 
Ordinary to middling 
Oudes Middling to fine 
Mid, to good Kurpah 
Low to ordinary 

Mid. to fine Madras 
Pale reddish to fine 
Ordinary to fair 

es », good pale 
Wild 
UG and Coconada 
Jubblepore 

Bhimlies 

|Rhajpore, &c. 
Calcutta 

64’s to 57’s 

110’s to 65’s 

160’s to 115’s 

Ordinary to fair fresh 
Ordinary to good 


” ” 
Fair merchantable 
According to analysis 
Good flavour & colour 
Dingy to white 
Ordinary to fair sweet 
Bright & good flavour 


Mid. to fine not woody... 
Picked clean flat leaf ... 
D wiry Mozambique 
\Fair 

y) LO tine bold heavy « 


oe 


Fair 
Fair to tine bright bold 


|Middling to good small] 
|Dull to tine bright . 


Ordinary to fine bright 


” ” 


[Ordinary ¥ to gd. soluble 
'Good to fine bold green 
Fair greenish 


;Commonspeckyand small 


‘Small to bold 


” 


Fair to good 
Sorts 
wid. to fine bP’k not stony 


Stony and inferior 


Small to vold 
Pickings 

Fair 

Finger fair to fine bold 
Bulbs [bright 
Finger 
Bulbs 


Gd crystallized 3} ase in 


s|Foxy & reddish 34a 


Lean and inferior 
Fine, pure, bright 
\Good white hard 


QUALITY. |QUOTATIONS. 
INDIARUBBER.(Contd.) 

Borneo Common to good Ilsa 2s 8d 
Java Good to fine red (28a 88 6d 
Penang Low white to prime ved ls 6da 2s 8d 
Mozambique Fair to fine red Ball .../3s 4d a4s 3d 

Sausage, fair to good ..'3s 3d a 4s 
Nyassaland Fair to fine ball 2310d a 3s 8d 
Madagascar Fr to fine pinky & whitel2s 10d a 3s 6d 


Majunga & blk coated ..]23 3d a 2s 9d 


-|1s a 28 6d 


-|88¢da 3s 8d nom 
Shipping mid to gd violet|3s 5d a 3s 10d 


3s 1d a 3s 4d 
2s 9d a 3s 

28 6d a 2/8 nom, 
2s 3d a 2s 6d 
ls 6d a 2s 2d 
1s 5da 23 4d 
1s 6d a 28 4d 
Is 24 als 5d 
ls 3d a 1s 6d 
jd 

58 a 5s 6d 

4s Idea 63 9d. 
4s 9d a 7s 

4s 6da 6s 3d 
5sa5s 6d 

1s 4d als 5d 
43d a 1s 3d 
4d a 4id 

lls a 12s 
94a 11s 6d 
“sa €s 6d 
63 38d a 8s 

43 5d 

4s 4d a 4s 8d 
2d a 23d 

14d a 2d 
Adals 

ls 1d 


12s 6da 15s 
nom. 


” 


34a 
at a4id 


‘SAT a 39d 


-\43d a 8d 


5d 
43d 


+ {148 a 16s 


12s 6da 15s 
Lisa 134 
658 a 95S nom. 
bd a7d 
34d a 43d 
13d a 23 ‘d 


25s a 90s nom: 
268 a £5 10s 
£ia £7 


+|£5 a £810s 
125s a30S nom, 


lls 213s 
‘|4s a 58 


12s a 26s 


‘ a oat al9s 6d, 


re a 21s 
15s a 178 
15s 


+ |13s 


782143 

.|6s a 10d 

6s ais 

j28 9da 28 10d 
"1498 


mre 


hi 
1 


ie 
y 


ae 


THE SUPPLEMENT TO THE 


Tropical Agriculturist and Magazine of the 6. A. $. 


Comeitnn py A. M. & J. FERGUSON. 


No. 3] 


MARCH, 1909. 


(Vor. IV, 


CLEAN. WEEDING ON TEA AND 
RUBBER ESTATES. 


————- 


SOME JAVA INSTRUCTIONS. 

We publish on this page a most interesting 
document of instructions to Managers on certain 
tea and rubber estates in Java, which reaches us 
through the hands of a prominent Ceylon planter, 
who, in turn, had it sent to him from London. 
We are not permitted to publish the name 
attached ; our correspondent had no authority 
to do this. He tells us he quite agrees with all 
the Java authority says as to the ruin of estates 
by clean weeding ; he is old enough, he adds, to 
remember planters who said of coffee that short 
crops came in with clean weeding. Mr. Kelway 
‘Bamber (as far as our informant understands him) 
condemns clean weeding in the fullest.and most 
comprehensive manner ; and although, to a cer- 
tain extent, it must be allowed on tea estates to 
work the tea properly, it is the worst of folly to 
indulge in it in rubber estates. This Ceylon 
planter saw quite recently a gang of between 300 
and 400 coolies in lines, armed with mamoties, 
scraping a steep hill sido of a new clearing. 
The loss of soil resulting from such opera- 
tions is greater than all the manure that could 
be applied would ever compensate for, He is 
trying partial weeding himself ; and where it is 
properly and reasonably done, he has no hesi- 
tation at all in saying the growth of rubber is 
greatly superior to clean-weeded fields, As cer- 
tain eminent planters—he remarks—make clean 
weeding a kind of fetish, he has no wish to start 
a discussion which might drift into personalities; 
but the opinions we now publish are important, 
and we have pleasure in giving them full promi- 
nence and expressing our readiness to publishing 
anything on the other side, that of the clean- 
weeders, 


36 


en —— — - nae 


=. SSS 


TO JAVA MANAGERS AND ASSISTANTS, 


Gentlemen,—I forward for your perusal en- 
closed extracts from Reports of Mr Kelway 
Bamber, the well-known Ceylon Expert in Soils 
and General Tropical Cultivation made on 
and Estates belonging to the 
Java Rubber—————OCo. this month, as I 
feel that his remarks express in a few words so 
exactly the advantages of asystem which I have 
urged upon all those working under me for 
many years with excellent results where they 
have been followed, whilst where the opposite 
has been the case the system of keeping un. 
dulating land or hilly ground clean by ordinary 
‘neored’ work with the ‘Parang,’ and similar 
tools has resulted with just the opposite effects, 


I maintain, and have always maintained, that 
the scraping of the soils clear :— 


(a) Means loss of the best soil within a given 
amount of years varying in accordance with the 
depth of the good soil, heaviness of the rainfal) 
and the frequency with which this treatment 
is done. 


(b) Encourages grass weeds such as ‘evreh’, 
djukoet pait, etc., to the detriment of the better 
and more succulent class of weeds, 


(c) Is the most expensive form of upkeep 
there is, aS cutting all the tops of the Kureh 
plants just about level with the ground has the 
same effect on itas pruning has on a Tea bush, 
e.g. that the growth of the weed is strengthened, 
whilst far more tops come up than there were 
before the treatment. 

If only of those who are in charge of Estates 
would get firmly into their heads that theappear- 
ance of an Estate at any given moment—that is, 
whether it is looking beautifully clean or rather 
dirty—is aemall matter compared with the 


ENORMOUS IMPORTANUE OF PRESERVING THE SOIL 


of same which after all isone’s Capital Asset, loss 
of which must naturally mean deterioration af the 


282 


property, diminution of Crops, and depreciation 
of that Kstate. The first and the first and fore- 
most point every Manager should keep before him 
is the retaining of the best part of the soil, for a 
maximum period, from the time the land is 
cleared, even if doing so forfeits the compliments 
ofa V.A. or visitors’ congratulations, upon the 
cleanliness of the Hstate—which may give at the 
moment much satisfaction to him, compared 
with criticisius to the opposite offect. 

J know of Estates in the close vicinity of 
where I have lived most of my Java career 
where the Tea crops are reduced to a minimum, 
almost entirely because the best part of the 
soil as long ago been washed down to the 
Ravines through the fault of former Managers, 
who thought of nothing except pleasing their 
V. A. on the ground of having the Estate beauti- 
fully clean. he result of thisis that prolits are wil 
and the shares standing at a hopelessly low price, 
there being practically no soil left to grow the 
crops which are required to make such profits, 


If gentlemen will only give themselves the 
trouble of making a good experiment of the two 
systems ona fairly targe scate, they will see, Jam 
sure, the difference and results—within a year 
—for themselves. ThesystemI advocate is dig- 
ging or forking out all ‘‘Hureh” ‘‘Casso” and 
injurious grasses, and leaving the harmless or 
rather beneficial weeds such as ‘‘Sintrongs’’, 
““Djukoet Mingoe”, to grow up fairly plentiful 
but not to such an extent as to impede in any 
way the cultivation in question. When these 
weeds begin to get out of hand, cut them down, 
but at a couple of inches from the ground, so that 


THEIR ROOTS REMAIN 
AND PREVENT DISPLACEMENT OF SOIL 


when you get the heavy rains, But the 
plan of taking out systematically and wherever 
they show themselves the Eureh and grass 
weeds by means of ‘‘garpee djodjo” (forking 
out grass weed wherever they appear, as opposed 
to forking a garden right through) a system 
which should be at a cheaper cost per Bouw 
every time that coolies employed for this work 
go round the Estate until the cost is reduced to 
a trifle, must be systematically, and at regular 
intervals, followed. 


In this way you are constantly decreasing 
your injurious weeds, and encouraging harmless 
and beneficial weeds, which in themselves keep the 
first-named out of the gardens. 


Once a year or more if necessary and if funds 
are available the whole of these 


BENEFICIAL WEEDS SHOULD BE DUG RIGHT IN 
THE EARTH, BEING SIMPLY TURNED OVER 


in big clods. After this treatment you will 
see that the injurious grasses are slill further 
diminished, and the character of the weeds which 
come up still further improved, until you get 
a system which combines the advantages of 
preserving soil, greenmanuring and thorough culti- 
vation of soil, which—it is impossible for any one 
who has given much attention to the results of 
the different systems to doubt—is entirely to the 
benefit both of the soil itself, and of the growth 
and health of the product under cultivation, 


{ will be extremely obliged if all gentlemen 
to whom this letter is addressed, will 


The Supplement to the Tropical Agriculiurist 


RESERVE A CERTAIN ACREAGE FOR A THOROUGH 
AND SYSTEMATIC TRIAL 
of above ; whilst, if they wish it, they might 
try the results of the other system of keeping 
the gardens clean by ordinary weeding (ngored) 
which is still the most prevalent one, on most 
Kastern Estates in the Preanger., And I will be 
extremely obliged, if they will keep an exact 
record of the frequency with which the dif- 
ferent kinds of treatments to the grounds 
are given giving cost of same each time 
and general results at the end of the year, 
both as regards the appearance of the soil, 
and growth and general healthiness of the trees 
and bushes, being cultivated. Such informa- 
tions orconclusions I am pleased to hold at the 
disposal cfany of the gentlemen working on 
Kstates [ am connected with, and also to hear 
their opinions upon what L have written above. 
in my opinion the question of the best form of 
upkeep in the long run for our Java soils, on 
steep or even undulating land, is far and away the 
most important one which the would-be suc- 
cessful planter of the future has to decide upon. 

One has only to go through old hilly gardens 
on Estates in the Preanger, where the Coffee and 
Kina gardens were for years and yearskept clean 
by the ordinary ngored system, and where only 
with the greatest assistance and heavy cultiva- 
tion, can even a strong product like the tea bush 
be got to give a fair production, and then to go 
into a bit of unopened forest, joining same 
gardens, and with exactly the same lie of land 
and originally the same soil, to realise what a 
cruel destruction of property and loss of Share- 
holders’ money has been effected by this, 

IN MY OPINION, MOST DAMNABLE OF SYSTEMS 
by which such estates have been kept beautifully 
clean in the past to the satisfaction of visiting 
agents but at a cost of the value of the Share- 
holders asset. The same results can be seen on 
very many of the steeper Tea Estates in Mas- 
keliya, Dikoyaand other steep districts of Ceylon. 

Hoping those to whom this is addressed will 
give this matter their close and earnest atten- 
tion.—I am, Gentlemen, yours faithfully, &c. 


MESSRS. NicMEEKIN & CO.’S 
ANNUAL TEA REPORT. 


Messrs. McMeekin & Co.’s annual report on 
the tea trade is usually the last to reach us 
from London ; but itinvariably more than makes 
up for the lateness of its appearance by the 
comprehensiveness of its scope and the novelty 
of its contents. Points of very immediate 
interest to the tea trade are carefully investi- 
gated and presented by Messrs. McMeekin, 
which as arule are ignored by the majority of 
tea firms in their annual reports. Following 
this will be found the full text of Messrs. 
McMeekin’s deliverance on the tea trade of 1908, 
which we are sure, all our readers will consider 
well worth reproduction in the 7.A. The report 
deals with the position of the industry in all pro- 
ducing countriesaud it will be noticed that Messrs 
McMeekin’s remarks on Java tea bear out what 
we stated in alluding to the official statistics of 
tea production in Java we published last month. 
Java teas, it is pointed out, have made more 


and Magazine uf the Ceylon Agricultural Society. 


progress within the year than those of any other 
growth. The trade in London, itis true, has 
made very little progress ; but the teas are laid 
down so cheaply at the outports that they now 
form a considerable proportion of the trading 
in certain centres, thus seriously restricting the 
possibilities of business in other growths. Deal- 
ing with the ‘‘ Purity of Tea,” the report subse- 
quently states that ‘‘ the only growth showing 
a general improvement is that of Java.” The 
prevalence of ‘‘ stalks” in Indian and Ceylon 
‘eas has, we are informed, caused much com- 
plaint from country and foreign buyers. Java 
Teas being, so far, much freer from anything of 
the kind, have frequently received a preference 
in consequence. This isa very clear and definite 
indication of one direction in which British pro- 
ducers are being beaten by the Dutch Colony. 
The fault complained of can be remedied 
and all planters both in Ceylon and India 
ought to make ita point to see that’ stalky” 
tea isnot in future placed on the market. 
With regard to future prospects Messrs. 
McMeekin regard as the gravest danger tothe 
industry a large yield from India during 1909, 
In addition to the report we reproduce else- 
where, Messrs McMeekin publish a table showing 
tea statistics for six calendar years and a chart 
with a statement showing the alterations in the 
relative proportions of different growths of Tea 
consumed during 22 years ended 31st December, 
1908, the variations in the London average prices 
for Indian teas, and the changes in rate of Duty. 


TEA IN 1908. 


(Messrs, McMeehin & Co.’s Review.) 

The reports upon the heavy lines of trade of all 
kinds during the year are generally unsatisfac- 
tory, and Tea has, to a certain extent, shared in 

the bad results. The financial convulsion which 

shook New York in November, 1907, and dis- 
turbed the money markets of the world, had 
prolonged after-effects upon nearly every im- 
portant description of business, and the fact 
that Tea was not more unfavourably influenced 
is strong testimony to the sound and general 
position of the trade. 


PRODUCERS. 


A remarkable change came over the character 
of the demand during the year, and the common- 
est grades, which for a long time had been kept 
at a high level of price as compared with those 
considered to be worth intrinsically much more 
money, were in lessened demand. Prices of the 
former consequently fell, slowly but surely, 
throughout the first eleven months of the year. 
Coincident with the neglect of the common 
grades there came an improved demand for 
better qualities and a widening range of prices, 
The averages of prices for both Indian and 
Ceylon Teas showed some decline over the high 
level of the previous year, but itis probable 
that the year’s working was more generally satis- 
factory to the whole body of producers. The 
phenomenal profits made by Bheel states from 
enormous out-turns of low grade stuff will not be 
s0 conspicuous as they wore, but, on the other 
hand, more encouragement will be given to those 


288 


producing Teas of good quality. The turning 
fromthe demand for mere lowness of price to a 
requirement for quality is a highly satisfactory 
feature that should receive every encouragement. 


The estimated value of the debentures and 
shares of 170 Tea producing companies repre- 
sentative of India and Ceylon was at Ist 
November, 1908,  £20,000,000 as against 
£21,600,000 twelve months earlier, Having in 
view that an average fall of approximately % 
of a penny per pound was recorded on the total 
yields, itis surprising that the capital difference 
was not greater, looking to the reduced dividend- 
paying power. The shares, however, are gene- 
rally firmly held by permanent investors, 


DistRIBUTORS. 


Following a succession of difficult years, that 
just gone has been one of the worst on record 
for those who try to make a living out of mer- 
chant business in tea, The large wholesale 
dealers, although working on lower values and 
a lower Bank rate, have again had to face serious 
losses from depreciation in stock values, the 
long continued decline in the lower grades 
rendering profitable business impossible, The 
smaller country dealers and the retailers have 
been faced with the competition of the multiple- 
shop concerns and it has frequently been of an 
exceedingly unfair character. Gross misrepre- 
sentation in the way of lavish advertising as to 
quality and value is very hard to deal with, but 
here and there independent traders have made a 
good stand for the old-fashioned honest methods 
of describing goods. The failures among retail 
grocers have for the year been unusually 
numerous, and the wholesale trade has suffered 
accordingly. Even the multiple-shop companies, 
although several of them have made numerous 
additions to the number of their branches and 
in some cases added seriously to their working 
costs, have not all been able to maintain their 
previous rates of dividend. 


CONSUMERS. 


The general lack of prosperity throughout the 
Kingdom and the large percentage of unemploy- 
ment known to exist in many districts had little 
obvious eifect upon the consumption of Tea, 
The quantity taken actually showed an increase 
on the previous year of atout 14 million lb. and 
was again the highest cn record. Allowing, how- 
ever, for the usual natural increase in the popu- 
lation, a small Cecline in the quantity consumed 
per person is shown, 


In the matter of consumption Tea compares 
favourably with most of the large lines of goods 
figuring in the Board of Trade returns and appar- 
ently itis likely to be one of the last items to 
be prejudicially affected by adverse industrial 
conditions. 


Inpran TEA, 


Owing to the continued increase in direct trading with 
India, importations into London again showed a decline 
on the previous year. ‘fhe offerings in auctions there, were, 
however considerably heavier, but the difference is explained 
by the reduced extent of selling forced on the producers in 
December, 1907, in consequence of ths abnormal financial 
position then existing. In the earlier months of the New 
Season the demand in Calcutta for several of the large 
direct outlets was not so strong as in 1907, and conse. 
quently more tea in proportion fo the total yield Weg 


284 


shipped to London (about 8,600,000 lb. increase on the pre- 
vious season’s figures were received there within the old 
year). Tbe demand improved towards the close of the year, 
doubtless in consequence of the considerably lower range 
of prices established in September and October. The 
quantities offered in the Calcutta auctions from the com- 
mencement of the New Season till the close of the year 
were about 2,000,000 Ib, Jess than in 1907. 

The total production of the whole of India for 197 was 
reported as 248,000,(00 lb., or an increase of 7,0uu,000 lb, over 
the very large total of 1906. It is impossible at present to 
estimate closely what the figure for 1908 will actually result 
iv, but in all probability the increase will be abcut 5,000,000 
ib, giving a total of 256,060,000 Jb. The recorded exports 
from India in 1907 were 228,000,000 lb., and it is considered 
that a serious discrepancy exists in the returns of yield, 
as it is thought improbable that the internal consumption 
of India would equal 20,000,000 Ib. The principal develop- 
ment in production has occurred in Assam, where a more 
favourable position as to labour is influencing yields. 
It is fortunate for all concerned in the business that the 
weather conditions were somewhat adverse, and that, 
therefore, the very much larger yield whichat one time 
was expected was not harvested. 

Cryton TEA, 

Although further Teais now to a moderate 
extent being planted in Ceylon, it may safely be 
assumed that the planting during say four or 
tive years back was mostly done inrubber. As 
rouch of the rubber was actually planted among 
the existing Tea bushes (a system not calculated 
to conduce to the rapid and successful growth of 
either product) the development of the rubber 
trees was bound gradually to tell upon the Tea 
bushes and ultimately to render their continued 
culture an impossibility, There is little doubt 
that the influence of rubber on Tea yields is now 
beginning to be felt, and that it will soon show 
itself more definitely, while an increased yield 
from new Tea planting is still somewhat remote. 
It may be assumed that the satisfactory prices 
ruling for Ceylon Teas led to as free plucking as 
possible; but, notwithstanding that, the total 
crop for 1908 showed a decline on the 1907 figures 
of about 2,000,000 lb. As other countries took, 
in the aggregate, about as much asin the pre- 
vious year, the deficiency in yield necessarily 
came off the shipments sent to Great Britain. The 
shortcoming made room for part of the excess 
from India and materially helped to steady aud 
enhance the London market for Ceylon growths. 
The Home Trade consumption of Ceylon Tea 
was a record for quantity within the year, viz.. 
92,960,000 lb, but in 1900 the igure approached 
closely to that, being 92,470,000 lb. The share 
of the total was, however, in the latter year 37 
per cent, while in 19(8 it was only 333 per cent. 
{ft had, however, in the interim been down to 
30% per cent. Thereturns to Ceylon producers 
during the year have apparently been scarcely 
s0 favourable, onthe average, as those made 
upon Indian growths. The ratios of prices to 
those of 1907 (taking Colombo and London mar- 
kets together, as compared with Calcutta and 
London markets) were less favourable; there 
was areduced instead of an enhanced total crop 
and the high cost of rice was more severely felt 
than in India. 

Java TEA, 

These teas have made more progress within the year than 
those of any other growth. ‘The total quantity exported 
from Java within the 12 months ended 30th June, 1908, was 
32,792,000 1b against 24,950,000 1b in’ the corresponding 
previous 1: months. They have gained also in the way of 
improved quality and in increased consumption in all the 
larger outlets, viz. Holland, Great Britain and Ireland, 
Russia, Australia aud Hersia. The trade in those through 
London has made but little progress on the average of re- 
cent years, but they are so cheaply laid down at the out- 
ports baat fuey Bow fm a Gensiderable proportion of the 


The Supplement to the Tropical griculturist 


trading incertain centres, thus seriously restricting thid 
possibilities of businessin other growths. It will be seen 
trom the statistics that the British home consumption 
showed an increase ot nearly 50 per cent. in five years, ‘The 
reports of marvellously cheap labour, unusually rich soil, 
heavy yields and consequent low costs of production have 
attracted attention to the desirablity of the island as a tield 
for investment in tea growing, and names hitherto identi- 
tied with tea production in British dependencies only are 
now becoming associated with Java production. This may 
be in individual self-defence, but any large development in 
that island cannot fail to affect prejudicially India and 
Ceylon, and may lead to a recurrence of the outcry for 
protection for a British industry, formerly so frequently 
raised against China tea. 


CHINA TEA. 


Notwithstanding the advertising and the Jarge amount 
of press publicity it has received, China ‘ea has fallen 
back somewhat in British Home Trade use within the 
year. ‘The considerable increase, relatively speaking, 
in the imports has only led to a piling up of unsale- 
able stocks of such a low character that while com- 
plying with the Government standard of chemical purity, 
they would not be admitted to the United States of 
America or Canada, where a more detinite restriction 
is placed upon what may be sent into consumption. 
Those importations include a considerable increase in green 
teas, a class that is almost wholly taken for export. They 
probably came to London because of temporary derange- 
ments at other points, and, judging from the relatively 
high re-exports of China tea, a considerable proportion of 
the increased arrivals in that class has passed out of the 
stock, leaving an accumulation consisting chiefly of China 
siftings that can only be worked off very slowly in small 
percentages of the cheaper blends retailed in the home 
trade. Although the business of importing China teas to 
London has now been,reduced to a very small compass, its 
volume during the year was sufficient to cause serious em- 
barrassment to some of those engaged in the business. 
Owing to high costs and bad realisations the results were 
disastrous, and it is reported that considerable losses were 
made upon teas sent direct from China to the other markets 
that take larger quantities. 


Those responsible for the modern efforts to boom good 
China tea would probably carry with them the respect and 
goodwill of the producers of other growths, and of the dis- 
tributive dealers also, were they less disingennous in 
use made ofabnormal statistics. It can do no goodia the 
long run to give publicity to misleading figures, 


JAPAN AND Formosa TRA. 


Vhe latest official statistics issued by the Department 
of Finance in Tokyo show that the yield of lea in Japan 
during 1906 from 122,500 acres was 58,260,(001b being a 
decline since 1897 of 2),000 acres and 12,000,000 1b. The value 
of the exported quantity was stated to be £1,036 000, he 
yield in Formosa during 1906 was 15,168,000 lb., ur a decline 
of 9,060,000 1b, since 1878, The United States of America 
took a very large proportion of all the quantities exported 
from both places, 

ForREIGN TRADE. 


The re-exports from the United Kingdom 
have again shown a decided falling off, and are 
back to about the level current prior to 1906, 
With the exception of a trifling increase in Sep- 
tember, the decline was continuous during the 
first 10 months of the year, but in November and 
December there were gains amounting to nearly 
2,900,100 lb., doubtless arising from the lower 
scale of prices ruling in London. With the excep- 
tion of Canada, Indian Tea lost ground in allthe 
principal outlets. Ceylon, while again losing 
heavily to Russia and in the general export 
trade, made headway in business with the United 
States of America, Canada and European coun- 
tries other than Russia. The loss of trade in 
Tea between London and Russia is directly 
attributable to the policy of retaliation pursued 
by the latter because of the exclusion of Rus- 
sian Sugars from the English market by the 
Brussels Convention. Although the barrier has 
now been removed, the trade does not appear 
to be returning, except in a casual manper, 


and Magazine of the Ceylon Agricultural Society. 


Calcutta and Colombo taken together have 
not, any more than London, gained during the 
year in their tracing with the rest of the world, 
as compared with 1907. Statistics areas yet in- 
complete, but it appears as if Russia would take 
about 2 million pounds less; Australasia is 
taking about 4 million pounds less ; Canada 
and the United States of America together take 
an increase of 2% million pounds, while there 
is a general increase in places not specially 
named of about 25 million pounds, 

SuHips’ Srores, 

The quantity of Tea absorbed for the use of 
passengers and ships’ crews has increased in 
proportion to the Jarge development of tonnage 
afloat in merchant and Government vessels, 
but it is unfortunate that so little attempt is 
yet made to supply tea better in quality and in 
methods of infusion for the useof those who ‘‘go 
down to the sea in ships.” 

Pcuriry or TEA, 

There was a considerable increase in the 
number of tea samples analysed by authority 
of the Commissioners of Customs during the 
last completed Customs’ year, which doubtless 
arose from the free importation of China tea of 
at least questionable purity. Only 33 packages 
were condemned as unfit for food, while 2,070 
were refused admission for Home Consumption. 
The percentage is very small relative ‘to the 
whole importation and probably a large portion 
of the rejected teas consisted of packages 
damaged in transit. 


The general character of all tea arriving from 
abroad does not tend to improve, and it would 
appear that the same amount of care as for- 
metly is not exercised in the preparation. The 
only growth showing a general improvement 
is that of Java. The prevalence of ** stalks” 
in Indian and Ceylon teas has caused much 
complaint from country and foreign buyers, and 
Java teas being, so far, much freer trom anything 
of the kind, have frequently received a pre- 
ference in consequence, 


Tue Tra Dury. 


Fortunately for the trade, there was about 
a minimum of disturbance of regular trading 
conditions arising from anticipation of Budget 
possibilities, and it is to be hoped that 1909 
will be allowed to pass in an equally placid 
way. Unfortunately, attempts are being made 
by professional scaremongers to work up an 
agitation about a possible increase of auty, but 
they are unlikely to attract serious attention. 


PRosPEcts, 


The New Year started with a stock on hand in 
all the bonded warehouses of the United King- 
dom of 128,393,000 lb., against 124,712,000 Ib. at 
the end of 1907. The difference may be taken as 
roughly representing the dead-weight of almost 
unsaleable China sorts now lying in London. Uf 
the stock, however, probably somewhere about 
5,000,000 Ib. more than at the same time last 
year are held by the buyers and not by the im- 

orters. The moderate prices ruling in November 

ed to free buying for forward requirements, 
and itis known that some prominent coucerns. 
gan now stay out of the market for months, 


285 


They are unlikely to pay the recently made ad- 
vance on lower grade teas until their cheaper 
stotks are exhausted. Much of the buying in 
December was not for immediate requirements 
but merely to guard against the risk of another 
seriousadvance in tea for price. A rise actually 
resulted, but, as it did not come from an actual 
demand for immediate consumption, it will be 
difficult to maintain. Should the sellers of tea 
attempt to regulate the weekly offerings, it will 
be necessary to take into account the surplus 
over the quantity at the same time in last year, 
which has passed into the stocks of dealers and 
blenders. 

Although 1909 is starting at a more moderate 
level of price and with better general financial 
conditions, there are some factors in the future 
that may be viewed with concern. China tea 
can be dismissed as a negligible quantity ; Java 
may show further development ; Ceylon looks 
like being stationary or even retrograde in 
yield, but India is still very far from having 
reached a maximum possible, without making 
any allowance for newareas coming into bearing, 
Given generally favourable weather conditions, 
with the full labour forces now on the majority 
of estates everywhere, there is the possibility 
ofa large increase in production at any time, 
With the home consumption practically stan- 
ding still and the foreign trade taken all round 
not progressive,a large yield would be disastrous. 
There is hope that the lower prices may stimu- 
late consumrz tion and that possibly the foreign 
trade of 1909 may expand, because it would ap- 
pear asif part of the large export business done 
in 1907 was because of an over-estimation of 
requirements, leading to a corresponding reduc- 
tion in requirements during 1908.—McM&rxkin 
& Co., 10 & 11, Lime Street, E.C,, London, 
19th January, 1909, 


JAPANESE CAMPHOR. 


In its December issue the “Toyo Yakuho” of 
Yokohama refers to the Japanese camphor- 
agency recently acquired by the Mitsui Com- 
pany. Owing to the fact that Japanese camphor 
had to face the powerful competition of the 
cheaper Chinese and synthetic camphor, the 
company, it states, resolved to obtain absolute 
control of the business, and to place the staple 
on the foreign market in the same way as ordi- 
nary merchandise, without being subject to 
Government control. Last August the European 
market heavily declined, and the Formosan 
monopoly authorities were filled with dismay, 
The Mitsui Company, quick to seize the oppor- 
tunity, lost no time in persuading the authori- 
ties that the present system of working the 
monopoly was very inconvenient, as it impeded 
the taking of prompt action to meet circumstan- 
ces. By the present arrangement the Minister 
of Finance agrees to relegate to the Formosan 
Government the right to dictate the price of 
camphor abroad, the Formosan Government in 
turn being authorised to place the matter in the 
hands of the London and New York agents of 
the monopoly. These ofticials are thus enabled 
to lower or raise the price according to their 
own judgment, and they are now transactin 
business on these lines in London and New 
York.—Chemist and Druggist, Jan, 16, ; 


286 


SEYCHELLES CINNAMON OIL 
INDUSTRY. 


The possibility of the profitable establish- 
ment of an essential oil industry in the Sey- 
chelles Islands has long been under experimen- 
tal consideration, and about two years ago the 
idea was first put into operation on a commercial 
scale, when a modern factory, provided with a 
boiler and a still of 4,000 litres capacity, was 
erected. In 1906 work was started by the dis- 
tillation of citronella and lemon grass; but owing 
to the late fall in price of the oils obtained from 
these twce grasses, 16 was decided in 1907 to make 
cinnamon oil the chief product of the factory for 
the present. The cinnamon grown in the Sey- 
chelles is the same variety as that cultivated in 
Ceylon. Oilis yielded by the roots, the bark, 
and the leaves of this plant, but from the bark 
is the most valuable of the three products. The 
trees are cut down periodically, and the bark 
from which the oil is distilled is obtained from 
the young shoots arising from the stumps. 
These shoots are available for the purpose in 
about two years. It is not only the young shoots, 
however, from which the bark is obtained 
yielding the cinnamon oil. This is contained 
in the same proportion by the bark from older 
trees, and tall trees about 1 ft. in diameter are 
said to yield as much as 100lb. of dry bark when 
cut down. the average tree, however, coes not 
give more than about 20lb. of dry bark. This 
contains from 9 to 94 per cent of cinnamon oil. 
Samples of oil produced in the Seychelles by 
water distillation about two years ago were 
forwarded to Europe and valued at about £2 63 

er litre (2 litre being approximately 1 pint.) 
t is anticipated, however, that with the im- 
provements in the product brought about as the 
result of the establishment of the new factory, 
a higher price will be obtained in future and 
the industry placed upon a sure footing.— 
Morning Post, Jan. 10th. 


FRENCH SYNTHETIC CAMPHOR. 


An Extraordinary Flotation ! 

ARTIFICIAL CAMPHOR,—It is reported from France that 
a new company, known as the Société le Camphre, of 65, 
Boulevard de Strasbourg, Paris, is to acquire various patents 
for the production of synthetic camphor, including those of 
MM. Dubose and Behal. A factory has been secured at 
Bonniéres, and work isto be ‘‘ commenced in the course of 
afew months.” The old story is circulated that the plan 
will be capable of producing three to six tons of artificial 

camphor per day !|—C. & D., Aug. 31, 1907. : 
Since the above paragraph was. written, 
facts have transpired which show that the 
Société le Camphre has fallen upon evil times, 
the company having practically exhausted its 
capital of 7,100,000f. (284,0C0/.), while the pro- 
duction has been relatively unimportant. This 
much we gather from lengthy reports on the 
condition of the company which have been pub- 
lished in the French financial Press. Although 
the company was formed in February 1907, no 
rofit-and-loss account has been issued, but a 
statement of accounts to June 30, 1908, shows 
that a sum of 4,169,732f. has been expended on 
the purchase of patents, and that a further 
2,300,9C0f, has been laid out in land, buildings, 
etc. On June 30, 1908, there was 521,070f. at 
the disposal of the company, while the Nabilities 


The Supplement to the Tropical Agriculturist. 


were 270,497f., leaving a balance of 250,573f., 
which was insuflicient to meet working-expenses, 
so that a fresh issue of capital is necessary. It 
appears that ‘Loe Camphre’ was an afiiliated 
undertaking of the Société!’ Oyonnithe, which 
had been able to secure the patents for the manu- 
facture of synthetic camphor, and they in turn 
formed or caused to be formed another company 
to which they sold the patents. Subsequently 
the shares were ‘boomed,’ and the interest of the 
public was excited to such an extent that many 
shares were disposed of by the promoters at 
more than 100 per cent premium. It is not known 
what proportion of these gains accrued to 
‘?Oyonnithe,’ but on December 31, 1907, this 
company did not possess a single share of the 
affiliated company, showing that'the confidence 
inspired in the new company was not very great. 
Time has proved the wisdom of ‘ l’Oyonnithe,’ 
as the 100f. shares of ‘Le Camphre’ are now 
worth 36f. only. The meeting of shareholders 
on December 31 was stormy, considering that 
many of them had purchased shares at double 
the par value. The present board of directors 
were only able to hold on to their office by the 
votes of absent shareholders. Aggrieved share- 
holders pointed out that the company had been 
stating that the daily production of synthetic 
camphor was 200 kilos., whereas it appears the 
company has only produced 2,500 kilos. since 
its formation. Professor Behal declares he has 
not received a penny for the sale of his patents, 
though he was also promised a bonus of 25c. 
per kilo. on the manufacture.—Chemist & Drug- 
gist, Jan. 16. 


RUBBER IN 1908: IN GERMANY. 


Market Rerort or WattHer & LUHMANN, 
Rosser BROKERS. 


AsiA AND AustRALIA.—The production of the 
Ceylon and Straits commodities has enormously 
increased, it has risen from 1,400 to 2,500 tons. 
These commodities, which are prepared with 
great care and much experience, have doubtless 
great prospects. Germany already consumes 
fair quantites of same, however, the consign- 
ments offered here have been up to the present 
still unimportant. London offers, however, al- 
ways lower than Ceylon itself. The import of 
this fine Rubber is strongly to be recom- 
mended. From Borneo arrived shipments of fair 
amounts, principally Gelotong. The increase 
is probably on account of a new, important 
consumer. 

1 a.—Borneo becomes from year to year worse 
and isonly slightly better than quality. No. 2a. 

From Sumatra and Java very fine lots have 
arrived, in this quality a great deal can be 
done. The quality of Penang has slightly 
declined. From Rangoon and Tonkin’ only 
small shipments have arrived. New Guinea and 
New Caledonia arrived only insignificant quan- 


’ tities and besides mostly wa foreign countries. 


Finally we refer still to the enormous deve- 
lopments which have taken place in respect to 
the demand in Germany, with its over 100 
factories it has established itself at the head of 
all European countries. We trust that the 
time is not far distant when the German dex 
mand can be satisfied on the German market, 


and, Magazine of the Ceylon Agricultural Society. 287 


PRODUCTION OF HERVA MATE 
IN’ BRAZIL. 


‘* PARAGUAYAN TEA.” 


H.M. Legation in Brazil has forwarded the 
following memorandum on the production of 
herva maté in Brazil. It appears that this 
article took the third place in Brazilian exports 
in 1906, and fifth place in 1907, the value of 
the export each year being nearly 2,000,002. :— 


‘‘*Tlex Paraguayersis’ or Paraguayan tea, 
known also as ‘ Missionaries’ tea’ and ‘ Jesuits’ 
tea,’ is to be found wild in immense quantities 
in the Brazilian States of Rio Grande do Sul, 
Santa Catharina, Paranda, Matto Grosso, Sio 
Faulo, Goyaz and Minas Geraes; but more 
particularly in Parana. It was first discovered 
by the early missionaries, who found it in use 
among thenatives of Paraguay, to which country 
it is also indigenous, It is met with generally 
in the form ofa tree ransing from 9 to 18 feet 
in height, there being three varieties of the 
species known, viz., the ‘latifolia’ with broad 
leaves, the ‘longifolia’ with long leaves, aud the 
‘aneustifolia’ with small leaves, tho last of 
these being the most appreciated. 


METHOD oF HARVESTING. 


It is gathered between the months of April 
and September, the leaves being considered 
more mature for the purpose in June and 
August, and the trees are allowed from four to 
five years to recover from the effects of a very 
rough harvest. The branches are broken off 
and the leaves are withered over a smokeless 
bonfire, to prevent them from turuing black, and 
they are further submitted to a primitive pro- 
cess of ‘curing’ later. 


MAKING THE Brew. 


“The original method of consuming maté, 
and the manner still in vogue in South American 
countries, is to pour hot water on the top. of 
the leaves and sip through a tube—the same 
leaves serving for innumerable brews if they 
are not allowed to cool. Itis found, however, 
to give a very good result when prepared like 
other teas, and, in comparison with the latter, 
is said to be much more digestible and less 
harmful to the nerves. It is further stated 
by writers on the subject to be a stimulant and 
tonic, its qualities in these respects having been 
very marked indeed during the Paraguayan 
war, at which time soldiers wers found to be 
able to endure the greatest hardships and go 
for days without food if provided with mate, 


“The French Consular Agent in Curityba, some 
time back, tried to bring herva maté before the 
notice of his Government. for tiv use of the 
French colonial army, he being persuaded that 
it would prove a preventative against abuse of 
alcohol and tropical diseases. To support his 
arguments he stated that a German military- 
medical council had recommended its substitu- 
tion for ordinary tea generally among the 
German troops. This may account for the fact 
that maté is beginning to find its way now into 
Germany, and even more go into Italy, though 
the imports into both these countries at present 


4 


are very insignificant. [t is also becoming 
known in france and Portugal, whilst the 
amount sent to England has so far scarcely 
attained the proportions of a sample. 


Tue NAaTuRAL SuPPLY 


of the Southern Brazilian forests is reputed to 
be inexhaustible, and presumably could at any 
time be largely increased by planting and culti- 
vation if there were greater demands for it. In 
the meantime the exports are considerable to 
Argentina, Uruguay and Chile, with occasional 
shipments to Paraguay also, though none what- 
ever is exported to any of the other countries 
in South America. 


‘‘Maté of course is considerably cheaper in this 
part of the world than are eastern teas, and 
those by whom the taste for it has already been 
acquired are loud in declaring it to be whole- 
some and refreshing and to be possessed of 
innumerable medicinal virtues. The maté 
which is shipped from Rio de Janeiro and the 
other important ports of Brazilis usually ‘in 
transit,’ the natural ports for direct shipments 
being the little-known places, such as Paranagua, 
Antouina, Sao Francisco, Porto Murtinho and 
Porto Alegre. The increase in the export from 
Porto Alegre in the last few years has been very 
remarkable. Inthe year 1902 only 11 tons were 
shipped, while in 1906 the shipments had in- 
creased to 11,000 tons, an advance which, while 
enormous, has at the same time been gradual 
and has since been maintained, 


“The following statistics show roughly the in- 
crease in the foreign exports of maté from 


Brazil” :— 
Toy To To To 
Argentina Uruguay Chile Exports 
Tons Tons Tons Tons 
1902 31,000 10,000 1,000 42,0u0 
1903 29,000 5,100 3,000 37,000 
1904 32,000 10,000 2,000 44,000 
1905 30,000 10,000 1,000 41,000 
1906 43,000 18,0 0 2,000 63,000 


—Board of Trade Journal, Dec, 31. 


SHAPING YOUNG PARA RUBBER 
TREES. 


Mr Walter Towgood writes as follows :—It is 
still an open question whether it is advisable to 
interfere with nature by forcing young rubber 
trees to throw out branches. Almost all culti- 
vated trees are pruned and shaped according to 
the requirements of the agriculturist and in 
some cases a tree’s natural habit is entirely 
altered, as for instance, in tea and coffee, The 
former of these is, however grown for its leaf 
and the latter for its fruit, but in Para rubber 
we have to deal with the products of the bark 
and therefore the shaping of the stems. 
Hitherto attempts have been made to force 
rubber trees to branch by thumbnail pruning or 
topping, but this has not been attended with 
success, as the upward growth of the tree being 
stopped, the place of the main stem is taken 
not by true branches, but by suckers which are 
very liable to split off and in dcing so the stem 
itself is also frequently split, thereby seriously 
damaging the tree. Moreover, the tree once 
having been headed back, the tapping height of 


288 


the stem is fixed forall time. T have recantly 
found that rubber trees can be forced to throw 
out true branches without interfering with 
their upward growth. It is then only necessary 
to prune off superfluous branches in order to 
shape the tree in any desired form; to accomplish 
this all that is necessary is to cut off all the 
leaves, leaving the stalks attached to the stem, 
these will dry and fall off ina few days and 
the treo will throw out branches from each node. 


Para rubber being a deciduous tree, this re- 
moval of the leaves is, after all, merely a fore- 
stalment of nature and should therefore be done 
at the season when the older trees shed their 
leaves. It is also best to choose the time when 
the topmost shoot has matured and before a 
fresh shoot has commenced to grow. Great care 
must be taken not to injure the bud and thereby 
interfere with the upward growth of the tree. 
The above method should only be tried on a 
very smal! scale to begin with, until it has been 
proved a success.— Malay Mail, Jan. 25. 


RUBBER IN BOLIVIA. 


The following extracts from a Broker’s Cir- 
cular, (December 30th) give some interesting 
information in reference to rubber yield, &c., 
in Bolivia :-— 


“Tae GALVEZ Rupper Estates, Ltp.” 


This Company was registered in 1907, whena 
prospectus was issued for private subscription 
only. Capital £150,000 of which £135,000 has 
been issued in £1 shares all fully paid. The 
largest. shareholders are Sir George Newnes, 
Bart., M.P., his family and friends, The Chair- 
man of the Company is Mr. Frank Newnes, 
M.P., and the Harmsworth family also of news- 
paper fame are also interested. We extract the 
following from the prospectus :— 


‘¢ This Company has been formed in order to 
acquire the Galvez Rubber Estates, a well- 
known fine Para rubber-producing property in 
Bolivia, and consisting of the properties here- 
after mentioned. It is estimated to extend 
over an area of nearly million acres, and is 
situated in the province of Canpolican, district 
of La Paz, near the Beni River, Bolivia. 


“Mr Pharaoh, who is well known in America 
as an expert in Rubber Forests, and who has 
worked a portion of the concessions, has certi- 
fied toat least 300,000 trees (Hevea brasiliensis), 
Taking a minimum yield of only 4 lb. per tree, 
this would give areturn of 1,200,000 lb. rubber 
per annum. Mr Pharaoh states that 6 lb. per 
tree is a conservative estimate. 150,000 trees 
opened up and ready for tapping should pro- 
duce 600,000 Ib. of rubber, which at say 5s. the 
present price, would realise £150,000 per annum 
gross. ‘The business has been a going con- 
cern for the rast six years. The recent 
owner, Senor Mariano Galvez, of Arequipa, 
Peru, through lack of capital, has for some 
years past confined himself to the development 


The Supplement to the Tropical Agriculturist 


of only a small part of the estate, which he 
states has yielded rubber yearly valued at from 
£20,000 to £30,000 gross. The output for 1905, em- 
ploying only 100 pickers, amounted to 79,000 Ib. 
and for a few months in 1906, employing 200 
men, 66,000 1b. Inthe year 1902, Mr Pharaoh 
worked the property during a period of eight 
months. He had only 200 pickers, and they 
collected 120,000 lb of rubber from only a small 
portion of the property, and which atthe pre- 
sent price of rubber would sell for £30,000, 


‘ Kstimating the all-round sale price of rub- 
ber at 5s per |b and the cost of production at 
2s per lb, the total yield of 300,000 trees at 4 lb, 
per tree would equal 1,200,000 1b and would pro- 
duce a profit of about £180,000 per annum. 


‘Taking asa basis the production available 
from only 15°,000 trees, this would give the 
fullowing results :~ 


600,000 1b. rubber at 5s. perlb £150,000 
600,000 re at cost of 


2s.perlb, 60,000 
Leaving an estimated nett pro- 
fit per annum of £90,000 


‘‘ Last year, subsequent to the formation of 
the Company, as you will remember, there was 
a financial panic in the United States of America, 
which are the largest buyers in the world of 
rubber. As the result of this the enormous 
factories there were closed, and the price of 
rubber fell from over 8s to 3s perlb. With 
a resumption in the United States of the 
demand, the price has gradually risen until 
now it 1s again over 5s, with every prospect of 
a continuance of at least this price. The es- 
timate given ot production naturally does not 
apply to the first year, during which the busi- 
ness had to be thoroughly organised. Ship- 
ments of rubber up to date have been 300,00, 
lb. and further 600,000 Ib. has been collected 
and will be gradually shipped.” 


This Company probably owns the largest quan- 
tity of indigenous rubber trees of any English 
Company. We wish distinctly to emphasise 
the fact that the total production of rubber per 
annum is about 70,000 tons. Of this quantity 
only a little over 2,000 tons is produced from 
plantation rubber trees in the East, The entire 
balance is obtained from indigenous rubber 
trees. We further wish particularly to empha- 
siseo the fact that the production of rubber per 
tree from planted trees in the East is only about 
1 lb, as against 4 1b. from the indigenous trecs 
in South America. 


An interim dividend of 3 per cent was paid in 
July. It is expected the first report and balance 
sheet will shortly be issued, aad that the divi- 
dend will amount to at least 10 per cent. This, 
it is expected, will be more than doubled next 
year, and continue to largely increase from year 
to year ; in fact, from the official figures already 
given it appears the Company should have no 
difficulty in paying 80 per cent dividend next 
year. [Shares are offering at par.] 


and Magazine of ithe Ceylon Agricultural Society. 


BURYING /S BURNING OF TEA 
PRUNINGS. 


THeir Errect as Manure In Cryton. 


Before the Neboda Tea Co. of Ceylon on 
Feb. 13th., Mr. Joseph Fraser made a most im- 
portant statement on the question of burying 
vs burning of tea prunings, which is given 
below. ith prunings buried (with basic 
slag, &c.) one division showed as large a yield 
as 1,179 lb. per acre. Another estate visi- 
ted by Mr. Fraser is quoted in support of 
“burying ”: on this there was a definite experi- 
went. Before treatment the yield per acre on 
one field was 300 lb. and after four years 920 lb, 
—while on an artificially manured field ad- 
joining it had increased to 690 lb. only. Simi- 
larly upcountry, burying prunings with bulk artifi- 
cial manure and albizzia leaves and twigs brought 
the yields up to an average of nearly 1,100 |b, 
with a maximum of 1,481 1b. per acre! The 
figures as to cost we commend to the attention 
of planters. As to whether Mr. John Hughes 
‘‘oof mixed” in his references to manuring and 
burying, we may leave him to deal with more 
elaborately than we could; but Mr. Fraser, 
it should be pointed out, gives the most valu- 
able analytical figures, for the chemical and 
cultural results achieved, and emphasizes the 
cumulative effects of burying, with a proviso 
against its employment in root pest centres, 
stiff soil or bleak situations. Practical and 
scientific planters will be grateful for the full 
statement he presented at the Neboda meeting. 


MR. FRASERS’ STATEMENT. 


At the Annual Meeting of shareholders of the 
Neboda Tea Co. of Ceylon. Ltd. The CHAIRMAN 
(Mr. Joseph Fraser)—in moving the adoption of 
the report—said :—The results of the year’s 
working may be considered highly satisfactory. 
The average tea yield was 803 1b. per acre in- 
cluding 27 acres of Tea and Rubber. Allow- 
ing for manuring items, and loss on rice, the 
nett cost was a shade under 19 cents per lb. 
and the profit exclusive of loss on rice, which 
I trust is more or less a temporary item, R89°69 
per acre or say £6 sterling. Narthupana divi- 
sion that has had the 


PRUNING SYSTEMATICALLY BURIED, 


with the Basic Slag and Sulphate of potash, 
plus artificial manure, gave from the whole 227 
acres an average yield of 960 1b, per acre, 
the best yield being 1,179 Ib. A thoroughly 
cultivated field on the Neboda division 33 acres 
gave 987 lb. per acre, but 110 acres that were 
cultivated only occasionally, the labour not 
being available, owing to rubber extensions, 
gave an average of 687 lb. per acre, while two 
fields of 57 acres, never manured or cultivated, 
only yielded 309 lb. per acre. They were, 
however, pruned within the year, but the aver- 
age for two years was under 400 lb. and that 
too from fine indigenous tea. Tho results 
therefore of burying prunings, plus manuring, 
in this instance, seem fully justified, 


37 


289 


A DEFINITE EXPERIMENT 


in two adjoining fields, on an estate I visit, 
further confirms this. They have the same 
aspect, lay of land, and soil, and were yield- 
ing an average in the pruned, and unpruned 
years, before they were manured, or cultivated, 
of under 300 lb. per acre, per annum. One 
field had the prunings buried with Basic 
Slag and Sulphate of potash and six months 
afterwards was manured with artificial. The 
other field was manured with a similar mix- 
ture of artificial only, at a corresponding 
period from pruning, and in both instances, 
this has been repeated four times or for eight 
years, the fields being pruned every two years. 
The first two years the advantage of burying 
prunings was small, and showed a loss, if 
charged with the Basic Slag and Sulphate of 
potash, the second covered cost, and the third 
showed a profit, that is compared to the field 
treated with artificial manure only. The fourth, 
however, was highly satisfactory. The average 
yield from the field manured with artificial for 
the two years, 


ending 31st December, 1908 was 690 lb. per acre 
and from the buried prunings 
and manured field ... 920 
increase a --» 230 yD 
An increase of 2301b,, per annum or 460 lb. 
for the two years with the following financial 
results :— 
Crop expenses plucking to f.0.b, 
14 cents per lb. rf en 
Cost of cooly labour burying plus cost 
of Basic Slag and sulphate of potash R20°60 


ng, 


R64°40 


Total ... Soo R85°00 
Value of 460 lb. of tea at 35 cent ... RI6L°00 
Nett additional profit for 2 years... R76-00 


As regards the size of the bushes, the class 
of pruning wood,their healthy, vigorous look and 
freedom from pests, the advantage all along was 
clearly in favour of the buried prunings and 
manured field. On another group at from 2,600 
feet to 4,600 feet above sea level the following 
results have been secured by burying prunings 
with bulk and Albizzia leaves and twigs and artifi- 
cial, in three fields aggregating 94 acres, 1,064, 
1,057 and 1,165 lb. per acre per annum for the 
past three years, the highest yield in any one 
year being 1,481 lb, per acre—results are not 
generally so apparent, particularly in poor old 
coffee land soils, with miserably stunted bushes, 
but the indirect advantages in developing heal- 
thy ones with good pruning wood can seldom be 
questioned. The actual cost of burying prunings, 
in cooly labour, is from say R4 per acre for 
small bushes up to R10 to R12 per acre even 
for very large ones, but in that case the bushes 
run from 30 to 36 months from prunings. Allow- 
ing the yield to vary from 400 lb. to 1,200 Ib. 
per acre per annum, the cost would work out for 
a 2-yearly pruning at 4 cent per lb. and less 
when the 3-yearly system is adopted. Mr John 
Alughes evidently got sadly mixed in regard to 
this, and appears to have included, all the 
manuring items under burying prunings. 
The following figures are interesting in this 
connection ;—= 


Phosphoric 
Acid lb. 
per acre. 


Nitrogen Potash 
lb. lb. 


per acre. per acre, 
Loss of essential fertilis- 
ing constituents by a crop 
of 1,000 lb. made tea 
per acre at 
Essential constituents in 
prunings from a_ hard ¢ 
plucked pruned field un- 
manured per acre per 
annum Lowcountry 
Prunings from bushes care- 
fully plucked and pruned 
and lightly manured per 
acre per annum Low- 
country 6g 
Prunings from an un- 
manured well pruned 
and plucked medium ele- 
vation estate old coffee 
land per acre per annum 
Prunings from a_ highly 
manured well plucked 
and pruned medium 
estate large well devel- 
oped bushes per acre per 
annum -. 101°48 78°00 23°83 


The above would indicate that the burying of 
prunings is clearly cumulative in its effects and 
may saiely be carried out except in cold bleak 
situations and in stiff soil, or where Rosellinia 
or other allied root pests are distinctly trouble- 
some. The total cultivated area is 1,121 acres or 
R303 per acre on the paid up capital of the Com- 
pany say £20 4s Od sterling—the 694 acres of 
Rubber including the cost of land stands us on 
31st December 1908 in R221°51 per acre with 120 
acres now in bearing. The Rubber crop for 
1908 was 8,683 lb. and realised R3‘06 per Ib. 
nett which may be considered satistactory 
as prices were poor in the early part of this 
season. The estimate for 1909 is 20,000 lb. 
The cost of upkeep of the Rubber clearings is 
now very small, weeding varying from 30 cents 
per acre per month to Rl per acre that being 
the highest rate we are now paying. Mr. 
Callander is to be congratulated on his thorough 
work in this respect, he being fully alive to 
the necessity of removing all weeds before 
they seed, the only method whereby cheap and 
efficient work can be secured, Real clean 
weeding, means as a rule, labour well under 
control, with the iull advantage that it can be 
efficiently adjusted, to requirements without 
waste. A contract for a Rubber Factory has 
been given out, coolies are ample for require- 
ments and all the coast advances are quite safe. 
They stand in at R22°20 per head. With these 
remarks I beg to move the adoption of the report. 


45 22% 8 


17°14 7°75 


47°60 67°12 20°66 


35°35 17°46 5°08 


THE GOVERNMENT MYCOLOGIST ADVO- 
CATES BURNING OF PRUNINGS. 


The question at issue is whether the burning 
or burying of tea prunings is the most econo- 
mical and safe method of disposing of them. 
Mr. Joseph Fraser has given particulars of 
a system of cultivation employed upon a 
certain estate, which included the burying of 
-prunings. The estate in question showed excel- 

lent results from the commencement of this treat- 
ment. Mr. T. Petch, the Government Mycologist 
—an advocate of the burning of prunings —favours 
us withthe following letter criticising Mr. Fraser’s 
conclusions. Mr. Petch is not prepared to 


The Supplement to the Tropical Agriculturist 


admit that the results, quoted by Mr. Fraser, 
are due to the systematic burying of prunings. 
There is nothing to show, he argues, that 
the improved yield is not due to the other com- 
ponent parts of the scheme of cultivation ; or to 
justify the belief that the results would not have 
been the same, had the prunings not been buried. 
Mr. Petch reasons ably and ingeniously froma 
scientific standpoint ; but we hardly think his 
arguments will convince the practical planter, who 
is seeking for the best method of economically 
disposing of his prunings and at the same time 
getting the maximum yield from his tea. It is 
demonstrated by Mr. Fraser that a system of 
cultivation which includes as an essential part 
the burying of prunings results in substantially 
increased crops. It1s, to use an Americanism, 
‘Cup to” the critics of this system to demon- 
strate that equally good or better results, 
can be secured by the same system minus the 
burying of prunings. As matters stand, if Mr. 
Fraser, as is asserted, supplies no data to shew 
that the burying of prunings contributes largely 
to these results, Mr. Petch equally fails to 
prove that it does not. The ordinary ‘“‘ man 
in the tea,” not possessed of the same deep 
scientific knowledge as Mr Petch and Mr Fraser, 
will be content with the knowledge that here 
isa successful system of cultivation of which 
burying prunings is said to be an essential part ; 
he will be content to follow the system and 
secure increased crops until it is demonstrated 
—if it can be—that the same results can be 
secured without burying the prunings. Mr 
Joseph Fraser is a busy man, who has fre- 
quently declared time will not permit him to 
carry on newspaper controversies ; but there are 
one or two points in Mr Petch’s criticism, on 
which a brief statement in reply would be 
welcomed and might not necessarily require to 
be followed by others. 


Mir. T. Petch’s Criticism of Mr. Joseph Fraser’s 
‘*Neboda” Statement. 
Feb. 18th. 


Sir,-The figures quoted for Mahawale(see page 
188 of last month’s issue of T.A.and Mag. of C. 
A.S.)and other estate must be very satisfactory re- 
ading for the shareholders, but they give no infor- 
mation whatever on the pointatissue. And I may 
forestall those who think that this may be 
answered by stating that the financial side—and 
not the theoretical side—is of more importance 
to the employer, by pointing outthat there is 
nothing to indicate that the same results would 
not have been obtained if the prunings had been 
omitted, 


Consider the case of Mahawale: (1) Prunings 
are buried and (2) the land thereby cultivated 
to some extent, (3) Manure has been applied, 
(4) Albizzia leaves have been buried, (5) Rubber 
has been planted through the tea, And the crop 
since this was begun in 1904 has been 482 ; 552; 
578; 746, and 807 |b. per acre perannum. But 
why select No. 1, and deduce that the burial 
of prunings is beneficial? Should I not be 
equally justified in assuming from the data that 
interplanting with rubber is beneficial? There 
are five factors, and it is impossible to separate 
them, Itis magnificent, but it is not experiment, 


and Magazine uf the Ceylon Agricultural Society: 


Why not go back to 1902 when the yield, as 
far as I can discover, was 182 lb. per acre? How 
did it become 420 lb, in 1903, without manure, 
or prunings, or albizzias? The increases for the 
years given are 14°5, 4'7, 29, and 82 per cent. It 
would be interesting to know the reason of these 
periodic differences in the annual increase: is 
it pure chance that the greater coincide with 
the two great increases in the total Ceylon crop 
since 1904? It may be pointed out, by the way, 
that a difference of 8 per cent. in a field experi- 
ment is regarded as inconclusive. Some fields 
yielded 700 lb. per acre in 1904: have they 
shared in the general increase, and do they 
now yield 1,150 lb. per acre? How isit that 
Mahawale shows in one year again of 14 per 
cent., when ‘‘from the burying of prunings, 
quick returns are not to be looked for, or ex- 
pected,” and another estate, more liberally 
treated, does not show a profit for four years ? 


But when was Mahawale opened ? I do not 
find it in the Directory for 1896-7, And were the 
650 acres of tea all planted at the same time ? 
Apart from the fact that itis not an experiment 
in burying tea prunings, it would appear that 
all the cards are not on the table in this case. 


Take now the ‘‘definite experiment” on two 
adjoining fields. The average crop for the two 
was under 300 lb. peracre. It is unfortunate 
that the yields are not given separately, because 
if one gave 330 lb. and the other 270 lb., the bot- 
tom is knocked clean out of the experiment. But 
this does not affect the value of the experiment 
from the point of view of the present discussion, 
*‘A” had cultivation, buried prunings, basic slag, 
sulphate of potash, and artificial manure. B had 
artificial manure only ; aud the two fields were 
not treated at the same time, This last may be a 
minor detail: Still, it is best to avoid all pos- 
sible errors in making a ‘‘ definite experiment.” 
After eight years’ treatment, A shows an ad- 
vantage of 33 percent. per annum over B. It 
is no doubt a successful experiment in manuring 
tea ; but if it was designed to show the benefit 
derived from burying prunings, it was most 
hopelessly misconceived. It only shows that the 
treatment accorded lo A gives a better yield than 
the treatment accorded to B. Butdothe culti- 
vation, and the basic slag, and the sulphate of 
potash count for nothing ? How much of the 
gain is due to each ? To make a difference in four 
factors (or five, if the time is taken into account), 
and then to quote the result as a proof of the ad- 
vantage of one of them, is utterly unjustifiable, 
and it supports the previous contention that 
what passes for experiment in tropical agri- 
culture is often the most feeble imitation. Ex- 
amples of such ‘‘experiments” can be quoted 
by the dozen, and none of them proves any- 
thing ‘‘definite.” Zo obtain any evidence on the 
subject of burying prunings, B should have re- 
ceived exactly the same treatment as A, minus 
the prunings, at the same time, even to the ex- 
tent of digging holes and filling them up again, 
and there should have been a control plot. 


I have been referred to theories and figures 
sent some years ago to the Experiment Station 
Committee. The figures there are nearly those 
published in Saturday’s issue, viz., that the 
prunings from @ highly-manured, well-plucked, 


291 


medium-pruned estate, with large well deve- 
loped bushes, remove 101 |b. of nitrogen per 
annum, etc. Presumably this is 202 lb. per 
pruning. The figures are indisputable. I do not 
mean that they are correct, but that they are 
not open to discussion. We might just as well 
be told the total of an obliterated column of 
figures, and asked to discuss its accuracy. If 
the justification of the burial of prunings 
is to be based on their manurial value, the 
figures must be supported by details which give 
them some semblance of probability, 


Some idea of the accuracy of the figures 
cited above may be gathered from the fol- 
lowing sentence, which is quoted from the 
manuscript referred to: ‘‘It does not appear 
financially sound to throw or waste tea pru- 
ei containing 4 to 4% per cent. of nitrogen 
in their dry substance, to be replaced by orga- 
nic matter containing 2‘) to 4 percent. at most, 
even though secured from the nitrogen of the 
air by the aid of nodule bacteria.” It certainly 
does not : but whoever claims that tea prunings 
contain 4 per cent. of nitrogen in their dry 
substance? We are told that the leaves (dry) 
contain 44 per cent. Surely itis obvious that 
the great mass of the pruningsconsists of wood 
which has only a small nitrogen content. In 
the absence of details we are left to guess 
where the fallacies lie; but the two most pro- 
bable are: (1) the nitrogen content of the leaves 
is applied to the whole of the prunings, and (2) 
there is a confusion of ‘twet weight” with ‘‘dry 
weight.” Percentages, to be of any use, must 
be calculated on the dry weight, ‘.¢., after 
drying at 100° Cent. until constant. 


The figures for Hevea give a typical example. 
The leaves (dry) contain 3°44 per cent. of nitro- 
gon; the twigs, °62 per cent. ; and the wood, °59 
per cent. What are the corresponding figures 
for tea?—and will the nitrogen content of the 
whole of the prunings exceed 1°5 per cent? To 
estimate this we must know the dry weights of 
the leaves and green twigs, red wood, and old 
wood removed per acre, and the nitrogen con- 
tent of each. As far as regards loss of weight, 
on drying, old tea leaves lose over 60 per cent., 
green shoots with full-grown leaves lose over 70 
per cent., red wood loses 69 per cent, and old 
loses over 50 per cent. 


202 Ib. of nitrogen are said to be removed in 
the prunings of oneacre. If we take the nitro- 
gen percentage as 4, this requires 5,050 lb. of 

ry prunings: and putting the average loss of 
weight indrying at 60 per cent., this means 12,500 
Ib. of prunings in their natural condition. But 
this percentage of nitrogen is most probably 
three times too great, and, therefore, the pru- 
nings required will be about 37,500 lb per acre. 
To illustrate our lack of facts,— can any planter 
say, to half-a-ton, what weight of prunings is 
removed per acre on his estate ? 


I hope the above will give some idea of the 
figures and experiments required to solve this 
question. At present those who advocate the 
burial of prunings because of their manurial 
value, give no valid basis whatever for their 
belief. We do not know how much nitrogen 
or what weight of dry material is removed 


292 


per acre. And when the first of these points 
has been settled, there still remains the ques- 
tion raised in my article on Tea Root Diseases, 
viz., how much of this nitrogen ever becomes 
available for the plant ? 

T. PETCH. 


MR. JOSEPH FRASER IN REPLY TO 
MR. T. PETCH. 


We are obliged to Mr. Joseph Fraser for the 
following letter he favours us with replying 
to some of the criticisms made on _ his 
Neboda statement by Mr. ‘ Petch, the 
Government Mycologist, With regard to the 
two fields on Neboda which yielded under 
300 lb. per acre before the definite ex- 
periment was made, Mr. Petch regretted that 
the yields were not given separately because, 
he said, if one had given 330 and the other 
270 lb. the bottom was knocked clean out of 
the experiment. The fields, Mr. Fraser points 
out, were giving within 10 lb. of each other. 
Mr. Petch questioned the statement—‘ tea 
prunings containing 4 to 44 per cent. of nitro- 
gen in their dry substance.” He pointed out 
that prunings consisted mainly of wood which, 
he said had only ‘‘a small nitrogen content ” 
and he assumed that a wrong result had been 
arrived at by applying the nitrogen content 
of the leaves to the whole prunings and by 
some confusion of ‘“ wet weight ” with.* dry.” 
There were, it will be seen from Mr. Fraser’s 
reply, no such errors. The percentage of nit- 
rogen was calculated on the whole dry weight 
of the material, Mr. Fraser quotes a very 
striking instance from Mahawale. A field which 
was almost abandoned, being the poorest on 
the estate, after being cultivated and prunings 
systematically buried, gave an average of 1,001 
lb. for the last two years! Mr. Fraser gives 
in anutshell the reasons for his firm belief in the 
burying of prunings and he concludes, what 
we venture to think will be regarded by those 
interested in the subject as a most valuable 
contribution to the controversy, by throwing 
down the gauntlet to those who differ from 
him, Recognising the shrewdness of the 
average Ceylon planter, Mr. Fraser declares that 
the planting community ‘‘will be only to pleased 
to adopt other methods, when they have been 
proved to be cheaper and more efficient in 
developing healthy well-nourished bushes, with 
fine pruning wood, plus a good field.” Will any 
planting champion of Burning Prunings ac- 
cepted the challenge ? 


Mr. Fraser’s REPLY. 
Kandy, Feb. 20th. 


S1t,—With reference to Mr Petch’s remarks 
on my Neboda statement, I seem to have not 
made myself cleat as regards the yields of the 
fields I used as anillustration. They gave before 
the experiment was started under 8001b. per acre 
per annum each, and within 10 |b. of each other. 

Regarding the analysis of the prunings they 
were calculated out on the dry weight of the 
material, and separate analyses were made of 
the leaves, and woody matter. [ supplied the 
figures as regards the weight of green matter, 


The Supplement to the Tropical Agriculiurist 


based onaseries of weighings of the average 
trees pruned and Mr Cochran, F.c,s. and the 
Colombo Commercial Co.’s Analysts supplied the 
remaining data. 


Referring to Mahawale, I may mention that 
what was originally the poorest field on the 
estate and, at one time, was all but abandoned, 
gave an average for the last two years of 1,001 lb. 
per acre per annum; and this I largely attribute 
to the burying of prunings, as in this instance, 
it was consistently carried out, whereas,in fields 
not so systematically treated and that were 
much better to start with,the yield had consider- 
ably fallen behind: 


My reason for believing in the burying of 
prunings is that I find when decay is more or 
less complete, the tea roots freely develop in this 
matrix and feed on its substances ; that the ana- 
lyses of these areas are richerin nitrogen than 
the surrounding ones. We also get rid of « great 
many topical pests, and that over large areas 
the danger from root disease is small. I feel 
sure, however, that the planting community 
generally will be only too pleased to adopt 
other methods, when they have been proved to 
be cheaper and more efficient in developing 
healthy, well-nourished bushes, with fine pru- 
ning wood, plus a good yield.—Yours faithfully, 


JOSEPH FRASER. 


ANOTHER CEYLON V.A.’S OPINION. 


A very weighty letter appears hereafter from 
Mr.Wm. Forsythe, strongly supporting the manu- 
ring policy recommended by Mr. Joseph Fraser 
which includes the burying of prunings. 
We attach considerable importance to Mr. 
Forsythe’s evidence. He is acknowledged a 
first-class practical planter, and is one of 
Ceylon’s best-known V. A.’s, whose judgment 
invariably commaads respect among his fellow- 
planters. He has had long experience of the 
burying of prunings and the support which he 
gives to Mr. Fraser’s system is based entirely on 
his own practical experience of its advantages. 
Few tea planters, if any, know Low Country 
conditions better than our correspondent. 
Mr.M L Wilkins, one of the younger school of 
prominent and successful scientific planters, 
also indirectly supports the burying of pru- 
nings. Mr. Wilkins wants to know if Mr. Petch’s 
letters are private or official. We should say 
ofticial ; Mr. Petch is merely defending the posi- 
tion he took up in his able paper which ap- 
peared in the 7ropical Agricuiturist. Mr, Petch 
is arguing from the point of view of the Myco- 
logist, and in a matter of this kind it is per- 
haps fairer to regard his opinions as the result 
of strong convictions, rather than prejudice— 
as hinted by our correspondent. Further, this 
is not by any means the first time that 
Doctors have disagreed, and the planters 
ought to carefully study for themselves what 
treatment should best suit their case. We think, 
too, that even during the present discussion it 
has been indisputably demonstrated that situa- 
tions are conceivable where the burying of pru- 
nings would not be recommended even by Mr. 


Fraser as bejng attended by the possible risky 


and Magazine of the Ceylon Agricultural Society. 


Raed out by Mr Petch. In the lowcountry, 
owever, where decay is more rapid, we think 
the balance of opinion is beyond all doubt 
in favour of the beneficial results of burying 
prunings. We should very much like it, on the 
principle of Aud) Alteram Partem, if any 
planter, should such exist, who has been less 
fortunate in his experience of burying prunings 
than those planters whose views have already 
appeared, would come forward now and state 
their views. 


THE BURIAL OF PRUNINGS.—I. 
Feb. 25th. 

Srr,—It occurs to me to enquire whether Mr. 
Petch’s letters on this subject are private or 
official ? [f the former, I suppose, like the rest 
of us, he is entitled to his likes and dislikes ; 
but if his communications are official, do you 
not think that they would have much more 
weight and authority if there was less flavour 
of prejudice, and a greater disposition to deal 
with both sides of the question ? 


We have heard all about the possible dis- 
advantages, minimum of nitrogen in prunings, 
etc., etc., but will Mr. Petch dace that there 
are any possible advantages in the burying of 
prunings? What about: (1) Humus or organic 
matter, (2) Potash, (3) Eradication of pests, 
(4) Improvement of the mechanical condition 
of the soil, etc ? 

We have been told about: (1) in connection 
with green manures by Mr. Petch’s colleagues, 
and re (3) I think Mr. Green advocated burying 
in one of his recent circulars on shot-hole-borer? 


If our experts are going to contradict each 
other, what are we to believe? Many of our 
leading practical and successful planters seem to 
be of the opinion that, amongst other advantages 
the burial of prunings with slag, etc., improves 
both the bush and the quality of its produce. 
If there is anything in this opinion, and if Mr. 
Petch’s views influence us against it, it stands 
to reason that such views are hardly in the best 
interests of the industry as a whole.—I am, Sir, 


M. L. WILKINS. 


II. 
Ireby, Norwood, Feb. 25th. 


Sir,—I have read with the deepest interest 
Mr. Petch’s letter with reference to the burying 
of tea prunings and Mr. Fraser’s in reply. I 
have carried out this so-called Fraser system for 
many years upon low-country tea estates and 
with the greatest possible benefit to the bushes 
which, in every case, have improved in stamina, 
and yield in a way I could never have believed. 
The properties, which I have had the good for- 
tune to control and work for many years, speak 
for themselves. I remember them when they 
were run down and I[ know them as they are now. 
A continuity of artificial manuring and nothing 
- else eventually proved ineffective in keeping up 

the bushes and the yield ; and I was driven to 
work in organic matter into the land, with the 
results so clearly described by Mr. Fraser. I 
_ geally cannot say what would have happened— 


293 


1, If I had simply cut holes for burying 
prunings, and filled them in again—minus the 
prunings. 


If I had buried prunings only without 
slag or potash. 


3. If 1 had applied slag and potash to the 
land without cutting holes or burying prunings. 


But I do know that if I had done nething at 
all, but applied artificial manure, I could not 
have maintained in the low-country the vigour 
of the bushes and the yield, and I say this 
because I tried and [ failed many yearsago. This 
is not a scientific letter, but is written to give 
my practical working experience of cultivating 
low-ccuntry tea for, I should say, 10 to 15 years. 


7) 
“se 


I venture, however, to re-echo Mr. Fraser’s 
pious hope; and to state that if anybody will 
come along and show me how I can achieve the 
same or better results in a cheaper and more 
effective manner, I will throw Mr. Fraser and 
all his works to the winds! Until that day 
comes, I am satisfied to continue working upon 
the lines which years of experience have proved 
to me are, so far as our present knowledge goes, 
indisputably the best.—Yours faithfully, 


W. FORSYTHE. 


III, 
Feb, 20th, 

Dear Sir,—e Mr. Petch on the Burying 
of Prunings :—*t At present those who advocate 
the burial of prunings, because of the manu- 
rial value, give no valid basis whatever for their 
belief.” I venture to refer to pages 108 and 109 
in Carpenter’s Vegetable Physiology, edited by 
Edwin Lankester. From page 108 I take the 
following :—‘‘ Nothing more, says a vine-grower 
on the banks of the Rhine, is necessary for the 
raanure of a vineyard than the branches which 
are cut from the vines themselves (printed in 
italics), 

The other day I heard on excellent authority 
that the late Mr. Wall frequently used your 
correspondence column to advocate that the 
vineyard system of burying prunings was a 
type of cultivation eminently suited for the 
Ceylon tea field.—I am, Sir, &c., 


A. G. C, 


LV. 


Lindula, Feb, 26th, 

Deak Six,—I would appear to be in good 
company as to burying of prunings with Messrs, 
Hughes and Petch. That correspondent, who 
writes to the press re vines and this style of 
cultivation, has forgotten the fesult, “ Phyl- 
loxera.” Holes have to be cut tocarry tea 
prunings and they become rain catchers and 
hence the beneficial results. Up here I can 
prove itto the hilt by ocular demonstration, 
where nothing but holing has been resorted to 
and all prunings left on the surface. I have no 
doubt white-ants in the lowcountry eat them up 
at once. In these districts we have no such 


insects. Yours, &., 
E, R. WIGGIN, 


294 


[Mr E R Wiggin isa valiamt opponent of the 
burying of prunings; but somehow he never 
seems to carry us much further towards definite 
information on the subject. No one will dispute 
that the mere cutting of holes—involving the 
aération of the soil—is attended by a certain 
amount of benefit ; but if our correspondent 
means to suggest that the improved yields in 
the fields mentioned by Mr Joseph Fraser is 
simply due to the cutting of “rain catchers”!— 
we would be inclined to leave the suggestion 
to be laughed out of court by all practical 
planters. Mr Wiggin renounces all claim to be 
taken seriously when he tries to account for 
the rapid decay of the prunings in the low 
country by stating that they are eaten up by 
white ants !—Ep., C.0.] 


THE BURIAL OF TEA PRUNINGS. 


Three further letters on this important contro- 
versy appear hereafter. Mr E R Wiggin quotes 
the authority of Dr. Mann to support the case 
against burying ; but it is a qualified opinion. 
Dr. Mann recommends the burning of prun- 
ings it blights or pests are prevalent in the 
estate. We may state his opinion :— 

“To leave prunings lying about in a garden 
with these blights on them is suicidal, and to 
bury them is dangerous. Ifthe garden is, how- 
ever, free from Bight, there does not seem any 
absolute reason against burying the light 
prunings—and these only—provided the follow- 
ing conditions are adhered to :— 

**(1) They must be buried deep. At least 6 in. 
of soil should be left on top of them, so that 
they will not be turned up by the hoe. 

‘*(2) They should be buried immediately on 
pruning, or as soon after as possible. In 
Ceylon, trenches are dug to receive the prunings 
before the bushes are touched at all, and the 
prunings are put into them practically at once. 
Once dried up, much of the manurial value has 
gone or is rendered less valuable. 

‘*(3) They should be buried with something 
which will destroy any latent germs or spores ot 
fungi which are upon them, The best materials 
for this are lime and basic slag, which not only 
cause the blight spores to be destroyed but 
also the prunings to rot more quickly.” 

But what says Mr Claud Bald in his 
‘Indian Tea: its Culture and Manufacture ” ? 
He believes in burying prunings, ‘‘ which are 
of great value as a manure, especially if buried 
deeply and in a green state.”” He says :— 

*‘Valuable manurial properties have been 
destroyed by burning the prunings, while, as 
compared with other gardens where the 
prunings have not been burnt, there has been 
no apparent result in the direction of sub- 
duing the pests. Theoretically the ashes are 
distributed to form manure for the whole 
ground ; in most instances, however, this is 
mere theory, as the ashes of an acre of prunings 
are usually distributed over put a few square 

ards of land.” 

With regard to Mr Wiggin’s experience we note 

uoted in a pamphlet entitled “ The Fertilisation 
of Tea” by George A Cowie, M.A.,B.Sc. which 
reached us some days ago, theopinionof Mr W B 
jackson, for many years manager of the Haute- 
ville Group of Estates, He commenced burying 


The Supplement to the Tropical Agriculturist 


prunings in 1894 and the estate has continued 
doing so since, burying alternately with lime and 
basic slag. ‘‘ I know of no bad results,” says Mr 
Jackson, ‘‘from this practice ; but of many good 
results ; and we are now as much in favour of 
this plan as ever we were.” This opinion must, 
of course, have been given some time ago; but it 
is important as showing that even upcountry, 
with the exercise of judgment, prunings may be 
advantageously buried. Mr James M B Duncan 
writes an interesting and fair letter on the ques- 
tion. He approaches the subject in the same 
spirit as ourselves, viz., with an open mind and an 
anxiety to learn allthere is to be known pro and 
con. Lastly we have an important letter from Mr 
Petch himself, . Mr Petch quotes figures to sup- 
port his contention that the amount of nitrogen 
In prunings is less than 4 to 4% per cent. as 
stated by Mr Joseph Fraser. We can find no 
independent authority on this point at present 
but Mr Bald refers to prunings ‘‘as a manure 
of great value.” Mr Petch points out that he 
has at present 109 estates on the root disease 
list. It would be interesting to know how many 
of these owe or attribute the disease to the 
burying of prunings. Mr Petch also repudiates 
the suggestion of prejudice. He is dealing with 
the matter from the standpoint of the Mycolo- 
gist and puts evidence forward that gives some 
ground at any rate for his expressed fears. As 
the evidence in the case stands at present, 
however, we are inclined to think the practi- 
cal tea planter will be more attracted to the 
burying of prunings by the glamour of its good 
results than repelled by the terrors of possible’ 
root diseases. 


Ts 
Lindula, March 2nd. 


Sir,—I omitted to give the late Dr. Watt, 
the expert of the Indian Government for tea. 
He absolutely condemns the burying of prunings. 
Let those laugh that win. I am content to rest 
on my experience and results. The estate, I am 
today writing from, has been systematically 
rain-holed without that other cultivation and 
the crop for 1908 was 578 lb. per acre in a ring 
fence of made tea, : no mean result in a short 


season.— Yours, &c., 
E. R. WIGGIN. 
ne 
Doragalla Group, Pussellawa, March 1st. 


Dear Sir,—This subject having considerably 
interested me for some years past—to the 
extent of my making various little practical 
experiments on my own beside doing a good deal 
of burying prunings in the regular way during 
the past nine years--I have read the recent letters 
by Mr Petch and others with very much interest. 
The pith of Mr Petch’s letter appears to me to 
be contained in this quotation from it: ‘‘There 
is nothing to indicate that the same results 
would not have been obtained if the prunings 
had been omitted.” I have this morning re- 
turned from the examination of holes in a field 
where prunings were buried with basic slag and 
sulphate of potash a year ago last December. 
The holesin all cases show arich-looking dark 
mould, full of rootlets, etc., while the woody 
portions of the prunings have rotted away, 


and Magazine of the Ceylon Agricultural Society. 


This appearance is precisely similar to that pre- 
sented by other holes dug up by me upon former 
occasions. [ want to state Mr Petch’s conditions 
fairly as well as I understand them, viz :—If 
I had cut the same holes, mixed with the earth 
taken out the same quantity, say, about 5 oz. 
of basic slag and sulphate of potash and 
refilled into the holes again, omitting 
the prunings—will anyone contend for 
one moment that these holes would now 
present the same dark-coloured rich manurial- 
looking appearance, full of rootlets ?—in which 
the rootlets of vegetation seem simply to luxu- 
riate, fourteen months after this small 
quantity of, say, 1} oz. of basic slag and _ sul- 
phate of potash per tea tree was applied, had 
the prunings been omitted? And as_ to 
how the field is doing: In appearance 
it is grandly healthy. It has just given 106 
pounds of made tea per acre for this last short 
month of February. But here I will be fair and 
hasten to state that the field was manured 
last October in alternate lines, viz., those in 
which the prunings had not been buried and 
the fine yield is no doubt largely due tv the 
manure put in. The field has given to date 
5201b. for 8 months with the best months to run, 
our year ending 30th June, by which time I 
expect it will have given 800 to 900 Ib. tea. 
The elevation of these estates would run from 
about 3,500 up to near 5,000 and this particular 
field would be, I should say, about 4,000 feot. 
The field has heen worked up from an average 
yield of 4301b. for seasons 1898-9, 1899-1900. 
Although giving these additional particulars in 
order tobe quite fair, let us narrow the issue 
down to—as Mr Petch pithily puts it—as to 
whether ‘‘the same results would not have 
been obtained if the prunings had been omitted.” 
My belief, or, say, my expectation, is that the 
rich fertile appearance of the dug-up holes, full 
of rootlets, would not be now apparent had only, 
say, 5 oz of basic slag and sulphate of 
potash per hole to every four trees been 
applied 14 months ago, all other conditions 
being equal excepting onlu the omission of 
the prunings. Of course, it is admitted that 
burying prunings would nof suit every soil and 
all conditions without exception. Commenting 
on manuring vineyards with vine branches 
another correspondent suggests the result 
“Phylloxera,” but as you practically say in 
yourcomment he does not definitely connect 
the effect he gives with the cause he assigns. 
We know how very non-moral nature is: how 
human cannibals have been found physically and 
generally fitter than neighbouring non-canribals, 
and how much cannibalism there is throughout 
nature; so that the objections to burying pru- 
nings must be looked for vutside that idea, I 
rayself can supply one great objection if labour 
is short, viz., that the work is expensive in cooly 
labour and this objection appeals very forcibly 
to the man who has to get everything done and 
wants to apply his labour elsewhere. In the 
meantime my own attitude of mind is an open 
one anxious to learn all I can upon the subject 
of cultivation in its various branches. Thanking 
Messrs, Petch, Fraser and others for their letters 
on the subject, —Iam, dear Sir, yours faithfully, 


JAS, M, B. DUNCAN, 


295 


III. 
Mr. Petch Explains His Position. 


March Ist. 

Six,—Mr, Cochran's figures support my state- 
ment that tea prunings do not contain 4 per 
cent of nitrogen. He analysed the prunings of 
10 bushes, from Madulkele estate, They were 
divided into two lots,—leaves, seeds and twigs 
weighing (dry) 56°67 ounces, and twigs and 
branches weighing (dry) 46°257 ounces. The 
first gave 2°794 per cent.,and the second 1°26 per 
cent. of nitrogen. The total dry weight was 
102°927 ounces, containing 2-1 per cent. of 
nitrogen. Taking 3,110 bushes to the acre (Mr. 
Cochran’s estimate) the prunings remove 42 lb. 
of nitrogen per acre, or, on a two-yearly pru- 
ning, 21 lb. per annum. The total dry weight of 
the prunings is 2,000 Ib, per acre, or, assuming 
as before that they lose 60 per cent. on drying, 
5,000 lb. of green prunings peracre. If the 
pruning is heavier, more wood is removed, and 
the percentage of nitrogen is diminished. 


There is a misconception current with regard 
to the relation of tea roots to the holesin which 
prunings are buried. The direction andamount 
of growth of roots is governed chiefly by the 
water supply, and the roots “seek” the pru- 
ning holes because the soil there is moister. The 
material for the formation of these roots comes 
from the bush. 


May I trespass further on your space to re- 
state my position? As the burying of prunings 
of any cultivation, among the trees or bushes 
from which they are taken, is a most extraordi- 
nary proceeding from a mycological standpoint, 
I raised the question in an article on Tea Root 
Diseases in 19V6._ 't must have been discussed 
without ‘‘ prejudice,” because it has since been 
quoted in favour of both burying and burning! 
I was told that the whole question had been 
worked out long ago, and all details were known. 
But I could not get at them, at least at anything 
definite. Recently [ have had occasion to in- 
vestigate a new tea root disease, as far as time 
permitted, and I took advantage of the first op- 
portunity to re-open the subject. This time 
we have been put in possession of the facts 
relied on by the ‘‘other side”; and I have 
ventured to criticise them, I think I have 
shown that the amount of nitrogen in the 
prunings is not the 4 percent. claimed, and 
that the experiments are not such as would 
carry conviction at, say, Rothamstead, or 
Woburn, or Wisley. ; 


Of course, the whole question is a matter 
of balancing losses and gains: and te me the 
gains appear to have been over-estimated. But 
Il have no prejudice in the matter, beyond 
a prejudice against unnecessary, 7. ¢., avoid- 
able, diseases. Root diseases of tea were first 
brought to notice in 1901, and I have now 
109 tea estates on the root disease list. That 
is, 109 estates have sent in specimens for re- 
port. Others have been seen when on tour, 
and many estates do not bring their diseases 
to Peradeniya. 


The advantages of burying prunings are :— 
(1) A gain in humus, 

(2) A certain amount of cultivation, 

(3) A gain in manures, 


296 


I consider that too much has been made of 
the third point ; that most of the advantage is 
due to the second; and that this can be obtained 
by less dangerous methods. Destruction of 
pests by burying seems to me very doubtful, 
unless they are caterpillars and get squashed. 
Certainly no fungus is killed by burying it. 

As regards the disadvantages, the following 
points are beyond doubt :— 

1. The conversion of prunings into humus is 
brought about by the action of fungi. These 
fungi are for the most part saprophytic, ¢.¢. they 
Jive on dead substances. 

2. Asaprophyte can be converted into a para- 
site on the living tea bush if itis habituated to 
tea prunings, 

3. Allour tez root disease fungi are initially 
saprophytes, Even the tea leaf fungus, Gray 
Blight, lives far more vigorously as asaprophy te 
than as a parasite. 

4. Our newest tea root disease is caused bya 
fungus which liveson pruninys, either buried 
or on the surface: likethe others, itis an edu- 
cated saprophyte. 

As practical results are preferred, I quote the 
following from a recent letter about the newest 
tea root disease:— 

‘‘Tam sending you some dead tea stumps 
and roots. For the past nine years each 
field, where possible, has had its prunings 
buried atthe time of pruning, which would be 
every second year. One hole to every four trees 
every othertime. Anapplication of Basic slag 
and Potash is added to each hole. The following 
year the fieldis treated with artificial manure. 
In the particular field from which these 
roots are taken, there is a very considerable 
number of deaths,” 

T. PETCH. 


‘*COMPRESSED’’ INDIAN TEA 
IN INDIA. 


Ata Meeting of the Indian Tea Association 
held last month— 

The CHarrMaNn—said that he had to invite 
the Committee to consider the recommenda- 
tion of the Executive Committee that a 
bonus of nine pies per lb. be offered ona mil- 
lion pounds of compressed tea to be sold in 
India. It would have been seen from the pro- 
ceedings of the meetings of the Executive 
Committee that this was a proposal which 
had originated in London. The attempt to 
manufacture compressed tea had been tried, he 
believed, tin India, but without any particular 
success. At home, however, it was under- 
stood that machinery which would press 
tea properly had been invented ; and he was 
informed that certain firms were prepared 
to interest themselves in the project and to 
giveit a trial. Although the Executive Committee 
did not expect any very great results from work 
in India, they recognised that there was a great 
potential market in the country, and they 
were willing therefore to make further efforts. 

Mr. H. C. Brac—then proposed and Mr. W D 

Cowan seconded :— 
‘* Phat a bonus of nine pies per Pound be offered 
on a million pounds of compressed tea to be sold 
in India during the year ending 31st March, 1910.” 

The resolution was carried unanimously. 


The Sunplement to the Tropical Agriculturist 


VISIT OF A LONDON TEA MAN. 


INTERVIEW WITH MR. A. MANN OF 
MESSRS. JAMES FINLAY & CO. 
INTERESTING INFORMATION ON INDIAN TKA. 


Mr. A Mann, the Visiting Agent of Messrs. 
Finlay. Muir & Co., who, during the last few 
months, has been all over the North India tea’ 
gardens of the firm, and, latterly, the South 
India properties prior to spending ‘a month 
on the Ceylon estates, arrived in Ceylon recently 
and, in a conversation with a Ceylon Observer 
representative gave some interesting informa- 
tion relating to Indian tea, 

Prospects OF THE INDIAN TEA Crop, 


Mr. Mann was first asked what were the 
prospects of the coming season’s Indian tea crop, 
to which he replied: ‘‘ Not very good. Just 
now North Indiais suffering from a severe 
drought which had not broken when I left. 
We had only some two inches rainfall from the 
end of October up to the middle of February, 
and that fell in decimals—so that really it was 
not much use. Dibrugarh, though, has had a 
good rainfall, and they should start fairly well.” 

Is the area cultivated likely to extend ? 

No, it is not likely to extend much. 
Labour is the difficulty and itis getting more 
acute every year. ‘here is such a demand for 
it in mines, factories, railways, and that sort of 
thing. 

WEEDING. 

What are your views on the advantages or | 
otherwise of Indian methods of cultivation 
as compared with those of Ceylon? 


Well, of course, we stick to our ideas. Wee- 
ding would never do with us, ours is such a stiff 
soil that it has to be turned over. Wedon’t do 
weeding atall. We goin for one very deep hoe 
in the cold weather and five to six light hoeings 
throughout the year. We have no plucking from 
the end of November till the middle of March, 
the bushes rest then, and we prune every year. 
The climate and soil are, of course, quite dif- 
ferent. The soi] here 1s very open and friable, 
ours is not, ours is stiff. Weeding 


SEEMS TO SUIT CEYLON 


but it would simply ruin the North India gar- 
dens, I should think. The system pursued in 
both places is the correct one for the climate 
and soil. 


THE BURYING OF PRUNINGS. 


Do you believe in the burying of prunings ? 
Most decidedly. I am very strong on that 
point, and [ would go so far as to bury all dis- 
eased prunings even, unless there were a fungoid 
growth, They contain the nutriment ot what we 
want to put back in the soil and I consider it is 


THE Brest MANURE 
of any we can get. North Indian planters are 
very strong on burying prunings. 

Do you hold the same opinion with regard 
to Ceylon gardens ? 

I do not see why these remarks should not 
apply to Ceylon. As far as I have seen, both 
here and in South India I should think the 
burying of prunings would be most advanta- 
geous to the plant, 


and Magazine of the Ceylon Agricultural Society, 


Then,of course,you do not believe in burning ? 

1! would only burn fungoid growth, thread 
blight and that sort of thing, The fungus 

rows on underneath the soil when it is covered. 
With regard to other prunings ! ehould be very 
strong on burying them, | 
Tua BRICKS, 

How do you view the proposed campaign to 
promote tea drinkmg among the: natives of 
India by the sale of tea bricks ? 

Itis away, of course, of getting rid of the 
poorer qualities of tea; but what we want to do 
is to get atthe agricultural people, so that Lhe, 
will buy it. Not only the people im the towns 
but the people in the agricultural districts, 

How do you recommend doing that ? 

Messrs. Andrew Yule & Co. carried outa 
scheme somo years,ago of solling pice packets 
to the natives, but it seems to have come to 
nothing. The only way to do it is to have 


AGENTS TO PUSH IT 


and get the housewives in agricultural districts 
to get a liking forit. It would be a difficult 
thing to get it introduced all over, it would 
take time. The bricks are made of a poor 
quality of tea because the noorer class would 
not pay the price for a good tea. The better 
class natives can always buy the ordinary tea. 

Altogether, I supposo, itis notagreat success? 

Well, it has not been a success so far. 

Do you think it will be ? 
* There is an idea of compressed tea now which 
may have a better result. The bricks will probably 
be abcut five pounds in weight, in factthey are 
already made so for Afghanistan. It takes a 


LONG TIME 


to get rid of them, however, and the system has 
not made much headway. 

If they don’t make much headway in Afghan- 
istan, [ suppose they won't make much headway 
anywhere else ? 

Jam afraid not—no. Of course there are so 
many people downin the agricultural districts of 
Bengaland round there that if it were onceintro- 
duced there would be a big demand for it, once 
they take a liking for tea, 

Do you think they are likely to get a liking 
for it ? 

Oh, I think they will. Itis just a matter of time. 

It may be successful then and it may not? 

I think if they have the funds to keep it long 
enough before the public it may ; but, as I said 
before, it is not reaching the town people so 
much, asthe people in the country, the ryots, 
that should be aimed at. 

There is then a prospect of a demand being 
created if you can keep long enough at it ? 

I think so, yes. 

How are the bricks made? 

They are simply pressed by being hammered 
into amould, by hand, with an iron mallet. 

It is asimple operation, then ? 

Oh, yes, it’s simple enough. Of course ifit were 
to turn out a success, machinery would have to 
bo introduced to do it on a bigger scale, becruse 
it takes a long time by hand, 

Could they be improved ? 

They could be improved by machinery. 

In what way ? : 

They would look neater and it could also be 
done more expeditiously, 


38 


RUBBER IN COCHIN. 


Leasu or Forest Lawns, 

With reference to the advertisement in this 
issue from the Diwan of Cochin, the following 
is an oxtracth from the Order of the Cochin 
Govornment regarding the leaso of forest lands 
for the extension of rubber cultivation. The 
Order opens with a review of the previous action 
taken by the Durbar with regard to, leasing 
forest lands for planting of rubber and coflee, 
and then goes on to say :— 


It will be observed from the above review of 
the previous correspondence on the subject, 
that leases of forest lands for coffee or rubber 
cultivation have hitherto been granted more or 
less as au experimental measure and that no 
definite policy has been laid down to regulate 
the grant of such leases. Whereas in some cases 
applications have been refused, in others they 
were granted, and no consistent policy has 
hitherto been followed in disposing of the several 
applications that wore received from time to 
time. Before formulating a definite policy on 
the subject, it was necessary however to watch 
the progress of rubber cultivation started by the 
planters in the Palapilly, Puthucad and Vellani- 
kara Estates and also to ascertain whether the 
forest lands of the State are well adapted for 
the successtul cultivation of rubber. Mr. Cecil 
Hall, one of the most experienced planters of 
the State, was deputed to inspect forest lands 
in the Sholayar valley, and he made a report as 
to the 


EXCELLENT FACILITIES FOR RUBBER CULTIVATION 


in these parts. The Forest Working Plan Officer, 
Mr Govinda Menon, also reported that timber 
extraction would be prohibitive in this locality. 
In regard to the experiments already made, 
careful enquiries have now been made and it is 
reported thatthe results achieved so far have 
been eminently satisfactory and rubber is grow- 
ing remarkably well in all the three estates. In 
a pamphlet issued by the planters of Southern 
India on rubber cultivation in Travancore and 
Cochin, reference has been made to Covhin 
rubber in the following terms :— 

** Rubber was first planted on any scale in 1905, when Mr 
KE Nicoll obtained a grant of forest land at Palapilly, 
behind the Government Teak Plantation. This was a well 
situated block, at the foot of the hills, with the Chemoni 
river running through the centre. Some forty acres were 
opened in 1905, and later on, in the same year, Mr G 
Windle, on behalf of a Syndicate, took up an adjoining 
block of forest now called Puthucad, In 1906 there were 


some 300 acres opened on each place, and in 1907 the 
balance of the land was opened, Puthucad being in all 


’ some 65) acres and Palapilly nearly 500, the two places 


making a fine sheet of over 1,100 acres of rubber. The 
conditions here are very favourable, the elevation being 
almost sea level, rainfall about 150 inches, and surrounding 
hills sheltering the basin from wind. As a result growth 
has been remarkably fine and, according to those who 
have seen both, it may challenge comparison- with fine 
Straits growth. The plantations are some eight miles by 
cart road from the Puthucad station on the Cochin Railway 
and about 20 miles from the Coast. In 1906 also a grant of 
Government. forest, six miles from Trichur Railway sta- 
tion and lying on the main road from Trichur to Palghaut, 
was obtained by Messrs. i G Windle and R E Campbell 
Gompertz, who’ opened 400 acres and subsequently 
disposed of the block to the Cochin Rubber Company, 
Ltd., of Colombo, in whose name the Government 
title was issued. This consists of{1,000 acres in all, cf 
which 400 acres were opened in 1906, 200 in 1907, and 2U0 in 
1908, 200 being forest. Mlevation and rainfall are much the 
same as at Puthucad and Palapilly, and growth has been 
excellent, There are, therefore, at present some 1,900 acrag 


298 The Supplement to the Tropical Agriculturist 


of Para opened in Cochin. Many other applications for 
land have been made, but were refused by the Durbar 
(Cochin Government) onthe ground that it had to be seen 
whether rubber would be successful. There seems no rcom 
to doubt this now, ard itis to be hoped that further land 
may be available tothe public for tea as well as rubber. 
The forest slopes, which are now being tapped by the 
tramway might reasonably be surveyed with the view of 
opening suitable parts; there are probably 50 to 1,00,000 
acres which would grow one or other of the above products 
without unduly interfering with forest resources,” 


The last observation is fully borne out by the 
inspection report of Mr Cecil Hall who inspected 
the lowelying hills and the valleys adjacent to 
the tramway and the rivers. His preliminary 
report contains the following remarks :— 


“T found a very large area of forest land eminently 
suitable for the cultivation and growth of Para rubber 
(Hevea Brasiliensis) as well as for tea and also a good 
deal of land about 2,000 feet elevation which would grow 
tine coffee and tea, but which is situated at too high an 
elevation for rubber cultivation. I found most excellent 
and suitable land for rubber both sides of the forest 
tramway from Parambikulam to where the tramway enters 
the low country and throughout the entire length, on both 
sides of the Sholayar river throughout its entire length 
and also on the both sides of the Parambikulam river 
from Orukombankutty whether this river leaves the tram- 
way and to where the river empties itself into the low 
country below the Adirapilly water-falls. Branching off 
from the tramway and the two rivers, there are several 
large valleys very sheltered and ideal spots from a planter’s 
point of view.” 


Having regard to the enquiries made from 
time to time and the successful experiments on 
rubber cultivation in the State, His Highness’ 
Government have now resolved to grant further 
leases of forest lands for the cultivation of rub- 
ber. The enquiries as to forest requirements 
show that lands to the extent of 5,500 acres in 
the valleys of Chemmoniand Muppilli rivers in 
the Palapilly forests, almost adjacent to the 
Palapilly and Puthucad estates where rubber 
has thrived so well, can well be opened out for 
rubber without prejudice to the forests. His 
Highness’ Government are, therefore, prepared 
now to 


RECEIVE APPLICATIONS FOR THIS EXTENT OF 
5,500 ACRES 


as wellas for any extent of the land reported 
upon by Mr Cecil Hall in 


SHOLAYAR VALLEY UP TO 10,000 ACRES, 


for rubber cultivation on the following terms :— 

a. The areasavailable for assignment will be demarcated 
into 500-acre blocks, Any person may apply for several con- 
tiguous blocks. 


b. The upset price will be R25 per acre or R12,500 per 
block and include the value of the forest growth, sub- 
ject toclause(l) infra. The lease will be sold to the highest 

idder at an auction to be held at Trichurin the oftice of 
the Conservator of Forests on the 14th June, 1909. 


c. The sale will be conducted by the Conservator of 
Forests and subject toconfirmation by the Dewan, The 
successful bidder shall, at'the time of sale, pay down 25 per 
cent of the purchase money and the balance thereof shall 
be paid in full within 30 days after the communication to 
him of the conformation of sale by the Dewan, failing 
which he shall forfeit his deposit money and be held respon- 
sible for any loss the Sirkar may sustain by resellng the 
lands either by public auction or private contract. 


d. The Bewan reserves to himself the right to confirm 
or cancel any sale without assigning any reason. 


e. Bona fide application from planters and from the 
natives of the State who wish to investin rubber and 
pioneers of rubber plantation in the State will be given 
preferelce. ~ 


j. Thelands will bocharged with a minimum assess- 
ment of eight annas per acre for the first eight years of the 
lease and thereafter with an assessment of R2 per acre. 
The rate will be subject to enhancement in the open com- 
petition. This assessment shall be payable by lessees 
whether the rubber trees shall have begun to yield or not. 


g. All payments to be made by the lessees shall be 
recoverable as arrears of public revenue under provisions 
of the Cochin Revenue Recovery Regulation. 

h. Inthe event of the lessees raising any catch-crops, 
which, in the opinion of the Conservator of Forests, may 
be likely to render the lands so cultivated permanently 
unfit for the growth of valuable timber trees, the lessees 
shall be liable to pay a fine of R5 per every acre so cuiti- 
vated, and the crops so grown shall, at the option of the 
Conservator, be destroyed. 

i. Thelessees shall not be entitled to any minerals or 
allowed to quarry laterite, ground granite, etc., free of 
seigniorage, except for the bona side estate buildings. 


_j. No fire otherthan may be for ordinary use (in dwel- 
lings or factories upon the premises) shall be set to within 
the area hereby assigned unless a clear week’s notice 
thereof shall have been given to the Conservator and his 
consent shall have been obtained. 

h, All existing rights of way shall be kept open. 


t. The timber rights may, if necessary, be sold separately 
or with the land. His Highness’ Government reserve to 
themselves to sell both together or separately to the best 
advantage. : 

m. Asthe measurement of the land previous its being 
cleared may be more or less incorrect, the land to be again 
measured after it has been cleared, and the permanent 
rent to be assessed onthe area thus correctly ascertained. 

n. The land to be enjoyed by the lessee as long as the 
rent is regularly paid ; but in the event of the rent falling 
in arrears for more than one year, his improvements 
thereon as well as any other available property to be sold 
to make good the same. 

o. Should the lessee relinquish the land befvere it has 
been cleared and planted, he shall pay to the Sirear the 
full rent of R2 from the day on which the land was given 
to him to the day on which he notifies to the Sirecar that he 
has relinquished it. 

_p. His Highness’ Government reserve to themselves the 
right of constructing any roads, channels, or public build- 


‘ings required forthe public convenience and for making 


the lands accessible; but when improved lands are taken 
up for such purposes, the improvements to be paid for at a 


fair valuation. 

q. His Highness’ Government also reserve to themselves 
the right over ail running water beyond the quantity 
necessary for the plantation through which it passes. 


vr. It should be distinctly understood that all persons 
holding lands or residing within the territory of H. H. the 
Rajah are amenable to the Law Courts of the country, 
Civil, Criminal and Police. 


APPENDIX. 


Description ot rubber lands at the Sholayar 
valley as reported by Mr Cecil Hall, 


Lanv.—Very heavy forest land, most favour- 
ably situated, running along both sides of the 
Forest tramway and along both sides of two fine 
perennial rivers, and in several large sheltered 
and hollow valleys. 


SiruatTion.—All within easy reach. of the 
Forest tramway and about 20 miles from the 
sea as the crow flies. 


So1t.—1 to 14 feet of rich leaf mould on the 
surface with sub-soil, brown and friable, and 
almost free from stones. The land is well 
drained and never water-logged. 


ELevation.—From 300 to 1,500 feet. The larger 
portion of land along river banks and in hollow 
valleys is 800 to 1,000 feet. i 


CurmmatTe.—Very forming (sic) and humid for 
ten months in the year, January and February 
being dry, but heavy moisture from dews during 
these two months; March, April and May 
thunderstorms ; June, July, August, Septem- 
ber, south-west monsoon ; September, October, 
November and December, north-east monsoon, 


RAINFALL AND TeMPERATURE.—No accurate 
data to go upon, but from records gathered 
in the vicinity of land the mean for the year 
points to 80° to 85° Fahr. in shade and rainfall 
about 100 ins. Lasour.—All sorts plentiful 
and cheap. 


and Magazine of the Ceylon Agricultural Society. 


MR. FRITZ ZORN ON THE RUBBER 
INDUSTRY IN 1908. 


The namo of Mr. Fritz Zorn of the well-known 
Stock Exchange Firm of Messrs. Zorn & Leigh- 
Hunt is not unknown in Ceylon and we ven- 
ture to think few will disagree with us when 
we pronounce him one of the most careful 
students and penetrating critics of the rubber 
industry in England today. My, Fritz Zorn 
is perhaps best known through his handy and 
useful manual of rubber planting Companies, 
comprising particulars of the leading Com- 
panies engaged in the cultivation of rubber 
(either alone or in conjuction with other crops) 
in tho Straits Settlements, Coylon, Borneo, 
Java, Sumatra, Southern India, &c., &&. The 
third edition of this book revised and brought 
up-to-date reaches us by this mail. It contains 
many new features including a review of the 
year 1908 in relation to rubber planting ; a table 
of fluctuations in the price of rubber for 
the last three years ; and highest and lowest 
prices of the leading Rubber Companies’ 
shares during 1907 and 1908. Another fresh 
feature, which will be found useful, is tho 
inclusion with regard to a number of pro- 
ducing Companies of ‘‘ unofficial estimates ” 
of the crops for future years. ‘The first of 
these uew features we find pregnant with 
shrewd comments and interesting deductions 
from the experience of the past year, upon 
which is. founded a  eareful prediction ol 
the outlook for the future. The review is 
in our opinion quite one of the most useful 
of the 1908 rubber year which we have yet seen. 
The soundness of the authority and the interest 
of his subject warrants us referring to it 
at some length. Mr Zorn starts with a 
reference ‘to the slump of 1907-1908, and—after 
commenting on the profound ignorance of the 
facts which led to the depression being attri- 
buted to the overproduction of plantation 
rubber in the Middle Kast—remarks that the 
Wild Rubber industry must continue to domi- 
nate the situation for a considerable time to 
come; and as cultivated rubber can be produced 
at avery much cheaper rate than the Brazilian 
product, the fear of over-production must fora 
good while be a mere bogey, so far as plantation 
enterprises are concerned. The recovery in the 
value of the raw material, which has taken place 
contemporaneously with the passing away of the 
depressed conditions in the United States, 
which had been the true cause of the fall, 
he regards as affording ample proof of this. 
The figures regarding supply and demand_ in 
1908 are carefully dealt with and a good deal 
of space is then devoted to the ‘‘ Share 
Market.” It is considered noteworthy by Mr 
Zorn that the recent improventent in the share 
market has been nothing like proportionate to 
the recovery inthe price of the raw material 
and, having regard to the increased profits 
which will accrue from the rise in rubber to 
companies that have reached the producing 
stage, he considers that at the existing quota- 
tions rnbber shares offer considerable scope to 
the investor. In spite of all difficulties, how- 
ever, Mr Zorn declares the market has shown 
a broadening tendency during the year and the 


- per lb. as the cost of production for 1908. 


209 


circle of investors putting their capital into 
the planting industry is steadily growing. He 
eres the Exhibition at the Olympia credit tor 

eing an important factor in bringing about this 
result. Dealing with the crises through which 
rubber passed in 1908 Mr, Zurn summarises 
its effects as follows:— 


First: The non-expert Rubber Investor got 
frightened by the slump and threw away his 
shares at rubbish prices. 


_ Second: The ‘ plungers” both here and 
in the East who (with plenty of expert know- 
ledge of the industry, but no proper sense 
of caution) had involved themselves in une 
wieldy commitments, both in regard to planting 
and share operations, for the most part had 
to ‘*go under.” 


Third : New planting has_beon brought 
down to much more reasonable limits, as 
there has necessarily been a general curtail- 
ment of extensions, 


Fourth : The management of the estates 
has been carefully overhauled and drastic 
economies effected, thus reducing the coat of 
production, 


_ Fifth : ‘f Wild cat” promotions of worth- 
less new Companies has been rendered practi- 
cally impossible, 


There is an interesting paragraph on the cost 
of production of plantation rubber. This iz 
put by Mr. Zorn at present at about 1s 6d per 
lb. Personally we shail be very much surprised 
if im Ceylon, at any rate, before many yoars 
the cost of production will not have decreased 
by half this sum.’ As estates gain experience in 
dealing with larger quantities and greater num- 
bers of trees, the tendency will be in the 
direction of reduced cost. Who would believe, 
when tea in Ceylon was as young an in- 
dustry as rubber is at present, that the cost 
of production would ever be reduced to the 
existing level? Already the costof rubber sold 
locally from Vogan estate has averaged 104d 
The 
review concludes with a reassuring pronounce- 
ment on ‘The Outlook”; under this head Mr. 
Zorn remarks that the annual reports which have 
Bepesred during the past twelve months have 
afforded a striking illustration of the advantages 
of low capitalisation when bad times have to be 
faced ; he adds that it cannot be denied that 
a moderate basis of capitalisation isone of the 
merits of most of the leading Rubber Planting 
Companies. Alluding to the Brazilian ‘‘valorisa- 
tion scheme” he pointsout that the main im- 
portance of the suggestion, asfaras the Eastern 
Planter is concerned, lies in the effect upon 
price and remarks that the scheme is at the same 
time a significant indication of the way in which 
Brazilis waking up to the potentialities of 
Eastern Rubber planting. It is hardly to be 
expected (and for the sake of expanding demand 
it is not to be desired) that rubber should main- 
tain its present high quotation, but Mr Zorn 
thinks that the fall, when it does come, will not 
be aserious one. He concludes as follows :— 

The underlying strength of the present posi- 
tion lies in the fact that, taking the World over, 
consumption of Rubber is more than equal to 
production, Consequently, the whole position 


500 


of the industry is remarkably healthy, and in- 
dications point tothe price remaining for several 
years to come at a level which will secure ex- 
ceedingly handsome returns to well-managed 
Plantation enterprises while in the more distant 
future there can be little doubt but that culti- 
vated Rubber will gradually displace the wild 
product as a mere case of ‘survival of the 
fittest.” Whatever may lie ahead of wild Rubber- 
producing concerns, therefore, the outlook for 
Plantation Companies appears distinctly bright. 
Altogether the manual is a most conveniert one 
for reference and should be on the office table 
of every one interested in the industry. 


THE MINIMUM COST OF RUBBER 
PRODUCTION 
in Ceylon at the present time—next to that of 
the Ceylon Tea Estates Co. (94d.), must surely be 
that attained on Vogan and Iddagodde estates 
in Kalutara, of the famous Company known by 
the former name. We are told that the cost of 
tapping only was 38-94 cents per lb., while the 
whole cost of production of the year’s crop of 
23,246 Ib. (5,746lb above estimate) averaged 62 
cents or just under 103d per lb. This included 
cost of tapping knives, upkeep, supervision, We. 
Even this will probably show an appreciable re- 
duction in 1909, for the new system of tapping 
is to be entered upon and the crop—estimated 
at 60,000 lb. or more than double that of 1908 
—it is anticipated may be very much larger. 
For the present it is cautiously stated that the 
contract sale of biscuit and sheet at R3-10 will 
give a profit of R250 per 1b., making cost of pro- 
duction 60 cents only. We shall not be surprised 
if it is brought down to 55 cents or even below. 


THE PRUNING CF RUBBER. 


The question of pruning is still an unsettled 
one, and the’ majority of planters regard top- 
ping with disfayour, At any rate thumbnail 
runing is preferable to cutting ofa top two or 
tires inches long. In the latter case a leader 


never grows up; two or three branches come out’ 


of the same level and at a wide angle. Ina year 
‘or two when their leaf spread is larger ono or 
more of these branches breaks off leavivg a 
‘gaping wound in the stem, and which offers an 
entrance to wound-fungi. I think it is not wise 
to assert that pruning should or should not bo 
followed. Much depends on the situation, the 
soil, and the rapidity of growth of the trees. 
Certain trees branch naturally at a suitable 
height ; others grow up to 15 feet and higher 
without branching and these might certainly be 
helped by judicious pruning. It is generally 
recognised now that all branches should be cut 
off when quite young up toa height of at least 
10 feet, as tapping will ultimately be done to 
this height at least; a good clean step is wanted, 
.and branches or big scars left where old strong 
branches had been cut off will only interfere with 
“high ‘tapping. Formerly when two _ branches 
grew off near the ground both were allowed to 
develop on the view that double the tapping 
area would be available. Planters with old trees 
find this isa mistake. Neither grows as thick 
as either would have done if alone. The foli- 
age of each is one side only and such trees being 
lop-sided are very liable to suffer from wind. 


The Supplement to the Tropical Agricultiunist 


“WARTS” AND ‘* PwWwAg.? 

The growths, commonly called ‘ warts ” or 
“peas,” are to be found on nearly all trees. Tap- 
ping does not appear to induce them as they are 
found on untapped trees of three years and 
older, U believe they are dormant buds. They 
should be taken out when quite young ; this is 
easily done by atap from a hammer or witha 
strong knife. The wound soon heals over com- 
pletely. The practice of many planters having 
their old trees examined systematically at perio- 
dical intervals for these excrescences is worthy 
of wider application. The rough outgrowths, 
often several square inches or even square feet 
in area, which usually begin at the bottom on 
trees where tho early tapping has been bad, 
seem to be a disease not due to any parasitic 
organism but to some derangement in the inter- 
nal economy af the tree induced perhaps by: 
severe tapping.—W J GaLLacueEr in the Séraits 
Agricultural Bulletin for March. 


SCARCITY OF TAPPERS IN THE F.M.S. 


We hear that, although there is no lack of raw 
or unskilled agricultural labour just at the pre- 
sent moment, many estates which are now 
coming into bearing areunable to give their full 
possible output of rubber because of the scarcity 
of competent tappers. This seems to be due toa 
disinclination on the part of managers to train 
‘‘tree” coolies to tap, as it has been found that 
when they have become more or less skillful in © 
the use of the knife they frequently leave their 
original employment and sell their services fora 
higher wage elsewhere. However, if this scar- 
city of tappers causes fewer young trees to be 
tapped and so givesthem longer to mature, we 
are quite convinced that it will make for the 
benefit of the local rubber industry in the long 
run.—Penang Gazette, Feb. 24. j 


THE CHIEF RUBBER PEST IN THE 
MALAY STATES. 


& 


We direct attention to the following article 
we reproduce from the Straits Agricultural 
Bulletin, dealing with the Termes Gestroi, 
the rubber equivalent of the shot-hole borer 
in tea. It will be seen that the notes in ques- 


‘tion refer to flat alluvial land of which there is 


comparatively little under rubber here,compared 
with the abundance of it in the Malay States. 
Whether on this account or for other reasous, 
the pest is not so bad in Ceylon ; but it has been 
found, especially in new clearings. It is well 
that the drastic treatment of it should be under- 
stood and the notes elsewhere ought to be per- 
used by all planters, especially those in charge 
of new clearings or newly planted property. it 
will be seen that thorough drainage is one of the 
best methods of keeping the pest in check, the 
termites seldcm crossing a sub-soil drain except 
by a log or wooden bridge, Allsuch. stray wood 
should therefore be carefully watched in addi- 
tion to other measures being taken, J, 


and Magazine of the Ceylon Agricultural Society. 301 


“ THRM ES GESTROL.” 

In the whole of the past history of tropical 
agriculture in tea, coffee, cocoa, cinchona and 
spices, there have been four causes for dis- 
appointment and an awakening from the golden 
dreams with which various enterprises were 
originally commenced :— 


1. Substitutes. 2. Synthetic production at 
alow cost. 3. Over-production. 4. Pests 
and Blights. 


The first three are beyond the control of 
the individual ; and if any reliance is to be 
placed on expert opinion, the rubber planter 
in the East has nothing to fear from them 
in his comparatively new vonture, but the 
fourth, z.c., Pests and Blights, comes well within 
his scope and it is his duty to leave nothing 
to' chance and do everything within his power 
to assure the success of the enterprise. 


So far we have one blight and one pest which 
may be considored as serious, i.¢., Homes senci- 
tostus and Termes gestroi, 


Fomes semitostus is a blight which, if taken 
in hand at once and treated according to the 
advice of the Government mycologist, Mr. W 
J Gallagher, will, Iam sure, be easily overcome 
as we have successfully dealt with the same 
class of blight in tea, coffee, etc., by dramage 
and application of lime. 


. Termes gestroi, however, is 
A VERY SERLOUS PEST 


and it was in recognition of this fact 
that, in my various endeavours to extermi- 
nate it, | collected a large number of queen 
termites ; these I showed to Messrs. Carru- 
thers and Pratt, who were much _ interested, 
as the queens evidently belonged to two or 
more species and it was quite possiblo the 
Queen gestroi, which had hitherto never been 
found, was amongst the collection. This re- 
sulted in the investigation by Mr. Pratt and 
I have been fortunate in being in possession 
of the valuable discoveries made by him, for 
a considerable time before they were published. 
Previous to Mr, Pratt’s discoveries with re- 
gard to the habits of 7. gestroi Twas much 
afraid that the pest would prove to be a heavy 
handicap to the Malay Peninsula in its com- 
petition with other rubber-producing coun- 
tries in the future and a serious though un- 
seen and therelore unrecognised loss, in the 
present. [ am now quite satisfied, however, 
that it can be altogether eradicated, In-my 
endeavours to exterminate tho pest as expe- 
ditiousiy and as cheaply as possible [I have 
arrived at some conclusions and methods which 
may be of use to my brother planters. The 
following notes refer to flat alluvial land:—.., 


Metuops or ExTERMINATION. 


On OLp Rupper TrEES.—It has to be deter- 
mined whether 7’. gestroi establish their termi- 
taria in the rubber trees tnemselves and on 
this point I have no data. If it should prove 
to be the case, fortunate is he who discovers 
an insecticide, or other means, by which the 
Queen cells may be reached, at a low cost and 
without destroying the tree, and thereby obtain 
the reward now being offered.’ On the other 
hand, our success in exterminating the pest 


depends upon the skill with which tho runs 
aro traced up to their base. If all timber is 
collected and destroyed, I feel convinced that 
if the attack does not entirely cease it will 
be very much diminished. 


On Youne Russer Hsrates,—I have found 
it cheapest and best to make a systematic search 
field by field and line by line for all timber 
which 1s known to be favoured by 7. Gestroi, cut 
them open with an axe or cross-cut saw and if 
they contain the slightest trace of the enemy, 
destroy them by burning. 


The danger of scorching the surrounding plants 
may be entirely done away with, oratleast greatly 
minimised, by burning in a trench keeping the 
fire covered with green stuff, and shielding the 
surrounding trees with sheets of corrugated iron, 


These should not lean against the rubber troes 
but be supported by sticks a short distance from 
them ; even if two or three rubber trees are de- 
stroyed by fire in this way, the damage done is 
more than compensated for, by the fact that one 
T gestrot termitarium is 


CAPABLE OF DESTROYING A SCORE Ok 
MORE OF TREES 


toa distance of two or three hundred feot. 


Where there is a sale for timber or charcoal, 
sound Meranti trees may be sawn up with ad- 
vantage and Kumpas can be converted into first 
class charcoal. 


A close watch should always be kept on land 
that has been cleared of timber, and if a tree is 
seen to be attacked, every endeavour should be 
made to discover the source of infection, which 
will invariably be found to be a buried root or 
stump, from which the termites make their way 
in search of food by means of tunnels. These 
may be found at a depth of 6” te 3’ below the 
surface of the ground. In flat land, I have never 
found them below the sub-soil water level, which 
of course is regulated by the efficiency of the 
drainage system. 


Theso tunnels are, as a rule(as Mr. Pratt says), 
sufficiently large to admit the imtroduction of 
an ordinary microscope slide though some- 
times smaller, they are perfectly smooth and 
are lined, with. a red substance, probably tho 
excreta.of the termites which takes its colour 
from the timber on which they have been feeding. 
This colouring greatly facilitates the following 
up of the tunnels ; but it is by no means an 
easy matter until the coolies become practised 
at it and see for themselves that they are doing 
real good and not merely following out some 
mad scheme of their masters, When the direc- 
tion of a tunnel is lost, it is very diflicult to 
pick it up again. I have found the surest 
means, of not losing it, is to use a piece ot 
thin flexible wire or strip of cane as a probe. 
Pass it into the tunnel as far as it will g0, 
remove the tcp soil carefully with a chunkol, 
then break open the run to the end of the 
probe. Pass the probe in again and proceed 
as before until the termitarium is reached. 
To find the tunnel or to pick it up again should 
it be lost, Ihave found it a good plan to cut 
a trench round the tree attacked or the spot 
where the run was lost. This trench should be to 


302 The Supplement to the Tropical Agriculturist 


the depth of the wator level, say two feet, and 
should be examined the next day when it will 
often be found that the termites have made their 
way across by means of a mud casing, thus 
determining the direction of attack. 


It isa tedious matter at the best to follow up 
these tunnels and it is on this account that I 
have found it 

EXPEDIENT TO EXAMINE ALL TIMBER 


which L know to be likely to contain termitaria 
before resorting to this means thereby saving 
much time and expense. 

At first I gave rewards for the Queens and have 
collected in this way upwards of seventy un- 
doubted specimens, but liind that by this method 
the coolies waste much of their time in break- 
ing up every smaller piece of the termitaria in 
order to find the Queen colls, 

When a log or root containing the termitarium 
has been discovered and destroyed and the 
sround around it dug up it may safely be con- 
cluded that the Queen has perished with therest 
of the individuals, Usually itisonly necessary 
to trace up the runs in the case of anest occurring 
in a buried stump or root, 

The first field I systematically cleared of all 
timber five months ago has since shown no sign 
of the pest. This field was planted with Ram- 
bong about six years ago, it was allowed to lapse 
into bluker and was interplanted with para in 
1906, The only remaining timber was Kumpas 
of which there was a considerable quantity. Tho 
attack on both Para and Rambong trees was 
particularly virulent in this block but has now 
entirely ceased. 

‘As Mr Pratt very truly says, owing to the cryp- 
tic habits of termites itis very difficult to de- 
termine when a tree is attacked until it falls 
down; but during the wet season in October, 
November, December and January the termites 
frequently make their appearance above ground 
and this fact I think should be taken advantage 
of, by marking in some way all the trees on which 
the termites make their appearance, for even if 
they cannot be attended to at once, one would at 
Yeast know where to look for them in the future. 


T am afraid that some planters are lulled into 
a sense of security by the fact that none of their 
young trees have been attacked; it would be well 
worth their while to make asearch for 7. ges- 
troi in the timber lying in clearings andif found, 
take steps to eradicate the pest, for although 
trees may not. be attacked now, or perhaps for 
a year or two to come, they will be attacked 
sooner or later if 7. gestroiis present. 

J have not found a single tree attacked so far 
in my forest clearings, but I know that 7. ges- 
troi is present. On the other hand in reclaimed 
land, owing to the decay of most of the 
timber, 7’. gestroc has wandered forth in search 
of fresh fields and pastures new it has made 
its presence evident by attacking young rubber 
trees. 

On Fourore Orearines.—In these again the 
importance of discovering the forest trees most 
favoured by 7’. gestroi is evident. I cannot 
speak from practical experience, but the obvious 
course to p ursue would be tocut down all trees 
known to harbour 7. gestroi and allow them to 


dry for as long a period as possible, prior to 
the felling of the land. Many of these 
trees would be then destroyed in the burn 
and those which remained could be burnt out by 
piling over them the surrounding timber, This 
would of course enhance the cost of clearing 
perhaps by $10 or even $20 per acre, a small con- 
sideration in comparison to the damage that 
may be effected by T. gestroi. 


Further advantages of more thorough clearing 
would be less likelihood of vacancies caused by 
Fomes semitostus anda saving in the cost of 
weeding, in fact of every other work carried on 
in the clearing together with easier and 
consequently more efficient supervision....... 

DRAINS AS AFrscTiING TeRMES GEstroI.—I have 
not in asingle instance found the runs of ter- 
mites crossing a sub-soil drain, excepting by 
means of a fallen log or wooden bridge. It fol- 
lows, therefore, that the more frequent the 
drains, the more circumscribed wili be the attack 
of the termites, provided that iron or concrete 
bridges are used instead of wooden ones and 
that all timber lying across drains be removed. 


The mound termites, 7. Walayanus, and T. 
carbonarius seem to prefer the edge of adrain 
for the construction of their termitaria but ges- 
troi apparently considers the suitability of timber 
only and not that of soil in choosing its home. 


When nearing adrain the 7. gestrov runs are 
usually found at a greater depth than elsewhere. 
This is no doubt due to the facility with which 
the termites are able to penetrate the soil which 
has become freer owing to good drainage. ... . 
INSECTICIDrS vor THE HRADICATION or TERMUES 

GESTROT, 

To anyone who has followed up a 7. gestroi 
tunnel, ramifying as it does sometimes for hun- 
dreds of feet, or has seen the interior of a termi- 
tarium with its myriads of individuals, the utter 
futility of attempting to eradicate the pest by 
means Of insecticides must be apparent, but 
insecticides will be found useful in killing the 
comparatively few individuals which continue 
their attack for some time after their termi- 
tarium is destroyed. I see that the custom of 
applying lime to the tree attacked still continues 
on some estates. This is utterly useless as a 
preventative, or even as a means of keeping the 
termites in check; but it is useful as a means of 
marking the trees attacked. 


CroraLARIA AND GREEN MANORES AS AFFECTING 
T. GuEstTRot. 

Crotalaria is undoubtedly of great advantage 
asagreen manure, but it has yet to be proved 
if itis 2a means of cheapening the cost of weed- 
ing. Thereare two objections to it which can 
however be overcome. 

Firstly, the difficulty which is experienced in 
eradicating 7’. gestroi and Fomes semitostus, will 
be enormously increased by the fact that all 
timber is hidden by growth rendering it neces- 
sary to closely inspect each rubber tree and to 
search about amongst the crotalaria for timber 
containing 7. gestroi. This can be overcome 
by first eradicating the pest and then planting 
green manure. Secondly when the green mauure 
is eventually killed out by shade, the rubber 
tree will experience a shock from their custo 
mary supply of nitrogen bring cut off. This can 


y 


and Magazine of the Ceylon Agricullural Society. 


be obviated by interplanting with leguminous 
trees, such as Albezzia moluccana. These trees 
together with others of the leguminosa have 
been 


GROWN WITH GREAT BENEFIT TO TEA AND 
COFFEE IN CEYLON 
and elsewhere for at least twenty-five years— 
such growths as Crotalaria mimosa, etc., being 
utterly unsuited to this class of cultivation. 


In conclusion there are no grounds for the 
alarmist view of the 7. gestrot pest, though it 
is imperative that it should be taken in hand at 
once and dealt with very thoroughly, andalthough 
the initial cost may be heavy, it will be more than 
justified by the subsequent saving in expen- 
diture, on keeping the pest in check, to say 
nothing of the saving in loss of trees. 


. Water TowGoopn. 
—Straits Agricultural Bulletin for March. 


ROOT DISEASE OF RUBBER. 


I have received a number of communications 
about the ‘'Fomes” or white fungus root- 
disease of para rubber. The disease appears 
to be more widespread than I thought when I 
wrote in the last November number. A com- 
mon mistake is cutting the trenches too broad 
—this demands extra and unnecessary labour, 
and the excessive quantity of earth talon cut 
covers the inner area round the diseased tree 
so much that the turning-over does not go deep 
enough, Where circumstances do not allow of 
the outer trenches being made, the adjacent row 
of trees should be examined from time to time. 

Crotalaria striata is also attacked by a root 
fungus, but up to the present I have not been 
able to infect healthy Para rubber from diseased 
Crotalaria, Planters who have sown Crotalaria 
should watch their plants carefully and should 
immediately notify the Department of 
Agriculture if any die or even look unhealthy. 
Itis extremely important to know tho extent 
of this Crotalaria disease and if Para is immuno 
to it. The symptoms of diseased Crotalaria are 
much the same as those described for root 
disease in Para but of course not so easily 
noticed.—W. J. GALLAGHER. 

—Straits Agricultural Bulletin for March, 


FRUIT GROWING. 


Sanpwich Is~tanps PringappLe I[NpDusTRY.— 
There are about 4,540 acres in Hawaii taken 
up with growing pineapples. There are nine 
canneries—five on Oahu, two on Hawaii, one on 
Maui, and one on Kauai, The pack of canned 
pineapples for the year ending May 31, 1908, was 
190,000 cases, and will be about doubled for the 
present year. Of fresh pines, about 700 tons 
were shipped during the past year.— Hawazi Pro- 
motion Committee Press News. 


Goop Rusunts witH Ceyton Papayas.—The 
Report on the Experimental Farm at Cuttack 
says:—‘‘ Ceylon papayas at this farm and for 
this district can only be described as won- 
derful. From seed, in one year they give a 


tree 8 feet high. Sown in boxes in August,’ 


transplanted in the field in the middle of Sept- 
ember, the trees begin to flower from the follow- 
ing March, and fruits are ready for plucking 


303 


from June onwards and will give fruits con- 
tinually until the following January. The 
largest will be ready in August and September, 
twelve months after sowing the seed. We got 
up to 100 papayas off one tree, and the size and 
flavour were such as to leave nothing to be 
desired. For fruits of the same size we have to 
pay five annas in the Calcutta bazaar. In short, 
the quick growth of this tree is phenomenal.” — 
Indian Trade Journal, Feb. 11. 


THE GOLOMSO PRODUCE MARKET. 


DesiccatED Coconut—Cacao—anpb Frpre. 


The recent drought, combined with the de- 
structive cyclone not long ago, led to a shorter 
output of coconuts, with theresult that desic- 
cated coconut went up in prico by leaps and 
bounds, Local exporters did not anticipate 
that an easier tone would prevail for some time 
to come; but, contrary to these expectations, 
we learn that the ‘‘fine” grade now has a 
market value of 15% cents per lb. No causeis 
attributed for this decline; but it is conjectured 
that the financial or trade position of America 
is largely responsible for the unexpected change. 
During the past year the shipments of de- 
siccated coconut to Australia had materially 
declined—from 1,236,767 1b. in 1907 to 951,626 1b. 
in 1908. Whether this is—or is not—owing to 
the establishment of a costly desiccating factory, 
the only one in Australia, or perhaps outside 
Ceylon, it would be interesting tu know. This 
factory is at Paramatta where as ‘Messrs. 
Megeitts, Ltd.,” Messrs. Thompson, Fraser, Ram- 
say, Proprietary Ltd., who are the principal 
shareholders, are carrying on a flourishing busi- 
ness. Thecozonuts, which are principally ime 
ported from the Solomon Islands, Fiji, are said 
to possess a thicker kernel than the Ceylon 
nuts, but their productive capability of the 
desiccated material falls far short of the local 
nuts. For instance a ton of desiccated coco- 
nut would require nearly 6 tons of Fiji nuts, 
whereas the same quantity can be produced 
by about 43 tons of Ceylon nuts. It is only 
lately that, through the instrumentality of the 
firm above-named, a reduction was obtained 
from the Shipping Conference of the rate of 
freight ; but unless the market for the local 
nuts declines, it is thought in some quarters 


that it will some day be itnpossible tor the 


Ceylon to compete against the Fiji product, 
This year to date, however, the exports to 
Australia are 50 per cent. above last year to the 
same date ! 


The late season's cocoa crops have been very 
unsatisfactory, for the supplles have been un- 
usually short, and the beans are much smaller 
than the average size. Climate conditions are 
no doubt answerable to a great extent for 
these results; but at the same time an impetus 
is thereby given to producing centres in other 
parts of the world. The latest cabled advices 
from London intimate that the market there 
for the local product has advanced. 


The absence of rain has contributed in a laree 
measure to an abnormally big output of mattress 
fibre during the present season. Millers have 
therefore, had the opportunity of drying their stuff 


304 The Supplement to the Tropical Agriculturist 


with the result that there is a proportionately 
larger quantity available locally. Despite the 
advanced market in regard to copra and coco- 
nuts, fibre has maintained a practically pheno- 
menal local market value. The latest trans- 
actions have been at R1'60 per cwt. in bundles 
delivered at wharf; but should the weather 
change in any marked degree, millers will be 
placed ata disadvantage inasmuch as they will 
not have the same facilities for drying. The 
failure of the N.-H. monsoon may, perhaps, be 
counterbalanced by the advent of an earlier 
South-West. In this latter event, the transport 
of fibre from the mills outside Colombo to the 
Metropolis will be greatly hampered and 
there is every probability of the market showing 
a decided advance in the near future. For the 
present Millers hesitate in making forward 
contracts, 


HOW VANILLA IS GROWN 
iN HAWAII. 


Process OF PoLLENATING THE BLOSSOMS AND 
CurING THE BEANS—PROFITABLE BUSINESS, 


The growing of the Vanilla bean of commerce 
has attained considerable importance in Hawaii, 
where a number of successful small plantations 
have been producing for a number of years. 
Jared G Smith, late director of the United 
States Agricultural Experiment Station in 
Honolulu, gives the following interesting des- 
cription of the growing of vanilla in his book, 
“Agriculture in Hawaii’ :— 

‘‘The vanilla bean is the cured and fermented 
fruit of a climbing orchid. The finished pods 
are very dark brown or black, glossy, somewhat 
wrinkled on the surface, from five to eight inches 
long and about as thick as a lead pencil. The 
vanilla extract of commerce is simply an alco- 
holic extract. 


“The vanilla plant is grown either on a trellis 
or is planted at the base of a tree so that it can 
clamber up the trunk. Any soil is suitable, 
provided the drainageis good. It grows well 
ip regions or abundant rainfall onthe Kona 
(south or southwest) side of the islands. A mean 
temperature of 65 to 75 deg. gives good results. 


“The plants are propagated from cuttings, 
which are simply lengths of the vine itself, 
from two to six feet long. The length of the 
cutting has some relation to flower produc- 
tion, the longer ones yielding flowers in a 
shorter period. The leaves are cut from the 
lower end of the cutting and the stripped 
portion of the stalk is buried horizontally under 
two or three inches of soil and rotting leaves. 
The upper end of the cutting is fastened to the 
trunk of the supporting tree to which it soon 
becomes tightly attached by its aérial roots. 

“The vanilla plant begins to flower during its 
second or third year and continues flower pro- 
duction until seven or eight years old. Culti- 
vation consists in keeping down the weeds and 
underbrush in the plantation. 

“The vanilla plant only bears pods when the 
flowers are hand pollenated. This is a delicate 
operation not difficult) to learn. Any one who 


attempts if becomes quickly proficient so that 
a good many flowers can be pollenated in the 
course ofa day, The pod matures in from six 
to eight months, becoming hard, thick and 
greenish-yellow. They are gathered before ripe. 


“The curing process is a somewhat compli- 
cated one. After gathering, the green pods are 
spread out aud exposed to the air for 24 hours, 
being roughly assorted into grades according to 
size. After being graded, the pods are sweated 
between the folds of woollen blankets exposed. 
to the heat of direct sunshine. During the per- 


iod of fermentation the pods turn dark brown,, 


become soft and leathery and sweat freely. 
The pods are manipulated for several days 
until the proper degree of colour and aroma 
have developed. After the fermentation they 
are dried in the sun for a few hours and fin- 
atly in cloth covered trays in the shade with 
gentle heat. When fully dried, that is when the 
pods no longer lose weight, but are still moist 
and pliable to the touch, they are packed tightly 
in tin boxes and are again manipulated in bulk 
for one or two months. When completely cured, 
the pods are sorted to size and colour, tied in 
bundles and these packages packed in. tin-lined 
boxes. which are soldered when full. 


‘¢The yield per acre in Hawali'has been esti- 
mated at about 13,000 pods, producing about 
120 pounds of finished vanilla beans fully cured 
and ready for tho market. 


‘“‘The industry is a very profitable one for 
persons having sufficient means who will give 
this industry their personal supervision. The 
price of the vanilla bean depends as much upon 
the outward appearance of the finished product 
as upon its actual quality as indicated by aroma 
and flavour. Care is therefore necessary at every 
stage in the growth and fermentation of the crop. 


‘* Five acres of vanilla in bearing should yield 
from $400 to {500 worth of beans per acre per 
annum after the third year. There are vanilla 
plantations in the Kona district on the-island of 
Hawaii and in the Kona district of Oahu near 
Honolulu, Much land is still available which is 
entirely suitable for the cultivation of this crop,” 
—Hawaii Promotion Committee Press News. 


RUBBER IN MALAYA IN 19908. 


ACREAGE AND PROSPECTS., 
Go,090 Acres Opened Last Year. 

Mr. Carruthers, in conversation with a con- 
temporary, said that according to the returns he 
has obtained, there were, on December 81st last, 
37,000,009 rubber trees growing in the Malaya 
Peninsula, including the new territory, Kelantan, 
with upwards of 2,000 acres already in rubber. 
60,000 acres were opened in 1908—40,000 were in 
the Federated Malay States—tho total being 
rather more than in 1907. 

INCREASE IN YIELD, 

The yield per tree for 1908 worked out at one 
ounce more than in 1907, viz: 1 lb. 14 oz. per 
tree. The average increase of girth per annum, 
Mr, Carruthers put (at a guess) ab rather Jess 
than four inches, because rubber growing in 
lalang came along very slowly. He was gladito 


and Magazine uf the Ceylon Agricultural Society. 


Say green manuring was now being widely and 
successfully adopted, though in one or two 
instances strange orders had come out from 
home to cut out passion flower, &c., though suc- 
cessfully established. 


It is interesting to state that, before leaving 
Kuala Lumpur, Mr Carruthers applied for 180 
acres of lalang in Perak Stateto make practical 
tests as an estate proprietor of the methods he 
advocates. The terms are the usual ones for 
lalang land—one cent per acre per annum for the 
first seven years and one dollar per acre per 
annum afterwards. The place will be locked 
after by Mr Carruthers’ cousin, who is on an 
estate about 14 mileaway. Mr Carruthers in- 
tends to give one spraying of arsenite of soda 
and then turn off and immediately plant three 
varieties of useful cover to complete the killing 
out of lalang, viz., passion flower ; abrus preca- 
torius (distinguished by its well-known red 
seed with black top); and a new vigna which Mr 
Carruthers came across just before leaving and 
which appeared to promise well. 


Mr Carruthersconsiders the rubber industry 
to be of a permanent character, and, although 
after lalang the rubber is usually a little slower 
in growth for the first few years, he did not 
mind whether it took eight years instead of six 
in coming to the remunerative stage, consid- 
ering the small cost of the planting. 


COCONUT PLANTING IN FIJI. 


Referring to his review (Fujz Times, Nov. 25th, 
1908) of cur Coconut Planters’ Manual, Mr. R 
L Holmes of Bua, Fiji, writes under date, 
December 14th ;— 


-“T have been a coconut planter for nearly 40 
years and have often used strong language when 
referring to the shameful neglect of the autho- 
rities and settlers on Vitilevu comprising fully 
half of Fiji. And from end to end of that great 
island the coconut trees suffer from what you 
will name ‘the so-called leaf disease,’ that 
never kills trees, and requires only culti- 
vation and suitable localities—in fact, common- 
sense to make them flourish. I hope what I 
have now set forth may do some good, and 
thanks to you largely if it does.” 

From the review we quote :— 


One of the chief copra buyers in the group assured me that 
he learned from Home letters, that Fiji copra ranks the 
lowest ot any others in the English market, which means 
that the oil therefrom is very inferior. It is not hard to see 
the reason why, viz., the large quantity of bad copra sold by 
the natives, and accepted by upcountry buyers and mer- 
chants. Bought and sold at avery low price, itis thrown 
onto the heap of better class, mixed with it, and all 
shipped together to Kurope. Grossly unfair to planters 
who supply a first class article, as it lowers the value of the 
whole. Can the Government not stepin? Appoint an In- 
spector, and throw the rubbish into the sea, Natives would 
soon change matters by selling only good copra. I see 
continually, copra offered for sale by natives, abomi- 
nable rubbish exposed alternately to rain and sunshine, 
until it becomes rotten. Ifthey do not put sand into it 
like the Sinhalese, they often pour sea water on it in bulk, 
which increases the weight without mildewing the copra. 
It is a duty Government owe planters to see to this at once. 

Again, if it pays better to make and sell oil here, why not 
direct and assist coconut planters in this respect ? We see 
in the above, that in Ceylon there are over 2,000 oil mills, 
big and little ; in Fiji, not one! 

A big mill in Suva or Levuka would raise the price of copra 
immensely, and the honest planter would get a fair price 
for his produce. 


39 


305 


“Again we want very badly, small hand machines for 
pulping and hulling coffee, For many years I have pre- 
pared coffee from a small plot of about 100 trees. Lately, 
with the help of a dozen Fijians, mostly children, I collected 
a big sack full, slowly pulped it, as formerly described, 
washed and dried it, and turned out avery good sample, 
1 got Ist prize for some Liberian coffee at the recent Show 
in Suva; but it does not pay, and about half the crop I 
left on the trees torot. These are a few of the many things 
in which Government could assist us planters. Some day 
perhaps the Planters’ Association and the Agricultural 
Board may wake up and attend to something besides bana- 
nas, the culture of which is confined to the neighbourhood 
of Suva, Rewa, Navua and Nadi.” 


COCONUTS IN CEYLON. 


The following is from the first annual report 
of the Lowcountry Products Association of 
Ceylon :— 

Kstimated acreage in the lowcountry within 
the scope of this Association :— 

Coconut Palm «+ 700,000 at R500 R350,000,000 


Arecanuts .. 50,000 at 200 10,000,0..0 

Cinnamon - 45,000 at 250 11,250,(.00 

Citronella -. 40,000 at 250 10,000,000 

Tobacco : -» 1,000at 300 3 0,000 

Minor Products, 

Pippen Nacnet: & a 1,000 at 150 150,000 
Total .- 837,000 R381,7C0,000 


Your Committee venture to state that the 
total capitalised aggregate value of the products 
mentioned above (apart from the value of area 
under paddy) is greater than the capital value 
of area under tea, rubber, cocoa, which can 
claim a total planted area of 660,000 acres, 


In comparing the relative value of the coco- 
nut industry or products of the coconut palm a 
very materid4l fact requires special comment, 
viz., the very large proportion of the products 
which is utilised in the Colony itself for edible 
purposes and in the form of oil for cooking and 
lighting in plumbago mines and poonac for cattle. 
The amount utilised in this manner may easily 
be represented as the yield of not less than one- 
third the area under cultivation in an average 
year and the value of this is not shownand can- 
not be in the export trade ofthe island. Apart 
from value itis important to realise the benefit 
which this industry confers on the dietary of the 
population. It is a well-known fact and one that 
has been insisted upon year after year by the 
Registrar-General in his reports on vital sta- 
tistics of the Island that the death-rate of the 
Negombo and Chilaw districts is the lowest in 
the Island, in spite of malaria. The liberal use 
of the coconut as part of the food of the people 
in those districts, and the steady high wage 
which they command through the industry, are 
undoubtedly responsible for the happy result 
indicated in the vital statistics. 


CULTIVATION OF THE Coconut PALM. 


It is regrettable that the rainfall during the 
year was adverse to the coconut planters in more 
ways than one. The prolonged drought affected 
the trees to a great extent. In the Puttalam and 
northern section of Katugampola Hatpattu a 
few hundred trees on estate plantations were 
killed. In and around Chilaw several hundred 
trees were seriously affected. The absence of 
rain rendered manuring either inexpedient or 
impossible which will result in a further shor- 
tage of crops. The prolonged drought and the 
failure of both monsoons affected new clearing 
work and young plantations very adversely. 


306 


In addition to this the outbreak of malaria 
during the last two months of the year rendered 
nearly 90 per cent. of the estate labourers unfit 
for work weeks together, in the Kurunegala, 
Chilaw. and Negombo districts. 


In the more progressive districts it is a grati- 
fying feature that the application of artificial 
manure and the systematic cultivation of land 
is being carried on more and more as the ad- 
vantages resulting become manifest. During the 
jast two years experiments with the growing of 
crotalaria having proved useful a very large ex- 
gent of land is now under this for green manure. 


MR. J. B. CARRUTHERS. 


IMPRESSIONS OF CHANGES IN CEYLON. 


In an interview an Observer  representa- 
tive had with Mr. J. B. CArrutuers, Director 
of Agriculture in the Malay States, who is now 
gomg home to represent the Malay States at the 
Darwin Centenary at Cambridge, and later will 
proceed to Trinidad, to be Assistant Director 
of Agriculture, the first question asked had 
reference to the changes which had_ struck 

Carruthers in Ceylon since his !ast visit. 


iy, CARRUTHERS—Said that when he was last 
hero they were only just beginning to think 
that rubber was a future possibility. Now it was 
ait absolutely ascertained certainty. The rub- 
ber industry was on quite a different footing 
and it was only now a question of:solving the 
problem of the most profitable ways of cultiva- 
ting it. That had affected tea and the whole 
thing seemed rather more prosperous, ‘The tea 
industry was itself more prosperous and every- 
thing seemed more prosperous in the planting 
line. He had not really seen very much of 
Ceylon. He went up. to the Gangaroowa Ex- 
periment Station. That was beginning to 
add to knowledge and it was getting into 
shape, and becoming a useful sort of Tex Book 
for Tropical Agriculture. 


THe NorktHway SYSTEM. 


The patent thing of Northway’s interested 
him, Without having paid his 200 dollars 
he seems to have found out the main principles 
of the thing and it seemed to him very hkely 
to be, not revolutionary, buta very sound ad- 
dition to their experimental knowledge on the 
question of the extraction of rubber. 


What changes did you notice at Peradeniya, 
Mr Carruthers ? 


I donotreally know. The changes are for 
the better. The building done is a great im- 
provement, Their housing is a great advance. 
They were cribbed, and cabined, and confined 
in httle laboratories and now they have fine 
places to work in. The Gangaroowa laboratory 
has been built since [ was there. The gardens 
seem to be just as beautiful as ever or rather 
more so. Alltraces of the Rubber exhibition 
seem to have beenswept away. (Laughing.) It 
is about three yearsand nine months since I 
was here last. I passed through in May. 


Were you present at the Experiment Stations 
Committee meeting ? 


The Supplement to the Tropical Agriculturist 


No. I just waited to meet all the members all 
of whom were friends of mine but I didn’t stay 
to the discussion. I heard of everything they 
were going to talk about. Thegreen manuring 
question was one of the chief matters. Some 
of the plots are most interesting, nearly every 
plant that can be conceived to be useful is to be 
seen there. Then they have been working at 
tlfése extraction questions, oils from grass, 
citronella oils and other oils, the most profit- 
able grass and all that sort of thing. The most 
interesting thing about the station is that it 
was about 7 or 8 years ago 90 per cent. diseased 
with cocoa canker and if it had been in ordi- 
nary hands it would have been abandoned, but 
there is now about 2 per cent. of canker and the 
place is giving handsome and profitable crops. 
It can always be quoted as a fine instance of what 
scientific tackling of a disease will do. It has 
justified its existence if only for that and it has 
added to knowledge in many other directions. 


In answer to a final enquiry Mr Carruthers 
said that the total acreage under rubber now 
inthe Malay States was 240,000acres. 60,000 were 
planted last year as against some 55,000 the year 
before. There were 37,000,000 trees in the Penin- 
sula, There were 112.000 acres of coconuts. 


COCGNUTS IN B. E. AFRICA. 


The value of the coconut plantations on the 
coast, says areport from British East Africa, 
has depreciated, owing to the damage caused by 
beetles and to the custom which prevails among ~ 
the natives of tapping the flowers, from which 
they obtain “tembo,” a native intoxicating 
beverage which is largely consumed. The Gov- 
ernment entomologist is investigating the life 
history of the beetle with a view to devising 
means for its extermination. There has latterly 
been a distinct movement to revive the coconut 
industry on the coast, wherein past years it 
proved a large source of income to the Arabs 
before they lost the services of a number of their 
slaves.—Trade Journat. 


{I presume the “native intoxicating bever- 
age” isour old friend arrack. It only shows 
how the gocd things the Creator gives us are 
abused and how the abuse recoils on our own 
heads.—Cor"., ] 


THE COCONUT OIL MILL IN 
KUALA SELANGOR. 


The one and only sight at Kuala Selangor is 
the Oil Mill on the opposite side of the river. 
Visitors embark in a sampan from a shelving 
stone jetty, if it can be socalled, which might 
be vastly improved. At low water the embark- 
ing ina sampan is an acrobatic feet. The Oil 
Mill is well worth a visit. The first process is 
to convert the nut into copra by means of 
dryers, the copra is then passed through various 
machines which grind it toa small powder. 
This powder is then placed in fold over canvas 
covers—about half a kerosine oil tin going to 
one cover—and then placed in the hydraulic 
press. This press takes quite a number of these 
canvas bundles in its different compartments, 


and Magazine of the Ceylon Agricultural Society. 


The oil is then squeezed out into a bank below 
from which itis sucked up to pass through a 
mechanical cleaner or—if there is no hurry—to 
large tanks where impurities sink to the bottom 
leaving the clear white oil to be drawn off from 
the top. 


The place is full of all scrts of machinery and 
another huge boiler has just been erected to 
enable the company to keep the Mill going 
without the otherwise necessary stops for boiler 
cleaning. Coir making machinery has recently 
been erected, so that every part of the coconut 
can be used except the milk, Now that the 
company has its own steamer there is no diffi— 
culty in getting a full supply of nuts. The com- 
pany, too, is fortunate in its manager, Mr. 
Darby, who is particularly well qualified in every 
wey to make the Mill a success.—Malay Mait, 

an. 25 


—_— 


SANDY SOILS AND THEIR 
IMPROVEMENT. 


—_——_— 


The improvement of sandy soils is a subject 
of wide interest, and any mgans that would tend 
towards effecting such improvement will be wel- 
comed as much in this island as elsewhere, since 
there are large areas of land that are charac- 
terised by soils composed chiefly of silica, Acom- 
mon objection to most soils.is the disproportion- 
ate preponderance of one ingredient over the rest, 
whether sand, clay orhumus, The moans of im- 
proving soils must, of necessity, differ, inasmuch 
as the preponderating ingredient invests a soil 
with properties that have to be specially reck- 
oned with. Thus the treatment of a heavy clay 
will materially differ from that ofa loose sand and 
of both from that of a soil made up almost en- 
tirely of organic matter. The New Jersey Ex- 
periment Station recently published an account 
of experiments made to improve sandy soils, 
and a consideration of the results should be pro- 
titable to all who have similar problems to face, 


A fact that has to be recognised at the 
outset is that sandy svils are, from their 
very nature, unable to furnish as much plant 
food or moisture to growing crops as those of 
a clayey nature : further, that the coarseness of 
sandy soils prevents them from retaining either 
food or water when given to them, All who 
have had anything to do with sandy soils will 
readily admit that manures are easily washed 
downwards into the sub-soi] by rains, while dry 
weather soon robs them of moisture. 
for successful cultivation, such soil needs a 
tolerably well-distributed rainfall, a fairly com- 
pact sub-soil, and a water-table near enough to 
the surface for cultivated plants to draw upon 
the moisture below. In very coarse soils of 
this nature, capillary power is so limited that 
they are unable to replenish from below the 
loss of moisture by evaporation. Again, the 
openness of light sandy soils, by admitting air 
freely, accelerates the chemical and bacterio- 
logical changes going on within them, so that 
plant food is made more quickly available; 
pometimes, indeed, too quickly—so that organic 


Indeed, 


307 


matter in the soil becomes exhausted sooner 
than is desirable, Well-aérated soils, there- 
fore, favour bacterial activity, but the loss of 
water from them interferes with the action of 
soil organisms. 

To improve sandy soils, tharefore, it is ne- 
cessary to reduce their too open texture :— 


(1) by methods of tillage, such as cultivating 
and rolling ; 

(2) by application of fine-grained materials 
or substances readily pulverised, such as clay 
or loam ; 

(3) by the addition of large quantities of 
humus-forming material, such as green crops or 
‘* long ” manure, 

A sufficiency of humus prevents too ready 
access of air and increases the moisture-holding 
capacity of a soil. Although sandy soils are 
naturally poor in plant food, this does not pre- 
vent the possibility of their improvement. Phos- 
phoric acid and potash can be supplied at a 
comparatively small cost, and nitrogen pro- 
vided by means of green manures or animal 
manures. The last-mentioned are not indispen- 
sable and often too expensive ;in some cases 
they are the means of introducing weeds or 
fungus diseases. Green manuring is particularly 
effective on account of the relatively groater 
need for nitrogen and humus in light soils, and 
the facility with which green crops are converted 
into available plant food. The selection of these 
will depend pvreatly on local conditions, the 
number to select from being fortunately large. 


A mistake that is common is to expect 
green crops to flourish even though there 
is an entire absence of phosphoric acid, 
potash and lime in the soil. That is not rea- 
sonable, and where these ingredients are de- 
ficient, the deficiency must be made good. If 
this is done, and thereis a fair rainfall, the 
prospects of utilising green manuresin the way 
suggested, are good. With the supplying of 
humus to a sandy soil, and the increase of its 
water-holding capacity, a uniform bacterial 
development and a more uniform supply of 
available plant food will be assured ; indeed, the . 
growth of bacteria is directly encouraged in the 
presence of organic matter and moisture, 


The nitrogen-fixing bacteria of lezuminous 
plants find very favourable conditions in sandy 
soils, and that for the following reasons :— 


(a) The small proportion of available nitro- 
gen in them. 


(6) The free circulation of air which favours 
the formation of nodules, 

(c) The frequent renewal of air which enables 
the bacteria to supply themselves with the ele- 
ments of the atmosphere. 

It has been found that in compact soils, 
nodules on roots are limited and found near the 
surface, whereas in sandy soils they are well 
distributed and occur at greater depths, 


There is an impression abroal that a leguini- 
nous crop which succeeds in one place is bound 
to succeed in . another, which is not so, auda 
crop new to a given locality may entirely fail to 
develop nodules because the proper organisiag 


308 


are not present inthe soil. The bacteria-pro- 
ducing nodules in different crops (say, soy bean 
and cow pea) are not identical, and each legu-- 
minous plant may be said to haveits own 
organism. The importation of earth from a field 
where a nitrogen-ygatherer flourishes generally 
suflices to start the formation of nodules on the 
roots. 


Lime, while not required to any extent by 
sandy soils, pats te the formation of humus, 
which helps to fix phosphoric acid and potash, 
Lime, therefore, though necessary,. should be 
only sparingly given—so that it may not unduly 
encourage the development of soil bacteria 
which hasten decomposition of organic matter. 
Ground unburnt lime is to be preferred to burnt 
and slaked lime. A dressing of half-a-ton of 

round oyster shells will generally be found suf- 
ficient ona sandy soil. Lime, asis well-known, 
is appreciated by most leguminous crops. 


In the New Jersey experiment the land (a 
distinctly sandy soil), while under preparation, 
was given 1,000 lb. lime, 320 lb. acid phosphate, 
100 lb. ground bone, 160 1b. muriate of potash, 
150 lb. of dried blood per acre. The returns 
showed a gradual and marked increase, and it 
is considered reasonable to assume that by sys- 
tematic cropping and fertilising, uncultivated 
and unproductive lands may be profitably uti- 
lised, particularly for the production of fodder 
crops with which dairy-farming might be profit- 
ably associated. 


It would, indeed, appear that sandy soils have 
a great future before them and that some day 
they are destined to be the scene of intelligent 
and remunerative cultivation. 


i 


Aden, Jan. 23.—I have just had an interview 
with Mr. Stewart J. McCall, on the deck of the 
steamer ‘‘ Kronprinz,”’ as he was about to leave 
Aden yesterday, en route for Nyassaland, where 
he takes over the duties of Director of Agricul- 

.ture. There are few men who have had such a 
varied experience in cotton-growing as Mr. 
McCall, and his name will be well remembered 
by many officials of the Federal Department in 
Washington and also in the cotton-growing 
States of America, through which he passed on 
a professional tour last summer. Prior to his 
arrival at Aden, Mr. McCall had passed three 
months in Ceylon, anverliaane the prospects 
for cotton-growing in that island, and at the re- 
quest of the Government wrote up an extensive 
report on the subject, which is to be published. 


Harty EXPERIMENTS. 


He informed me that attempts to grow cotton 
in Ceylon in small quantities had been made for 
many years; but they had not been wholly suc- 
cessiul, owing to the fact that the most tavour- 
able seasons for planting had not been observed, 
and other essentials with regard to local con- 
ditions had been omitted. He considered the 
prospects for cotton-growing in Ceylon decidedly 
good, but it was necessary to plant in the dry 
season with adequate and regulated irrigation, 


The Supplement to the Tropical Agriculturist 


He said the most favourable land was situated 
in the northern provinces, where nearly four 
million acres were available and suitable for this 
purpose, under irrigation. At present, prac- 
tically nothing is being done with the land in 
question, so that the suggested schemes, if 
carried into effect, would not in any way inter- 
fere with the present products of Ceylon. ‘ 


“What are the prospects of a commercial 
success being attained?” I inquired. 


‘¢ These are in every way excellent,” Mr Mce- 
Call replied, ‘‘as transport is cheap to and from 
Colombo, beside which a good Government 
railway penetrates the suggested provinces. 
Naturally, considerable care would initially 
have to be taken as regards the variety of cotton 
introduced, and I consider that which has proved 
the greatest sucess in Egypt is most suitable, 
samples of which sent to Manchester as far back 
as 1905 were valued at ninepence a pound, being 
well up tothe average of Egyptian cotton for 
that year. Experiments have been conducted 
throughout the three intervening years, and 
there is now a considerable quantity of cotton- 
seed of this particular type available, partly 
acclimatised, at the Government experimental 
station in Ceylon.” 


MARGIN OF PROFIT. 


‘“* The matter is under the consideration of the 
British Cotton Growers’ Association at Man- 
chester, besides attracting the attention of local 
planters. Tho cost of production should net 
average more than sixpence a pound, so that the - 
margin of profit is a good one.” 


The fact that Mr McCall previously held the 
appointment of Lecturer on Agriculture at the 
Agricultural College in Cairo, Egpyt, places him 
in aposition to speak authoritatively on Egyp- 
tian cotton.—New York Herald, Feb. 7. 


NEW ADVERTISEMENTS IN THIS 
NUMBER. 


The Knapsack Sprayer ‘Kelair’? No. 1, is 
specially recommended for the treatment of 
Flowers, Fruit Trees, Lea, Coffee, Cocoa and 
all crops. It gives a fine or medium or a 
coarse spray and readily accomplishes the effec- 
tive discharge of ‘‘ Bordeaux Mixture” and other 
fluids whether thick or thin. The single nozzle 
is arranged so as to deliver the spray straight 
in front, right, left, up or down at the will 
of the operator. The ‘‘Yorpille” Knapsack 
Sulphuring Pump is for the distribution of 
Sulphur and other powders to destroy mildew. 


The Acme Chemical Co., Ltd. advertise their 
specialities for the destruction of Lalang Grass, 
scrub and other weeds, insect pestsand fungoid 
diseases. They are manufacturers of Arsenite 
of Soda which has been successfully used in the 
extermination of ‘‘Illuk” Grass. Two of their 
lines are recommended as non-poisonous insecti- 
cides useful for washing animals, as well as trees, 
plants, etc. 


_ The advertisement from the Diivan of Cochin 
is referred to elsewhere in this issue, - 


and Magazine of the Ceylon Agricultural Society. 


COLOMBO TEA SALES. 
AVERAGES FOR 1908, 


(Officially Supplied 


by the Colombo Tea 


Traders’ Association, ) 


Colombo, March 9. 


Summary of Ceylon Tea sold at Public Auction 
in Colombo for the 12 months ended 31st Dec., 
1908, with the Average Prices realised :— 


Brack Tra. 

Estate. Ib. av. Estate. Ib. av, 
Monkswood 175,14261 Detenagalla 121,682 46 
Glassaugh  206,22357 Mansfield 121,346 46 
Court Lodge 199,617 56 Kincora 108,626 46 
Ellawatte 49,622 55 Devonford 98,477 46 
Denmark Annandale 89,686 46 

Hill 236,188 54 Fetteresso 79,685 46 
Preston - 98,041 58 Kinross 66,610 46 
Richmond 9,068 53 Cranley 57,312 46 
Pedro 333,577 52 Amherst 55,525 46 
Kenmare 282,245 52 Morville 34,060 46 
St. John’s 191,438 52 *Waverley 11,376 46 
Tullybody 187,811 52 *Gorthie 10,122 46 
*Campion 6,635 52 *Udaveria 7,498 46 
Tommagong 159,575 51 *Dickoya 6,292 46 
Westward *Caledonia 5,965 46 

Ho 146,266 51 Gampaha 323,561 45 
Naseby 94,819 51 Glentilt 304,300 45 
Meria Cotta 40,104 51 Invery 211,730 46 
*Ragalla 8,992 51 Ardlaw and 
The Scrubs 129,61150 Wishford 209,559 45 
Wanarajah 116,16750 Gonapitiya 201,214 45 
North Cove 105,010 50 Coreen 163,732 45 
Glasgow 409,265 49 Logie 157,255 45 
Agra Ouvah 322,045 49 Stamford 
Middleton 286,073 49 Hill 131,516 45 
Mocha 252,173 49 Winwood 128,605 45 
Dovedale 89,308 49 Templehurst 126,351 45 
Luckyland 84,63349 Gunville 113,250 45 
EastFassifern 51,993 49 Queensland 101,337 45 
*Ellamulla 8,770 49 Warleigh 92,460 45 
High Forest 705,202 48 Nonpareil 85,472 45 
Bramley 205,721 48 Minna 79,521 45 
Fairlawn 168,945 48 St. Vigeans 75,905 45 
Ormidale 134,300 48 Callander 72,591 45 
Tientsin 91,598 48 Ladbroke 63,850 45 
AgraHibedde 87,38048 Seenagolla 61,745 45 
Stafford 55,339 48 Aldie 82,157 45 
Hauteville §39,09948 *Albion 31,960 45 
*Lynford 8,510 48 *Alton 24,993 45 
Ireby 122,625 47 Florence 427,083 44 
Blinkbonnie 119,572 47 St. Clair 413,012 44 
Palmerston 117,45947 Brownlow 236,184 44 
Robgill 88,870 47 Tinioya 188,431 44 
Dunnottar 84,898 47 Harrow 179,221 44 
Faithlie 76,820 47 Adisham 148,997 44 
Strathspey 73,48347 Gonakelle 117,26) 44 
*Somerset 53,046 47 Eildon Hall 115,439 44 
Glenorchy 40,071 47 Mount 
Gonomatava 16,276 47 Everest 105,200 44 
Napier 12,662 47 Clarendon 102,858 44 - 
Inverness 314,613 46 Dambagas- 

Ingestre 271,527 46 —_ talawa 93,332 44 
Bunyan & Cleaveland 78,148 44 

Ovoca 236,792 46 Wellington 74,745 44 
Attampittia 206,206 46 Bittacy 69,542 44 
Theresia 168,065 46 Mincing Lane 67,777 44. 
Summer Hill 146,497 46 Simla 57,196 44 
Harrington 132,591 46 Mossend 54,128 44 
Killarney 124,352 46 Dalhousie 43,195 44 


* Denotes Incomplete Invoices, 


Estate. Ib. av. 
*lona 27,248 44 
*Delmar 22,239 44 
"Holbrook 21,954 44 
*Wallaha 11,132 44 


*Spring Valley 6,200 44 


Rookwood = 326,653 43 
Tymawr 315,742 43 
Maha Uva = 290,919 43 
Walla Valley 279,522 43 
Hornsey 232,571 43 
Lamiliere 220,296 43 
Bickley 201,637 43 
Temple- 

stowe 179,502 43 
New Valley 168,281 43 
Maha Eliya 161,044 43 
Naha Villa 154,532 43 
Hrlsmere 137,845 43 
Munukettia 134,831 43 
Cabin Ella 123,207 43 
Mahagalla =:121,261 43 
Gingran 

Oya 109,066 48 
Chrystler’s 

Farm 105,279 43 
St. Evelyn 99,966 43 
Mahanilu 98,553 43 
Midlothian 96,027 43 
*Birnam 87,172 43 
Hatton 86,711 43 
Glenanore 86,426 43 
Grange Gar- 

dens 81,901 43. 
St. James 79,481 43 
*Glenugie 36,634 43 
Dotala 19,980 43 
*Yoxford 18,535 43 
*Lochiel 11,136 43 
*Avoca 8,965 43 
Ottery 245,715 42 
Castlereagh 232,150 42 
Dunkeld 203,020 42 
Gangawatte 184,260 42 
*Battaloalla 166,870 42 
Camnethan 160,570 42 
Marigold 158,379 42 
Deaculla 151,827 42 
Elemane 151,690 42 
Kelaniya and 

Braemar 143,750 42 
Nyanza 120,737 42 


Donnybrook 113,131 42 
Old Medagama 
109,507 42 


Madulkele 95,549 42 
Rambodde 93,648 42 
Letchmey 91,752 42 
Rookatenne 87,920 42 
Abbotsford 85,688 42 
Little Valley 78,968 42 
Eastland 74,518 42 
Queenwood 68,077 42 
Sudbury 67,416 42 
Blair Avon 52,376 42 
Hrogmore 47,057 42 
Agrakande 44,027 42 
*Stockholm 31,140 42 
Ben Nevis 27,166 42 
Shannon 21,118 42 
*Forres 9,113 42 
*Ritnageria 3,390 42 


309 
Estate. lb. av. 
*Acrawatto 8,209 42 
BandaraHliya754,365 41 
Roeberry 367,310 41 
Highfields 283,426 41 


Verelapatana 242,159 41 
Shawlands 240,496 41 
Kirklees 232,888 41 
Oonoogaloya 232,026 41 


Uvakellie 180,117 41 
PassaraGroup178,715 41 
Kolapatana 178,365 41 
Newburgh 176,020 41 
*Mount 

Vernon 175,486 41 
Bopitiya 158,584 41 


Galpitakande 156,726 41 
Rahatungoda 155,238 41 


Oakwell 152,787 41 
Avon 145,390 41 
Waldemar 132,782 41 
Galleheria 126,285 41 
Dunbar 126,083 41 
Dickapitiya 118,395 41 
Errolwood 114,234 41 
Halugalia 109,824 41 
Rickarton 108,593 41 
Manickwatte 102,997 41 
Ohiya 90,957 41 
Pattipolla 89,255 41 
Whyddon 84,573 41 
Wattagolle 81,285 41 
*Pingarawa 80,535 41 


Ravenscraig 77,002 41 
Poolbank 69,395 41 
*ForestCreek 63,416 41 


Meath 52,089 41 
*Appachy 
Totam 47,209 41 
Cecilton 41,530 41 
*Kintyre 36,954 41 
*Bogawan- 
taiawa 31,561 41 
Ambagasdowa 18,657 41 
*Tanpakelly 17,380 41 
*Dromoland 13,843 41 
*Kundagela 9,880 41 
*Lawrence 8,871 41 


Marlborough 544,609 40 
Tonacombe 353,293 40 
GreatValley 297,989 40 
Myraganga 233,936 40 
Delta 209,330 40 
N. Punduloya 176,515 40 
Monte 


Christo 166,598 40 
Muirburn 155,101 40 
HangranOya 126,920 40 
Evalgolla 124,238 40 
Galoola Div.117,562 40 
Panmure 110,140 40 
Beauvais 98,805 40 
Westmorland 98,636 40 
Columbia 98,340 40 
Genekeria 96,788 40 
Oodoowera 95,398 40 
Deemaya 89,633 40 
Coventry 84,597 40 
Hardenhuish 83,677 40 
Blairlomond 80,078 40 
Donachie 79,114 40 
Haga 63,125 49 


310 
Estate. lb. av, Estate. lb. av, 

New Peacock 56,301 40 Lonach 146,095 38 
Doonhinda 53,487 40 Lochnagar 137,025 38 
Bowhill 52,933 40 Macaldeniya 121,494 38 
VDonside 31,171 40 Beverley 115,218 38 
Walaboda 23,489 40 Walton 110,220 38 
*El Teb 22,180 40 Ury 108,105 38 
Raxawa 20,019 40 Kehelgama 105,967 38 
*Radella 19,898 40 Glengariff 105,118 38 
Arnhall 17,722 40 Tunisgalla 100,015 38 
*Warwick 15,422 40 Ingiriya 98,369 38 
*Lindoola 13,893 40 Gallinda 89,964 38 
*Yuillefield  10,42640 Meddegodde 78,215 38 
*Venture 8,815 40 Mahatenne 74,690 38 
*Mandara Ampitigodde 73,808 38 

Newera 8,442 40 Hyde 72,011 38 
*Putupaula 8,035 40 Carville 69,596 38 
*Karabusnawa 6,068 40 *Osborne 67,864 38 
*Scarborough 4,105 40 Gonavy 64,472 38 
Sylvakandy 622,920 39 North Matale 63,443 38 
Ambragalla 555,723 39 Stubton 60,391 38 
Deviturai 403,629 39 Syston 49,528 38 
Poonagalla 377,435 39 Lyegrove 48,798 38 
Panilkande 332,444 39 Glenfern 46,703 38 
Moray 321,771 39 Abergeldie 42,149 38 
Marie Land 312,859 39 Anningkande 38,565 38 
Choisy 286,895 39 *Newmarket 29,358 38 
Oonanagalla 238,968 39 St. Clive 22,775 38 
Hanagalla 232,594 39 Wiharegama 20,449 38 
Halloowella 171,207 39 Norton 19,282 38 
Koslanda 170,776 39 *Troup 18,880 38 
Nadoo *Laxapana 15,155 38 

Totam 155,750 39. Tellistord J2,827 38 
St. Helier’s 137,205 39 Telbedde 9,249 38 
Coldstream * Pinehill 5,166 38 

Group 136,748 39 Pansalatenne 214,056 37 

Baddegama 123,942 39 Bullugolla 211,200 37 
Unugalla 113,511 39 Laxapana- 
Hyndford 104,227 39 galla 196,179 37 
Weygalla 95,658 39: Owilakande 184,051 37 
Yelverton 90,718 39 Natuwakelle 179,005 37 
Craigmore 76,702 39 Waitalawa 178,465 37 
Mowbray 69,485 39 Deniyaya 174,375 37 
Old Haloya 51,064.39 Tembiligalla 171,445 37 
Ballacadua 47,782 39 Vogan 503,277 37 
Wattumulla 46,583 39 Knavesmire 303,979 37 
*Avondale 36,935 39 Mossville 247,961 37 
Cobo 36,587 39 Clyde 242,901 37 
Gwernet 34,290 39 Swinton Div. 222,352 37 
Adawatte 31,555 39 Morahela 170,251 37 
*St. John Del Glencorse 159,902 37 

Rey 26,612 89 Mousa Hliya 142,737 37 
*Lorne 23,664 39 Walawe 140,248 37 
Sinna Totam 22,101 39 Meeriatenne 135,521 37 
*Rangbodde 9,095 39 Kandahena 132,751 37 
*Kelburne 8,404 39 Leangapella 125,604 37 
*Thotulagalla 4,275 39 Waragalande 117,600 37 
Muttrigama 2,01439 Igalkande 115,220 37 
Duragalla 1,772 39 Longville 103,524 37 
Yahaletenne 351,980 38 Tavalamtenne 99,109 37 
Nakiadeniya 302,959 38 Glenesk 92,173 37 
Harangalla 273,111 38 Cocoawatte 83,690 37 - 
Kehelwatte 241,058 38 Girindi Ella 82,022 37 
Warakamure 232,397 38 Agratenne 76,365 37 
Penrhos 212,980 38 Hathmatte 70,671 37 
Battawatte 211,386 38 Strathdon 64,623 37 
Sanquhar 177,365 38 Heatherton 62,865 37 
Talagaswela 177,187 38 ‘Theberton 58,658 37 
Agra Oya 171,560 38 Karagaha- 
Cotta 164,380 38 tenne 54,017 37 
Queenstown 162,136 38 Headington 42,712 37 


The Supplement to the Tropical Agriculturist 


Estate. Ib. av. 
Temple Land 36,524 37 


*Meddetenne 34,797 37 
*Darrawella 34,208 37 
*Chapelton 31,246 37 
Anniewatte 20,722 37 
*St Andrews 18,193 37 
*Taurus 14,815 37 
Blarney 14,610 37 
*Lugaloya ~- 13,600 37 
*Atale 12,570 37 
*Lynsted 9,963 37 
*Kelvin 8,525 37. 
*Rillamulle — 7,579 37 
Walloya 6,09) 37 
Ulatenne 5,335 37 
Neboda 342,967 36 
Pallagodde 340,140 36 
Neuchatel 328,633 36 
Tempo 286,611 36 
Dammeria 278,160 36 
Hantane 265,413 36 
Tamaravelly 259,663 36 
Culloden 244,999 36 
Erracht 236,163 36 
Kiriporuwa 209,049 36 
Kandaloya 204,515 36 
Opalgalla 194,576 36 
Parusella 188,208 36 
Dumbugodde 177,210 36 
Gona 154,811 36 
Cooroondoo- 

watte 151,058 36 
Higham 133,705 36 
Hatherleigh 132,459 36 
Ingrogalla 131,797 36 
Walpita 130,812 36 
Porapass 119,826 36 
Dewala- 

kande 114 152 36 
Farnham 111,022 36 
Bollagalla 97,682 36 
Ninfield 87,007 36 
Demodara- 
watte 81,753 36 

Taprobane 72,120 36 
Kobbekaduwa 71,310 36 
Craigingilt 69,576 36 
Taunton 68,724 36 
Beauséjour 68,634 36 
Elchico 64,740 36 
Oonankande 62,345 36 
Nugahena 58,822 36 
Doone Vale 58,600 36 
Polgahakande 57,115 36 
Ormondale 54,097 36 
Matale 51,535 36 
Bally watte 46,317 36 
Kempitiya 42,921 36 
Nilloomally 42,594 36 
Katugastota 22,638 36 
Danawkande 21,119 36 
Dullawa 20,855 36 
Rothes 20,601 36 
Harrisland 20,284 36 
Wyamitta 14,717 36 
Katooloya 14,663 36 
Berryhill 11,071 36 
ona Totam 8,637 36 
Cairn Mon 

Harn 7,560 36 


Estate, Ib. av, 
Bambragalla 6,540 36 
Geragama 443,001 36 
Orion 209,471 35 
Ganapalla 296,403 35 
Avisawella 288,740 35 
Ruanwella 221,320 35 
K.P. W. 195,200 35 
Citrus 175,982 35 
Maldeniya 172,211 35 
Glendon 170,305 35 
Kings Grange166,301 35 
Galata 162,990 35 
Good Hope 162,676 35 
Pindenioya 155,913 35 
Hapugaha- 

lande 155,390 35 
Kitulgalla 146,899 35 
Nikakotua 128,655 35 
Kellie 123,920 35 
Nahalma 117,870 35 
Atherton 107,582 35 
Allingford 106,764 35 
Ferriby 106,225 35 


Edward Hill 104,099 35 
Jak Tree Hill 97,064 35 


Gangwarily 90,203 35 
Trex 84, 189 35 
Widworthy 81,296 35 
Mary Hill 66,359 35 
Kallebokka 65,912 35 
Aranayake 63,945 35 
Massena 63,138 35 
Bridstowe 62,341 35 
Murray- 

thwaite 57,960 35 
Strathisla 52,514 35 
Kalduria 51,880 35 
Paniyakande 48.555 35 
Depedene 48,009 35 
Kotagaloya 46,425 35 
*Knuckles 

Group 43,442 35 
Looloowatte 41,650 35 
Gadadessa 41,645 35 
Moradukande 36,493 35 
We Oya 34,830 35 
Keenagaha- 

ella 31,230 35 
Mahalla 30,991 35 
Huluganga 20,677 35 
Mary Land 19,122 35 
*Wattawella 17,895 35 
Awliscombe 13,845 35 
Koti 13,364 35 
Morantenne 10,095 35 
*Fordyce 9,200 35 
Cottaganga 6,576 35 
Kelani 315,326 34 
*Elston 292,783 34 
Shrubs Hill 289,053 34 


Muendeniya 254,065 34 


Tismoda 234,396 34 
Clunes 212,159 34 
Puspone 206,885 34 
Eila 190,273 34 
Yahalakelle 171,523 34 
Dover 164,479 34 
Kituldeniya 158,502 34 
New Anga- 
mana 156,873 34 


al 


and Magazine of the Ceylon Agricultural Society. 


Estate, Ib. av. 


Lantern Hill 152,903 34 
Algooltonne 147,994 34 
Havilland 145,736 34 
Yellangowry 142,936 34 
Stonyhurst 130,360 34 
Sirikandura 128,715 34 


Hagalla 120,265 34 
Siriniwasa 119,042 3p 
Nugagalla 116,250 34 


Mousakande 110,662 34 
Goolshane 


Ally 110,540 34 
Axdiatenne 103,488 34 
Narangoda 102,695 34 
Wella 95,226 34 
Salawe 90,634 34 
Dalukoya 89,175 34 
Kurulugalla 86,982 34 
Silva Land — 78,371 34 
Munangalla 76,829 34 
Rosemont 75,667 34 
Andangodde 74,946 34 
Halbarawa = _ 71,290 34 
Ankande 69,843 34 
Nellicollay- 

watte 68,469 34 
Mouton 66,014 34 
Nambapana — 59,620 34 
Hillside 57,218 34 
Yatadola 57,190 34 
*New Rasa- 

galla 56,490 34 
Carney 54,934 34 
Dikmukalana 54,918 34 
Hatdowa 49,055 34 
Charlie Hill 42,044 34 
Suduganga 40,453 34 
Ederapolla 39,400 34 
Purana 38,437 34 
Aludeniya 36,614 34 
Dambagalla 35,053 34 
Gamrie 26,759 34 
Kannatota 26,304 34 
Horagalla 25,348 34 
Tokatimulla 21,364 34 
Polatagama 18,330 34 


Papolgashena 17,971 34 


Mahagoda 

(Kalutara) 14,365 34 
*Poengalla 12,477 34 
Yapame 10,390 34 
*Berragalla 9,218 34 
Ettapolla 7,114 34 
Kahatagalla 6,862 34 
*Debatgama 6,698 34 
Mellagolla 6,690 34 
Rathalawewa 1,230 34 
Millewa 206,835 33 
Semidale 200,679 33 
Laurawatte 166,482 33 
Taldua 147,415 33 
*Hapugastenne 


142,358 33 
Gyantse Valley 


120,002 33 
*New Peradeniya 

119,352 33 
Karawanella 103,627 33 
Eadella 97,901 33 
Patiagama 94,658 33 


Estate, Ib, av, 
Walahanduwa 87,970 33 


Monrovia 84,729 33 
Alpha 81,828 33 
Freds Ruhe = 80,333 33 
Glenalla 79,237 33 
Glassel 68,630 33 
Damblagolla 67,216 33 
Perth 59,575 33 
Trafalgar 57,036 33 
Dodantella = 53,430 33 
*Lebanon 

Group 50,352 33 
Ellawala 50,188 33 
Hopewell 48,056 33 
Glenalmond 45,317 33 
Kalugalla 45,245 33 
Rondura 42,685 33 
Torrington 42,563 33 
Wewewatta 42,441 33 
Udapola 41,526 33 
Moragalla 40,704 33 
St. Martin’s 37,497 33 
Dangan 34,246 33 
Orangefield 25,091 33 
Delgany 22,507 33 
Panville 21,433 33 
Ashbourne 21,022 33 
Barrington 18,890 33 
Hayes 15,010 33 
Moragalla 

Group 14,440 33 
Gabella 13,787 33 
St. Leys 12,993 33 
Pembroke 12,944 33 
Horagoda 12,259 33 
*Bellwood 9,053 33 
*Langdon 6,210 33 
*Hton 5,872 33 
*Delpotonoya 5,020 33 
*Manickwella 4,532 33 
*Pieter’s Hill 3.492 33 
Mahawale 532,243 32 
Wattagalla 270,283 32 


Embilia Oya 188,831 32 


Balantota 182,857 32 
Bellongalla 153,238 32 
*Balado 87,458 32 
Lyndhurst 82,381 32 
Oxford 80,521 32 
Selvawatte 67,636 32 
Labugama 60,645 32 
Nidahanawala 53,555 32 
Ukheena 48,870 32 
Mabopitiya 48,753 32 
Kalupabana 46,991 32 
*Meddakanda 45,565 32 
Mipitiakande 43,016 32 
Loolecondera 42,392 32 
* Hatale 34.675 32 
*Kalupane 34,019 32 
Bogahagoda- 

watta 32,730 32 
Bloompark 32,569 32 
Ardross 31,622 32 
Gonamadie 29,449 32 
Kuruwita 28,827 32 
*Patchakaduwa28140 32 
*Rugby 25,730 32 
Lowmount 20,310 32 
Uragalla 19,677 32 


Kstate, Ib, av. 


*Dangakanda 19,338 32 
Labuduwa 19,290 32 


Trewardena 17,376 32 
California E257 32 
*Elfindale 15,931 32 
Yaluwewa 13,574 32 
Struan 13,311 32 
Pendle 11,086 32 
Allakolla IOYSo5032 
Belvoir 9,825 32 
Ferndale 9,465 32 
Amblagolla 7,662 32 
Kurulukelle — 6,755 32 
Mahagoda 5,957 32 
*Nichaloya 1,159 32 
Yataderia 319,661 31 
Alpita- 

kande 224.638 31 
Torwood 194,611 31 
Orwell 148,071 31 
Ambalawa 126,932 31 
PalmGarden 126,275 31 
Agars Land — 69,908 31 
*Sunnycroft 59,360 31 
*Halgolla 56,490 31 
Dekande 41,165 31 
Southend 39,800 31 
Storefield 38,946 31 
Horamvilla © 37,227 31 
Katukurun- 

dugoda 36,984 31 
Augusta 30,396 31 
*Ingoya 28,969 31 
Hantleys 28,433 31 
*Kabaragalla 26,845 31 
Noorane 25,348 31 
Attagalla 21,400 31 
*St. Aubins 21,065 31 
Karawkettia 15,965 31 
Dea Ella 14,066 31 
Bencon 13,974 31 
Bodava 13,660 31 
Norfolk 12,772:31 
Rethepane 10,663 31 
*Wavena 8,230 31 
Alutkelle 8,113 31 
Horagaskelle 7,253 31 
*Belton 6,185 31 
*Dimbulkelle  5,(03 31 
*Morankande 4,821 31 
Ullundupitiya 2,428 31 
Poilakande 330,061 30 
Bowella 95,648 30 
Romania 95,188 30 
Gatagahawala 75,059 30 
Florida 58,634 30 
«Troy 45,201 30 
Yatiyana 42,638 30 
*Chesterfcrd 38,070 30 
Dehiowita 36,864 30 
Talawitiya 36.821 30 
Carlina 34,502 30 
*Alver 34,376 30 
Primston 33,792 30 
Candawatte 23,635 30 
Kudaganga —=19.894 30 
Hegalla 18,270 30 
*Relugas 15,221 30 
*Marakona 13,005 30 
Keeradella 12,880 30 


S11 


Estate. Ib. Av 
*Hoolankande 12,740 30 


Tangalla 12,738 30 
*Wewelkande 12,035 30 
Lauderdale 11,728 30 
*Arslena 1u, 230 30 
Lower 

Kanake 9,377 30 
Edmonton 8,752 30 
*Okoowatte 8,590 30 
Kahatagoda 8,434 30 
Aluketiya 5,729 30 
Makuluwa 2,320 30 
St. Lazarus 2,162 30 
Pen-y-lan 21,300 29 
St. Helens 21,147 29 
*Kadienlena 20,438 29 
Cumbawella 18,000 29 
Springwood 14,910 29 
*Craighead 12,409 29 
Charley Mour 9,685 29 
* Asgeria 8,477 29 
Wepalla 7,341 29 
Unagaswella 4,230 29 
Atherland 3,844 29 
Sandanwatte 2,670 29 
*Talawakelle 1,197 29 
Acratenne 19,155 28 
*Mudamane 15,778 28 
Dimbula 

Eliya 15,455 28 
Lyndale 11,205 28 
Burnley 10,967 28 
Kanuketiya 10,803 28 
Ranenburg _ 10,788 28 
Craigie Park 9,600 28 
Kekiriskande 9,401 28 
Ossington 8,832 28 
Saduvil 2,601 28 
Dartry 1,851 28 
Dickdeliya 1,323228 
*Wootton 817 28 
St Charles 43,612 27 
Oaklands 41,933 27 
*Mariawatte 38,478 27 
*Tarawera 31,036 27 
Bellamulla 19,837 27 
Eilahandu 18,518 27 
Battakella 17,104 27 


Berrulgodella 13,155 27 


Sadamulle 6,581 27 
Welikande 79,372 26 
Madala 14,658 26 
Fairfield 11,214 26 
*Maddage- 

dera 35,229 25 
Allanton 5,470 25 
Weydella 3,629 25 
*Blackwater 2,720 25 
Southwark 2,240 25 
Talawa 18,605 24 
Lenabatuwa 18,602 24 
Zion Hill 11,700 23 
*Attabagie 1,094 23 
West Hall 7,411 v2 
*Glenrhos 3,065 21 
Hillgama 8,400 20 
Galoya 764 20 
*Moolgama 692 20 
Holmsdale 1,869 19 
Panapitiya 1,540 18 


312 

Estate. lb. av. Kstate. lb. av. 
Telgolla 7,331 17 Sancio 3,011 14 
Rawella 6,100 17 *Neanga 15,672 12 

INDIAN TEA. 

Halashana 13,665 48 *Mount 5,044 35 
Chittavurrai 152,816 45 *Munaar 123,065 34 
Madupatty 295,113 43 *Letchmi 46,836 34 
Devicolam 207,214 43 *Deverashola 35,252 34 


MountGordon 65,123 43 Karadishola 22,235 33 


Thia Shola 11,252 43 Puthumally 6,007 31 
Kanniamalay 735,454 42 Perrengodda 30,60 30 
*Vellapatty 34,046 41 *Askern 20,496 30 
Sothuparai 358,260 40 Isfield 7,875 30 
Gundumallay 17,3':540 Merchiston 2,825 30 
Vagavurrai 173,681 39 Pootoomulla 79,350 29 
Periavurrai 101,465 39 Sindamallay 54,407 29 
*Stanmore 7,225 39 *Stagbrook 13,586 28 
*Nullatanni 149,188 38 *Koliekanum 4,943 27 
*Kalaar 51,534 388 *Bon Accord 34,165 25 
Glen \ organ = 7,600 38 Kolam 7,850 24 
*Sevemallay 109,02537 Munjamullay 9,60 20 
Surianalle 448,574 35 *Bracmar: 6,772 18 
Lockhart 229,839 35 
GREEN TEA. 

St. Leonard’s- Oakfield 54,634 34 

on-sea 30,590 40 Galatura 81,084 30 
Vincit 95,989 38 *Halwatura 80,174 24 
Greenfields 45,434 38 *Avington = 12,327 24 
*Kirriwana  21,20038 *Dunedin 42,886 23 
Ooloowatte 76,201 37 *Rayigam 29,867 20 
Piccadilly 49,683 35 *Udatage 27,498 20 
Mapitiagama 60,775 34 *Madampe = 31,505 15 


HOW TO GET RID OF ‘“‘ILLUK”’ 
GRASS ? 


Batticaloa, March Ist. 


Drar Siz,—In your paper recently { notice 
a correspendent writing about the destruction 
of illuk grass on Mr. Nicholas’s estates. Would 
you be so kind as to get the information from 
Mr. Nicholas or your correspondent how to get 
rid of the illuk, as we have a great quantity 
here aud would like to know how it is destroyed ? 


—Yours faithfully, 
JUHN COTTON. 


Mr. G. T. Nicaouas’s METHODS. 


Golua Pokuna, Katunayaka, March 10th. 


Dear Sir,—Absence from home has delayed 
my responding to the call made on me, in your 
issue of the 4th instant, in reference to Mr. John 
Cotton’s letter, asking for information as to how 
to get rid of Illuk grass. 

Just three years ago (5th March, 1906), the 
Hon. Mr. J. Ferguson, c.M.G., read a paper, at 
the meeting of the Board of Agriculture, on 
‘‘Tiluk or Lalang Grass: a tropical weed pest, 
with measures for combating it,’’ supplemen- 
ting his paper with one by myself ‘‘Ona Simple 
and Inexpensive Method of Suppressing and 
Exterminating Illuk over large areas in Coconut 
Plantations.” These, with other connected papers, 
were published in full in the May 1906 number 


The Supplement to the Tropical A griculturist . 


ofthe “Tropical Agriculturist” and I refer Mr. 
Cotton tothe magazine for full details of my 
methods and results. 


The idea of growing certain plants to keep 
down Illuk Grass appears to have ‘‘ caught on” 
for we now read of /'assiflora fetida being used 
in the Malay States for suppressing the pest. 
But, in my opinion, this plant is less suitable 
than the Madu vel (Sinh.) which is of a more 
robust habit of growth; if the latter be grown 
along with the shrub known to the Sinhalese 
as Pupulu, the Illuk issoon got under, 


The tendrils of the Madu vine attach them- 
selves to the blades of [lluk and draw them 
down, whilethe thick close growth of the Pupula 
shrub completely shades the ground and helps 
to choke out tho weed grass. 


I shall be glad to give Mr. Cotton any further 
information on this subject and also to send him 
seeds of the above-mentioned plants, 1f he will 
communicate direct with me, 


Treatment with ‘‘ Arsenite of Soda” is said 
to have proved very successful in experiments 
made in Selangor, but [ have never tried it as [ 
have been quite satisfied with the efficacy of my 


, own method which is devoid of any element of 


danger. ‘‘Arsenite of Soda” being very poisonous, 
care must be taken that no cattle eat the treated 
grass. 

The method of preparation and application 
of the solution is as follows :—‘‘2°88 lb. of 
washing soda are dissolved in 3 gallons of water 
and boiled; then 2 lb of white arsenic are 
slowly stirred in, the liquid being kept boiling 
till all the arsenic is dissolved. It is then 
diluted to 20 gallons as a stock solution,” 


‘Two pints of this are diluted with five gallons 
of water and this is sprayed on the grass, or it 
can be put on by means ofa cloth, one end of 
which dips in a trough on wheels containing the 
solution, the other trailing on the grass and kept 
open by means of an iron rod.” 

‘‘The grass can be first burned off. When 
new shoots are 8” to 9” long the wet cloth is 
drawn over them which kills the shoots in 48 
hours. This is repeated each time new shoots 
appear, the object being to exhaust the roots of 
all starchy matters and so kill the plants en- 
tirely.’’— Yours faithfully, 


GERALD T. NICHOLAS. 


RUBBER NOTES. 

CLosE PLANTING oF RuspBER.—With regard to 
distance in planting it is of interest tu record 
that on Caledonia Kstate 378 lb. of dry rubber 
per acre was obtained in one year from seven 
year old trees, planted 10 feet by 10 feet.-W J 
GALLAGHER,-for March. 


RUBBER GROWING IN THE SEYCHELLEs.—A 
correspondent in Seychelles informs us that 
Para rubber is thriving exceedingly well in that 
part of the world, but that Funtumia, Castilloa 
and Ficus are by no means proving successful. 
It appears that Funtumia and Castilloa in Sey- 
chelles suffer very much from parasites, especi- 
ally scale insects. —India-Rubber Journal, Jan,25. 


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Photo by H. FF, Macmillan. 


ANTHURIUM VEITCHII. 

This is one of the finest and rarest of Anthuriums. 
{It bears large ovate-oblong leaves, which when young 
have a striking, glossy metallic appearance. A distin- 
guishing characteristic of the plant is the curiously 
waved surfaces of the leaves, which is imparted by 
the sunk and arched veins. The plant is «a native 
of Colombia, where it was first discovered in 1877. Being 
of slow growth, and difficult to propagate, it is rarely 


seen in living collections. 
H. &. MACMILLAN. 


TROPICAL AGRICULTURIST 


MAGAZINE OF THE 


CEYLON AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY. 


Vou. XXXII, COLOMBO, APRIL 157x, 1909, No. 4. 
' Reviews. benefit and instruction of the natives 
and planters of thecountry. After care- 
Pi ie ful consideration it was decided by 
THE EXPERIMENT STATION, Government that the title ‘‘ Experiment 
PERADENIY A. Station, Peradeniya,’ was the one best 


A revised list of the Plots on the Experiment 

‘Station, Peradeniya, by R. H. Lock: Circulars 
and Agricultural Journal of the Royal Botanic 
Gardens, Ceylon, Vol. IV., No. 18. 


The writer of this note does not pro- 
pose to criticise his own publication. 
The appearance of this circular, which 
consists almost exclusively of a compila- 
tion from the work of others, is merely 
taken as the text for a few remarks on 
the history and position, functions and 
work of this agricultural institution. 
The writer, however, feels justified in 
remarking that he has had rather special 
opportunities of becoming acquainted 
with his subject, having had facilities 
for closely examining the whole estate 
during the two first years of its occupa- 
tion by the Ceylon Government; whilst 
during the past year he has had the 
advantage of revisiting it after a con- 
siderable interval and noting the marked 
improvements and extensions of work 
which have been carried out. 


The historic estate of Gangaruwa, first 
opened in coffee by Sir Edward Barnes, 
and more recently cultivated in cacao, 
coconuts and other products, was taken 
over by the Government of Ceylon on 
May Ist, 1902, in order to be developed 
as an experimental plantation for the 


suited to describe the position and func- 
tions of this institution. To this ques- 
tion of a name we venture to direct 
Special attention, because it is one upon 
which there exists some misapprehension 
and the station is often miscalled, both 
in the press and in conversation. 


At the outset practically the whole 
attention of the small staff had to be 
devoted to a single large experiment, 
which occupied the greater part of the 
cultivated area for some years, and can 
be said to have only recently been com- 
pleted. In 1902, the Cacao canker, then 
rampant in many parts of Ceylon, had 
thoroughly established itself on Ganga- 
ruwa estate, so that practically all the 
cacao trees over 150 acres were affected 
by this scourge, and the crop had sunk 
toa figure which represented a dead loss 
to the estate. 


Vigorous measures were immediately 
undertaken, an account of which is to 
be found in the Reports of the Controller 
of the Experiment Station and of the 
Government Mycologist for 1902 and 
the years immediately following. As 
the direct result of these measures the 
cacao canker may now be said to be 
under complete control, whilst the con- 
dition and cropping power of the plots 
under experiment may be said to be as 


314 


good as they could possibly be—if the 
nature of the varieties and the way 
they were originally planted are taken 
into consideration. It may safely be 
asserted that this first large experiment 
has turned out an unqualified success, 
and that the instruction afforded by it 
has not been without value to the cacao 
industry of Ceylon. 


We may next allude to the important 
series of experiments relating to the 
manuring of old cacao, and representing 
the first thorough investigation of the 
effect of the repeated application of 
various fertilisers to a permanent crop 
in the tropics. It is too early, as yet, 
to dogmatize upon the 1esult of these 
experiments, but from their very nature 
it is impossible that they should ulti- 
mately tail to yield information of 
first-rate value. The celebrated experi- 
ments at Rothamsted have now been 
in existence for over sixty years, and 
although they deal with the manuring of 
an annual crop, some of the original 
trials are still being continued. There 
is, no doubt, that such experiments 
must be continued over a considerable 
series of years before the conclusions 
drawn from them can be_ regarded 
as beyond the reach of criticism. 
It is therefore useless to be impatient of 
results, and worse than useless to jump 
to hasty conclusions from the result of 
afew years’ work; but itis anticipated 
that in another five years or so we shall] 
begin to know something about the 
manuring of old cacao. Meanwhile, a 
long series of minor experiments have 
been carried out, and these alone would 
be sufficient amply to justify the exis- 
tence of the Experiment Station during 
the first few years of its being. EHxperi- 
ments have been made, or are being made, 
upon the following products among 
others—attended in every case with 
information of value to those interested 
in them—Cacao, Tea, Rubber (including 
Hevea, Castilloa, Funtumia, Ceara and 
the new varieties of Manic¢obar), Coco- 
nuts, Paddy, Arecanuts, Citronella and 
Lemon grasses, Tobacco, Maize and 
various leguminous plants, as wellas a 
number of others of lesser interest. 


Criticisms have reached us at various 
times because some of our experiments 
have turned out to be failures. To criti- 
cise an experiment and say it ought 
uever to have been attempted because it 
has not turned outa success, shows not 
only a want of appreciation of the essen- 
tial natuce of an experiment, but also 
a misapprehension of the chief aim 
and object of an Experiment Station. 
We conceive it to be one of the chief 
functions of those responsible for the 
working of such a station to make 


[ApRin, 1909, 


mistakes in order that others may avoid - 


them. Itis their business to try forms 
of cultivation so speculative that people 
of moderate capital are not justified in 
attempting them for themselves. Such 
forms of cultivation will often turn out 
to be impracticable, but even if one out 
of many proves to be a success, the infor- 
mation gained will make up for many 
failures by its value to the community 
at large. An allied, but more serious, 
mistake into which visitors have some- 
times fallen is to suppose that because 
some particular crop is being tried upon 
the Experiment Station, it is thereby 
guaranteed asa paying form of culti- 
vation, A reference to our preceding 
remarks will show the reason why this is 
not by any means the case. Reports on 
all such crops are published in due 
course, and it is by these that we expect 
the public to be guided. On the other 
hand, visitors who have eyes to see, and 
who are able to refrain from jumping to 
conclusious upon a cursory examination 
of incomplete experiments, will find a 
great deal to interest them on the 
Experiment Station—whatever their own 
particular line of agriculture may be— 
and all such visitors are very welcome. 


R. H. L. 


ESSENTIAL OILS. 


Semi-annual Report of Schimmel & Co. (Fritzsche 
Brothers), November, 1908. 


CAMPHOR OIL. 


Camphor Oil and Camphor : Schimmel’® 
semi-annual report, November, 1908, 
shows that owing to the weak market 
stocks have largely increased in Japan 
and prices are likely to go still lower. 


The price of refined camphor has drop- 
ped in Japan to 1s. 53d. per Ib., with 
the alleged object of killing the com- 
petition of synthetic camphor which has 
partially succeeded, as it is said that the 
principal makers in Germany have for 
the present ceased manufacturing. If 
true there is no reason for a further 
decline in the price cf camphor. 


The chief countries using camphor are 
British India and the Straits Settle- 
ments, where the consumption is chiefly 
due to the use of camphor in the manu- 
facture of fumigating candles for ritual- 
istic purposes and of medicinal prepar- 
ations; Hurope and America, where it 
is mainly employed in the manufacture 
of celluloid, ; 


The Japanese Government intends 
monopolising the trade in camphor seed 
and may stop exportation of seed al- 


APRIL, 1909.] 


together, seedsmen having already been 
cautioned against selling large quantities 
of camphor seed abroad, 

The decline in pricesis said to be main- 
ly due to the increased production of 
Natural Camphor in China, and of Syn- 
thetic Camphor in Germany, also of 
‘“*Monol” and other substitutes. In the 
South of China camphor trees are abun- 
dant almost everywhere and the ex- 
port is rapidly increasing. The Chinese 
Camphor is not as pure as the Japanese, 
owing to cruder methods of distillation. 


In Formosa the camphor production 
was limited to the Western, Northern 
and Southern parts of the Island, the 
regions inhabited by the Aborigines 
having scarcely been touched. 

Recently a Government expert dis- 
eovered a forest rich in camphor to the 
South of Arisan, and a favourable deve- 
lopment of the Formosan Camphor in- 
dustry is anticipated from this fact. 


The Japanese have commenced the 
cultivation of camphor in the Korean 
Island, Quelpart, and intend introducing 
there either the Borneo Camphor tree, or 
the rapidly-growing composite Blumea 
balsamifera. 

Successful experiments in the culti- 
vation of camphor have recently been 
made in parts of Upper Burma, close to 
the China Province of Yunnan. ‘The 
Government of Assam have also made 
successful cultivation experiments in 
the plant of Watijain. 


Numerous enquiries have now been 
made to this Department for the best 
methods of distillation of camphor from 
the leaves, and it is evident that the 
areas planted in India, Malay States, &c., 
are now coming into bearing. 


A paper by Giglioli, “Le Camfora 
Italiana, Rome, 1998,” has now appeared 
in print, and is said tosupply detailed in- 
formation on the production and the price 
fluctuation of Synthetic Camphor; the 
presence, production and commercial con- 
ditions of the Natural product; botan- 
ical, geographical and_ climatological 
notes on the camphor tree; production 
and purification of camphor and the state 
of the trade and prices of camphor cil. 


He recommends the cultivation in every 
part of Italy except the interior, and the 
cooler northern provinces ; and drought 
and inclement winds must be avoided. 
The average camphor content in fresh 
leaves grown in Italy is given as from 
1:2 to 1°38 per cent. and about 0'5 per cent. 
of oil. The average yield obtained by 
distilling by the Japanese method is 1 
per cent. of pure camphor. 


Riviere, a French Scientist, in the 
Journal d’Agriculture tropicale 8 (1908) 


bis? i 


815 


129 is sceptical about the cultivation of 
camphor and distilling the leaves, and 
does not think itcan compete with cam- 
phor from the natural forests of old trees 
or with the synthetic camphor now being 
put on the market—a new factory for 
which is being established in Finland 
to develop a new process of Komppa. 
Cinnamon Oil, Ceylon.—The chemical 
properties are given of Ceylon Cinnamon 
oil as bright yellow, feeble acid re- 
action : dois 1024 to 1040 aa, slightly to 
the Jeft. Soluble in every proportion of 


.90 per cent. alcohol: test for nitric acid ; 


Aldehyde content 65 to 75 per cent. 
(determined with Sodium bisulphate). 


Lemon Grass Oil.--The price of this 
oil fell from 9d. per oz. in 1905-06 to 
2d. in 1908, owing to large imports 
from West Indies accumulating in Lon- 
don; but these are now to a great 
extent cleared and such large supplies 
are not liable to be repeated so quickly 
in future. 


The oil content of the individual parts 
of Andropogon citratus have been 
investigated by A. W. K. de Jong, who 
found that the leaves contained most of 
the oil, the largest quantity being in the 
latest formed leaf, decreasing as the 
leaf ages. 


The citrate content of the oil becomes 
slightly higher as the age of the leaf 
increases, viz., from 77 to 79 per cent. 
in the youngest to 83 per cent. in the 
oldest leaves. The sheathsalso contain 
oilbut less than the leaves themselves. 


The thick bulbous roots also contain 
from 0°5 to 0°35 per cent. of oil according 
to the age and their distillation is sug- 
gested, but the quality and citrate con- 
tent is not given. 


De Jong concludes that the plants 
should be cut when four or five leaves 
only have formed. 


In Cochin-China distillation experi- 
ments have been made which show that 
the grass contains much more oil in the 
dry than rainy season, and that the tip of 
the leaf to one-third of its length js more 
aromatic than the remaining two-thirds. 


Dried leaves, losing 70 per cent. of 
moisture, yielded 8 to 8°5 per cent. of 
oil, whilst fresh leaves yielded in the 
rainy season 2 per cent, and in the dry 
5°b per cent. 


Citronella Oil.—The present quotations 
are given as Ild. c.i.f., and the exports 
from Ceylon up to the end of October, 
1908, compared with the same 


1905 1,068,974 
1906 944,153 
1907 1,039,774 
1908 1,069,439 
M. K. B, 


316 


THE KLEMENTS OF PHILIPPINE 
AGRICULTURE. 


By E. B. CoPpELAND.* 

This is one of the first serious attempts 
to write an elementary text-book of 
Agriculture for use in tropical schools, 
and consequently requires serious con- 
sideration. 


The author recommends that the work 
be used in connection with a_ school 
garden, in which every boy should have 
a plot about 15 feet by 9, if necessary, 
rather than make the plots smaller; he 
would put two boys to each, as with 
small plots the importance of space is 
not properly understood, The student 
should map his plot carefully ; this, of 
course, is incidentally useful as a lesson 
in geography. His plants must be most 
carefully laid out in regular rows at 
exact intervals. Each student should 
keep a note-book in which the map is 
entered, and every detail about the 
growth and treatment of the plants, and 
these should be frequently overhauled 
by the teacher. 


After a general introductiou the book 
goes on to deal with the parts of plants, 
with the soil, with plants and their need 


* The World Book Company, Yorkers-on-Hudson, 
New York and Manila, P. I. 


[APRIL, 1909. 


of light, water, &c. Though somewhat 
too condensed, this part should be easily 
enough understood by a boy of say 15, 
and to younger children than this we 
would not teach agriculture. 


After this follow chavters on the 
actual crops, maize, coffee, abaca, &c. 


It is difficult to criticise an elementary 
pioneer work like this; but, in general 
our impression isthat, while a good work 
so far as it goes, itis too much con- 
densed, and will require great ampli- 
fication, with detailed practical demon- 
stration, by a good teacher; and itis in 
the provision of such teachers that the 
difficulty lies in tropical agriculture. 


J. C. WILLIS. 


SUGGESTIONS FOR SCHOOL 
GARDENS. 


By J. R. WILLIAMS.* 


This is a useful hand-book, which 
should be in the hands of anyone in- 
terested in School Gardens in the tropics. 

It eontains useful hints on clearing. 
fencing, laying out, &c., besides local in- 
formation on crops of Jamaica. 


J. C. WILLIS. 


* Government Printing Office, Kingston, Jamaica, 


Apri, 1909. . 317 


GUMS, RESINS, SAPS AND EXUDATIONS. 


A STORY OF GROWTH. 


At the beginning of a new year in the 
life of The India Rubber World it 
always has seemed to us appropriate to 
engage somewhat in retrospect. The 
recounting of accomplished progress 
in any industry is of interest not only 
in itself, but as indicating lines of 
possible future development. The nine- 
te en years which have elapsed since the 
initial issue of this journal have been 
fruitful in invention and progress in 
many ways, and in to other industry, 
perhaps, more than in rubbder and the 
allied interests. We feel certain that 
the last word has not been said in the 
development of rubber interests, and 
look ‘forward to chronicling every year 
much more news of importance in this 
trade. 


To eliminate from the rubber trade 
to-day all that has been developed in 
it within the past nineteen years would 
leave some very wide gaps—nearly 
everything in the way of vehicle tyres, 
the greater part of the insulated wire 
manufacture, air-break hose, hose for 
pneumatic tool work, the rubber-cored 
golf-ball, and an immense number and 
variety of minor articles of rubber, 
together with the new processes and 
apparatus which have been perfected 
for their production. 


The rubber world, so to speak, has 
been greatly broadened in those nine- 
teen years. The opening up of forest 
rubber areas in Africa and in the upper 
Amazon regions has alone proved of 
vast importance tothe industry, while 
the iatroduction of rubber culture has 
still further increased the world’s 
supply of raw material. Scarcely less 
important has been the great improve- 
ment in reclaiming rubber and the 
increase in the volume of this product. 
The growth in the extent of the output 
of the rubber factory has involved not 
only a large increase in consumption at 
home, but the sale of important quanti- 
ties in countries not consumers of rub- 
ber before. 


We cannot better sum up the stitu- 
ation, perhaps, than by referring to the 
International Rubber and Allied Trades 
Exhibition, just closed in London, as 
an epitome of progress in rubber; to 
have omitted from its catalogue all that 
represented development during the 
past two decades would have left little 
more than a skeleton. We regard this 
exhibition as epoch-making, and by 


comparing few rubber exhibitions with 
it will best be measured the growth of 
the trade. 

It is of interest to note that seldom 
has rubber been utilized to an impor- 
tant extent for the purpose without con- 
tinuing to be so utilized. Hence every 
new application means a permanent 
addition to the catalogue of the uses of 
rubber. To-day the possibility appears 
to exist of a great coming demand for 
rubber in aerial navigation—a demand 
which within the coming nineteen years 
may prove as important as the present 
demand for rubber in the tyre trade. 


We donot doubt that the most im- 
portant development in the next decade 
will relate to the production of crude 
rubber—in new fields and from new 
plants, as well asin the improved pre- 
paration of rubber in the field now ex- 
ploited. It isnot unlikely that within 
this period the culture of what now are 
regarded as minor rubber plants will 
become extensive in the temperate 
zone.—The India Rubber World, Vol. 
XXXIX., No.1, October, 1908. 


THE RUBBER EXHIBITION : SOME 
NOTABLE EXHIBITS AND MR. 
BAMBER’S PROCESSES. 


By Huspert L. TERRY. 


The main features of this Inter- 
national Rubber Exhibition have been 
dealt with by the Editor, and the obser- 
vations I am about to make refer 
entirely to the raw_rubber exhibits 
of Ceylon and British Malaya, which 
occupy two of the most prominent 
stands in the Hall. Stand is perhaps too 
plebean a term to use in connection with 
the ornate pavilion of Ceylon and the 
attractive native dwelling of Malaya, 
but its significance will not be misunder- 
stood. These two exhibits, along with 
the Dutch colonial exhibits, may, I 
think, be selected from the bulk of the 
show as of special, interest, embodying 
as they do the results up to date of the 
rubber planting industry—one of,the 
uewest departures in economic botany. 
In no way do I wish to belittle the 
interest attaching to exhibits of raw 
rubber from the forest—such as the 
splendid show made by the State of 
Amazonas. Native rubber, however, is 
not exactly a novelty, and as the object 
of the exhibition was declared by the 
President in his opening speech to be 
primarily educational, it is important to 


Gums, Resins, 


lay stress of the greatest novelties in so 
far as they have an important bearing 
upon the rubber interest generally. 


Both the Ceylon and the British 
Malaya stands contained samples of 
plantation rubber from the most import- 
ant of the numerous companies located 
in their respective districts, and it would 
probably prove more monotonous than 
instructive to refer to each of these 
separately, especially as the rubber in 
its various forms of sheet, block, crepe, 
worm, etc., is much the same as produced 
by each company. Botanical exhibits 
were numerous, and also photographs of 
general scenery and processes connected 
with the industry. Samples of such 
catch crops as indigo and tapioca were 
also to be seen, and mention should not 
be omitted of the model estate rubber 
factory at the Ceylon stand fitted up 
according to Mr. Kelway Bamber’s ideas 
of how the work of preparing | raw 
rubber for the HKuropean market should 
be carried out. It is, of course, noto- 
rious that the procedure on different 
estates varies considerably, which is not 
surprising, seeing the novelty of the 
whole busiuvess, and no doubt for some 
time to come we shall witness great 
divergencies of opinion, 

There is no doubt, however, that 
the planters will best serve their own 
interests if they endeavour to produce 
rubber of always the same quality, even 
of the same tint. This latter point may 
not really be of any importance, but it 
carries weight with the less enlightened 
manufacturer. The great complaint in 
manufacturing circles up to now has 
been about the want of uniformity in 
bulk lots of plantation rubber, and 
this is of course due to the different 
procedure adopted on the various 
estates, and also to the variable pro- 
cedure of any particular estate. In this 
respect, therefore, I consider that the 
detailed proposals made by Mr. Kelway 
Bamber for the coagulation and pre- 
paration of the rubber on exact and 
uniform lines form one of the most 
important topics brought to the notice 
of visitors to the exhibition. The varia- 
tion in the colour of the plantation Para 
from Ceylon and Malaya as shown in the 
numerous specimens on the stands is 
very striking, practically all shade from 
pure white through yellows and browns 
to black being represented. If Mr, 
Bamber’s process is generally adopted in 
the future, it will mean thata uniform 
product which is practically white will 
be produced, and that rubber manufac- 
turers will be able to order lots amount- 
ing to several tons with full confidence 
that the quality will be the same 
throughout. It would take up too much 


318 


, [Apriz, 1909, 


space to give Mr. Bamber’s proposals in 
anything like detail, but a summary of 
the main points may be attempted. 


It is important to make a daily testing 
of the latex from each field in order 
to determine when the proportion of 
rubber has fallen to the minimum paying 
quantity. 

Whatever method of tapping is 
employed, the trees should be marked 
in such a way that the bark will be 
removed systematically and no irregular 
patches left which cannot be tapped. 
The best angle is 45°, and this should be 
maintained by keeping the cuts perfectly 
parallel from start to finish, and not 
gradually making them more vertical 
towards the lower end. 


The knife must be kept perfectly sharp 
so as tocut and not tear the bark, and 
immediately after making the cut the 
channel should be moistened with a very 
dilute ammonia or formalin solution 
applied by means of a piece of cloth on 
a stick; this encourages the flow, delay- 
ing the coagulation, and the proportion 
of scrap rubber is reduced. 


Mr. Bamber advised the use of glass 
or stoneware cups in preference to sheet 
iron, as they are more readily cleaned. 
They are also to be washed before use in 
a dilute formalin solution made by 
mixing one part of the ordinary 40 per 
cent. solution of commerce with 40 parts 
of water. All the latex collected in the 
cups is to be strained through fine wire 
gauze into enamelled or wooden buckets, 
and on arrival at the factotyis again 
strained into large vats and sampled for 
its yield of rubber. With regard to the 
determination of the amount of web 
rubber per gallon, it may be remarked 
that unless the exact procedure is de- 
tailed, very variable results will be 
obtained by different operators, a very 
similar case being the approximate de- 
termination of gluten in flour. With 
regard to coagulation Mr. Bamber does 
not seem to favour mechanical methods 
except where the amount of latex to be 
treated is only small. His proposals are 
a high temperature and the use of well 
diluted acetic acid. 


Itis inthe coagulation that his most 
important suggestions arise. He has 
found that if the latex has steam passed 
into ituntil the temperature arises to 
180° F., and is maintained at this heat 
for three hours, certain organic sub- 
stances of a proteid nature are destroyed, 
and the rubber subsequently precipitat- 
ed by acetic acid is quite white and 
maintains this colour after shipment. 
It is mentioned that a solution of wood 
creosote in spirit can be added during 
coagulation if desired. Presumably the 


Fo 


Apri, 1909,] 


doctors are not agreed as to the utility 
or otherwise of this addition of creosote. 
Samples of perfectly white rubber pre- 
pared by this oxydase-destroying process 
wereto be seen on both the Ceylon and 
Malaya stands, and it will be interesting 
to hear what the trade has to say about 
them. Mr. Bamber’s main contention is 
that uniformity in bulk will be secured, 
and, further, that the colourless rubber 
will be found of special use in the manu- 
facture of certain goods—such as teats, 
for example—the white colour not being 
affected by the vulcanization. 


With regard to the subsequent wash- 
ing and rolling processes it is advised 
after the first rolling to again immerse 
the rubber sheetin water at 180° F. to 
ensure complete destruction of the 
oxydase and the complete removal of all 
soluble matters on which bacteria and 
fungi grow. After this the rubber is 
allowed to contract naturally in cold 
water out of contact with the air. 


Mr. Bamber is against the too rapid 
drying of the rubber, and remarks that 


the 10to 15 per cent. of moisture in 


Brazilian Para is probably an advantage 
to it. Hedoes not seem to be enamoured 
of the vacuum drying process, and thinks 
that the vacuum process if used at all 
should only come after the natural 
drying in order to get the rubber quite 
dry for packing. The best method in 
his opinion is the use of perfectly dry 
air which can be obtained easily and 
economically by a plant of which a 
working model was shown at the Ceylon 
stand. It involves the use of a refri- 
gerating plant and a system of pipes 
which strike one as decidedly ingenious, 
and for the purpose to be achieved to be 
devised on sound scientific lines.—IJndia 
Rubber World, Vol. XXXIX., No. 1, 
October, 1908. 


THE NEW MANIHOTS. 


By Dr. C, E. WATERHOUSE. 

During the last two years and es- 
pecially this year great interest has been 
aroused in some new species of Manihot 
rubber trees which from all accounts are 
far superior to Manihot glaziovii, and 
which should be of special interest to the 
rubber growers of Hawaii, from the fact 
that the Manihot glaziovii or Ceara rub- 
ber tree grows and yields so well in 
Hawaii. Some of the reasons why, if 
these species do as well as the Ceara, it 
will be well worth the while of the rubber 
growers of Hawaii to pay particular 
attention to these species in future plant- 
ings will be forthcoming later in this 
paper, 


319 Saps and EFxudations, 


The export of rubber from the State of 
Bahia has increased more than ten fold 
within six years, having risen from 
100 tons in 1900 of very inferior rubber 
to over 1,100 tons in 1906 of a very 
superior grade of rubber. This led to 
an investigation of the sources of this 
new supply and the discovery that, in- 
stead of the low grade of Mangebeira as 
formerly gathered, the suvply came 
mainly from the three new and very 
valuable varieties :— 


1. Manihot dichotoma or Jequie Mani- 
coba ; 


2, Manihot heptaphylla or Sao Francis- 
co Manicgoba ; 


8. Manihot piauhyensis or Piauhy 
Manicoba. 


These varieties were so named by Dr. 
Ule, so well known as an authority on 
the classification of different srecies of 
rubber trees, and who visited the State 
of Bahia and neighbouring States in 1906 
to look into the sources of this supply. 

Until six years ago Manihot glaziovii 
was considered the only rubber-yielding 
species of its genus (though there were 82 
species recorded which will soon be 100 
when all those discovered are described). 


It was only in the early part of 1906 
that even the Kew Gardens, the birth- 
place, so to speak, of the rubber industry 
of the far East and always on the 
lookout for new species of rubber, was 
aware of the existence of rubber- 
yielding trees closely related to the 
comonly cultivated Manihot glaziovit. 

All these species, from all accounts, not 
only yield considerably more latex than 
the Ceara, but what is of very much more 
importance to Hawaii is, the amount 
which one man can collect is much 
greater (in other words the cost of 
collection is considerably less). This isa 
most important item here owing to the 
high price paid for labour, in fact the 
point upon which the whole success of 
the rubber industry in Hawaii hinges. 

A notable fact in this connection, one 
which will appeal to any one who has 
had any experience in tapping the Ceara 
is thatin these new varieties, in shedding 
the bark, longitudinal slits are formed 
and the membranous bark peels off in 
more or less verticle rows. This allows 
its removal much more easily and there- 
fore cheaply, than is the case with the 
Ceara. 


These varieties of Manihot, like the 
Manihot glaziovui or Ceara, have a very 
dry habitat, However, just as we find 
here in Hawaii that the Ceara does 
better in wet localities, so with these 
varieties the same may be true, That 
the Ceara does better here where it is 


Gums, Resins, 


wet I think there is no doubt. I have 
myself ina little experiment station of 
my own tried watering some plants and 
leaving others in the same soil unwater- 
ed, and the watered plants far out- 
stripped those unwatered, and seemed 
to have as much more latex, though 
the trees are still too young to draw 
conclusions from as to yield. 


In regard to these three varieties: 
(1) Manihot Dichotoma. 


The seeds of this variety are much 
larger than those of the Ceara. Germin- 
ation takes place in two to three weeks 
if unfiled, the shell being much softer 
than in the case of the Ceara. The 
soil upon which this tree flourishes 
is variously described as red clay and 
red loam. The bark of this tree is 
thinner and more delicate than that of 
the Ceara, 


(2) and (8) Manihot Heptaphylla 
and Manihot Piauhyensis. 


The seeds of these two varieties can 
hardly be distinguished from each 
other; they are only a little larger than 
Ceara seeds. They do not germinate 
nearly as well as in the case of the 
Manihot dichotoma. These two varie- 
ties in the region around Bahia thrive 
in a sandy soil, growing largely on 
sandstone mountains. Both varieties 
do not grow as tall and are smaller 
than the Manihot dichotoma and in- 
clined to branch low. They are not 
affected by the wind so much as Ceara, 
probably on account’ of being smaller 
and more low lying. This also affects 
the methods of tapping as explained 
later. The foliage is cnaracteristically 
green and fresh-looking. 

Methods of Planting.—There are a 
number of plantations around Bahia, 
some of which are now three or four 
years old. They are planted for the 
most part 1,000 trees to the acre. This 
close planting has been atopted because 
the trees are planted in a dry locality, 
and itis claimed that if not planted so 
closely, or say 200 to the acre, the 
ground would be baked so hard and dry 
that the trees would dwindle and die. 
Also the trees are considerably smaller 
than other varieties, and consequently 
need less room. 


Methods of Tapping.—In the case of 
the Manihot dichotoma the bark of the 
trunk is tapped and an instrument curv- 
ed at the tipis used. The herring bone 
or a single cut isused, Cups are used to 
receive the latex. The latex coagulates 
quickly on exposure to air but appar- 
ently not too quickly to prevent its 
flowing down into the cup’s well. Water 
is sometimes used in thecups to prevent 
too rapid coagulation. 


320 


[APRIL, 1909, 


In the case of the Manihot piauhyensis 
and Manihot heptaphylla, the shorter 
trunk and somewhat thinner bark than 
the Manihot dichotoma are not suitable 
for cutting, and by this method yield 
little latex. <A little earth, however, is 
scraped away from the base of the tree, 
and the top of the taproot is exposed 
and an incision with a round pointed 
knife is made at or near the junction of 
tap root and trunk, and the latex flow- 
ing into this hole coagulates and is 
gathered therefrom. Often the eol- 
lectors coat this little hole with clay to 
keep the rubber cleaner. Cups have 
been used, but there is some difficulty 
in getting them into the hole thus 
made, and the method is little used 
at presentin collecting from the wild 
trees, but will doubtless be worked on 
plantations. 


Yield of the Trees.—This is variously 
stated all the way from 2 to 11 pounds 
per year. Though of course these state- 
ments are made in regard to the 
gathering of the rubber from wild trees, 
which are more or less ruthlessly tap- 
ped, and especially in’ the case of the 
Manihot dichotoma the wood is thus- 
often injured severely that the tree dies, 
Also itis probably wet rubber that is’ 
spoken of, and also in some of it, espe- 
cially the Manihot heptaphylla and 
Ee et there may be considerable 

irt. 


Dr. Ule considers that the Manihot 
dichotoma has the advantage of its 
caoutchouc fetching a somewhat higher 
price. Onthe other hand the amount 
produced in the other varieties is con- 
siderably greater according to him, He 
therefore prefers these latter varieties, 
which he considers will supplant the 
Ceara forthedry and less fertile areas 
where Ceara is cultivated. There is no 
doubt, however, that all of these var- 
ieties yield more than the Ceara. 


Amount of Latex collected by one 
Man in one Day.—This has been vari- 
ously stated at from 1 to 8 or 10 pounds. 
Taking into consideration the tendency 
to exaggeration in regard toany new 
product and misleading methods of 
figuring, still it is generally conceded 
that considerably more can be collected 
ina day from these varieties than from 
the Ceara. 

Several thousand seeds of the Manihot 
dichotoma or Jiquie Manicobar were 
imported by Mr. Jared G. Smith and most 
ot the rubber plantations have obtain- 
ed some of the trees. I have planted 
a few of these seeds. When filed they 
germinated in a few days and have 
grown very well, fully as well as the 
Ceara so far, in spite of the fact that 
this is the wrong season of the year 


APRIL, 1909, | 


for planting. The leaves have red ribs 
especially when looking up through the 
leaves with sunlight shining through. 
Those obtained at the. Kew Gardens 
had whitish green ribs which it has 
been suggested might be due to arti- 
ficial cultivation there, or may mean 
two such varieties have been described. 
Both are of about the same value how- 
ever. I intend to try watering some of 
these trees very heavily, and letting 
others have only the rainfall, which if 
this dry weather keeps up will be a 
slight test as to whether it will thrive 
best in a dry or wet locality here in 
the islands. 


So far I have watered all the young 
seedlings and they have done very well. 
Seeds of this variety are the only ones 
so far obtained. But it is doing very 
well when we remember that not even 
the Kew Gardens nor the Gardens in 
Ceylon, Singapore, ete., have been able 
to obtain these other two varieties, 
though they have been seeking to do so 
for two years. The Peradeniya Gardens 
otf Ceylon have 100 seedlings of Alanihol 
dichotoma growing, also the Singapore 
and Penang Botanic Gardens. The Pera- 
deniya Gardens are constantly asked for 
seed, they cannot as yet supply for 
planting in the dry lands in Ceylon, 
where the Hevea cannot be grown. We 
must not, however, forget that the rest 
of the tropical world always thinks of 
these varieties as well as the Ceara in 
connection with a dry region, and it 
was only because we found trees of the 
Ceara variety growing and yielding so 
well in our wettest localities, ac in 
Nahiku and Puna, and so much better 
than in the drier localities, as in and 
around Honolulu, ete,, that we decided, 
what subsequent plantings have all 
tended to confirm, that the wetter local- 
ities, if not too cold, are better for the 
Ceara than the drier ones here in the 
Hawaiian Islands. Still it wouldbe a 
wise thing to plant some of these 
Manihot dichotoma in some dry places 
for experiment. Dr. Ule says :— 


‘If, as is probable, the cultivation of 
Hevea brasiliensis will undoubtedly ob- 
tain the greatest importance for the pro- 
duction of rubber in luxuriant tropical 
regions, the future has to look to Manihot 
heptaphylla and Manihot piauhyensis 
as the rubber plants for the dry and 
less fertile areas.” Of course, it is only 
fair to say that other observers speak 
as highly of Manthot dichotoma, which 
he has left out in this statement. 


To sum up, then, there are several 
reasons why the planters of Hawaii 
should direct their attention to these 
varieties. — 


51 


By | Saps and Haudations. 


1. In the first place the industry in 
these islands is inits infancy, and we 
should endeavour totest all the different 
varieties of rubber-yielding trees which 
seem to promise well. For we do not 
yet know which species will prove the 
best in the long run, all things consi- 
dered, such as early yield, cheapness of 
installation, length of yield with con- 
stant tapping, amount of yield, cheap- 
ness of collection, quality of the rub- 
ber obtained, ete., ete., a balancing of 
all of which will give us finally the 
best species to cultivate most largely. 
The present plantations must necessa- 


“rily do a great deal of pioneer work in 


this regard, if we have regard to the 
industry for the islands as a whole. 
After the present companies have 
shown what can or cannot be done 
commercially with the different species, 
no doubt many plantations will follow 
this lead, 


2. These varieties in their habitat 
yield considerably larger quantities than 
the Ceara and yet thrive under very 
much similar conditions to those in 
which the Ceara thrives, the variety 
which so far has proved to grow the 
best here. 


3. Most important of all, here are 
varieties which promise the lowest cost 
of collection which, quality being equal, 
is as I have said the pivotal point in 
regard to the whole industry in Hawaii.— 
Hawatin Forester and Agriculturist, 
Vol. V., No. 12, December, 1908. 


METHOD OF TAPPING ASSAM 
RUBBER. 


The Heperiment Station Record (No. 
11, 1908) furnishes the following account 
of animproved method of tapping Assam 
rubber (Ficus elastica), together with 
the results of some tapping experiments 
carried out in India, in which this 
method was used :— 


The tapping instrument consists of an 
ordinary carpenter’s chisel from 3-inch to 
j-inch wide. This is driven into the bark 
vertically in a series of cuts, each the 
width of the chisel, across the direction 
of the trunk or branch being tapped, 
and with at least }-inch space between 
each incision. The rows of incisions are 
made about 6 inches apart on the stems 
and branches of the tree. Thin strips of 
lead are secured to the stem underneath 
each row, by which the latex is con- 
ducted into cups. By this method of 
tapping about two-thirds of the latex 
is said to find its way into the cups, 
while one-third coagulates on the cuts. 


Gums, Resins. 32 


In 1905, eight trees planted in 1882 
were tapped in this manner, and gave 
an average return of 6 1b. of rubber per 
tree. The same trees were again tapped 
in 1906, and the yield for individual 
trees varied from 23 lb. to10 lb. Four 
trees, planted in 1880 and 1890, were 
tapped in a similar manner during the 
same years. In 1905-6 the estimated 
yield per tree was about 2 |b. of rubber, 
and in 1906-7 the yield per individual 
tree varied from 1j lb. to 34 lb. With 
this method of tapping, the cuts made 
in the previous year appeared to heal 
well and to be hardly noticeable, and it 
is thought probable that the Assam rub- 


ber trees may be tapped more fre- 
quently than by the older methods of 
tapping in which the bark is seriously 
injured. 


The latex coagulating on the cuts is 


. said to require no further treatment. 


That gathered from the cups is mixed 
with a 2-per cent. solution of formalin, 
poured into clean bamboo troughs and 
coveied from the direct rays of the sun. 
The coagulation is said to be complete 
within a day’s time. After the strips 
of rubber have dried they are rolled 
into balls.—Agricultural News, Vol. - 
VIII., No, 176, p. 27, January 23, 1909. 


OILS AND FATS. 


THE SUNFLOWER (HELIANTHUS 


By ‘“ RUSTICUS.” 


The Sunflower has long been grown 
for ornamental purposes, the beautiful 
yellow flowers with dark centres being 
particularly attractive in field and 
garden. Here in Ceylon it has been 
grown to a very small extent, chiefly as 
an ornamental plant, but its value as a 
useful product has not been fully re- 
cognised. Deriving its scientific name 
from helios, sun; and anthos, a flower, 
and from the erroneous idea, propagated 
by poets and others that the flowers 
always turned towards the sun, the 
plant is conspicuous and attracts atten- 
tion among other vegetation. We have 
been cultivating the plant for its beauty 
alone, not ; 


RECOGNISING ITS ECONOMIC VALUE. 


It appears to possess far more profitable 
qualities than have been hitherto sup- 
posed, and may be cultivated with 
advantage and applied to many useful 
purposes. The part of the sunflower 
plant which has the chief value is the 
seed from which an edible oil may be 
extracted, The oilcake left after the 
extraction of the oil by pressure is 
extremely rich in nitrogenous matter, 
and has a food value equal to the cake 
resulting from the expression of linseed 
oil, but superior to it for fattening 
cattle, while the plant itself is made 
use of in different directions; it is there- 
fore avaluable plant to be cultivated, 
and though we hear that it is being 
regularly grown in some parts of the 
Province of Uva as an oil seed, its 


CULTIVATION THROUGHOUT THE ISLAND 
SHOULD BE ENCOURAGED 


In western Europe and America the 
sunflower has been grown chiefly for 
ornamental purposes and occasionally for 
poultry food. More varieties are grown 
purely for ornamental purposes than for 
the production of seeds, butseveralof the | 
ornamental sunflowers are derived from 
other species. In Russia, where the 
numerous religious fasts restricting the 
use of meat lead tu a large consumption 
of vegetable oils and oily foods, the 
sunflower seed has become almost a 
staple article of diet. It is eaten raw or 
roasted as peanuts arein America, but 
much more extensively. in the United 
States three principal varieties are 
grown for the production of seeds. In 
this country the common sunflower, with 
no distinguishing varietal name, has been 
long cultivated. Its nodding heads are 
eight to sixteen inchesin diameter, pro- 
ducing chiefly grey-brownish or striped 
seeds, but if the plant is to be cultivated 
for the expression of oil larger varieties 
would be desirable, as for instance the 
mammoth Russian with heads fifteen to 
twenty inches in diameter producing 
seeds about one-half inch long, with 
black or brownish stripes or sometimes 
white; and the black giant, another 
variety, has heads sixteen to twenty-two 
inches in diameter, with rather thick 
black seeds about three-eighths of an 
inch long. The 


GREAT VALUABLE PROPERTIES ' 


belonging to the sunflower plant have un- 
doubtedly been neglected when greater 
attention ought to have been paid. No 
plant produces such fine honey and 
wax, and when the plant is _ in 
blossom bees abound on it. The 
branches and stalk of the sunflower, 


when reduced to a sufficient state of 


y bY 
Rie Ba 


APRIL, 1909.] 323 


fineness, possesses nutrive properties of 
a high order, and furnish food suitable 
to the nourishment of many domesticat- 
ed animals suchas horses, cattle, and 
sheep. It is undoubtedly true that the 
sunflower seed is a valuable food when 
mixed in proper proportions with other 
food products. It improves the digestion 
of the animal and therefore is beneficial 
to its health. In fact, the seeds are used 
to a large extent for the purpose of 
keeping animals in excellent physical 
condition. The supposed efficacy of sun- 
fiower seeds for the cure of certain 
diseases, such as rheumatism, is probably 
largely mythical. There isa very pre- 
valent notion that the growth of large 
quantities of sunflowers in malarial 
regions prevents the development of 
diseases of malarial origin, although 
this, too, is probably an illusion. From 
the stalks of the plant a valuable potash 
is made; and the leaves go to manure 
the soil. The leaves have also been 
manufactured into cigars, possessing, it 
is stated, pectoral properties. The green 
leaves when dried and burnt to powder 
make excellent fodder for milech cows, 
mixed with bran. The sunflower has 
been long largely grown in parts of 
Russia and Germany for its 


OIL WHICH IS OF MUCH VALUE 


both for edible and lighting purposes. 
It also makes most beautiful soap. The 
seed, shelled, makes when ground very 
fine flour for bread, particularly tea 
cakes. The stalk toois useful, for by 
treating it exactly like flax, it will 
produce a fibre as fine as silk, andin 
large quantities, and there is no doubt 
that many of their silk goods have a 
large portion of sunflower fibre in them. 
The plant is easy of cultivation and 
will grow in all parts of the island. A 
light rich soil, as unshadowed by trees 
as possible, is about the best. The seeds 
should be planted six inches apart, and 
about one inch deep, and when one foot 
high may be earthed up. The plant 
will then require no further attention, 


EVERY SINGLE PLANT WILL PRODUCE 


1,000 or more seeds. The main head 
generally produces 800 to 1,000 seeds, and 
there are usually four collaterals pro- 
duciug 50 to 60 seedseach. The quantity 
of seed is much increased by dwarfing 
the plants which should be kept free 
from weeds. Itis important that they 
should have sufficient interval between 
them for exposure to the sun, as under 
such circumstances they become larger 
and more fully stored with seed. The 
produce varies considerably, accordin 

to the state of the soil, the climate an 

the cultivation that is employed. I 
have no figures to give as regards pro- 


Oiis and Fats. 


duction in Ceylon, but statistics of 
cultivation in Russia give the average 
quantity of seed at 50 bushels per acre, 
and the yield of oil at a gallon: per 
bushel.—Ceylon Independent. 


ATTALEA COHUNE (MARTINS). 


By OSBORNE BROWNE. 

This splendid specimen of the palm 
order is indigenous to the low lands of 
Honduras where it constitutes the 
largest part of the furest. It will grow 
in poor soil but nowhere attains luxu- 
riance except in the volcanic loams of 
the best class of forest land. 


From its abundance this kind of forest 
is locally called ‘‘Cohune ridge” in con- 
tradistinction to ‘‘ Pine ridge” which is 
a barren park-like country covered by 
wiry grass and having scattered Pines, 
Oaks, and Craboos. 

The term ‘“‘ridge” is not warranted as 
it simply means a difference in forest and 
soil, and nothing more. 


Often the transition from the pine- 
ridge to the Cohune-ridge is very abrupt, 
and after walking on a soil so barren 
that a cow would require 100 acres for a 
living, one may within a few moments 
walk on a soil which may grow 19 or 20 
hand bunches of Bananas, each bunch so 
heavy thata strong man has difficulty 
not in carrying it away but in cutting it 
down, so that it may not fall and be 
bruised. The palm grows toa height of 
70 or 80 feet, but these aged specimens 
have a small and barren crown. 


The trunk is smooth and slightly 
marked by the scars of fallen leaves. 
The leaves resemble those of the coconut 
palm, but are much larger and have a 
more upright habit from crowding in 
the bush, and they also do not turn over 
on the flat like the leaves of the coconut 
palm, but are more inclined to turn over 
on the edge, so to speak. The feature, 
however, which attracts most attention 
is the huge bunches of fruit each weigh- 
ing 80 to1001bs. and containing about 500 
nuts, each the size of a hen’s egg. The 
fruit stalk is quite straight, about 3—4 
feet long, oval in section, measuring 
5 to 6inches diameter at the butt, taper- 
ing to the end, and consisting of a mass 
of weak fibre. Under each tree is a 
slight mound of scattered nuts, many of 
which have a neat round hole gnawed 
through the excessively hard and thick 
shell by rodents in search of the oily 
kernel. The kernel may be double or 
triple and about the size of a Parva rubber 
seed or a jak seed, and contains as much 
oil vs copra and of a finer quality. On 


Oils and Fats. 


the rivers in the interior the inhabitants 
use the oil in their cooking operations. 
They have some troubleas the shell is 
very hard, but by placing the nutin a 
depression in a hard block it is kept 
from flying about when struck by the 
hammer. If the nut is long dry the 
kernel gets loose, but it usually requires 
to be dug out with a knife. When such 
land is cut for ‘‘the burn” the Cohune 
leaves make a fine blaze and add nota 
little to the success of the operation. 
The stumps of those with trunks soon 
rot out forming deep, round, and treach- 
erous holes, and it is surprising how few 
sprains and broken bones they account 
for. The young palms are not killed by 
the fire and continue to give the cleaners 
trouble for some time. 


Now, however, decorticating machinery 
has been invented which successfuly 


324 


[APRIL, 1909 


deals with the nut, and before long the 
destruction of this enormously valuable 
nut of Honduras will be stayed. Fortu- 
nately the forests are still more or less 
intact except in situations convenient 
for getting out Bananas, the bunches of 
which while delicate are very heavy and 
do not command a sufficient price in this 
part of the world—a ‘‘pass” bunch of 
eight hands being only worth 25 cents on 
board the steamer if it succeeds in being 
aken. 


Nothing can be more satisfactory than 
the alternative about to be offered to the 
poor planter of keeping his land un- 
wasted in the natural forest and let the 
fruit monopolists go elsewhere and lay 
waste fine land tor a ‘‘Song.” As a 
lover of the forest nothing could be 
more pleasing to me. 


FIBRES. 


COTTON CULTIVATION : 
ITS EXTENSION IN CEYLON. 


By J. STEWART J. McCaLt, 
Director of Agriculture, Nyasaland. 


PRELUDE. 

The developing of new cotton fields 
throughout the British world and the 
broadening of the basis of supply is 
the most important economic problem 
of British tropical and sub-tropical agri- 
culture. 

This imperial question and its solution 
is the success or failure of the largest 
export trade of the world, the very 
backbone of British commerce. 


It has been estimated by Mr. Macara, 
the great authority on cotton statistics, 
that no less than 3,000,000 people at 
home are directly dependent for their 
livelihood on this industry, and, further, 
that 10,000,000 of the inhabitants of 
Great Britian are directly or indirctly 
connected with cotton in trade- 


Everyone who is accquainted with 
cotton knows that the industry is in a 
very precarious condition, as the con- 
sumption is increasing more rapidly 
than the production. 

At the present day Great Britain, 
with all her Colonies, is dependent on 
America for 75 per cent. of her raw 
eotton ; should the American crop fail, 
the result would be fatal to the trade of 
the world and_ spell starvation to 
millions of people in Great Britain. 


America will have less cotton 
export than she has at present, 


for 
as her 


con sumption of raw cotton is increasing 
and likely to increase with her popula- 
tion. 


Mr. J. Arthur Hutton, Chairman of 


the British Cotton Growing Association, . 


addressing a deputation to the late 
Prime Minister, Sir Henry Campbell 
Bannerman, in May, 1906, said :— 


“ Hour hund red thousand bales (500)b 
each) is the average increase in the 
world’s consumption every year. Lanca- 
shire alone, in the last two years, has 
added something like six million to 
her spindles, which means- an increase 
in consumption of half a million bales, 
apart from the increased demands in 
other parts of the world.” 


Considering that the average yield in 
America is something under 200 tb. per 
acre, it is obvious that Lancashire alone 
requires for her increased consumption 
of the last two years the cotton from 
1,250,000 acres. 


When we add to Mr. Hutton’s re- 
marks the fact that the Cotton Weevil 
(Anthonomis grandis) is making it im- 
possible to grow cotton in many districts 
of Texas and Mississippi, and as the 
pest is spreading with almost arithmeti- 
cal accuracy at the rate of 50 miles 
annually north and east, it is a matter 
of time till the whole cotton belt of 
America is infected and the yield re- 
duced by at least 25 per cent. 

The writer having visited 3,000 miles 
of the Cotton States this summer, can 
add his testimony to the list of those 
who advocate the growing of cotton 
in every suitable corner of the British 


Aprit 1909,] 


Empire, and trusts that this report 
will receive consideration and help to 
solve the problems connected with cot- 
ton cultivation in Ceylon. 


HISTORY AND PRESENT POSITION. 


According to information contained in 
Tevers’ Manual of the North-Central Pro- 
vince, published by the Ceylon Govern- 
ment Printer in 1899, cotton was one of 
the crops of the Province? as early as 
1888, and several leading authorities 
state that cotton is indigenous to the 
Island. Cotton cultivation has never 
been extensive in Ceylon, but this is 
probably due to a temperament of the 
people more than the unsuitability of 
the crop to the soil and climate. 


The day is past when we asa nation 
can afford to leave acres of land in 
jungle, which is capable of growing 
such a valuable crop as cotton, and if 
the indigenous labour is unwilling, the 
solution lies in the minimizing of labour 
with machinery aud the introduction 
of imported labour from India. 


In 1903 the Hxperiment Station at 
Maha-iluppalama was opened with the 
intention of experimenting with cotton. 
According to section 15 of the 1903 
Report of the Royal Botanic Gardens, 
the object in view was two-fold :— 

1, To determine whether Indian cot- 
ton can be remuneratively cultivated 
by villagers for the local market ; .and 
to find out the best kinds of cotton 
to grow and the best ways of treating it. 


2. To determine whether cotton of 
long staple, suchas is required for the 
Lancashire market, can be profitably 
grown, with or without irrigation, in 
the dry regions of Ceylon. 

As regards the first object, the writer 
would recommend the discontinuance 
in growing Indian varieties which serve 
no imperial purpose and are unprofit- 
able to the growers.* Indian cottons 
are of too low quality for the British 
market, and very little Indian cotton 
is used in Lancashire, two-thirds of the 
cotton exported from India going to 
the East (i.e., Japan). 

The Experiment Station has shown 
that the North-Central Province is cap- 
able of growing long staple Egyptian 
cotton; therefore object No. 2 should 
be the sole aim of the experiment, and, 
if properly carried out, should result in 
the permanent establishment of cotton 
cultivation, consisting exclusively of 
varieties for supplying the demands of 
the British cotton market. 


The Superintendent has found that 
Egyptian, Sea Island and Upland cot- 


*These were given up after 1904,—Ep. 


325 


Fibres. 


ton grow, but the Egyptian gives the 
most profitable returns; and, as it 
commands practically double the price 
of Upland, it is advisable to foster 
this class of cotton, it being especially 
suitable for irrigation, and, in the 
writer’s experience, stands heat better 
than ordinary Upland. 


Referring to Sea Island, which is the 
most valuable crop, the writer considers 
it unsuitable for the heavy soil of the 
North-Central Province, although small 
quantities could be grown in proximity 
to the sea experimentally. The follow- 
ing extract from Sir George Watt's 
book on ‘‘The Wild and Cultivated 
Cotton Plants of the World” shows 
very clearly the position of the Sea 
Island cotton in commerce :— 


“It is even now a special crop that 
can be produced only in a very rest- 
ricted area, and for which there is not 
likely ever to arise a very much larger 
Gemand than at present. Itcan at all 
events alone pay when a higher price 
rules ; extended production is, therefore, 
exposed to the danger of the ruinous 
reduction of price.” 

From the above it is clearly seen 
that Sea Island cotton is not wanted 
in large quantities, and, as it is a 
much smaller cropper even under ideal 
climatic and soil conditions, it is not 
likely to be a profitable crop for Ceylon. 


It is distinctly encouraging to know 
that Egyptian cotton grows in Ceylon, 
as the Americans have failed to pro- 
duce Egyptian cotton through the 
Southern States, the summer being too 
short to mature thecrop. There is an 
increasing demand for this class of 
staple throughout the world, and in 
1907 America imported 16,000,000 dollars’ 
worth of cotton direct from Egypt; 
the average price was 103d. per pound— 
nearly double the price of American 
Upland. 


Selection.—The Experiment Station 
should be used as a. breeding and 
acclimatization ground for Egyptian 
cotton, as it is a recognized fact that 
cotton makes various modifications ‘in 
quality, type, &c., when grown under 
new conditions of soil and climate. It 
is therefore necessary to select and 
establish the best types which arise, 
and it should be remembered that the 
most important qualities are strength 
and evenness of length. Egyptian cot- 
ton has a special quality, viz., colour, 
an even brown cotton always bringing 
the highest price; this quality is diffi- 
cult to maintain out of Egypt, but 
most of the difficulties connected with 
the establishing of a fixed type can 
be overcome by selection. 


Pibres. 


This work should be undertaken by 
the Assistant Director, Mr. Lock, who 
is a specialist in the Mendelian principles 
of plant breeding, which have, given 
good results in Egypt, as applied by 
W. L. Balls, Esq., Botanist to the 
Khedevial Agricultural Society. 


The writer having discussed the ques- 
tion of the introduction of exotic cottons 
with Mr. Kearney of the Bureau of 
Plant Industry at Washington, would 
like to inform those engaged in cotton 
experiments that a newly-introduced 
exotic seldom attains its normal crop- 
ping capacity until it is acclimatized, 
and on an average five years are neces- 
sary for acclimatization. 

The writer noticed that the cotton 
plants at the Experiment Station are 
not acclimatized and exhibit the usual 
initial character of great height and 
small fruiting capacity. 

Egyptian cotton usually becomes very 
arboraceous inthe first two or three 
years of its introduction, but after accli- 
matization it decreases its height and 
increases its fruits. 

The Heperiment.—The experiment at 
Maha-iluppalama has been very irre- 
gular, as no one connected with the 
experiment had previous practical ex- 
perience ot the crop; but, notwithstand- 
ing the small amount of information at 
the disposal of Mr. Mee, and the many 
difficulties in his pioneer work, the 
writer views the experiment on a whole 
as most promising. 

The chief value of this experiment, so 
far, lies in the fact that there is seed at 
Maha-iluppalama, which has been three 
years in the country; and, secondly, 
thatit has been demonstrated by the 
report of the British cotton growers in 
1905 that Egyptian cotton of good 
character and staple can be produced in 
the North-Central Province—this sold 
at 9d. per pound being well up to the 
price of cotton grown in Egypt in 1905. 

The yield per acre was 130 lb. fibre, 
and the writer feels confident, if the 
following particulars are carried out, 
that a minimum average of 300 lb. of 
fibre should easily be obtained. 


Growing Season.—The present crop 
occupying the ground was sown in the 
middle of October, and atits age the 
writer has seldom seen so healthy cotton, 
although the yield will be small, as the 
spacing is too wide, the seeding too thin, 
and the crop out of season. 

Where irrigation is possible, it would 
be advisable that the cotton be sown in 
the beginning of February, instead of 
October, as the heavy rains of November 
and December induce the plants to grow 


326 


tApRtt, 1909. \ 


too quickly, and heavy rain also kills 
out many of the young plants when in 
the first leaf (7.e., before they have 
produced the rough or secondary leaves). 


In the North-Central Province there is 
much land irrigable, and much which 
cannot be irrigated, therefore the writer 
would suggest two planting seasons. 
The best results will be obtained on 
irrigated land by planting in the first 
week of February on ridges, this 
undoubtedly will be the best cotton, and 
should be ready to harvest in the dry 
hot months of July and August. 


This cotton could be on the Liverpool 
market at the same time as the Egyptian 
crop, and this isan important consider- 
ation. 

The cotton grown without irrigation 
should be sown on the flat in the month 
of September when there is usually 
sufficient rain to germinate the seed, 
and this cotton would be in the rough 
leaf before the beginning of the heavier 
rains in November; great results need 
not be expected with the crop grown at 
this season. 


Soil.—The soil is an ideal soit for 
cotton, and closely resembles the black 
river bottoms of Texas, being a dark 
alluvium, more inclined to clay than 
sand, with a high retentive power for 
water as shown by the many irriga- 
tion tanks distributed throughout the 
Province. 


Immediately after removing the junzle 
the organic matter is considerable. 
This is principally in the form of decay- 
ing wood and roots which quickly 
decompose in the moist warm climate, 
and may ultimately leave the soil 
deficient in nitrogen. 


From a cotton point of view, the soil 
is inclined to produce too much stalk ; 
and it isa known fact that the fruit- 
ing capacity of tall cotton is less than 
that of cotton of medium height. 

This soil will require careful irriga- 
tion to prevent the accumulation of 
stagnant water and the production of 
soil acidity, which is fatal to cotton. 


Manures.—It has been proved that 
nitrogen from an organic source forms 
the best basis on which to construct a 
cotton manure, andin Egypt the source 
of organic nitrogen is largely Bersim 
Clover (Trifolium alexandrinum). 

In newly-opened jungle land it is not 
necessary to add organic nitrogen, as 
an adequate supply exists in the decay- 
ing timber and root. 

' This to a large extent disappears after 
four of five crops have been taken from 
the soil, when it may be advisable to 


Ss, 


- ber, 


APRIL, 1909.) G 327 


return organic nitrogen to the soil, and 
the most economical way to do this is by 
ploughing under leguminous crops, such 
as Crotalaria and Bersim or cotton seed, 
which contains much nitrogen. 


This must always be ploughed under 
at least one month before sowing the 
cotton crop in february, ov it will 
retard germination. 


On newly-cleared land the writer 
would strongly advise the use of two 
and a half ewt. of basic slag per acre; 
this should be applied broadcast at the 
last cultivation before setting up the 
ridges for planting, and will check rank 
growth and increase fruiting capacity. 


It may be found advisable after grow- 
ing cotton for three or four years to 
apply a mixture of 75 lb. nitrate of soda 
and 60 lb. of ammonium sulphate per 
acre, in addition to the basic slag, but 
this need not be applied during the first 
three years of its cultivation. 


The effects of manure may be tried 
experimentally on the station and the 
public advised on these results. 


Artificials have proved very_ profitable 
in Egypt and America when judiciously 
applied to cotton. 


Cotton is not an exhaustive crop like 
maize, sugar, or sesamum, and can be 
grown for many years on the same soil if 
manured ; this has been demonstrated in 
parts of the United States, where cotton 
has been grown for forty years on_ the 
same land, producing a crop throughout 
the entire period without diminishing. 


One does not advise consecutive crop, 
and undoubtedly rotations are prefer- 
able, where they can be put in practice. 


Climate.—The annual average rainfall 
is about 50 inches; two-thirds of this 
falls in the months of October, Novem- 
December, and January, and as 
much as 11 or 12 inches are not uncom- 
mon in either November or December. 


Considering the temperature is at its 
lowest at this time of the year, a rainfall 
so heavy is excessive for cotton, and 
tends to produce large watery plants 
with little fruit. 


In America, where cotton is grown 
without irrigation, the rainfall during 
the growing period (i.e., May, June, July, 
August, and September) averages 22 
inches, but the distribution is even, rain 
falling every third day and the temper- 
ature keeping high. 

Small crops of poor quality can only 
be expected in the North-Central Pro- 
vince without irrigation, as the rainfall 
ot November and December is too heavy 
and the temperature too low. 


Fibres. 


It is always desirable to have a rising 
temperature until the cotton flowers, 
with two hot dry months for harvest- 
ing, and this can only be obtained by 
sowing in February, which necessitates 
growing thecrop by irrigation. 

In the North-Central Province the 
strong winds of the south-west monsoon 
may prove to be the worst enemy of 
ripe cotton by casting the fibre, but by 
selecting seed from plants which do not 
suffer in this respect, a strong wind- 
proof variety can be obtained. 


Tillage.—The land should be ploughed 
at least one month before sowing, there- 
fore tillage must commence before the 
middle of December. 


The ploughing should be deep and the 
land left exposed for three weeks or a 
month, then cultivated by the culti- 
vator or dise harrow, rolled, and set up 
in ridges 8 feet apart. 

A fine seed bed is necessary, which 
should be dry at the time of sowing, 
in order to secure a high percentage 
germination. 


Planting.—To be completed in the first 
fortnight of February, eight seeds in 
each hole on top of ridges 3 feet apart, 
15 inches between holes, the height of 
the ridge being 12 inches, quantity of 
seed required 45 lb. per acre. 


TIrrigation.—Considering there is scme 
rain during the summer months, it is 
difficult to lay down stated periods 
between the irrigations, as is the prac- 
tice in anarid country like Egypt, where 
there is no rain during the cotton grow- 
ing season. The writer considers that 
20 inches of water per acre would be 
sufficient to supplement the rain, and 
this is equal to less than one-third of 
the water considered necessary for irri- 
gating an acre of village paddy. 


The first irrigation must be given 
immediately after the seed is sown, and 
should ba the heaviest, amounting to 
about 4 inches per acre. | 


It is advisable not to apply water 
until the expiry of at least 45 days after 
the first watering, in order to encourage 
deep rooting ; the roots follow the water 
into the soil. 


From this period till flowering the crop 
may require irrigating every twenty- 
five to thirty-five days, depending on 
the weather, and after Howering the 
irrigations should be fewer; no water 
being given for at least one week before 
picking. 

A small irrigation after each picking 
is beneficial as it opens the bolls. 


Before leaving the Experiment Station, 
the writer explained to the Superin- 


Fibres, 


tendent the laying out of land for irri- 
gating cotton, and anyone desirous of 
knowing the system may do so by 
visiting the Experiment Station, which 
would be advisable for everyone to do 
who contemplates commencing cotton 
cultivation under irrigation. 


One of the chief precautions is not to 
overwater the crop, or to allow the 
water to rise above the point where the 
stem of the plant comes out of the ridge. 


Thinning and after Tillage.—Under 
ordinary conditions, the plants are above 
the ground in eight to ten days after 
sowing; on the tenth day extra seed 
should be soaked and all places resown 
where seed has not germinated. 


Immediately before the second irri- 
gation the cotton should be thinned by 
hand, leaving two plants in each hole; 
care being taken not to leave Hindi 
cotton, 


Weeds should be killed at the same 
time with a drill cultivator, and the 
soil loosened round the plants with the 
mammoty. 


It will be found necessary to repeat 
this cultivation every fifteen to twenty 
days until the plants meet in the drills 
(i. e., two to two and a half months after 
sowing). After the plants meet, owing 
to the danger of breaking the branches, 
tillage should cease, and cotton after 
this stage will keep the weeds in check 
by overshadowing them; the only atten- 
tion required from this period to harvest 
is an oceasional hand weeding to remove 
any conspicuous tall weeds. 


Immediately before discontinuing 
tillage it isadvisable to finally set up 
the ridges with a ridging plough to 
facilitate irrigation. 


Hindi or Egyptian Weed Cotton.-- 
This is the old indigenous cotton of 
Egypt, and is found in all samples of 
imported Egyptian seed, and must be 
eradicated, as it greatly affects the 
value of the staple. 


Fortunately this cotton is easily dis- 
tinguished. The sketch accompanying 
shows differences in the seed and in the 
plants when about a month old. 


Egyptian cotton now growing at Maha- 
illuppalama contains about 5 per cent. 
of this weed cotton, and this would pro- 
bably reduce the value of the staple by 
about 15 per cent., the fibre from Hindi 
being short, white, harsh, and_ brittle, 
whereas the fibre of Mit-Afiffi Egyptian 
is brown, long, silky, and strong. 


The following differences are easily 
noticed :— 


328 


-Sea Island cotton, 


[APRIr., 1909. 
Hindi. 
(1) Seed black, having no fuzz and 
' distinctly pointed (with rudiment 
of seed stalk). 

(2) Red spot at base of first leaves. 

- (8) Boll four-chambered, with distinct 
gland at base. 
Egyptian. 

(1) Seed black, little fuzz along middle 
and both ends (no distinct rudi- 
ment), 

(2) No distinct red spot. 


(3) Boll three-chambered, no distinct 
gland. 


It is advisable to have the seed picked 
over by children to remove Hindi, and 
thinners should be told to pull out the 
plants showing the characteristic red 
spots at the base of the first leaves. 


The Hindi plants are generally stionger 
than Egyptian plants, and are frequently 
left growing by people not acquainted 


with this useless weed cotton. 


Looking through samples of African 
experimental Egyptian cotton in the 
Imperial Institute, London, the writer 
was struck by the unevenness of colour, 
owing largely tothe presence of Hindi 
cotton; needless tosay this affects the 
commercial value. 


VARIETIES OF HGYPTIAN COTTON. 


(1) Mit-Afiffi, (2) Abbassi, (8) Janno- 
vitch, (4) Ashmouni, (5) Nubari. 

Mit-Afiffiis the only variety which is 
cultivated at the Experiment Station, 
and although it is the principal variety. 
it might be advisable to procure seed of 
the other varieties. The Abbassi is the 
only white Egyptian cotton, the other 
varieties having brown lints. | 

Jannovitch most nearly approaches 
is the most specnu- 
lative to grow, but the most valuable. 


Ashmouni is a small variety, stands 


-most heat, and hence principally cultivat- 


edin Kayoum and Upper Egypt, but of 
less value than other Egptian varieties. 
Nubari is a new variety similar to Mit- 
Afiffi, and popular with the Manchester 
spinners. 


Harvesting.—The crop should be picked 
pare times and the sticks uprooted and 
urnt, ‘ 


The three pickings should be kept and 
ginned separately. The first is the most 
valuable. 


Cotton should be ready to pick by the 
middle of August, and itis advisable to 
have about 45 per cent. of the crop in 
the first picking, as itis the most valu- 
able ; the second picking should be ready 
three weeks after the first, and by the 


Se A AAR ETN A AE Aer 


Jia ic) oh ene is aM a OD AY NPAT UD. NM 


~ APRIL, 1909. | 


end of September the crop may be 
pulled out after taking the third picking. 


Picking at the Experiment Station 
costs Re. 1 per 100 lb. seed cotton (1.¢., 
fibre and seed), whereas in America it 
costs 75 cents American (or fully double), 
and in Egypt 10 piastres (2 shillings) for 
the same quantity. An average boy 
should pick 60 pounds a day. 

Implements.—It_ has been clearly de- 
monstrated by the Superintendent of 
the Experiment Station that the most 
economical way to cultivate crops in the 
North-Central Province, after removing 
the trees, is by implements drawn by 
eattle. The writer would consider it 
necessary to have the following imple- 
ments for every 100 acres under cotton, 
owing to the short period between 
the end of the monsoon and _ the 
suggested planting season. With regard 
to the imp!ements at present in use, the 
writer would suggest nothing except an 
inerease in number :— 


Four ploughs which will be capable of 
dealing with 100 acres in twenty-five 
days. three American disc cultivators, 
one light Cambridge roller, two ridging 
ploughs, and two drill cultivators. 


In the North-Central Province the 
tillage operations can be accomplished 
at the following cost, provided the land 
is comparatively clear of stumps :— 
Ploughing, Rs. 5 per acre; cultivating, 
60 cents per acre; ridging, Rs, 2 per 
acre; drill cultivating, 60 cents per acre. 

(Note.—The above rates are fixed on 
a basis of Rs. 2 per yoke of oxen and 
men.) 

Labour.—From personal observations 
and particulars obtained from the 
Superintendent there does not seem to 
be any scarcity of labour, provided 
one is prepared to pay a slightly higher 
rate of wages than on the planting 
estates; but this is compensdted to a 
large extent by having the _coolies 
without advances, this being the case 
on the Experiment Station. The pro- 
bable extension of railway and roads 
may at any time render it necessary 
to obtain indented labour under advan- 
ces, but the fact must not be lost sight 
of that at present there is no compe- 


tition for agricultural labour in the 
North-Central Province. 
As regards living conditions for 


coolies, it may be noted that food is 
cheap, excellent fish abounding in the 
tanks, local rice delivered on the estate 
under normal conditions at Rs. 4°50 
per bushel, being much cheaper than 
in other districts of the Island, owing 
to the large area of the crop culti- 
vated by the local villagers; the only 


42 


329 


Fibres. 


commodity that rules high being coco- 
nuts, which are sold on an average at 
8 cents each, but there is every pro- 
babilty of their becoming cheaper, as 
the crop grows well in the Province. 


With the use of implements and 
cattle, manual labour is reduced to a 
minimum during the growing season, 
and it is possible to get local labour to 
plant and harvest the crop, unless it 
interferes with the reaping of village 
paddy. The suggested time of plant- 
ing will not clash with the village 
harvest as formerly, when cotton was 
planted in October and harvested in 
March and April. 


Local irregular village woman labour 
can be obtained at 30 cents, and estate 
labour on an average of 48 cents. In 
the writer’s opinion, with tactful 
management, the various labour pro- 
blems will be easily solved. 


FINANCIAL CONSIDERATIONS. 


The land may be thoroughly cleared 
of trees and stumps for Rs. 50 per 
acre, or all trees under 12 inehes dia- 
meter cut and burnt at Rs. 25. To 
facilitate the future tillage operations 
it would be advisable to thoroughly 
clear the land, and no doubt a stump ex- 
tractor would minimize the cost of 
clearing considerably. Itis always ad- 
visable to keep in mind that good 
roads, cheap railway carriage, and over- 
sea fieight are matters of the utmost 
importance in placing the crop on the 
market. Ceylon being favoured in this 
respect, the writer considers that the 
commencing of cotton plantations in 
the No.wth-Central Province is out- 
side of the sphere of the native resi- 
dents, as capital is required: to buy and 
clear land. 


Cotton has a distinct advantage over 
tea and rubber, in the fact that re- 
turns can be obtained immediately 
after clearing, as the crop only occu- 
pies the land for seven months. 

Assuming that the crop return is 300 
pounds of fibre per acre at 8d. per lb., 
which in the writer’s opinion is a low 
estimate, the profit should at least be 
£4 10s. per acre, reckoning the cost of 
actual tillage of harvesting (not includ- 
ing ginning, baling transport, and ship- 
ping) at Rs. 50 per acre. 

The amount of capital required to 
take up land depends toa large extent 
on the value put on the land by the 
Government, but this matter is outside 
the sphere of this report; the above 
figures are based on an assumption of 
Rs. 20 per acre, and a water tax of 
Rs. 2. In Heypt average land produces 
500 lb. of fibre per acre, but there is 


Hibres. 330 


much capital invested, as land is valu- 
ed at least at £40 per acre. In America, 
with black labour at one dollar per day, 
and an average yield of 200 lb. of 
lint, the land is valued at £2 10s. per 
acre, and the whole cotton belt, which 
Lon 7 per cent. under cotton, at 
bc 


In conclusion, the writer prognosti- 
cates a great future for cotton in 
the dry zones of Ceylon during the 
warm season (provided the water is 
conserved and distributed to the many 
acres of fertile lend, which are at 
present largely covered by jungle), 
when it is considered that there is at 
present something approaching 200,000 
acres of irrigable land,and many other 
acres which could be brought under 
irrigation without interfering with the 
present cultivations, there being only 
75,000 acres under cultivation and over 
2,000,000 acres in the North-Central 
Province alone awaiting the plough. 


J. STEWART J. McCALL 


SISAL HEMP IN GERMAN 
AFRICA. 


KAST 


A good example of what may be 
achieved by energy and common sense, 
in establishing new ihdustries in a 
colony, is afforded by the work done in 
German East Africa in thesisal industry. 
For years the rich returns t9 be derived 
from planting sisal have been reiterated 
to farmers and planters in Queensland, 
but with small result. Since Mr. P. 
McLean introduced some plants from 
the Bahamas some twelve years ago, the 
price of sisal fibre has ranged from £50 
per ton in 1902 to £37 per ton in 1907. In 
1908 there was a sudden fall in price to 
£30 in March and £25 in June, owing to 
manipulation of the Manila hemp market. 
(See table in the Pamphlet on the Sisal 
Hemp Industry, issued by the Depart- 
ment of Agriculture and Stock.) Since 
then the price has again risen, until. in 
December, 1908, we were advised that 
the value of Fourcroya fibre (Mauritius 


{APRIL, 1909. 


hemp) in England was £80 per ton, and, 
as this fibre is usually from £3 to £4 less 
in value than sisal, it follows that the 
price of the latter has risen pro- 
portionately. 


Dr. Maxwell, in his report, on the 
Mackay Sugar Experiment Station, just 
issued, deplores the want of enterprise 
on the part of the farmers in the dis- 
trict, no application having been made 
by them for sisal suckers wherewith to 
start a paying business, 


Turn we to the German colony for a 
contrast. 


Attention has been given to sisal hemp 
cultivation in German East Africa since 
1893 (says the ‘‘ Agricultural News” of 
Barbadoes), and the increasing value of 
the industry is evident from the fact 
that the exports of fibre during 1906 
were valued at £66,900, as compared 
with £48,900 in 1905 and £28,800 in 1904. 


Theindustry was started by the im- 
portation of a small number of plants 
from Florida fifteen years ago. Machi- 
nery for the extraction of the fibre was 
imported in 1899, and the first exports 
were made in 1900. In 1904 the number 
of plants dealt with was 1,800,000, which 
yielded 624 tons of fibre, this being equi- 
valent to an average yield of 17 oz. of 
fibre per plant. In the following year 
the average return of fibre rose to 25 oz. 

er plant, but in 1906 it dropped to 22 oz. 

t is calculated that if 800 plants per 
acre are grown, an annual crop of 900 
to 1,200 lb. per acre should be obtained. 


The machine employed for the extrac- 
tion of the fibre is the one used in 
Yucatan, and is known as the ‘“ Molla.” 
It costs £650, is capable of dealing with 
about 100,000 leaves in ten hours, and 
requires 48-hp. to drive it. In order to 
keep this machine sufficiently employed, 
a plantation of at least 600,000 plants 
is necessary. This (allowing distances 
of 34 by 84 ft. between the plants) re- 
presents an area of about 310 acres.— 
Queensland Agricultural Journal, Vol. 
XXII., Part 2, February, 1909, p. 94. 


Arrit, 1909.) 


331 


EDIBLE PRODUCTS. 


TEA CULTURE IN NATAL. 


—— 


By CLAUDE A. LOWE. 


The Tea Industry of Natal is of com- 
paratively recent growth, having, like 
that of Ceylon, followed and supplanted 
the growing of coffee, when the Jatter 
industry was rendered unprofitable by 
the introduction of a blight which 
destroyed the berry. 


The first plants were introduced by 
Mr.—now Sir—James Leige Hulett from 
Assam, the difficulty of transporting the 
seed alive being got over by planting 
them in boxes of soil, which were care- 
fully tended during the voyage, so that 
when the ship arrived many plants were 
already over six inches in height. Un- 
fortunately for the start of the industry, 
this arrival was followed by an extended 
period of drought, and as those among 
whom the plauts were distributed were 
not all equally interested in the new 
venture, a very large percentage of them 
died out before the end of the first 
season. The remainder, however, are 
alive to-day, and share, with their intro- 
ducer, the honour of being the parents 
of one of the most profitable and flourish- 
ing industries of the ‘‘ Garden Colony.” 


While in some degree the practice of 
growth and manufacture in Natal is of 
necessity more or less similar to that of 
India, yet in many points of procedure 
it is radically different; and the manager 
of a large estate in Assam or the Dooars 
might well be pardoned if at first sight 
he condemned the entire outfit as impos- 
sible. The Natal planters, however, 
deprecate, and with considerable reason, 
any comparison between their methods 
and those of India, since the climate, 
soil, rainfall and other conditions are 
entirely different. 


The writer only recently had an oppor- 
tunity of visiting the two large neigh- 
bouring estates of Clifton and Kearsney, 
owned, respectively, by Messrs. W. R. 
Hindson and Co., Ltd., and Messrs, J. L. 
Hulett and Sons, Ltd., both of Durban, 
Natal, and was given by the manager of 
the latter full information and practical 
demonstration of the procedure. On 
the Kearsney Estates, which occupy 
some two thousand acres actually 
planted up, the tea is planted on sloping 
ground or on the hillsides, which are in 
no part very steep, no particular forma- 
tion being observed, though the bushes 
are planted at regular intervals. The 
planting varies, some being four by four, 
other divisions four by five, but the tea 
is not measured off into sections, nor are 


intervening paths of any sort allowed 
for. The whole “ field,” as each division 
is called, may cover anything from 100 
to 500 acres or more, according to the 
soilavailable, the name being justified 
by the first impression it gives of a well 
grassed meadow. 


CULTIVATION, 


The first thing one naturally asks 
when he sees this young turf is, ‘‘ How 
often do you cultivate?” but it is a 
little startling to be told that if they 
get round once and ahalfin the year 
they consider they are doing rather well. 
Then one discovers that the manager is 
patting himself on the back tor his 
superior management, when he ladles. 
out the information that he works his 
garden with one coolie to four acres, as 
against your one per acre, The fallacy 
lies of course in the fact that, as all the 
pruning, and practically all the cultiva- 
tion is done in the off season, all hands 
are available all the time for plucking ; 
with the result that the men—unlike 
their brothers in India, who are all 
thumbs at plucking—become more expert 
than the women. 


The Kearsney manager was clearly in- 
credulous when the writer mentioned 
6 to 8 hoeings a vearas fair and ordinary 
cultivation, but itis very evident that 
the same practice in Natal would never 
do. Inthe first place the rainfall rarely 
exceeds 42 inches, and is often much less, 
so that such constant cultivation would 
inevitably mean the drying up of the 
soil, withering of the surface roots, and 
failing of the leaves; and a tea bush 
without leaves isa little worse than 
‘*Hamlet without the Prince.” 

Then, again, it is doubtful if any of 
the. hills would pay to terrace, and as 
even the limited rainfall hasa way of 
coming in bulky sections, constant 
enltivation would mean denudation. A 
certain amount of hoe and hand weeding 
is done, butonly when absolutely neces- 
sary, as the weeds do not grow with the 
speed and luxuriance seen in India, and 
practically never soas to hide or choke 
the bushes. On the other hand, it should 
be noted that when cultivating, the 
whole estate is well and deeply manured, 
at least once in two years. 


PLUCKING. 


The plucking is done by all hands, and 
follows very closely the best Indian 
practice. One, however, misses the fami- 
liar basket, as in its place they use 
sacks, just plain ordinary sacks, and at 
weighing-in time these come in tied up 


Mas | 
‘ we 


4 : 
' Ft , 


i 


Edible Products. | 339 


tight. Red leaf? Certainly, a good 
deal more than would be permissible on 
a very indifferently managed concern 
with you, but balance the percentage of 
red leaf against the cost of baskets here, 
and the difference would very probably 
come out very much in favour of the 
sack. 
SPECIES. 

The species of tea grown here are for 
the most part Assam Indigenous, with, 
here and there, a patch of Manipuri. 
The latter, however, though otherwise 
well suited to the country, has the 
peculiarity that it refuses to seed freely 
when isolated, consequently the un- 
hybridised variety is difficult to extend. 
The Assam variety, on the other hand, 
seeds with profusion, and it is this kind, 
therefore, which fills the bulk of the 
plantations in Natal. The growth of the 
leaf is somewhat smaller than that seen 
in the Dooars, with which district the 
writer is most familiar. but considering 
the size of the bushes, the yield is very 
good. 

Unfortunately, sufficient inquiry was 
not made as to the method of pruning, 
and an examination of some of the 
bushes on the way back to town, would 
indicate considerable laxness, in this 
respect, according to Indian ideas. The 
general form of the bushes seems to 
show very low cutting back in the young 
plant, since four to six stems coming 
direct from the ground appeared to be 
the rule, the whole having a straggling 
loose aspect, very different to the 
compact and vigorous growth usually 
associated with a healthy and well 
pruned plant in full bearing. It is the 
more surprising, therefore, to learn that 
with the small amount of cultivation, 
and the general appearance of the 
bushes, the yield averages on a fair year 
as much as seven maunds per acre, 
which is a sound testimonial to the suit- 
ability of the country, and the enter- 
prise and foresight of the pioneers. 


MANUFACTURE. 


There are two factories on the Kearsney 
Kstate, both of which strike one as 
huge for the size of the garden. One of 
these has only been newly erected in 
brick. The dimensions are roughly 
260 feet by 60 feet, and including the 
basement, which is used for storage and 
packing, there are no less than five fioors. 
Itisin this factory that the packing 
isdone for the whole estate, the tea 
being put up forthe most part in small 
chests and packets for immediate retail 
sale over the counter. In both factories 
the machinery is almost exclusively 
Jackson’s, the Paragon being used for 
first firing at atemperature of 300, final 


[APRIL, 1909. | 


firing when time allows being carried 
out on venetians. Although the final 
result in the cup shows the breaking of 
the cells and fermentation as good as 
could be desired, yet the actual rolling 
is by no means so tight as that usually 
seen in Indian practice. The result 
expresses itself in a rather high percen- 
tage of dust and fannings which are not 
by any means completely removed from 
the finished product. As, however, 
practically the whole of the output is 
consumed in the Colony, and as the 
trade does not call for very ‘‘clean” 
teas, it is not improbable that this factor, 
by thickening the liquor, gives it an 
added value on the local market. The 
sorted teas, before packing, are stored 
in huge bins of corrugated iron. 


It is, however, in the withering lofts 


that the greatest divergence from the 
writer’s previcns experience occurs. In 
place of being built crossways tothe 
factory, the racks are made to run up 
and down in the old-fashioned way. 
Further, they are placed so far apart, 
that the space is as great or even greater 
than the rack. The trays are of Hessian 
cloth, placed flat, each being mounted 
at one end on a roller, so that to unload 
itisonly necessary to wind them up as 
it were. The reason given for this 
practice is that as labour is so scarce, 
and the leaf is so difficult to remove from 
a flat wire netting, this system isa very 
great labour-saving invention. 


One unfortunate result, at any rate, 
of this form of rack and arrangement 
exhibited itself, since although three 
Blackman fans were running full blast, 
and a small hurricane was tearing down 
between the racks, yet on the trays, 
leaves set delicately on edge remained 
undisturbed. For this reason the leaf 
has to be spread very thinly, even in the 
drier climate enjoyed, and even then, 
the manager has very little real control 
over the time of wither. 


No one seemed to have heard of our 
practice of setting the racks across the 
factory with deeply sloping trays, and 
draught doors at the ends of every third 
or fourth rack, while they are absolute 
stangers to the system of hot air ducts 
from the drying room, leading into a 
system-of screen and traps whereby 
three or more floors can be worked alter- 
nately with the same set of fans ; though 
this system was installed by the writer 
under the direction of the present 
superintendent of one of the largest 
companies in the Dooars as far back as 
early in 1897, 


The labour is almost entirely Indian, 
but of a very mixed class, coming from 
Calcutta, the Eastern Coast line and 


‘minately. 


. Aprin, 1909,] 333 


back of Madras more or less indiscri- 
i Compared with the fine 
physique of the Nagpuri_ and Santal, 
they look a very weedy lot, but appa- 
rently give very little trouble in sympa- 
thetic hands. All are imported under a 
form of indenture, under Government 
supervision, but there seems to be no 
compulsicn as regards repatriation, and 
such coolies as do not sign on again 
after their term expires, escape inland, 
to form the growing Indian population 
of the Colony which already numbers 
upwards of 10,000. 


In conclusion, the writer wouid like to 
remark that, should any planter trained 
in tea on Indian lines ever find himself 
setting out to take charge ot or assist 
on a Natal garden, it would be very 


.wise of him to keep quiet and not start 


to show the Natal planter how todo 
things until he has been at least one 
year in the country. It has been tried 
not once, but many times, and so far as 
ean be discovered, the man who knows 
everything, and tries to run his place on 
the lines to which he has been accustom- 
ed, has failed every time and _ will 
continue to doso. The fact is that the 
average Natal planter either owns, or 
hasa very large interest in, his Estate, 
and takes particular pains to keep up-to- 
date in every respect; and being asa 
rule either Colonial born, or so long in 
the country as amounts to the same 
thing, he has very little to learn in 
adapting whatever he takes up in the 
tea line, to suit the pecularities of the 
Colony. Hence his most undoubted 
success in spite of the heretical treat- 
ment of mostoi theaccepted canons of 
tea culture.—Indian Agriculturist, Vol. 
XXXIV., No. 2, February, 1909, p. 46, 


THE ADVANTAGES OF TRANS- 
PLANTING PADDY. 


Mr. R. Cecil Wood, Deputy Director 
of Agriculture, Northern Division, Mad- 
ras, writes as follows in. the Madras 
Agricultural Calendar for 1909 :— 


When one compares the _ relative 
advantages of the two systems com- 
monly employed in the cultivation of 
paddy, namely, broadcasting the seed 
in the field, or raising it first in seed- 
beds from which it is afterwards trans- 
planted, the advantages of the latter 
system are so manifold that all land- 
owners in districts where for one reason 
or another the broadcasting system only 
is practised, are strongly advised to 
attempt the experimental introduction 
of transplanting even if only ona small 
area of their own lands and note the 
advantages for themselves. 


Edible Products. 


The first and foremost of these is in 
the saving of seed. Custom in both cases 
varies, much more seed being used in 
some districts than in others, but pnder 
the transplanting system a saving of at 
least 20 to 30 lb. of paddy per acre having 
a money value of about a rupee is 
effected. If the seedlings are planted 
out singly this saving may be doubled. 

he seed-rate moreover can be more 
easily adjusted to suit the soil, or the 
nature of the variety grown. A long 
growing variety may, generally speak- 
ing, be given more room than a quick 
growing variety. The seedlings being 
put out by hand are evenly and accu- 
rately spaced, so that each seedling gets 
the same amount of soil, air, and water 
as its fellows, and consequently grows 
at the same rate, with the result that 
the crop grows and ripens evenly and 
uniformly. This result can never be 
obtained so well in the case of a broad- 
casted crop, since in some places the 
seeds will be more thickly sown than in 
others, and thus their growth and ripen- 
ing will be affected. Opportunity may 
also be taken at the time when the seed- 
lings are being lifted from the seed-bed, 
to reject any stunted or diseased seed- 
lings, and any that are not true to 
variety, and thus to obtain a healthy 
crop of pure seed. 


The advantages gained by the trans- 
planted seedlings at the start are in- 
creased during the period of growth. 
They can be much better looked after, 
for the operation of weeding is made 
much easier, especially if the seed- 
lings have been planted in lines as is the 
custom in some districts. The land at 
the time of transplanting having been 
puddled, the uprooted weeds are killed 
and quickly rot. A single weeding 
about a month after transplanting is all 
that is necessary, as the plants will then 
have become firmly established and 
sufficiently thick to keep down all weeds 
for the future. Compare this with the 
broadcast system where at least two 
hand weedings are needed, as well as 
the tedious operation of thinning the 
plants where they are too thick and 
filling up the gaps which are to occur: 
A custom obtains in some districts of 
ploughing through the broadcasted 
paddy when about a month old for the 
purpose of uprooting the weeds and 
thinning out the paddy plants. The 
surviving plants grow all the better, for 
having been subjected to this treatment, 
a sort of root-pruning, which may be 
compared to transplanting, while the 
waste of seed under the broadcasting 
system is also clearly seen. 


Finally, when the crop comes to be 
cut, it is generally agreed that the 


Edible Products. 


highest yields of grain are obtained from 
erops grown from transplanted seed- 


lings. The yield of straw may be taken 
as about the same under the two 
systems. This, as indicated above, is 


due to the better root system induced 
by trausplanting. The practice may be 
compared to that common in orchards 
and gardens of transplanting young 
seedlings. 

An objection often raised to the intro- 
duction of this system into a hew dis- 
trict is its cost. People will often admit 
that in the delta lands where the sup- 
ply of water is assured, and the soil rich, 
transplanting is the most profitable 
method to adopt, while they do not 
recognise that its advantages apply 
equally to poorer lands irrigated from 
more precarious sources. From the 
point of view of the actual expenses on 
labour, there is very little to choose 
between the two systems. The extra 
cost of lifting the seedlings, carrying 
them to the field, and planting them by 
hand is counter-balanced by the extra 
weeding and very tedious thinning and 
filling necessitated if the seed is broad- 
casted. Where the water-supply is pre- 
carious the advantages of transplanting 
are still more strongly brought out. 
The seed-beds occupy an area of about 
one-twentieth or one-twenty-fifth of the 
total area to be transplanted. For the 
tirst month of the crop’s growth, there- 
fore, only that proportion of the coal 
supply is needed. Seed-beds may, there- 
fore often be sown with the help of 
rains, or under wells, before the full 
supply is received, and as experiment 
seems to show that within certain limits 
the age of the seedlings at the time of 
transplanting is immaterial, the seed- 
beds may be shown three weeks before 
the time when full supply is expected 
and will not be seriously affected even 
if water is not received until two or 
three weeks after this. The total 
amount of water necessary for the crop 
is, in any case, much less, and, therefore, 
in a year of short rainfall, tank-irrigated 
crops will have a greater chance of 
success. The saving of time effected by 
the adoption oi the seed-bed system will 
often enable the farmer to cultivate a 
lounger growing and, therefore, finer 
variety of paddy than if he_ broad- 
casted his seed or even in certain cases 
to grow two crops instead of one. Or 
again the period between the receipt of 
the first rains when the land may be 
ploughed and the time of full supply in 
the channel may permit of his rais- 
ing a green soiling crop on the paddy 
fields, while his seed-beds are being 
grown elsewhere. This green crop may 
be trampled in a few days before trans- 
planting, and will save the cost of cut- 


334 


[AFRIL, 1909, 


ting and carrying the large quantities 
of green manure so often found neces- 
sary for the paddy crop.—Indian Agri- 
culturist, Vol. XX XIV., No. 2, February, 
1909, p. 116. 


THE CULTIVATION OF TAPIOCA 
IN TRAVANCORE, 


By T. PONNAMBALAM PILLAY, 
Hacise Commissioner of Travancore. 


The manihot, Cassava, or tapioca plant 
(Manihot utilissima) belongs to the 
Fuphorbia tribe, and is closely related 
to the Ceara rubber (Manihot glaziovii) 
so well known to every planter. Itis 
now very commonly grown in Travan- 
core, being the source of the tapioca 
meal, which constitutes an important 
aruide of food of the people of that 

tate. 


It is not indigenous to India, but 
appears to have been introduced from 
the tropical parts of South America. 
In Travancore, its introduction was due 
to H. H. the late Maharaja, who took 
great interest in the welfare of his 
subjects. By the introduction of this 
food plant, the large population of 
Travancore has been toa large extent 
placed beyond the reach of the famine 
conditions which prevail in other parts 
of India. 


There are about fifteen varieties of the 
plant cultivated in Travancore. There 
is, however, a general similarity between 
them. The vigour of growth depends 
chiefly upon the fertility of the soil. 
The leaves are generaily digitate, except 
in one case, when they are digitate 
partite, resembling ganja (Cannabis 
sativa). Chiefly for this reason, this 
variety is known as Ganja Tapioca. 
The tubers of this variety mature in six 
months. The period required for other 
kinds usually ranges from eight to 
twelve months. 


The two main varieties are one sweet 
and one bitter. The latter contains a 
poisonous element, which can be got rid 
of by roasting or boiling, the water 
being poured away two or three times 
in the latter case. 


Tapioca will grow in almost any kind 
of soil provided the climatic conditions 
are not too rigid. I have known it 
flourish up to an altitude of 2,000 feet. 
In fact, I believe thatit thrives better 
in Travancore on ordinary or inferior 
soil, with a little manure than on 
superior red land, where it needs 
constant watering. Itis liable, however, 
to greatly exhaust the soil and render it 
unfit for cultivating the same or other 
crops unless heavily manured. 


APRIT., 1909. } 


After selecting the land, it should be 
well ploughed. The soil selected in 
Travancore is usually of a porous 
character, where water cannot stagnate. 
The next process is the formation of 
ridges, three feet apart. Probably, 
however, pits 2’x2’xl’ deep, three feet 
apart are preferable. The pits should 
be filled with dried leaves, which should 
be burnt asa precaution against white 
ants, und as a small instalment of 
manure. Ashes and other manures 
should be mixed with the soil. Ashes 
are, however, pre-eminently fitted to 
develop the tubers and ward off their 
insect enemies, which are numerous, 


When the pit system is adopted, the 
pits should be so filled up with loose soil 
as to raise the centre of each to a height 
of seven or eight inches above the 
ordinary soil level. The raised portion 
of each mound should have a diameter 
of about one foot. In an acre there will 
be about 4,500 maunds. In the case of 
ridges, the planting should be at a 
distance of three feet. 


Tapioca is propagated by means of 
cuttings from its stems, each cutting 
having at least three nodes. When the 
tubers are gathered, the stems are 
preserved for cuttings. These cuttings 
are planted ina slightly slanted position. 
Care should be taken not to plant them 
too deeply in the ground. Not more 
than three nodes should be underground. 
The cuttings should be put in when the 
ground is damp, or when rain is driz- 
zling. There is no fixed time for plant- 
ing in Travancore. The crop is culti- 
vated throughout the year, with the 
exception of the dry months, December 
to February. In a week or ten days 
after planting, the cuttings begin to 
sprout, and the healthy sprigs can_be 
distinguished from the unhealthy. Un- 
necessary sprigs should be removed. 
The soil should be slightly stirred and 
weeds removed occasionally. 


In order to decide the time of harvest, 
the tubers of a few plants should be 
examined. If they abkest to be mature, 
the crop should be dug up. After the 
tubers are gathered, the stems should 
be tied in small bundles and placed on 
the ground with the root end below, so 
that the capacity for germination may 
be retained. 


The tubers will not keep long in their 
raw state. Within a week at most they 
should be either sun-dried or boiled. If 
required for immediate consumption 
they are usually boiled, either alone or 
with tamarind leaves, the water being 
poured off two or three times. The 
tuber is also frequently reduced to 


335 


Edible Prodicts. 


powder, washed in clean water half a 
dozen times, pressed in a cloth and then 
dried in the sun, after which the flour 
will keep for a considerable period. 


When required for storage or export, 
it is asually cut into slices and sun- 
dried after the thick outer skin has 
been removed. It is sometimes also 
boiled before being cut and sun-dried. 


The cost of cultivation per acre and 
value of yield will doubtless be of inter- 
est- Iam here speaking of cultivation 
under ordinary circumstances. My esti- 
mate for preparing the land, mauuring, 
planting the sets, weeding, inter-culture 
and harvesting is Rs. 180 per acre. 


The Value of the Crop.—Kach plant 
may yield on an average 24 lbs. of tubers. 
Presuming that 4,000 are established per 
acre, the gross outturn might be 96,000 
lbs. per acre, the value of which would 
be very considerable. At present there 
has been considerable fall in the price 
of Tapioca in Travancore, but after 
making ample allowance for this, and 
after allowing for interest on capital 
laid out to acquire the land, there is 
no doubt that a large profit can be 
secured. 


Itseems a great pity that advantage 
was not taken of the large stores of 
Tapioca in Travancore for the needs of 
the famine-stricken in North India. I 
understand that something has been 
done recently in introducing Tapioca 
from Travancore in the famine districts 
of Northern India by the Salvation 
Army. There is also a small tirade in 
Tapioca fiour with Great Britain.—Agri- 
cultural Journal of India, Vol. I{I., Pt. 
IV., October, 1908. 


THE CACAO INDUSTRY. 


RESULTS OF THE RECENT EXPERIMENTS 
WITH CACAO IN THE WEST INDIES. 


(Concluded from p. 146.) 


DISCUSSION. 


Protessor J. B. Harrison (British 
Guiana) asked whether these experiments 
had control plots among them. 


Dr. Watts said that if by control 
plots Professor Harrison meant plots 
receiving no manure, then there were 
control plots. In these experiments the 
cacao trees were planted from 15 to 20 
feet apart, and each plot was separated 
by at least two intervening rows of 
trees. Plots 2 and 6 were separated 
from 7 and 10 by three rows of trees. 
That he thought was as much control 
as could be expected upon any estate. 


Ldible Products. 


Hon. G. W. Hazell (St. Vincent) asked 
whether in mulching cacao trees with 
leaves and weeds, and grass, the material 
was allowed to wither and dry, or 
was applied in the green state. 


Dr. Watts replied thatit was purely 
a matter of convenience whether the 
material was buried in the green state 
or allowed to lie on the ground and 
wither, and then subsequently turned 
in. In most cases the mulch was 
allowed to rot upon the surface of the 
ground. 


Mr. HK. A. Agar (Dominica) inquired 
whether as the result of these experi- 
ments Dr. Watts was in a position to 
say that the application of manures 
had any appreciable effect onthe cacao 
tree—did it increase their size, was there 
a difference in the weight of the pods or 
in the weight of the beans. 


Dr. Watts said that the relationship 
between manures and the size or weight 
of pods or the size of beans was in need 
of investigation. No reliable  infor- 
mation had, as yet, been obtained. 


The President suggested that this 
was a matter which practical cacao 
growers might endeavour to determine 
for themselves. Experiments might be 
undertaken to ascertain whether the 
manure had any influence in increasing 
the weight of the pod, or the weight of 
the bean. 

Mr. J. H. Hart (Trinidad) said that in 
Trinidad the average return was seven 
pods to 1lb. of dried cacao. 


Hon. W. Grahame Lang (Grenada) said 
that in Grenada the average return 
was 1 lb. of dried cacao from eleven 
pods. 


Mr. A. R. C. Lockhart (Dominica) said 
that the experiments conducted at the 
experiment station by Dr. Watts greatly 
benefited the planters in Dominica who 
were near to Roseau, and were there- 
fore in a position to watch the proceed- 
ings there; but three-fourths of the 
eacao in Dominica was produced by 
peasant proprietors—people hardly above 
the social position of labourers, and 
who were unable to derive any definite 
advantage from the experiments carried 
onatthe Station. At the inception of 
the Imperial Department of Agriculture, 
when the Dominica section was being 
organized. provision was made for the 
appointment of an Agricultural Instruc- 
tor, whose duties were to travel around 
the country, and, by personal advice to 
the peasant growers, lead them to im- 
prove their methods of cultivation. He 
regretted, however, that at the present 
moment they had no Agricultura 
Instructor in Dominica. Since Mr 


386 


[APRIL 1909. 


Branch had been removed to Grenada, 
the post of Agricutural Instructor 
had remained vacant. This was detri- 
mental to the interest of cacao culti- 
vation in Dominica, especially amongst 
the peasant proprietors. Of course, he 
knew that there were considerable diffi- 
culties in the selection of an Instructor 
for an island like Dominica. It was 
necessary to find a planter competent 
to teach, but it was also necessary that 
he should be acquainted with the 
language of the people. He hoped, how- 
ever, that the Imperial Commissioner 
would see his way atan early date to 
supply Dominica with the services of an 
Agricultural Instructor. The peasant 
proprietors of Dominica deserved much 
recognition, because the cacao industry 
of that island was largely due to their 
efforts, and he could testify to their 
readiness to receive instruction and 
advice from the officers of the Imperial 
Department of Agriculture. 


The President said that the subject 
which Mr. Lockhart had brought before 
the Conference was a very important 
one. Under existing circumstances the 
appointment of an Agricultural In- 
stiuctor for Dominica wasa very im- 
portant matter. For two years a 
vote for an Agricultural Instructor at 
Dominica had appeared on the Estimates, 
and advertisements had continuously 
been used for candidates for the post, 
but unfortunately they had received 
applications from no one that could 
be considered entirely suitable. Mr. 
Lockhart, Mr. Agar, aud other gentle- 
men connected with Dominica were 
doubtless well aware of the fact that, 
in every address he had delivered in 
Dominica, he had urged the claims of 
the small proprietors. Not only in 
Dominica was the post of Agricultural 
Instructor vacant, but it was also at the 
present moment vacant in St. Lucia. 
There again he had made the fact of 
there being a vacancy known, but so far 
no candidate had applied for the post. 
Fortunately in other colonies, Agri- 
eultural Instructors were available. The 
difficulty both in Dominca and in St. 
Lucia was that the Agricaltural In- 
structor must be acquainted with the 
patois spoken by the people. Unless he 
were acquainted with patois, his use- 
fulness would be greatly reduced. 


Mr. A. P. Cowley (Antigua) mention- 
ed that pen manure was used in the 
various islands in the experiments of 
the Imperial Department of Agriculture, 
and the results obtained probably varied 
according to its composition. He would 
like to know whether there was any 
standard by which to determine a 
complete pen manure. 


APRIL, 1909. ] 


The President pointed out that in the 
experiments carried on by the officers of 
the Department, the quality of pen 
manures used was considered as a ‘ good 
average,’ and although the application 
of pen manures varied in quantity on 
different estates, yet one could arrive at 
a fairly accurate idea of what results 
might be expected from applications of 
pen manure by taking averages over 
several years. 


Dr. Watts drew attention to cotton- 
cake-meal, a manure that was generally 
fairly uniform in composition, and sug- 
gested that its use might be valuable 
in cacao cultivation. 


The President was glad that Dr. Watts 
had referred to this matter. He would 
urge most strongly on those islands that 
were growing cotton toa large extent, 
that they should not export the seed, 
but should use it either in the form of 
seed or meal asa manure. He desired 
therefore to emphasize what Dr. Watts 
had said about the manurial value of 
cotton seed anil cottou-cake-meal, 


GRAFTING CACAO. 


By JOSEPH JONES, 
Curator, Botanic Station, Dominica. 


In the West Indian Bulletin, Vol. 
VIII., pp. 181-8, a brief note on experi- 
ments in grafting cacao at the Dominica 
Botanic Station has been published. A 
further note is now submitted, in which 
the work done is briefly summarized and 
an indication of the position of these ex- 
periments at the present date given. 


The first attempts at grafting cacao 
in Dominica were made in the Botanic 
Station nurseries in July, 1905, when 
a good type of Criollo cacao seedlings 
and Alligator cacao seedlings were 
worked on stocks of Theobroma bicolor, 
with a view to finding if the latter 
would prove a suitable stock on 
which to grow the commercial varieties 
of eacao. Theobroma bicolor did not 
prove suitble asa stock. Although the 
union of the cacao seedlings appeared 
complete, no growth followed, and the 
trial failed. © 


An attempt was then made to graft 
by approach young growing shoot of 
the Alligator cacao (Theobroma penta- 
gona) on Forastero stocks. For this 
purpose a rough stage was placed 
near to a seedling Alligator cacao,tree 


43 


337 


Edible Products. 


that had produced fruit. On this were 
placed the bamboo pots containing the 
seedling plants, and selected shoots of 
the Alligator cacao were grafted to 
the seedlings. The seedlings were sup- 
plied with water each day. In eight 
weeks the union was complete and the 
first batch of five plants was taken off 
and planted out on September 11, 1905. 
A second batch of eight plants was 
placed out on November 24, 1905. The 
cacao plants were set out in a field 
occupied by seedling orange trees, 
fifteen years old, planted at 20 feet 
apart, each cacao plant being placed in 
the middle of the square formed by 
four orange trees. The soil is dark in 
colour, easily worked, and may be 
described as fair cacao land. Probably 
the young cacao did not receive a fair 
chance when planted in soil already 
occupied by orange trees, but against 
this must be set the advantage they 
gained by shade from the older trees. 
These grafted cacao plants have grown 
very well, and now at two years and 
four months old they are bushy plants 
over 6 feet in height, and from 6 to 
8 feet through the spread of branches. 
The number of half-developed cacao 
pods on the trees now (January, 1908) 
averages four per tree. The manurial 
treatment has been three baskets of pen 
manure annually as a mulch to help 
the trees through the dry season. 


It is expected that the trees when 
three years old should have yielded at 
least one lb. of cured cacao per tree, 
In Dominica, the Alligator cacao is a 
delicate tree and a shy bearer. Better 
results might probably be expected 
from selected Forastero strains of cacao 
grafted on Calabicillo stocks and plant- 
ed in fields with only tannias and bana- 
nas for shade, 


During 1906, the grafting of a hardy 
and prolific type of Forastero cacao on 
Calabicillo stocks was commenced, A 
plot containing sixteen plants of this 
variety was planted in August, 1906. 
These, now nearly eighteen months old, 
are bushy plants from 4 feet to 5 feet 
in height and are very promising. In 
July, 1907, another plot of thirty-five 
plauts of this cacao was started. Tan- 
nias and Chinese bananas were planted 
to give the necessary shade. 


The number of grafted cacao plants 
now growing in the Dominica Botanic 
Station is as follows :— 


Theobroma pentagona... 62 plants 
Selected Forastero ...94 ,, 


: Total.,,.156 _,, 


Edible Products. 


At Picard Estate, Dominica, the pro- 
perty of Messrs. Rowntree & Company, 
an experiment plot of grafted Foras- 
tero cacao has been started. It contains 
136 plants supplied by the Botanic 
Station. Other trials ona smaller scale 
are being made on various cacao estates. 
At the present time 200 plants have been 
ordered by planters from the Station 
for further experiments, and the plants 
will be delivered in the course of a 
few weeks. These trials should yield 
valuable information in the course of 
several years. 


It will be understood that the ap- 
pearance of grafted cacao plants in 
their early stages is quite different 
from the habit of seedling cacao. The 
seedlings grow with a single stem and 
do not usually branch in Dominica, 
until 3 or 4 feet,.and sometimes 5 feet, 
in height, depending onthe soil, posi- 
tion and amount of shade given. Grafted 
cacao plants branch a few inches 
above the point of union and form bushy 
specimens. This early production of 
several branches with a large leaf sur- 
face is probably one of the factors in 
causing ;grafted plants to fruit much 
earlier than seedling plants.* 


Close on 500 grafted cacao plants have 
been obtained during eighteen months 
from an established cacao tree posses- 
sing desirable qualities. Had it been 
necessary, double this number could 
have been obtained from the tree by 
erecting additional staging on which to 
stand the bamboo pots containing the 
stocks. It will be noted that planters 
possessing cacao trees of a fruitful and 
disease-resisting type could increase 
them by grafting ata fairly rapid rate. 


Some of the advantages obtainable 
by adopting thesystem of grafting cacao 
and forming future plantations with 
grafted instead of seedling plants would 
be as. follows :—Obtaining an even 
quality of produce requiring the same 
degree of curing ; growing disease-resist- 
ing varieties; earlier fruiting ; giving a 
quicker return on capital invested; 
increase of yield per acre by selecting 
prolific strains; possibly the dwarfing 
of the trees owing to grafting. 


Should grafting tend to dwarf cacao 
trees asitis known to do in the case of 
many varieties of mangoes, this should 
be of advantage in islands like Dominica, 


* A tree planted on September 11, 1905, was 
photographed on March 25, 1908, and measured 9 
feet in height and 9 feet through the spread of the 
branches at 3 feet from the ground. It was carry- 
ing sixty pods, and other grafted plants growing in 
the vicinity of the same age were carrying from 
thirty to forty pods each—Hd, W. I. B. 


338 


{APRIL, 1909. 


as low-growing trees could be better 
protected from the wind. With dwarf 
trees it might be possible to sever all 
the pods with a knife held in the hands 
of the cacao gatherer, thus ensuring the 
crop being removed without injury to 
the tree, and doing away with the use 
of the cacao hook, a necessity for gather- 
ing the crop of the upper branches of 
the present tall trees. 


Even in the hands of a careful man 
the cacao hook does some harm to the 
trees, portions of the bark of the branch 
being often removed with the pods, 
either above or below the fruits, leav- 
ing wounds in which fungus spores may 
enter and set up disease conditions. 
The prevalence of dead upper branches 
on cacao trees in islands where over- 
head shade is not given is attributed 
wholly to the effects of the sun and the 
wind, but the part played by the cacao 
hook in this matter, though it cannot 
as a peculated, is undoubtedly consider- 
able. 


It will be more expensive to plant a 
field with grafted cacao than with seed- 
ling cacao, just as it is more costly to 
plant a field with budded orange plants 
than with seedling kinds, but the orange 
grower knows by experience that he is 
following right methods, and that he 
will be repaid for the extra cost of 
budded plants. In like manner the 
value of grafted cacao plants may be 
demonstrated in the course of time, and 
cacao growers brought to adopt this 
system in further development of cacao 
cultivaton. i 


EXPERIMENTS AT GRENADA. 


By R. D. ANS TEAD, B.A. (Cantab.), 
Agricultural Superintendent, Grenada. 


As mentiored in the West Indian 
Bulletin, Vol. VIII., pp. 180-1, the ex- 
periment plots of cacao at Grenada are 
of two kinds, distinguished tor the sake 
of reference by the terms, ‘experiment 
plots,’ and ‘experiment stations,’ 


The experiment plots are each about 
One acre in extent, and are chosen from 
land near the public roads belonging 
to peasant proprietors, 


One series of these plots completed 
its three-year course in 1904, and afresh 
series, chosen on the same plan, but in 
different localities has completed its 
second year. The results are briefly set 
forthin the following table :— 


ay he ve Fare RF 
\ 


309 


Edible Products. 


EXPERIMENT PLots. 


Yield pounds of wet cacao. 


Difference on no manure. 


No. Manurial treatment. 1905-6. 1906-7. 1906-7. 

Per | Per Per Per Per Per . 

plot tree plot tree plot tree, 
1. B | No manure 226 2°4 = — 
2. A ” = = 153 3°3 me at 
3. A nd : = 352 3:4 nat ae 
4, A ” 295 3°0 657 6°7 — — 
5. A 0 25 Bia 510 4°9 — — 
2.B = = =e 168 2°2 + 15 + Il 
gil, | Phospliate as basie as = 696 14°5 4+ 344 +111 
5. B eee 3 39 368 76 — 142 + 27 
1. A | Phosphate and { 388 Ball 286 3°8 + 60 + 14 
5.C potash 159 1°8 595 6°7 + 85 + 18 
2. G | Phosphate and sul- { -- 148 eas — 14 
4.D phate of ammonia 411 — 246 Salk: 
4, B.| Phosphate and nitrate 

of soda fs ee SA = 14 

2. D. — 50 — 2°22 
3. D. | Sheep manure 4. 213 » 09 
5. D. + 184 — 24: 
4, C | Ohlendorfi’s manure . a! — 04 
1. © | Mulching 


Considerable interest has been shown 
in these experiment plots by the pea- 
sants in their districts, and the oper- 
ations carried out upon them are, to 


a large extent, followed. The plots 
were originally chosen in poor areas 
and where trees have been consider- 
ably neglected. The Agricultural In- 
structor uses the plots to meet the 
peasants and to show them how agri- 
cultural operations such as forking, 
drainage, and pruning should be carried 
out, and how manures’ should’ be 
applied. A good crop serves as an ex- 
cellent object-lesson to all cultivators 
of cacao, and indicates how the most 
satisfactory results are to be obtained. 


With regard to the actual results 
of the experiments, figures are kept 
as accurately as possible and pub- 
lished from year to year in the Annual 
Report of the Botanic Station. As 
a means of obtaining accurate numeri- 
cal results, the second class of  ex- 
periments, ‘‘the experiments stations” 
afford better opportunitie than the 
experiment plots, since they are on 
a bigger scale and are run more on 
estate lines. 


Three of these stations have complet- 
ed their first year’s course, and the 
results are briefly set forth in the 
following table :— 


Edible? Products, 


340 


[APRIL, 1909. 


‘-EXPERIMENT STATIONS. 


Yield in pounds of | Difference on no 


wet cacao. no manure. 
No. Manure. 
Per tree.| Total. | Per tree. 
Tuileries III. No manure 6:3 — — 
Waltham III. - 88 — = 
Tuileries IV. Lime 79 + 328 + 16 
Waltham I. *s 8°2 — 116 — 06 
Tuileries I. | Sulphate of ammonia 6°8 + 114 +, 0:5 
Waltham IV. Hs us 10°8 + 398 | + 2°0 
Tuileries II. Sulphate of potash 79 + 335 + 1°6 
Waltham V. KS Ar 9°6 + 172 + 09 
Tuileries. Pen manure 123i +1170 + 50 
Waltham II. Basic slag oe 76 — 249 ee 
ee ee Se ee 


These experiment stations are estab- 
lished onlarge estates and consist of 
less than 5 acres or 1,000 trees. These 
stations, of which there are at present 
six, have become very popular, and next 
year it is hoped to start several others. 

The result of their establishment has 
been to make the larger proprietors take 
a lively interest in experiments carried 
out on their estates, experiments de- 
signed to answer questions and solve 
problems connected with their own 
soils and conditions. 

It is not proposed to discuss these 
results at length, but merely to dwell 
on a few salient points. 


The experiments show that nitrogen- 
ous manures are of the greatest value 
for cacao in Grenada, and thatthe use 
ot phosphate without nitrogen is nut 
beneficial. The use of potash without 
nitrogen, on the other hand, appears to 
result in increase of yield. 

The cacao soils of Grenada consist of 
stiff clay strikingly deficient in lime, 
so that the beneficial results obtained 
by the application of lime are not sur- 
prising. 


EXPERIMENTS AT ST. LUCIA. 


By J. C. MooRt, 
Agricultural Superintendent, St. Lucia. 


Of the experimental work carried out 
at St. Lucia, that in connection with the 
improvement of cacao gultivation has 


been followed by most beneficial results. 
This is apparent from the growing 
popularity of up-to-date methods of 
culture and manuring, the generally 
improved condition of the trees, and 
the increased crops ou many plantations 

where treatment has been adopted 
similar to that which has been found 
most successful on the experiment 
plots, This work has been carried out 
on cacao estates in different parts of the. 
island over a period of five years, 
entirely at the expense of the Imperial 
Department of Agriculture. hese 
plots were each an acre inextent, were 
situated on the main roads, and were 
generally chosen on neglected proper- 

ties. The objects in view were to 

demonstrate, if possible, that neglected 

and unhealthy trees could be restored 

to health and increased bearing by 

careful methods of cultivation. It was 

hoped that these improved conditions 

would be closely observed by the 

peasants and others, and would per- 

suade them to adopt similar measures 

on their own properties. The Agri- 

cultural Instructor gave particular 

attention to this improvement of cacac 

cultivation, and the periodical reports 

of this officer show that much useful 

work has been a ccomplished. 


As reported atthe last Conference, it 
has been found that intensive culture 
in cacao is very profitable, for it im- 
proves the vigour and disease-resisting 
powers of the trees, It has also been 
shown by these plots that the use of 


 \ aR) orenas ie oy 
aa 
(its 58, 
ws ess 


APRIL, 1909.] 


basic slag and sulphate of ammonia is 
followed by profitable increases in crops, 
but that the best results may be expect- 
ed when pen manure or other suitable 
organic manures are used in addition to 
artificials. 


In 1906, all these cacao plots were 
relinquished, for it was thought that 
they had served their purpose, and a new 
series was undertaken on similar lines 
as those established in Dominica and 
Grenada. Under the new arrangement, 
all working expenses and cost of manures 
are borne by the plot proprietors, 
scientific advice being given as to treat- 
ment by the officers of the Department. 
Each plot is divided in five equal 
sections (generally }-acre sections) and 
is treated as follows :— 


Section, Manurial treatment, Cultural treatment: 
A. Control, no manure . Annual forking. 
B. §tablemanure,5 tons... do 
C. Mulchihg with grass or 

leaveg, 10 tons . No forking. 
D, Basic Slag, 4 cwt., Sulphate 
of ammonia, 1 cwt. . Annual forking. 
EK. Sulphate of potash, 4 cwt., 
Sulphate of ammonia 3 
cwt. lime, 10 cwt. tee do 


It is too early yet tosay much of the 
results that have been obtained, but 
accurate returns are being kept and 
will be reported later. In section C. it 
has been found thata mulch of 10 tons 
per acre was hardly sufficient to cover 
the ground thoroughly, and planters 
who contemplate giving this system a 
trial are recommended to increase the 
quantity. The cost of cuttirg and 
applying grass and bush from adjoin- 
ing vacant lands is about 2s. 6d. to 
3s. per ton. 


Plots of cacao have been established 
at the Experiment Station attached to 
the Agricultural School. The general 
condition in 1906-7 of one of these plots 
was much improved by two appli- 
eations of grass in the form of a mulch. 
At each mulch, about 100 bundles of 
rough grass, of approximately 100 lb. 
weight each, were used, and it was 
calculated that the cost of cutting, 
heading, and spreading this grass work- 
ed out at 2d. per bundle, or about 4s. 
6d. per ton. 


Since mulching has been adopted, 
there has been a very noticeable im- 
provement in the vigour of the trees, 
and they are less affected in the dry 


season. The soil also appears to have 
benefitted by this treatment, and 
fungus diseases have been less pre- 


valent 


341 


Edible Products. 


CACAO EXPERIMENTS IN BRITISH 


GUIANA. 


By Professor J. B. HARRISON, 
M.A., F.1.C,, F.C.S., F.G.S., 


Director of Science and Agriculture, 
British Guiana. 

When the Government acquired On- 
derneeming many years ago some acres 
of it were occupied by a recently 
started cultivation of cacao. This was 
gradually extended, and about 16 acres 
are now occupied by this crop. Not 
much attention seems to have been 
given to the cacao plants, and when 
in 1899 I was placed in advisory con- 
trol of the Onderneeming School Farm, 
the cacao plantation was in very bad 
order and its yields were very low. 
When first started, Oronoque trees 
(Hrythrina glauca) were planted closely 
together through the cultivation to 
supply shade. They had been allowed 
to grow almost without restraint, and 
the result was a more or less forest- 
like growth, in the gloom of which the 
cacao trees struggled for existence. But 
although drawn up and more or less 
dwarfed in their general development, 
the cacao trees were singularly free 
from disease. 

I commenced operations on the cacao 
field in the year 1900 by cautiously and 
gradually thinning out the Oronoque 
trees, so that in the course of twelve 
to eighteen months J had reduced their 
number by three-fourths, the greater 
part of those left standing being in 
positions where they form a windbreak 
or shelter-belt to the fields, whilst those 
remaining sparsely scattered through 
the cultivation had been severely prun- 
ed. This resulted in letting in light 
and air to the cacao, but in so gradual 
a manner that the trees were not 
injured by unaccustomed exposure. 
During the four years preceding the 
reduction of theshade the mean annual 
yield was 1,0641b. of cured cacao, whilst 
during the succeeding six years the 
annual crop has been at the mean rate 
of 1,850 lb. 


After the cacao trees had become 
accustomed to the altered conditions 
under which they were growing, a 
series of trials with artificial manure 
was commenced, 


I realized that experiments of this 
sort with fruit-bearing trees, such as 
cacao, offered a far more difficult 
problem for solving than do experi- 
ments with sugar-cane. The individu- 
ality of the trees appeared to me to be 
a disturbing factor, and one that would 
be exceedingly difficult to overcome, 


C.M.G., 


Edible Products, 


As a preliminary step we determined 
the yields of cacao per tree in the fields 
over the beds of cacao, each of which 
is approximately one-third acre in area. 
From among these we_ selected beds 
having a mean of about 100 trees growing 
on each, the numbers on them varying 
from a minimum of eighty-eight to a 
maximnm of 102, and upon which the 
yields of cacao had been approximately 
uniform. The beds are longitudinal, ex- 
tending across the field from east to 
west. By this means we selected as 
apparently of equal productive power 
sixteen plots for the experiment. 


Analyses of the soils of the plots 
were made, which showed that they 
were fairly heavy clay soils, although 
lighter than the usual run of the cultivat- 
ed soils on the coast-lands of Demerara. 


The tollowing were the determinations 
of the soil constituents usually consider- 
ed as of importance :— 


% of air-dried soil, 


No. 1./No, 2./No, 3. 
Nitrogen fo ve | ABD A LTA | 122 
Potash soluble in boiling hydro- 
chloric. acid _... ...| "482 | +589 | °502 
Potash soluble in 1 per cent. 
citric acid a .. |°0097 |-0043 |*2005 
Lime soluble in boiling hydro- 
chloric acid... ...| ‘283 | 245 | -248 
Lime soluble in 1 per cent 
citric acid ihe ...|'0342 |'0472 |'0390 
Phosphoric anhydride soluble 
in boiling hydrochloric acid} ‘091 | ‘086 | ‘065 
Phosphoric anhydride soluble 
in I per cent. citric acid ...|"0038 | 0047 |:0025 


The analytical figures led to the ex- 
pectation that applications of potash 
salts and of phosphates were probably 
necessary for the successful growth of 
cacao on these soils. But the relatively 
high proportion of potash present in a 
state soluble in hydrochloric acid indi- 
cated that tillage operations would pro- 
bably render available sufficient of the 
potash in the need of the plants. 

During the course of the experiments 
very full and complete recoi1ds were 
kept by Mr. P. de Weever, Schoolmaster 
at Onderneeming, who devoted much 
time and great care in carrying out 
the details of the experiments. 

The manures tried were :— 

1. Sulphate of ammonia. 

2. Sulphate of potash and super- 
phosphate of lime. 

3. Sulphate of potash and sulphate of 
ammonia. 

4, Superphosphate of lime and sul- 
phate of ammonia. 


342 


[APRIL, 1909, 


5. Sulphate of potash, superphosphate 
of lime, and sulphate of ammonia. 


It was pointed out by me in 1904, that 
the returns of cacao from the trees for 
one season only would not represent the 
actual action of the manures. The crops - 
were therefore determined during four 
years from March, 1903, to April, 1907. 


The average number of pods, their 
weights, and the average weight of cacao- 
pulp yielded per tree per annum during 
this period are shown by the following :— 


Per tree per annum- 


Manutial Tr ; S23 | 23 (5 .or6 
eatment Ae oa wee 
fon G ® 2124, oy 
Fars E s zo = 
No Manure eee «| 90 | 7:4 | 1:47 
Sulphate of potash and super- 
phosphate of lime | 9°20 | 1:7. | 1-58 
Sulphate of ammonia -6.|) 856 WAT aaa 
Sulphate of potash and sul- 
phate of ammonia «| 99) 1°99) 1-61 
Puporpepephate of Lime and 1 
sulphate of ammonia Sl eee ye 
Sulphate of potash, superphos- ‘ a 
phate of lime, and sulphate 
of ammonia... «| 9:9 1 8:0 | 1:70 


For the purposes of these experiments 
Mr. de Weever during the ae 1902-3 
counted the pods produced on a con- 
siderable number of beds on the Onder- 
neeming cacao fields, determined the 
weight of pulp yielded by them as 
delivered at the sweating house, and the 
weight of cured cacao obtained. 


His results were :— 


Number of pods 15,518 
Weight of pods 12,558 Ib. 
Weight of pulp er 2,095 5, 
Weight of cured cacao ... 1,016 _,, 


The cacao trees at Onderneeming on - 
the experimental beds are planted 
approximately at 300 trees to the acre. 
The yields of cured cacao per acre per 
crop, calculated by the use of the above 
data, work out as follows :— 


errr SE 


Manurial Treatment, |Yield of cured 
cacao per acre. 
No manure ... ‘s a 176 
Sulphate of potash and superphosphate 
of lime Bue pds 55 187 
Sulphate of ammonia ., Bal 178 
Sulphate of potash and sulphate of 
ammonia .. 50 34 191 
Superphosphate of lime and sulphate 
of ammonia rh fil. as 218 
Superphosphate of lime, sulphate of 
potash, and sulphate of ammonia.. 202 


ER I IRE SY ENTE LN CORTE EN ARE IHS NOT EEE 


APRIL, 1909. 


The above indicates that on the soils 
on which the trials were conducted, 
the manure which exerts a favourable 
influence in the yields of cacao is a 
mixture of superphosphate of lime and 
sulphate of ammonia. Sulphate of potash 
is not indicated as being required, and, 
in faci, little good resulted from its 
application. Nor has the use of sulphate 
ot ammonia by itself proved satisfactory. 
In the mixed manuring of sulphate of 
ammonia and superphosphate of lime 
the cost of the sulphate of ammonia 
was $7,50, that of the superphosphate 
of lime $2,50--a total of $10 per acre. 
The increased yield of cacao presumably 
due to the action of the manures during 
the four years, was 168 lb. worth locally 
at 12c. per lb. $20°16. Allowing 6 per 
cent. per annum as interest on the 
capital expended in the. manures, we 
get $7°76 as profit from the manuring. 


The following, in my opinion, illus- 
trates some of the uncertainty which 
_attaches to manurial experiments with 
cacao. The yields of cured cacao per 
tree percrop during the period 1903-7 
were as follows :— 


Not manured experimental beds 
” ¥ rest of fields 
Manured experimental beds... 66 ., 


The cause of the higher yields per tree 
over the parts of the field not under 
experiment, is that on them the bearing 
trees are planted somewhat farther apart 
from one another than they are on the 
carefully selected beds used for experi- 
ments with manure. 


In the preliminary- determinations of 
their yields during the selection of the 
beds, it was found thatthe yields on 
three beds selected for unmanured 
control plots were 1:04, 1°88, and 1°20 lb. 
of pulp per tree per crop. A fourth one, 
with trees planted at the same distance 
apart as were those on the three beds, 
yielded 2°40 lb. of pulp per acre. If this 
bed had been used as an uncontrolled 
manured plot for manurial experiments 
and any one of the other three as an un- 
manured reference plot, we should have 
obtained some striking results iclating 
to the actions of manures on cacao. As 
it is, reference to the figures given above 
shows thatthe results obtained were, 
as they are in all well-arranged agri- 
cultural field trials, unmarked by pheno- 
menal yields attributable by the experi- 
menter to some special form of culti- 
vation or of manure. . 


My experience with cacao indicates 
that to obtain reliable results the plots 
used must be relatively large ones, con- 
taining at least 100 trees on each, and 
that each trial should be repeated on at 
least three plots and preferably on four 


58 Ib. 
T2 55 


343 


Edible Products. 


or five. Then the mean results obtained 
over a series of crops although probably 
not inany way striking, may be accepted 
as fairly reliable. 


DISCUSSION. 


Hon. W. Grahame Lang (Grenada) : 
We in Grenada agree with Professor 
Harrison’s remarks as regards shade. 
We find that wherever cacac is heavily 
shaded, a good deal of disease exists ; 
but as soon as the shade is removed the 
cacao trees improve in condition. 


The President said that the question 
of shade was» matter which had to be 
treated according to local conditions. 
No hardand fast rule or law could be 
laid down with regard to any particular 
district until actual trials had been made. 
Side shade and shelter were necessary, 
but overhanging shade was a matter in 
which one must be guided by local 
conditions. 


Professor Harrison, replying to the 
Hon. G. W. Hazell, said that the usual 
shade tree in British Guiana was Bois 
Immortel, but they were now establish- 
ing wind-breaks of rubber trees. 


Dr.. Watts (Leeward Islands) said it 
occurred to him that the question of 
soil moisture and drainage was some- 
what velated to that of shade, and it 
was questionable whether a great deal 
of the beneficial effect attributed to 
shade was not attributable to drainage 
through the roots of the trees. From 
what he had seen in one or two places 
where he had taken careful note of trees 
growing in damp situations, there was a 
drainage effect which was _ beneficial 
both in the case of lime and cacao trees. 
In Dominica and Grenada cacao flourish- 
ed much better without shade, whereas 
in Trinidad they had a country which 
was agreat advocate of shade, and he 
was not certain whether it was not 
rather a question of drainage. 

The President remarked that the point 
raised by Dr. Watts was a very im- 
portant one and deserved investigation.— 
West Indian Bulletin, Vol. TX., No. 2, 


THE CULTIVATION AND MARKET- 
ING OF MAIZE. 
(Concluded from page 255.) 


Climate.—Maize requires a high sum- 
mer temperature and abundant mois- 
ture, and attains its most luxuriant 
growth where the summer is long con- 
tinued, reaching a height of 20 feet and 
more; but certain varieties of it are 
adapted to take advantage of a short 
but hot summer, and ripen in more 
northern latitudes; these, however, do 
not attain nearly so greata height. It 


Edible Products. 


is grown in Southern Europe, especially 
in Hungary, Roumania and Italy, in 
the southern parts of Asia, in Africa, 
in Australia, especially in New South 
Wales and Queensland, and in America, 
from Canada to Patagonia. Frost kills 
the plant in allits stages, and the crop 
does not flourish well if the nights are 
cool. In the tropics it can be grown 
from the sea-level to considerable alti- 
tudes. In cool localities it will not ripen, 
though it can be grown for useas fodder. 


Soil.—The best soil for maize is a rich 
sandy loam containing a fair amount 
of humus, well drained, but holding 
moisture well, since the plant makes a 
rapid znd succulent growth; for this 
reason the presence of humus is impor- 
tant, owing to its retentive power for 
moisture. Stiff clay is prejudical. 
Maize grows well in succession to crops 
which leave behind them plenty of 
vegetable matter to form humus; any 
land which has given a good crop of 
hay will after ploughing give a good 
crop of maize. Leguminons plants form 
good crops to precede maize, as they 
enrich the soil in humus and nitrogenous 
matter. 


Seed Selection.—In order to ensure a 
good growth in the next crop the seed 
for sowing should be selected in the 
field, and not after gathering, as the 
character of the stalk a cob came from 
eannot then be known; the best cobs 
of the best stalks should be collected 
and kept apart to furnish seed. In the 
Southern United States stalks producing 
two cobs to the stalk are preferred, as 
they are considered to give the largest 
yields. Cobs poor in ‘size, shape or 
fulness should be rejected, and if one 
cob ona stalk is very poor both should 
be rejected. A cob that bends over in 
ripening so that the top hangs down- 
wards is advantageous, as the rain 
does not collect at the bottom and 
cause decay or sprouting. 


The ears should be of good size, of 
nearly uniform diameter throughout, 
and well filled at both ends, The indi- 
vidual grains should be long, and so 
broad at the upper end as to leave only 
a slight depression between the rows. 


When a satisfactory kind of maize 
has been found, care should be taken 
not to plant another kind of maize any- 
where near it, as the pollen from the 
tassels is carried by the wind and ferti- 
lises cobs at a distance, and thus the 
character of the good maize would be 
altered in the next crop. 


Planting and Cultivation.—In places 
where water is liable to stand after 
heavy rains the land should be ploughed 


344 


soas to form beds on which to plant 
the maize, but where the surface water 
runs off quickly the land should be 
ploughed flat. With good drainage 
flat planting is the best, as it is less 
expensive, and the amount of surface 
exposed being smaller there isless eva- 
poration, and the crop therefore stands 
drought better. When beds are made 
they may be 4 feet or 8 feet wide; in 
the latter case the maize is planted in 
two rows, one near each edge of the 
bed with 4 feet between the beds. After 
ploughing the soil should be well pul- 
verised by harrowing; a thorough pre- 
paration of the soil produces a better 
crop and facilitates subsequent oper- 
ations in destroying weeds. 


Maize is commonly planted in rows 
4 feet apart, as this allows a convenient 
width for cultivating between the 
plants ; the distance between the plants 
in the row is about 3 feet, but the thick- 
ness of planting must be varied accord- 
ing to circumstances, both the fertility 
of the land and the amount of moisture 
being considered. On very fertile soils 
distances of 34 feet x3} feet with 3 grains 
per hill are adopted. The richer the 
soil the closer can planting be done with 
safety. Ifthe stalks stand too thickly 
in the rows the crop will suffer more in 
dry weather than when planted more 
thinly, and when the plants crowd each 
other they do not produce good ears, 
whilst more leaf is the result. 


Planting should be deferred until the 
soil has become warm enough to ensure 
prompt germination of the seed; the 
depth at which the seed should be sown 
depends on the temperature and 
moisture of the soil; if it is planted at 
too great a depth the soil is cold and 
wet, and the seed may decay;if it is 
too near the surface of a dry soil, and 
dry weather continues, the crop may 
prove uneven. The planting is done 
either by means of a horse-drawn plant- 
ing machine or the seed is dropped on 
the surface and covered by using a hoe. 


Cultivation should begin immediately 
after the first rain that follows the 
planting; the surface should be broken 
and the weeds killed, and this should be 
repeated after each rain, so as to prevent 
the formatiom of a crust and to kill the 
weeds. When the cropis from 4 to 6 
inches high it should be hoed and 
thinned to the proper number of stalks, 
as it will then be past the greatest 
danger from insect attack, and any 
weeds growingin the rows between the 
stalks should be cut out. In times of 
drought a well pulverised but shallow 
surface layer forming a ‘‘dust mulch” 
checks evaporation and keeps the soil 
beneath moist, 


(APRIL, 1909. 


; 

4 
Br) 
4 

’ 
a 


+, 2 opie aa a ‘ 
4 Nay ‘, . 


APRIL, 1909, | 


Harvesting.—When matured the ears 
of maize or cobs, sometimes with a good 
proportion of the husks attached, are 
pulled by hand from the stalks; the 
latter are then utilised by allowing stock 
to feed on them in the field, or are cut 
and made into fodder by a shredding 
machine ; the plan of making them into 
silage for milch cows is also sometimes 
practised, Itis sometimes thought that 
if the cobs are stored with the husks on, 
the latter protect them from insect 
attack, but this idea does not seem well 
founded, and it is usually best to remove 
the husks at the time of gathering. 
Horse-drawn machines are sometimes 
used to cut and bind the maize crop, and 
the cobs are subsequently removed from 
the shocks in the field. Machines for 
gathering the ears from the standing 
stalks, husking them and delivering 
them into wagons have also been 
designed and used to some extent. 


The grain is removed from the cob 
by machines known as_ corn-shellers. 
Several types of the latter are supplied 
by Messrs. Peter Henderson & Co., of 
New York, namely: (1) the “ Burrall 
Corn-sheller,” which can be worked by 
one man: it shells 100 bushels a day, and 
costs $6°75; (2) the ‘Clinton Corn- 
sheller”: this costs $450 with one 
balance-wheel, and $50 with two 
balance-wheels ; it does not separate the 
grain from the stripped cob; (3) the 
Black Hawk Corn-sheller”: this is a 
small hand-machine, costing $2. Messrs. 
Ruston, Proctor & Co., of Lincoln, 
England, supply an_ ‘Improved Maize 
Husking, Shelling and Dressing Machine.” 
In this the cobs fall upon a revolving 
drum, which strips off the grain. The 
grain is cleaned from dust, loose husk 
and other refuse, by riddles and by a 
strong current of air, and is elevated to 
the sack-spouts ina finished condition. 
The machine, which is provided witha 
portable teed-elevator, is made in two 
sizes:(1) the 3 feet 6 inch machine, 
shelling and dressing about 400 quarters 
of maize in 10 hours, and requiring a 
6 horse-power portable engine to drive 
it; (2) the 5 feet machine, shelling and 
dressing about 850 to 900 quarters in 10 
hours, and requiring a 10 horse-power 
portable engine to drive it. In the case 
of both machines, if husking is done at 
the same time, the output will be about 
half the quantities named above. 


If the machine employed for shelling 
has furnished the maize in an imper- 
fectly cleaned condition, a separate 
cleaning operation to remove the “ fluff” 
should be given before shipment, as the 
latter increases the risk of the grain 
heating on the voyage. 


44 


345 


Edible Products. 


As regards yield, the average annual 
amount per acrein the United States 
was 25°9 bushels in 1907, and in the forty- 
two years 1866-1967, the range was from 
16°6 bushels in 1901 to 30'8 bushels in 
1872, As regards maximum yields, over 
100 bushels per acre has been recorded in 
some cases in the United States. 


Storage and Transport.--During stor- 
age, and during transport from the 
place of growth to the United Kingdom, 
maize is liable to suffer a considerable 
amount of deterioration from two 
causes, namely, fermentation and insect 
attacks. When maize coming from 
West Africa suffers, the damage is 
mostly due to the attacks of weevils, 
whilst the principal defect that occurs 
in that coming from the United States 
and the Argentine Republic is due to the 
effects of heating on the voyage caused 
by fermentation induced by the exces- 
sive amount of moisture it sometimes 
contains; the quality and value may 
be seriously diminished by this cause. 


Soon after maturity maize may con- 
tain as much as 20 to 22 percent. of 
moisture; if it is stored in this state, 
without an opportunity of getting 
drier, it may escape damage in cold 
winter weather, but as soon as warm 
weather comes fermentation will occur 
and the grain will be damaged. If it 
is left on the cob and stored in well- 
ventilated ‘‘cribs” until the late winter 
or spring it will usually get sufficient- 
ly dry. In the- Argentine Republic 
the cribs used for storing maize are 
made of poles stuck into the ground, 
with wire and maize stalks woven in 
among them so as to form a sort of bin; 
in this the cobs are put, and the walls 
being more or less open, allow air to 
circulate through the contents, and the 
maize dries, especially if the crib is 
thatched over to keep out the rain. 
If by the time warm weather arrives 
the moisture has been reduced to 12 
or 18 per cent., the maize under ordi- 
nary conditions can be stored or trans- 
ported with safety, but if the maize 
has not been sufficiently dried some 
more artificial method must be adopted. 


One of these methods employed in 
modern grain storehouses is to transfer 
grain from one bin to another by 
means of transfer belts and elevators; 
during this operation the circulation of 
the air effects a certain amount of 
drying, and the process is frequently 
employed to keep grain in good condi- 
tion. In the case of maize, however, 
if the transfer is made too frequently 
many of the grains get broken, and 
besides, the operation is somewhat ex- 
pensive, Another method known as 


Kdible Products. 


“kiln drying” has been devised; in 
this heated air is passed through the 
maize until the superfluous moisture is 
removed, It is stated by some that 
the heat injures the maize for manu- 
facturing purpoges, and that the kiln- 
dried maize is liable to suffer consider- 
able damage by cracking and breaking 
during subsequent handling operations; 
the objection to kiln drying, however, 
may partly have arisen from badly 
damaged material having sometimes 
been treated and mixed with better 
grades. There seems no reason why, 
either by using a lower temperature for 
the air and prolonging the time of dry- 
ing, or by using air previously deprived 
of its moisture by refrigeration, and 
then warmed, some suitable method of 
drying maize should not be attained. 


An alternative plan to storing in a 
ventilated crib is to allow the maize 
to dry thoroughly before storing, and 
then to keep it in a tightly closed bin 
in which it can be treated to destroy 
insects; in some climates the slow dry- 
ing in the ventilated crib would not 
be successful. 

Having regard to the injury caused 
by dampness it is important that the 
grain should not be exposed to rain 
in the course of transport by land, 
warehousing and shipping, nor to damp 
air during the voyage; and the stores 
should be dry and thoroughly well 
ventilated. and be kept clean and white- 
washed. 


Among the insect enemies of maize 
weevils cause an immense amount of 
damage, especially to that coming from 
West Africa; it seems probable that 
the chief source of infection is the 
warehouse where the maize is collect- 
ed before shipment, though the attack 
may commence at the country farms, 
and some of these insects may be 
lurking in the holds of the steamers 
that convey the maize to England. 
The larvee of some moths also attack 
the grain. 

Weevils and moths can be easily 
killed by the use of carbon bisulphide, 
a colourless volatile liquid which gives 
off a heavy vapour, but its use in 
tropical countries will require careful 
supervision owing to its polsonous 
properties and great infammability. It 
may be applied either by spraying or 
pouring the liquid over the grain, but 
it is commonly put in shallow pans 
placed above the grain ; from these it 
evaporates, and the heavy vapour sink- 
ing through the grain kills the insects. 
The best results are obtained when the 
grain is stored in air-tight bins or 
closed tanks; but in absence of these, 
covering the grain with tarpaulins, oil 


346 


[APRIL, 1909. . 


cloths, or canvas sails will be found 
effective. It is a good plan to build 
a ‘quarantine bin,” in which the 
grain is treated and afterwards removed 
to the store. The carbon bisulphide 
is used at the rate of 1 1b. to each 100 
bushels of grain, and is allowed to act 
for from 24 to 48 hours. 


Buildings can sometimes be treated 
with this substance, using 1 1b. of the 
liquid for 1,000 cubic feet of space, and 
placing it high up so that the vapour 
may descend; apertures should be 
closed andthe building kept shut for 
from 5 to/2 hours. When opened the 
building should be well ventilated. 
Every pracaution must be taken to 
prevent the vapour igniting by con- 
tact with lights or pipes, or even the 
sparks from electric fittings, as its 
igniting temperature is very low, and 
when mixed with air it is explosive. 
The vapour is poisonous, and must not 
be breathed, and workmenin factories 
where it is used are found to suffer 
from constantly inhaling small quanti- 
ties. It should not be used for flour, but 
grain is uninjured by the treatment if 
it is well ventilated afterwards, 


As an alternative to using carbon 
bisulphide to destroy the insects the 
plan of heating might be employed. It 
has been found by Mr. FE. V. Theobald, 
in the case of other grain, that any dry 
temperature over 140° F. killed all larvee 
and pups as soon as the corn was well 
warmed through; the most successful 
experiments were at any temperature — 
between 130° to 140° F., when not only 
larvee and pup: but also eggs and adults 
were killed, and it seems probable that 
on the large scale heating to a temper- 
ature approaching 150° F. for one hour 
would be successful. The designing of 
an apparatus to effect the destruction 
of weevils by heat without at the same 
time injuring the commercial value of 
the maize deserves the attention of 
manufacturers of milling machinery. 
The treatment should be given at the 
warehouse before shipping, and as soon 
as possible after the maize is received; 
the maize should then be stored away 
from danger of fresh infection until 
shipped. Messrs. Thomas;Robinson & 
Son, Limited, of Rochdale, England, 
make a maize-drying machine which 
might; perhaps, prove effective for 
this purpose; itis capable of dealing 
with 150 bushels ata time. In this ap- 
paratus air heated by steam coils is 
blown by a fan through the maize 
placer in specially constructed cham- 

ers. 


Before shipping the holds should be 
thoroughly cleaned and freed from 
insects. It has been noticed by Mr. F, 


my 


APRIL 1909,] 


V. Theobald that grain shipped in 
gunny bags suffers more from weevils 
than that sent in bulk, the reason being 
that the weevils will not work deep 
in amass of corn. 


As regards the native practices it 
may be mentioned thatin West Africa 
the cobs are sometimes kept hanging 
up, but when this is done they become 
attacked by weevils; another plan is 
to harvest the maize by breaking down 
the plants and leaving them lying for 
three days to dry, the cobs are then 
eut. off and stored in thatched bins 
supported on wooden piles about 6 
feet off the ground; these bins allow 
the air to circulate through them. In 
Northern Nigeria the natives are in 
the habit of drying their millet and 
guinea corn in mud ovens, and then 
storing it in cylindrical mud towers; 
this heating would no doubt tend to 
kill weevils if it was’ applied to the 
maize intended for sale. 


Grading.—In order to facilitate the 
buying and selling of grain a system of 
grading has been adopted in the United 
States. In this system the grain is 
examined by trained inspectors and 
reported to be of one or other of certain 
divisions of quality; by this means 
the buyer has an _ opportunity of 
knowing what he is buying, and. the 
disputes are avoided which are liable to 
occur when the buyer purchases on 
the basis of asample and considers that 
the grain delivered does not come up 
to the sample in quality. If the grad- 
ing is well done the buyer is assured 
of the quality of the grain he will 
receive, and this is a matter of greatest 
importance ; in fact it has been stated 
that it is not of much consequence to 
dealers whether good, bad, or indiffer- 
ent grain is sent so long as it is true 
to the sample, and the broker can 
safely say that the sample represents so 
many bushels. 


The inspection departments are 
managed eitheriby trade organisations 
or are under State control, and the 
charge made for grading is only a small 
fraction of the value of the grain, vary- 
ing from about 25 cents to 75 cents pex 
car-load or per 1,000 bushels. 


In the case of maize in the United 
States the rules recommended by the 
Chief Grain Inspectors’ National Associ- 
ation classify the grain intu three classes, 
namely—Yellow Corn, White Corn, and 
Mixed Corn (coro or Indian corn being 
the names by which maize is always 
known in the United States); and in 
each class the grain is assigned to one 
or other of five grades. 


347 Rdible Prodats, 


The following are the rules :— 


‘No. 1 Yellow Corn shall be pure 
yellow corn, sound, plump, dry, sweet, 
and clean. 


No. 2 Yellow Corn shall be 95 per 
cent, yellow corn, dry, sweet, and 
reasonably clean, but not sufficiently 
sound or plump for No, 1 Yellow. 


Na. 3 Yellow Corn shall be 95 per cent. 
yellow corn, reasonably dry, reasonably 
clean, but not sufficiently sound and dry 
for No. 2 Yellow, 

No. 4 '‘Vellow Corn shall be 95 per 
cent. yellow corn, not fit fora higher 
grade in consequence of being of poor 
quality, damp, musty, or dirty. 

No Grade Yellow Corn. (See general 
rule.) 


No. 1 Mixed Corn shall be mixed corn, 
sound, plump, dry, sweet, and clean. 


No. 2 Mixed Corn shall be mixed corn, 
dry, sweet, and reasonably clean, but 
not sufficiently sound and plump for 
No. 1 Mixed. 


No 3 Mixed Corn shall be mixed 
corn, reasonably dry, reasonably clean, 
but not sufficiently sound and dry for 
No. 2 Mixed. 


No. 4 Mixed Corn shall be mixed 
corn, not fit fora higher grade in con- 
sequence of being of poor quality, damp, 
musty, or dirty. 

No Grade Mixed Corn. 
rule.) 


No. 1 White Corn shall be pure white 
corn, sound, dry, plump, sweet, and 
clean, 


No. 2 White Corn shall be 98 per cent. 
white corn, dry, sweet, reasonably clean, 
but not sufficiently sound and plump for 
No. 1 White. 


No. 3 White Corn shall be 98 per cent. 
white corn, reasonably dry, reasonably 
clean, but not sufficiently sound dry for 
No. 2 White. 


No. 4 White Corn shall be 98 per cent. 
white corn, not fit for a higher grade in 
consequence of being of poor quality, 
damp, musty or dirty. 

No Grade White Corn. 
rule.) 


No Grade—General rule.—All grain of 
any kind and variety that is wet, hot, or 
in a heating condition, burned or smoky, 
contains weevil, or is tor any reason 
unfit for warehousing, shall be classed 
and graded ‘‘ No Grade.” 


These rules have met with some 
criticism on the grounds that the terms 
give great latitude for individual varia- 
tions of opinion ; ‘‘reasonably dry” and 
‘“reasonably clean,” for instance, being 
quite indefinite, and it has been suggest- 


(See general 


(See general 


Edible Products. 


ed that the judgment of the inspectors 
should be guided and checked by actual 
scientific determinations of the percent- 
ages of moisture, of coloured grains, of 
damaged grains, and of broken grains 
and dirt; though of course this could 
not be done with every consignment, 
but only with a certain number of 
selected samples with a view to keeping 
the standard of grading uniform. 


In Natal the Government has decided 
to encourage the export of maize, and in 
August of 1907 held a meeting of persons 
interested in the matter in order to 
obtain the advice and co-operation of 
the farmers and merchants, and a 
committee was formed to _ consider 
the matter of grading. A Government 
inspector has been appointed, and the 
following set vf regulations has been 
issued :— 


GRADING REGULATIONS FOR MAIZH, 


adopted by the South African Govern- 
ments. Season 1908 ; Natal. 


The maize is to be classified as 
follows :—(A) White Flat. (B) White 
Round. (C) Yellow Flat. (D) Yellow 
Round. (K) Mixed (partly white and 
partly yellow in same bag). 


Choice White Flat (Dent).—To be flat, 
sound, dry and reasonably clean, and not 
to be deprived of its grade by reason of 
an occasional red or discoloured grain. 

Choice White Round (Flint).—Similar 
to the above, except that it must be 
round (flint). 

Fair Average Quality White Flat 
(Dent).—To be dry. The grains may be 
irregular in size as long as they are flat; 


348 


[APRIL, 1909. 


than 8 per cent., 
discoloured grains, 


Fair Average Quality White Round 
(Flint).—Similar to above, except that it 
must be round (flint). 


Choice Yellow Flat (Dent).—Must be 
flat, dry, sound, well cleaned, and is not 
to be deprived of its grade by reason of 
an occasional white or discoloured grain. 


Choice Yellow Round (Flint).—Similar 
Ree except thatit must be round 
Int). 


Fair Average Quality Yellow Flat 
(Dent).—Must be flat, sound, dry and 
reasonably clean, and up to 8 per cent. 
of white or discoloured grains should 
not deprive it of its grade. 


Fair Average Quality Yellow Round 
(Flint).—Similar to above, except that it 
must be round (flint). . 

Choice Mixed.—To be dry, sound and 
reasonably clean. The maize may be 
round or fiat. If the sample is mainly 
white, yellow maize up to 20 per cent. 
may be allowed; if the sample is mainly 
yellow, white maize up to 20 per cent. 
may be ellowed. 


Fair Average Quality Mixcd.—Should 
consist of dry, round or flat maize, or a 
mixture of both chiefly yellow and white 
maize, and may contain up to 30 per 


may be yellow or 


cent. of blue berries, 


Note.—In each of the foregoing cases 
‘below the standards set for fair aver- 


age quality ” will be regarded as 
‘below grade.” 


Samples of these grades are exhibited 
in the Natal Court of the Imperial 
Institute ’—Bulletin of the Imperial In- 


and a reasonable quantity, not more _ stitute, Vol. VI., No. 3, 1908, 
TIMBERS. 


THE COMING TIMBER FAMINE. 


A general famine of timber all the 
world over within thirty years of the 
present date is unhesitatingly prophe- 
sied by Mr. Angus Hamilton of Berkeley, 
California, in a letter to the Times. Mr. 
Hamilton, it will be seen, believes that 
England holds an answer to the situa- 
tion in the forests of Uganda; but his 
predictions may rouse the Indian Forest 
Department also to be on the qui vive 
while there is time. He writes :— 


To those of us who have spent the 
greater part of a lifetime in the inter- 
national timber trade and have travelled 
extensively the timber-producing re- 


gions of the world, it is a self-evident 
tact that a time of scarcity is approach- 
ing much more rapidly than most people 
suppose—I would place the time of 
scarcity at 25 to 380 years. Atthe present 
rate of consumption the United States 
supply will certainly be exhausted in 
about that time and Canada, with the 
United States drawing on it from now 
on, cannot hold out much longer. All 
the most accessible timber on the shores 
of the Baltic has been used up, and the. 
interior supply will be gone in less than 
30 years. With conditions like these to 
be met in so short a time what are you 
to do in the Old Country to meet it? 


In the short space of thirty years. it 
would be impossible to meet this famine 


APRIL, 1909.) 349 


by planting, and while your home timber 
is growing it is necessary you should 
look up some other source of supply. 
The two most likely regions are the 
Amazon or the Uganda Protectorate. 
As the timber regions of Uganda above 
4,000 ft. are suitable for white labour, 
it seems to the writer that thisis a much 
more desirable region to develop than 
the Amazon. and being within the 
Empire would be free from the tri- 
weekly revolutions so common in the 
South American Republics, consequently 
giving greater security to the capital 
necessary to develop the forests. 

To get this timber from Uganda into 
the British market at a reasonable price, 
it means that experience and energy 
must be put into it. Boys from school 
cannot do this. Woodcraft can only be 
learned in the woods. The very best 
skilled lumbermen of the broad-gauge 
type must go into this business along 
with the investers’ money if a_ profit 
is to be made. I was very much amused 
on reading an article by Mr. Winston 
Churchill in the Strand Magazine lately 
describing the primitive methods em- 
ployed to supply the Uganda Railway 
with cordwood for fuel. I quite agree 
with himthat modern methods must be 
introduced if this Uganda timber is to 
be used as a commercial asset of the 
Protectorate; logging railways must be 
built, steam logging machines intro- 
duced, and modern up-to-date band-saw 
mills constructed. Steam, electricity, or 
compressed air are much more service- 
able than a lazy nigger. On one point 
I must differ from Churchill, and that 
is about the use of the ‘‘ steam tree 
feller.” In sucha forest as he describes 
it would cost more to clear a way for 
the feller than it would do to cut the 
timber by manual labour. To give a 
start to the timber business in Uganda 
it would be necessary to man the woods 
and mills at first with skilled white 
labour, and by this means gradually 
educate the young natives, The young 
natives can be trained up to the good 
useful woodsmen, but the old ones 
never. At least this has been the 
writer's experience in the Black belt 
of the Americas. The old ones sooner 
or later return to their banana or 
cotton patches, but the young ones, 
reared around the mills and woods, 
usually stay with the plant. There is 
a large area of timbered country that 
is at least comparatively healthy and 
suitable for white settlement, and 
should be the first part to be deve- 
loped. This region is known as the 
Mau Escarpment, and lies between 
Lake Naivasha and the Kasova Hills 
on the eastern shore of the Victoria 
Nyanza, This forest can easily be 


Timbers. 


reached by logging railway from ‘the 
existing Government railway, and with 
proper appliances and skill the timber 
could be placed on board ship at Mom- 
basa at about 12d. per eubic foot, 
that is, provided the rates on the 
Uganda railway are reasonable. Steam- 
ers of, say, 6,000 to 8,000 tons can 
earry it to London or other British 
ports at 43d- per cubic foot. In all 
the price of pitch pine is about ls. 44d. 
cif. the Thames, but in less than 
ten years the price of pitch pine will 
not be less than Is. 10d. per cubic foot 
c.i.f. British ports. Timber companies 
going into Uganda should be very care- 
ful to see that their} medical staff should 
have a thorough knowledge of tropical 
medicine as the health of the employés 
is of prime)importance in an under- 
taking of this kind. All camps should 
be carefully screened to protect the 
workers from the insect pests which 
communicate disease, all water should 
be boiled or artesian wells bored, a 
small ice plant should be installed at 
each saw mill to supply ice to the 
village and the logging camps along 
the companies’ railway. With proper 
precautions there is no reason why the 
timber in river bottoms cannot also be 
logged out. 


The writer has lived in some of the 
worst malarial regions on the Ameri- 
can continent for years without having 
a single attack of malarial fever, and 
I am convinced the same thing can be 
done in Uganda. A proper diet of 
well-cooked food, plenty of ice, protec- 
tion from insects, and as little direct 
sunlight as possible, will enable the 
white man to live in almost any cli- 
mate. Do not be afraid to tackle the 
problem of getting out the Uganda 
timber, for it can be done. 


I estimate the timber area of Uganda 
at 40,000. square miles, that is to say, 
25,600,000 acres, which at 1,000 cubic feet 
per acre would yield 25,600,000,000 cubic 
feet in all. Why should this enormous 
forest be allowed to rot onthe stump 
when you need the timber so much at 
home? Itisaself-evident factin a forest 
that is perpetuating itself that it de- 
cays as tast as it grows, and we know 
that this decay and growth is about 
40 cubic feet per acre per annum, 
hence there is 1,024,000,000 cubic feet 
rotting in the forest of Uganda every 
year. For the benefit of the general 
reader [ may: state that this annual 
decay of timber would, if converted 
into sleepers, be sufficient for 170,000 
miles of single track railway, and all 
this without injury to the forest. 


To encourage capital to this business 
the timber would require to be sold in 


Timbers. 350 


large areas, say 50,000 to 100,000 acres. It 
would take this amount of timber to 
justify timber companies going to the 
expense of building railways, steam- 
logging appliances, and large modern 
hand-saw mills. A plant of say 10,000 
cubic feet daily capacity would be re- 
quired to be assured of a ten or fifteen 
years’ supply to justify the expense; 
and, as far as I can learn, the forest 
laws of Uganda would have to be re- 
arranged to meet those requirements, 
and before people could be induced to 
risk their money in the business. The 
Government shonld send some practical 
timbermen and foresters out to report 


; {APRIL, 1909. 


on this field and to draw up common- 
sense laws for the exploitation and 
conservation of the forests. Here with- 
in the Empire you have timber enough 
to supply all your needs until you can 
grow your own at home. 


My advice to you at home is to plant 
every available inch of ground. Don’t 
say you haven’t any. I know of several 
millions of acres in England, Wales, 
Ireland, and Scotland that can produce 
a profitable crop of timber, and which 
in the interest of coming generations 
should be planted. Assuredly this tim- 
ber famine will be upon you in less 
than thirty years.—The Pioneer. 


HORTICULTURE. 


THE QUEEN OF FLOWERS. 


PRUNING FOR BLOssOoM—INSECT PESTS. 

You may break, you may shatter the vase, 
if you will, 

But the scent of the roses will hang round 
it still. 


The rose, undoubtedly, has ceased to 
be merely looked on asa cut flower for 
the decoration of rooms and houses. It 
is now cheerfully given its rightful 
piace as one of the choicest decorative 
garden plants taking precedence over 
others for the purity of its tints, unique 
fragrance and persistent bloom. The 
production of a constant, persistent 
bloom, however, depends on proper care 
and attention bestowed on the plant— 
manuring and watering, reference to 
which was made in a previous article, 
seasonal pruning and prevention of 
insect attack, to which I shall now refer. 


PRUNING 


is one of the most important operations 
in rose culture, and it is to be considered 
what object the cultivator has in view, 
for it is quite easy to prune some kinds 
of roses out of, as into, bloom. The 
period of flowering is much regulated 
by pruning, and it is therefore well to 
have a knowledge of the modes of prun- 
ing required for different kinds of 
roses. Some require severe cutting 
down, while others should be shortened 
and trimmed only. Asa rule the local 
garden cooly knows nothing whatever 
of the art of pruning beyond an indis- 
criminate and general amputation to 
produce a uniform level, with tatal 
results as far as bloom is concerned. 
Still some rose bushes flower after such 
vandalistic treatment—after a manner, 


with which some people are contented, 
and others cannot understand how their 
roses do not give satisfaction. ‘‘ He who 
would have beautiful roses in his garden 
must have beautiful roses in his heart” 
wrote the Rev. Reynolds Hole; and no 
gardener will produce them from the 
garden unless he has them in his heart. 
They are the producticn of labour with 
amindfor thatlabour. Asageneral rule 


THE PROPER TIME FOR PRUNING 


is in the month of May with the fall of 
South-west monsoon showers in one 
part of the island and during the North- 
east monsoon rains in the other. The 
plants yield best to the operation at the 
beginning of the monsoons, They should 
never be pruned in the hot dry months 
of the year when growth is in a more 
or less inactive state. At such a time 
the plants will greatly benefit by mulch- 
ing—covering the earth about the 
roots with dead leaves, sweepings from 
the garden, etc., to prevent excessive 
evaporation of moisture and the pene- 
tration of heat rays to the roots. As 
regards pruning it must, first of all, be 
borne in mind that roses are divided 
into the following main classes :—(1) 
Hybrid Perpetual roses, (2) Bourbon 
roses, (3) Moss roses, (4) China roses, (5) 
Tea scented roses, and (6) Noisette roses. 
The different classes require different 
modes of pruniag. 


1. The Hybird perpetuals bear the 
free use of the shears and should be cut 
back to about four to six eyes according 
to the habit of the plant. ‘The finest 
flowers are. asarule on the tops of the 
shoots which are strongest, and if 
quality be more desired than quantity 
all the buds except two or three so 
situated should be removed (this relates 
to flowers).” Some Hardy Perpetuals 


a 
2 
‘ 
3 
- 
% 


ts 


APRIL, 1909.) 3 


are dwarf in habit while others are 
extremely vigorous in their growth. 
The dwart varieties. must be less 
severely pruned than the vigorous ones. 
It is difficult to lay down a fixed rule 
for pruning them, but the most vigor- 
ous should be to cut to six or seven eyes 
and the dwarf varieties be thinned out 
and only have their shoots shortened 


to one-half. There should be some old’ 


wood pruned away occasionally to 
admit of the shrub replenishing them- 
selves oncea year or once every two 
years, sothat part by part they may 
renew themselves an 


NEVER BE ENTIRELY DENUDED. 


2. Bourbon roses are treated as 
regards their annual pruning 1n much 
the same way as Hybird Perpetuals. 


8. Moss roses are also to be pruned to 
two or three buds of the last year’s wood. 
These flower ouly once or twice, but 
they flower better Upcountry. 


4. China roses are free bloomers and 
do not require much pruning but only 
the shortening of their branches. 


5, Tea-scented roses require the strong- 
est and largest to be kept intact and 
only shortened, and the other branches 
cutaway. As new branches are thrown 
out their ends should be nipped, when 
lateral shoots are thrown out which only 
flower. The number of these laterals 
can be reduced with the object of getting 
fewer but finer blooms. 


6. Inthe case of Noisette roses the 
long rods should be sightly shortened 
and laterals cut back to three or four 
eyes and the weak shoots removed 
altogether. 


From a fortnight to three weeks after 
pruning the buds begin to swell and 
shoot outinto branches. It will then 
become necessary to regulate the number 
of these by rubbing off those that would 
be likely to crowd and entangle. It 
must be remembered that the more the 
sap is retarded in its circulation, the 
smaller is the force with which it acts 
in developing branches, and the greater 
its action in 


PRODUCING FLOWER BUDS. 


“Trees only begin to develop flower 
buds when they have reached some 
maturity,” writes an authority on 
gardening, ‘for it is necessary for the 
production of flower buds that the sap 
should have attained some consistency, 
and circulate slowly. This elaboration is 
assisted by the extended course it has to 
run in the lengthened branches; it is 
also assisted by broken and interrupted 
lines.” The well-known principle has 
been taken advantage of to check the 
sap by pinching and torsion, and even 


Horticulture. 


pa rtiall y breaking over-vigorous branches 
in fruit culture, Rose plants require 
some attention atthe time the flower 
buds appear. If first class blooms are 
the object only a limited number of buds 
should beallowed to remain on the trees, 
the rest being pinched off. Some fresh 
nourishment is also necessary for the 
plant to assist the buds to swell out. 
Fo. this some fresh cowdung mixed in 
water and strained is given by some. 
After each flowering the soil should be 
replenished and the used-up flower 
branches cut back. 


The rose, like many another cultivated 
plant, has 


ITS INSECT PESTS. 


In Ceylon, however, unlike in other 
countries where the rose is grown ona 
large scale, it is said to have compara- 
tively few. There are pests that attack 
that plant underground and others 
above. As regards those thatare visible 
the Rose Beetle is a positive nuisance in 
some places, especially in the country 
side. A little insect of the size of a pea, 
of a bright greenish-yellow colour, and 
known to Entomologists as Anomala 
varicolor, and a large confrére with dark 
wing coverts and prominent white belly, 
Lachnosterna serrata and L. mucida, 
sweep down from scrub and jungle to 
the rose bushes as evening falls and 
devour blossom and leaf. Handpicking 
in the light ofa lantern and dropping 
the insects into a finger bowl of water, 
as Ihave seen done in some bungalow 
gardens, is of no avail. The only way 
to epeen? the attack of the Rose Beetle 
is by 


MAKING FLOWER AND LEAF DISTASTEFUL, 


by drenching the plants in the evening 
in water in which tobacco had been 
steeped, witha dash of kerosine and 
soapsuds. While keeping offall vege- 
table feeders from the plant the douche 
will at the same time act as a tonic to 
the tree. Sometimesa number of little 
green insects will attack the young 
shoots. The tobacco infusion in their 
case too will be found more successful 
than anything else. Kerosine and soap 
are likely to injure the young shoots 
unless mnde very weak and carefully 
applied: Sometimes dusting with ashes 
is successful, but theashes cannot reach 
the insects on the underside of the 
leaves ; but by syringing they can easily 
be displaced. Caterpillars of certain 
butterflies and moths will also show 
themselves during the monsoon rains 
when insect life predominates, and 
these will have to be picked in the early 
morning and destroyed. The _ best 
guide to detect the caterpillars is the 


Horticulture. 


number of fresh pellets that will be 
found on the ground. If the pellets are 
there, the caterpillar must be hidden 
-somewhere on the branches or sometimes 
buried in the soil near the stems. The 
seale insects sometimes attack rose 
plants, andthe number to be seen on 
each plant is surprising. The whole 
stem of the plant is covered with them 
as if plastered with something. The 
best remedy is to segregate such plants, 
and after rubbing off the insects, the 
plants should be washed with resin 
wash. Little flying insects resembling 
mosquitoes will be found to attack 
roses, disfiguring the foliage by 
puncturing it. The presence of damp 
and grass and the absence of free 
sun and ventilation are favourable for 
them. The best remedy is to take the 
plants to a place where these causes are 
not present. The insects come and go 
every year. Mildew shows itself on rose 
plants by the curling of the leaf_and 
the ashy white powder on them. Dust- 
ing of sulphur powder is advised as a 
remedy. But washing with the liquor 
of sulphur is better as the underside as 
well as the apper can be reached by a 
jet of the wash. A half ounce of potas- 
sium sulphide should be dissolved in 
some hot water and added toa gallon 
of water. One or two applications of 
this should cure a fresh attack of mil- 
dew. As regards those 


PESTS THAT ATTACK THE PLANT 
UNDERGROUND 


no enemy has a worse reputation than 
the white-ant so destructive, especially 
to cuttings in the nursery, tunnelling 
into the slips from the butt end, and 
the “lady” is puzzled to know how the 
choice slips of La France, Cathrine Mer- 
met and Glorie de Dijon, stuck with 
such care in the sheltered and prepar- 
ed bed are cut off suddenly in their 
youth after exhibiting signs of sprouting. 
The white-ant is a most insidious pest, 
but as its ravages are confined to 
diseased or decayed vegetation, it will 
be well to clear thoroughly the neigh- 
bourhood of the flower beds of such 
matter. The most effective way of 
diminishing their numbers is to get 
the garden cooly to dig up the ants’ 
nest with a pickaxe or alavangoe and 
destroy the queen ant, if she can be 


352 


_killed by these. 


[APRIL, 1909. 


found. Other underground enemies are 
earthworms and the 


LARVA OF THE CHAFER BEETLE, 


the thick fleshy dirty-white yellowish 
grub with the tale end of the body 
swollen and dirty in colour. These 
grubs are easily noticed and should be 
destroyed wherever seen, as they are 
hurtful to the roots of trees. Large 
rose trees in pots are not unfrequently 
Cattle manure fre- 
quently contains the larve of this beetle, 
and manure before using should always 
be spread out in the open so that the 
birds and chickens would pick out the 
eggs and grubs. EHarthworms in a 
flower tub clog the soil and absorb 
matter which would benefit the plant. 
In potting plants the earth should be 
examined carefully for the eggs of the ~ 
earth worm. But the best plan is to 
incinerate the earth, which, while des- 
troying all organic life init will great- 
ly improve it. But all underground 
enemies can be readily and effectively 
disposed of by using liquid manure, 
urine, which while killing them will 
PRODUCE A PROFUSION OF BLOOM. 


As practical agriculturists know, urine 
when allowed to putrify and diluted in 
water: and applied to trees is one of the 
most valuable manures. It furnishes, 
in short, according to Dr. Kownes, the 
same substance as the atmosphere—the 
food of plants provided by Nature her- 
self, Moreover, urine contains a large 
quantity of phosphates, bodies indis- 
pensable to vegetable life. Urine should 
be diluted as a manure. It has been 
found that the diluted liquid contains 
nearly four times as much ammonia as 
urine left to putrify in its natural state. 
The stuff, however, should not be left 
to putrify for too long a period. Two 
months is about sufficient. The use of 
this liquid manure, so easily prepared, 
in rose culture will give remaikable 
results, killing insect pests in the 
ground, and producing profuse crops of 
flowers in a short time. Use a small 
quantity, about a pint of the liquid, 
for each tree, taking care not to wet 
the foliage. As in the case of solid 
manure, one single application is all 
that is required for the season. More 


anon. 
HORTUS., 
—Independent, December 4, 1908. 


APRIL, 1909.): 


358 


MISCELLANEOUS PESTS. 


DESTROYING THE MOSQUITO. 


While the myriads of mosquitoes that 
infect the lowlands of Louisiana seem 
to have an assured hold on life, because 
of the difficulties involved in thoroughly 
well draining the lands. yet there does 
seem to be some hope of their final 
extirpation, or atleast of their reduction 
to far fewer numbers. It seems that 
there was quite an invasion of New York 
city by mosquitoes during this last 
summer, and the low lying lands of Long 
Island, Staten Island and New Jersey 
doubtless furnished the little pests that 
made New York unhappy for a time. 
The Army and Navy Journal, in discuss- 
ing the matter, refers to some work 
done in Cuba by Major J. R. Kean of the 
Medical Corps, U.S. A., and argues trom 
the work done there that similar results 
could be secured in the United States 
if equal effort were displayed in the 
battle with the mosquitoes. The 
Journal states that in the Guines-Union 
zone in the south-western part of 
Matanzas province and the south-eastern 
part of Havana Province, one of the 
most troublesome and persistent zones 
of infection in the Island, producing 
yellow fever every spring, the stegomyia 
mosquito is now a rareinsect, Mosquito 
breeding in the city of Havana is practi- 
cally at an end, and June last 23,573 
houses were inspected in which only 
forty-nine deposits of larvze were found. 
Of these twenty-nine were stegomyia 


Considering that all this improvement 
has come in a country where until a few 
years ago there was complete native 
ignorance as to the infectious dangers of 
the insect, the mosquito problem should 
not be treated as something beyond 
remedy by anyone, butas soluble by a 
sound mixture of sanitary science and 
common sense. Since the yellow fever 
outbreak of 1905 in New Orleans but little 
attention has generally been paid to the 
extirpation of the mosquitoes in any 
broad way. The city of New Orleans 
has devoted itself assiduously to the 
thorough screening of cisterns, but in 
the absence of any particular danger 
from yellow fever the people at large 
seem to be disposed to take what comes 
without any grumbling, whether they 
be mosquitoes, flies, or whatnot. Itisa 
fact, however, that the more general 
sereening of all cf the houses, restau- 
rants, and hotels with fine woven wire 
has redueed the annoyance from mos- 
‘Quitoes very uuch. Even inthe country 

tee: 5 


it is found that the people generally are 
screening the houses, and certainly 
malarial fever in Louisiana is incom- 
parably less frequent than malarial 
fever in some of the western states. If 
Wwe were as vigilant in the country 
about minor drainage as we are about 
screening our houses for our personal 


comfort, the mosquito problem would 
gradually become more and more 
simplified, until we should finally 


perhaps reach a degree of control of the 
mosquitoes equal to that we now secure 
in our residences. The Pullman people 
on their sleeping cars are now using 
large dust sereens which exclude mos- 
quitoes as well as dust. On some of the 


southern Louisiana trains we find. 
mosquito screens the whole length 
of the passenger cars, which render 


summer travel very pleasant as com- 
pared with conditions some years back, 


If minor drainage and local spot drain- 
age were attended to on the plantations 
so that there would be no water hatch- 
erles existing nearby for mosquitoes, it 
would add very much to the effectiveness 
of what we have already done. In these 
days of fuel oil it would be comparatively 
inexpensive to oil the ditches every 
week or two. Itisa fact that in the 
rainy season the oil would be washed 
away perhaps daily, but nevertheless it 
would be effective in the dry seasons 
and comparatively effective always. 


In New Orleans and in the country 
also, the invasions of mosquitoes are 
brought about largely by strong easterly 
winds blowing them in from the sea 
marshes along the coast, These grey 
mosquitoes so blown in are thought to 
be innoxious, atleast they are not the 
yellow fever stegomyia, nor the malarial 
fever anopheles, but merely the culex 
solicitans, to which, so far, no particular 
disease has been ascribed. The Army 
and Navy Journal ought to be good 
authority, and quoting approvirgly as it 
does the work done by Major Kean in 
Cuba in the way of mosquito extirpation, 
it would certainly seem very possible 
for us to do very much iu that way here 
and thus necessarily benefit the whole 
community. Our own State Board of 
Health. with Dr. Dillon at its head, 
could confer no greater boon upon the 
public than to carefully consider the 
mosquito question and to devise ways 
and means for its suppression or control 
in town and country.—Louisiana Planter 
and Sugar Manufacturer, Vol. XLL, 
No. 17, October 1908. p. 258, 


354 


LIVE STOCK. 


KOCH ON RINDERPEST IN THE 
PHILIPPINES. 


oo 


By G. E. NEsom, 
Director of Agriculture. 


Dr. Robert Koch is looked upon as the 
leading authority on many questions 
of human and veterinary medicine. 
Among other accomplishments he has 
made a thorough study of rinderpest in 
South Africa and Egypt. The results 
of his studies and investigations have 
had a marked influence in the work 
ot controlling this disease throughout 
the civilized world. His method for the 
manufacture of serum was adopted in 
the Philippines by the Bureau of Science 
in the year 1902, and was used with 


hae few modifications until January 1, 


Dr. Koch has been called upon to give 
advice in the control of many diseases, 
and his recent studies in South Africa 
on sleeping sickness have added further 
to his already world-wide reputation. 
On his visit to the United States prior to 
embarking for the Orient, great interest 
was shown in himand his work. He 
was given ovations throughout the 
country, and on reaching the Orient 
every inducement was offered him to 
visit all parts of the Far East. The 
following invitation was sent through 
the American ambassador, Tokyo, under 
the date of July 16, 1908: ‘* The 
Governor-General of the Philippine 
Islands most cordially and earnestly 
invites you to visit the Philippine 
Islands while in the Far East. We 
think you will be interested in our 
scientific work in the study of tropical 
diseases. Your acceptance of this 
invitation will be exceedingly gratify- 
ing to this Government.” On July 20, 
a reply came in which Dr. Koch ex- 
pressed deepest regret that he was 
unable to accept the invitation, as he 
was compelled to shorten his visit and 
proceed directly from Japan to Germany. 


These Islands have thereby missed 
the benefit of the scientific advice and 
the inspiration which a visitfrom him 
would have given to the work of con- 
trolling human and animal diseases here. 
It is particuarly unfortunate that he 
could not comeat a time when cholera 
was rather wide-spread and when the 
greatest efforts were being made to place 
rinderpest under control. 


Dr. Koch subsequently returned to 
the United States and attended the 


Tuberculosis 
held in Washington, D.C., last Septem- 


International Congress 
ber. While there he was seen by the 
Director of Health of the Philippine 
Islands who discussed with him many 
topics of interest pertaining to the 
health of man and the domestic animals 
in the Philippines. 

Among the topics considered was 
the possibility of placing rinderpest 
in these Islands under control. Dr. 
Koch expresses the opinion that the 
Government should undertake serum 
inoculation on an extensive scale. He 
thinks the work should begin in Manila, 
that all cattle received from foreign 
countries and those in communities 
where rinderpest exists, should be 
given serum inoculation. He thinks we 
should organize a good service for the 
detection of new cases throughout the 
Islands, soas to make sure that when 
eradication is undertaken in a single 
island it will be thoroughly covered by 
this service, all centres of infection 
located, and the spread of the disease 
prevented. He says that under this 
system no animal need be sacrificed, 
that the methods will soon become very 
popular, and that if inaugurated ina 
sufficient scale to cover the Archipelago 
and the work done thoroughly, it is 
possible to place rinderpest under control 
within one year. He specifically con- 
demns the use of the simultaneous 
method in the provinces. 


Itis of interest to note that all in- 
vestigators who have had occasion to 
work in the control of rinderpest for any 
considerable time have reached practi- 
cally uniform conclusions as to the 
methods tobe used. Some of the officials ° 
who have been continuously in touch 
with the rinderpest control work in 
these Islands for five or six or even 
eight years are fully convinced that Dr, 
Koch is quite right in many of hiscon- 
clusions. A brief statement of the 
methods now in use here and the history 
of changes made in them will show 
how closely they correspond to the 
ideas expressed by Dr. Koch. 


Serum inoculation has been extensively 
practised by the Bureau of Agriculture 
for more than three years, and has given 
excellent satisfaction. Briefly stated, 
the method is to begin inoculating with 
serum at each centre of infection and 
spread out in continuous circles in 
lines of travel where animals are not 
thoroughly quarantined soas to tem- 
porarily immunize all animals which are 
liable to be exposed to infection. Ordin- 


APRIL, 1908. | 


arily itis not necessary to reinoculate 
any of these animals once given serum, 
as most outbreaks can be easily sup- 
pressed by a little concentrated effort 
on the part of the veterinary force with 
local poliee aid before animals lose their 
temporary immunity. 

Persistent efforts have been made to 
bring this question to the attention of 
local provincial and municipal officials 
with a view to securing prompt reports 
of outbreaks and quarantine pending 
arrival of a veterinarian. Repeated ap- 
peals have been made by letters, circulars, 
press notices in the Spanish papers and 
through the columns of the Philippine 
Agricultural Review. The Review for 
March is entirely devoted to this subject, 
and articles have since appeared fre- 
quently, such as those in the May and 
October numbers. The urgent import- 
ance of a campaign, the ultimate object 
of which should be the complete eradica- 
tion of infective animal diseases, has 
been the subject of several editorials. 
All this has resultedin an appreciable 
increase in both private and official 
interest in this all-important question. 
Further legislation and executive orders 
would greatly strengthen: this branch of 
the work. 


Dr. Koch’s opinion as to the use of the 
simultaneous method for permanently 
immunizing animals against this disease 
is supported fully by the experiences 
here. It was discovered some years ago 
that this method had some very serious 
defects which render its general use in 
the provinces impracticable. It was, 
however, continued until November 1, 
1905, at which time the veterinary 
division was transferred from the 
Bureau of Health to the Bureau of Agri- 
culture. Then the former orders requir- 
ing veterinarians to give simultaneous 
invculation in the provinces were 
revoked and serum inoculation substitut- 
ed. The popular objections to simul- 
taneous inoculation were the abnormal 
death rate which so frequently results 
when animals are not given proper care, 
which often occurs in the provinces. It 
renders all of the animals inoculated 
unfit for service for a period of from ten 
to twenty days, there is a possibility of 
spreading infection. from the animals so 
inoculated, and expense incident to this 
process is quite heavy. Besides, if the 
disease is effectually placed under 
control there is no inducement to have 
animals immunized as they will have no 
opportunity to come into contact with 
the infection. 


These great conclusions were drawn 
by Dr. Koch from his experiences in 
South Africa and Egypt where con- 
ditions vary widely from those in the 


B55 


a 


Lave Stock. 


Philippines. They were likewise evolved 
here after many years of patient toil. 
Ina sense they were universal, and under 
similar conditions would give uniform 
results. 


The conditions prevailing here influence 
the introduction, spread, persistence and 
control of this disease. Some of these 
conditions are naturally adverse and not 
amenable to change, while others are 
naturally favourable and act as self- 
limiting agents inthe spread of this 
disease. 

Among the uncontrollable adverse 
conditions are the location, topography, 
and climate conditions. These islands are 
wholly within the tropics as well as 
near China and the colonies of the 
Orient where rinderpest has apparent- 
ly a firm footing, from which it can 
scarcely be dislodged within this gener- 
ation. The topography of the _Philip- 
pines presents two extremes. Most of 
the islands have ruggard backbone of 
mountains which drop off suddenly 
into a level coastal plain. Under 
present conditions most parts of the 
mountains are reached only by trails. 
In the lowlands during the rainy sea- 
son transportation is very difticult on 
account of swollen streams, poor roads, 
and few bridges. While these condi- 
tions make the suppression of the dis- 
ease a hard problem to solve, they 
also serve as limiting agents in the 
spread of the disease, by restricting 
the movements of live stock. Rinder- 
pest is generally much worse in the 
rainy thanin the dry season. The in- 
fection is evidently perpetuated in the 
bogs and sloughs where carabaos graze 
and wallow. There is a notable de- 
crease in the disease after the advent 
of the dry season. 


But the real determining factors in 
this question are legal, financial, indus- 
trial and educational. They appeared 
as distinctly unfavourable conditions, a 
few years ago, but there has been a 
gradual, progressive, material change 
for the better with the march of time. 
A brief retrospect will reveal many 
points of interest. Prior to October 
12, 1907, there was no Insular law pro- 
hibiting the importation of diseased 
animals. The Provincial and Municipal 
Codes made it optional with the provin- 
cial and municipal boards to establish 
quarantines and otherwise attempt the 
control of this and other diseases with- 
in their respective jurisdictions. But 
few of these boards have ever availed 
themselves of their authority in the 
control of infective animal diseases ex- 
cept in cases where serious outbreaks 
have occurred. There have been some 
cases of provinces grossly infected 


Live Stock. 


throughout the barrios of many munici- 
» palities, and where not a single ordi- 
nance, executive order, or police regu- 
lation was put into operation to meet 
existing conditions. 

In fact, up tothe year 1905, in many 
parts of the Islands there was active 
opposition against quarantines of all 
kinds on the part of many influential 
people, to say nothing of the ignorant 
masses. All attempts made by Govern- 
ment officials or individuals, to control 
the movements of animals infected with 
this disease proved very unpopular. 

The active enforcement of the quran- 
tine law forbidding the importation of 
diseased animals into the Philippine 
Islands and restricting their movements 
atter arrival here was uot undertaken 
until June of the current year. There- 
after General Order No. 10 made it 
possible to continue the infection of 
these Islands, and _ indetinitely by 
bringing cattle from the different ports 
of China and Indo-China in accordance 
with Rule 11 of that order. Under 
these conditions it would make little 
difference whether the Government did 
or did not suppress the disease in the 
Islands. It was impossible to control it 
until the importation of the disease 
was effectually stopped. 


General Order No. 12, issued November 
2, 1908, excludes from all ports of these 
Islands all shipments containing animals 
infected with or exposed to dangerous 
communicable diseases. As a business 
concession, the order provides that 
healthy animals exposed in an infect- 
ed shipment, may under certain res- 
trictions be landed for immediate 
slaughter only or held on vessels which 
shall serve as quarantine stations for 
a period sufficient to determine that 
the animals will not develop disease 
after being landed. This is probably 
the most significant move which has 
ever been made here in the exclusion 
of diseases among imported animals. 


If this rule is enforced it will effect 
a condition to which all the efforts to 
control rinderpest have looked for- 
ward. It will leave the officials free 
to deal only with the diseases which 
actually exist here. The last step in 
this direction has been the codification 
of all existing rules as General Order 
No. 13, which is published in the number 
of the Review. 

One of the serious defects in the 
system used here has been the lack ofa 
suffizient quantity of serum to prose- 
cute the work vigorously in all cases. 
There has also been a constant scarcity 
of competent veterinarians, which has 
often prevented their being sent to 


356 


infected places in tirhe to prevent the 
disease from obtaining a firm foothold. 
Both of these defects have been effec- 
tually remedied. The capacity for the 
manufacture of serum has been enlarged 
by the removal of the herd to the new 
quarters of the Alabang stock farm, and 
the number of veterinarians employed 
has been increased. It is almost certain 
that there will ultimately be an avail- 
able veterinarian for each of the 
provinces and principal islands. 


Appropriations have been made for 
the construction and complete equip- 
ment of live-stock depéts to be used as 
quarantine stations in the cities of 
Manila, Iloila, and Cebu. These will be 
modern sanitary places and will replace 
the very poor corrals now in use by the 
importers of cattle. It is probakle that 
one or two of these stations will be 
completed and ready for operation by 
the middle of the year 1909. As soon as 
all imported cattle can be discharged 
into these Government depéts and held 
sufficiently long to make sure that they 
will not take disease to the province 
when shipped out of the port of entry, 
a wonderful advance will have been 
made in the control of rinderpest. 


Substantial progress has been made in 
the control of animal diseases in the 
Philippines, and the country is rapidly 
being restocked by increase in the native 
herds. The importation is now almost 
entirely confined to cattle intended for 
slaughter in Manila. As soon as there 
is alocal supply of cattle sufficient to 
meet this demand, the importation from 
countries in which rinderpest prevails 
can be discontinued altogether and the 
work of eradicating this disease in the 
Philippines limited to handling out- 
breaks, which occur from _ infection 
within our borders. This will insure a 
condition of affairs which should bring 
general prosperity to the whole country, 
and animal industry can again assume 
the importance which it had during the 
decade beginning about 1885. 

A great deal of the campaign against 
this disease has necessarily been of an 
educational nature. The people in 
general have had to be taught the 
importance of the disease which swooped 
down upon the animal industry of the 
country without warning and almost 
destroyed it. They have been helpless, 
largely because they have not under- 
stood its nature, importance, nor how it 
might be handled. <A constant_educa- 
tional campaign has been waged for a 
number of years, as evidenced by such 
publications as the catechism on 
infective animal diseases, published as 
Vol. I., No. 3, of the Philippine Agri- 


{[APRIL, 1909. . 


ne 


’ 


+2) di eae 
a 7 ” 
oi MPoe) 5 


APRIL, 1909. | 


cultural Review. Our work in_ this 
respect, however, is not finished, and the 
campaign will be continued through the 
medium of publications, the division of 
extension work, with the aid of teachers 
in the provinces, and through official 
channels. The Filipino people as a 
whole have sbown a spirit of indifference 
toward the efforts to aid them in throw- 
ing off this plague, and they will no 
doubt retain this attitude until they are 
educated along the lines above indicated. 
This will require time, patience and 
proper facilities, but it is not a task 
impossible of accomplishment if it is 
properly handled. 


Those who have been attempting the 
control of rinderpest in these Islands 
have had many years of experience 
which have given them an insight into 
the conditions regarding control of this 
disease here which even Dr. Koch could 
not possibly possess without visiting 
here and thoroughly studying the pro- 
blemin person, He has not been here, 
and this fact constitutes a satisfactory 
reason for disagreeing with him on some 
of the points mentioned in his interview. 


The conditions as to location, topo- 
‘graphy and climate are well under- 
stood and may be dropped from further 
consideration. There is a trade condi- 
tion which demands the importation 
of cattle from China and Indo-China, 
principally for slaughter in Manila. 
Last year almost 70 per cent. of the 
imported cattle received in Manila were 
slaughtered within the municipal limits 
of this city within a few days after 
arrival. The inoculation of this class 
of cattle alone with a single injection 
of 50 cubic centimeters of serum would 
cost the Government or owners about 
$50,000 per annum in serum, services, 
and expenses. It would certainly be a 
bad business practice without hope of 
giving the desired results. 


It seems desirable to inoculate all 
imported cattle shipped to the provin- 
ces. However, as 80 per cent. of these 
are slaughtered in the towns near 
Manila within a few days after ship- 
ment, and are not allowed to go out 
of this city except when free from 
disease, there is some question about 
the advisability of inoculating them. 


The draft animals used for heavy 
street work in the cities consist almost 
entirely of carabaos. The percentage 
of immune animals among these is not 
known but is probably quite large, as 
they have for many years had ample 
opportunity for exposure to the disease, 
but in recent years very few of them 
appear to contract it. ‘Those which are 
not already permanently immune by 


357 . Lave Stock, 


virtue of having had the disease are 
not liable to come into contact with 
it if the exclusion of infected animals 
is rigidly enforced. Even if given anti- 
rinderpest serum it would not prove 
an absolute guarantee against their 
contracting the disease, as its immuniz- 
ing value decreases rapidly during a 
period of three or four months, after 
which it has but little effect. 


Dr. Koch has certainly reached the 
proper conclusion with reference to the 
extensive use of serum inoculation in 
localities where the disease exists. If 
the available supply of serum is large 
enough to inoculate liberally around 
all outbreaks, and thereby temporarily 
immunize all animals liable to exposure, 
the results are always excellent. A 
given amount of serum used in this 
way yields much better results than 
coald possibly be obtained in corrals 
of importers or in general provincial 
inoculations where no rinderpest pre- 
vailed at the time. 


Another condition which may have 
much influence on this question is the 
presence in some parts of the provinces 
of wild carabao. They are in all essen- 
tial respects the same as the domestic 
animal ordinarily used for draft pur- 
poses in these Islands, and will no doubt 
contract the disease whenever they are 
exposed to the infection. Deer are also 
very commor throughout the Archi- 
pelago, and there are some authentic 
cases, especially in the mountains of 
Benguet, where they have contracted 
and spread the disease to herds of cattle. 
The instances of this kind which are 
liable to occur are comparatively few, 
but may be a final determining factor 
as to whether or not the disease will be 
completely eradicated here. If wild 
carabao. and deer prove important 
agents in carrying the infection, con- 
trol of the disease may be indefinitely 
delayed. Such animals can neither be 
inoculated nor quarantined. The only 
alternative, in case they prove a serious 
obstacle, is to wait patiently the slow 
process of extermination by the disease. 
In the meantime, it will do much more 
harm to the domestic than to the wild 
animals. 


In the meagre advices received, Dr. 
Koch does not appear to have mentioned 
the value of quarantine. This omission 


‘was no doubt inadvertent as he is fully 


aware of its value in dealing with severe 
infective diseases. Asa means to an end, 
a quarantine that is really effective is 
more important than any other one 
measure used kere. It ineludes the 
exclusion of diseased cattle from foreign 
countries, holding those allowed to land 
long enough to make sure they do not 


Live Stock. 


take diseases to the provinces, guarding 
the interests aud shipment of diseased 
animals, and promptly isolating infected 
and exposed animals whenever’ the 
disease makes its appearance. 

The opinion expressed by Dr. Koch 
as to the possible time under the most 
favourable conditions within which the 
disease might be placed under control is 
not overdrawn. These conditions, how- 
ever, are practically impossible at the 
present time. It would be avery opti- 
mistic view for those who have the 
responsibility of placing the disease 
under control to suppose that the work 
will be accomplished within one year. 


On the contrary there is every indi- 
cation that it will bea work of several 
years if the conditions surrounding the 
work do not materially change. 

The restoration of depleted fortunes 
after a destructive war, the reclaiming of 
waste lands, the natural increase of the 
small herds lett after the ravages of 
rinderpest so recently experienced, the 
building and rebuilding of ridges and 
roads all require time. Then there is the 
modernizing of education, agriculture, 
industry and commerce in an oriental 
eolony which learned its best lessons 
years ago from a EKuropean nation, now 
in its turn learning anew the same 
lesson from the more progressive nations 
of the world.—Philippine Agricultural 
Review, Vol, l., No. 11, November, 1908. 


THE BEST TIME TO WATER 
HORSES. 


By F. W. CULVER, M.D.C., 
Colorado Agricultural College, Fort Collins. 


A horse should be watered before feed- 
ing, and never given a large quantity of 
water after a meal, for the simple reason 
that the water will wash the food out of 
the stomach before stomach digestion 
has taken place and the food. will not 
be well prepared for absorption; and 
besides it is sometimes the cause of colic. 


There is a popular idea that a warm 
horse should Ent be allowed to drink 
and, unlike a great many other popular 
ideas, there is a little truth init. If you 
water a warm horse in the ordinary way, 
letting him drink all that he will, you 
are likely to havea foundered horse on 
your hands. This is especially so if, at 
thetime, the horse is fatigued, Never- 


358 


i ae 


theless, itis always safe to allow him 
from six to ten swallows, no matter how 
warm heis, If this be givenon going 
into the stable and he be allowed to 
stand and eat hay for an hour and is 
then offered water, he will not drink 
nearly so much as he would had none 
been given before. 


The danger is not in the first swallow, 


[ APRIL, 1909. 


as we often hear it asserted, but inthe | 


excessive quantities he will drink if not 
restrained. The most dangerous time to 
givea horse a full draftis when he has 
cooled down from fatiguing work and 
has partaken of a meal. 


John Splan, the great trainer, writes: 
“As to water, I think that a horse should 
have all that he wants atall times. A 
man says: ‘Why; will you give your 
horse water before a race ?’ Yes; before 
the race, in the race, and after the race, 
and any other time that he wants to 
drink.” WhenI say give your horse all 
the water he wants before the race, I do 
not mean that you shall tie him ina 
warm stall where he cannot get a drink 
for five or six hours and then give him all 
that he wants. What 1 mean is ahot 
day, and then take him to the pump and 
to give him water often and, in that way, 
he will take only a small quantity ata 
time. 


After long, continuous exertion the 
system is greatly depleted of fluid. 
Nature calls for its replacement, and 
this isthe cause of a thirst which is so 
intense that, if the animal is not restrain- 
ed at this time, he may drink much more 
than he needs. 


The general custom, almost universally 
followed, of giving the morning meal 
before water, is not very objectionable, 
either theoretically or practically. At 
this time there is no depletion of fluid, 


consequently the horse is not very thirsty 


and does not drink rapidly or excessively, 
and apparently very little evil results 
from this method. However, the writer 
much prefers that the horse should have 
an opportunity to drink before the 
morning meal. 


Personally, I much prefer keeping 
horses, both summer and winter, in an 
open shed, with alarge water tank in 
the yard, to tying them by the head in 
abarn. This brings us to the arrange- 
ment of farm buildings, which I hope to 
discuss in some subsequent paper.— 
Louisiana Planter and Sugar Manu- 
facturer, Vol. XLI., No. 26, December 26, 
1908, p. 414. 


APRIL, 1909.) 


359 


SCIENTIFIC AGRICULTURE. 


THE ACTION OF HEAT AND 
ANTISEPTIC ON SOILS. 


SUMMARY. 


When soils are treated with antisep- 
tics, such as carbon bisulphide, chloro- 
form, benzene, ether or paraffin oil, 
they undergo chemical change, and the 
soluble organic matter in them is in- 
creased, just as in case of their being 
heated; they also exhibit the same 
inhibitory effect on the germination of 
seeds that heated soils do, 


The different antiseptics differ in the 
intensity of their action, but the in- 
hibitory substance formed is probably 
the same in all cases, and also the 
same as that formed by heat, for the 
quantity formed has the same effect on 
seeds, whether produced by antiseptics 
or by heat. 


On keeping treated svils for a few 
weeks at asummer temperature, some 
of the organic matter which was render- 
ed soluble becomes insoluble and the 
inhibitory action is reduced. This is 
also the same case with heated soils, 
especially when repeatedly watered ; 
though with unheated soils under 
similar conditions the soluble organic 
matter increases. 


The treatment of soils with anti- 
septic induces a change equivalent to 
that obtained by heating the soil to 
60°—75°, and this may be sufficient to 
account for the increased growth 
observed in plants grown in them. 


The production by heat of a substance 
inhibitory to germination appears to 
be a property common to aill soils, 
twelve instances having been examin- 
ed; the proportion of it formed depends 
on the increase in the amount of 
organic matter rendered soluble by 
heating; but the actual amount of the 
soluble organic matter in the heated 
soil is not always a criterion as to the 
intensity of its inhibitory action, and 
still less is the amount of soluble or- 
ganic matter originally present in the 
unheated soil, though in the majority 
of cases it may be so. There appears 
to be no connexion between the ferti- 
lity of a soil and the extent to which 
it is altered by heating. 

Soils in their natural state appear 
generally to contain a certain amount 
of this inhibitory substance, as they 
act less favourably towards germination 


than pure water does; whether in any 
cases soils can act more favourably 
than water—as the earlher experiments 
bad indicated they could—is open to 
doubt, but the probability is in favour 
of their doing so. So far as the 
instances now examined are concerned, 
the richer soils, and those containing 
most soluble organic matter, are slight- 
ly less favourable to germination than 
the poorer soils.— Woburn Experimental 
Fruit Farm, 19th Report, 1408. 


THE VALUE OF RECORDS. 


Few enterprises make much progress 
until the things with which they deel 
are measured and recorded, so that 
accurate comparisons can he made. 
This is eminently true alike of the 
chemical and physical sciences and of 
many forms of industrial work, includ- 
ing agricultural operations. 


When towards the close of the 
eighteenth century James Watt induced 
the owners of the Cornish mines to sub- 
stitute his engines for the form then in 
use, he took as payment for these engines 
one-third of the saving effected in the 
coalconsumed. This arrangement led 
to accurate measurements, not so much 
with the idea of saving fuel, but in order 
to ascertain the amounts to be paid. 
When, in 1800, this weighing of the coal 
ceased, the character of the work fell off 
and the coal consumption increased. 
Soon afterwards an accurate system of 
recording and reporting was again intro- 
duced, with such excellent results, that 
itis said that the practice of keeping 
accurate records is thought to have been 
attended with more benefit to the dis- 
trict than any other single event, ex- 
cepting only the invention of the stean- 
engine itself. 

_ In connexion with planting industries 
in the West Indies, measurements, 
weighings, and records are in many 
cases very imperfect, so that progress is 
retarded thereby, and it is more than 
probable that the above experience 
might be repeated by agriculturists in 
these islands. The analogy is fairly 
close between weighing coal and weigh- 
ing canes. In the case of the Cornish 
miners the weighing was undertaken for 
a specific purpose, but was ultimately 
found to have important collateral 
results. Doubtless the question fre- 
quently arose: ‘What is the good of 
weighing the coal? Itdoes not make 


Scientific Agriculture. 


it give more heat!’ But the results 
were tangible and important, and so 
with the weighing of canes it would 
soon be found that the results more 
than repaid the cost. 


It isnot difficult to predict some of 
the directions in which the weighing 
of canes would yield remunerative 
results. Observations have shown that 
the work done by cane mills is extremely 
irregular, and that very great losses 
may remain undetected unless close 
records are kept. This is so fully recog- 
nized in large modern factories that 
very great attention is paid to the 
work done by the mill, both by the 
chemists and engineers, and constant 
results are recorded. Even with a 
small mill, if the canes were weighed, 
wasteful fluctuations would soon be 
discovered and stopped. 

Further, in the absence of weighing, 
it is exteremely difficult to know what 
results are obtained trom any particular 
kind of cane, or from the use of any 
particular manure, or from the perform- 
ance of any particular cultural oper- 
ation. A knowledge of the weight of 
canes obtained would throw a flood 
of light on all these questions. 


The judgment of the planter, unaid- 
ed by a knowledge of the weight of 
cane, is frequently at fault in apprecl- 
ating the value of new variety of cane. 
He may over-estimate, or under-esti- 
mate its merits, and so money will be 
wasted. With a knowledge of the 
weight obtained he would act with 
precision, so that rapid and steady pro- 
gress would set in. How many planters 
can say with precision to what extent 
ratoon canes are remunerative In com- 
parision with plant canes? A know- 
ledge of weights would give precision 
to their ideas, and lead to the saving 
of money: 

Similarly, much money 1s probably 
wasted in the matter of manures from 
want of knowledge, either too much 
manure or too little being employed. 
A knowledge of weights would, atter a 
few years’ experience, lead to a much 
more economical use of manures of all 
kinds. 

The value of measuring and record- 
ing is not confined only to weighing 
of canes. It holds good of most facts 
relating to estate work. Records of the 
cost of various operations, if carefully 


360 © . 


made and properly arranged, will tend 
to economy. Records of the food con- 
sumed by stock, of work done, and 
of the cost, ete., worked out under 
various heads, will soon indicate when 
economies may be_ practised, and 
increased returns obtained. Hconomies 
mean not merely diminished expendi 
ture but expenditure to better advan- 
tage, and this in time may mean 
increased expenditure based upon 
accurate knowledge. 


A distinction must be made between 
records and mere memoranda. The 
latter are notes taken for temporary 
use, the former are notes’ carefully 
preserved and arranged for future 
reference. The mere making of the 
record is not all-sufticient ; itis necessary 
that the results obtained should be 
compared and correlated so that the 
conclusions to be drawn from them may 
be set out. There doubtless exists much 
material in the form of memoranda and 
records from which valuable deductions 
might be drawn if some one would take 
the trouble to arrange the information 
in a form of comparison. As a good 
example of what may bedone in this 
direction may be instanced Mr. J. R. 
Bovell’s paper on the ‘ Cost of growing 
Sugar-canes in Barbados’ (West Indian 
Bulletin, Vol. I., p. 64). It would prove 
of considerable advantage if much more 
work of this kind were done. 


If records such as those referred to 
could be obtained fora wide range of 
plantation work in various parts of 
the West Indies, 
pared from time to time, it would be 
found that many changes by way cf 
improvement would. speedily spread 
from district to district, and the im- 
proved ideas of one place would quick- 
ly exert a beneficial influence at a dis- 
tance. instead of as now, influencing orly 
asmail area, and even there producing 
but limited results for want of further 
stimulation, 


One effect of the keeping and com- 
paring of records must not be over- 
looked. This work reacts upon the 
planter, making him more alert and 
more observant. and he becomes keener 
to detect losses and to forward improve- 
ments, so that the general advancement 
of agriculture is ensured thereby.— 
Agricultural News, Vol. VII. 168. 
October, 1908, p. 308. ) 


ners ren 


and the results com- ' 


APRIL, 1909.] 


mh ss) eek Lael BS) iS, *) Be ea 


LITERATURE OF ECONOMIC 
BOTANY AND AGRICULTURH. 
By J. C. Wi1tis, D.Sc. 


Attalea.— 


The Coquilla nut palm, 
5, 12. 1908, p. 396. 


Avocado.— 

Remarks on the palta or avocado 
pear. Brigham. Hawaiian Fores- 
ter, 1906, p. 144. 

The avocado, a salad fruit from the 
tropics. “T.A.” Feb., 1906, p. 41. 

Propagating the avocado by budding. 
“TA,” Sept, 1907, p. 195. 

Avocado pears: reparation and 
shipment. Agr. News. 28. 11. 1907, 
p. 404., “*T.A.” Mar. 1908, p. 208, 


Gard. Chron. 


The Avocado Pear. Macmillan in 
“TA.” Dec. 1908, p. 521. 
The avocado in Florida. U.S. Dept. 
Agr. B. P. I. Bull. 61. 
Balata.— 
Ch. & Drug., May 1908. “'T.A. Sept. 
1908, p. 212. 
Bamboos.— 


L’ industrie des chapeaux de bambou 
a Java. Bull. Jard. Col. 6, p. 80. 
Zimmermann. Ueber Bambus. Der 

Pflanzer 1906, p. 177. 
A bamboo disease. 
1907, p. 204. 
Note sur les bambous de l’Indochine. 
Bull. Ec. Indoch. 1907, p, 872. 


“TA,” Sept. 


Bamboos. Their study, culture and 
use. The Ind. Forester, Dec. 1908, 
p. 727. 
Bassia.— 


Bassia latifolia gum. 
Aug. 1906, p. 399. 
Preparation of Bhil liquor from 
eiahns flowers. do. Nov. 1906, p, 
550. 

The mahna tree. 
Dota. 

Le Karité en Afrique occidentale. 
Bull. Jard. Col. 1908, p. 270. 

Mise. Econ. Prods. 2 Bassia, 
in ‘*T.A.” Nov. 1908, p. 429. 


Ind. Forester, 


“TA.” June 1906, 


Willis 


Bertholletia,— 
See Brazil nut. 

Betelpepper.— 
Cultivation of the betel vine 
Perera. ‘‘T.A.” -Oct. 1907, p. 281. . 


46 


Blighia.—The Akee tree, Blighia sapida, 

Journ. B. of A., Brit. Guiana, Jan, 

1908, p. 12. “'T.A.” June 1908, p. 535, 
Blumea.— 


A note on the manufacture of Ngai 
Camphor from the Blumea balsa- 
mifera, D. C. of Burma, Puram 
Singh. Ind. Forest Reed. I. III. 
1908, p. 215. 


Brazil-nut.— 


The tree at Henaratgoda fruited for 
the first time early in 1902. 


Breadfrut.— 
Breadfruits of the tropics. Mace- 
millan in “'T.A.” Nov. 1908, p. 428, 

Brosimum.— 


Keu mor Kwaarddige Boom. 
Mere. 12. 6, 1906, p. 391. 


Brucea.—Examination of the fruit of 


Ind. 


Brucea antidysenterica. Ch. and 
Drug., July 1905, p. 174, 
Use of Ko-Sam seeds. Str. Bull. 
Aug. 1907, p. 252. 
Chemical examination of Brucea 
sumatrane. do. May 1908, p, 175, 
Bulyrospermum.— 


Palm oil and shea butter. Jam. Bull. 
1905, p. 252, 


Le Karité les vegetaux utiles de 
Y Afrique occidentale francaise II, 


NOTES AND QUERIES. 


By C. DRIEBERG, 
Secretary, Ceylon Agricultural Society. 


A. J.—Cholum and Jowar are Indian 
names for Sorghum vulgare, which is 
very largely cultivated there both for 
grain and fodder. In fact, it may be 
said to be the chief fodder plant, taking 
the place of our Mauritius grass 
(Panicum muticum) which is hardly 
known in India. The fodder is some- 
times fed fresh, but generally in the 
dry condition in the form of an inferior 
hay. 

GRASSHOPPERS.—The Government En- 
tomologist of New South Wales thinks 
that the most effective way of dealing 
With grasshoppers is to spray them 
with kerosene emulsion. One gallon 
of water should be boiled with half 
a lb. of hard soap, to which must be 
added two gallons of kerosene. This 
ought to be thoroughly well mixed by 


Miscelianeous. 


pouring from one bucket to another. 
Water should then be added in the 
proportion of six gallons to every gallon 
of mixture. This emulsion should be 
sprayed on when the grasshoppers are in 
the young stage, and preferably when 
closely massed together. If they reach 
the flying stage little can be done with 
the pest. 


S. C.—With persistency you will find 
that you can cultivate vegetables very 
successfully in the driest districts. 

ere isa casein point. Mr. Kotalawala. 
Superintendent of Mudaliyar Jaya- 
wickrema’s Ranakeliya Hstate, Tissa- 
maharama, started vegetable culture 
last July (one of the hottest and driest 
months) to the amusement of his 
neighbours. He now reports that he 
has been amply rewarded for his care 
and attention. He gota cluster of eight 
fruits on one tomato plant. From the 
same plant fifty fruits have already been 

icked, and there are still about one 

undred young fruits on it. Two 
creepers of snake gourd gave 144 fruits 
of goud size and are still bearing. Cattle 
manure, bonedust and ashes were used 
as fertilizers. 

F.—Liquid manures may be used for to- 
matoes with good effect. For instance, 
two parts nitrate of soda, one part dried 
blood, four parts superphosphate of 
lime, and three parts kainit; or half 
part nitrate of soda, one part guano, 
and one part superphosphate. Sulphate 
of ammonia may be substituted tor 
nitrate of soda and dried blood in the 
first mixture. Apply one ounce to a 
gallon of water once a week as soon as 
the ee fruits have set and begun to 
swell. 


M. D.—The remedy for malaria, in- 
fluenza, &c. advertised by the Colombo 
Apothecaries Co. (Andrographis pani- 

‘ culata) is the Sinhalese hin-binkohomba, 
a well-known native drug. According 
to Watt, the roots and leaves act as a 
febrifuge, stomachic, tonic, alterative 
and anthelmintic, and are useful in 
general deblity, dysentery and certain 
forms of dyspepsia. 

Liue.—Here is what Primrose Mc- 
Connel has to say on the subject :— 
‘‘There are several forms of lime before 
farmers nowadays, and ‘as the result of 
many experiments and tests we know a 
good deal more about the relative values 
and advantages of their use than did 
our fathers. In the olden time it was 
quite customary to give such an 
enormous dose of ‘lime-shells’ to the 
land as actually to posion it, and over- 


262 


liming was so common that the text- 
books of a former generation take up 
this point and discuss it. Five tons per 
acre in Scotland at the beginning of a 
nineteen-year lease was often the rule, 
and the ‘improvement’ was expected 
to last out the lease.” We now know 
that half a ton per acre, at a time, of 
lime, ground up so as to be dis- 
tributable in the finest powder, and 
applied at short intervals, will give 
better results, and most lime-works 
now supply this material ready made. 
The chemistry of lime, however, always 
shows that lime in the rock state 
existed as a carbonate, on burning it 
became an oxide, while after slaking 
and mixing with the soil it returned to 
the carbonate state again, and_ it 
occurred to various experimenters that 
it ought to do as much good without 
burning if it were reduced to a fine 
powder. Atrial has proved that this 
is so, and indeed that, if value for value 
is compared, the best cropsare grown by 
the raw limestone rock powder. The 
grinding is of course more expensive, 
and it cannot be ground too fine, but 
otherwise it is comfortable to handle as 
compared with burnt lime. ; 


PLANTERS 
OF 


AND DEPARTMENTS 
AGRICULTURE. 


The value of the work of a Depart- 
ment of Agriculture depends largely on 
the intimacy of the 1elations between 
the planters and the scientific officers 
of the Department. This implies that 
while officers of the Department must be 
interested in the work of the planters, 
the planters in turn must also be in- 
terested in the work of the Department. 


This latter duty- is sometimes im- 
perfectly recognized, and the feeling 
may arise that the interests of the 
planters, so far as the Department is 
concerned, will be safeguarded with- 
out much effort on their own part. 


The interest required is not merely 
that which consists in reading and 
possibly applying, the suggestions, and 
the information contained in the 
reports, etc., which emanate from the 
Department, but involves also the effort 
to keep the Departmental observers 
informed of the various points in the 
daily round of planting work, so that 
points of success, as well as points of 
difficulty, may be correctly appreciatu.l 
by both sides. 

The ideal condition would probably 
be reached if the results of reaping 
each crop were submitted by the 
planters to the Agricultural Officers 


APRIL, 1909.) 


so that the reasons for successes and 
failures must be investigated and 
recorded. It is obvious that both sides 
would benefit by this procedure. 


A great deal of the planter’s daily 
work may be made to have an experi- 
mental and scientific value without 
much effort, provided only that obser- 
vations are made and records kept. 
(For example, the effect of the appli- 
cation of any manure may be measured 
by leaving a portion of the field un- 
treated and comparing the remainder 
with that. At present it is customary 
to apply the dressing to the whole 
field, so that there is no knowing what 
would have happened if the manure had 
not been used.) A few observations of 
this kind carefully correlated by scien- 
tific officers would soon give?rise to know- 
ledge of a most valuable kind. 

Similary, slight variations might be 
made in the methods of cultivation, 
and the results noted and compared; 
these would undoubtedly throw a flood 
of light on many vexed questions. 


If this aspect of the question were 
grasped by planters, it wouldin turn 
react most beneficially on the scienti- 
fic workers, whose attention would con- 
stantly be called to the methods of 
local practice, and their merits and 
defects. At present, szientific work is 
retarded from a want of accurate know- 
ledge of many points relating to plant- 
ing work. This want might easily be 
remedied by increasing the exchange of 
information in the manner indicated. 


There is a danger that the scientific 
workers may pursue lines of investi- 
gation which carry them out of touch 
with the planters among whom, and for 
whom, they live. These investigations 
may be useful and valuable, they may 
indeed be quite necessary; but if they 
tend to separate planter and scientist, 
their value is lessened and the efforts 
of some other worker will be necessary 
to bring the two together again. 


The scientific worker should be re- 
quired as part of his duty to carry on 
investigations of an abstract character 
so as to extend knowledge, and to keep 
his mind alert and capable of dealing 
with new problems; if his time and 
attention are wholly oceupied in dealing 
with so-called ‘ practical’ duties, he will 
soon lose his mental alertness and fail 
to deal successfully with the problems 
presented by the planter. Constant 
intercourse with the affairs of the 
planter will ensure that bis work does 
not cause him to lose touch with the 
problems he is required to handle. 

The work of a Department of Agri- 
culture will be much advanced in use- 
fulness if the planters will realize, and 


eM Tey MA eee ee 


363 


Miscellaneous. 


act upon, the idea that it is incumbent 
on them to approach the scientific 
workers with their knowledge and their 
problems, as well as for the scientific 
worker to approach the planter, and 
happily, in many instances, this desir- 
able state of affairs is found to exist. 
—Agricultural News, Vol. VII, No, 170, 
October 31, 1908. 


NOTES ON THE APPLICATION OF 
MANURE TO TEA, 


Mr. J. EF. Jowitt of Craig Estate, 
Bandarawela, ina letter dated the 26th 
February, 1909, points out the difficulty 
of obtaining an even distribution of 
manure in tea fields, owing to the great 
variation in the number of bushes per 
acre. He quotes instances of a large 
surplus aud similar deficiency over 
definite acreages, for which the correct 
amount of manure had been supplied, 
and suggests the following simple method 
for ascertaining the average number of 
bushes per acre, and so arriving at the 
amount to be applied per bush. Mr. 
Jowitt has also devised a cheap and 
simple measuring tin, which will be 
found very useful for manuring tea or 
other similar products. 


Recipe-—Take three smart podians, 
one of whom can read and write, four 
strings with rings at the ends (any old 
rings will do) each 1 chain in length, also 
four poles 4 oe 5 feet. 

: C. 


RB. D. 

Two coolies start from A, in the centre 
of a rowof tea, putting rings of two 
strings over pole at A, one coolie goes to 
B, D, the other to C, D. Count bushes 
within the square, do this at three or four 
places in a field, according to its size, not 
always selecting the best or worst tea, 
taking flat and steep portions of the 
field—strike average, multiply by 10 and 
deduct 5% for roads, this latter I find to 
be a fair allowance. If cross strings eut 
centres of bushes, take only half the 
number of bushes in that line. 


Six podians did 410 acres on Craig. 
The bushes toan acre vary in different 
fields considerably —2,353, 2,628, 2,746. 

Calculations made by podians have 
been checked in several fields and have 
proved practically correct. Where mix- 
ture is applied to alternate rows I find 
alavangoe holes at the two ends of the 
field or portions ot the field form 
efficient marks. 

I have also devised an adjustable 
measure which will take from 3 oz. Basic 
slag and Lime mixture up to 63 oz, of 
castor cake mixture. 


Miscellaneous. 


A given quantity can be weighed and 
poured into the open measure, the 
bottom is then raised until the size 
required is arrived at, and the screw 
nut fixed. Iam sending you a sample 
tin under separate cover. Messrs. Walker 
Sons & Co. have taken considerable 
trouble in carrying out my ideas as 
regards the measure. 


JOHN F. JOWITT. 


SIR DANIEL MORRIS, K.c.MG. 


Sir Daniel Morris, K.C.M.G., retired 
from the office of Commissioner of the 
Imperial Department of Agriculture for 
the West Indieson November 30 of last 
year, after occupying that post for a 
period of ten years. The announcement 
of his resignation has been received 
with the greatest regret both by the 
entire agricultural population of the 
West Indies, and by the staff which 
have had the privilege of working under 
his direction. 


After a distinguished career as Assis- 
tant Director of the Royal Botanic 
Gardens, Ceylon, from 1877 to 1879; as 
Director of Public Gardens at Jamaica 
from 1879 to 1886, Dr. Morris was ap- 
pointed, in the latter year, Assistant 
Director of the Royal Gardens, Kew. 
Amongst the many important official 
missions undertaken by him in various 
parts of the empire during that period, 
there is none more important than that 
which he filled in relation to the West 
Indian Royal Commission of 1897, to 
which he was appointed Scientific 
Adviser; and of.the many important 
publications contributed by him, to 
which we are here unable even to allude, 
there is none of greater importance than 
Appendix A. of the Royal Commission 
Report, which deals at considerable 
length with the agricultural resources 
and requirements of British Guiana and 
the West India islands. That contri- 
bution was one of the most valuable 
parts of the report, and was recognized 
at once as the most authoritative 


synopsis of the subject with which it 
dealt. 


One of the recommendations of the 
Royal Commission was the establish- 
ment of the Wesc Indian Imperial 
Department of Agriculture for the 
Windward and Leeward Islands, and 
Barbados. This recommendation was 
carried into effect in 1898, and in Sep- 
tember of that year Dr. Morris returned 
to the West Indies as Commissioner of 
the Department. With characteristic 
energy he proceeded at once, in consul- 
tation with the Governments of the 


364 


[AprRin, 1909. 


Windward and Leeward Islands, and 


‘Barbados, to organize the new depart- 


ment, and in the short space of a single 
year it was found possible to summon 
the first Conference of the officers of 
the Department at Barbados, and to 
secure the attendance, not only of 
scientific representatives from Jamaica, 
British Guiana, and Trinidad, but also 
representatives from the Agricultural 
Societies and Education Departments of 
all the West Indian Colonies. From 
that time onwards, the record of the 
Department has been one of unbroken 
activity, and that activity has spread 
itself in every direction in which the 
welfare of agriculture in the West 


Indies might be directly o1 indirectly 
affected. 


The first task was, while utilizing 
existing Botanic Departments and their 
staffs, to remould them ina more agri- 
cultural form, and to institute agricul- 
turalexperiment stations where every 
tropical product with any promise of 
value might be subjected to careful 
trial cultivation. Sugar was, and is 
still the mainstay of a large part of the 
West Indies, and the Commissioner 
accordingly devoted great attention to 
the reorganization of the sugar-cane 
experiments, which for many years had | 
been carried on at Barbados and 
Antigua. Large grants were made for 
the provision of adequate staffs and 
expenses, and extensive series of experi- 
ments were begun for the raising and 
testing of seedling varieties, and for 
testing the effect of various manures 
and methods of tillage upon the growth 
and yield of the sugar-cane. A number 
of other matters bearing upon the same 
subject was carefully investigated, and 
in recent years the vyroduction of 
hybrids of known parentage, and the 
investigation of hybridization of the 
sugar-cane on Mendelian lines have 
formed part of the work of the Depart- 
ment. As aresult of ten years’ work, 
while such valuable varieties as B. 147, 
B. 208, and B. 376 have been brought 
into prominence and thoroughly tested, 
some 30,000 new varieties of cane have 
been raised in Barbados as seedlings, 
and are being tested agriculturally and 
chemically ; and there is good reason to 
hope that some of them will prove a 
material advance on the older varieties, 
not only in their yields of cane and 
sugar, but also in other valuable pro- 
perties, especially in their power of 
resisting the various diseases that in the 
past have caused so much loss to the 


industry. 


The revival of the cotton industry will 
be alluded to later, but the large num- 


ber of tropical products and subjects 


ApRit, 1909.] 


connected with them, which have re- 
ceived attention and investigation at 
the hands of the Commissioner of Agri- 
culture and his staff, will be realized by 
a perusal of the list of ‘Pamphlets’ pub- 
lished during the past ten years. These 
pamphlets, each of which is a multunr 
in parvo on the subject of which it 
treats, amount to some fifty-four in 
number, and include pamphlets on 
Sugar-cane Experiments, Treatment of 
Insect Pests, ‘Plain Talk to Small 
Owners,’ Treatment of Fungoid Pests, 
Onion Cultivation, Ground Nuts, 
Diseases of the Sugar-cane, Moth Borer 
in Sugar-cane, Manurial Experiments, 
Bee-keeping, Oranges, Tobacco, ‘Hints 
to Settlers in Tobago,’ Lime Cultivation, 
Fungus Diseases of Cacao, Millions and 
Mosquitos, ‘A BC of Cotton Cultiva- 
tion,’ and other subjects. 


Agricultural Education received atten- 
tion from the first. Grants were made 
for instruction in Agricultural Science, 
and for the provision of exhibitions at 
Harrison College, Barbados, and at the 
Grammar School, Antigua. Courses of 
lectures were given to primary school 
teachers in various islands, grants were 
made to assist in providing agricultural 
instruction in the primary schools, and 
Industrial Agricultural schools were 
founded at St. Vincent, St. Lucia, and 
Dominica, where the sons of small pro- 
prietors are provided free with educa- 
tion, board, lodginy and clothing, and 
receive a three-or four-years’ course of 
instruction in the theory and practice 
of Agriculture, adapted to the needs 
of the overseer and small proprietor. 
The peasant proprietor and small planta- 
tion-tenant shows, inaugurated by Sir 
Daniel Morris and regularly held every 
year by the Department, must also rank 


as among his important educational 
efforts. 


Recognizing that an efficient means of 
circulating the information gathered by 
the Department was all important, 
great attention was devoted to publi- 
cations. The first number of the West 
Indian Bulletin, a scientific review of 
the work of the Department, appeared 
in July, 1899, and has since been issued 
at quarterly intervals. The large 
reports of the Sugarcane experiments 
at Barbados, and the Leeward Islands, 
as well as the annual pamphlets which 
give a popular summary of the same 
work, and the annual reports of the 
Botanic Agricultural Stations and Agri- 
cultural Schools of the various islands, 
are well known. Then there is the long 
pamphlet series on various subjects 
already alluded to. Last and not least, 
there is the Agricultural News, a popular 
fortnightly review of the work of the 
Imperial Department of Agriculture, 


365 


Miscellaneous. 


which first appeared in April, 1902, and 
has enjoyed asteady and rapidly increas- 
ing circulation ever since. 

The broad view that was taken by 
Sir Daniel Morris, who received the 
honour of knighthood in 1903, as to the 
scope of hiswork forthe West Indies, 
isnowhere more clearly shown than 
in his efforts to improve the trade 
relations between the West Indies and 
Canada, which resulted in a Confer- 
ence of Representatives in 1908, and the 
appointment by the Dominion of a 
special Trade Commissioner. The full 
fruit of this movement has yet to be 
gathered. 

While Sir Daniel brought together 
and co-ordinated the work of the scien- 
tific officers already existing in the 
West Indies, he also introduced and 
trained a number of young University 
science graduates in the Department. 
It is sate to say that the experience 
they gained under the Commissioner 
has had much to do with the success 
they have acheived after leaving the 
Department for wider fields, and that 
their training has been a service of 
more than West Indian bearing. 


The Imperial Department of Agri- 
culture under Sir Daniel Morris will 
probably be more especially associated 
with two important agricultural 
achievements. The first is the inaugu- 
ration and holding of annual or biennial 
Conferences, and the second is the re- 
establishment of the Cotton Industry, 
which had been almost extinct in the 
West Indies for about one hundred 
years. 


The West Indian Agricultural Con- 
ferences have been held at Barbados, 
Trinidad, and Jamaica, and have served 
to bring together the scientific officers 
of all the West Indian Colonies, as 
well as representatives of the Agri- 
eultural Societies and the Education 
Departments. It would be difficult to 
overestimate the effect of these inter- 
changes of views. On the one hand, 
they have served to bring home to the 
scientific worker the needs of the practi- 
eal agriculturist, and on the other they 
have inspired the practical worker 
with confidence in his scientific advisers, 
The Presidential Addresses of Sir 
Daniel Morris, which cover the whole 
range of West Indian agriculture, and 
the discussions which have followed, 
form a valuable part of the proceed- 
ings. 

Owing to the dearth of the supplies of 
vaw cotton in Hngland, Sir Daniel Morris 
in 1902 took up the subject of cotton 
growing. After preliminary investiga- 
tions, he paid a visit to the Sea Islands, 
and there carefully studied the methods 


Miscellaneous. 


of seed selection, cultivation, and treat- 
ment of insect pests of cotton, as well 
as cotton ginning and other subjects 
connected with the manufacture. He 
clinched the matter by purchasing a 
large quantity of the best Sea Island 
cotton seed, a step the wisdom of which 
became apparent when it was after- 
wards ascertained that further supplies 
of seed could not be obtained from the 
Sea Islands. This seed, so obtained, has 
formed the nucleus from which all the 
best seed of the West Indies has been 
subsequently derived. Sir Daniel Morris, 
with assistance rendered by the British 
Cotton-growing Association, in co-oper- 
ation with officers connected with the 
Department, organized the_ establish- 
ment of ginners in various islands, and 
compiled and published the well-known 
pamphlet entitled the ‘A BC of Cotton 

lanting; and since then the Depart- 
ment has been unremitting in its work 
on the selection and cultivation of 
cotton, in the study of insect and fun- 
goid diseases, and in the information 
and assistance afforded by the staff to 
cotton planters. 


In 1898, when Sir Daniel Morris came 
to the West Indies, these islands were 
a source of great anxiety. To-day 
there is everywhere encouraging evi- 
dence of progress and security, and 
such islands as St. Vincent, Tobago, 
Montserrat, and even areas of larger 
islands that seemed likely to run to 
waste, are now under a_ prosperous 
cultivation. Many factors have certain- 
ly been at work, amongst which, very 
important, was the abolition of sugar 
bounties. But among the factors that 
have been at work to improve agri- 
culture and increase the prosperity of 
these islands, there has been none 
more important thanthe unremitting 
efforts of the Department of Agricul- 
ture under the late Commissioner. Sir 
Daniel Morris brought to the West 
Indies unbounded confidence in the 
future, and in the resources of these 
islands, a wide experience of Agri- 
culture, and unflagging effort not to be 
discouraged by the difficulties of the 
task. All will bear testimony to the 
result which he has acheived. 


Although the immediate connexion of 
Sir Daniel Morris with the West Indies 
has been severed, there is reason to hope 
that his mature experience and wise 
counsel will still remain at the disposal 
of the empire. It is the wish of his 
colleagues, as well as of the West Indies, 
that he may long enjoy the measure of 
rest to which his lengthy and uvremit- 
ting labours entitle him.—Agricultural 
News, Vol. VIII., No. 175, January, 1909, 


p. 1 


366 [Aprix, 1909. 


ESTABLISHMENT AND WORKING 
OF THE SUGAR INDUSTRY AGRI- 
CULTURAL BANK AT BARBADOS. 


--—-O——. 


By THE Hon. F. J. CLARKE,, C.M.G., M.A., 


President of Barbados Agricultural 
Society. 


In giving a short account of the estab- 
lishment and working of the Sugar 
Industry Agricultural Bank, it will be 
interesting to trace the steps that have 
been taken from time to time to enable 
planters in this island to obtain advances 
for carrying on the working of their 
plantations. As long as sugar brought 
a good price, and there was a good mar- 
gin of profit, there was practically no 
difficulty in obtaining advances, but 
with the drop inthe price of sugar in 
1884, there were many whose estates 
were encumbered who found themselves 
in difficulties. As owners of encumbered 
estates they could not pledge the crops 
for advances, and no one was willing to 
take the risk of advancing against the 
crops of encumbered estates, as the lien 
holders might foreclose before the reap: 
ing and sale of the crops. 


In July, 1885, Sir W. Robinson, who 
was then Governor, ina Minute to the 
Colonial Secretary, stated that he had 
been informed that certain planters 
were unable to obtain a supply of neces- 
saries for cultivation during that season 
without temporary assistance, and that 
he would be glad to have some reliable 
information as to whether this was 
true, and suggested that a joint Commit- 
tee of both Houses of the Legislature be 
appointed to enquire into and report on 
the matter; and that were it true, the 
Committee would doubtless consider 
the propriety of passing a temporary 
enactment giving preference to charges 
of the next crop for cultivation advances 
within certain limits. This Minute was 
laid before the House of Assembly and 
the joint Committee was appointed. 

They reported to this effect :— 

That the owners Of plantations in this 
island may be divided into three classes, 
as follows :— 

1. Those who cannot be said to need 
assistance. 

2. Those who are quite insolvent and 
could not be judiciously assisted. 


3. An intermediate class; but the 


Committee could not agree as to whether 
this was a large or a small class. 


And that they were not in favour of 


recommending any such legislation as - 


that suggested by His Excellency. . 


‘1887, another attempt was 


APRIL, 1909,] 


A member of the House gave notice of 
his intention to move the House into 
Committee on some future day to dis- 
cuss the general question emboided in 
the report. At a subsequent meeting 
he moved that the House go into Comit- 
tee to consider the question of raising a 
sum not exceeding £100,000 to assist 
planters to bring their crops to matu- 
rity. This motion was very fully dis- 
cussed, but was lost. 


The difficulties of planters increased 
meanwhile, and in the following year, 
1886, an Act was passed entitled ‘an 
Act to enable sugar plantations to be 
cultivated and managed for a limited 
period,’ and was generally known as 
the Plantations-in-aid Act, 1886. It 
was to remain in force for one year. 
It provided for a Government guarantee 
of advances against the crops of the 
following year. 


Three Commissioners were to be ap- 

ointed by the Governor-in-Executive 
auninittac. whose duties were to deter- 
mine what advances should be made 
to each person applying, to see that 
the money advanced was properly ex- 
pended, and that the proceeds of the 
crops against which advances had been 
obtanied were handed over to the per- 
sons making the advances. Any un- 
paid balance was to be a charge against 
future crops, and at the back of all was 
the Government guarantee. Proceedings 
in the Court of Chancery did not affect 
the security given by the Act over the 
Cron: against which advances had been 
made. 


The Secretary of State for the Colonies 
did not approve of the revenues of the 
island being pledged for the purposes 
of the Act, but, considering the circum- 
stances under which it had been passed, 
he saidhe would not advise Her Majesty 
todisallow it. This Act never came into 
operation. The troubles of planters 
were increasing at a rapid rate and 
many plantations were thrown into 
Chancery. And in the following year, 
made to 
solve the difficulty by the passing of 
the Agricultural Aids Act. This Act 
provides that owners may obtain 
advances on the security of their crops. 
Owners intending to obtain advances 
must advertise their intention todo so, 
and if within a cértain time the lien 
holders do not object, they may do so 
under the provision of the Act. The 
security over the crops, ‘which they 
are thereby empowered to give, is not 
affected by a foreclosure suit. Future 
crops are not liable for unpaid balances. 
The security is over the one year’s 
crops pledged, and those alone, 


367 Miscellaneous, 


This Act, whichis still in operation, 
enabled planters to carry on with more 
or less difficulty according to the seasons 
until the severe crisis in 1902. Early in 
that year planters were informed by 
those who had been making them ad- 
vances under this Act, that they were 
not prepared to make any further 
advances owing to the very hopeless 
outlook for the sugar industry. Strong 
representations were made to Mr. 
Chamberlain as to the perilous state of 
the sugar industry in the West Indies 
and British Guiana, and he got a free 
grant of £250,000 from the _ British 
Government to assist planters in tiding 
over the time that should elapse before 
the abolition of the bounties on beet 
sugar. The share of the grant allotted 
to the Barbados was £80,000. 


It was very wisely decided not to 
divide it up between the sugar growers, 
but to use it for the purpose of enabling 
the Government to make advances to 
them, to assist in carrying on the culti- 
vation of their plantations. 


To give effect to this wise decision an 
Act was passed entitled the Plantations- 
in-Aid Act, 1902. The £80,000 was placed 
under the control of the Governor-in- 
Executive Committee. The Act provides 
that the Executive Committee borrow a 
sum not exceeding £200,000 at 5 per cent., 
on the security of the revenues of the 
island, to be repaid on August 381, 1903. 
The grant of £80,000 was to be used for 
the repayment of the money so borrow- 
ed. Five Commissioners were appointed, 
whose duty it was to receive applications 
for loans, and to recommend to the 
Executive Committee to whom loans 
should be made and the amount of such 
loans, to see to the proper application of 
the loans and their repayment. The 
loans werea speciality debt, the first 
lien against the plantation and against 
the crops and stock, and interest at the 
nate of 5 per cent, was charged on the 

oans. 


The proceeds of the crops were to be 
paid to the Executive Committee, and if 
they were insufficient to repay the loan, 
the balance was to be repaid by five 
annual instalments with interest. 


Au owner before borrowing had to 
obtain the consent of the lien holders 
against his plantation, or put an 
advertisement in the Official Gazette and 
one daily newspaper of his intention to 
borrow. 


Planters gladly availed themselves of 
this means of getting money to work 
their plantations, and loans to the 
amount of £96,041 were obtained by 122 
planters for this purpose, 


Miscellaneous. 368 


The Act was renewed in 1903, and 187 
owners borrowed £151,806. 


The Act was again renewed in 1904 
and 109 owners borrowed £114.91. 


In 1905, the Act was again renewed, but 
the provisions pledging the revenues of 
the island for the amount borrowed was 
omitted, and the loans to planters were 
made re-payable in four years at the 
request of the Secretary of State, who 
in his Despatch on the subject said that, 
if the Act were to be renewed again, 
the period of repayment must be further 
eurtailed, viz., from four years to 
three years, and from three years to two 
years, and soon, so that all the loans 
may be repaid at latest in 1909. In 1905, 
102 owners borrowed £99,807. 


In 1906, the Act was again re- 
newed for one year, and ninety-eight 
owners borrowed £112,540. As the 
time was approaching when _ the 
operations of these Acts would cease, 
and as it was necessary to devise some 
other scheme by which the £80,000 could 
be used for the same purpose, a Com- 
mittee was appointed by the Legislature 
to inquire into and report on the matter, 
and to recommend a scheme to take the 
place of the Planters-in-Aid Acts when 
the same should expire in 1907. The 
Committee carefully considered the 
question, and by way of report handed 
in a Bill providing for the establishment 
ofan Agricultural Bank. This Bill was 
approved of by the Executive Com- 
mittee and was passed by the Legis- 
lature, becoming the ‘Sugar Industry 
Agricultural Bank Act, 1907.’ In the 
preamble itis stated, and whereas the 
system of making advances for sugar 

_eultivatioa, which has been in force 
since 1902 under the aforesaid Plant- 
ations-in-Aid Acts appears to be best 
calculated to promote the collective and 
permanent interest of the sugar industry, 
and it is desired to place ae syctervar 

rmanent tooting by transferring 
Ae ‘ free grant of £80,000 made to 
the Barbados Sugar Industry in 1902 
with accrued interest, and the securities 
therefor, toa Sugar Industry Agricul- 
tural: Bank to be established for the 
purpose of continuing such advances to 
sugar producers. 

The Act provides for the formation of 
the Bank. 

The Colonial Secretary, one person to 
be appointed by the Legislative Council, 
four persons to be appointed by the 
House of Assembly, and one person to 
be appointed by the Agricultural Society 
are made a body politic and corporate 
under the name of ‘The Sugar Industry 
Agricultural Bank.’ These persons are 
called the members of the Bank. The 
Colonial Secretary is the Chairman. 


The grant of £80,000 and all accretions 
of interest which amounted to £16,360 
5s. 8d., and all securities for amounts 
still due by plantations are vested 
absolutely in the Bank. ; 


All the provisions respecting the 
making of loans, the expenditure and 
re-payment thereof, are the same as 
those of the Acts prior to the Act estab- 
lishing the Bank. 

All unpaid balances of advances against 
a crop are made re-payablein five annual 
instalments with interest. 


The Bank takes the business of advanc- 
ing to planters out of the hands of the 
Executive Committee, thereby putting 
an end to all Government connection 
with this business. Since the establish- 
ment of the Bank early last year, it 
has lent £68,443 to ninety-three sugar 
producers. 


When the Bank took over this business 
there were £13,980 due for advances 
made in 1902 against the crop of 1903—a 
short crop with low |prices ; £2638 due for 
those of 1903 against the crop of 1904, 
£487 due for those of 1905, and £988 for 
those of 1905 against the crop of 1906. 
These balances are being gradually 
paid off. 


The only loss wasin 1908, and that 
amounted to the insignificant sum of £250. 

Planters were enabled to pass through 
the severe crisis of 1902, and those who 
have chosen to do so, have continued to 
work their plantations by availing them- 
selves of the opportunities afforded by 
the Bank for obtaining advances. But for 
the timely aid rendered by the grant of 
£80,000 and the passing of the Plant- 
ations-in-Aid Act of 1902, there would 
have been a state of things in this island 
which one dreads to contemplate, 


As will be seen from the short account 
Ihave given, this is not an Agricultural 
Bank in the sense in which institutions 
in Germany and other parts of the world 
are known as Agricultural Banks, but it 
has suited the conditions surrounding 
the sugar industry in this Island, and I 


venture to predict a career of usefulness ~ 


and prosperity. 
DISCUSSION. 


Mr. J. H. Collens (Trinidad) said that 
this Bank seemed to have been estab- 
lished upon quite a different principle 
to the Baiffeisen banks in Europe, and 
would seem to be intended to benefit 
only one class of persons, namely, the 
sugar planters who had not sufficient 
funds of their own to bring their crops 
to maturity. In Trinidad and some of 
the other islands an Agricultural Bank 
would have to be of amore general 
character. He should like to know on 
what basis they went in determining 


[APRIL, 1909. 


APRIL, 1909. | 


the amount of loan to be advanced to 
any particular planter, and whether 
the loans could be extended to other 
industries. 


Hon. F. J. Clarke explained that the 
sugar industry was in Barbados, and 
the Imperial Grant of £80,000 was 
given to sugar growers, and it was 
specially stipulated that it was to be 
used for the permanent and collective 
benefit of the sugar industry. Appli- 
cations for advances were sent to 
the Directors of the Bank, and they 
decided how much should be lent to 
each particular planter, The planter 
made a return of the amount of crop 
he intended to cultivate, the acreage 
of his plantation, and so on, and the 
Directors of the Bank decided what loan 
it would be safe to make on the crop 
and plantation, basing their decision 
on the number of acres of land and 
so on. 


With regard to making advances to 
other than sugar producers, the mem- 
bers of the Bank tried to be as liberal 
as possible. If a planter wanted ad- 
vances on what was practically a 
cotton plantation, they insisted that he 
must also have some sugar-cane grow- 
ing, soas to come within the four corners 
of the Act. It did not matter what 
was the area he had planted in canes. 
He might have a plantation contain- 
ing fifty acres of land, of which forty- 
nine acres were planted in cotton and 
one acre in sugar. That would meet 
the requirements and justify a loan. 
—West Indian Bulletin, Vol. 1X., No. 2. 


SLAVERY ON COCOA PLANTATIONS. 

For several years past complaints 
have been reaching England of the 
condition of the labourers employed on 
the Portuguese cocoa plantations in the 
Islands of St. Thome and Principe. A 
great deal of light was_ thrown on the 
subject by Mr. H. W. Nevinson, who not 
long ago visited the islands and drew a 
most painful picture of the cruelties to 
which the imported labourers were sub- 
ject. Much indignation was expressed 
in the Home papers, and some otf it was 
directed against Messrs. Cadbury Bros., 
as importers of cocoa from these islands. 
In response to this agitation Messrs. 
Cadbury Bros., in co-operation with 
other firms engaged inthe cocoa trade, 
sent out Mr. Burtt to investigate the 
labour conditions prevailing in Portu- 
guese West Africa. Mr. Burtt took a 
considerable time over his inquiry, and 
seems to have conducted it with the 
utmost thoroughness. On his return to 
England his report was submitted to the 


47 


369 


Miscellaneous. 


Foreign Office, and by their request was 
not published until representations had 
been made to the Portuguese Govern- 
ment. The embargo on publication has 
now been withdrawn, and the report has 
been published by the British and 
Foreign Anti-Slavery Society. Mr. Burtt’s 
report begins by pointing out that the 
labour problem in these two Portuguese 
Islands has always been one of difficulty. 
An attempt was made to import Goanese 
Indians, but it resultedin heavy expense 
and loss of life. The present sources of 
supply are Angola, the Cape Verd 
Islands, and the Portuguese Colony of 
Cabinda, north of the Congo. It is from 
the first-named of these that the bulk of 
the labourers come, and itis with their 
condition that the report is mainly 
concerned. The Portuguese law regu- 
lating the importation of labourers is 
declared by Mr. Burtt to be on the 
whole satisfactory. The trouble is that 
itis not observed. Kor example, corporal 
punishinent is prohibited by law, but is 
nevertheless extensively practised. The 
law also provides for the repatriation 
of labourers to their own homes, but in 
practice no repatriation ever takes 
place, That the Angola labourer does 
not remain in the cocoa islands of his 
own free willis proved by his frequent 
attempts to escape. Nor does he come 
voluntarily to the Islands. In order to 

secure him all sorts of devices are 
adopted by native agents in Angola, 

who earn handsome commissions. 

Quarrels are fomented between natives, 

and when the offender is brought up for 

judgment he is fined so heavily that he 
can only pay the money by selling one 

of his own domestic servants, or someone 

whom he has in his power. The man 

sold is sent secretly to the coast and 

forwarded to the Immigration Agent. 

Atone place on the Zambesi River, a 

trader is said to carry on regular 

business with rebel soldiers from the 

Congo, giving them oxen, rifles, and 
powder in exchange for natives. Some- 
times even white men sell their servants 
for faults committed. Atany rate, by 
one means or another; the agents are 
able to secure a constant supply of 
labourers, That compulsion is used to 
convey these unfortunate people to the 
coast is proved by the frequent sight of 
skeletons and wooden shackles by the 
wayside. Summing up his report, Mr. 
Burtt says:—‘Of the compulsory 
character of the enlistment there can be 
no doubt. The labourers sent to the 
two islands go there against their will. 
There is no reason why the natives of 
the interior should wish to leave Angola. 
No offer of payment would induce them 
to separate themselves from their homes 


Miscellaneous. 


and families to work without hope of 
return on the plantations of St. Thome 
and Princivre. : I am satisfied that 
under the ‘servical’ system as it exists 
at present, thousands of black men and 
women are against their will and often 
under circumstances of great cruelty 
taken away every year from their homes 
and transported across the sea to work 
on unhealthy islands from which they 
never return. Ifthis is not slavery, I 
know of no word in the English language 


which correctly characterises it.” Mr. 
Burtt’s report is endorsed by Mr. 
Claude Horton of the Children’s 


Hospital, Brighton, who accompanied 
Mr. Burtt throughout the whole of 
his inland journey. Such testimony 
coming from aman whose instructions 
were to arrive at the facts without 
prejudice, may be accepted as a suffi- 
cient proof of the general accuracy of 
the charges made by Mr. Nevinson. So 
far as is yet known the Portuguese 
Government have taken no action, 
although the report has been in their 
hands for nearly atwelvemonth. What 
action can be taken by the British firms 
concerned in the trade it is not very easy 
tosay. Merely to discontinue buying 
cocoa from these islands would have 
very little effect upon the cocoa planters, 
unless the boycott were world wide. 
England is not the only consumer of 
cocoa, and if the Portuguese planters 
lose their market in England, they will 
only extend their sales in France and 
Switzerland. It is conceivable that all 
the cocoa firms, Continental az well as 
British, might enter into an arrangement 
to boycott Portuguese cocoa, but the 
difficulty of negotiating sucha boycott 
would be enormous, and it would be 
almost certain to break down. Abouta 
year ago, some of the Swiss manufac- 
turers were invited to come into line 
with the British firms, but they bluntly 
refused. On the whole, the matter 
seems to be one which must be dealt 
with by the two Governments concerned. 
Great Britain has so long led the world 
in a crusade against slavery that her 
motives could hardly be misunderstood 
if she were now to put strong pressure 
upon her Portuguese ally to stamp out 
slavery in these Islands. After all, the 
utmost that is asked of Portugual is to 
see that the laws which she has made 
are carried out.—Indian Agriculturist, 
Vol. XX XIII., No. 12, December 1, 1908. 


CO-OPERATIVE CREDIT SOCIETIES. 


PROCEEDINGS OF THE SIMLA 
CONFERENCE. 
The third Conference of the Regis- 
trars of Co-operative Credit Societies sat 


370 


[APRIL, 1909. 


at Simla on Monday, October 5th, and 
the three following days, under the 
presidency of Mr. Carlyle, Secretary to 
the Government of India in the Reve- 
nue and Agriculture Department. The 
President, in his opening speech, dwelt 
on the rapid progress of the movement 
during the past year. The number of 
co-operative banks of all kinds has 
risen from 842 to 1,822, and the grand 
total of their working capital, which 
was more than _donbled in the year, 
now amount to Rs. 444 lakhs. The in- 
crease in the rural banks is very strik- 
ing, There are now 1,201 against 740 
last year, with a membership of 93,200 
and a capital of Rs. 22% lakhs. This 
great expansion, of course, brought 
many problems in its train. In many 
provinces the limit of personal super- 
vision by the Registrar has already been 
reached, and if the development is to 
continue it is essential that the socie- 
ties should get into touch with the out- 
side money market. 


This question of finance and control 
was, perhaps, the most important sub- 
ject discussed by the Conference. One 
non-official, who was present, suggested 
that the problem might be solved by 
the establishment of a large agricul- 
tural bank, and he explained the out- 
lines of a _ possible scheme to the 
Conterence. 


The Registrars, however, were gener- 
ally agreed as to the importance of 
attracting local capital, here this 
could not be done they thought that 
the ideal development was the feder- 
ation of individual societies into local 
co-operative union on a joint-stock 
basis. If these unions failed to attract 
the necessary capital, the next step 
should be to federate them into a 
cential union, the union being a joint- 
stock company registered under the 
Co-operative Credit Societies Act. A 
central bank On these lines has already 
been started in the Budaun District 
of the United Provinces. As regards 
control it was thought that ultimately 
supervision could be left to the finan- 
cing agency, and that this was the 
ideal to aim at, though a Registrar 
would probably always be necessary. 


A suggestion that the difficulties al- 
ready experienced in some provinces in 
regard to the controlling staff might 
be got ever by decentralisation from 
the Registrars to District Officers was 
unanimously objected to on the grounds 
that the officialization of the movement 
should be avoided, and that the true 
line of decentralization was from the 
Registrars to the Societies themselves. 


APRIL, 1909.] 


The amendment of the Co-operative 
Credit Societies Act was another im- 
portant question discussed. The con- 
ference thought that the question ought 
to be taken up without delay, and 
that the Act especially required amend- 
ment in two points. The distinction 
between urban and rural societies ought 
to be abolished, the real distinction 
being between banks with limited liabi- 
lity, and Section 29 of the Act should 
be altered so as to facilitate the form- 
ation of co-operative societies for all 
kinds of co-operative business. It is 
too early to appraise the effect of the 
famine on the societies, but the regis- 
trars agreed that in time of stress takavi 
might legitimately be given by the 
Government to keep a society alive. 
They also recommended that all takavi 
destined for a member of a co-operative 
credit society should be given through 
the Society, and that in making the 
advance the Society should charge its 
ordinary rate of interest. 


The question of a summary procedure 
for the recovery of the societies’ dues 
was again brought forward for dis- 
cussion, and there was again consider- 
able difference of opinion. It was 
suggested that a Conference should meet 
next year at Calcutta at the end of 
November, and that its constitution 
should be enlarged by the admission 
of a limited number of non-official 
gentlemen interested in the movement, 
—Indian Agriculturist, Vol. XXXIIL., 
No. 11, November 2, 1908, 


ANOTHER RIVAL OF STEAM. 


The rapidly extending use of the gas 
producer in the devolopment of power 
is one of the most interesting industrial 
developments of the pastfew years. At 
first sight it would hardly appear a 
paying scheme to discard the steam 
boiler and engine and employ the heat 
of the furnace to generate gas in_ a 
producer for use ina gas-engine. Yet 
we are told that in many cases the 
combination of furnace, producer, and 
gas-motor is cheaper than the steam 
engine. P. Tolman, writing in The 
American txporter (New York, Octo- 
ber), telis his readers that producer-gas 
power is a pronounced success in the 
United States as shown by the large 
number of installations already in oper- 
ation. He estimates that there are 
over five hundred such plants in the 
United States, with an aggregate of 
150,000 horse-power. Besides the eco- 
nomy of this system, it has, we are 
told, numerous other advantages, which 
the writer sums up as follows ;— 


371 


Miscellaneous. 


“Simplicity.—The producer, in which 
fuel gas is generated from coal, is 
almost as simple as an ordinary fur- 
nace for heating purposes. The gas- 
engine is entirely automatic in oper- 
ation and needs little more than the ordi- 
nary cleaning and care as to lubrication. 


“ Absolute Safety.—There is no danger 
from explosion or from fire. It is 
absulutely safe, even in the hands of men 
with little mechanical training, and the 
many plants which are in continuous 
operation, some of them twenty and 
even twenty-four hours a day, indicate 
that they are thoroughly reliable and 
will stand hard, every-day usage. 
Boiler insurance is unnecssary with 
brodce: plants, and the troubles and 

angers encountered with steam boilers 
are entirely avoided. The complete 
gas engine and suction producer plant is 
almost entirely automatic in operation, 
very little attention being required. 
Ordinarily the operator only needs to 
spend ten to fifteen minutes about 
every two hours to dump a few buckets 
Of coal into the producer and give 
general attention to the plant. He can 
spend part of his time in other useful 
work, and anextra man as fireman is 
not required, even with plants from 
400 to 500 horse-power.” 


In addition there are no smoke-stacks 
and no smoke, less coal to be handled 
and stored, and fewer ashes to dispose 
of. The producer will hold fire for 
several days, and gas can be generated 
after fifteen ortwenty minutes’ blowing 
to revive the fire. The engine may be 
started on compressed air, and after 
getting up to speed it is then operated 
on producer gas. The operation of a 
modern producer of the suction type, 
using anthracite coal, is described as 
follows: Coal, admitted at the top of 
the producer (as shown at the right of 
the picture) is partly consumed therein, 
and in this process incomplete com- 
bustion gas is generated, as it is ina 
newly-made coal fire. The subsequent 
processes are thus described : 


“The hot gas passes through a vapo- 
rizer in whicha small amount of steam 
is formed, which, with a limited amount 
of air, passes under the grate of the 
producer. . 

‘Brom the vaporizer the hot gas flows 
through the scrubber, which is merely a 
cylindrical-shaped tank filled with coke, 
over which a spray of water is constant- 
ly sprinkled. The large contact surface 
of the coke effectuelly cleanses the gas 
of dust and impurities carried over 
from the producer, and also acts to 
cool the gas, which is essential in order 
to prepare it for use in the engine, 


Miscellaneous. 


‘*With certain fuels, especially when 
much tar is encountered, it is also 
necessary to add a sawdust purifier in 
order to abstract the last tracts of tar 
from the gas.... 


“In the care of the producer the 
principal attention needed is to poke 
the fire every few hours, according to 
quality of the coal, in order to break 
up and remove clinkers, which would 
otherwise interfere with the making 
of sufficient gas. Poke-holes are pro- 
vided so that every part of the fire can 
be reached conveniently.” 


One of the largest suction produce.- 
plants in the United States, we are 
told, is in Wisconsin, and comprises 
six 150 horse-power engines and one 
200 horse-power engine—1,100 _horse- 
power in all—with suction  gas-pro- 
ducers, using anthracite as fuel.—Liter- 
ary Digest. 


THE VALUE OF LOCAL SHOWS. 


At the Agricultural Conference held 
at Warwick, in June, 1900, a very ex- 
cellent paper was read by Mr, T. Burgess, 
of Forest Hill, on “The Functions of 
Agricultural Societies.” 


There are those who would belittle the 
work done in theinterests of agriculture 
and stock-breeding, and sum up their 
so-called arguments by saying that the 
only function exercised by the country 
societies is the holding of an annual 
show. We do not care to enter into 
disputation on this opinion, erroneous 
as we hold itto be. Mr. Burgess, whilst 
holding that there are too many shows 
and too much sameness about them 
(“sse one, and you see them all,” he 
said), yet recognised their value to the 
agricultural community, only asking 
that they should be rendered more 
attractive by the introduction of new 
features into them. Mr. Hudson, 
Rosewood maintained that those who 
said that there was not much to be 
learned from shows, big or little, were 
not real farmers. If he did not takea 
prize for a horse he might show, he 
naturally went to other shows to see 
where he was wrong. The same thing 
applied to the cattle and farm produce 
sections. If a farmer wanted to teach 
his son anything in connection with 
agriculture, let him take him rounda 
show, and point out to him the animals 
and implements which have taken 
prizes, and indicate the points that are 
good and those that are bad. The boy 
would never forget the lesson, and he 
will have learned something that will be 


372 


[TAPRIL, 1909. 


of service to him when he becomes a 
man. On the value of country shows, 
Lord Middleton wrote as follows in the 
“Live Stock Journal” in 1901 :— 


That the agricultural showsystem is 
beneficial, and of value to agriculture in 
general, is a usually admitted fact, 
though occasionally I have heard the 
reverse opinion expressed, with added 
gloomy forebodings that the heyday of 
such shows is over. 


My own opinionis that agricultural 
shows are of the greatest value, and at 
no time more so than the present. It 
has probably occurred to those who 
have given the subject unprejudiced 
attention that the chief value of these 
competitive exhibitions is threefold— 
namely, first, the opportunity they give 
cof comparison ; secondly, the emulation 
they excite; third and last (and by no 
means least), their use as an advertising 
medium. 


We all know the trite old saying that 
many amanr’s goose is his swan, and 
nowhere is this saying brought home to 
us more vividly than in the showyard. 
Frequently have I(and doubtless many 
of my readers have shared this ex- 
perience) taken the pick of our farm to 
the showyard, expecting great things; 
only to have our pride knocked out of us 
on entering the ring by finding what we 
hoped might be the winner of the red 
rosette relegated to a very inferior place. 
We have gone home sadder and wiser 
men, with a teaching, however, which 
will doubtless show excellent result in 
the future. 


If it were not for these showyard 
gatherings of stock, Ido not see how we 
should be able to compare our own with 
that of others nor arrive at the pitch 
of perfection now reached. There are 
men who possess it, but it cannot be 
counted a universal gift, that power of 
carrying the definite picture of an animal 
for any time in the mind’s eye; to the 
“general,” therefore, what a boon is the 
showyard, when he can do his comparing 
studies within small limits of time and 
space. 


In mentioning the perfection to which 
stock has attained in the present day, I 
would call attention particularly to the 
improvement in the Shire horse. It is 
extraordinary the stride this breed 
has made in comparatively few years; 
the champions of twenty years ago 
would be regarded as moderate horses 
to-day. There are other breeds which 
to me seem to have made similar progress 
of late years; 1 might mention the 
Galloways, the Welsh cattle, the Sussex, 
and, in sheep, conspicuously the Suffolk. 
Some may say it is the breed societies 


APRIL, 1909.] 


which have done this. To a certain 
extent it may beso; the societies, after 
all, are the parents of the shows, 


Having touched lightly on the privi- 
leges afforded to owners of stock by the 
use of comparison, we now come to the 
emulation which showyards create; and 
this must be a valuable constituent of 
their worth, and stimulate the produc- 
tion of high-class stock. The Briton is 
at all times fond of competition; in 
whatever pursuits he may be engaged, 
he profoundly dislikes being beaten. If 
it had not been for this enterprising 
spirit we should not have held the place 
we do in the world as breeders of 
pedigree stock; we owe it entirely to 
our individual patience and persever- 
ance. In France, in Germany, in Russia, 
and other Continental countries, breeders 
have to be encouraged by State help. 
Here it is left to private enterprise, and 
long may it be so, for it makes us self- 
reliant and dependent on our own long- 
practised judgment. 


Now we come to the advertising 
medium of showyards, or the oppor- 
tunity they afford for publishing, so to 
speak, the best markets for our goods, 
It is a well-known fact that the 
temperate climate of the British Isles 
fits them for being in a large measute 
the world’s nurseries of pedigree stock. 
Weare subject to none of those vari- 
ations from which many parts of the 
globe suffer ; no extremes of cold, heat, 
or drought; and therefore we under- 
stand why the outlander, impeded or 
frustrated by failure on account of these 
extremes, comes to our shores for rein- 
forcement and renewing of blood. 


It is, then, to the centralising depdts 
of our showyards that the foreigner or 
colonial makes his way, knowing that 
there he will meet the best products of 
the district, county, or country; while 
in the carefully-prepared catalogue he 
will find a ready reference to the names 
and addresses of owners and breeders of 
the particular breeds he seeks. 


In speaking of the advertising value of 
shows, | must not omit to allude to the 
great assistance afforded by the Press in 
its periodical reports of these exhibitions, 
giving lists and descriptions of the prize- 
winners, and calling attention to even 
less fortunate exhibits; these reports 
are distributed to our daily and weekly 
papers, and thence go out to the worid 
at large. 


So far my remarks have been entirely 
confined to stock, but the agricultural 
showyard contains many other desirable 
exhibits; the implement yards alone 
would repay considerable expenditure 
of time and attention. 


373 


Miscellaneous: 


Whether at the Royal, the Highland, 
or the larger county shows, the would- 
be purchaser requiring a plough, a 
harrow, a binder, or engine finds a large 
and varied choice, well suited to all sorts 
of soils and situations; and the plan 
followed at certain shows of severely 
testing some of the machinery, and 
awarding medals and certificates of 
merit, affords a safe guide in selecting. 


The dairy, the shoeing, the beekeepers’ 
and seedsmen’s stands, also the poultry 
demonstrations, are all of practical im- 
portance, and all gathered in so con- 
centrated an area that it is possible at 
least to run through them within the 
limits of aday’s onting, and the man 
would have indeed a clouded eye and an 
obtuse mind who was unable to gather 
fresh ideas, and take some, at any rate, 
away with him. 


In addition to those named are all the 
smaller exhibits—small, but none the 
less important to the agriculturist - 
fences, troughs, gates, pumps, and lesser 
tools, such as rakes, forks, spades, &c. : 
all these can be inspected and studied 
alike by the small crofter, the 1,000-acre 
occupier, or the large landed proprietor. 


Some people cavil at the number of 
small shows in certain country districts. 
I myself have been disposed to question 
whether the number was not execessive, 
as they seem at times to overlap one 
another ; but, doubtless, this is an ill 
which rights itself, for those that do not 
pay will disappear. Our larger shows 
monopolise so much time and expen- 
diture thatit is not everyone who can 
afford to patronise them, extending as 
they do from two to eight days. Now, 
at the little one-day local show the small 
farmer can start in the morning from 
home, take his prize, and be back again 
with his animal the same evening ; he is 
not scared here by what is termed the 
professional exhibitor, but can meet his 
like on fair grounds. It brings to the 
front many a small breeder, and many 
a good animal, who, in their turn finding 
their ways thither, act as feeders to the 
larger shows. Much responsibility, how- 
ever, rests with the promoters and 
councils of these local shows in initiat- 
ing classes and providing adequate prizes 
for bringing out their district’ breeds to 
the best advantage; much lies with 
them in encouraging the right sort of 
stock, suited to the requirements ot the 
day, for no doubt we agriculturists must 
travel with the times. The services 
of the best judges should be carefully 
secured, well-known men of practised 
judgment, who can be depended upon 
to recognise and pick out the correct 
stamp. Through these means the 
local shows will, as I suggested above, 


Miscellaneous. 


act as feeders to the larger ones, and the 
whole work together in framing our 
national show system. There is one 
most important item of agricultural 
exhibitions which I have left to the last 
—that is, the thorough inspection of 
animals by the veterinary surgeons; for 
if we are to be, asit were, the Stud Farm 
of the World, it is all-important that 
one of our first considerations in breed- 
ing stock should be the freedom of that 
stock from hereditary disease. Almost 
yearly new countries are opened out, 
our colonies are brought closer to us, the 
means of communication advances by 
strides, there will be larger areas for 
civilisation and cultivation ; and, conse- 
quently, pure-bred stock will ever be 
in greater demand. Thus it behoves us to 
keep upa plentiful supply of the right 
material, and to encourge and perfect 
to its fullest scope that show system 
which plays so important a partin its 
development.—Queensland Agricultural 
Journal, Vol. XXII., Pt. 1. January, 1909. 


AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH WORK 
IN BENGAL. 

THE PRESENT POSITION SO FAR AS 
SEEDS, MANURES AND [IMPLEMENTS 
ARE CONCERNED, 

OR MORE ON DEMONSTRATION WORK FOR 
MEMBERS OF AGRICULTURAL 
ASSOCIATIONS. 


By F. SMITH, 
Deputy Director of Agriculture, Bengal. 


As the Bengal Provincial Agricultural 
Association is the Premier Association 
of Bengal, it is but meet that any exper!- 
mental results and original work in 
Agricultural science obtained by the 
agricultural Department should be 
made known first to members of this 
Association. Experimental work has 
now been carried on for many years, and 
this work may be roughly divided under 
the three heads of Seeds, Manures and 
Implements. The first point I wish to 
impress on ali members of this Associ- 
ation is that experimental work means 
long years of laborious and careful work 
—much expenditure without any chance 
of profit and many failures before even 
a few successes will be obtained. The 
first essential for such work is properly 
qualified men, and I therefore recom- 
mend you all to leave this work to the 
Bengal Agricultural Department. These 
remarks are made to dispel many of 
the vague ideas that are held by many 


374 


[ApRin, 1909. 


educated men in Bengal in regard to 
experimental work. We have  nu- 
merous examples of people trying to do 
this work, but we have not yet seen one 
single example that could be called an 
Kxperiment carried out with the requi- 
site uniform conditions and care neces- 
sacy for an Experiment. These words 
are not said with any desire to disparage 
anyone from helping the work of the 
Department, but only to impress on 
members the extreme carefulness that 
we require for experimental work. We 
therefore recommend members to leave 
this work alone. There is, however, 
plenty of work for each member to do, 
and if he will restrict that work to 
demonstrating what has been proved by 
experimentation, he cannot go very far 
on. We therefore recommed each mem- 
ber to take up a piece of definite Demon- 
stration work, and below we give exam- 
ples of definite work that may be taken 
up. 
SEEDS. 

Now as to seeds, it is under this head 
that this department has most definite 
results to report, and we lay special 
emphasis on the recommendations that 
come under the heading of Seeds. 


Hirst, the foremost of all ourexperiments 
go to prove that most seed brought 
from outside India cannot compete with 
some local variety that we have already 
in the country. <A possible exception is 
Russian linseed seed for flax fibre pur- 
poses, and this is easily explained by the 
fact that Indian Linseed has been grown 
now for many years purely and simply 
for seed only, with the result that it 
meer gradually lost power of growing 
tall. 


The climate is so searching and the 
adverse conditions against crops are so 
great that we have come to the conclu 
sion that our salvation depends on im- 
provement from inside the country and 
not from outside, and now that our Eco- 
nomic Bctanist has joined his post, I 
see no reason why the work of improve- 
ment by selection and cross-breeding 
should not be taken up very soon. 

For example, the Mauritius Sugar- 
canes are larger canes than our local 
ones, but they require a _ special care 
aud treatment and a constant supply of 
water. When they have to put up with 
drought or flood or insect pests or pigs 
and jackals they cannot compete with 
local canes such as khari, ikri, for exces- 
sive water-logging. The same thing 
holds true for oats, wheat, paddy, maize, 
etc. Indian varieties always proved 
themselves better than foreign varieties. 


The greatest success so far as seeds. 
are concerned has been obtained by 


APRIL, 1909, | 


changing seed from a distance, aud 
specially when the seed was. brought 
from a more northern and north-westerly 
direction where colder climatic condi- 
tions prevail. 

As a result of our work we can re- 
commend :— 


WaHeat.—Mozutfervagar wheat for dry 
districts and irrigated tracts. Hxcess 
of moisture causes excessive attacks of 
rust. This variety is a favourite with 
the trade. Red deshi variety of Cawn- 
pore for moisture conditions. 

PotatTors.—Naini Tal and Patna va- 

rieties, 

Oats.—Dunraon oats. 

JUAR.—Saran. 

RAHAR.—Saran, 


MAIZE.—Jaunpore. 
GRAM.—Patna. 
Pappy.—C. P. Aus. 


Several varieties of Aman paddy, ac- 
cording to fineness and particular re- 
quirements of individuals. For parti- 
culars consult the Agricultural Depart- 
ment. 

SUGARCANE.—Khari variety, (Ikri va- 
riety for excessive water-logging). 

JUTE.—Deswal of Sorajgunj, Barapat 
of Mymensingh, and Howti of Rung- 
pore. 


MustTAaRD.—Jubbulpore and Raipore, 
ete. 


ConcLusion.—In the above pages we 
have given at least twenty items of de- 
monstration work that may be taken 
up by members of these Associations, 
and if each member will restrict him- 
self to one item in one year and carry 
it out on a practical seale, say ten 
acres and not less than five acres, he 
will have quite sufficient to do, and 
will be carrying out something that 
will give tangible results in the im- 
provement of Agriculture in this 
Province. With such a programme of 
work these Associations can do some- 
thing useful, and I am sure the Direc- 
tor of Agriculture will be only too glad 
to keep in direct touch with each 
individual member and will arrange 
tor necessary inspection of each item 
of demonstration by his expert officers. 


MANURES AND MANUORING. 


Most of the soils of Bengal are ex- 
tremely poor in plant food, and speci- 
ally is this the casein organic matter, 
which the chief source of the most 
important element of plant food, viz., 
nitrogen, If all human and animal 
excreta were returned to the land and 
carefully spread and incorporated with 
the soil, the question of manuring 
would not be so important, but un- 
fortunately there is a popular aversion 


37 


Miscellaneous; 


in Bengal to human excreta as manure, 
and many of the poorer classes go 
even one step further and further im- 
poverish the store of the total plant 
food in the province by burning their 
cowdung. This destroys the organic 
matter and sends off the nitrogen into 
the air from whence at present it is a 
costly process to re-obtain this nitrogen 
in a useful manurial form. Further, 
bones and seeds are exported, and this 
further lessens the total amount of 
plant food in the province. In_ this 
Province we are not far wrong when 
we state that we are bordering on the 
state of the irreducible minimum so 
far as plant food is concerned, or in 
other words, we have got to that point 
when the amount of plant food taken 
up by a crop each year is equal to 
the amount of plant food that has 
been produced by the decomposition 
taking place in soils during the year, 
1.e,, the decomposition resulting in the 
production of available plant food from 
insoluble plant food. 


The most important clements of plant 
food, are: (1) nitrogen, (2) phosphoric 
acid, (83) potash, and (4) lime. 


There are other elements, but they 
are generally present in the soil in 
sufficient quantities for plant require- 
ments.. Nitrogen is the most important 
because itis the most costly to supply 
per unit. It is also the element that 
is finally produced by the decomposition 
or organic matter by nitrification. Now 
the amount of organic matter governs 
the amount of bacteriological activity 
in the soil, and the greater the 
bacteriological action the greater will be 
the supply of available plant in the soil, 
for these millions of germs that require 
a store of organic matter for their 
maximum development are the chiet 
agents in converting insoluble (rock 
and sub-soil particles) plant agent in 
converting insoluble (rock and sub-soil 
particles), plant food, (of which there 
is always a supply in the soil), into an 
available form suitable for plants 
to assimilate. 


This problem of manures and manur- 
ing is further complicated by (1) the 
variation in the composition of soil, and 
(2) by the individual requirements of 
each crop. 

1. Soils vary in composition so much 
not only in different tracts but even in 
single villages, and the soil of one bigha 
will very often be found to be quite 
different in several places. Forexam ple, 
in Behar (Saran) north of the Ganges 
we have a light friable marl, while 
south of the Ganges at Bankipore we 
have aheavy clay. Near Calcutta we 


Miscellaneous, 


have a heavy clay, while in the north- 
west of Burdwan we get light sandy 
soils, but in every district that I have 
mentioned, we find all kinds of soil 
varying from clay to sand. All these 
soils ag ee generally in being poor in 
organic matter. Saran soils are rich in 
lime and poor in phosphoric acid and 
lime and contain some potash. Orissa 
soils are poor in all four ingredients, 
nitrogen, phosphoric acid, potash and 
lime. So it will be found all over the Pro- 
vince that even in one village some land 
will be found to contain sufficient phos- 
phorie acid, while in the neighbouring 
fields, probably, phosphoric acid will 
be wanting. 

2. One crop has preference for one 
kind of plant food while another crop 
requires a larger supply of another 
element to attain its maximum growth. 
For example, leguminous crops (Dals) 
require plenty of lime and potash to 
attain their maximum growth, while 
cereals (paddy, wheat and barley) require 
a good suply of nitrogen and phos- 
phorie acid to attain their maximum. 

This shows the advantages, the impor- 
tance and the necessity of a rotation of 
crops. 

The law of minimum is very impor- 
tant in the manuring of crops. This law 
is ‘‘the minimum amount of one ingre- 
dient of plant food in a soil governs 
the total crop obtained.” For instance, 
ifto produce a crop of 30 maunds of 
paddy, 40 lbs. of available nitrogen, 380 
Ibs. of available phosphorie acid, 80 Ibs. 
of available lime and 35 Ibs, of available 
potash are necessary, then if only 20 lbs. 
of nitrogen are present, although the 
phosphoric acid,; potash and lime are 
presentin sufficient quantities, only a 
crop equal to the 20 lbs. of nitrogen 
can be obtained. In other words, only 
a crop of 15 maunds of paddy can be 
produced. The remedy in a case like 
this would be to apply the other 
20 lbs. of nitrogen. Similarly if potash, 
lime or phosphoric acid were wanting, 
these would have to be applied to get 
the larger crop. 

These remarks will enable anyone to 
understand that with a given crop one 
standard manurial application will not 
have the same effect in every part of 
the Province. For instance, it at Burd- 
win where the soil is poor in nitrogen, 
phosphoric acid and, lime, an application 
of three maunds of bonemeal and 30 seers 
of saltpetre has a wonderful effect on 
the out-turn of the paddy crop it will 
necessarily follow that the same effect 
will be obtained elsewhere in the Pro- 
vince. On the contrary it is more than 
likely that one mile away from where 
the experiments are carried out this 


376 


{ APRIL, 1909. 


application will have no effect whatso- 


ever. How could it, if this precise 
area _ is rich in phosphoric acid and 
lime? The problem of “what manures 


shall Iapply?” is one for the ‘indi- 
vidual farmer or raiyat to solve, and 
when one considers the millions of 
poor raiyats that are in this province 
alone, one will easily understand the 
danger of recommending a manurial 
application suitable for the whole 
Province. The expert is non-plussed 
when he gets fifty letters from fifty 
different places in the Province stating 
“they have read with pleasure the 
report on the manuring of paddy with 
bonemeal and saltpetre, and will he send 
them sufficient for 1-5 acre with definite 
instructions how to act? Probably 80 
per cent. of these don’t require to 
apply bonemeal at all. Accordingly, 
the scientist is quite staggered when 
he is asked to do something for the 
Province as regards manuring when he 
finds the most intelligent cultivators 
have such a vagueidea of the problem 
in question. To recommend a manurial 
application that would cost money 
to a poor cultivator, and that appli- 
cation to have no effect on the crop 
ean only end in bringing discredit 
on the Department and a feeling of 
distrust that would not be eradicated 
for a generation. 


The above explains how with all the 
best intentions in the world we can 
lead people astray. Many of our culti- 
vators in Bengal know full well the 
value of manure and are not afraid to 
use it, and we must take special care 
to guide them in the right way. Crores 
of rupees are being spent annually on 
manures in other countries, and 1 don’t 
see why Bengal should not spend a little 
more than she is doing. 


Now in Bengal there is one factor that 
is common to every district, viz, 
‘* Poverty of soil in organic matter, and 
that is something definite that we can 
act upon.” 


Manures can be divided into two kinds, 
—Ist, General; 2nd, Special. 


1Ist.—General.—A general manure is 
one that supplies all the most important 
ingredients of plant life, viz., nitrogen, 
phosphoric acid, potash and lime, and 
the ingredients are generally present 
in an insoluble state. 


General manures are rich in organic 
matter. 

2nd.—Specials.—A special manure or 
an artificial manure is one that supplies 
only one or two of the ingredients of 
plant life, and the ingredients are 
generally present in a soluble state. 


Special manures are divided into (1) 
nitrogenous, (2) phosphoric, (8) potassic, 
and (4) caleareous. 


Examples of General Manures.—(a) 
Cowdung, (b) castor cake, (c) rape cake, 
mustard cake, gingelly cake, (d) Green 
manuring. Examples of special man- 
ures :— 

1. Nitrogenous—(a) saltpetre (Indian): 
(b) sulphate of ammonia. 2. Phosphatic 
—(a) bonemeal, (b) superphosphate. (3) 
Potassic (a) wood ashes, (b) saltpetre 
(Indian). 4. Calecaieous (a) bones, (b) 
ground kankar, (c) lime. 


A general manure contains its plant 
food in an insoluble form, and before 
plants can make use of these insoluble 
forms they must first be converted into 
a soluble state, This takes time and 
requires the requisite amount of air, 
moisture and heat before the changes 
ean take place. Thesechanges, however, 
take place very rapidly in Bengal, where 
conditions tor these are at a maximum, 

The very fact of the ingredients of 

lant food being in an insoluble state 
ina general manure is of extreme im- 
portance, as will be seen from the next 
paragraph. 

A special manure contains its ingre- 
dients generally inasoluble state, and 
this is where the danger comes in 
when recommending special manures. 
For example, the nitrogen in saltpetre 
and sulphate of ammonia and_ the 
potash in saltpetre are soluble in water. 
What would be the use of applying 
these manures in June, July, August 
and September in Bengal when the 
land goes under water? These are 
the most costly manures, and it would 
be simply waste of money to apply 
them in these months as they would 
be washed into the drainage channels. 
Similarly in the rabi season, irrigation 
is necessary and extreme personal care 
will be required to prevent the manure 
being washed away. The phosphoric 
acid in bone-meal isin an insoluble condi- 
tion and is not soluble in water, so 
there is not so much danger of loss 
with this manure as with the others. 
Superphosphate and wood ashes are not 
so soluble and are therefore not so 
dangerous as saltpetre to deal with 
but they are more soluble than bone 
meal. 

Accordingly, extreme personal care is 
requisite in the use of artificial manures : 
and unless this can be given we recom- 
mend them to be left alone. 


There isan art inirrigation, and where 
manures are applied this art requires 
to be highly developed in order to ob- 
tain the money value out of the manure. 
It is ne use swilling the crops and 


APRIL, 1909.| 3T7 Miscellaneous. 


flooding the land if the manures are re- 
quired to have their full effect. The art 
is to give sufficient water and no more. 


When the land is covered with water 
decomposition of manure is reduced to 
a minimum as air, one of the essentials 
of decomposition, is excluded, so that 
there is less fear of loss by flooding 
and washing away froma general man- 
ure during the rains. Accordingly, gen- 
eral manures such as cowdung, castor- 
cake and green manure is a more safe 
manure to deal with than one that 
can be washed into your neighbour’s 
field, and weean recommend them. Also 
at the end of September, conditions 
for decomposition of their insoluble 
portions into a soluble state are at a 
maximum in Bengal (when the water 
is below surface level) and the ingredi- 
ents of plant food become much quicker 
available than is possible with such 
manures in a more temperate climate. 


Cowdung is so quickly decomposed, that 
so far as wecan find out at present, there 
is no residue left for a second year’s 
crop. Leguminous crops or Dals have 
a special feature in that on their roots 
they have little warts or nodules in 
which live bacteria that are able to 
make use of the free nitrogen of the 
atmosphere and convert it into available 
plant food for the use of the crop. 
This causes plant food to be stored up in 
the soil in the roots of the crop, and 
when the crop is harvested the roots 
decompose and give up their store of 
plant tood to the next crop. This is 
the reason why ever so long a legu- 
minous crop should occupy the land 
so as to give the opportunity to the 
bacteria in the warts on the roots of 
the leguminous plants to return a 
little atmospheric nitrogen to the soil. 
Also when green manuring is resorted 
to a leguminous crop should be taken, as, 
in addition to the store of organic matter 
that will be incorporated with the soil, 
an additional stock of atmospheric 
nitrogen will be obtained. Hence the 
reason why we recommend Dhaincha 
which is a legume. ; 


After many years of experiment the 
following manurial applications have 
been found economical in Bengal, and 
we give them asa basis on which culti- 
vators can work :— 


Pappy+a. 50 maunds Cowdung. 
b. Green manuring with 


Dhaincha. 


Porato—a. 200maunds Cowdung. 
b. 20 maunds Castorcake. 
JutE— a. 100 maunds Cowdung. 


b. 7 maunds Castorcake. 


SUGARCANE—200 maunds Cowdung 
plus 8 maunds Castorcake. 


Miscellaneous. 37 


It will be noticed that all the appli- 
cations are general manures. When 
soluble manures such as Saltpetre and 
Sulphate of Ammonia are applied, 
they should only be applied when the 
crop is ready to take them up. Hence 
the reason why we recommend them to 
be applied as top-dressing, and for two or 
three weeks after they are applied, special 
care must be taken in irrigating so that 
just sufficient water is given to keep the 
soil moist. Flooding the land at this 
time would be fatal. These two nitro- 
genous manures are beneficial to all 
cereals (paddy, wheat), sugarcane, etc., 
and to quick growing crops such as 
jute, potatoes, vegetable, etc., but they 
are not recommended tor leguminous 
crops. 


Before applying phosphatic, potassic 
and calcareous manures care should be 
taken to find out that the soil is really 
poor in these ingredients and in need of 
such anapplication. This can be roughly 
done by chemical analysis, but the actual 
economical necessity can only be found 
out by a practical test in the field. A 
clay soil will roughly contain sufficient 
potash for ordinary plant requirements, 
while a sandy soil will benefit from an 
application of potassic manure. 


Similarly for phosphoric acid and lime, 
chemical analysis can aidin diagnosing 
if manurial application would help, but 
the only certain guide is by practical 
experience in the field. Roughly the 
presence of sufficient lime in a soil can 
easily be tested by taking samples of 
soil from different points in the field, 
mixing them together and pouring on to 
the mixture a few drops of dilute 
hydrochloric acid. If bubbles are given 
off there is lime in the soil, if no bubbles 
are given off there is none or very little. 

This is your guide for lime and phos- 
phatic manuring. If no trace of lime 
can be fcund bones and superphosphate 
will very probably give good results. 
They both supply lime and phosphoric 
acid, 


However, although lime may be present 
in sufficient quantity, phosphoric acid 
may be wanting. This is the case in 
Saran where the soils are rich in lime 
and poor in phosphates. 


All these remarks only demonstrate 
the necessity of each cultivator testing 
his own land himself on a small area. 
When he is convinced that a certain 
manuring is beneficial, he can easily 
extend the area. 


In conclusion, it only remains to be 
said that general manures are safe to 
recommend and can safely be tried. 
They contain their plant food in an 
insoluble state which is converted into a 


8 


[APRIL, 1909. 


soluble state. They supply _ nitrogen, 
phosphoric acid, potash and lime to the 
soil, and have the great advantage that 
they will supply organic matter which 
is wanting in nearly all Bengal soils. It 
would seem therefore superfluous to add 
that cowdung should receive every 
possible care, and that the urine which 
contains the soluble nitrogen and potash 
should be carefully mixed with the 
excreta and stored. 


The above examples of manurial appli- 
cations give an idea of the quantities 
that may be economically applied. 

If nitrogenous artificials are applied 
one to two maunds per acre is quite 
sufficient, while with superphosphate 
and bones 2 to 8 maunds per acre should 
not be exceeded, Wood ashesdo not 
contain a high percentage of potash, and 
10 maunds per acre must be applied to 
give an appreciable amount. As this is 
a cheap article where available it will 
not cause the manurial application to 
be too dear economically. 


IMPLEMENTS. 


The Agricultural Department is work- 
ing away steadily at Seeds, Manure and 
Implements, and her work has demon- 
strated already that in Bengal, so 
far as implements are concerned, the 
question is governed chiefly by two 
factors: Ist, the size of the agricultural 
holding, which is about 8 acres; and 2nd, 
the amount of capital the cultivator has 
for disposal during the year, which is 
from nothing to Rs. 3. 


This means implements must be cheap 
yet efficient, and where will you get 
greater cheapness with excellent effi- 
ciency at the price than in the local 
Plough, Ladder and Kodali, with the still 
further advantage that these latter are 
perfectly understood in every Indian 
village and can be repaired at a moment’s 
notice ? 


Implement makers who wish to cater 
for this huge agricultural community 
will have to bear these two factors 
carefully in mind before they will be 
successful, and so far they have failed. 


For larger and well-to-do cultivators 
there are the Meston Plough (Cawnpore) 
for light land and the Hindustan Plough 
for heavy land. The Single Wheeled 
Planet Junior Hand Hoe for interculture 
of Maize and Juar, which will save the 
employment of ten coolies for weeding. 
The chaff cutter, maize huller, cotton 
gins, bullock gears are all good imple- 
ments, but most of them are governed 
by the factor of cheap supply of labour, 
aud where hand-power can be gotat the 
cheaper unit there is nothing to equal it, 
for even on his lowest scale man is map, 


Aprib, 1909. | 


and ‘possesses a certain amount of brain 
power which is wanting in animal or 
machinery that must be guided by man, 

At present, then, to the ordinary 
raiyat, with the present scale of wages 
for Agricultural Labour in this Province 
and the present arrangement for repair- 
ing implements in vogue throughout all 
the Districts, we cannot recommend any 
implements other than are in use 
amongst the raiyats of this Province 
already, viz., Plough, Yoke, Ladder, 
Kodali, Khurpi, Bhida, Don Mote Swing 
Baskets, etc. 

KF. SMITH, 


Deputy Director of Agriculture, Bengal. 
AGRICULTURAL PROGRESS. 


OFFICIAL REPLY TO THE AHMEDABAD 
CONFERENCE. 


The following correspondence is pub- 
lished by the Bombay Government re- 
lating to suggestions made at the Agri- 
cultural Conference held at Abmeda- 
bad in November last :— 


Letter from the Director of Agricul- 
ture, dated 3lst January :— 


“I have the honour to forward here- 
with two copies of proceedings of 
the Agricultural Conference held at 
Abmedabad in November last, and 
to state that copies thereof are being 
distributed to the gentlemen who were 
invited and to officers of the Revenue, 
Agricultural and_ Irrigation Depart- 
ments; copies will also be distributed 
to newspapers, public bodies, &c., ac- 
cording to the sanctioned list.” 


Government Memorandum to _ the 
Director of Agriculture, dated 7th 
March :— 

“The undersigned presents compli- 


ments to the Director of Agriculture, 
and with reference to his letter No, A. 
538, dated 3lst January, 1908, forward- 
ing a copy of the Proceedings of the 
Agricultural Conference held at Ahmeda- 
bad in November, 1907, is directed to 
invite his attention to Government 
Resolution No. 11994 dated 5th December, 
1907, requesting him to submit a sum- 
mary of the important suggestions 
made and discussed at the Conference, 
and to intimate that a further commu- 
nication from him on the subject will 
be awaited by Government.” 

Letter from the Director of Agri- 
culture, dated 9th May :-- 


“Tn reply to your memorandum No. 
2529, dated 7th March, 1908, I have the 
honour to state that I have not ‘ost 
sight of the necessity for working up 
into practical shape some of the sug- 


379 


Miscellaneous. 


gestions made at the Agricultural Con- 
ference at Ahmedabad, but there is so 
much work going on in this Depart- 
ment at present, that it leaves little 
time for reporting. The suggestions 
made at the Conference are so tar-reach- 
ing and cover so wide a field that I 
am not prepared on the very limited 
experience which this Deparment has 
at present acquired to make any very 
definite suggestions for immediate 
action. So fac as I can, I will give 
my views on the points indicated, 


“The important suggestions made at 
the Conference may be briefly summa- 
rised as follows :— 


(a) The creation of museums for the 
exhibition annually of cotton samples ; 


(b) Offers of large prizes at Agri- 
cultural Shows for exhibits of cotton 
in bulk with a view to the encourage- 
ment of the growth of good stapled 
cotton on a commercial scale ; 


(c) Kneouragement of such cultivation 
by the purchase by Government of such 
improved cotton or the seed of such 
cotton at high rates ; 


(d) The establishment of model farms for 
the general training of agriculturists ; 

(e) The more extended use of verna- 
cular newspapers for the spread of 
scientific agricultural knowledge ; 

(f) The introduction of a percentage 
notation for the use of the trade in 
all reports on crop estimates ; 


(g) The encouragement of Agricultural 
Associations. 


‘* As regards (a), I think that the pro- 
posal was in part due to a mistaken 
idea that the improved varieties of 
cotton on the Government Farm were 
in a more advanced state of develop: 
ment than is the case. This mistake 
was not unnatural; but the Government 
are aware that our improved cottons 
are still in an experimental state, and 
have yet to demonstrate their value 
as a field crop on a large scale. I will, 
however, have sample bundles of such 
cottons made from this year’s pickings, 
and will consult with the representatives 
of the cotton trade in Bombay and 
Ahmedabad as to the best use that can 
be made of them. The question of a 
museum will also be discussed. 


“ As regards (b), the remarks made in 
the last paragraph in a great measure 
apply. I will consider the question of 
applying the suggestion to Broach cotton 
grown iv Dharwar and Egyptian cotton 
in Sind next year. 

“As regards (c), we should be prepared 
to adopt this proposal, if necessary, in 
the initial stage of the introduction 
of any new variety, but I may remark 


Miscellaneous. 


that an auction of seed cotton was all 
that was required during the present 
season in connection with Broach cotton 
grown in Dharwar. Lam not prepared 
at present to put forward any com- 
prehensive scheme for the supply of pure 
cotton seed, 


“As regards (d), the reply given at 
the Conference by Dr. Mann (axrde page 
10 of the proceedings) was accepted by 
the Chairman on behalf of Government, 
and I have nothing toadd except that 
an attempt will be made to act on those 
views. Some cultivators are at their 
own request already being instructed 
in seed selection and plovghing with 
iron on the farms. 


‘As regards (e), we do contribute to 
vernacular newspapers any information 
that we have to offer. I am going to 
have a series of brief vernacular leaflets 
prepared, each dealing with a_ single 
agricultural fact of ascertained value. 
These will be primarily intended for 
distribution after a practical demon- 
stration ; but they will also be contri- 
buted to the Vernacular Press. 


“As regards (f), I will see that this is 
done in future forecast reports. 


AGRICULTURAL ASSOCIATIONS. 


“As regards (g), I have consulted the 
Commissioners and Collectors on this 
point, and have received hitherto seven 
replies, several of which are encourag- 
ing though of necessity vague. There 
are in existence in this Presidency some 
half dozen associations which have a 
wholly or partially agricultural object 
in view. The most efficient association 
in the Presidency is the Taluka Associ- 
ation at Sangamner, where there is a 
happy combination of private and 
official effort, and where the educated 
classes are keen to assist and the culti- 
vators to learn. This association has 
been very useful to us, and I think that 
we can claim to have been useful to 
them. I attach a report of a recent 
Agricultural Show held there which 
may be of interest. The success of the 
association is due, I believe, to the per- 
sonality of the organizers; the success 
of our connection with it is due to the 
fact that we now have at Poona what 
we have nowhere else, a numerically 
strong agricultural staff with sufficient 
organisation and leisure to take the 
field on occasion offering. This staff 
has many other duties to perform at 
the College and on the farms, but a 
party can be made available for a short 
period at any time of the year, and 
for a considerable period in the College 
vacation, aud this constitutes our only 
efficient striking arm. In the rest of 
the Presidency our staff are of neces- 


380 


[APrRiz, 1909. 


sity confined to the farms, and we are 
unable to put a strong party into the 
field. I regard the ability to dc this 
as essential to the successful imaugu- 
ration of agricultural associations, If 
the department had at its disposal a 
mass of exclusive information of proved 
value which had only to be brought to 
the notice of the cultivators to be taken 
up, the matter would be simple; butas 
Government know, this is not the case. 
We have valuable information to com- 
muicate ona few points, but it is not 
of an obvious kind which can be thrown 
at the heads of cultivators ; it must be 
carefully demonstrated by a competent 
man who not only knows the theory of 
what he is teaching, but can answer 
the practical difficulties of the culti- 
vators and prove the suitability of the 
suggestions to local conditions. The 
first sign of activity which an agricul- 
tural association makes is to write in 
and ask for an_ agricultnral expert to 
come and advise them, demonstrate 
improved implements to them, and 
supply them with superior seed and 
manure. if it were possible to call into 
existence a number of agricultural asso- 
ciations, the only result would be that 
we should have to write round and say 
that we were unable to supply their 
demands. I shall welcome any associ- 
ations that may be’ spontaneously 
formed, but it would be premature to 
appoint any officer to create them. I 
am most anxious to concentrate the 
work of this Department so far as I 
can, and make a definite impression on 
a few particular spots. When we can 
do this, we shall have cultivators coming 
round and saying ‘come and help us 
like you have helped the people of X.’ 
When this occurs the battle is half won. 
The moment that we are ready for the 
associations. we will do our best to 
call them into existence, and meantime 
will keep our eyes open for suitable 
location. As itis we are moving slowly 
in the right direction. During the 
present month a strong party consisting 
of Messrs. Knight, Kalkar and Patil will 
visit the Kolaba district, under the 
auspices of the Kolaba District Associ- 
ation, toinspect and advise on agri- 
cultural conditions -and demonstrate 
whatever may be suitable. The Dhavr- 
war Agricultural Association proposes 
to add to its present activities the 
creation of a depot for supplying selected 
cotton seed. The Village Association at 
Rander, near Surat, is showing signs of 
activity. Messrs. Main and Bhimbhai 
are in touch with it ; and I hope soon to 
be able to attend to their most pressing 
requisition by bringing down a well- 
boring plant to try on their wells, I 
have recently asked for sanction to Mr. 


APRIL, 1909.} 


Patil being puton district work in the 
Deccan, and as soon as opportunity 
occurs, I shall make similar proposals for 
other localities. 


GOVERNMENT'S REPLY. 

Resolution.—The important sugges- 
tions made at the Agricultural Con- 
ference held at Ahmedabad in November, 
1907, are :-— 

(a) The creation of museums for the 
exhibition anuually of cotton samples ; 

(b) Offers of large prizes at Agricultural 
Shows for exhibits of cottonin bulk, 
with a view to the encouragement of the 
growth of good stapled cotton on a 
commercial scale ; 


(c) The encouragement of such cultiva- 
tion by the purchase by Government of 
such improved cotton or the seed of such 
cotton at high rates ; 


(d) The establishment of model Agri- 
cultural Stations for the general training 
of agriculturists 5 

(e) The more extended use of verna- 
cular newspapezs for the spread of 
scientific agricultural knowledge: 

(f) The introduction of a percentage 
notation for the use of the trade in all 
reports on crop estimates ; 


(g) The encouragement of Agricultural 
Asssociations. 

As regards (a), (b) and (c), the Director 
of Agriculture should be informed that 
the Government are somewhat disap- 
pointed that he does not consider 
feasible more definite action than he 
has suggested. Heshould be requested 
to consider the subject further in con- 
sultation with a Committee, including a 
Bombay Mill-owner, an Ahmedabad 
Mill-owner, and Mr. Gammie, if these 
gentlemen will agree to give their 
services for the purpose. The general 
subject on which advice is required is 
the best practical method of (1) making 
known to purchasers and growers of 
cotton the improvements which the 
Department is introducing and endea- 
vouring to introduce in cotton, and (2) of 
effecting a distribution of pure and good 
varieties. 

As regards (d) and(f), the Director's 
recommendations are accepted. 


Asto point (e), publication of agri- 
cultural information, the proposals made 
at the Conference as to the use of exist- 
ing newspapers and periodicals are 
sound, and Government agree that, if 
well used, they will form an effective 
means of bringing improvements to the 
notice of the rural population. The 
Director of Agriculture states that a 
series of brief vernacular leaflets will be 
prepared, each dealing with a single 


381 


Miscellaneous. 


agricultural fact of ascertained value, 
and that these will be primarily intended 
for distributionafter a practical demon- 
stration, and will also be contributed to 
the Vernacular Press in the Moffusil, 
which should be induced to take an 
interest in agricultural matters. Such 
leaflets should be short publications, 
which should be issued under the 
authority of a responsible officer of the 
Department, preferably by the Principal 
of the Agricultural College, Poona, and 
should be distributed broadcast to all 
native papers and also to Agricultural 
Associations. Great care should be 
taken to ensure that these literary 
efforts are presented in a lucid and 
attractive form in the several verna- 
culars. They should issue only when 
there is some ascertained fact to des- 
cribe; endeavours should be made to 
make the supply of them constant and 
regular, and the provision of that supply 
should be the recognised duty of an 
officer of the Department. 


ACTIVE AGRICULTURAL MOVEMENT. 


The report ot the Committee shows 
clearly that, of all the subjects discussed, 
the method which was considered to 
afford most prospect of bringing about 
improvement was the development of 
Agricultural Associations. There was 
evidently enthusiasm in this direction 
and enthusiasm which Government think 
should be utilised. Government are of 
opinion, therefore that, while there 
should beabsolutely no forcing of associ- 
ations on either villages, talukas, or dis- 
tricts, yet in any place where there is, 
endeavours may usefully be made to 
form associations. Centres where there 
is such a movement already exist in 
some parts of the Presidency. ‘The 
Nira Canal tract in the Deccan forms 
one, where the people are extremely 
keen, and the Department has a small 
demonstration station which would form 
a centre of interest and of work. There 
are undoubtedly other places where 
groups of men could be found who are 
ready for advance. Government under- 
stand that centres of such advance are 
to be found in Satara, Nasik and Kolaba. 
One useful association is already in 
existence at Dharwar and another at 
Sangammer in the Ahmednagar District. 
There are some valuable results to place 
before the people in such centres, and 
even more important still it will be 
possible in such centres to learn what 
the cultivators really want to know, 
For many years such bodies will succeed 
only when the local conditions are 
exceptionally favourable. Unnatural 
growths will wither away, leaving the 
sense of failure and disappointment 


Miscellaneous. 


behind them. In order to develop 
associations on sound and safe lines the 


department should interest Collectors 
of districts in them. The Director 
of Agriculture should obtain from 


Collectors suggestions as to places where 
an association would be likely to 
succeed, and the names of persons who 
would give it active support. He should 
then send a competent man to the place 
to give the necessary information and 
to inaugurate the association. The co- 
operation of Collectors, who have local 
knowledge of the districts, might prove 
invaluable to the Department. 

The Governor in Council considers that 
it is impossible to overrate the value of 
the work which the Department of 
Agriculture will in time be able to 
accomplish. For the present, however, 
it is not desirable to put upon the 
Department duties which is not yet able 
to perform. The teaching work of the 
College is going on well, and the result 
will be asteady output of young men 
who have some scientific knowledge ot 
agriculture, which it may be hoped 
they will disseminate. Research work, 
however, is still in the embryo stage, 
and, as many of the innumerable pro- 
blems arising in India are new, progress 
must be slow, if, as is essential, it is to 
be sure and well ordered. The action to 
be taken should, therefore, be cautious 
lest expectations should be raised, which 
eannot be fulfilled and disappointment 
created which might lead to distrust of 
the Department.—Indian Agriculturist, 
Vol. XXXIII., No. 9, 


THE GOVERNORS’ CONFERENCE, 
U. S, AMERICA. 


The following is President Roosevelt's 
address at the historic Conference at 
the White House called to determine 
upon a means to check the vanishing 
national resources of the U.S. A. :— 


Governors of the several States 
Gentlemen :— 


I welcome you to this Conference at 
the White House. You come hither 
at my request, so that we may join to- 
gether to consider the question of the 
conservation and use of the great funda- 
mental sources of weaith of this Nation, 
So vital is this question, that for the 
first time in our history the chief exe- 
cutive officers of the States separately, 
and of the States together forming the 
Nation, have met to consider it. 


With the Governors come men from 
each State, chosen for their special 
acquaintance with the terms of the 
problem that is before us. Among them 
are experts in natural resources and re- 


and 


382 


fApRiIL, 1909. 


presentatives of national organizations 
concerned in the development and use 
of these resources. The Senators and 
Representatives in Congress; the Su- 
preme Court, the Cabinet, and the Inland 
Waterways Commission have likewise 
been invited to the Conference, which 
is therefore national in a peculiar sense. 


This Conference on the conservation 
of natural resources is in effect a meet- 
ing of the representatives of all the 
people of the United States, called to 
consider the mightiest problem now 
before the Nation; and the occasion for 
the meeting lies in the fact that the 
natural resources of our country are in 
danger of exhaustion if we permit the 
old wasteful methods cf exploiting them 
longer to continue. 


With the rise of peoples from savagery 
to civilization, and with the consequent 
growth in the extent and variety of 
the needs of the average man, there 
comes a steadily increasing growth of 
the amount demanded by this average 
man from the actual resources of the 
country. Yet, rather curiously, at the 
same time, the average man is apt to 
lose his realization of this dependence 
upon nature. 

Savages, and very primitive peoples 
generally, concern themselves only with 
superficial natural resources ; with those 
which they obtain from the actual sur- 
face of the ground. As people become 
a little less primitive, their industries, 
although ina rude manner, are extended 
to resources below the surtace; then, 
with what we call civilization and the 
extension of knowledge, more resources 
come into use, industries are multiplied, 
and foresight begins to become a neces- 
sary and prominent factor in life. Crops 
are cultivated; animals are domesti- 
cated; and metals are mastered. 


Every step of the progess of mankind 
is marked by the discovery and use of 
patural resources previously unused. 
Without such progressive knowledge 
and utilization of natural resources 
population could not grow, nor industries 
multiply, nor the hidden wealth of the 
earth be developed for the benefit of 
mankind. 


From the beginnings of civilization: 
on the banks of the Nile and Euphrates; 
the industrial progress of the world 
has gone on slowly, with occasional 
setbacks, but on the whole steadily, 
through tens of centuries to the present 
day. But of late the rapidity of the 
process has increased at such a rate that 
more space has been actually covered 
during the century and a quarter 
occupied by our national life than 
during the preceding six thousand 
years that take us back to the earliest 


APR, 1909, | 


moments of Egypt, to the earliest cities 
of the Babylonian plain. 


When the founders of this Nation 
met in Independence Hall, in Phila- 
delphia, the conditions of commerce had 
not fundamentally changed from what 
they were when the Phenician keels 
ficst furrowed the lonely waters of the 
Mediterranean. The differences were 
those of degree, not of kind, and they 
were not in all eases even those of 
degree. Mining was carried on funda- 
mentally as it had been carried on by 
the Pharaohs in the countries adjacent 
to the Red Sea. 


In 1776 the wares of the merchants of 
Boston, of Charlston, like the wares of 
the merchants of Ninevah and Sidon, 
if they went by water, were carried by 
boats propelled by sails or oars; if 
they went by land, were carried in 
wagons drawn by beasts of draft or in 

acks on the backs of beasts of burden. 

he ships that crossed the high seas 
were better than the ships that 3,000 
years before crossed the Aegean; but 
they were of the same type, after 
all—they were wooden ships propelled 
by sails; and on land the roads_ were 
not as good as the roads of the Roman 
Empire, while the service of the posts 
was probably inferior. 


In Washington's time anthracite coal 
was known only as auseless blackstone ; 
and the great fields of bituminous coal 
were undiscovered. As steam was un- 
known, the use of coal for power pro- 
duction was undreamed of. Water was 
practically the only source of power, 
save the labour of men and animals ; and 
this power was used only in the most 
primitive fashion, But.afew small iron 
deposits had been found in this country, 
and the use of iron by our countrymen 
was very small. Wood was practically 
the only fuel, and what lumber was 
sawed was consumed locally, while the 
forests were regarded chiefly as obstruc- 
tions to setttlement and civilization. 


Such was the degree of progress to 
which civilized mankind had attained 
when this Nation began its career. It is 
almost impossible for usin this day to 
realize how little our Revolutionary 
ancestors knew of the great store of 
natural resources, whose discovery and 
use have been such vital factors in the 
greatness of this Nation, and how little 
they required to take from this store in 
order to satisfy their needs. 


Since then our knowledge and use of 
the resources of the present territory of 
the United States have increased a 
hundredfold. Indeed, the growth of 
this Nation by leaps and bounds makes 
one of the most striking and important 


383 


Miscellaneous. 


chapters inthe history of the world. 
Its growth has been due to the rapid 
development, and alas! that it should 
be said, to the rapid destruction of our 
natural resources. Nature has supplied 
to us in the United States, and still 
supplies to us, more kinds of resources 
ina more lavished degree than has ever 
been the case at any other time or with 
any other people. Our position in the 
world has been attained by the extent 
and t horoughness of the control we have 
achie ved over nature; but we are more, 
and not less, dependent upon what she 
furnishss than at any previous time of 
history since the days of primitive man. 


Yet our fathers, though they knew 
so little of the resources of the country, 
exercised a wise forethought in re- 
ference thereto. Washington clearly 
saw thatthe perpetuity of the States 
could only be secured by union, and 
that the only feasible basis of union was 
an economie one; in other words, that 
it must be based upon the development 
and use of their natural resources, 
Accordingly, he helped to outline a 
scheme of commercial development, and 
by his influence an Interstate Waterways 
Commission was appointed by Maryland 
and Virginia, 

It met near where we are now meeting, 
in Alexandria, adjoined to Mount 
Vernon, and took up the consideration 
of interstate commerce by the only 
means then available, that of water. 
Further conferences were arranged, first 
at Annapolis and then at Philadelphia. 
It was in Philadelphia that the re- 
presentatives of all the States met for 
what was in its original conception 
merely a Waterways Conference; but 
when they had closed their deliberations 
the outeome was the Constitution which 
made the States into a Nation. 


The Constitution of the United States 
thus grew in large part out of the 
necessity for united action in the wise 
use of our natural resources. The wise 
use of all our natural resources, which 
are our natural resources as well, is the 
great material question of to-day. I 
have asked you to come together now 
because the enormous consumption of 
these resources, and the threat of 
imminent exhaustion of them, due to 
reckless and wasteful use, once more 
ealls for common effort, common action. 


Since the days when the Constitution 
was adopted, steam and electricity have 
revolutionized the industrial world. 
Nowhere has the revolution been so 
great asin our own country. The dis- 
covery and utilization of mineral fuels 
and alloys have given us the lead over 
all other nations in the production of 


Miscellaneous. 


steel. ‘I'he discovery and_ utilization 
of coal and iron have given us_ our 
railways, and have led to such in- 
dustrial development as_ has’ never 
before been seen. The vast wealth of 
lumber in our forests, the riches of our 
soils and mines, the discovery of coal 
and mineral oils, combined with the 
efficiency of our transportation, have 
made the conditions of our life unparallel- 
ed in comfort and convenience. 


The steadily increasing drain on these 
natural resources has promoted to an 
extraordinary degree the complexity of 
our industrial and social life. Moreover, 
this unexampled development has had 
a determining effect upon the character 
and opinions of our people. The demand 
for efficiency in the great task has given 
us vigour, effectiveness, decision, and 
power, and acapacity for achievement 
whieh in its own lines has never yet 
been matched, (Applause.) So great and 
so rapid has been our material growth 
that there has been a tendency to lag 
behind in spiritual and moral growth 
(laughter and applause); but that is not 
the subject upon which I speak to you 
to-day. 

Disregarding for the moment the 
question of moral purpose, 16 Is safe 
to say that the prosperity of our people 
depends directly on the energy and in- 
telligence with which our natural re- 
sources are used. It is equally clear 
that these resources are the final basis 
of our national power and perpetuity. 
Finally, it is ominously evident that 
these resources are in the course of 
rapid exhaustion. 


This Nation began with the _ belief 
that its landed possessions were illimit- 
able and capable of supporting all the 
people who might care to make our 
country their home; but already the 
limit of unsettled land is in sight, and 
indeed but little land fitted for agri- 
culture now remains unoccupied save 
what can be reclaimed by irrigation 
and drainage. We began with an un- 
approached heritage of forests; more 
than half of the timber is gone. We 
began with coal fields more extensive 
than those of any other nation, and 
with iron ores regarded as inexhaust- 
able, and many experts now declare 
that the end of both coal and iron is 
in sight. 

The mere increase in_ the consump- 
tion of coal during 1907 over 1906 ex- 
ceeded the total consumption in 1876, the 
Centennial year. The enormous stores 
ot mineral oil and gas are largely gone. 
Our natural waterways are not gone, 
but they have been so injured by 


384 


{APRIL, 1909. 


neglect, and by the division of responsi- 
bility and utter lack of system in dealing 
with them, that there is less navigation 
on them now than there was _ fifty 
years ago. Finally, we began with soils 
of unexampled tertility, and we have so 
impoverished them by injudicious use 
and by failing to check erosion, that 
their crop-producing power is diminish- 
ing instead of increasing. In a word, 
we have thoughtlessly, and to a large 
degree unnecessarily, diminished the 
resources upon which not only our pros- 
perity but the prosperity of our chil- 
dren must always depend. 


We have become great because of 
the lavish use of our resources, and we 
have just reason to be proud of our 
growth. But the time has come to in- 
quire seriously what will happen when 
our forests are gone, when the coal, the 
iron, the oil, and the gas are exhausted, 
when the soils shall have been still 
further impoverished and washed into 
the streams, polluting the _ rivers, 
denuding the fields, and obstructing 
navigation. The questions do not relate 
only to the next century or to the next 
generation. It is time for us now as a 
Nation to exercise the reasonable fore- 
sight in dealing with our great natural 
resources that would be shown by any 
prudent man in conserving and wisely 
using the property which contains the 
assurance of well being for himself and 
his children. 

The natural resources I have enumer- 
ated can be divided into two sharply 
distinguished classes accordingly as 
they are or are not capable of renewal. 
Mines if used must necessarily be ex- 
hausted. ‘The minerals do not and can- 
not renew themselves. Therefore, in 
dealing with the coal, the oil, the gas, 
the iron, the metals generally, all that 
we can do is to try to see that they are 
wisely used. The exhaustion is certain 
to come in time. 


The second class of resources consists 
of those which cannot only be used in 
such manner as to leave them un- 
diminished for our children, but can 
actually be improved by wise use. The 
soil, the forests, and the waterways 
come inthis category. In dealing with 
mineral resources, man is able to im- 
prove on nature only by putting the 
resources to a_ beneficial use, which 
in the end exhausts them; but in 
dealing with the soil and its products 
man can improve on nature by compell- 
ing the resources to renew and even 
reconstruct themselves in such manner 
as to serve increasingly beneficial uses, 
while the living waters can beso con- 
trolled as to multiply their benefits. 


APRIL 1909.] 


Neither the primitive man nor the 
pioneer was aware of any duty to 
posterity in dealing with the renewable 
resources. When the American settler 
felled the forests, he felt that there was 
plenty of forest left for the sons that 
came after him. When he exhausted 
the soil of histarm he felt that his son 
could go West and take up another. So 
it was with his immediate successors. 
When the soil-wash from the farmer’s 
fields choked the neighbouring river, he 
thought only of using the railway rather 
than boats for moving his produce and 
supplies. 

Now all this has changed. On the 
average the son of the farmer of to-day 
must make his living on_his_ father’s 
farm. Thereis no difficulty in doing 
this if the father will exercise wisdom. 
No wise use of a farm exhausts its 
fertility. So with the forests. Weare 
over the verge of a timber famine in this 
country, and it is unpardonable for the 
Nation or the States to permit any 
further cutting of our timber save in 
accordance with a system which will 
provide that the next generation shall 
see the timber increased instead of 
diminished. (Applause.) Moreover, we 
ean add enormous tracts of the most 
valuable possible aguicultural land to 
the national domain by irrigation in the 
arid and semi-arid regions and by drain- 
age of great tracts of swamp lands in 
the humid regions. We can enormously 
increase our transportation facilities 
by the canalization of our rivers so as to 
complete a great system of waterways 
on the Pacific, Atlantic and Gulf coasts 
and in the Mississippi Valley, from the 
Great Plains to the Alleghenies, and 
from the northern lakes to the mouth of 
the mighty Father of Waters. But all 
these various cases of our natural 
resources are so closely connected that 
they should be co-ordinated, and should 
be treated as part of one coherent plan 
and not in haphazard and piecemeal 
fashion. 

{t is largely becaue of this that I 
appointed the Waterways Commission 
last year, and that I have sought to 
perpetuate its work, I wish to take this 


opportunity to express in heartiest 
fashion my acknowledgement to all the 
members of theCommission. At great 


personal sacrifice of time and effort they 
have rendered a service to the public for 
wich we cannot be too grateful. 
Especial credit is due to the initiative, 
the energy, the devotion to duty and the 
tar-sightedness of Gifford Pinchot (great 
applause ), to Whom we owe so much of 
the progress we have already made in 
handling this matter of the co-ordination 
and conservation of natural resources. 


384a 


Miscellaneons 


If it had not been for him this Con- 
vention neither would nor could have 
been called. 


We are coming to recognise as never 
before the right of the Nation to guard 
its own future in the essential matter of 
natural resources. In the past we have 
admitted the right of the individual to 
injure the future of the Republic for his 
own present profit. The time has come 
for achange. Asa people we have the 
right and the duty, second to none other 
but the right and duty of obeying the 
moral law, of requiring and doing 
justice, to protect ourselves and our 
children against the wasteful develop- 
ment of our natural resources, whether 
that waste is caused by the actual 
destruction of such resources or by 
making them impossible of development 
hereafter. 

Any right thinking father earnestly 
desires and strives to leave to his son 
both an untarnished name and a reason- 
able equipment tor the struggle of life, 
So this Nation asa whole should earnest- 
ly desire and strive to leave to the next 
generation the national honour un- 
stained and the national resources unex- 
hausted. There are signs that both the 
Nation and the States are waking to a 
realization of this great truth. On 
March 10, 1908, the Supreme Court of 
Maine rendered an exceedingly impor- 
tant judicial decision. This opinion was 
reudered in response to questions as to 
the right of the legislature to restrict 
the entting of trees on private land for 
the prevention of drought anid floods, 
the preservation of the natural water 
supply, and the prevention of the 
erosion of such lands, and the conse- 
quent filling up of rivers, ponds and 
lakes. The forests and water powers of 
Maine constitute the lacger part of her 
wealth and form the basis of her indus- 
trial life, and the question submitted by 
the Maine Senate to the Supreme Court 
and the answer of the Supreme Court 
alike bear testimony to the wisdom of 
the people of Maine and clearly define a 
policy of conservation of natural 
resources, the adoption of which is of 
vital importance, not merely to Maine, 
but to the whole country. (Applause.) 


Such a policy will preserve soil, forests, 
water power as a heritage for the 
children and the children’s children of 
the men and women of this generation ; 
for any enactment that provides for the 
wise utilization of the forests, whether 
in public or private ownership, and for 
the conservation of the water sources 
of the country, must necessarily be leyis- 
lation that will promote both private 
and public welfare ; for flood prevention, 
water power development, preservation 


Miscellaneous. 


of the soil, and improvement of navi- 
gable rivers are all promoted by such 
a policy of forest conservation. 


The opinion of the Maine Supreme 
bench sets forth unequivocally the prio- 
ciple that the property rights of the 
individual are subordinate to the rights 
of the community, and especially that 
the waste of wild timber land derived 
originally from the State, involving as 
it would the impoverishment of the 
State and its people and thereby defeat- 
ing one great purpose of Government, 
may properly be prevented by State 
restrictions. 

The Court says that there are two 
reasons why the right of the public to 
control and limit the use of private 
property is peculiarly applicable to 
property inland: ‘! First, such property 
is not the result of productive labour, 
but is derived solely from the State 
itself, the original owner; second, the 
amount of land being incapable of 
increase, if the owners of large tracts 
can waste them at will without State 
restriction, that State and its people 
may be helplessly impoverished aud one 
great purpose of government defeated. 
-. , We do not think the proposed legis- 
lation would operate to ‘‘ take” private 
property within the inhibiticn of the 
Constitution, While it might restrict 
the owner of wild and uncultivated 
lands in his use of them, might delay 
his taking some of the product, might 
delay his anticipated profits and even 
thereby might cause him some loss ot 
profit, it would nevertheless leave him 
his lands, their product and increase, 
untouched, and without diminution of 
title, estate or quantity. He would 
still have large measure of control and 
large opportunity to realize values. _He 
might suffer delay but not deprivation. 
... The proposed legislation. . . would 
be within the legislative power. and 
would not operate as a taking of private 
property for which compensation must 
be made.” 


The Court of Errors and Appeals of 
New Jersey has adopted a similar view, 
which has recently been sustained by 
the Supreme Court of the United States. 
In delivering the opinion of the Court on 
April 6, 1908, Mr. Justice Holmes said: 
<The State, as quasi-sovereign and repre- 
sentative of the interests of the public, 
has a standing in Court to protect the 


3845 


{APRIL, 1909. 


atmosphere, the water, and the forests 
within its territory, irrespective of the 
assent or dissent of the private owners 
of the land most immediately. concerned. 
. It appears to us that few public 
interests are more obvious, indisputable 
and independent of particular theory 
than the interest of the public of a State 
to maintain the rivers that are wholly 
within it substantially undiminished, 
except by such drafts upon them as the 
guardian of the public welfare may per- 
mit for the purpose of turning them to a 
more perfect use, (Applause.) This 
public interest is omnipresent wherever 
there is a State, and grows more pressing 
as population grows. ..... Weare of 
opinion, further, that the constitutional 
power of the State te insist that its 
natural advantages shall remain un- 
impaired by its citizens is not dependent 
upon any nice estimate of the extent of 
present use or speculation as to future 
needs. The legal conception of the 
necessary is apt to be confined to some- 
what rudimentary wants, and there are 
benefits from a great river that might 
escape a lawyer's view. (Laughter and 
applause.) But the State is not required 
to submit even to an aesthetic anaylsis. 
Any analysis may be inadequate. It 
finds itself in possession of what all 
admit to be a great public good, and 
what it has it may keep and give no one 
a reason for its will.” 


__These decisions reach the root of the 
idea of conservation of our resources in 
the interests of the people. 


Finally, let us remember that the con- 
servation of our natural resources, 
though the gravest problem of to-day, 
is yet but a part of another and greater 
problem to which this Nation is not yet 
awake, but to which it will awake in 
time, and with which it must hereafter 
grapple if it is to live—the problem of 
national efficiency, the patriotic duty of 
insuring the safety and continuance 
of the Nation. (Applause.) When the 
people of the United States consciously 
undertake to raise themselves as citizens, 
and the Nation and the States in their 
several spheres, to the higbest pitch of 
excellence in private, state, and national 
life, and to do this because it is 
first of all the duties of true patriotism, 
then and not till then the future of this 
Nation, in quality and in time, will be 
assured. (Great applause,) 


384e 


MARKET RATES FOR TROPICAL PRODUCTS. 
(From Lewis & Peat’s Monthly Prices Current, London, 17th March , 1909,) 


| QUALITY. QUOTATIONS. 


Is a 2s 8d 
+28 a 3s 6d 


//3s 3d a 4s 65a 
~-'138 3d a 43 3d 
-/2810d a 3s 8d 


€/2s 10d a 3s 6d 


°-{2s 3d a 2s 98 
--[Is a 2s 6d 


332d a3s 8d nong 
3s 5d a 3s 10d 

3s 1d a 3s 4d 

283 9d a 3s 

28 6d a 2/8 nome, 
2s 3d a 2s 6d 

Is 6d a 28 2a 

ls 5da 2s 4d. 

Is Sd a 2s 4d 


t 


ls 4d als 6d 
Is 3d a 1s 8d 


4s9d 27s 
4s6da6s 3d. 
5s25s 6d 
ls 2d. 


als 4d 
s 2a 


93 a, 11s 6d 

6s a €s 6d 

|68 3d 2, 8s 

43 5d 

4s a 484d vom, 
2d a 23d 

13d a 2d 
%dals 

1s 1d 


12s 6d a 15s 


QUALITY, QUOTATIONS. 
Sai ee ae part | Sam (Contd. 
ALOES, Socotrine cwt./Fair to fine */9C3 a 958 ENDIAEUBB ER ( dleommnen to good 
Zanzibar & Hepatic  ,, |Common to good *+/208 a 858 Java Good to fine red a 
ARROWROOT (Natal) Ib.|Fair to fine “|22d a 4d Penang Low white to prime redjlts 6d a, 2s sd 
BEES’ WAX, cwt.| 2 Mozambique Fair to fine red Ball 
Zanzibar Yellow __ ,, |Slightly drossy to fair .../e6 15s a £6 17s 6d Sausage, fair to good 
Bombay bleached _,, /Fair to good ; £7 10s a £71286d) — Nyassaland Fair to tine ball 
»_unbleached,, |D. rk to good genuine ../¢5 16s a £6 10s Nida casent Fr to fine pinky & whit 
Madagascar », {Dark to good palish [26 10s a £6 17s 6d I Majunga & blk coated 
OAMPHOR, Japan » |Refined . 1s 63d a 1s 9d Niggers, low to good 
hina an +s red shearer 11378 6d A New Guinea erie Ss to aoe ball .. 
‘CARDAMOMS, Malabar |/Good to fine 28 a 28 5 » > pe Shipping mid to gd viole 
c Middling lean is7da isiod |INDIGO, EI. Bengal Concuntag mid. to ed 
Tellicherry Good to fine bold -|28 3d a 2s 8d Ordinary to middling 
Brownish , --l1s 7d a 29 Oudes Middling to fine 
Mangalore ,, {Med brown to fair boldjgs 2d a 3s 2d Mid. to good Kurpah 
Ceylon.- Mysore __,, |Small fair to fine plump |1s 7da, 3s 6d | Low to ordinary 
Malabar far to good + {Is 7d : a Mid. to fine Madras 
Seeds +-|1s 11d a 2s 1c Pale reddish to fine 
‘7 Long Wild”,, /Shelly to good --/6d a 2s ee ae Ae Ordinary to fair 
CAS'TOR OIL, Calcutta,, |Ists and 2nds ++ (23d a 34d aval . % 5, good pale 
CHILLIES, Zanzibar cwt.|Dull to tine bright ../B98 a 40s Bite Wild 
CINCHONA BARK.— lb. : y < UG and Coconada 
Me MYRABOLANES, — ewt ‘ 
Ceylon Crown, Renewed 3d a7d Bombay Jubblepore 
Org. Stem [2d a 6d ” |Bhimlies 
Red Org. Stem |1}d a 43d Rhajpore, &c. 
Renewed 3d a did Bengal ,, (Calcutta ; 
Root 1gda 4d NULPMEGS— . |64’s to 57's 
‘CINNAMON,Ceylon Asts|Good to fine quill Wdals 4d Bombay & Penang ,, |110’s to 64's 
per Ib 2nds 7” 55 9d a 1s 2a 160’s to 115’s 
3rds a - 74d a lid |NUTS, ARECA ewt, Ordinary to fair tresh 
iths 33 ¥ 63d a 93d NUX VOMICA, Cochin Ordinary to good 
Chips, &c,.|Fair to fine bold 24d a 34d per cwt. Bengal | ” i 
‘CLOVES, Penang Ib.|Dull to tine bright bold|lid a is | Madras ny es 
Amboyna -|Dull to tine 73d a 9d OIL OF ANISEED _ ,, |Fair merchantable _ 
Ceylon a “A Pp 7d a 9d CASSIA ,, According to analysis 
Zanzibar Fair and fine bright —|4§d a 5d LEMONGRASS ,, (Good flavour & colour 
Stems -|Fair 2d NUTMEG », |Dingy to white 
‘COFFEE | CINNAMON Ordinary to fair sweet 
Ceylon Plantation ewt.|Bold to fine 1108 a 112s | CITRON ELLE ,, |Bright & good flavour 
Medium to good SVs @ 108s 'ORCHELLA WEED—cvwt! 
Native Good ordinary nominal Ceylon ., |Mid. to tine not woody... 
Liberian Fair to bold 43s a 5086 Zanzibar. - [Picked clean flat leaf A 


COCOA, Ceylon Plant. es 
Native Estate ; 


” 


COLOMBO ROOT 


CROTON SEEDS,sift. cwt. 


CUBEBS % . 
GINGhK, Bengal, rough,, 
Calicut, Cut A ,, 
B&C,, 

Cochin Kough ,, 


Japan ¥5 
‘@UM AMMUNIACUM ,, 
ANIMI, Zanzibar 


” 


Madagascar 


4PAbIC E.I, & Aden 
Turkey sorts 
Ghatti 
Kurrachee 
Madras 

ASSAFQhT1baA 


KINO 

MYRRH, picked ewt 
Aden sorts 

OLIBANUM, drop 


” 
a 


” 
” 


pickings ,, 
siftings ,, 
INDIA RUKBER lb. 
Ceylon, Straits, 
Malay Straits, etc, 


” ak) 
Bean and Pea 
Ll ir to geod red sorts 
Med. & bold glassy sorts 
Fair to good palish . 


Special Marks 
Red to good 


|Ordinary to red 


Middling to good 
Dull to fair 


Fair 
Small to fine bold 


Small and D’s 
Unsplit 


size 


» >» red 
Ordinary to 


Sorts to fine pale 
Dark to tine pale 
Fair to tine bright 
Fair to fine pale 
Middling to good 
Middling to fair 


», Ceara ,, 


Ord. stalky to good 


Small and medium 
Common to fine bold 


Sm. blocky to fair clean 
Pale and amber, str. srts. 
little red 


good pale 


Reddish to good pale . 


Clean fr. to gd. almonds|85s a 100s 
con). stony to good block!25s a 75s 


Good to tine white 


Low to good pale 
Slightly foul to fine 
Fine Fara bis, & sheets e 


738 a 88s 6d | 
65s a 72s 6d 


428 a 65s PEPPER -— (Black) 


Ceylon 


15s al7s 6d Singapore 


oh ete Acheen & W. C. Penang. 
308 nom, (White) Singapore ,, 
65s a 85s Siam ” 
483 252s Penang 

aEaear fia ‘PLUMBAGO, 1 

36s | ; 

F | chips 

oe dust 


25s a 60S nom, 
£16 a £18 

£13 a £15 

758 a £12 

£9 a £12 

£7 a£9 15s 

. |£4 a £8 15s 

.. [£4 a £7 LOs 

25s a 3Zs 6d nom, 
32s a 5US 


/SAGO, Pearl, large 


: { small 
ditto \SEEDLAC 


SENNA, Tinnevelly 


... {208 a 42s 6d nom. Rey 
20s a 30s ‘ yereue 


158 a 25s 
alae Banda 


All e & Tellich +3 
ae sical | s, Lo fine bold heavy ../s 
a8 ! 


medium 


\TAMARINDS, Caleutt2.... 


a wiry Mozambique 


Ib. | 
Fair 


* Fe re 
Dull to fine a a 
Fair to fine 
|Fair rm 
Fair 


ump cwt,|Fair_to fine bright bold 


\Middling to good small 
|Dull to fine bright ae 
\Ordinary to fine bright 

... Dull to fine 


e-| ” uw 


oe Lae , 
ewt, Ordinary to gd. soluble 


Ib, Good to fine bold green 
|Fair greenish 
Commonspeckyand small 


SHELLS, M. o’PEARL—|_ ert 
Egyptian ewt. Small to bold 


” a2 on 


” 


[Fair to good - ae 
Sorts me ae 
Mid. to fine bl’k not stony 


d agd per cwt. Madras |Stony and inferior 

808 2 908 TORTOISESHELL— | iP 

50s a 65s Zanzibar, & Bombay Ib. Peking bo ne 

Os a 60: y es 

es A 358 TURMERIC, Bengal ewt,|Fair : ; 

10s a 208 Madras ,, |Finger fair to tine bold 

13s a 153 Do. », [Bulbs [bright 
bid Cochin __,, |Finger es 
4a Bulbs 

fl VANILLOES— Ib 


nom, 


+|14S a 16s 


12s 60a 15s 
11s a 13s 

55s 2 90S nom, 
jd a7d 

32d a 42d 

ljda 23d 


258 a 90s noms 
30s a 90s 


+|£6 286d a £7 10s 


£5 l5saL95s 
25s a30s nom 
lls 213s 


-|48 2 58 


11s 6d a 26s 
6s a 14s 6d, 
18s 

183 a 20s 
16s a 17s 


oo [139 


8 
Fine? eee aoe = ma mee istsiGa crystallized 34 a8 inj7s 2 14s 


Fine Bl a Mauritius... Z 

Scrap fair to fine . [49 2da4s 8d Madagascar .,, } 2nds/Foxy & reddish 34a ,,/6s a 10d 
Assam 'Plantation 83 8d Seychelles. ...J 3rds}Lean and inferior oof 63 a 7S 

\Pair II to ord, red No, 1/28 a 236d VERMILLION .. Fine, pure,arnght —.. faa 9d a 2s 1d 
Kangoon | 7 2s 3d ars 8d WAX, Japan, squares Good white hard on [48S 


ne 
s ably San “yf feet 
aa Wiyeg 
oh ¥ 4 
fees ts 
H a her 
7 i : ; 
=) P a 
- 
2 : 
yh | 
User 
aa 
J 
f ey 
fi 
a ' Ee 
4 
i 
bi 
+ . 
\ 
' 
' 
ed 
i 
\ 
r 
| 
6 t 
i 
> | h 
Ra \ 
, 
| ; wy 
; f ' iy 
r 7 y ‘ 
| ‘ 
Ge 
| 7 
Ay cap al 
\° a 
is Sept OO He BOT. cit is oe Y 
: 2 | (RESET 5 5 
ia a! - ian Li spa esl, . i Rad vy 
; f “e Hi j i P m oy 
Fs ' = , TO oh det 
+ de 30) ing. te 


sat) a PS we \ 


THE SUPPLEMENT TO THE 


Tropical Agriculturist and Magazine of the . A. 8. 


Comei1Lep By A. M. & J. FERGUSON. 


No. 4,] 


APRIL, 1909. 


[ Vor. IV, 


THE NEW SYSTEM OF TAPPING 
RUBBER. 


EARLY YIELDS VERSUS QUALITY. 


Dovusts AND FEARS, 


The new system of tapping rubber is attain- 
ing very considerable popularity. It is the 
chief topic of discussion in rubber growing 
circles, It promises to shorten the wait of 
the planter; and impatient shareholders are 
already feverishly. revising their prospects 
in the light of its advent. ‘‘Our estimate 
for the year is so and 80; but, wilh the adop- 
tion of the new system of tapping, we expect 
that this will be greatly inereased” has 
become as essential (and as stereotyped) a part 
of a Rubber Company Chairman’s annual 
speech as the time-honoured and hoary formula, 
‘‘The report has been in your hands for the 
usual time and with your permission we will 
take itasread!” It is natural enough that any 
method of dealing with rubber trees, which will 
render them productive two years earlier than 
was anticipated when they were planted, should 
absorb attention to the exclusion of all else and 
wecan probably accept as true the current Hort 
report that already some 120 Ceylon estates 
have subscribed to the new method. The 
pre-eminent advantages claimed by the new 
system are:—Simplicity; Reduction in cost 
of production; Little or no damage to the 
trees; Reduction in labour force required; 
and Quicker and increased returns. The last 
of these is undoubtedly the one that has 
proved the most attractive to producers and 
shareholders; and now that they are becoming 
accustomed to its dazzling glamour, which for 
the time obscured all other issues, they are 
beginning to realise that there are two sides to 
the shield. Doubts and fears are forcibly ob_ 
truding themselves on the halcyon outlook. Two 
points in particular are being much discussed ; 


49 


crease 


and in our opinion these must be satisfactorily 
answered and proved to the hilt by experience be- 
fore the new tapping method can he pronounced 
an unqualified success or hailed as a genuine 
benefaction to the plantation rubber industry. 
It may be safely assumed, so attractive are the 
claims of the new system, that the great majority 
of planters possessing rubber at all approaching 
a tappable age will take it up, for—according to 
Messrs. Lee, Hedges & Co.’s original circular, re- 
produced in T.A, for December, 1908—‘‘By adop- 
ting this system it is possible to secure from 
young Trees (38-year-old and upwards) which 
cannot under present conditions be profitably 
tapped—a remunerative yield at a low cost not 
possible by any other known method,” What 
must be the inevitable result of this? In avery 
short time a large quantity of inferior rubber 
will be thrown upon the market, prices must 
drop and the fair name of the Ceylon pro- 
duct is bound to suffer in the eyes of the 
buyer. The inferiority of rubber yielded by 
young trees is a matter beyond cavil. ‘ In- 
in age,” says Wright in, his ‘ Para 
Rubber,” the standard work on the plantation 
industry, ‘‘is certainly to be associated with an 
improvement in the physical properties and 
quality of the rubber, whether one considers 
plantations of different ages or parts of the same 
tree.” Again observers have shown that “ rub- 
ber from young trees is adhesive and lacks the 
required elasticity and strength.” StanleyArden 
has shown that in parts of Malayathe rubber 
from trees 32 to 4 years old is decidedly inferior, 
The India Rubber Journal is quoted by Mr. 
Wright as having described samples of Para 
rubber from four-year-old trees ‘‘as being soft, 
and would not stand much working on the 
machine, while the value put upon them was 
only equal to that fur ‘Congo ball or a similar 
quality of African.’’’ And finally we may 
quote the opinion of Mr. Wright on the sub- 
ject, applied directly {to Ceylon :—‘ When 
oneconsiders that the growth of the Para 


386 


rubber tree in Ceylon is such that a cir- 
curmference of 20 inches cannot be attained 
much before the fourth, fifth or sixth year, 
it is obvious that, under ordinary methods of 
cultivation, all ideas of extracting rubber from 
trees under these ages should not be encouraged.” 
It is therefore abundantly clear in our opinion 
that early yields and correspondingly quick 
profits may be obtained at a far greater cost 
than the R500 necessary to be put in posses- 
sion of the secrets of the new system. 


As to the effect of the system upon the tree 
itself, we are precluded from discussing this 
freely because it would be unfair to the inventor 
of the method to publicly state the manner in 
which latex is extracted under his system. It 
is, however, generally known that the bark of 
the tree is conserved and left practically intact. 
{ft is upon this point which doubt exists. 
Rubber is extracted at present by removing 
the bark of the tree: the existing doubt, as 
put to us, is ‘‘ whether, after a period of tap- 
ping, the latex cells will re-fill and continue 
to yield rubber.” The point may be better 
understood when we remind our readers that 
“the bark, or—as it is better termed—the 
cortex, is formed from within outwards ; new 
cells are continually being formed which push 
the older ones outwards. All these cells, at 
some time or other, are liable to undergo decom- 
position and to assist in the production of 
well-defined tubes which become filled with 
latex.” Will this action continue when the 
tree has been tapped some time under the 
new system? ‘Two years is the time esti- 
mated to elapse before this can satisfactorily 
be proved by experience. Personally we do not 
regard this as a grave menace to the industry 
although it is a point upon which we should like 
to have the opinion of a competent scientitic 
authority. It would appear, however, from an 
opinion expressed by Mr. Herbert Wright in a 
lecture at Kegalle, (assuming the point above 
alluded to is satisfactorily settled) that the new 
system is well-calculated to effectively prevent 
the danger of vital injuries to the tree being 
effected during tapping by the old method. Mr. 
Wright said :— 


It isnotin the extraction of latex that the 
harm is done, so much as in the removal of the 
bark containing that substance. The bark or 
cortical tissue, which is removed in tapping 
operations, contains organised systems of ele- 
ments which are of vital importance to the plant 
and on their health and continuity depends the 
perfect distribution, mainly from above down- 
wards, of the food materials elaborated in the 
leaves. As a store house and conducting channel 
the cortex is of vital importance to the plant, and 
if it is removed too quickly, the life of the tree 
may be endangered. ‘The rapid stripping of the 
bark is an unnatural process, analagous, perhaps, 
to the treatment meted out to cinchona trees— 
though they did not flourish long—but not com- 
parable with the natural peeling away of dry 
bark. During ordinary tapping operations the 
cortical cells are excised while they are in a 
living condition, and are entirely removed at a 
time when they centain reserve food intended 
for the use of the plant; it also differs fromthe 


The Supplement to the Tropical A gricullurist 


natural peeling of the bark, in so far as the 
average operator exposes the inner and more 
delicate and vital components of the cortex and 
cambium to atmospheric influences. Such treat- 
ment does affect the vigour of the trees, and if 
cortical stripping is effected much more fre- 
quently than once in three or four years, I 
anticipate trouble in the future. 


It is well in this connection, and in connection 
with the letter which appears elsewhere, of Mr. 
H. A. Wickham (the veteran introducer of Ama- 
zon rubber into Kew, whence it came to Ceylon 
and the East) to remember that the latici- 
ferous system of the rubber trees has no vital 
association with other parts of the tree, andis 
not like thecirculatory system of human beings; 
itis almost useless during the life of the tree 
and persists when the tree is apparently dead. 


The latter of the two points dealt with above 
is, however, one upon which our scientific 
advisers are best able to sit in judgment. If 
they pronounce the system one which can 
be safely practised, it is certainly going to bea 
splendid thing for the industry, if utilised only 
on matured trees; because in other respects 
it urdoubtedly does all that it claims. The 
first pointcomes within the comprehension of all 
interested in the rubber industry. By sending 
rubber from immature trees to market we may 
secure quick returns fora time; but the rub- 
ber is bound to be less resilieht and strong 
than that of our competitors taken from older 
trees. It wiil snap when stretched, and the 
inevitable tendency will be to throw the Ceylon 
plantation industry into disrepute with the 
buyers. This is a serious consideration and 
one that should be carefully weighed before 
the new system is applied to thousands of 
young trees, the rubber from which is not really 
fit to be placed on the market. 


OPINIONS OF PLANTERS, 


1 
March 19th, 

Dear Siz,—In your interesting article on the 
new system of tapping rubber you lay too much 
stress, | think, on Mr Herbert Wright’s ideas, 
now getting rather out of date, I had the plea- 
sure ot having as my fellow passenger on my 
voyage out in the ‘‘Omrah ” last November, the 
Chairman of the Lanadron Rubber Estates. 
This Company spares no expense in having 
scientific experts on their Johore property, who 
are intouch with their consulting Chemists in 
London, Messrs Clayton, Beade & Stephens, and 
so far as these experiments had gone to Autumn 
of 1908, the summary arrived at was thus:— 


‘The quality of the Rubber is not affected 
by the age of the tree that yields the latex.” 


The effect of such tapping on the future life 
history of the young tree cannot yet be deter- 
mined, but the summary deals effectually with 
your fear that such tapping on young trees will 
affect the quality of the Rubber itself.—Yours 


truly, 
W, D. G, 


and Magazine of the Ceylon Agricullwral Society. 


[Is our esteemed correspondent ‘‘ W,D.G.” also 
among those who yearn after the flesh pots of 
Egypt as represented by immature rubber and 
early dividends? It would appear so from 
the tenour of this letter. We cannot for a 
moment accept either of the assertions he makes. 
We certainly do not think that Mr Herbert 
Wright’s ideas are ‘‘getting rather out of date.” 
Who, may we ask, has offered us any more 
advanced ideas to supersede those of the 
enterprising ex-Controller of the Experiment 
Station or added materially to our stock of 
knowledge on the genus Hevea Brasiliensis 
since Mr Wright published his magnum 
opus? In what respect, will ‘‘W. D. G.” tell 
us, have his ideas become obsolete ? As to 
the statement made to our correspondent by 
the Chairman of the Lanadron Rubber Estates 
Co., we cannot accept it against the almost 
unanimous opinion of all who have any claim to 
be regarded as rubber experts. It may be true 
that “The quality of the rubber is not affected 
by age of the tree that yields the latex ’—when 
the treescompared are ail over, say, ten years of 
age. This is no new discovery. It was men- 
tioned in the Lectures at the London Rubber 
Exhibition, and Mr John Parkin, m.A., declared 
‘* Personally I should be rather surprised to 
find any marked difference in the quality of 
the rubber drawn from ten year old trees as 
compared with that from 20 year old trees, all 
other conditions being equal.” Does the 
Lanadron Chairman or ‘‘W.D.G.”, however, 
seriously ask us to believe that rubber froma 
three-year-old tree is equal in quality to rubber 
from a 20-year old one? The suggestion is 
absurd and opposed by all authoritative opinion, 
Mr C K Smithett pointed out at the first 
rubber exhibition in Ceylon that the best plan- 
tation rubber—with greatest tensile strength— 
was obtained from the oldest trees. By way of 
warning he observed ‘‘Bad reputations are dif- 
ficult to be got rid of ; so do not let. your rubber 
acquire a reputation of being weaker than fine, 
hard cure Para.’?’ In the 1908 Rubber Exhibi- 
tion in London Mr Philip Schidrowitz in the 
course of his paper ‘tthe Relation of the Manu- 
facturer to the Consumer” declared: ‘‘ Although 
the advantages of plantation are both numerous 
and important, there is no use blinking the fact 
that much of the plantation rubber now being 
produced is in one respect decidedly — inferior 
to the high class wild product, namely in 
regard to ‘nerve’ or strength or resiliency.’’ 
And he added subsequently : ‘‘ There is one 
point on which every manufacturer with whom 
I have discussed this question (at the Rub- 
ber Exhibition and elsewhere) is agreed, 
and that is that the plantation product 
varies very widely in regard to strength.” On 
the same occasion Mr John Parkin, M.A. stated: 
‘‘Though plantation rubber has frequently. 
obtained a higher price per lb. than the best 
Para, yet I believe it to be a fact that the lat- 
ter, if as pure and free from moisture, would 
command a better figurein the market, as it 

ogsesses tougher qualities. Fine Para, then, 
fe somewhat superior properties to the first 
grade piantation rubber hitherto supplied.” 
Our position, therefore, is this: authorities 
agree that the one point 1 which our rubber is 


387 


inferior to the wild product is in nerve and 
strength. We have been told so all along and 
the defect has been attributed to our trees 
being so young. If we are to successfully come 
pete with our “wild” competitor in comman- 
ding the attention of the manufacturer we must 
do our best to overcome the reproach of weak- 
ness in our product. The new system of tapping 
does not help us to do this. On the contrary, it 
accentuates the defect and is bound to make it 
more prominent than ever it was to manu- 
facturers. Plantation rubber is still more or 
less in the experimental stags as far as the 
manufacturers are concerned ; if itis tried and 
found wanting now, there may be difficulty in 
finding a market for the product when the 
plantation industry approaches more closely its 
maximum output. In the above remarks we are 
thinking of the industry as a whole; and are 
quite well aware that there are not a few estates 
in Ceylon which produce rubber from well 
matured trees quite equal to the best wild rub- 
ber in strength and vastly superior to it in 
purity.—A. M. & J. F.] 


II. 
Kelani Valley, March 20th. 

Srr,—I am glad to see you giving a word of 
warning as to the quality of rubber which will 
be harvested if early tapping of rubber trees 
becomes general all over the Island—for it isa 
fact which every practical rubber planter knows 
that rubber harvested from trees under 6 years 
old no matter what their girth, is less resilient 
and is full of resin. 


This fact—though it must be known theore- 
tically by the Upcountry rubber Visiting Agents 
and Directors of Lowcountry concerns (for I 
presume they read up authorities on the pro- 
duct which they report on or speak about, 
though they have no practical hnowledge of it) 
—is severely let alone and never whispered 
about, like Coast advances and other awkward 
planting subjects—which would interfere with 
share rises and dividends ; and so orders are 
given to the wretched Superintendent to tap, 
tap everything you can, and stop talking about 
quality and prices which are inthe lap of the 
Gods and inthe ignorance of so called rubber 
experts at Home and in Colombo. 


Re the new tapping system which you hint at 
and evidently know, though you rightly say it 
would not be fair to the Inventor to mention,— 
Is it a fact that increased returns per acre per 
annum will be obtained ? I doubt it, but am un- 
able to give my arguments against such a result, 
for the same reasonas yourself; I will simply 
state what every practical Planter knows, that 
an increased yield for atime can be got from 
any of the old systems, 


The new system is undoubtedly cheaper and 
a great saving of labour and that alone is worth 
paying for to learn; but there I think its 
advantages end, and it is sickening to read day 
after day of one Director after another getting 
up at meetings and talking of doubling and 
trebling the crop for the current year by the new 
system, a system which has not yet beon tried 
& your. 


388 


Ceylon rubber has a fair fame at present— 
perhaps not as unstained as a few years ago 
when only old trees were being tapped ; but it 
isa certainty that if wetap 3 and4 year old 
trees as Messrs. Lee, Hedges & Co. advise in 
glowing terms can be done remuneratively, that 
in a fewshort months the price of Ceylon rubber 
will be so far below hard Para that it will only 
be seen by those buyers who are trying to imitate 
the Germans in turning out cheap goods with 
cheap and nasty materials.—yours faithfully, 


W. B. D. 


III. 
March 21st. 


Dear Sir, —If ‘W. D. G.” thinks Mr. Herbert 
Wright’s ideas are now getting rather out of 
date, I should be glad to know whose idea is 
the much-talked-of new tapping system. I 
think it is Mr. Wright’s, as could be seen from 
the following. Mr. Wright, when questioned by 
your reporter, said :—‘‘ Theoretically speaking 
the milk from the tree 1s of no use as food to the 
plant and tf it can be extracted in good quantities 
fromthe tree without cutting away the bark tissues, 
say by apricking method, it would perhaps be 
better for the tree.’ When further questioned, 
‘‘Are all these trees scraped before tapping ?,” 
he replied : ‘‘yes, but only to ensure that the 
latex shall be free trom bark impurities.” Vide 
Tropical Agriculturist Vol. XXV page 317.— 
Yours faithfully, 

T. Es. 


{We welcome these expressions of opinion from 
rubber planters. With regard to the point 
raised by ‘‘W.B.D.” as to whether the new 
system will increase yields, we are iin a 
position to say he is not. singular in his 
doubts on this point. But, aehough the 
new system may not increase the yield from 
individual trees, it will largely increase the 
yield from the whole estate by rendering 
possible the tapping of immature trees. It 
is this probably the Directors have in mind 
when they ‘‘talk of doubling and trebling the crop 
for the current year”; it is somewhat alarming 
to find the unanimity with which they seem to 
have made up their minds to get quantity at 
whatever ultimate cost. Our correspondent 
“T.L.8.” points out that, far from being out of 
date, Mr. Herbert Wright’s ideas led directly 
to the invention of the new system of tapping. 
—A.M. &J.F.] 


PARA (HEVEA) INDIAN RUBBER 
CULTIVATION. 


Royal Colonial Institute, Northumberland 
Avenue, London, W.C., Feb. 8th, 1909. 


Dear Str,—Remembering the interest which 
you have always displayed in the subject of the 
cultivation of the Hevea Indian rubber, will 
you permit my sending you again a note of 
warning—against certain dangers—for you to 
make use of, should you see occasion. The 
occasion already (as I think) presents itself, 
seeing the too common acceptance by Eastern 
estates of methods unsuited to this tree: 


The Supplement to the Tropical A griculturist 


one, the plantation and cultivation of which is 
of most promise and of growing magnitude. 
One point to be considered is the ill-effect of, or 
from, shock or over-strain, whereby the general 
vitality of the trees may become impaired; and 
the incidental and cumulative effect of such 
treatment, likely to render or lay open, through 
a lowered vitality, tothe inroads of morbid or 
fungoid growths. In equatorial jungle-land and 
soils, germs which are capable of inducing 
disease are, of course, generally and naturally 
present ; but in the case of tree or plant nor- 
mally healthy, they remain innocuous by reason 
of natural resisting power. If, however, the 
vitality of the subject be lowered, either directly 
and locally by physical injury, or indirectly 
through a general lowering of vitality in the 
body, this resisting power becomes impaired; and 
so much, until the vital energy be restored. 

- When vitality is impaired, spores, of morbid 
growth, are enabled to enter, find lodgment, 
settle and multiply in the weakened tissues—if 
not overcome, 

As in our own conditions of life, we all 
breathe and take in the same germ-conveying 
air and foods, yet without material hurt or 
damage unless, and when, they are enabled to 
obtain lodgment in the system through cause, 
2.e., accidental injury, overstrain or other where- 
by natural vitality is lowered below normal. 


So in the community conditions of plant-life 
in plantation and estate. Thus, as I have always 
held from the beginning of this industry, me- 
thods entailing removal of bark-tissue, the all 
too close planting and spacing, unsuitable culti- 
vation (methods now too common on many 
HKastern estates), constitute a danger, as being 
unsuited and unsuitable toa forest tree of the 
nature and habit of the Hevea; and it would 
be hardly matter for surprise should sign of 
root-failure, and its consequences, supervene 
and show itself in such case.—] am, yours 


faithfully, H. A. WICKHAM 


RUBBER IN EAST AFRICA. 


INTERESTING INFORMATION. 
We quote as follows from a business letter 
of enquiry :— 


Blantyre, Feb. 12.—You will be interested to 
know that Ceara Rubber is being widely planted 
here and this Company, the Blantyre and East 
Africa Ltd., will have 


NEARLY 1,500 ACRES UNDER CULTIVATION 

jin this product by the end of March. 
Some of this acreage is now 44 years old and 
the trees range in age down to those planted 
out in the current season. Ceara does well 
here. We are anxious to learn the best system 
of tapping ; the system spoken of by Messrs. 
Lee, Hedges & Co. (as shown in your journal) 
might suit Ceylon with its moist climate but 
might not suit this country which has a wet 
season for say five months and a long dry sea- 
son of seven months. Will the system apply 
equally well to a country which has a continen- 
tal climate? Briefly our conditions are as 
follows :— 


* 


and Magazine of the Ceylon Agricultural Society. 


Rains commence November and end March- 
April. Light showers in May gradually getting 
colder, and dryer. June cold, sometimes misty 
but on the wholedry. Atmosphere gets drier 
and hotter till November when the shade tem- 
perature occasionally reaches 95. Rains break 
again in November. Rubber is leafless as a 
rule from September to November. Rubber as 
tapped runs in wet months, but only older 
trees run in the dry months and that not 
so freely. If outer bark is removed and inner 
bark pricked, in dry season, rubber quickly 
coagulates. I may say that the rubber is ex- 
cellent and our only difficulty is the tapping, 
2.€., what method will give the best results with 
least danger to the tree. 

Tapping with patent knives by making grooves 
seems to us not so suitable. The outer bark would 
require to be removed and in the dry season, as 
has been found in India, this is apt to harm the 
tree—as towards the end of the dry season the 
tree is leafless, the atmosphere is dry, and the 
inner bark gets dried up; the sun plays on it, 
and it is apt to be a severe tax on the tree. 
Moreover it is difficult to get the rubber to run 
freely except in the rains. 

Would the new system suit the dry northern 
districts of Ceylon, where Dr Willis is at present 
experimenting with Ceara? We have four-and- 
a-half year old trees running from 14 inches to 
20 inches in girth at three feet from the ground. 


[We have forwarded the letter quoted from 
to Messrs. Lee, Hedges & Co., for reply to the 
special point raised; but will be obliged for 
any recent information from rubber growers 
who have tapped Ceara.—A. M. & J. F.] 


RETURN OF MIX. C. 0. MACADAM. 


His Opinions oN RuBBER MATTERS. 


Mr C O Macadam, who recently returned 
to Ceylon is not so sure—says our contem- 
porary—that 1912 is the best year for the 
next Rubber Exhibition, and thinks that the 
claims of 1911 may with advantage be consi- 
dered. Heis of the opinion that the recent 
Exhibition suffered by being held in September. 
So many people who would otherwise have at- 
tended were away shooting or on holiday. A 
good month, he thinks, would be May, 


THE MANUFACTURED ARTICLE, 


Mr Macadaw thinks that for a thorough test 
of rubber-manufactured articles they should be 
made and kept for a year or eighteen months. 
He holds that it would be an important advan- 
tage if Ceylon could have experiments put 
through to the finished article from rubber 
harvested from different aged trees, and not only 
that but from different ages of renewal of bark. 
Such experimental work would formerly have 
fallen to Mr Herbert Wright to carry out, but 
Mr Macadam did not think there was any one 
specially doing that work now. Mr Macadam 
holds that plantation rubber should always be 
estate or Company marked, if possible; that 
there should be care in sorting true to grade; 
and packing in clean packages, and the preven- 
ting of smail chips of wood and dust becoming 
attached to the rubber, 


389 


Tus New Tarrinc System, 


Mr Macadam preferred not to say anything 
about the new tapping system until he 
knew more about it. With regard, however, 
to the point that there was a danger to the 
industry in tapping too young trees, he said: 
‘““[ have always been against tapping im- 
mature trees, and the question has not been 
decided at what age the tree is mature; 
it can only be settled by sending a semple to 
a manufacturer to be converted into rubber. 
Even then it cannot be decided till the rubber 
has been allowed to remain for about eighteen 
months. The fact that you cannot tell what 
therubber will prove, looking at it immediately 
after manufacture, makes the danger greater.” 


THE RUBBER INDUSTRY IN JAVA. 


Mr, TAcsor’s IMPRESSIONS OF HIS RECENT VISIT. 


Mr, G A Talbot, on bis return from a visit to 
the Straits and Java, gave a Ceylon Observer 
representative a good deal of interesting informa- 
tion with regard to planting matters in Java. 


He was first asked if he could give his impres- 
sions of Java rubber cultivation methods as 
compared with those practised in Ceylon. 

‘‘Well,” he said, ‘‘it is difficult to give an 
opinion about Java rubber generally, because 
the soils and climates differ very much. Java is 
avery big country, and inthe West you havea 
red ferruginous soil, more or less _ stiff, whereas 
in the East you have a brown volcanic 
loam. Not only do the soils differ but the 
labourers and people that work them, and as 
regards the Java methods they differ very much 
indeed. You will find hardly any two estates 
working the same. Perhaps the characteristic 
of Java planting is that they have 

TWO PRODUCTS GROWING 
at the same time. With Hevea they grow Coffee 
Robusta, which is a very hardy coffee that has 
no leaf disease and bears as much as nine to ten 
hundredweights an acre inthe third year, It 
grows well with Hovea asit likes shade and 
damp. 

How are they off for labour in Java? 


It varies. In West Java it is very cheap, 
where they employ the Sundunese. In East 
Java it is not so plentiful, but there are plenty of 
labourers because in Java there is a 

POPULATION OF 33,000,000 JAVANESE 
and the natives are willing to work, in fact 
they are obliged to work. There .is such a 
large population and they have to work for 
their food. 

Is labour fairly cheap ?— Yes, 
sevenpence a day for men. 

Nor Mucu Tarpina. 

Have you found much tapping done yet ?— 
No. If saw very little. 

THREE Days By Rat, 

In answer to questions about the acreage 
and outturn for 1908, Mr Talbot said:—‘‘I cannot 
tell at all. 1t takes you three days’ travelling by 
rail all the time to go from one end of Java to 
the other, so you can imagine what itis, and 
as they grow dadap with their rubber you 
cannot see very far; in fact, you see hardly 
any rubber,” 


It is about 


390 


THe CLEAN WEEDING QUESTION. 


Do they go in for clean weeding ?—The younger 
plantations are clean weeded. The old Java 
system was to let the soft weeds grow and then 
to cut them off with a sort of sickle. It is found 
that clean weeding is the best. It is much cheaper 
aud better forthe growth of the product. 


GREEN MANURING. 


Do they go in for much green manuring ?— 
No, they do not do any in Java, the soil is so 
rich. The dadaps are merely for shade. 1t is 
used very much because in growing coffee they 
have had to have shade and they go on with it 
because it prevents wash and assists to keep 
down the weeds, 


RUBBER EXTENSIONS; THE Pric# or LAnp. 


1s there much extension being done in rubber? 
—Obh yes, a good deal of extension is being 
done in rubber. 


What is the present average price of suitable 
land obtainable ?—It is difficult to answer that, 
because it is very difficult to get landthere. You 
have to get a lease from the Goverment; and if 
you apply for land,itis very possible they will 
say it is required for the natives, The methods 
are different from those in Ceylon. The Govern- 
ment very often will not allow youto take up land 
at all, but there is land which has been leased 
before and the price of that is from 40 to 50 
gilders a bouw, £2 to £3 an acre, that is, to buy 
the right of the lease for 99 years. You still have 
to pay the rent. It is apremium asit were. A 
gilder is 20 pence, twelve to a sovereign. 


THe Cost oF BRINGING INTO BEARING. 


At what cost peracre is rubber being brought 
into bearing inJava?—I know an estate that has 
brought in at £16 an acre; but I can’t answer 
for anything else. 


Tue Kinp or LAND ON WHICH If IS PLANTED. 


On what kind of land is it mostly planted ?— 
Mostly in Hast Java on very good soil with 
gentle slopes at the bottom of the mountains. 
It is a very mountainous country, some of 
the volcanoes being 10 or 11 thousand feet 
high. It is gently undulating. The valleys 
are kept for the natives for paddy. Paddy 
cultivation ig extending very much and they 
lease to the Kuropeans the lower slopes of the 
voleanoes. Very often you have chosen what 
you think is a good piece of land and they 
say: ‘* Oh! we must keep that and sell it 
to the natives.” 


RussER IN THE MALAY STATES. 


Mr. Talbot also mentioned that rubber was 
doing very well in the Malay States. They 
had the Fomes fungus on the roots about two 
years old; butif it were tackled, it could be 
kept in check. It spread from one to the other, 
but whenatree died, you dug a trench round 
to stop it. There was nothing to be afraid of. 
They knew nothing about the new tapping sys- 
tem inthe Straits. As far ashe had heard it 
answered very well. Of course they had had 
no experience yet of what ettect it would have 
upon the treo. As far as they knew it was all 
right. 


The Supplement to the Tropical Agriculturist 


Tra MATTERS, 


What are the chief points in which tea culti- 
vation in Java differs from that in Ceylon ?—I 
didn’t see any tea, so [ can’t altogether tell 
you; but the chief difference is that the 
labourers come from the villages, and so you 
have not got the same skilled labour force you 
have in Ceylon. In Ceylon there is a labour 
force which remains on estates. In Java 
they change, so that you have not got the 
same trained force. There is, however, no doubt 
about the labour because the Javanese would 
sooner work in Java than go abroad. 


Nor SucuH Goop Tza. 


_ In what respects are tea planting methods in 
Java superior or inferior to those in Ceylon ? 
—They don’t produce as good tea in Java be- 
cause of the labour, and because it grows so 
quickly and so rankly, owing to the fertility of 
the soil and the climate. 


THE CEYLON RUBBER INDUSTRY. 


We are surprised to find in the official Journal 
of the Jamaica Agricultural Society the follow- 
ing grossly inaccurate and mischievously mislead- 
ing report on the Ceylon Rubber Industry:— 


Rubber.—Ceylon planters are finding that 
they have fully two years longer to wait than 
they anticipated for the tapping of the rubber 
trees. Rubber planted in tea land has not come 
on nearly so well as it promised. Rubber in 
the Malay estates in general is two years earlier 
than in Ceylon, the soil and climate seeming to 
suit it better. The mistake that many men 
made was expecting rubber to grow on any soil, 
and so simply planting it broadcast. Many are 
finding out their mistakes now, and in many 
cases they are abandoning their fields and going 
back to their tea. The latest reports say that 25 
per cent of the rubber planted in Ceylon will 
never yield latex at all. There is a_ brilliant 
future for well selected plantations with the 
product at anything over 2/9 per lb., as well- 
managed concerns are turning out good stuff 
from 1/ to 1/6.—Correspondent.—Journ:l of the 
Jamaica Agricultural Society for January. 


Jt is as well that this journal and its correspon- 
dent should know:—(1) That plantation rubber in 
Ceylon is coming into bearing,if anything sooner 
than was expected during the early days of the 
industry,and that under the new tapping system 
rubber trees will yield latex at a much earlier 
age than under the old system ; (2) that the 
abandoning of fields of rubber is entirely a myth, 
and (3) the statement that 25 per cent. of the 
rubber planted in Ceylon will never yield 
latex at all is a gross exaggeration for which 
there is no foundation whatever. As a matter 
of fact the Jamaica journal’s correspondent 
betrays a profound ignorance of the whole 
situation. So far rubber has more than come up 
to expectations in Ceylon, and the fact that 
estates are already producing it for well under a 
shilling per |b and selling their whole crop ahead 
for the current year at from 4/ to 5/ per lb is 
evidence which justifies the belief that the 
future is brighter than the past year at any rate. 


and Magazine of the Ceylon Agricultural Society. 391 


TEA PLANTING IN JAVA. 


We direct attention to the letter which Mr. 
Hugh Tomlinson writes us on this subject, offer- 
ing an alternative method of cultivation to that 
advocated in the ‘' Instructions to Saperinten- 
dents” published by us last month. Mr. 
Tomlinson refers to our ‘‘very hearty endorse- 
ment” of these methods; but we merely quoted the 
opinion ofthe planter who favoured us with the 
“instructions” and invited criticisms upon them, 
We are well aware that the system of cultivation 
which suits one estate may be quite unsuited to 
another estate on which different conditions 
obtain. Onthe whole clean weeding has answered 
exceedingly well in Ceylon, although in Assam, 
where it is not practised, the industry does not 
by any means suffer. Mr. Tomlinson asks our 
opinion on the two points he raises in his letter. 
Itis a matter for the practical planter, however, 
and we trust some of our planting readers will 
favour us with their views on these matters. 


MR, TOMLINSON’S LETTER. 
Bandoeng, Java, 4th March. 
Srr,—I have read with interest ‘‘ Some Valu- 
able Planting Instructions” in your March 
number. Your very hearty endorsement might 
lead one to believe that this was the only satis- 
factory system of cultivation. 


May I suggest an alternative one for tea, 
whereby the good soil isalso preserved ? (Your 
anonymous instructor can only be referring to 
preservation of soilas none of the grasses he 
mentions would improve it, Their names are 
Hydrocotyle Asiatica excellent for preventing 
wash when planted in the rows where there are 
no waterholes, Impatiens Latifolia, Senecio 
Javanicus and Richardsonia Scabra.) 


Clean weeding with a four inch hand fork, 
whereby the good tilth sostrongly recommended 
by Dr. Willis in the October T. A. is obtained, 
and the use of waterholes, prevalent throughout 
W.Java. The waterholes are placed horizon- 
tally, from 1—13’ deep, about 6” broad, of 
varying lengths and separated by 6” of solid 
ground. My sketch may show the system ;— 


ORR One OL Ole Ow. OF ON. 0 OPO Oy, SOLO)» Or (0 
meet fe eee 


OMmOn On mOM Or Ol sOv OF \O0080'°- 0. 0 0: 0. O° 0 


At each pruning the waterholes are moved 
down a row, when the old ones can be used 
for burying the prunings in. Surely as little 
soil is lost by this method as in a dirty garden ? 

The Manager of Pangledjar has told me that 
he has made exhaustive tests of clean and dirty 
gardens and has proved both by crop and chem- 
ical analysis that clean weeding is the best for 
his estate. That his opinion ought to carry 
weight is proved by his figures. He has 479 


bouws of tea of which 67 were planted in 1908. 
Of the remaining 412 bouws 64 are old coffee 
gardens replanted with tea only 1, 2&3 years 
old, which naturally give an inferior production, 
yet the crop for 1908 was 850,855 Ibs or an 
average over 412 bouws (721 acres) of 1180 lbs 
peracre, Pangledjar is 230U’ a. s, 1. and is a by 
no means flat estate. The oldest tea is 8 years. 
Nett price costing 54d, f.o.b 12d, 

I should very much like your opinion on this 
and my next point, as I should have thought it 
quite wrong for anyone to dogmatise, as your 
anonymous instructor has done, about one 
method for several estates. 


Most Managers here dig a newclearing as 
deep as they can afford—say anything up to 24.’ 
{ find however that. a few who are obtaining 
wonderful results dig as little as 3’—4.” The 
latter argue that the young seedling requires 
the good soil on the surface, and that as the 
roots grow deeper the humus is gradually worked 
in deeper too, whereas by digging deep origi- 
nally the seed is planted in more or less un- 
sweetened ground and the growth is conse- 
quently retarded. Do youconsider these reasons 
outweigh the advantages of deep digging ? 


Malabar, pace Mr Bingley, is not our only 
wonderful tea estate, yousee; I am only waiting 
for one or two annual reports to shew there are 
others too. Apologising for the length of this 
letter, lam, Sir, yours faithfully, 


HUGH TOMLINSON. 


SHOT-HOLE BORER AND PREDA- 
CEOUS ENEMIES. 


Kandy, March 16th, 1909. 
Dear Sir,—I beg to forward herewith..... 
copy of letter received from Mr. E, E. Green for 
the favour of publication.—Yours faithfully, 


ALEX. WARDROP, 
Secretary, P. A. of Ceylon. 
(Enclosure.) 


Mote Hall, Bearsted, Kent, 23rd Dec., 1908. 
The Secretary, Planters’ Association of Ceylon. 
(Ln continuation of my letter of 8th December.) 


DEAR Sir,—The result of my enquiries as to 
the habits of Clerus formicarius corroborates my 
belief that the introduction of the insect to 
Ceylon would be unaccompanied by any danger. 
The species of this genus are known to be purely 
insectivorous and are parasitic upon various 
small boring beetles. The Clerus itself is con- 
siderably larger than the insects upon which it 
preys. But it lays its eggs in the tunnels of the 
borers and its larvee enter the galleries and 
devour the original occupants. In Hurope, the 
insect is found -principally in fir trees, which 
fact leads one of my correspondents to doubt 
whether it would accommodate itself to the 
different conditions of the tea-bush, But an- 
other entomologist, who is familiar with the 
species inits native haunts, assures me that it 
occurs also in many other trees and he sees no 
reason why it should not be able to exist on any 
tree that would supply suitable provender in the 
way of boring beetles and their larvze, 


392 


Under these circumstances, the experiment 
appears to me to be wortha trial. [ anticipate 
that the cost will be quite nominal and, should 
the experiment fail, no harm can come of it. If 
the insect finds its environment unsuitable, it 
will merely fail to establish itself and die out. 


I find that Clerus formicarius occurs throughout 
Great Britain, and that it can be taken abun- 
dantly in parts of Scotland. A journey to 
Germany would therefore be quite unnecessary. 
The habits of the insect should render it easily 
transportable by post, as it could be packed in 
decayed wood in which it would most probably 
travel quitecomfortably. 

My entomological friend has very kindly 
offered to arrange for the collection of a con- 
siderable number of the insects. and will send 
them on to me in the course of the summer. 
It appears that the Clerus is ‘in season’ about 
midsummer, I have felt myself safe in guaran- 
teeing that the cost of coliection and transport 
(a matter, probably, ofa few shillings only, or 
at most of two or three pounds) will be defrayed 
by the Planters’ Association. I shall be obliged 
if you will endorse this small liability.—I have 
the honour to be, your obedient servant, 


(Sed.) E ERNEST GREEN, 
Government Entomologist, 


GENERAL REVIEW OF JAVA TEAS 
IN 19038. 


[FRom tHE Export BoureEaAu.] 


Bandoeng, February, 1909.—The past year of 
1908 has seen a great advance in the Java tea 
industry and results must have been satisfactory 
to all connected with the trade in this country. 
Total exports have shown 


A 25 PER CENT. INCREASE 

on the previous year and have now reached 
a total of 33,254,124 Half Kilos or 36,579,536 
English pounds, against 26,624,002 H K or 
29,286,402 English pounds in 1907 ; and against 
15,214,234 H K or 16,736,157 English pounds 
in 1901; which means that production has 
more than doubled in the last 8 years. The 
results of the new clearings and planting of 
the last few years are seen in tbe figures of 
1908; and it is certain that each coming year 
must show a further and regular increase in 
our exports, because planting has for the past 
few years been general (to a large orsmall extent) 
on nearly all estates and in many cases these 
extensions have been to quite large extents. 


SEVERAL NEW COMPANIES 


have been started during the past year and it 
seems probable that we shall see a 50 millions 
export for Java teas within the next seven or 
eight years or so. It may be here mentioned 
that the 


IMPORTS OF TEA SEED FROM BRITISH INDIA 
during 1907 and 1908 are spoken of as having 
been invery much larger quantity than in any 
previous years. The deliveries of local Java 
seed are also of very considerable quantity and 
the many estates that are producing good 
seed have no difficulty in selling their entire 


The Supplement to the Tropical Agriculturist 


crops. Holland has in 1908 received 184 million 
half kilos against 144 in 1907; England nearly 
114 millions against 84; Russia (including ship- 
ments through North China ports) 3 millions 
against 24; while on the other hand both 
Australia and ‘‘ other ports’ show a decrease in 
the quantity received, namely 300,000 half kilos 
against 660,000 for Australia and 180,000 H.K. 
against 851,000 for ‘‘other ports.” The total 
increase in exports from lst January to 31st 
December, 1908 to all ports is 6,630,122 half kilos 
or 7,293,134 English pounds. 


PRICES 


during 1908 taken generally have been good for 
the class of tea which Java produces; which 
amongst the world’s supplies are, with a few 
exceptions, classed as ‘low, and medium grade ” 
teas. The prices for such teas have not .of 
course kept up to the extraordinary high level 
of the latter part of 1907, but on the other 
hand they have never fallen to that very low 
basis which is sometimes seen for the inferior 
sorts of teas. In Amsterdam the year started 
with extremely high rates for low and medium 
sorts, but from February there was a steady 
and big decline in prices right through the year, 
until the January basis for ordinary PS. Pekoe 
and BP’s fell from 40, 41 and 41 cents down 
to 28, 30 and 32 cents respectively in November 
and December. with an average rate of 33, 34 
and 354 cents for the 15 sales of the year. For 
ordinary Dust, Broken Tea and Pekoe Fannings 
the decline was from 38 and 40 cents to 23 and 25 
cents, with an average rate for the year of 29 
for Dust and 32 for PF’s and small leaf Broken 
Teas. Teas of very good medium quality of 
the Gn. Malang, Gn. Tjempaka, anjairan, 
Pagilaran and Pasir Nangka type in January 
stood at 45 cents for PS. Pekoe and also BOP 
grades, but selling irregularly and generally 
lower, these prices fell by July to 35, 39 and 
41 respectively, with however the good average 
price forthe 15 sales of 39, 421 and 434 cents 
for PS, P and BOP. Well made OP’s of 
medium and finer sorts were always in good de- 
mand and the prices ranged between 50 and 58 
cents for the finer teas; and between 38 and 44 
for those of medium grade, andaveraged 524 and 
40 cents respectively. The best BOP’s, with 
which Amsterdam is not wellsupplied (all the 
best teas going to London) did not fetch good 
rates until right at the end of the year. Prices 
varied between 43 and 63 cents but only once 
was there a price of over 50 cents and the average 
Amsterdam rate for the 15 sales was but 48 cents 
with a highest rate in nearly all sales of 43 to 47 
only. Witpunt Pekoes also saw a big decline in 
prices with an 80 cents rate in December against 
101 cents in January, for teas of the Soekasarie 
type. 
IN LONDON 


the market ran much on the same lines as that of 
Amsterdam, except that medium, good mediuin 
and finer BP’s and BQP’s were generally on a 
higher level on the Anglish market. Finest 
BOP’s of theGoalpara type sold well throughout 
the year, the price only once falling below 104 
pence, while the average for the 16 sales that 
have been quoted was 11 pence. Good BOP’s with 
good tip and strong colory liquors of good me- 
dium quality of the Perbawatie, Tjiwangie and 


and Magazine of the Ceylon Agricultural Society. 


Djati Nangor type started on a rather low basis 
at 8 to 84; but they sold better as the year pro- 
ceeded, until prices of 94 to 105 were reached in 
August and maintained till the end of the year. 
Gedeh teas did not, till late in the year, show 
their usual fine quality and the price of his 
BOP didnot touch 10 pence until August; but 
with improved quality, the prices advanced until 
the Goalpara level of 11 pence was reached and 
kept to until the ond of the year. Good liquoring 
medium grade teas without tip, of the Malabar 
BP type, which are particularly suitable for 
London and for which there is always a great 
demand, sold well throughout the year, with a 
lowest price of 7 pence for a few sales and a 
highest price of 8} and with an average rate for 
the 12 months of 734 pence, against 74 in 1907. 
For ordinary and low grade teas, we find that 
prices in January were standing on _ the 
unusually high basis of 74 and 7? for Dust, 
BT, BP. PS and Pekoes; but these prices 
by February had already fallen to 64 63 and 7 
pence, and by September/October the quotation 
had further declined to 3? for Dusts, 5 for PS, 
54 for Pekoe and 5 for BP’s. The lowest 
quotations for clean ordinary teas during the 
year were as follows:—Dusts 33; BT’s 44; PS 
5 pence ; Pekoes 54 and BP 54; but the average 
rate for the whole year for all these teas is 
much-above these prices and stands at 54; 5%; 
6 ; 62 and 6) respectively. 


It will be seen, therefore, that 1908 has for 
Java been 
A RECORD YEAR 


as regards the quantity of tea produced and that 
for the class of tea that we produce, the prices 
have throughout the year been on a satisfactory 
and certainly a good paying basis for estates of 
all elevations and of all qualities, The outlook 
for the present year is good. With average 
weather conditions we must see a further in- 
crease in our exports, as itis only a few of the 
very oldest estates that have reached their full 
production ; while on the other hand there are 
probably but few who have not young gardens 
still coming forward. It must also be noted 
that the teas grown by the native population 
and sold as green unmanufactured leaf to Ku- 
ropeans is now a very big item and is still 
increasing. As regards prices it is impossible to 
make any forecast, but it is satisfactory to 
already see a considerable recovery from the 
lowest point of the market in October/Novem- 
ber last for low grade and ordinary sorts. 
Below will be found statistics of Java exports 
during the past 8 years, and also a table of 
Amsterdam and London selling prices in 1908 


and 1907. [We quote only the former for 1907-8. 
—Hd,,.C.0.] 
Java TEA SHIPMENTS. 
In 1908, In 1907, 
Ib. Ib. 
Holland 20,059, 252 15,670,474 
England , 12,629,117 9,167,312 
Russia le 1,294,546 818,562 
Australia F 335,095 724,165 
Singapore 2,061,162 1,974,825 
Other Ports 200,364 936,062 
otal 36,579, 686 29,286,420 
H. LAmBeE, 


50 


308 


THE CULTIVATION OF PASS!IFLORA 
FCETIDA AND MIKANIA SCANDENS: 
TO KEEP DOWN OTHER WEEDS, 


By M. Ketway Bamper. 


The former plant, which grows luxuriantly in 
the dry and wet zones of Ceylon and the rich allu- 
vial soils of the Federated Malay States, was re- 
commended to be grown on estates badly infested 
with lalang, in order to choke out the grass and 
other jungle growths, and provide a dense cover- 
ing of organic matter over the whole surface. of 
the soil, Its use was first suggested in the Fede- 
rated Malay States about a year ago, when it 
was noticed how the plant was completely over- 
ranning the abandoned Malay campongs, and 
choking out every form of weed in them, inclua- 
ing the much-dreaded lalang. 


The cost of digging out the latter to com- 
pletely eradicate it was proving prohibitive, 
oftenas much as $65 or R118, per acre; and 
many estates could not afford this enormous un- 
remunerative outlay. Ordinary weeding also was 
proving in many cases very expensive, aud a 
heavy drain on the reserve capital for bringing 
the planted areas into bearing ; and it became 
necessary to findsome means of reducing ex- 
penditure without injuring or delaying the 
growth of the rubber. From the climbing 
habit of the plant it spreads more rapidly over 
strong growing lalang or small jungle than over 
a bare soil, as its tendrils run over the tops of 
plants, gradually smothering and_ bearing 
them down asthe weight of leafy matter in- 
creases. [tis therefore unnecessary to cut the 
grass before planting the Passiflora {better 
known as Passion Flower.—Eb., C,0.] 


(n all estates it is customary to keep the rows 
of rubber jor 3 ft on either side free from weeds, 
and to utilise the plant it is best planted up 
the borders of the clean rows, and induced to 
grow outwards over the intervening weeds. 


For lalang, a Selangor planter suggests a 
method adopted by a native tribe of tying large 
double-handsful of the growing grass together 
with a few blades of the grass itself. This com- 
pletely prevents growth, and the rain in the 
tied bundle soon rots the growing points. By 
planting cuttings or seed of the Pussiflora 
between the bundles, the whole field will be 
over-run in a few weeks or months and the 
lalang entirely destroyed, 


When the growth has attained its maximum, 
and before the plants die down, the whole mass 
of material, usually 12 in. to 18 in. deep, can be 
rolled up like a huge carpet, leaving the surface 
soil in a perfect loamy condition, and quite 
clean and free from weeds. Such material 
is best mulched in large rings round each 
rubber tree, so that there is no continuous 
line of dry material running through the field, 
though the chance of damage from fire of such 
materialis very remote. 


Unlike Crotalaria, this plant is not legumi- 
nous, and consequently does not increase the 
total nitrogen in the soil. But from its dense low 
habit of growth, which entirely covers the soil, 


304 


keeping it constantly moist, and the large 
amount of organic matter resulting from the fall 
and decay of the leaves, &c., the beneficial effect 
is very marked. This is especially so on soils 
poor in organic matteras are many of our Ceylon 
soils, and for products, such as Para Rubber, 
which require a humid atmosphere and an 
ample supply of moisture inthe soil. 


The composition of the plant is shown by the 
following analysis of the various parts made by 
the Acting Chemist, the whole plant when sun- 
dried losing on an average 70 per cent. of mois- 
ture : -- 

MECHANICAL ANALYSIS. 


Per Cent. Per Cent 

Roots 5:0 Green stems 42°0 

Leaves and fruits 42:0 Woody stems 11°0 

CHEMICAL ANALYSIS. 
Rootsand Leaves, ee Whole 
Woody Tendrils, gazed Plant 
Stems. and Fruits,°'©™S: air-dried. 
16 42 42 

percent percent percent per cent 

Moisture at 100° © = 12°00 0:80 12°00 11°07 

Organic matter 84°36 £014 84°20 82°71 

Ash 3°64 10°C6 3°80 6°39 

Nitrogen 0°78 3°81 1°94 4°16 
The ash contains— 

Lime 36°09 30°&0° 29°60 31°13 

Magnesia 8°37 13°10 14°46 12°91 

Potash 15°24 13°84 20°84 17°00 

Phosphoric acid 2°20 4°22 4°61 4°06 

Sulphuric acid 3°06 8°02 6°46 6°57 

Chlorine 2°80 6°03 3°21 4°32 

Soluble silicates 8°50 5:00 1°36 4°03 

Sand 9°45 6°48 0°24 2°89 


The proportion of nitrogen is very similar to 
that in some of the leguminous plants, but in 
this case ithas been entirely derived from the 
soil, The chief ash constituents absorbed are 
lime potash, and magnesia, with a smallamount 
of phosphoric and sulphuric acids. 


The plant appears to have the power of readily 
decomposing silicates. All the nitrogen and 
mineral matter is, of course, returned to the soil 
on the decay of the plant, and left in a readily 
available condition for the other product. 


An average growth of the plant 10 in. deep 
yields about 26,100 lb. of fresh green material 
per acre, or, allowing 70 per cent of moisture 
lost on air drying, equals 7,830 lb. of air dried 
material. This amount of matter would contain 
the following quantities of the chief consti- 
tuents per acre :— 

169 lb. nitrogen 
the latter containing— 


500 Ib. ash 


155°6 Ib. lime 32°8 lb. sulphuric acid 
64°5 lb. magnesia 21°6 lb. chlorine 
85°0 lb. potash 21'5 lb. soluble silicates 


29'3 lb. phosphoric acid 

Another plant of somewhat similar growth, 
which during the last few years has spread 
enormously in Ceylon, is the Mikania scandens, 
belongling to the natural order Composite. 
It can be seen covering the scrub jungle and 
trees along the Colombo line from Peradeniya, 
and has spread down the Mahaweli-ganga to 
Trincomalee. Under suitable conditions of soil 
and climate, it should be as useful as Passiflora 
fetida in smothering other more harmful 
weeds, especially coarse grasses. The following 
analysis shows its chemical composition :— 


Per cent. 
Moisture lost on air drying eo «85°56 
Organic matter, ash, &. aa 14°44 


The Supplement to the Tropical Agriculturist 


Composition oF AIR-DRIED PLANTS. 


i Per Cent. 
Moisture 11°00 
Organic matter * 8Ls4 
Ash . 7-56 

100°00 


* Containing nitrogen 2°35 per cent. 


The ash contains of the more important con- 
stituents :— 


5 Por Cent. Per Cent. 
Lime | -- 820 Soda +» 5°08 
Magnesia Prey eis Phosphoric acid . 4°60 
Potash . 42°77 


Mikania scandens thus differs considerably 
from the Passiflora fetida in containing only 
about one-fourth of the lime, and two and a 
halftimes as much potash. It would, therefore, 
while growing tend to compete more with the 
rubber, which also requires much potash, but 
this would be returned to the soil as the plant 
decayed. In rubber it should not be planted 
within 4 feet of the stems, and care should be 
taken that it spreads over the intervening space, 
and not beallowed toclimb the trees themselves. 


The weight of green material per acre is vari- 
able, but is very similar to that of Passiflora 
fetida, and would represent the following 
amounts of plant food removed from the soil per 
acre, but returned again on the decay of the 
plants :— 

88°93 lb. nitrogen 

286'10 Ib. ash 

containing— 

23°46 lb. line 

20°14 lb, magnesia 
132'36 lb. potash 

14°32 lb, soda 

13'10 lb. phosphorie acid 

But, besides the actual weight of material that 
can be. obtained for weighing at any one time, 
there is continuous fall of leaf from the trailing 
stems, as the lower ones are smothered by the 
new growth. This increases steadily with the 
age of plant, so that after a year’s growth the 
above figures could be at least doubled, and the 
humus gained would amount to 8,000 to 10,000 1b. 
per acre. 


The plant dies down after flowering and seed- 
ing, when the land should be cleaned and another 
crop grown if desirable. Although it is sug- 
gested to grow these crops to increase the humus 
and water-holding capacity of the soil, and at 
the same time to smother other weeds, and pro- 
tect the soil from sun and rain, they are not in- 
variably applicable, since, wnless they are known 
to grow faster than other weeds in the district, 
they will be useless for the prevention of the 
growth of stronger grasses, and may themselves 
be smothered out. 


M. KELWAY BAMBER. 

February, 190y. 

RUBBER IN THE Conco, COLLECTION In Two 
Districts SUSPENDED By BEte1um.—Brussels, 
Feb. 5.—The Minister of the Colonies has 
telegraphed to the Governor of the Congo, 
informing him that the collection of rubber in 
the districts of Abirand Mongalla is suspended, 
and requesting him to take measures to modify 
the régime in these territories in regard to the 
collection of revenue.—London Times, 


and Magazine of the Ceylon Agricultural Society. 


GERMANS PRODUCE AN EDIBLE 
FAT FROM GOPRA., 


Washington, Feb. 12, 1909.—[The success of a 
number of German manufacturers in producing 
edible fats from copra, the meat of the coconut, 
has aroused much interest in the United States 
and has brought to the Bureau of Manufactures 
a number of requests for dotailed information on 
the subject. ice-Consul Joseph H. Leute, 
of Mannheim, by instructions received from the 
bureau, has forwarded a report which our 
correspondent is enabled to present below :—] 


Perhaps not the least of the renowned excel- 
lence of German cooking is due to the use of good 
baking and frying fats. Retined lard, so com- 
mon in the United States, is little used here, 
oeine disdained by the well-to-do. The poorer 

eople use cheap varieties of it, which the 

utchers and sausage manufacturers usually 
make, The better classes use beef fat, goose 
grease and butter, some families (and these not 
of the wealthy class either) going so far as to use 
butter for everything. However, butter and 
other animal fats have been soaring in price, 
along with other articles of food, and so manu- 
factured fats have been coming on the market. 
The German law is fairly strict in the matter of 
foodstufis and their quality, so that really poor 
fats cannot be sold. One Mannheim firm has 
brought out “ palmin,” a cooking and baking fat 
of purity and excellence. Its sale has enormously 
increased and an export trade is developing. 


Palmin is a hard, snow-white vegetablo fat of 
practically 100 per cent. purity. While the 
process of its manufacture was originally secret, 
so many factories manufacturing similiar lines 
have recently sprung up in Germany that it can 
no longer be so considered. Palmin is made 
from ‘‘copra,” which is simply the dried and 
smoked meat of coconuts. Heretofore the bulk 
of the copra used has come from Ceylon. The 
Mannheim firm is now contemplating erecting a 
factory where it will prepare the meat itself, 
which will mean, among other things, even more 
scrupulous cleanliness than before. This copra 
_is treated with high-pressure steam to remove 
all oils, water, etc. After the removal of the 
impurities and water the fat secured is 100 per 
cent. pure and only slight treatment is then 
needed to make the finished product. 


GROWTH OF THE BUSINESS, 


The Mannheim factory started with an output 
of about 2,000 pounds a day, or 700,000 pounds 
a year, and a working force of 50 men. The 
output now is between 20,000,000 and 25,000,000 
pounds a year, and the working force has grown 
to about 80 men and 140 girls at Mannheim and 
40 men at a branch factory at Williamsburg. 
The product has found such favour that the 
factory can scarcely keep up with the demand, 
The main office will soon be removed to Ham- 
burg and will have a force of 100 men. The new 
factory to be erected there will be used mainly 
for manufacturing copra. 


The following local prices for cooking fats 
will make apparent the reasons for the growth 
of the factory and of the sale of its peeduates 


395 
FAT—SELLING PRICE PER POUND, 

Cents 
Margarine m, we .. 15 to 20 
Sausage fat oe a .. 17 to 20 
Pork or beef fat—Not rendered ac 20 
Rendered , ae ow. 27 to 28 
Butter at net RA 30 
Goose grease... ee a 50 
Palmin if 174 


Palmin is neatly packed in oiled paper in 3, 1, 
5 and 10-pound blocks, and owing to its hardness 
and snow-white colour, makes an appetising fat, 
being also of great fat purity, while none of the 
other fats contain less than 7 to 10 per cent of 
water, Having such success with Palmin, the 
Company has put onthe market a substitute 
for butter called ‘“‘palmona.” Contrary to the 
methods used for introducing palmin, which was 
pushed with real American advertising vim, 
palmona has not been advertised at all. It has, 
however enjoyed such immediate popularity that 


THE ENTIRE OUTPUT OF THE FACTORY IS USUALLY 
SOLD FAR IN ADVANCE, 


Owing to its lack of water and oils, palmin is 
very hard and cannot bespread. Palmona being 
manufactured from the pure palmin, the latter 
had to be worked until enough water was taken 
up to make it pliable. As a matter of fact, 
palmin will not take up water at all, and the 
little spheres of fat remain absolutely unequal- 
ised and can be seen on examining palmona 
closely. They likewise do not take up the colour 
of the egg yolks, etc., which are added to impart 
a resemblance to butter. Palmona sells for 224 
cents a pound, while table butter costs 35 cents. 
The factory guarantees its freshness for a period 
of three weeks, for which purpose it has pur- 
chased specially built refrigerator cars; the 
plan is also to establish branch factories, 
first in distant parts of the home market 
and then in foreign countries. The ordinary 
refrigerator cars of the state railways were 
found inefficient, one reason being that 
they have sliding doors which do not shut 
tightly. ‘Therefore specially constructed cars 
with folding doors, etc., were built by 2 German 
car-building firm for shipping palmin. The cars 
were not bought outright, but leased or rented 
to the palmin company at about $2,000 a year, 
the constructing company carrying all risks and 
insurance. At the end of five years the car be- 
comes the property of the palmin company. At 
present they have some twelve cars running and 
eight more being built. The state railways 
charge only the freight rates on loaded cars, re- 
turning empty cars free of charge. The cars 
naturally also have a considerable value as 
advertisement, 


While the greater part of the company’s pro- 
duct is sold in Germany, it has a growing 
foreign trade, the largest part of which is with 
South Africa. Most of the latter business is 
handled through London, because of the local 
feeling, which will eventually lead to the estab- 
lishment of a branch house in England and 
thus further increase the demand. As other 
markets are created, this will also be the pro- 
cedure in countries with a high protective tariff, 
—WNew York Qi Reporter, Feb, 15, 


306 
‘‘ILLUK GRASS.’’ 


Colombo, March 12th. 


Dean Sin,—With respect to the question 
asked in one of your previous issues as to the 
best and cheapest way to getrid of ‘‘illuk” 
grass, I should advise your enquirer to try the 
following plan which I have always found cheap 
and effective :——‘‘ Provide your weeders with 
sharp-edged weeding currandies and let them 
chip the ‘illuk’ grass down level with the 
ground and repeat this again and again as 
soon as, say, 3 inches of growth makes its ap- 
pearance.” In thres months or so, the roots 
will all die off under ground. I have tried 
forking the roots out and many other remedies, 
but the chipping back process is the cheapest 
and surest way to eradicate this most trouble- 
some grass.—Yours faithfully, ch 


Golua Pokuna, Katunayaka, March 24th. 

Dear Sir,—The Acting Director, Royal Bota- 
nic Gardens, Peradeniya, to whom specimens of 
Maduvel, or Kirimadu, and Pupula were sent, 
at his request, for identification, kindly informs 
me that the botanical names of these plants are 
Lpomea cymosa and Vernonia Zeylanica respec- 

tively.—Yours faithfully, 
GERALD T. NICHOLAS, 


ee ee 


THE ALGAROBA TREE IN 


HAWAIL. 


A Prigst’s INVALUABLE GIFT. 


Honolulu, Hawaii, Jan. 5,—Almost every 
visitor to Honolulu has probably had his atten- 
tion called to a gnarled and twisted old tree, 
with top broken cor cut away some twenty feet 
above the ground, which stands partly upon the 
sidewalk and partly within the grounds of the 
Roman Catholic Cathedral on Fort street, a few 
blocks from the waterfront. A square wooden 
sign nailed to the ronal trunk, just below the 
mass of straggling, decrepit branches which 
cast a poor shade over the dusty street, bears 
the following inscription in gold letters :— 

First ALGAROBA TREE 

of the HAWAIIAN ISLANDS 
Imported and Planted in 1837 

By FATHER BACHELOT. 
Founder of the R. C. MISSION. 

Father Bachelot, the pioneer French priest 
who established the Catholic mission in Hono- 
lulu in 1827, probably had but little idea of the 
service which he was rendering the Hawaiian 
Islands when on his return from a trip to Cali- 
fornia ten years later he brought with him the 
little algaroba seedling and planted it in the 
corner of the mission grounds, then in the out- 
skirts of the village of Honolulu. But from that 
one tree have all the islands of the group become 
heavily forested with one of the most valuable 
ofall the trees at present in the territory, It 
has clothed in verdure thousands of acres 
which from lack of water were utterly barren. 


The Algaroba (Prosonis juliflora) is a native of 
the arid South-western section of the United 
States, where it is generally known as Mesquite, 
although differing from the mesquite of Texas 
and New Mexico. In Hawaii it seems to have 


The Supplement to the Tropical Agriculturist 


found even more congenial conditions than in 
its native habitat, and the trees often attain a 
height of fifty or sixty feet, and a girth of six 
feet or more. Beside the value of the hard dur- 
able wood for building purposes, fence posts and 
fuel, it hasa much greater valueasa feed for 
stock, and it is torthis purpose that it is most 
valued in Hawaii. Cattle and horses eat the 
foliage readily, as well as the sweet seed pods, 
and thousands of head of cattle have no other 
feed the year round. The large honey industry of 
the islands has been made possible largely from 
the splendid pasturage the bees fina in the alga- 
roba blossoms.—-At the present time the econo- 
mic value of the algaroba is attracting much at- 
tention. Lt is predicted that within a short time 
the very abundant seed pods of the tree willsup- 
ply a considerable part of the horse and cattle 
feed which is now imported in the form of barley, 
corn, oats, etc. These pods contain by weight 
almost fifty per cent of sugar, which causes it to 
be greedily eaten by stock, while the seeds are 
rich in protein, having about the same food 
value as flax seed. Heretofore but a small part of 
these seeds has been available for food, owing to 
the hard covering which resists digestion unless 
itis broken. The pods could not be ground owing 
to their mucilaginous character which caused the 
gumming up of ordinary milling machinery, A 
Honoluluinventor has just devised avery simple 
machine which has proven admirably adapted 
for the work, however, and it is probable that it 
will soon come into very general use. Dr E V 
Wilcox, director of the U.S. Agricultural Experi- 
ment Station, estimates that land in algaroba 
should produce not less than $100 per acre in 
feed, basing the price of the product at about 
half of the cost of imported forage. 


Experiments in making alcohol from the 
algaroba pods, show that it will yield about 500 
pounds of alcohol per ton ; while the tood value 
of the seeds is not affected by the distilling pro- 
cess.— WiLL J Cooper.—Hawaii Promotion Com- 
mittee Press News, 


BRITISH GUIANA RUBBER OUTPUT, 

Reports from British Guiana show that the out- 
put of balata for the year was 973,269 1b., as against 
634,242 lb. last year. The rubber produced 
was also greater, 6,873 lb. having been gathered 
as against 2,563 lb. The price of balata was 
fairly maintained, while that of rubber fell; 
the value of the latter is, however, again going 
up. The palo colorado or cucuracho tree of 
Mexico, claimed asa new source of rubber supply, 
is stated to possess a sap which yields over 
33 1-3 per cent of pure caoutchouc, It grows 
abundantly in the Pacific slopes of Sierra Madre 
Mountains, at an elevation of from 2,500 ft. to 
4,000 ft. above sea level, The tree reaches an 
average height of 24 ft., and is from 8 in. to 14 
in. in diameter. The tree is tapped in the same 
manner as the true rubber tree, and when 
tapped gives a thick white sap, which becomes 
semi-solid when exposed to the air. When 
tapped the larger trees produce over 2 lb. per 
day, but after one or two days’ run the cut has 
to be closed with clay, so as to allow the tree 
to regain its vitality.—H, & C. Moil, Feb, 12, 


and Magazine of the Ceylon Agricultural Society. 


BITINGA RUBBER. 


FROM “ RAPHIONACME UTILIS.” 


Considerable interest has been aroused re- 
cently by the discovery in Portuguese West 
Africa of a plant, bearing various native names, 
such as ‘‘ bitinga,” ‘‘ ecanda”’ and *‘ marianga,” 
the tuberous roots of which contain a rubber- 
yielding latex. Several specimens of therubber 
and of the roots of the plant from which it is 
obtained have been received at the Imperial 
Institute from the Mozambique Company. The 
samples of rubber consisted of three roughly 
cylindrical pieces, which differed considerably 
in quality owing tc the inclusion of varying 
amounts of impurities. The cleanest specimen, 

_which, however,contained an appreciable ainount 
of impurity, consisted of pale yellowish- brown 
rubber exhibiting good elasticity and tenacity. 
The other two pieces were darker in colour ; one 
of them contained a considerable quantity of 
vegetable impurity, whilst the other wasimpreg- 
nated with fine sand. In both cases, however, 
the physical properties of the rubber were fairly 
good. The light-coloured rubber was chosen for 
analysis as more likely to represent a well-pre- 
pared product; this gave the following results:— 


Sample as Composition 

received. of dry rubber. 

Per cent. Per cent, 
Moisture ref 10 — 
Caoutchouc ar) 76°8 77°6 
Resin go 9°0 91 
Proteids 7) 06 06 
Insoluble matter ate 12°6 12°7 


Ash (included in ‘‘ insoluble 

matter”) se 711 7°18 

These results indicate that the rubber would 
be of good quality, so far as chemical composition 
is concerned, if it were not for the presence of 
the large amount of insoluble impurity which 
considerably reduces the precontage of true 
caoutchouc. The amount of resin is somewhat 
high, but the percentage of proteid is exception- 
ally low. A portion of this sample was valued by 
commercial expertsat Is, to 1s.3d. per |b., but they 
stated that the rubber, if clean, should be worth 
3s. per lb., or more, as compared with fine hard 
Para rubber at 4s. 1Ud. per 1b, on the same date. 

Roots. 

A number of the tuberous roots of the plant 
were also received and submitted to examination. 
The tubers are turnip-rhaped, and vary up to 
5°5 inches in diameter and 4 inches in height. 
They are covered with a dark brown scaly bark. 
Many of the roots had decomposed more or less 
during transit, but a number were still sound, 
and yielded latex quite freely on incision. 

Two samples of the fresher roots with un- 
broken bark were selected for analysis; specimen 
A was a single large tuber weighing about 6 
ounces, whilst B consisted of two smaller 
tubers which together were approximately equal 
in weight to A, Tho results of the examination 
were as follows :— 


A. P. 
r Calculated on roots as received, 
Moisture ie 86°83) 88°87 
Rubber 1°52 104 


Tnsoluble residue, resin 
and other extractive} 11°60 
matter J 


10°02 


Rubber (on dry roots) 11°6 3 


397 


The yield of rubber from the tubers as received 
is therefore very low (1°0 to 1°5 per cent) owing 
to the large amount of water which they contain, 
and as these tubers must have dried consider- 
ably during transit, the freshly-collected roots 
will probably furnish much less than the 
figures recorded above, Tho acreage yield 
of rubber from the dry material is however 
fairly high, viz. 10°5 per cent. 


IDENTIFICATION Or THE Biringa PLANr, 


Specimens of the ‘‘ Bitinga’’ roots were for- 
warded .to Kew by the Mozambique Company 
with a view to the identification of the plant, and 
flowering specimens were obtained in March of 
thisyear. The plant proves to be a new species 
of Raphionacme of the natural order Asclepia- 
daceze and has been named Laphionacme utilis 
Brown and Stapf....[t is probable that the Bi- 
tinga plant thus identified is identical with the 
‘* Heanda” or ‘‘ Marianga ” plant discovered by 
Professor Geraldes, during a journey to the 
Upper Zambesi, in 1904-05, According to this 
author the Ecanda or Marianga plantoccurs in 
the sandy treeless plains (anharas) of Bailunde 
and Bihé and on the sandy steppes between the 
rivers Quanza and “Zambesi, at an altitude of 
4,000 to 5,000 feet. The natives in these 
districts prepare rubber from the roots by 
cutting them into slices, which are then spread 
on the ground and exposed to the sun, whereby 
the exuded latex is coagulated. The rubber thus 
formed is rolled into small cylindrical pieces, 
about 5 inches long and 2 inchin diameter. The 
rubber so prepared is stated to be of good ap- 
pearance, but it usually contains considerable 
quantities of earthy impurity; thus, one sample 
examined contained only 45'8 rer cent. of true 
rubber, and 51°4 per cent of impurities. 


Professor Geraldes found that the most prac- 
ticable method of obtaining rubber from the 
fresh roots was to cut them into pieces and sub- 
ject the latter to pressure. In this way the 
latex, much diluted with the sap of the roots, 
was obtained. The yield of liquid on expression 
amounted to about 77 per cent, of the weight of 
fresh roots used. From this liquid, the rubber 
can be prepared either by heating it or by ex- 
posing it to the air. The maximum yield of rub- 
ber obtained by Professor Geraldes in his 
experiments was a little less than 0°5 per cent. 
from the fresh roots, which is less than half the 
amount found in the tubers received at the Im- 
perial Institute. 


It isimpossible, until further particulars are 
available, to express any opinion regarding the 
probable value of the Bitinga plant as acom- 
mercial source of rubber, Definite information 
is required as to (1) tho rate of growth of the 
plant; (2) the age at which the tubers can best 
be utilised for the preparation of rubber; (3) 
the weight of fresh roots which can be obtained 
per acre ; (4) the average yield of rubber; and (5) 
the best method of obtaining the rubber from 
the roots. It is understood that the Mozambique 
Company is vonducting experiments in East 
Africa in order to determine these points, and 
to ascertain whether the plant is likely to repay 
cultivation.—Imperial Institute Bulletin No, 4 of 
1908, 


398 
RICE PRODUCTION IN KOREA. 


Consul-General Thomas Sammons, of Soul, 
describesthe progress and extent of the culti- 
vation of rice in Korea and the importance and 
value of the industry to that country and to 
Japan :—American rice-cleaning machinery is 
being extensively introduced in Korea and _ in- 
variably gives the best possible satisfaction. 
The machines are so constructed that broken or 
worn-out parts can be replaced without difti- 
culty. In construction these machines are 
simple and the natives readily learn to operate 
them. The English type of rice-cleaning machi- 
nery is not utilised, although anumber of Japa- 
nese machines are being sold in the Korean mar- 
ket. An idea of the extent of the rice industry 
of Korea may be had from estimates of the 
annual vield as based partially on the total pro- 
duction in Japan. Japan’s yield 1s placed at 
approximately 14,800,000,000 lbs., and on a basis 
of 1 koku of 320 Ibs,, or five bushels to each per- 
son, this aggregate would supply more than 
46,000,000 people. Assuming that Korea has 
approximately 10,000,000 population, its annual 
rice crop would amount to 3,200,000,000 Ibs., 64 
per cent. having been exported in 1907. Korean 
rice culture is carried on almost wholly by hand 
and itis not probable that the hand methods 
will ever make way for the American seeder, 
self-binding harvester or steam thrasher, The 
Korean farms are all small and the present 
native product is higher in yield to the acreage 
than is the American rice. The cheap labour of 
Korea also permits of methods which the labour 
condition in America would render prohibitive. 
—L. & C. Express, Feb. 12. 


FIBRE CONGRESS AT SOURABAYA 
iN 1910. 


According to a notice issued at Sourabaya 
(Java) on 25th February, with a view to pro- 
moting the cultivation of fibre-producing plants, 
the ‘’Nederlandsch-Indisch Landbouw Syndi- 
caat” has decided to hold, at Sourabaya, Java, 
Netherlands East-india, in October, 1919, a 
Congress, combined with an Exhibition of 
fibre producing plants, of the fibres pro- 
duced therefrom and of the machinery used 
in the preparation of same. During the Con- 
gress, the cultivation and preparation of the 
raw fibre, both mechanically and manually, will 
be discussed. The extraction, preparation for 
market and packing of the fibre will, as far as 
possible, be demonstrated. Various prizes 
(medals, diplomas and money) will be offered 
for machinery working fora suflicient time du- 
ring the covgress, awarded by a Committee of 
impartial experts. The expenses will be de- 
frayed by the Syndicate, enabled to do so by a 
liberal grant from the Netherlands Indian 
Government and _ substantial contributions. 
With the Director of Agriculture a Committee 
has been formed to prepare and carry out the 
scheme; gentlemen in Holland have been re- 
quested to form a Sub-Committee there. Special 
attention will be given to the following, viz :— 


The Supplement to the Tropical Agriculturist 


1. AGAVE FIBRE,—the cultivation of which is spreadin 
so Jatgely and which is specially adapted for dry tropica’ 
countries. 


_2. MANILA HEmpP,—also a fibrous plant fit for eultiva- 
tion ona large scale and which produces a profitable crop 
in the moister districts of tropical countries, 


3, JUTE AND JUTE SUBSTITUTES.—Of importance in all 
tropical countries, seeing that a large part of the packing 
material necessary for other produce is made therefrom. 

_A detailed programme will shortly be pub- 
lished. The preliminary notice is signed b 
A. Paets Tot Gansoyen, President of the syndi- 
cate and D. J. R. Putman Cramer, Secretary, 


GERMANY’S WAR ON MOSQUITOES. 


The German colonies in East Africa and else- 
where have their mosquito problems to solve. This 
has led the Colonia) Officein Berlin to take up the 
matter with the Director of the Fisheries Station 
at Biebrich, Germany. Mr. Bartmann,as Director 
has been experimenting in the way of securing 
some solution of the mosquito problem during 
the last fourteen years. He now states that tho 
most reliable method of mosquito extermination 
in stagnant waters is by growing therein various 
kinds of the semi-tropical plant called arzolla. 
His numerous and ever successful experiments 
haveled the Colonial Office to ask him for fur- 
ther experimentation at the Institute for Tropical 
Hygiene at Hamburg, where Director Bartmann 
will have the use of the state botanic institute 
for propagating the arzolla plants. Germany has, 
however, a malarial station at Wilhelmhaven and 
hundreds of cases have occurred there, the terri- 
tory being full of stagnant waters and swamps 
infested with mosquitoes. The proximity of the 
sea and the unusually cool temperature of the 
summer of 1907 had an unfavourable influence 
upon the growth of the arzolla plant. 1t, how- 
ever, covered the experimental waters in a short 
time with a layer of vegetation over two inches 
thick, which suffocated all of the mosquito larvee 
below and _ prevented the living insects from de- 
positing their eggs inthe water. A final report 
will soon be made in regard to the experiments. 
It is stated that strictly scientific and practical 
proof have been made in the laboratories, A 
covering of vegetation over the surface of waters 
so close as to prevent the mosquito larve from 
reaching the air and to prevent the mosquitves 
from laying their eggs on the water, would seem 
to us Impossible, and yet the data comes from 
Consular Reports from Germany which seem to 
demonstrate not only the possibility of the fact 
but its actual realisation in given instances. 


RHODESIAN RUBBER. 


The British South Africa Company report the 
sale of 27 bags (just over 12 cwt of rubber) re- 
cently received from North-Hastern Rhodesia, 
The rubber realised from 4s 24d to 4s 23d iv 
pound, under very gocd competition. ‘he 
brokers remark thatthe market can take con- 
siderable quantities of rubber of such a good 
quality, which will be highly encouraging news 
to Rhodesian planters.—India Rubber Journal, 
March 8. 


and Magazine of the Ceylon Agricultural Society. 


RUBBER CULTIVATION IN 
MALABAR. 


We have just received a copy of a very intor- 
esting report on the rubber trees to be found 
growing at Nilambur and Calicut, in South 
Malabar, which was written by Mr KL Proud- 
lock when he was Curator ot the Government 
Botanic Gardensand Parks on the Nilgiris, and 
printed last year. It describes the investiga- 
tions in connection with rubber trees in Malabar 
carried out by Mr Proudlock in January, 1903. 
Whenit was written is not stated, but it has 
evidently been inexistence some years as it is 
referred to in Mr Proudlock’s Annual Report for 
1906-07 ; it was printed at the Government Press 
in 1908, and it has only just been issued to the 
public. 1t comprises the only real effort on 
the part of the Government to collect into one 
volume information regarding the 1ubber trees 
introduced at various times into Southern India 
from foreign countries during the last 30 years. 

It seems certain from the documentary evi- 
dence now available that the idea of introducing 
American rubber trees into India originated 
with Sir Clements Markham, forin a book en- 
titled ‘‘ Peruvian Bark,” which he published in 
1880, he wrote :— 

“ In 1870 I came to the conclusion that it was necessary 
to do for the India rubber or caoutchouc-yielding trees what 
had already been done with such happy results for cin- 
chona trees,” 

Mr Proudlock briefly describes the introduc- 
tion of Para rubber (Hevea Brasiliensis) into 
India, Ceylon and Burma through the agency of 
the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, which inter- 
esting story has already been told in our columns, 
It is not necessary here, therefore, to do more 
than state that of the Malabar trees on which 
Mr Proudlock specially reported 28 were re- 
ceived from the Royal Botanic Gardens, Pera- 
deniya, and planted out at Nilambur in June, 
1879, and three more were received from Mr T 
J Ferguson, of Calicut and planted out there in 
1886. Further experiments were conducted with 
Para, Ceara, and Castilloa rubber trees at 
Plantation House, Calicut, and at Punur by 
Mr T J Ferguson on behalf of the Govern- 
ment, through whese agency he was sup- 
plied with seeds and plants of these species 
from April, 1883, to September, 1885. The 
trees at Nilambur were left to the tender 
mercies of the Forest Department officials, under 
whose charge they made excellent growth for 
the first few years. Then arose, apparently, a 
generation which knew not the possibilities of 
rubber trees, which were allowed to be over- 
shadowed by teak, mahogany and other trees 
dearer by far to the heart of the Forest official. 
Mr. Proudlock quotes the views expressed by 
two of these oflicials which demonstrate the 
great mistake made by the Government in trust- 
ing important experiments of this nature to 
gentlemen who took no particular interest in 
them. One of these, Mr. P M Lushington, in his 
report dated the 2nd March, 1895, describes the 

TAPPING OPERATIONS CONDUCTED IN 1886-87 

AND AGAIN IN 1895, 
as a result of which 100 trees yielded 10 1b. of 
rubber ; and as this was not worth much more 
than a similar number of rupees, he said that the 
experiment must be considered to have failed 


399 


froma financial point of view. In any case, he 
added, these trees were much out of place ina 
teak plantation, and a proposition had been 
made to cut them,out and plant the area with 
teak. Fortunately, this was not done though 
most of the rubber trees, introduced by the Gov- 
ernment at great cost 16 years before, were 
gradually allowed to succumb. The experimental 
cultivation of rubber plants through private 
agency had been ordered to be discontinued ten 

ears before, and the adverse opinions referred 
to obtained such wide publicity, that up to 
within the last few years the majority of the 
planters of this Presidency were deterred from 
taking up what, Mr Prondlock says, “is now 
proved beyond all doubt to be a highly remu- 
nerative cultivation.” 


As aresult of his tours in 1903 and subse— 
quently, Mr Proudlock obtained a very favou- 
rable impression of the exceeding suitability of 
the belt of coastal country which lies between 
the seaand the foot of the Western Ghauts, 
both as regards climate and soil, for rubber-cul- 
tivation on an extensive scale. This conclusion 
it must be borne in mind, was arrived at durin 
the first few years’ experiments that were car- 
ried out with these trees, both by Government 
officials and private persons qualified toform an 
opinion on the subject ; and that it is widely 
held today is evident from the thousands of 
acres that are being cultivated with rubber 
today wherever land can be obtained from the 
Malabar to Southern Travancore, Mr Proudlock 
also found the trees he tapped to yield latex 
freely and of excellent quality. He obtained 


1 LB. 5 028, FROM ONE PARA TREE AT NILAMBUR 
IN JANUARY, 1903, 


and nothing, he says, could be more satisfactory 
than the yield from this particular tree, which 
completely disproves the repeated inferences 
contained in the Forest Department Reports 
that the trees at Nilambur would not yield 
sufficient rubber to pay. As a matter of fact, 
had these trees yielded poorly, it would no$ have 
been surprising, for, owing to having been 
allowed to growunder too much shade, and too 
close together, they were ‘‘rather spindly and 
had poor crowns.” Besides, as Mr Proudlock 
explains, proper methods of tapping were not 
employed, as they were neither known nor 
understood at that time; nor was the tapping 
carried out regularly in a systematic manner by 
a trained staff under proper supervision, as it 
must be if rubber cultivation is to be made 
to pay. 


We may confidently affirm with Mr Proudlock 
that no further arguments appear to be neces- 
sary to prove that the mature Para trees at 
Nilambur are capable of yielding rubber quite 
as good, both in quantity and in quality, as 
trees of the same species will yield in any part 
of the Hastern Hemisphere; and that the 
Nilambur country, as shown in the photographs, 
a number of which are published with the Re- 
port, contains some of the finest sites in Southern 
India for rubber cultivation, especially for 
Para rubber, The failure of the various Forest 
officials concerned to gauge the true value of 
the latter must be excused on the score that the 


400 


acclimatisation of rubber trees and such ex- 
otics does not come properly within the scope 
of their work. As Mr Cherry, Conservator of 
forests, Southern Circle, wrote to the Govern- 
ment in this connection in 1898 :— 

“Tt is very difficult to get subordinates to take conti- 
nuous action in these matters, and District Forest Officers 
have had their hands so full of work (especially settiement 
and survey of Reserves), that such experiments are apt 
to be lost sight of.” 

This admission points to the advisability of 
appointing a special officer, as recommended by 
Mr Proudlock, to «teal solely with the direction 
of the cultivation of exotics throughout the 
Presidency. The result of the present policy is 
well exemplified by the present position of 
rubber-planting, in which, despite the fact that 
the Government of India were the first to appre- 
ciate its possibilities, the planters of Southern 
India are now far behind those of Ceylon, the 
Straits Settlements and the Federated Malay 
States. The Government of Madras have now 
published Mr Proudlock’s illuminating Report, 
anclitis to be hoped it will obtain an extensive 
sale or circulation for it corrects a number of 
erroneous impressions for the dissemination of 
which the Government are entirely to blame, 
—M, Mait, March 27. 


MANURING TEA, CLEAN WEEDING, &c. 


A recent enquiry of Mr. Hughes as to his 
‘* Basic Super-phosphate ” has produced some 
interesting information, dated March 8th. A lec- 
ture noticed in an Inverness paper, he says, is one 
of a series by the representative of the Basic 
slag people who apparently consider its useful- 
ness, as a manure on soils deficient in lime, has 
not been yet fully realised. Unfortunately, Mr. 
Cox does not recognise that in the selection of 
slag, the composition of the soil ought to be 
considered—the consequence being that it is 
occasionally applied to soils quite unsuitable, to 
the great loss of the farmer, who is naturally 
disgusted and says that slag js no good for his 
land, and thereby influences his neighbours 
againstitsuse. I refer to this point more fully in 
the enclosed reprint from Farm and Home :— 


The new manure is intended to occupy an inter- 
mediate position between acid superphosphate 
and alkaline slag, and to be applied for inter- 
mediate descriptions of soil. 1tis not intended to 
supersede the use of superphosphate upon good 
arable land containing plenty of lime, nor is it 
intended to take the place of well-ground slag 
upon sour grass land, damp, heavy clay or rich 
vegetable soils; but it is specially intended for 
soils deficient in lime, such as light clay, gravel, 
granite and sandy soils, the united acreage of 
which represent such a large proportion of the 
cultivated area of the United Kingdom. 

For the reasons given in the article I am quite 
sure that if used in equal quantities in Ceylon 
soils Basic superphosphate (which consists of su- 
perphosphate neutralised by quick-lime) would 
prove far superior to the ordinary Basic slag, 
which consists ofa hard fused rock, however finely 
it may be ground. isee in regard to slag in 
Ceylon one authority only recommends 1 cwt. 


The Supplement to the Tropical Agriculturist 


per acre for burying with the prunings: a quan- 
tity totally inadequate to neutralise the acidity 
attending the decay of green leaves buried in a 
damp, stiff soil, Lam not surprised that fresh 
lime. in a much larger quantity should have re- 
placed the use of slag, which only contains ¥ to 
3 per cent of free lime. As regards clean wee- 
ding I should think that on steep faces it is by 
no means desirable ; indeed, I should prefer to 
leave such steep faces unplanted; but, being 
planted, I should have gently sloping drains cut 
at frequent intervals along the face filled or 
partially filled with prunings for intercepting 
the wash—the decomposed leaves being cleared 
out from time to time and made into a com- 
post, with lime and soil, for future application 
in large holes between the trees and covered 
over. On fairly flat land, clean weeding for tea 
and partial weeding for rubber would, I think, 
be desirable, I am interested to notice how Mr. 
Bamber insists upon forking the surface as a 
beneficial operation. You remember how 1 
pointed out this in 1878: also recommended 
ground coral being used in preference to caustic 
lime, because I said that Ceylon soils wanted 
lime, but being deficient also in organic matter, 
the neutral coral lime would be more suitable 
than the strongly caustic lime which would be 
calculated to burn up the organic matter. Iam 
surprised any one should recommend the caustic 
lime as a general means of supplying lime to the 
soil, though, if used with prunings, the caustic 
lime would naturally be the more suitable. 


CULTURE DU CAOUTCHOUC 
DE PARA. 


“* PARA RUBBER CULTIVATION.’ 
A FrencoH Manvuat.—RvuBBER-MANURING : 
CLosE PLANTING: DISTANCE BETWEEN THE TREES. 


We have received from Messrs. Williams 
and Norgate, for Mons. Augustin Chal- 
lamel, the Paris publisher, a copy of the 


latest work on rubber cultivation in Malaya by 
Mons. ©. Mathieu, who has apparently had 
lengthy and good planting experience in the 
East. The book is well printed in large type on 
good paper, and is in double parallel columns, 
English and French. The Manual, we learn 
from the preface, was first written in English, 
the French text having been written afterwards, 
with various additions and amplifications. The 
author deals with his subject very fully and in 
an interesting manner. He gives some advice 
in his opening chapters to the young planter 
coming out fresh to the East, and then plunges 
into his subject, dealing with the selection of 
land for a plantation and the laying of it out in 
plantation and nurseries, with notes on the 
selection of sites for bungalows, lines, hospital, 
&c. Inchapter V the Manager’s bungalow is 
discussed, with plans and details for construc- 
ting the same and estimates of probable cost, 
The numerous diagrams make this an informing 
and useful chapter. Mons. Mathieu is insistent 
on good surroundings and sanitary conditions 
for the Superintendent and his employees, and 
gives numerous hints on how to secure such 
conditions. We quote the following ;— 


and Magazine of the Ceylon Agricultural Society. 


“Rrom the one of happy go-lucky amateurishness percei- 
vable in some of the Rubber Companies of recent birth, it 
would seem asif the management of an estate is, intheir 
eyes, a matter of small concern, The little seed, which is 
pat in the ground, is evident}, expected to do, by itself, 
all the work of growing into fine tat trees, bulging with 
milk, Wecan now understand how it is that estates of 
1,000 acres to 1,500 acres of land, in great part tappable, of 
land on which £150 to £189 of capital had been raised per 
acre, areleftin the hands of an underpaid manager with 
one assistant. To such, all that is here written is pure 
fudge. ‘The past history of these countries is unfortunately 
full of the dismal failures of such ill-conceivea ventures. 
But there are also earnest workers, and they are many, who 
do not trust to the sole aid of Providence and who know full 
well, that huge undertakings such as we hear of, are not 
to be brought to the paying stage by haphazard manage- 
ment and that a good equipment is the first necessity 
of success.” 


The author then takes us very fully into the 
subject of the Asiatic agricultural labourer, more 
particularly the Chinese, Javanese and Tamil 
classes. A chapter on lalang yrass concludes 
the first part of the book. 


In the second part he deals with the Hevea 
tree itself, and its cultivation, The opening up of 
the estate and ali the attendant operations of 
roading and draining, etc., different kinds of 
soils, nurseries, planting out, &c., carry one 
through six interesting and informing chapters. 
Then we get to ‘“‘ Field Work,” and the impor. 
tant subject of distance in planting. On this 
subject, still one under discussion in the last, 
we make the following interesting extract :— 


CLOSE PLANTING.—Close planting was generally adopted 
on the older estates and most of the acreage under rubber 
is planted at distances of 12 feet to 15 feet. Now, there are 
very good reasons of economy for not giving a tree on an 
estate more room than it absolutely requires for its normal 
development: Having ascertained by experience, and by its 
habits of growth, that the liberian coffee-tree, for instance, 
can be brought to its full fruit-bearing capacity, on the 
space enclosed in a circumference of 12 feet diameter, which 
allows 290 trees to the acre, it would serve no purpose to 
give it 13 feet, which allows only 239 trees as that would 
mean a larger surface to keep clean, an extension of the 
road and drainage system of the estate etc.; if would mean, 
in fine, increased working expenses for smaller crops. There- 
fore the trees should be allowed no more space than is ne- 
cessary for them to give their fullcrop. But, under pretext 
of economy, tosqueeze the trees in a space that will not 
allow them t» attain their normal size, and thereby to re- 
duce their future rubber-yielding capacity appears to me 
ever more wasteful than the other way, besides involving 
undue risks of disease to the plant. Practically, The limit 
to the rubber-yielding capacity of the Hevea is reached 
when there is no more bark left toincise on the nether 6 
feet of trunk which is the easiest accessible part of the 
tree, and that which yields the most latex (barring the roots). 
Therefore, anything that tends to reduce the attainment of 
girth, and thereby of bark, is unsound, and that is what 
close planting at 10, 12, 15 feet comes to, 


ONE REASON GIVEN FOR CLOSE-PLANTING 


was thatit prevents branchiness, which it undoubtedly 
does, and that the tree having already a marked tendency 
to branchiness, this should be checked and thus, a higher 
range secured for the future tapping of the tree. This was 
anticipating the practice of high tapping, at present in 
vogue on some estates. But I cannot look upon high tapping, 
with its concomitants of ladders, unsteadiness in the work 
of incision, lessened yield of latex, as anything but 
a ‘“‘pis-aller.” It should not be an aim; an as 
for the a4 to prevent branching, I may be allowed 
torepeat whatI wrote some years back :— 


“‘Considering that the first branching does not as a 
rule begin before a height of 8 to 10 feet of the trunk ; con- 
sidering, also, that it is an easy matter with the pruning 
knife, to check any tendency to too early branching I 
do not see the force of the objection to its branching, at a 
height above the milk-yielding region, while I see a very 
considerable advantage in securing as large a stem as 
possible, affording a broader surface.” 


In the light of experience gained since, these words re- 
main true, and close-planting with a view to checking 
branching, and obtaining a long tapping surface will soon 
be considered as a heresy and a costly one. In fact, the 
notion is already so far belated that the very reverse is now 


ak 


401 


advocated by some writers who recommend topping the trees 
to induce forking. Yet, close-planting is still practised on 
some estates with the idea, when overcrowding takes 
place, of thinning out, i.e. of felling a proportion, say one 
out of two trees, after cropping them of al] the rubber they 
can give.” 


M. Mathieu has some interesting remarks to 
make under this heading which we venture to 
quote :— 

In 1903 I wrote :—‘‘ Judging from the Hevea seen in these 
parts, I would say that 15 to 18 feet interspace between 
each tree would meet its requirements. This would give (15 
by 15) 196 trees to the acre ina poorer soil and (18 by 18) 
130 in a richer soil. In very rich soilssuch as are found in 
parts of Sumatra and Borneo, I would probably adopt very 
much wider planting, viz: 25 by 25 feet.” In the presence 
however, of the ability of the tree to stand much heavier 
tapping than was then thought prudent for the safety of the 
tree, 1 must admitI now think those distances too small 
for the reason that the heavier the tapping, the greater 
the surface of the bark must be in order to be able to 
apportion the incising, in such a way that the bark shall 
have time to renew itself, between one tapping and the 
next. Open planting undoubtedly favours increase of girth 
and for that reason I recommend wider distances between 
the trees. Of course, if we push mattersto extremes and 
hold to the hardand fast rule that a tree should have all 
the space its branch and root system can cover, we should 
probably have to allow each tree 30 to 40 feet or more, since 
the oldest trees we know of,30 years old already cover more 
than that surface of spread, 


The author advocates for Malaya 20 feet 
between the trees. We know that manuring is 
being done in various estates in Ceylon for the 
three objects which M, Mathieu puts forward : 
(1) Making up for soil exhaustion; (2) Giving 
to the soil the constitutents it lacks; (3) Has- 
tening growth by promoting increased activity 
in the organs of nutrition, roots and leaves, 
and thereby quickening the formation of wood. 
Of burnt earth as a readily acquired manure 
the author speaks highly, and ne thus describes 
how it should be prepared :— 


A gang of, say, 10 men should be put to this work for 
one month during the period of driest weather. They col- 
lect, withthe rake, allthe dead wood or fallen branches 
and dried leaves or twigs, cut the rank grass and small 
shrubs growing about and put all up, in heaps 4 feet high ; 
then, with the changkol, they pare the top soil all round, 
and collect it in their earth baskets; it is spread on the 
heaps ; 3C basketfuls will suffice to cover one heap com- 
pletely on allsides, The heaps then present the aspect of 
earthen cones. Asmall opening is made below and fire is 
applied to the dried leaves inside ; when the fire is well 
on, which is seen by the smoke issuing from the sides of 
the cone, the opening is completely closed, anda slow com- 
bustion goes on inside during 2 or 3 days, after which the 
heaps can be opened tocool, and the burnt earth applied 
when wanted. 


We do not know that the somewhat drastic 
operation of root pruning Hevea trees has been 
recommended by other authorities on rubber 
cultivation, Butit is well worth referring to 
what the author under review says on this point. 
He remarks—and doubtless some of our readers 
will be willing to give their opinions in these 
columns on M, Mathieu’s statements :— 


Cutting the roots of Hevea will sound as a heresy to 
many, and so itis, as long as the roots, finding adequate 
sustenance in the soil, are able to discharge their func- 
tions of supplying the tree with the materials that go to 
building it up. So long as these conditions last, the roots 
keep on throwing out young feeders in every direction 
ahead of them and, through them, drawing greedily the 
food stored for them. When, however, the roots have 
reached the limit of their hunting ground, their spread- 
ing must cease; then, they coil up and form into tangled 
masses through every inch of the ground until, space 
lacking, they cease throwing out young feeders; their 
texture hardens, becomes leathery and, from that time 
their activity slackens, and growth also. At that time, 
I have found that a partial and light cutting of roots, 
at the extremity of their feeding ground, revives them 
to a wonderful extent. The opening of the ground causes 
moisture to penetrate deeper into the earth and the roots 
strike, at an angle, lower down the soil into new layers; 


402 


and in place of the leathery, inert roots, thousands of 
thread.like radicles are formed, which push their way 
through the new space, and healthy growth is resumed. I 
have applied this to Coffee trees, and I have gone the 
length of putting the plow through acres and acres 
of coconuts with the best results, and I see no reason 
why the same effect should not be obtained with Hevea, 
seeing the thickness of its root system and its tendency 
to intermatting when confined from want of space. The 
most efficient way to carry out pruning is to make a 
trench, one foot deep, right through between the rows 
of trees and 10 feet distant from the trunks, merely 
turning the sod up to the side; this is best done with a 
plow; and then, with a light cultivator 2 parallel trenches 
one foot away on each side of the first but only 4 inches 
deep so as not to injure the main roots. The work can 
be done with the changkol, but the plow is much more 
expeditious aud less costly, as it can easily do 4 to 5 
acres in one day. Root-pruning is no innovation, and it 
is practised almost universally on the large orange groves 
of South California. In passing, I may also mention 
another advantage of root-pruning, i. e., by turning over 
the earth it exposes to the air and kills grubs and 
fungoid growths, beside breaking up the galleries and nests 
of termites, 

The author then deals with the latex and 
methods of tapping, coagulating, curing, &c., 
but want of space forbids us quoting any fur- 
ther or extracting from a lot of interesting 
matter in these chapters. The packing and 
weighing of rubber are referred to, and the 
charges on rubber exported are quoted from 
the Ceylon Observer of March 12th, 1906, show- 
ing the actual costs of shipping and selling 
rubber in the London market ; but we under- 
stand that owing to changes these must now 
be slightly modified. The book concludes with 
estimates of expenditure and returns of 3,000 
acres of virgin land in the Malay Peninsula 
planted in Para rubber, divided in three estates 
of 1,000 acres each, the trees planted in quin- 
cunx 20 feet by 17 feet 4 inches = 120 to the 
acre ; these estimates go tothe 12th year; from 
which period, the author says, the annual ex- 
penditure will average $650,000, and the net 
profit available for dividend will average a like 
sum. 

M. Mathieu has produced a most_interesting 
and able book on the cultivation of Para Rubber 
in Malaya, one which can be studied with ad- 
vantage by all planters in the East, and the 
photographs and diagrams in it add to the value 
of a comprehensive study of the subject. 
(Copies of this work may be ordered through 
Messrs. A. M. & J. Ferguson, Colombo.) 


CEYLON BANANAS AT LEICESTER. 


A fruiterer told me a month ago that the first 
consignment of bananas from Colombo had just 
reached Leicester. I bought some. They were 
very good fruit.—Cor. 

CrYLON BANANAS IN ENGLAND. 


Mr, 
March 25th, 

Dear S1x,—The Ceylon bananas in England, 
mentioned in your columns—I am inclined 
to doubt that they were shipped as a busi- 
ness transaction, and rather imagine they 
were a surplus stock of fruits carried for use 
during the voyage by some passenger boat. 
More probably, however, the fruiterer was 
trading on the fair name and fame of this 
renowned island ! 

It is unlikely that any profitable trade in 
bananas could be carried on between Ceylon 


The Supplement to the Tropical Agriculturist 


and England, in view of the peculiar facilities 
available to the West Indies, and particularly 
the Canaries. 

Mr. Macmillan, Curator of the R B Gardens, 
who has recently been making notes of the 
tropical fruit at Covent Gardens, should be able 
to tellus something interesting.—Yours truly, 

Cc. D. 


Il. 
Peradeniya, April 7th. 

Dear Si1r,—With reference to ‘‘C,D.”’’s letter 
I can only support suggestion with regard to the 
origin of the ‘‘Ceylon Bananas” at Leicester. 
Commercially, of course, no bananas are imported 
into Covent Garden (the fruit emporium of 
England) from East of Suez, the English markets 
being supplied by the Canary Islands and, 
lately, by Jamaica. 


On a recent visit to a fruitarian (which is 
distinct from vegetarian) restaurant in London, 
I tasted ‘‘ dried bananas,” which are made up in 
the form of dried figs; they are peeled, halved, 
and pressed in smal! wooden boxes, which hold 
perhaps a dozen each. la this condition they 
keep in good order for a comparatively long 
time, which can by no means be said of the 
usual shop bananas, 

It is interesting to note the variety of uses to 
which bananas are now adapted, such as 
‘‘ banana flour ” (for bread), ‘‘ banana oats” (for 
porridge), ‘‘ banana custard powder,” ‘‘ banana 
cocoa,” ‘* banana cake,” ‘t blanc mange,” ‘‘ jelly 
powders,” and ‘‘ banana health salts.” A Com- 
pany has been formed in London recently under 
the name of ‘‘ Banana Fruit Foods Company,” 
which has for its object the preparation of such 
substances as those named.—Yours faithfully, 


H. F. MACMILLAN, 


[We are much obliged to Mr H F Mac- 
millan for his informing letter. We trust 
experiments in dried bananas will be made 
here, under Peradeniya or Agricultural Society 
auspices, and’shipments sent home; the great 
thing will be to. select the right kinds and see 
they are properly desiccated, and packed. Even 
then the ‘‘ Banana Fruit Foods Company,” 
dealing in West Indian and Canaries bananas, 
will probably have the pull.—A. M. & J. F.] 


ITI. 
April 14th. 

Dear §1r,—Mr Macmillan’s letter with re- 
ference to bananas in London ought to settle 
the question of the possibility of exportin 
Ceylon fruit to England. The geographica 
position of this Colony places it at a great 
disadvantage when compared with the 
Western tropics. Some time ago. banana 
figs (Mafuta brand) reached Ceylon, but I 
have not heard of the article—an excellent 
preparation—lately. There is no reason why 
this form of preserving our plantains should 
not be carried on locally. Of. the other 
banana preparations mentioned by Mr. Mac- 
millan, Messrs. Miller & Co, of Colombo. kept 
this in stock for some time; but, I believe, 
gave up doing so as there was no demand 
for them,—Yours faithfully, 


AGRICULTURIST. 


and Magazine of the Ceylon Agriculiural Society. 


TAPPING OF YOUNG AND OLD 
RUBBER. 


Kandy; March 27th. 


Dear S1x,—I send you extract from a letter 
dated 25th, received trom Mr J Anderson of 
Bandarapola, which goes to support the conten- 
tion of Mesers, Clayton, Beade & Stephens in 
their summary arrived at in their last Report 
to the Lanadron Rubber Estates :—‘'The qua- 
lity of Rubber is not affected by the age ot the 
tree that yields the latex.” 


Mr Anderson gces further and states that 
young Cearas don't go and die like old ones 
when they are tapped.—Yours faithfully, 


Ww. D.G. 


(Extract referred. tv). 

‘¢In supporting what you were writing about 
in the Observer the other day 7¢ Rubber taken 
from young trees, I enclose for your perusal 
and return Report on and _ selling Contract 
for a small case of Ceara Rubber I sent home 
in December. This Rubber was taken from 
trees, self-sown seedlings, only two to three 
years.old, and at the sale it was said only two 
or three marks got jd. higher. The proof of the 
pudding is in the eating of it! I might also add 
that young Cearas don’t go and die like old ones 
when they are tapped.” 


Extract from Messrs. Gow, Wilson & Stan- 
ton’s Report, dated 25th January, 1909. 1. Case 
Biscuit No. 1. Description. Fine pale and palish 
biscuits. The Rubber is strong. and in excellent 
condition. Value 5/3d. per Ib. 


Selling Contract, Bandarapola. 1 Case Rub- 
ber Biscuits, Price 5/3d. per ib. 


[‘“W, D. G,” returns to the charge fortified 
with an expression of opinion by a_ planter, 
whose views like his own carry weight. But if, as 
Mr, Anderson says, the proof of the pudding is the 
eating of it, how is it that the London brokers 
— Messrs, Lewis & Peat particularly—year after 
year advise the Ceylon planters to keep their 
rubber from young trees separate from that 
taken from mature trees? They have evidently 
tested young rubber and found it wanting. 
All that Mr. Anderson says may be perfectly 
correct ; but the fact that manufacturers paid a 
high price for immature rubber is not likely to 
soften their resentment if they find subsequently 
that it does not contain the nerve and resi- 
liency necessary for the goods to which it is de- 
voted. We should very much like to see definite 
experiments carried out and the opinion of 
manufacturers—whose taste in the matter it is 
we have to consider—secured on the point. 
Could not half-a-dozen of the well-known Ceylon 
rubber estates prepare samples from trees 6 to 10 
years old and. upward and from 3 to 4 years old 
trees and submit them to some recognised autho- 
rity to be tested ? his would satisfactorily 
settle—once and for all—a very important point, ] 


403 
THE NEW TAPPING SYSTEM. 


A REPLY TO CRITICISMS. 

The chief indictment which has been levelled 
against this system is, of-course, that it encou- 
rages the tapping of immature trees, and that, 
in consequence, during the next few yearsa 
large quantity of inferior rubber will besent into 
the market from Ceylon with, possibly, disas- 
trous results to the reputation of the plantation 
article. While it is pointed out that no one is 
bound to use the system for this purpose, and 
that the question of the age at which their 
trees shall be tapped remains a matter 
for the proprietors, at the same time the 
claim made in the first circular issued, 
namely, that the system will enable trees to 
be profitably tapped at three years old, is ad- 
hered to. It is one that is made on the grounds 
both thata remunerative return can be obtained 
from tapping three-year old trees, and that the 
rubber is not inferior. Owing to the fact that 
the latex is obtained, not by wound response, 
as was the case under the old method, but by a 
steady natural draining of the tree, it is asserted 
that the product of the three-year old tree is 
equal in quality to that of the five-year old tree 
under the old system. This is shown by the fact, 
borne out by repeated experiment, that a quan- 
tity of latex taken out of the tree by the new 
system yields a considerably larger percentage 
of dry rubber than the same quantity of latex 
drawn by means of paring in the old fashion. 
The same quantity of latex is yielded by 
both systems, but it is found that the 
latex obtained by the new system yields 
a greater amount of rubber. This, it is 
pointed out, supports the contention that the 
new system, bya natural process of draining, 
ebtains the real latex in the cells, whereas by 
wound response the tree was forced into yiel- 
ding a liquid that contained very often mini: 
mum amount of rubber. Moreover, by the old 
process, portions of the tree were left entirely 
untapped, whereas it can be easily demonstrated 
that allthe latex is attracted by natural filtra- 
tion to one spot and the tree thoroughly drained 
by the Northway system. Sheets of rubber 
obtained from three-year-old trees by the new 
system have been compared with those made 
from the latex of five-year old trees extracted 
by paring, and, as faras they can be_ tested by 
all available methods, there is no difference in 
the quality. The colour of the three-year old 
rubber is good and there is no sign of resin, In 
the same way it is claimed that the latex of five: 
year old trees is equal to that obtained by the 
old process from 7-year-old trees, etc., the new 
system, so to speak, adding 2 years to the age 
of tho tree. 


The next point is the injury done to the trees. 
One important point that has been forgotten by 
some of the critics is that it has not been claimed 
for the system that it increases the yield of the 
tree. What has been asserted is that it yields 
the same amount of rubber in half the time and 
at half the cost. This result, as has been already 
pointed out, is achieved because the natural 
method of draining the laticiferous cells has 
been discovered, For instance, 58 mature 


404 


trees in 24 days by the new process gave 55 
lb. of dry rubber, whereas under the old 
system it took many more days—say about 
55—to secure that quantity of rubber. The 
fact that the bark is not stripped is, of course, 
claimed as perhaps the greatest advantage of the 
new process. The exact use of the latex in the 
tree has never been, discovered, and not only Mr 
Herbert Wright in his book but other experts 
have asserted that the mere extraction of this 
fluid, apart from the removal of bark, has not 
been proved by exhaustive experiments to have 
the least injurious effect on the health or vigour 
ofthe tree. There have been plenty of warn- 
ings, however, against too drastic or frequent 
stripping of bark. Under the new system not 
only are the resources of the tree which would 
be expended in bark-renewal conserved, but 
the cambium is protected by the bark re- 
maining. In short it is claimed that the old 
system was entirely wrong, and that by it 
the minimum amount of rubber is obtained 
by doing almost the maximum amount of 
injury to the tree. It can be demonstrated 
that large portions of the surface were not 
drained at all, while other parts were probably 
over-drained. The new system, with the mini- 
mum amount of damage, extracts the maximum 
amount of latex in the shortest time. The 
visible difference in the character of the latex 
(as is testified to by all who have seen thesystem) 
is remarkable as compared with the old methods. 
Experience has amply proved that, under the 
old system, as you proceeded, the latex became 
gradually weaker ; under the new method, having 
obtained, say, t1b. of rubber per tree from five 
year old trees, you leave the tree alone for two 
months, though it has been found that in a short 
time the tree is again full of latex. 


Kandy, April 7th. 
Dear Sik,—Tapping “virum que cano.” Who 
is to be modern Virgil to immortalise the com- 
ing war between Northway and his pricking pro- 
cess of securing latex, backed by the mighty P.A. 
errata aus Petch, the Peradeniya Mycologist? 
he last circular issued by the Royal Botanic 
Gardens, and fathered by Mr; T. Petch, sums 
up his warnings as follows :—‘*The question of 
burrs on the renewed bark deserves serious 
attention ; indeed, it might justly be said that 
this is more important than any disease at 
present known in Hevea cultivation, because it 
raises the question: whether in many cases it 
will be possible to tap twice on the same area” 
and ‘‘ the point should be considered most care- 
fully before new systems of tapping based on the 
use of the pricker are adopted, and it must be 
remembered that two years atleast must elapse 
before the effects of any system can be seen.” 
This isa matter that affects the tree, not the 
quality of the latex.—Yours truly, D 


Il. 


° 


Neboda, April 7th. 
Sir,—I am very glad to see so many places 
taking up the new tapping system; but I do 
hope that there will be no attempt to putin 
large acreages till the system has been proved. 
500 trees under the system for six weeks will 
either set the superintendent swearing or re- 


The Supplement to the Tropical Agriculturist 


joicing. It must not be taken for granted that, 
because acertain method is successful on one 
estate, it will be equally successful on some other 
estate, unless conditions are the same. I hope 
I may be wrong, but I do not believe it is suit- 
able to the general run of estates which are not 
manured and more or less steep. You have to 
be mighty careful with a tree which has only 
the common soil to live on; but with the 
manured tree, what can’t you do with it? 

Some of the statements in your article some 
days ago nearly take one’s breath away ; but 
all I ask is that the system be properly tested 
before a largenumber of treesare set aside for it; 
and the more estates which try it, the more con- 
clusive will be the decision one way or the other. 

Pricking 1 have always had the greatest res- 
pect for, because it would seem to be such a bark- 
saver, and therefore, a saving on the energies of 
the tree as compared with paring. I have, how- 
ever, never been able to obtain the same satis- 
factory results with the former as with the latter, 
and am now inclined to somewhat, if not wholly, 
discount this theory. 

What appears to happen is that the tissue 
round the wound made by the pricker decays, 
and in healing is worked right out through the 
bark. Some fow days after pricking these little 
scabs can be prised out with a penknife. Then, 
of course, the pricker having touched the cam- 
bium, a small growth takes place which covers 
the whole of the area of the wound where the 
pricker actually found contact with thecambium. 
Judging from the green or active appearance of 
the tissues between the wounds, there would 
appear to be considerable more claim on the 
energies of the tree than would first appear. 

I should say that my remarks do not in any 
way apply tothe Malay States, where the con- 
ditions prevailing I have only heard of. I have 
no actual knowledge of them.—Yours, &c., 


G. H GOLLEDGE. 


[The new system of tapping has so much to 
commend it that most planters will be pre- 
pared to take the risks of possibly injuring 
their trees rather than waiting to see the 
harmlessness of the system demonstrated by 
time. Whether the new system of tapping, 
based on the use of the pricker, will eventually 
prove disastrous to the rubber tree or not, 
remains to be proved; but should it unfortu 
nately turn out to be injurious, the revelation 
will bea bitter one to many. ‘‘W.D.G.” in a 
letter elsewhere emphasises a warning uttered 
by Mr. Petch on the point. Mr. G H Golledge 
in his letter advocates caution in adopting the 
new system until it is proved to be thoroughly 
safe on the tree. And from his considerable a 
rience his counsel will carry weight.-A.M.&J.F’.] 


METHODS OF TAPPING HEVEA 
BRASILIENSIS. 


Peradeniya, April 9th. 
Srz,—Since Circular No. 18 was passed for 
publication, a pamphlet on Methods of Tap- 
ping Hevea Brasiliensis by Dr. H Fitting has 
come to hand. Lenclose a translation of that 
part of it which relates to the use of the pricker. 


and Magazine of the Oeylon Agricultural Society. 


It will be observed that Dr. Fitting discusses 
the question from quite a different standpoint 
from that ot the circular. Dr. Fitting is one of 
the foremost physiological botanists of the day. 

To obviate confusion it may be noted that 
‘* secondary cortex” is the cortex tapped by 
the planter ; primary cortex only exists tem- 
rorarily on green stems. 

T, PETCH. 


(Extract referred to), 


‘‘And finally the important question, whether 
the pricker should be used or not, must be 
discussed. This instrument has no doubt cer- 
tain advantages. In the first place, the cut with 
the knife need not be made so deep into the 
inner cortex, and, therefore, less cortex is cut 
away: secondly, it isnot necessary to remove 
strips of cortex so frequently, and therefore, 
the tapping period can be prolonged, But the 
planter must not delude himself into believing 
that the pricker does not cut through all the 
food channels in the cortex down to the cam- 
bium, just asa deeper cut with the knife would 
and thatthe worker with this instrument does 
not all too easily destroy the cambium. ; 

‘“ But the question whether the pricker is a 
suitable instrument must be decided by the 
influence it has upon the renewal of the cortex. 
If no difference results between the use of the 
pricker and a deeper cut with a knife. then 
the pricker can be used without hesitation. 
Since researches on this point have hitherto, 
most strangely, not been instituted, {£ have 
used, in the case of trees which were tapped 
on the herring-bone system, the knife only, and 
the combination of knife and pricker, on the 
alternate tapping surfaces (i.e. the uppermost 
tapping surface was tapped with the knife only, 
the second with the knife and pricker, the third 
with the knife only, etc., apparently it was 
‘ half-herring-bone.’ Itwill be noted that this 
method avoids any possible differences due to 
the individuality of different trees.—T.P.) 


‘1 have thoroughly examined microscopically 
the cortex which was renewed in four to five 
months. Where the pricker was not used, the 
cortex, which does not differ from normal 
secondary cortex, contained many latex vessels. 
But the sections which were made through the 
cortex on which the pricker had been used showed 
quite a different structure. Wherever the teeth 
had penetrated to the neighbourhood of the 
cambium, the latter had constructed new cortex 
with numerous groups of ‘stonecells’, but 
without or almost without any latex vessels. 
Where, on the other hand, the teoth of the 
pricker had not penetrated through the inner 
cortex, the latter contained latex vessels vither 
irregularly arranged, or arranged in rows as in 
normal secondary cortex. The whole surface of 
the renewed cortex was uneven : everywhere 
between the cuts of the pricker the cortical 
tissue was swollen outwards. Thus it appears 
that the cortex is renewed much more uniformly 
on areas tapped with the knife alone than on 
areas tapped with knife and pricker alternately. 
The cortex in the former case must also be much 
sooner re-tappable than in the latter. Further 
observations, and comparison, under the micros- 
cope, of sections of the renewed bark after a 
longer interval than I could give, would deter- 


405 


mine without much difficulty how much longer 
the ripening of the cortex takes after using the 
pricker than after using the knife only, and 
whether the greater quantity of latex which can 
be obtained with the pricker compensates for 
the longer resting period required. From these 
considerations I believe that a note of warning 


‘against the use of the pricker must be sounded. 


The more so as I have often seen in plantations 
that the teeth of the pricker were forced into 
the wood. The pricker is obviously an instru- 
ment which is out of place in rational estate 
management. Rather should the cut be made 
deeper, and imore cortex and bark removed in 
tapping.” 


FOR CUTS ON CACAO TREES. 


Resin O1n as A Dressing. 


Resin oil has lately been tried as an antiseptic 
dressing for cuts and wounds on cacao trees at 
Grenada, and is reported on very favourably by 
estate owners and managers, and by the Agricul- 
tural Superintendent of the island. Coal tar was 
formerly the chief dressing used for wounds 
caused by pruning or as the result of an acci- 
dent, but it is stated that resin oil is superior 
for the purpose. The Agricultural Superinten- 
dent of Grenada (Mr R D Anstead, B.A.) re- 
porting on the matter, mentions that the oil can 
be applied easily and in a cleanly manner, and 
it is noticed that the bark of the tree does not 
shrink away at the edges of the wounds as much 
as when tar is used; further, the new bark starts 
into growth more quickly than when tar is the 
antiseptic dressing applied. On cacao estates in 
Grenada it isthe custom for a boy to follow close 
behind the pruners, and to dress all the wounds 
made on the trees. It has been found that the 
best means of applying these dressings is by the 
use of a paint brush, and in most cases brushes 
of two or three different sizes are carried, so that 
all the holes and crevices may be readily reached. 
In this way the dressing is neatly and quickly 
placed on the wound and there is less likelihood 
of any being smeared on the surrounding bark. 
This was a point to be borne in mind when tar 
was the material in use, since it frequently 
burned and damaged the bark; but no harmful 
effects have been observed from the use of resin 
oil. The only objection which has so far been 
raised against the oil is that it is not easy to 
recognise, without careful examination, which 
wounds have been dressed, and which have not 
yet received an application. This difficulty has 
been got over, however, by mixing 1 part of tar 
to 4 parts of oil. This mixture naturally pos- 
sesses the advantages of the oil dressing, and, 
owing tothe presence of the tar, wounds which 
have been treated can be recognised at a glance, 
Mr Anstead states that resin oil, or the mixture 
of oil and tar mentioned, is rapidly coming into 
use on the large estates at Grenada in place of 
coal tar, and has also been adopted at the Botanic 
Station, Experiment Station, and on the Ex- 
periment Plots. At Grenada the oil is purchased 
in cases containing 81-3 gallons at £1 5s. per 
case, Itis stated that, when properly applied, 
1 gallon of oil will go as far as 2 gallons of tar, 
so that the former material is cheaper inthe 
end,—W.I, Agricultural News, Feb, 20, 


406 
MADRAS EXPERIMENTAL PLANTING. 


The annual general meeting of the Madras 
Agri-horticultural Society was held this morning 
at 7-30. From the Annual Report, we extract :— 

PROGKESS AND CONDITION OF THE GARDEN.— 
The plantation of Agave rigida var, Sisalana 
is doing exceedingly well. 

oled during the year and produced about 55,000 
palbils, which were supplied to Mr Kirwan, in 
accordance with the agreement entered into with 
him. Suckers of this 

AGAVE 
were also supplied to him, At thetime of writing 
70 more plants are poling and it is hoped that 
they will produce about 160,000 bulbils. Twenty 
seven plants attacked by-a fungus, specimens of 
which were forwarded to the [Imperial Myco- 
logist, Pusa, last year, have been removed. The 
evtire plant was dug out, and pits six feet square 
and two feet deep were dug, all the roots being 
removed, as also the earth in which the roots 
were growing. Extensive experiments with 
Corton, 
or any other field crops, cannot be made on ac- 
count of the difficulty in watering, the water in 
the wells being brackish. A few plants cf the 
Rivers Sea Island cotton tree variety, have, how- 
ever, been grown in the Nursery. Enquiries have 
been made for this variety, and an order for 1 cwt. 
of seed was forwarded to Sir Daniel Morris, 
High Commissioner of Agriculture, West Indies. 
Under the orders of Government all the cot- 
ton seeds ordered from the West Indies have 
to be fumigated before removal from the 
Customs House. A large consignment of 
CAMPHOR 
seeds was again imported from Japan, but they 
did not turn out well. What was distributed to 
planters is reported to have failed to germinate. 
The 4,000 camphor plants raised from a previous 
supply have all been sold. 
PARA KUBBER 

seeds were also imported from Ceylon this year 
and distributed. A small quantity was sown in 
the gardens, but the percentage of germination 
was not as good as in previous years. Only one 
plant of Funtumia Elastica out of several raised 
from seed is now alive, but itis feared that it 
will not last through another long hot season. 
The seeds were received from the Director, 
Botanic Gardens, Old Calabar. New varieties of 


MANICOBA RUBBER 

seeds were kindly sent by the Director of the 
Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, in October last, 
viz., 1,000 seeds of Manihot dichotoma ‘‘Jequie.” 
1,000 seeds of Manihot piouhyensis ‘‘ Ramanso,” 

These species are found growing in the States 
of Bahia and Piauby and, according to the Kew 
Bulletin, they can be tapped in tne third and 
fourth year respectively. The seeds and plants 
uf these species appear to travel well, the plants 
sent by the Kew authorities to Calcutta, Ceylon, 
Singapore, Java and other places having 
reached their destinations in good condition. 
The seed sent to this Society also arrived in 
good order although they did not germinate 
quite as satisfactory as was expected. 

Plants of M. dichotomaand M, piauhyensis rai- 
sed have been distributed, only a few that germi- 
nated late being now available,-4, Mail. March 27. 


Twenty three plants * 


The Supplement to the Tropical Agricultwrist 


PLANTING IN THE GOLD COAST. 


(Eatracts from the Report upon the Botanical 
and Agricultural Department, 1907.) 


Intropuction.—During the year under review 
the Department was enlarged by the establish- 
ment of an Agricultural Station at Asuantsi in 
the Central Province, This station has been 
badly needed for some time and should doa 
great deal to stimulate and supply the ever 
increasing demand for Cacao and Rubber plants 
in that province. 


Starr, APPOINTMENTS, ETC.—Mr WS D Tud- 
hope was appointed Director of Agriculture on 
7th September. He left for Ceylon on the same 
date to study the different economic plants of 
that country with a view of introducing the 
Ceylon methods into the Gold Coast pices 
taking up his appointment in the Colony....... 


ApurI Boranic GakpDENs.—The number of 
plants distributed -during the year was the 
largest on record but the distribution of seeds 
was below that of last year. The total distri_- 
bution was as follows :— 


Plants. No, 
Theobroma cacao var. Forestery 10,090 
do pentagona 350 
Hevea brasiliensis (Para rubber) 10,349 
Funtumia elastica (Ofruntum rubber) 12,290 
Coffea arabica ad 44 
Cola acuminata me &7 
Various : 6,060 
39,630 
Seeds (counted) 
Funtumina elastica (Ofruntum rubber) .. 2,430,600 
Hevea brasiliensis(Para rubber) . 600,000 
Theobroma cacao var. Forestero 210,000 
Landolphia owariensis 1,414 
Eleis guineensis 1,440 
Packets of seeds « 8,243,454 
Various 10,000 
Secda by weight 200 Ib. 


TRAVELLING.—A considerable amount of travel- 
ling was donein the year. Mr Evans travelled 
for nearly six months through the different cacao 
producing districts in the Colony, giving advice 
in planting, pruning, and the preparation of the 
product for market. Several of the native staff 
travelled through Ashantiand did valuable work 
in the cacao and rubber-producing districts 


RUBBER. 


Funtomia Etastica (OrruntuM RuBBER).— 
Several of this rubber tree growing in the Gar- 
dens were tapped during the year, but we were 
again unsuccessful in extracting rubber in pay- 
ing quantities. Mr Evans carried out some ex- 
periments on trees found growing in the forests 
of Eastern Akim and extracted 54 oz, of. dry 
rubber per tree in one tapping. He averaged the 
age of the trees tapped at about 12 years. It 
appears that the conditions and soil are against 
the successful growing of this rubber tree at 
Aburi, Samples of this rubber prepared by the 
Bauhinia reticulata process mentioned in last 
year’s report, also two other samples, one pre- 
pared by a patent coagulating salt and the other 
coagulated naturally were submitted to the 
Director of the Imperial Institute who reported 
on them as follows :—...... 


and Magazine of the Ceylon, Agricultural Society. 


“RUNTUMIA RUBBER,—The four samples of Funtumia 
rubber submitted are all of good quality and it will be sean 
from the valuations obiained that consignments of similar 
character would realise satisfactory prices. The two speci- 
mens coagulated by means of an infusion of the leaves of 
“ Bauhinia reticulata ” were not quite equal in appearance 
to the other two samples and the price quoted tor them is 
consequently a littlelower. They arg, however, superior in 
chemical cowposition as they contain a much lower per- 
centage of proteid and the amounts of resin are only very 
slightly higher, The diminution in the amount of proteid 
is probably due to the fact that when coagulation is brought 
about by the use of an infusion of Bauhinia leaves the rub- 
ber separates from a much larger volume of liquid thanin 
the vthe cases with the result that the bulk of the proteid 
remains in solution.” 


‘Experiments conducted at the Imperial Institute 
with the Bauhinia leaves which accompanied the rubber 
specimens. show that a hot infusion of the leaves rapidly 
and completely coagulates the latex of Funtumia elastica. 
The infusion is acid and contains tannin, of which 8 per 
cent is present in the dry leaves. It seems probable that 
the tannin is the active coagulating agent as it has been 
found that solutions of gallo-tannic acid and Of astringent 
materials such as the pods of Acacia arabica exert a similar 
action. In places where Bauhinia leaves are not readily 
available it will therefore be possible to use some. other 
astringent product for the same purpose. 


‘This method of preparing Funtumia rubber appears to 
promise very satisfactory results as it entirely obviates the 
necessity of applying heat directly to the latex. The 


experiments in the Gold Coast should therefore be con- 
tinued with a view to the general adoption of the process.” 


The trees of this rubber producing plant have 
grown remarkably well this year. A further 
sample of rubber prepared from these trees 
was submitted to the Director of the Linperial 
Institute who reported on it as follows:—...... 


COMMERCIAL VALUE.—“Probably from 2s to 3s 6d per lb. 
in London but value uncertain. 

REMARKS.—“ This sample of Ficus Vogelii rubber is of 
rather better quality than two previous specimens from the 
Gold Coast which have been examined at the Imperial Insti- 
tute, (see reports dated 1st February and 28th August, 1906.) 
The percentage of resin is lower and that of caoutchouc 
correspondingly higher. 

“The rubber furnished by this tree is of inferior quality 
on account of the large percentage of resin which is usually 
present. If, however, it can be prepared in commercial 
quantities in the Gold Coast it would be well to forward a 
trial consignment of about 561b. of the rubber for technical 
trial, as was suggested in the report on rubbers from the 
Gold Coast dated the 28th August, 1906.”—(S¢d) WyNDHAM 
R-DUNSTAN. Dec. 17th, 1907.” [It had 60 per cent of Caout- 
chouc.—ED. C.0.} 


LANDOLPHIA OWARIENSIS (WHITE RUBBER 
Vi1Nu).--Specimens of leaves and fruit of this 
plant were collected in the Northern Territories 
by a native assistant of the Department and he 
reported it to be a root rubber and species of 
Clitandra. The specimens collected by him 
were sent to Kew and the authorities there de- 
scribed it as Landolphia owariensis. It appears 
that this plant forms a sort of underground stem 
or rhizome in the open country. Samples of 
rubber obtained at the same time were sub- 
mitted to the Director of the Imperial Institute 
who reported on them as follows :--...... 

COMMERCIAL VALUE.—‘‘The ‘biscuits’ were valued by 
brokers at 3s to 3s 3d per lb. in this country, with fine hard 
Para from Sonth America quoted at 3s S$d per lb. on the 
same date. i : 

REMARKS.—" This rubber is of good quality and deserves 
further attention, It would be an advantage both in 
preparing and packing the rubber for export if the biscuits 
were made larger and thicker, say from } to 3-8 inch thick. 
Consignments of similar quality would always be readily 


saleable. Steps should be taken to procure complete 


botanical specimens of the plant yielding this rubber for 
determination.” 


{This had 86°3 per cent. of caoutchouc.—Ep., C.0.] 

ManrHor PrEcosA,—These trees have made 
satisfactory progress during the year, some of 
the largest are now 14 feet in height with a 
girth of 7 inches at 3 feet from the ground. 


407 


Hevea BrasiLiensis (Para RuBBeR), — The 
trees in this plot that were planted during 1901 
fruited during the year, The seeds, were sown 
and 100 per cent germinated, 


THEOBROMA Cacao var, ForasteRo.— These 
trees have fruited well during the year and over 
10,000 pods were sent out to planters in different 
parts of the Colony for planting purposes. 


THEOBROMA PentTacona.—The plants of this 
species that were planted out last year are 
growing well and over 100 plants were again 
successfully grafted on to the stocks of Theo- 
broma cacao var. Forastero and are growing 
satisfactorily. 


THEOBROMA Cacao var. OcuMARE.—This 
variety is growing remarkably well and experi- 
ments are being carried out to see how this 
variety behaves when grafted on the forastero 
type. In last year’s report mention was made 
that 8 tons 14 cwt. of cacao prepared by nine 
farmers shipped to England through the Gov- 
ernment with a view of ascertaining what a 
better prepared cacao would really fetch. 


- Below is a report by Mr Crowther, Secretary 
for Native Affairs, which was published in the 
Government Gazette, in June, 1907 :— 


Representations as to the trade conditions of the cacao 
industry having been made to the Government by several 
of the more intelligent native planters, His Excellency the 
Governor in September, 1906, gave instructions for an 
experimental shipment to be made. The chief causes 
of complaint were that the local merchant purchased 
the raw product at a fixed price irrespective of the quality 
or condition of the bean, and that the price paid to the 
farmer was such as toallow an unduly high proportion of 
profit to pass into the pockets of the local merchant. 


2, Correspondence passed between the Government and 
the Director of Imperial Institute, and, as a result a con- 
signment was made in the manner, and with the results 
described below. The cacao grown and prepared by native 
farmers was brought to the Botanic Station at Aburi, ard 
finally dried under the supervision of the Acting Director 
of Agriculture. It was conveyed to the coast by means of 
head loads and motor-lorries. The total quantity brought 
in was 8 tons 14 cwt. and this was shipped in two consign- 
manta to a firm of brokers in Liverpool who placed it on the 
market, : $ 


3. Between the time when the experimental sale was 
suggested and the date of its completion, however, trade 
had undergone a radical change. There had been a marked 
increase in the demand for West African cocoa and also in 
the supply; the price paid for the raw product in the 
English markets had risen from 40 per cent. to 50 per ce nt 
and there was a rise of corresponding proportions, due to 
the competition of buyers who refused to join the local 
“ eombine” of merchants, in the sum paid to the local 
farmer. These circumstances, gratifying as they are, hada 
tendency to render less prominent that feature of the ex- 
periment that it was most desired should be’ brought into 
light; namely, the superior quality that may be obtained 
by the employment of greater care in the preparation of 
the bean; for it was quantity rather than guatity that the 
abnormal demand sought. But, nevertheless, the result 
can be regarded only with satisfaction, 


4. The cacao which was exported in two shipments was 
placed on the market on two. different dates. The first con- 
signment sold in one lot on the 22nd January, realised 68/- 
per cwt. The second consignment was sold in six lots on 
February the 8th, of these, two lots realised 65/-, one 67/-, 
one 68/-, one 69-, and one 70/- per cwt. Taking into consi- 
deration the actual quantities of these sales the average 
price for the second shipment was 67/- per cwt., and for 
the whole consignment 67/8 per cwt., a sum which repre- 
sents 2/8 above the quoted current price. 


5.. When such charges as freight, transport, commission, 
&c,, are deducted the amount due to the grower is 56/3 
per cwt., which, as the current price paid by the local 
merchant at the time of this trial shipment was 50/-, is 
equivalent to an increase of 12} per cent. That is to say, 
the local merchant has a sum equal to 12} per cent. of the 
pea he pays for the raw product—out of which must come 

is office expenses, risk and-profit.. — j J 


408 


6. Accepting the amount realised on the home market 
at 67/6 per cwt the proportion of this sum which goes to the 
grower atthe local market is equal to 74 per cent ; the cost 
of transport from the local market to the port of shipment, 
freight, commission, and other charges is equal to 16} per 
cent ; and the proportion due to the local merchant is equal 
to 9} per cent. The figure of the percentage falling to the 
producer appears higher than it is in reality, as the cost of 
transport from the farm to the local market is such that 
every average day’s journey of 20 miles reduces it by a sum 
equal to + percent of the sale value of the raw product on 
the English market. : 

7. The experiment proves that a well prepared cacao will 
realise a higher price than one of an indifferent grade, and 
it has disclosed figures representative of the normal propor- 
uions of the profit falling to the hands of the various sec- 
sions of those engaged in the trade.—(Signed) FRANCIS 
CROWTHER, Acting Secretary for Native Affairs. 


HOW TO OBTAIN PALE RUBBER. 


There being a difference in price of over 
30 cents per lb. between pale and darker biscuits 
and crepe, ‘‘Onlooker,” in our contemporary, 
describes a practical application of the principle 
of destroying enzyme with slight modifications:— 

‘When coagulating the many vessels containing 
the latex were stood in another large vessel con- 
taining hot water of about 160° Fahrenhoit, and 
kept at that temperature. The coagulation took 
place much quicker than that coagulated in the 
ordinary way. The rubber when manufactured 
was of avery uniform pale colour. Result over 
30 cents per lb. greater average price than the 
other estate that coagulated cold. 

“ Assuming that by this method one’s rubber 
sells for only 3d per lb. more, is it not worth 

. doing 2? The only extra cost, apparently, is the 
value of the water and firewood and a thermo- 
meter, and the labour in boiling the water. On 
an out-turn of 50,000 lb. rubber it means a 
difference in profit of R9,000, which is worth 
looking for. On the ‘hot water’ estate all 
collecting cups, carrying pails, and coagulating 
pans were daily washed in this hot water, and 
were always kept perfectly clean; not so on 
the others.” 


PRECOCITY IN RUBBER TREE. 


(fo the Editor, ‘Straits Bulletin.’’) 

Dear Mr Ridley,—With reference to your 
article in the August number of the Bulletin 
on ‘*Precocity of Rubber Trees” it may in- 
terest you to learn that on 23rd Dec., 1908, we 
successfully raised seedlings from seed obtained 
from a Para tree planted as a stump in June, 
1906: the fruit set in 28 months, and the re- 
sultant seedlings sprouted 30 months from date 
of planting out the stump. Over fifty trees 
flowered within 28 months of planting out the 
stumps and four of these set fruit within 30 
months. In all cases stumps were not more 
than 12 months old when planted out.—Yours 
faithfully, 


Frank E. Lease. 

Note on above.—Mr Lease’s trees, though very 
precocious, are not much more so than the ones 
mentioned in the paper referred to, as their age 
works out to40 months from seed, i.e., 3 years 
and 4 months. The objection to precocity is 
not based on any supposed weakness of the off- 
spring of the trees, about which, as Sir William 
Thiselton-Dyer says, we have no evidence ; but 
upon its action on the tree itself, i.e., whether or 
no such trees are short-lived. Inthe case of 


The Supplement to the Tropical Agriculturist 


Nutmegs fruiting in three years, instead of the 
normal seven, it is strongly believed, and there 
is some evidence for it, that such trees die out 
more quickly than the normal ones, There is 
no advantage to be gained by the rubber planter 
in his trees fruiting early, but there is a great 
advantage in their being large and stout trees 
early. In the early fruiting trees I have seen 
and mentioned the stems were very well deve- 
loped and as big as they would have been ordi- 
narily at the usual time for fruiting four-and- 
a-half to five years. The original Singapore 
trees fruited in the fifth year, but the bulk of 
the trees descended from them were raised. from 
seed when the trees were much older.—Straits 
Agricultural Bulletin for April. 


COCONUT BEETLES IN THE STRAITS. 


In his annual report on the Singapore Bota- 
nic Gardens for 1908 Mr H N Ridley writes of 
Singapore:— 

The red beetle seems to have got quite scarce 
among the estates and most of the harm is now 
done by the black one. These, however, seem 
quite to have disappeared from the vast 
accumulations of sawdust at the sawmills in 
Rochore, where they formerly bred in myriads 
and gave some trouble as it was impossible to 
destroy the immense amount of sawdust, in 
which they bred. Much of this ground has now 
been built over, and the beetles seem to have 
entirely disappeared; another kind of beetle was 
found in some trees with the black beetle; a 
large species of Elater. Only afew were found 
and these had apparently entered the burrows 
of the Oryctes to feed and are probably harm— 
less,—S. F'. Press, April 6. 


COFFEE AS CATCHCROP WITH 
RUBBER. 


(fo the Editor, Straits Bulletin.) 
Golden Hope State, Klang, Feb. 27th, 1909. 
Dear Sir,—The following may be of some 
interest to any of your readers, who may have 
planted coffee as a catchcrop with rubber or 
planted rubber through old coffee in alluvial 
soil. They are figures giving result of the 

working for year 1908 on this estate: 


Planted with Interplanted with Field of 
Acreage. Coffee Para Rubber Clean Coffee 
10* lo 30%15 Per Acre 
1908 
30 13 Years ago -April 1905 54 piculs 
35 do do 34 do 
35 do do 56-7 do 
33 do do 6 2-5 do 
27 123 Years ago not interplanted 10 do 
152 1l_ ,, average interplanted 


Apr. 03 14-5 do 
I have, &c., your obedient servant, 
Epmonp B. Prior. 
—Straits Agricultural Bulletin for April. 


HEVEA BRASILIENSIS OR PARA 
RUBBER. 

The third edition (304 p.p. 92 illustrations)—of 
this standard publication by Herbert Wright is 
having a large sale. Copies can be procured 
from our agents in the East, from Messrs Mac- 
laren & Sons, Ltd. 37 & 38, Shoe Lane, London, 
E.C, and from this office—A. M.&J. Ferguson, 
Office of the Ceylon Observer and Tropical Agri- 
culturist, Colombo. 


x 
‘ 


Starch >» 


EFFECT OF TAPPING ON THE DISTRIBUTION OF STARCH 
IN HEVEA. 


(Note.—The faint shading within the dotted line should have been 
omitted. The black dots indicate starch. ) 


TROPICAL AGRICULTURIST 


MAGAZINE OF THE 


CEYLON AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY. 


Von. XXXII, 


COLOMBO, MAY 15rx, 1909, 


No. 3S. 


=< 


oO = 


Reviews. 


RUBBER TAPPING METHODS. 


Physiologische Grundlagen zur Bewer- 
tung der Zapfmethoden bei Kautschuk- 
baumen. (Physiological principles by 
which to reckon the relative value of 
rubber-tapping methods) by Dr. Hans 
Fitting. (Beihette zum Tropenpflanzer, 
Feb., 1909). 

Professor Fitting visited the tropical 
gardens of Buitenzorg in 1907 under the 
system of subsidies provided by the Ger- 
man Goverament. He there devoted 
himself toa scientific study of the physio- 
logy of rubber bark in its relation to the 
various methods of tapping in vogue, 
with the result that he has arrived at 
conclusions of so much interest to rubber 
planters, that we do not think any 
apology is needed for giving a brief 
account of them, Professor Fitting’s in- 
vestigations draw attention to the fact 
that the bark of the rubber tree, in 
addition to being the seat of the forma. 
tion and storage of latex, also provides 
the channels through which food sub- 
stances manufactured by the leaves find 
their way to the roots and base of the 
tree. Not only are these food supplies 
necessary for the growth of the roots 
and consequently for the general wel- 
fare and health of thetree, but they also 
provide the material from which the 
actual rubber is formed in the latex 
tubes. It is therefore of the highest 
importance to preserve the integrity of 


the channels through which the down- 
ward food current passes. Any trans- 
verse cut through the bark and penetrat- 
ing to the cambium will stop the down- 
ward current of food-bearing sap for as 
much of the circumference of the tree 
as the cut occupies, and it is well known 
that if a tree is completely and effec- 
tively ringed it must ultimately die, 
because in this case the food supply of 
the roots is cut off altogether. The slop- 
ing cut made in all the ordinary methods 
of tapping, although it does not 1each 
the cambium, also materially checks this 
downward current, especially if it is 
combined with the use of the pricker; 
and the wider the area of bark operated 
upon becomes, the greater is the obstruc- 
tion caused in the vitalizing current. 
It is highly probable that the ill-effects 
of over-tapping are quite as much due 
to checking of the downward food sup- 
ply as they are to the actual removal of 
latex. Professor Fitting therefore joins 
issue with Mr. Herbert Wright with 
regard to the well-known dictum of the 
latter—‘‘ The best method of tapping is 
that which extracts the maximum 
amount of latex from the tree with 
removal of the minimum quantity of 
cortical tissue, and without damaging 
the thin layer of cambial cells.” He 
maintains, on the contrary, that the 
best results will be obtained in the long 
run by those methods which leave the 
widest possible area of free bark un- 
blocked in a vertical direction, ana 
therefore advocates such a system as the 


410 


herring bone or half-herring bone, in 
which only a quarter of the tree’s cir- 
ecumference is tapped at a time. Inci- 
dentally we may point out that Professor 
Fitting’s observations explain the pheno- 
menon observed by Mr. Chas. Northway 
in the application of his basal V system. 
After paring one V at the base of the 
tree for some time, a second V_ was 
started a foot above the old one, and 
it was found that the yield from this 
second V was now little less than that 
from the first, although if two Vs are 
started simultaneously, one a foot above 
the other, the initial yield from the 
upper V is very much smaller than that 
from the lower. This must be due to 
the fact that the downward stream of 
food-laden sap is checked by the first 
basal V, and the concentrated tood 
supply is then used by the cells above 
in the production of a larger amount of 
rubber than would otherwise have been 
formed. 


New systems of rubber tapping are in 
the air, and we strongly recommend 
Professor Fitting’s observations to the 
serious consideration of the authors of 
these new systems. 


We append a diagram showing the 
distribution of the food materials as 
they pass downwards and _ become 
checked by the operation of pat 

: ely 


COTTON CULTIVATION: ITS EX- 
TENSION IN CEYLON. 
Report by Mr. J. Stewart J, McCall, 
Director of Argiculture, Nyasaland. Cir- 
culars and Agricultural Journal of the 
Royal Botanic Gardens, Ceylon, Vol. IV., 
No. 19, March, 1909. 


The world’s demand for cotton in- 
creases steadily; the supply does not at 
present show signs of responding to 
the demand by a proportionate increase. 
Egypt and America, the two great 
sources of better class cottons, are, it 
appears, already producing almost up 
to their full capacity for this kind of 
crop. Now, if ever, is the time to extend 
the cultivation of cotton into new 
territories, and to improve the yield 
and value of the’ fibre in regions where 
it is already grown. 


Extensions are already being rapidly 
made in Africa. The West African crop 
for 1907, we learn, was promising, but 
the East African crop, on the other 
hand, was injured by disease. Nyassa- 
land has now the advantage of having 
a cotton expert as its Director of Agri- 
culture in the person of the writer of 
the report under review. It seems un- 
likely, however, that the extension of 
cotton cultivation in Tropical Africa 


[May, 190 9 


will either meet the demand or materi- 
ally reduce the price of this commodity 
for some time to come. 


Under these circumstances Mr. Mce- 
Call’s report appears ata very opportune 
moment. And the view which he takes 
of the prospects of cotton as a staple 
crop for the drier regions of Ceylon is, 
we are glad to observe, on the whole, 
distinctly favourable. The account given 
of the poineer work already carried out 
at the Experiment Station at Mahailup- 
palama isan appreciative one, and the 
writer believes that when certain sug- 
gested modifications have been made 
in the methods adopted, this experi- 
mental cultivation will rapidly be 
brought toa highly satisfactory condi- 
tion of efficiency. 


The report isan eminently practical 
one; and the writer gives a detailed 
account of the exact methods which in 
his opinion should be adopted for the 
eultivation of cotton under the condi- 
tions obtaining in the North-Central 
Province of Ceylon. For details re- 
ference must be made to the report it- 
self, which was reprinted in full in the 
last number of this Journal. 


One point upon which Mr. McCall 
lays stress may here be emphasised. 
The introduction of a new annual crop 
into any country is invariably followed 
by certain changes in habit and quality, 
which ought to be carefully watched in 
order that beneficial variations may 
be encouraged and harmful ones elimin- 
ated. Inthe case of cotton, especially, 
itis well known that, in order to keep 
up the quality of the crop, careful me- 
thods of selection must be applied. This 
necessary selection of seed-bearers is 
a task which can be undertaken to some 
extent by the ordinary cultivator under 
expert supervision. On the other hand 
we are faced with a strictly scientific 
problem in the desirability of breeding a 
special cotton of the highest possible 
quality suited to the conditions of 
Ceylon cultivation. 


Mr. McCall very properly calls atten- 
tion to the Imperial aspects of cotton 
cultivation. He considers that more 
than a fifth of the population of Great 
Britain is more or less directly connect- 
ed with cotton in trade. There are 
therefore reasons, apart from those of 
gain, which make the growing of cotton 
desirable ina British Colony; reasons 
at least strong enough we trust to make 
the intending cultivator favour this 
particular cultivation in perference to 
one of smaller imperial importance so 
long as the latter has not been shown 
to be the more paying proposition of 
the two. 

R. H. L. 


\\ 


‘VAINSOVYsd ‘NOILVLS LNAWIYS¢dXS 3HL NO VWOLOHOIG LOHINVW 
‘unyuonyy “T “HH fq 010UT 


May, 1909.] 


411 


GUMS, RESINS, SAPS ANU EXUDATIONS. 


THE NEW RUBBERS. 
[Paper read before the Board of Agri- 
culture on April 7, 1909.] 


A good deal of information has 
appeared during the past year in the 
“Tropical Agriculturist ” and elsewhere 
concerning certain novel varieties of 
Manihot, the genus to which Ceara 
Rubber belongs. The reports so far 
received as to the growth and yield of 
these rubber trees in their native country 
are so remarkably promising that little 
or no apology seems required for an 
attempt to put briefly before you a 
summary of what is known at present 
about these new and _ interesting 
species. 


The first piece of information with 
regard to these species to be received at 
Peradeniya came in the form of a 
circular from Messrs. Vilmorin, Andrieux 
& Co., the great firm of seedsmen in 
Paris, dated February 15, 1907. In this 
circular a price was quoted for a large- 
seeded species of Manihot—name un- 
known—which was stated to be superior 
in many respects tothe Manihot glaziovw 
or Ceara Rubber. An order for 1,000 
seeds of this species was at once des- 

atched by Dr. Willis, but owing to the 
failure ot Messrs. Vilmorin’s supplies the 
order was not executed until last year. 
The seeds were received in August, 1908, 
and 500 were sown on the Experiment 
Station, Peradeniya, on the 12th of the 
month. 280 of these seeds germinated 
and developed into strong seedlings. 
They were planted out 12 by 12 feet 
apart in December, and, in spite of bad 
weather for planting, they are all doing 
remarkably well owing to special precau- 
tions taken at the advice of Mr. Kelway 
Bamber. 

At Kew, according to arecent bulletin, 
the first account of the new rubber 
plants was received in March, 1906, when 
Mr. J. A. Davy, a Brazilian planter, 
called at the Royal Gardens and left 
seeds of the Jequié Manihot or Mani- 
sobar, the plant to which the name 

anihot dichotoma has subsequently 
been given. A large consignment of the 
same seeds was sent to Kew in October, 
1906, by Mr. J. P. Rowe of Bahia, and 
from these plants were raised for distri- 
bution and sent out from Kew in 
Wardian eases on May 23, 1907, 


Acase containing 100 of these plants 
reached Ceylon in excellent condition. 


They were at first put out in a nursery 
and were finally planted out on October 
8, 1907, on level grouud 20 by 20 feet 
apart. Some of these plants have made 
excellent growth. The twelve largest 
averaged 3 inches in girth, 3 feet from 
the ground in May, 1908, and 6 to 7 inches 
in November, 1908. Some months ago 
these trees began to produce seeds, of 
which a small number has been dis- 
tributed. It is, of course, too early as 
yet to begin any experiments in tapping 
the trees, bnt the drop of latex obtained 
on pricking the stem appears to be 
decidedly rich in rubber. 


A further large supply of Manicobar 
seeds was received from Kew in Octoher, 
1908. These included, inaddition to the 
Jequié Manicobar, Manihot dichotoma, 
already mentioned, a second kind, the 
Rémanso Manicobar or Maninot piau- 
hyensis, which is said to be superior to 
the former in many respects. 2,000 
seeds of each species were sown at 
Peradeniya on November 2, 1908, whilst 
others have been planted at Maha 
Iluppalama, Henaratgoda, and _ else- 
where. Out of 200 seeds of the Dichotoma 
sown at Henaratgoda, practically all 
germinated, so that there is every pro- 
mise that the Departmeut will soon be 
in possession of a good supply of plants. 
At Peradeniya the ge:mination was not 
so good, and only a very few plants of 
the Rémanso variety have appeared. 


The three species of Manicobar which 
have been botanically described— 
Manihot dichotoma, M. piauhyensis, and 
a third M. heptaphylla, seed of which 
we have not yet succeeded in obtaining 
in Ceylon—occur wild in the Provinces 
of Bahia and Piauhy in Brazil in latitudes 
ranging from 8 to 15 degrees South. 
So far much the fullest account of 
these plants in their native country is 
that given by Dr. Ulein the ‘‘ Tropenp- 
flanzer’’ for December, 1907, a transla- 
tion of which appeared in the ‘ Tropical 
Agriculturist” for Mareh, 1908. From 
this account it appears that these species 
grow naturally in a much drier and more 
mountainous country than the Para 
Rubber (Hevea brasiliensis). 


“Here Manihot dichotoma grows in 
the true Catinga forest, and is especially 
abundant on the mountain spurs. The 
mote park-like regions where individual 
trees stand scattered is avoided by 
M,. dichotoma, which prefers a rather 
more thickly wooded country. It de- 


Gums, Resins, 


velops best ona ved loamy soil, and is 
less frequently to be found ona sandy 
substratum. Within a few miles of 
Porto Alegre onthe Rio das Contas, a 
central station for the production of 
rubber from this species of Manihot, I 
have seen the mountain spurs so thickly 
covered with this tree that it made up 
almost half the total forest.” (Ule.) 


For an account of the methods em- 
ployed in tapping these trees ina wild 
state, and of the yield so obtainable, 
reference may be made tothe above- 
mentioned translation of Dr. Ule’s 
paper, We are now more directly con- 
cerned with the value of Manicobar 
rubber as a cultivated product when 
planted on estates. Dr. Ule gives it as 
his opinion that the wild thickets of 
Manihot dichotoima will very soon cease 
to have any value as a source of rubber. 
The export of rubber from the State of 
Bahia is said to have increased more 
than ten-fold between the years 1900 and 
1906, that is to say, from 100 tons to over 
1,100 tons, but very little of this was 
from plantations. Recently, however, 
large areas in this district appear to 
have been planted up with these Mani- 
cobars, and from the accounts given by 
Ule and others the success of these 
undertakings seems to be assured.” 


It appears from the “ Agricultural 
News” of October 17, 1908, that this 
export fell off somewhat in 1907. This 
result is probably to be ascribed to 
general trade depression and not to any 
failure in the estate product. It is also 
possible that the collection of wild 
rubber may fall off more rapidly than 
can be made up for by the increase in 
estate produce. 


The recognized distance for planting 
in Brazil would appear to be at the rate 
of 1,000 trees per acre, that is to say, 6 
or 7 feet apart, and Dr. Ule speaks of 
yields of a ton of rubber per acre from 
such plantations. The ‘‘ Kew Bulletin” 
quotes Mr. Rowe, a resident of the 
country, to the following effect :—‘‘ Our 
plantations are mostly formed of young 
seedlings taken from the forest, which 
contain vast numbers. They are trans- 
planted 1,000 to the acre, and they do 
not appear to be too crowded. ‘The 
transplantation causes no apparent set 
back, and the close planting has a good 
effect in keeping down the scrub and 
undergrowth. At three years old culti- 
vated trees have yielded 7 ounces of 
rubber on the average.” As _ regards 
price, Mr. O’Sullivan Beare, H. B. M. 
Consul at Bahia, reported in 1907 thata 
planter established in the Jequié District 
prepared a considerable quantity of 
rubber obtained From Manicobar trees 


412 [May, 1909. 


growing wild in the neighbourhood and 
despatched it to New York. The con- 
signment was classified in the New York 
Market as being equal to the best Para 
Rubber, and fetched 5s. a pound. 


The following advantages are claimed 
by Messrs. Vilmorin for the new rubbers 
as compared with ordinary Ceara. 


The latex is not so thick ; it coagulates 
less rapidly, and is therefore easier to 
deal with; it yields a rubber of much 
higher quality. 

Secondly, it contains a much larger 
proportion of pure dry rubber. 


Lastly, the yield is greater. Whereas 
the raw rubbers of Ceara and Piauhy 
give only 60 to 67 per cent. of pure 
caoutchouec, the proportion obtained 
from Manihot dichotoma varies from 
70 to 92 per cent. These figures do not, 
of course, refer to plantation rubbers, 


Itis possible that some of the state- 
ments which we have quoted in the 
above notes may b3 of a more or less 
Utopian character. Still the opinion of 
Dr. Ule and of Messrs. Vilmorin is largely 
confirmed by the independent authorities 
quoted in the‘‘Kew Bulletin,” and it 
seems clear that the new rubbers are 
worthy of an extensive trial in the drier 
districts of Ceylon. The choice of one or 
the other of the three species which 
have been described will probably de- 
pend for the present upon the supply of 
seed. Of Manihot heptaphylla, which 
Dr. Ule seems to regard as somewhat 
the best of the three, no seed is at present 
available. Of the two remaining species, 
M. dichotoma is said to be the better for 
planting on a heavy clay soil and 
M. piauhyensis for light sandy soils. On 
the other hand, it must be pointed out 
that M. dichotoma is growing well at 
Paredeniya on land which cannot 
possibly be called a heavy clay. 


Manihot dichotoma germinates most 
easily of the three, and it appears to be 
quite unnecessary to file the seeds of this 
species before planting. Dr. Ule also 
states that the rubber from this 
species fetches a higher price than that 
from either of the others. On the other 
hand, he states that the yield from the 
two remaining species is decidedly 
greater. Jn the most recent article 
seen (by a Bahian planter in the 
“Journal d’Agriculture Tropicale”), M. 
dichotoma is regarded as decidedly the 
best of the three species. On the whole, 
the conclusion seems to be that any one 
of the three is very well worth a trial. 


Except possibly on land like that under 
the tanks of the North-Central Province, 
which is readily capable of machine 


May, 1909. | 


cultivation, close planting at 8 by 8 feet, 
or even less, is to be recommended. 
reservation may also be made in the case 
of the first few acres of land planted, 
where it may be worth while to give the 
trees plenty of room in order to encour- 
age the production of seed at an early 
age. But if our own experience of trees 
flowering at one year old is repeated, 
there should be nolack of seed ina 
few years’ time. Having trees at 
Peradeniya with more than a year’s 
start of the rest of Ceylon, itis perhaps 
legitimate for us to entertain the hope 
that suitable methods of tapping the 
trees and of preparing the rubber may 
be worked out there by the time the 
crop begins to be at all widely estab- 
lished. 


REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR 
OF AGRICULTURE FOR 
THK F,M.S. FOR 1907. 


THE YIELDS oF Dry RUBBER PER TREE. 


The average amount of dry rubber 
over the whole Peninsula is 1 lb.12 oz. 
per tapped tree, exactly the same 
figure as was recorded for last year. 
This is most encouraging, as the number 
of trees which are being tapped for 
the first time far exceeds those already 
tapped, especially in Selangore, where 
the average isl lb. 7. oz. per tapped 
tree. 


Experiments are being carried on in 
various parts of the Peninsula: Perak, 
Selangore and Negri Sembilan, in 
regard to yields of comparatively old 
trees which have not previously been 
tapped. Jn Krian thase experiments 
have been carried out for nearly four 
months, only half the tappabie area 
of the trees being used and space being 
left so that more than three years will 
elapse, with continuous tapping every 


other day, before the healed surface 
will be again reached. The figures 
for one year will be published in next 


year’s report, but as far as they have 
gone the yields average more than 2 lbs. 
per mensem per tree. The trees are 
planted widely apart round the edges 
at graveyard and are about 17 years 
old. 


There is as yet not sufficient evi- 
dence as to what yields may fairly be 
expected over large areas of trees from 
10 to 20 years old, but all the data which 
we have at present points to the fact 
that estimates or prophecies of pro- 
bable yields at these ages will be amply 
confirmed, 


413 


Saps and Favudations. 


JOMPARATIVE TABLES OF RUBBER 
Crops, MALAYA, 1906 AND 1907. 


No. of trees tapped. 


State. SS 
1906, | 1907 
Selangore 364,638 772,656 
Perak — 3) 67,710 132,556 
Negri Sembilan ... 91,410 240,40] 
Pahang == — 
Malacca ies *7,000 | 12,455 
Province Wellesly 20,076 | 48,000 
Johore ee 18,350 | 94,159 
Total... 599,184 | 1,300,227 
stato, Prmbborviskds tbs.) ict po 
bead : ms ree, 
1906. L907. 1907, 
lbs. lbs. lbs, oz. 
Selangore ..| 620,033 | 1,131,086] 1 7k 
Perak | 94,848 | 272,804] 2 1 
Negri Sembilan ...} 146,891 586,864 | 2 7 
Pahang : — -—— ~ 
Malacca «of * 12,000 23,490] 1 14 
Province Wellesly | *13,560 82,131} 1 11 
Johore 47,724 182,495} 1 15 
Total.. | 935,056 | 2,278,870] 1 12 


In Province is included one estate 
in Singapore, one estate in Penang, and 
one in Kedah. 


MARKET PRICES AND THEIR EFFECTS. 


Various circumstances during 1907 
led to adecreasein the extraordinary 
rapidity with which land was acquired, 
cleared and planted in rubber. In some 
cases, lack of the necessary superinten- 
dence and labour for opening land stop- 
ped work, in others a gradual increase 
of the cost of bringing an estate into 
bearing, and the fact that this increase 
had led to the cost of opening and plant- 
ing in some estates being greater than 
had been estimated hindered plans for 
future clearings. 


The steady drop in the price of rubber. 
especially during the last half of the 
year, had the effect of making capitalist 
abate the feverish anxiety to get as 
many acres planted up as quickly as 
possible and to some extent regardless 
of cost. 


These circumstances did not reduce 
the investor’s confidence in the profit- 
earning possibilities of plantation rubber 
as the share prices of Malayan Compa- 
nies showed, but the visions of Eldorado 
assumed more natural tints and led to 
a careful consideration of the most eco- 


* Those figures are approximate, 


Gums, Resins, 


nomic and improved methods in the 
cultivation of rubber. 

The industry is still yielding excep- 
tionally handsome profits, and such 
questions should be considered and ex- 
perimented without delay. Recent 
history has shown us that in the case 
of other tropical agricultural indus- 
tries the desire to practise the most 
approved methods of — cultivation, 
and the cheapest way in which to 
carry them out, came only with a drop in 
profits. Cultivated rubber in Malaya 
pays a handsome profit on money in- 
vested, but that seems to be no reason 
for not being constantly on the look- 
out to find in various directions methods 
of saving in cost of production and 
improved cultivation. 

To carry ona rubber estate or any 
other agricultural enterprise for a num- 
ber of years, paying large profits, but 
without any alteration in the manage- 
ment of the estate, the details of culti- 
vation or the preparation of the _pro- 
duct for the market, must be considered 
as curious and discreditable, since it 
shows that experience and knowledge 
has in no way helped to improve 
methods or economic working. 


The rubber market was in common 
with all other trade affected to a large 
extent by the financial trouble in Ame- 
rica. Itis the custom of manufacturers 
to keep in stock sufficient unvulcanised 
pure rubber for six months’ operations, 
it is therefore possible for them_ to 
continue to work for some time with- 
out purchasing new stocks. The stock 
in England and in Germany was conse- 
quently increased and the price very 
greatly affected. At the beginning of 
the year plantation rubber was sold at 
5s. 9d., which quickly dropped to 5s., 
recovering in July, but after that time 
dropping, quickly and steadly, till in 
November, the lowest price then record- 
ed for best plantation rubber before, 
viz., 3s.4d,, was reached, being a drop 
of 100 per cent. from the price of 15 
months previously. That this drop in 
prices was to a very large extent due 
to a financial and not to ordinary 
‘supply and demand” causes is admit- 
ted by those who have largest ex- 
perience of the fluctuations of market 
prices. The price will recover and pro- 
bably vacillate about 4s. It is satis- 
factory to remember that even the 
lowest price yet reached for plantation 
rubber is more than 100 per cent. above 
the cost of production. 


OVER-PRODUCTION AND SYNTHETIC 
RUBBER. 
The fear of over-production which 
bulked very large a year or more ago 
has, owing to moreaccurate knowledge 


414 


[May, 1909. 


of the world’s demand for rubber and 
the amount produced, to some extent 
subsided. 


The drop in prices, while having the 
effect of reducing the amount of rubber 
planted, may also to a great extent 
reduce the output from Brazil, where 
the margin of profit is much less than 
in cultivated rubber. 


This also should lead not only to a 
consideration of cheapening of methods 
of production, but to the possibilities 
of increasing the demand for rubber. 
No product lends itself more to mea- 
sures for improving and widening the 
market. The almost endless possibilities 
to the economic uses of rubber, and the 
small proportion of the purchasing 
population of the world which at present 
knows and uses rubber, both demon- 
strate the fact that measures taken to 
provide new outlets for rubber are much 
more hopeful than in the case of food 
or textile products like coffee or copra, 
which have a comparatively limited 
number of uses. 


It is not to the interests of cultivated 
rubber that the output of the Brazilian 
product should decrease very rapidly. 
There is not yet sufficient cultivated 
rubber or wild rubber from other sources 
to supply the increasing demand. 


Those who look forward to a future 
with immense areas of cultivated rubber 
in suitable climates, of which the 
Malaya Peninsula can claim to be the 
best, believe that cultivated rubber will 
in time satisfy all manufacturers in 
regard to its physical qualities and 
will be produced in sufficient quantity 
to meet the world’s requirements. 


It is not easy to foresee the future 
demands for rubber, but a substance 
which has made itself so indispensable 
to all civilised races must be required in 
increasing quantities, and the fear of 
over-production may he cancelled, by 
the quite as likely possibility of the 
supply not meeting the demand and the 
consequent resort to other substances 
as substitutes for rubber. 


The question of what are termed 
‘‘rubber substitutes” has been much 
discussed, and various scares of im- 
portant discoveries have made the flesh 
of those interested in rubber creep. 
That various substances can be used 
instead for rubber for various purposes 
is acknowledged, just as cotton can be 
used for silk, or paper for cotton, but 
that is a different question to the pro- 
duction of a substitute for rubber which 
will possess the physical properties of 
rubber to which all its commercial 
value is due. In this direction the year 


May, 1909.] 41 
1907 had nothing to show, and December, 
1907, was no nearer than December, 1906, 
to the practical solution of the problem 
which would produce a great rival to 
plantation rubber. Chemists and those 
best able to judge of the possibilities of 
the discovery of a substance having all 
the physical properties of India rubber 
made from crude materials of so cheap 
a nature as to be able to undersell the 
natural article, cannot foresee success, 
and all so-called pertect substitutes for 
rubber brought before the public have 
failed to survive investigation. 


IMPROVEMENT IN PLANTING METHODS. 


One satisfactory effect of the drop in 
prices has been a serious tendency to 
consider whether the present methods 
of opening and keeping up an estate 
could not be modified so as to save 
expense. 


In every industry profits very large 
in relation to the cost of production 
have a tendency to produce a perhaps 
too liberal treatment of expenditure, 
and in rubber this is the case, compared 
with the practice in the tea and coffee 
industries in Ceylon and Southern India. 


Rapid planting of healthy vigorous 
trees was the object aimed at, even if 
this was achieved at a larger cost per 
acre than slow and less expensive 
methods might have incurred. 


HEALTH oF RUBBER TREES. 


The health of rubber trees has re- 
mained good during the year. No new 
disease has to be chronicled, and the 
diseases which were already known 
have shown no special activity. Both 
the root fungus (fames semitostus) and 
the rubber termite (Termite gestroi) have 
done a large amount of damage. 
The Government Entomologist carried 
on 2 most successful investigation into 
the life-history of the rubber termite, 
discovering many details of its methods 
of attack, a knowledge of which’ will 
enable the planter to carry on a much 
more successful campaign in the future. 
It is much to be hoped, considering the 
immense monetary loss caused by this 
ubiquitous pest, that these investiga- 
tions will soon be continued and com- 

leted. The interim report which he 
les published shows among other in- 
teresting facts that the planters’ 
methods of only dealing with the white 
ants when he finds them on a rubber 
tree are not the most strategical mea- 
sures of attack. The rubber termite is 
found in large quantities in decaying 
stumps, and it is in these places that 
they can be destroyed in large numbers, 
whereas there are ants differing very 
slightly in appearance which are found 


5 Saps and Hauudations. 


on rubber trees which do no damage to 
the living rubber tree. 

The nests and their characteristic con- 
necting tunnels are clearly described by 
Mr. Pratt, and the planter is thus 
enabled with more definite knowledge 
to carry on the war against this most 
insidious and ever-present menace to 
healthy rubber. 


In addition to this valuable piece of 
work, the Government Entomologist 
investigated and reported on an attack 
by a longicorn beetle on rubber, a sting- 
ing caterpillar (T'hosea sp.) on coconuts, 
and made anexamination of some paddy 
insects which he was unable to follow 
up so as_ to gain definite knowledge 
as to the life histories and methods of 
attack of these pests. 


The Government Mycologist has visited 
various estates and given advice as to 
the prevention and cure of various 
diseases of cultivated plants. 


RUBBER MACHINERY. 


The number of estates which have 
srees of sufficient growth for tapping is 
as yet not very many, but each year 
more become productive, and the 
question of the best and most economical 
machinery for preparing rubber for the 
market and for cleaning ‘‘ scrap,” 
“bark” and ‘‘ earth” rubber is one of 
the most important in the profitable 
working of an estate. 


Dr. Kuhleman, Chemieal Adviser to 
one of the largest rubber manufactories 
in Germany, paid a visit recently to this 
country to acquaint himself with the 
methods of the planter in his prepar- 
ation of rubber. He was impressed by 
the care which isuniversally taken to 
ensure the purity and cleanliness of the 
rubber sent home. 


In asking his advice upon the plant 
used by the planter, Dr. Kuhleman 
informed me that one point which he 
noted was that the washers and rollers 
in use on estates were so short in length. 
This was thecase in the beginning of 
the manufactories ~ in Germany. 
Machinee with narrow rollers were at 
first putup, and then when these could 
not deal with the amount of rubber 
required more were added, but it was 
soon found more economical to have 
one roller of 10 feet length than five of 
2 feet. It will be well that planters 
should, in making arrangements for 
their rollers and washers, look ahead to 
the time when they are producing much 
larger quantities of rubber than at 
present. The machines at present in 
use are, for dealing with a large 
quantity of rubber, mere toys, and will 
either have to be multiplied or larger 
machines put in. 


Gums, Resins, 


The longer roller has an advantage 
over the short ones at present in use 
that the risk of oil from the bearing 
reaching the rubber as it passes through 
the rollers is decreased. Rubber prepar- 
ed in a number of small-length machines 
will be in more danger of being dis- 
coloured at places than that prepared 
in fewer and longer rollers. 


The length of rollers in rubber-wash- 
ing machines used in factories in Kurope 
is often 12 feet, whereas, as a rule, on 
estates in the Federated Malaya 
States two or more rollers of not more 
than a foot in length are often used. 


PREPARATION OF RUBBER FOR THE 
MARKET. 


Block rubber, the advantages of which 
for packing, transport and preparation 
are undoubted, has not commended itself 
generally to the planter. Until large 
quantities of any of the forms of rub- 
ber produced in Malaya, viz., block, 
crepe, and sheet, are put on the market, 
it will not be possible to settle the 
much-vexed question as to the advan- 
tages of each. A sale at a high price of 
a shipment of any of these forms at once 
produces the impression that that 
special form is more attractive to 
buyers and will command better prices, 
but it should be remembered that the 
quality of the rubber as well as the 
shapein which it is sent is a factor, 
and the most important factor, in deter- 
mining its market value. In whatever 
form it is sentitis of the most vital im- 
portancethat planters should continue to 
aim atthe purest and cleanest rubber. 
The manufacturers have begun to realise 
the advantages of the freedom from 
impurities which Kastern plantation rub- 
ber possesses, and this good opinion 
is too valuable to be endangered by 
using less care in preparation. 

RUBBER SEED FOR OIL MANUFACTURING 
PURPOSES. 


Rubber seed, both with the husk on 
and decorticated, has been sent to the 
Imperial Institute and to various com- 
mercial firms dealing in such products 
in Europe and Australia in order to 
introduce this article to them with a 
view to a future market. 

The oil from the seed is a drying oil 
not unlike linseed oil in appearance and 
smell, and probably will prove as good, 
as, if not better than, the latter oilin 
manufacture of paints and varnishes, 
Manufacturers or dealers wishing to 
have samples of the seeds either de- 
corticated or in the shell should com- 
municate with this department. A profit 
per acre—after paying all expenses of 
picking, husking, packing and shipping— 
of at least $5 to $8 may be earned on 
estates with trees in full fruit bearing. 


416 


[MAY, 1909. 


While the demand tor considerable 
quantities of seed for planting purposes 
continues, this method of disposing of 
seed is very much more profitable than 
the sale for oil, but with an immense 
number of trees producing fruit the 
supply for planting purposes will soon 
greatly exceed the demand and an 
additional market is needed. If the 
seed are left on the ground they 
germinate freely, and money must be 
spent in weeding out the young plants. 

The question in regard to the best 
methods of preparation and packing of 
the seed in exporting it for oil purposes 
continues to engage the attention of the 
Department of Agriculture, and a 
further report will be issued. 


J. B. CARRUTHERS. 


EXPERIMENTS IN TAPPING CEARA 
RUBBER TREES. 


Address by Dr. Wilcox at the Ha- 
waiian Rubber Growers’ Association, 
Second Annual Meeting. 


The rubber experiments which are 
being carried on by the U. S. Experi- 
ment Station and Territorial Board of 
Agriculture and Forestry have been 
under way long enough to indicate cer- 
tain results which are of practical im- 
portance to rubber growers. Thus far 
more than 200 trees, most of them less 
than three years old, have been tapped. 
These trees averaged from twelve to 
thirteen inches in circumference and 
were located chiefly on the grounds of 
the Koclau Rubber Company, on Maui. 
In tapping young trees it was not ex- 
pected that profitable returns of rubber 
would be obtained; but the plan in- 
volved the practical point of determin- 
ing the rapidity with which trees could 
be tapped, and satisfactory methods of 
handling labour to the best advantage. 
In the first series of eighty trees, which 
were tapped by means of one verticle 
cut each day, it required thirty-six 
hours and forty minutes of labour to 
tap the trees, collect the latex, and 
secure 1$ pounds of dry rubber. In 
the second series of experiments on 160 
trees, which were tapped with two 
verticle cuts instead of one, it required 
only forty hours of labour to tap the 
trees, collect the latex and obtain five 
pounds of first-class rubber and about 
a pound of scrap rubber. In this ex- 
periment in which two verticle cuts 
were used daily, profitable returns 
were obtained. 


1t was found that an ordinary labourer 
could tap rubber trees, by means of 
two long verticle cuts, at the rate of 
about fifty trees an hour and could collect 
latex at the rate of one hundred trees 


[May, 1909. 41 


an hour. Theavailable labour on plant- 
ations appear to be reasonably effective 
in doing this work, and the amount of 
training required in order to make the 
cuts effectively and quickly is not 
excessive. 


It requires less time to tap older trees 
than the young trees, upon which our 
work is done, and there is also less 
danger of injuring the trees. Wehave 
found that a good flow of latex can 
be obtained from tapping done from 
daylight until 8a.m. or even later. 


From the experiments which we have 
thus tar conducted it appears that one 
man can tap about fifty trees per hour, 
while another man can _ collect the 
latex from the trees which would be 
tapped in the same time by two men. 
Since it appears from results which 
we have obtained from tapping mature 
Ceara rubber trees, that about one- 
third ounce of dry rubber may be 
expected as a daily yield, it is evident 


Saps and Heudations. 


that three men should be able to ob- 
tain rubber from mature trees at the 
rate of about one pound per hour. The 
data upon which this conclusion is 
based have been carefully considered 
and the estimate is probably not above 
what may be expected. At any rate, 
the results obtained in our experiments 
indicate clearly that the Ceara rubber 
tree in Hawaii will not only grow and 
thrive, but will yield profitable returns. 


Farther experiments will be carried 
on in the microscopic examination of 
sections of the Ceara rubber tree to 
get a basis for determining the best 
method of tapping. Several other 
species of rubber trees will also betapped, 
and an elaborate series of fertilizer 
experiments with rubber is planned, 
We hope to be able to devise a method 
of fertilizing rubber trees so as to secure 
an increased flow of latex during the 
tapping periods.—Hawaitian Forester 
and Agriculturist, Vol, V., No. 12, 
December, 1908. 


OILS AND FATS. 


A PLEA FOR SUNFLOWER 
CULTIVATION, 


By W. F. SuTHERST, PH.D., F.I.C., 
Marist Bros.’ College, Uitenhage. 

The cultivation of sunflowers does not 
pay in countries where land is dear and 
consequently growth restricted, but 
here in South Africa, where millions of 
acres of land are still lying idle, there is 
no doubt that it would pay. The intro- 
duction of a new crop would also mean 
fresh employment for the surplus 
country population, as without moder- 
ate export of agricultural produce, over- 
production of maize, oats, etc,, is soon 
reached... Not only the cultivation itself 
needs Jabour, but the atter-treatment 
for the production of oil would also 
utilise some of our unemployed. Most 
of our agricultural produce when grown 
requires no further treatment, Very 
little care is necessary in sowing the 
seeds, mere scattering them over the 
pewly-ploughed ground being all that is 
required, the depth, as fixed by the 
plough, never being too great in this 
At the end of about six or even 


case. 
four months the crop is ready for 
harvesting, For opening up new ground 


with the least trouble and quickest 
returns its cultivation is ideal for the 
Colony, as with the cash obtained one 
can open up more ground. 


The seeds contain about 50 per cent. 
of oil, 2.e., without husk, and it would 
save enormously if the seeds were first 
decorticated, as the husks contain 
practically no oil, and, making up about 
40 per cent. of the whole, a great saving 
in carriage is effected, as well asin the 
further treatment of oil extraction. 
The residual oil-eake is most nutritious 
for all kinds of stock, especially dairy 
cows and fattening stock. Little is 
heard of it at present, as it is manufac- 
tured in such small quantities, but once 
started there is no limit to its uses. So 
tar very small quantities of oil-cake are 
used in South Africa, as it hasall to be 
imported, and the cost is prohibitive, 
except for owners of high-class stock. 

The composition of sunflower-seed cake 
on the average is :— 


Fat ae if 10 per cent. 
Albuminoids ... aie 20 ae 
Carbohydrates... Bee 32 _ 
Fibre ae ne 20 - 
Ash 6 


a0 oth ) An 
If the seeds cannot be pressed on the 
farm, arrangements should be made for 
the cake to be sent back to the farmer 
for use on the farm, such asis done on 
the beet sugar factories, where the 
residues are returned, though these are 
not nearly so nutritious. By far the 
best plan would be for farmers to co- 
operate and set up an oil crushing mill 
ot their own. 


Oils and Fats. 


The stalks of sunfiowers, though not 
in themselves very nutritious, are 
obtained in such large quantities 
that A to make them into ensil- 
age. heir average composition is as 
follows :— 

Fat Bie aes 25 per cent. 

Albuminoids ... oe 4°75 . 

Carbohydrates .. =D 


Fibre i Sb Pe $3 

Ash bee eel Ff 

The high percentage of ash in the 
stalks makes all the more value in the 


manure, even if only ploughed in, 
though this is rather difficult with such 
large and strong material. The com- 
position of an average ashis as follows :— 

Phosphoric acid 0°22 per cent, 

Potash aes 44 

Lime or 12 * 

We see here a low percentage of phos- 
phoric acid and lime, in which our soils 
are also deficient, and the growth of a 
crop succeeds best and most economi- 
cally when itcan be arranged that it 
takes out of the soil ite mineral matter 
in proportion as itis present, a better 
crop could not be found for the country. 
This is, however, a_ state of scientific 
farming that is not likely to be reached 
for some time to come. 


Theaverage yield of seeds is about 
4 tons per morgen, which means about 
2} tons of decorticated seed, and with, 
say, about 40 percent. of oil extracted, 
gives nearly one ton or over 200 gallons 
of oil per morgen. 

We see here room for a fairly large 
profit if an economically-worked factory 
is setup, or even if exported the seeds 
should pay their way. 

We often hear that the sunflower robs 
the soil and leaves it in a poor condition, 
but if all the crop is returned to the soil 
again, except the oil, which contains no 
mineral matter, as would be the case 
under the above conditions, no loss 
would oeceur,—A gricultural Journal of 
the Cape of Good Hope, January, 1909. 


99 


THE AFRICAN OIL PALM AND 
ITS PRODUCTS. 


The well-known Oil Palm of West 
Africa (Hleis guineensis) has a wide 
geographical range, for it flourishes from 
the Gulf of Guinea to the South of 
Fernando Po, as well as in the islands of 
Zanzibar and Pemba, and along the 
shores of the Central African lakes. Of 
all the vegetable products of the countries 
on the West Coast, the Hl@is guwineensis 
is undoubtedly the most important to 
the native. The fruit supplies him with 
a favourite article of food and forms the 
chief article of commerce; with the leaf- 


418 


[May, 1909. 


stalk he builds his house and barn, and 
thatches them with leaves, and from 
the stem he extracts a pleasant and 
(sometimes) intoxicating drink, 


During 1907, the total value of the 
palm oil and kernels exported from 
Southern Nigeria alone was £2,972,252. 
{n the same year the oil and kernels 
shipped from the Gold Coast were 
valued at nearly £221,290, this being an 
increase of over £15,000 on the exports of 
the preceding year. Supplies of palm 
oil have also lately been exported from 
the Philippine Islands. 


In all the abovementioned countries 
from which the produce is shipped, the 
oil palm is indigenous and _ occurs 
naturally over enormons areas. Little 
expense is incurred in looking after the 
trees, and the oil must be regarded as 
more or lessa natural forest product. 
No authentic information has been 
placed on record in regard to any syste- 
matic planting and cultivation of the 
oil palm which may have been made in 
Southern Nigeria or elsewhere, or to the 
average returns that may be expected 
from such plantings. 

lt seems reasonable to expect, how- 
ever, that if plantations of the palm 
were established in many _ tropical 
colonies, the production of the oil would 
prove a valuable industry. It would be 
amatter for experiment to determine 
whether the cultivation would be as 
remunerative inany given district as 
rubber or cacao planting. Some thirty 
or forty years ago an estate owner in 
British North Borneo, who had consider- 
able faith in the profitable possibilities 
of oil palm cultivation, planted a fairly 
large area. The trees grew well, but by 
the time they were nearing the pro- 
ductive age, the ownership of the estate 
changed hands, and the new proprietor 
cut down the young palms in order to 
make room for some other product, 


The Aftican Oil Palm has been accli- 
matised in Jamaica and some of the 
other West Indian Islands, where groups 
of the trees are frequently to be met 
with. Little or no use, however, is 
apparently made of the nuts, and, so far 
asis known, no attempt has ever been 
made to cultivate the palm in regular 
plantations. 


The oil palm reaches a height of 30 
or more feet. Inthe course of a report 
on the oil industry of the Gold Coast 
which appeared in the Kew Bulletin for 
1889 (p. 190) it is stated that the tree 
grows best ina moist soil, flourishing in 
warm damp valleys. It begins to bear 
in its fourth or fifth year, the produce 
increasing until its fifteenth, and con- 
tinues to bear for atleast sixty years, 


May, 1909. ] 


449 


Oils and Fats: 


A tree produces, on the average, fromt) be obta ined from Mount Banajao of 


four to seven bunches of fruit every 
year. 

The fruits havea fleshy fibrous outer 
layer from which the palm _ oil of 
commerce is prepared, This layer covers 
a hard-shelled nut from the kernel of 
which a white oil known as ‘palm nut 
oil’ is produced. 

A very full and illustrated account of 
the methods in use at Lagos for extract- 
ing palm oil appeared in the Kew 
Bulletin, 1892, (p. 200), From this it 
appears that the fruits are boiled in 
earthenware pots until they form an 
oiky mass. This is transferred to a 
wooden trough where it is lett over 
night to cool. In the morning the mass 
is covered with cold water, and the 
natives pound the oil out of the nuts with 
their bare feet. The oil gradually rises 
to the surface, from which it is skimmed, 
and passed through a sieve to remove 
the coarser impurities. It is then poured 
into a pot and clarified by further 
boiling. This palm oil is chiefly used in 
the manufacture of soap and candles. 

The kernels of the nuts from which 
the white oil is prepared, are frequently 
exported whole to Europe, after the 
shell has been removed by the natives. 
The ‘kernel oil’ is expressed by hydrau- 
lic presses, and has a number of uses, 
one of which is inthe manufacture of 
margarine or artificial butter. The 
resulting cake is used as a cattle food, 

According to the Kew Bulletin a single 
tree may yield from 1to8 gallons of oil 
per annum, depending on the character 
of the soil and the rainfall. The price of 
palm oi] on the London market is from 
£14 to £15 per ton. 

If fuller and reliable data could be 
obtained from Southern Nigeria on such 
points as suitable distance in planting, 
the time and money required to bring a 
plantation of oil palms into full bearing, 
the average yield of nuts per tree, and 
of oil per acre, together with the net 
profit that might be expected per acre 
Over a given period, these details would 
be of the utmost value to enterprising 
planters in other tropical colonies who 
may be thinking of taking up the cultiva- 
tion.— Agricultural News, Vol. VIL., No. 
172, November, 1908. 


COCONUTS IN LAGUNA AND 
TAYABAS PROVINCES. 


By A. F. Byars, 
Agricultural Inspector, Bureau of 
Agriculture. 

In the rich Provinces of Laguna and 
Tayabas the coconut industry can be 
seen In every stage and from every 
aspect. The beautiful panoramic view 


the vast coconut regions as a whole, 
extending from the mountain to the 
lake in one direction and to the sea 
in another, is most inipressive. 

San Pablo, the largest and richest in 
agricultural products of all the towns 
in Laguna Province and the centre of 
the coconut industry, is a town of 
about 25,000 inhabitants. It lies along 
the main road leading from Los Bajfios 
and Bay on the lake to Tiaong and 
Lucena in Tayabas, also on the main 
road from Santa Cruz to Magdalena, 
Lilio, and Nagearlan, and onthe other 
side through Alminos on into Batangas, 
As arule these roads are very good and 
facilitate trade. The ownership of the 
coconut groves, from which the town 
derives most of its wealth, is distri- 
buted among a comparatively large 
number of its inhabitants, so that while 
none of the people are very rich, none 
are very poor. 

In this town a large part of the coco- 
nut crop is made into copra, which is 
sacked and sold in that form. Any day 
hundreds of pack horses loaded with 
copra may be seen coming from all 
directions into the town, where it is 
usually sold to dealers, who in turn 
load it on carabao carts (eight to ten 
sacks to a cart) and send it to Bay, 
where it is transferred to boats for 
Manila. 

Coconuts are not harvested at stated 
seasons, but are gathered from each 
tree every two to four months, The 
nuts are detached by means of a hooked 
knife attached to a very long slender 
bamboo pole, or by aman who climbs 
the tree and cuts the fruit stalks with 
a sharp knife. The nuts are collected 
in piles and are sometimes husked before 
being removed from the groves. They 
are carried to the small factories by 
means of carts or sleds, or by pack 
horses in the hill country. Often they 
are floated down rivers and small 
streams in the form of rafts, but this is 
rather a dangerous means of transport- 
ation, as was shown by a late baguio 
in Laguna which broke up numbers of 
rafts in Pagsanjan River, it being 
estimated by some that from 100,000 to 
200,000 nuts were scattered over Laguna 
de Bay. 


MANUFACTURE OF COPRA. 

The process of making copra in this 
section is very simple. It consists in 
husking and halving the nuts and drying, 
after which the meat is removed from 
the shells. They are husked by means 
of a pointed iron instrument, usually a 
plowpoint fixed on a three-legged stand. 
After it is hulled, a quick blow with 
a dull bolo halves the nut. For drying 


Oils and Fats. 


the copra, a small shelter is built over 
a rectangular hole from 1 to 2 meters 
wide, 1 meter deep, and as long as 
the shed, across which small poles are 
laid parallel, leaving a small space 
between each two. On these poles are 
piled the halved nuts, which are dried 
in about two days by the heat and 
smoke from the fire in the hole. Empty 
shells are used as fuel. 


The dried meat, or copra, is then easily 
removed from the shells by means of a 
thin, chisel-shaped, curved knife pro- 
jecting in front of a seat. After a little 
further drying the copra is ready for 
sacking and putting on the market. 
These small copra factories can be found 
scattered all aboutin the coconut groves 
of Laguna and Tayabas. 

MANUFACTURE OF OIL. 

During the past two months most of 
the coconut crop of Laguna has been 
marketed in the form of oil, especially 
in the hill country. Of course the small 
native factories are crude and a large per 
cent. of the oil is left in the cake, but 
at the prices now being paid oil brings 
better returns than copra. 

Where the oil is extracted in the 
grove there is no necessity for drying 
the meat; it is simply grated from the 
halves by a native machine with small 
rotary knives. This grated meat is 
put in open shallow iron pots and cooked. 
The resulting white mash is dipped in- 
to sacks and placedin a vertical press 
made of two large thick boards anda 
large wooden screw. The mash is often 
cooked twice and pressed several times, 
being milled or crushed beneath a 
weighted swinging roller before pressing. 
The white, milky mixture of oil, water, 
ete., which drips from the sacks is re- 
turned to the cooking pan and boiled 
until all the oil separates and rises to 
the top, when it is dipped off into five- 
gallon petroleum tins, and is’ then 
ready for market, 

MANUFACTURE OF ALCOHOLIC 
BEVERAGES. 

While copra and oil are the chief pro- 
ducts of the coconut industry, a consider- 
able number of the groves of Laguna 
and Tayabas are devoted to the making 
of tuba and alcoholic beverages. Dis- 
tilleries can be found in the valleys or 
on the hillsides where water may be 
had to run through the commencing 
tanks by gravity. The Government has 
an internal-revenue employee stationed 
at each of these ‘‘alumbikis” as they 
are called, to collect revenue and see 
that they are run according to law. 

Tuba is collected from the trees 
through the flower stalk. The many 
small branches are bound together, their 


420% 


tips cut off with asharp knife, and the 
end of the bunch inserted in a section 
of bamboo tube, which catches the 
juice. Early each morning a_ tuba 
gatherer climbs the tree, empties the 
tubes into a larger vessel, and cuts a 
little more off the ends of the flower 
stalks. Two strong bamboo poles bridge 
the distance between the tops of the 
trees, and the tuba gatherer passes from 
one tree to another, walking on one pole 
and holding to the other. When the 
receptacle becomes full of tuba he lowers 
it to the ground witha rope, and after 
it is emptied he pulls it up again. After 
the tuba is collected it is carried in 
three-or four-gallon vessels to the dis- 
tillery on pack horses or by carriers. 


Bup-Rot. 

The purpose of the writer’s visit to 
Laguna and l'ayabas was the inspection 
ot these provinces with a view to eradi- 
cating the bacterial disease known as 
‘‘bud-rot of the ecoconut.’* The name 
bud-rot comes from its habit of attack- 
ing those portions of the tree which 
are in the tender or bud stage. The 
flowers are most liable to attack during 
the bursting of the flower sheath. Other 
tender portions of the apex are subject 
to attack at any period, but more parti- 
cularly during the rainy season. The 
presence of the disease is indicated by 
the young leaves turning yellow and 
also by the dropping of the fruit. The 
decaying bud gives off a very offensive 
odour, by which the disease may be 
readily recognized. 


METHODS OF TREATMENT. 


After the disease has made sufficient 
progress to destroy or partially destroy 
the ‘‘cabbage” there is no hope of saving 
the tree. If the disease can be detected 
in any early stage of development, it 
can be checked by the use of fungicides, 
such as sulphate of copper, but the only 
practical means of combating it in 
these Islands is to cut the tree down 
and destroy it by fire as soon as the 
presence of the disease is detected. 
Owing to the fact that the disease 
spreads readily by the aid of the wind, 
insects, etc., it is well to destroy all 
portions of the tree by burning, if 
possible. 


PREVALENCE OF THE DISEASE AND 
OUTLUOK 

The disease is found to be most 
prevalent around the base of Mount 
Banajao in the municipalities of Neg- 
carlan, Lilio, and San Pablo. More than 
2,000 trees have been destroyed in one 
of the barrios of Nagecarlan. It is 
claimed by some of the inhabitants that 
the disease bas existed in this town fox 


May,’ 1909. } 


the last ten years. It is probable that 
the moist atmosphere, due to the proxi- 
mity of the mountain, has contributed 
largely to its presence in this vicinity. 
A few cases have also been found in 
the towns of Pagsanjan, Santa Cruz, 
and Pilar. The damage done in these 
towns, however, has been small. 


While all the trees showing symptoms 
of disease at the time of inspection were 
destroyed, itis quite probable that others 
have been infected by means of wind or 
insects carrying the bacteria and will 
develop the disease later. Presidents 
of muncipalities, lieutenants of barrios 
(some in the most remote and out-of-the- 
way places), and the owners of the 
groves have been instructed as to the 
nature and manner of exterminating 
this disease, and all should co-operate 
to keep it out, If reasonable measures 
are taken to suppress it, the disease 
will not prove serious. 


Insect ENEMIES. 


The insect enmey which has up to the 
present time caused more loss to coco- 
nut owners in Laguna and Tayabas 
than all the other destructive agents 
combined is the ‘“‘uang,” or rhinoceros 
beetle (Orycytes rhinocerus). This insect 
attacks the most vital part of the tree, 
the bud, boring through and feeding on 
the young tender “cabbage.” The coco- 
nut being endogenous, the destruction 
of this part means death to the tree. 
Thousands of trees are killed by this 
insect, but as yet no really practicable 
method has been discovered for destroy- 
ing it. 

Various methods are used with greater 
or less success. The beetles may be 
extracted from their holes by means 
of a hooked wire. Pouring 5 to 10 cubic 
centimetres of carbon bisulphide into 
the holes and filling the opening with 
mud will kill them. Sharp-cornered 
sand sprinkled between the base of the 
Jeaves and the bud will makeit very 
disagreeable for them to enter at this 
point. No thoroughly practical remedy 
has been found for the beetles when 
oncein the tree, but their ravages can 
be largely reduced by cleaning the 
groves of all dead trees, undergrowth, 
and rubbish. 


SoME FIGURES ON THE COCONUT 
INDUSTRY, 


No doubt any information as to the cost 
of production will be of great value to 
the prospective investor in coconuts. 
The following figures have been comput- 
ed from data collected by questioning 
dozens of coconut growers in Laguna 
and Tayabas Provinces :— 


421 


Oils and Fats. 


Cost per 

1,000 nuts. 

... PLOO—-PL.20 
een 24 


Cutting down from trees 
Collecting in piles 


Husking .60—1.00 
Halving = 20 
Drying (copra) 2,50 
Grinding meat (oil) 


1.00 
Present value per 1,000 nuts—- 
As nuts »..P12.00—P15.00 
In oil ns 20.00 
As copra 17.38 
Average value of 1 hectare 
of coconuts ... P500—P1,000 
Aveiage production of nuts 
per hectare ...10,000—12,000 
Average yearly gross re- 
ceipts per hectare 
It requires about 250 first-class, 300 
second-class, and 3850 third-class nuts 
to make one picul of first-class copra. 


A labourer can cut down from 1,000 to 
2,000 nuts a day, according to the 
height of the tree and the amount of 
underbrush in the grove. He can husk 
2,000 or raspthe meat from about 1,000 
nuts per day. 


150—200 


Cost of transportation of cargo (four 
tins, or 20 gallons) of oil on apack 
horse a distance of 20 miles (Nagearlan 
to Santa Cruz) is about P2.50. 


Cost of transportation of one cargo 
(2 sacks, 3,000 pounds) of copra_a dis- 
mone of 10 miles (San Pablo to Bay) is 

1.50. 


Owners of coconut groves make 
several kinds of contracts with their 
overseers for taking care of their groves 
and gathering and marketing the crop. 
A common one requires the overseer 
to do all the work of gathering, manu- 
facturing, and marketing, standing all 
expenditures, and gives him half of the 
gross proceeds. Another calls for the 
owner to pay for the pulling down of 
the nuts and the transportation of the 
finished produzts to market, the over- 
seer to do the rest and receive one- 
third of the gross proceeds. 


In manufacturing oil, when the factory 
is not the property of the owner of the 
grove, the overseer usually pays for 
the use of it 25 centavos and one-half the 
oil cake per cargo of oil made. 


The relative net pzrofitto be derived 
from the production of oil and copra 
varies with the market prices of these 
two products. Sometimes oil, and at 
othe: times copra, is the more _ profit- 
able of the two. Most natives prefer 
making oil so as to have the cake to 
feed their hogs. 


Oils and Fats. 


IMPORTANCE OF THE INDUSTRY. 


After all is said and done concerning 
any industrial enterprise, agricultural 
or otherwise, the question arises, ‘‘ Does 
it pay?” As regards the coconut in- 
dustry in Laguna and Tayabas the 
answer is, Yes, itis already paying—it 


422 


[May, 1909. 


is the source of the wealth of these 
two provinces. 

_ With the expansion of the coconut 
industry, continued planting of the 
young trees, and intelligent care of the 
groves, Languna and Tayabas have 
indeed a bright agricultural future.— 
Es Agricultural Review, Vol. I. 
No. 12, December, 1908. 


FIBRES. 


NEW FIBRES FOR PAPER. 


By WILLIAM [tairr, 

The scarcity of paper-making material, 
which keen observers have seen approach- 
ing for many years, is now an accepted 
fact. The positicn can perhaps be best 
indicated by quoting the remarks of 
Lord Northcliffe, the Chairman of the 
great Harmsworth group of publishing 
enterprises, ata recent meeting of his 
shareholders. 


‘“‘Itis no secret that the whole world 
that lives by paper and print is clouded 
by the imminent approach of a rise in 
the price of paper. Ihave just seena 
list of newspapers in the United States 
that have been obliged to double their 
price, and another list of those that 
instead of doubling their price, have 
reduced their size. This rise in price of 
our raw material, we know to be chiefly 
owing to the depletion of the world’s 
supply of the spruce tree from which 
this class of paper is made. This 
augmentation in the price of paper is 
caused by the scarcity of a material that 
takes at least thirty years to grow, and 
isa much more serious form of famine 
than that where an article is concerned 
which can be grown in a year or two.” 

The ‘world that lives by paper and 
print’ is therefore once again face to 
face with a recurrence of what has ever 
been its chief difficulty,—the sufficiency 
and permanence of an adequate supply 
of raw material. The last crisis of the 
kind was about 1875 when the rapidly- 
growing requirements outran the supply 
of Esparto, which for twenty years 
previously had been the staple material 
for print and newspaper. Woodpulp 
arrived just in time to save the situa- 
tion. It introduced asupply so plentiful 
and so cheap that it seemed as if at last 
an inexhaustible source had been tapped, 
and but few foresaw the inevitable 
result of cheapness plus the rapidly 
growing demand of education and 
culture, upon an article which, as Lord 
Northcliffe remarks, takes at least 
thirty years to produce. Woodpulp 


brought the cost of ordinary newspaper 
down from 5 pence per. pound in 1870 to 
a penny farthing in 1900. At the same 
time an enormous increase in the reading 
public was taking place. The combined 
result is that whereas in 1870 the World’s 
Annual product of paper was about two 
million tons, it is now eight millions, 
and is growing at the rate of 25% every 
ten years. Of this eight millions, six 
and a half is produced from wood. Such 
an enormous advance on the modest 
requirements of forty years ago has 
had simply disastrous effects on the 
forests of Northern Hurope and America, 
Whole countries. whole states, have 
gone galloping down the insatiable maw 
of the cheap press, until we have now 
arrived at this state of affairs:—In the 
U.S. A. exhaustion so complete that 
the mills there are now importing 
supplies of wood from Canada, at a cost 
of 50% to 70% in advance of values pre- 
vailing when they had forests of their 
own to draw from. In Canada there is 
still plenty of wood in the back blocks, 
which Canada means to keep, having 
taken warning in time from the fate of 
her neighbour, and she has embarked on 
a restrictive policy which aims at reserv- 
ing her forests for future timber supply 
rather than for present paper supply. 
In Northern Europe, deforestation so 
huge, that forests are now at great 
distances trom mills and ports, with 
consequent scarcity and increase of cost, 
and (as a bye-product of this destruction) 
agreat falling off in the waterpower 
with which they manufacture the pulp. 
For the present, the net result is a 
stoppage of expansion, a scarcity of 
supply and a rise in price. For the 
future, it means a condition of positive 
famine, with a tremendous curtailment 
of publishing enterprise, unless a new 
source of raw material speedily makes 
itself manifest. Nothing further can be 
hoped from wood. It has reached its 
limit, and the nations of the world will 
rise up in wrath against any attempt to 
further rob them of one of their most 
yaluable reserves of capital wealth, 


May, 1909,] 


Much disappointment has been caused 
in the past by 1 too literal acceptation 
of the statement that paper can be made 
from any vegetable fibre. So it can, but 
money can’t. To make both, several 
important facts must be ever before 
the fibre prospector. Paper is cheap, 
must be cheap to fulfilits purpose. Any 
serious increase in cost can only check 
its utility and curtail ‘its production. 
To secure the necessary cheapness, it 
ean only be madefrom waste -from that 
which has no value for any other pur- 
pose whatsoever. Waste may be either 
artificial, as with rags, or natural. My 
definition of natural waste suitable for 
paper-making is as follows: The fibre or 
plant from which it is to be extracted, 
must bea free gift of nature, growing 
and reproducing itself naturally and 
without cultivation, must not be of any 
value to the spinner, ropemaker or even 
(to any competitive extent at least) to 
the feeder of cattle; and its removal 
from place of growth must not imply an 
attack upon any form of permanent 
capital wealth. In the early days of 
woodpulp, the wood from which it was 
made no doubt fulfilled some of these 
requirements. Itis because it did not 
answer to them all that it has failed to 
prove a permanent source of supply. 


I have spent some years in investiga- 
tion and experiment on this subject, and 
have no hesitation in declaring that 
South-HKastern Asia, including India and 
Ceylon, isin a better position to deal 
with this question than any other part 
of the world, inasmuch as in these 
regions is to be found a great store of 
the wild fibrous grasses which best fill 
the above requirements, together with 
the cheap labour required to collect 
them. Bamboo alone is capable of 
supplying tens of millions of tons 
annually without injury to its perma- 
nence or reproduction. By what is 
known as the acid process it yields an 
excellent pulp for news or cheap’ book 
paper, and at a cost considerably below 
that of wood. Almost at our doors, in 
Japan, there isa market for 20,000 tons 
of it annually which is now supplied 
from Europe ata great cost for freight. 
My own investigations indicate that in 
average bamboo jungle, a well regulated 
system of cropping will yield 5 tons per 
acre annually, or 2} tons of pulp werth 
£7 to £8 per ton f.o.b.; and an area of 
eight square miles would suffice to keep 
a mill making 10,000 tons per annum 
supplied in perpetuum. 


Besides bamboo, there are several 
species of annual grasses suitable, of 
which the bharbar or sabai (Ischoemum 
augustifolium) of Central India may be 
taken as a representative, These are 


423 


Fibres, 


capable of being treated by the alkaline 
method, which involves considerably 
less capital outlay than the acid process, 
aad may be worked profitably on a much 
smaller scale. The pulp produced is 
equal to that of Ksparto and suitable for 
high-class printing and writing papers, 
and is worth about £9 to £10 per ton f.o.b. 

Of course there are other factors 
necessary to suecess, such as manutac- 
turing facilities, percentage yield of 
fibre, and other technical and scientifie 
details which need not be dealt with in 
an article intended to indicate the broad 
lines, only, ofa possible new industry. I 
shall be glad to enter into these points 
with any correspondents desirous of 
fuller information. Enough has perhaps 
been said toecall the attention of State 
authorities and land-owners to the 
opportunity now offering itself to make 
profitable use of the fibrous plants now 
rotting away or being burnt in annual 
fires on their waste lands and forests. 

W. RAITT. 

[The author of this paper, who is a 
chemical engineer and paper fibre expert 
resident at Bangalore, S, India, writes 
to us as follows :— 

‘*T shall be glad if you will forward me 
any inquiries which may reach you, for 
special information. .........- 

“Geographically, Ceylon is better 
placed than almost anywhere for going 
into a paper pulp industry. The advent 
of Japan and China into the paper- 
making field has opened up a splendid 
market.” 

The subject is one, the importance of 
which can hardly be exaggerated. Mr. 
Raitt informs us that he will be glad to 
enter into direct correspondence with 
anyone interested in the matter.—ED.] 


NOTES ON THE PRESENT POSI- 
TION OF COTTON CULTIVATION 
IN THE UNITED STATES. 


A short account of the cultivation of 
cottonin the United States, based ona 
report made by the Inspector of Agri- 
culture for British West Africa, was 
given in a previous number of this 
Bulletin (1905, 3. 334). The following 
notes have been written by Mr. J. 8. J. 
McCall, fomerly of the Agricultural Col- 
lege at Cairo, who has recently visited 
the cotton-growing States of America. 

The cottons cultivated in the United 
States include Sea Island, Upland, and 
Egyptian varieties. These three classes 
of cotton present distinet peculiarities 
and special requirements, and are there- 
fore dealt with in separate sections. 


A.—SEHA ISLAND COTTON. 


This crop forms less than one per cent. 
of the total American cotton crop, but 


Mibres. 


is of great importance owing to its high 
quality. It is grown to the greatest 
dezree of perfection on James and Edisto 
Islands, which lie to the west and south- 
west of Charleston in the State of South 
Carolina. The largest part of this crop 
is grown on the coast line of South Caro- 
lina, the interior of Georgia and North 
Central Florida. The coast counties of 
Georgia and Florida produce but little 
cotton owing to the inferior character 
of the soil and the absence of necessary 
labour, 


Crop Requirements.—Sea Island cot- 
ton is more sensitive to soil and climate 
than any other cotton. It is a maritime 
plant, excelling in quality when grown 
on light sand and gravel alluvia, not too 
rich in humus, with free drainage, a 
humid atmosphere, and in close proxi- 
mity to the sea. 


On the plantations of Messrs. Rivers, 
Seabrook and Hinson, which are con- 
sidered to be the three best plantations 
on James Island, the cotton is grown 
without a distinet rotation. Most of the 
island plantations are divided into three 
parts, seventy-five per cent. being de- 
voted to cotton and twenty-five per cent. 
to truck farming, 1.e. the cultivation of 
vegetables, fodders, ete. The cotton 
area is divided into two equal parts, 
which grow cotton in alternate years. 
During the fallow year a few farmers 
grow leguminous plants, such as cow- 
peas or velvet beans, but cereals are 
never grown on the cotton land. Most 
of the farmers prefer to leave the land 
without a crop unploughed, allowing 
weeds to grow among the old cotton 
stalks, and using the field as a mule 
paddock. Several farmers when asked 
why they did not plough the land and 
prevent the growth of weeds, replied 
that ‘‘the sun hurts the ground when 
exposed, and therefore we prefer a 
covering of vegetation in summer to 
bare fallow.” This is contrary to expe- 
rience in Egypt, where the best crops are 
obtained after a summer bare fallow. 


Much of the island-grown cotton never 
enters the market, but is sold privately 
to lace manufacturers (mostly French), 
at very high figures, Is. 8d. to 2s. 11d. 
per pound frequently being paid for 
choice crops. 

In planting Sea Island cotton, 5 feet 
is generally left between the rows and 
22 inches between the plants. Planting 
commences in March; harvesting begins 
in the latter part of August and cop- 
tinues till December. 

The island-grown cotton is much 


superior to the mainland crop. The 
interiority of the latter is due to hybri- 


424 


MAY 1909.] 


disation with Upland cotton, which is 
grown in close proximity to it, and 
also to the lack of humidity in the 
atmosphere. 


The mainland cultivators of Sea Island 
cotton say that their Sea Island crop 
is superior to their Upland crop when 
the season is warm and rainy, and vice 
versa when there is drought. The 
mainland-grown crop is shorter and less 
lustrous than the island cotton; the 
best results are always obtained by 
growing it from island-grown = seed. 


During the present year the island 
cultivators have formed a union to pre- 
vent the sale of their seed, as they say 
the increasing production of mainland 
Sea Island cotton is affecting their 
prices. The Department of Agriculture 
at Washington have been 1efused seed, 
which they much regret, as they have 
no type of this cotton which does not 
degenerate on the mainland. This is a 
very narrow policy, and will probably 
benefit Egyptian cotton growers more 
than American growers, as the lower 
grades of Sea Island, such as that grown 
on the mainland, can be replaced by the 
higher grades of Kgyptian varieties. 


Possible Eautension of Sea Island Culti- 
vation.—It is considered by many that 
there is very little possibility of extend- 
ing the Sea Island cotton industry in 
America, the principal reascns being 
that the cost of labour is very high, and 
that the crop gives but small returns 
when planted under other than the best 
conditions. It is more profitable to 
grow ordinary Upland in most districts, 
as itis far more certain to yield a crop, 
especially in seasons of drought. 


Selection and Manuring.—The island 
cultivators are firm believers in select- 
ing and manuring their cotton, although 
they object to a mixed rotation. Hach 
of the island plantations visited had its 
breeding and selecting plot, and there 
is little doubt that the high quality of 
Sea Island cotton is to a large extent 
the result of prolonged selection in com- 
bination with the admirable natural 
climatic and soil conditions of the 
islands. The planters are a superior 
class of men, and exercise great care in 
growing and harvesting their cotton. 
They commence manuring the land, 
when farmyard manure is available. as 
early as November, by applying twenty 
loads per acre on the surface between 
the old ridges. Asa general rule, plough- 
ing commences at the beginning of 
February, when 1,000 to 1,200 lb. of 
cotton-seed are applied between the old 
ridges, if no farmyard manure was 
available for application in November. 
This seed is coven:d by splitting the 


May, 1909.] 


old ridges with the plough; most of it 
decays, but any which germinates is 
destroyed in subsequent ploughings. In 
this practice the island cultivators con- 
firm Egyptian experience, as they find 
large late applications of slow-acting 
organic nitrogenous manures interfere 
with germination and retard ripening. 
It is generally considered that all blooms 
which appear after the first week of 
September never mature, as they are 
checked by cold or frost. 


The first ploughing is deep (12 inches 
when possible) and subsequent plough- 
ings shallow. The first deep ploughing 
encourages deep rooting, making the 
plants more drought-resisting. The shal- 
low ploughings give fine surface “ tilth,” 
which is so necessary for germination 
and rapid early growth. 


When the soil is ready for ridging a 
dressing is given, either in the drill or 
on the flat, consisting of 600 lb. of 
Peruvian guano and 50 lb. of potassium 
sulphate per acre, and after germination 
50 lb. of nitrate of soda are applied. 


By this treatment, combined with 
judicious selection, Captain Rivers of 
James Island raises the finest Sea Island 
cotton. The 1906-1907 crop of 419 lb. of 
lint per acre was sold privately toa 
French firm at 2s. 6d. per lb., or a gross 
return of over fifty pounds sterling per 
acre. 


Marketing and Shipping.—Railway 
Rates.—The island-grown crop is market- 
ed in bags 73 feet long by 23 feet in 
diameter, containing approximately 350 
lb, of lint. The cotton is never com- 
pressed in balesas this is considered 
detrimental to the fibre. The crop is 
practically all sold in Charleston, and 
forms 385 per cent. of the cotton marketed 
at that port, selling at from Is. 3d, to 2s. 
6d. per Ib. 


The mainland Sea Islaud, which is by 
far the larger crop, is principally 
marketed and shipped from Savannah, 
the largest port on the Atlantic seaboard 
of the cotton-belt. This cotton, like 
Upland cotton, is sent trom the farms 
to the cotton factors in uncompressed 
bales of between 400 and 500 lb. The 
factors take samples (from 2 to 5 Ib.) 
from each bale, and expose them in their 
sample rooms for sale, the price being 
fixed by the grade and the cotton- 
exchange fluctuations. The charge for 
factoring varies from 4s. 2d. to 6s. 3d. 
per bale, irrespective of class, species, or 
value of cotton. This charge covers 
insurance for the first fortnight the bale 
is in the factor’s hands, but, if held over, 
an extra charge of 2s. ld. is made for 
storage. 


54 


OU 


Fibres. 


The railway rates for transport vary, 
but the following figures give an 
approximation :— 

Satesboro to Savannah, 60 miles dis- 
tance, 11d. per 100 lb. 

Macon to Savannah, 191 miles distance, 
1s, 5d, per 100 lb. 

Valdosta to Savannah, 100 miles dis- 
tance, 1s. 33d. per 100 lb. 

Americus to Savannah, 198 miles dis- 
tance, ls. 103d. per 100 lb. 

Albany to Savannah, 170 miles distance, 
Is. 45d. per 100 lb. 


After the bales aresold they are com- 
pressed for shipment, the cost being 
borne by the purchaser, the usual charge 
being 4s. 2d. per bale. Shipment to 
Liverpool costs from ls. 53d. to 2s, 1d. 
per 100 lb,, depending on the time of 
the year, 

The mainland Sea Island cotton is 
classified according to length into “ Kast 
Floridas,” 1? to 2 inches; ‘ Floridas,” 
13 to 1} inches; ‘‘Georgias,” 18 inches ; 
and further gradedaccording to strength, 
cleanness and evenness of staple, into 
“faney,’ ‘extra choice,” ‘* choice,” 
“extra fine,” ‘‘ fine,” and ‘“‘dogs.” The 
average mainland Sea Island cotton 
realises from 17 to 25 cents per lb, 


B.—UPLAND COTTON, 
I. Short-stapled. 


Upland cotton is the principal cotton 
of commerce, and is very extensively 
cultivated in every State of the 
American cotton belt. 


The principal Upland Cotton States 
are—South Carolina, Georgia and Ala- 
bama, on the east side of the Mississippi ; 
and the eastern half of the immense 
State of Texas on the west side of the 
Mississippi. It is considered that 
Georgia and Alabama grow the best 
short-stapled Upland, one of the best 
varieties in this country being ‘‘ Cook’s 
improved.” The soil of Georgia and 
Alabama is red and rich in iron, much of 
it being light and specially suitable for 
fruit-growing, which is an important 
industry in those two States. This soil 
responds to liberal manuring, but large 
areas are producing under 100 lb, of lint 
per acre, owing to continued cotton- 
planting without fallowiug, manuring, 
or growing leguminous crop. This is 
especially noticeable on negro farms, 
where the farming is ofa very poor 
class. Under normal conditions Upland 
cotton never attains the height of Sea 
Island or Kgyptian, and on some of these 
impoverished soils the plants do not 
exceed 18 inches, although remarkably 
well fruited considering the poverty of 
the soil. In Alabama and Georgia sur- 
face mulching is firmly believed in, and 
in dry weather the fields are treated 


Mibres. 


with the mule cultivator once a week 
when possible, the general practice being 
the drier the weather the more frequent 
the mulching. In some parts of Georgia 
and Alabama there is no rain for sixty to 
eighty days in the months of June, July 
and August, and the Upland cotton is 
kept alive by repeated mulching. 


During the tour through the States of 
Georgia and Alabama few crops were 
seen which would yield 400 lb. of lint 
per acre, and many crops which would 
give under 125 lb. This is a great con- 
trast to the Delta of Egypt, where 500 
lb. of lint or five cantars of seed cotton 
is considered an average crop. Texas 
cotton is inferior to Georgia and Ala- 
bama cotton, and especially that pro- 
duced in South-West Texas, which is 
distinetly inferior to North and Central 
Texas cotton. 


It is interesting to notice the supe- 
riority of the Upland cotton produced on 
the east of the Mississippi to that grown 
on the west. This is specially remark- 
able, as Gossypium hirsulwm (the Up- 
land cotton plant) is indigenous to 
Mexico, and not to the east of the 
Mississippi. The cause of the marked 
inferiority of South Texas cotton is 
generally attributed to the high tem- 
perature; the same effect is seen in the 
provinces of Upper Egypt, where Delta 
cotton degenerates, producing harsher 
and more brittle fibre. 


Texas requires a storm-proof, early- 
maturing cotton. There is much wind 
at the time of harvest, and unless the 
variety is storm-proof, much of the crop 
is lost by falling from the open bolls. 
Earliness is also necessary, as all late 
eotton in Texas is destroyed by the 
cotton boll-weevil. The best variety is 
“Triumph,” which is a short-stapled 
Upland cotton of good quality, gives 
large yields, and is early-maturing and 
storm-proof. At onetime, ‘‘ King ” cotton 
was extensively grown in Texas, but this 
variety has been largely superseded by 
‘ Triumph,” which is superior in quality, 
and yields a much higher percentage 
of lint to seed. ‘‘King” cotton is useful 
when circumstances prevent early plant- 
ing, as it matures rapidly ; but it should 
not be grown under ordinary conditions, 
as the quality of its fibre is low and the 
percentage of lint frequently under 
thirty. 

Markets, Transport, Labour, ete.—The 
chiet ports for marketing Upland cotton 
are Galveston and New Orleans. When 
in New Orleans, several days were spent 
at the “Cotton Exchange,” where, in 
conversation with many prominent 
factors and cultivators of this crop, it 
was surprising to find that a very small 


426 


(May, 1909. 


amount of attention is paid in classifica- 
tion to quality of fibre, the grade being 
fixed entirely ona basis of colour and 
freedom from broken leaves or dirt. 
Much of the late-harvested cotton is 
greatly damaged by frost-strain, which 
gives the fibre a characteristic rust 
colour, thereby reducing its value by at 
least 50 per cent. 


The cultivators in the United States 
consider the second picking superior to 
the first, as the first picking always 
contains a larger percentage of sand and 
soil, the result of rain ‘‘spluttering” 
the lower bolls. In Egypt, and where 
cotton is grown under irrigation, the 
first picking is always considered the 
best, as the cotton does not suffer this 
damage. 

The system of handling Upland cotton 
in America is disgraceful ; the bale-cover- 
ings are of the cheapest material and 
quite inadequate to protect the fibre or 
hold it together. The amount of loss in 
transit from the farm tothe spinner 
must in many cases exceed 3 per cent. of 
the original weight of the bale. The 
compress sheds, docks, and railway sheds 
are simply littered with cotton, and it 
is stated that many of the cotton factors 
pay their office expenses from the 
samples they draw and the cotton 
collected from the floors of their com- 
press sheds and docks. The farmers are 
largely responsible for this loss, as they 
refuse to pay for better bale-covering. 
The same thing would probably exist in 
Egypt if the fellahin baled their own 
cotton instead of selling it unginned to 
the ginning firms, who supply bags for 
the seed-cotton and bale the product 
with a good cover after it has been 
ginned. The advantage of this system 
of handling the crop lies principally in 
the cotton bale not being opened until it 
reaches the spinner, whereas, in America, 
bales are cut open, sampled and com- 
pressed, passing through many hands 
before reaching their final destination. 


The scarcity of labour is the most 
serious question connected with cotton 
cultivation in the United States, and in 
the last twelve years the cost has 
increased by 50 percent, Itis extremely 
difficult in many districts to obtain 
adult male black labour ata dollar per 
day asa minimum. 


During late years railway work has 
commanded much of the labour of the 
country, and the ordinary farmer is 
unable to pay from 6s. 38d. to 8s. 4d. per 
day with board and lodging, which is 
the common rate on railway construc- 
tion work. Many of the farmers are 
hoping that matters will be adjusted 
when this class of work is completed, 
but there is much work in lumbering 


May, 1909.] 


and also in towns which will employ all 
available labour for many years to 
come. When the men are getting such 
high wages the women and_ children 
refuse to work on the land. This crip- 
plies the cotton industry, making farm- 
ers unable to harvest their crops before 
the frost comes, which injures much of 
the fibre by discolouring it. There is 
no suitable machinery for picking cotton, 
and success in cotton cultivation in 
any country is to a large extent de- 
pendent on the efficiency and cost of 
hand labour. 


Picking costs 38s. lid. per 100 Ib. of 
seed-cotton on an average or approxi- 
mately £2 6s. per bale of 500 lb. of fibre 
(1,450 to 1,500 1b. of seed-cotton yield 500 
lb. of fibre), 


There are considerable expenses con- 
nected with handling cotton from the 
time of harvest until it is sold. The 
following calculation will show approxi- 
mately the cost of picking, transport- 
ing and marketing a 500-lb. bale of 
cotton grown 200 miles from any of the 
large ports, such as Savannah, New 
Orleans or Galveston. 


£ s. d. 

Picking 1,500 lb. seed-cotton ... 2 6 103 

Transport from farm to gin ... 0 4 2 

Ginning yee Te oe Se 
Railway transport, 200 miles at 
20 cents per 100 Ibs. per 100 

miles ae, . 0 8 4 

Factoring and insurance abe Gepie 

Total 3.9 9% 

If the value of the bale is considered 


as £10 8s. 4d. (5d. per lb.), the above 
shows that the handling of the crop 
costs the American farmer 335 per cent. 
of the gross value of his cotton, the cost 
of picking alone representing fully 22 
per cent. of its gross value. 


It is impossible to make the same 
complete calculation for cotton grown 
in Egypt, as the Egyptain farmer sells 
his crop at the farm as seed-cotton to 
the ginner, who bears the cost of 
transport and ginning. The following 
calculation will show the percentage 
cost of labour to gross value in the 
operation of picking. 


Picking 1,50C lb, seed-cotton at 13 
millimes per lb, =2850 mill.- £2 6s. 103d, 


Thus the actual cost of picking is the 
same asin the United States, but it is 
wellto remember that an average picker 
in America gathers 100 ]b. of seed-cotton 
daily, whereas in Kgypt 60 Ib. is an 
average. The difference isexplained by 
the larger size of Upland cotton bolls, 
which are more easily picked than 
Kgyptian, Americans endorse this 


427 


Fibres: 


statement, as experimental plots of 
Kgyptian cotton cost the Agricultural 
Department 2s. 1d. per 100 lb. more to 
pick, and even then the pickers com- 
plained about the difficulty of pulling 
the fibre from the bolls. 


The average value of Egyptian cotton 
is 83d. per lb., and supposing, for the 
sake of comparison, it was made into 500 
Ib. bales, these would have a gross value 
£17 14s, 2d.; therefore the picking re- 
presents 13 per cent. of the gross value, 
instead of 22 per cent. as is the case 
with American Upland. 


There isa more marked difference in 
many of the other operations on the 
farm, as the American negro receives 
from 4s. 2d. to 8s. 4d. daily, and the 
Egyptian fellah only from 10d. to Is. 5d. 
The Egyptian fellah is the superior 
worker, being more persevering and 
industrious. 


Cotton Seed.—At the present time 
cotton seed is in great demand, and 
finds a ready market at the ginneries, 
which are principally worked by oil- 
millers. Many of the farmers exchange 
their cotton seed for cotton meal, as 
the meal is more readily available as a 
manure. The usual exchange in the 
South is 2,000 lb. (American ton) of seed 
for 1,200 lb. of meal; others sell the 
seed at an average of £3 2s. 6d. per 
American ton. Cattle are scarce in the 
cotton belt on the east of the Mississippi, 
but are plentiful in Texas and the west, 
where large areas are still devoted to 
cattle-ranching, The cotton farmer 
never thinks of fattening cattle, but 
many of the oil and ginning firms are 
fully alive to the profit in cattle-fatten- 
ing, and it is a common sight in the 
west tosee the mills surrounded with 
yards where cattle are fattened ex- 
clusively on a mixture of cotton meal 
and hulls. Hulls are sometimes pur: 
chased as horse-food at £1 Os, 10d. per 
ton. 


The cotton belt would yield a much 
larger cotton crop if there was more 
mixed farming to supply organic man: 
ure to the land. The exclusive use of 
artificial manures cannot result in the 
same fine physical soil conditions as is 
produced by the application of organie 
manures. 


II, Long-stapled. 


It is only within the last few years 
that long-stapled Upland cottons have 
becn cultivated. The crop is almost 
exclusively grown in the valley of the 
Mississippi, on the rich river bottom 
lands. The Mississippi valley is the 
richest part of the cotton belt, and 
large yields are obtained without 


Fibres. 


manuring and with but little cultiva- 
tion. Long-stapled cotton is more deli- 
cate than ordinary Upland, and gives 
much smaller crops, although the fibre 
is distinctly superior in length, being 
over 1 inch. 


Small quantities of long-stapled Up- 
land are grown in South Carolina and 
Georgia, but the area is decreasing in 
those States; in fact, throughout the 
cotton belt the tendency is to give up 
the cultivation of long-stapled Upland, 
and even in the Mississippi valley it is 
estimated that the area at present de- 
voted to these varieties is only about 
one-fifth of that of the last year. The 
cause of this decrease of long-stapled 
Upland cultivation principally lies in 
the fact that the supply has exceeded 
the demand for this staple, and the 
present premium of 2 cents per Ib. is 
not sufficient to compensate for the 
smaller crop produced by these varieties 
when compared with ordinary Upland. 
Two years ago the premium was as 
high as 7 cents, and it is considered 
that when the premium is under 4 cents 
a pound it does not pay to cultivate 
this class of cotton. 


There is little prospect of the produc- 
tion of long-stapled cottons increasing 
in the United States, as they are late 
in maturing, and this is becoming the 
most important factor in American 
cotton cultivation, since all late cotton 
in affected areas is destroyed by the 
* eotton boll-weevil.” It is the general 
opinion of American cotton experts that 
all varieties of long-stapled Upland 
cottons are allied to, or derived from, 
«* Allen’s Long Staple,” two of the best 
varieties being ‘“ Griffin” and ‘‘ Queen.” 
In the United States all long-stapled 
Upland cottons are spoken of as ‘‘ Floro- 
dora cottons.” 


C.—EGYPTIAN COTTONS. 


During the past two years an average 
of fifty-four million pounds of this staple 
has been imported yearly from Kgypt, 
and in 1907 the value of these imports 
exceeded all previous records, and 
amounted to over £3,300,000. The aver- 
age price in the Boston markets was 
about lld. per lb., or double the price 
of ordinary Upland. 

In view of the considerable value of 
this import, the Department of Agri- 
culture has been endeavouring to pro- 
duce Egyptian cotton in the United 
States to supply their home market, 
The standard Egyptian varieties have 
been experimented with, but the experi- 
ments have been a total failure through- 
out the main cotton belt extending from 
Carolina to Texas. The chief cause of 
failure is that there is insufficient heat 


428 


[MAy, 1909. 


to mature the plants before frost sets 
in. Experiments have met with more 
success in the south-west, and especially 
in the Colorado River region of Arizona, 
where the deep alluvial soils, irrigation 
and a longer and warmer summer ap- 
proach more closely to the ideal condi- 
tions of the Egyptian Delta, 


In 1902 all experiments in the main 
cotton belt were abandoned, and experi- 
ments at Yuma in Arizona and Calixico 
in California were commenced, Yuma 
being the chief centre of experiment, 


During the first three years these ex- 
periments were practically a failure, 
but after five years of acclimatisation 
and selection great improvement was 
effected, and now the Department hope 
to grow Egyptian cotton for their own 
use, although they will never produce it 
in large quantities. The fibre produced 
in Arizona is considered to be wanting 
in colour, lustre and evenness of staple, 
but is of good length and strength. ‘The 
Department have had great diffizulty 
in keeping it from crossing with Upland 
cotton, and they therefore discourage 
the growth of the latterin the neigh- 
bourhood of the experiments. It is un- 
likely that American-grown Egyptian 
cotton will ever compete with Egyptian 
proper, as the loss of lustre and colour 
reduces its value for mercerising, a 
process to which Egyptian cotton is 
specially adapted. The American ex- 
periments are interesting, as they clearly 
demonstrate the value of acclimatis- 
ation, and show that poor results ob- 
tained in early trials with a new variety 
do not necessarily indicate that this 
valiety is hopelessly unsuitable for 
introduction. 


SOME DISEASES AND PgstTs. 


Cotton suffers much more from diseases 
and insects in the United States than 
in Egypt, The diseases on the east of the 
Mississippi differ to a remarkable degree 
from those on the west, and two good 
examples are those of the “Wilt Kun- 
gus” of the east and the ‘Root Rot 
Fungus” of the west. 


_ Wilt Fungus (Neocosmospora vasin- 
fecta).—This fungus enters the roots 
from the soil, working its way into the 
vascular system of the plant, and ulti- 
mately killing if by preventing the 
ascent of the sap. The fungus seems to 
be able to exist as a saprophyte, as 
there are cases on record where seven 
years’ rest failed to free the land from 
*' wilt.” Fungicides have no practical 
effect, and the only method of control 
is to grow resistant varieties which 
have been produced by selecting healthy 
plants from an infected area. Disease 


MAy, 1909,] 


resistant selection has been successfully 
accomplished in the Sea Islands, where 
‘“‘wilt” disease threatened to extinguish 
the industry. The experiments were 
conducted on the plantation of Mr. 
Rivers, James Island, by the Depart- 
ment of Agriculture, Washington. At 
the time of the visit to this plantation, 
less than one per cent of the plants were 
affected with ‘‘ wilt” disease, although 
many of the surrounding plantations 
had over 25 per cent. of the crop 
destroyed by it. 


Root Rot Fungus (Ozonium omni- 
vorum).—This disease is indigenous to 
Texas, and there is little hope of its 
extermination, as no cotton is able to 
resist it. The root rot attacks lucerne 
as well as cotton, and frequently destroys 
25 per cent. of the cropeven when grown 
for the first time on virgin soil. The 
disease generally manifests itself when 
the crop has reached the period of matu- 
ration, and is characterised by rapid 
decay of the root and that part of the 
stem which is covered by soil. It is 
easily distinguished from the “ wilt” as 
the stem above the ground is never dis- 
coloured, the disease never spreading 
into the vascular tissue of the stem, as 
in the case of the wilt disease of the 
eastern section of the cotton belt. Crops 
growing on clay and heavy alluvia 
always suffer most, the disease being 
favoured to a large extent by anzerobic 
conditions. Deep winter cultivation and 
soil aération are the most effective 
remedies, and have been known to re- 
duce the disease from 95 per cent. of the 
total crop to 5 per cent. It is estimated 
that 7 per cent. of the cotton grown in 
Texas is destroyed by this disease. 


Anthracnose  (Colletotrichum  gossy- 
pii).—This is a disease found throughout 
all the cotton fields of America, affecting 
the bolls and rotting them when they 
are practically mature. The severity of 
the disease varies according to season, 
being most active when there is much 
rain and littlesunshine. The lower bolls 
always suffer most, and a close-planted 
crop, beset with weeds, is more liable to 
injury than a wide-planted crop. The 
disease causes most damage in the rich 
river-bottom lands of Texas and Missis- 
sippi, but is less injurious on the red 
clays of Georgia and Alabama. The 
principal remedies are rotation, drainage 
and wide planting, 


Cotton Boll-weevil (Anthonomus gran- 
dis)—The cotton boll-weevil is the 
greatest pest of the cotton belt. It was 
first noticed in the State ot Texas in the 
year 1894, and since then has travelled 
northward and eastward at the rate 
of fifty miles a year. In 1906, when it 


429 


Fibres. 


reached the west bank of the Mississippi, 
it was thought that the river would 
prevent its onward march, but now in 
1908 it is forty miles over the river on 
the east side, and strongly established 
in the State of Mississippi. It is caleu- 
lated that seven years hence it will be 
in every State of the cotton belt from 
Texas to the Atlantic. 


Should the boll-weevil reach the Sea 
Island cotton, it will do more harm than 
it does to Upland cotton, as it is much 
more severe on the more delicate varie- 
ties. It is even probable that the weevil 
may exterminate the Sea Island cotton 
industry, and that most of the island 
farmers will turn their attention to the 
cultivation of early vegetables for the 
New York market. At the present time 
‘‘wilt fungus” has caused many of them 
to grow asparagus instead of cotton, and 
market gardening on the islands is a 
growing industry. 


One large landowner in Texas, who 
lets his land to negro tenants and takes 
part of the crop for rent, informed me 
that in 1904 three thousand bales were 
produced on his estate, whereas, in 1907, 
after the weevil reached the district, 
three hundred bales was the total out- 
put. The cotton boll-weevil has done 
much to stimulate the Southern farmer 
and lead him to improve his methods of 
cultivation. It is probable that this will 
result in the introduction of mixed 
farming and rotations, and prevent con- 
tinuous cotton-growing, which has ex- 
hausted much of the best soil. It is of 
the greatest importance that every 
possible precaution should be taken to 
prevent the introduction of the boll- 
weevil into Africa.--Bulletin of the 
Imperial Institute, Vol. VI., No. 4, 1908. 


SISAL HEMP IN THE BAHAMAS, 


From the Annual Report of the Curator 
of the Botanical Gardens in the Baha- 
mas (Mr. W. M. Cunningham, formerly 
of Hope Gardens), we take the follow- 
ing :— 


“The export of sisal fibre for the 
year shows a total value of £40,140, 
The average selling price of machine 
and hand-cleaned sisal fibre during the 
financial year was 38d. per lb, The 
most important industry is the raising 
of sisal fibre, used for making binder- 
twine, ropes, bags, matting, brushes, 
&e. Its profit can be judged from the 
prosperity of the Out Islands. Un- 
affected by heat, drought, storm or in- 
sects, the sisal crop is certain, and the 
price is staple. The Bahamas fibre is 


Fibres. 


said to be of superior strength. Its 
annual yield is variously estimated at 
from £3 to £10 per acre. 


“The estimated area under sisal culti- 
vation is considerably over 25,000 acres. 
The output exceeds that of previous 
years, and the acreage is increasing, 
especially in the Out Islands. 


“The enormous trade already existing 
in sisal, and the increasing demand with 
which the production has not yet been 
able to keep pace, the expansion of the 
Canadian wheat-growing industry, for 
which millions of pounds of binder-twine 
are needed annually, and of late the 
decrease in the output of Manila fibre, 
all pond to encourage the planting of 
sisal. 


‘“‘Other countries are coming to the 
front with this sisal fibreindustry, which 
makes it more and more important that 
no efforts should be spared to bring our 
product up to the mark in quality. The 
Hawaiian Islands, Porto Rico, Mexico, 
and other countries are setting to work 
with a will to develop a fibre industry ; 
vast quantities of fibre are produced 
and are coming forward for the Ameri- 
can market.” 

A good many years agoa plantation 
of sisal hemp was established here by 
Colonel Ward at Moneymusk, but it 
was given up, owing to the difficulty 
then of finding effective machinery 
for dealing with the plant. At the 


430 


{[May, 1909. 


present time, however, there are several 
machines in the market that are said 
to be thoroughly effective. 


A small plantation has been again set 
outin Vere, and, judging from the con- 
fidence in this industry in other parts of 
the world, we should think it will be 
very successful, There is talk of another 
small venture in Trelawny. There are 
good stretches of land in Jamaica quite 
suitable for growing sisal. This variety 
of agave, as well as others, and also 
Sanseviera, grow wild in the driest parts, 
and are common. The most suitable 
soils are light, dry, well-drained, on a 
limestone foundation, and these are 
common here, and once the plant is 
extabbyshed, no dry weather can kill it 
out. 


This cultivation has made Yucatan, 
the poorest endowed part of Mexico by 
Nature, perhaps the richest in actual 
wealth. The export of fibre from 
Yucatan is about 600,000 bales, of a value 
of £3,500,000. The importations into 
the United States in 1905 amounted to 
§,265,819 lb., at anaverage ol £35 per ton. 
The price per ton, which was £15. Os. 3d. 
in 1904, has steadily increased every year 
until now it ranges from £35 to £37 10s. 
per ton. On dry lands plantations of 
sisal hemp could be easily and cheaply 
established, and crops of cotton taken 
off between the rows when the sisal 
plants were small.—Journal of the 
Jamaica Agricultural Society. 


EDIBLE PRODUCTS. 


THA MANUFACTURE IN 
DARJEELING. 
THE PROBLEM OF QUALITY. 

The old adage that tea is made on 
the garden and spoilt in the factory is 
often quoted in connection with Dar- 
jeeling manufacture, but in some cases 
it might be more correct_ to apply the 
saw of the silk purse and the sow’s ear. 


Analysing the results of the elaborate 
experiments conducted of recent years 
with the object of discovering the causes 
of quality in tea, itis now generally re- 
cognised that, as far as Darjeeling is con- 
cerned at all events, we areas far from the 
true explanation as ever, :for we are con- 
fronted with sucha mass of contradictory 
evidence that the planter may well plead 
confusion rather than enlightenment. 


Much theoretical advice has been forth- 
coming, but the practical methods recom- 
mended for the improvement of quality 
have not met with approval from the 
majority of those planters in Darjeeling 
who have given them atrial. In fact these 
methods are in many cases so diametri- 
cally opposed to those practised on 
estates yielding teas of the highest class, 
that there is grave reason for the belief, 
often expressed, that quality cannot be 
controlled. 


The supply of Darjeeling teas being 
such asmall one, comparatively speak- 
ing, there is usually a consistent demand, 
and they can generally be relied upon to 
fetch a remunerative price. To the 
outsider who, pussessed of no practical 
knowledge, peruses the weekly market 
reports, it would doubtless appear that 
Darjeeling gardens, asa whole, must pa 
the most handsome profits of any, hig 


May, 1909.] 


prices being constantly realised for 
representative invoices. This, needless 
to remark, is far from the truth. The 
comparative prices of Darjeeling and 
plains Teas certainly show a margin, 
often a very wide one, but it must be 
remembered that the outturn per acre 
in the hills is often only 2$ to 3 maunds 
per acre, whereas in the plains, the 
average garden, in even moderate order, 
Wwul usually yield at least double that 
amount. The expenditure of an estate 
is based upon its area, and it therefore 
becomes obvious that the cost of the 
crop varies directly according to the 
yield per acre. Thus while teas from 
Sylhet and the Dooars are often laid 
down in Caleutta at anything from 
as. 2-6 to as. + per pound, there is hardly 
a garden in Darjeeling capable of placing 
its crop on the Caleutta market at less 
than as 6-9 per pound, and on many 
estates the cost is even higher. The 
difference in outturn between hills and 
plains estates may be directly attributed 
to climatic influences. 


There is no getting away from the 
fact that the colder climate of the hills 
is antagonistic to luxuriant growth on 
the part of the tea bush. This is 
evidenced by the slower growth and 
smaller leaf obtained. Further, liberties 
which may be taken with impunity in 
the plains quickly produce a deleterious 
effect in the hills, and a falling off in 
crop is often noticeable after even one 
season of severe treatment. The Dar- 
jeeling planter therefore finds himself 
compelled to consider details to a much 
greater extent than his neighbour in 
the plains, whose work is much more of 
general supervision and less of individual 
bush treatment. 


AN ASTONISHING FACT. 


It would perhaps astonish the unini- 
tiated to learn that the highest quality 
is obtained in Darjeeling from leaf 
which is actually in an unhealthy 
condition, that is to say leaf which is 
suffering from greenfly blight. This 
blight generally makes its appearance 
in June, when the best teas are 
turned out, and it is not uncommon 
to hear a planter bewailing the fact 
that he has not been visited by 
this friend to quality during the current 
season. Atthe same time, for reasons 
unknown, there are gardens in the hills 
which appear to be unable to yield a tea 
of more than medium quality, greenfly 
or no greenfly, and this is where all in- 
vestigations into the causes of quality 
have hopelessly failed. In these cases, 
soil conditions and the jat of bush are 
often identical with those of adjoining 
gardens of the first rank, and yet these 


431 


Hdible Products, 


‘““sow’s ears” obstinately refuse to be 
transformed into “ purses” of even the 
most moderate deseription. Their mana- 
agers are therefore confronted with the 
necessity of keeping their bushes in the 
highest possible state of health, in order 
to obtain as great a yield as possible. 


Inacasual trip through the District 
one would imagine that the pioneers of 
the Tea Industry in Darjeeling took 
almost special pains to build their 
factories in the worst possible position. 
It is not too much to say that had 
suitable sites been chosen, there is not a 
single gardenin the hills which might 
not have had the benefit of water-power, 
to the saving of its fuel and the reduc- 
tion of its expenditure. Asa matter of 
fact, however, gardens where machinery 
is water driven are in the minority, and 
the natural result is the present-day 
ery of shortage of fuel with all its atten- 
dant evils. Where water is available, 
the turbine has in many cases superseded 
the older-fashioned water-wheel as being 
less cumbersome and more effective. 
The wear and tear on bearings is, how- 
ever, very severe Owing to the action of 
the extraordinarily fine grit present in 
hill water, and the life of a turbine cannot 
in all probability be considered to be so 
long as that of the water-wheel, which, 
if made of iron, is practically everlasting. 
Of late years, electricity has been 
employed on some gardens close to the 
Darjeeling Municipal generating station 
with the best possible results. The 
installation is by no means excessively 
expensive, and the power, while not 
actually cheaper than fuel, is natur- 
ally of immense profit to the estates so 
fortunate as to have obtained it, allow- 
ing as it does such a very great saving 
of forest supplies. 


Quality being always the aim in Dar- 
jeeling, a great deal naturally depends 
upon proper factory supervision, for, 
given good leaf and adequate machinery, 
a very slight falling in any of the pro- 
cesses of manufacture may veritably 
make or mar. This supervision is in 
mary cases complicated by the fact that 
bungalows are builtso far away from 
factories, but the Darjeellng planter is 
lueky in the services of the Nepali, who 
in many cases may be relied upon to 
obtain the best results solay for his own 
satisfaction. 


SUPERVISION AND CLEANLINESS. 


Absolute cleanliness throughout the 
factory is of course the first essential, 
and this is fully recognised in the hills, 
no expense or trouble being spared to 
ensure the impossibility of any taint 
being imparted to the tea from the time 


Edible Products. 


when it enters the factory to the time 
when itis despatched from the local sta- 
tion to its final destination in Calcutta or 
London. Wither, fermentation and 
firing all play important parts, but the 
best conditions appear to vary according 
to elevation, and it is therefore im- 
possible to lay down any hard and fast 
rules. 
THE “SOLE UNIVERSAL NEED.” 


The sole universal need is a good even 
wither, which is absolutely necessary in 
order to obtain the best results. This, 
however, is not a matter of such ease as 
it might at first sight appear. In the 
earlier months of the season, the atmo- 
sphere being as a rule fairly dry, readily 
absorbs the surplus moisture in the leaf. 
and a satistactory wither is purely a 
matter of proper spreading on the 
factory racks. In the rains, on the 
other hand,it is at times quite impos- 
sible to obtain the proper amount of 
evaporation, and planters are perforce 
compelled to accept conditions which are 
prejudicial to quality. These coupled 
with the ranker and more sappy growth 
then obtaining at most_ elevations, 
usually cause a loss of flavour, also 
affecting the colour of the fermented 


leaf. 

The Scientifie Department of the 
Indian Tea Association were recently 
busy with the subject of rolling, but in 
spite of their report, the best Darjeeling 
teas appear to be almost universally 
rolled for one and a half hours, a redue- 
tion in the time devoted to this oper- 
ation having usually yielded disappoint- 
ing results. Itis now generally accept- 
ed as a fact that a relatively cool 
fermentation suits low elevations; a 
warm fermentation is proper for higher 
levels. 

The aim of the manufacturer is to 
obtain an even, bright coppery colour, 
but owing to almost daily variations 
of leaf and climate, this is rarely 
achieved to perfection. From time to 
time we are confronted with some 
mechanical means claiming to surmount 
all difficulties in this direction, but so 
far nothing effective has been produced, 
and it is doubtful whether, for the hills 
at all events, any mechanical aid can be 
evoked to deal with such wide variations 
as those above mentioned. 


Firing is a delicate process, and the 
many types of dryers on the market 
each has its own adherents. Where a 
full plant is available, the Updraft 
Sirocco appears to be the most popular 
dryer in the hills, especially when fitted 
witha multi-tubular stcve. The eco- 
nomy in fuel shown by these dryers is of 
the first importance nowadays, and the 


[MAyY, 1909. 


fact that every tray can be separately 
examined naturally appeals to the 
seeker after quality, especially when he 
is so fortunate as to havea thoroughly 
experienced staff. Where large crops 
are turned out, it is common to see the 
leaf put through an automatic machine 
and dried to twelve annas, to be finished 
off on hand dryers or over chulas. Many 
planters firmly adhere to the practice 
of finishing in the old fashioned manner 
over charcoal, and itis noticeable that 
most of the estates that dry in this 
manner produce teas of merit. It is 
claimed, and it would appear with some 
justice, that teas thus treated keep 
longer and are of a more mature flavour 
than those solely machine dried. 


To be of stand-out-quality, Darjeeling 
invoices should show a maximum of 
strength and flavour in their liquors, 
which should also be brisk and pungent. 
The infused leaf should be of a bright 
even, coppery colour, and the liquors, 
when cold, should show ‘“ creaming” 
power. The appearance of the dry leaf 
is a more or less secondary consideration, 
except that the most particular care has 
to be exercised to keep the various 
grads absoluteiy even. Fannings and 
Dusts should be absolutely free of grit 
of any kind, and it is to be feared that 
sufficient attention is not always given 
to this point. 


AN IMPORTANT POINT. 


With the strong demand for Darjeel- 
ings at present obtaining in Caleutta, it 
is of importance that planters should be 
brought as much as possible into direct 
touch with buyers, and it would probably 
prove of immense benefit to the industry 
if buyers made a point of visiting the 
district annually at the beginning of 
the season to invite the attention of 
planters to the class of manufacture 
most suited to the markets they re- 
present. It is of the utmost importance 
to all concerned to bear in mind that 
the greater part of the Darjeeling crop 
is nowadays taken for Russia, and that 
po efforts should be spared to maintain 
and extend the hold that has been 
obtained there after so many years of 
depression.—Indian Agriculturist, Vol. 
XXXIII., No. 11, November 2, 1908. 


PADDY. 


Copy of an article on “ Paddy” extracted 
jrom the “ Handbook of Agriculture 
jor Burma: — f 

Paddy is the most important and 
most valuable of our grain crops, and 
occupies in Burmaa much larger area 
than all other crops together. The main 
varieties of paddy are(1) Kyaukkyi (bya 


May, 1909,]} 


or abart and lonbyu). (2) _Kyaukkyin 
(red and white), (8) Mayin (red and 
white), (4) (lawthut, (5) yahaing, (6) 
akare, (7) shangale, (8) lonbu, and (9) 
ngaya. 

Clay soils which may be easily flooded 
are best adapted to paddy: practically, 
however, nearly every kind of land will 
produce fair crops of paddy if in good 
condition, unless when the climate is 
really unfavourable for the purpose. 
Hanthawadd, Thongwa, Pyapon, Am- 
herst, Thaton, Pegu and the delta 
Districts in Lower Burma and Kyaukse 
in Upper Burma are the best districts 
for paddy. Comparatively little paddy 
is grown in some districts of Upper 
Burma. 

The time of sowing is very much a 
matter of local experience and is more 
or less regulated by the weather and 
the fitness of the ground. In _ the 
Kyaukse district of Upper Burma the 
Kyaukkyi crop is usually sown in 
Nayon or Wazo (about June), the Ky- 
aukkyin in Tabaung or Tagu (about 
March), and the Mayinin Thadingyut 
or Tazaungmon (about October). 


Inthe Amherst and Thaton Districts 
of Lower Burma paddy is usually sown 
iu Nayon, except yahaing. The quan- 
tity of seed to he sown to the acre 
varies greatly. That quantity is best 
which yields the largest crop, and the 
solution otf that point rests on the 
experience of the individual cultivator. 
The answer depends ou many consider- 
ations: the quality and condition of the 
land, the climate, the goodness of the 
seed, and the mode of sowing. One 
basket of seed per acre may suffice where 
the conditions are all favourable, as is 
the case in the localities of Bilugyun 
and Zaya in the Amherst District of 
Lower Burma; and even 24 baskets of 
seed may not be too much per acre, under 
the circumstances, as is the case in some 
parts of the Kyaukse district of Upper 
Burma. Whatever be the quantity, it 
is desirable that the ground be fairly 
occupied by plants when the growth 
commences. More seed willbe required 
when the broadcasting method is adopt- 
ed, and less seed when the seedlings are 
to be transplanted from a nursery. 


To economize the quantity of seed 
required, cultivators are advised to sow 
the seed in lines at regular intervals, 
say, at2 or 3inch intervals, and set the 
seed with a measure just big enough 
to sufficiently set seeds on each line. 
An ordinary cultivator who is used to 
the prevailing method of scattering seed 
in broadcast may perhaps imagine that 
this method of sowing in lines would 
not pay so well, for the reason that the 


55 


433 


Edible Products. 


entire surface of the land selected for 
the seed-bed would not be covered by 
plants; but then it should be remem- 
bered that all seeds do not germinate 
when broadcasted. The principles of 
scientific theory show that the method 
suggested would give a better result, 
for the simple reason that the seed is 
equally distributed, and thus, after 
germination, each plant has a sufficient 
space of ground for expansion and can 
draw nourishment from the soil with 
greater tacility, with the result that it 
becomes a good plant for transplanting. 


In the best districts of the country 
a quarter of the entire holding is re- 
served for sowing seed at the rate of 1 
to 2} baskets per acre of the holding. 
The cost of sowing seed may be roughly 
caleulated at from Rs. 5 to Rs. 6-4-0 per 
acre in Upper Burma,and Rs. 3 to Rs. 
3-8-0 per acre in Lower Burma, includ- 
ing the market value of the seed at the 
time of sowing and the cost of plough- 
ing. 

When seeds are sown in the districts 
of Upper Burma where rainfallis scanty 
and where lands are usually irrigated 
the cultivator should take care that he 
maintains adepth of 3inches of water 
in his seed-bed, drawing out the stale 
water and irrigating with fresh water 
oncein 10 or 15 days if the water is 
allowed to remain too long in the seed- 
bed, the rise of temperature will cause 
the young plants to perish ; but in Lower 
Burma since sowing takes place at the 
proper time of the rainy season this 
precaution is not always necessary. 


The quality of the seed should be 
another consideration in sowing; for 
choice grain, if achange has been got 
from a different soil, will produce plenty 
of plants with less seed than in other 
circumstanees. Every cultivator should 
prefer bright, sound, plump, and well 
cleaned seed; and certain varieties have 
hereditary qualities which it is well to 
respect. A great deal more than the 
usual care should be taken in the selec- 
tion of proper seed. Cultivators should 
always select the ripest and best seeds 
of the best ears of the best plants at 
hand, and cultivate them with extreme 
attention to every circumstance that can 
improve their productiveness. Practi- 
cally speaking there is no ‘pedigree’ 
paddy in Burma, but a ‘pedigree’ wheat 
is well-known in England. In order to 
establish a ‘pedigree’ paddy cultivators 
should endeavour to follow the afore- 
said hints which are based on the various 
experiments made by the leading scienti- 
fic men of Great Britain. Itis a well- 
known fact that the byat variety of 
Kyaukkyi paddy from the neighbour- 
hood of Shwelekwin in the Myittha 


Edible Products. 


township of the Kyaukse district and 
the Billugyun and Zaya Townships of 
the Amherst district is superior to the 
grain of any other localities. Ripest 
and best seeds, of the best ears, of the 
best plants, if possible of the localities 
known to yield good grain should be 
selected for sowing and should be sown 
with extreme attention to every circum- 
stance that can improve their pro- 
ductiveness and thus establish the un- 
known ‘ pedigree’ variety. 

In connection with this subject the 
cultivator might advantageously note 
that short straw sorts are desirable for 
highly cultivated lands, and early ripen- 
ing sorts for late growing localities, 
while hardy sorts are suitable for 
hazardous climates. 

After the seeds have been set with 
due precaution regarding water in the 
nursery, the land intended for trans- 
planting should be properly levelled so 
that the irrigated or rain water may 
nourish the plants equally. The seed- 
lings are generally ready for trans- 
planting in about forty-five days after 
the seeds have been set; but the time 
for transplanting should be known from 
the stenck of the mud; unless the mud 
in the nursery shows signs of decompo- 
sition and gives out a stench, the 
seedlings should not be transplanted. 
It should be remembered, however, that 
the seedlings of Kyaukkyin paddy must 
be transplanted within forty-five days, 
for if they are not transplanted and 
allowed to remain in the nursery after 
the torty-fifth day they will not give 
a good return. 

The seedlings should be transplanted 
in lines at 6 or 8 inch intervals, and at 
the same distance from each other, so 
that each plant may have a sufficient 
space of ground to grow upon. If prefer- 
able, seedlings may be transplanted in 
triangles at the distance of 6 or 8 inches 
from each. This is preferable in dry 
localities, where irrigation is the only 
source of water-supply, as it will be 
found easier for withdrawing the stale 
water. Whether the seedlings are trans- 
planted in squares or triangles, it must 
be remembered that the best returns 
are only attainable when there is prac- 
tical approach to giving every plant a 
clear space of ground to grow upon. 
When each plant is in its own square or 
triangle it has room to expand and draw 
nourishment from the soil and the air 
with greater facility. 

The usual time for transplanting in 
Upper Burma for Kyaukkyi isin Wazo 
or Wagaung (about July), for Kyaukkyin 
in Kason or Nayon (about May), and 
for Mayin in Pyatho or Tabodwe (about 
January). 


434 


[MAY 1909, 


The climate of Lower Burma being 
generally damp after the seeds are set 
so much precaution is not necessary, and 
the only hint required is to always trans- 
plant when the mud begins to give 
forth a stench on or about the forty- 
fifth day after the setting of seed. 


The costof transplanting may be rough- 
ly calculated at Rs. 4-8-0 or Rs. 5 per acre, 
assuming that four men at 8 annas each 
are required to take out the seedlings 
from the nursery and eight women at 6 
annas each to set the plants. 


After the seedlings have been trans- 
planted care must be taken to maintain 
a depth of at least 2 inches of water in 
the first month and 6inches from the 
second month until the grains show 
signs of hardness, butit is not necesary 
to change the water as was the case 
while the plants are in the nursery. As 
soon as the grains show signs of hardness 
every particle of water should be with- 
drawn and the crop left alone until ready 
for reaping. In Lower Burma the rains 
generally cease when paddy grains come 
to maturity, so that there is no occasion 
for drawing out water asin the ease of 
the irrigated districts of Upper Burma. 


In Upper Burma the Kyaukkyi crop 
is reaped in Pyatho (about December), 
Kyaukkyin in Wagaung (about August), 
and Mayin in Taga (about April). In 
Lower Burma the shangale crop is reaped 
in Tazaungmon or Nadaw (about Novem- 
ber), if seeds are set in Nayon (about 
June), and Kyaukkyi in Pyatho (about 
January). The cost of reaping and 
threshing the grain may be roughly eal- 
culated at Rs. 4-8-0 or Rs. 5 pe. acre, 
assuming that four men at 10 annas per 
head per diem are required tuo reap and 
tie into 240 sheaves, three carts to 
convey the sheaves to the homestead 
or threshing-ground at 4 annas each, 
two bullocks at a ccst of one rupee to 
tread out the heap of sheaves, and 
one man at 8 annas for winnowing. 


In Upper Burma the yield of Kyauk- 
kyi crop trom an acre of first-class 
land is about 50 baskets, from second- 
class land 35 baskets, and from third- 
class land about 25 baskets. The yield 
of Kyaukkyin from an acre of first- 
class land is about 60 baskets, and 
second-class 40 baskets, and from third- 
class about 380 baskets. The yield of 
Mayin from an acre of first-class land 
is about 50 baskets, from second-class 
land 380 baskets, and from _ third-class 
land about 25 baskets. In Lower Burma 
an acre of first-class land yields from 
40 to 60 baskets, an acre of second-class 
land about 30.to 35 baskets, and an acre 
of third-class land from 15 to 25 baskets, 


May, 1909.] 


In former days cultivators scarcely 
manured their lands for paddy cultiva- 
tion, and, although they do now, the 
quantity is scarcely sufficient. The 
manure should either be applied as 
soon as a previous crop has been reaped 
or kept in composts, and applied when 
ploughing in quantities of from 175 to 
200 baskets per acre of  farm-yard 
manure. The field should be ploughed 
deeply in the manner laid down in the 
chapter regarding operations. 


If the ground has been throughly 
manured and properly tilled no insects 
are likely toinjure the plants ; insects 
only attack plants when the plants are 
not healthy owing to bad cultivation 
or to the exhaustion of some particular 
plant-fcod in the soil. 


There are three kinds of insects 
known to injure the paddy crop 
from the first stage after seedlings are 
transplanted until the whole crop 
has been damaged, and no cultivators 
appear to have done anything towards 
their prevention :— 


(1) Palanbyu (a variety of saw-fly) is 
the size of half a grain of rice, 
blackish in colour. with two wings 
on each side, four legs, and a small 
horn. They generally come trom 
elsewhere just after the seedlings 
are transplanted and suck away 
the leaves until the leaves become 
white and die away. 

(2) Nga-myaung-yang (also a variety 
of saw-fly) is dark in colour, as 
big as a grain of rice, with 12 legs, 
They generally form from the 
plant just when the plants begin 
to grow well, and just at the time 
the particular plant-food required 
is exhausted. 
Sitpo (a variety of grub) is the 
size of an ordinary louse, and is 
white in colour. They also form 
from the roots in the same way as 
nga-myaungdaung. When crops 
are damaged by any or all of 
them the cultivator is reeommend- 
ed to dust with lime while the 
corn is still young and the insect 
spread on it. Soot would prob- 
ably do good, it being a fertilizer 
as well as disagreeable to the 
insects. 


(3 


~~ 


RIPENING OF TROPICAL FRUITS. 

Some interesting investigations by 
Mr. H. C. Prinsen Geerligs, dealing with 
the chemical changes that take place 
during the ripening of some tropical 
fruits of Java, are reported upon in a 


435 


Edible Products. 


paper lately published in the J/nterna- 
tional Sugar Journal. The fruits dealt 
with included the banana, mango, tama- 
rind, and sapodilla. 


Bunches of bananas, as is well known, 
are generally cut from the tree inan im- 
mature state, and when the fruitis hard, 
tasteless, and unfit for food. After a few 
days the edible matter becomes tender, 
sweet, and well-flavoured, but againa few 
days later the fruit is unpalatable, owing 
to over-ripeness and decay. Some of the 
changes that go on in these stages were 
investigated by Mr. Geerligs. 


A notable feature was the loss of 
weight that takes place during ripening. 
Twenty green bananas, kept in a cool 
place, were found to have lost an 
average weight of 8 grammes each at the 
end of seven days. In another case, ten 
green bananas of a smaller variety, 
weighing originally 5025 grammes, lost 
15°5 grammes in four days, and by suit- 
able means it was shown that of this 
loss, 2'°3 grammes were given off as car- 
bon dioxide. 

From a bunch of bananas, cut in the 
immature state, a single fruit was ana- 
lysed daily for a week, so that the 
changes in progress might be observed. 
At the end of the week the remaining 
bananas were in a stage of over-ripeness, 


The most prominent feature of the 
ripening process in the case of the 
banana was the rapid transformation of 
starch into sucrose or cane-sugar. At 
the first analysis of the unripe fruit, the 
percentage of starch in the banana pulp 
was 30°98, and of sucrose 0°86 per cent. 
Two days later, thectarch had decreased 
to 24°98 per cent., while the sucrose 
present was 4°43 per cent. On the fifth 
day from the first analysis, the banana 
(almost ripe) contained 13°89 per cent. of 
starch, and 10°5 of sucrose, while on the 
following day there were present in the 
fully ripe truit only 9°59 per cent. of 
starch, but 18°68 per cent. of sucrose. 
The percentages of glucose and fructose 
also increase during ripeving, and in 
the fully ripe fruit. In the over-ripe 
bananas, the proportion of sucrose 
shows a falling off (10°36 per cent.), which 
is explained by the fact that inversion 
of the sucrose into glucose and fructose 
takes place. The latter two products 
also undergo further breaking up, which 
probably accounts in part for the large 
amount of carbon dioxide formed in 
after-ripening. 

Mangoes also are usually picked when 
unripe. At that time they are hard, acid, 
and flavourless, but the after-ripening 
process renders them tender and full: 
flavoured in a few days, 


Edible Products. 


The chief features of the ripening pro- 
cess with the mango are changes in the 
proportions of starch, sucrose, and citric 
acid, together with a loss in weight. 
Five mangoes, which originally weighed 
1,139°3 grammes, lost 18 grammes in 
weight, when kept for three days in a 
cool place. Of this loss, 4°558 grammes 
consisted of carbon dioxide. As in the 
ease of the bananas, a mango fruit from 
a parcel having practically the same 
initial maturity was daily analysed. As 
a result, it was observed that the pro- 
portion of starch present declined from 
$°53 in the unripe mangoes to nil in the 
ripe fruit, while on the other hand, 
during the same period, the sucrose 
increased from 2°57 to 12°27 per cent. 
Later on the sucrose becomes hydrolysed 
and split up into glucose and fructose. 
Citric acid, whichis the only acid found 
present in the mango, diminished from 
1°31 per cent. in the unripe stage, to 0°10 
in the ripe fruit. The acid is not neutral- 
ized in any way during the ripening 
process, but is destroyed as the result 
of the respiratory process, and given 
off chiefly as carbon dioxide. 


Tamarinds were also dealt with, and 
the composition of the pulp of these 
fruits, in several stages of riperess, ex- 
tending over a period of more than two 
months, is given by Mr. Geerligs. 
Starch was present in green tamarinds 
to the extent of 3°33 per cent., but five 
weeks later all the starch had been 
transformed—not into sucrose—but into 
a mixture of glucose and fructose. 
During the ripening process, the pro- 
portion of these two sugars present 
increased from 0'40 and 0°33 per cent. 
to 20° and 11°6 per cent. respectively. 
The acid of the tamarind is tartaric acid; 
of this, the total proportion present in 
the green fruit is 4°85 per cent., and in 
the ripe fruit, 16-4 percent. In ripening, 
too, a large amount of water is evapor- 
ated, causing the fruit to shrink con- 
siderably within the pod. A good deal 
of acid is consumed by respiration after 
the tamarind has reached the stage of 
ripeness. 


Another tropical fruit, the ripening of 
which was investigated, is the sapodilla. 
Sapodillas are plucked tree ripe, in 
which state they are green and hard, 
and contain gutta-percha and tannin 
dissolved in the sap, which render the 
fruit unfit for eating. After keeping for 
a short while, however, the gutta-percha 
and tannin become insoluble, and the 
fruit becomes full-flavoured and _pala- 
table. In the ripe sapodilla, the coagul- 
ated gutta-percha may be seen as a 
series of white threads, while the tannin 
is deposited as insoluble matter in 
certain cells. 


436 


[May, 1909. 


These changes constitute the whole 
phenomena of 1ipening in the case of the 
sapodilla. There is no transformation 
of starch into sugar, since no starch 
whatever exists in the fruit at any stage 
of the ripening process. Further, the 
amount of sugar present before and 
after full ripening is the same. 

It may be added that from the result 
of experiments described in detail, Mr. 
Geerligs comes to the conclusion that, 
in the case of the banana and the mango, 
the rapid transformation of starch into 
sugar is one of the vital processes of 
these fruits, and not a consequence of 
the action of some enzyme or soluble 
ferment.— Agricultural News, Vol. VIII., 
No. 176, January 23, 1909. 


PLANTING SUGAR CANE IN CUBA. 


The Cuban-American, published at 
La Gloria, Cuba, in the interest of the 
Cuban Land and Steamship Company, is 
urging the new settlers in the country 
to plant some sugar cane, and states that 
since their last bi-weekly issue they had 
reports of 85 acres additional being so 
planted. It would seem that the dis- 
position of the promoters and backers 
of the town of La Gloria, which is 
located on the north side of Cuba, is 
to utilise cane as a prominent crop, 
beginning inasmall way until the set- 
tlers have become familar with the 
business. lt is said incidentally that 
because sugar is a good thing for the 
colony, the Cuban-American is disposed 
to push it along. Itadvises the planting 
of some cane, even if it be but a single 
acre, and says that it will cost about 
$60 to clear and plant an acre in cane, 
and that it will not need replanting for 
at least five years, and out of these 
five years’ work avery material profit 
is expected, as well as a considerably 
increased area in sugar cane. As soon 
as the sugar cane is two to three feet 
high, itis expected to shade itself and 
keep down the weeds and to need practi- 
cally no labour, excepting during har- 
vest, all of which may sound a little 
novel to Louisiana readers. It is ex- 
pected that with the development of 
cane culture in that vicinity a competent 
sugar factory will be erected, and that 
La Gloria will become a conspicuous 
sugar centre.—Louisiana Planter and 
Sugar Manufacturer, Vol. XLII., No. 7, 
February, 1909. 


FEEDING VALUE AND FLAVOUR 
OF NUTS. 


An interesting article in the Vear- 
book of the United States Department 
of Agriculture (1906) deals with the use 
of nuts as food for man, and gives a 


May, 1909.] 


large amount of information as to the 
composition, value, and digestibility of 
these fruits. 


As is pointed out in the article referred 
to, the term ‘nut’ isnot a definite one— 
botanically speaking—but is applied 
indiscriminately to a varietyof certain 
fruits; or parts of fruits, and implies 
a more or less hard, woody covering, 
surrounding a meat or kernel. The 
fact that nuts form a _ concentrated 
class of food-stuffs, owing to their 
general richness in fats and proteins— 
the two most valuable of nutritive 
constituents—is very evident from a con- 
sideration of the tabulated results 
of analaysis of a large number of differ- 
ent kinds of nuts, given in the article. 
Oil or fat is very commonly a prominent 
constituent of nuts. The hickory nut 
(Carya sp.) contains 67°4 per cent. of 
oil, the Brazil nut (Bertholletia excelsa) 
65 per cent., the candle-nut (A leurites 
tribola), 61°7 per cent., the butter-nut 
(Caryocar nuciferum), 61°2 per cent., the 
walnut (Juglans regia), 60°7 per cent., 
the coconut 56°2, the almond 54-4, and 
the ground-nut (Arachis hypogea) 438°5 
per cent. 

Several of the above, as well as 
others, are also rich in protein or albu- 
minous matter—that constituent of 
foods which goes to form muscles or red 
meatin the animal body. In the ground- 
nut the proportion of protein reaches 
29'8 per cent., while in the case of the 
butter-nut the protein comprises 27'9 
per cent, Other nuts rich in albuminoid 
matter are the pistachio, 22°6 per cent.: 
the Paradise nut of South America 
(which resembles the Brazil nut in 
appearance and _ flavour), about 22°2 
per cent., the almond and the candle- 
nut. each 21'4 per cent.; the walnut, 
182 per cent., and the Brazil nut, 
17-4 per cent. The proportion of 
albuminod matter in the coconut com- 
prises only 6°6 per cent. 


Only a few of the commonly used 
nuts contain a large proportion of 
carbohydrate matter. Among these 
the dry chestnut, with 73°0 per cent., 
ranks highest. 


When it is considered that the propor- 
tion of protein in an average beef steak 
comprises 19°8 per cent., and of fat 136 
per cent., that in Cheddar cheese the 
protein percentage may be taken as 27°7 
and the fat percentage as 36°8, and that 
boiled eggs contain 12°4 per cent. of 
albuminoid matter, and 10°7 per cent. of 
fat, it will be seen that the food value of 
nuts, as deduced from their percentage 
composition of nutritive matter is, 
generally speaking, a high one. This 
food value is somewhat depreciated on 


437 


Edible Products. 


account of the fact that the nutritive 
constituents, more especially the protein 
matter, are not so easily digested as the 
corresponding constituents of meat, but 
the opinion is expressed by the writer of 
the article that this inferior digestibility 
is, toa large extent, due to imperfect 
mastication of the nuts. 


The flavour of nuts is to a large extent 
due to the oils present, though in some 
kinds there are also certain specific 
flavouring bodies. The nut oils readily 
become rancid, and the disagreeable 
flavour of spoiled nuts is due to this 
property. 

The almond possesses a hydrocyanic 
acid flavour, which is characteristic of 
the kernels of peach stones, plum 
stones, ete., and this might be expected 
when it is remembered that the almond 
is the dried kernel of an inedilble fruit, 
which somewhat resembles the peach 
in appearance, and is closely related 
to it botanically. Most almonds are 
mild-flavoured, though in the so-called 
bitter almonds the glucoside which 
yields the cyanic acid is more abundant. 
—Agricultural News, Vol. VIL, No. 168, 
October, 1908. 


CITRUS INDUSTRY FOR INDIA. 


In the middle of last year the Italian 
Government imposed an export tax on 
citrate of lime and concentrated lemon 
juice. This tax, which does not seem to 
have proved a popular one, is variable 
and may reach a maximum of 25 per 
cent. Its immediate effect has been to 
increase the price of the products 
named, thus opening the door for out- 
side competition. The exports of con- 
centrated lemon juice from Italy to the 
United Kingdom are substantial and 
were valued at £28,926 in 1906 and 
£23,225 in 1907, The trade in citrate is 
more important, and it isestimated that 
one-third of the total crop of lemons is 
now used in the manufacture of that 
product. In 1907, 23,000 pipes of citrate 
were produced, each pipe containing 
672 lbs., and as 100,000 lemons are neces- 
sary to manufacture a pipe, it follows 
that about 6,900,000,000 lemons were 
grown in Sicily during the year under 
notice. That will give some idea of the 
extent of the trade, which, moreover, 
seems to be a profitable one, as we see it 
stated on good authority that while a 
hectare (2°47 acres) of land yields an 
annual] return of Rs, 23-6, the same area 
in a first-class lemon grove ina good 
season may produce fruit to the value of 
Rs. 1,500. But what with the export tax 
and the destruction caused by the earth- 
quake, this trade will probably be 


Edible Products. 


thrown back for years. When, for in- 
stance, the earthquake occurred the 
rice per Sicilian pound (12 ounces) of 
emon oil, of which there isa very large 
yieldin Sicily and an active demand in 
ractically all countries, was about 3s., 
a heavy speculation quickly forced 
it up to 7s. 6d., at which figure a fair 
trade was done; later on the price rose 
to 10s., and lots were eagerly bought 
even at that high price, which, further- 
more, led to wholesale adulteration. At 
the present moment the spot price is 
about 5s., but it, as well as the price of 
other citrus products, may probably rise 
again as the result of the cablegram 
received this week stating that the ruin 
of Messina has been completed. 

As India is the original home of the 
lime, the question arises whether the 
time has not come when this country 
might with advantage take its share in 
the citrus trade, in which there is 
always a good deal doing, and in which, 
owing to climatic conditions, it is not 
open toevery country to compete. The 
cultivation of limes in Indla, says Sir 
George Watt, if organised on a com- 
mercial scale, would necessarily involve 
full advantage being taken of each and 
every profitable outlet, such as the pre- 
servation of the fruit (fresh and candied), 
production of lime juice, and the manu- 
facture of perfumes and oils such as oil 
of lemon, bergamot, neroli, etc. He adds 
that the lemon tree begins to yield 
when five years old, when 15 to 20 years 
it gives 1,000 lemons, and when full-grown 
may afford from 3,000 to 5,000. The 
yield of such fruit per acre varies greatly, 
but it is believed that careful cultiva- 
tion will produce from 150 to 200 barrels 
aunually, each barrel containing from 
1,400 to 1,600 lemons according to the 
size of the fruit. The citrus industry is 
a simple one and is well adapted _ to the 
kind ot labour obtainable in India. To 
obtain lemon oil, the peel is soaked in 
water for an hour or two and _ is then 
pressed by hand overa sponge in order 
to separate the oil. If, however, the 
peel is to be candied, only half of the 
oil is thus expressed ; otherwise as much 
as can be squeezed out is taken and the 
waste peel used as cattle fodder. The 
yield of oil varies according to the 
conditions of moisture. In_ localities 
where the annual rainfall is from 60 to 
100 inches, the citric acid content of the 
juice of the fruit is high and the yield of 


438 


[May, 1909. 


oil is low; but where the rainfall is 
high—say from 1380 to 200 inches—the 
citric acid content is low and the yield 
of oil high. In practice, however, the 
amount of oil obtained from the peels of 
1,000 1ipe lemons varies from 0°7 to 1‘51b. 
To prepare lime juice the puJp is pressed 
between rollers and the juice so obtained 
is known in the trade as “single” juice. 
This juice is then boiled down till its 
specific gravity equals 60 degrees on the 
citrometer. Itthen forms a dark brown 
rather syrupy liquid, having a specific 
gravity of 1:24, and is known com- 
mercially as ‘‘ concentrated ” lemon juice. 
The manufacture of citric acid from 
concentrated Jemon juice is also a fairly 
simple matter. Whiting is mixed with 
water and heated by steam in a wooden 
vat provided with a revolving agitator, 
The concentrated juice is then slowly 
pumped in, care being taken that the 
whiting is finally in small excess. The 
precipitated citrate is washed with hot 
water, treated with sulphuric acid, and 
is finally granulated by evaporating 
the moisture. This acid is chiefly used 
by calico printers, butitis also largely 
employed in the preparation of effervesc- 
ing drinks and also in medicine. 


There is reason to believe that limes 
and lemons can be cultivated practically 
in every district in India, and that a 
large trade could be organised, parti- 
cularly so if special arrangements were 
made on board steamers for carrying 
the ripe fruit in crates or ventilated 
barrels, as it would be greatly injured if 
shipped in the hold with mixed cargo. 
But the manufacture of oil, concentrated 
lime juice and citrate is independent of 
such special arrangements and may be 
commended as a suitable industry for 
India asthe necessary plant—consisting 
ofa hand mill, mill-house, two boilers, 
boiling house, vats and still—may be 
acquired at a _ total cost of about 
Rs. 4,600. Itis recommended that the 
factory should beso arranged that the 
crushing house is on higher ground than 
the boiling house, in order that the juice 
may run by gravitation from the well to 
the storage vats, from the vats to the 
still, from the still to the copper boilers, 
where it is concentrated, thence to 
wooden or copper coolers and finally 
into casks for shipment.—/ndian Trade 
Journal, Vol. XII., No. 151, February, 
1909. 


May, 1909.] 


439 


TIMBERS. 


CONSERVATION. 

During the past year public opinion 
all over the United States has been 
arvoused as never before to a realization 
of the necessity for more careful methods 
in the use of the sources of the material 
wealth of the Nation—the great natural 
resources, forests, waters, minerals and 
lands. 


First came the announcement that the 
President was to call together the 
Governors of all the States for a Con- 
ference. Then for six months followed 
what amounted toa campaign of edu- 
eution. Newspapers and magazines vied 
with one another in articles on Ccuser- 
vation, and helped to work up an interest 
that reached the point of action at the 
Conference of the Governors held at the 
White House in Washington in May, 


The Conference of the Governors was 
a gathering that will be remembered as 
one of the noteworthy events in Ameri- 
can history. It marks the beginning of 
a new era in the economic development 
of the Union, for only by the wise use of 
its natural resources can the Nation 
continue tu enjoy material prosperity. 


Following . the re-appointment by 
President Roosevelt of Water Ways 
Commission, and its enlargement into 
the National Conservation Commission, 
there have been appointed by many of 
the Governors, State Conservation Com- 
missions to investigate the resources of 
individual States and to co-operate with 
the National Commission in devising 
plans whereby the natural resources of 
the Nation asa whole and of each State 
and Territory may be properly developed 
and wisely used. 


In Hawaii continued economic pros- 
perity depends in an unusually inti- 
mate way on the right use of natural 
resources. For this reason it was 
especially appropriate that Governor 
Frear should appoint, as he didin July 
last, the Territorial Conservation Com- 
mission of Hawaii. In personnel the 
Commission is representative of the 
interests involved. The Chairman is Mr. 
Ralph S. Hosmer, the Territorial 
Forester. Mr. W. O. Smith is the Secre- 
tary of the Hawaiian Sugar Planters’ 
Association, made up of the plantations 
that are now the largest users of water 
in the Territory. Mr. Alonza Gartley is 
Manager of the Hawaiian Electric Com- 
pany, a corporation that takes a keen 
nterest in harnessing water to do work 


in another way. Mr. W. F, Dillingham, 
Treasurer of the Oahu Railway and Land 
Company, represents transportation in- 
terests, and M. Jared G. Smith, late 
Director of the Hawaiian Experiment 
Station, and now Manager of the Kona 
Tobacco Company, has long been re- 
garded as the special exponent of 
diversified industries. The three first- 
named accompanied Governor Frear to 
the Conference of the Governors in 
Washington in May as his “advisers.” 


The Territory Conservation Com- 
mission of Hawaii made its preliminary 
report to Governor Frear just prior 
to his departure for Washington in 
November. It is appropriate that the 
report should be given in full in the 
forester. Therefore, it needs no excuse 
that a good part of this issue is devoted 
to the report and to itsappendices. The 
present report is preliminary. It is 
expected that further facts and figures 
will be submitted to the Governor early 
in 1909, before the coming session of the 
Territorial Legislature. 


To this end the Commission is continu- 
ing to collect data on various points 
bearing on the recommendations made. 
These, with the report, will be made 
public in due course.—Hawaitian For- 
esterand Agriculturist, Vol. V., No. 12, 
December, 1908. 


NOTK ON THE POWELL WOOD 
PROCESS FOR PRESERVING 
TIMBER. 


By R. S. Troup. 


GENERAL. 


This process, as is now well known, 
consists in impregnating wood with an 
antiseptic saccharine substance in order 
to render it immune from rot and the 
attacks of white-ants and other insects. 
At the same time it is claimed that the 
wood is hardened and completely sea- 
soned, and warping and splitting are pre- 
vented. Many woods are unchanged in 
appearance by the treament, but some, 
notably salat (Boswellia serrata), are 
rendered more handsome in grain. In 
India at the present time the beauti- 
fying of wood, however, is of minor im- 
portance, the chief desideratum being to 
obtain a thoroughly satisfactory and 
cheap method of rendering so-called “in« 
ferior” woods proof against rot and 


Timbers. 


insects, so that the outturn of sleepers 
and building timber may be increased. 


EXPERIMENTS RECORDED. 


2, It is unnecessary to enumerate the 
various authenticated tests which have 
been carried out with powellised wood 
in the tropics. These are to be found in 
hand-books issued by the Company and 
obtainable trom their Agents, Messrs. 
Killick, Nixon & Co., Bombay. 


The writer has at present some powel- 
lished deal under observation. It has 
been down ina spot infested with white- 
ants since 4th March, 1907, and has up to 
date (17th December, 1908) not been 
touched, 


A piece of untreated deal was nailed 
to the powellised piece when first put 
down, and was totally destroyed by 
white-ants in a few weeks. Another 
untreated piece was recently placed 
with the powellised piece and is being 
rapidly destroyed. 


Similar tests in other parts of India 
confirm these results. A large number 
of powellised and untreated pieces of 
different Indian woods are now being 
laid down, but it will be some time 
before any results can be arrived at. 
S eepers of various kinds of woods are 
allso being tested on the railway in 
Burma. Messrs. Mackenzie & Co., Bom- 
bay, in 1906 carried out tests on powel- 
lised woods to ascertain if it looses its 
antiseptic properties if exposed to the 
weather. Planks of poon and mango 
were subjected for four nights and days 
to steam forced on them by an exhaust 
pipe, then a stream of water was direct- 
ed on them for four days, and then the 
wood was subjected to alternate rain 
and sunshine in the monsoon, and was 
finally cut up and placed in white-ants’ 
nests in three different places, along 
with untreated wood of the same spe- 
cies. The untreated pieces were quickly 


440 


[MAY, 1909, 


destroyed, while the powellised pieces 
remained vntouched. 


It has, of course, not been proved that 
the process will stand the test of time 
in India, and that sleepers will remain 
immune from destruction for many 
years. The tests which have been carried 
out, however, show that powellised 
wood effectively resists white-ants for 
the periods to which the tests have ex- 
tended hitherto. 


POWELLISING PLANT. 


3. Powellising plant on an experi- 
mental scale has been working at Bom- 
bay for some time past. An installation, 
capable of treating 150 tons of wood 
per week, is approaching completion 
at Bombay, and will be capable of 
undertaking the impregnation of wood 
ona larger scale. 

The value of the process has been 
recognised in Australia, where the 
Western Australian Government has 
recently erected large works. Other 
extensive works have been completed, 
or are approaching completion, in Syd- 
ney, New Zealand and Tasmania. Ame- 
rica and Germany have also arranged 
to erect works, and other countries are 
negotiating. 


TERMS FOR ERECTING POWELLISING 
INSTALLATIONS, AND Cost THEREOF. 


4. So far as the results of tests show, 
there would appear to be great scope 
for extending powellising installations 
throughout India and-Burma. This the 
Powell Wood Process Co., Ltd., are 
anxious to do if they get reasonable 
support from Gevernment and from the 
various railways. 


The terms and cost of erecting and 
working such installations will be sup- 
plied in strict confidence to bona fide 
enquirers personally or officially known 
to the writer.—Indian Forester, Vol 
XXXV., No. 3, March, 1909. 


May, 1909,] 


441 


MISCELLANEOUS PRODUCTS. 


VEGETABLE IVORY, 


By H. A. ALFrorD NICHOLLS, C.M.G., 
M.D., F.L.S.; 


President of the Dominica Agricultural 
and Commercial Society. 


The plant which bears the seeds known 
as vegetable ivory is named botanically 
Phytelephas macrocarpa, and it has been 
placed in an order, of which it is the 
chief representative, called the Phytele- 
phantine. It differs from the palms 
only in its flowers, which have an indefi- 
nite number of stamens, but some botan- 
ists—considering the characteristic in- 
sufficient to constitute a natural order— 
have made the Phytelephantinze a divi- 
sion of the Palme. 


The tree is indigenous to Panama, 
Columbia, and New Granada, and it has 
received several colloquial names, the 
chief of which is the vegetable ivory 
palm. In those Spanish-American coun- 
tries in which it mostly abounds, the 
natives call it Marfil Vejetal, 


The tree has a thick, rough, creeping 
trunk, from the under surface of which 
roots are given off. The leaves, which 
erown the stem, closely resemble in 
their size, shape, and disposition, those 
of the coconut palm. The male and fe- 
male flowers are borne on different trees, 
acd the trunk of a male plant is always 
taller and more erect than that of a 
female. 

The inflorescence of the male plant is 
a simple, fleshy, cylindrical spadix, 
about four feet long, with four or five 
spathes, and crowded with flowers, while 
that of the female plant, which also 
forms a simple but much shorter spadix, 
bears from six to seven flowers, pure 
white in colour. 


The flowers exhale a powerful perfume, 
and this is moce especially the case with 
the large white female flowers, which 
are, however, few in number. The ripe 
fruit consists of three portions, an ex- 
ternal one which is dark, rough, hard, 
and woody ; a middle one that occurs as 
an oily pulp of a yellow colour and 
sweet taste; and an inner portion—the 
seed—which is the vegetable ivory of 
commerce, The oily pulp is collected at 
the right season_and sold under the 
name of Pipa de Jagua in New Granada, 
while the seeds are exported for use, 
as their name implies, as a substitute 


56 


for ivory. The fruits grow from the 
stem just above the bases of the leaves, 
and they occur in aggregations of six or 
seven. The natives of Columbia call 
this collection of fruits Jagua, or Cabeza 
de Negro, on account, no doubt, of their 
resemblance in size and shape to a 
negro’s head. Each fruit contains from 
6 to 9 seeds, so that in one collection or 
bunch of fruits there may be as many as 
sixty seeds, or ivory nuts, as they are 
commonly called. The seeds have a 
rough crust, of a dark-brown or slate 
colour, enclosing the white albumen 
which at one end surrounds the small 
embryo. The albumen, or the so-called 
ivory, is of a dull opalescent colour, but 
it becomes whiter and more opaque by 
exposure to the light and air. It is 
softer and less brittle than ivory, and 
it is therefore much used as a substitute 
for the more costly tusk of the elephant. 
By chemical analysis the albumen of 
the seed has been found to consist of a 
combination of cellulose, gum, caseine, 
ou and albumen, with some residual 
ash. 


The tree was first seen by the Spanish 
botanists Ruiz and Pavon in the groves 
of the hotter parts of the Peruvian 
Andes, and it was described by them 
under the name Phytelephas macrocarpa. 
The following extracts from the memo- 
randa of these botanists is of interest :— 


‘The Indians cover their cottages with 
the leaves of this most beautiful palm. 
The fruit at first contains a clear 
insipid fluid, by which travellers allay 
their thirst, afterwards this same 
liquor becomes milky and sweet, and 
it changes its taste by degrees as it 
acquires solidity, till at last it is almost 
as hard asivory. The liquor contained 
in the young fruits becomes acid if they 
are cut from the tree and kept some 
time. From the kernels the Indians 
fashion the knobs of walking-sticks, the 
reels of spindles, and little toys, which 
are whiter than ivory, and so hard, if 
they are not put under water—and if 
they are, they become white and hard 
again when dried. Bears devour the 
young fruit with avidity.’ 


The tree, as far as I know, is not culti- 
vated to any extent, the seeds being 
gathered by the natives from plants in 
the wild state. Large quantities of 
vegetable ivory are obtained from the 
banks of the river Magdelena, and are 
exported from Panama to the home 
markets, 


Miscellaneous Products. 442 3 


When a vegetable product is gathered 
from plants not under cultivation, the 
supply, from a variety of causes, must 
of necessity be fluctuating, and, more- 
over, the sources of supply are in 
constant danger of being exhausted, as 
was the case when cinchona bark was 
alone obtained from the forests of the 
Andes. There can be no question, 
therefore, of the advisability of tropical 
agriculturists turning their attention to 
the cultivation of the vegetable ivory 
plant, as they have already done in the 
case of other economical trees. The 
constant increase in consumption of the 
article points to the success of such an 
undertaking. 

In Jamaica, in Trinidad, and in Domi- 
nica, the plant would thrive along the 
banks of the rivers and streams which 


als r 
tahoe yeh 


run through many of the estates 

thus a profitable crop might be obtained 
from land which is now principally 
occupied by scrub or a jungle of reeds. 
Trees grown at St. Aroment, Dominica 
were grown from seed sent from 
Panama. The seeds germinated readily 
and the plants were hardy, and they 
have grown at the edge of a small 
stream—which sometimes runs dry— 
without any care or cultivation. In 
suitable situations, therefore, they can 
look after themselves, so that, beyond 
the original small expenditure in raising 
the plants and setting them out, nothing 
else is required, and, in these circum- 
stances, a plantation of ivory-nut palms 
should be a very profitable property.— 
Veeindian Bulletin, Vol. TX, No. 3, 


HORTICULTURE. 


WATER AND WATERING. 
By J. J. Wiis, Harpenden. 


Water is the medium by which the 
soluble matters of the soil are conveyed 
through the roots into the interior of 
plants. 


An important fact in the relation of 
vegetation to moisture is seen in the 
effect exerted by the humidity of 
the atmosphere upon its temperature. 
Without more or less vapour in the 
atmosphere, the radiation would cool 
the surface of the earth so rapidly as 
to destroy thelife of all tender plants. 
The principal part of the rays of the 
sun pass through the air, even when 
it is saturated with moisture, without 
appreciably heating it; but the heat 
radiated from the earth and every ob- 
ject upon it is intercepted and absorbed 
by the humidity in the air; the atmos- 
pheric warmth is, therefore, clearly 
related not only to the heat of the sun’s 
rays but also to the moisture of the air. 
Like the covering of a cold frame, the 
moist air admits the light rays by day 
and prevents the exit of the heat to 
which they give rise at night. Hence 
the clearest, driest nights are the coldest. 
Also the driest regions, like the desert 
of Sahara, have the coldest nights, and 
the cold of high elevations is due to 
the same course. 


Professor Tyndall says:—‘‘The_ re- 
moval, for a single summer night, of the 
acqeous vapour from the atmosphere 
that covers England would be attended 


by the destruction of every plant which 
a_ freezing temperature would kill.” 
Humidity and temperature are, there- 
fore, intimately connected. 


Although the heat of the sun causes 
evaporation from plants, its amount is 
governed by the humidity of the air 
and the velocity of the wind. 


If the gardener could regulate the 
moisture of the atmosphere surrounding 
his crops, maintaining the precise condi- 
tions for keeping up the proper evapor- 
ation by applying water artificially and 
only in circumscribed limits to their 
roots, he could be assured of success. 
While he may do so inhis green-house, 
there are no means of regulating the 
heat and moisture of the open air and 
also of the soil. Itis for these reasons 
that watering outdoor crops in very 
hot weather is more often productive 
of harm than of benefit. 


When the earth is naturally mois- 
tened by rain, the whole air is satur- 
ated with moisture, preventing both a 
too rapid transpiration from the leaves 
and an undue evaporation from, and 
consequent chilling of, the soil. If 
watering is done at all, it should be in 
cloudy weather ; but it is most frequent- 
ly injudiciously practised in dry, hot 
weather, and so circumscribed in extent 


that it can have little or no effect upon ~ 


the atmosphere. The roots are tempo- 


rarily excited, and the dry, hot air robs — 


the plants of the moisture through the 


leaves as rapidly as it can be supplied 
by the roots. ee 


(May, 1909, 


— w=" = 


As soon as the temporary supply is 
exhausted, the plant not only returns to 
its former state of suffering, but is left 
more susceptible to injury than before. 
If the watering is repeated, the emission 
of rootlets near the surface is encour- 
aged, and these grow merely to perish 
again unless the water is continued. 
Another injury may occur, as already 
indicated, through the decrease of tem- 
apa ture caused by the rapid evapor- 
ation. 


In very hot weather, during periods 
of drought, vegetation is greatly sus- 
tained by the moisture which is return- 
ed to the earth in the form of dews; 
and, in order that these may be most 
beneficial, the soil should be deeply 
stirred and continue in a mellow con- 
dition upon the surface. When the soil 
is puddled and compacted around a plant 
by local watering, the amount of dew 
will be less owing to the decrease in the 
number of points of radiation presented 
by the compact ball of soil; besides, 
the diminished quantity is evaporated 
from the impenetrable crust without 
being able to reach the roots. If 
watered, the earth should, therefore, 
be stirred subsequently, or the watered 
purine be covered with fresh, locse 
soil. 


443 Horticulture, 


If practised at all, the watering should 
in hot weather be applied to the roots 
and to the foliage. Evening is the proper 
time of day, unless in the exceptional 
case of watering cold frames when frost 
is apprehended. Itis then advisable to 
water in the morning. The water 
should not be much colder than the 
surrounding atmosphere. 


_ When there are facilities for moisten- 
ing the whole mass of soil by irriga- 
tion, that should not be neglected, for 
its great benefits are undoubted. But 
even then, unless the surface be so 
densely covered with the growing crop 
as to prevent it from being baked by 
the sun, it would be best to allow the 
moisture to reach the roots through 
percolation from open channels _ or 
drain pipes near enough to each other 
ang kept full than to cover the soil with 
water. 


A crop supplied with a sufficiency 
of soluble manure will suffer less 
during drought than one inadequately 
fertilized, and the latter will require an 
abundance of water. 


Mulching the soil prevents a too rapid 
evaporation, and is therefore to be re- 
commended with or without watering.— 
Gardeners’ Chornicle, Vol. XLIV., 
December 19, 1908, 


PLANT SANITATION. 


ENTOMOLOGICAL NOTES, 


By E. ERNEST GREEN, F.G.S., F.LS., 
Government Entomologist. 


ON THE INTRODUCTION OF A PREDACEOUS 
BEETLE (CLERUS FORMICARIUS) TO 
CoMBAT THE ‘SHOT-HOLE BORER.’ 


Since my return to Ceylon, I have 
received numerous enquiries on the 
above subject, accompanied by applica- 
tions for supplies of this possible enemy 
of our principal Tea pest. 


I left England too early in the year to 
enable me to bring out any of the insects, 
Clerus fornucarius makes its appearance, 


-in Europe, during the summer months. 


have, however, made arrangements 
for the collection and despatch of living 
specimens as soon as_ they become 
sufficiently common, I do not_ expect 
me first consignment before June or 
uly. 


To prevent possible disappointment, I 
wish to take this opportunity of making 


it quite clear that the proposed in- 
troduction is purely of an experimental 
nature. When the insects first arrive, 
it may be advisable to keep them under 
observation, in captivity, for a_ time, 
before any distribution can be made. 


‘I would warn. expectant recipients not 
to be too sanguine of beneficial results. 
In the first place, the insect is a native 
of temperate climates, and it is by no- 
means certain that it will adapt itself to 
a life in the tropics. Secondly, it is 
more particularly associated with pine 
trees, though it has been known to 
occur in oaks and some other species of 
trees. Moreover, its usual food consists 
of the larve of boring beetles that breed 
in dead and decaying wood. These con- 
ditions are all very different to those 
it will find on our tea plantations, 
Under the most favourable conditions no 
marked results can be expected for a 
considerable time. Hven supposing that 
the introduced insect is able to obtain a 
footing in Ceylon, the increase at first 
would be slow. There are many other 


Plant Sanitation. 


factors governing the relations between 
a predaceous insect and its prey that are 
not yet fully understood. 


The opinion of several leading entomo- 
logists to whom I applied were distinctly 
contradictory. Some of them considered 
that the Clerus was of an adaptable 
nature and would probably be content 
in this country, so long as the food 
supply was abundant. Others were as 
confident that the experiment was 
foredoomed to failure. They all con- 
curred in assuring me that the insect 
was purely insectivorous, and that— 
failing its natural food—it would die 
out. Under these circumstances, and 
seeing that the introduction would be 
practically costless, I considered the 
experiment to be worth a trial. 


I gather, from correspondence con- 
ducted by the Acting Hntomologist 
during my absence, that this particular 
insect (Clerus formicarius) was selected 
for experiment on the strength of 
reports made by Mr. Hopkins of the 
U.S. Department of Agriculture. It 
should be understood, however, that 
Mr. Hopkins was endeavouring to find 
a natural enemy of a pine-wood borer 
living in America under conditions 
practically similar to those found in 
Northern Europe (the home of Clerus 
formizarius). I append a summary of 
these reports :— 


1. Ata meeting of the Entomological 
Society of Washington, held October 
6th, 1892, ‘‘Mr. Hopkins gave an account 
of a recent visit to Europe for the pur- 
pose of studying certain Scolytide@ in- 
jurious to pine trees. He had brought 
back with him a large number of speci- 
mens of the European Clerus fornvicarius 
alive for the purpose of introducing 
them into pine forests in West Virginia 
infested by Dendroctonus frontalis.” 


2. In an article on “Damage to 
Forests by the destructive Pine Bark- 
beetle,” (‘Insect Life,’ Vol. V., p. 188), 
Mr, Hopkins remarks that :—“‘By corre- 
spondeuce with Mr. Hichoff, Oberforster, 
Strasburg, Germany, I learned that a 
certain -beetle, Clerus formicarius, L., 
was a great destroyer of Scolytids in 
the forests there, and from my know- 
ledge of the habits of the nearly related 
species, Thanasimus dubius, Fab., I felt 
that it would be a most desirable species 
to introduce into our forests to feed 
upon the ‘ Destructive Pine-Bark Beetle, 
and possibly check its ravages. There- 
fore, the experiment of introducing this 
beneficial Kuropean species into our 
State for this purpose was recommended 
to our Station officials and to owners of 
the threatened Spruce and White Pine 


444 


‘[May, 1909. 


forests. The proposed experiment was 
at once approved, and the Station, aided 
by liberal contributions from four of the 
principal lumber companies, sent me to 
Europe in quest of such insects as, in 
my judgment would, when introduced 
into our forests, accomplish the desired 
end. I, therefore, proceeded at once 
to Germany, and after visiting some 
of the principal Pine and Spruce forests 
of Alsace-Lorraine and Saxony, in Ger- 
many ; Schyz, Lucerne and the Oberland 
Bernese Alps in Switzerland, I started 
back to America with over one thousand 
live specimens of Clerus formicarius, 
which was found to be especially des- 
tructive to various bark beetles in all 
of the forests visited. After my return 
here, I found that the European species 
wouid readily attack and devour the 
Destructive Pine-bark Beetle, as well as 
other bark beetles nearly related to it. 
From what I have observed and learned 
of this European bark-beetle destroyer, I 
am confident that under proper manage- 
ment it will check the ravages of the 
destructive pine-bark beetle, and that 
this enemy of Scolytids will, in time, 
prove a valued protector of the pine and 
spruce forests of this country.” 


3. In another article by the same 
author, (‘Insect Life,’ Vol. VI., p. 126), 
is noted the reason for the selection of 
this particular insect :—‘“‘ Out of quite a 
number of enemies of Scolytids observ- 
ed and considered, only one, Clerus 
formicarius, was selected, primarily on- 
account of its being regarded as the 
greatest destroyer of Huropean bark 
beetles; secondly, on account of the 
general opinion of entomologists and 
forest officials whom I consulted, and my 
own convictions from a personal study 
of its habits, that it would not be inju- 
rious.”, . . ‘‘ Theimported Clerid does not 
confine itself to one or two species of 
bark beetles in one kind of trees, but 
the adults, it would seem, will attack 
and devour the adults of any species 
of bark and timber beetles found in 
the United States, and their larvz will 
feed on the egg, larvee, pups, and 
young beetles of any species infesting 
the bark of pine and spruce trees.” 


It appears that, within a few months 
of the liberation of these insects, there 
was a most remarkable diminution in 
the damage to pine forests in America, 
Many people, not unnatuarally, jumped 
to the conclusion that this disappearance 
of the pest was due to the activity of 
the imported Clerus. But this was one | 
of those coincidences that so often 
lead to mistaken deductions. Referring 
to this particular incident, the late Prof. 
Riley remarks (‘Insect Life,’ Vol. VL, 


_ ‘ 
ie 


. 140) —Throughout Virginia and 
West Virginia, where the spruce pines 
have for some years suffered so severely 
from the destructive work of Dendroc- 
tonus frontalis, not a_ single living 
specimen of the beetle has been found 
during the present year. The clearest 
explanation of this sudden change is 
that the species was practically killed 
out by the exceptionally severe cold of 
last winter, since such was the case 
with several other insects. Now, follow- 
ing so closely on the introduction by 
Mr. Hopkins of Clerus formicarius, how 
easy it would have been to attribute 
the sudden decrease to the work of the 
introduced Clerus had not the decrease 
been so general and extensive as abso- 
lutely to preclude any such possibility.” 

Such coincidences emphasise the care 
that is necessary in the scrutiny of 
apparently successful results. 


I have been unable to find any later 
references to this experiment. Nor do 
I know whether it was finally crowned 
with success or not. 


Clerus formicarius is itself a beetle 
of predatory habits. In its adult stage 
it preys upon other beetles smaller and 
weaker than itself. Itshould be noted 
that it is (compared with the minute 
size of the ‘ shot-hole borer’) a compara- 
tively large insect, and is consequently 
unable to penetrate the galleries of the 
borer. It laysits eggsin the entrance 
of the tunnels and its larve follow up 
and devour those of the borers. 


The family Cleride is already re- 
presented in Ceylon, but none of our 
' local species appear to have concerned 
themselves with the destruction of 
Xyleborus fornicatus, It is probable 
that, being themselves indigenous to 
the country, they have accustomed 
themselves to prey upon other indi- 
genousinsects. It is most probable that 
the ‘shot-hole borer’ of our tea is an 
accidental introduction of compara- 
tively recent date. 


MISCELLANEA: CHIEFLY 
PATHOLOGICAL, 


In view of the statement that Loran- 
thus is attacking acacia trees in up- 
country districts, it is of interest to note 
that, in a study of the life-history of an 
Australian species, Loranthus exocarpi, 
the host plants in the neighbourhood of 
Myrniong, Victoria, comprised Acacia 
decurrens, Acacia dealbata, Acacia mela- 
noxylon, three other acacias, Cherry, 
Plum, two species of Casuarina, and 


445 


Plant Sanitation, 


five other plants. Evidently Acacia is 
particularly liable to be attacked by 
this parasite, though the _ relative 
frequency of the trees named in the 
district is not stated. There are 
twenty-five species of Loranthaceew in 
Ceylon, six of which are restricted to 
the moist low-country, three to the dry 
region, and seven to the montane zone ; 
the remainder are more generally, but 
capriciously, distributed. Six are said 
to be very rare, three rare, and four 
rather rare. A list of the host plants 
of the Loranthacee of Ceylon has 
never been compiled; Trimen mentions 
Rhododendron, coffee, Satvadora, Sym- 
plocos, Hurya as hosts of various 
species. The compilation of such a list 
would provide interesting work for a 
local botanist, and might subsequently 
lead to valuable information with regard 
to the conditions which render some 
trees particularly lable to be attacked 
by these parasites, while others in the 
same neighbourhood are immune. Cacao 
is attacked at Peradeniya, and a good 
example may be seen near the well out- 
side the station; mango trees especially 
suffer; and the branches of the clove 
are killed back by it. Camphor is 
attacked at Hakgala. It may be noted 
that specimens should be collected in 
flower and fruit, with examples of the 
host plant in the same state, if possible, 
in order to ensure accurate determina- 
ions. 


In a recent case of tea root disease, 
Rosellinia spread from the tea to the 
dadaps and killed them out. This need 
not be taken as a sign that dadaps 
should not be planted, for Hosellinia 
does not originate either on tea or 
dadaps, according to our present in- 
formation. Indeed, it is only what 
might be expected, since the true 
Rosellinia radiciperda, Mass., which was 
discovered in New Zealand on fruit trees, 
killed out grass and any other plants 
which happened to come in its way. 
In the same way, the chief Ceylon 
Rosellinia—which is Rosellinia bothrina, 
Berk., and Broome, not Rosellinia radici- 
perda, which has not been found in 
Ceylon—spreads from tea to Panazx, 
and kills the latter with astonishing 
rapidity ; but it leaves untouched any 
cacao or Hevea which happen to stand 
in its path. Such selective parasitism 
is not uncommon, though it is not such 
a universal rule as a study of the 
Uredinece (i.e., Henvileia) would lead us 
to expect. Homes semitostus attacks 
Jak and Hevea—both, it may be noted, 
laticiferous trees, though it is improbable 
that that is the controlling factor—but 
it does not spread to tea or cacao even 


Plant Sanitation. 


though these are growing in the midst 
of dead jak roots covered with the 
fungus. 


Ustulina zonata, Lev., the common 
tea root fungus of the low-country and 
up to an elevation of 3,000 feet, has been 
found to originate on Albizzia stumps 
and tospread from them to the tea. 
It was already known that Grevillea 
stumps furnished it with a jumping-off 
ground in practically all instances of its 
occurrence, but now Albizzia stumps, in 
accordance with expectation, must be 
added. This is a spore-borne disease, 
and when I was developing Ustulina on 
teastumps in pots under bell glasses on 
the laboratory verandah, I had great 
difficulty in preventing its growth on 
other dead tea stumps or coconut tissue, 
also under bell glasses. In contradistiuc- 
tion to many of our disease fungi, the 
spores apparently germinate readily, 
and this fact should enable us to obtain 
further information about this parasite 
rather more easily than is usually the 
case, when time permits, On estates 
the spores are blown about and lodge 
on the cut surfaces of the Grevillea 
stumps; there they develop and grow 
downwards, destroying thestump and 
passing from the Grevillea roots to any 
tea roots which may be in contact with 
them. Meanwhile the fructification is 
formed on the Grevillea stump in black 
encrusting plates, and the spores which 
exude from the spore-chambers are 
ready to carry the disease elsewhere. It 
isnot often that the fructification is 
formed on the tea bush, because the 
bush dies and is uprooted before the 
mycelium has ascended in the stem to 
the ground level. Ustulina zonata was 
first found on coconut, but probably 
only saprophytic. It causes root disease 
in the Pumelo, and in an unnamed tree 
in the Peradeniya Gardens. Many 
European mycologists consider that it is 
identical with Ustulina vulgaris, which 
is common in Europe but not parasitic ; 
but in its typical form it seems suffi- 
ciently distinct. 


In connection with the above, one 
wonders who is going to he the first to 
introduce the Trewhella screw jak for 
uprooting trees. When some of the 
felled grevilleas do not exceed six inches 
in diameter, it would be quite as easy to 
uproot them with this instrument as to 
fell them and leave the stump as a 
starting point for Ustulina, Of course 


446 


it isa question whether the outlay and 
the possible extra cost of working for 
each Grevillea exceed the value of (on 
the average) six tea bushes and the cost 
of liming and trenching. There is, too, 
always the possibility that the Grevillea 
stump will be rotted by other, harmless, 
fungi, and possibly the sporting tenden- 
cies of the Ceylon planter influence him 
in accepting what is practically an even 
chance. I notice that the makers of this 
instrument have gone so far as to put an 
illustrated advertisement in the ‘‘ Indian 
Planters’ Chronicle”; possibly Ceylon’s 
turn will come some day. 

The catch phrase, ‘‘the bark is the 
mother of rubber,” is again being pressed 
into service. This is somewhat unfor- 
tunate, since it leads to the same train 
of erroneous ideas which gained curreucy 
some years ago, and causes supporters 
of various tapping systems to imagine 
advantages which are certainly non- 
existent. It would be more correct, 
though open to scientific objections, to 
say that the cambium is the mother of 
rubber, just as it is of wood and bark, 

Some time ago, Betel plants were 
imported from India by the Agricultural 
Society. Some of these, plantedin the 
Stock Garden, soon became diseased, and 
were forwarded to Peradeniya for 
examination. As they were rooted 
cuttings, carefully packed, and in the 
early stages of disease, it was possible to 
form a more accurate opinion of the 
cause than is the case from the bundle 
of half-rotten stems which is usually 
sent. The leaves were covered with 
blackish-brown, o1 almost black, angular 
spots, with a broad yellow margin and - 
an outer greenish yellow zone. Some of 
these. spots were three centimetres in 
diameter. The upper surface of the 
spots was dry, but the lower surface was 
viscid, being covered with a gummy 
substance containing innumerable bac- 
teria, A cross section through the leaf 
revealed the same bacteria within the - 
tissues, but no fungus hyphae. It is 
most probable, therefore, that the 
disease of the Betel which attacks the 
leaves and stem is due to bacteria, 
though of course there may be more 
than one such disease. Pressure of 
other work has prevented any further 
investigation; the subject is (unfortun- 
ately!) not forgotten, but remains 
in that ever-expanding limbo entitled 


‘‘agenda,” 
T. PETCH. 


- 


May, 1909.) 


447 


MISCELLANEOUS PESTS. 


“THE RAT PROBLEM.” 


Tuese are, no doubt, many people, both 
in the scientific and commercial worlds, 
who are at present quite unaware that 
rats are in any way connected with a 
problem. Mr. Boelter, however, is con- 
vineed about the matter, and in the 
book now before us has taken up the 
case for prosecution of the rat in such 
a way that all those who read this 
book will be bound to pass a verdict 
very derogatory to the rat, in spite of 
what may be said by those who argue 
that every animal has his useful part 
to play. 


The first chapter is devoted to the 
natural history of rats. The brown rat, 
which has nearly replaced the old black 
rat, was probably introduced into 
England in 17382, and now it is quite safe 
to say that we have over 40,000,000 in 
our islands. A diagram illustrates ina 
very clear way how the brown rat has 
gradually established itself in most parts 
of the world. Man has been the means 
by which they have emigrated, and in 
this direction it may be remarked that 
civilisation has done a great deal to 
upset the balance of Nature and to 
establish many plagues and diseases. 
The illustrations are old and familiar, 
end it is probable that photos would 
have been better nowadays. Consider- 
ing the way in which vernacular names 
may mislead people who are not acquaint- 
ed with the habits of our wild animals, we 
should have liked to have seen a little 
more written about the water-rat. This 
animal does not belong to genus ‘‘ Mus” 
(true rats), but to genus ‘ Arvicola” 
(voles), and itis to behoped that the 
commercial loss caused by the ravages 
of the brown rat will not be heaped on 
to the back of the water-vole. 


The second chapter is devoted to the 
loss caused by rats, andthe leyendary 
Pied Piper of Hamelin is mentioned. A 
circular has been issued by the Incor- 
porated Society for the Destruction of 
Vermin, and the replies given to various 
questions by farmers, poultry farmers, 
gamekeepers, drapers, grocers, hotel 
proprietors, warehousemen and_horse- 
owners ai'e most convincing. The above 
Society, with Sir James Crichton Browne 
as its president, hope to bing into 
operation a rat law similar to that 
formed by Zuschlag and his society in 
Denmark. The annual loss caused by 
rats is estimated at £15.000,000, and 


besides that they are the means of 
spreading trichinosis and the plague. 


The fourth chapter is devoted to the 
means of the extermination of rats. 
The part played by the owl, weasel and 
kestrel as natural enemies of the rat are 
described. Itis, of course, a great pity 
that these useful animals are so_perse- 
cuted for things which they very rarely 
do. A very interesting biological law is 
brought out in this chapter by the 
story of an old ship’s mate who used to 
catch a dozen or so rats on his ship and 
then kill all the dozen and give them to 
the bucks to eat. These were then 
released. By this means he used to 
keep his rats at a minimum, and the 
process had to be repeated in about six 
months, For the welfare of most 
mammals it is necessary that the temale 
population should be in excess of the 
male, If, however, the conditions are 
reversed, then -breeding females and 
their litters are upset, and if this process 
were continued long enough the species 
may be exterminated, This has been 
applied to some districts in Australia 
with regard to rabbits and found to be 
a great success. 


The various mechanical means of 
catching rats is considered, and the Old 
Royal Rat Catchers’ works are quoted. 
Under man’s care the cat has given up 
the chance of being bitten for a more 
homely saucer of milk. Phosphorus, 
strychnine, arsenic, sulphate of calcium, 
and one or two other bases of the 
common rat poisons are reviewed ina 
most satisfactory manner, 


Of the bacterial preparations it is 
interesting to note that the bacillus 
discovered by Newmann in the urine of 
a two-year-old child appears to be the 
most efficacious. Itis the active prin- 
cipal in Ratin. Danysz’ preparation 
and the Liverpool virus are not spoken 
of so favourably. It has to be re- 
membered, however, that Xylander, 
whose works are very reliable, consi- 
dered microbic rat poisons at present 
(1908) as being far from safe and reliable. 


Chapter V. contains a few of the more 
important conclusions arrived atin the 
first four chapters, and the chief rea- 
sons given to account for the prevalence 
of the rat are as follows: (a) Its physical 
and mental faculties, (b) its great fecun- 
dity, (c) the increase of human popu. 
lation, (d) the killing of the rats’ natura] 
enemies, and (¢) the total absence of 
co-operation in the methods chosen by 


Cr > Se ee 


i. 


Miscellaneous Pests. 448 [May, 1909. 
man to exterminate therat. Itisthis cultural Societies would do well to de- 


latter reason that will be the most im- 
portant factor to be overcome when the 
time comes to commence a campaign 
against the rat. The last chapter con- 
tains the Bill already referred to, the 
whcle expenditure of which would fall 
on the Local Authority. 


The book is well written and mistakes 
are few. All those interested in the 
subject should read it, and our Agri- 


vote a little time to the subject. The 
rat should certainly be exterminated, 
but we fear conservative Englishmen 
will not move very quickly in the 


matter. 
A. W.N. P. 
(Review ‘“ The Rat Problem” by R. W. 


Boelter). London: John Bale, Sons & 
Danielsson, Ltd. Price 2s. 6d.—The 
Veterinary News, Vol. VI., No. 264, 


January, 1909, 


LIVE STOCK. 


OSTEOPOROSIS. 
THe MINERAL CONSTITUENTS OF Foops. 


By HERBERT INGLE, B.SC., 
F.R.S.S.A., F,C.S., 


Late Chief Chemist, Transvaal Depart- 
ment of Agriculture. 


F.1.C., 


The importance of a ‘ well-balanced ” 
ration in feeding animals has long been 
recognised, and most intelligent stock- 
keepers pay some attention to the 
albuminoid ratio of the foods they use. 


That the requirements of animals 
with respect to the proportions of albu- 
minoids or ‘‘ flesh-formers” tofats and 
carbohydrates or “‘ heat-formers” in their 
diet vary with circumstances is also 
realised by many, and proper attention 
is paid to this in framing rations for 
various animals kept under different 
conditions. But beyond the _ general 
and vague belief that the food should 
contain a sufficient amount of “ash 
constituents ” or ‘‘ bone-formers,”’ little 
consideration has been given to the diet 
of animals with respect to its mineral 
constituents. 


The author has recently been investi- 
gating from a chemical aspect a disease 
of the bones of horses, donkeys, and 
mules, which is particularly prevalent 
in South Africa, and from a consider- 
ation of the results obtained has been 
led to atheory which, he ventures to 
think, may account for the prevalence 
of the disease in that country, ard 
may indicate means for its prevention, 
or at least amelioration, and at the 
same time furnish points worthy of 
consideration by all interested in the 
feeding of animals. 


The disease in question, Osteoporosis, 
is characterised by an extraordinary 
weakening of the bones, and is the 
cause of considerable losses among 
stable-fed horses and mules, 


In 1905, the writer examined the 
bones of a considerable number of horses, 
mules and donkeys. The bones were 
merely numbered, and he was_ not 
informed which were from diseased and 
which from healthy animals. When 
the analyses were finished he found it 
possible to accurately divide the bones, 
from their chemical composition, into 
those from healthy and those from 
diseased animals. 


Those from diseased animals were 
much richer in organic matter and 
poorer in ash than those from healthy 
animals. The most conspicuous differ- 
ence was shown by taking the ratio 
of nitrogen (which is a measure of the 
nitrogenous substance—ossein—present) 
to ash in the bones, as the influence of 
the very variable fat present was thus 
eliminated. 


The value of this ratio was found to 
vary in the case of diseased animals 
from 1: 9'8 to 1: 11'7, the mean value 
being 1: 10°8; with the healthy animals 
the ratio varied from 1: 13°5 to 1: 
15°6, the means being 1: 14°37. 


In the bones of healthy animals the 
mean amounts of lime and phosphorus 
pentoxide were 32°28 % and 21:41 % 
respectively, while with the diseased 
bones the figures were 28°50 and 19:06 %. 


In tabulating the results and consider- 
ing the possible causes which might 
tend to produce such a condition of the 
bones, the author was led to the con- 
clusion that the peculiar diet of work- 
ing animals in the country—a ration 
composed wholly of cereals, either oat- 
hay or oat-hay and “ mealies” (7.e., maize 
or Indian corn)—might possibly account 
for the frequency of the disease in 
South Africa. 


Some veterinary surgeons ascribe the 
prevalence of the disense to deficiencies 
of the food-stuffs ii iime and phos- 
phoric acid, while others are persuaded 


been ter? eee Ct ahd ee tae 


May, 1909.| 


that the disease is caused by a_ specific 
micro-organism and is of an epidemic 
character, though no organism has been 
found, nor can the disease be trans- 
mitted by inoculation or administration 
of diseased bone. 


Now the proper ratio of phosphorus 
pentoxide to lime in the food of 
animals in order to favour bone forma- 
tion and renewal, has not been directly 
determined, but may be deduced from 
one or two considerations. Thus, the 
milk of animals may be assumed to 
contain these ingredients in proper pro- 
portion for the needs of young animals. 


Cows’ milk contains on the average 
about 0°17 per cent. of phosphorus pen- 
toxide and 0°15 per cent. of lime, ze., 
in the ratio of 100 phosphorus pentoxide 
to 89 of lime. In the bones of animals 
the two substances are present in the 
ratio of about 100 of phosphorus pen- 
toxide to 150 of lime. 


According to Rothamstead experi- 
ments, the amounts of the two substances 
present in 1,000 lbs. of the whole bodies 
of animals are as follows :— 


Phosphorus 

pentoxide. Lime. Ratio. 
Fat calf so 1d330 16°46 100 108 
Half fat ox ... 18°39 21'11 100 116 
Fat lamb _... 11°26 12°81 100 114 
Store sheep... 11°88 13°21 100 112 
Store pig... 10°06 10-79 100 107 
Fat pig 6°54 . 6°36 100 95 


Remembering that some of the phos- 
phoric acid of the ash is present in the 
food in the form of organic matter and 
is utilised in the animal in the formation 
of tissue other than bone (e.g., brain) and 
to a greater extent than lime, it may 
probably be assumed that the food of 
an animal should contain about equal 
parts of phosphorus pentoxide and lime 
in its ash. 


In the two substances which form the 
staple diet of horses and mules in 
S. Africa—oat-hay and mealies, lime and 
phosphorus pentoxide are present in the 
ash in the following proportions :— 


Phosphorus 

pentoxide. Lime. 
Oat-hay . 100 77 
Mealies (maize grain) 100 4. 


These are calculated from the ash 
analyses of Wolff. In South African 
grown oat-hay, I find that both the 
lime and phosphorus pentoxide present 
are smaller than in the average of 
Kuropean samples, and that on the 
average the ratio is 100: 51. 

_ From the figures given by Warington 
for the lime and phosphorus pentoxide 

57 


449 


Live Stock. 
in the whole of the oat-erop, the ratio is 
100: 60. 


It is evident from the above figures 
that the usual South African diet for 
working animals does not supply lime 
and phosphorus pentoxide in the propor- 
tions which we have adduced reasons 
for believing are best adapted for the 
nutrition of bone. On the contrary a 
ration consisting of oat-hay and mealies 
provides a large excess of phosphorus 
pentoxide over lime, 


As to the injurious effect of the pro- 
longed use of such a diet upon horses 
and mules, we have no records of direct 
experiments having been made, but in 
1891, Weiske experimented with rabbits 
on these lines, 


Adult rabbits, from the same litter, 
were divided into four lots and fed 
for three months upon: 


1. Hay. 
2, Mixture of hay and oats. 

3. Oats alone. 

4. Oats to which sodium dihydrogen 
phosphate was added (so as to increase 
artificially the ratio of phosphoric acid 
to lime in the food). y 


It was noticed that the urine of rabbits 
of lots 1 and 2 was alkaline, while that 
of lots 8and 4 was strongly acid. At 
the end of the period the rabbits were 


killed, weighed, and their skeletons 
cleaned and weighed. 
The results were as follows, the 


weights being grammes, 
Lots 1, 25 By 4, 

Weight of bodies . 2,430 3,420 2,030 1,810 
Weight of skeletons ... 87°66 115'80 69°28 63.76 

The bones of lots 1 and 2 were heavier, 
stronger and richer in ash than those of 
lots 3 and 4. Those of lot 4 were very 
thin and breakable and contained a 
smaller poroportion of lime and phos- 
phorie acid than the others. 


In a later paper (1894), Weiske records 
experiments in which the effects upon 
the bones of animals feeding upon oats 
alone were successfully neutralised by 
pee oalibion of carbonate of lime to the 

iet. 


Another point of importance may be 
here pointed out—the erroneous idea that 
bran, which is almost universally re- 
garded as being particularly rich in 
*‘ bone-forming material,” 7.e. ash, is use- 
ful in adding bone formation. From 
the point of view now under consider- 
ation, bran would be a particularly bad 
food, as the ratio of lime to phosphorus 
pentoxide is extremely low—the actual 
proportions present being approximate- 
ly 0:3 per cent. of lime to 3°3 per cent, 


Live Stock. 


‘of phosphorus pentoxide, or in the ratio 
of 9: 100. This is confirmed by the 
occurrence of a bone disease, known as 
“bran. rachitis,” ‘‘bran disease” or 
‘“‘miller’s horse rickets” which is observed 
in animals fed largely on a bran diet. 


It is thus evident that, whether osteo- 
porosis be due to a specific organism 
or not, a condition of the bones of ani- 
mals similar to that which results from 
the disease may be induced by the 
use of a diet containing a low ratio 
of lime to phosphorus pentoxide. 


It may be well to give a table showing 
the ratio of lime to phosphorus pentoxide 
in the ash of some typical foods. Ignor- 
ing for the moment the actual quantities 
of these constituents and giving only 
the ratios in which they occur, the 
following table has been prepared from 
analyses of average samples as given by 
Wolff and Warington :— 


THE MINERAL CONSTITUENTS OF FOODS, 
Food-stuft. Phosphorus Lime. 


Pentoxide. 
Lucerne hay se 100 .. 478 (Wolff) 
Crimson clover hay 100 oe 445 6 
Red clover hay 100 .. 861 (Warington) 
Do do ... 100 ... 359 (Wolf) 
Meadow hay 100 .. 262 (Warington) 
Do do LOO .. 247 (Wolff) 
White clover hay 100 oe 227 ” 
Oat straw ve 100 var WSL i 
Oat grain we LOD wee 26 Fy 
Oats (whole plant, 
green) wee 200 om ST ” 
Oats {-,, ne 
ripe) step eel OO) «. 62 (Warington) 
Barley (whole plant) 100 os  - 44 . 
Mealies or maize 
(grain) ¥. 00 ale 4 (Wolff) 


Wheat bran 100 ane 9 be 
Linseed cake 100 wea nod 5 

While the following are the ratios 
calculated from our analyses of South 
African grown pooduce :— 


Phosphorus 
pentoxide. Lime, 
Oat hay (Malmesbury, Cape Colony) ... 100 23s 
5, (Middleburg, ,, eed) er LOO 57 
», (Harmon, 55 vee). 1100 65 


», (Magaliesberg, Transvaal ) ... 1(0 44 
», (Pretoria, )... 100 62 


39 
»,  (Potchefstrom, ‘ )... 100 53 
Mean ... 100 61 

Rhodes grass hay (Chloris 
guyana) «ee LOO 250 
Sweet grass hay (Chloris virgata) ... 100 139 
Boer manna hay (Setaria italica) ... 100 94 


Blue grass hay (Andropogon hirtus) 100 168 
Teff grass hay (Eragrostis A byssinica)100 125 
.. 100 


Veld hay (mixed grasses) 320 
Teosinte hay (Huchloena Mexicana) 100 203 
Golden millet hay (Setaria sp.) _... 100 88 


Californian green moha (Setaria sp.) 100 137 
Broom corn millet (Panicwm 
crus-gallt) wu LOO 


450 


. similar 


(May, 1909. 


Phosphorus 

Pentoxide. 
Lucerne hay (Medicago sativa) ... 100 
Cow-pea hay (Vigna catjanq) ... 100 
Velvet bean hay (Mucuna utilis) ... 100 581 


Lime. 


Maple pea hay (Pisum arvense) ... 100 202 
Meali stalks (Zea mays) ... 100 136 
Kaffir corn stalks (Sor ghwm) .. 100 100 
Millet stalk ... 100 67 
Oat straw ... 100 209 
Wheat straw ... LOO 250 
Tall fescue grass (festuca elatior) ... 100 258 
Burnet green, (Poteriwin sanguisorba) 100 485 
Sheep’s parsley, green (Petriselinum 

sativum) - ... 100 312 
Prickly pear ‘‘ leaves” (Opuntia ficus 

indica) ... 100 1,260 


There can be little doubt that animals 
may be gradually accustomed to live 
upon adiet thatis at first unsuited to 
their requirements, and I have every 
reason to believe that the South African 
bred horse is less liable to succumb to 
osteoporosis, or to suffer from deficien- 
cies in the composition of the ash of his 
food, than are imported animals. 


Interesting accounts of outbreaks of 
osteoporosis among imported. horses, 
donkeys. and mules in 1898 and in 1904 
at the Military camps of Wynberg and 
Middleburg in Cape Colony are given 
by Capt. Lane, who particularly noticed 
the improvement effected in the diseased 
animals by a change in diet from oat- 
hay, mealies and bran to one containing 
lucerne, green forage and bone meal. 
These cases afford strong confirmation 
of the success of the treatment which 
the theory here adduced would indicate 
as beneficial, though the treatment was 
adopted rather with the object of 
increasing the amount of both’ phos- 
phorie acid and lime in the food, than 
of increasing the ratio of the latter to 
the former (which indeed was, in my 
opinion, the cause of its success). 


It will be seen from the above con- 
siderations that the writer is of opinion 
that it is not the poverty of South 
African grown produce in lime and 
phosphoric acid (as compared with 
European grown food-stuffs of the same 
kind) which is to be blamed for the 
prevalance of bone troubles among 
animals there, but rather the practice 
of feeding such animals exclusively 
upon a cereal diet. : 


Probably in Europe, if horses and 
mules were fed entirely upon oat-hay, 
diseases would result, though 
there is some evidence that in certain 
districts in Africa, both the soil and 
the crops grown on it are poorer in 
lime than the corresponding crops 
grown elsewhere. Our analysis of. 
Transvaal soils indicate that they are, 


May, 1909.] 


as compared with English soils, very 
poor in phosphoric acid, nitrogen and 
lime, but usually rich in potash. 


Now to plants, phosphoric acid is 
apparently more important than lime, 
at least so far asseed formation is con- 
cerned, and the yield of seed is often 
jimited by the amount of phosphoric 
acid available. 


In many parts of South Africa it 
has been the practice to attempt to 
compensate for the assumed deficiency 
in lime and phosphates of the usual 
food-stuffs given to. animals, by the 
administration of bone meal, and 
‘*sterilised bone meal” is largely used 
for the purpose. Such a practice un- 
doubtedly tends to mitigate the evil 
alluded to, for we may take it that 
bone meal contains lime and phosphoric 
acid in approximately the correct pro- 
portion for bone nutrition. 


But to adda material containing the 
two substances in correct ratio, to a 
food which otherwise is far too rich 
in phosphoric acid, though it improves 
the final ratio in the mixture,-is not so 
satisfactory a method as the substi- 
tution for a portion of the oat-hay 
of a food-stuff relatively rich in lime, 
e.g.,a leguminous fodder-crop like lucerne 
or cow-peas. Moreover, the mere ex- 
tended use of leguminous foods would 
improve the rations of animals in other 
ways, notably by narrowing the albu- 
minoid ratio. 


In conclusion, I would urge the im- 
portance of giving due consideration, 
in framing rations for animals, to the 
amount and composition of the ash of 
the foods, for the supply of materials 
for the pruper development of bone, 
and of the mineral constituents neces- 
sary for vital processes are of as much 
importance to the well-being of the 
animals as that of proteids, carbo- 
hydrates and fats in appropriate quan- 
tities. Where a considerable variety of 
food-stuffs is employed, e.g., in Hngland, 
the probability of much injury being 
done by ignoring this aspect of the 
question is not nearly so great as when 
two or three constituents only enter 
into the ration, but even in such cases 
a proper recognition of the points I 
have raised in this paper would pro- 
bably often be useful. 


The writer is fully convinced that if 
due regard were paid to those points 
and a more varied diet were supplied 
to horses and mules in South Africa, 
there would be a marked improvement 
in the health and well-being of the 
draught animals, and that in time 


451 


Live Stock. 


horses of greater weight of bone would 
piobably be reared. 


Possibly the same arguments may 
apply to cattle, but asarule the ox is 
allowed to graze and thus obtain greater 
variety of diet, so that its needs in 
this connection are probably not so 
great as with stall-fed animals.—Jour- 
nal Ge Agricultural Science, Vol. IIL., 

art I. 


IN-BREEDING,. 


In-breeding is recommended by many 
writers, and especially for show pur- 
poses. The theory has been advanced 
that the wild birds in-breed, and yet 
they are healthy. In many instances 
this is right, but it must be remembered 
these birds only lay in the spring and 
summer, according to their nature. 


Poultry people keep their birds to lay 
eggs during the autumn and winter 
months, which is quite a different 
matter. If we domesticate our fowls for 
our convenience, then we must breed and 
treat them accordingly. If we are going 
to breed for show, then it is wise to doa 
little in-breeding, but not tothe extent 
that is reeommended ; if so, their consti- 
tutions are undermined. 


We have experimented with in-breed- 
ing in every variety, and some stand it 
much better than others. Take, for 
instance, a man who in-breeds his 
poultry for show purposes. Say, he 
breeds seventy fowls; he picks out just 
the strongest of the young ones, not 
more than fifteen or twenty, to breed 
from in his own yard, and more often 
not half that number. > 


It is a frequent thing to hear breeders 
say of pure birds, talking of others’ 
stock, and we hear the remark especially - 
at shows, ‘“‘ Yes, that exhibitor has some 
real good birds; but he in-breeds too 
much.” The answer to that is usually, 
‘*How do you know that?” The reply 
is, ‘‘ We once bought a stock bird or birds 
from him, and they soon died, as they 
had no stamina.” 


There are hundreds who do the same, 
We once knew a poultry-keeper who 
bought all his stock birds from people 
who win at most of our shows—that is, 
the small birds, which are usually called 
the ‘‘culls.” These were all bought 
cheap, and what was the result? Out of 
very nearly 500 pullets, upwards of 100 
wasted away, and the others did not 
average sixty eggs each during the year, 
The poultry-keeper came to grief, and 
the money was lost. 


Live Stock. 452 [May, 190% 
If eggs or good table birds are show who do not get eggs in winter, and 


required—that is, good strong table 
birds—the stock must not be iu-bred; if 
so, the birds do not fulfil their mission, 
Those who write articles Gn in-breeding 
do a great deal more harm to the utility 
poultry-breeders, as they write that 
they can in-breed and yet do well. In 
one way it pleases them, because they 
need not yet buy fresh male birds, but it 
is misleading to those who do not know 
any better. 


We will take our readers back to the 
farmers of twenty years ago, when the 
whole village would not have fresh 
blood for years. The system was for 
farmers’ wives to exchange male birds 
about every two or three years with 
each other. 


What.was the result? In many cases 
they did not breed achicken until the 
end of spring, and not many of them 
before the middle of summer. The 
simple reason was they could nut get a 
hen to sit before that time. 


We can well remember the time when 
farmers did not have a single egg for 
three or four months during the autumn 
and winter. (1) Because they in-bred. 
(2) They bred from mongrel cocks. (8) 
They made no selection of their stock, 
partly because they fed them on the 


very poorest of grain, such that the’ 


millers would not grind for their pigs. 


Fortunately, these last few years 
farmers have treated their fowls dif- 
ferently. What brought them to do so? 
Bad times, and the purchase of fresh 
blood; they gave the birds better food, 
and what has been the outcome of it all ? 
They have made better prices for their 
poultry and eggs, and find there is 
nothing pays better on the farm than 
poultry. 


Geneial in-breeding with ordinary 
stock kept for utilitarian purposes is a 
step backwards, and it means loss and 
disappointment. 


It must be remembered there are 
poultry-fanciers who keep birds for 


in many cases they keepa number of 
mixed birds of all kinds to lay eggs for 
their own consumption. But when 
people keep prize birds of the up-to-date 
utility breeds, they lay eggs all the 
autumn and winter. 


This is one reason why the Oprington 
varieties have spread so marvellously 
fast as show birds. 


We always recommend our readers to 
take up the newer breeds because of 
fresh blood having been used, and the 
introduction of this always means added 
inactivity to the egg organs. : 


When they complain that new varie- 
ties are rot good layers, itis the fault 
of those who have handled them. 


There is no specific way to make hens 
lay. Many things will tend to increase 
the number of eggs laid. Volumes have 
been written upon the subject, and each 
writer lays special stress upon his or her 
remedy. We cannot go into detail, but 
will give a list of the help recommended, 
and our readers can try the ones they 
think most applicable to their own 
case :— 


1, Certain birds lay more eggs than 
others. 

2. Young hens lay better than older 
ones. 

3. Certain individual hens have the 
laying capacity more highly deve- 
loped than others. 

4, ‘ Green food tends to make them 
ay- 

5. So does green bone cut up and 
mixed with their food. 


6. So does cooked meat. 
7. So does a variety of mixed food. 
8. Red pepper mixed in the food. 
9. Clean water every day. 
10. Clean quarters or hen-houses. 
11. Food givenin straw or leaves to 


make them scratch for it, 


12, Everything that you can do to 
have them in prime _ condition 
and perfect health. — Farmer and 
Grazier, 


May, 1909.1 


453 


BEE KEEPING. 


BEES DO NOT INJURE SOUND 
FRUIT. 
AN INTERESTING EXHIBIT AT A FAIR, 


CONSISTING OF RIPE FRUIT IN A 
GLASS HIVE CONTAINING BEEs. 


By JOEL GILFILLAN. 


At the Grangers’ Fair, held this year 
in Wilmington, Del., I had charge again 
of the Bee Department. Besides the ex- 
hibit of honey (comb and extracted) and 
wax, I had a series of observatory hives 
exhibiting the various conditions and 
workings of the bees from the time a 
swarm was first hived until the harvest 
of honey was taken off. These were 
similar to the ones of thé preceding year, 
the illustrations of which were published 
in the November Ist issue, 1907. There 
was one hive of a different character, 
which created something of a sensation. 
This one is shown by the accompanying 
engraving. lt was a three-story glass 
hive, the upper story containing ripe 
fruit, a bunch of grapes, a pear, and a 

each. At the time the picture was taken 
it was a little cold, and the bees were 
clustering on the combs; but nearly all 


- make honey from fruit.” 


the time during the four days of the 
Fair the bees were freely moving about 
among and over the fruit. There was 
acard on the hive, upon which was 
written, ‘‘Bees do not injure sound 
fruit.” On the second day of the Fair 
one of the grapes on the bunch burst 
open, and the bees set to work and soon 
cleaned it up, and that empty grape 
skin hung there among the sound grapes 
during the remaining days of the Fair, 
speaking louder than any voice. Men 
would stop before this exhibit and 
ponder a long time and then turn away 
with the remark, ‘‘ Well, that settles the 
question.” Sometimes a tew would rush 
past without taking time to read the 
card, and say as they passed, ‘‘ There, 
that shows how the bees get honey from 
fruit.’ One very wise felllow, who was 
leading a company around, and who 
was quick to read the cards on the 
hives, and who tried to.be very wise, 
began describing this one before he 
reached it, saying, ‘‘Now here we have 
a clear demonstration of how the bees 
By this time 
he had read the card, and he merely 
said, ‘‘Oh!” and concluded it was time 
to pass on to other departments of the 
Fair.—Gleanings in Bee Culture, Vol. 
XXXVII., No. 4, February 15th, 1909. 


SCIENTIFIC AGRICULTURE. 


INOCULATION OF LEGUMINOUS 
CROPS. 


In view of the fact that the cultivation 
of leguminous crops under suitable con- 
ditious offers a means of enriching the 
soil with nitrogen, and that this power 
of assimilating atmospheric nitrogen is 
due to the presence and action of nodule- 
forming bacteria on the roots of these 
plants, it would seem, at first sight, a 
comparatively easy matter to ensure 
the presence of the bacteria, and the 
consequent production of crops of 
greater value, by inoculating the soil 
with the organisms in question. A con- 
siderable amount of experimental work 
on this subject has been carried out in 
the United States, in Germany, Canada, 
and—quite recently—in England, but 
the results attained, speaking generally, 
have not, so far, been by any means of 
so promising a nature as was at one time 
anticipated. Some trials, it may be men- 
tioned, too, have lately beer made at 
Antigua and Grenada, under the direc- 


tion of this Department, and it is hoped 
shortly to publish a note on the results 


“Cultures of bacteria for inoculation, 
purposes have at different times been 
prepared and sent out in a number of 
different forms, one of the latest being 
that known as‘ Nitro-Bacterine,’ devised 
by Professor Bottomley of King’s College, 
London. Experiments with this mate- 
rial were carried out by the Royal 
Horticultural Society at the Wisley 
Gardens, England, during the summer 
of 1908, the soil of these Gardens being 
of the kind where inocwation might be 
expected to have a good effect. An ex- 
haustive report on this experimental 
work is contributed by Mr. F, J. Chit- 
tenden, F.L.S., to the Journal of the 
Society for November last (Volume 
XXXIV, Part I), from which it appears 
that from no point of view did inocula- 
tion prove to have a beneficial effect.” 


_ The following summary of the results 
is given at the end of Mr. Chittenden’s 
report :— 


Scientific Agriculture. 


‘A trial of the effect of inoculation of 
peas with ‘Nitro-Bacterine’ was con- 
ducted at Wisley in 1908. 


The soil of the Wisley Gardens is one 
more likely to respond to such inocula- 
tion than the majority of garden soils. 


The experimental area was divided 
into twenty-four equal plots, twelve 
being on well-worked soil, and twelve 
on soil that had been fallowed in 1907. 


Each pair of plots on the cultivated 
ground received different soil treatment, 
and the corresponding pairs on the fal- 
lowed land received the same treatment. 


One of each pair of plots had seed 
which had been inoculated sown upon it ; 
the other, seed which had not been 
inoculated. One row of each of four 
varieties was sown upon each plot, the 
same varieties being used throughout. 


It is shown that the Wisley soil is 
lacking in none of the chemical elements 
necessary for the successful growth and 
development of nodule-forming bacteria, 


Seven out of the twelve plots on which 
inoculated seed was sown, gave smaller 
crops than the corresponding uninocu- 
lated crops, and one gave an equal crop, 


There was, under no soil treatment, a 
consistent increase in the crop due to 
inoculation. 


The total weight of the crop from the 
whole of the plots receiving inoculated 
seed was 450 lb., while the total from the 
plots in which uninoculated seed was 
sown, was 515 lb. The uninoculated seed 
therefore gave, in the aggregate, a 
crop per cent. heavier than the inocu- 

ated. 


The crop from the inoculated seed was 
not better inany way than that from 
the uninoculated, nor did it reach matu- 
tity earlier. 


There was a remarkable difference in 
the yield from the well-cultivated land 
and the fallowed land, greatly in favour 
of the former. 


It is concluded that the inoculation of 
leguminous crops with ‘ Nitro-Bacterine’ 
in ordinary garden soils is not likely to 
prove beneficial.’"—Agricultural News 
Vol. VIII, No. 178, February 20, 1909, 


454 


OE Pe ie A 


(May, 1909. 


THE CONSERVATION OF SOIL 
MOISTURE AND ECONOMY IN 
THE USE OF IRRIGATION 
WATER. — 


By KE. W. HiLGARD AND R. H. 
LOUGHRIDGE. 


The exceptionally dry season of 1897-8, 
coupled with the early cessation of rains 
in the spring of 1897, have brought 
about in California a more extended 
failure of cereals and pasturage, and 
shallow-rooted crops generally, than in 
any year since the State became a 
prominently agricultural one, the season 
of 1876-7 being the nearest to carry 
with it a similar deficiency in crop 
production. It has been the effort of 
the Experiment Station to utilize the 
present unusual season for the study 
of the limits of endurance of drought 
on the part of the several crop plants, 
and with it to determine the minimum 
of water that will suffice for their satis- 
factory growth in the several soils. 
While far from completed, this work 
(involving many hundreds of. determin- 
ations of moisture in soils) has already 
yielded some results which render it 
desirable that they should be placed 
before the farmers and discussed at 
once, in order to provide against a 
recurrence of avoidable injury in the 
future. 


Amount of water required by Crops.— 
lt is notvery generally understood how 
large amount of water is required for 
the production even of fair crops; for 
the maximum of possible product is 
rarely obtained on the large scale, 
because it is not often that all conditions 
are at their best atany onetime and 
locality. But from numerous observ- 
ations, made both in Kurope and in the 
Eastern United States, it has been 
found that from 300 to over 500 tons 
of water are on the average required 
to produce one ton of dry vegetable 
matter. In Wisconsin, King found 
that a two-ton crop of oat-hay re- 
quired over one thousand tons of 
water per acre, equal to about nine 
inches of rainfall. The average rate 
tor field crops at large is given by 
European observers at 3825 times the 
weighs of dry matter produced, being 
at the rate of about three inches of 
rainfall actually evaporated through 
the plant, : 


These data should enable us to 
estimate the adequacy of the moisture 
contained in the soil at the beginning 
of the dry season to mature the crop, 
provided «we make due allowance for 


Hie 7. 


Fie 2. 


May, 1909. | 45 


any growth already made at the time, 
and provided also that the estimates 
as to the water-requirements derived 
from the experience of the countries 
of summer rains (the humid regions) 
hold good for the arid region also. 
Wicther or not this can be assumed, 
is among the points our experiments 
are designed to determine. The sur- 
prisingly successful growth and bearing 
especially of deciduous trees, without 
irrigation, despite a drought of five or 
six months in the ‘‘ Franciscan climate,”* 
has led to an impression that a_ less 
amount of water may suffice under 
arid conditions. For in the Kast, as 
many weeks of drought and _ intense 
heat would frequently suffice to destroy 
the crop. 


Probable causes of this endurance of 
drought.—Doubtless the main cause of 
this remarkable endurance is to be 
found in the much deeper rooting of all 
plants in arid climates; whereby not 
only a much larger bulk of moist soil is 
at their command, but the roots are 
withdrawn from the injurious effects 
of hot, dry surface and air. 


This deeper range of the roots is not 
the result of foresight on the part of the 
plant. It could not occur on KEKastern 
soils, because of the intervention, in 
the great majority of cases, of difficultly 
penetrable subsoils; from which, more- 
over, plants could draw _ but little 
nourishment on account of their ‘ raw- 
ness.” Inthe arid region, as a rule, 
subsoils in the Hastern sense do not 
exist; the soil mass is practically the 
same for several feet, and in the _ pre- 
valent soils is very readily penetrable to 
great depths. This, summanily speak- 
ing, isdue tothe slight formation of 
clay, and the rarity of heavy rains in 
the arid region. And this easy pene- 
trability of the soils implies, moreover, 
that being well aerated, thedepths of 
the soil are not ‘‘ raw,” asinthe Hast ; 
and therefore that the ‘‘subsoil ” such 
as itis, may fearlessly be turned up as 
deeply as the farmer is willing to go 
with the plough, without danger of injur- 
ing the next season’s crop, in all lands 
that are well drained; as, by reason 
of their depth and perviousness, is the 
ease with most California soils. 


The accompanying plate illustrates 
from Nature the deep penetration of a 
peach root developing in a normally 


* This name has been felicitously applied by 
Powell to the climate of middle and southern Cali- 
fornia, which is characterized by the concentra- 
tion of rains within a winter which is mild enough 
to cons titute a growing season, while the summer 
is prac tically rainless, 


Scientific Agriculture. 


deep, well erated ‘bench” soil, in a 
manner quite impossible to the same 
root when growing in land underlaid, 
as are most Hastern ones, by a subsoil 
which either is too dense or too wet to 
be penetrated and utilized by the tree. 


A glance at the figures suffices to 
show that, while a root system like 
plate 1, a typical Eastern tree root will 
stand in absolute need of frequent 
rains or irrigation to sustain its vitality, 
such a one as plate 2 may brave pro- 
longed drought with impunity, being 
independent of surface conditions, and 
able to perform all its functions out of 
reach of stress from lack of moisture.* 
It is equally clear that it is to the 
farmer's interest to favour, to the 
utmost, this deep penetration of the 
roots, both in the preparation and tillage 
of the ground, and in the use of irri- 
gation water. For if the latter is used 
too frequently or too abundantly, the 
salutary habit of deep rooting will be 
abandoned by the plant, and it will, 
as in the Kast, be dependent upon fre- 
quent rain or irrigation ; and also, owing 
to the small bulk of soil upon which 
it can draw for its nourishment, upon 
frequent and abundant fertilization. 


Kastern immigrants as well as a large 
proportion of California farmers do not 
realize the privilege they possess of 
having a triple and quadruple acreage 
of arable soil under their feet, over and 
above the area for which their deeds call ; 
and they tenaciously continue to adhere 
to precautions and practices which, 
however salutary and necessary in the 
region of summer rains, do not apply 
to this climate. The shallow ploughing 
so persistently practised results in the ~ 
formation of a ‘plowsole” that plays 
the part of the Eastern subsoil in pre- 
venting root penetration ; limiting their 
range for moisture and plant food and 
thus naturally causing crops to succumb 
to a slight stress of season which ought 
to have passed without injury, had the 
natural conditions been taken into 
proper consideration. 


Roots follow moisture. -Very striking 
examples of deep routing as the result 
of vertical moisture penetration can be 
observed in some of our native trees, 
which, while naturally at home on moist 
ground, are nevertheless sometimes 
found forming luxurient clumps on the 
slopes and even summits of our coast 
ranges and foothills. If we examine 
the ground where this occurs in the 
case of California laurel, we will gener- 


*The moisture determination under this tree 
gave, to the depth of eight feet, an aggregate amount 
of water of 1,058 tons per acre, 


Scientific Agriculture. 


ally find that the soil in which they 
grow is underlaid by slate or shale 
standing on edge, into the crevices of 
which the roots penetrate, wedging them 
open; while themselves flattening out, 
and thus penetrating to moisture at 
considerable depths. The same may be 
observed in the case of the erect ‘‘bed- 
rock” or foothill slates of the Sierra, 
on which native as well as fruit trees 
flourish in very shallow soils, some- 
times reaching. permanent moisture at 
the depth of ten or more feet below 
the surface. It can readily be observed 
during rains that there is comparatively 
little run-off from the surface of these 
lancs underlaid by vertical shales. 


On the same principle, the grape 
vines which bear some of the choicest 
raisins of Malaga on the arid coastward 
slopes, are made to supply themselves 
with moisture, without irrigation, by 
opening around them large, funnel- 
shaped pits, which remain open in winter 
so as tocatch the rain, causing It to 
penetrate downward along the tap-root 
of the vine, inclay shale quite similar 
to that of the California Coast ranges, 
and like this latter, almost vertically 
on edge. Yet on these same slopes 


456 


[May, 1909, 


searcely any natural vegetation 
finds a foothold. 3 Fas 


Similarly the ‘‘ryots” of parts of India 
water their crops by applying to each 
plant immediately around the stem such 
scanty measure of the precious fluid as 
they, have taken from wells, often of 
considerable depths, which form their 
only source of water-supply. Perhaps 
in imitation of these, an industrious 
farmer has practised a similar system 
on the high benches of Kern River, and 
has successfully grown excellent fruit 
{or years, on land that originally would 
grow nothing but cactus. Sub-irri- 
gation from pipes has been applied in 
a similar manner. 

_The principle flowing from the aboveis 
simply that the most economical mode 
of using irrigation water is to put it 
“where it will do the most good,” close 
to the stem of the plant or trunk of 
the tree, and let it soak downward so as 
to form a moist path for the roots to 
fellow to the greatest possible depth. 
It is this deep penetration to natural 
moisture, as a matter of fact, which 
enables the small quantities supplied to 
produce such marked effects. 


(To be continued.) 


MISCELLANEOUS. 


LITERATURE OF ECONOMIC 
BOTANY AND AGRICULTURE. 
Cacao.—General. 


Le cacaoyer au Congo francais. 
Jard. Col. May 1906, p. 390. 
Greshoff, Aantekening over Cacao- 


Bull. 


Hiomen: Ind. Mere. 18. 9. 1906, p. 
635. 
Eutretieu des cacaoyeres. Bull. 


Jard. Col. Mar. 1906, p. 227. 
Les varieties et espéces de cacaos cul- 
tivées. Journ. d’Agr. trop. 1906, 


p, 76. 
Chalot et Lun. Le cacao au Congo 
francais. Paris, 1906. 
Kakaomarkt in den Niederlanden 
im Jahre 1905. Tropenpfl. 1906, p. 589. 
See monthly market reports in Trop. 
Life. 
The manuring of cacao. Trop. Life, 
May 1906, p. 73. 
Sur quelques conditions de succes 
d’un cacaoyere, Journ. d’Agr. trop. 
Feb. 1906, p. 39. 


Wright. The cultivation of cacao ~ 


in Ceylon. 
73 et. seg: 

Report on cacao and cola_ industries 
in the Gold Coast. ‘‘T.A.” Aug. 
1906, p. 146. 


“TA,” July, 1906, p. 


Welternte und Weltverbrauch von 
Kakao, 1901-4. Gordian, 20, Ic. 1905, 
p. 251. do. 1905-6, do, 20/12/06, 988. 

The world’s cacao crops and consump- 
tion 1901-4. ‘*T.A” Mar. 1906, p. 170. 

Kakao-produktion und Konsum, 
Tropenpfi, 1907, p. 33. 


Cacao improvement. Hart. Trin. 
Bull, Jan. 1907, p. 182. 
San Thome Kakao. Gordian. 8. 1 


1907, p. 959. 

Samoa Kakao. do. 5. 8. 1906, p. 710. 

Deutschlands ein—und Ausfuhr an 
Eeaeno. Tropenpfl. Aug. 1907, p. 

22 DT: 

A review of the cacao trade. ‘‘T.A.” 
June 1907, p. 359. 

Cacao cultivation in West Africa. 
Agr. News, Aug. 1907, p. 254. 

Cacao cultivation in West Africa 
and elsewhere. Trop. Life, Aug. 
1907, p. 116. 

Cacao cultivation in Uganda. Agr. 

News, June 1907, p. 202. ; 

Cacao cultivation in St. Vincent. 

Agr. News, July 1907, p, 213. 


The cacao situation. “T.A.” Oct. 
1907, p. 279. 
The shortage of raw cacao. ‘Trop. 


Life, Nov. 1907 ». 169. 
Cacao in Eueador. ‘T.A.” Apr. 1908, 
p. 817. 


May, 1909. 


Cacao in the U.S., Trop. Life, Feb. 
1908, p. 29, **'T. A.” Sept. 1908, p. 228. 

Cacao from the Gold Coast. Bull. 
Imp, Inst. 4. 1907, p. 361. “T.A.” 
May 1908, p. 429. 

Cacao industry of San Thome. Agr. 
Nene, Dec. 1907. “T.A.” Feb. 1908, 
p. 121. 


Cacao, its general culture. W. Ind. 
Bull. 1907. “*T.A.” Feb. 1908, p. 124, 


An annual report on cacao. do. p. 184. 

Cacao industry of the West Indies. 
Agr. News, 22. 2. 1908. ‘*T.A.” June 
1908, p. 536. 

Over cacao-cultuur op Samoa en 
enkele opmerkingen over dege cul- 
tuur op Java. Cnltuurgids. 10 IL, 


p- 41. 

Cacao as an adjunct to rubber cul- 
ture. Yr. Bk. P.A. Mexico, 1907-8. 
“TA.” July 1908, p. 11. 

Trinidad cacao exports. Agr. News, 
Mar. 1908, “*T.A.” July 1908, p. 351. 

Cacao in Samoa. Agr. News, Oct. 
1908, >. 299. “*T. A.” Nov. 1908, p. 447. 

Uber Verlaubung von Cacaobliiten 
von Faber. Ber. D.B.G. 25, p. 577. 

Welternte und Weltverbranch von 
Kakao, 1907. Tropenpfl. Nov. 1908, 


p. d4l. 
“The future of cacao planting. Ag. 
Bull. F.M.S. Dec, 1908, p. 611. 
Results of recent experiments. W. 
Ind. Bull. Vol. TX. No. 2, p. 188, 
“T,A.” Feb. 1909, p. 141. : 
Tobago cacao. Trin. Bull, Oct. 1908, 


p- 30. 

The future of cacao planting. H. 
Smith, R. H.S. J1., Nov., 1908, p, 193. 

Slavery on cacao plantations. Ind. 
Agri. Dee. 1908, p. 360. 

Le cacaoyer daus l’Ouest Africain. 
Journ. d’ Agr. trop. Oct. 1908, p. 299. 

Cacao shipments from Trinidad. 
Agr. News, 31. 10. 1908, p. 351. 

The characters of Criollo cacao. 
Hart. ‘ T.A.” Jan. 1909, p. 49. 


Cacao.—CULTIVATION. 


Manurial experiments with cacao in 
Dominica. W. Ind. Bull. 6, p. 258. 

Fauchere. Cultivation pratique du 
eacaoyer. Paris, 1906. 

De beteekenis van schaduwboomen 
bij de cacaocultuur. Ind. Mere., 
10. 1906, p, 782. 

Kakao-diingungsversche. Tropenpfl. 
1906, p. 516. 

Manurial experiments with cacao at 
Dominica. W. Ind. Bull. 7, p. 201. 

Possible crop of a cacao tree in full 
bearing. Trin. Bull, 1907, p. 200. 

Cacao experiments at Dominica. 
Agr, News, Aug. 1907, p. 254. 

Treating cacao seeds for export. 
“T.A.” Supp., Sept. 1907, p. 52, 


58 


457 


Miscellaneous. 


Pruning cacao. Trin. Bull. July | 
1907, p. 256. 

Treatment of cacao and other seeds 
for export. Kew. Ball. 19, p. 297, 

Pruning cacao. Jamaica Bull. 1907, 
p. 189. 

The transport of seed cacao. Trop. 
Life, Mar. 1998, p. 45, ‘*T.A.” May 
1908, p: 482. 

Results of the resent experiments 
with cacao inthe W. Indies, W. I. 
Bull. 8, 1907, p. 180. “T.A.” July 
1908, p. 30. 

Cacao experiments in the West 
Indies. Agr. News, 21.3. 198, p. 

5., “*T.A.” May, 1908, p. 427. 

Packing cacaoseeds. Agr. News, do. 
p. 89. **T,A.” Aug. 1908, p. 128. 

Emploi du paillis daus la culture du 
cacaoyer. Journ. Agr. Trop., 
May 1908, p. 188. 

Pruning cacao. “T.A.” Dee. 1907, 
p. 423. 

Pruning avd soil management in 
cacao cultivation. ‘‘T.A.” Supp. 
Dee., 1907, p. 180. 

The use of a mulch in the cultivation 
of cacao. (Abstract by Lock from 
Journ. d’Agr. trop.) ‘*T.A.” Sept. 
1908, p. 227. 

The question of shade in coffee 
cultivation as applied to cacao, 
Trop. Life, July 1908, p.. 105. 
“T.A.” Dee. 1908, p. 529, 

eae eacao. Trin. Bull. Oct. 1908, 


p. 26. 

Manurial experiments with cacao at 
Dominica. Agr. News, 25. 7. 1908, 
p. 225. ‘“T.A.” Dec. 1908, p. 530. 

Cacao cultivation, Hart. Trop. Life 
V.1, Jan. 1909. 

Cacao experiment plotsat St. Lucia. 
Agr. News, VII, 173, Dec. 1908, 
p. 389, 

The improvement of cacao planting 
in the W. Indies, Hart. ‘*T.A.” 
Jan. 1909, p. 47. 

Cacao cultivation. ‘T.A.” March 
1909, p. 247. 


NOTES AND QUERIKS. 


N.C. P.—The plant you refer to is 
Typha augustifalia, a reed or rush some- 
times (butincorrectly) called the bull- 
rush, and also known variously as cat- 
tail flag, reed mace, and elephant grass. 
The Sinhalese name is Hambu-pan. The 
leaves have some value for making hats, 
mats, &ec., and the fluffy material found 
in thespadix was at one timea good 
dealused for stuffing. The plant has 
been favourably reported onas a fibre 
for paper-making. It isfound growing 
in abandoned paddy fields, e.g., in the 
neighbourhood of Anuradhapura. 


Miscellaneous, 458 


Kapoxk.—A leaflet on the subject is 
just about to be issued. In it you will 
find all the information you want. Do 
not confuse this with the ordinary spin- 
ning cottons which are all species of 
Gossypium, some of which are, owing to 
their size, called ‘“* Tree Cottons.” Kapok 
is botanically Hriodendron anfrac- 
tuosum, and has long been grown as a 
fence plant. The name Kapok is said to 
bea Malay word, probably introduced 
by the Dutch. 


A. O.—Tinospora cordifolia is the 
Sinhalese Rasa-kinda (Tamil Seenthil). 
Yes, itis used to someextent in Euro- 
pean practice, and applications have 
been received by me for the leaves for pre- 
paring the drug. In native medicine it 
is much used in cases of diabetes. 

B. P.—The word ‘' pea” is very loosely 
used. The true peais Pisum sativum; 
but we have ‘‘chick-pea” (Cicer 
arietinum) another name for common or 
Bengal gram, ‘‘pigeon pea” (Cajanus 
indicus) better known as dhall, and so 
on. The term ‘‘bean” is even more 
incorrectly employed, as in cocoa bean, 
coffee bean, &c. 

B.—The king orange is not often’ seen 
in our local markets, and the pity is 
that it is not more cultivated to the 
exclusion of inferior kinds. It has been 
introduced into the United States where 
it is very highly thought of. The 
Americans are getting the best things of 
the Hast in Agriculture and Horticulture 
through their ‘‘ explorers.” 


BREEDER.—You are confusing rinder- 
pest and foot-and-mouth disease. It is 
better to avoid the term ‘“ cattle-plague ” 
which is too general. Comparatively 
speaking, foot-and-mouth disease is a 
mild disease compared to rinderpest, 
which practically does not admit of 
treatment once an animal is affected, 
and must be dealt with by preventive 
measures, chief among which is the 
process of serum-inoculation. 

S. C.—With reference to your enquiry 
whether there are any wax-excreting 
palms in Ceylon, and_ whether the 
Carnauba wax palm of Brazil and that 
of Colombia could be grown here, Dr. 
Willis, Director, Royal Botanic Gardens, 
Peradeniya, reports :—‘‘ There are none 
in Ceylon. The Brazil species inhabit 
the mountains, and have never so far 
succeeded in Ceylon.” 

Mrs. H.—The numberof hens you ought 
to allow for each cock-bird to ensure 
fertilizing of eggs is, according to the 


Te A ae ling | 


[May, 1909. 


Government Veterinary Surgeon, six, 
1.€., With a non-sitting breed such as 
Minoreas. Healso states that a cock- 
erel may be used for two years, 

W. D. C.—In reply to your enquir 
whether rubber plants should be fOpned 
at a certain period, and if so at what age, 
what height, and what season, the 
Government Agricultural Chemist kindly 
furnishes the following reply :—“It is 
better not to top the trees at allas the 
heavy heads induced are liable to be 
broken off by any severe wind.” 


ness, Messrs. Walker, Sons & Co. report 
that they have two ploughs that they 
think might suit, Howard’s Cingalese 
Plough (Rs. 22°50) and Massey’s pipe 
plough (Rs. 17°50). These are intended 
for furrows 6’ to 8” deep, but with some 
adjustment might-suit the purpose. 

S. R. B.—The hairy beans you send 
are Mucuna pruriens. The seeds need 
very careful cooking. It is necessary to 
first boil them two or three times, throw- 
ing away the water after each boiling, 
If this is not done they are apt to act as 
an irritant poison. 


W. D.—In reply to your enquiry 
whether it is true that several varieties 
of Durians are found in the Malay 
Peninsula, some of which are superior 
to the locally-grown variety, the Curator 
of the Royal Botanie Gardens, states 
that the Durian trees at Peradeniya are 
very variable in their fruits, varying in 
size, shape, flavour and quality of pulp. 
Two trees in the Gardens yield distinctly 
better fruits than the others, but even 
these are distinct from each other. The 
trees also vary in productiveness, some 
being almost barren, while others are 
extra prolific. Selection and high eculti- 
vation are carried on to some extent in 
the Straits, Burma, &c., so that it is 
quite possible they have better varieties 
than those in Ceylon. 


P. M. C.—The following, as I under- 
stand, are the questions raised by you :— 
(1) Is there any relation between the 
time taken by paddy to come to maturity 
and the return it gives? (2) Are there 
any statistics giving average yield of 
paddies of different ages? (8) Isthere 
any relation between ‘“‘ age” and qual- 
ity ? I would reply to these as follows: 
(1) There is, as a rule, adefinite relation 
between length of growth and yield, e.g., 
a5 or 6 months’ variety yields more than 
a60 day or3 month paddy. (2) There 
are no statistics available, but, accord- 


3 
- 
» 
¢ 
— | 


Mee 
Oye rs c 


May, 1909.] 


ing to Mr. W. A. de Silva, some such 

proportion as the following may be laid 

down :— 

Given that a 5 mos. paddy will give a yield of 100 / 
thena 2 ,, 40 np af ay 60';, 
anda 3.4, 0 ag ‘i e, OLA 

But sometimes a4 month paddy will 

be found to give as much as a dor 
6 months’ variety. In fact, 4, 5, and 6 
month paddies should be classed _ to- 
gether, while those of lesser age must 
be put down as ‘“‘ bala wi,” which gives a 
comparatively low yield, though most 
useful when cultivation has to be 
undertaken late in the season, (8) 1 do 
not think any relation has been noticed 
between ‘“‘ age” and quality. 


K. B. B.—With reference to your 
enquiry about the prospects of lemon 
grass cultivation in the Central Pro- 
vince, the Government Agricultural 
Chemist states that although the grass 
grows successfully, the present prices 
are too low for profitable cultivation. 
The cost of a small plant, for say from 
50 to 75 acres would be about £250. 


W. E. M.—A trial of nitro-bacterine 
was made in May last year at the Govern- 
ment Stock Garden. The culture for 
groundnuts (Arachis hypogoa) was mix- 
ed with water according to the directions 
given, and, in one case the seeds were 
immersed inthe liquid before plant- 
ing; in another, the seeds were first 
planted and subsequently watered with 
the fluid ;in a third, the seeds (unino- 
culated) were watered with plain water. 
Except fora slightly higher percentage 
of germination in the case of the first 
plot (which is hardly to be attributed 
to the culture), there was no striking 
difference between the inoculated and 
uninoculated plots, a result which 
leads to the conclusion that the action 
of nitro-bacterine in the case of garden 
soils at least is inappreciable. 


V. M. M.—‘ Vaporite ” is recommended 
to be forked into the soil to rid it from 
gall worms and other ground pests. 

C. DRIEBERG, 


Secretary, C, A, S. 


BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. 


MINUTES OF THE 45TH MEETING. 


The 45th Meeting of the Board of Agri- 
culture was held at the Council Chamber 
on Wednesday, the 7th April, 1909. 

His Excellency the Governor presided. 

There were also present :—Sir Solomon 
Dias Bandaranaike, the Hon’ble Messrs. 


459 


Miscellaneous. 


Moonemalle and Kanagasabai, Messrs. 
R. H. Lock, C. M. Lushington, J. Har- 
ward, R. W, Smith, G. W. Sturgess, 
i. K. Green, C. J. C. Mee, W, A. de Silva, 
francis Daniel, J. D. Vanderstraaten, 
Simon D. Dabre and the Secretary, and 
(as visitor) Lieut, W. Stewart. 


BUSINESS. 


1. Minutes of the previous meeting 
held February 4th, 1909, were read and 
confirmed, 

2. Progress Report No. 44 was 
adopted. Mr. Lock advised that only 
one good variety of maize seed (eg., 
Hickory King) be distributed at a time, 
in view of the tendency to c1oss-fertili- 
zation in maize. 


3, Statement of Expenditure to the 
end of March was tabled. 


. Mr. Lock’s paper entitlec 
New Rubbers” was taken as read. 


5. Mr. W. A. de Silva read a sum- 
mary of his paper entitled ‘‘ Suggestions 
for a local Scheme of Agricultural 
Edueation.” The Director of the Royal 
Botanic Gardens and the Director of 
Public Instruction, in the course of 
their remarks, thought the curriculum 
was rather tooambitious. Mr. Harward 
had acourse of agricultural lectures for 
teachers in contemplation, and was also 
endeavouring to arrange for the train- 
ing of an agricultural instructor for the 
Government Training College. H. HE. 
the Governor, in thanking the writers 
of the two papers submitted to the 
meeting, thought that Agriculture 
should be the basis of a village school 
curriculum. His Excellency had him- 
self drafted a comprehensive paper on 
the subject of agricultural education 
which he proposed to submit to a special 


“The 


‘committee for their advice regarding 


the technical details. 


Mr. Lock exhibited specimens of 
Maize in illustration of a fundamental 
point in plant breeding. 


6. Mr. Green read a memorandum on 
sericulture prepared by the Secretary, 
and also exhibited samples of silk yarn 
made in Paris from locally grown 
cocoons. 


7. Before the close of the meeting 
Ht. E. the Governor said that he desired 
to express his thanks to the gentlemen 
who had acceded to his request for 
suggestions as to the best means of 
administrating loans to cultivators, and 
expressed his intention of drafting, at 
an early date,a scheme for local agri- 
cultural banks. 


C. DRIEBERG, 
Secretary, C, A, S, 


Miscellaneous. 


CEYLON AGRICULTURAL. 


SOCIKTY. 


ProereEss Report XLIV. 


Membership.—The following members” 


have joined the Society since the last 
meeting of the Board held on Febru- 
ary 4:—Wilfred_ L. P. Soysa, Huntley 
Wilkinson, KE. L. Ephraums, .P. R. 
Spencer, Dr. Ahmed Mirza, W. R. Bibile, 
R.M., M. S. Milne, General Manager of 
the Uganda Company, Ltd., T. Dorai- 
swamy Aiyar, N. 
Edward Young, and F. W. Le Feuvre. 

Movements of Officials —The Secretary 
toured in the Kandy District, Pasdun 
Korale East, and Kurunegala District. 
Mr. S. Rothwell, at present studying 
tropical agriculture at Peraderiya, ac- 
companied the Secretary on some of his 
visits of inspection. 

Agricultural Instuctors.—There are 
now five Agricultural Instructors en- 
gaged in inspection and demonstration 
work, at present distributed as follows:— 
Mr. N. Wickremaratne in the Bentota- 
Walallawiti korale, Mr. L. A, D. Silva 
in the Hambantota-Matara Districts, 
Mr. S. RB. Breckenridge in the Batticaloa 
District, Mr. S. Chelliah in the Jaffna 
peninsula, and Mr. W. Molegoda in the 
Nuwara Eliya District. 

Branch Societies.—Three new Branch 
Societies have been organized at Ham- 
bantota, Bentota and Agalawatta (Pas- 
dun korale). 


The Hambantota Branch (designated 
the Magam Pattu Agricultural Society) 
absorbs the Tissamaharama Cultivators’ 
Association. It hasin view the estab- 
lishing of an experimentai garden, for 
which Mudaliyar C. F. S. Jayawickrema 
has offered an area of land on. his Rana- 
keliya estate. Agricultural Instructor 
Silva, who has inspected the land, while 
agreeing that the sites are suitable for 
the purpose, is of opinion that their dis- 
tance from a frequented centre is a 
drawback. 


The Bentota Branch was inaugurated 
at a meeting held at Bentota in the 
first week in March, when Agricultural 
Instructor Wickremaratne was present ; 
office-bearers will be elected at a later 
meeting, when rules and a programme 
of work will also be framed. Nine 
Vidane Arachchies undertook toconduct 
experiments in transplanting paddy. 

An inaugural meeting was held at 
Agalawatta on March [4 to establish a 
Branch Society for Pasdun Korale East. 
The meeting was attended by the Secre- 
tary, and there was a large gathering, 
over which Mudaliyar Samarasinha pre- 


460 


J. Wilson Blackett, 


[May, 1909. 


sided. Office-bearers were appointed, 
and a resolution was passed that three 
experimental gardens hbe_ started at 
Bellana, Agalawatta, and Warakagoda. 
The Mudaliyar’s proposals with regard 
to the work of the Society were met 
with general favour. 


The Dumbara Society, which is among 
the most active of the branches, held 
its annual general meeting on February 
6, when the Hon. Mr. J. P. Lewis, Govern- 
ment Agent, Central Prcevince, presided. 
An interesting annual report was sub- 
mitted by the Secretary, Mr. Rasanaya- 
gam, Mudaliyar, dealing chiefly with 
the work of the Co-operative Credit 
Bank. The report is reproduced in the 
Society’s Magazine for February. 

Agricultural Shows.—The following 
Shows are fixed to take place on the 
dates indicated below :— 


April 6-7 Welimada 
oo w } Mannar 

May 6 Anuradhapura 
May 28-24 Hanguranketa 
May 24 Bandaragama 
June 12 Vavuniya 
June 16-18 Galle 

June Negombo 
June Jaffna 

June 10 Balalla 

July 2-3 Kegalla 

July 3h Telijjawila 
August 5-7 Kandy 
October 30 Mirigama 
December 20-21 Hikkaduwa 


The Jaffna Show is the only doubtful 
fixture. 


tthas been decided to abandon the 
Colombo Exhibition this year, in view. 
Be the Show to be held at Negombo in 
une. 


Imperial International Exhibition, 
Nagpur.—As previously reported, the 
Society sent a representative exhibit of 
local commercial products to this Exhi- 
bition. The Secretary of the Exhibition 
Committee, writing after the close of the 
Exhibition, states: ‘‘I think the exhibits 
as a whole attracted attention. Of indi- 
vidual exhibits, J am not at this moment 
efficient to speak, chiefly because I was 
absent the greater part of the time. 
There were to my knowledge, however, 
inquiries with regard to cardamoms and 
cacao. I will see that a report is sent.” 


Eaperimentat Gardens.—In addition 
to the gardens at Tissa and Pasdum 
Korale East already referred to, it is 
also proposed to establish gardens at 
Jaffna, Anuradhapura, and Batticaloa, 
under the supervision of the Agricul- 
tural Instructors stationed in the North 
ernand Eastern Provinces, : 


\ 


eee 


; May, 1909.) 


The Bandaragama and Balangoda Gar- 
dens continue to make satisfactory 
progress. 


Horetuduwa Garden.—In August last 
another stage was reached in the arrange- 
ments for opening this garden. The 
drawing up of the deeds for the trans- 
fer of land for the purpose was entrusted 
to the donor’s Notary, and there was 
a prospect of the garden being taken in 
hand in September and got ready for 
planting during the north-east monsoon. 
The unexpected death of the donor in 
the interval has now caused further 
delay, and will have to wait action by 
the executor of the estate. It should be 
mentioned that the late Sri Chandra- 
sekera, Mudaliyar, donated a sum of 
Rs. 2,500 for the upkeep of the garden, 
so that by his death the Society loses 
one of its most liberal supporters. 


School Gardens.—School gardens are 
increasing in number, At the end of 
last year their total number was 180. 
Some of the gardens in the outlying 
districts are doing excellent work, as 
the following log entry, made by Mr. F. 
Lewis of the Land Settlement Depart- 
ment, goes to show. Angunakolapilessa 
school referred to is situated in a remote 
part of the. Magam pattu: -‘‘I visited 
the Angunakolapilessa school this morn- 
ing at 7-30, just as some of the boys were 
arriving. 1 was particularly struck 
with the school garden, which, consider- 
ing the climatic conditions that prevail 
here, shows that the schoolmaster has 
paid great attention to it, and with 
excellent results. I noticed among other 
products chillies, ash and red pumpkins, 
tomatoes, sweet potatoes, Indian corn 
and cotton, The crops produced were 
very large, and, seeing that the water 
required for the plants is brought from 
a tank or well about one-eighth of a mile 
distant, it is all the more astonishing 
that so excellent a result is to be seen. 
Altogether the garden is a fine object- 
lesson, not only fer children but for 
adults, as showing what can be done 
here. The figures of crops given by the 
schoolmaster show that the yield is 
highly profitable, and I trust that the 
Agricultural Department will take the 
matter up, as showing the possibilities 
in this wild and little-populated country, 
The school garden affords a proof that 
with water anda little care and atten- 
tion the common garden produce of the 
country can be made very profitable. I 
find that some of the children, to whom 
I put a few questions of a practical 
character, were able to answer with 
promptness and correctly. This and 
the foregoing remarks about the garden 
will serve to show that the schoolmaster 
has done his work well, and deserves 


461 


Mascellaneous: 


considerable  ecredit considering the 
materials he has to work upon.’ 


Public Pasture Grounds.—The question 
ot providing communal pasture land is 
being taken up in Uva, Gampola, and 
the Wellaboda pattu. The Government 
Veterinary Surgeon recommends that 
there should be 100 acres of pasture for 
every herd of 100 head of cattle. 


The Secretary during his visit to South 
India in December last found that much 
value was placed upon a pasture. grass 
new to Ceylon, identified by Mr. J. F. 
Jowitt as Cenchrus biflorus, and is now 
makioag arrangements to introduce it 
into the Island in connection with the 
pasture experiments referred to. 


Paddy.—At the request of the Depart- 
ment oi Agriculture, Beira, twelve select- 
ed varieties of low-land and up-land 
paddy were forwarded to Portuguese 
Kast Africa for experimental purposes. 
The thanks of the Society are due to 
Messrs. A. P. Goonatileka and J. H. Mee- 
deniya, R,M., for furnishing the paddies. 

Highteen varieties of Ceylon paddy 
were also forwardsd to the Department 
of Agriculture, Central Provinces, Nag- 
pur. These were secured with the kind 
help of Mr. Sam W. Perera of H. M. 
Customs. 


An experiment in transplanting paddy 
was carried out last season under the 
direction of Mr, Wirasinha, the Mudali- 
yar of Rayigam korale, His report is ex- 
pected immediately, but Mr, Wickrema- 
ratne, Agricultural Instructor, who 
visited the district just before the cut- 
ting of the corn, reported that the 
superiority of the transplanted crop 
was striking, the average number of 
shoots froma plant being above twelve 
and the ears proportinately large, 


An experiment was also conducted at 
Bombuwala in Kalutara totamune in 
a field belonging to the Vidane, It was 
carried out under many disadvantages 
owing to having been begun too late in 
the season, which did not allow of the 
plants remaining sufficiently long in 
the nursery or of sufficient time being 
given for the action of the manure 
applied. Details of the experiment will 
be duly published together with those of 
the Rayigam korale experiment, 


The Mudaliyar of Pasdun Korale East 
reports that transplanting will be under- 
taken in the six Vidane Arachchies’ 
divisions of the ko.ale during the next 
yala; similar experiments will be con- 
ducted in the Bentota-Walallawiti 
korale by the Vidane Arachchies of 
Urugasmanhandiya, Kosgoda, Elpitiya, 
Pitigala, Horangalla, Weihena, Opata, 
Constable Arachchi of Urugaha, and 
Police Officer of Amugoda. 


Miscellaneous. 462 


The Teacher, boys’ vernacular schooh 
Kankaniyamulla, reports that he sowed 
two measures of paddy in a nursery on 
August 20 and planted out the seedlings 
25 days after. The crop was gathered 
on February 5 and realized 98 measures, 
or 49-fold, in spite ot its having suffered 
somewhat from the attacks of rats and 
birds. The school boys assisted in the 
experiment. 

Drought-resistant Paddy from Burma. 
—This paddy was distributed among 
the following centres :—Anuradhapura, 
Chilaw, Delft, Hambantota, Jaffna, Ka- 
tana, Katunayaka, Kegalla, Kurunegala, 
Mannar, Mullaittivu, Nattandiya, Trin- 
comalee, Vavuniya, Wanni hatpattu, 
and Puttalam. 


A report of the failure of the last 
paddy crop comes from the Marawila 
district, with a request for assistance 
with seed paddy. The matter is receiv- 
ing attention. 

A useful pamphlet on paddy eultiva- 
tion and manuring has been issued by 
Messrs. Freudenberg & Co., and can be 
had free on application. The contents 
are instructive, and copies received from 
the publishers have been distributed 
among Branch Societies. 

Seeds and Plants.—Through the cour- 
tesy of the Director of Agriculture, Beira, 
four varieties of cotton (Champion Clus- 
ter, Southern Hope, Bate’s Big Boll, 
and Allen’s Long Staple) and six of 
maize (Golden King, Hickory King, 
Chester County Mammoth, Champion 
White Pearl, Karly Star Leaming, and 
Iowa Silver Mine) were received during 
May, and distributed, 


Soy Bean.—This bean was imported 
twice previously, but did not prove a 
success. At the request of a member, 
seeds of eight varieties were obtained 
through the courtesy of the United 
States Department of Agriculture, and 
are being triedin the Kurunegala Dis- 
trict. They are named Mammoth, 
Haberlandt, Tokio, Guelph, Itosan, 
Brownie, Flat King, and Nuttal. 


Dhaincha Seed (Sesbania aculeata).— 
Arrangements are being made, if pos- 
sible, to get a fairly large supply of seed 
of this green-manure plant. 

The Algaroba Tree (Prosopis juli- 
flora).—At the suggestion of a member, 
seeds of this useful tree have been in- 
dented for from Hawaii. A specimen 
about six years old may be seen growing 
in the Government Stock Garden. 


Alphonso Mango Grafts indented for 
from India, and the usual stock of vege- 
table seeds from England, for south- 
west monsoon planting, are expected to 
arrive early next month. 


[May, 1909. 


Kekuna Nuts.—A report is awaited 
from the continent on samples of this 
oil-nut (Aleuwntes triloba), submitted 
in connection with inquiries received. 
Some seven oreight years ago an order 
for this oil came from Russia, and was 
executed with the help of the Superin- 
tendent of School Gardens. So far as 
could have been ascertained, it was 
wanted in connection with the paint 
trade. 


Yams.—What is generally known as 
the Jaffna yam or King yam—a variety 
of Dioscorea alata, purple when boiled— 
is considered a delicacy by many, and 
a gcod deal sought after. It is gener- 
ally procured from the Northern Pro- 
vince, as very little is raised in other 
parts of the Island. To test the market 
value of the yam a member grew some 
100 vines and got a crop of over a_ 1,000 
pounds, but, strange to say, he was un- 
able to get a better sale for the produce 
than for that of commoner varieties 
more popular with the natives (such as 
hinguratla). 


A consignment of selected Ceylon 


yams was despatched to Manila at the 


request of the Director of Agriculture. 


The Yampee or Kush-Kush yam of 
the West Indies (Dioscorea trifida) has 
proved too delicate for the compara- 
tively damp climate of the Western Pro- 
vince. The vines grown at the Govern- 
ment Stock Garden have all died out 
in spite of attention given. 


Implements and Machines.—A trial was 


recently made at the Government Stock — 


Garden by Messrs. Brown & Co. of 
a Hornsby mower for bullock-power, 
recommended for cutting down weeds 
in coconut plantations. In the absence 
of woody-stemmed weeds it did its 
work satisfactorily. 


Messrs. Walker, Sons & Co. have on 
view a varied assortment of Hnglish 
and Indian implements, which are worth 
inspection by those whoare in search 
of suitable ploughs, &e. 


White Ant Exterminator.—The Govy- 
ernment Entomologist reports:—‘‘ White 
auts are easily exterminated by the 
machine imported for that purpose and 
now sold by Messrs. Gordon Frazer 
& Co., Colombo, for Rs. 75 each. They 
have proved very successful, and the 
extermination is complete.” 


Oil Mills.—There is a prospcet of 
Messrs. Walker, Sons’& Co. exhibiting 
and demonstrating the working of a 
Donaldson’s patent oil mill (referred to 
in last Progress Report) at the next 
Agri-Horticultural Exhibition at Galle, 
to be opened on June 16. Members 
will thus have an opportunity of judg- 


ye i Ph 
Mier wee. 
Kr ‘ 
j = 


May, 1909.] 463 


ing of the merits of these up-to-date 
appliances and compare them with the 
crude chekku-mills of the country. 


Any one desirous of trying the 
Duchemin Fibre Machine can do so by 
application to the Superintendent of 
School Gardens. 


A simple hand loom may be seen at 
work at the Government Stock Garden, 
where two of these weaving machines 
are under trial, It isinteresting to learn 
that the weaving ofcloth is now being 
carried on in the Welikada jail. A loom 
introduced by alate vistor to Siam will 
probably be shown at work at the 
Kandy Show next August. 

Sericulture.—A consignment of Jive 
Eri cocoons is expected shortly from 
Assam. Applications for eggs should 
be made to the Superintendent, School 
Gardens. 


The following report has been received 
from a Swiss firm in the silk trade ona 
sample submitted :—‘‘We very much 
regret not to be able to give you a 
satisfactory answer as regards the com- 
mercial value of Eri-pierced cocoons. To 
do this we ought to make a trial ofa 
certain importance, but till now we 
never heard of large quantities we can 
rely on, which should amount to 200,000 
pounds a year atleast. If one day you 
should be able to give us exact informa- 
tion on this score, we should decide upon 
the matter.” 


A Paris firm, to whom samples were 
forwarded some time ago, writing on 
February 20, reports that the trial of the 
cocoons will be finished in a few days 
when a full report will be sent. Ina 
previous letter the same firm reported :— 
‘““We duly received your favour of 
October 13 last, and since we have seen 
in our mill the parcel of 50 lb. of Eri 
cocoons you have sentus. The reason 
we did not write to you earlier was that 
our Manager, Mr. Villy, wanted to see 
those cocoons with Mr. Strohl before 
working them. We have chosen all the 
brown cocoons left in the white ones so 
as to enable usto make dyeing trials, 
and to see how we can use this quality. 
We are dressing and _ spinning’ the 
cocoons now, and shall be able to give 
you further reports in a short time. 
You may be assured that we give all 
our attention to this question, and that 
we hope that it will later on bring some 
interesting business, We think that 
since Mr. Strohl’s visit you have been 
able to study the question of making an 
important practical trial of Hri cocoon 
culture, and would be glad to hear what 
the cost of sucha trial could be. If the 
trials of spinning we are making now 
give a good result, we shall do what we 


Miscellaneous: 


can to facilitate you a large trial of 
practical culture. We think that such 
a trial will be absolutely necessary to 
show the cost of price of those Eri 
cocoons, and to allow on one side the 
producer and on the other side ourselves 
to see what the interest of this business 
ce ould be for each other,” 


A small experiment in the extraction 
of Eri silk fibre and spinning it into 
yarn is about to be tried at the Govern- 
ment Stock Gardens. 


Cotton.—The local agents of the Brit- 
ish Cotton Growing Association, in 
reply to aninquiry from a cultivator, 
report as follows :—‘‘ There is a combine 
of Moormen who buy both cotton and 
kapok in 2nd Cross Street, Colombo, 
besides most of the Kuropean firms buy 
both products, and we ourselves should 
be happy to compete. The best results 
are obtained by the planter if he allows 
us to gin, bale, and ship the cotton for 
him, as by doing so he would reap the 
advantages of a rising market, while 
merchants have to take into consider- 
ation a possible sudden drop in the 
market and have to keep their quota- 
tions accordingly low. Our charges for 
ginning, baling, and putting on board 
f.o. b. are 7 cents per pound of clean 
cotton, and for kapok the charges are 4 
cents per pound hand-cleaned and 6 cents 
machine cleaned.” 

Manure.—A series of experiments in 
the manuring of vegetables is being con- 
ducted at Jaffna by the Agricultural 
Instructor of the Northern Province. 
The Superintendent of School Gardens 
has recommended the following mixture 
for oranges :— 


cwt, 
Ground nut Cake aes cet 24 
Bone Phosphate 6 Act 5 
Sulphate of Ammonia... ae $ 
Sulphate of Potash ... ae 1 


Salt and Citronella Ash for Coconut.— 
The Government Agricultural Chemist 
reports as follows on samples submitted 
to him by a member:—‘‘I consider 
sample of salt submitted suitable for 
young coconut trees at the rate of one 
pound per tree forked in round the tree 
about three feet from the trunk. 
Similarly applied the ash of citronella 
grass would be suitable at the rate of 
5 pounds per tree.” 


Mosquito Exterminator.—A few pack- 
ets of a preparation under the above 
name were received from a mem- 
ber, and have been distributed in 
malarious districts for trial and report. 
The preparation is said to be made of 
local vegetable products (chiefiy Mar- 
gosa leaves) and not to contain any 


Miscellaneous. 464 


del:terious ingredients. It consists of 


a powder for fumigation. 

Tobacco.—Samples of tcbacco forward- 
ed by the Dumbara Society were sub- 
mitted to the London tobacco leaf 
expert referred to in the last Progress 
Report. Writing on February 19 he 
says:—‘‘I have carefully examined and 
inspected these growths, and I have 
also got two or three of the largest 
manufacturers to try a little of the 
same. Itis certainly the best attempt 
I have seen with tobacco outside 
Kentucky, and I feel sure that if it 
is properly put up there will be a 
future before it, but the samples are far 
too moist, and should be dried down 
to contain about 12 per cent. moisture 
and might fetch 5d. to bd. per 
feel sure that a large trade can be 
done withit. Of course, I mention the 
above prices with reference to the 
present market price at Kentucky, and, 
asI have previously stated, British 
manufacturers are very conservative, 
and itis very difficult to get an outside 
growth like this on the market, unless 
you give them an advantage in price. I 
shall be pleased to know what quantity 
you can offer. It certainly burns well, 
and has a distinctive flavour; but the 
latter fact may be derogatory rather 
than otherwise. The samples sent con- 
tain about 20 per cent. moisture, which 
should, as before stated, be reduced to 
about 12 per cent. The thick part of the 
stalk should be butted and the sand 
well shaken out. If labour is cheap, it 
might be advisable to have the tobacco 
stripped before importing. lt would 
sell more readily, and a better price 
might be got. The two lowest grades, 
Iam afraid, would be useless for the 
English trade, and I do not think it 
would pay to import them.” 

Disease in Nutmeg Trees.—Mr. Fre- 
derick Lewis of the Land Settlement 
Department reported last year that he 
had observed a disease in nutmeg trees, 
which attacks old trees, commencing 
from the top branches, causing a change 
of colour in foliage from adark green toa 
pale sickly yellow, till finally the leaves 


fall off, exposing dead twigs and 
branches. 
The Government Mycologist, after 


inspecting the affected trees, reported :— 
“They are evidently suffering from a 
root disease, which gradually kills the 
roots and causes the branches to wither 
back from the tips owing to stoppage of 
the water supply. I was informed that 
the tree died outright within six months 
of first showing symptoms of disease. 
November should have been the best 
time for colecting 


fungus, but it had been too dry, and 


specimens of the_ 


[MAY, 1909. 


nothing but mycelium was observed ; it 
would require continuous observation 
during the wet weather to find the 
fructification, which is most probably a 
Polyporus. In most cases white ants 
had eaten away the base of the tree 
and spoilt all chance of obtaining the 
fructification. Under the _  circum- 
stances, itis difficult to know what to 
advise. The caretaker gathers the crop, 
but has presumably no other interest in 
the matter. The dead trees should be 
burnt and their roots dug out as far as 


possible, but as the living trees are of - 


very little economic value no one will 
be eager to spend anything. The jak 
trees here are also attacked by a root 


disease, and the dead trees should be- 


similarly dealt with, Apparently most 
of these trees are growing in pure 
cabook, which was excavated when the 
reservoir was made. They can scarcely 
be expected to flourish in such ‘soil,’ 
and if it is wished to maintain the 
surroundings as a garden, shrubs should 
be planted in holes filled with good soil.” 


Orchella Weed (Rocella montagnie).— 
At the instance of the Imperial Institute, 
London, inquiries were instituted as 
to the probable cause of the falling 
off in the trade in this dye stuff— 
a lichen found chiefly in the north 
of the Island growing on coconut 
and jungle trees. The export at one 
time was as much as 1,157 ecwt., and 
the price £36a ton. Now the price quoted 
is Rs. 180 c.i-f., and the falling off in the 
trade is generally attributed to this 
reduction in price. 

Cattle Disease.-—The year began badly 
for cattle owners owing to the pre- 
valence of rinderpest, which has caused 
great loss, chiefly in the Province of 
Uva, and is still causing the Veterinary 
Department much anxiety. The constant 
menace which daily importations of 
cattle from India have been to the 
health of our local stock has now been 
practically removed by the opening of a 
Central Cattle Mart and Segregation 
Campin Colombo. The establishment is 
presumably the first of its kind in the 
East, and is well equipped and under 
good management. 


Publications.—An Agricultural Calen- 
dar in Sinhalese is in type, and will be 
issued early. 

Leaflets on the Rice Bug or Paddy Fly 
(No. XL.) and Nitrogen-gathering Crops 
(No. XLII.) have been printed and dis- 
tributed. Leaflet No. XLII. on “The 
Silk Cotton Tree” is in the hands of the 


printer. 
C. DRIEBERG, 


Secretary. 
Colombo, April 7, 1909. : 


4 
ae 
i oe 


MAY, 1909.) 465 Miscellaneous. 
SUGGESTIONS FOR A LOCAL fertility. A farmer’s classification of 
SCHEME OF AGRICULTURAL aes ; “hag ie ae ; 

EDUCATION. eee % hour; demonstration, 2 


{Paper read before the Board of Agri- 
culture on April 7 by Mr. W. A. de Silva.] 


Any scheme for agricultural education 
in Ceylon should be based on elementary 
lines, and a systematic attempt made to 
give the village children a suitable 
training to enable them to make the 
best use of their surroundings. 


The school gardens now in operation 
have been devised to partially meet this 
want, and the work in such gardens 
should be madea regular part of the 
general workin a primary school and 
not relegated to off hours. 


Five hours are now usually devoted in 
a village school to the teaching of letters, 
This can well be reduced, and the time 
thus saved devoted to practical teaching. 


In the first instance, provision should 
be made to give the teachers in village 
schools some instruction in the subject 
to enable them tointerest their pupils 
in agricultural work. This can he done 
in two ways— 


(a) By short holiday courses of 
lectures to teachers, 


(6) By training the teachers for a 
short period at an agricultural school. 

The annual lectures on sanitation 
given to teachers in grant-in-aid schools 
have proved to be of very great use to 
them. Similar courses of lectures and 
demonstrations in agriculture can be 
arranged at a very little cost. 


The classes can be held in August and 
December during school holidays, and 
should be open toall vernacular certi- 
ficated teachers employed in Govern- 
ment or grant-in-aid schools, the number 
attending a course of lectures and 
demonstrations being limited to about 
fifty at a time. | 


Those selected to attend the classes 
should be paid a commuted sum of 
Rs. 20 to meet their travelling and living 
expenses during the time they are 
engaged in attending the classes. 


Such teachers who pass an examina- 
tion after the classes should get a certi- 
ficate, and should be entitled to an 
annual bonus when they show satis- 
factory results at the examination of 
children in their respective schools. 

The following may form the basis of a 
provisional syllabus for the teachers’ 
course of lectures and demonstrations in 
agriculture : — 

First day.—TwHe Sow: What it is. 
How formed. Agencies at work, Soil 

59 


Second day.—IMPROVEMENT OF SOIL: 


Subsoil. Drainage. Cultivation, &c. 
Lecture, 14 hour; demonstration, 2 
hours. 


Third day. -MANURES: General princi- 
ples. Time and method of application. 
Qualities, &e. 


Lecture, 14 hour; demonstration, 2 


hours, 

Fourth day.—FIgLD Crops: Rice 
cultivation. Sowing. Manuring. — Irri- 
gation. Harvesting, Rotation, Trans- 
planting, &c. 

Lecture, 15 hour; demonstration, 2 
hours. 

Fifth day.—GARDEN Crops: Chena 
lands. Roots. Cereals. . Vegetables. 
Rotation. 
Lecture, 14 hour; demonstration, 2 
hours. 

Sixth day.—FrRuits, &c.: Fruit grow- 
ing. Propagation. Grafting. Manur- 


ing. Preparation for market. 

Lecture, 14-hour; demonstration, 2 
hours. 

Seventh day.—DISEASES AND INSECT 
Pests: Blights. Preventive measures, 
&e. 


Lecture, 
hours. 

Righth day.—CATTLE: Breeding. Feed- 
ing. Dairying, &c. 

Lecture, 14 hour; 
hours, 

Ninth day.—CoOMMON AILMENTS OF 
CATTLE: Prevention. Treatment, _In- 
fectious diseases. Rinderpest. Foot 
and mouth diseases, &c. 

Lecture, 14 hour; demonstration, 2 
hours. 


Tenth day.—IMPLEMENTS, &c. : Imple- 
ments, their uses and management. 
Labour saving. Fences, &e. 

Lecture, 1} hour; demonstration, 2 
hours. 


Eleventh day.—WEATHER AND M&TEo- 
ROLOGY. 


14 hour; demonstration, 2 


demonstration, 2 


Lecture, 15 hour; demonstration, 2 
hours, 


Twelfth day,—EX AMINATION (ORAL), 


The lecturers can be found among the 
members of the Botanical Department 
and Educational Department, or else- 
where, and paid a nominal fee of Rs. 10 
per lecture. 


Miscellaneous. 466 


The cost of one course of instruction 
will work out as follows :— 


Allewance to 50 teachers at Rs. 20 1,000 


Allowance to lecturers, 12 lectures 
and 12 demonstrations ... .. 240 


Payment to interpreters, maps, 
stationery, specimens, and con- 
tingencies sa 260 

Total ... 1,500 


Agricultural Schools.—The training of 
teachers and others directly interested 
in agriculture for a Short period of at 
least one year should be organized on 
some definite lines. 

With this view aschool of agriculture, 
where teaching will be imparted in the 
vernacular, should be established some- 
what on the lines of those now in 
operation in Ireland, where the students 
should be in residence during the period 
of thei: course of study. This school 
should be located, as fac as possible, at 
some convenient centre, such as the 
Henaratgoda Gardens. The establish- 
ment should be placed in charge of a 
Principal, who should be a _ trained 
teacher and who can be assisted by a 
staff possessing special knowledge of the 
subject of teaching. 

The importance of appointing trained 
teachers for guiding establishments of 
this nature is now fully recognized, and 
the Indian Department of Agriculture 
has appointed them with successful 
results. 

All teaching should be carried on in 
the vernacular or, where necessary, 
through interpretation. 

Students admitted to the school should 
be between the ages of 14 and 21, and 
should have at least passed the Fifth 
Standard in a Government or grant-in- 
aid school, or should be able to pass an 
entrance examination of a _ similar 
standard. 

These students may be of three 
classes— 

(a) Those who have been nominated 
by Government Agents as fit persons to 
be appointed as village headmen. 


(b) Those who have passed the Govern- 
ment teachers’ examinations and who 
desire to obtaina training in practical 
agriculture. 

(c) Those joining on their own account 
and paying for the training received. 

There should be two sessions of teach- 
ing during the year, and not more than 
thirty students should be admitted each 
term. Thus the institution will have 
sixty students at a time, 


[May, 1909, 


Selected candidates should be housed 
at the place where they are to receive 
their training, and should be under the 
discipline of a tutor. The course of 
instruction should be mainly practical 
with as little use of books as possible. 


In addition to the Principal, who 
should be a trained teacher from a 
recognized institution, the services of a 
Field Instructor might be secured from 
India, and the lectures and ordinary 
practical work arranged in sucha way 
as to enable the students to receive their 
instructions in special subjects from the 
scientific staff now in the service of 
Government. 


Provision should also be made for 
obtaining the services of an assistant, 
who has obtained an Anglo-vernacular 
teacher’s certificate from the Govern- 
ment Training College, and who should 
assist the Principal, and among other 
things undertake the work of interpret- 
ing the lectures. 


The syllabus of studies should include 
instruction in agriculture, with outdoor 
classes in dairying, horticulture, bee- 
keeping, veterinary hygiene, pests, and 
diseases of plants, and the elements of 
chemistry and botany. Instruction in 
woodwork and ironwork, as far as it 
relates to farmers’ work, and the use of 
tools and implements, should also be 
included in the curriculum. 


A school on the above lines will be 
able to train a number of teachers in the 
general principles and practice of agri- 
culture, to enable them to introduce the 
teaching of agriculture in village schools. 
It will also be the means of securing a 
class of village headmen, whose training 
will enable them to take an intelligent 
interest in village agriculture, and 
generally promote the welfare of the 
villager. 


The next question that should be 
considered is the provision of teachers 
for the agricultural training school and 
for the schools of agriculture which may 
eventually be opened in different centres 
of the Island. For these posts a class of 
men with a sound knowledge of agri- 
cultural science and_ practice will be 
required. They should possess a good 
knowledge of the vernaculars, and 
should also have a training as teachers 
if they are to do useful work. 


In order to obtain men with these 
qualifications, a number of scholarships 
should be offered annually to the 
students of the Anglo-vernacular class 
of the Government Training College, 
Colombo, to enable them, after they 
obtain their certificates at the Training 
College, to proceed to an Agricultural 


PWT tae | 


‘May, 1909,] 


College in India to receive an advanced 
training in the science and practice of 
agriculture. The Agricultural College 
at Coimbatore or Pusa (preferably the 
former) will suit the requirements of 
Ceylon students. The course of studies 
at these institutions extends for a period 
of three years. 


The higher scientific staff of agricul- 
tural experts also requires organizing 
in the light of experience gained in India. 
It has now been settled that local ex- 
perience is invaluable for useful work 
by the expert officers, and this local 
experience is supplied by attaching a 
qualified assistant, who is a native of 
the country, to each member of the 
scientific staff. At the Agricultural Col- 
leges ard Experimental Harms teaching 
is done through these assistants, whose 
work is supervised and directed by the 
experts recruited in Kurope. These 
assistants are not mere subordinates, 
but are colleagues whose education and 
emoluments bring them in very close 
contact with the experts, and who are 
able to act for them in their respective 
capacities during the absence of the 
experts. Thisis a matter that requires 
very careful attention in the organiza- 
tion of a successful scheme for the im- 
provement of the agricultural interests 
of the country. It may be possible to 
draw these assistants from the students 
of our Colleges, and it seems reason- 
able to divert one of the two Uni- 
versity Scholarships given annually to 
students in Ceylon tor this purpose, 
requiring the winner of the scholarship 
in science and mathematics to arrange 
his course of studies in a European or 
American University in order to qualify 
himself to take one of these posts. 


To summarize. (1) The system of 
teaching in village schools require modi- 
fication with a view to the introduction 
of training in village industries along 
with that of letters, 

(2) As apreliminary step, a holiday 
course of lectures to teachers in verna- 
cular schools should be organized on the 
lines of lectures on sanitation now given 
annually to teachers. 


(8) Those seeking posts as village 
headmen should get an elementary train- 
ing in agricultural industries as resident 
pupils in an elementary vernacular agri- 
cultural school established for the 
purpose. 


(4) A number of village teachers 
should also be encouraged to take their 
training at such a school, 


_(5) An elementary agricultural school 
for resident pupils with a one year’s 
course, where teaching is imparted in 
the vernacular, should be established on 


467 


Miscellaneous. 


similar lines to schools now established 
in Ireland and other places. 


(6) The school should bein charge of 
a trained teacher, assisted by special 
teachers, and the lectures on _ special 
subjects given by the agricultural ex- 
perts now in the employ of the Govern- 
ment. 

(7) Eventually, village agricultural 
schools should be established at suitable 
centres. 

(8) Teachers for such village agricul- 
tural schools should be obtained by 
offering annual scholarships to a num- 
ber of students passing out of the Anglo- 
Vernacular class of the Government 
Training College, Colombo, to enable 
them to go through a complete course 
of training at one of the Agricultural 
Colleges in India. 


(9) That the staff of scientific experts 
in agriculture should be strengthened 
by the appointment of well qualified 
assistants from among the people of the 
country to act as colleagues of the 
scientific experts. 


(10) That one out of the two Univer- 
sity Scholarships now awarded by the 
Government of Ceylon’ should’ be 
diverted to the training of scientific ex- 
perts at European or American Univer- 
sities on lines similar to those adopted 
by the Indian Government in awarding 
Technical Scholarships for training 
Indians in Kurope and America. 


W. A, De SILVA. 


DR. FRANCIS WATTS, C.M.G., AND 
HIS WORK IN THK LEEWARD 
ISLANDS. 


The departure of Dr. Francis Watts, 
c.M.G., from Antigua, in order to take 
up the work of Imperial Commissioner 
of Agriculture for the West Indies, has 
been the occasion of a number of reso- 
lutions of a complimentary nature from 
Agricultural bodies in the Leeward 
Islands. : 


At a meeting of the Antigua Agricul- 
tural and Commercial Society, held on 
January 15 last, it was resolved by the 
members present, ‘That this Society 
tenders to Dr. Watts its heartiest con- 
gratulations on his well-deserved pro- 
motion to the important and responsi- 
ble post of Imperial Commissioner, The 
resolution went on to express the regret 
of the Society at the departure of Dr. 
Watts from the colony in which he 
had worked for the past twenty years 
with great benefit to the community at 


large, as well as its satisfaction that in 


his new position the Commissioner would 


Miscellaneous, 


still be able to give to Antigua, in com- 
mon with other West Indian Islands, the 
benefit of his experience and advice in 
agricultural matters. 


This resolution was proposed by Mr. 
A. P. Cowley and seconded by Mr. <A. 
Spooner, both of whom referred in the 
highest terms to the value of Dr. Watts’ 
services to the Leeward Islands during 
the past twenty years. 


After Mr. J. D. Harper and the 
Honw’ble D. McDonald had spoken in 
support of the resolution, His Excellency 
Sir Bickham Sweet-EHscott, K.C.M.G., 
Governor of the Leeward Islands, who 
presided at the meeting, made a_ brief 
speech. He wished to express his entire 
agreement with all that had been said 
by the preceding speakers. The services 
which Dr. Watts had given to Antigua 
had been of the highest value. They all 
regretted his departure, but hoped that 
the new Commissioner would be able 
to make frequent visits to Antigua, 
where his old friends would always be 
glad to see him. The resolution was 
then carried unanimously. 


In reply, Dr. Watts thanked the 
members present for all the good things 
they had said about him, and he then 
referred to the work which he had been 
able todo at Antigua. His labours in 
the Leeward Islands had been attended 
with success, but he could not lay claim 
to more than a partial share in that 
success, inasmuch as it had been so 
largely brought about by the co-opera- 
tion and assistance given by planters 
and others. He had realised that in 
order to advance agriculture it was 
necessary for him to associate with the 
planters, and to work with them. He 
trusted his successor would do the same. 


Dr. Watts referred to the advances 
that had been made in the Leeward Is- 
lands during recent years. In addition 
to sugar—which was still the special 
product—they now had another im- 
portant crop in cotton. Proper atten- 
tion must be given to this crop, and 
every effort made, by employing all up- 
to-date methods, to reduce the cost of 
production. In this way prosperity 
would be made more permanent. 


On Thursday evening, January 21, the 
members of the Agricultural and Com- 
mercial Society gave a dinner to Dr. 
Watts atthe Globe Hotel, St. John’s, 
prior to his departure. About sixty 
members were present, His Excellency 
Sir Bickham Sweet-Escott  K.CM,G., 
his Honour the Chief Justice (J. S. Udal, 
Esq.) and the Hon. H, St. John Branch, 
Colonial Secretary of the Leeward Is- 
lands, being among the guests, 


468 


[May, 190% 


In this connection, reference may also 
be made toan article which appeared 
in the Antigua Sun of January 21 last, 
which placed on record the chief points 
in the work to which Dr. Watts has 
given his attention since he first came 
to the West Indies. Exactly twenty 
years ago, 4.¢e., in January, 1889, Dr. 
Watts was first appointed Chemist to 
the Government of Antigua. After 
serving nine years in this position, he 
was appointed Analyst and Agricultural 
Chemist to the Government of Jamaica, 
but returned one year later (in 1899) 
to take up the post of Analytical and 
Agricultural Chemist in the Leeward 
Islands under the then newly-appoint- 
ed Imperial Department of Agriculture. 
Four years later the duties of Super- 
intendent of Agriculture for the Lee- 
ward Islands were added to this post, 


The work connected with experiments 
with sugar-canes began in Antigua in 
1891, and later greatly extended under 
the auspices of the Imperial Depart- 
ment of Agriculture, has occupied a 
considerable part of the time of Dr, 
Watts and his colleagues, and has been 
productive of very useful results, 

The conclusions arrived at from this 
work showed the benefit that would like- 
ly accrue through the introduction of 
the Central Factory system, and it was 
largely due to this that it was made 
possible to establish the Antigua Central 
Factory in 1908, 

Among other important matters which 
have claimed attention may be men- 
tioned the cotton industry in Antigua, 
Moutserrat, St, Kit’s-Newis, and the 
Virgin Islands, the lime and cacao in- 
dustries at Dominica and Montserrat, 
together with much work relating to 
minor industries, 


Di. Watts has always been closely 
associated with educational matters: 
first in Antigua and later in the Leeward 
Islands generally. He had done much 
to promote science teaching in connection 
with secondary education, and to deve- 
lop the systematic teaching of agricul- 
ture on broad lines. 


A large number of papers dealing 
chiefly with the lines of work referred 
to, have been contributed in recent 
years to the West Indian Bulletin by 
Dr. Watts,—Agricultural News, Vol. 
VIII. No. 177, Kebruary 6, 1909. 


THE DISC AND MOLDBOAKD 
PLOUGHS COMPARED. 


By H. M. BAINER, 


Colorado Agricultural College, Kort 
Collins. 

Shall I buy a disc or moldboard 
plough? is a question frequently asked 
by the farmer. The conditions under 
which the plough is expected to operate 
must help answer it. 


All farmers are acquainted with the 
moldboard plough and know how to 
operate it to the best advantage. The 
dise plough, on the other hand, is a 
newer invention, and has not been used 
so extensively. Itis harder to operate 
successfully, and for that reason has 
not given the general satisfaction which 
should be obtained. The use for the 
dise plough, however, is gradually grow- 
ing, and in a few years it will have 
almost as large a piace, especially in 
the western estates, as the moldboard 
plough. 

Under similar conditions, the disc 
plough is of lighter draft, but this 
difference is not so much as is often 
claimed by the manufacturers. Rolling 
friction makes it pull somewhat easier 
than silding friction. Because of the 
rolling motion of the disc and its cut- 
_ ting effect, itis not so likely toclog as 
the moldboard plough. Whatthe disc 
cannot cut it will roll over. 

The disc is capable of ploughing ground 
that has become toodry and hard for 
the moldboard plough. This is often- 
times of much value, as it is not neces- 
sary to wait for rain, and the seed 
can be planted at the proper time. 


For humid sections and irrigated lands, 
the moldboard plough must be consi- 
dered superior. Under’ favourable 
conditions for ploughing, where the 
soil is not too dry, the moldboard plough 
pulverizes and turns the soil more satis- 
tactorily. It also handles sod to better 
advanage, 


To dothe same amount of work, the 
disc plough will require very little 
sharpening compared to the moldboard 
plough. This makes the running ex- 
penses of the disc very much less than 
that of a moldboard. 


The disc should not be of too large 
diameter, A 24-in. discfor general use is 
to be preferred to one of larger diameter. 
The 24-inch disc will pulverize soil more 
than a 28-inch or 20-inch one. The 
draft is a trifle more on the smaller 
one, but the difference is more than made 
up by the class of work it is able to do, 


469 


Miscellaneous. 


The disc should not cut too wide a 
furrow. It is far better to use two dises 24 
inches in diameter, each one cutting 8 
inches in width, than touse a 30 inch 
dise cutting 14 or 16 inches in width. 
Taking a narrow furrow tends to make 
the bottom less corrugated. 


Ploughing the same ground year after 
year with the disc does not keep it in 
as good condition as if ploughed witha 
moldboard plough. 

The moldboard plough is generally 
considered best for humid and irrigated 
sections, and the disc for dry or semi- 
arid sections.—Louisiana Planter and 
Sugar Manufacturer, Vol. XLU., No. 7, 
February, 1909. 


A DEMONSTRATION OF INTEN- 
SIVE CULTIVATION, 


By PrincipaL M, J. R. DUNSTAN, M.A., 
F.R,S.E,, 


South-Hastern Agricultural College, 
Wye, Kent, 


The following record of an fexperiment 
in intensive cultivation is not put for- 
ward as either original or as due to any 
special skill in management or market- 
ing, but as a possible suggestion to small 
holders for the utilisation of their oppor- 
tunities for growing crops which can be 
marketed through the ordinary whole- 
sale or retail channels in small or 
large quantities, The relation of the 
experience may evoke the criticism that 
the results are due to an exceptional 
season and exceptional conditions of 
sale. Exceptionait seasons, however, 
occur nowadays with some trequency, 
and the conditions under which the 
produce in this case was marketed did 
not differ from those obtained by many 
alert and businesslike producers. 


On the College farm each year are 
grown some 13 to 20 acres of potatoes, 
this area being devoted to earlies, mid- 
season, and late varieties. In 1908 some 
6 acres were set with earlies in Wye 
field, the soil of which is a fairly deep 
useful loam with the chalk some distance 
below, rented at 30s, per acre, and lying 
at an altitude of 160 feet and unsheltered. 
The previous crop was oats, of which 
a yield of 9} qr. was obtained, and the 
land was in good heart and clean. The 
varieties of earlies grown on the area 
under experiment, about § acre, were 
Hpicures and Mayqueens; the sets were 
sprouted in boxes, and planted on April 7- 
The cultivation and manuring of the 
crop were as follows :—The oat stubble 
was dunged with 25 loads of farmyard 
manure per acre, shallow ploughed in 


Miscellaneous. 


November just to cover the dung; deep 
ploughed two months later, ridges drawn 
and artificials sown, boxed sets planted, 
ridges split to cover seed; saddle-har- 
rowed down three weeks later ; ploughed 
with chilled plough between ridges, 
immediately harrowed down; hand-hoed 
and earthed up. The artificials sown 
comprised 3 cwt, superphosphate of lime, 
14 ecwt. sulphate of potash and 13 ewt. 
sulphate of ammonia. The cost of these 
operations, including rent, manure, seed, 
digging, and carrying to station is cal- 
culated at £16 5s. peracre. The crop, 
which averaged 9 to 11 tons per acre, 
was sold f.o.r. at prices from 70s. to 90s, 
per ton, commencing July 7, in a not 
over-favourable market. ‘The gross re- 
turn per acre was £37 ls, 4d., and as 
some of the crop was charged with 
some railway expenses the net return 
was £385 lls, per acre. Directly after 
digging, the land was ploughed (this 
ploughing perhaps might have been 
omitted), and cauliflower plants were 
putin; the season was very dry, anda 
day or two might have been gained 
under more favourable conditions. As 
it was, the plants were watered in, with 
the result that there was no flagging, 
and they got a good start. The plants 
were put in at the rate of 10,000 per 
acre at a cost of 4s. per 1,000 for plants. 
A hundredweight of nitrate of soda was 
given them, and they were hand-hoed 
once and horse-hoed twice. Selling be- 
gan on October 28, when consignments 
were sent to the Borough Market, Bex- 
hill, and some few were sold locally in 
Wye and Ashford. In all, 7,770 Leads 
were marketed at an average price of 
1:185d. per head, realising per acre £40 
lls. 4d. The cost of plants, labour, 
manure, cutting, packing, delivery, rail 
charges, commission, and returns of 
empties (they were packed in nets and 
potato ‘‘ pads”) amounted to £10 per 
acre, so that there was a net return 
of over £380 per acre, which, with the 
net return of the early potatoes, makes 
a total of over £49 per acre from the 
two crops. It will be noticed that the 
whole of the manure applied is debited 
to the crops, but it is intended to take a 
crop of oats on the ground this year 
(1909) without further manuring. 


It is not argued that such a result can 
be obtained always, or that bya great 
increase of the area a proportionate 
increase in the returns may be expected, 
but asit has been done under not the 
most favourable conditions it may be 
done again. The estimated labour re- 
presents one-fourth of a man’s time, so 
that it would appear that such a venture 
might prove remunerative for small 


470 


[May, 1909, 


holders under certain conditions. In 
the event of the cauliflowers failing to 
head, or the crop not being marketable 
from any other cause, they will prove 
suitable sheep feed, so that the value 
need not be entirely lost. The capital 
required is that for the first crop 
only, since the returns from the potatoes 
are available for the expenses of the 
cauliflower crop. Other catch cropping 
demonstrations are in progress, and the 
results of these, if they prove of suffi- 
cient interest, will be made known this 
year; but to the clever cultivator there 
are many crops which would lend them- 
selves to such intensive cultivation 
with good results. The success of this 
trial ismainly due to the management 
of Mr. James Morison, the Superinten- 
dent of the College farm, who with the 
writer will be glad to give any further 
information with regard to details.— 
Journal of the Board of Agriculture, 
Vol, XV., No. 11, February, 1909. 


nou eS 


CO-OPERATIVE CREDIT. 


INTERESTING ADDRESS BY Mr. W. R. 
GOURLAY. ° 


On Saturday night (November 28) Mr. 
W. R. Gourlay, Director-General of Agri- 
culture for Bengal, delivered a most 
interesting 2ddress on co-operative cre- 
dit at the Y.M.C.A. Hall, Chowringhee. 


Mr. Gourlay dealt first with the 
hoarded wealth of India which, he said, 
had to be looked for among the smaller 
landholders and more well-to-do traders, 
and then told his hearers what the 
Government was doing to attract this 
wealth for the development of the 
country, first, however, pointing out 
that the agricultural indebtedness of 
India is to-day probably not less than 
five hundred or six hundred millions of 
pounds sterling, and that the interest 
paid upon this capital averages 25 per 
cent. per annum. 


‘The problem of saving the agricul- 
turist from the results of this indebted- 
ness,’ he proceeded, *‘‘ has occupied the 
minds of administrators for many years. 
It is not merely a question of the supply 
of cheap capital. ‘The real difficulty lies. 
in supplying the capital in such a way 
that it will not be improperly used. 
The true aim is to establish some organi- 
sation or methods whereby cultivators 
can obtain, without paying usurious 
rates of interest and without being 
given undue facilities for incurring debt, 
the advances necessary for carrying on 
their business. The same problem had 
to be faced in Europe, and it was the 


May, 1909.) 


success attained in Germany and Italy 
which attracted the attention of Sir 
Frederick Nicholson, who was appointed 
in 1893 to make a special inquiry into the 
subject. Asa direct result of Sir Freder- 
ick’s labours, the Co-operative Credit 
Societies Act was passed in 1904, and 
since that time considerable progress has 
been made in the establishment of little 
credit associations in the villages of 
India. The Act has been in operation 
for only four years, yet the capital in- 
vested in the societies registered under 
the Act amounts to 42 lakhs of rupees; 
and there are to-day throughout India 
1.357 Rural and Urban Societies with 
150,000 members. Itis true that as yet 
very little impression has been made 
upon the enormous burden of agricul- 
tural indebtedness in India, but the 
progress made in the short space of four 
years is, I think, sufficient to merit 
your attention, 


‘‘Raiffeisen societies are small demo- 
cratically managed groups of agricul- 
turists who join together for the pur- 
pose of making their individual securities 
of greater value and of enabling each 
member to obtain benefits which. though 
possible for all when united, are impos- 
sible for each individually. Every man 
possesses some security, or at least has 
it in his power to possess something 
which serves as a basis of credit, namely, 
a character for honesty among those 
who know him well. He may have no 
money, he may have no property, but 
he has itin his power to build up a 
character for honesty in his dealings, and 
all those who know rural India well know 
that this character for honesty does 
existin the villages. In India, we wish 
to attract the poorest of the poor, and 
therefore we cannot ask them to make 
payments towards the capital of their 
society.” 

“An important question to consider,” 
—continued Mr. Gourlay—‘‘is the source 
from which capital is to be obtained. 
A great majority of the members join 
from self interest: they have no money 
to deposit; they have come to borrow. 
Capital must in the first instance be 
sought from outside, andit is here, as 
you can imagine, that naw societies find 
difficulty. Until confidence has been 
established, it is hard to attract capital, 
and without capital the society is not 
in a position to demonstrate its trust- 
worthiness. Capitalists, however, have 
been found who are willing to take the 
risk, and Government, too, has shown its 
readiness toassist. The aim is toattract 
local capital, the hoarded wealth to 
which Sir Ernest Cable refers in his 
letter tothe Times, and most of all to 
attract the savings of the members 


471 


Miscellaneous. 


themselves, when the benefits of cheap 
capital have placed them in a position 
to save. Societies can never succeed un- 
less they have a good business founda- 
tion ; and therefore the rate of interest 
which they are willing to pay must be 
such as will attract local capital when 
the trustworthiness of the institution 
has been clearly demonstrated. In my 
own province I have found that this rate 
lies between 123 and 18? per cent. accord- 
ing to the circumstances of the locality, 
but as success crowns our endeavours 
this rate will be lowered. 


How CAPITAL Is SAFEGUARDED, 


“The risk that a man takes in placi 
his all in the hands of his fllow-villdgere 
would be very great were it not for 
certain safeguards which I will explain 
to you, First, lending to outsiders is 
prohibited, and the operations of the 
society are confined to the village with- 
in which every man knows his neigh- 
bour; secondly, every member before 
he receives a loan must state his case 
to the others, and must tell them what 
he wishes to do with the money ; thirdly, 
the member is bound to use the money 
for the purpose indicated; if he does 
not do so the members call the loan 
back for fear of being involved in loss: 
and, fourthly, every member has to find 
two of his fellows to be his sureties for 
the repayment of theloan. The result 
of these safeguards is that societies of 
this description have been toand a safe 
repository for money, and up to the 
present not a penny has been lost either 
in Europe or in India. 


CO-OPERATIVE CREDIT IN CALCUTTA. 


‘So far I have been speaking,” ad 
Mr. Gourlay, ‘Gs 0Ly roral india: ped 
similar principles have been applied 
successfully in urban areas and parti- 
cularly in Caleutta. There is much 
in the life of Calcutta which leads one 
to believe that the founding of many 
such societies would be fruitful of much 
good. There is no class who have been 
so hardly hit by the high price of food 
grains as the low grade clerks in mer- 
cantile and Government offices, and the 
result of the high prices has been that 
many families have been forced to 
contract debts from which there seems 
little hope of release, I believe that this 
is one of the great causes of discontent 
amongst the clerk community. 


“The first difficulty in applying the 
principles lies in the unlimited liabilty. 
Kew of the clerks residing in the town 
would be willing to pledge their all 
for their fellow clerks. Ina town there 
isin the same intimate knowledge of 
each other's life that there is of the 


Miscellaneous. 472 


village. In the village unlimited liabil- 
ity is necessary because it is the only 
pledge upon which capital can be raised. 
Ina town where people draw regular 
monthly salaries, however, it is pos- 
sible to raise a share capital, provided 
the shares can be paid in instalments 
which do not press heavily on the 
members. Inalil other essentials, how- 
ever, the management of those town 
societies is the same as that of the 
village societies. 


Afew years ago Sir Daniel Hamilton 
commenced an experiment amongst the 
employees of Messrs. Mackinnon Mac- 
kenzie & Co., and the British India 
Steam Navigation Company, Ltd., in 
Calcutta, and I think Sir Daniel will 
bear me out when I say the Society 
since its foundation has progressed most 
satisfactorily. Theemployees have been 
able to obtain loans at a reasonable rate 
of interest, and at the same time substan- 
tial dividends have been paid to the 
shareholders. If the success of this 
society were only better known I am 
certain that similar societies would be 
founded in all the larger mercantile 
offices. 


A SUCCESSFUL SOCIETY. 


‘The ‘Premier’ society (as it is 
called) was founded on the Ist May, 1905, 
with a capital of 500 shares of Rs. 100 
which were taken up by 402 members. 
The society after crediting 25 per cent. 
of its profits toa reserve fund, paid a 
dividend of 5 per cent. in the first 
year, of 7; per cent. in the second 
year, and of 10 per cent. in the third 
year. The desposits amount to nearly 
Rs. 6,000, On which interest at the rate 
of 6 percent. per annum is paid, and 
loans aggregating Rs, 29,000 were grant- 
ed to members at the rate of 8 per 
cent. per annum. Loans are given for 
the liquidation of old debts at higher 
rates of interest, for marriage and 
other religious ceremonies, for house 
repairs, and many other purposes. 


“There is one important point upon 
which Ihave not touched so far. The 
Societies, as I have described them to 
you, are small, and in many cases weak, 
but as the members have become strong 
by combining, so the societies in HKurope 
have become strong by associating them- 
selves together for purposes of finance 
and control. It now remains in India 
to organize the individnal societies into 
union such as exist in Germany and 
Austria. This great work is occupying 
the attention of those interested in the 
movement at present, and as success has 
been attained in Europe, so we confi- 
dently look for success in India» When 
the societies are thus united, they will 


be in a position to offer security for one 
another, and so to increase the security 
of the individual society in the eyes of 
the public, and, consequently, to obtain 
their capital at_a lower rate.”—Indian 
Agriculturist, Vol. XXXII, No. 12, 
December, 1908. 


A WEED EATING TROPICAL 
CREEPER. 


It appears thatat last an antidote has 
beca found to the noxious weeds which 
are so frequently the death of certain 
forms of plant and vegetable lifein the 
Hast. Specimens of this ‘‘ wonderful 
find” have been forwarded to the 
authorities at Kew Gardens. This plant 
isa blue flowering creeper botanically 
known as the Commelina nudiflora 
linnea, but called ‘‘rumput gremah” 
by the natives of Malayasia and “ ge- 
war-en” by the Javanese. Although the 
report made at Kew goes to show that 
this creeper is common throughout the 
Middle East, it would seem that the 
‘managers of estates and plantations 
have not known of its peculiarly wel- 
come properties until very recently and 
accidentally. 


The prolific weed known as “lalang” 
is the great enemy to rubber growth. 
{t was the accident of observing that 
where the blue flowered creeper came in 
contact with the lalang, the latter 
became much less injurious that induced 
a planter to send specimens to Kew. 
It seems that at first one begins to notice 
that the weeds are becoming less prolific 
where the creeper is growing among 
them. This improvement steadily in- 
creases as time goes on, and it has been 
found that under the influence of this 
antidote lalang, which was formerly five 
or six feet in height, has been reduced to 
only one or two feet when it starts to 
flower. 


But the joyful discovery having been 
made that here was an undoubted set- 
back to the weedy growth that chokes 
young rubber and is the bane of the 
planter’s life, the questi »n arose: would 
the antidote itself exercise a prejudicial 
effect on the rubber? Therefore, the 
specimens were duly submitted to Kew, 
and, as stated to our representative, the 
new creeper is ‘‘unlikely to have any 
harmftil effect on young rubber trees.” 
Planters all over the Kast may therefore 
take heart of grace and also take this 
new ‘‘ medicine.” 

In appearance the blue _ flowered 
Commelina nudifiora is rather pretty, 
and, like the weeds whichit first checks 
and then kills, it grows with astonishing 


- 
- 


he 


May, 1909.) 


rapidity. The particular estate whose 


manager made the discovery and acted 
upon it so promptly and satisfactorily 
is the Langkon estate, in British North 
Borneo. Theamount ot rubber produced 
annually in the Straits Settlements is, of 
course, very large, and the results of the 
discovery and its successful application 
in a practical way are likely to be far 
reaching.— Westminster Gazette, London. 


SOM® STRIKING FACTS ABOUT 
MATCHES IN THE PHILIPPINES, 


By Maurice DUNLOP, 
Collaborator, Bureau of Forestry, 
Philippine Islands. 


One of Japan’s most profitable and 
thriving industries is the manufacture 
ot matches. Japan’s matches are some- 
times made of paper and she exports 
over four million dollars worth of these 
little fire sticks every year. This is 
nearly three times the value of all the 
wood she exports and her wood industry 
is also profitable. 

Japan supplies countries all over the 
world which are unable to make enough 
matches for themselves. America with 
her bundreds of factories cannot supply 
all her own demands herself. Americans 
alone use seven hundred billion matches 
a year. They pay more for their 
matches than any other country in the 
world. Japan, Germany, Austria and 
Sweden all help out in supplying the 
demand for matches made by the people 
of the United States. 

Japan sends matches to the Philippines 
also; however, the Philippines have 
plenty of material and Jabour to make 
their own matches. The one match 
factory at Manila, the only one in the 
Philippines, takes care of 90 per cent. of 
the trade of all the Philippines. This 
factory is under Kuropean management 
and is an up-to-date institution, being 
installed with modern machinery using 
modern methods. The workers are all 
Filipinos. 

The Filipinos are quick to learn how 
to operate intricate machinery, and like 
the Japanese take readily to work of 


-this nature. Hundreds of men, women 


and children are employed in this factory, 
and their work is altogether satisfactory. 

The supply of match wood in the 
Philippines is also practically unlimited, 
but the difficulty lies in determining 
just what kinds of wood are best suited 
for matches, and also in cutting wood 
enough to keep the factory running 
from day today. The factory works up 
to the limit of Wood it can get. 

One might think that almost any kind 
of wood, orat least any part of the 
particle tree of the right kind nigis 92 

60 


473 Miscellaneous: 


used in making matches. The reverse is 
the case. Only the choicest portions of 
particular trees can be used. Cross- 
grained timber or timber with knots 
cannot be used in the match industry. 
So it usually happens that a great deal 
of wood is left over. This in the 
Philippines is used for fuel to keep the 
factory running, : 
In America the cast-off timber of a 
match factory is utilised to make a 
number of by-products, and the quarters 
where the matches are made are some- 
times the smallest part of the factory. 
Doors, sashes, shingles, posts and laths 
are often made from the waste material. 
Almost all of the wood that is used in 
Manila comes from Bataan province. This 
is near enough so that the wood can be 
floated directly over the bay to Manila, 
The wood is light and floats readily. 
There is some waste in felling the logs, 
as the available machines for cutting the 
timber can handle only a certain size of 
log. Other machines will soon be install- 
ed capable of handling the largest logs. 
There are three Philippine trees which 
have been found good for match material. 
They are—Taluto, Malapapaya and the 
other Pinecapineahan. The Bureau of 
Forestry is making continuous investiga- 
tions and experiments to find other 
suitable trees. It is thought that several 
more have been found recently that will 
answer the purpose. 


When atree is picked for the match 
manufacture, it is felled and floated 
with others across Manila Bay and up 
the Pasig river to the suburb of Santa 
Ana. Here the match factory is located 
on the river bank. The logs are cut 
into short lengths or bolts, and each 
made to turn on its axis by machinery, 
and a shaving the thickness of the 
match desired is cut from the outer 
surface. Another part of the machinery 
meanwhile cuts the veneer into lengths 
and splits these into match sticks. Then 
the matches are dipped into a prepar- 
ation and put into boxes when they are 
ready to ship. : 

Three lundred and sixty thousand 
boxes are gotten out every day in this 
manner. However, as many as four 
hundred thousand could be gotten out if 
the supply of wood kept coming in fast 
enough. 

-If matches could be exported from the 
Philippines, Jasanese competition could 
be met, This is true notwithstanding 
the fact that the Japanese employed in 
the factories get only an average of 
eight cents (U.S. currency) a day’s 
wage, while the Filipino gets from thirty 
to sixty centsa day. But the unlimited 
wood supply offered by the Philippine 
torests would help to make competition 


Miscellaneous. 474 


possible. In the Philippines, where 
Japan matches are dutiable but still 
command a small market, they would be 
eutirely supplanted by the Philippine 
product. 

China and Australia would also offer 
fine fields for an export trade from 
Manila, and should the lumber famine 
which threatens all wood manufactures 
in the United States become a fact, 
there also would be a field for the 
Philippine product.—Indian Forester. 
Vol. XXXV., No. L, January, 1909, 


EKLEMENTARY AGRICULTORE. 


By H. T. EDWARDs, 
Bureau of Agriculture. 


1. GENERAL AGRICULTURE. 
Question 1. What is agriculture ? 
Answer: Agriculture is the business of 

raising products from the land. 


Q. 2, What does the farmer produce? 


A. Crops, or plants and their pro- 
ducts; stock or animals and their pro- 
ducts. 

Q. 8. What does the farmer furnish 
the world? 

A. The farmer furnishes the world 
with a large part of the material used 
for food, clothing, and shelter, besides 
many other minor products. 

Q. 4. Into what four branches may 
agriculture be divided ? 

A. (a) General agriculture, (0) ani- 
mal industry, (c) forestry, (d) horticul- 
Sure. 

Q. 5. What does ‘general agricul- 
ture ” include ? 

A. General agriculture includes the 
general management of lands and farms, 
and the growing of staple field crops, 
such as grains, fibres, sugar cane, bay, 
and root crops. 

Q. 6. What is “ animal industry’? 

A. Animal industry is the raising of 
animals, either for direct sale or use, or 
for their products. 

Q. 7. What three departments does 
animal industry include ? 

A. (a) Stock raising, or the growing 
of such animals as cattle, horses, and 
sheep; (b) dairy husbandry, or the pro- 
duction of milk and milk products; (ce) 
poultry raising, or the growing of fouls, 
as chickens, turkeys, geese, and ducks. 

What is forestry ? 

A. Forestry is the growing of trees 
for timber aud wood. 

Q. 9. What is horticulture ? 

A. Horticulture is the growing of 
fruits, garden vegetables, and orna- 
mental plants. 

Q.10 What are the most important 
things with wich the farmer works ? 

A. (a) The soil, (6) plants,;(c) animals. 


[May, 1909 


lI. THe Sot. 
Contents. 


Q. 1. What is the soil ? 

A. Thesoilis that part of the solid 
surfase of the earth in which plants 
grow. 

Q. 2. What is the soil made up of ? 

A. The soil is made up of small parti- 
cles of rock (inorganic matter) and the 
remains of plants and animals (organic 
matter). When the soil is in a condition 
to grow plants it also contains water, 

Q. 3. What does the soil furnish ? 

Ay The soil furnishes a place in 
which plants can grow. It is also-a 
great storehouse containing large quanti- 
ties of plant food. 

Q. 4. What do we mean by “ plant 
food?” 

A, We all know that animals must 
have food if they are tolive and grow. 
Plants, also, must have food, but plant 
food is quite different from the food 
of animals. Plants obtain their food 
from the soil and from the air. 
When a soil contains all the food 
that plants require we call it ‘‘rich” 
or ‘fertile.’ A ‘poor soil” is one 
that contains only a small amount 
of plant food. When a farmer wishes 
to grow a good cropon a poor soil, he 
must add more plant food to that soil. 
This plant food which farmers add to 
the soil we call “ fertilizer.” 

Q. 5. What are the three important 
kinds of plant food ? 

A, (a) Nitrogen, (6) phosphoric acid, 
(c) potash. 

Q. 6. Do soils usually contain nitro- 
gen, phosphoric acid, and potash ? 

A. Yes. Soils usually contain large 
amounts of these three plant foods. It 
has been found that in average land on 
farms the 8 inches of the soil on the 
surface of each hectare contain over 
3,400 kilos of nitrogen, nearly 4,540 kilos 
of phosphcric acid, and over 19,000 kilos 
of potash. In some cases soils contain 
enough plant food to grow three hundred 
crops of rice or corn, 

Q. 7. Can allthis plant food be used 
at once? 

No. Only a small amount of the 
plant food in soils is available, or in 
condition to be used at once. 

Q. 8. What do we mean by plant 
food in the soil that is not available? 

A. Plant food in the soil that is not 
available is the food that is combined or 
‘locked up” with other substances, so 
that the plants cannot use it. Hach 
year a part of this food becomes separ- 
ated or ‘‘ unlocked,” so that the plants 
feed upon itor useit. Air, Water, and 
the roots of ants all help to unlock 
this plant food. 


May, 1909.] 47 


Q. 9. What is one reason why we 
cultivate the soil ? 

One reason why we cultivate the 
soil is so that air, water, and the roots 
of plants can pass through it readily and 
thus make available large quantities of 
plant food. 

Q. 10. Why are the soils in forests 
fertile or rich ? 

In the forests none of the plant 
food is taken away. When the trees and 

lants die and decay, the plant food goes 

ack to the soil. 

Q. 11. Why do the fields in which we 
grow crops become ‘‘ poor”? 

In cultivated fields the crops are 
grown and taken away. In doing this 
the farmer takes away from the land a 
large amount of plant food, 

_ 12. What is the soil like ? 

A. The soil is like a great workshop 
or laboratory where the roots of plants, 
air. moisture, and many other torces are 
always working. We should never 
think of the soil as mere dirt. 


KINDS OF SOIL. 
Q. 1. What are the five different kinds 
of soil that we usually find on farms? 
A, (a) sandy soils, (b) clay soils, (¢) sandy 
loams, (d) clay loams, (¢) humus loams, 
, What is a sandy soil? 
A. Asandy soil is one that contains 


‘a large amount of sand. 
Baoe 


What is a clay soil ? 

A, A clay soil is one that contains a 
large amount of clay. A clay soil may 
be recognised by its sticky character. 

Q. 4. What is a loam? 

A. Aloam isascil that is a mixture 
of sand and clay. 

Q. 5. What is a sandy loam ? 

A. A sandy loam is a soil made up 
principally of sand and clay but contain- 
ing considerably more sand than clay. 

Q. 6. What is a clay loam? 

A, A clay loam is a soil made up 
principally of sand and clay, but con- 
taining more clay than sand. 

Q. 7. What is humus soil ? 

A. A humus soil is one that contains 
a large amount of decaying organic 
matter. 

Q. 8. What do we mean by “light” 
and ‘heavy ” soils ? 

A. When we speak of light and heavy 
soils we do not refer to the actual weight 
of soils, but to the way they behave 
when cultivated. 

Q. 9. What is a light soil ? 

A. Alight soil is one that is porous 
so that a plough or other implement can 
easily runthroughit. A light soil is easy 
to cultivate as it usually contains much 
sand. 

Q. 10. What isa heavy soil ? 

A. Aheavy soil is one that is stiff 
and difficult to cultivate. Heavy soils 


_ contain much clay. 


5 


Miscellaneous, 


Q. 11. What do we mean by “warm” 
and ‘‘ cold” soils ? 

A. Soils are called warm and cold 
according to their power to retain the 
sun’s heat. 

_ Q. 12. Why is the amount of heat 
in soils a matter of importance ? 

A. Allplants for their proper develop- 
ment require a certain amount of heat. 
Seeds will not sprout until the soil has 
become warmed to the required temper- 
ature, and most farm crops attain their 
mone perfect development only in warm 
soils. 

Q. 18. What conditions influence soil 
temperature ? 

A. (a) Water, (b) colour of soil, (c) 
composition of soil, (d) fineness of soil. 

Q. 14. How does water affect the 
temperature of soils? 

_A. In very wet soils moisture is con- 
tinually evaporating and consequently 
such soils are usually cold. In dry soils 
there is but little evaporation, and the 
soil through the sun’s heat becomes 
warm. Asarule the drier the soil the 
greater the amount of heat absorbed. 

Q. 15, How does colour affect the 
temperature of soils ? 

: It is a well-known fact that colour 
influences temperature, so with soils a 
dark soil is warmer than a light one, 

Q. 16. How does composition affect 
the temperature of soils ? 

Asa rule sandy soils are warmer 
than clay soils. 

Q. 17. How does the fineness of the 
particles affect the temperature of soils ? 

A. Coarse, rocky soils suffer from 
extremes of temperature, In fine, well- 
cultivated soils the temperature is 
almost uniform. 


@. 1. What pa aUne 
aka hat do we by th 
‘‘ texture” of the soil? of 

A. By texture we mean the physical 
state or condition of soil, such as mellow, 
hard, loose, compact, porous, shallow, 
deep, lumpy, coarse, or fine, 

Q. 2, What is a ‘“‘ mellow soil ?” 

A. A mellow soil is a soil having good 
texture, or one thatis easily worked. 

Q. 3. Why is good textureimportant ? 

A. Good texture is important because 
on-such a soil we get larger crops than 
ona soil of poor texture. Ina soil that 
is mellow, or of good texture, the plant 
food is more available for the reason 
that such a soil holds a large amount 
of moisture and air and allows the free 
passage of the roots of plants. A mellow 
soil also allows a better root-hold to the 
plant, and furnishes a comfortable place 
in which the plants may grow. 

How is good texture obtained ? 

A. Good texture is obtained in two 
ways (a) by tillage or cultivation, (b) by 
adding some material to the soil, 


mean 


Miscellaneous, 4 


Q. 5. How does tillage improve the 
texture of the soil? 

A. Tillage|improves the texture of the 
soil by breaking up and loosening it, so 
that air and moisture can enter, and the 
roocs of plants can move freely in thesoil, 

Q. 6. What materials do we add to 
the soil to improve its texture ? 

A. Most fertilizers not only furnish 
plant food, but also improve the texture 
of the soil. Lime is often used on clay 
lands to make them mellow. “Farm 
manures are usually more important in 
improving soil texture thanin directly 
supplying plant food. 

Q. 7. What is the first thing to do to 
a soil? 

The first thing to do to a soil 
is to improve its condition, or texture, 
by caretul and thorough tillage. After 
the soil has been put in good condition, 
plant food may _ be supplied if it is 
needed. A hard lump soil will not 
produce good crops, no matter how 
much plant food it may contain. 

MOISTURE. 

Q. 1. Why do we 
moisture in the soil? 

A. We need to have moisture in th 


need to have 
e 


soil because plants cannot grow with-- 


out water, no matter how much plant 
food they may have. 

Q. 2. In what two ways is this water 
in the soil used? 

A. (a) To dissolve the plant food in 
the soil sothatitcan enter the plant, 
(b) to help build up plant tissue and 
maintain the life of the plant. 

Do growing crops use a large 
amount of water ? 

A. Yes. Growing crops use a very 
large amount of water. The amount of 
water used by some common crops in 
their development to maturity is approx- 
imately as follows :— 


Hec.olitres Kilos of 
Crop. per water 

hectare. required, 
Corn fo 45 1,700,000 
Potatoes «. 180 1,440,000 
Oats ode 26 1,850,000 
Q. 4. What is the most common 


cause of the failure of crops ? 

A, The most common cause of the 
failure of crops is the lack of sufficient 
water. 

Q. 5. What are the three forms of 
water in the soil? 

A. (a) Free, (b) capillary, (c) hygros- 
copie. 

Q. 6. What do we mean by “free 
water” in the soil?” 

A. When rain falls on the surface of 
the earth a part of it sinks into the 
soil until it reaches a hard layer of 
earth or rock. This water isthe source 
of supply for springs and wells, and 
is known as free water. 


6 


[May, 1909 


Q. 7. What is ‘capillary water?” 

A. Capillary water is the water which 
adheres to the soil particles, or isin the 
openings between the particles. This 
water is not controlled by gravity, but 
passes from one part of the soil to 
another, which tends to keep the soil 
in uniform condition as far as- moisture 
is concerned. The capillary water is the 
direct supply for plants and should be 
carefully provided for and saved. 

Q. 8. What is ‘hygroscopic water’? 

A. Hygroscopic water is the water 
which is held firmly asa film surrounding 
each particle of soil. It is held so firmly 
that it is driven off only when the soil is 
exposed to a temperature of 212° F. 

This water is of service to plants only 
during the most excessive droughts. 

Q. 9. What are “ wet lands?” 

A. Wetlands are lands which contain 
too much freewater. Soils which are 
dryish and crumbly usvrally contain suffi- 
cient water for the growing of plants. 

Lands in good condition for the growing 
of crops are moist, not wet. 

Q..10. Whatis the first step towards | 
utilizing the water of the soil? 4 

A, The land should be so prepared | 
that the rainfall may be stored. The ! 
soil should be put in such condition that : 
it will readily absorb water. 

Q. 11. How does tillage enable soils 
to hold moisture ? : 

A, Tillage enables soils to hold mois- 
ture in two ways—(a) by increasing 
the depth of the soil, (b) by imereasing : 
the capillary power of the soil. : 

Q. 12. What do we mean by con- 
servation of moisture ? 

A. Conservation of moisture means 
the prevention of the unnecessary waste. : 
of capillary water of the soi]. 1t is the ; 
saving and using of moisture. 4 
What is the advantage of the 5 


Q, 18. t 
conservation of moisture ? : 
A. The advantage is to make the E. 


water which seeks to escape from the 
surface of the soil pass through cultivat- 
ed plants. 

Q. 14. What is the best way to 
prevent loss of water from the surface ae 
of the soil by evaporation ? 7 

A. Frequent tillage, which loosens | 
the soil to a depth of five to eight centi- 
meters. This dry loose soil acts likea 
coat or blanket on the surface of the 
earth. This shallow tillage should be 
renewed during the growing season as 
often as the surface of the soil becomes 
hard or baked. 

TILLAGE. 

Qk: 


What is meant by tillage? 
A. By tillage is meant the stirring of 
the soil forthe purpose of aiding the 


growth of plants. é — 
Q. 2. What are two different kinds 


of tillage? 


MAY, 1909.] 47 


A, (a) Tillage which covers the entire 
ground, (b) tillage which covers only 
that part of the ground which lies 
between the plants. We practise the 
former before the seed is: sown to pre- 
pare the land for the crop, and the latter 
between the rows of growing crops, 
to maintain the condition of the soil. 

Q. 3. Whatare other kinds of tillage ? 

A. Wespe2akof surface tillage, shallow 
tillage, and deep tillage. Surface tillage 
is the stirring of from 23 to 8 centi- 
meters of the surface of the soil. Shallow 
tillage may extend 15 centimeters into 
the soil, and deep tillage is that which 
extends below 15 centimeters. 

Q, 4. What three things does tillage do? 

A. (a) Tillage improves the physical 
condition of the soil by refining the soil 
and extending the feeding area for the 
roots; by inereasing the depth of the 
soilso that the plants obtain a better 
root-hold; by making the conditions 
of moisture and temperature more 
uniform throughout the growing season. 
(b) Tillage aids in the saving of moisture 
by increasing the water-holding capacity 
of the soil, and by checking the evapora- 
tion by meansof the surface-mulch. (c¢) 
Tillage hastens the chemical action of 
the soil by admitting air to the soil, and 
by hastening the decay of organic 
matter, 

Q. 5. What three different classes of 
tools are used in tilling the soil ? 


A. (a) Deep-working tools, (b) surface- , 


working tools, (¢) compacting tools. 

Q. 6. What are the principal deep- 
working tools ? 

A. Different kinds of ploughs. 

Q. 7. What are the principal reasons 
for ploughing ? 

A. (a) To get the iand in condition 
for planting, (b) to pulverize the soil, 
(c) to turn under manures, green- 
erops and trash, (d) to deepen the soil, 
(e) to break up the hard pan, (f) to warm 
and dry the land, (g) to allow the 
weather to act on the soil. 

Q. 8. How deep -should 
ploughed ? 

A. Under ordinary conditions lands 
in the Philippine Islands should be 
ploughed 15 to 18 centimetere deep. 

Q.9. What are the principal surface- 
working tools ? 


A. Hoes, rakes, 

harrows. 
. 10. For what purpose do we use 

surfaece-working tools ? 
- A. (a) To make beds in which seeds 
ean be sown and plants set ont, (b) to 
eover the seeds, (c) to pulverize the soil, 
(d) to establish and maintain an-earth- 
mulch, (e) to destroy weeds, 

Q. 11. How trequently should a har- 
row or cultivator be used? 


lands be 


cultivators, and 


Miscellaneous. 


A. The harrow or cultivator should 
be used as often as the soil becomes hard, 
particularly after every rain, In dry 
time surface tillage should usually be 
repeated every ten days or oftener. 
The drier the soil the greater the neces- 
sity for surface tillage. 

Q. 12. What are compacting tools? 

A. Rollers and implements know as 
‘plankers” or “floats.” 

Q. 18. What are the 
using these tools ? 

A. (a) To erush clods, (b) to smooth 
the ground for the seed bed, (ce) to 
hasten germination of seeds, (d) to 
make loose soils more compact and solid 
(e)to put the land in such condition 
that our tools can be used. 

Q. Ht. What is the principal object- 
ion to rolling land ? 

A. When land is rolled the surface- 
mulch is destroyed so that more or less 
soil moisture is lost by evaporation. On 
lands that have been rolled, surface 
tillage should begin as soon as the 
plants have appeared.— Philippine A gri- 
cultural Review. Vol. 1. No. 9. Septem- 
ber, 1908. 


reasons for 


IMPROVEMENT OF AGRICULTURE 
IN CEYLON. 


WHAT TO TEACH THE PROPLE, 


There is nothing like a few statistics 
to show us clearly our position to-day as 
pertaining to agricultural production, 
what we import and what might easily 
be produced in this country. 

Rice imported in 1908, 7,907,912 bushels— 
valued at R5 per bushel, R39,539,560. 

We grow in Ceylon 4,800,000 bushels at 
the average of eight bushels per acre on 
600.000 acres of land as per Mr. W. A, de 
Silva’s paper read at the December 
meeting of the Agricultural Society. 

Total amount of rice consumed in 
Ceylon 12,599,910 bushels. 

To have enough for home consumption 
we must produce 21 bushels per acre on 
the 600,000 acres now cultivated, or 13 
bushels more per acre than we do 
now. This seems simple enough on 
paper—that if we produce 13 bushels 
more per acre on the land thatis being 
now cultivated we would have our own 
rice supply. But it is a question that 
has baffled the Government for the last 
half century or so. .Still itis not of the 
impossible class, but within all possi- 
bility, if the cultivator would cultivate 
his land ina manner that woald yield 
good crops. We know that anacre of 
first class paddy land, if properly work- 
ed, should yield 50 bushels per acre, but 


Miscellaneous. 4 


allowing for poor and indifferent land 
anda thousand and one other circum- 
stances that a producer has to contend 
with, suppose the 600,000 acres yielded 
380 busbels per acre year in and year out 
we shall have 18,000,000 bushels, while we 
consume about 124 million bushels; and 
allowing two million bushels for the 
increasing population, etc., we shall 
have a surplus of 3} million bushels. 
This is not taking to account the vast 
amount of paddy land that is lying idle, 
some of it under the most favoured 
conditions that of being under the latest 
developed irrigation. 


WHAT WOULD THE UP COUNTRY 
PLANTER SAY 


if this was an accomplished fact? The 
bugbear that is threatening him now, 
that of having to pay increased wages to 
his coolies, would vanish, as the daily 
bread and wants of the coolies would be 
available at a reasonable price. Whata 
happy time it would be for the poor 
classes in our city and towns! ‘This 
would also open up avother industry— 
that of converting the paddy into rice 
which will no doubt give employment to 
many. Thesoonerascheme is formnul- 
ated for teaching the people how to 
cultivate their lands the sooner we 
shall have these results; and, if the 
education is carried out by capable 
men, ten years would show results 
that would astonish the most conser- 
vative mind. Our Governor in_ his 
remarks at the December meeting of the 
Board of Agriculture stated, referring 
to the native cultivator, ‘‘They had to 
be shown the value of labour, and 
I quite agree with Mr. Silva when he 
said that the efforts of the villagers 
during the year should not be devoted 
to paddy patches only but to other 
things as well. And it might yet be 
that. while improving the state of Agri- 
culture generally, the solution of the 
problem is not to be found in the devel- 
opment and extension of the rice fields, 
but in cultivating other products—such 
for instance as Indian maize, which was 
grown and was not received with that 
disfavour with which it was viewed 
once.” These last words of His Excel- 
lency’s prove tous thatit is possible to 


DRIVE OUT THE CONSERVATIVE PRE- 
JUDICES 


of the village cultivator. If we can 
repeat this on alarge scale then one of the 
great, if not the greatest of, difficulties 
will have gone never to return again. 
If by teaching the people how to produce 
more paddy than they are used to, by 
adopting better modes of cultivation, 


that is to say, if the cultivator is reliev- | 


ed to a certain extent of his conservative 


8 [MAY, 1909. 


prejudices and made to realise that 
modern modes of cultivation are bring- 
ing in greater yields than he ever dreamt 
of before, then ‘ the cultivation of other 
products” will come to him of itself. 
He will be roused from his lethargic 
state and start thirsting for information. 
Of course we must presume that the 
experimental farms have been doing 
the class of work that I depicted in my 
article on the ‘‘Scope of Experimental 
Farms.” Once we get the villagers roused 
up (the great difficulty is to do that), 
to a wish to learn further, then the 
imparting of information becomes sim- 
ple. I think that we need not seriously 
trouble about that problem as it will 
solve itself in the natural course of 
events. All our present energies at the 
highest pressure point should be devoted 
to rouse the villager and get him to 
make astart. It has been the 


EXPERIENCE OF THE GREAT FARMING 
WORLD. 


that farmers who cultivate small areas 
of land cannot make a living by the 
production of cereals alone. They must 
goin for mixed farming. In my article 
on the ‘Scope of Experimental Farms” 
I dealt with pigs, poultry, general dry 
grain production, and cattle. The im- 
provement of cattle in the Island must 
not be forgotten by our Governor 
when he introduces agricultural eduea- 
tion and peogress. What would be the 
state of an European agricultural 
country if they had no supply of good 
draft horses? I dealt with the subject 
at some length as to how it might be 
done in Ceylon, so I will now only point 
out the importance of it. Kor better 
modes of cultivation we require imple- 
ments, and they will be undoubtedly 
heavier than the present scratching 
machines, 7e., the native ploughs. The 
increase of production will mean trans- 
port, and transport and heavier imple- 
ments mean the requiring of more, 
and a superior class of, draft cattle. Of 
course, more and better cattle mean 
also the better feeding of them. This 
no doubt must be one of the lessons the 
villager has to be taug ht. There must 
not be any delay in 


STARTING A STOCK FARM, 


asit will take afew years forit to be 
able to show general improvement in 
the cattle of the country. There are no 
insurmountable. difficulties in starting 
this farm. The initial expenses of start- 
ing it will not be what this country 
eannot stand. Itis an absolute neces- 
sity and many industries depend on it; 
so it behoves the country even to go to 
the extent of some sacrifice to establish 


May, 1909. 


it. Japan has seen the great importance 
of improving her cattle. Some time 
back there passed through Colombo a 
selection of the best types of EHoglish 
eattle which Japan was importing from 
England. As to what other products 
can be grown in Ceylon by villagers, to 
occupy the time left after sowing their 
paddy crops, they must first be en- 
couraged and taught to grow on improv- 
ed lines the dry grain crops that they 
usually now cultivate, viz., Kurakkan, 
valu iringu, karal iringu, kollu, amu, 
mun, tana, kawalu, meneri, heea- 
meneri, gopara-wala, bada iringu and 
root erops such as manioca, sweet 
potato, ete. Once they have done this 
then must be gradually introduced any 
new products which have been tested 
at the experimental farms and found 
suitable for the particular districts 


IN THE WAY OF NEW INTRODUCTIONS 


there are a number of products that 
will nodoubt grow here which are at 
present imported from India. These 
products are familiar to every villager, 
inasmuch as he uses them daily in 
his culinary department, namely—dry 
chilies, coriander, saffron, sweet cummin, 
cummin seed, uluhal, pepper, mustard, 
garlic, red onions, Bombay onions ; also 
other products in general use as dry 
ginger, horse gram, castor-seed, bean 
seeds, etc. No doubt very few people 
take sufficient interest so as to find out 
how much money is being drained out 
of thecountry for produce that we can 
undoubtedly grow here. I have given 
only statistics of one item trom my list, 
but that will suffice as a rough vuide to 
calculate roughly the millions of rupees 
that now go out of the country that 
within all posibilities could be made to 
circulate in the Island. I copy from the 
«Tropical Agriculturist” of June, 1905, 
from a letter from the Hon’ble Mr. W. 
H. Jackson, Principal Collector of Cus- 
toms. Dried chillies imvorted to Ceylon 
were :— 


Cwts. Rs. 
1900 58,882 678,534 
1901 62.584 818,28 
1002 57,949 754,342 
1903 72,647 943,071 
1904 74,888 1,191,323 


For the ingredients alone that are 
used in every Ceylonese household every 
day we may very roughly put it that 
over ten millions of rupees are sent across 
the sea. Some of these products we 
know very well will grow here. Others 
must be tested before they are intro- 
duced to the villagers. In fact all 
must be grown on the experimental 
farms as object lessons. Some of these 
products are not familiar to most, if not 


49 


Miscellaneous: 


to all, the agriculturists of Ceylon so 
they would certainly have to be tested 
and the best and most economic modes 
of growing found »ut. The onlv way to 
do this is as suggested by Mr. Elliott in 
the pviragraph I quoted in a previous 


article ‘‘and a central experimental 
farm not far from Colombo.” This 
central experimental farm will be of 


great importance. 
If WILL BE THE PRELIMINARY TESTING 
STATION, 
of all new products, and a training 
ground for the managers of the other 
‘* District experimental farms” so far as 
the best modes of growing the new pro- 
duets are coucerned. So that before 
these products are introduced to the 
villager, they will have been doubly 
tested and ascertained whether certain 
products will be suitable for the district. 
Now the question is how is the manager 
of the central experimental farm to find 
out the best methods of growing new 
products? As regards products from 
countries where Kuropean people culti- 
vate we can be guided by their liter- 
ature, butasI do not suppose that the 
Indian native producers have any such 
literature, the only practical way would 
be tosend the manager of the central 
farm to India for a few months to study 
the modes of cultivation there. He can 
on his return report on «what he has 
studied and set tv work to try them. 
There is also another great advantage in 
sending the experimental farm manager 
to India. He ean study the various 
implements used in that country, and 
whenever he sees an implement suitable 
to our local needs he can procure one. I 
quote from the ‘‘ Tropical Agriculturist” 
of July, 1900, where that Journal, in 
reviewing a Tamil treatise on improved 
agriculture says: ‘'In India where, un- 
like Ceylon, 
DRY CULTIVATION IS DONE ON AN 
EXTENSIVE SCALE, 

there are several native implements 
used to economise mannual labour and 
to expedite work in the cultivation of 
dry crops, the seed drill an illustration 
of which appears, etc. : This im- 
plement which can be drawn by an 
ordinary country-bullock goes on sowing 
three rows ata time. Itis said that 
Sir James Caird was agreeably surprised 
at the work done by this seed drill and 
remarked that it served justas well as 
an Huglish seed drill which would cost 
from R. 500 to R. 800. The other labour- 
saving implements treated in this book 
are a leveller and clod crusher used 
after ploughing, a weeding machine 
that can be used between the rows till 
the plants are about 18 inches high, a 


Miscellaneous. 


sickle-shaped hand-weeder, a_ roller 
which can also be used for separating 
the larger varieties of grain such as 
Sorgun from the stalks, and the wheel- 
barrow.” These labour-saving imple- 
ments are exactly what we require here. 
They no doubt are simple in construction 
and cheap. So this opens up a field for 
introducing cheap and improved tools to 
ourcultivators. It is more than likely 
that the simple implements can easily be 
reproduced by even our village black- 
smiths or carpenters. On the other 
question—that of 


CHEAP MONBY FOR THE VILLAGE 
CULTIVATOR, 

I refrain from indulging in theories, as I 
cannot speak from persona] experience 
or knowledge; but I dc not think we can 
go far wrong if we closely studied what 
another Asiatic nation, Japan, has been 
doing. They nodoubt were--if not the 
same—in a worse condition than our 
cultivators are, what with their old 
Irejudices aud customs, ete. But Japan 

as greatly mastered all these troubles. 
I quote the following extract from the 
report of the U. S. A. Consul-General, 
Yokohama :—“‘ The Government aids and 
promotes the development of Agri- 
cultural interests by means of hypothetic 
banks. Recognising that many oper- 
ations necessary to the prosperity of 
agriculture require a heavy investment 
which will not yield immediate returns, 
and that farmers are not, therefore, able 
to pay the high interest or accept the con- 
ditions of short time commercial loans, 
the Government has established the hy po- 
thetic banks for the special accomoda- 
tion of this class of borrowers. ‘These 
banks are under the direct supervision 
of the Finance Minister, subject to strict 
regulations, and in return receive a 
degree of 

SUPPORT FROM THE GOVERNMENT. 


They are permitted to make loans only 
for the following purposes: (1) reclam- 
ation of land, irrigation, drainage and 
the improvement of the fertility of the 
soil; (2) construction and improvement 
of farm roads; (3) settlement in newly 
reclaimed places; (4) purchase of seed, 
young plants, manure, and other mate- 
rial required in agriculture and _ in- 
dustry ; (5) purchase of implements and 
machinery, boats, waggons, or beasts 
for use in farming and manufacture; (6) 
construction and repair of buildings 
for use in farmicg and manufacture; 
(7) improvements in farming and manu- 
facture not included in the foregoing 
clauses; (8) rearrangement of farm 
boundaries and (9) undertakings by credit 
guilds, purchase guilds of unlimited 
hability and organised under the in- 


480 


FDS RE) ST EROS oe 
(May, 190% 

dustrial field law. The credit guilds are 
organisations of the farmers for the pro- 
motion of their common interests, and 
in sonie respects are like the co-operative 
home building Associations of the United 
States. Organised in conformity with 
prescribed conditions they are permitted 
to borrow mcney from tke hypothetic 
banks on very favourable terms, and 
the members have often obtained loans 
which circumstances would prevent them 
from securing except through the guild. 
The guild also undertakes work for the 
common benefit, especially such as con- 
cern control of the course and volume of 
rivers, irrigation and drainage systems, 
road building, reclamation of uneculti- 
vated land, measures for protecting 
against insect pests, and enterprises.” 
Cheap money must go hand in hand with 
agricultural instruction and progress. 
It must be the means of enabling the 
poverty-stricken villagers to better 
themselves by the modern methods of 
cultivation. One without the other 
would be like a well-equipped steamship 
minus the coal supply so necessary for 
putting into motion all the elaborate 
machinery that is meant to propel 
her forwards.—P. Gro. SCHRADER in the 
Ceylon Independent, February 5, 1909. 


Correspondence. 
THE LIMA BEAN. 


Sir,—As a result of my letter sug- 
gesting the cultivation in the neighbour- 
hood of Kandy of the Lima bean for ~ 
the Kandy market, I have been kindly 
supplied by Mr. C. S. Morris of Raxawa 
Estate, Watteyama, witha quantity of 
seed which I am having distributed to 
villagers of Lower Dumbara. He re- 
marks: “I have had it always growing. 
It is an excellent bean and certainly 
would be profitable to the growers who 
would find a market in Kandy. ... It 
grows very easily. This is the climbing 
one.” 

There would therefore be no difficulty 
about growing itin the great vegetable 
growing divisions of the Kandy district, 
and its superiority to the French bean, 
which alone of beans appears to be pro- 
curable in the Kandy market, is 
undoubted. 

I presume it comes from the West 
Indies. It ismentioned in Tom Cringle’s 
Log. (‘ The Lima bean witha stalk as 
thick as my arm.”) ; 

Please substitute ‘‘only” for ‘‘ very” 
in a sentence in my last letter. 


J. P, LEWIS. 
5th April, 1909, 


a Ne ay gt! Se od 


MAy, 1909. | 


BIRDS AS FRIENDS OR FOES 
TO AGRICULTURE. 


Sir,--In response to some recent sng- 
gestions in the ‘‘ Tropical Agviculturist,” 
the following list of Ceylon birds that 
play some part in Agriculture is submit- 
ted. It is by no means complete, but 
contaius the names of most of the com- 
moner species. 

In “separating the sheep from the 
goats,” and dividing these birdsinto two 
elasses—beneficial and injurious—it is not 
intended to imply that all of those in- 
eluded in the ‘black list” are unmiti- 
gated nuisances and consequently out- 
laws. I should be extremely sorry to 
see most of them exterminated, though 
_ it may be necessary to reduce their num- 
bers in the neighbourbood of rice-fields 
to which they are more particularly des- 
tructive. 

To the common sparrow alone, Ishould 
feel inclined to show nomercy. Though 
sentiment has at first led to its adoption 
and welcome in most of our colonies, the 
sparrow has sooner or later been recog- 
nized as an unmitigated curse,—not only 
on account of the actual damage for 
which it is responsible, but indirectly 
- from its inveterate hostility to the shyer 
insectivo1ous birds. For some years I 
have been watching the steady increase 
of this cosmopolitan bird in Ceylon. 
Unless early steps are taken to check 
this increase, I predict that Passer 
domesticus will become, before long, the 
most serious enemy of the paddy grower. 

The following species have been re- 
corded as grain feeders, and many of 
them as being very destructive in rice 
fields :— 

J. The common 

Passer domesticus. 

2. The common Weaver Bird, Ploceus 


House Sparrow, 


philippinus. 
3. The Black-Bellied Munia, Munia 
malacca. 
4. The Spotted Munia, Muna 
punctata. 
5. The White-Backed Munia, Munia 
striata. : 

6. The Plain Brown Munia, Munia 
malabarica. 

7. The Ceylonese Lorikeet, JLoriculws 
nidicus. 


480a 


Correspondence. 


8. The Alexandrine Parakeet, Pale- 
ornis eupatrius. 

9. The Rose-Ringed Parakeet, Pale- 
ornis torquatus. 

10. The Blossom-Headed Parakeet, 
Paleornis cyanocephatus. 


Among the more useful insectivorous 
birds may be mentioned :— 


1. The Common Hawk Cuckoo, Mero- 
Coccyx Varies. 

2. The Blue-Tailed Bee-Eater, Merops 
philippinus. 

3. The Black Drougo, Buchanga atra. 

4. The Ceylonese W hite-Bellied 
Derongo, Buchanga leucopygialis. 

5. The Grey-Headed Flycatcher, Culi- 
cicapa ceylonensis. 

6. The Magpie Robin, 
saularis. 

7. The Grey-backed Titmouse, Parus 


Copsychus. 


atriceps. 

8. The Common White-eye, Zosterops 
palpebrosa. 

9. The Ceylonese White-eye, Zosterops 
ceylonensis. 

1¢. The Ceylon Myna, Acridotheres 
melanosternus. 

li. The Black Crow, Corvus macro- 
rhyncha. 


Number 1, of this second list, feeds 
prizeipally upon caterpillars. One that 
[I shot upcountry had its crop filled with 
the large caterpillars of the ‘ Cinchona 
Moth” (Cherocampa nerii). 

Numbers 2 to 9are generally insecti- 
vorous. The larger species may often be 
observed taking toll of the winged Ter- 
mites when these are in flight. 

Numbers 10 and 11 frequent cattle and 
help to rid them of biting flies and ticks. 

There is one very familiar bird, the 
Common Bulbul (Pycnonotus hamor- 
rhous), that might be included in each 
list. It feeds very largely upon small 
fruit and is particularly partial to the 
berries of the Lantana. It is said to be 
largely responsible for the spread of this 
troublesome plant. On the other hand, 
it is a useful destroyer of flies and Ter- 
mites. 

K. ERNEST GREEN, 

Government Entomologist, R. B. G., 


Peradeniya, 
April 10, 1909. 


THE SUPPLEMENT TO THE 


Tropical Agricu 


turist and Magazine of the G. A. 8. 


ComerLep By A. M. & J. FERGUSON. 


No. 5,] 


MAY, 1909. 


[Vou. IV. 


FERTILITY AND MANURING. 


It has been usual for the agricultural student 
to be told that the soil is the cultivator’s Bank, 
and that, in order that it may continue to be 
‘‘ solvent,” he must replace the drafts upon it by 
crops he cultivates, and make good the deficit 
by additions of manure to replace lost fertility. 
Tt would appear, however, that this very simple 
conception of the relation between manuring and 
fertility would need some modification, inasmuch 
as the action of fertilising agents is far more 
complex than has hitherto been supposed, In- 
deed, one of the most important problems of 
modern agriculture would seem to be how most 
intelligently to make use of manures in main- 
taining fertility. On the one hand we have, still, 
a number of landowners whoare sceptical as tothe 
value of manures, stubbornly holding to the belief 
that manuring “‘spoils” a plant, in that a tree, if 
once manured, will always need fertilising, and if 
manure is withheld, its last stage will be worse 
than thetirst. At the opposite pole we have the 
high cultivator who believes in and practises heavy 
manuring. In the last annual report of the 
Secretary to the American Department of Agri- 
culture we read that while the quantity of 
manures now employed is enormous, and their 
use extending, ‘‘a large fraction of the money 
expended—perhaps, one-third—is wasted, and 


brings no adequate return owing to a lack ~ 


of understanding of the soil’s requirements.” 
This is rather a serious indictment against 


Agricultural Chemistry, since the cultivator 
or farmer in the West is, as a rule, entirely 
guided by expert advice. But if there are de- 
fects in the system of manuring adopted in such 
an up-to-date country as the United States of 
America, how much more (proportionately) must 
be the ‘‘waste” in this colony, where, in the majo- 
rity of cases, the cultivator isa law unto himself 
in the matter of manuring ? 

The lack of understanding, we are told, is as 
regards the manner in which the soil feeds the 
crop, and the influence of fertilisers upon this 
feeding. It is commonly known that plants get 
their food from solutions of salts which are taken 


61 


in by the roots by ‘‘ osmosis ”—a process of 
diffusion, But it is not generally recognised that 
evaporation and transpiration of water by soil 
and plant result in an upward movement of soil 
moisture from the subsoil, often from great 
depths. By this means plant food (in solution) 
is brought up from the subsoil to the soil proper 
and there fixed. The addition of manure 
does not merely increase the supply of plant 
food present in it in available form, but has 
other far-reaching effects which scientific re- 
search is only now discovering. Infertility in a 
soil, i.e., inability to produce good crops, has 
been traced in many cases, not to the absence of 
plant food, but to the presence of compounds dele- 
terious to plant growth. These latter are, so far as 
has been ascertained, of organic origin, consisting 
of decomposition products of plant tissue, and 
excretions of germinating seeds or of the roots of 
growing plants. Some of these substances have 
been isolated and identified and their properties 
determined. The ‘‘curing” of such ‘‘sick soils” 
is to be effected by intelligent methods of agri- 
cultures—proper drainage, crop rotations and 
the judicious use of fertilisers, by which means 
the toxic bodies referred to are destroyed or 
absorbed, and suitable conditions for cultivation 
secured. A proper rotation of crops is useful 
inasmuch as the excreta of one kind of plant are 
not necessarily harmful to another, and different 
species assist in the destruction and removal of 
objectionable excretions. Natural manures and 
artificial fertilisers are no less valuable, so that a 
rational use of these substances, which not 
merely supply plant food, but also act as soil 
correctives, is of fundamental importance in agri- 
cultural practice. 

There are thus new elements to bereckoned with 
and fresh considerations to be weighed in adop- 
ting a system of manuring, which, as indicated 
above, should be calculated not only to make up 
for a deficiency of soluble plant food in the soil, 
but also to neutralise such toxic substances as are 
likely to have an injurious effect on cultivated 


crops. For further enlightenment on this sub- 
ject we must Jook to our local staff of scientists. 


482 
THE NEW RUBBER TAPPING SYSTEM. 


THE FINANCIAL SIDE. 


Ever since the days when Mr H M Alleyn 
introduced his special methods of cultivation 
and manufacture of tea, admitting planters who 
wished to know it to the secret for a substantial 
fee, those in the old country connected with 
Ceylon estate property have been surprised at 
this method of business on the part of planting 
experts in Ceylon, which trusts so entirely to 
the honour of the planters and estate agents con- 
cerned. In the case of the new rubber-tapping 
system which is the direct successor, as regards 
rubber, of Mr Alleyn’s methods with tea, their 
surprise is certainly not likely to be decreased. 
Although it is not publicly made known in 
Ceylon it is, of course, communicated to all 
applicants--while Messrs Cumberbatch & Co, 
are advertising the fact in the Malay States 
—that the fee varies with the amount of crop 
estimated to be produced by the estate which 
proposes to take up the system. This isin some 
way an anomalous demand at the present stage, 
when the system is (and will be for some time) 
on its trial. Asa leading planting expert has 
pointed out to the Agents concerned, what ought 
to be charged is a fee proportionate to the 
amount of crop produced by this system, how- 
ever experimentaily used, over the portion ofthe 
estate where it is applied. It is more than con- 
ceivable—it isthe most natural course to take, es- 
pecially on the part of the older properties, to 
keep both old and new systems running side by 
side until the success or otherwise of the latter 
has been thoroughly tested. Of course, it 
may be retorted that the Agents feel that 
enterprising parties who desire to strike out 
on the new lines ought to ‘‘ go the whole hog ” 
or leave the thing alone entirely! This would 
be all very well if the new system’s merits were 
thoroughly proved; but to insist on a fee pro- 
portionate to the whole crop estimate of an estate 
(or group of estates, such as the Rosehaugh 
Co., for instance) is—for those financially con- 
cerned in its success—only to stand in their light 
and, for the matter be examined thoroughly, the 
Agents have no legal hold over the system as 
long as itis not patented and therefore have in 
a large measure to trust to the honour of plan- 
ters. In any case Mr Alleyn ceased to obtain 
fees for his system of tea cultivation soon after 
it became too generally known for any secret in 
the matter tobe longer preserved. | 
way, if too rigid a practice of charging for the 
information provided by Mr Northway, the in- 
ventor of the new system, is maintained, both 
inventor and Agents will stand to lose in the 
beginning ; and it isin the beginning that most 
money will be made in thematter. We appear 
to be arguing on their behalf, but it is rather 
on behalf of the rubber-growing public that we 
make these remarks in order that the system 
may be experimentally tried as widely as possible 
and with due regard for economy in cost, the 
inventor and Agents standing to gain as soon as 
the crop produced by the system is increased 
wholesale. That this will come about stands to 
reason if the svatem hasthe makings of a per- 
manent agricultural benefit to the rubber pro- 


Inthe same . 


The Supplement to the Tropical Agriculturist 


ducers of the island. At present the faith of 
those who have tried and those who have meant 
to try the system, has been much shaken b 
the clever extract from a paper by Dr. He 
Fitting, a leading physiological botanist, 
which Mr Petch reproduced in our columns 
last month, expressing the utmost doubt 
—based on careful experi ment—as to the safety 
of the pricker, for tapping, in preserving the 
health of rubber trees ; and describing it as out 
of place in rational estate management. 


THE NEW SYSTEM CRITICISED IN 


LONDON. 

At the annual general meeting of the General 
Ceylon Rubber and Tea Hstates, held on the 
18th inst., the Chairman, Mr. T C Owen, made 
a reference toa new system of tapping rubber 
in Ceylon, under which it is possible to reduce 
by twelve: months the age at which trees may 
be regarded as having reached the producin 
stage. Mr. Owen assumes that the genera 
public have heard that a scheme of this nature 
is on foot, but we are inclined to think that 
he is wrong on this point, while the inquiries 
we have made go to show that his optimism 
regarding the results of the new process is not 
shared by the general body of rubber experts. 
It is argued in Mincing Lane, and rightly we 
think, that : 


ANY ATTEMPT TO FORCE PRODUCTION WILL 
SOONER OR LATER REACT ADVERSELY 


upon the market, and that, even assuming the 
method of tapping advccated by Mr. Owen to 
be all that is claimed for it, it is unwise to 
adopt such strenuous efforts to increase the out- 
put of cultivated rubber. Over and above this, 
however, comes the experience taught by many 
similar actions inthe past, namely, that while 
no immediate harm may accrue from interference 
with Nature, sooner or later a price will have to 
be paid for the removal of the latex from rubber 
trees at a stage when it is impossible to regard 


-them as mature. 


LOSs OF STAMINA FROM EXHAUSTION 


is predicted by those who have been connected 
with some of the largest and most successful 
rubber plantations in the Middle East, and we 
have heard sufficient during the past few days 
to render us very sceptical of the efficacy of the 
policy which Mr. Owen proposes to introduce 
on the estates unler his control. Again, we 
fail to see that thecommencement of tapping 
operations twelve months earlier than has 
hitherto been customary conveys sach advan- 
tages asto compensate for the risks attendant 
upon such a course. 


WHAT IS ONE YEAR IN THE LIFE OF A RUBBER 
TREE 2 


Certainly not sufficient to justify the jeopardi- 
sing of the remainder of its existence, and we 
areof opinion that, on this score alone, Mr. 
Owen should curb his ardour and rest content 
withthe handsome profits which are obtainable 
by safer methods pursued on the neighbouring 
estates.—Stock Hachange Gazette, Mar. 25th, 


and Magazine of the Ceylon Agricultural Society. 


RUBBER: CLEAN WEEDING /. 
‘* TEPHROSIA.”’ 


For a long time scientists have called atten- 
tion to the disadvantage of weeding and have 
advised the introduction of new methods; but 
their ideas have not been well received, and so 
far little has been done on practical lines... . . 
What at present appeals most to people is the 
cash expenditure for keeping weeds down—or 
out, the cheapest way being naturally the.most 
popular one, and weeding will here only be 
dealt with from this point of view. Of course 
with virgin jungle properly dealt with from the 
start, the weeding bill should never look high, 
and old established estates will perhaps natu- 
rally adhere to their old method. Most plan- 
tations have, however, in one corner or another 
a block of old abandoned paddy fields or Malay 
kampongs and in such places a cheap method of 
getting rid of weeds is much wanted. I at any 
rate have had the bad luck of getting a few 
acres of such land indifferently burnt and 
all the planters who have seen it, have invari- 
ably advised me to changkol the whole place at 
a cost of anything between $20 and $60 an acre. 
For various reasons this work was not done, but 
I believe most planters will from experience be 
able to state, if the above price is correct. 


For some time experiments have had been 
carried on with a view to introduce a plant, 
which would be able to keep weeds out and at 
the same time itself benefit or at least do no 
harm to the rubber trees ; for this I have found 


‘CPEPHROSIA PURPUREA” ADMIRABLY ADAPTED, 
As this plant, seed of which was kindly pre- 
sented me by Dr, Treub of Buitenzorg, is new 
to the F. M. S8., some information of how it was 
established may be of interest. The first plot 
was only 20 by 40 in. and was planted up with 
one or two seeds in every square foot. The 
place was then clean of weed but had not been 
changkolled, and some lalang had only been 
cut down, while the roots were untouched. In 
the second plot conditions were different. In 
belukar land, to save expense, a path or rentis 
6 feet wide had been cut along each row of 
trees, and when at this work the coolies had 
generally scraped aside a little earth by which 
gradually two ridges had been formed one on 
each side of the row of trees. In these ridges 
every few feet a couple of seeds were put in, 
and after 5-7 weeks all failures were supplied. 
Otherwise no special care was taken, only of 
course the coolies were told not to pull these 
plants up when weeding, and care should be 
taken to choose a rainy season for this work, 
The Tephrosia will grow slowly at first, and at 4 
months old it has only grown into a small bushy 
plant, but it then commences to assert itself 
amongst the surrounding weeds. When full 
grown itis about 5-6 feet high and each plant 
spreads to the same extent. My oldest plot was 
sown in June and has not been weeded since the 
end of August, 1907, viz: during 19 months. 
One creeper has grown up in it, but in other 
ways it looks all right and the lalang, which 
formerly was on this spot, has now disappeared. 
My second plot was planted May last partly in 
lalang. The Tephrosia now form 


483 


TWO SOLID HEDGES THROUGH WHICH NOTHING 
PENETRATES, 


and the weeding is here done at a very small 
cost. The hedges are sufficiently apart to allow 
the air to circulate along the trees, and the 
ground is always soft and nice. Xo far the time 
has been too short to show any advantage in 
growth of trees, but they certainly look as good 
as any in my clean-weeded area, To make 
the Tephrosia grow in: hedges has the ad- 
vantage of a better air-circulation around 
the roots, and it also makes it easier to get 
about when inspecting the plantation; but 
other methods have also advantages, To take 
an example where trees are circled, it would 
be very easy to put in afew seeds around each 
tree. The Tephrosia grows rather high and 
ought on this account to be cut down once or 
twice avear, butin other respects this height 
gives the plant a great advantage, when fighting 
lalang and other high weeds. As it is not a 
creeper, it may safely be planted together with 
rubber stumps, coffee, &c., without fear of 
their being interfered with ; and as itis a good 
fertiliser, has few natural enemies, is very hardy 
and propagates itself when once established, it 
must be considered an ideal plant for its purpose. 
Under the conditions mentioned the planting of 
Tephrosia represents a great and direct saving, 
Having however reached so far, it might be 
rather interesting to see if the step could not 
be taken in full, and the same plant be intro- 
duced with advantage also in clean estates. The 
question is what clean weeding costs, and how 
much money could be saved by planting Teph- 
rosia. Tho general opinion is that 


30 CENTS AN ACRE A MONTH IS A LOW PRICE FOR 
- WEEDING, 


This is often not sufficient and also it is only the 
pay of the coolies and does not include anything 
for management and other consequent expenses, 
so that really the expenses are much higher, and 
a fair idea of what it costs would be obtained 
by charging all expenses for upkeep of an estate 
to weeding, as of course little over work re- 
mains to be done. If an estate when first planted 
up could be left to itself until the trees came 
into bearing, then the 


SAVING OUGHT TO BE AT LEAST $1°50 AN ACRB 
A MONTH 


and in many cases much more, or say as a low 
figure $20°00 per annum ; and it now remains to 
be seen what it costs to establish Tephrosia, 
and if by this proceeding the above money 
could be saved. ‘The first item is easy to settle, 
I have found $4°00 an acre ample and to spare. 
The second point is also easy ; experience from 
abandoned estates and other places show that 
if not hampered by Jalang or grass, trees will 
grow as well or better under natural condition, 
that is in weeds, as in clean, land. When 
now comparing the morits of the two methods, 
we got ;— 


TEPHROSIA, $. 


Cost of pai sbing Tephrosia 
Weeding expenses for 5 years per avre 100 


he 


TEPHROSIA. 


Cost of establishing Tephrosia 
Keeping drains clean 

Land Kent 

Cut down Tephrosia twice 
Various 

Supervision 


Total cost first year 
2nd and following years. 


As above less $4 for establishing 
Tephrosia 


| 
| ls 
a oS Re 


Total expenses for five years 34 


Total saving 66 
¥, ZeRNicuow, Jandarata Estate, Teluk Anson. 
—Straits Agricultural Bulletin, for April. 


‘DIE BACK” IN FRUIT TREES. 


This common disease, which shows itself in 
the withering of branches, generally from the 
top downwards, may be said to be due to star- 
vation brought about by want of proper drainage 
and manure, 


The treatment consists of thorough drai- 
nage and liming (2 to6 lb. lime per tree) fol- 
lowed later by a good dressing of manure— 
if artificials, say, 4 lb. sulphate of potash, 4 lb. 
saltpetre, | lb. sulphate of lime per tree: old 
trees might get more. Prune off all diseased 
parts and paint cuts with tar—leaving only 
healthy tissue to grow. 


See 


BANANA FLOUR. 
Negombo, April 15th, 

De#AR Sir,—This new and highly nutritious 
food stuff is, I think, bound to take a fairly 
prominent pince in Ceylon and other of ,our 
tropical Colonies some day ; but at present we 
in Ceylon do not know much about its pre- 
paration. About the time I came here in 1898) 
a very small lot was desiccated, but I remem- 
ber no attempt was made to reduce it to flour ; 
and what became of it I know not. Since then 
I have seen short articles from home papers in 
our local papers now and then, but I do not 
think any attempt was made by the numerous 
writers at anything approaching a description 
of its preparation after desiccating. 1 am afraid, 
however, that when we take into consideration 
the fact that the present-day banana pro- 
duction of Ceylon is but little more than our 
requirements for local consumption, particu- 
larly with the ever-increasing demands of the 
big steamers calling at Colombo, there would 
be great difficulty in securing a_ sutfticient 
supply for desiccating, and anything like a re- 
gular supply for a factory would, I think, be 
out of the question. This fruit—indeed, all 
Ceylon fruit—is harvested green, the chief reason 
being, it seems, the dread the native grower 
has of thieving; and he says to himself and 
perhaps not unwisely: ‘‘ If [ wait till that cluster 
of plantains is ripe, someone else will get it.” 
I have not the least doubt, however, that with 
the advent of the Puttalam Railway—bound, I 
think, to come before long—further coconut 
cultiyation will be the order of the day up 


The Supplement to the Tropical Agriculturist 


North, when perhaps the banana may be culti- 
vated on a considerably increased scale asa catch 
crop, asitis at present, in new clearings—the 
proceeds, as a rule, going along way towards 
defraying the cost of opening and carrying on 
the garden for the first two or three years. 
This estate work is generally done by me ers 
free of all cost, in return for being allowed to 
grow the catch crops on their own account, 
Beyond fencing the land, and finding the seed 
nuts, the owner pays practically nothing; but, 
of course, he has long to waitfor returns much 
longer than people think.— Yours faithfully, 


Cc. M. B. WILKINS. 


“PALE RUBBER’’ 


MR. BAMBER’S LATEST VIEWS. 


Mr. Kelway Bamber, as far back as August 
last, wrote on the subject of enzyme-destruction 
in rubber, advising its adoption as rendering 
the product so much more valuable. Owing to 
a report that asheet of rubber subjectad to the 
heating process had lost all its ‘life,’ and that the 
treatmant was not always a plicable ; also that 
perhaps the rubber fetched its price because it 
was the latest novelty on the market—we have 
referred to Mr. Bamber himself on the matter. In 
response to our enquiry we learn from him that 
‘*Pale Rubber” was much admired by both 
British and Continental rubber manufacturers 
at the Rubber Exhibition, partly on account of 
its uniformity and purity, but also for its suit- 
ability for special manufactures. 
probable reason for the premium paid on such 
*‘pale rubber” as Mr, Bamber was told that 
the demand for it would be very large. Many 
factories are now adopting the process with 
varying success, depending more or less on 
attention to detail. The manufacture of pale 
rubber depends almost entirely on the destruc- 
tion or removal of the enzyme occurring in the 
latex, and it is possible to make a certain pro- 
portion of each day’s latex into pale rubber 
without using heat at all; but the hot water 
or steaming process is so simple and inexpen- 
sive and the results, when properly done, so 
successful and remunerative, that it is a wonder 
it is not universally adopted. Any process that 
will secure uniformity in appearance, without 
injuring the quality of the rubber, will be of the 
greatest service to the industry; and ite general 
adoption should be encouraged. 


CGARAVONICA COTTON, 


Fremantle, W.A., April 2nd. 

Dear §1R,—I have just received yours of 
January 30th; also a copy of the Ceylon Observer. 

Dr. Thomatis made a somewhat similar state- 
ment in a Queensland paper on leaving Australia, 
saying his Company had secured control of the 
Caravonica Cotton Seea, to which I wrotea 
denial. He has said, on other occasions, that he 
only has the real Caravonica seed, which is 
untrue. I have under cultivation with Cara- 
vonica Cotton 22 acres of the best of his land 
suitable for growing cotton. Why he did not 
use this noel himself, instead of what he did, 


This is the - 


and Magazine of the Ceylon Agricultural Society. 485 


was that it was too costly to prepare for culti- 
vation. My trees are from seed selected from 
his best, and have had much more cultivation 
than any of his. Therefore, he cannot honestly 
say he is the only one who grows the true Cara- 
vonica Cotton. 

His suggestion that the Ceylon Agricultural 
Society should go—cap in hand—to ‘ Der 
Baumwohlgesellschaft Caravonica” is absurd, 
and only conveys the false impression that 
the seed can only be got from, or by the con- 
sent of, that Company. It is also unnecessary 
that planters in Ceylon or elsewhere shall have 
to certify that they are approved growers to 
obtain the seed. [ will send them as much of 
the true Caravonica Cotton seed as they want. 
Should [ run out of stock this season, I will 
have plenty the next, and the only certificate of 
approval necessary is a Bank draft or money 
order. And, as to ‘‘ my” qualifications, I refer 
enquirers to Mr Howard Newport, Manager of 
the Government Experimental Farm, Kame- 
runga, Cairns, Queensland. As to the statement 
made by Dr. Thomatis that Caravonica Cotton 
yielded 90 per cent. lint, there must either be a 
mistake or a misprint. A fair average with 
proper cultivation is from 40 to 45 per cent. 

Tam writing you from Fremantle as I am on 
my way to Derby, N.-W. Australia, where I 
intend growing the Caravonica Cotton on a 
large scale, and in a few months will return to 
my plantation at Cairns. Please address your 
communications to Fremantle, This does not 
mean altering my address in the seed advertise- 
ment, as my Manager on the Cairns plantation 
will attend to all applications for seed. [ am, 
dear Sir, yours faithfully, 

F, JOHNSTON. 


RUBBER BEARING AGE AND 
FUTURE YIELDS. 


{tseems almost incredible that Para rubber trees 
may take from four to seven, and even nine, years 
to reach the producing stage. This variation in 
bearing age isvery large, but covers a multitude 
of conditions under which plants are at present 
cultivated. Trees in bearing at four years are 
frequently to be seenin Province Wellesley, 
Selangor, and Serdang ; others in Uva, Ceylon, 
at least 2,500 feet, and in Southern India at 
about 3,000 feot, above sea-level, may take the 
longer period. In many circles itis accepted 
that a proportionof the trees grown alone on a 
clearing can be tapped when four years old in 
favoured parts of Malaya, at five years in 
other parts of Malaya and Sumatra, and at 
six years in most Ceylon districts ; where the 
trees are planted among old tea, coffee, or 
cacao eight years is often required before 
successful tapping operations can be car- 
ried out. Ifa difference of two years, or even 
one year, is ultimately to be associated with 
Para trees in the areas enumerated, it isa mat- 
ter of the utmost importance to all. This differ- 
ence does not mean only one of the age at which 
trees can be tapped for the first time; it indi- 
cates the probability of a much reduced total 
yield from trees requiring the maximum period 
for attainment of maturity, Where the trees 
take six years to reach the tappable stage there 


must, on account of inferior soil, untavourable 
climatic or other considerations, be a much 
slower average rate of growth during what 
may be termed the first cycle; as the slow- 
growing trees get older, they will not have 
a better chance of increasing their rate of 
growth above those characterised with more 
rapid development, and the secondary and 
subsequently renewed barks will probably 
require a similarly longer period to mature. In 
other words, there will be less renewed bark 
available on the slow growing trees after a given 
period. And 
THE BARK IS THE MOTHER OF RUBBER. 

It may be argued that quantity, and especially 
thickness, of barkis not the only criterion of 
total yields ; it is granted that in some circum- 
stances thin-barked trees yield as much per area 
ot bark excised as others with thicker bark, 
especially when the former trees are older. But, 
taking trees of the same age, there seems every 
reason to expect that those with more rapid 
rates of growth and thicker bark tissues will be 
capable of yielding larger quantities of rubber 
in the future. Po. ap ye Ge 

The yields of rubber which are now being 
chronicled throw considerable light on another 
problem which has engaged the attention of 
cultivators for many years. It was originally sup- 
posed that Para rubber trees thrived best on the 
banks of rivers where, in addition to a good 
supply of available plant food, there was always 
abundance of water and an occasional floodin 
vf the land. In consequence of this, botanica 
authorities in the Hast recommended planters 
to select similar areas for their new clearings in 
the belief that to imitate Nature would be the 
safest and probably the most remunerative plan. 
Subsequently it was reported that Para trees 
grew wild and flourished not only along the river 
banks, but on the low hills of the interior of 
Brazil, and doubt was then expressed as to the 
wisdom of planting on areas subject to peri- 
odical inundation. 

As a result we have in the Indo-Malayan 
region Para rubber trees planted on all classes 
of soil, some very dry and others exceedingly 
damp. It is well known that the majority of 
the Perak and Selangor estates now in 
bearing are on land where the water-level is 
only one or two feet from the surface. In Cey- 
lon, Sumatra and Java, the majority of rubber 
estates are not so abundantly supplied with 
water. The one fact which vividly impresses 
tourists in the Kast isthe nearness of the water 
level to the surface on Malay estates. Now, 
everyone recognises that the highest yields have 
been obtained from these estates, though the 
roots are more or less immersed in water and 
the treesare growing under what would nor- 
mally be regarded as unnatural, if not un- 
healthy, conditions. The water factor appears 
to be of more importance during the first eight 
years than most experts imagined.—India-Rub- 
ber Journal, April 5. 


Lineer Puantations, Lrp.—The total output 
of rubber from the Company’s estates during 
the month of March was 39,000 lb., bringing the 
total for the first three months of the current 
ioe up to 106,000 lb. Last year: March 15,000 
b,, first three months 50,000, 


486 
A “SYNTHETIC RUBBER MEETING.’’ 


Costs of Production of Wild versus 
Plantation Rubber. 


There is a note of pathos in the report of the 
proceedings of the Synthetic Rubber Company, 
Limited, which, if it cannot be said to appeal 
to us, extorts at least our respectful sympathy. 
We have no desire to review in detail the 
anticipatory past of this venture—shareholders 
have already had the story (in somewhat dis- 
connected detachments) from the lips of their 
Chairman, and it is certainly not our business 
to anticipate that gentleman's inevitable con- 
clusion. Butas many of our readers are doubt- 
less outside the charmed circle of shareholders 
in the Synthetic Rubber Company, Limited, 
whose third annual meeting was held at St. 
Ermin’s Hotel, Westminster, on March 24th 
last, we may be forgivenif werefer to the very 
nicely-printed report of the proceedings thereat 
a correspondent (who prefers to remain anony- 
mous) has forwarded to us. The Chairman 
(Mr Robert Wigglesworth) having congratulated 
the shareholders upon ‘‘the patience and for- 
bearance they had displayed during the past 18 
months,” asked for ‘‘a renewal of that 
patience and forbearance while he endeavoured 
briefly, but quite frankly, to put them in pos- 
session of all that had happened ”—since Sep- 
tember, 1907. ‘‘ That is to say,” he continued, 
‘tall that mattered, for, as they might readily 
imagiue, many things had happened which now 
no longer mattered.” Well! It seems unkind 
to pursue the story of yet another synthetic 
rubber failure further than the mere announce- 
ment that it has been a failure, but, as we are 
included in Mr Wigglesworth’s reference to 
‘‘rubber journals or financial papers” (we like 
the ‘‘or,” by the way) which have adversely com- 
mented upon the proposals of any synthetic pro- 
cess taking the place of wild or cultivated rubber 
with the manufacturing community, in Europe 
or elsewhere, we think that it is only right that 
a fair summary of the chairman’s remarks should 
be placed at the disposal of our readers. 


THE GorrscHaLK PROOEES. 

Mr Wigglesworth told his audience at the 
meeting at St. Ermin’s Hotel on March 24th 
last, that eighteen months prior to the date in 
question, the directors had reported on a demon- 
stration of Dr. Gottschalk’s process which had 
been carried out at the house of Mr Russell 
Clarke, and that a substance had been produced, 
which, on being submitted to the chemical ex- 
pert of the Synthetic Rubber Company, Limited, 
was pronounced by him (Mr Bertram Blount) ‘‘to 
have the same constituents as rubber.” Mr 
Blount, being a careful man, was not prepared 
to accept the sample submitted to him as final, 
although he admitted that the ‘product’ showed 
under analysis ‘ the same physical properties as 
natural rubber ’ and ‘ was rubber.’ The synthe- 
tic Rubber Company’s directors next instructed 
Mr Blount to repeat the Gottschalk experiment 
in his own laboratory, following the inventor’s 
instructions, and this, according to all evidence 
hediddo. ‘This experiment,'said Mr Wiggles- 
worth, in his speech on March 24th, ‘had been 
made in October, and had proved a total failure, 
and from that day to this not one ounce of rub- 


The Supplement to the Tropical Agriculturist 


ber had been made by Dr. Gottschalk’s method,’ 

No one in his senses would any more than the 
Chairman and directors of the Synthetic Rubber 
Company, Limited, have done,impute fraud to the 
inventor or unfair dealing when the invention 
was demonstrated at Mr Russell Clarke’s house 
—but the result of the demonstration was not 
commercial rubber. The Synthetic Rubber 
Company’s Chairman then proceeded to explain 
to his hearers that Dr. Gottschalk’s patents were 


BASED ON THE CONVERSION OF ONE OF THE HYDRO- 

CARBONS INTO RUBBERBY A BACTERIOLOGICAL 
PROCESS, | ‘ 
The production of this hydro-carbou was one 
part of the process; its conversion into rubber 
another. ‘In starting,’ said the Chairman, 
when explaining the process in brief ‘ what might 
be termed a commercial unit of manufacture, 
a small factory had been; taken and equipped 
for the production of the hydro-carbon, The 
services of Mr Mark Barr, a gentleman of high 
reputation as an engineer and physicist, had 
been engaged to take charge of the factory, and 
he had been in charge of it from its inception 
to the present time. To investigate the subject 
of bacteriological conversion they had secured 
the services of Dr. Gordon, who he believed, 
possessed a knowledge of the subject second to 
none. As a chemist they had engaged Mr 
Lilley, who had come to them from Oxford with 
high credentials. These, then, were the Com- 
pany’s experts. Now the conclusion which the 
Directors and experts had unanimously come 
to with regard to the failure of Mr Blount’s 
experiment was that the process which Dr. 
Gottschalk relied upon was not so simple as he 
believed—in fact, that it was exceedingly com- 
plex, that he had not observed important con- 
ditions, and that he was in entire ignorance of 
others. This conclusion, indeed, seemed to 
have been confirmed by subsequent investiga~ 
tions. The work done by Dr. Gordon in his en- 
deavour to discover the lost conditions had been 
simply colossal. He had undertaken months and 
months of patient work ; he had had a fruitless 
journey to America, and he had made literally 
thousands of laboratory experiments with only 
negative results. The Directors were greatly in- 
debted to him for the zeal with which he had 
tackled the problem. Although the direct results 
ofall these investigations had been negative, they 
believed the indirect results—namely the know- 
ledge gained of the whole subject—would be of 
‘*considerable importance.” All of which, as our 
old friend Pepys might have said, is ‘‘mighty 
pretty”’—butitis not rubber, 


SYNTHETIC RUBBER—ANOTHER WAY. 

While we do not believe that in our time {and 
possibly that of our children) Mr Wiggles- 
worth’s idea, to the effect that ‘‘synthetic rubber 
is bound to come,” will materialise, we may 
take leave to congratulate him and his co-direc- 
tors on their pluck in expending a considerable 
amount of money in investigating the Heinemann 
process. We had occasion some little time ago 
to deal with this particular invention in these 
‘‘Notes,” and the conclusion we arrived at with 
regard to it was singularly on @H fours with the 
decision the Synthetic Rubber. Company, 
Limited, and their advisers ultimately reached 
as to its commercial value. That being so, we 


and Magazine of the Ceylon Agricullural Society. 


have no desire to discuss the. prospects of this 
or any other synthetic rubber invention other 
than in the way such an invention, if shown to 
be commercially practicable, is likely to affect 
the position of the Plantation Rubber share- 
holder. We have never attempted to deny that 
the artificial production of rubber is possible; 
indeed, if’ our memory serves us aright, we 
have shown that in Jaboratory practice such 
production is possible. But we have consistently 
denied, and we think the excerpts from the 
above-mentioned company’s meeting is proof (if 
any were needed) of the correctness of our con- 
tention, that a Commercial synthetic rubber 
has yet to be discovered. We notice that Mr. 
Wigglesworth remarked that he had hoped to 
be able to put a block of rubber on the table 
and say that his company could produce such a 
commodity as 1s per lb. Well, let us assume that 
he could—or can. Will he ask us to believe 
that rubber so produced has the tensility, the 
wearing power, the manufacturing adaptability 
ofrubber either from the forestsof Brazil or 
from plantations in the Middle Kast? Surely 
not. And further, we would ask him to remem- 
ber (and with him those who are willing to stake 
further capital in synthetic investigations) that 
this year and in the years to follow the big pro- 
ducing companies in the Middle East will be 
able to market an infinitely superior product at 
considerably lower cost than his ideal average of 
production ! Further than this, from the in- 
vestor’s standpoint, it is not necessary to go, but 
were it so, there are numerous other points we 
could readily adduce to show that so far as 
plantation rubber is concerned it has nothing to 
fear from the finest of synthetic dicoveries. 


Wild v. Plantation Rubber. 


It will be recalled that a short time ago Mr 
Harrington Edwards addressed us an interesting 
communication dealing in the main with costs 
of producing ‘‘ wild” versus cultivated rubber. 
This letter adduced a retort from Mr. K. 
Dingwall (which appeared in our issue of Monday 
last), and to this retort Mr Harrington Edwards 
(who is a director of the Galvez Rubber Estates, 
Limited) replied under date March 31st as 
follows :—‘t A paragraph in your issue of the 
29th inst, nas just been brought to my notice, 
in which Mr K Dingwall comments on a letter I 
wrote, and, whilst he appears to accept the propo- 
sitions I made that ‘native’ rubber was of better 
quality than plantation rubber, and that, having 
regard to the amount of moisture therein, it 
fetched better prices than the plantation rub- 
ber, makes certain comments as to my third 
statement as to the cost of production of the 
‘native’ and plantation rubber. In my original 
letter I stated that I believed in one or two 
cases plantation rubber companies had brought 
their rubber to the market at a less cost of 
production than any of the largest indigenous 
rubber companies, but I went on to state that, 
if an average were taken, I was confident that 
the average cost of collection of the indigenous 
rubber would work out at considerably less 
than the cost of plantation rubber. I think 
that if Mr Dingwall had read my letter carefully 
he would have seen that in selecting one parti- 
cular plantation rubber company and comparing 
it aie the cost of the production of rubber of the 


487 


Galvez Rubber Estates, Limited, the comparison 
might not apply, as I was dealing with the 
question of ‘native’ and plantation rubber 
generally and not of any particular company. 
However, I have no objection to giving Mr. 
Dingwall the information he requires, and 
stating that the cost of production to arrival 
in the London market by the Galvez Rubber 
Estates, Ltd., has been Is 8d perlb, during the 
first year’s working, whilst I know of no planta- 
tion rubber company that bringsits rubber to the 
London market at under 1s 6d per lb. 


‘*To return to whatis more important to your 
readers—namely, the general question—I should 
like to observe that the total amount of capital in 
English companies invested in plantation rub- 
ber in the Indian and Malay Peninsular amounts 
to about £250,000,000, whilst the money invested 
in ‘native’ rubber companies amounts to under 
£5,000,000. The total production, however, of 
rubber for 1908 from Ceylon and India amounts 
to only 1,800 tons, whilst the amount of rubber 
that came from the Amazon Basin alone in [906 
amounted to 38,000 tons. What I wished to 
suggest was that the cost of production per ton 
of the 1,800 tons was more than the cost of 
production of the 38,000 tons; nor can this 
statement be disproved by merely quoting one 
particular plantation rubber company that hap- 
pens at the present time to be producing rubber 
at a very low price. 


‘‘In connection with this question of the price 
of production, it must be remembered that in 
Bolivia, Peru and Brazil most of the labour is 
by contract, and the price of the contract for 
the production of the rubber varies with the 
price of rubber, so thatif rubber is high the 
expenses are high ; but if rubber is low, the ex- 

enses are low. Any one acquainted with the 
arge fluctuations that occur in the price of rub- 
ber will appreciate how important this is, and 
how it would enable the indigenous rubber com- 
panies to sustain a fall in prices much better 
than an ordinary plantation company.”— 
Financier, April 2, 


COCOA INDUSTRY OF BAHIA. 


H.M. Consul at Bahia (Mr D R O'Sullivan 
Beare) has forwarded a memorandum on the 
cocoa industry of the State of Bahia, from which 
the following particulars are taken :— 


It is difficult to estimate, with any exactituda, 
the acreage actually under cacao cultivation in 
the State of Bahia at the present time, since no 
official data are available. Itis possible, howe 
ever, to arrive at an approximate estimate from 
a consideration of the following data, viz. :—the 
total output of cocoa from the State during the 
1907-8 season amounted to about 25,000 metric 
tons; the average yield of each mature cocoa 
tree, per season, may be taken to be 24 kilos of 
dried beans ; the number of cocoa trees planted 
per hectare may be taken to average 625. Cal- 
culation based upon these data would go to show 
that the total area under cocoa cultivation in 
the State at the present time amounts to some 
16,000 hectares, equivalent to some 40,000 acres, 
and that there exist some 


488 


10,000,000 cocoa TREES 1N BEARING. 

Three varieties of cocoa are grown in Bahia, 
being known to the local planters as ‘cacao 
commun,’ ‘cacao Para’ and ‘cacao Maranhao’ 
respectively. The three varieties are distin- 
guished chiefly by differences in the size and 
shape of their respective pods, and by diffe- 
rences in the texture of the rind of the pods. In 
the matter of the average yield per tree, and of 
quality of bean, there would seem to be little to 
choose between the three varieties of tree in 
question. Indeed, all three kinds are frequently 
to be seen growing indiscriminately mingled 
upon the same plantation. 

THE YIELD PER TREE, 

in the case of mature trees, is taken to 
average 2} to3kilos. of dried beans annually. 
That this average could be substantially in- 
creased by the bestowal of a little intelligent 
care upon the trees admits of no doubt, since 
the product of one carefully cultivated planta- 
tion averages over 6 kilos. of dried beans per 
tree per season, and on anestate in Belmonte dis- 
trict there are trees that have yielded 15 kilos, 
of dried beans during a season, Experiments have 
been carried out in Bahia during the past few 
years in connection with the drying of cocoa by 
artificial heat. The results obtained from this 
system have been very encouraging. It has been 
found that the oven system dries the beans more 
thoroughly than does exposure to the sun, and 
that the cocoa thus 

ARTIFICIALLY DRIED—LOCALLY KNOWN As 

‘HsTUFA” COCOA—FETCHES HIGHER PRICES 
in the Bahia market than does the sun-dried 
article, by reason of its superior and more reg- 
ular colour. The system, however, has been 
adopted to only a very limited extent, owing to 
the comparatively heavy cost entailed in the 
construction of suitable ‘‘estufas” or stoves. 
At the present time there do not exist, probably, 
more than a dozen such _ stoves all toid through- 
out the entire cocoa-growing area, and these are 
confined to the plantations of certain amongst 
the wealthier cultivators in the Ilheos and 
Belmonte districts. 

Brazil, as a whole furnishes at the present 
time something over 

ONE-FIFTH OF THE WORLD'S SUPPLY 
of cocoa, Of that proportion the State of 
Bahia contributes over 80 per cent.; hence it 
will be seen that the State occupies a position 
of considerable importance in the cocoa 
market. The output of cocoa in the State 
of Bahia has increased from 14,000 metric tons 
in 1901-2 to 25 182 metric tons in 1907-8, and 
27,000 metric tons (estimated) in 1908-9.* 

The increase of output has been especially 
“marked during the past three years, and there 
is every reason to believe that such rate of in- 
crease will be maintained in the future. The 
area of land in the State suitable for the cultiva- 
tion of cocoa is practically unlimited in extent, 
and the conditions existing there are so favour- 
able for the growth of the cocoa tree that its cul- 
tivation entails upon the planter but a minimum 
of labour and trouble. The planters are, however, 


as ah EA ER 

* The exports of cocoa from Bahia in 1907 were as fol- 
lows :—United States of America 6,402,463 kilogs., Ger- 
many 6,167,180 kilogs, France 4,778,732 kilogs., United 
Kingdom 2,373,225 kilogs,, and 1,290,168 kilogs. to other 
countries, 


The Supplement te the Tropical Agriculturist 


HERAVILY HANDICAPPED BY LACK OF FACILITIES 


FOR TRANSPORTING 


their product to market. Throughout 
the entire cocoa-producing area of Bahia 
there does not exist so much as one kilometre of 
railway in operation, and the roads throughout 
the area in question are, as a rule, exceedingly 
bad. The prepared cocoa has to be conveyed 
upon mule back from the district in which it has 
been produced to some point upon the nearest 
river system, where such river happens to be 
navigable. There the cocoa is embarked in 
canoes for conveyance to the mouth of the river, 
whence it is shipped, mostly in native sailing 
craft, to the city of Bahia, whichis the market 
for all cocoa produced in the State. These 
methods of transport are both tedious and un- 
duly costly: a cocoa planter has to pay the 
equivalent of something like 4s. per bag (of 60 
kilos.) for transport from his plantations to the 
capital. Moreover, the 


EXPOSURE AND ROUGH HANDLING | 
to which the cocoa is necessarily sub- 
jected en route have the effect of depreciating 
the quality of the article to an extent which 
seriously lessens its market value. A railway has 
been projected, to extend from the port of Theos 
to Tabocas, via Armada, a total distance of 
some 50 kilometres. Work on this line has been 
begun, and it is expected that the section of the 
line to Armada, a distance of some 25 kilo- 
metres, will be completed within a period of 
twelve months from the present time, and that 
the entire line to Tabocas will be completed 
within two years. This line, which is being 
built by private enterprise, is merely a local 
affair, intended to benefit the cocoa planters of 
a certain area, and it will be of no assistance 
to the planters of the State as a_ body. 


WHAT IS NEEDED 
for the due development of the cocoa industry 
of the State is the construction of an adequate 
railway system which will connect the most im- 
portant of the cocoa-producing districts with 
one or other of the harbours which exist along 
the coast between 13° and 17°S8. H.M. Consul is 
informed that the State Government would be 
willing to grant the necessary concession, and 
furthermore to assist the project with a sub- 
stantial subsidy¢ for each kilometre of railway 
completed, and he is of opinion that the project 
of building the suggested railway system is one 
which merits careful attention upon the part of 
British capitalists interested in railway con- 
struction. A few 

PHOTOGRAPHS, 
illustrating some of the various phases of the 
cocoa industry, have been forwarded by the 
Consul, and are at the Commercial Intelligence 
Branch of the Board of Trade, 73, Basinghall 
Street, London, E.C.—Board of Trade Journal, 
April 1. 


SOAP FROM COCOA PODS. 


In the course of his memorandum on the 
cocoa industry of Bahia, Brazil, H.M. Consul at 
Bahia remarks that the cocoa pods, when 
fresh, can be utilised, in combination with wood 
ash, for the manufacture of a species of soap. 
—Board of Trade Journal, April 1. 


and Magazineof the Ceylon Agricultural Society. 


AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION 
IN CEYLON. 


IMPROVED PROSPECTS. 


In a colony such as this, where agriculture is 
the chief business both of natives and colonists, 
the necessity for agricultural education needs no 
demonstration. But while the requirements of 
the colonist may safely be left to be provided out 
of his own resources, those of the native sorely 
need the fostering care of Government: for he 
has still to be thoroughly weaned from the 
agricultural practices of a former generation. 
Indeed, native agriculture in Ceylon has almost 
stood still, while the Island has progressed in 
other respects ; the scope and methods of the 
goiya’s operations have not altered with the 
times, nor been adapted to present-day condi- 
tions. Inthe North of the Island agricultural 
practice has been modified by Indian influence, 
but in the Sinhalese districts no such change 
is noticeable, It is all the more necessary, there- 
fore, that some attempt should be made to move 
so inert « kody asis representéd by the mass of 
native cultivators. 


The first serious attempt that aimed at the 
improvement of native agriculture in Ceylon 
was that associated with the name of the late 
Mr. H. W. Green, ¢. ¢. s., who, as Director of 
Public Instruction, established a School of 
Agriculture, and himself managed the insti- 
tution till he was able to secure the ser- 
vices of a qualified man. Mr. Green set to 
work with much earnestness of BBEpoee, and 
was as sincere as he was hopeful and enthu- 
siastic. But there were serious flaws in Mr. 
Green’s scheme, His selection of a site (guided 
no doubt by considerations of economy) was 
most unfortunate; his curriculum of work was 
not sufficiently practical, and included much 
that was merely calculated to attract scholars ; 
he did not provide for the institution being 
utilised as a training ground for the large 
number of petty village officers who, in a great 
degree, control the destinies of the rural popu- 
lation. It was hardly to be expected that the 
sons of the conservative cultivators would have 
flocked to an institution to acquire an edu- 
cation in which they had no faith. The same 
difficulty as regards attendance was for a long 
time experienced in England, where agricultural 
education was decried by the practical farmers 
of the day as a fad; and this difficulty was a 
more formidable obstacle in an Eastern country. 


In addition to his school, Mr. (ireen 
appointed a_ staff of Instructors who were 
stationed in different parts of the Island. It is 
these officers that have been immortalised by 
Mr. F. R. Ellis, late of the Civil Service, who, in 
caustic vein, described them as ‘‘a happy band 
of youths who for a series of years received 
a good salary for cultivating Crown land with 
cattle supplied by (Government, and appro- 
priated the produce for their own use.” The 
humour of the passage is characteristic of the 
writer; but the facts are unfortunately not cor- 


rect, since many of the Instructors are known to. 


have done honest and hard work, while some of 


62 


489 


them carried out important experiments and 
demonstrations, details being on record. Sub- 
sequently the school and the staff of Instructors 
passed into the hands ot a Director on whom the 
mantle of Mr. Green had not descended ; with 
the result that, despite every effort, the insti- 
tution began to succumb to a starvation policy, 
and the Instructors—cut adrift—were left to 
work out their own ruin! The history of this 
first attempt to improve native agriculture is 
pithily summed up by the then Director of 
Public Instruction, Mr. S. M. Burrows, ¢.c.s., 
who, in his annual report for 1899, wrote :— 


‘‘ Two things are clear, even to a short experi- 
ence: thatthe Superintendent of the School of 
Agriculture has done his best under many 
difficulties, and that owing toa variety of cireum- 
stances, the school in its present condition can 
do very little good.” 


Soon after this the school was closed ; but it 
cannot be denied that, while it existed, though 
it had no brilliant record to show, it made its 
influence felt in many ways, and was responsible 
for an awakening, at least among the better 
educated classes of Ceylonese, to a sense of the 
importance of agricultural study, and the 
necessity for a change from old eth als to new. 


During Sir West Ridgeway’s régime agricul- 
tural education came under the consideration 
of a Commission ; its report—like the reports 
of many other Commissions—lies among the 
island’s archives! With the closing of the Agri- 
cultural School, a very practical though un- 
ambitious scheme was set on foot for imparting 
elementary instruction in agriculture and nature 
study through the Agency of School Gardens. 
So far this scheme has worked well, and the 
gardens have answered their purpose admirably, 
not merely as distributing centres, but also in 
inculcating the dignity of labour and reconcil-— 
ing the village youth to his rural surroundings, 


Since the constitution of the Ceylon Agricul- 
tural Society by Sir Henry Blake, an impetus 
has been given to the work of School Gardens, 
and great encouragement offered in other ways 
to agricultural improvement—by means of 
shows and Experimental Gardens, lectures and 
demonstrations ; but it has been left for H.E. 
Sir Henry McCallum to bring up, as subjects for 
administrative action, the questions of loans 
to agriculturists and the agricultural education 
of the masses. The financial embarrassment 
of the cultivator and his stolid indifference 
to his own interests are serious obstacles, 
that have to be removed from the path of 
progress. Both these are receiving H.E. the 
Governor’s serious attention. 


At last meeting of the Agricultural Board 
a paper entitled ‘‘ Suggestions for a local scheme 
of Agricultural Education” was read by Mr. W. 
A. de Silva, whose views, as those of a trained 
agriculturist, who has carefully studied the 
wants of his countrymen, are entitled to res- 
pect. Mr. de Silva’s paper,is reproduced, but 
we would like to add that he has rendered a dis- 
tinct service to his community as well as to 
Government by drafting out a practical scheme 
for consideration, It was stated both by the 


490 


Director of Public Instruction and the Acting 
Director of the Botanic Department that the 
scheme, or rather the curriculum embodied in 
it, was too ambitious. Possibly it is, and 
there is, no doubt, room for modification, but 
as his Excellency said Mr. Silva’s contribu- 
tion to ‘the study of the subject was ‘‘a valu- 
able paper,” in that it submitted a definite 
scheme—a working plan with all the necessary 
specifications for the construction of an educa- 
tional edifice. 


By a curious coincidence the Governor (as 
His Excellency himself announced) had also 
written a paper under the same title, but cov- 
ering a wider area. This paper, we were in- 
formed, is to be put before a board of qualified 
men who will advise the Government as to 
the technical details involved, after which it 
will be possible for His Excellency to recom- 
mend a definite proposal to the Secretary of 
State for the Colonies. All this is good news 
as promising an early beginning with measures 
that are calculated to materially help in lifting 
native agriculture out of the rut in which it 
has so long been and help it to move on, and 
so assist in the advancement not only of the 
native community but of the Colony at large. 


AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION. 
April 14th. 


Siz,— Agriculture (including in this term 
horticulture and arboriculture) is mainly a prac- 
tical art, and success follows good practice 
rather than mere sound theoretical knowledge, 
though this isno doubt valuable and helpful. 
What we need in Ceylonis not more theoretical 
knowledge of what should be done, but demon- 
stration of the success that follows good practice, 
based on the theoretical knowledge already 
abundantly available. 


Ceylon achieved its success in planting enter- 
prise through the introduction of practical 
school gardeners, about the middle of last 
century, who were placed in charge of coffee 
plantations. These men laid that foundation of 
good, sound practice in planting, cultivation and 
pruning and in businesslike management of the 
estates, which raised Ceylon to the front rank 
as a planting colony and the practical knowledge 
diffused among all the planters in Ceylon stood 
them in good stead when they had to abandon 
coffee for cinchona, tea and cacao, and now 
rubber. I believe, Sir, if we could similarly 
introduce a class of good cultivators for our 
lowcountry products a like success will be at- 
tained. We need practical schools where sound 
practical men could be trained, and no induce. 
ment of Government appointments should be 
held out to such men: the experience they wil) 
have gained should be a sufficient foundation 
on which to rear their future fortune. 


As a beginning, I think Henaratgoda Garden 
should forma branch of the Experimental Station 
at Peradeniya, and Lowcountry products should 
be cultivated in both places, both for obser- 
vational purposes and mainly for training those 
desirous of acquiring a sound practical know- 


The Supplement to the Tropical Agriculturist 


ledge of tropical agriculture. A course of two 
years’ training should be sufficient for this 
purpose. 

Mr. de Silva’s paper read before the Agri- 
cultural Board was an exhaustive one and erred 
in the sanguine, underlying hope that the youth 
of Ceylon would all take eagerly to agricultural 
studies when well-equipped educational insti- 
tutions are to hand: this is a vain hope and not 
justified by the experience of other countries. 
But what can be done is to make agriculture 
more attractive to all by the success attending 
sound cultivation and to demonstrate to the vast 
mass of villagers with what little effort properly 
directed they can make fruitful and profitable 
gardens of their now waste and neglected lands. 


As for scholarships for technical students to 
be trained abroad, Ll think we should not look ta 
the Government for help of such nature. The 
natives of the country are now rich enough to 
support suitable students in foreign centres to 
acquire expert knowledge in different branches 
of industry which it is desirable to introduce or 
improve in this country and it is inexplicable 
that this has not been done before now. 

° J.D. vd8. 


ESTATE MARKS ON PLANTATION 
RUBBER. 


An interesting article on this important 
subject appears in the current issue of ‘‘ The 
India Rubber Journal.” A manufacturer wri- 
ting in the same issue says, If proper steps, he 
says, were taken to standardise and brand the 
various. grades of rubber, there seems no 
adequate reason why in course: of time the 
bulk of the product of each Estate should not 
be sold under its marks and without reference to 
samples atall.... 


A number of Estates have already adopted 
this system of branding their rubber, but a great 
number have not ; and many brands are said not 
to be recognised or understood by the majority 
of mavufacturers—but, as the number of estates 
increases and the quantity of rubber produced 
becomes much larger than at present, the wide 
difference in the qualities of the samples ex- 
posed will become more marked and it will be- 
come necessary to buy from recognised brands 
and not from sample. Asis rightly pointed out, 
the mere branding of cases is not sufficient and 
is obviously likely to aid fraud. Each sheet, 
block or biscuit, should contain the brand of the 
estate clearly marked. 


This should be easily done during the process 
of preparation. At the present time when es- 
tates are wrestling with each other for the top 
price no man can say which will obtain the best 
price in the near future and it behoves each one 
to see that his rubber is plainly branded and 
that manufacturers and buyers at home are 
made acquainted with the various brands or 
marks, Another advantage sufficiently obvious 
lies in the fact that branding sheets and blocks. 
would prevent theft, 

T. W. M. 


—Straits Agricultural Bulletin, for April. 


and Magazine of the Ceylon Agricultural Society. 


PICKLED TEA. 


AN IMPORTANT BURMA PRODUCT. 


Of the wultifarious economic products of 
Burma, pickled tea is one of the greatest. It 
is manufactured throughout the hills and pla- 
teaux of the semi-independent frontier native 
States that lietothe west of the Salween river. 
These territories, now well-known as the Shan 
States, are bounded on their northern limits by 
the group of mountains called the Cachin Hills. 
The extreme Western slopes of these hills abut 
on the ranges of the Upper Chindwin valley 
which, in turn, connect them with the moun- 
tains of the Manipur State. This extensive, 
elevated, and little-known region of high moun- 
tain ranges, long river valleys, and gloomy 
ever-green virgin forests {isthe reputed home of 
the Camellia theifera, Griff. There is reason 
to believe that throughout the forests of this 
wild and romantic habitat of the tea plant, 
its fresh leaves have been bciled and eaten 
by the hill-tribes from a remote anti- 
quity. Indeed, this, to us remarkable, 
utilization of the leaves of the tea plant 
would appear to have been its chief and primal 
adaptation ; for, not only is the practice of eat- 
ing wet tea universal and familiar throughout 
its habitat, but the Shans, Burmese, and other 
Indo-Chinese nations, who inhabit the regions 
contiguous to the latter, appear to have early 
acquired a taste for and still adhere to the prac- 
tice of eating wet or picked tea as a luxury. 


The fact that to this day, up in Western 
Tibet, tea ‘‘is boiled with flour and butter and 
the mixture eaten like a pudding ” would point 
to the practice of eating wet tea as having 
been in vogue in the home of its production 
anterior to the introduction of the plant 
into China; for, it is well-known that the 
Tibetans acquired both plant and practice from 
South-Western China. Seeing that the species 
is indigenous to the mountains to the imme- 
diate north of the Northern Shan States, it 
would be but natural to expect to find so valu- 
able a plant cultivated there. In this expecta- 
tion we are not disappointed, for, throughout 
the mountainous State of Tawngpeng, which is 
the most northerly of the Northern Shan States, 
it has been systematically cultivated from time 
immemorial, the industry forming the chief 

ccupation of its people. The Tawngpeng State 
sinhabited by the Palaungs—a semi-wild tribe 
of Chino-Shans. There are several sub-divisions 
of the tribe, some wilder thanthe others; the 
most enlightened of them, the Paya-taga class, 
alone engage in the cultivation of tea. The 
Paya-taga Palaungs are very strict Buddhists 
and are, in fact, the ruling race. They are a 
short, well-built, hardy race and a quiet, indus- 
trious, and law-abiding community. 


Oxvinaky Burma TEA CompaReED wita INDIAN. 


Besides pickled tea, they also prepare dry 
tea of various sorts, the finest of which, 
the Shwe-pyi-twin doung, would pass easy 
muster with the best Indian teas. It is, how- 
ever, prepared only in very small quantities 
for local consumption being used by tho chiefs 
and grandees of the State, particularly on 
Durbar occasions, It is offered hefore the highest 


491 


in the land and passes for a great delicacy. The 
second best quality, the Shwe-pyi-pyin-doung, is 
a tea which is used by the majority of the well- 
to-do ; but, it too, like the Sh2o-pyi-twin-doung, 
does not leave the Shan States plateaux. Among 
the rest, although several grades find their way 
into the plains ot Burma, their quality is as yet 
so poor as not to excite special attention. They 
are, however, generally fragrant and cheap and 
are consumed by the poorer classes. When it is 
known that the Tawngpeng State, with its ex- 
tensive tea gardens and industrious populations 
lies within easy reach of Mandalay with which 
it is connected by rail and road ; that Kyaukme, 
the nearest railway station to the centre of the 
tea industry of the State, is itself but 110 miles 
from Mandalay ; that on the excellent Public 
Works cart-road which passes through Kye- 
gone, which is within three miles of the 
Kyaukme Station there are furnished bunga- 
lows at convenient intervals, it will be 
seen that opportunities for the expansion 
and development of the tea industry and trade 
are now wasted owing to no advantage being 
talen of the especially favourable facilities that 
offer. The delightful climate and fertile soils of 
the Tawnpeng State would seem to hold out 
two at least of the most essential requisites in 
any locality which may be selected for tea culti- 
vation. In regard to the rest, it may be stated 
that though, like every other mountain tribe, 
the Palaungs, too, are ar independent race, 
they are nevertheless humble and tractable and, 
being rude and as yet unsophisticated, are 
likely to appreciate considerate treatment. Be- 
sides the lines of communication and transport 
already available, a good cart-road from Tawng- 
peng to Kyaumke, which is to cost not less 
than four lakhs of rupees, is in the course of 
being opened out. The presence of the political 
officers, police and magistracy installed in the 
State by the Government of Burma may be 
taken as an indication of assured safety, as an 
earnest of the excellent relations subsisting bet- 
ween the little Durbar and the great Sirkar and, 
let us hope, a pledge as well that the investment 
and circulation of foreign capital there would 
meet with every encouragement and success. 


How to PREPARE PICKLED Tua, 


But to return to pickled tea: From 300 to 
400 tons of ita month for at least six of the dry 
months of the year are exported via Kayukme 
alone—a large and growing village which, but a 
few years ago, was a mere group of huts. ‘The 
whole of this enormous quantity of pickled tea, 
and more exported from elsewhere in the Shan 
States, finds a ready sale in the low country of 
Burma where it is prized as a great delicacy. 
Itis prepared in the following manner :—On 
picking the leaves they are carefully sorted into 
three, four, or even five grades, each of which 
subsequently forms one quality. The best of 
these consist of the tenderest leaves, in fact 
the very buds themselves. The sorted leaves 
are first gently rolled by hand after which 
they are boiled in water in which they 
are let to lie till cool. The vessel is 
then taken down from the fire and allowed to 
stand in the shade untilthe liquor in which the 
leaves are immersed begius to ferment and turn 
sour. The leaves are now ladled out into wooden 


492 


troughs in which they are worked about by 
hand and squeezed, and pressed, and finally 
wrung until they part with most of thecontained 
water. The mess is then thrown upon mats or 
boards and trampled under foot until it is re- 
duced toa waxy pulp. Itis now ofa very pale 
olive green colour, has an acid smell and a bit- 
terish taste, and is fairly well lumped together, 
Pickled tea is also prepared by steaming the 
rolled leaves in perforated pots superposed upon 
others containing spring water. The steamed 
leaves, when cool, are placed iu well-lined 
pits in which they are trampled down and 
covered up until required for sale. The fer- 
mentation following this interesting treatment 
begins directly the pits are closed and the 
pickle is said to be ready for use in from ten to 
fifteen days thereafter. It may thus be dug up 
and sold at any time from and after the first 
fortnight. In some localities the tea is prepared 
by steeping the leaves in water until they begin 
to ferment and decompose. 


Packine FoR Export. 


It is then packed in the baskets in which it ia 
sold. The bamboo baskets in which the tea is 
exported are very stout and closely woven; in- 
ternally they are thickly lined with dried leaves, 
bamboo bracts, bamboo slips, or other suitable 
material at hand. The prepared tea is dumped 
into them, tightly rammed down and bound up 
with bamboo slips. In packing the tea, two 
baskets are used, a lower truncately conical one 
with the smaller and truncated end so madeas 
to rest securely when placed on the ground, the 
upper a four-cornered circular one which, when 
filled, isinverted over the lower. The bamboo 
lips binding the two together vass over the 
upper and into the lower, the packing being 
considered complete only when each upper 
basket is further compressed on the top by a 
thick wooden stake about two feet in length. 
This stake is pressed down laterally across the 
middle of the inverted base of the basket and 
is held in its place by two pegs and some string. 
The package when ready looks cleft at the top 
for the uppermost third of its height from the 
ground. The sides of the inverted basket bulge 
out far over the rim of the conical lower and 
serve to balance the weight of the package. Two 
such packages are carried by a bullock, the 
means lof transport employed. The gross 
weight of a packet varies from 30 to 35 viss 
of about 34 pounds each, the case alone weigh- 
ing from 6 to7 viss. 


THE PRICE. 

The wholesale price paid the Shans per 100 
viss delivered in Mandalay varies with age and 
quality from R30 to R65. Brokers who buy it 
for merchants there, charge a brokerage of K2-8 
per 100 viss. The circumstance that the pro- 
duct does not keep in the packages longer than 
two months from date of delivery is a matter of 
some moment with dealers in it who often 
clear stock at a moderate profit. But under 
normal conditions, it sometimes amounts to 
as much as Kd per 100 viss. The retail 
price of pickled tea in Mandalay varies from 
10 to 12 annas per viss. Should the pickle show 
signs of decay at any time, the packages con- 
taining it are immersed in water, usually ina 
gunning stream or, if possible, under the bed 


The Supplement to the Tropical Agriculturist 


ofariver. Pickled tea, in the plainsof Burma 
as well as in some of the hills themselves, is 
looked upon as a great dainty and delicacy 
Wy. every indigenous class of the population. 

ithout it, the greatest religious ceremonies, 
the most sacred feast the highest social func- 
tions are regarded as incomplete; with it, on the 
other hand, every unction and status is believed 
to be secured the giver, It is, in fact, the ‘cake’! 
ofthe country. How such importance and so 
much significance have come to be attached toa 
putrescent mass of smashed up leaves which is 
bitter to the taste and offensive to the smell is a 
question into the discussion of which the writer 
does not propose to enter. Suffice it to say that 
with sesamum. oil, sesamum seed, fried garlic, 
some salt with or without grated green ginger, 
it forms a most remarkable concoction eaten 
daily by thousandsin Burma.—A.M.8. in Capital, 


CEYLON GOCONUT PRODUCE. 


Exports ror First QuaRtTex 1909. 


Owing to large shipments of oil and copra 
from all producing countries in 1907 and 1908, 
the New Year opened with congested markets 
in Europe and America, and hence alow but 
steady market, but with a weak demand for the 
quarter, all crushing centres being well sup- 
plied. As far as Ceylon was concerned, ship- 
ments of all but oil have been heavier than ever, 
during the quarter, and so the local prices have 
been as a result very low. [t is only now that the 
home markets for oil seem to have an upward 
tendency ; prices will probably harden towards 
mid-summer, by which time the heavy stocks 
will have been worked off, 

The shipments of copra for the quarter show 
an increase over any previous year, the total 
for the quarter boing some 31,500 cwt. over our 
record year, 1908, when during the three months 
Ceylon shipped no less than 112,873 ewt. Copra 
is now being largely used in the manufacture 
of anew edible tat in Germany where they are 
turning it outin very large quantities. We con- 
clude that this can be little else than the Ceylon 
Tea Plantations Company’s famous ‘‘ Edfa,” the 
manufacture of which was discontinued ; but 
once the rancidity and non-keeping difficulty is 
got over, there is no reason why our local oil 
mills should not yet be able—with our cheap 
labour—to lay it down in both London and New 
York, cheaper than the German Factories can. 


The year started off with very brisk work at 
most desiccated coconut mills, and by the end 
of February the figures showed a great excess 
over any previous year; but strange to say at end 
of March the excess over previous years was 
only 134,179 lb. If the demand is fair we should 
not be surprised, after the winter stocks are 
worked off—an immense quantity being used 
now for biscuit-making, if mills work full blast 
when this year’s export should reacha good 
29,000,000 lb. while it was only some 13,000,000 
Ib, in 1898 and 15 years ago only 5,500,000 Ib. 


The quarter was a good one for nut crops, 
resulting in more coming in at desiccating mills 
than Ceylon ever had before; and while those 
who pretended to know predicted that the supply 


and Magazine of the Ceylon Agricultural Society. 


would be very short, the output of desiccated 
nut was larger than any other yearin the decade. 
Mills are experiencing a run of very inferior 
nuts this year, both in size and in quality of ker- 
nel—doubtless owing to the prolonged drought: 
practically 15 months, with but very little rain- 
fall. Those who reckon on an outturn of three 
nuts to the pound, desiccated, find that it is 
nearer 34. The copra man, too, is finding that 
while he generally get a candy of copra from 
1,100 nuts, it now requires a good 1,300 to 1,400; 
and, consequently, they are feeling the pinch 
samo as the desiccating mills, several of which 
are either shut down or have been going slow. 
Of course, this is an exceptional year; but some 
people predict that nuts will be equally bad 
next year owing to the continued shortage of 
rainfall. Nuts in shell are far short of last year. 


The export of poonac is nearly even with our 
best year, 1906; and no doubt this excess will 
be well maintained, Yarn and fibre were very 
dull during the quarter, many mills being shut 
down, while the others have heen doing very 
little. 


CEYLON: ITS INDUSTRIES AND 
MATERIAL PROGRESS. 


BY JOHN FERGUSON, C.M.G. 


We make the following extracts from the 
paper read by Mr, John Ferguson, C.M.G., before 
the Colonial Section of the Royal Society of 
Arts, on Tuesday, April 6th, 1909. 


But far more important to the natives (and to 
many colonists) is our great industry in palm 
cultivation: coconuts chiefly, nearly all round 
the island, though mainly from Matara up the 
west coast to Puttalam, and all over the Ne- 
gombo, Chilaw, and most of the Kurunegala 
districts—and also of the palmyra palm in the 
north of the island, of arecas in Kegalla and 
western districts, and of Kitul (Caryotaurens) 
and the grand talipot (Corypha umbraculifer a), 
peculiar to Ceylon in the western interior. But 
until 100 years ago coconuts were used solely 
to provide food, and light through its oil, for the 
natives. 


THE FIRST CARGO OF COCONUT OIL 


shipped from Ceylon to Europe was in 1818; but 
no great impetus was given to the trade till about 
fifty years ago, when a great deal of planting 
took place,and mills on a large scale for expres- 
sing the oil were establishedin Colombo. Now, 
coconuts—through the manufacture of oil, of 
coir (the fibre), of desiccated coconut (for con- 
fectionery, &c,), and the shipment of copra (the 
dried kernel), of poonac (the crushed cake 
for stock, feeding), and of the nuts them- 
selves—form one of the largest of Ceylon indus- 
tries and provide work (as well as a great deal 
of their food) for a large number of the 
people, the Sinhalese more particularly. 


It must be mentioned that the coconut palm, 
which is supposed to flourish best onthe sea- 
coast, is successfully grown far in the interior, 
in the Matale, Kandy, Dumbara, Badulla, and 
other valleys, and also around towns in the drier 
districts,such as Anuradhapura. Indeed Dr Willis 


493 


shows (see ‘Tropical Agriculturist” for January, 
1909) that with irrigation this palm may be pro- 
fitably cultivated right over the North-Central, 
Northern, and Eastern districts wherever tanks 
are restored or are in working order. 


Whatever may have been the case in the 
North-central division, 1,200 to 1,700 years ago, 
there can be no doubt that with its peculiarities 
of soil, rainfall, and climate, Ceylon (at least 
the 8.W. portion) in the present day is far better 
suited to grow crops of leaf (tea), of various 
palm nuts (cocoa, palmyra, areca), of bark and 
spices (cinnamon, cardamoms, pepper, &c.), and 
now of the latex or milk of rubber trees, than 
it is for crops of cereals, whether of rice, maize, 
or dry grain. Accordingly, the modern pro- 
gress and prosperity of Ceylon is usually dated 
from 1837, the year in which coffee-planting 
on its hillsides began to attract general notice ; 
and, with many vicissitudes, ups and downs, 
this industry grew for 40 years until it reached 
@ maximum anuual crop of a 1,000,000 cwt., 
worth between four and five millions sterling 
grown on some 200,000 acres. Then came its 
downfall, an insidious fungus, which first ap- 
peared on the leaves of coftee in 1869, gradually 
weakening and practically killing the bushes, 
so that by 1890, the export had fallen to 
90,000 cwt., while now it is about 1,000 cwt. 
grown on a few hundred acres. In ten years 


CEYLON LOST SOME 500 OF ITS PLANTERS 


while the industry was practically ruined. Toshew 
the great progress of scientific agriculture within 
the past 30 years, the United States Agricultural 
Department and the Dutch at Buitenzorg, Java, 
leading the way (with Peradeniya, Ceylon, not 
far behind,) IL need only mention that Mr 
Wilson, the then and present Minister of Agri- 
culture at Washington (a Scotchman born), 
told me in 1904, that he felt certain his staff 
could overcome the coftee, as they had batied 
the orange, fungus, if they had encountered it 
in the ‘‘seventies;” while Dr. Treub in Java 
showed me last September a coffee plant which 
had been improved and developed until it was 
proved to be immune so far as Hemileia 
vastatric was concerned. Similar success has 
attended the work on cacao, tea, and palins of 
our Scientific Staff at Peradeniya (first started 
on a liberal scale by Sir West Ridgeway), and so 
we no longer fear the diseases or enemies of our 
tropical products. Most fortunately for the 
Ceylon planter, before his cinchona collapsed, 
experiments in tea cultivation and preparation 
demonstrated a new and profitable product far 
better adapted toits climatic conditions and 
soil than ever coffee was or possibly could be. 
The latter was an annual fruit crop (of cherries), 
the failure of which meant a whole year’s labour 
gone; while successive leaf crops from tea can 
safely be counted on for at least nine months of 
the year, the picking of the plant by the coolie 
women and children going on at intervals of eight 
to ten or twelve days. With 


WONDERFUL RAPIDITY DID THE PLANTING OF TRA 


extend until the 10,000 acres planted by 1880 
had increased to 220,000 by 1890, and now, in 
1909, we have between 390,000 and 400,000 acres; 
but some 60,000 of these are interspersed with 


494 


rubber trees, which, as the more valuable pro- 
duct, will gradually supersede the tea. 


[We omit references to cinchona and cacao. ] 


The story of the latest addition to the planting 
industries of Ceylon—namely in rubber-yielding 
trees, particularly Para rubber—has recently 
been related by more than one lecturer, but 
especially by Mr Herbert Wright, the author 
of the latest standard Manual for the rub- 
ber planter, before the Society of Arts. 
Suftice it for me to say that in 1876 the first 
plants of Hevea or Para rubber reached Ceylon 
from Kew (Mr H A Wickham having brought 
them from Brazil) and were planted at Hene- 
ratgoda.* These parent trees are now 34 years 
oldand are still flourishing. For some time consi- 
derableinterest was taken by many Ceylon plant- 
ers in rubber, but chiefly in the Ceara species, 
which disappointed expectations, and tea then 
proving a great success, rubber altogether got 
neglected save by a few fortunate individuals, 
who planted Para rubber, chiefly inthe Kalu- 
tara district. At the instance of the late Dr. 
Trimen, of the Botanic Gardens, I compiledand 
published a ‘‘Manual for Rubber Planters ” 
first in 1883; the second edition appeared in 
1887, and the third in 1899. But comparatively 
few copies of these were utilised in Ceylon, 
most of them going to the Straits and Malay 
States, where, in consequence of the failure 
of Liberian coffee, more general attention was 
given to Para rubber than in the case of Ceylon; 
and although of late years our planting has 
overtaken that of the Malay States, still there is 
a much larger proportion of mature trees in the 
latter than in our island. Thatis shown by the 
much larger export up to-date fromthe Malay 
States. But itis quite pessible that after some 

ears the exporisfrom the two countries may 
hema to approximate more closely ; for, the 
area planted with rubber in Ceylon (180,000 
acres) was, until lately, in excess of that planted 
in the Malay States. At the same time, it is 
quite a question whether the conditions of soil 
and climate are not, on the whole, 


MORE FAVOURABLE IN THE MALAY PENINSULA. ® 
On the other hand, we may be quitesurethat the 


* INTRODUCTION OF HEVEA To THE KAST.—It has always 
been geuerally understood that the first introduction of 
‘“ Hevea brasiliensis”, the para rubber tree, to the Kast 
was in 1876, whena consignment of rubber plants came to 
the Peradeniya Botanic Gardens authorities in Wardian 
eases, the plants being those raised at Kew from the seeds 
brought over from Brazilby Mr H A Wickham, This, how- 
ever, is not really the case, for the first ‘‘ Hevea” sent to 
the East. were three years previously in 1873. Our authority 
for this is Colonel Prain, Director of the Kew Botanic 
Gardens, who in response toa letter on the subject writes : 
“ Regarding the introduction of * Hevea brasiliensis ’ to the 
Kast, I take pleasure in enclosing a copy of a memorandum 
prepared from the entries in our inwards and outwards 
books which willexplain exactly how this matter stands, 
You will see that although the first distribution to the Kast 
took place in 1873 and that the distribution of 1876 which was 
rendered possible owing tothe energy of Mr Wickham was 
not the first yet to allintents and purposes; the 1876 distribu- 
tion isto be considered the first.” The memorandums sent by 
Colonel Prain are asfollows: Kew Inwards book, 1873, p 
54:--‘ From India Office, obtained by Markham from Jas. 
Collins. Seeds of ‘ Hevea’ India-rubber tree. Several hun- 
dred, about a dozen germinated.’ This entry is in Sir 
Joseph Hooker’s writing. The note on the germination of 
the seeds is inSir WT T Dyer’s writing. Outwards book 
1873, p 267:—‘ Six plants were taken out on September 22nd 
in a Wardian case by Dr. King to Calcutta.’” —- Ceylon Obser- 
ver, March, 1909. [But Dr Sir George King made little or 
nothing of thesix plants he got in 1873,—d. F.] 


The Supplement to the Tropical Agriculturist 


utmost justice will be done in liberal as well as 
judicious cultivation, harvesting and preparation 
of this valuable product in the Frat of the Crown 
Colonies, whose planters have so long acquired 
the reputation of leading the world iv everything 
connected with tropical agriculture, Only eleven 
years ago (1898), the area planted with rubber 
yielding trees in Ceylon was but 750 acres ; but 
three years after, this was increased to 2,500 
and by the middle of 1904 to 11,000 acres. Since 
then the progress has been veryrapid. By the 
middle of 1905, the returns showed close on 
40,000, and a year later over 103,000 acres ; while 
in August 1907, this was increased to 146,000; 
and on 31st July last (1908), the figures returned 
by the planters for the Directory worked 
out to 180,000 acres. At the same time good 
authorities consider that a certain limited 
percentage of this area, injudiciously planted, 
is not likely to come to maturity ; but fur- 
ther planting has gone on since. and is still 
going on, so that 180,000 to 200,000 acres may 
safely representthe industry as at present in 
Ceylon, Last year the export was 4074 tons 
against 1,413 tons from Malay States, and 
about 221 tons from Sumatra, Jehore, &c. (worth 
together probably £900,000); while it is esti- 
rmaated that in 1912 Ceylon may give 3,000 tons 
(worth at 3s 6d per lb., say £1,170,000), the 
Malay States 7,500 tons (worth £2,925,000), and 
all Southern Asia perhaps 12,000 to 13,000 tons 
(£5,070,000)., I submit these figures, how- 
ever, with some diftidence, as it is very difficult 
to know what additions Sumatra, Java, North- 
Borneo, as well as Southern India and Burmah 
may make to the exports of the two chief plant- 
ing countries, and also whether the price (now 
5s) will keep up to 3: 6d per |b. Be it noted,, 
however, that the Ceylon and Malay States 
planters are 


PREPARED TO FACE MUCH LOWER PRICES ; 


for their product can be turned out for 1s a lb. 
—indeed, Company reports have shown a cost 
so low as 9}d.t In a financial paper a few days 
ago, it was wrongly stated that plantation rub- 
ber could not be grown at less than 1s 6d per 
lb., whereas wild rubber, costing ls 8d, could 
be supplied for less if the necessity arose. This 
remains to be seen; for another authority de- 
clares it costs 2s 6d a lb. to bring Amazonian 
rubber to port of shipment. The scare about 


+ By the Ceylon Observer of March 15th, IT see that Mr 
Carruthers, the best authority in the Malay States, has 
stated that 60,000 acres were planted there with rubber 
last year, and that the total planted now 1s 240,000 acres, 
37,000,000 rubber trees, or an average of 154 per acre. If so, 
Ceylon has been outstripped ; tor I scarcely think the total 
of planted rubber in the latter can exceed 210,000 acres 
at the middle of this year. But these increases do not 
affect the calculation as to the position in 1912, so far as 
exports and values are concerned. For the first quarter of 
this year, the exports of rubber from Malaya and Ceylon 
are much in excess of same period last year. Mr Carru- 
thers also mentions that the Malay States have now 112,000 
acreg planted with coconuts. ‘ 


{ A REMARKABLE DIVIDEND.—An interesting annual _re- 
port--that of the Korossa Rubber Co., Limited, has just 
reached us from Ceylon. This company possesses twenty 
acres only in bearing and 26 acres of young rubber, The 
issued capital is £6,000, and the company pays, from, the 
profits made since the inception of the company, 21 per 
cent. dividend inits second year. Surely this is a record, 
and should provide food for thought for investors who 
have doubts as to the poteutialities of the industry. We 
know of no parallel case where twenty acres in bearing 
have paid such a handsome dividend on the whole of the 


and Magazine of the Ceyton Agricultural Society. 495 


‘« synthetic rubber ” seems to have subsided and 
most people accept the view of a high chemical 
authority that a commercial rubber is not likely 
‘to be produced inthe laboratory to compete in 
quality or price with natural rubber. You may 
judge from the figures I have given, how im- 
mensely important the rubber-growing industry 
in all Southern Asia, covering perhaps 520,000 
acres, now is, and what its value will be when 
thu trees are ready for tapping five or six years 
hence. Ata moderate computation, a crop of 
some 36,000 tons seems then (say in 1914) to be 
very likely and even at about halfthe present 
average in London, per lb.—or say 2s 6d, this 
means a value of £10,000,000 sterling in a single 
year. The share of this appertaining to Ceylon 
should not be less than £3,0U0,000 sterling five 
years hence. 


ELECTRICITY AND AGRICULTURE. 


Berlin, March 27.—Hitherto the progress 
made in the employment of electricity for agri- 
cultural purposes has been very restricted, and 
in spite of the frequent exhibitions, lectures 
and demonstrations, and the vigorous propa- 
ganda of the great electrical undertakings, the 
farmer has been backward in adopting the new 
source of power. The reason does not lie 
wholly in the reluctance of the agriculturist to 
make any changes in the systems of working 
with which he is familiar, but rather in the 
defective organisation for the distribution 
of electrical energy in country districts and 
for the want of the requisite machinery for pro- 
ving its economical importance to the farmer. 
The great industrial tasks which electric energy 
in the near future may be called upon to fulfil 
has induced agriculturists to bestir themselves 
in the matter, and one of the latest movements 
-has been the establishment of free intelligence 
centres where gratuitous information can be 
obtained by the farmer in the applications of 
electrical power for his requirements. Mr Pod- 
bielski, the former Minister for Agriculture, is 
at the head of this movement.—London Times 
Supptement, March 31. 


issued capital. It is quite clear that if the mature area 
was capitalised at actual cost there would have been a 
dividend considerably higher than 100 per cent.—‘' India 
Rubber Journal,” April 5th, [I may add to the above a 
ease that came under my notice when visiting Malay 
States in September last; an individual planter in the 
Perak district, with 100 acres planted with rubber trees 
which were all in bearing in 1907, netted an income for 
that year of £3,500.—J. F.] 

At one time the world’s record for the highest value 
in agricultural land was held by the celebrated vineyards 
in the Cantenac, Margaux, and other communities of 
the Bordeaux district. These values, seldom over one 
hundred and twenty pounds per acre, })id gone long before 
the advent of rubber plantations; but at their best they 
would have paled betore the three hundred pounds per 
acre, at which rate fairly mature rubber works out in 
the prices actually paid for shares insome of the Malayan 
companies. It is possible to frame almost any estimate 
of profit from a rubber plantation if the returns actually 
given by single trees or small plots be taken to represent 
actual figures. Single trees have given in a few months 
twelve to twenty pounds of rubber, worth ovor five shillings 
per pound; and small areas have given returns equal to 
more than sixty pounds sterling per acre profit in the 
year. The planter knows, however, that when he has to 
deal with more closely planted trees, and has to take 
the average for some years of large areas, the figures 
will be different, although still in his slumbers dreams 
born in avarice are more likely than nightmares of 
poverty !--Thomas North Christie in ‘Chambers Journal” 
or August, 1907, 


‘forming material. 


CASTOR OIL PLANT FOR GREEN 
MANURE. 


From analyses made of the castor plant, the 
total weight of crop per acre (1,210 plants) 
was found to be 6,655 lb. containing 2,323 Ib. 
of organic matter (34°91 per cent) or humus- 
The nitrogen added to the 
soil by a crop of castor would thus be 33°3 |b. 
per acre, while at the same time it furnishes 
21'3 Ib. phosphoric acid (anhydrous) and 53:2 
lb, potash. 


A NEW FODDER. 


We are always hearing of new fodders, but as 
a rule they turn out to be unsuitable in the 
end—particularly for tropical conditions. The 
agricultural press has lately been describing a 
plant called ‘‘ Chou Moellier”’ as suitable for 
feeding cattle, arapid grower, highly nutritious, 
and. frost and drought resistant. The plant, 
which isa species of cabbage, can be seen grow- 
ing at the Government Stock Gardens, where it is 
thriving well, but, as the Superintendent reports, 
it is more suitable asa village food stuff than for 
stock. Being acoarse kind of cabbage it should 
do very well as a vegetable for curry. 


RUBBER TANNED LEATHER. 


235/239, Finsbury Pavement House, 


London, E.C., April 9th. 
Dear Sir,—A short time ago I sent you 
samples of our Rubber tanned leather. Will 
you kindly put a piece down and see if the 
Ceylon white ant will attempt to eat it, and let 
me have a notice in your paper as to results ? 
We are making cricket balls for the principal 

Clube in England by Mr Reader.—Yours, &c., 


J. A. K, CLARK. 
[We will try the experiment as requested by 
our correspondent and will let him know the 
result in due course.—Ep., C.0.] 


. 


PLANTING IN DOLOSBAGE 


SUCCESS IN GREEN MANURING. 


Splendid weather for flush all over Dolosbage 
and estates generally are securing large increases 
on 1908 crop. 

Green manuring is proving. of great benefit to 
those estates situated at a distance from cart 
roads, and to which the cost of transport of 
artificial manures is prohibitive. A general 
improvement in the appearance of the tea is 
noticeable and pests, such as shot-hole borer, 
prove less troublesome under the shade of Al- 
bizzias and Dadaps.—dcc. Cor.--April 26. 


ANGLO-MaLay.—Messrs Harrisons and Cros- 
field inform us that the Anglo-Malay Rubber 
Co.’s crop for March was 38,715 lb. dry rubber, 
a figure which constitutes another record. 

Bautcowniz Esratk.—The rubber harvested 
on the above for March was 3,545 Ib. estimated 
dry rubber. The crop for the corresponding 
month last year was 2,241 Ib, dry. 


406 


WEED SUPPRESSORS. 


April 29th. 

Dear Sirr,—We have had quite a number of 
climbers and twiners recommended for suppres- 
sing weed :— 

(1) Passtflora foetida, (2) Mikanea Scandens, 
(3) Ipomaea ymosa, (4) Venonia Zeylanica, (5) 
Commelina Nudiflora. 

None of these, however, exert any specially 
beneficial action on the soil, while serving as 
weed suppressors. 

[ am inclined to add to the above list Mucuna 
utilis (commonly known as the velvet bean) and 
would recommend that it, or even our local M. 
pruriens, be tried for the same purpose. Itisa 
rank grower, even on sandy soils, and an excel- 
lent restorative crop, while it also smothers 
weeds and is itself a useful fodder. I may men- 
tion that the velvet bean thrives well in the 
lowcountry. 

To prevent misapprehension it is as well to 
state that the reputation of Commelina Nudiflora 
as a@ weed suppressor is an entirely spurious 
one. The ‘‘ wee modest” plant of our paddy 
fields (the Sinhalese ‘‘ girapala”’ with its brilli- 
ant blue flowers, has probably got confused 
with some robust climber.—Yours truly, 


P. S.—The following extract from the West 
Indian Agricultural News of March 6th, which I 
have seen since writing the above, will speak 
for itself :— 

Very favourable reports on the results of culti- 
vating the velvet bean (Mucuna Utilis) for green 
dressing purposes, and as a forage crop for 
cattle, come from South Africa, more particu- 
larly from Rhodesia. In the South African 
Colonies the crop is stated to have been grown 
with great success for some years past; it has 
given good results even on dry lands, and does 
not appear to suffer much from drought. 
A light sandy soil is best suited for the velvet 
bean, and on this it grows so thickly and 
forms such a large mass of vegetation, that 
all weeds are choked out. Being a leguminous 
crop, this plant is naturally of high value 
for improving the soil. In experiments 
carried out at Barbados in 1900, the velvet bean 
came second out of thirty varieties of legu- 
minous plants tested for the weight of produce 
yielded. In from two to three months a crop 
of vines was produced, the weight of which 
amounted to 12,343 lb. per acre. The velvet 
bean is largely grown as @ cover crop in orange 
orchards in Florida. 


FIGHTING THE DROUGHT. 


April 26th. 


Dear Sir,—The recent drought in the Chilaw- 
Puttalam District, and its effect upon coconuts 
and other cultivations, has set a good many 
minds athinking as to the best course to be 
adopted under similar conditions in the future, 
The great trouble in that district (and parti- 
cularly on the borders of the Decituruoya) is the 
low level to which the water table sinks. 

Prof. Whiting, one of the foremost authorities 
on questions connected with the soil, refers to 
a case that came within his own experience, 


The Supplement to the Tropical Agriculturist 


where the water table, during a severe drought, 
fell to 40 feet below the surface ; and yet he 
saw tobacco growing and thriving in spite of the 
fact that no rain had fallen since the tobacco 
was planted. Of course, proper cultivation had 
been going on all the time, with the result that 
when the loose top layer of soil was scraped 
away, a moist layer was found beneath it. The 
Professor is inclined to attribute this condition 
—so much to be desired in drought-stricken 
areas—in a great measure tothe special meteo- 
rological conditions that prevailed in the re- 
gion with its dry air, hot climate and strong 
winds which rapidly carry away moisture from 
the surface. 


It would, therefore, appear advisable in 
similarly situated areas, subject to severe 
droughts, to take action immediately rain 
falls, by working the top layer of soil 
with a view to getting it into a oose and dry 
condition, so that the moisture below it might 
be conserved. 


[t will thus be seen that a humid atmcs- 
phere under such conditions is a disadvantage, 
rather than an advantage, inasmuch as it would 
favour evaporation of moisture from the soil, 
whereas a dry atmosphere would rapidly carry 
away the moisture from the surface layer, and 
reduce further evaporation from below to a 
minimum, 


Strange asit may sound, though crops suffer 
if they do not get rain, they are actually better 
off if they get no rain during the growin 
season, but the means of being supplie 
with moisture when necessary. The most per- 
fect condition for cultivation, according to a 
competent authority, is an arid climate with 
water available for purposes of irrigation. If 
this is so, we could wish for nothing better 
that the North-Central Province, with its irri- 
gation works restored! One would like to have 
the opinion of an expert like Mr. Strange on a 
question of this nature. 


With rain at tolerably frequent intervals there 
is a natural inclination for the cultivator. to 
believe that his crops are getting all the 
moisture they need, and there is also the ten- 
dency to neglect surface tillage for the pro- 
duction of a ‘‘dry mulch.” Such @ mulch 
would, of course, be destroyed at every fall of 
rain, but must be constantly renewed if the 
water in the soil is to be saved for the use of 
the plant. 

The moral of the tale for the cultivator, whose 
land lies within a drought-stricken area, is to put 
all available hands to cultivate it just after rain, 
so as to prevent the moisture from being carried 
away, as it surely will afterwards. Cultivation 
should consist of surface tillage which should 
be kept up during the dry weather that fol- 
lows, so as to preserve a loose top layer of 
soil or, as the Americans call it a “soil blan- 
ket.” Occasional deep ploughing or digging to 
loosen the soil below and allow rain water to 
sink in, and frequent shallow cultivation should 
be the rule, but judgment, prompt action 
and perseverance are required in anticipating 
what is coming, beginning operations at the 
proper time and keeping if up.—Yours truly, 


DELTA, 


and Magazine uf the Ceylon Agricultural Society. 


PLANTAIN MEAL OR BANANA FLOUR. 


Colombo, May 4th. 

DEAR Sikx,—A correspondent, writing some 
weeks ago, stated that nothing appeared to have 
been done with regard to plantain meal in 
Ceylon. : 

Nearly twelve years ago Mr. Chas. Stouter, 
then Chief Clerk of the Anuradhapura Kach- 
cheri, took up the matter witha view, if possible, 
of starting a local industry. He forwarded 
through the Government Agent a sample upon 
which 1 made a report at the request of Govern- 
ment (vide Government Circular No. 150 of 
1898). Subsequently I made a further and more 
detailed report (vide No. 227 of 1898) in which 
particulars 7e cost, &c., will be found. 

Samples of the meal were sent by me to 
London, but the valuation placed on them was 
most discouraging. A large firm of manufac- 
turers of a well-known. patent infants’ and 
invalids’ food was ready to place orders for 
large quantities, but the rate they quoted dis- 
pelled all hope of a remunerative industry. 

It is the tendency to value the flour on the 
same basis as cereal flour that makes it impos- 
sible to push the enterprise, 

Plantains or bananas (unlike cereals) have a 
distinct value of their own as fruit, and quota- 
tions for the meal must be on an entirely 
different basis if its special merits as a digestive 
food are to be availed of.—Yours truly, 


C. DRIEBERG. 
BANANA-GROWING IN MEXICO. 


TESTIMONY OF AN Ex-C¥YLON PLANTER. 
(To the Editor of the Over Seas Daily Mail.) 
Sir,—As one well identified with tropical 

agriculture in Mexico, I notice with interest 
the letter of Mr Henry S Penny, of Mexico 
City, which appeared in your issue of January 
23rd, and without in any way disparaging the 
growing of bananas in Mexicu, I have to givean 
unqualified denial to his statement that bananas 
can be commercially grown with success in that 
country. 

My connection with Mexico dates back to 
some fifteen years ago, having been interested 
in one of the best known and probably the 
largest agricultural properties in that Republic, 
having an area of some 130,000 acres, which, 
without doubt, owing to its location for cheap 
transport, nearness to two ports of shipment— 
viz., Vera Cruz and Tlacotalpam—navigable 
river connection, and railroad facilities, cannot, 
I think, be surpassed in Mexico. Had it been 
possible to grow bananas commercially with 
that success, as statedin Mr Penny’s letter, I 
should have had years ago one of the largest 
banana plantations in the world, from the fact 
that Vera Cruz is only two days’ distant from 
the great distributing fruit ports of New 
Orleans and Galveston. The great drawback 
to banana-growing is lack of labour, which is 
amply verified by all Consular reports, and this 
is also felt in the growing of coffee, rubber, 
tobacco, pineapples, oranges, and other tropical 
products. — ; : 

As an old planter in Ceylon and other count- 
« ries I haveto state that 1 have seen no country 


i 


497 


where the banana can be grown to such per- 
fection as in Mexico, and this also applies to 
pineapples, some of which are grown in the 
locality of the property I am interested iu, and 
which turn the scale at thirty to thirty-two 
pounds each, and which, if possible to bring 
to. Covent Gardens, would realise enormous 
prices. Coffoe equal, if not superior, to any 
{ have grown in Ceylon, can be grown’ in 
Mexico, but many of the plantations have been 
abandoned: through lack of labour. This also 
applies to the difficulty in growing rubber in 
commercial ;quantities unless in one or two 
favoured ah, ee 

Is may state, were it not for the labour, 
question, Mexico without a doubt could supply 
the greatest amount of tropical products of any 
country in the world, but until this difficulty 
is got over I should advise intending Britisn 
investors to take a warning from the Americans, 
who have lost millions sterling during the past 
ten years in the attempt to grow agricultural 
products profitably in Mexico. 

For profitable banana-growing, as also other 
tropical fruits, I do not think for the British 
investor there is any country equal to our own 
West Indian colonics, notably Jamaica, and 
I cannot understand why wore attention is 
not paid to this industry in Great Britain, as 
at present, outside of the few shipments carried 
by the Elder Dempster Line, this industry is 
left entirely in the hands of Americans, who 
reap enormous profits. 

Bananas yield £20 to £25 per acre; pine- 
apples £40 to £45 per acre; and oranges, varying 
according to age of trees, £20 to £200 per acre. 

Wm. Latna Matcoumson, 

Late Vice-President of the United States 
Banking Corporation. 

Mexico City. 


THE ART OF MANURING. 


The art of manuring consists in providing, by 
the application of manures suitably chosen, for 
the presence in the soil of all the principal 
foods of the plantin sufficient quantity, and in 
a state in which the plant can make use of them. 

Plants do not live on a single nourishing 
substance, but ona food composed of various 
nourishing substances. That is a truth which 
has constantly to be borne in mind. 

Thus, if only one of the necessary ingredients 
of the food of the plant be wanting, or be pre- 
sent in sufficient quantity, the plant cannot de- 
velop and thrive to perfection. 

A plant can form no leaves, no stems, and no 
grain from nitrogen or phosphoric acid or potash 
alone ; the several nourishing materials must 
act together, and each must be available 
in proper quantity. For instance, oats are 
capable of producing a crop of 11,500lb from 
80lb of nitrogen, 1001b of potash, and 50lb of 
phosphoric acid; but if, besides the 100lb of 
potash and 50lb of phosphoric acid, only 40lb 
of nitrogen be present inthe soil in a form in 
which the plants can take itup, only the hall of 
the crop can be produced. 

In practice, the question for the farmer is, 
‘* How can I furnish to my crops nitrogen, phos- 
phoric acid, and potash in the best forms and 
at the least cost? ”—Auckland Weekly News, 
April 8, 


498 


COCONUT DESICCATING IN 
AUSTRALIA. 


[COMMUNICATED.| 


As a result of a successful experiment made 
with asmall trial parcel of Ceylon coconuts 
at the Parramatta Desiccating Mills in Aus- 
tralia a shipment of 10,000 nuts went  for- 
ward early this week consigned to that factory. 
This is probably the first shipment of the kind 
that has been made to Australia; certainly 
nothing for actual commercial purposes has 
been shipped thither up to the present date 
[Chamber of Commerce Price Current gives 
5,000 nuts shipped to 38rd May.—Ep. 
C.0.] This opening up of a new market 
for the Ceylon nuts will undoubtedly prove of 
considerable interest to all local cultivators of 
this product, and while the exports continue 
to increase and fresh centres are established 
for the consumption of this particular article, 
prices must naturally be expected to advance 
in proportion. Statistics indicate that the total 
exports of desiccated coconuts are steadily on 
the increase, and any newer fields in the 
world’s markets, where a demand is once cre- 
ated and consequently led to expand, will tend 
to stimulate the local industry to an appre- 
ciable extent. With regard to the latest 
enterprise in Australia, it is expected that 
the Ceylon nut, once its better quality is 
recognised, will gradually oust the article now 
imported there from the closer Dutch territories 
and such of the South Pacific Islands as now 
cultivate coconuts. There is at the present 
moment only one desiccating factory in 
Australia, but its establishment can only be 
regarded as the most practical indication that 
the demand is growing and that there is a 
sufficient justification for the outlay of a 
large initial capital in the requisite machi- 
nery. [If this can be said of the Australian 
Colonies, it is ouly to be expected that the 
United Kingdom in addition to Germany, 
France, Belgium and Holland as well as Ame- 
rica will in time realise the economy of impor- 
ting the raw nut and carrying out the desic- 
cating process by themselves instead of, as at 
present, importing the manufactured articleand 
leaving rather a large margin of profit, con- 
sumed in percentages according to value, to 
middlemen. While on this subject it is interest- 
ing to note that the fine, medium and coarse 
grades are by far the most in demand and the 
fancy grades known as flake and strip (or thread) 
are seldom stocked in quantities by local millers, 
This is doubtless due to the fact that the former 
grades are better adapted to the manufacture 
of the various and unique forms of confec- 
tionery now produced, There should be no 
fear that the demand would in time exceed 
the supply if the industry is carefully watched 
locally and the cultivation extended in propor- 
tion to the increasing demand. It must be 
remembered that the local consumption alone 
is very considerable, and when the aggregate 
exports are reckoned there is every reason to 
hope that local cultivators will encourage the 
industry to the fullest possible extent. 


The Supplement to the Tropical Agriculturist 


RUBBER ROLLERS. 


We invite attention to Mr. G. H. Golledge’s 
advertisement which appears in tkis issue. Mr. 
Golledge’s name is already well known in the 
Rubber Estate Factory through the Michie-Gol- 
ledge Coagulator, etc. He is now prepared to 
recommend a set of rollers for dealing quickly 
and efficiently withthe freshly -cousulated latex, 


MADRAS CENTRAL AGRICULTURAL 
COMMITTEE’S PROGRESS REPORT. 


The following are extracts from the report of 
the work done by the Committee for the half- 
year ending the 31st March, 1909 :— 


SEEDS AND PLANTs. 


Cassava.—At the request of the Committee the Secretary 
of the Ceylon Agricultural Society has supplied 300 Cassava 
cuttings for experiment by the Pudukotta District Associ- 
ation. Itis reported that 50 per cent of the cuttings failed 
to germinate. 


GUINEA GRASS.—Arrangements were made for the supply 
of guinea grass to the Pattukottai Branch Agricultnral 
Association in Tanjore and to Messrs R Mahadeo & Co., 
Royapetta, Madras, from the Palur Agricultural Station, 


GROUNDNUT.— Mr D Markandeya Sastriar of Ongole ap- 
plied for Japanese groundnut seeds (small and large) for 
experiment, and the Director of Agriculture has been re- 
quested to supply him with six Madras measures of the 
seed, The Committee has also arranged for the supply of 
Mauritius groundnut seed for five acres to Mr Suryaprakasa 
Modelliar, Shrotriemdar of Chenneerkuppam, near Poona- 
mallee. 


CARDAMOMS.—A gentleman from Madura applied for in- 
formation regarding the conditions under which cultivation 
of cardamoms could be successfnlly carried on. In reply to 
a reference made to the Superintendent of the Agri-Horti- 
cultural Society, Madras, he was good enough to state that 
cardamoms are successfully cultivated at an elevation of 
1,€00 to 4,000 feet and with a rainfall of 80 to 120 iuches, 
and that the cost of reclamation, yield, etc., could not be 
estimated asso much depended on different conditions 
of soil, climate, etc. This was communicated to the appli- 
cant.and his attention was drawn to the books on the 
subject published by Messrs A M and J Ferguson, Colombo, 


AMERICAN COTTONS.—A large landholder of Kevali in 
Nellore applied for seeds of the best varieties of American 
cottons and the Director of Agriculture, Bombay, has been 
requested to supply the gentleman with small quantities 
of the seven varieties reported to have given satisfactory 
results, viz., ‘Texas Long Staple, King’s Improved, New 
Orleans, Truith, Allen’s Hybrid, Tata’s Allen’s Hybrid and 
Dharwar American. 


ASSAFETIDA PLANT.—Sometime in 1906, an_ enterprising 
member of the Kurnool District Association obtained from 
a florist in Caleutta two plants alleged to have been the 
assafcetida plant. Great care was taken in cultivating 
it, and the plant grew luxuriantly and attracted consider- 
able attention during the past two years. With a view to 
extend the cultivation of the plant in the adjoining Guntur 
District, further enquiry was made and specimens of the 
leaf were obtained from Kurnool and subjected to expert 
opinion. The result was the plants have been found to 
belong to another species altogether, viz.. Gardenia Gum- 
mifera from which aresin called Dikkamalli is obtained, 
This was communicated to the Associations concerned and 
a circular letter was also issued to all Associations re- 
questing them toforward to the Committee specimens of 
any new seeds or plants for correct identification before 
undertaking any further experiments, 


NITROGEN FIXING BACTERIA.—The attention of the 
District Association at Salem having been drawn to this 
subject by articles appearing in the ‘“Review of Reviews” 
the Committee asked for further particulars. The Com- 
mittee found thatexperiments conducted at the Govern- 
ment Gardens at Ootacamund have proved a failure and the 
consensus of opinion pointed to their unsuitability to the 
climatic conditions of this Presidency. The Salem Associa- 
tion has been informed to this effect,—M. Mati, April 19, 


and Magazine of the Ceylon Agricultural Society. 


A RUBBER HUNT. 


BY FRANK E, VERNEY. 

It is dawn inthe Nigerian village of Ojuka, and 
shimmering shafts ofsunlight gleam through the 
scattering mist like swords of light in seabbards 
of cloud, carving out of the greyness, in bold re- 
lief, animated groups of polished ebony figures 
flanked by rows of mud huts steaming in the 
warmth of the young day. 

The scene is the village street; there is only 
one street. [tis wide and straggling, with a 
mat fence anda ‘Ju Ju” tree at eitherend, This 
morning it wears an aspect of unwonted anima- 
tion at an hour when usually the crowing cocks 
perched up in the hut thatches are the only 
signs of inhabitance which the village betrays. 


Every hut has disgorged its tenants, and the 
street isalive with the bustle and movement of 
a busy excitement. Groups of grinning black 
menare girding themselves with Long Dane guns, 
spears, machettes, knives, etc. Women are pack- 
ing into porterable loads, rice, yams, bananas, old 
gin bottles, and kerosene tins tilled with tresh 
water, Pot Paunched piccaninnies are joyfully 
capering round their elders, and grizzled old 
greybeards are enviously eying the activities of 
their more nimble kinsmen. 


Not so very many years ago an early morning 
scene like this in a West African bush village 
would have indicated a raid on a neighbouring 
tribe for slaves or plunder, except that then the 
women and children would have been cowering 
with anxious faces.in the headman’s stockade 
instead of being joyfully engaged in the prepara- 
tions ; and the men would have been grim, not 
gay. But today, the proceedings are borne of 
the demands of civilisation, and the pursuits of 
peace for the bloodless rivalry of trade has re- 
placed the combats of inter-tribal strife. There 
does not appear to be much connection between 
the daybreak proceedings of these primitive 
pagans and, say, a modern motor-car, but, as a 
matter of fact, there is, for the Ojuka villagers 
are off for a day’s rubber collecting in the ad- 
joining forests. They are going to preside at 
the first process in the evolution of an automo- 
bile tyre. These savages are going to wrest 
from one of Nature’s vast treasure-houses a 
product indispensable to modern civilisation. 
Heedless of the ultimate uses to which the rub- 
ber they are going to collect will be put, care- 
free as the wind, and as irresponsible as a crowd 
of young schoolboys off for a picnic, the Ojukas 
make their preparations. 


At length all is ready. Each man is loaded 
with his own requirements, In a bundle on his 
head is his day’s food and his collecting para- 
phernalia, and in his hand is his gun or spear 
to frighten away the evil spirits of the forest. 

So the start is made and out of the village in 
single file marches the procession of collectors. 


Into THE Forsst. 


Through fields of waving corn and millet 
where the food supply of the village is growing, 
and under gigantic mango-trees that strew the 
pathway with luscious yellow fruit, the proces- 
sion passes, until at length it reaches the edge 
of the forest, 


499 


Here there isa narrow track that worms its 
way for miles and miles through the dense forest. 
Into its gloom the collectors file with a last 
look at the sunlight fields. Down the dim and 
lofty aisle of Nature’s temple between mammoth 
creeper-clad tree pillars which tower up from 
the thick carpet of centuries of fallen leaves, till 
their topsare lost inthe leafy gloom of a vast 
canopy of many mingled branches, the caravan 
winds its way. Its members heed not the wons 
derful beauty of the forest flora, and pass un- 
noticed exquisite flowers which would deli- 
riously delight horticultural Europe. Neither 
do they note any of Nature’s more useful riches 
beyond that for which they have come. 


Every native is busy looking for the trees 
which he knows will fill his calabashes with the 
milky rubber latex. He has before been shown 
what to look for, and his eyes are only for the 
straight-trunked rubber tree on the trailing 
rubber vine, 


Each collector works independently, and so 
when the rubber area is reached men begin to 
drop out of the procession as they observe likely 
spots, No general halt is called. The line of 
collectors moves on until itis altogether dissi- 
pated by the last man falling out to commence 
operations, and the route and its vicinity is full 
of ‘‘tappers.” 

TAPPING. 

Reaching the desirable spot, the dusky heathen 
divests himself of his load by distributing on the 
ground, Then machette, or knife, in hand, he 
proceeds to examine the trees and make his 
selection, He makes series of gashes in the bark 
of each selected tree, and under each gash places 
a calabash for the exuding latex to run into, 
Instead of making a series of separate incisions, 
he may cut a long channel down the length of 
the tree-trunk with lateral cuts branching into 
it, forming a sort of herring-bone pattern. Then 
at the bottom of the central channel he will 
place a large gourd, 


When the collector has fixed all his available 
receptacles to the trees which he has tapped, 
and the latex begins to exude, he has nothing to 
do, but make an occasional round of his tappings 
to see that everything is satisfactory. It takes 
a few hours for the vessel to fill, and the inter- 
vening period is spent principally in eating and 
drinking. The wait is further enlivened by 
conversation, which, by reason of the dis- 
tance between the speakers, is carried on in 
full-powered shrieks. When a_ particularly 
striking remark is made it is. repeated 
from man to man in tones of varying inten- 
sity along the whole line of collectors, so 
that at times the conversational area extends 
for several miles. When the calabashes are full 
or the tappings have finished their yield, they 
are taken down, and the flow of latex, if still 
continuing, stops itself by congealing on the 
cut bark, 

The next thing which the native does is to 
empty the milky latex into his cooking-pot, 
wherein it is boiled until it solidifies sufficiently 
to make it handable. When the desired condi- 
tion of coagulation is achieved the native rolls 
the crude rubber between his greasy palms into 
dirty white balls, when it is ready for sale to 
the trader, 


500 


THe RETURN. 

In the course of rolling the rubber into 
barterable balls some ot these primitive 
sons of the forest will with careful craftiness 
core their balls with stones or lead bullets, 
thus increasing the weight of the produce, 
for which they are paid so much per Ib., 
and when ultimately the trader cuts the balls 
of rubber into two pieces before weighing, the 
black vendor always expresses blank amaze- 
ment at the discovery of such things inside his 
rubber. 


Having gathered and prepared his rubber, 


the coilector makes up his load again, and with’ 


the four or five pounds of rubber which his day’s 
Jabour has yielded he prepares to return, Every 
one finishes at much the same time, and when 
the furthermost men start back the others are 
ready to join, and so, growing in size as man 
after man rejoins, the procession proceeds on its 
homeward way, until ultimately it emerges com- 
plete out of the forest and arrives with great 
eclat back into the village. 

In the evening every inhabitant of Ojuka 
will gather in the streat to feast and sing 
to the beating of tom-toms, and there will be 
great discussions as to whether it is more 
profitable to dispose of the rubber to Moma 
the Hausa trader, one of the bush ‘ bagmen,’ 
or toload up canoes cn the creek and go to 
white man Holtys’ trading station. Some are in 
favour of ‘Moma,’ and others want to go to 
‘ Holtys.’ Whichever is done, each 1aan will 
drive a hard bargain, and the trader who pays 
the best price will get the produce. 

In each mud hut that night dusky dames are 
dreaming of yards and yards of pretty cloth and 
new cooking pots, whilst their lords and masters 
are indulging in anticipatory revels in the de- 
lights of rolls of tobacco, gun powder and shot, 
new knives, cowries (currency), which the 
‘heap dam fool trader’ will give for the rubber. 

Six months Jater, this rubber gathered from the 
heart of a remote African forest by these dusky 
Nigerian villagers will be fulfilling its purpose 
in the heart of civilisation.—Pal/ Mall Gazette, 
April 13, 


THE HANDBOOK OF NYASALAND 


is a handbook in the true sense of the word, and 
though only in the first year of its publication 
it has been admirably compiled. It contains 
chapters descriptive of the Protectorate, its 
Geology and Minerals, Zoology with Game Regu- 
lations, its Woods and Forests, etc. ; sections 
are devoted to Administration, Revenue and 
Expenditure, Commerce, and all other subjects 
appertaining to a complete Directory of the 
country. A _ historical sketch of the Protec- 
torate is interesting, while many valuable hints 
for the preservation of the health of the resident 
are given in the medical section. With agri- 
culture as the chief industry of the people a 
large portion of the handbook is devoted to the 
products cultivated and some good practical 
notes with illustrations are givén of Cotton, 
Tobacco, Fibres, Rubber, etc. 

The book is printed and published by the 
Government Printer, Nyasaland Protectorate, 
and though compiled in part from oflicial records, 
it is no} ap official publication, Price js ds 6d. 


The Supplement to the Tropical A griculturist 


TAPPING AT HIGH ELEVATIONS. 


RESULTS IN SOUTHERN INDIA. 


Some four years ago we published a number 
of interesting details regarding the results ob- 
tained from tapping Para and Castilloa trees at 
high elevations in Southern India. The special 
estate on which the operations werecarried out 
wasthe Hawthorne Estate on the Shevaroys, 
which is situated about 3,500 feet above sea 
level and our correspondent’s conclusion was 
as follows :—‘‘ It seems fairly certain that at 
3.500 feet in South India we can get rubber 
to grow and yield at a paying rate.” Little has 
since been heard of rubber tapping at high ele- 
vations in Southern India, the reason being, we 
understand, that it has been found more profi- 
table to reserve the more mature trees for seed 
it being well-known that tapping rubber trees 
affects their seed-bearing powers. We have now, 
however, been favoured with details of the ex- 
perimental tapping work carried out on Para 
and Castilloa rubber trees growing on the Glen- 
burn Estate on the Nilgiris, at an elevation of 
3,500 feet, at the end of February, or in one of 
the driest seasons of the year. None of the 
trees had more than one spiral which, in some 
cases, was started at 6 feet from the ground and 
in others at only 3feet. A girth of 16 ins. 
was the fixed limit from which the spiral 
started. On six days 21 men, whose wages 
are 35 a8, per man, operated on 745 trees 
and extracted theretrom 45 lb. 2 ozs. of 
latex, which were made into thirty-three wet 
biscuits weighing 14 Ib. 11 oz., and 1 Ib. 
of scrap remained, making a total of 15 Ib. 
11 oz. of rubber. Thirty-one Castilloa trees 
produced three biscuits weighing 1 Ib. 6 oz. 
The results obtained, though of little value 
as to exact or maximum ylelds, nevertheless 
give a good idea of what may be expected 
per tree. Sixty tappings of Para rubber similar 
to those described above, 1 ¢., from partially 
tapped trees in dry weather, during a year, 
would mean 12 oz. wet rubber per tree obtained 
at an average cost of 4 as. 9 pies per lb. The 
coolies employed in the tapping referred to 
had never done any similar work three weeks 
previous to the days on which these results 
were obtained ; and there is little doubt that 
larger amounts of latex might be expected 
per head if experienced coolies were employed. 
The usual practice, moreover, is to have double 
spirals 6 in, apart up to an average height of 
6ft., and this, if introduced, would probably 
cause an increase in the returns.—M. Mait, 
April 29. 


RUBBER PLANTING IN TRINIDAD. 


The latest report of the Warden, Naparima 
Union, Trinidad, makes reference to the rubber 
planting on Sir Edward Tennant’s estate in 
the Pointe-a-Pierre district. ‘Lhe area planted 
with rubber contains 18,00 Castilloa trees, and 
experimental plantings of Hevea and Funtumia 
trees are also being made. About forty trees, 
of seven years old, were tapped in August last, 
and yielded 4 1b. of dried rubber, or an average 
of about 14 oz. per tree, which is considered a 
fair result, 


and Magazine of the Ceylon. Agricultural Society. 


THE BAR TO AGRICULTURAL 
PROGRESS IN CEYLON: 


CHEAP CAPITAL AND HOW TO 
PROVIDE IT. 


A ieady supply of cheap capital may, wo 
venture to think, be regarded as the essential 
rimary condition of agricultural improvement. 
"he recognition of the principle has been long- 
delayed in Ceylon but there is evidence that 
it is now being gradually achieved. Dr. Willis, 
in summing up the most noteworthy agricul- 
tural features of the year 1908, in his recently 
issued administration report gives premier place 
to the announcement of the ‘‘ steadily grow- 
ing recognition on the part of the public 
that the real bar to agricultural progress 
among the poorer natives, who form the great 
part’ of the cultivating community of Ceylon, 
is lack of capital and that it is almost idle 
to establish agricultural societies and other 
‘acricultural’ organizations till this difficulty 
has been overcome.” It was extremely gratify- 
ing to those who have the well-fare of the vil- 
lagers at heart and who have for some years past 
being trying to improve their position by stimv- 
lating their industries to learn from H.EH. the 
Governor at last meeting of the Agricultural 
Board that the question of loans to agricul- 


turists, agricultural co-operation an 1 agricultural. 


banks, is one which His Excellency has ‘‘ very 
much at heart,” and one upon which he is to 
place his views before the Agricultural Society 
at no distant date. ‘he Ceylon cultivator’s 
methods and practices, antiquated though they 
be, are the best that are within his reach 
and without providing him with cheap capi- 
tal to realise his own ideals there is not much 
use in placing new ideals before him. The 
rural Sinhalese are essentially a race of culti— 
vators and if their position is to be bettered 
it must necessarily be by the advancement and 
improvement of their agricultural industries. 
The goiwa is generally regarded as apatheti- 
cally indifferent to progress and obstinately 
opposed to change, but recent experience 
has shown that his immobility and torpor 
have been to some extent exaggerated. The 
increased interest in new products and better 
methods of cultivation which followed the 
institution of the Agricultural Society by Sir 
Henry Blake has proved to be more than a mere 
mechanical response to abnormal stimulation, 
The revival has gradually grown and evidence 
of this is being afforded in the numerous 
and successful agricultural shows being held 
from time to time in many purely native 
districts, But progress among the poorer 
classes, as Dr. Willis points out, and as His Ex- 
cellency recognises, is impeded by the want 
of capital. This is the obstacle the well-wisher 
of the native agriculturist has to overcome. 
How thon can cheap capital be made avail- 
able to the village agriculturist ? In most 
countries experience has shown that the best 
machinery is the organisation of co-operative 
credit :; every agriculturist has a greater or 
less amount of personal credit at his com- 
mand, or in other words people believe that the 
ordinary agriculturist means tu pay his debts ; 


501 


and if a number of agriculturists agree to club 
their personal credit, the mass of it becomes 
relatively large, sufticiently so to command a 
reasonable supply of capital for their common 
use at much lower rates than they as indivi- 
duals couid hope to secure, It is this clubbing 
of personal credit that is the foundation of 
co-operation ; in comparison with it all other 
questions are mere matters of machinery, 
Now the question is whether the villagers 
of Ceylon will or will not club their credit. 
That was the question upon which much 
discussion took place when the question of or- 
ganising the supply of agricultural capital came 
within the sphere of practical politics in India. 
It could be settled definitely and satisfactorily 
only by experiment and eventually the Govern- 
ment of India legislated in such a way that 
experiment was possible. The result was emi- 
nently satisfactory. We think similarly satis- 
factory results would follow in Ceylon and we 
trust the necessary assistance from Government 
to make a start will be forthcoming. We have not 
seen Mr Fremantle’s last report on Co-operative 
Credit Societies in India, but we have by usa 
cutting sent us some time ago of a review of it 
last year reproduced in an agricultural journal 
from the Allahabad Pioneer. It deals with the 
initial difficulties in the matter and we venture 
to quote the following, believing it will be in- 
teresting, itnot helpful, to those in Ceylon who 
are now considering this question :— 


‘“‘It must then, we think, be taken as settled 
that the agriculturists of the United provinces 
already value, and will appreciate more and 
more, the benefits to be obtained by clubbing 
their personal credit, and that they can make 
a wise use of the capital which their clubbed 
credit commands. The question of the hour is 
how to bring them in touch with sufticient float- 
ing capital to meet their immediate needs. 
Ultimately the accumulation of deposits, com- 
pulsory and voluntary, will mean a huge addi- 
tion to the capital of the country, but it can 
hardly be expected that the societies will asa 
body stand entirely on their deposits for many 
years to come, and some capital must come 
from outside, Itis satisfactory to learn from 
the report that the problem of the supply of 
working capital has been attacked in various 
ways, and that the line of least resistance is 
now fairly clear. The rural societies are 
financed in some cases by district or town 
banks, and in others by central banks or by 
individuals who combine philanthropy witha 
good yield on sound security, but the first 
method appears to promise best. District and 
town banks are now springing up rapidly, and 
are collecting the floating capital of land- 
holders, officials and professional men for dis- 
tribution to the rural societies which they 
finance; some of them are already able to 
secure fixed deposits for as little as six per cent, 
already they have an aggregate working capital 
of over five lakhs and they have paid dividends 
varying from 24 to 123 per cent. besides putting 
aside substantial reserves, The rural societies 
which borrow from these banks are asa rule 
applying their compulsory deposits to the 
acquisition of shares in the bank with which 
they deal, and will ultimately, we hope, gain 


502 


the predominant voice in their management, 
and the whole organisation will then be truly 
co-operative. It remains only for the district 
banks to be brought into touch with the larger 
banking concerns of the provinces in order that 
the flow of mobilised capital may be uninter- 
rupted between the largest concerns and the 
rural societies. The district banks are the 
natural intermediaries, and we think the pro- 
gress they have made is sufficient to justify the 
commercial banks in looking to them as poten- 
tial agents in a lucrative development of their 
business, the application of a part of their 
capital to the needs of productive agriculture.” 


THE DECAY OF HUMUS. 

The burial of vegetable matter in the soil is 
helpful in one way or another to all soils, but 
it is not by any means equally helpful. The 
outcome is influenced by the soil, by the preci- 
pitation, and by the climate. 

Soils that are very light and also those that 
are very heavy, are specially benefited by the 
burial of humus. The former are so helped 
because the moisture-retaining power is in- 
creased, and the latter because the soil particles 
are held asunder, and the soil is thus more easily 
penetrated by air and moisture. In light soil 
vegetable matter prevents the moisture that 


falls from leaching too far downward, and in | 


heavy soil it lessens the tendency in rain to run 
away over the surface. ff 

The precipitation powerfully influences the 
action of vegetable matter in the soil, particu- 
larly in its decay. If the precipitation is 
meagre the vegetable matter will not decay 
quickly enough to benefit the first crop sufh- 
ciently, but such decay will also be influenced 
by the condition of the vegetable matter when 
it is buried. 

When it is succulent it will, of course, decay 
much more quickly than when it is lacking in 
succulence. This explains why the burial of 
stubble in a dry climate may under very dry 
conditions injure the first crop, whereas, under 
moist conditions, it may be helpful. 

The effect of buried plants in the soil is also 
much influenced by the air. In climates cool 
and dry, vegetable matter decays but slowly. 
In those that are moist and warm it decays 
much more quickly. The difference in this re- 
spect is freyuently very great, so much so that it 
may greatly influence the degree of the benefit 
from burying the Vie Steal matter in the soil. 
—Auckland Weekly News, April 8. 


TORTOISE SHELL. 


A common error about shell is that the tor- 
toise is killed to get its shell casing. What is 
done is this. The fishermen, having caught a 
tortoise, tie him and then cover his back with 
dry grass and leaves. They set fire to the stuff, 
it burns slowly, and the heat causes the 13 
plates of the shell to loosen at the joints. 
With a knife the plates are prised off, and after- 
wards the tortoise is set free: The base or 
root of his shell is intact, and will grow again. 
If tortoise were killed to get their shells, they 
would long since have become extinct.— 
Bachange, 


The Supplemert to the Tropical Agricultumst 


A PARASITIC DISEASE WHICH KILLS 
COGOA AND RUBBER TREES. 


Mr E Betche, Botanical Assistant at the Na- 
tional Herbarium and Botanical Museum, New 
South Wales, reports that Dr. B Funk of Apia, 
communicated a rather interesting parasitic dis- 
ease which causes the death of Cocoa and Rubber 
Trees. The fungus has been determined as 
Hymenochaete noxia, Henning. 


COCONUT CULTURE IN QUEENSLAND. 


Mr. A. H. Benson, the fruit expert attached 
to the Queensland Department of Agriculture, 
points out in an article that Queensland coastal 
conditions for a great distance are suitable for 
coconut culture. Commercially we understand 
the industry has not been attempted in the 
State, although trees are scattered along the 
coast at different points. A fair market is 
obtained for ripe nuts, but the manufacture of 
copra and the utilisation of the Boir has been 
attempted only in a very small way. Sufticient 
experience has been gained to show that good 
nuts can be grown, and that good copra may be 
produced, Indeed, no better copra was ex- 
hibited at the Franco-British Mxhibition than 
the samples prepared by Mr. J Robbins, of 
Port Douglas, while the nuts compared favour- 
ably with any at the show. Unfortunately the 
Australian prejudice against black labour will - 
make cultivation too expensive to compete with 
other growing countries, 


SLAVE-GROWN COCOA. 

Lisbon, March 28.—Public opinion here has 
ripened considerably during the last ten days 
on the subject of ‘‘slave-grown’’ cocoa. It is 
now realised that even if Mr Cadbury’s interfer- 
ence is unreasonable and his conclusions mis- 
taken, the fact that a powerful group of Eng- 
lish manufacturers have branded Portuguese 
cocoa far and wide as ‘‘slave-grown” cocoa is 
bound to cause much moral anc material damage 
to the trade so long as there remains the shadow 
of aground for that description; moral damage 
because the abuses charged against recruiting - 
agents in the interior of Augola may bring dis- 
credit, in the minds of the undiscriminating, 
upon the management of the plantations of St. 
Thomé and Principe, pronounced models of 
their kind by all who have visited them; and 
material, because the withdrawal of English 
customers who are used to taking more thana 
quarter of the cocoa produced in the islands can- 
not but disturb the market, and ultimately de- 
press prices, 


Conversations with two of the leading pro- 
prietors of St. Thomé, who are now in Lisbon, 
and with other persons concerned in the cccoa 
trade have convinced me that the Government 
is expected and desired to take the matter 
seriously in hand without further delay. Captain 
Paula Cid, a naval oflticer and former colonial 
Governor, who was commissioned by Senhor 


and Magazine of the Ceylon Agricultural Society. 


Franco’s Government to proceed to Angola and 
inquire into the facts alleged by Mr Cadbury, 
handed in his report a few days ago. I believe 
that this report, the work of over a year, bears 
out Mr Burtt’s in many respects and contains 
careful recommendations for the removal of such 
abuses as still exist. 
however, that the path of reform is either easy 
or obvious. The Portuguese law regulating the 
recruiting of black labour works admirably in 
Cape Verde, Cabinda, and Mozambique ; it is 
only in Angola that the same admirable law 
fails of its effect through lack of enforcement. 
The failure may be explained partly by the fact 
that pressure was occasionally found necessary 
to induce the natives, a peculiarly low, back- 
ward, and indolent race, to volunteer for work 
in sufficient numbers; but it is also due to the 
difficulty experienced by Portuguese officials in 
controlling the action of recruiting agents over 
an immense tract of country neither wholly 
opened up nor effectively occupied. These diffi- 
culties, however great, will ne doubt be sur- 
mounted ; for Angola supplies 90 per cent.—.e., 
nearly 40,000—of the black labourers in the two 
islands, and from Angola the greater part of the 
Jabour must continue to come if the industry is 
to maintain its prosperity.—London Times, 
April 3. 


A PLANT THAT COUGHS. 


We have heard of carnivorous plants which 
even eat mice; there are laughing and weeping 
flowers, but we have never heard of a coughing 
plant. Nevertheless there is such a plant 
which grows in the tropics. Its fruit resembles 
the common bean. Itis easilyaroused to anger, 
and whatis yet more strange, has a horror of 
all kinds of dust. As soon asa few grains fall 
on the leaves the stomates or air cells, which 
are the breathing organs, fill with the gas, puff 
out and throw off the dust with a slight explo- 
sion like the cough of a child with a cold in the 
head. It is an ornamental plant. One can 
hardly imagine the concert given by two or 
three of these strange plants in a drawing-room, 
where the passage of ladies sprinkles it with 
rice powder.—Sydney Mail, March 31. 


PLANTATION RUBBER CONDITIONS. 


The system of selling plantation rubber ahead 
under contract, which was introduced in Ceylon 
last year, proved so satisfactory that no fewer 
than sixteen planting companies are reported 
to have contracted to deliver their 1909 product 
of rubber to local merchants at a fixed price. 
The planter therefore need have no concern 
about fluctuations in the market fora year to 
Come; itis only necessary to deliver his rubber 
to responsible houses, who undertake to pay a 
stipulated price without regard to London or 
New York market conditions. The fact that 
such a system obtains is evidence that rubber 
cultivation is regarded in the Far East as 
having reached a firm stage. The producer 
knows in advance about what his rubber will 
cost him, and the buyer trusts his own judg- 
ment as to the market for a year tocome. It is 
worth while to note that the contract price for 


It must not be thought, | 


508 


plantation rubber (exclusive of scrap) laid down 
at Colombo is equivalent to $1.20, gold, per 
pound, This is about the prevailing price for 
new Islands fine Para, and it may be inferred 
that the Colombo merchants count on something 
like $1.30 as the ruling London price for plan- 
tation grades. 

The tact that Ceylon rubber planters are able 
to sell their crops to home merchants a year 
ahead at fixed prices puts them on a better 
plane than any agricultural interest elsewhere 
known to us,—India Rubber World, April 1. 


THEY HAD RUBBER TO BURN. 


In the Mexican Herald (Feb. 13) is reported 
a fire on the plantation of La Esperanza Rubber 
Co., in the state of Vera Cruz, in which was 
destroyed ‘‘ more than a ton of fine creamed 
rubber and possibly as much scrap,” the pro- 
duct of the first year’s tapping, which began in 
October last. Most of the rubber was in cases 
ready for shipping. La Esperanza Company 
began operations about ten years ago, the in- 
corporators being residents of Providence, 
Rhode Island. The manager, Carlton Hale, 
had developed anew method for smoking rub- 
ber after creaming, and it wasin connection 
with such work that the fire occurred.—IJndia 
Rubber World, April 1. 


SALE OF CORK TREE BARK AT 
NUWARA ELIYA. 


A New Inpustry. 


Miss Emily Vanderwall, of ‘‘Fern Bank,” 
Nuwara Eliya, has suddenly begun to reap 
good money from the sale of the bark of a cork 
tree growing on the Western boundary of her 
land. The tree is about 30 years old and till 
quite recently was only valued as an ornamen- 
tal tree and an uncommon one as it is the only 
tree of its kind in Nuwara Kliya, It was planted 
by the late Mr Fretz of Kandy, retired D.E., 
from whom ‘‘Fern Bank” was purchased by Mr 
Edwin Vanderwall. In December last the 
Board of Improvement called upon Miss Van- 
derwall to fell the tree when they began to lay 
down the drains in Chapel Street. Miss Van- 
derwall declined to do it and luckily too for the 
bark 1s now selling at Rl per pound. Miss 
Vanderwall was content to get 40 cents when 
the buyer, a Sinhalese man from Galle, first 
offered to buy a few pounds of it. The price 
was then steadily raised and no less than R30 
worth of bark was sold to him in two days, The 
buyer keeps his counsel and does not state to 
what use the bark is being put. It is believed 
that a valuable medicinal oil is extracted from 
it. Miss Vanderwall has been experimentin 
with cuttings since the demand for the bark 
was made, but has had no success. The tree has 
not seeded. 


Hicaianps anp Lowtanps.—The yield for 
March, 1909, of the Highlands and Lowlands 
Para Rubber Co., Ltd., 1s 27,102 Ib., making a 
total of 76,261 lb. for the first three months of 
this year compared with 33,266 Ib, in 1908, 


504 


GARAVONICA COTTON SEED 

Is boing offered in abundance, since Dr, ‘Tho- 
matis’s intimation that the Berlin Company em- 
ploying him is the soleseller. Messrs. Sturmfels 
Limited, Wool and Produce Brokers, etc., of Bris- 
bane write that they as Agents for Messrs. Seven- 
senand D’Oliveyra of ‘‘Gualdanar ” Plantation, 
Solomon Islands, have written the Berlin Com- 
pany, informing them that on behalf of their prin- 
cipals, and in conjunction with Messrs, Anthony 
Gibbs & Sons, they sold Caravonica Cotton in 
Liverpool last June—the cotton was grown on 
Gualdanar from seed procured in 1907 from the 
Plantation owned by Dr. Thomatis near Cairns, 
North Queensland. They have a large quantity 
of the seed for sale as will be seen from the 
advertisement elsewhere. 


CEYLON COCONUT O&L. 

Vice-Consul W H Doyle, of Colombo, reports 
that the commercial phenomenon of a greatly 
increased demand for coconut oil, accompanied 
by greatly reduced prices, is discernible in a 
comparison of the figures representing the ex- 
portations from Ceylon during the first half of 
the current calendar year with the figures repre- 
senting the same trade in the first half of last 
year. His review follows :— 


The quantity exported in the period January 
1 to June 30, 1908, was 45 per cent greater than 
that exported in the same period of 1907. The 
price was approximately 45 per cent lower this 
year than in 1907. 

The increased demand is in some part due to 
the new food purposes for which coconut oil is 
being employed, but in larger part due to the 
reduction of price. Coconut oil last year reached 
the record price of 585 rupees ($189.77) per ton. 
As the price increased the quantities purchased 
fell off, until in November last prices broke 
sharply, and at the beginning of 1908 oil was 
quoted at 350 rupees ($113°54) per ton. July 1 
quotations were from 350 to $55 rupees per ton 
(of 20 hundredweight). : 

The price of 585 rupees was considered prohi- 
bitive by the large buyers, and they reduced 
their purchases to the quantities of immediate 
needs. The buyers remained out of the market 
until the stagnation in the trade had forced 
orices down to what they considered a reason- 
able level. They are now buying in greater 
quantities than ever before. 


In the six months ended June 30, 1908, Ceylon 
exported 10,683.2 tons of coconut oil, as against 
7,466.3 tons in the corresponding six months of 
the preceding year. These figures, while the only 
ones available for purposes of comparison, do 
not adequately indicate the present comparative 
activity of the trade as more than two-thirds of 
the oil exported this year has been sold since 
the middie of April. Exporters report that the 
demand is steadily growing. 


Direct exports of coconut oil to the United 
States in the first half of 1908 amounted to 
2,338°15 tons, as against 1,626°95 tons in the 
first half of 1907. In addition to the direct 
exportations, considerable quantities are sold to 
London and subsequently to American buyers. 


The Supplement to the Tropical Agriculturist 


The practically stationary price of oil, inthe 
face of the increased demand, may be attributed 
to the unusually large yield of coconuts which 
has continued since the end of last year. I am 
informed by the superintendent of a large 
coconut estate that at each plucking this year 
the trees have yielded three times the number 
of coconuts plucked last year. Thus, while 
coconut growers are not receiving the high prices 
of last year for their coconuts and copra they 
are earning even greater profits from the same 
number of trees. 


Reports received here from all of the eastern 
countries are to the effect that the crop of coco- 
nuts is unprecedentedly large and that the 
prospects are for the continuance of large crops. 


in the opinion of local exporters of coconut 
oil, the price wili not rise appreciably, no 
matter how great the demand, while the coco- 
nut trees yield abundantly, as they do not court 
a repetition of the lean months which followed 
the checking of the demand by prohibitive 
prices.—Oil, Paint & Drug Reporter, March 29. 


ON RUBBER TAPPING. 


The latest on rubber tapping that I have seen 
is contained in the following private letter re- 
ceived from Ceylon :— 


“‘The old way of tapping rubber trees was to 
pare the bark off in strips about 6” wide. 
These led down to a central cut and into a tin. 
receiver, The place thus cut could not be 
treated again until the bark grew, or for from 
two to three years. I have seen trees thus cut up 
to 40 ft. from the ground and some trees quite 
ruined. The new system rings the tree with 
small punctures, Below this the bark is 
smoothed to allow the latex to run down into 
a circular gutter which leads into a cup. 
1 fail to see how this can hurt the most 
tender tree, and it is said here that it does 
not. Besides you can treat the same area 
again in five weeks. It is claimed that the 
latex is a waste product and that, given a good 
soil and suflicient rainfall, its removal does not 
injure the tree at all. After making the punc- 
tures the tree is sprayed with water but why I 
could not find out, The apparatus has not yet 
come from Home, so I saw none at work. B— 
is tapping trees of three-and-a-half to four years 
old on the old system and the trees seem nene 
the worse, whilethe rubber fetches the same 
price as that from old trees, though the latex, 
cup for cup, may not give the same amount of 
dry rubber. As to yield, a tree of ten years will 
give from 3lb. to 5lb., but planters have not 
taken so much here on the average. An estate 
in the Straits gave 34 1b. average from trees 
five to ten yearsold, Wild rubber trees belong 
to no one and are consequently hacked to death, 
From 51b. to 101b. are taken out of them, The 
removal of the latex does not seem to hurt, but 
this yield means that the whole. bark is taken 
offand the tree killed, The new system will 
change this,” 


—M, Mal, May 8. 


GEORGOS. 


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Photo by THE PAPAW. (See p. 527.) 


HAH, F. Macmillan. 
(CARICA PAPAYA.) 


TROPICAL AGRICULTURIST 


MAGAZINE OF THE 


CEYLON AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY. 


Rata soe me aed 


Von. XXXII, 


COLOMBO, JUNE 15rx, 1909, 


No. 6. 


Reviews. 
NITRO-BACTERINE AND GREEN 
MANURING. 


LEGUME BACTERIA. 
By S. F. EpwWARDs AND B. BaRLow, 


Bulletin No. 169 of the ¢ Ontario Depart- 
ment of Agriculture. 


A somewhat heated controversy has 
recently been raging in the pages of 
gardening and scientific papers at home 


as to the precise value of vertain cultures ~ 


intended to encourage the growth of 
the nitrogen-absorbing nodules upon the 
roots of leguminous plants. As most of 
those interested in agriculture are now 
well aware, the majority of plants of 
the pea and bean family, which includes 
such well known local representatives 
as Crotalaria, Albizzia and Dadap, pos- 
sesses the singular power of absorbing 
and fixing the free nitrogen of the air and 
making use of it as food. This power 
depends upon the presence, within cer- 
tain lumps or nodules borne upon the 
roots of the plants, of particular forms 
of minute bacteria, which are gifted 
with the exceptional faculty of accumu- 
lating nitrogen. Within the last few 
years it has been found possible to iso- 
_ late these bacteria from the leguminous 
plants which constitute their natural 
habitat, and to induce them to grow and 
multiply in artificial surroundings and 
upon artificial food. 


So far the matter was one of purely 
scientific interest. The question next 
arose whether these artificial cultures 
might not be made use of to encourage 
the growth of the nodules upon the 
roots of leguminous vegetables and 
other useful plants belonging to the 
same family. Although a series of 
attempts had already been made to pre- 
pare useful artificial cultures of these 
bacteria, the problem was still in a purely 
experimental stage when journalistic 
eyes chanced to fall uponit, with the 
Yesult that the cultures were imme- 
diately spread abroad, with much 
flourish of advertisement, under the 
name of nitro-bacterine. 


As regards the value of nitro-bacterine 
in horticulture and agriculture, opinions 
are stillmuch divided. Careful compara- 
tive experiments have been carried out 
by several competent workers with a 
view to determining the relative growth 
and yield of leguminous crops treated 
with nitro-bacterine and of similar crops 
untreated. The results have been some- 
what contradictory. The truth seems 


to be that in some cases the soil 
in which the seeds were sown was 


already well provided with the neces- 
sary bacteria, and that when this was 
the case the addition of further supplies 
made little or no difference to the growth 
of the plants. On the other hand, in 
soils which were poor in the particular 
bacteria required, inoculation of the 
seeds with cultures of the bacteria 


5 


appears to have been attended with good 
results. 


We have recently received a bulletin 
from the Ontatio Department of Agri- 
culture in which successful experiments 
of this kind are described. Special cul- 
tures prepared by the bacteriologists 
of the department are now being dis- 
tributed to the Canadian farmers. 


The directions for use sent out with 
the cultures are sufficiently instructive 
to be worthy of quotation. They are 
as follows :— 


‘‘DIRECTIONS FOR INOCULATING SEED 
WITH NITROGEN-GATHERING 
BACTERIA. 


Each legume requires a different cul- 
ture. 


This bottle contains sufficient bacteria 
pereO COLA CHIE sixty pounds of 
seed. 


All the culture may be used on less 
seed without harm. 


ana culture is good for the season of 


This culture is sent you with the 
understauding that you will use it as 
directed and report to us the result of 
your experiment. Follow directions 
carefully, or failure may result. 

1. Cover the seed with water and let 
it soak for two hours. 


2. Drain off the water. This may be 
done by heaping the seed on acloth on 
the ground, or Nos. 1 and 2 may be done 
in a grain bag. 

8. Mix one pound of dry granulated 
sugar with each bushel of wet seed, and 
let the seed stand thus over night, 


4. Next day pour a little clean cold 
water into the bottle of culture, shake 
until the jelly is well broken up, pour it 
over the seed and mix thoroughly. 


5. Plant at once, just as you would 
uninoculated seed, If the seed is too 
wet and sticks together, spread it in a 
shady place for about ten minutes. It 
should be neither wet nor dry, but as 
moist as it can be handled. In ease of 
a mixture of clover with other seed, it is 
advisable to treat the clover separately, 
mixing just before sowing. 


6. Do not open the bottle until you 
are ready to treat the seed, and do not 
treat more seed at one time than can b 
sown in a day. . 


7 At least a small plot should be 
planted with untreated seed for com- 
parison, and this should be planted first. 

8, Send usin the empty bottle with 
your name and address, a small sample 
of the inoculated seed for further labora- 
tory tests. 


06 


9. After the seedlings are one month 
old, search for nodules, ‘little bunches ’ 
on the roots. Examine for nodules, 
again after three months. During the 
season note number and size of nodules 
and vigour of plant growth from treated 
and untreated seed. ” 


We have at present no data for decid- 
ing whether similar cultures would 
prove of benefit in Ceylon, It is just 
possible that by their aid particular 
species of leguminous plants might 
be induced to make good growth in 
districts where they do not flourish at 
present. 


One of the greatest difficulties in 
establishing herbaceous leguminous 
plants in old and worn-out tea estates is 
occasioned—at least in part—by the 
absence of the necessary bacteria in 
what is practically subsoil, now that 
the original soil has been largely washed 
away. If suitable cultures can be made 
and applied at a reasonable cost, so as 
practically to insure success at the first 
planting of the leguminous species, a 
great saving of money and time will be 
effected in carrying out one of. the most 
important measures available for the 
improvement of a worn-out estate. 


Whatever may be the value of nitro- 
bacterine and other 
tions in promoting the growth of legum- 
inous plants, there can be no question 
as to the value of the leguminous plants 
themselves when returned to the soil in 
the form of green manure. Inthe case 
of tea cultivation the value of green 


manuring has been amply demonstrated — 


on the Peradeniya Experiment Station 
and elsewhere. It is not possible to 
name any particular plant as being the 
best for this purpose—in different locali- 
ties different varieties flourish best, and 
Dadaps, Albizzias and Acacia decurrens 
“are all good in districts suited to their 
growth. On the whole we are inclined 
to recommend most strongly the her- 
baceous species, for instance, Crotalaria, 
or even still smaller forms such as 
Desmodium. Such plants not only 
provide organic material which may be 
returned to the soil, but they also 
effectually prevent the washing away of 
the valuable surface soil during the 
period of their growth. It is very 


possible that creeping leguminous plants — 


may be found of value in rubber clear- 
ings, since they may be expected to 
combine the functions of accumulating 
nitrogen with that of preventing the. 
growth of weeds, but upon this point we 
have as yet very little data available. 
Numerous 
leguminous plants are being collected 


from all parts of Ceylon, as well as from 


similar prepara- 


varieties of herbaceous— 


[Junp, 1909. 


Bee 


JUNE, 1909.) 


India, the Federated Malay States and 
elsewhere. These are being cultivated 
upon the Peradeniya Experiment Station 
with the object of obtaining seed for 
distribution and trial at different eleva- 
tions and on different soils. Specimens 
of the roots and nodules of each pro- 
mising variety are to be sent to the 
Nitrobacterine Co. for the preparation 
of a special culture for each. 

The habits of the various leguminous 
plants which may be expected to prove 
usefulin this way differ considerably. 
They vary from the upright bushy 
forms with more or less woody creeping 


507 


stems to the low creeping species which 
entirely cover the soil and only attain 
a height of a few inches. Some again 
are of no value as food for cattle, whilst 
others are grazed upon with relish. It 
is possible that within a few years the 
grazing of cattle upon rubber estates 
may prove the best means of keeping 
this crop in a vigorous and- healthy 
condition. Nitrobacterine may prove 
careful in establishing such leguminous 
herbage, and it is hoped that experi- 
ments in this direction may be under- 


taken. 
R, H. La 


GUMS, RESINS, SAPS AND EXUDATIONS. 


THE YIELD OF WILD AND 
PLANTED ‘‘PARA” RUBBER. 


(From the India Kubber World, Vol. 39, 
No, 4, January, 1909.) 


“Whatis the yield of arubber tree? 
Simple as the question may appear— 
and it is asked incessantly—giving aun 
intelligent answer to it is by no means 
simple. One must consider what 
varieties of rubber are involved, where 
the tree grows, whether “wild” or 
‘“‘ cultivated,” and, if the latter, the con- 
ditions under which planted. A remark 
may be recalled here from a report by a 
former British Consul at Para writing of 
native Heveas in the Amazon _ region: 


- ‘two trees growing close together and 


under apparently precisely similar con- 
ditions will often vary very much as 
regards their yield.” 


There is no question that rubber trees 
do yield, else what would become of the 
rubber market? On one day during the 
past month the Customs authorities at 
New York reported the arrival of rubber 
of an invoice value exceeding $2,000,000. 
The Custom Houseat Para dealt last 
year with 80,638,800 pounds, and some 

ears the figures have been larger. 
Besides. the Amazon region doesn’t sup- 
ply ail the rubber used. We hear over 
and over again that the Brazilian rubber 
is derived from trees scattered in dense 
forests, and that thenative tappers gain 
a very small amount of latex from each 
day’s tapping. But the Para shipments 
argue either a tremendous number of 
wild rubber trees or a very considerable 
average annual yield per tree. 

Since it must be ad.aitted that trees 
do yield rubber, the question remains, 
how much? This subject, as relating to 
forest rubber, has been treated at some 


length in former numbers of The India 

Rubber World, including quotations 

from Mr. Vice-Consul Temple, who once 

reported having had access to the books 

of some operators in the Brazilian field, 

indicating an average yield of 2:2 to 3:3 
pounds yearly per tree. He was of the 

opinion, however, that very many trees 

were being worked with no larger aver- 
age yield than 1l‘l pounds. His report, 

however, had to do only with the state 

of Para, where the rubber flelds have’ 
been worked longer and more thoroughly 
than inthe river regions. It does not 
seem to have occurred to the Amazon 

rubber trade to consider the yield of 

individual rubber trees so long as total 

results are satisfactory. But chance 

details which have come to hand from 

time to time point to the probability of 

a yield of 4 to 10 pounds yearly per tree, 

varying -with the degree to which 

estradas have been ‘‘ worked out.” 

With the coming of cultivated rubber 
on plantations owned by capitalists and 
with shares listed on stock exchanges, 
the question of yields becomes of parti- 
cular interest in connection with the 
analysis of company reports. If one 
tree will afford a given quantity of 
rubber, will 1,000 give a thousand fold ? 
In considering any of the figures which 
follow—all relating to the yield of plant- 
ation Para (Hevea)in the Far Hast—it 
must be remembered that such yields 
may be influenced— 


By the character of the soil. altitude, 
or climatic conditions, 

By the coarseness or width of the 
planting, 

By the frequency of tapping, 

By the method of tapping, 

By the care with which the latex is 
handled, 


Gums, Resins, 


Trees with short trunks of large girth 
may be more productive than taller ones 
of less girth. The commencement of 
tapping is determined by the size of the 
trees rather than their age, and all trees 
do not grow at the same rate, It may 
be pointed out that even in the 
most detailed rubber plantation reports 
up-to-date statements of yield, as 
a rule, include in one total the pro- 
duce of mature trees tapped through- 
out the year and that of trees just 
come “into bearing,” which may have 
been tapped once or twice only. 


It would be desirable to have, from 
each of several well-managed _plant- 
ations, a record of the yield of a definite 
number of rubber trees, of uniform size 
and age, tapped the same number of 
times in a year, by the same system, 
and with the same method of treating 
the latex. It is not wholly satisfying to 
have included in one total a large tree 
yielding five pounds or more, and a 
smaller tree from which half pound or 
less has been obtained. In default of 
such figures the following details have 
been culled from the sources most avail- 
able. 


In the latest edition of his ‘‘ Heve® 
Brasiliensis” Mr. Herbert Wright ha% 
compiled a lot of data on the yields re- 
ported from rubber estates, though 
without any effort to establish any rules 
as to yields as related to the age of the 
trees tapped. From one of his tables we 
have taken twenty-three items, referring 
to as many properties, on which, in 1905, 
166,740 trees yielded 215,933 pounds of 
rubber, or 1:235 pounds per tree. The 
average per tree on one estate was as 
low as ‘32 pound, the largest reported 
for anyone was 5'5 pounds per tree. A 
list of sixteen of those properties shows an 
average yield per tree of 1°35] pounds. 
Six estates showed averages per tree of 
2 pounds, 2°2, 3'2, 3°25, 3°5, and 55 res- 
pectively. 

From another table in Mr, Wright's 
book a list has been compiled of eight 
estates, on which 79,631 trees, in 1906, 
yielded 220,200 pounds of rubber—an 
average of 252 pounds. The average per 
tree on various estates was 2:03 pounds, 
2:37, 2°46, 2:75, 2°79, 2:88, 3, and 7°1 pounds 
respectively. 


A particularly interesting item appears 
in the report of the Anglo-Malay Rub- 
ber Co., Limited, for the calendar vear 
1907, On their Terentang estate 28,048 
Hevea trees, aged 7-8 years, are stated 
to have yielded 105,655 pounds of dry 
rubber, or an average of 3-76 pounds per 
tree. On their Ayer Angat estate, how- 
ever, 14,540 older trees (9-10 years) yielded 
only 42,970 pounds, or an average of 


508 


{JunB, 1909. 


2°95 pounds. On the other hand, 5,440 
trees on their Batang Bali estate mostly 
only 6-7 years, thougha few were 9-10, 
gave 18,112 pounds, or an average of 3°82. 
The total tapping for 1907, on these 
and another estate, covered 68,236 trees, 
yielding 224,778 pounds, or 3°29 average. 


An attempt has been made by the 
writer to analyse the ages of the Hevea 
trees tapped during three years by the 
Bukit Rajah Rubber Co., Limited. 
Taking account of the approximate ages 
of their trees, so far as can be gathered 
from the company’s various reports, 
and their definite statements of the 
number of trees tapped and their yield, 
these results appear : 


Year ending March 31, 1906.—Trees 
tapped 34,457, yield 33,203 pounds, 
average age of trees at end of period, 6:28 
years, average yield per tree, ‘97 pound. 


Year ending March 381, 1997.—Trees 
tapped, 88,341, yield 118,982 pounds, 
average age of trees, 5°94 years, average 
yield 1°345 pounds. . 


Year ending March 81, 1908.—Trees 
tapped, 89,295, yield 163,521 pounds, 
average age of trees, 7'27 years, average 
yield, 1°83 pounds. 

Some very definite information is 
given in the report of the Highlands 
and Lowlands Para Rubber Co., Limited, 
tor 19U6. It is stated that on one block 
of 16 acres 807 Hevea trees, 9 years old, 
planted 30x25 feet, were tapped during 
three periods of the year mentioned, 
With these results: 2,5C0 pounds at the 
first, 1,469 at the second, and 1,778 at 
the third, or a total of 5,742 pounds— 
an average of 7:01 pounds per tree for 
the year, 


During the business year 1906-7 the 
Federated Malay States Rubber Co., 
Limited, collected 32,175 pounds of rub- 
ber from 12,385 trees, wide planting— 
averaging 2°60 pounds. 

It may be added that the total pro- 
duction of plantation rubber in the 
Federated Malay States for 1906 was 
861,738 pounds, from 441,482 trees, . of 
varying ages, or an average of 1°95 
pounds per tree. 

From all the preceding data it would 
appear safe to estimate not less than 2 
pounds annually from trees, say 8 years 
old, with reason to expect an increased 
yield withgreater age. But much larger 
yields, in exceptional cases, have been 
authenticated. EHleven-year-old trees 
on Culloden estate, especially tapped, 
gave 14 pounds of rubber from 8 months’ 
tapping, and trees of unknown age (pro- 
bably 20 to 25 years), from 10 to 29 
pounds each in one year. 


es 


: 
“ 
4 
4 


June, 1909.] 


So. far the maximum capacity of a 
cultivated Hevea would seem unset- 
tled, meanwhile the conditions for a 
liberal production have not been agreed 
upon. <A recent writer mentions five 
neighbouring rubber plantations in Cey- 
lon, on which were employed an equal 
number of tapping processes, each 
strongly defended by the plantation 
manager using it, 


NOTES ON RECENT YIELDS. 


Kuala Lumpur Co., Ltd., in the year 
ended June 30 gained 79,274 pounds of rub- 
ber from 39,548 trees (age not stated) or a 
fraction over 2 pounds per tree. This 
year more trees are being tapped, with 
the result that the four months ended 
October 381 yielded 60,740 pounds. The 
Company’s last consignment of rubbe1 
to Antwerp was sold on November 19 
at an average of 5s. 67d. (=$1°354 per 
pound). The latest Kuala Lumpur re- 
port refers to an average of more than 
6 pounds per tree having been obtained 
from something over 10,000 trees on the 
neighbouring and older estates of the 
Federated Malay States Rubber Co., 
Limited, which are under the care of 
the same manager, Mr. H. B. Skinner. 

Sumatra Para Rubber Plantations, 
Limited, in their first report, mention 
the collection of 62,700 pounds in 15 
months, or an averageof 3 pounds per 
tree, young and old. Therubber realised 
8s. 4°51d. (82°l cents) in London, after 
paying charges. Thecost on the planta- 
tion is figured at ls. 1°87d. (=284 cents) 
per pound. 


RUBBER PLANTATION YIELDS (IN 
POUNDS). 


1907. 1908, 
Vallambrosa Rubber Co. - 
Hight months to Nov. 30 ...144,584 169,731 
Kuala Innmpur Rubber Co. 


Twelve months to June 30*_ ,., 51,998 78,274 
Perak Rubber Plantations : 

Nine months to Nov. 30 _ ... 22,670 36,534 
Yatiyantota Ceylon Tea Co. 

Six months to June. 30 SOT Ser Stayt 
Sumatra Para Rubber Plantations: 

Fifteen months toJune30 ... — 62,700 
Pataling Rubber Estates Syndicate : 

Seven months to July 31... 37,752 40,035 
Federated (Selangor) Rubber Co, 

Four months to July 31 5,658 15,785 


Anglo-Malay Rubber Co. 

Eleven months to Nov. 30 ...196,109 312,050 
Seremban Estate Rubber Co. 

Hight months to Sep, 30 ,,, 79,167 100,415 
Perak Rubber Plantations : 

Eleven months to Noy. 30. .., 22,670 36,534 
P,P. K. (Ceylon) Rubber Estates : 

Ten months to October 31... 10,448 22,212 
Lanadron Rubber Estates: 

Eleven months to Nov, 30... 88,4389 165,056 


* Fifteen months, 


509 


Saps and Exudations. 

SoME YIELDS IN NOVEMBER. 
1907. 1908. 
Anglo-Malay Rubber Co, w+» 22,450 34,062 
Lanadron Rubber Estates ... 7,500 17,508 
Perak Rubber Plantations ... 4542 74 42 
Sumatra Para Rubber Plantations .,. 3,250 5,940 


GREEN MANURING ON RUBBER 
ESTATES. 


By S. ROTHWELL. 


During the last few years, very large 
areas have been planted up with rubber, 
and in many cases the planting is still 
in progress. Unless catch crops yield- 
ing marketable produce can be grown, 
in a similar way as Cassavais cultivated 
in Malacea, the capital which has been 
sunk in the formation of the estate 
gives no returns till the rubber trees 
reach a_ sufficient girth to allow of 
tapping. In theStraits Bulletin for 1906, 
p. 224, itis stated ‘“‘that the Diamond 
Jubilee Hstate in Malacca within two 
years of starting will have some 3,000 
acres of rubber, the cost of which will be 
practically covered by the returns of 
tapioca cultivated between the rubber.” 


If the tree could be brought to the 
Same girth in a shorter time so much the 
better. Now it is not necessary for the 
planter to spend large sums of money on 
artificial manures, which would, under 
the present system of clean weeding be 
largely washed away with the first 
heavy shower of rain, when a much 
cheaper form of manure is at his disposal, 
ié€., green manure, having other advan- 
tages than the actual manurial value, 
The term ‘‘ green manuring ” is generally 
understood to imply the cultivation of a 
crop of some sort, usually a leguminous 
one, ploughing it in, or cutting it, and in 
some way incorporating it with the soil 
when it has attained sufficient growth. 
Partly owing to heavy rains and rapid 
decomposition, tropical soils are in 
general very poor in nitrogen and 
organic matter. This can be remedied 
to some extent by the fact that grow- 
ing herbaceous plants will take up the 
soluble nitrates from the upper layers 
of the soil, and some, having long tap 
roots, bring up available plant food from 
a considerable depth. Many plants of 
the natural order Leguminosx have the 
power of assimilating and fixing free 
nitrogen from the atmosphere by the 
aid of bacteria, living symbiotically in 
the root nodules, thus gradually there is 
built up both humus to hold the soil 
together, and make it more retentive of 
moisture, and also a storeof nitrogen 
for the nutrition of the rubber trees. 


Besides the above, the following are 
some of the _ principal _ advantages 


Gums, Resins, 


obtained by growing herbaceous legum- 
inous crops :— 

(a) If properly done, there is a reduc- 
tion in the cost of weeding, in fact this 
cost becomes practically nil when the 
green crop has become well established. 
The seeds of the ‘‘ green manure” should 
be sown in regular rows, and when the 
plants have grown to a height of one or 
more feet varying with the species sown, 
such a dense cover will be formed that 
the weeds being deprived of the neces- 
sary light and air, either die out 
completely or have their growth con- 
siderably checked. At any rate seed 
formation will not take place. 

(b) The partial prevention of wash. 
The word partial is used here, because 
on most rubber estates of a hilly nature 
the rows of rubber trees run straight up 
the hill, or in a slanting direction. The 
green crop if sown iu rows between the 
trees will leave small channels between 
the rows of green crop for the soil to be 
washed down. To prevent this, the crop 
should be sown in rows across the slopes. 
The roots and stems of the plants will 
save a good deal of the soil. — 

(c) Protection of the soil from the 
direct rays of the sun. The bacteria 
which bring about nitrification are 
active within certain limits of temper- 
ature, but cease to work when these 
limits are exceeded. Hence the value 
of the green cover which will keep the 
soil at a more even temperature during 
the twenty-four hours, keeping off the 
direct hot sun’s rays during the day, and 
to some extent preventing radiation of 
heat from the soil at night, allowing bac- 
terial activity to be continued. 


Much remains to be learnt about green 
manuring with herbaceous leguminous 
crops in the tropics, as to which species 
will give the best results in the different 
districts and at the various elevations, 
what amount of seed should be sown per 
acre, when to sow, what distance apart 
the rows should be, when to cut, ete. 
The planter may find out a good deal for 
himself, by looking carefully around his 
neighbourhood for likely looking plants, 
collecting the seeds, and sowing small 
areas and comparing the results, a record 
of which should be kept. _ In selecting a 
plant remember that it is desirable to 


ve :— 
mat) Rapidity of growth to allow the 
crop to become established and to keep 
ahead of weeds. 5 aa 

(2.) Some plants are of a climbing 
nature which, though excellent as a 
“eover crop” or weed-smotherer, may 
take to climbing up the tree and thus 
incur labour iu pulling it down. 

(3.) There should be a good yield of 
green material per acre. 


510 i 


[JUNE, 1909. 


The following figures of experiments 
with Green manure crops in Antigua, 
West Indies, are quoted to show the 
great variation in yield per acre of a 
leguminouscrop. These figures are, how- 
ever, not applicable to Ceylon, as the 
crops were grown under different condi- 
tions :— 

lbs. per 

acre. 
Barbuda Bean (8 months) ... 20,000 
Woolly Pyrol (Phaseolus Mungo) 14,850 
Cow peas Vigna sp.: 


hite 3 e AiG 10,570 
Black eye... ae ie 9,440 
Clay nce we ASS 8,440 

_ Red nee = ie 8,250 
Pigeon Pea (Cajanus indicus) 4,950 
Polygonacezee Buckwheat Fagro- 

pyrum ... ch ee 4,022 
Babricon Bean (Canavalia) sp. ... 3,020 


The number of plants which might be 
given a trial is very large, but when put 
through a course of selection would be 
greatly reduced, and perhaps only one 
or two would fulfil all the requirements. 


As pointed out above, the same plant 
may not answer the purpose in each 
district. A plant growing say at 700 
feet elevation might not give the best 
results at 1,500 feet, and even smaller 
differences than this may affect any 
particular plant. 


The Peradeniya Experiment Station 
has a number of interesting plots of 
different leguminous crops, the number 
being added to as time goes on. One~- 
plot of para rubber planted 15 feet each 
way was marked out into 18’ rows, a 
string was stretched along each row 
and coolies scratched a line in the 
ground about 1’—2’ deep, and the seed 
was sown on at the rate of 10 lbs. per 
acre. Previous to the sowing no culti- 
vation was given except the ordinary 
weeding with mamoties as practised on 
estates, and which cannot be strictly 
termed cultivation. At the time of 
sowing the surface soil was baked hard, 
but in spite of this the crop has grown 
splendidly, being at the present time 
3+ feet high. It is very striking to 
see the luxuriant growth of the Crotola- 
ria where the soil is loose, either from 
an accumulation of wash or from old 
cocoa pod holes. When the crop is 
cut and mulched with the soil, the re- 
sults, which will doubtless be published 
will be of great interest. 


a | UNE, 1909. | 


SYSTEMS OF TAPPING CHARA 
RUBBEK TREKS.* 


By JARED G, SMITH, 


Special Agent in charge of the Hawati 
Agricultural Experiment Station, 


AND 
*Q. Q. BRADFORD, 
Assistant in Rubber Investigations. 


(From the Philippine Agricultural 
Review, Vol. II., No. 2, February, 1909.) 

A striking characteristic of the Ceara 
rubber tree is that it sheds its bark at 
frequent intervals. The outer bark is 
tough and papery. Asa new growth of 
bark forms immediately outside of the 
cambium layer, the outer bark dries and 
sloughs off. This process is continuous. 

Before beginning tapping the entire 
outer bark should be removed from the 
truuk without injuring the living inner 
bark. This is easily done with a curved- 
blade knife shaped like a pruning hook, 
making one vertical cut and peeling off 
the bark in rings. 


There are four systems generally 
employed in tapping the Ceara and 
other rubber trees in rubber-producing 
countries. These are the half herring- 
bone, the full herring-bone, the spiral, 
and the vertical cutsystems. The half 
herring-bone consists of a single vertical 
eut with laterals about afoot apart at 
an oblique angle extending half around 
the tree. The full herring-bone consists 
of a vertical cut with oblique laterals on 
both sides extending entirely around 
the trunk of thetree. The spiral isa 
single or double oblique cut extending 
from the bottom to the top of the 
tapping area without vertical channels. 
In the vertical system there are from 
one to half a dozen vertical cuts with- 
out oblique laterals. 


The Ceara rubber tree differs from 
both the Castilloa and Hevea in the 
rapidity of the coagulation of the latex. 
For this reason it has been found that 
the system of vertical cuts is the best. 
The station has carried on a large 
number of experiments in the methods 
of tapping. It has been found that the 
average Ceara rubber tree stops its flow 
of latex by complete coagulation within 
from two to five minutes when the 
latex is permitted to flow in the wound 
without the use of water. By trickling 
water over the wound the period of 
flow may be extended to several minutes, 


* Extract from ‘‘The Ceara Rubber Tree in 
Hawaii,” Bulletin No. 16 of the Hawaii Agri- 
cultural Experiment Station. 


Saps and Haeudations. 


but if the water is rendered alkaline with 
ammonia the period is extended some- 
times from thirty to forty minutes. 


It has also been quite definitely deter- 
mined that a system ot single or double 
vertical cuts, from 3to6 inches apart, 
without any oblique Jaterals except 
at the base, for the purpose of con- 
centration of all the latex at one point, 
gives the heaviest yield of rubber and 
the least waste. <A vertical cut is much 
more easily made than either the spiral, 
half herringbone or full herringbone 
oblique cuts. Another point in favour 
of the vertical cut is that the wound 
thus formed heals with the greatest 
rapidity. 

The first cut should be extremely shal- 
low. The cut should be flat, with sharp 
sides one-eighth of an inch wide, and, 
if practicable, not more than one thirty- 
second of an inch in depth—the thinnest 
possible shaving. It is especially im- 
portant in young trees not to cut too 
deeply, because the bark is very thin, 
and there is great danger of perma- 
nently injuring the tree by cutting 
through to the cambium, The second 
tapping should be in the same cut with- 
out widening it. The next cut and the 
cuts of each succeeding day, as long as 
the tapping period lasts, should be to 
simply freshen the wound at one side 
only of the vertical incision. In this 
way the tapped area will be extended 
gradually in one direction around the 
trunk and _ will be followed by rapid 
healing of the wound from the opposite 
margin of the cut. The number of ver- 
tical cuts will depend on the diameter 
of the trunk. They should be no less 
than 4 or 5 inches apart, because the 
daily tappings drain the latex from the 
bark for from 1 to2 inches in every direc- 
tion from the wound, Enough uninjured 
bark must be left between the wounds 
to admit of rapid recovery and not to 
interfere seriously with the vital pro- 
cesses of growth. 


TIME TO Tap, 


The best time to tap Ceara rubber 
trees is at night or during the early 
morning. If tappingis done during the 
day it should be on the shady side of the 
tree, The reason for this is because of 
the tension of sap and latex in the body 
of the tree. Hvaporation of water from 
the leaves is most rapid during the day- 
time. The greatest activity in pump- 
ing up water from the soilis alsoin the 
day. Under th3 action of direct sunlight 
the leaves accumulate great quantities 
of starchand sugars. At night there is 
a transfer of carbohydrates in soluble 
form from the leaves to those parts of 
the tree where growth and the forma- 


Gums. Resins, 


tion of new tissues are taking place. 
During the hours of darkness there is 
almost complete cessation of evapora- 
tion from the leaves, but the roots con- 
tinue to take up water from the soil. 
This results in tension and explains the 
reason why the flow of latex is much 
heavier and more rapid during the night: 
Coagulation is also retarded by the lower 
temperatures at night. 

The best time to tap seems to be be- 
tween 12 0’clock midnight and7 o’clock 
in the morning, It is believed that some 
adaptation of the miner’s lamp to be worn 
on the hats of the workmen will be 
necessary. If the tapping operation is 
postp ned until earliest dawn it would 
largely increase the number of men 
required, owing to the few hours during 
which profitable tapping can be carried 
on. 

The best season of the year for tap- 
ping has not been determined, but the 
indications are that it would be during 
the rainy season. Iu Hawaii the Ceara 
rubber trees cau be tapped at any time 
of the year, but this operation should 
not be carried on during the resting 
period when the tree is bare. 


APPARATUS AND METHOD OF TAPPING. 


As a result of many trials. it was 
found that a cloth or canvas water bag 
was of great advantage in collecting 
the rubber. A water bag large enough 
to hold about a quart of water, made 
with alternating narrow strips of thin 
porous cloth and oiled cloth or canvas, 
is tied around the tree 6 or 7 feet above 
the ground, just above the tapping area. 
These bags are of cheap construction 
and will last for many months if pro- 
perly cared for. A water bag should be 
fastened to each tree before the tapping 
begins and should be left on the tree 
during the whole tapping season. 


At the base of the tree the water and 
latex are collected in zinc, galvanized- 
iron, copper, aluminium, or enamelled 
cups, or in wooden or earthen vessels. 
Iron vessels should not be used because 
of the corrosive action of the ammonia 
recommended for use in tapping. The 
water and latex are collected at one 
point at the base of the trunk by in- 
serting a thin sheet of zine obliquely 
beneath the outer bark. The channel 
and spout thus formed are not to be 
fastened into the body of the tree 
because of injury to the wood. The tin 
or zine collar aud spout should be left 
on the tree during the whole tapping 
season. 

The knife should cut a shallow, flat 
channel with vertical margins and 
should be capable of delicate adjust- 


3) 


=. 


12 ‘[Junn, 1909. 


ment, because the bark of the Ceara 
rubber tree is very thin. 


The preliminaries having been attend- 
ed to,a water carrier goes through the 
grove, filling each of the bags witha 
pint of water containing ammonia at 
the rate of one-half ounce per gallon of 
water. The rubber contained in the 
latex of young trees coagulates more 
slowly than thatin the latex from old 
trees, so that in tapping a young grove 
aminimum amount of ammonia will be 
reqnired. The water carrier should 
reinove all scrap from the tree, so that 
the wound will be clean aud fresh for 
the tapper. 

Immediately following the water 
carrier comes the tapper, who rapidly 
freshens the wound or cuts a new 
channel, as indicated above, and passes 
on to the next tree. As soonas all the 
water has dripped out of the bags, 
collectors follow the tapping gang, 
empty the containers into barrels or 
other receptacles for transportation to 
the coagulating house or central mill. 


COAGULATION OF THE LATEX. 


The first operation in coagulation is to 
strain the latex to remove particles of 
bark or earth or other larger impurities. 

A number of methods: of coagulating 
latex are in use in rubber-producing 
countries. Among these are acetic acid, 
sulphuric acid, trichloracetic acid, com- 
mon salt, heat, evaporation, churning or 
agitation, and centrifugal force. 


In the experiments which we have 
undertaken, as stated above, ammonia is 
added tothe water which flows over 
the wound in the bark of the tree, 
made for the purpose of extracting the 
latex from the tree. The action of 
ammonia seems to retard coagulation. 
Latex containing moderate quantities 
of ammonia will remain without any 
appreciable coagulation for considerable ~ 
periods, provided the mixture of water 
and latex is not violently churned, 
stirred, or shaken. In order to get rid 
of the ammonia, dilute sulphuric acid is 
added until the mixture shows a 
neutral reaction with litmus paper. 
The addition of sulphuric acid to a point 
of neutralization results in the forma- 
tion of a small quantity of ammonium 
sulphate in the liquid. After standing 
about one hour, a boiling concentrated 
solution of ammonium sulphate is poured 
into the neutralized latex and the whole 
is gently heated or left standing. As the 
mixture is heated the rubber separates 
from the latex and water mixture and 
rises to the surface. The temperature 
of the liquid should not be permitted to 
go above 170° F., as the elasticity of the 
rubber is affected by high temperatures. 


Tuny, 1909.) 


The same result—that is, complete separ- 
ation of the rubber from the water and 
latex mixture—can beiobtained by allow- 
ing the latexto standfor a period of two 
to six hours after adding the ammonium 
sulphate solution, without heating ; but 
eee saving of time warrants the use of 
reat. 


The rubber can also be coagulated by 
adding acetic acid without the use of 
heat. After adding the acid the mix- 
ture should be churned or stirred. 


A very pure quality of rubber can be 
produced by the use of ammonium sul- 
phate, because this salt precipitates the 
proteids, the proteids being compounds 
very liable to rapid decomposition. 
However, from the manufacturer’s 
standpoint, it seems to be immaterial 
whether the rubber is free from  pro- 
teids and other impurities. 

Sulphuric acid is also a coagulant, but 
it should only be used in very dilute 
solutions, 


Formalin may be used in conjunction 
with either ammonium sulphate, acetic 
acid, or sulphuric acid. When present 
in large excess, especially in the presence 
of ammonium sulphate, it has a rapid 
coagulating action. While the rubber 
produced by its use is of very high 
quality, the formalin preventing de- 
composition of the finished product, this 
compound is as yet too expensive for 
general plantation use. 


Rubber may be obtained from the 
water and latex mixture without the 
use of ammonium sulphate by churning, 
by adding either acetic or sulphuric 
acid, with or without heat, or by simply 
allowing the liquid to stand until 
putrefaction begins. 


One of the advantages of the collection 
of latex by means of water trickled over 
the wounds is the possibility of pro- 
ducing a product entirely free from 
bark, earth, twigs, and other gross 
impurities and adulterants. Where rub- 
ber has been collected from wild trees 
the common method kas been to simply 
slash the trunk and branches, permit- 
ting the latex to flow down them or 
fall upon leaves placed upon the ground 
beneath the tree. This method is a 
very wasteful one, and the rubber thus 
obtained is of uniformly low value be- 
cause of the amount of dirt and other 
impurities. This method is not at all 
paanted to modern plantation condi- 
ions. 


Every effort should be made to produce 
rubber of the purest and best quality ; 
and it is believed that such rubber 
can best be produced from the Ceara 
tree by the use of considerable quantities 


65 


513 


Saps and Heudations. 


of water inall of the processes connected 
with the collection and coagulation of 
the latex, 


A M®ETHOD OF GERMINATING CBARA 
RUBBER SEEDS. 


A new and rapid method of germin- 
ating Ceara rubber seeds, perfected at 
La Zucualpa Botanical Station (Mexico), 
is described by Dr. Pehr Olsson-Seffer 
as follows :— 

Place a layer of fresh horse manure in 
a box, to the thickness of about 6 inches, 
spread the seeds on the surface and 
cover with about one inch of the same 
material mixed with a small quantity 
of sand. The soil should be slightly 
packed aud the box covered with glass. 
if putin a warm place or in the sun, 
germination will take place very quickly, 
The seedlings should be planted as soon 
as they are an inch or two high and 
some manure udded to the soil. After 
such treatment the seedlings will grow 
very rapidly. In planting at stakes the 
holes should be made as large as pos- 
sible, or at least 4 feet square. The soil 
should be well weathered, and if too 
sour, some lime should be added before 
planting. 


REVOLUTION IN THE LAC 
INDUSTRY. 


(From the Indian Trade Journal, 

Vol. XIII., No. 159, April 15, 1909.) 

There was a time in the not distant 
past when the sole value of lac depended 
upon the amount of cclouring matter it 
eontained; but, thanks to the introduce. 
tion of aniline dyes, its value now 
largely depends on the entire absence of 
eolour. In other words, hundreds of 
years ago lac established for itself a 
position amongst the world’s commercial 
products as a valuable dyeing agent; 
to-day there is an ever-increasing de- 


- mand for it owing to its value in the 


varnish, chemical, electrical, and a host 
of other trades. It is admitted on all 
sides that the methods in vogue of pre- 
paring lac for the market are—as they 
were centuries ago—crude, slow and 
wasteful. All efforts to improve them 
have hitherto failed, but this failure 
perhaps is not to be wandered at as, 
considered from a_ scientific point of 
view, we know very little about lac. It 
is generally defined as a resinous inerus- 
tation secreted on the twigs of certain 
species of trees by an insect belonging 
to the scale insects and known as Tachar- 
dia lacca, or the lacinsect. The changes 
by which the lac is produced do not 
appear to have been systematically in- 
vestigated; but this may not be alta: 


Gums, Resins, 5 


gether a disadvantage from an Indian : 


stand-point, because when everything 
knowable about lac is revealed we shall 
probably be favoured with a synthetic 
acticie much on the same lines as syn- 
thetic indigo and camphor, of which one 
hears so much occasionally. 


The present method of converting lac 
into what is known commercially as 
shellac comprises three stages. In the 
first the twigs, broken from trees and 
containing lac incrustations, are crushed 
in mills more or less archaic, and the 
wood and the bark are separated by 
methods hardly less so. The granular 
lac thas obtained—known in the trade 
as ‘‘seed lac”—is submerged in water 
fora day or more with frequent agita- 
tion in order to extract the lac dye, 
which, if allowed to remain, would 
detract seriously from the value of the 
finished shellac, This process is a tedi- 
ous and unsatisfactory one, for no 
amount of washing will remove the 
whole of the dye from the lac, which in 
consequence has to be sold at a figure 
which is largely determined by the 
amount of dye it contains. Attempts 
have been made on many occasions to 
overcome this difficulty by the use of 
chemicals such as sodium carbonate and 
borax, and, although these articles faci- 
litated the extraction of the colour, they 
did so much damage to the resinous con- 
stituents of the lac that this process had 
to be abandoned. In the third stage in 
the preparation of shellac the washed 
product is melted and strained while hot 
through cloth bags on to the floor 
beneath the fire, and is then stretched 
into thin sheets, in which form the 
highest grades of shellac are met with 
commercially. There are, of course, 
other grades of shellac which, owing to 
.the impurities they contained, occupy a 
lower level inthe market and are not 
always manufactured exactly on the 
same lines or with the same amount 
of care. 


Now if the laborious washing, which: 
even under the most favourable circum” 
stances, does not extract anything like 
the whole of the dye, could be done 
away with; if the whole of the lac 
produce of this country could be worked 
up into the highest grade of shellac 
with little trouble and cost, and if the 
whole of the dye could be extracted 


-8, Hastings Street, 


leaving a pure shellac of the cleanest 
quality, it seems reasonable to suppose 
that a great impetus would be given to 
lac industry in this country, and would 
also tend to alter for the better the 
conditions that now govern for the lac in- 
dustry generally. Well, this point now 
seems to have been reached, and parti- 
culars of the new process by which the 
desired end may be accomplished are to 
be found in a Note on the Manufacture of 
Pure Shellac, by Mr. P. Singh, F.c.s., 
Acting Imperial Forest Chemist, just 
issued in the Chemistry Series of the 
“Tndian Forest Memoirs,” Volume I, 
Part II. The process is said to bea very 
simple and. efficient one. It consists in 
dissolving lac in methyl] alcohol (wood 
spirit), which treatment has been proved 
to have the merit of completely dissolv- 
ing out the resinous matter from the lac 
leaving the dye undisturbed. The net 
result is that lae of all grades, however 
crude, may be rapidly converted into 
shellac of the very purest quality. The 
apparatus required is not costly and is 
illustrated in the Note we are reviewing, 
The only recurring expenditure appears 
to be on account of the wood spirit 
used ; but this, itis claimed, is not large, 
as the bulk of the spirit is easily recover- 
able for future use. To sum up, the chief 
advantages claimed for the new process . 
are that every description of lac, 

whether ‘ coagulated,” ‘‘ phunki,” or 

otherwise, can be manufactured into 

pure shellac; that the washing difficulty 

is completely overcome; that the neces- 

sity for mixing rosin with seed lac for 

the purpose of facilitating the refining 

process is avoided; that an increased - 
yield of shellac is obtained; that the 

shellac made is much finer and purer 

than in the case of the old method ; that 

less labour and expenditure are involved, 

and thatthe highly refined character of 

the new shellac will ensure a ready sale 

and higher price in the world’s markets 

and particularly in the United States, 

where the iutroduction of the free 

alcohol law, it is said, has led to the 

increased consumption of shellac. At 

all events, Mr. Singh’s Note is bound to 
command the earnest attention of the 

lac trade, and we may add that copies of 
it may be obtained from the Superin- 

tendent of Government Printing, India, 

Calcutta, at the 

moderate price of 8 annas each. 


51S 


THE ORIGIN AND DOMESTICATION 
OF THE PEANUT OR GROUNDNUT 
(ARACHIS HYPOGGA) IN THE 

UNITED STATES. 


By S. A. ANDREW. 


(Fiom Tropical Life, Vol. V., No, 2, 
February, 1908.) 
Part I. 

The origin of the peanut is the subject 
of much controversy, though it is consi- 
dered by many that it is probably a 
native of Brazil. Whether this state- 
ment be true or not, it is certain that 
it was cultivated extensively in foreign 
countries before its merits were recog- 
nized in the land of the origin. The 
merits of this now important crop were 
recognized by slave-dealers who loaded 
their vessels with it as food for their 
passengers. It was not extensively cul- 
tivated in the United States before the 
war between the States. The scarcity 
of rations during the latter part of that 
historic struggle fixed the highly nutri- 
tious qualities of this peer among nuts 
on the attention of the individual mem- 
bers of the various armies then in the 
field, and immediately after the war 
much attention was given to its cultiva- 
tion, especially inthe South. At the 
present time, 7,000,000 bushels of nuts 
are produced annually with a commer- 
cial value of at least $15,000,000, and it is 
safe to say that those grown exculsively 
as food for hogs, and which are not 
gleaned at the time of harvest, would add 
another$3,000,000 to the value of this crop. 
At the present time a large proportion 
of the nuts are eaten, notasa regular 
part of the daily ration, but at odd 
times by all classes of our citizens. 

The peanut is admirably adapted for 
the production of oil, and might be used 
advantageously for various other com- 
mercial purposes, but the demand for 
it as human food has been such in the 
past as to effectively prevent this. 
Since there is almost an unlimited area 
of country admirably adapted to its 
growth, not only in’ the United States, 
but in foreign lands as well, and since 
its cultivation is not difficult, there is 
no reason why it should not be grown 
extensively enough to meet all demands, 
The highly nutritious value of the 
peanut, and its favour among all people 
who are familiar with it, lend colour to 
the belief that its cultivation under the 
best modern practice will long remain 
a profitable business. This should sti- 
mulate and encourage many farmers, 


who are favourably situated, to devote 
a portion of their land to this import- 
ant crop. Moreover, the peanut has 
some special advantages which make 
its utilization as a rotation crop pecu- 
liarly desirable. It belongs to the family 
of legumes, and has, therefore, the 
power of gathering atmospheric nitro- 
gen from the air in very considerable 
quantities. It produces alsoa rich and 
nutritious hay valuable for the main- 
tenance of live stock. Since itis adapt- 
ed for growth on rather thin and 
sandy soils as arule deficient in vege- 
table matter, its power of largely ob- 
taining its own nitrogen from the 
inexhaustible stores of the air is a 
most desirable attribute. 


COMPOSITION. 


The richness of the peanut as a food 
is better appreciated when it is stated 
that the kernels contain about 29 per 
cent. of protein, 49 per cent. of fat, 
and only 14 per cent. of carbohydrates. 
Peanut vines with the leaves contain 
between 11 and 12 per cent. of protein, 
5 to 6 percent. of fat, and 22 to 32 per 
cent. of carbohydrates. They are thus 
more nutritious than timothy hay, and 
should rank with that made from red 
clover. Peanut meal, which is the 
residue after the oil has been extracted, 
is a footstuff of high value, and is appre- 
ciated and extensively used in foreign 
countries. It contains somethirg like 52 
per cent. of protein, 8 per cent. of fat, 
and about 27 per cent. of carbohydrates, 
and, therefore, ranks above cotton 
seed-meal, which is one of the most 
richly concentrated meals found on the 
market to-day. Like other legumes, the 
peanut contains considerable amounts 
of nitrogen, phosphoric acid and potash, — 
the latter two, of necessity, having to 
be largely supplied to the soil in a ecom- 
mercial form. But on the whole, the 
peauut, as seen from the foregoing 
statements, is one of the most desirable 
and satisfactory crops which can be 
grown. 

SOIL AND CLIMATE, 


The peanut prefers a rather sandy, 
loamy soil, which should contain enough 
vegetable matter to make it light and 
porous, and also to prevent its becoming 
too dry. Since the trade demands a 
light-zoloured shell, nuts of equal 
flavour and quality grown on other soils 
do not find a ready sale; and it may 
be proper to state at this time that the 
peanut can be grown on a very wide 
range of soils, provided they contain 
a sufficient amount oflime, This infor. 
mation should encourage many, who 


Oils and Fats. 5 


only wish to grow limited areas, either 
tor grazing down by hogs or for home 
use, to experiment with this important 
crop. There is an abundance of good 
peanut soil throughout the Atlantic 
seaboard. This area extends from New 


Jersey to Florida, and there is also much — 


land on which this crop can be culti- 
vated profitably in the Mississippi valley. 
Only a smal! proportion of the available 
land is now being tilled. 


he peanut will thrive under a great 
variety of climatic conditions provided 
there is a season of at least five months 
free from frosts. It has been thought 
by many that the peanut only grows 
well ina warm climate, but this is an 
error, since the nuts develop chiefly 
during the cool weather in the late 
summer and early autumoa. The 
weather conditions most favourable to 
maximum production are an early 
spring, warm, even summer_ temper- 
atures, with a well-distributed rainfall, 
and a comparatively dry autumn, Of 
course, climate has an influence on the 
character and composition of the nuts, 
since it hac been demonstrated that in 
tropical countries a larger per cent. of 
oil is obtained. Asto any other influ- 
ences which climate may exert, but 
little is known, and the subject has 
not been as extensively investigated 
as the importance of this crop would 
seem to justify. 


FERTILIZERS. 


Since the peanutis adapted for growth 
on a soil which is not naturally rich 
in any of the essential elements of 
plant food, the proper fertilization 
of the crop becomes a matter of the 
utmost importance. It was found at 
the Tennessee Experiment Station that 
60 bushels of peanuts with a ton of 
hay would remove from the soil about 
85 1b. of nitrogen, 15 lb. of phosphoric 
acid, 32 lb. of potash, and 47 lb. of lime. 
Of this amount, about 41 lb. of nitrogen, 
6 lb. of phosphoric acid, 20 lb. of potash, 
and 42 lb. of lime were found in the 
hay, and since the vines would either 
be left on the ground or fed to stock, 
and the resulting manure applied to 
the land, the peanut is seen to be a com- 
paratively easy crop on the land so 
far as soil exhaustion is concerned. 
Besides, as has already been pvinted out, 
it gathers a large percentage of its 
nitrogen from the air. Since it has 
been amply demonstrated that the yield 
of the crop may be greatly increased 


(JUNE, 1909. 


by judicious fertilization, and since 100 
bushels should be a fair average crop 
rather than the low yields now obtained, 
the importance of using 
amounts of all the essential elements to 
increase crop production and counteract 
the call made on the soil by the plant 
during the various stages of its growth 
becomes apparent. 


The needs of acrop of peanuts may 
be appropriately supplied by using 
1,200 lb. of high-grade acid phosphate, 
400 lb. of dried fish, and 400 Ib. of 
muriate of potash. This would givea 
mixture containing 16 per cent. of 
nitrogen, 10:2 per cent. of phosphoric 
acid, and 10 per cent. of potash. It 
may be stated that this ration has been 
found one of the most satisfactory to 
use on this crop. Another mixture 
which has been tried quite extensively 
is 1,800 lb. of acid phosphate, 300 lb. of 
dried blood, and 400 lb. of muriate of 
potash. This mixture would contain 
about 2 per cent. of nitrogen, 10°4 per 
cent. of phosphoric acid, and 10 per 
cent. of potash. 


(To be continued.) 


THE SUNFLOWER: ITS ECONOMIC 
VALUE. 


(From the Journal of the Department 
of Agriculture, Western Australia, 
Vol. XVIII., Part 1, January, 1909.) 


The common sunflower (Helianthus 
annuus) isa plant of considerable eco- 
nomic importance and is largely culti- 
vated in Europe, Asia, and America for 
its seeds. According to the Agricultural 
Ledger, 107, No. 1, anarea of 216,000 aeres 
is devoted to sunflower culture in 
Europe alone, the average return being 
roundly stated at about fifty bushels of 
seeds per acre. In Russia, where the 
sunflower is most extensively cultivated, 
the seeds are eaten raw or cooked, or 
used for the extraction of oil, which is 
said to be excellent for table use and 
may be substituted for salad or olive oil, 
for all domestic purposes. 'Theseeds are 
also of considerable value as food for 
birds, and are largely used in America 
for fattening poultry. The oileake 
which remains after expression of the 
oil forms a valuable cattle food, being of 
great nutritive value and easily digested, 
while the leaves and stalks also possess 
highly nutritious properties. 


sufficient © 


— 


JUNE, 1909, | 


517 


DYES AND TANS. 


THE ANNATTO PLANT, 


By C. CONNER, 
Assistant Director of Agriculture. 


(From the Philippine Agricultural 
Review, Vol. 1., No. 12, December, 1908.) 

The annatto plant, known locally as 
achuete, grows throughout most of the 
islands and does well on any fairly rich 
soil. Some have thought thatit could 
be grown and marketed at a pvofit. 


The following table gives the amount 
used and value in the United States 
during a period of five years :— 

Fiscal year ending June 30, 
{Quantity Value. . 


; (pounds). § 
1903 ae 807,218 9,210 
1904 Bee ee TAL O15 7,447 
1905 ee wae sol. ole 22,959 
1906 e. ; 281,574 22,156 
1907 me 651,595 51,128 


Annatto is used in the United States 
for colouring butter and cheese, and it is 
highly probable that the values given 
here are for the manufactured product. 


The seeds are gathered and offered for 
sale in most of the markets in the 
Islands and are collected by the Chinese 
for export. They sell for about 4 cents 
per pound retail. 


The following interesting extract is 
reprinted from the Bulletin of the Im- 
perial Institute, Volume 11, No. 2, 1908:— 


Annatto is the orange-red colouring 
matter occurring as a layer of pulp on 
the outside of the seeds of the annatto 
plant, Bixa orellana, a small tree indi- 
genous to South America, but now ex- 
tensively cultivated in many tropical 
countries, 


The supplies of annatto which reach 
the United Kingdom at present come 
principally in the form of seeds from 
the Kast and West Indies, and as paste 
from French Guiana or Brazil. 


CULTIVATION OF THE PLANT. 


The annatto plant grows luxuriantly 
in almost any soil, and in the Tropics 
will thrive up to about 5,000 feet above 
sea level. The soil is prepared for 
annatto in much the same way as for 
cotton. The seeds, previously softened 
by soaking in water, are planted in fur- 
rows at distances of 8 to 10 teet apart. 
As the young plants come up they 


should be provided with artificial shade 
to protect them from excessive heat, 
but later on a large amount of sunsbine 
is necessary for their proper develop- 
ment. After three months the plan- 
tation should be weeded and superfluous 
plants removed. Beyond _ periodical 
weeding the plantation requires little 
attention. 


HARVESTING. 


Full crops of seed may be obtained in 
three or four years from the time of 
sowing, but the collection of seed may 
be commenced usually after the first 
eighteen months or even earlier. The 
fruit capsules are gathered when they 
have acquired a reddsih colour and are 
just beginning to break open. This 
takes place from the pointed end along 
the edges and causes the seeds to be 
exposed. It is said to be advantageous 
to cut the branches along with the 
capsules, asin this way the plants are 
prevented from growing so high as to 
make collection a matter of difficulty, 
and they bear better. 


The capsules are opened out on mats 
or cloths and allowed to dry completely 
in the sun, being turned over from tine 
to time. 


Three or four days’ exposure is usually 
sufficient to accomplish this, and the 
fruits are then collected in heaps and 
beaten with clubs or threshed to seperate 
the seeds. These are separated from the 
empty pods by winnowing or sifting, 
and again exposed to the sun until! they 
are completely dry. 


The seed is usually packed in barrels 
for export, but manufacturers using 
annatto in the United Kingdom recom. 
mend that they should be packed in 
double sacks holding from 14 to 2 
hundredweight each. Great care should 
be taken to see that the seeds are dry 
before they are packed, as if they are 
at all damp they are liable to become 
mouldy and lose colour. 


COMMERCIAL VALUE OF ANNATTO 
SEEDS. 


The prices obtained for annatto seed 
in London in the last few years have 
varied somewhat. Ceylon and Madras 
seed fetched from 6 pence to 7 pence 
per pound at the end of 1905, but gradu- 
ally fell to 33 pence or 4 pence during 1906. 
Jamaica seed similarly fell from 8 pence 
at the end of 1905 to4 pence in October, 
1906. At present 4 pence per pound may 
be taken as the average value, Java 


Dyes and Tans. 


seed, which goes principally to Liver- 
pool, is at present worth 4 pence to 5 
pence per pound. The most recent 
quotations available are 4 pence per 
pound for Madras seed and 83 pence per 
pound for Ceylon seed, 


There is a fair demand for annatto 
seed inthe United Kingdom, and the 
annual imports are said to fluctuate be- 
tween 75 and 100 tons, and manufacturers 
of annatto preparations are of opinion 
that the demand is likely to grow. 


There is said also to be an increasing 
market in the United States for annatto, 
but this is likely to be met by a larger 
output from Jamaica. It should be 
borne in mind, however, that the annatto 
plant can be grown practically any- 
where in the Tropics. and that plan- 
tations have been formed in many 
tropical countries, and that if prices 
rose there would probably be an im- 
mediate increase in output from plan- 
tations already in existence. 


PREPARATION OF ANNATTO PASTE. 


At one time considerble quantities of 
annatto paste were imported into the 
United Kiagdom and other European 
countries from French Guiana and Brazil, 
but although text-books dealing with an- 
natto dye still refer to the paste as the 
principal form in which annatto is im- 
ported, there is reason to believe that 
this trade has almost ceased. Thus no 
export figures for annatto paste from 
French Guiana have been given in the 
statistical returns for the French 
colonies since 1900... Annatto paste was 
imported into the United Kingdom from 
Ceylon in considerable quantities some 
years ago, but owing, it is said, to a 
falling off in the quality of the material, 
the demand for it diminished. 


Manufacturers in the United Kingdom, 
and merchants handling annatto paste, 
say that the reason for the decline in 
the market for this article is entirely 
due to the practice of adulterating it in 
the countries where it is produced, and 
that if a clean paste of good quality 
were produced it would command a 
ready sale. Unless, however, a paste of 
excellent quality can be made it is better 
to export the seeds. 


In Brazil annatto paste was formerly 
made by erushing the seeds in hot water, 
decanting the liquid containing the 
colouring matter in suspension, and eva- 
porating it to a pasty consistency in 
shallow pans over a fire. More recently, 
however, in Brazil and French Guiana 
the unerushed seeds have been mixed 
with hot water and the mass agitated 
until the whole of the pulp carrying the 
colouring matter has been washed off, 


518 [JUNE, 1909. 


The muddy liquor so produced is decant- 
ed through a sieve to remove the seeds, 
The liquor is then allowed to stand until 
the insoluble colouring matter held in 
suspension settles to the bottom when 
the useless supernatant liquid is poured 
off and the wet paste or colouring matter 
is dried by exposure to sun heat. The 
paste so produced can be prepared for 
the market in several ways. It may be 
formed into rolls weighing from 4 to 5 
pounds each, and, after drying, wrapped 
in banana leaves and then packed in 
boxes or sacks, as is the custom in 
Brazil; or it may be made into small 
cheese-like masses weighing from 1 to 2 
ounces, and these, when quite dry, pack- 
ed in boxes holding from 4 to 5 hundred- 
weight. The French Guiana variety of 


.annatto is superior in quality to the 


Brazilian (Spanish). 

It will be seen that no special machi- 
nery is required for the production of 
annatto paste by these processes, but 
doubtless the extraction of the colour- 
ing matter could be done more efficiently 
and rapidly if mechanical agitation 
were employed to keep the seeds in 
motion while they are in the water, and 
similarly the separation of the colouring 
matter from the mother liquor and its 
subsequent drying could be more clean- 
ly and rapidly effected by the use of 
filter press. 

Owing tothe very small demand ex- 
isting for annatto pastein the United 
Kingdom at the present time it is im- 
possible to obtain a satisfactory idea of 
its commercial value, but it appears 
that Cayenne paste from French Guiana 
fetches about 10 pence per pound in 
France at present, and that good 
qualities of Ceylon paste when imported 
into the United Kingdom were worth, 
asarule, from 1 shilling 6 pence to 2 
shillings per pound. 


USES OF ANNATTO. 


At present annatto is principally em- 
ployed as a colouring agent for food 
materials such as butter, margarin, and 
cheese. It was formerly used in consider- 
able quantity for dyeing silk, but is now 
little employed for this purpose as better 
dyes less fugitive to light are available. 


THE CULTIVATION OF TURMERIC 
ON THE FOOT-HILLS OF TOUNGOO, 
BURMA, 


BY A. M. SAWYER. 

(From the Agricultural Journal of 
India, Vol. [V., Pt. 1, January, 1909.) 
The watershed separating the Sittang 

from the Salween in Burma is succeeded 

beyond its western declivities by a series 


Jonp, 1909.) 


of forest-clad hills and dales commonly 
knowr as the “ foot-hills” of the range. 
This tract is intersected by winding 
streams whose waters are clear in the 
dry months of the year. In the rains, 
the waters of these streams carry a good 
deal of silt which fertilises the cultivated 
lands of the valleys of this region. 

The light-free sandy loams overlying 
the reddish and yellowish sub-soils of 
the Toungoo District in Burma are 
preferred by the Shans for the cultiva- 
tion of turmeric and most other crops. 
The humid atmosphere of these parts 
favours the growth of the ordinary 
crops. 

Turmeric and other crops of the same 
order grow luxuriantly in shady spots. 

Wild turmeric and ginger are indi- 
genous in ever-green forests of Burma. 

he economic uses of these plants are 
few and loeal. The leaf shoots, stems 
and root stocks of the pungent and 
fragrant varieties enter into the varied 
diet of the Shans. Some varieties are 
only used medicinally. 


The cultivated kinds of these two 
crops are grown by the Shans with care 
separately. A mixture of other crops is 
usually grown. 

The following isa brief description of 
the method of growing turmeric by 
the Shans:—Rhizomes of the plant 
are selected at harvest in December— 
January for planting in the following 
season. They are stored under soil and 
are kept there until the planting season, 
April—May. The plant is practically 
dormant in the’ season intervening 
between harvest and _ planting-time, 
therefore the buried rhizomes, though 
sometimes watered, do not send up 
shoots or suckers. They lie dormant 
through the rainless months;at plant- 
ing time they are unearthed and broken 
up into sets of suitable size. 


The crop is sometimes grown on newly 
eleared land, in which the trecs are 
felled and burnt. The larger logs and 
stumps that survive the flames are 
allowed to lie upon the land. When the 


o19 


Dyesiand Tans. 


South-West monsoon rains set in, holes 
from three to six inchesin breadth and 
depth are dug uniformly with a narrow 
hoe, a foot or fifteen inches apart. Into 
each of these pits one or move sets are 
planted, covered with earth and pressed 
down by the foot of the planter. The 
crop is weeded once or twice, but no 
other cultivation is given. At harvest, 
the rhizomes are dug up and stored for 
seed or prepared for market. Those 
intended for sale are carried in baskets 
to the nearest stream and thoroughly 
washed. They are then boiled in spring 
water, until they yield to pressure 
between finger and thumb. After this 
they are thinly spread out upon mats to 
dry thoroughly in the sun. They are 
then sorted into different classes and 
stored in bamboo baskets for use or sale. 


On the foot-hills of Toungoo, three 
kinds of turmeric frequently occur side 
by side over one and the same clearing 
or field. They are :— 

(1) San-win-gale, the ‘lesser turmeric,’ 

(2) San-win-gyi, ‘the greater  tur- 

meric,’ and 

(3) San-win-pyi, the ‘white turmeric,’ 

All three kinds have broad light green 
leaves that stand from three to five feet 
above the ground. The rhizomes of the 
first command the best price; those of 
the second are comparatively coarse ; 
while those of the third, unlike the root- 
stocks of the first and second, contain 
no yellow colouring matter and have, 
therefore, been named ‘ white turmeric’ 
by the Shans. The plant is not regarded 
as turmeric in the sense in which (1) and 
(2) are, though it too is a species of 
curcuma. Its rhizomes, when cut, show 
a buff-coloured surface and, when 
crushed, emit a remarkable odour some- 
what resembling that of mangoes. The 
plants of this kind are pulled by the 
planter as they are believed to injuri- 
ously affect the rhizomes of the better 
kinds. This variety may, however, have 
special merits which at present are not 
understood, but which require investi- 


gation. 


FIBRES. 


NEW FIBRES FOR PAPHER.— II. 
By WILLIAM RaIrt. 


BAMBOO, 


Amongst the fibrous products of our 
tropical and sub-tropical forests, none is 
-more likely to take a more leading place 
as a papermaking material than bamboo. 
Its accessibility, being generally found 


within reach of waterways down which 
it may be rafted; the size of the stems, 
giving a larger return per head per day 
for the cutting and collecting force 
employed than in the case of the smaller 
annual grasses; the ease with which it 
yields to the same methods of treatment 
which have heen so successful with 
wood, together with its great abund- 
ance, mark it out as the fittest and most 


Fibres. 


natural suecessor to the position occupied 
by the Spruce and Pine trees during 
the last thirty years; while its power of 
self-reproduction makes it impossible 
that the process of exhaustion of supply, 
which has taken place in the case of 
these timbers, can ever happen with 
bamboo. ; : 

Tts use in modern papermaking is by 
no means a new idea. ‘Thirty-five years 
ago, an English papermaker (the late 
Thos. Routledge) proved its suitability, 
and but for the advent of woodpulp, it 
would probably have been adopted then 
asa leading staple, The nearness of 
the Scandinavian forests and_ the 
apparently inexhaustible supply of both 
wood and water-power, drove it intoa 
background from which it may now 
emerge by reason of that same inhausti- 
bility having proved only apparent. 
This period of seclusion has not been 
without its compensations. Thirty-five 
years ago, the acid process which has 
been so important a factor in the 
development of woodpulp, was only 
simmering in the brains of its inventors, 
and there was room for doubt as to 
whether the alkaline method, then in 
vogue, would prove cheap enough 
for bamboo. Woodpulp had to pass 
through along period of experimental 
struggle before its manufacturing pro- 
cesses reached anything like economic 
perfection. No such time of difficulty 
and doubt need be anticipated for 
bamboo. Wood has done the pioneering 
for it; the acid process stands un- 
challenged for good results and economy, 
and its application to bamboo presents 
no more difficulty than its transfer from 
spruce to pine. It is in fact an easier 
material to treat than either of these, 


for its porosity, due to its system of- 


capillary sap tubes, assists the entrance 
of the liquour employed to break down 
the ligneous tissue, in a manner not 
possessed by any of the woods hitherto 
employed. 

Besides its porous character, bamboo 
presents other features in which it has 
distinct advantages over wood. The 
preliminary preparation of the latter is 
an expensive and unsatisfactory process. 
The bark has to be carefully removed, 
Allthe hard deeply sunk resinous knots, 
so common a feature in conifere, have 
to be carefully bored out, and all old 
scars and wounds with their accretions 
of resin and dead tissue must be care- 
fully excised. In spite of the greatest 
care, some of these defects are bound to 
escape attention, to afterwards appear 
in.the finished product as disfiguring 
chips of undigested and unbleachable 
material. Bamboo has neither bark nor 
resinous knots, and the only part requir- 
ing elimination is the nodes, which are 


520 


so clearly defined as to present no diffi- 
culty. The reason for separating them 
is that, being harder and denser than 
the internodes, they require severe 
chemical treatment, and are therefore 
best dealt with separately. 


The percentage of pure fibre (cellulose) 
contained in any raw. material is of 
course of great importance in estimating 
its value. Few of the possible sources 
of paper-making fibre contain more than 
half their raw dry weight, many contain 
only a third or less. In this respect, 
bamboo occupies a very satisfactory 
position. My own long series of labor- 
atory analyses, approximate very closely 
to an average of 51 % of cellulose for the 
internodes, and 45 % for the nodes, and 
in actual practice on a commercial scale 
I have found an all round yield of 45% to 
be quite reliable. 


With all fibre-yielding plants, there is 
a distinct stage of growth at which the 
fibre is atits best both in quantity and 
quality. In the case .of the annual 
grasses and bast fibre plants, this stage 
is just previous to, or during flowering, 
and before the formation of seed, after 
which rapid lignification sets in involvy- 
ing deterioration of the fibre. Bamboo, 
however, from its peculiar habit of 
flowering only at periods of thirty to 
fifty years, does not permit of this simple 
indication being utilised, since except at 
these rare periods, all the stems we see 
mature, wither and die without flower- 
ing. It is therefore important to fix the 
age at which it will give the best results. 
In order to determine this, I have carried 
out aseries of observations and experi- 
ments extending over nine years. The 
net result of these goes to show that 
bamboo is at its best for fibre soon after 
coming through its second monsoon (the 
monsoon in which the young stem first 
appeared being reckoned as the first), 
when it is from sixteen to twenty-two 
months old; ac this age it has fWly 
developed its branches and thrown off 
the hard. hairy, siliceous sheaths which 
protect the early development of these; 
and it has commenced with its own root 
system a lite independent of the parent 
stem. Itisat the age in which it is 
passing outof a sappy, riotous, over- 
grown youth, into a staid hardened 
middle age, Previous to this, sap, gums 
and waxes arein excess, and the fibre 
still immature in strength and toughness. 
If permitted to pass through a third 
monsoon, there comes an increase in the 
deposition of silica within the tissues, 
with a corresponding decrease in the 
percentage of fibre and a greater diffi- 
culty in isolating it, owing to the harden- 
ing of the ligneous tissue in which it is 
embedded. 


(Junw, 1909, 


a ee ve 


JUNE, 1909.] 


In the May number of the 7'..A. I indi- 
cated five tons of dry bamboo per annum 
asa fair average crop per acre. This is 
for stems of the age mentioned in the 
preceding paragraph, and has been 
arrived at by observations extending 
over several years on selected plots of 
poor to fair growth only. TU purposely 
rejected figures obtained from plots of 
luxurious growth in order to err abun- 
dantly on the safe side. It is therefore 
a very conservative estimate. The 
Burma Forest Department put the 
general average for such stems at seven 
tons per acre, and they put the available 
bamboo jungle within reach of water- 
ways in that province, at approximately 
60,000 square miles. On these figures, 
and estimating a yield of 45 % of cellu- 
lose, Burma alone is capable of produc- 
ing a hundred and twenty million tons 
of pulp per annum. The potentiality 
for the whole of South Kastern Asia 
runs into figures so enormous as to be 
beyond our grasp. My own estimate for 
Burma is five tons peracre on 20,000 
square miles, giving an annual possible 
output of 28,000,000 tons, I am quite pre- 
pared to admit that thisis too conserva- 
tive, but even so, itis sufficient to estab- 
lish the fact that the industry can never 
suffer from a lack of suppliesas is now 
the case with woodpulp, of which the 
present annual demand is under 8,000,000 
tons, and which may be expected to 
increase to 15,000,000 in twenty years, 


The cost of raw wood sufficient to 
make a ton of pulp has now advanced to 
from £3 to £4, For bamboo, the same 
item amounts to £l. There is in this 
tact alone a prima facie case for bamboo, 
and carefully framed estimates indicate 
that a bamboo pulp worth £8 10s. in 
England, and £9 10s.in Japan, could be 
made here and_ delivered in either 
country for from £7 to £7 10s. per ton. 
On the capital required, these figures 
represent annual nett earnings, after 
providing for’ depreciation, of 40 %, 
and in the present state of woodpulp 
supplies, there is every likelihood of the 
values quoted rising. 


BRITISH COTTON GROWING ASSO- 
CIATION. 


(From the British Cotton Growing 
Association Third Annual Report, 
No. 26, April, 1908.) 


REPORT TO 31ST DECEMBER, 1907. 


In presenting their Third Annual He- 
port of the work carried on by the 
Association since Incorporation, the 

66 


52k 


Fibres 


Council have to congratulate the share. 
holders on the excellent progress made 
during the last sixteen months. 


The previous reports have been for 
the periods of twelve months ending 
respectively on August 38lst, 1905 and 
1906. The West African Cotton Season 
does not end until November or Decem- 
ber, and it was found very difficult and 
inconvenient to get all the accounts 
adjusted during the height cf the Cotton 
Season. The Council therefore decided 
to make up the accounts to December 
8lst in each year. The present report 
consequently covers the period of six- 
teen months ending December 81st, 1907, 
and all future reports will be for the 
twelve months ending on December 81st 
in each year. 


The Council wish to record their 
thanks to His Majesty’s Government for 
the great assistance rendered in many 
directions, and also to the Officials of 
the various Government Departments, 
both at home and in the Colonies, who 
have taken an active part in forwarding 
the objects of the Association. It is a 
matter of especial congratulation that 
His Majesty’s Government decided in 
July, 1907, to proceed with the construc- 
tion of the Northern Nigeria Railway, 
which will open up the most promising 
new cotton field in the Empire. The 
monthly conferences at the Colonial 
Office have been continued under the 
chairmanship of the Right Hon. Wins- 
ton S, Churchill, M.P., the Under-Secre- 
tary of State for the Colonies, and have 
been of material assistance in carrying 
on the work, : 


The Council regret to record the death 
of Mr. Theodore Gaddum, who had 
rendered most valuable services to the 
Association, more especially in connec- 
tion with the work in India. They also 
regret that owing to ill-health Mr. John 
C. Aitkins, who has been connected with 
the Association since 1902, had to resign 
his post as Secretary. The Council 
appointed him as Treasurer, and also 
elected him a member of the Council, 
Mr. E. H. Oldfield was appointed Secre- 
tary in his place. 


During the sixteen months the Council 
have met on nineeten occasions, and 
there have beeu ninty-nine meetings of 
Committees and Sub-Committees. 


On December 6th, 1906, a Banquet was 
held, the principal gvest being Mr. 
Winston 8. Churchill. A farewell Ban- 
quet was also given to Mr. Churchill on 
August 23rd, 1907, on the occasion of his 
departure for East Africa. On both 
occasions the President (Sir Alfred L, 


Fibres. 522 


Jones, K.C.M.G.) most generously de- 
frayed the whole of the expenses of the 
guests. 

An Exhibition, illustrating more parti- 
cularly the cotton growing movement 
in the West Indies, was opened on April 
25th at the Offices of the Board of Trade 
in Basinghall Street, London, by the 
Right Hon. D. Lloyd-George (President 
of the Board of Trade}. 


An expedition in connection with cot- 
ton growing visited the West Indies in 


January, 1907, the expenses of which' 


were paid by Sir Alfred Jones. The use- 
fulness of this visit was unfortunately 
seriously interfered with by the earth- 
quake at Kingston, Jamaica. The Coun- 
cil cannot express too strongly their 
feeling of gratitude that the members 
of the expedition escaped all harm in 
that terrible calamity. 


In June, 1907, the Annual International 
Cotton Congress was held at Bremen. 
Mr. Henry Higson read a paper on the 
work of the Association. 


In the autumn of 1907 an influential 
and representative deputation visited 
the United States, and attended the 
Conference at Atlanta. The Association 
did not take any official part in the same, 
but several members of the Council 
went out with the deputation. They 
are unanimous in the opinion that the 
work of this Association has not -been 
commenced one moment too svon, They 
were much impressed with the determin- 
nation on the part of the Americans to 
wrest from this country her pre-eminence 
in the manufacturing of cotton goods 
for export, and they were convinced 
that sooner or later the bulk of the 
United States crop will be required 
by the American mills. They are also of 
opinion that this Association has 
nothing to learn in America as far as 
ginning and baling are concerned. 


Owing to the large and continued 
increase in the work of the Association, 
it was found necessary to obtain larger 
oftices, These were completed in Sep- 
tember, 1907, and should provide suffi- 
cient accommodation for such increased 
work as may be expected during the next 
three or four years, though if the work 
continues to grow in the future as it has 
done in the past, not only may further 
accommodation be required, but a 
large increase in the funds at the 
disposal of the Council wil! also be 
absolutely essential. . 

As will be seen from the Balance Sheet, 
the total amount of shares subscribed 
for on December 31st, 1907, amounted to 
£260,632, showing an _ increase of 
£13,359 only since 1906. The Council 
hope that those spinners and manu- 


facturers who have so far subscribed 
nothing or only part of the agreed 
basis will take up the necessary shares 
in the immediate future, and they 
further hope that those shareholders 
who have so generously supported the 
Association in the past will subseribe 
for further shares after the last instal- 
ments have been paid on their previ- 
ous holdings. 


In view of the small amount of sub- 
scriptions coming in recently, the Coun- 
cil did not feel justified in continuing 
any further expenditure for canvassing, 
As will be seen from the Balance Sheet 
the expenditure under this heading, 
which in 1906 amounted to £1,597, was 
reduced to £707 in 1907, and has now 
ceased altogether. 


_In consequence of the large and con- 
tinuous growth of the work and oper- 
ations of the Association, and of the 
resulting heavy financial demands—over 
£50,000 being at one time locked up in 
West African cotton alone—the Council 
were compelled to take other steps to 
raise capital, and under their auspices 
the British Cotton Ginning Company, 
Limited, was formed, with a capital of 
£100,000, all of which has been subserib- 
ed. An agreement has been concluded 
under which the Company purchases 
from the Association its Ginneries and 
Plant, and then leases them back to 
the Association on rental for a term of 
years expiring in 1916. On the expira- 
tion of the leases the Association will 
repurchase the same, and in the mean- 
time will work them on its own account, 
subject tothe rental mentioned above. 


In order to more effectually develop 
cotton growing in British Hast Afriza, 
the Council handed over their work in 
that protectorate to the British East 
Africa Corporation, in which the <Asso- 
ciation holds a large number of shares, 


The question of management has 
been occupying the serious attention 
of the Council during the past year. 
The increase in the work has been al- 
most overwhelming, and in this connec- 
tion the Council beg to call the atten- 
Hon of the shareholders to the following 
acts :— 


(a) The capital of the Association and 
of the auxiliary companies now amounts 
to £450,000, as follows :— 


The Association ... £260,000 
The British Cotton Ginning Co.,... 100,000 
The British East Africa Cor- ‘ 


poration « 60,000 
The Rhodesia Cotton Co. ... 80,000 
£450,000 


‘[JuNB, 1509, 


. 
: 
; 


JUNE, 1909.] 


(6) The annual turnover in cotton 
alone now amounts to nearly £250,000, 
as follows :— 


1905 '£ 49,890 
1006 124,109 
1907 247,630 


(c) A large business is now growing 
up in marketing and insuring cotton, 
supplying stores, machinery, ete., for 
planters and others on which the Asso- 
ciation earns a commission. The total 
commissions earned in 1907 amounted 
se ee as compared with £628 in 
9 . 


(a) The permanent staff now amounts 
ae viz., 13 in England and 37 in West 
rica, 


It will, therefore, be seen that the 
work of the Association has grown so 
enormously, that it has been absolutely 
necessary to organise the manage- 
ment on a proper commercial basis. 
The Chairman (Mr, Hutton) was willing 
to continue the superintendence for 
a further period, but was unable to 
accept the sole reponsibility of manage- 
ment. The Council therefore decided to 
appoint an ExecutiveCommittee of five 
altogether, with Mr. Hutton as Chair- 
man. Messrs. Bell, Crapper, Howarth 
and Zochonis kindly consented to act, 
and were duly appointed. They will 
each be paid £100 annually for their 
services, 


As will be seen from the Balance Sheet, 
the nett balance of the income and 
expenditure account shows a debit of 
£10,497 18s. 3d., as compared with £12,416 
6s. 2d. in 1906, showing an improvement 
of £1,918 7s. 1ld. These figures do not, 
however, convey a correct impression, 
for, owing to the accounts covering a 
period of sixteen months, the whole 
of the expenditure is included for more 
than a year’s working, whereas only one 
erop has actually been marketed, and 
the profits on buying and ginning are 
no larger than they would have been 
if the accounts had only — covered 
twelve months’ working. 


“In view of the fact that the operations 
of the Association are now being placed 
on a commercial basis, the Council are 
desirous of rendering the accounts so as 
to show clearly the loss or profit made in 
each twelve months, and they have there- 
fore decided to write off this year all 
doubtfulassets. The whole of the build- 
ings and machinery taken over by the 
Ginning Company have been written 
down to £64,043 4s. 8d., being the 
amount at which it has been agreed 
they should be transferred, and_ this 
sum now appears in the Balance Sheet 
as a debt owing to the Association by 


23 Fibres, 


the Company. The Council have also 
decided to write off the sum of £8,010 
Os. 9d., being the balance brought for- 


ward of the plantation expenditure 
incurrec in 1905. <A further sum of 
£2,676 38s, 38d. has been written off, 


consisting of sundry small buildings, 
tools, implements, ete., not taken over 
by the Ginning Company, and the 
balance of £2,703 12s. 5d. after closing 
up the Sierra Leone account has also 
been written off. There has also been 
a further sum of £1,000 reserved to 
cover any possible loss on advances 
made to planters and others. 


After these deductions the total deficit 
on the working of the sixteen months 
amounts to £27,218 16s. 1ld,, as com- 
pared with £25,538 12s. 9d. in 1906, but, 
as previously pointed out the compari- 
son is misleading. 


Attached hereto are the Balance 
Sheet, a Report on the work in the 
various colonies, and statistics of cotton 
grown in various parts of the Hmpire. 
From these it will be seen that the total 
production of cotton under the auspices 
of the Association has increased from 
less than 2,000 bales in 1908 to 26,000 
bales in 1907, and has reached a_ total 
value of £400,000. The Council consider 
that the shareholders can congratulate 
themselves on the steady progress made, 
and they are convinced that, provided 
ample capital is obtained, the Associ- 
ation will shortly become a profit-earn- 
ing body,and so be establhised on the 
only possible permanent basis. 


PROGRESS OF THE SEA ISLAND 
COTTON INDUSTRY IN THE WEST 
INDIES. 


By THOMAS THORNTON, A.R.C.S. 


(From the West Indian Bulletin, Vol, 
1X., No. 3, 1908.) 


The history of the Sea Island Cotton 
industry in the West Indies is of very 
great interest because of the rapid pro- 
gress that it has made. The improve- 
ment in the methods of cultivation that 
have been adopted, as the acreage ex- 
tended, has also been most marked, ‘ 


In six years cotton has grown to be- 
come a very iniportant industry in many 
of the West India Islands, and has been 
the means of considerably improving the 
financial position of many of these 
Colonies. 

Cotton was first planted on a com- 
mercial scale in the year 1902, when 
about 400 acres were put into cultiva- 
tion. In 19(3, this area was extended to 


Fibres. 5 


4,000 acres, in 1904 to 7,000, in 1905 to 
9,500, in 1906 to 14,500, and for the season 


1907-8, 20,000 acres are under culture in 


this crop. 


There has been a general improvement 
in the quality of the lint produced, for 
the plants have become acclimatized, and 
at the same time the methods of culti- 
vation and of preparing the product 
have received careful consideration. At 
the present time, the West Indies can 
successfuliy compete with any country 
in the world inthe production of Sea 
Island cotton, and, in some instances, 
exceptionally fine samples have been 
produced. 


When cotton was re-introduced into 
the West Indies, it was anew crop to 
all concerned. Managers of estates had 
to commence at the beginning, and 
labourers had to be trained. It had to 
be determined what methods of culti- 
vation were likely to be the most 
successful, and many experiments had 
to be given careful trial. To-day we 
have sufficient data available to be able 
to indicate, in general, what methods 
are likely to lead to successful cultivation. 
There are, however, several points in 
connection with cotton cultivation that 
have not yet been satisfactorily settled, 
and, therefore, we must continue with 
experiments for some time to time. 


The following points have become 
established and are adopted by our best 
cotton planters :— 


(1) All cotton lands should be well 
prepared. 

(2) The land should be left for some 
time to mellow or cool out before plant- 
ing is done. 

(8) That it is most important that 
cotton lands be well drained. 


DISTANCES OF PLANTING. 


As regards planting, great improve- 
ments have been made. Considerable 
attention is now given to the careful 
preparation of the Jand. and to the dis- 
tances at which the seedis planted. In 
the earlier years it was thought by many 
that the greater number of plants to 
the acre would produce the greater 
yields, but now it has been fairly 
generally established that it is best to 
plant in single, straight rows, and 
where cotton isa rotation crop with 
canes, with the rows from 5d to 6 feet 
apart. The seeds, usually about four, 
are then planted at distances of from 
18 to 20 inches apart in the rows. 

Machines for planting purposes have 
been imported into Barbados and 
Antigua, At Dodds, Barbados, a machine 
has done very satisfactory work, and 


[JUNB, 1909. 


several planters have similar ones on 
order. The machine is drawn by a 
wule and can be regulated to drop any 
number of seeds at distances required. 
It opens the ground, drops the necessary 
number of seeds, and covers them over, 
and, if required, it can be arranged to 
drop artificial manures at the same time 
as the seed. Itis estimated that about 
six acres per day can be planted by one 
of these machines. 


_SHEDDING OF CoTroNn BOLLs. 


In some quarters, the falling off of 
large numbers of young budsand bolls 
has been experienced. As many as half 
the bolls that should mature under 
normal conditions have, in some fields, 
been shed from the plants. 


Abad attack of aphides during the 
time that the plants are rapidly forming 
flowers and bolls will cause many of 
them to be shed, and it has recently 
been brought to notice at Antigua that 
young fiower buds which are being shed 
contain the maggot of a small fly. It 
has not, however, been generally expe- 
rienced that the general shedding of 
bolls is due to insect pests or to fungus 
diseases, for it has been observed that 
the following causes may result in an 
apuormal amount of this shedding taking 
place :— 


(1) Root pruning by deep cultivation. 

(2) Surface of soil becoming hard and 
caked, or becoming covered with weeds. 

(8) Excessive vegetative growth dur- 
ing the flowering period. 

(4) Very heavy rains. 

(5) Severe drought. 

(6) Exposed position of the plants. 

(7) Overcrowding of the plants. 


It would appear, therefore, that the 
shedding of bolls is due to an abnormal 
physiological condition inside the plant, 
and that the question of moisture plays 
a considerable part in causing it to 
take place. To combat it, conservation 
of soil moisture and careful drainage 
should receive every consideration. It 
is very probable that constant stirring 
of the surface soil and good drainage 
will do much towards assisting the 
plants to mature the maximum number 
of bolls. In this connexion, the use of 
mule-drawn cultivators is likely to be of 
great service. They are extensively 
used tor cotton in the United States of 
America, and have given great satis- 
faction in the cotton fieldsat St. Croix. 
They are at present being givena trial 
at Antigua, and itis possible that they 
will be experimented with in other 
islands. 


JUNE, 1909.] 


PICKING AND SORTING OF COTTON. 


In the picking and sorting of cotton, 
each year sees the work done more 
thoroughly. The spinners appear to be 
very satisfied with the manner in which 
the work is carried out. Onsome estates 
it has reached a high standard of effi- 
ciency, and there are now very few 
complaints of badly picked and prepared 
cotton being sent the spinners from the 
West India Islands. 


QUALITY OF THE COTTON. 


There are natural limits which serve 
to determine more or less the quality of 
the cotton produced. The rainfall and 
the character ot the soil are perhays the 
most important factors. 


Cotton grown in the driest districts is 
short and of a coarse nature. That 
obtained from localities where the rain- 
fallis greater is generally both longer 
and finer. 


When the soil is of a heavy character 
and retentive of moisture, the cotton 
produced has a tendency to become very 
weak and wasty, particularly if the 
rainfallis high. If, however, the soil 
is fairly light in character and very 
porous, the quality of the cotton does 
not appear to suffer. In St. Vincent, 
where the soil is sandy and very porous, 
the cotton is very strong, even though 
the rainfall is very heavy for cotton 
localities. In fact, no stronger cotton is 
produced in the West Indies than that 
of St. Vincent. 


QUALITY OF VARIOUS PICKINGS. 


In most of the islands, owing to 
the presence of the leaf-blister mite, 
it isimpossible to obtain more than 
one picking, but in Barbados, where 
this pest has not made its appearance, 
two, and sometimes even three, pick- 
ings have been obtained. The advi- 
sability of keeping plants to produce 
a third picking has occasionally led 
to important discussions. This last 
season there has been an opportunity 
to examine a number of cotton samples 
taken from individual plants from the 
first, second and third pickings, and 
it has been found that in each instance 
the best cotton is obtained from the 
first picking. The length of the cotton 
is greatest at the first picking. It de- 
creases at each subsequent picking. 
At the second picking there is less 
weak fibre present, but at the third, 
the weak fibre may be present to a 
very abnormal extent. The second 
picking is rather coarse and_ brittle, 
and the third is too soft, and as the 
spinner says, is lacking in ‘bone,’ 


525 


Fibres. 


It is probable that the coarse and 
brittle nature of the second picking is 
due to the dry season in which it is 
grown, and the soft nature of the third 
picking to the degenerate character of 
the plant due to age. 


It should be borne in mind that the 
spinner does not want weak and wasty 
cotton, and when an island commences 
to supply it, spinners who buy are 
apt to look with suspicion on the cotton 
produced in that island, Irrespective 
of the trouble brought about by diseases, 
the quality of cotton they are likely 
to produce should influence the planter 
when deciding whether he shall grow 
third picking cotton or not. 


SEED SUPPLY. 


The question of the supply of seed 
for planting has been given careful 
consideration throughout all the islands. 

In 1902, arrangements were made by the 
Imperial Department of Agriculture for 
a supply of Sea Island cotton seed 
through the United States Department 
of Agriculture. This was distributed 
for the planting of 1903. 


Towards the end of 1903, arrangements 
were made by the Imperial Commis- 
sioner of Agriculture, when he and 
Mr. Bovell were visiting the Sea Island 
cotton-growing districts of America, for 
a large supply of the best Rivers’ and 
Seabrook strains of seed. This was 
used for the 1904 planting throughout 
all the islands. 


For the 1905 crop, arrangements were 
being entered upon fora further supply . 
from the Sea Islands, when information 
was received that the planters there 
were resolved not to sell their seed to 
‘communities outside South Carolina.’ 
It was at first thought by West Indian 
planters that this was a hardship, but 
it has subsequently been demonstrated 
that it has really been advantageous 
to these islands, for the question of seed 
supply had to be very carefully consi- 
dered and thorough selection practised. 
It was realized that some _ estates 
produced better results than others 
both as regards yields and the quality 
of the lint. The seed produced on these 
estates was therefore purchased. It was 
carefully hand picked, and all but the 
best developed seeds were discarded. 
In this way, the seed for the 1906 crop 
was furnished, and contrary to the 
expectations, and perhaps, the wishes, 
of the South Carolina planters, the 
quality of the crop reaped was greatly 
superior to that obtained from the seed 
imported for the previous season from 
the Sea Islands, 


fibres. 


Since 1906, the seed for general planting 
purposes has been obtained in this 
manner. 


SEED SELECTION. 


From the beginning it was recognized 
that the above method of obtaining seed 
for planting purposes could be improved 
upon. 


Plants grown from seed vary, to a 
greater or less extent, from one another. 
If there is any variation in the first 
generation, each succeeding generation, 
which is produced from parents with 
varying characters, will become more 
and more varied. It was_ necessary, 
therefore, in order to obtain a_ good, 
uniform quality of cotton, to adopt a 
system of seed selection in which 
certain individual plants, selected for 
their good qualities, are made the start- 
ing point each year. 


In the first year after the supply of 
American seed was cut off, experiments 
in plant selection were commenced on 
seven estates in different localities of 
Barbados. [n the next year (1906-7), this 
work was extended to ten estates in 
Barbados, to five estates inSt. Vincent, 
and to the Sxperiment Stations at 
Antigua, St. Kitt’s and Monserrat. This 
year the work is again being earried on 
throughout the different islands, and 
experiments have been commenced in 
the Virgin Islands. 


advisability of this careful selec- 
Ratoni is oun realized throughout 
all these colonies- The requirements of 
the spinner have to be eonsidered and 
every effort made to produce that class 
of cotton that he desires. 


oint which the spinner strongly 
Roh anizes is that the cotton must be 
uniform. A careful examination of 
cotton on the plantsin the field, shows 
that, although a large percentage of the 
different plants are producing a fairly 
uniform quality, yet there are some that 
produce a better, and others an_ inferior 
grade. When seeds are planted from an 
individual plant, a little variation will 
usually be found, but not nearly.so much 
will be observed as when seed is taken 
from a general field crop. 


lants also show a certain 
Scant of resistance to disease, have a 
greater power | to withstand adverse 
climatic conditions, are less liable to 
shedding of bolls, and they may pro- 
duce a large yield of longer, finer, and 
stronger cotton. : 
- This principle of selection of individual 
cotton plants is already giving exceed- 
ingly promising results. : 


526 [Junn, 1909. 


At one estate in Barbados, in 1905-6, 
three plants were selected as the most 
desirable types. Twoof these appeared 
to be of a very promising nature. In 
1906-7, they were propagated in a nur- 
sery, and sufficient seed was obtained 
from them to plant a considerable portion 
of the estate, aud it is estimated that it 
will be pcssible from this crop to obtain 
more seed, directly descended from these 
three plants, than will be required to 
plant the total cotton area of Barbados.* 


On another estate, situated in a 
district with conditions very different 
from that above mentioned, two plants 
were last season finally selected. The 
plants growing from the seed obtained 
from one of these appear to be exception- 
ally promising, and this strain will be 
tried ona commercial scale during the 
coming season, 


By carrying out these experiments, 


varieties of plants, especially suited to 


local conditions of soil and climate will 
be obtained, and by making the best 
plant in the nursery, each year, a fresh 


starting point, a gradual improvement 


will take place. Instead of producing a 
crop with divergent characters, there 
will be, each year, a tendency for the 
quality of the lint to become more and 
more uniform. The proportion of weak 
fibre will be reduced, the length of 
staple and the proportion of lint to seed 
improved, and the general productive- 
ness of the plant increased. 


THE ALOE FIBRE INDUSTRY. 


(From the Indian Trade Journal, Vol. 
~ XII., No. 155, March 18, 1909.) 


At the fourth Indian Industrial Con- 
ference, Mr. J. N. Banerjee read a 
paper on ‘‘The Aloe Fibre Industry.” 
We give a summary of the principal 
points dealt with :— 


The fibre trade is one which has 
made quite rapid progress in India, 
while the field for its expansion is 
most ample. Experience serves daily 
to bring home to our mind the neces- 
sity of utilizing waste lands. In the 
interior vast tracts are lying fallow on 
account of a want of knowledge on 
the part of the surrounding villagers 


* Seven bales of cotton directly descended 
from one of these originally selected plants (No. 
303—see West Indian Bulletin, Vol. VII., p 
159) have been reported upon by cotton brokers 
as follows:—‘ It is the most serviceable class of 
cotton produced in the West Indies, and if it 
gives a better yield per acre than the finer 
descriptions—as it probably will—we think it is 
most suitable for extensive cultivation.’ © 


Se 
ir 
intl 
NN ~~ an 


dunt, 1909.) 


as to how to make them productive of 
wealth, The object of the present note 
is to draw the attention of our country- 
men in general, how easily we can 
amass a large fortune ata trifling cost. 
The main reasons for not making use of 
the above industry are as follows :— 
(1) The general ignorance about the 
industry; (2) the comparative abund- 
ance of other species of fibre-yielding 
plants which can be easily and _ profit- 
ably grown, and with whose fibres and 
with the means of extracting which 
the people have long been familiar, 
and (8) the want of some simple, cheap 
and efficient machine or appliance suited 
to their means for extracting the fibre. 


Practical experience in decorticating 
this fibre leads to the following con- 
clusions :—600 plants to the acre, 85 x 83 
feet between each row of plants. 20 
leaves, annual yield per plant. Average 
weight of one leaf, 1{ seers. 24 per cent. 

ield of fibre to leaves. 225 maunds of 
eaves peracre. 5 maunds 25 seers dry 
clean fibre per acre. Prime cost of 
one maund of fibre works at Ks. 6, in- 
cluding wear and tear of machinery, 
depreciation, etc. Present sale price in 
Caleatta, Rs. 12 per maund of machine- 
cleaned fibre. Plants can be worked 
four years from the time of planting 
out. There are conflicting opinions as 
to the exact life of this plant. How- 
ever this may be, it appears to be not 
less than 25 to 30 years. 


Before, people used to extract fibre 
in two ways, viz., (a) scraping and (b) 
maceration, but a machine suited to 
all classes for extracting the fibre of 
agave and pineapple leaf and plantain 
sheath can be had at Rs, 15 and Ms. 50 
each. The machine is strong and simple 
in construction, portable and efficient 
to easily extract the fibre. A number 
of these machines. may be run by 


527 Fibres, 


bullock gear or any other power where 
available. The fibre extracted is uni- 
form in quality and length, and conse- 
quently is best adapted to manufacturing 
purposes and fetches a high price in 
the market. The working of the machine 
is so simple that any man can work it 
successfully by two hours’ practice. 


Now I shallexplain two other separate 
methods for extracting fibre, pointing 
out the inconvenience one has to suffer. 


(a) Secraping.—The leaves are cut, the 
shaip spines removed with a knife and 
about six inches cut off from the top 
of the leaf. The leaf is then beaten 
with a wooden mallet on a smooth stone, 
the beaten leaves would then be scraped 
on a board with a blunt knife, water 
being sprinkled upon it from time to 
time until the gum or greenish portion 
of the leaves were removed and only 
the clean white fibre remained, the board 
being held firmly by the toes. The 
fibre would then be dried in the sun and 
afterwards bundled. The fibre obtained 
by this process without washing or 
bleaching, though very clean and free 
from pulp, cannot tetch high prices on 


_aceount of its shortness. 


(b) Maceration.—As in the previous 
method of fibre extraction the leaves 
are cut and the spines removed. The 
whole leaf is then beaten with a wooden 
mallet and thrown in bundles into a 
tank (far away from the city to avoid 
the noxious smell) in which it is left 
to macerate for three’ or four months 
or until the pulps are quite decomposed. 
The bundles are then taken out, washed 
as jute, dried and bleached in the sun. 
The fibre obtained by this process 
though longer than that obtained by 
scraping is not very clean, and hence 
cannot fetch even nearly half the value. 
Machine-made fibre is the best. 


EDIBLE PRODUCTS. 


THE PAPAW, OR TREE-MELON. 
(Carica Papaya.) 


By. H. F. MACMILLAN: 


The Papaw is one of the most im- 
portant and earliest fruits introduced 
into Ceylon. A native of Tropical Ame- 
rica and some West Indian islands, it 
has been established and cultivated in 
Ceylon since about 1670, having been 
brought to the Island in-the time of 
the Portuguese. It also appears to have 


been introduced early and grown in all 
hot countries. In India and China its 
history is traced back to 1611 and 1656 
respectively. The large hollow fruits 
borne in a cluster at the base of the 
crown of leaves, are much relished as 
a desert by some persons. being: also 
sometimes used in an unripe state as 
a vegetable. The “flesh” or pulp of 
the fruit is usually of a pinkish colour, 
and of the consistency of firm butter, 
It is agreeably refreshing, and consider- 
ed an aid to digestion, owing to the 
pepsin (papain) which it contains. It 


Edible Products. 


is considered best for eating when taken 
with a little sugar and fresh lemon or 
lime juice. The fruit varies in shape 
somewhat, that of some varieties being 
nearly round and of the size of a large 
melen; but the most common form is 
oblong or narrow-shape, with a tapering 
point, varying from 10 to 15 inches long 
by about 8 inches in diameter. The 
peculiar property of the leaves in ren- 
dering meat tender is well-known, and 
appears to be put commonly into practice 
by cooks in Ceylon. In other countries 
even more powerful properties are 
ascribed to the Papaw-tree, and close 
proximity to it is sometimes considered 
sufficient to effect the end in view. The 
Papaw is a small quick-growing, sub-her- 
baceous, branchless tree, belonging to 
the Natural Order Passifloracew_ or 
‘*Passion-fruit” family. In the West 
Indies vegetable pepsin, which is ob- 
tained from the unripe fruit, is pre- 
paied and exported to Europe, &c., for 
use in medicine. Sir George Watt men- 
tions the use of papaw juice, in India, 
in softening tasar cocoons and thus 
facilitating their being reeled. 


IMPROVEMENTS IN PADDY CULTI- 
VATION ON THE SIVAGIRI 
HOME-FARM. 


By J. M. LONSDALE, 
Agricultural Expert to the Court of Wards. 
(From the Madras Agricultural 
Calendar, 1909.) 


Among the improvements introduced 
on the Sivagiri Home-farm in the Tinne- 
velly District the most important are 
the following :— 

Green-manuring with Kolingi.—The 
seed is gathered from the waste lands 
when ripe about the month of July. 
Coolies are paid one measure of paddy 
for one measure of thrashed Kolingi 
seed. Itis then keptinadry place and 
occasionally dried in the sun till pisha- 
num paddy is harvested in February, 
March or April. As soon as_ possible 
after a plot has been harvested the land 
is ploughed once and if the soil is hard 
it is cross-ploughed also. If the soil is 
so dry and hard as to prevent ploughing 
immediately after harvest, then every 
opportunity is taken of ploughing after 
the showers of rain which usually fall 
in April and May, but the earlier the 
land is ploughed and the seed sown the 
better will be the germination. Three 
to five heaped Madras measures are 
then sown broadcast, and it is covered 
by ploughing once and cross-ploughing 
with alight wooden plough. No furthe* 


928 


(Jun, 1909, 


cultivation is necessary. It must not be 
irrigated. The cropis allowed to grow 
till August or September, when every 
opportunity should be taken of plough- 
ing once through the crop in the dr 

state after tne showers of rain whic 

usually fall during these months, in 
order that weeds may be destroyed and 
the soil aerated. The Kolingi, being 
deep-rooted, very little will be up-rooted 
by the plough, and the uninjured plants 
will grow much better and seeds pre- 
viously buried too deep or too shallow 
will germinate. In October irrigation 
water becomes available, the plots of 
Kolingi are then flooded and ploughed 
in puddle, Ifthe Kolingi is very thick 
and the plants tall it is advisable after 
flooding, but before ploughing, to pull 
the Kolingi up by the roots and then 
spread evenly over the plot. It is then 
easily trampled in by ploughmen and 
cattle whilst puddling. Thus by spend- 
ing about six annas on seed and doing a 
little extra labour in the dry season, 
when the work onthe farm is slack, a 
saving of Rs. 10 to Rs, 15 per acre for 
poonac or jungle leaves can be made, and 
often a great deal of time is saved and 
all big ryots know how important it is 
not to be late in the transplanting of 
paddy. Kolingi grows best in light 
loamy soils. It does not thrive well in 
stiff clays or land which is water-logged. 


Single Planting of Paddy Seedlings.— 
This is a question whicao affects most of 
the south and west of this Presidency 
and some parts of thenorth also, When 
it is considered that there are about 74 
lacs of acres of wet land in this Pre- 
sidency, the ways and means of reduc- 
ing the amount of paddy seed used per 
acre must necessarily be of great im- 
portance to most of theryot class. It 
has been proved conclusively at Sivagiri 
that the amount of seed used per acre 
can be enormously reduced without re- 
ducing the yield by transplanting single 
seedlings instead of a bunch varying in 
number from two even up to twenty. 
This is because the paddy plant possesses 
the property of throwing out new shoots 
when planted singly, but which does not 
occur to any great extent when paddy 
is planted in bunches, It is difficult at 
first to teach the coolies to plant singles, 
but when this has been done there is a 
direct saving at least equal to the value 
of the seed saved, as there is no extra 
cost for labour. One point, however, 
until recently has been overlooked, 1.e., 
the rate per acre at which seed is sown 
in the seed bed must be reduced to at 
least 100 Madras measures per acre in 
order that the roots of the seedlings 
shall not be so closely matted together, 
otherwise, the transplanting  coolies 


7 


cannot separate them easily into single 
seedlings. The average seed rate in the 
home-farm last year was sixteen Madras 
Measures fer acre or about 40 lb. of seed, 
and it is hoped that it will be possible to 
still further reduce this quantity to about 
eight Madras measures per acre when 
the coolies become more expert. This 
characteristic of throwing out new shoots 


is called ‘‘tillering.” Most varieties 
of paddy in the south have __parti- 
ally lost their powers of tillering, 


but it has been observed that these 
varieties, if they are planted,singly year 
atter year, gradually regain the power 
to tiller. 

Seed-selection.—Seed is specially select- 
ed every year from the local varieties 
of paddy which prove most profitable 
and also from the introduced varieties. 
This is used as home-farm seed the 
following year. Some selected seed is 
also available for sale to ryots. If a 
large quantity of selected seed of any 
particular variety is required, an order 
should be sent to the Fram Superinten- 
dent early, e.g., if it is pishanum paddy, 
order not later than January. If it is 
kar crop, not laterthanJune. The selec- 
tion is done by picking out the best ears 
in the field immediatly after the crop is 
cut. These are bundled and thrashed 
separately and the seed is carefully dried 
in the sun and stored in large earthen- 
ware pots. Special attention is paid to 
picking out ears which are quite true to 
the variety and quite free from disease. 
Care is also taken that all the grains in 
the ear arefully ripe. An earis rejected 
if many of the grains have already been 
shed fromit, and also if the glume or 
outer skin of the grainis empty. Seed 
is not usually selected from kind, unless 
it is a variety of paddy whichis specially 
suited for water-logged soils like Kulu- 
valai paddy. On the other hand, ears 
are picked from a crop growing on a 
plot which has been subjected to drought, 


even though the ears are not quite so. 


large and good as ears of the same 
variety growing on a plot which has 
not been subjected to drought. One of 
the chief points to be considered in the 
selection Of most varieties of paddy seed 
is to try and increase the drought-resist- 
ing power of the variety, even though 
the yielding power is slighty decreased. 


Dry Cultivation of Paddy Lands.— 
Except on very sandy soils the dry culti- 
vation of wetlands has been found to 
have a very good effect. If ploughmen 
and bullocks can be spared from the 
work of thrashing, carting grain and 
stacking straw, the plots are ploughed 
immediately the crop is taken off the 
ground, provided the soil is not already 
too hard. If this cannot be done, the 


67 


JuNE, 1909.] : 529 


Adible Products. 


land which is not cultivated with kar 
crop paddy, is ploughed whenever there 
is an opportunity after the occasional 
showers of rain which fall from the 
beginning of April to the end of Septem- 
ber. The main effects of this dry culti- 
vation are :— 

(a) More plant-food is rendered avail- 

able for the succeeding crop. 


(b) The air gets into the soil which 
enables the roots of paddy to go 
down deeper, thus making it less 
subject to drought and increasing 
the area from which the plant 
obtains its food supply. 

(c) Weeds are destroyed. 


Many ryots ask ‘‘ How will the cattle 
be fed if the wetland is ploughed up 
during the dry season”? The reply is that 
more is lost in paddy than is gained in 
grass, and the shortage in grass must be 
replaced by the growth of sunnhemp 
and other valuable fodder crops which 
can be grown atavery small cost and 
preserved in stacks until required. 


TRANSPLANTING OF PADDY, 
By T. B. YATAWARA, 
MAHATMAYA., 
Transplanting of paddy was for the 
first time started at Gampolawela in 
two different fields; and the crop raised 
from both of them, Iam glad to be able 
to report, has been greater than on fields 
not so planted by 27°50 per cent on each 
acre, but the cost, I must say, is * prohi- 
bitive. 

Artificial manure containing nitrogen, 
potash, and phosphoric acid was tried. 
A seven acre block of padi land was 
divided into seven lots of an acre each, 
thus :— 


| 


RATE- 


bo 
eo 


1 


In lot No. 1 no manure of any kind 
was used at all; No. 2 was manured 
with 4 ecwts. of crushed bones; No. 3 
with 4 ewts. of crushed bones and 14 ewts. 
of sulphate of potash; No. 4 with 4 ewts. 
of crushed bones and 14 ecwts. of blood- 
meal; No. 5 with 4 cwts. of crushed 


Edible Products. 580 \ JUNE, 1909. | 


bones, 14 cwts. of sulphate of potash 
and 13 ewts. of bloodmeal; No.6 with 
20 eart-loads of cattle manure; and No. 7 
with 30 bags of ‘‘ road dust.” 


The yield of the several plots has been 
as follows :— 


YIELD. 

e EE ee 

6 32 : 

A we oot Total. 
RRO A Rss s Value. Straw. Value. 

5 Os Ay 

pe | 

R. c. R. ¢c. R,.¢. R. ¢. 

Ie Nils 353 79°50 =1,625 16°25 95°75 
2 19°00 57 85:00) L710 17°10 = 102°10 
3 30°94 80 120°00 1,800 18°00 =138°00 
Ao Uso 10800 1,950 19:50) sel 750 
5 42°30 87 130°50 =. 2,100 21:00 = 151°50 
6 15:00 91 136°50 2,300 23°00 159°50 
7 9:00 98 145°00 2,450 24°50 = 169°50 


From these figures it will appear that 
it is cheaper to fertilise padi fields 
with cattle manure or “road dust” 
(dust collected from the roads). Owing 
to the scarcity of cattle, cattle manure 
is not available in large quantities, and 
road dust cannot be easily obtained 
unless the collector is prepared to go to 
gaol for causing damage to public 
thoroughfares. The best fertiliser, no 
doubt, is ‘‘road dust.” 


MANURING FOR TEA. 


By JAS I[NSCH. 


(From the Indian Agriculturist, Vol. 
XXXIV., No. 1, January 1, 1909.) 

By way of preface it may be said that 
the word ‘manure’ originally meant to 
work with the hand, or to till, but we 
no longer attach this old meaning to it, 
for the word is now applied to any 
substance added to the soil to increase 
its fertility. Wewmust not forget that 
thorough tilling of the soil is in itself an 
invaluable means of providing plant 
food, and is the first and most important 
method of increasing the fertility of the 
soil. Dunging, green manuring and 
bhil-soiling, or applying defective soil 
constituents, is the second consideration 
in good planting practice, and, lastly, 
we have the direct provision of real 
plant-food or the application of ferti- 
lizers. Before speaking of manures and 
their application I should like tosay a 
few words about the roots of a tea bush, 
and how plant food is digested and 
absorbed, If youcarefully lift a healthy 
young tea plant growing in rather light 
soil and wash away the earth as com- 

letely as possible, the root system will 
Es visible. You will observe that while 
the bulk of the soil has been readily 


washed away, each rootlet retains near 
its tip a few grains of sand, which ad- 
here somewhat firmly. These rootlets 
are provided with delicate hairs, root 
hairs, and they represent the active 
portion of the root whereby water and 
dissolved mineral food are taken from 
the soil. Before food can nourish a 
plant it must be rendered soluble. This 
transforming process from the insoluble 
to the soluble, from the non-diffusible to 
the diffusible, is called digestion. In 
plants there is an external and internal 
digestion to be noted. 


Before the delicate root-hairs can take 
in the various mineral substances 
required by the plant from the soil, 
these substances must pass into solution. 
The root hairs must first come into inti- 
mate contact with the fine particles of 
the soil; and as the outer layer of the 
wall is converted into mucilage, the two 
stick together asit were. Then an acid 
juice (digestive juice) is excreted, and the 
material in contact is dissolved wholly 
or partially. Thisis external digestion, 
and is peculiar to plants from their 
special mode of feeding. 


Root FUNCTIONS. 


Digestion is preliminary to absorption ; 
and the soluble materials must enter into 


circulation to be carried where required... 


The mineral matters dissolved by the 
exeretions from the root-hairs are 
absorbed by the same means. The deli- 
cate, pliant, thin-walled root-hairs are 
admirably adapted for this purpose. In 
contact with the particles of soil, they 
smear them, as it were, with the acid 
excretion, and the dissolved matters are 
taken in to be passed along from cell to 
cell. The external absorption, however, 
is confined to water and mineral matter 
and various gases, The roots principally 
absorb water with its dissolved salts: 
but they can also take in gases such as 
oxygen. The various food stuffs taken 
in or manufactured by the plant are 
conveyed from one place to another to 
nourish the different parts. 


The following substances are taken up 
by the roots of the tea bush and are 
absolutely essential to the life and 
growth of the plants, The necessary 
foods are—water, nitrates, phosphates, 
sulphate, lime, potash, magnesia, iron, 
and oxygen. Itis highly important to 
recognise the fact that roots have not 
the same power of selecting food 
material as, say, an animal actuated by 
taste and smell. A root is obliged to 
take up any substance which is dissolved 


‘in the soil water and capable of passing 


or oozing through the vegetable mem- 
branes of the root. It such a membrane 


comes in contact with water charged — 


JUNE, 1909.] 


with mineral and other substances, such 
minerals as possess the power of pene- 
trating the membrane ooze through and 
continue to do so until the liquid on the 
internal side of the membrane is as 
highly charged as that on the external 
side. This action of soil water passing 
into the root hairs is called osmosis, and 
the same process goes on when the 
planter of epicurean taste soaks his 
prunes in gin. 

If the plant uses any of the materials 
dissolved in the soil water, they are 
constantly withdrawn from the inner 
surface of the membrane and employed 
for the purposes of plant nutrition, a 
fresh quantity entering to take the 
place of that which has been utilised. 
Thus the total amount of these useful 
substances taken into the plant by the 
root may be actually very great, despite 
the insignificant quantity contained in 
the external soil water. On the other 
hand, the passage of any useless or 
injurious substances into the plant is 
limited in so far as such materials are 
not steadily utilised as fast as they pass 
through the membrane, and so the 
internal liquid in contact with the 
absorbing surface soon gets as highly 
charged as the liquid without, and 
absorption is then at an end. Here I 
should like to caution you that when 
dealing with concentrated chemical 
manures, particularly nitrate of soda, 
great care should be taken not to apply 
more than is recommended, or else the 
plant will be forced to absorb more 
nitrate than is necessary for its healthy 
welfare. 


ANALYSIS OF TEA SOILS. 


A complete chemical analysis of our 
old tea soils would generally show that 
there isa large surplus of plant food 
present, and yet, unless the soil be 
enriched with additional manures, the 
yield of our bushes falls off. Hall, in 


his book on the soil, says ‘that even the’ 


poorest soil contains the nutrient 
material required by an ordinary crop 
many times over,’ yet we know that 
crops respond vigorously to dressings of 
manure which only add a fraction to 
the plant-food already stored inthe 
soil. Evidence of the enormous stores 
of plant foodin the soiland the com- 
parative slowness with which they can be 
utilised has been proved at Rothamsted 
Experimental Station. 


We are driven to conclude that the 
nitrogen, potash, and phosphoric acid 
are present in the soil in some other 
mode of combination than the form in 
which they exist in manures: so that 
although they may bein the soil, they 
are in such a state as to be very partially 


31 


Edible Products, 


of service to the growing plant. The 
soil must, therefore, be regarded as 
possessing most of its plant food in 
states of combination that cannot be 
utilised by the plant, and these forms 
slowly pass, by weathering and other 
changes, into material which is available 
for the crop. 

Chemists have recently learnt to dis- 
tinguish between the total plant food in 
the soil, and the available or ‘‘ present 
consumption” supply. Fertility analyses 
are now made by agricultural analysts 
whereby the approximate amount of 
plant food soluble in the soil water and 
in the acid sap of the root is determined. 
Without accepting present methods as 
beyond all question it is yet an undoubt- 
ed fact that whereas the old time 
complete” analysis was more often 
than not a misleading and mischievous 
guide, the modern ‘ fertility” analysis 
has been found a sound and reliable 
indication of the real requirements 
of the soil, Chemical analysis is not 
the only means of solving this pro- 
blem, and perhaps the very best way 
of deciding upon the actual needs of 
the soil is that of experimenting with 
bushes which have been treated with 
nitrates, phosphates and potash alone 
and combined. 


A large number of practical experi- 
ments, as weall know, have recently 
been carried out at the Heeleaka Experi- 
mental Station, but, I believe, the soil 
there is of a sandy nature and the 
results from using the same manures on 
our soils might be misleading. 


THE HEELEAKA EXPERIMENTS, 


The Heeleaka experiments have taught 
us a great deal, but I should recommend 
every planter to carry out a careful 


‘series of experiments on the Heeleaka 


plan on his own garden ; at any rate all 
the experiments that have given good 
results ought to be tried. 


The principal constituents taken by a 
tea bush from the soil are nitrogen, 
potash and phosphoric acid. A manure 
to be of any value must, therefore, 
contain one or mote of these substances ; 
for the most fertile soils could not endure 
for any length of time the constant loss of 
these ingredients without, in time, be- 
coming impoverished. The principles of 
the application of manures are to return 
to the scil those ingredients which have 
been removed by cropping, to make up 
deficiencies in soils which are naturally 
poor, and to supply the necessary food 
substances for the growth of the future 
crop. We must not forget, however, 
that manures not only add to the 
fertility of the soil by supplying direct 
plant-food, but that some of them have 


Edible Products 582 


the valuable property of improving its 
mechanical condition. This property is 
not possessed by all the manures in use, 
for those like nitrate of soda oniy give 
up plant-food, while cow dungand green 
manures not only supply the bushes 
with food, but also greatly improve the 
mechanical condition of the soil and 
help it to retain moisture. The question 
asto the propriety of improving the 
really improveable tea soils is, in any 
individual case, to be satisfactorily 
answered by, ascertaining at what 
expense, in relation to the probable 
profit, the process may be performed. 
Assam-gardens getting As. 8 per lb. for 
their tea could use more expensive 
manures than Dooars gardens only 
getting, say, an average of As. 5 per lb. 
The question we must consider is will 
the cost of manures be fairly returned 
by the profits of our increased crops; 
we require to ascertain, in the first 
place, what will be the probable return, 
within a moderate length of time, for 
our outlay, always keeping in view the 
prospective prices during the period. 
Such, at least, is the principle of calcula- 
tion, which ought naturally to guide all 
planters, as their outlay is strictly 
pecuniary. 


THE Best PLANT Foon. 


We will now consider the manures 
commonly used on tea gardens. The 
oldest and most popular of manures is 
cow-dung mixed with jungle, old thatch, 
and the excreta of horses and goats. 


Cattle manure is very often treated - 


with indifference as to the effects of 
exposure; it cannot be too strongly 
stated that this isan abuse. Practically 
all tea soils, with the exception of bhils, 
are benefited by dressings of dung. By 
its usea light soilis assisted to retain 
moisture and withstand drought, a 
heavy soil is rendered lighter and moie 
porous, and is, therefore, easier to work, 
carbonic acid is evolved which helps to 
corrode phosphates and liberate potash 
from the soil. 


The plant-food in dung is relatively 
small and the chief advantages resulting 
from its use as a basis of successful 
manuring are rather secondary than 
direct. We may assume thatina ton 
of average manure which has been kept 
under cover during the rains there are 
8 lb. of nitrogen, about the same amount 
of potash and 5 lb. of phosphates. Stable 
manure is rather richer than cow 
manure, but more liable to loss on 
keeping; goat manure is peculiarly rich 
in nitrogen. I should recommend apply- 
ing cattle manure at the rate of 7 to 8 
tons peracre ; this can be done including 
the cost of collecting, at from Rs. 12 to 
Rs. 16 per acre. A thousand acres 


garden ought, in the majority of cases, 
to be able to apply cattle manure mixed 
with jungle to at ieast 100 acres annually. 


GREEN MANURES. 


Green manures are considered to be, 
weight for weight, as good as cattle 
manure. Inthe Dooars we have tried 
Mati Kalai, Dhaincha, Tephrosia, Arahar 
dhal, Crotolaria, and the Sau_tree, and 
in the majority of cases they have 
proved a success. All these are legu- 


* minous plants and are able by their root 


nodules to fix atmospheric nitrogen. 
Woodashes, like cattle manure, should 
be kept under cover; if exposed to 
drenching rains most of the potash will 
be washed out, and the chiet value of 
the ashes be lost. Wood ashes are 
generally applied at the rate of about 
5 cewts- tothe acre. Now that coal is 
used in many factories, it may not be 


out of place to state that coal ashes are ~ 


practically useless as a manure and only 
of benefit mechanically to the stiffest 
clay soils. Bones area very slow acting 
manure, owing to the time they take to 
decay, and should always be ground as 
finely as possible. By the decomposition 
of bones, the organic matter they con- 
tain is converted into ammonia, carbonic 
and other acids. The presence of fat in 
bones retards their decomposition ; this 
can be removed by steaming them at 
high pressure. Oilcakes as tea manures 
are coming into more general use, ard at 
their present price ought to be used on a 
much larger scale; they are generally 
applied at5 maundsto the acre. Dr. 
(now Sir George) Watt strongly con- 
demns the burial of prunings because 
of the risk of spreading blights. The 
burial of prunings as- manure is a 
question that is open to discussion, and 
it may be pointed out that by burying 
prunings deeply the 1isk of spreading 
blight is greatly minimised. It is 
generally believed that by adding 2 to 
3 ewts. of basic slag to an acre of buried 
prunings, the destruction of fungi spores 
is ensured; this is doubtful, but the 


basic slag adds to the value of the - 


manure. : 

If full benefit is to be derived from 
manuring the efficiency of drains must 
be considered. 


NOTE ON TAPIOCA. 
By N, KuNJAN PILLAI. 
(From the Agricultural Journal of 
India, Vol. 1V., Pt.1, January. 1, 1909.) 


The usual practice of sun-drying tapi- 
oca in this country is to remove the skin 
first, then cut it into thin slices and 


expose the slices to the sun for five or six 


1 
yu 


he ayes 


i 


a  —s , 


June, 1909.] 


days consecutively until they are quite 
dry. This method is quite sufficient for 
the preservation of the root, and for the 
removal of all the bitter stuffs, if there 
are any. Boiling before sun-drying is 
not practised here, and is, I think, not 
essential. 


Removal of the skin of the root before 
cutting it is, in my opinion, advan- 
tageous. It must be remembered that 
the skin consists of an inner and an outer 
layer. Itis enough if at least the outer 
layer is removed. If it is not done, dry- 
ing will be more difficult, and will re- 
quire a longer time. Also, there is the 
danger of the earth that sticks to the 
outer surface of the root getting mixed 
up with the cut slices unless special care 
is taken to wash all roots thoroughly 
before cutting them. Thorough wash- 
ing is rather difficult and tedious, and 
so it is better simply to remove the skin, 
The extra expenses to be incurred for 
this will not be much, and whatever is 
spent can certainly be realised in the 
price. 


Tapioca is a cheap and nutritious food 
which will serve the people well, 
especially in times of famine. It has 
been in Travancore for the last thirty or 
forty years, | think. It is very widely 
cultivated at present, and is the staple 
food of many thousands of poor people 


LIMA BEANS. 

(From the Agricultural News, Vol. 
VIII., No. 180, March 20, 1909.) 
The Lima bean (Phaseolus lunatius) is 
cultivated in most of the warmer parts 
of the earth, and is widely grown in 
the West Indies. The species is one 
which shows considerable variation in 
the beans (seeds) produced, but the 
various kinds are divided roughly into 
two classes, the ‘red’*and the ‘ white.’ 
Beans of the latter class somewhat 
resemble haricot beans, and are fre- 
quently cooked and eaten as human 

food. 

In Mauritius, Lima beans are culti- 
vated on a large scale, and turned into 
the soil asa green manure. The plant 
is one which contains a cyanogenetic 
glucoside, %.e., a chemical compound 
which, under certain conditions, is 
capable of yielding prussic acid. These 
plants are, therefore, dangerous as a 
stock food and many cases are reported 
from Mauritius and other countries of 
animals having been poisoned as the 
result of eating the green vegetation. 
Fatal results to stock, too, have not 
infrequently followed the consumption 


of raw seed (beans) in Mauritius and 


333 


Edible Products. 


Java, and cases of poisoning amon& 
cattle in Great Britain have been traced 
to the use of beans of Phaseolus lunatus, 
imported from the above two countries. 
The beans on analysis have been shown 
pec nae varying quantities of prussic 
acid. 


Beans of Phaseolus lunatus (both red 
and white) are also imported in large 
quantities into Great Britain from 
Burma, the particular variety being 
known as ‘Rangoon’ beans. Although 
they have been fed to cattle on an 
extensive scale for some time past, no 
ill effects have so far followed their use. 
The beans from Burma contains prussic 
acid, but in much smaller quantity than 
those from Mauritius and Java. Burmese 
beans are also used as human food in 
many parts of Europe. 

Attention is called to the poisonous 
properties of the beans in question in a 
lengthy article appearing in the Journal 
ot the Board of Agriculture of Great 
Britain (Vol. XIV., p. 722), where the 
results of analysis of a large number 
of specimens from different sources are 
tabulated. 


It has been stated that by cooking the 
beans the glucoside which yields the 
prussic acid is removed. ‘This does not 
appear to be always the case, however, 
and investigations made at the Impe- 
rial Institute lead, to the conclusion 
that no change is effected in the 
quantity of glucoside present even after 
boiling. The enzyme or ferment which 
liberates the prussic acid from the 
glucoside is destroyed, however, and as 
a result, no poison is formed when the 
beans are ground and mixed with water. 

In view of the wide interests involved, 
the authors of the paper mentioned 
express the opinion that it is desirable 
that an extended investigation be made, 
to determine finally the suitability or 
otherwise of Lima beans as a food 
Sen for human beings and live 
stock. 


THE PRICKLY-PEAR. 
Its UTILISATION. 


By E. Harris, 
Department of Agriculture. 


(From the Agricultural Gazette of New 
South Wales, Vol. X.,t Part .3: 
March 2, 1909.) 

It is a startling reversal of the popular 
impression in New South Wales of the 
prickly pear as a dangerous pest, to learn 
that in other countries, where somewhat 
similar conditions as to clisaate and soil 


Edible Products. 584 


prevail, prickly-pear is considered a 
valuable fodder plant, and cultivated as 
such. In Australia, rewards have been 
offered for its eradication. In New 
South Wales, where thousands of acres 
are rendered useless, a special tenure of 
the infested land is given if only the 
occupier will rid the soil of its unwelcome 
crop. Periodically the Press, both lay 
and scientific, publish alarmist articles 
of the spread of the pest, and many re- 
commendations are made of methods for 
its destruction and eradication, in some 
cases estimated to cost much more 
than the captial value of the land. The 
matter has even engaged the attention 
of the great Burbank, who, after many 
years’ experimenting, evolved aspireless 
pear,which is said to possess consider- 
able value asa fodder, but which, un- 
fortunately, is also reported to have 
Hower to its original ‘‘ spiny” coudi- 
ion. 


All efforts at eradication at reason- 
able cost having failed, itis a matter 
for serious consideration whether 
further experiments with prickly-pear 
should not be in the direction of render- 
ing it of some value as a fodder plant, 
and in this connection it is of interest to 
learn what has been done in other 
countries. 


THE UNITED STATES. 


The Feeding Value:.—The cactus pro- 
blem is one to which the experts of the 
United States Department of Agricul- 
ture have devoted much attention, In 
Bulletin No. 102 of the United States 
Bureau of Plant Industry, an attempt 
is made to determine in what propor- 
tion cactus should be fed with other 
foods to produce a balanced ration. 
For this purpose, it is necessary to know 
the amount of digestible nutriments 
contained in the cactus, as well as those 
of the food or foods with which it is to 
be fed. This has been determined .for 
most foods, but, unfortunately, there are 
as yet nosuch data for the cacti. By 
assuming, however, that this digestibi- 
lity coefficent is the same as that of 
immature green mealie fodder, the 
authors find the nutriments in Opuntia 
lindheimert to be: Protein, 0°47 per 
cent.; fat, 0:26 per cent.; carbohydrates, 
7°85 percent. This being the case, itis 
added that cactus would have a nutri- 
tive ratio of 1:18, a ratio which, according 
to the best authorities, would prohibit 
its use alone for any feeding standard. 
The nutritive ratio for a standard ration, 
it is pointed out, varies from 1: 4to 1:12, 
depending upon the age, character, and 
kind of animal to be fed, as well as the 
object of the feeding; that is, whether 
it isdesired to produce work, flesh, or 


[JunE, 1909. 


milk. If the object of the feeding is to 
produce milk, a cow giving a heavy 
yield of milk should, according to the 
best authorities, be fed about 25 to 30 
lb. a day of organic matter, contain- 
ing from 1°83 to 2 lb. of digestible 
protein; from 0:4 to 07 lb. of diges- 
tible fat; and 11 to 138 Ib. of diges- 
tible carbo-hydrates ; making a nutritive 
ration of from about 1: 5 to 1: 7. 
If a cow requiring a ration of this 
kind should eat cactus alone, it would 
take 160 lb. to furnish the fats and 
carbo-hydrates, and an additional 240 


lb. to furnish sufficient protein; and“ 


since, to avoid scouring, a cow should 
probably not be fed to exceed 50 or 
60 lb. of cactus a day, it may be readily 
seen how impossible it would be for a 
milk cow toget even a one-sided ‘ration 
from cactus alone. A ration of 40 lb. 
of cactus, with 10 lb. of wheat bran and 
12 lb, of mealie stover would, it is stated, 
furnish the nutriments in somewhat 
near the proper proportion. Ina ration 
of this kind, the cow would get 21°6 
lb. of organic matter, containing 1°68 
lb. of protein, 11°82 1b. of carbo-hydrates, 
aud ed lb. of fat, which isina ratio 
of 1:7°7. 


Feeding to Stock.—Practically, all the 
Mexican prickly-pears are fed to stock 
toa greater or less extent, especially 
those growing where the fodder is the 
most scarce, but there is only one cylin- 
drical-jointed species (Opunlia wnbri- 
cata)which is used to any appreciable 
extent. The authors state that their 
experience has shown that Cereus 
giganteus is readily eaten by cattle 
when chopped up, but add that they 
know of no feeding having been con- 
ducted with it on any commercial scale. 
Echinocactus orcutti, which is typical 
of a considerable group of species, is 
occasionally fed in Lower California. 
It is only in rare instances, however, 
that any great quantity offeed can be 
secured from cacti, outside of the genus 
Opuntia, and the greater part of the 
feed in this genus is stated to be pro- 
duced by the flat-jointed forms. There 
are about: five species in the cylindrical- 
jointed group which have been fed with 
some success: O. imbricata, O. arbores- 
cens, O. spinosior, O. fulgida, and O. 
prolifera. These species constitute the 
best_of the cylindrical-jointed group; 
and of these, O. fulgida and O. wmbrn- 
cata are said tobe, probably, the most 
valuable. 


MEXICO. 


Human Food.—In the course of another 
Bulletin, issued from the Agricultural 
Experiment Station, New Mexico, some 
particulars are given of the use of the 


\ 


JUNE, 1909, ] 


prickly-pear in Mexico. In that country 
the use of the prickly-pear is much more 
varied than in the United States. All the 
species are fed to stock indiscriminately. 
Whatever is available and can be spared 
is singed and fed tocattle. The extent 
of cattle-feeding upon this kind of food 
is not, however, so great in Mexico as 
one would suppose from the abund- 
ance of the’ material and the great ex- 
tent of time during which the practice 
has been in vogue. The fact is, it is 
stated, that the average peon cannot 
afford to feed to stock what he himself 
ean use so profitably in other ways, 
The prickly-pear is to the peon, pri- 
marily, an article of human food, and 
its place cannot be taken by any other 
plant, The fruit, as well as the young 
joints, are eaten by man in Mexico, and 
the dried stems and joints are used for 
fuel. The fuel which it makes is, of 
course, exceedingly poor, but it serves 
the purpose in that land, where this 
commodity: is exceedingly scarce. The 
feeding of cacti to stock is, therefore, a 
secondary consideration. On some of 
the large haciendas, especially those 
devoted to maguey culture, the feeding 
of pear to working oxen during the 
grassless season is a regular practice, 
but then only wild forms are _ used. 
Over a large part of the Republic, 
therefore, although a large use is made 
of them for forage, their principal use 
is as an article of human food. 


TEXAS. 


The latest information from the United 
States is contained in a paper read 
before the Second Session of the Trans- 


‘Missouri Dry Farming Congress, held 


in Salt Lake City, Utah, in which it 
is pointed out that the vigorous pro- 
secution of the prickly-pear question 
was not begun by the Department of 
Agriculture until about four years ago. 
Since that time investigations have 
been organised in several of the south- 
western States; but the major portion 
of the work up to date has been con- 
ducted in the pear region at San Antonio, 
Texas. What follows, therefore, will 
relate to those experiments, and has 
application to that stretch of territory 
extending from the Gulf to Del Rio, 
and from Austin to Brownsville, com- 
prising 50,000 to 75,000 square miles. The 
application to other regions was not 
made, as it would be necessary, first, 
to secure more data on these regions 
before we can speak positively of the 
value of this crop in other sections. 
The people of Texas have known for 
fifty years how to utilise the native 
crop of prickly-pear, which is very 
prolific in many sections; but it was 
necessary, when the investigations were 


535 


Hdible Products. 
begun, to determine, first, the value of 
the plant as food for stock from a 
scientific standpoint by chemical and 
digestion tests, as well as by actual 
feeding under controlled conditions ; 
second, it was most essential to deter- 
mine the rate of growth of the plant, 
both under natural conditions and under 
cultivation. 


The Value for Stock.—The first in- 
vestigations were conducted with a 
native crop three yearsago. A carload 
of steers were fed under controlled condi- 
tions for the Department by Mr. T. A, 
Coleman «ut Encinal. Without going 
into the details, let it suffice for it to be 
said that prickly-pear was fed as a 
roughage (as it should always be fed) 
with cotton-seed meal. The experiment 
justified such practices by ranchers of 
the section, inasmuch as the increase 
in weight of animals cost only 33 cents 
(1d.) per lb. 


In asimilar experiment at San Antonio 
with milk cows, prickly-pear as a rough- 
age was alternated with sorghum hay in 
conjunction with a covstant concentrate 
ration, consisting of cotton-seed meal and 
rice bran. Here it was found that all 
the cows that would eat of prickly-pear 
produced a little better results than all 
that would eat of sorghum hay. Here 
1i lb, of butter, it is stated, was made at 
a cost of 183 cents (63d.) per day. 


The experiments show conclusively 
that the prickly-pear can be used in 
that region profitably in beef and butter 
production. 


Preparing for Food.—In the early 
history of pear-feeding, which dates back 
to the Civil War, the plants were pre- 
pared for food by being singed with 
brush. This practice is still in vogue 
with many small ranchers, and the same 
custom prevails among the few people 
who feed cane cactus in south-eastern 
Colorado. Early in the 80’s a machine 
was invented by a De. Carruthers for 
chopping the pear so that it could be fed 
without injury. The original machine 
has subsequently been improved, so that 
it is claimed now by the manufacturers, 
and also by the feeders, that eight men 
and four teams, with pear handy, can 
feed 1,500 head of cattle. The most useful 
pear machine, however, is the gasoline 
torch, which is a modified plumber’s 
torch. By the use of this instrument one 
man can feed 400 cattle without diffi- 
culty. This is used simply to singe off 
the thorns, which burn very readily. 
The plants are singed where they grow, 
and the cattle are then turned on to 
graze on them without further prepar- 
ation or handling, 


Edible Products. j 536 


Cultivating the Pear. -The next line 
of investigation demanded appeared to 
be upon the rate of growth of the plant. 
A peculiar condition exists in portions 


of Southern Texas. Prickly-pear origi- . 


nally grew abundantly in the vicinity of 
San Antonio and some of the other 
larger towns, bat now there is, practi- 
cally, none of it to be found. Dairymen 
have all but exterminated the plant in 
their search for winter succulence. It 
is in the vicinity of these towns that 
the demand exists now for such a food. 
Experiments were, therefore, started in 
San Antonio. 

Three years’ growth was secured upon 
the experimental plantation at San 
Antonio. This is the first instance, in 
that country at least, where this plant 
has been grown under field conditions. 
The practice had been to thoroughly 
prepare the ground and lay it off in 6, 
foot rows. Stock for planting was 
secured from the surrounding pastures. 
The plants are cut up into single joints, 
and these joints, handled with a fork, 
are distributed about 2 feet apart in 
the rows. The cuttings are really not 
planted at all—they are simply laid 
upon the ground, They make really 
better plants in this way than when 
planted on edge. This method of 
planting can be pursued at any time of 
the year when the ground is moist. It 
is not prudent to plant in July or August, 
but at any other season the plants will 
grow readily. When the ground is dry, 
however, itis best to lay the field out 
in rows- with a plough and partially 
cover the cutting in the furrow. This 
can be done by another furrow or by 
the use of asulky cultivator. 

The yield of prickly-pear_ per acre is, 
it is stated, of course, fundamental in 
all of these investigations. Its value 
depends upon the quantity of feed which 
it will produce under existing conditions. 
Thus far, three years’ growth was 
secured. One of these seasons was very 
dry, the other exceptionally wet, and 
the second about an average season. 
It was estimated, therefore, that the 
average growth for these three years 
will probably 1epresent, quite closely, 
the average for a longer period. It was 
believed that it will be most advan- 
tageous to harvest this crop not more 
often than on alternate years. How- 
ever, it will do no harm to allow the 
crop to stand three or four years 
longer before harvesting it. It will 
produce a large enough crop, however, 
to be harvested at eighteen to: twenty- 
four months after planting. During 
thee past three years an average an- 
nual growth of 23 tons per acre was 
secured. In the experiments mentioned 


above, conducted at HEncinal, it was 
found that steers being fed for the 
market consumed about 75 lb. of pear 
per day, The milk cows at San Antonio 
consumed about 140 lb. The average 
consumption would, therefore, probably 
be in the neighbourhood of 100 lb. These 
figures, taken in connection with the 
yield which was secured during the 
past three years, would indicate that 
roughage for about 14 cow can be grown 
upon one acre of ground. In order to be 
conservative, suppose it was estimated at 
one cow per acre, which seems from the 
returns to be perfectly safe. Even this 
is better than is done with hay in the 
majority of the strictly agricultural 
sections of the United States, and this 
crop, it must be remembered, was grown 
under conditions where sorghum produc- 
ed from 1 to 24 tons of silage per acre 
per annum. 


In conclusion, it is stated that the crop 
is easily handled, is drought-resistant 
and yieids heavily, and it does not seem 
clear how it can fail to become an im- 
portant adjunct of the beef and butter 
production of Southern Texas. 


]KUROPE. 


Inat least one country in Kurope— 
Sicily—tke prickly-pear is valued asa 
food for both man and beast. M. de 
Gasparin, the celebrated agriculturist, 
wrote onhis return from a voyage to 
Sicily :— 


The Manna of Sicily.—Prickly-pear is 
the manna, the providence, of Sicily. 
Those who have not seen the abundance 
of its production, and the almost 
universal use which the inhabitants 
make of it from July to November, would 


consider these epithets exaggerated ; - 


but when one knows all that the island 
owes to the plant, one can only praise it. 
We may begin by saying that the 
peasants are fed entirely on these fruits 
from the moment at which they come 
to maturity, for as long as they remain 
on the plant; they consume twenty-five 
or thirty of them each day. Sicily 
fattens during these four months; when 
this is past fasting begins. 


Composition of the Fruit.—At the out- 
set, it seems not unreasonable to con- 
clude that what will nourish man will 
also nourish beasts. The particulars 
contained in Wolff's tables confirm this 
opinion. The fruits have the following 
composition :— - : 


Dry substance ... 21°60 per cent. 
3°70 


Ligneous matter ae 5 
Proteid substances ... 0'S9 is 
Fatty bodies ... 1°80 5° 
Sugar --- 14:00 ae 


[JunE, 1909. — 


. 
7 
7 
7 


JUNE; 1909. | 


Upon these data Wolff assigns to the 
fruit the number 304 as the “ comparative 
nutritive number”—that is to say, to 
equal 100 kilos of good dry hay, taken as 
a forage type, we require 304 kilos of the 
fruits of the prickly-pear. 


The figures given by Wolff for the 
following roots, fleshy fruits, d&c., are 
as follows :— 


Potatoes SB aa wo. §=41 
Jerusalem artichokes .., sot 290 
Carrots ie ees .. 484 
Fodder beet-root we wen 484 
Radishes wat oe se 04 
Pumpkins ... : 728 


The fruits of the prickly-pear, there- 
fore, hold high rank in this scale, coming 
a little after potatoes and Jerusalem 
artichokes, tar before carrots and beet- 
root, and much before radishes and 
pumpkins. 

NEw SoutH WALBs. 


Several instances are reported of the 
prickly-pear having been utilised in this 
country for feeding stock, and, in view 
of the results, it is remarkable that 
further investigations on these lines 
have not been carried out. 


Feeding Pigs at Minto.—In 1895, Mr. 
. F. Gorus, of Eschol Park, Minto, 
having occasion to get rid of a quantity 
of prickly-pear growing on the estate, 
determined to test the value of this 
plant boiled with meat and refuse for 
pigs, and took careful notes of the 
results. The plants were chipped down 
with a hoe, pitchforked into a dray, and 
conveyed to the boiling down. 


This consisted of a series of ordinary 
iron tanks (400 gallons) set in brickwork, 
the lid cut out and placed at the bottom 
soasto form a double bottom overa 
fireplace, 2 feet 6 inches square, the 
object of the large fireplace being to 
enable whole logs to be used for fuel, 
and so reduce cost of cutting, &e. At 
the time the experiment with prickly- 
pear was carried out, Mr. Gorus was 
boiling down a large quantity of sheep 
for tallow, and when the fat had been 
skimmed off, the plants were pitchfork- 
ed into the soup in the boilers. They 
were then boiled for some hours, until 
the leaves began te peel, when it was 
found that the large hard thorns became 
quite soft, and the little bristles, which 
are so irritating to the tongue, were also 
rendered soft and harmless. 


The contents of the boiler were then 
allowed to cool, and conveyed to the 
iggery, when the ‘‘soup” was run off 
into a trough, and the leaves and stalks 
of the prickly-pear thrown to the pigs. 
The effect of the addition of the plant 
to the sap was to render it of almost 
6 


5387 Edible Products. 


jelly-like consistency. The pigs devour- 
ed it greedily, and evinced a great 
liking for the boiled plants, chewing u 
the succulent leaves and stalks, an 
spitting forth the fibre perfectly macerat- 
ed. A large number of pigs, nearly 200, 
were fed in this way for several months, 
and not one of them showed the least 
sign of internal trouble from the thorns 
or bristles. 


Sometimes the plants were merely 
boiled in water, and fed to the pigs, 
with the addition of just a small 
quantity of molasses. When treated in 
this way the pigs showed a greater liking 
for the stalks, which appeared to be 
extremely succulent, and the source of 
considerable nutriment. 


Of course, it was not to be expected 
that the cooked plant of itself would 
fatten the pigs, but Mr. Gorus, from his 
experience, had no hesitation in placing 
the feeding value of this plant higher 
than that of melons or squashes. The 
experiment was carried out in a very 
dry season, when there was very little 
grass or other green feed available, 
The boiled plants proved, so far as the 
health of the animals was concerned, an 
invaluable substitute for the green feed 
necessary to maintain meat-fed pigs in 
perfect condition, The expense was 
simply the cutting down and carting of 
the plants ; boiling was a mere trifle, and 
there was, of course, in addition to the 
feeding value of the plants, the advant- 
age of absolutely ridding a large area of 
land of this troublesome pest. 


When the difficulty of totally destroy- 
ing the prickly-pear is taken into con- 
sideration, the following suggestion by 
Mr. Gorus might commend itself to any- 
one striving to rid his land of this for- 
midable weed. Mr. Gorus suggests that 
instead of throwing the plants into 
heaps and waiting months for them to 
become sufficiently dry to burn readily, 
an old 400-gallon tank should be pro- 
cured, and the fuel that is now used for 
burning the plants could be utilised for 
boiling them. If there were no animals 
that might eat the cooked plants, they 
could simply be tipped out and alowed 
to rot. Anybody who has tried to burn 
off prickly-pears will understand how 
great is the quantity of wood required, 
and how readily an imperfectly burnt 
plant will start into growth. 


Feeding Dairy Stock at Lochinvar.— 
Mr. W. L. Boyce, of Lochinvar, in 1897, 
related his experiences and experi- 
ments with prickly-pears :—On the 5th 
January, 1895, a flood in the Hunter 
River destroyed all the standing crops 
inthe district, and this being immedi- 


G Sinh ie a ee 


Kadible Products. 5 


ately followed by a drought, prevented 
the growth of barley and all other 
winter crops. The winter of 1895, there- 
fore, proved a very severe one, many 
cattle dying. The first of his cattle 
went down while there ‘was plenty of 
dry grass, and the stock in fair condi- 
tion ; the cause of death being, it was 
believed, inflammation of the bowels. 
Having no green stuff to give the poor 
brutes, he conceived the idea of boiling 
prickly-pears, of which he had_a_ fair 
supply, but not sufficient to feed all the 
stock right through the winter, With 
the dry grass the cattle became bound 
and tucked up like greyhounds. For 
the first two or three days the pears 
acted as a purgative, after that they 
kept the bowels, nicely open; ina few 
days the bellies commenced to drop, and 
in from a week to a fortnight the 
animals looked round and full again, 
ready to be turned out in the back 
paddock. He fed the milkers for about 
four months. 


To start the cows with the new food 
he added bran and salt, though he 
thought this was hardly necessary, as it 
will generally be found that one beast 
in a mob is ready to taste anything new, 
and the others soon follow, The cattle 
became so fond of the pears that they 
would, in their impatience, pick them up 
so hot that they would have to drop 
them again. The cows improved in 
condition, and their milk was good; one, 
in particular, who got more than her 
share, fattened on the pears. A large- 
framed cow, that was very weak after 
calving, and could barely walk, re- 
covered on this feed, and continued to 
milk for twelve months after. 


Pigs also did well on the boiled pears 
alone. Mr. Boyee’s neighbour saved his 
pigs by giving them a quantity of the 
wash from his pot every day. The 
balance of this wash or juice he poured 
into a trough for the cows, which drank 
it readily, although a good lagoon was 
alongside of them. 


For a boiler he used a 200-gallon square 
iron tank, with a 17-inch manhole. 
This was set in a trench in a sloping 
bank, with a fireplace 3 feet wide by 
18 inches deep underneath, and a flue 
2 feet wide by 6 inches up the back ; this 
gave a good draught, and the tank 
being half buried retained the heat. 


About 9 inches of water in the boiler is 
sufficient. Fill up with pears—leaves, 
stalks, and all—in bunches as large as 
you like, and put on the lid as_nearly 
steam-tight as youcan get it. Make a 
quick, fierce fire, and the steam will cook 
the pears right to the top beautifully. 


38 


(Jong, 1909. 


The pears will soon settle down in the 
boiler, when more can be added. 


He filled the boiler and fire up in the 
evening, and next morning found every- 
thing just right. 


Ifitis desired to make two feeds of 
the one boiling, replace the lid, and the 
contents will keep warm for two days. 


When cooked, the leaves retain their 
shape, and are easily removed from the 
tank with an ordinary pitchfork, and 
ean be thrown on the grass for the cattle. 


Boiling or steaming renders the thorns 
and prickles soft and harmless, 


Lest some may be tempted tocut the - 
top off the tank, he adds that he had 
tried it, and found that it is necessary 
to confine the steam, or else cover the 
pears with boiling water, which means 
that much more fuel will be required. 
It appeared to him that the boiler above 
described is the handiest and cheapest 
thing for the purpose. 


He found that after steam was up any 
pears added would cook in thirty 
minutes, and estimated that where pears 
are plentiful, and fuel and water handy, 
one man, with two or more pots, could 
feed 200 head of cattle. 


Feeding Cows at Singleton.—Mr. J. 
O’Shea, of Singleton, reported that in © 
1897 dairymen were feeding the prickly- 
pear in a boiled state to cows, either 
pure, or, better, mixing a little bran 
with them, and the cattle were not only 
living, but giving a very fair share of 
milk. The pears also made an excellent 
mess for pigs, and were keeping alive all 
the pigs in the district. 


Prickly-pear Silage.—Later on, Mr. 
Boyce, of Lochinvar, again reported to 
the Department, this time to the effect 
that he had included twenty loads of 
prickly-pears in a stack of silage with 
maize and sorghum. The experiment 
was an unqualified success, and the 
cattle liked the pears quite as well as 
the other constituents of the silage, 
preferring them in that form to the ~ 
steamed pears. 


The silage was made inastack in the 
open, and pressed with home-made 
mechanical appliances, and covered 
withiron. Owing to the drought the 
stack was only a small one, The base 
of the stack was 19 ft. x 16 feet 6in., and 
only 3 feet high in its compressed state. - 
He estimated that the pears amounted 
to one-third of the whole stack. In 
building the stack he put alternate 
layers of pears and maize and sorghum, 
four loads of pears in one layer, but 
never allowed the pears to be nearer 
than a foot to the edge. 


June, 1909.] 


He fed his cows on thissilage, steamed 
pears, and barley, all on the same day; 
there was also a good picking of green 
herbage, yet everything was eaten up 
clean. The milk test was4 percent. of 
butter-fat, which was amongst the 
highest at his creamery. 


Now, as this ration has a good propor- 
tion of prickly-psar, the facts stated 
prove that there is considerable virtue 
in the much-despised prickly-pear, 


It only remains to add that the pears 
were placed in the stack whole, including 
thorns and roots, the largest bunches 
ping afterwards chopped to flatten 

em, 


The heat and ferment of the silo soft- 
ened the thorns and rendered them 
harmless. 


He always added a bag or more of 
coarse salt toa stack to make the fod- 
der more palatable. 

ANALYSES. 
The following are analyses of the fresh 


eaves of prickly-pear made by the 
Departmental Chemist :— 


a 3 
2 & : 
S ci ee ee 
= eo) 
1, Opuntia ficus Indica... 93°76 1:22 0°55 0:35 
2. Opuntia elatior age S9RhO pel 92> 1:39) -0°35 
3. Opuntia Brasilionsis... 86°19 2°43 1°51 0°46 
4, Opuntia coccinellifera 87°89 1°73 0°96 0°34 
Ce me a 
Lo Oo 8 a go bem a) 
f=} CG ys es 
<q | voter 7, > <x i 
1. Opuntia ficus Indica... 0°50 3°62 5 Ilto 9 
2. Opuntia elatior 0:65 5°93 74 lto 9 
3. Opuntia Brasiliensis.,. 0°90 8°51 105 1 to 10 
4. Opuntia coccinellifera 0°78 8°30 10 1 to 12 


The average composition of prickly- 
pear, as determined by the above 
analyses, is not dissimilar to that of tur- 
nips, an analysis of which vegetable, 
, by Professor Church, is appended for 
the sake of comparison :— 


Composition of Wheat Turnips — 


Water Bee a 92'8 
Albuminoids Bee : 05 
Carbo-hydrates _... 4:0 
Oil S, ie Or1 
Fibre an 18 
Ash nie 0's 

100 
Nutrient 4 


Albuminoid ratio, 1 to 6. 
FURTHER INVESTIGATIONS. 


~The experience in Texas and Mexico 
would lead one to hope that the most 


589 


Edible Products. 


promising method of dealing with the 
pest may be to ultilise it as a fodder, and 
with a view to ascertaining whether such 
acourse could be profitably followed, 
itis the intention of the Department to 
carry out a series of experiments, 


OTHER COMMERCIAL USBEs. 


Last year the Press announced that a 
Brisbane chemist had discovered in the 
prickly-pear commercial possibilities 
quite alluring, and calculated rather to 
encourage its cultivation than its des- 
truction. Spirits, feed cake, strawboard, 
and sugar were a few of the market- 
able products to be obtained from the 
pear, and with a view to encouraging 
such a_ laudable effort to utilise one 
of Australia’s worst pests, communica- 
tion was entered into by this Depart- 
ment with the Queensland Department 
of Agricuture. The Brisbane chemist 
was, however, unknown to the Depart- 
ment, and the Postal Department also 
failed tolocate him. However, within 
the last few days the writer has had 
submitted to him a small quantity of 
spirits, which, itis stated, was distilled 
from prickly-pear by a Sydney resident, 
and at the time of writing, the process 
of distillation from a quantity of pear 
is being demonstrated at the Depart- 
mental Laboratory. Should it eventu- 
ally prove that alcohol can be distilled 
atasmall cost, itiscertain that a big 
step shall have heen taken towards the 
solving of the prickly-pear question. 


In Germany, France, and the United 
States, great use is made of commercial 
or denatured alcohol for power, heat, 
and light. In Germany, the inland 
revenue laws have been so modified to 
allow a German farmer to produce his 
own alcohol for commercial purposes 
without any internal revenue tax, and 
the consumption is increasing at the rate 
of about 20,000,000 gallons per year. 
In France the annuai increase is about 
1,000,000 gallons per year. The United 
States, some eighteen months ago 
encated legislation allowing of the 
manufacture of alcohol for industrial 
purposes free of an internal revenue 
tax, provided it was denatured, that 
is, made unfit for human consumption, 
and large quantities are now used for 
lighting, heating, and for power in 
gasoline engines. 


In Europe alcohol is derived principally 
from the potato and the sugar beet. 
An average acre of potatoes would 
produce about 250 gallons of alcohol, 
but special varieties are being grown 
which produce 500 gallons per acre, 
while in the United States 50 bushels 
of corn would make 140 gallons of 
commercial alcohol, 


EdibleProducts. 540 


For lighting, alcohol is burned in a 
mantle. A recent test gave 30°35 candle- 
power for 57 hours 5 minutes from one 
gallon of alcohol. One gallon of coal 
oil gave 30'8 candle-power for 28 hours 40 
minutes, showing that one gallon of 
alcohol gives nearly as much light as 


- fdowe, 1909, a 


coal oil and the light is superior Aun 
advantage is that itis non-explosive, 
and can readily be extinguished with 
water. For heating it can be burned in 
gas or gasoline stoves. In America the 
cost is stated as high as 1s. 3d.and as 
low as 43d. per gallon. 


TIMBERS, 


INHERITANCE IN TRHES. 


(Krom the Jidian Forester, Vol. XXXV., 
April 4, 1909.) 


Two examples of this may be worth 
recording for the benefit of foresters, 
Recently during an inspection of a well- 
known Prussian forest I was struck 
by the straightness and symmetrical 
growth of the larches. I was informed 
that they had been raised from seed 
produced by extra  straight-growing 
trees, which had been originally brought 
from England by the late Departmental 
Forester, Krummelbein, of Oldenburg, 
who for the purpose of an experiment 
selected both straight and _ crooked- 
stemmed trees from an English planta- 
tion, planted them, and collected their 
seeds for sowing. Their progeny exhi- 
bited for the most part the characters 
of the parent trees. Living as he did 
to the age of ninety, Krummelbein was 
able to grow four generations of plants 
from this start, and the larches I saw 
in the above-mentioned forest were of 
the fourth generation. The result of 
this experiment shows how necessary it 
is that the forester when buying seed 
should take care that they come from 
straight-stemmed trees. The second 
case of this kind which was pointed out 
in the same forest was the growth of 
some trees of the Douglas fir. Before 
this tree was understood seeds were im- 
ported haphazard, no question as to the 
situation of the parent plants being 
asked, the consequence being seeds from 
mountainous regions were as_ freely 
sown as those produced under more 
favourable conditions, The difference 
is now plainly to be seen, the trees from 
the mountain seeds having grown much 
slower than the others. The leaves also 
on the mountain trees are of a bluish 
tinge, although not so blue as those of 
the variety glauca. 


(J, G. inthe Field.) 


EXPORT OF OHIA TIES 
LUMBER. 


AND 


By L. A. THURSTON. 
(From the Hawaiian Forester and Agri- 
culturist, Vol. 5, No. 12, December, 1908.— 
Paper read at the Annual Meeting of 
the Hawaiian Sugar Planters’ Associa- 
tion, November 11. 1908.) 


The most notable event has been 
the beginning of operations by the 
Hawaiian Mahogany Lumber Company, 
Limited, in the production and export 
of Ohia ties, in filling the order for 
2,500,000 ties contracted to be delivered 
to the Santa Fe Railroad. 

A large saw mill has been erected at 
Pahoa, inthe district of Puna and Island 
of Hawaii, and operations were begun 
there latein September last. The first 


shipment of approximately 20,000 ties is 


now being loaded on to the Emily 
F, Whitney at Hilo. 


UTILIZING WASTE. 


There is a very large waste in making 
ties which the lumber company is endea- 
vouring to utilizein by-products. Hard- 
wood boards and battens toa consider- 
able amount have been incidentally pro- 
duced and a shipment of 15,000 feet were 
sent to San Francisco on the last Enter- 
prise. It is believed that a market for 
a considerable amount of by-product 


lumber of this nature can be found ~ 


both here and at the Coast. 


The chief drawback to this lumber is 
its tendency to warp; but it is believed 
that by piling and curing’ the same 
under proper conditions this difficulty 
can be obviated. 


The Ohia lumber is so hard and. 
tough that it is believed that it can 
be used to good advantage as flooring 
and siding for cane cars which, 
when made of Douglas fir, wear 
out rapidly. The company will soon 
have stock enough on hand to furnish 
this lumber to those desiring to try it. 


ey 


Junw, 1909.) 


The company is also taking steps to 
roduce telephone pins and _ brackets 
rom other portions of the waste lumber, 
there being a large demand for this on 
the mainland. 


Ties FoR ISLAND USE. 


Incidental to the manufacture of ties 
for the Santa Fe contract. the company 
is also producing from the smaller tim- 
ber ties for local use at prices which 
compete with redwood ties, while being 
much better and more lasting in quality 
than the redwood ties. 


Ties have been furnished by the com- 
pany to the Hilo Railroad, the West 
Hawaii Railroad, the Koolau Railroad, 
the Oahu Railroad and to the Ewa. 
Waialua, Makee Sugar Company, Maka- 
weli, Lihue and Koloa Sugar plantations. 


Ties are also being furnished to 
Messrs. Lewers & Cooke, who intend to 
keep them in stock, 


CULTIVATED Vs, UNCULTIVATED 
FORESTS. 


The fact that ties can be manufactured 
and exported from here to the Coast, 
and manufactured and sold locally to 
successfully compete with the heretofore 
cheap lumber of the Pacific Coast again 
brings to the front the subject which 
has been so frequently urged upon the 
sugar plantations, that one of the 
greatest economies which they can prac- 
tise is to plant trees for railroad ties, 
fence posts and firewood. 


There are but few plantations left so 
located that natural forest supply can 
be relied upon for these purposes. Even 
where natural forest is still available, 
therefore, the supply is so limited that 
a very few years will end the supply. 


More and more of the sugar plantation 
managers are recognizing this fact, and 
the last year has seen a constantly in- 
creasing number who are taking advan- 
tage of the offer of the Forestry Depart- 
ment of the local government to furnish 
foresting plans and recommendations, 
and send an expert on to the ground to 
lay out and advise concerning the loca- 
tion and character of nurseries, kinds of 
trees to be planted and location of plant- 
ing grounds. 

In this connection the writer was, 
many years ago, greatly impressed with 
the results obtained on the Lihue Planta: 
tion by ploughing up land and cultivat- 
ing a planted forest area as compared 
with the simple holing and planting 
of trees and leaving them to their fate. 


The rapidity of growth and the thrift 
of the cultivated trees as compared to 
the others was most striking, 


Bt Timbers. 


A couple of years ago the writer sug- 
gested to Mr. Louis von Tempsky, mana- 
ger of the Haleakala Ranch, to try the 
experiment there. Mr. von Tempsky, 
who is an enthusiastic tree plante1, 
followed the suggestion, and has achiev- 
ed remarkable results which are best 
set forth in his own language. The 
following is his report of the results :— 


Report oF L. VON TEMPSKY ON CULTI- 
VATED vs. UNCULTIVATED LAND FOR 
TREE PLANTING. 


“It was suggested to me that I try 
an experiment in tree planting on the 
above lines, to find out the difference in 
the cost and results of the two methods. 

In September, 1907, I measured off a 
rectangular piece of land containing 
exactly four acres. One acre I furrowed 
out, and ‘*kipikuzed” holes six feet each 
way. The other three acres I ploughed 
the harrowed twice, and as the manienie 
sod was very heavy, I had to hand 
work the whole piece, going over it 
with ‘‘kipikuas” and packing out what 
wouldn’t burn; as the weather was 
quite wet | could not geta fire on the 
grass prior to ploughing; this of course 
made the preparation of the three acres 
very expensive. I selected this spot 
especially, as I thought it would be a 
good place to determine the maximum 
cost of preparing land for planting trees 
in this style, 

The seedling trees I selected were, 
Kucalyptus Amygdaline, k. Botryoides, 
EK. Corymbosa, EK. Corynocalyx, H. Leu- 
coxylon, EH. Paniculata, and E. Rudis, 
which were recommended to me by the 
Australian Forestry Service as being 
considered by them to be among the best 
of their trees for railroad ties and fence 
posts. 


The cost of the two pieces is as fol- 
lows :-— 


One Acre Lot. 


Furrowing hist 52°60 
Holing se BRS 3°60 
Planting “iss ae 2°60 
Weeding to date (twice) .., 9°60 
$1840 

; Three Acre Lot. 
Ploughing a aes $16°09 
Harrowing 50; ae 3°15 

Kipikua work and twice 
weeding ee 102-70 
Holing hs 17°44 
Planting aaG 7°52 
$146°90 


Or $48:97 per acre. 


The holing of the three-acre piece 
cost more than it should have done, as 
owing to running out of seedling trees 


Timbers. 


planting of about half this lot had to 
be postponed, and the holes dug over 
again. 

To offset to a certain extent the cost 
of the three-acre lot, I thought it would 
be as well to try some quick growing 
crop that would not take up_ too 
much room, and would to as small an 
extent as possible retard the growth 
of the trees. I selected California pota- 
toes, and treated the seed to a bath of 
sulphate of copper, to see if that would 
prevent the rot that is so prevalent in 
Kula. 


Last July, notwithstanding the rot 
that did attack them, and the exception- 
ally dry weather that we have had all 
this year, I took off a crop of potatoes 
that netted me $69'19. This amount, 
deducted from the cost, $146:90, left $77°71 
or say $25°90 per acre for the three-acre 
piece, as against $18-40 for the unculti- 
vated acre. 


One year from planting the trees the 
following measurements were made :— 

The tallest tree in the wneultivated 
lot was 5 feet 38 inches, a Hucalyptus 
Botryoides, and the average height of 
the whole of that piece was 8 feet. 


In the cultivated lot the tallest tree 
measured 16 feet, Huc, Rudis, the other 
tall ones being: Kuc. Botryoides, 15 
feet; Euc. Corynocalyx, 12 feet; Euc. 
Leucoxylon, 12 teet; Euc. Paniculata, 
12 feet; Enc. Corymbosa, 6 feet. 


The best average height, and the 
evenest grown lot of trees was the 
Euc. Botryoides; the poorest being the 
E. Corymbosa. The average height of 
the whole three-acre lot was over 10 
feet. One stray (Blue gum) Kue. 
Glcobulus, that was accidentally planted 
in the cultivated lot measured 12 feet in 
height. This tree had exactly the same 
treatment the others had, which goes to 
show pretty well, that both Rudis and 
Botryoides are faster growers than the 
Globulus ; both these species are ranked 
very highly in Australia for railroad 
ties and fence pcsts. This is well to be 
known, especially as the Globvlus, or 
Blue Gum, is the EHucalyptus most 
commonly grown at the islands, and 
except for firewood, is the poorest for 
any purpose. 

RESULTS. 


Considering the unusually dry weather 
we have had for the last twelve months, 
I consider the growth of the trees in the 
cultivated lot remarkable. 


Under normal conditions, thatis, where 
there is not a heavy growth of manienie 
to contend with, the cultivation of the 
trees should cost very much less than 
the amount above shown. 


é 


42 (JUNE, 1909- 
The difference in favour of the culti- 
vated as against the uncultivated trees 
is so great in favour of the former, that I 
shall favour the cultivation of all trees 
hereafter planted onthe ranch, wherever 
the location is such as to make it 
possible. 


As showing what the possibilities are 
of fence post production, I would call 
attention to figures heretofore reported, 
viz., that last year I cut 244 good fence 
posts, five to twelve inches in diameter, 
from 88 second growth Eucalyptus 
Rostrata trees, twelve years old. Some 
of these posts have been put in the 
ground plain and the balance subjected 
to Creosote treatment by the Kahului 
Railroad Company. All of these posts 
will have the date stamped on them, and 
the place of use recorded in the ranch 
forestry book; sothat their respective 
life in the ground can be ascertained 
accurately. 


The foregoing results, I submit, are 
such as to more than warrant all plant- 
ations, especially those which use rail- 
roads and have large amounts of fencing 
to do, experimenting with cultivated 
forestry. 
GENERAL R#-FORESTING FOR CONSER- 

VATION PURPOSES. 


This subject, like the poor, is always 
with us. What has been said and 
repeatedly re-said on this subject is 
to-day more vital to the agricultural 
interests of Hawaii than ever, and in no 
case more so than to the irrigated sugar 
plantations. 


On every island forestry reserves have 
been set apart on paper, but scarce any- 
where has there been anything but the 
most limited attempt at re-foresting. 

Under tuormal conditions, protection 
from live stock would be sufficient, as 
the forests would reseed themselves. 


For several reasons this does not take 
place in most locations in Hawaii. The 
multitudinous insects which devour the 
forests and a root fungus which is 
killing the natural woods by thousands 
of acres ina number of localities and 
the heavy growth of the Hilo grass and 
other coarse grasses which so cover the 
ground that seeds cannot germinate, are 
rapidly destroying forests in regions 
where water conservation is most 
needed. 


Whether or not the entomologist can 
introduce parasites which will neutralize 
the deadly effect on forests of insects 
and fungus growths is now being made 
a subject of study by the Planters’ 
Experiment Station. It will probably 
be far more difficult to obtain results 
than it has been to meet the ravages of 


JUNB, 1909,] 5 


insects directly attacking the cane; but 
the incidental effect upon the sugar 
plantations is so great that no effort 
should be spared to obtain results in 
this direction. 


ARTIFICIAL REFORESTING. 


Irrespective of the arrest of the decay 
of the forests, reforesting should be 
actively taken up at an early date, ona 
large scale, both by the Government and 
by private interests, or the flow of water 
on a number of the watersheds is liable 
to. be seriously diminished. 


The watershed most urgently in need 
of rescue and reforesting is that of the 
Kohala mountain, on Hawaii. A large 
portion of this. under private ownership, 
is still being overrun by cattle, resulting 
in the continued recession of the woods. 
A considerable area of private lands 
should be secured by exchange or pur- 
chase, and replanted at the earliest 
possible date, or diminution of the water 
flow will certainly follow. 


Next to Kehala the watershed area 
which, in my opinion, most seriously 
needs attention is that of the Ewa basin 
and the district of Waialua on the island 
of Oahu, 


The amount of water flowing or being 
pumped from the supply furnished by 
this small watershed is something enor- 
mous, amounting to several hundreds 
of millions of gallons perday. Droughts 
affect the quantity of the artesian 
supply, andno possible step should be 
left untaken to protect, conserve and 
increase the product of this watershed. 


A paper line of forestry reservation 
has been located and partially fenced, 
but systematic tree planting to further 
conserve the water flow and prevent its 
running off in storms should be syste- 
matically taken hold of by the planta- 
tions, which depend upon this supply for 
their irrigation. The Government owns 
but little land in the district and cannot 
be expected to do much. So far the only 
tree planting has been done by the 
company which is the least interested in 
the direct conservation of water flow, 
viz., the Oahu Railway and Land Com- 
pany. It hasata limited expense made 


Timbers. 


such a fine showing upon the top of the 

aian mountains that its example is 
worthy of emulation on a larger scale by 
the sugar plantations interested. 


THE GOVERNMENT FORESTRY, 


So far, the appropriations for Govern- 
ment forestry have been insufficient to 
do anything more than create forest 
reserves and askeleton of administration 
of the same. No appropriation has 
been provided for forest rangers, forest 
fencing or replanting, or for fighting 
fires. A skeleton is as essential to an 
advanced forest policy as it is toa man: 
but in the one case as in the other, it 
is of no practical value, except for show 
purposes, without the conjunction with 
flesh and blood. The flesh and blood 
necessary to make our forest adminis- 
tration a living organization, are appro- 
priations tu go ahead and do something 
with the efficient frame work already 
created. 


[think it would be eminently sound 
for this Association to formally pass 
resolutions, recommending the coming 
Legislature to make appropriations for 
these subjects, and for the members 
hereof to individually interview their 
several Senators and Representatives 
urging their support to such appro- 
priations, 

I submit herewith for consideration of 
this Association a form of resolution 
suggested :— 


‘“* Resolved :— That in_the opinion of 
the Hawaiian Sugar Planters’ Associ- 
ation the work of forest protection and 
extension is of the highest importance 
to the agricultural interests of this 
Territory. 

*‘That in the opinion of this Associ- 
ation the time has arrived when liberal 
appropriations should be. made for such 
protection and extension, and we hereby 
petition the Legislature to make liberal 
specific appropriations for forest fencing ; 
for rangers to inspect and protect the 
forests from fire, depredation and tres- 
pass, and for replanting with trees areas 
which have been heretofore denuded 
of forest.” 

‘Note.—This_ resolution wag unani- 
mously adopted by the Association.) 


PLANT SANITATION. 


MISCELLANEA: CHIEFLY PATHO- 
LOGICAL. 


By T, PETCH. 


When arsenical compounds were 
first introduced as insecticides and weed- 
killers, doubts were expressed that the 
continual addition of these compounds 
to the soil would result in injuries to 
the roots of the plants, and that the 
soil would become incapable of grow- 
ing further crops owing to the accu- 
mulation of the poisons. Experiments 
in this direction, however, indicated that 
practically no danger was to be feared 
since the arsenic became insoluble in 
the soiland passed downwards to a very 
little distance. More recently, owing 
to extensive injuries to fruit trees in 
Colorado, which were attributed to 
arsenical and lead poisoning trom the 
use of calcium arsenite and lead arsen- 
ate for the control of insect pests, the 
subject has again been investigated by 
W, P. Headden. of the Colorado Experi- 
ment Station. He finds that arsenical 
poisons have accumulated in the soil 
of the orchards toa large extent, and 
that, while most of the arsenic is in an 
insoluble form, the sodium salts of the 
soil—e.g., sodium carbonate, sodium 
sulphate, and sodium chloride—have 
rendered so much of it soluble that it 
has exceeded the limit of danger. — It 
is thought that systematic polsoning 
may occur through the absorption of 
this soluble arsenic by the roots of the 
trees, since the wood in extreme cases 
contains over twelve parts of arsenic 
per million, but the chief effect is attri- 
buted to local irritant poisoning at the 
collar. The affected trees are girdled at 
the collar, the bark on portions of the 
trunk dead and sunken, and most of the 
roots dead, their bark destroyed, and the 
wood discoloured. The first marked 
symptom is an early ripening of the 
foliage, usually followed by the death 
of the tree about midsummer in the 
following year. Experiments with solu- 
ple arsenical compounds showed that 
these would produce all the effects 
noted, and the arsenic in arsenate of 
lime was found to be more readily 
brought into solution than that of lead 
arsenate. While the above investiga- 
tion refers to effects produced by pro- 
longed application of insoluble arsen- 
ates which are only slowly rendered 
soluble in the soil, and the effect of a 
single such application might be negli- 


gible, it may be pointed out that ‘‘weed- 
killers ” are soluble arsenical compounds 
and take effect immediately. It is ex- 
tremely doubtful, therefore, whether 
arsenical weed-killers can be used with 
safety in permanent cultivations. 


The cultivation of clove trees, which 
was once an extensive industry in 
Singapore, is said to have almost ceased 
owing to the attacks of disease; and 
it is stated that the chief cause is a 
fungus which produces red spots on the 
leaves, On the appearance of this 
report, the few clove trees at  Pera- 
deniya were examined to see whether 
the same disease occurred in Ceylon. 
All were found to be fairly vigorous, 
and showed no signs of any serious 
injury, except in one instance. Dark 
red spots were fairly common on the 
leaves, but these were purely local 
and did not affect the general health 
of the trees; they answer to the des- 
cription of the spots on the leaves in 
Singapore, though, until the fungus in 
the latter case is identified, it is impos- 
sible to determine whether the cause is 
the same. The red spots at Peradeniya | 
are caused by a red alga, Cephaleuros 
parasitica. This species is closely re- 
lated to Cephaleuros nvycoidea, which 
causes the ‘‘red rust” of tea; but, 
whereas the latter lives on the surface 
of the leaves of tea and most tropical 
trees without causing much damage, 
Cephaleuros parasitica lives inside the 
leaf, and only its fruiting branches are 
visible externally like a tuftof minute 
ved hairs. C. parasitica is fairly com- 
mon on cinnamon and tea in the low 
country ; on cinnamon it causes a dark- 
brown, stellate, raised patch, while on 
tea it produces a spot. which superfici- 
ally resembles ‘‘Grey Blight.” The red 
spot on clove leaves is due to the death 


-of the tissues attacked by the alga, not 


to the colour of the latter. Neither on 
tea, nor cinnamon, nor clove does it 
cause any serious damage. Some of the 
branches of the clove trees were found 
to be killed by Loranthus cuneatus ; and 
in one case, where a branch had been 
broken off, the main stem was attacked 
by Fomes  substygius, which is thus 
proved to be a wound parasite, 


It is recognised thatin the extension 
ef green manuring in the tropics to | 
regions where Crotalaria striata and 
Erythrina will not grow, success is more 
likely to be attained by the cultivation 
of leguminous weeds of the country 


_for the multiplication of books. 


JUNE, 1909. } 


than by the introduction of temperate 
species. And in a country where the 
climate varies so much in different dis- 
tricts as in Ceylon, it may be possible in 
this way to obtain species adapted for 
each district. With regard to the plants 
at present recommended, a word of cau- 
ticn is necessary in the case of the sensi- 
tive plant, Mimosa pudica. This is cer- 
tainly a nitrogen collector, but its thorns 
render it unsuitable for use in any culti- 
vation which must be worked by bare- 
footed labour. In one Ceylon coconut 
plantation where mimosa is fairly abun- 
dant though the landis_ periodically 
ploughed, the coolies have to wrap up 
their feet in sacking when gathering the 
nuts, and even then many nuts are 
allowed to remain in the thicker tufts 
of mimosa. On another well-known coco- 
nut plantation, seed of mimosa was 
sown at considerable expense some years 
ago, but far more expense is now being 
incurred in the almost ineffectual at- 
tempt to eradicate it. In one case, it 
is kept down, though not eradicated, by 
a flock of goats. Mimosa pudica is, of 
course, an introduced weed in Ceylon, 
and is said to have been brought here 
before 1824. It has not yet spread to the 
Batticaloa district, though it is gra- 
dually working its way there; in 1908 it 
was found about half a mile beyond 
Mahaoya on the Batticaloa road. 


Seeing that so few facts of Hevea ecul- 
tivation have been detinitely established, 
it is no doubt becoming increasingly 
difficult for the compilers of treatises 
on this subject to include new ideas 
which could alone afford justification 
Under 
such circumstances, the tendency ap- 
pears to be to advise anything, no 
matter what, so long as it is new. The 
rubber industry has already suffered 
considerably from the promulgation of 
ideas whichonly required brief con- 
sideration, from a botanical standpoint, 
to demonstrate their absurdity. The 
latest recommendation is that root prun- 
ing should be practised. As a matter 
of fact, this has practically been recom- 
mended before in connection with 
trench systems of manuring, though the 
fact was not recognised. In the present 
ease the author supports his recom- 
mendation by the statements that root 
pruning is almost universally practised 
in the orange groves of California, and 
that he has applied the system to coffee 
with advantage. Apparently he applied 
it to coffee without understanding the 
reason. It is well known that root 
pruning produces a larger crop in the 
ease of fruit trees, and a striking ex- 
ample of this is quoted in the Journal of 


69 


45 Plant Sanitation 


the Royal Horticultural Society for 
March, 1909: a horizontal pear tree, 
twelve years old, which had never borne 
any fruit, was root-pruned on one side; 
two years later that side of the tree was 
covered with fruit, but there was none 
on the other. If Hevea brasiliensis is 
grown for seed only, by all means try 
root pruning, but if a good growth of 
foliage, and consequently of the stem, is 
desired, root pruning should be avoided 
at all costs. Apart from this the danger 
of the attacks of fungi and white ants 
should be a sufficient deterrent to any- 
one who has thought of adopting the 
practice. The presumed destruction of 
fungi and termites by the small amount 
of disturbance of the soil recommended 
by the author in question is quite ima- 
ginary. 

The most glaring error in the now- 
discarded *‘ fullspiral ” system of tapping 
was the failure to recognise that in 
order to ensure a healthy growth of the 
tree the development of the roots must 
keep pace with that of the stem, or 
rather, that the stem cannot develop 
properly without adequate root growth. 
The food materials required by the roots 
are elaborated in the leaves, and. are 
conveyed down the stem by channels 
which lie outside the cambium. The 
‘*fullspiral,” therefore, practically com- 
pletely interrupted the supply of food 
to the roots, and no food could reach 
them until the bark was renewed. Un- 
fortunately, though it was recognised 
that the ‘full spiral” was ‘“‘too hard 
on the tree,” it is evident that the true 
reason of this has not been appreciated. 
It is necessary therefore to insist as 
strongly as possible that on no system 
of tapping should the tree be tapped 
over more than half its circumference 
at the sametime. This gives the mawzi- 
mum tapping area permissible where 
financial considerations necessitate the 
tapping of trees of small girth ; it should 
not exceed one quarter of the circum- 
ference under normal circumstances. 

All ideas on the subject of tapping 
have been dominated by the dictum 
that the bark must be preserved at all 
cost. It may be questioned whether this 
view is not a remnant of the a priori 
ideas of latex formation which flourished 
in the ‘‘ boom” period. O€£ course, it is 
unnecessary, when tapping by the ordi- 
nary systems, to remove more bark than 
is required to reopen the ends of the 
latex vessels, but is there any advantage 
in a system which does not require the 
removal of the bark at all? Consider 
the ordinary process of tapping by cuts. 
The cut opens the latex vessels, and 


Plant Sanitation. 


the area in the immediate neighbour- 
hood of the wound is drained. When 
left for a day or two the latex vessels 
are recharged, partly by the flow of 
latex from other parts of the bark, and 
partly by water from the wood. When 
the wound is reopened by a new cut 
which removes the plugged ends of the 
old latex vessels, this fresh supply flows 
out, and the process may be repeated 
until the tree ‘‘sulks,” thatis, until the 
bark has been drained as much as is pos- 
sible through thatparticular wound. Any 
new formation of rubber during tapping, 
2.@., Of rubber which was not in the 
bark, at the beginning of tapping oper- 
ations, depends on the formation of 
new latex vessels, together with new 
bark at the cambium; and the amount 
of this depends upon the length of 
the tapping period. This addition of 
new layers to the inner side of the bark 
is always in progress, as far as we know 
at present, though if the tree has a 
geavon in which the stem does not 
increase in diameter, the latex formation 
may be expected to be in abeyance 
then. During a short tapping period, 
this new formation of latex is negligible. 
It is important to realise that latex 
can only be formed in the stem when 
new tissues are being made by the 
cambium. To fix ourideas, take the case 
of the strip of bark round the tapping 
cut, say a strip six inches long and four 
inches wide. Sucha strip is drained by 
the first few tappings, and any further 
latex obtained from it is the result of the 
inflow from other regions. Whether it 
is tapped with a knife or with a pricker 
makes no difference whatever to the 
amount of rubber which originates in 
that strip of bark, i.e., whether it is 
gradually cut away or left in situ, for 
the amount formed at the cambium 
during the tapping period is too small 
to affect the question. Moreover, the 
amount of rubber obtainable by draining 
the tree at any given time (if total 
extraction were possible) is a fixed quan- 
tity, and cannot be increased except 
by increased growth. On these consider- 
ations it would appear that, given the 
same area of bark to operate on, neither 
method has any advantage over the 
other with regard to the quantity of 
rubber obtained. The disadvantage of 
increasing the area horizontally has 
already been pointed out. One dis- 
advantage of using the pricker only 
may be foreseen. If the pricked bark 
does not scale off, it will be admitted 
that the amount of new bark formed 
behind the pricked surface will be less 
than the amount formed on a pared sur- 
face, Now, on the assumption that rub- 
ber is a waste product, which scarcely 
admits of doubt, the amount formed 


546 


[JUNE, 1909. ; 


will bein proportion to the amount of 
new bark formed, and therefore the re- 
newed pricked surface should contain 
less than the renewed pared surface of 
the same age. 


The main points to be demanded of an 
ideal tapping system are, not that it 
should give the greatest amount of 
rubber per unit of bark excised, but (1) 
that it should interfere as little as pos- 
sible with the normal growth of the tree, 
(2) it should produce a tappable renewed 
bark containing the maximum amount 
of rubber, in the shortest time. It may 
be necessary to point out that it is the 
function of a Botanical Department to 
consider the permanence of the industry, 
and not the immediate profit of indivi- 
duals. 

T. PETcH, 


ENTOMOLOGICAL NOTES. 


By EK. ERNEST GREEN. 
Government Entomologist. 


The‘Black-headed Coconut Caterpillar’ 
(Nephanta serinopa, Meyr.) was again 
reported from the Batticaloa district in 
March. The pest may be considered to 
be endemic in that locality. I doubt if 
itis ever really absent, though it may ~ 
remain in abeyance for many munths at 
atime. The damage appears to be most 
noticeable during the early part of the 
year. With the exception of a single 
(rather doubtful) case reported in 
September, all other records have been 
confined to the three months—March, 
April and May. During a prolonged 
study of the pest in 1906, 1 ascertained 
that the eggs are usually laid amongst 
the debris of the old galleries that shel- 
tered the previous brood of caterpillars. 
This fact emphasizes the importance of 
stripping and burning the affected 
fronds. I also satisfied myself that the 
pregnant females were freely attracted 
to light and could be captured in con- 
siderable numbers by lamps set in trays 
containing water with a sufficiency of 
kerosene to form a film upon the sur- 
face. I am convinced that the syste- 
matic employment of these two methods 
of treatment, during the critical period— 
from the middle of February to the end 
of May—will keep the pest in such check 
asto prevent any widespread injury. 
But, to be completely effective, the 
treatment must be generally and 
simultaneously adopted throughout the 
affected area. 


With the greatly increased cultivation 
of nitrogen-fixing plants, it is important 
to note the species that are the most 
free from insect attack, The experi- 


7 


ay 


a 


JUNE, 1909.] 547 


mental plots of manurial plants now 
growing on the Peradeniya Experiment 
Station afford a good object lesson of 
the relative immunity from insect pests 
of the several species of Crotalaria. 
The difference between two adjacent 
plots of C. verrucosa and C. incarna 
respectively, is most noticeable. The 
former is virulently attacked by a 
minute ‘ Flea-beetle’ (? Haltica sp.) which 
riddles the foliage with minute per- 
forations to such an extent that the 
growth of the plants is completely 
checked. The same species has, at the 
same time, been extensively defoliated 
by the caterpillars of a moth (Deiopia 
pulchella, lLinn.). The incarna plot 
is practically free from either of these 
insects and shows a most luxuriant 
growth. The seed pods of all the 
species of Crotalaria are attacked by 
the caterpillars of two small blue butter- 
flies (Polyommatus boeticus, Linn. and 
Jamides bochus, Uram.). Though the 
presence of these pod borers diminishes 
the seed supply, it does not affect the 


‘manurial value of the plants, especially 


as the best results are probably obtain- 
able by digging in the plants before they 
have ripened their seed. 

The ‘Tobacco stem-borer’ (Gnorimos- 
chena heliopa, Lower) has necessitated 
the premature destruction of the tobacco 
plots on the Experiment Station. This 
pest is well known in Java, where it 
has been found that nothing short of 
eradication of the affected plants is 
possible, 

The ‘Pear Aphis’ (Lachnus pyri, 
Buckton) has been sent in from Kanda- 

ola. This species was first noticed in 

uwara Eliya, more than ten years ago, 
but has not attracted attention for some 
time. It appears, in dense clusters, on 
the stems and branches of pear trees. It 
is readily exterminated by an applica- 
tion of kerosene emulsion. The species 
is known only from Ceylon. 


Injury to growing rice by the ‘ Paddy 


Bug’ (Leptocorisa acuta, Thunb.) is re- 
ported tobe very severe in the Trin- 
comalie district. Ears of rice sent in to 
this office were found to be completely 
empty. Not a single grain had_ been 
allowed to mature. Circular No. XL, of 
the Ceylon Agricultural Society (com- 
piled by Mr. C. Drieberg) embodies most 
of the known means of combating this 
pest. As a preventive measure, the 
grass growing on the bunds and in the 
fallow paddy-fields should be_ periodi- 
cally burnt off. The Paddy bug breeds 
on the inflorescence of these grasses, 
when there is no paddy for it to feed 
upon. A periodical burn will destroy 
enormous numbers of the insects and so 
greatly lessen the danger of serious 
jnjury to the rice fields, 


Plant Sanitation) 


NOTES ON THE VALUE OF INTRO- 
DUCED PARASITES OR BENE- 
FICIAL INSECTS. 


By WALTER W. FROGATT, F.L.S., 
Government Entomologist, New South 
Wales. 


(Krom the West Indian Bulletin, Vol, 
ITX.,, No. 8, 1908.) 


Ata Conterence of Government Ento- 
mologists held in Sydney, July 8 to 10, 
1906, convened by the Minister of Agri- 
culture to consider the interstate laws 
dealing with the export and import of 
fruit and plants, and the control of 
insect pests, a resolution was carried 
by the members on ‘‘The expediency of 
personal inquiry as regards parasites in 


“California,” and it was suggested that I 


should be sent to report upon the work 
done in Hawaii and California. 

Nothing further came of this sugges- 
tion, though in the meantime our 
Minister gota Bill through the House 
giving power to compel: orchardists to 
clean up their orchards and destroy, by 
burning or boiling, all infected fruit. 
This is known as the‘Fruit Fly and 
Codling Moth Act.’ Last June at a 
Conference of the State Premiers held in 
Brisbane, the Hon. C. Swineburne, of 
Victoria, proposed that the Government 
Hntomologist of New South Wales 
should be sent round the world to see 
what methods could be discovered to 
deal with fruit flies, either by parasites 
or mechanical methods, to study other 
cosmopolitan pests, and to report upon 
the value of parasites generally. 


The question of parasites had become 
very acute in Australia through the 
action of California and Western Aus- 
tralia. It was claimed that there were 
no injurious scale insects in Hawaii, 
California, or Western Australia, that 
the lantana scrub had been killed out by 
introduced phytophagus insects, and 
that the codling moth’ parasite from 
Spain was spreading all over California 
and doing such good work that spraying 
and fumigation were things of the past. 
I was requested to visita large number 
of countries to report upon parasites 
and their value, particularly in Hawaii 
and California, and | have spent a con- 
siderable amount of time in the field and 
orchards in studying the question. 


I found in Hawaii that seale insects 
and mealy bugs were just as plentiful 


upon native bushes and _ introduced 
plants as they arein Australia, but as 
there are practically no commercial 


orchards in these islands, very little 


Plant Sanitation. =, 548 


notice is taken of them. All the interest 
in Hawaii is centred upon the pests that 
affect sugar-cane, and the work done by 
the staff of the Sugar Planters’ Associa- 
tion has been on such pests. One of the 
most interesting was the introduction of 
an egg parasite (a minute parasitic wasp) 
of the cane leaf hopper (Perkinsiella 
saccharicida) some three years ago from 
the cane fields of Queensland, by 
Messrs. Koebele and Perkins. The leaf 
hopper had been introduced some years 
before with cane from Queensland, and 
increased so rapidly that it dida great 
deal of damage in puncturing the leaves 
and stems. In less than two years after 
the introduction of its parasite there 
was a very marked difference in the 
ravages of the leat hopper, and though 
there are still plenty of them in the 
cane fields, the pest may be said to be 
held in check. Atthesame time, altered 
methods of cultivation and the intro- 
duction of harder-stemmed varieties of 
cane may have been factors in its 
decrease. 


The introduction of at least half a 
dozen different insects from Mexico to 
destroy the lantana scrub growing on 
sugar land was a daring experiment in 
economic entomology, and could only 
be attempted in a place like Hawaii, 
where nearly everything on the islands 
has been introduced from foreign lands. 
It had been claimed that the lantana, 
owing to these insects, was dying in 
large areas, and in others was producing 
no flowers or seeds. I found plenty of 
evidence of the insects on the Jantana 
foliage, the most active of which wasa 
small leaf bug. This insect, feeding on 
the underside of the leaves, often 
defoliated the bushes, but its attacks 
did not prevent them from throwing out 
a fresh growth of foliage when the rains 
setin. Again, this bug is very closely 
allied to an indigenous species in Aus- 
tralia that causes similar damage to the 
cultivated olive; it could never be intro- 
duced into an orchard country. 


The insect that is killing the lantana 
is the Indian mealy bug (Orthesia insig- 
nis) known there as the ‘Maui Blight’ 
which is a very. serious pest in other 
countries to tea and other plants. This 
was accidentally introduced into the 
islands many years ago, but has been 
artificially spread by the planters and 
cattlemen all over the islands. 


In California, I placed myself in the 
hands of the Horticultural Commis- 
sioners at San Francisco, and from there 
travelled over nearly all the fruit-grow- 
ing districts. The first thing I saw in 
their office was a large cage full of living 
specimens of the large ichneumon wasp 


[JuNE, 1909, 


busy at work depositing their eggs in 
bundles of sticks containing codling 
moth grubs that had been placed there. 
This is the codling moth parasite brought 
by Compere from Spain, which it was 
claimed had been so successfully spread 
all over Californian apple orchards that 
spraying was unnecessary. The Horti- 
cultural Commissioners had the year 
before written to several of the Aus- 
tralian States, offering to supply each of 
them with colonies of this parasite for 
£1,000. It was interesting to watch the 
habits of this wasp in the office, but the 
officers were unable to show me any 
place where it could be seen at work 
under natural conditions. Later on, 
when visiting apple orchards in different 
parts of the State, I found that although 
great numbers had been turned out to 
destroy codling moth, no one had ever 
seen them at work in the orchards, and 
from their large size and dark colour it 
is probable that the blackbirds may eat 
most of them. 


I found several firms manufacturing 
arsenate of lead in large quantities for 
use for the control of the codling moth, 
and that most of the commercial apple 
orchards sprayed four and five times in 
the season, none of them relying upon 
the codling moth parasite. 


It was just the same in the citrus 
orchards. It has been stated in the 
Horticultural reports that all the 
common scale insects were either extinct 
or completely controlled by the lady- 
bicd beetles or internal parasites. Not 
only was fumigation carried on as a 
regular thing all through the Los 
Angeles districts by the Deputy or 
County Commissioners in the com- 
mercial orchards for red, purple, vellow 
and other szales, but the trees growing 
in the parks and gardens were black 
with different scales and the attendant 
black fungi. In all the large packing 
houses I visited I found them washing 
or brushing their oranges for scale 
insects, so that from a commercial point 
of view the ordinary parasites of citrus 
pests are of little value. 


Certainly there is no economic ento- 
mologist that does not know that if it 
were not for the many parasites that 
attack and destroy the injurious plant- 
destroying insects, there would not bea 
green thing on the face of the earth. 
But they in turn have their enemies, so 
that there must be limitations to their 
value. Hach country has its particular 
insect fauna, but when an insect bene- 
ficial in its own country is introduced 
into another land, the altered conditions 


valueless, 


and surroundings may render it quitg 


June, 1909.] 549 


There are several striking instances of 
introduced lady-bird beetles clearing 
out, for the time, some particular scale, 
but of the thousands of specimens intro- 
duced into California there are a number 
of species that have died out in a very 
short space of time. 

One of the greatest experiments at 
present being carried on is the introduc- 
tion ot the egg parasites of the Gypsy 
and Brown Tail moths from Hurope, 
under the able administration of Dr. 
Howard working with the Gypsy Moth 
Commission at Boston. Both these 


Plant Sanitation, 


forest moths, which have been intro- 
duced from Europe, have done an 
immense amount of damage in the 
forests of North America, while in their 
native land they are held in check by 
something. If that something can be 
transported to America, then thousands 
of pounds will be saved every year. 


In conelusion, I would point out that 
the introduction of all kinds of insects 
should be cautiously undertaken and 
should not be carried out except by fully 
qualified Entomologists. 


MISCELLANEOUS PESTS. 


MILLIONS AND MOSQUITOS 


(From the Bulletin issued by the Im- 
perral Department of Agriculture for 
the West Indies.) 


INTRODUCTORY. 


The small fish called ‘‘ millions ” in 
Barbados have been technically identi- 
fied as Girardinus poeciloides, De Filippi. 

They are very smallin size, the full- 
grown female measuring about 14 inches 
in length, while the male is much 
smaller. The female is dull in colour 
without conspicuous markings, while 
the male is marked with irregular red 
splashes on the sides, and has a circular 
black spot on each side. 


Millions live for the most part in 
water too shallow for larger fish, which 
might prey upon them. They feed on 
the eggs, larve, and pupz of mos- 
quitoes, and probably on most other 
forms of animal life which occurin the 
water they frequent. They may be 
found along the water’s edge among the 
weeds and grass roots, and they are able 
toswim upstream in the smallest of 
small rills and against a strong current. 

They increase in numbers very rapidly 
under favourable circumstances. They 
are viviparous—that is, they bring forth 
living young. This isan advantage to 
the species, for although the number of 
offspring from one of these females may 
not be so great as the number of eggs 
or spawn produced by an oviparous 
(egg-laying) female, yet a larger propor- 
tion of them reach maturity since there 
is exposed to their enemies no inactive 
egg stage of development. In captivity, 
in water tanks, reservoirs, fountains, 
and garden tubsin which aquatic plants 


are kept, they thrive and multiply, and 
in Barbados they are very much used in 
this way both in the town and on 
estates, to reduce the annoyance from 
mosquitos, 

ALLIED SPECIES. 


Millions belong to the group of fishes 
knownastop-minnows. The top-minnows 
are small carnivorous fish that swim and 
feed near the surface of the water. 


Closely related to the millions of 
Barbados are two species of Girardinus, 
one of which is G. versicolor, Gunther, 
said to be found in San Domingo, and 
the other G. formosus, of South Carolina 
ond Florida. 

Mosquitos AT BARBADOS. 


In Barbados, two of the commonly 
known species of ‘mosquito’ are Culex 
fatigans and Stegomyia fasciuta. Culex 
is the mosquito which is responsible for 
the distribution of filariasis, also known 
as elephantiasis or ‘ Barbados leg.’ The 
Stegomyia mosquito is the active agency 
in the distribution of yellow fever. 


The Anopheles mosquito which trans- 
mits the malarial parasite is not known 
to occur in Barbados, but it is found in 
most other parts of the tropics, and 
in many subtropical and temperate 
countries. 


LIFE-HISTROY OF MOSQUITOS. 


The life-history of a mosquito includes 
the four distinct stages usual in the 
development of an insect—the egg, the 
larve, the pupa, and the imago (or 
adult). 


The adult female mosquito deposits 
her eggs on the surface of water where 
they remain for several days until they 
hatch, The eggs of Culex are laid in 
masses Orrafts. Those of Anopheles and 
Stegomyia are laid singly, 


~ ee 


Miscellaneous Pests. 


The larve, or mosquito wriggler is 
early distinguished from all other forms 
of water insects. The pupa is somewhat 
like the larvze. It moves about activelyin 
the water, but is darker than the larva, 
and the ‘head’is much larger in propor- 
tion. What appears to be the ‘head’ is 
really the head and thorax, and the 
greatly increased size isdueto the deve- 
loping mouth parts, eyes, and antennze 
on the head, and the wings and legs on 
the thorax. When the development 
inside the pupa is complete the imago (or 
adult) emerges, and shortly afterwards 
the process of egg-laying begins. 

During all this process of change and 
development, the mosquito is exposed 
to the attack of its enemies. The adult 
mosquito on the surface of the water 
in the process of egg-laying, the eggs 
during the several days before they 
hatch, the larve wriggling trom the 
bottom to the surface to breathe, the 
pupze and even the newly-transformed 
adults emerging from the pupa cases 
at the surface,—are all liable to repeated 
attack. 


BREEDING PLACES oF MOSQUITOS. 


The Anopheles mosquito which disse- 
minates malaria does not occur in Barba- 
dos. The argument has been advanced 
that the presence and abundance of 
millions in Barbados account for the 
entire absence of the malarial mosquito 
from the island. This argument is sup- 
ported by the fact that the natural 
breeding places of the malarial mosquito 
are inhabited by millions, It has been 
found by those who have investigated 
the subject that Anopheles breeds only 
in fairly -permanent natural pools at or 
near the ground-level, while Culex and 
Stegomyia breed freely in small collec- 
tions of water in all sorts of receptacies. 
Rainwater tanks, cisterns, reservoirs, 
broken pots, bottles, ard old tins are 
inhabited by these two, and they breed 
even in the gutters on the roofs of 
houses, if a sufficient amount of water 
remains standing there. 


In India it has been found that while 
the species of Culex generally breed in 
vessels of water around the houses, the 
species of the genus Anopheles breed in 
small pools of water on the ground. 
In Sierra Leone it was found that while 
** Culex larvae were to be seen in almost 
every’ vessel of water, or gourd, or 
flower-pot in which a little rainwater 
had collected, in only one case were 
Anopheles lavvze found in such recep- 
tacles. Onthe other hand they occurred 
in about 100 small puddles scattered 
throughout the city of Freetown—pud- 
dles mostly of a fairly permanent descrip- 
tion, képt filled by the rain, and no$ 


550 


(JUNE, 1909. 


liable to washing out during heavy 
showers. It was noticed also that the 
larvee seemed chiefly to feed on green 


water weed.” 


It is stated that at ‘‘Freetown not 
only do the larve of Anopheles exist 
in the small pools in the rocks, but also 
in the pools by the sides of streams and 
in certain small drains. In the dry 
season, inthe absence of the rock pools, 
Anopheles breed freely in streams and 
drains, and the adults exist in most 
parts of the town in dwellings, espe- 
cially in overcrowded native huts and 
native quarters, ready to lay their eggs 
when pools appear. Outside the city, 
in the ‘bush,’ Anopheles larvee were 
present throughout the whole district. 
In the mountain streams, wherever there 
were suitable pools, multitudes of larvee 
existed. In tracing the mountain 
streams, occasionally for 14 miles or so, 
no larvee were found, but then a rock 
pool occurred, and there they were found 
in numbers. At Sango and Nabang 
Anopheles larvze were detected in the 
swamps. They were not present in the 
main swamp water on account of the 
innumerable small fish but were occasion- 
ally observed in small isolated pools 
on the mud, and were still more com- 
mon in small pools at the edges of 
swamps.” 


It has been stated that at St. Lucia 
Anopheles do not deposit eggs any where 
except close to the ground-level, but 
there is no definite statement that the 
larvee have not been found in broken 
bottles, old tins, flower pots, ete. 


In Antigua, it has been observed that 
Culex and Stegomyia larvee are found 
in tanks, cisterns, and other receptacles, 
while Anopheles larvee are found only 
in shaded streams and ponds. 


The fact that water in which millions 
live remains free from mosquito larvee 
is due mostly, if not entirely, to the 
way in which these fish feed, and not 
to what they feed on. They vigorously 
attack small insects that are drowning 
or resting on the surface. It is probable 
that mosquitos attempting to lay eggs 
on the water are captured and eaten, or 
disturbed to such an extent as to prevent 
them from laying their eggs where 
millions are present. 


The statement that millions feed in 
Barbados on the larvee of Anopheles can 
hardly be taken as correct, for it has 
not been proved that Anopheles have 
ever bred in this island. From the 
avidity with which they attack the 
larvee and pup of Culex and Stegomyia, 
however, itseems likely that they would 
attack the larve of Anopheles in the 
same way. 


JUNE, 1909.] ‘ a5] 


FEEDING HABITS OF MILLIONS. 


Millions feed on mosquitos and on 
many other small forms of animal life 
which occur in the waters they inhabit, 
When they are keptin captivity, how- 
ever, it is sometimes difficult to provide 
asnfficient amount of the natural food, 
It has been found that at such times 
they will eat certain kinds of plant lice, 
red spider, and the eggs and young of 
seale insects. 


It has been found that the plant lice 
which occur on certain plants will not be 
~ eaten by millions, as also some kinds of 
scale insects. The kinds of plant lice 
and seale insects that millions will feed 
upon can easily be ascertained by ex- 
periment in a glass jar. 

Hard-boiled eggs, chopped very fine, 
will be found a useful food also, while 
corn (maize) meal will be eaten by the 
fish if they are very hungry. 

Millions are among the most active of 
all the natural enemies of mosquitos, and 
they live in many of the situations in 
which the Anopheles mosquito breeds. 
There is, therefore, every reason to 
suppose that in any malarial district 
there would be adecrease in the numbers 
of Anopheles mosquitos if millions could 
be successfully introduced, more especi- 
ally if they attacked the Amopheles as 
actively as they do the other species 
already mentioned. 


The millions are very persistent. A 
very small fish will attack a large full- 
grown larva, and, failing to capture it 
at the first attempt, will follow it up for 
repeated trials until success attends its 
efforts. This has been observed in an 
aquarium jar, where it has also been 
noted that even when gorged to disten- 
tion, the millions will continue to make 
frantic efforts to catch more and more 
of this larve, until they are unable to 
swallow the latest capture. A fish hold- 
ing a large mosquito larva in its mouth 
until some of the food already swallowed 
can be digested isnot an unusual sight. 
Ihe captured larva, it will -be observed, 
is gradually swallowed, as room is made 
to receive it. 


Asan experiment, a garden tub was 
made ready for aguatic plants, and 
some ten days elapsed after the tub was 
filled before millions were put into it, 
and the water became literally alive 
with mosquitos, It was feared that the 
few millions which were putinto the 
water would not be able to destroy all 
the. mosquitos before they should have 
time to finish their development. Accord- 
ingly, a small quantity of kerosene was 
thrown on the surface of the water in 
order to kill off the larger number of 
mosquitos, and thus leave to the millions 


Miscellaneous Pests. 


merely the task of keeping the water 
free from any fresh invasion by mos- 
quitos. During the first week after the 
introduction of millions into this tuba 
few mosquito larvee were to be seen in 
the water, but during the next six 
months none were seen when the water 
was examined. 


In another instance, a number of 
millions were kept ina jar in the labor- 
atocy of the Imperial Department of 
Agriculture. They had been several 
days without food when a collection of 
living mosquito larvee was brought 
in from a stagnant roadside pool. As 
these larvze were introduced into the 
aquarium they were attacked vigour- 
ously and persistently by the fish, who 
fed until gorged. 


There can be no doubt that millions 
are very efficient as natural enemies of 
the mosquito, andin Barbados they have 
been observed to eat the eggs, larvee, and 
pupze of both Culex and Stegomyia. 


INTRODUCTION OF MILLIONS TO 
New LOcAtLITIEeS, 


The Imperial Department of Agri- 
culture introduced millions -into St. 
Kitt’s-Nevis and Antigua in 1905, into 
Jamaica in 1906. and more recently, in 
1908, into St. Vincent, St. Lucia, and 
Guayaquil. These fish have also been 
taken to British Guiana, Colon, and 
Bolivar. 


In August, 1905, a number of millions 
were sent to Antigua in a kerosene tin. 
They arrived in good condition and 
were kept in a tank at the Botanic 
Station until they had increased suftici- 
ently to be distributed without weaken- 
ing the source of supply. The fish were 
liberated in several ponds and streams, 
and flourished so well that the Country 
Board of Health undertook the work of 
stocking all the ponds and streams of 
the island. At the present time, about 
three years from the first introduction— 
all the more or less permanent water of 
that island is stocked, and many planters 
and others have commented on the 
apparent abatement of the mosquito 
nuisance in many localities. 


In August, 1905, millions were sent to 
St. Kitt’s also, where they flourished 
equally well as at Antigua. Many 
streams and ponds have been stocked, 
but the distribution of the fish has not 
been taken up by the local Government 
in the same way asat Antigua. 


In Jamaica, to which place they were 
sent by this Department in 1906, millions 
have been established, with an abate. 
ment of ‘fever’ in places. 


The idea of stocking ponds, lakes, and 
streams with fish in order to keep down 


Miscellaneous Pests. 


the numbers of mosquitos in any locality 
is not anew one. In many parts of the 
United States, top-minnows and other 
fish have been used for this purpose, and 
in some instances even fish as large as 
- carp have been tried. The United States 
Fish Commission in 1905 took from Texas 
to the Hawaiian Islands a large number 
of top-minnows, and good results in the 
fight against mosquitos have been re- 
ported as a consequence. 


Small fish which multiply rapidly seem 
likely to be of most value in controlling 
mosquitos in ponds and streams, since, 
from their small size they are able to 
get into shallow water away from larger 


fish, and where mosquito larvee are 
frequently to be found. 
MILLIONS IN CAPTIVITY. 


The experiments carried out in the 
laboratory of the Imperial Department 
of Agriculture proved that millions are 
hardy, and will survive a considerable 
amount of neglect in the matter of 
changing the water in which they- are 
kept, and of feeding when in captivity. 


Much better results, however, can be 
obtained when the fish are fed regularly 
and the water serated and changed _ fre- 
quently. If millions are being kept 
under favourable conditions, green alge 
and other water weeds in the water will 
provide the necessary eration and make 
it possible for the water to be changed 
less frequently. 


FREDING MILLIONS IN CAPTIVITY. 


Millions may be fed on mosquito eggs 
and larvee, on raw beef or hard-boiled 
eggs chopped very fine, and on plant lice, 
red spider, and the young of scale in- 
sects. Corn meal will often be eaten in 
the absence of other food. They will also 
eat many of the minute forms of animal 


LIVE STOCK. 


552 


(JUNE, 1909. 


life which commonly occur in fresh 
water. Y 


_ When millions are fed in captivity on 
foods other than mosquitos, aquati¢ ani- 
mals, etc., care should be taken not to 
give too great a quantity at one time, 
as all the uneaten food falls to the 
bottom of the receptacles and helps to 
foul the water. 


TRANSPORTATION OF MILLIONS. 


Millions may be transported short — 
distances in a kerosene tin with no other - 
preparation than a wire gauze fixed near. 
the top to prevent the fish being thrown 
out if the water is splashed about. A 
bar of wood should be fixed across the 
top to serve as a handle by which to 
earry the tin. For longer journeys kero- - 
sene tins should be fixed in a box large 
enough to allow a packing of 2 inches 
of sawdust at the bottom and sides of 
the tin. The sawdust provides against 
the sudden changes of temperature, so 
often experienced on shipboard even 
in the tropics. When treated in this 
way the tin should have the wire 
gauze across the top. In shipping mil- 
lions in this way not more than two gal- 
lons of water should be putin each tin. 
This amount of water will be sufficient 
for about one hundred fish. For one 
hundred fish in two gallons of water, not 
more than a teaspoonful of finely chop- 
ped raw beef, hard-boiled egg, or corn 
meal should be given at a time, and that 
no oftener than once in two days. 


Under these conditions, the tins should = 
be cleaned out and fresh water supplied r 
once in every five to seven days. Any 
dead fish should be removed as soon as . 
possible, for it must be remembered 
that decaying animal matter in the 
water is most undesirable. 


Millions have been sent by this Depart- 
ment to different places in kerosene tins 
and they have arrived in good condition. 


VETERINARY WORK OF THE 
BUREAU OF AGRICULTURE. 


(From the Philippine Agricultural 
Review, Vol. I., No. 2, November, 1908.) 


Weare continuing in this number of 
the Review the proceedings of the Philip- 
pine Veterinary Medical Association. 
We also include Genral Order No. 13. of 
the Bureau of Agriculture, aad an article 
entitled ‘Koch on rinderpest in the 
Philippines.” In these two articles the 
attitude of the Government with re- 
ference to infective animal diseases is 


more clearly set forth than it has ever 
been before. Thereis a definite deter- 
mination to suppress them completely 
and promptly. Nothing short of finally 
eradicating surra, Rinderpest, and foot- 
and-mouth disease will give the desired 
results. The American Governinent in 
the Philippines has constantly followed 
up this subject since the earliest days of 
the civil régime. More than six years 
agoa veterinary torce was employed 
and the study of the infective animal 
diseases in these Islands was undertaken. | 
In th> course of the work serum was 
manufactured and inoculation practised 


Junx, 1909.) 


throughout the Islands. Quarantines 
were instituted and a general effort was 
made to interest the local officials and 
communities in preventing the spread 
of animal diseases. The work was more 
or less unsettled atthe beginning as the 
lines of procedure had to be worked out 
in the provinces. Some changes were 
necessary from time to time during the 
first three years. This formative period 
of the work has long since passed, and 
it is now thoroughly organised with 
definite plans which are certain to give 
results if persistently followed. 


The first thing done was to inspect 
imported cattle to determine whether 
or not they had infective diseases on 
arrival. The records show clearly that 
agreat many of them did bring such 
diseases, especially from China. 


The next step was to inspect those 
cattle being shipped from ports of entry, 
especially Manila, to the provinces, and 
determine whether or not they left these 
ports in a healthy condition. It was 
found that many of them carried the 
diseases to the provinces. 


It was also found that where diseases 
prevailed in the provinces they were 
spread extensively by local cattle 
trading. 

The result of all these studies and 
observations was to define the different 
lines of action which are known to be 
necessary in the suppression of the 
diseases. The first of these was to estab- 
lish a rigid inspection and-limit the 
movements of cattle by means of quaran- 
tine. The first effort in this direction 
was the enforcement of the veterinary 
section of the Sanitary Code of the City 
of Manila, which became _ effective, 
January 1, 1907. This law was held in 
suspension for some months, but in due 
course of time the quarantine of 
imported cattle exposed to infective 
diseases was undertaken. This led to 
immediate and strong opposition by 
certain local cattle dealers. They even 
questioned the integrity of the Govern- 
ment officials who had charge of enforc- 
ing the quarantine. All of this agita- 
tion led to a full discussion of the 
subject, which finally resulted in the 
passage of Act No. 1760 of the Philippine 
Commission on October 12, 1907. This 
in effect extended the quarantine to 
infected and exposed_animals through- 
out the Islands. 


Strong protests against all quaran- 
tines were constantly made on the 
round that liberal importation of cattle 
or draft purposes was necessary to 
replace those which had died from 
diseases in the provinces. It wasshown 
in the May Review that 90 per cent. of 
the cattle imported into the Islands 


70 


553 


Live Stock, 


come to Manila, that70 per cent. of these 
are slaughtered in this city, and 80 per 
cent. of the remainder shipped to the 
provinces, are subsequently slaughtered 
in the towns near Manila. So this 
argument lost much of its foree. If it 
were not tor prejudice, seven pounds of 
meat out of every ten produced here by 
imported cattle, could as well be bought 
from cold storage. 
After considerable agitation, General 
Order No, 9 was issued April 30, 1908, 
Its main feature was to exclude cattle 
from the infected places throughout 
the Orient. This order met with strong 
opposition from the cattle dealers, and 
its enforcement was suspended on 
technical grounds. 
_General Order No. 10 was issued and 
provided a system of automatic limita- 
tion of shipments from infected places. 
It gave dealers time toship cattle which 
they claimed to have on hand and per- 
mitted three successive infected ship- 
ments to be landed, However, certain 
unscrupulous dealers began deliberately 
importing infected animals from differ- 
ent Chinese ports, changing when three 
shipments had been made from each. 


This was followed by the issuance of 
General Order No. 12 which put all ports 
on the same basis in so far as landing 
of infective shipments is concerned. 
Under these provisions when an infect- 
ed shipment of cattle arrives in Manila, 
the animals can be landed for immediate 
slaughter only. 


This order is the most important step 


. yet taken by the Government in prevent- 


ing the constant reinfection of different 
parts of these Islands with rinderpest 
and_ foot-and-mouth disease. It marks 
a distinct epoch in the history of the 
veterinary work which all thinking men 
who understand this problem will 
readily appreciate. 


The order in itself is not complete, in 
that it does not provide details for the 
cleaning and distinfection of ships, 
corrals, and other places from which 
the infection of these diseases is liable 
to spread. Anattempt has been made 
to remedy this by the codification of 
all general orders from No, 10 and 
including the rules and regulations for 
disinfecting. This constitutes General 
Order No, 13, published in this number 
of the Review, 


There are three more logical steps 
which the Government should, and no 
doubt will, take in due course of time. 
The first of these is to provide a means 
of handling infected shipments of cara- 
baos and selected breeding cattle which 
are intended for slaughter. This would 
be simple if there was an Island in Manila 


Live Stock. 554 


Bay on which they could be_ landed. 
The questionis now under consideration, 
and efforts will be made to settle it as 
soon as possible. 


The second is to exclude entirely all 
shipments containing infected animals. 
This action is not absolutely essential 
now, as cattle can be landed under cer- 
tain restrictions and immediately slaugh- 
tered without spreading diseases, but 
the exclusion of infected shipments 
would deter importers from buying 
cattle at infected ports, and place a 
premium on importations free from the 
diseases which we have been fighting 
so many years. A shipment from an 
infected port, found to be free from 
disease on arrival and permitted to land 
is much more dangerous in spreading 
disease than the infected shipment land- 
ed for immediate slaughter only. The 
one is alive and in contact with native 
cattle, to which disease will spread if 
it develops, while the other is dead and 
beyond the possibility of spreading 
disease. 


The next will be the complete exclu- 
sion of allanimals from ports or places 
known to be infected. While this step 
is not justified at the present time, 
it will ultimately prove an absolute 
necessity. It can be done just as soon 
as it becomes ceitain that an abun- 
dant supply of cattle and carabao, to 
meet al) our demands. can be had from 
ports which are known to be free from 
diseases, and from which infected ship- 
ments will never come. The only sate 
course is to make sure that the animals 
of these Islands will have no chance to 
become infected, and the only certain 
way of guaranteeing them against 
the further invasion of infective animal 
diseases is to completely exclude all 
animals from all ports and countries in 
which infective diseases exist or are 
liable to prevail. 


CORNS ON HORSES’ FEET. 


(From the Agricultural News, Vol. 
VIII., No. 179, March 6, 1909.) 


A corn on the foot of a horse or a 
mule necessarily results in a certain 
degree of temporary lameness. If the 
proper method of treatment is adopted, 
however, the trouble can usually be got 
rid of in a comparatively short time, 
but it is important to remember that 
unskillful or ignorant treatment may 
readily increase the trouble so as to 
result in more serious lameness. The 
following sensible note on this subject 


is extracted from Hunting’s ‘Art of 
Horse-shoeing ’ :— 


A corn, be it remembered, is not a 
tumour or a growth; it is merely a bruise 
of the sensitive foot under the horn of 
the sole. It showsitself by staining the 
horn red, just asa bruise of the human 
body shows a staining of the skin above 
it. To ‘eut out acorn’ with the idea of 
removing it issimply an ignorant pro- 
ceeding. 

If a corn be slight, all that is necessary 
is to take off the pressure of the shoe, 
and this is assisted by removing a thin 
slice or two of horn at the part. When 
the injury is very great, matter may be 
formed under the horn, and, of course, 
must be let out by removal of the horn 
over it. Provided there is no reason to 
believe that matter has formed, a corn— 
1.@., the bruised and discoloured horn— 
should not be dug out in the ruthless 
manner so commonly adopted. Cutting 
away all the horn of the sole at the 
heels leaves the wall without any sup- 
port. When the shoe rests upon the 
wall itis unable to sustian the weight 
without yielding, and thus an additional 
cause of irritation. and soreness is manu- 
factured, The excessive paring of corns 
is the chief reason of the difficulty of 
getting permanently rid of them. 


The simplest device for taking all © 


pressure of a cornis tocut off an inch 
and a half of the inner heel of the shoe. 
With the three-quarter shoe a horse will 
soon go sound, and his foot will then 
resume its healthy state. The saying 
‘once acorn, always a corn’ is not true; 
but it is true that a bruised heel is 
tender and liable to bruise again, from 
very slight unevenness of pressure, for 
at least three months. All that is neces- 
sary is care in fitting, and abstention 
from removal of too much horn at the 
part. Of course, when the degree of 
lameness is such as to suggest that 
matter is formed, the horn must be cut 
away so as to afford an exit forit; but 
the majority of corns are detected long 
before the stage of suppuration has re- 
sulted from a bruise. 


DAIRY FARMING: WILL IT PAY 
IN CEYLON? 


By GEo. SCHRADER. 


(From the Ceylon Independent, 14th 
January, 1909.) 

By dairy farming I donot mean the 
manufacturing of butter and cheese, 
but the supplying of pure rich milk to 
large towns at a reasonable price. 


Everybody living in towns knows how 


[JUNE, 1909. 


JUNE, 1909,] 


almost impossible it is to get.a supply of 
pure rich milk ata reasonable price - 
owing to these difficulties the great pro- 

ortion of the people, who would prefer 
Fr esh milk, have to be satisfied with the 
preserved tinned stuff. Is it possible to 
supply the pure article so that the 
suppliers and the supplied will both be 
satisfied ? I maintain that it is possible 
to supply pure rich milk at 15 cents per 
bottle, at the same time yielding hand- 
some profits and quick returns without 
any great risk. The business man will 
say—‘‘ This is all very fine! but I want 
more tangible proof than this before I 
embark my capital.” Quite right! the 
object of this article is to prove this by 
facts and figures. I may say that Iam 
not convicting a theoretical story, but I 
am applying my knowledge and per- 
sonal experience gained elsewhere to 
what canbe feasibly done in Ceylon, 
A branch of the work of a large mixed 
farm I was managing in Australia was 
the supplying of milk to a town five 
miles away ; the portion of the country 
the farm was situated was not physi- 
eally suitable for dairying as the average 
rainfall was 14 inches per year, so that 
every bit of the food of the cows had to 
be grown under irrigation, which meant 
the great expense of pumping water by 
means of expensive machinery, ete. ; but 
still handsome profits were the result. Jt 
is a well-known fact among the farming 
world that thereisno branch of agri- 
culture that brings in better, safer and 
quicker returns than dairy farming, 7.e., 
the supplying of fresh milk to towns. 
Every other branch of farming is guided 
by the market, the prices of grain 
and fruit, rise and fall &e. ; while the 
cultivation of even our coconut palm, 
tea and rubber, etc., means the outlay 
of alarge amount of capital and the 
waiting for a good number of years for 
the first returns, whereas with dairying 
the price isa fixed price, and from the 
day the milk supply starts, the income 
starts. In Ceylon we have not the 
adverse circumstances I had to contend 
with, as most parts of the country havea 
splendid raintall averaging from 60 to 90 
inches—the best spots are available for 
the pioneers to pick and choose; the 
market is unlimitted, so there is no neces- 
sity to go to the less favoured parts of 
the Island. Suppose, for example, a com- 
pany was started to supply Colombo with 
pure rich milk at a reasonable price. 
What eapital will it require? What 
would be the working expenses ? What 
would be the returns? What risk is 
there, and how should the farm be 
worked? I do notthink there is any 
necessity of labouring the subject of a 
market, as everybody knows that there 


555 


Live Stock. 


isat present an unlimited market for 
pure rich milk at a fair price, 12.e., cents 
15 per bottle delivered. I estimate the 
eapital required at Rs. 40,000 for a dairy 
farm of forty cows—I estimate fairly 
high to be on the safe side—as per ac- 
count below :— 


Rs. Cts. 
80 acres of land at Rs. 200 Her 
acre .. 16,000 
40 cows at Rs. 200 each ... 8,000 00 
1 stud bull seo. - 400 C0 
Cost of importing cattle 400 00 
Implements and tools 1,088 75 


Dairy utensils ». 200 00 


Two milk delivery carts 400 00 
1 Double bullock cart 100 
4 horses for delivery carts at 
Rs. 150 600 00 
Buildings .- 1,500 00 
RKnsilage pits ro LO 
Fencing and clearing 1,800 00 
2 pairs of draft cattle at 
Rs. 150 300. 00 
Sundries 300 00 
31,488 75 
Cost of growing fodder and 
preparing for the introduction 
of the cows as follows :— 
Salary of manager at Rs. 150 
per month for sixmonths... 900 00 
Wages of five men at Rs. 
per month for six months... 300 00 
Seed for green fodder crops 
and ensilage 50 00 


Cost of feeding two pairs of 
working bulls forsix months 148 00 


Rs. 382, 831 75 


WORKING EXPENSES FOR FIRST vuaw 
Manager’s salary at Rs. 150 


per month 1,800 00 
3 milkmenat Rs. 12 each per 
month 482 00 
6 coolies at Rs. 10 each per 
month . 8360 00 
1 Overseer at Rs. 15 per 
month ace 180 00 
2 responsible men to.drive 
and deliver milk, at Rs. 20 
per month sae 480 
Horse food for 4 horses... 844 00 
Two horsekeepers to look 
after horses, at Rs. 12 per 
month an 288 
Cattle food, artificial—oil 
cake at 4 lbs. each per day 
(for 30 cows) 2,740 50 
Seed for green fodder and 
silage crops aN 50 00 
Cattle medicines af 20 00 
Sundries 500 00 


Rs, 7,694 50 


Live Stock. 


INCOME FOR FIRST WORKING YHAR. 
21,900 gallons of milk at cents 

90\per gallon, being themilk | 

of 30 cows at 2 gallons 


a 


each per day «- 19,710 00 

Value of 25 calves at Rs. 20 
each on 500 00 
Rs. 20,210 00 

Less for bad debts and col- 
lector’s commission, ete.... 1,500 00 
Rs. 18,710 00 

INCOME. 

Gross income ... 18,710 00 
Working expenses 7,694 00 


Nett income...Rs. 11,016 00 


This means 274 per cent. on the capital 
of Rs. 40,000. 


In examining these figures it will be 
found that I have provided liberally for 
every contingency, but even supposing 
the cows or theclearing of the land, etce., 
cost more than estimated, there is still 
left Rs, 7,168 out of the capital to meet 
any excess. The balance remaining 
will be tor working expenses—there is 
no necessity of any large reserve for 
working expenses, as it isonly for the 
first month money from the capital 
willbe required for that purpose—the 
monthly expenses will be Rs. 641°20, 
while the monthly income will be 
Rs. 1,620 for a month of thirty days. The 
handsome interest of 274 per cent. on 
the capital will no doubt be viewed with 
some suspicion, as too good to believe and 
impossible—examine and analyse the 
figures how you like and as you like, and 
you will come to the conclusion that it is 
feasible. It must be remembered that I 
have only taken the milk of thirty cows 
while forty cows form the herd. I have 
done so although in the actual working 
more than thirty cows will be milked 
daily for the 365 days of the year ; stillit 
must be remembered that cows require 
two months’ rest before they calve for 
the second milking, and also to allow 
for any deaths and for any cows 
that donot come up to the standard 
of two gallons of milk per day; also for 
the milk required to feed the young 
calves for the first three months of their 
life. Some might say that it is impos- 
sible to get two gallons of milk per day 
from a cow. I say from personal ex- 
perience and knowledge that it is pos- 
sible, it can be got, and it must be got, 
and that every cow that does not come 
up to that standard must be got rid of, 
and the sooner the better. 


(JUNE, 1909. 


There is another very valuable source of 
income that must not be forgotten. You 
will notice that I have valued twenty- 
five calves at Rs. 20 each, that is not 
to say that they must be Sold for that 
sum, and that the very ‘ow average 
of twenty-five that I have put down for 
safe calculation is to be the actual re- 
sults of the farm. In three years’ time 
there will bea splendid lot of young bulls 
and cows for sale, after reserving for 
the requirements of the farm, Sup- 
pose at the end of the first:three years 
we sold twenty-five head at Rs. 200, that 
would be Rs. 5,000,so0 that the yearly 
profits after the first three years will 
always be increased by the sale of sur- 
plus cattle. 


There is another source of profit that 
is worthy of attention, that of specialis 
ing to supply milk from special cows 
for the feeding of infants; for this pur- 
pose the milk can be supplied in special 
sealed bottles for 20 cents per bottle. 
For the successful working of this or 
any enterprise no source of profit ever 
so small must be thought too much 
trouble or not worthy of attention. 
The questionjof risk is a very important 


- one for the capitalist who embarks his 


money. The land-will not depreciate in 
value but will rather increase with the 
improvements, etc. The imported cows © 
(as they must be imported from Austra- 
lia) will stand the climate, especially if 
they are secured from’ semi-tropical 
regions ; we know that the Australian 
horses and the dairy cattle now in the 
Island are doing well. There is an 
unlimited market in Colombo for pure 
milk, especially at the price of 15 cents 
per bottle. The food can be easily grown 
if the manager understands his work. 
Cattle diseases—there should be no 
risk from any infectious diseases if the 
farm is scientifically managed, as danger 
from this source is generally due to bad, 
careless and unskilled management. 


How IS THE FARM TO BE WORKED. 


The allimportant question—as an accu- 
mulation of the best cows, the best land, 
the best utensils and implements, ete., 
will not produce the supply of lactic fluid 
that will be necessary to make the farm 
pay—is the management of the Farm: 
it must be properly worked by a capable 
man. It must be remembered that dairy 
farming isa science that requires deep 
study and plenty of experience—on the 
choice of the man who isto manage the 
farm entirely depends the success or 
failure of the undertaking. The people of 
Ceylon have not yet reached that point 
of understanding that Agriculture and 
planting industries require the services 
of qualified experienced men to get the 


JunR, 1909. } 5 


best results. No man will dream of 
sending a clerk to take charge and work 
an engineering establishment, but at the 
same time he won’t think twice of send- 
ing the same clerk to manage a dairy 
farm, for he will argue—what is there to 
be done—its an easy life—only to see 
that che cows are milked, and to grow 
some grass for them and to see that the 
coolies give them food, and to get on to 
his lounger and smoke and read novels! 
That is all no doubt the clerk is capable 
of doing, but let us see what the duties 
are of the manager and what sort of an 
education and experience is necessary. 
“To see that the cows are properly 
milked,” the manager must be a properly 
trained and able milk man. (I wonder 
how many of those that are in charge 
of the present existing dairies know how 
to milk a cow or have ever tried.) To 
give the reason for this I cannot do better 
than quote from my notes on lectures on 
dairying that I received at the Aus- 
tralian Agricultural College I attended. 
Milking :—Itis of the greatest impor- 
tance that the introduction of bacteria 
into the milk should be prevented, and 
therefore the utmost cleanliness from 
the time the milker starts his work until 
the finish is absolutely essential if the 
best results are to be obtained. Before 
milking the hands should be thoroughly 
washed, also the cow’s belly, teats and 
udder if they are dirty ;in any case the 
dust should be brushed off them betore 
milking, orsome of it, with the always 
present bacteria, wil) be shaken off into 
the milk. The finger nails should be 
kept cut, and on no account should the 
hands be wetted by first milking into 
them—itisa dirty and useless habit. 
The cow-yard should be kept clean, it 
should not be cleaned just before milk- 
ing; or bacteria will find their way into 
the milk, to develop init flavours which 
may not be at all desirable. Milk should 
for this reason be taken from the cow- 
yard immediately. The teats diagonally 
opposite each other should be milked 
together, and not the teats on each side, 
as the former method increases the 
quantity of milk. The milking should 
be fairly fast as this increases the 
secretion, whereas slow milking reduces 
the quantity. The cow should be well 
stripped, as the last striplings are rich 
in fat; if any milk is left it is harmful to 
the supply. If the teats are sore, they 
should be handled with care, and after 
milking should be dressed with vaseline, 
ete., ete., ete.” A good milkman is able 
to milk ten average cows per hour. 


And to grow the grass for them? It 
is not such an easy matter as the indi- 
vidual who employed the clerk as 
manager thinks it is, The manager must 


Live Stock, 


understand the science and practice of 
preparing land and sowing the seed to 
procure a sufficient supply of grass or 
green fodder, or both, to feed forty-eight 
head of cows, bulls, and horses and also 
anumber of calves; he must know the 
number of tons of green fodder neces- 
sary, and how many acres will have to 
be cultivated to grow that number of 
tons. He must know to make the all- 
important ersilage, and the number of 
tons of ensilage necessary for feeding 
the cows during the dry months, and 
the number of acres that must be culti- 
vated to grow that number of tons of 
silage. No guess work will answer, as on 
the quality and quantity of the _ best- 
food depends the supply of milk. The 
manager must understand the science 
of feeding cows, as on it to a large 
extent depends the success of the under- 
taking, He must have some knowledge 
of veterinary science, as it would be out 
of the question and absurd to eall in a 
veterinary surgeon except in the case of 
any serious disorders. In fact, the 
manager must bea qualified and expe- 
rienced agriculturist and dairy farmer, 
if the dairy farm is to be a success. 


THe LAND.—The eighty acres of land 
that I estimated for must be procured out 
of Colombo but within a reasonable dis- 
tance of the city, t.e., within five to 
eight miles—the land must be carefully 
chosen as for situation, soil, and a plen- 
tiful and good supply of water. The 
entire eighty acres must be cleared, the 
stumps extracted, and fenced with a 
plain wire fence, passing the wires 
through holes bored in the posts, one 
barbed wire being nailed right on the 
top of the posts to prevent any jumping, 
it must be again sub-divided into four 
paddocks by means of more wire fencing, 
so that each paddock will be 20 acres in 
extent. 


TATA SERICULTURE 
BANGALORE, 


FARM AT 


By J. MOLLISON, M.R.A.C,, 
Inspector General of Agriculture in India 


—_—_— __ 


(From _ the Agricultural Journal of 


India, Vol. IV., Pt. I., January, 1909.) 


The late Mr. J. N. Tata established at 
Bangalore a small Sericulture Farm 
about 1898. It was started to help native 
rearers to control such diseases as affect 
silk-worms in India, and generally to 
give technical instruction in growing 
suitable kinds of mulberries, in rearing 


Live Stock. 


silk-worms, in reeling silk and preparing 
it for market. The little farm has 
answered these purposes admirably. 


Mr. Tata was familiar with Japanese 
methods. He considered them well suit- 
ed to India. He got for the supervision 
of his farm one Japanese Expert of the 
artisan class and another who knew 
sufficient English to act as interpreter. 


The fittings and reeling machinery for 
this small factory were mostly imported 
trom Japan. They are simple, durable, 
inexpensive and efficient. They were 
put up by the Japanese Artisan Expert 

elped by an Indian mistri and coolies. 
The Japanese Expert and his wife trained 
native girls of 10 to 14 years of age 
to do the reeling. I have repeatedly 
seen these girls at this work. The work 
was excellently done. 


I compare in the accompanying tabu- 
lated statement this work as done bya 
fieldman of my office after three months’ 
training at Bangalore, and the work 
done by the most expert reeler in the 
factory—a young girl. 


ay, GH 
i 3. | Be | Og & 
One a wo ‘a5 i apin} 
44 iaes :| Sip! 4] sen 
ml | oat pe vo 
REELER. rs) g | g g 8 i g 9 os 
ae len iat oH o5 2 
= a8 ees tape 
iaetecsl st eMedia cht gee 
H. .M.|H. M 
Girl vee wee | 1,500 | Bi (On| e2ae434 Nil 
Fieldman_ ... «| 1,500 | 13: 3013. 0 26 
i} 
‘3 DANIERS TO TEST SILK) if 
Se = ™ ° 
bo N ra fj 
1 2. a |. : B ee 
REELER; ete |e eae toe & 3 me 
& pe 4 oc 3 v = 
om —= v0 | wy O ty ~ os 
it) ALD) “oO oO aD repo; 
oO TH rs uw ix os 5 
pa = < S a 
= i‘ Ozs Ozs. 
P 14 13) WWt3 UB eh) bas pi 
Girl a ee 14 | 143] 14--16 {1-54 | 3-40 
. 16 T7816) 16--33 } uae = 
Fieldman | 16} com 15:1 16-06 1-86 | 2—89 


The motive power for reeling and re- 
reeling by 12 operators was done easily 
by a woman slowly working a wooden 
lever, and this power could have easily 
done much more work. The 12 girls 
could, ina day, reel and re-reel about 
2 lbs. silk, which was worthat the time 
of my last visit 17s. 6d. per pound in 
England. The value of the refuse silk 
was a considerable additional item of 
income, but was not estimated. 


The work of mulberry cultivation, 
rearing silk-worms, improving varieties 
of silk-worms by cross-breeding, detect- 
ing diseases by means of the microscope, 
preserving cocoons for seed and for 


558 ate [Junn, 1909. _ 


hanking, pressing and packiug the silk 
for market, was thoroughly done. Ap- 
prentices were taken in free for instruc- 
tion. A three months’ course was re- 
quired for this purpose. 


Bush mulberries only were grown. 
The rainfall, average temperature and 
soil at Bangalore and generally through- 
out the Mysore plateau, appear to be 
well suited for the cultivation of bush 
mulberries. Those grown were three 
grafted Japanese varieties, one Italian 
variety and four others, probably 
Indian. The Japanese varieties cannot 
be propagated from cuttings; the others 
can, Plants of the Japanese varieties 
and cuttings of the other varieties can, 
I understand, be supplied to those in- 
terested in sericulture. 


The soil of the garden isa good deep 
dark red loam. Cuttings are first put in 
a nursery, and when they have rooted, 
are planted out 5 to 6 feet apart in 
each direction. In order to maintain a 
succession of young leaves throughout 
the year, the various plots are pruned 
in regular succession and irrigation 
given when required. Crude sewage 
and night-soil are used as manure with 
excellent results. 


Young leaves are required for the . 


larvee when newly hatched. If there is 
a fullsupply of these and of more mature 
leaves when the worms are larger, six 
or seven broods are reared in 12 months, 


Disease prevails extensively in Mysore. 
The following results were obtained 
from seed cocvons obtained locally :— 


(1) 615 moths laid eggs. 


(2) 114 of these moths were diseased as 
determined by miscroscopical ex- 
amination; therefore the eggs 
were destroyed. 


(8) The larvee from 501 batches of eggs 
hatched out. 


(4) These silk-worms ate 38,566 lbs. of 
green leaves. , 


(5) The leaves were obtained from 2°41 | 


acres of bush mulberry in full 
vigour of growth. 


(6) 270 lbs, of cocoons were obtained. 


At Bangalore, bush mulberry plan 
tations get worn out even with care 
ful pruning and cultivation in a few 
years. Young plantations to replace old 
should, therefoie, be formed from time 
to time. Rotaticn is desirable, A ten- 
acre area should prckably have 5 acres 
under plantaticns establis] cd for thice 
or four ycais cr liga, 61d 5 -@es 
urdera ruisey. ycourg pli ntaticus ard 


JUNE, 1909.] 


other crops. The whole should yield 
leaves sufficient for 6 or 7 broods in a 
year, each as large as that referred to 
above or larger. 


‘Mr. Tata’s Expert recomiuends that 
the rearing house should be separate 
and at a distance from the buildings re- 
quired for storing cocoons and reeling 
with the object of avoiding the risk of 
communicating diseases. The rearing 
building should be constructed so that 
light and ventilation are fully secured ; 
a thatched roof and a verandah being 
desirable to keep the day and night 
temperatures fairly equable. 

Expensive construction is unnecessary. 
A mud floor does very well. There should 
be a plinth and, exclusive of verandah, 
a building 20ft. by 16 ft. is sufficient. 
The height to eaves should bel0 ft. The 
north verandah should be about 10 ft. 
wide and enclosed to form a room, If 
well lighted, the moths, as soon as they 
have laid their eggs, should be examined 
for disease under the microscope in this 
room, which should have no direct con- 
nection with the rearing house. The 
healthy eggs only should be kept. 


In the rearing house there should be 
three wooden stands each 5 feet high, 
3 feet wide, each with three shelves, the 
lowest shelf should be 18 inches from the 
floor, These stands should be so placed 
that there is easy access to each. They 
are required to support the trays in 
which the silk-worms are fed. A brood 
from 600 batches of eggs can be ac- 
commodated in one tray when first 
hatched out, but requires about 150 trays 
when fully grown. 


The detailed cost of the fittings of the 
rearing house is :— 
Rs. As. 
1, Three racks constructed of wooden 
frame and split bamboo shelves 30 0 
2. One rack for storing trays, etc. 
(not in use) ise ays 
3, One table and plank of wood on 
which the leaves are cut, with 
a long knife a8 eee Oy 20) 
. Sharpening stone... et ae 
. A set of four sieves each with 
different size of mesh for sift- 
ing chopped leaves Tae: we 0 
. 160 skeleton bamboo trays, 34’ x 
24’, at 4 annas each... ss 
. 160 mats, at 4 annas each ; 
. 160 nets, + inch mesh at 3 annas 
each 5a SOO 
. Four wooden stands for trays at 
time of feeding... ag eee O 
10, 24 cocoon spinning screens (chan- 
drikeis) ay ee Dt Fe) 
11, One Dissecting Microscope, Zeiss 122 0 
12, Table and almirah in verandah 
room nae eos np zcoe aU 


10 0 


oe 


Oo mI ' Oo 


Total Rs. 340 0 


559 


Live Stock, 


The reeling factory should be 90 ft, by 
20 ft., and contain (a) an office 20ft. by 
10ft., in which the records should be 
kept, also in which cocoons for seed and 
bailed silk should be kept; (6) a room 
20ft. by 10ft. for drying, cleaning and 
storing cocoons; (c) a verandah 20 ft. by 
10 ft., common to (a) and (b), can be used 
for drying cocoons in wet weather ; (d) a 
room for reeling, ete., 40 ft. by 20ft., 
partially partitioned longitudinally in 
the middle. On the oneside of the parti- 
tion the basins and reels should be 
ranged longitudinally ; on the other side, 
the silk should be tested and re-reeled 
at one end, and hanked and pressed into 
bales at the other end; and (e) a boiler 
house 20ft. by 20ft., with an arrange- 
ment for steaming cocoons to kill the 
pupe. The hand-motive-power should 
be worked in the boiler house and also 
one blacksmith and carpentry work 
done. 


The whole building should be con- 
structed on a plinth with brick walls, 
10 ft. high to eaves, with tiled roof. 
The reeling room should have a paved 
floor and arrangements for drainage, : 
Mud floors are suitable for the other 
rooms. 


The office will require ordinary furnish- 
ings with a vermin proof cupboard for 
storing seed cocoons. The furnishings 
are estimated to cost Rs. 50. The store 
for cocoons should have a large central 
rack or stand on which in three tiers the 
cocoons can be stored— 


Estimated cost of rack are 50 60 
The fittings of the reeling apartment 
at Bangalore cost tor 10 reelers as 


under :— 

Rs, As 

10 Boiling basins ay en t3 
10 Reeling basins Bal 20/210 
10 Water cups _... es (0) 

1 Reelirg table, 20’ x 24 x 4 ip SURO 

10 Brass water taps su coer ed.) 
10 Steam regulators with couplings 63 0 

2 Brass bill corks BAciv igor 0) 


eon 3) 
10 Reeling machines on platforms 
with 80 reels 843 


: U 
4 Reeling machines and 16 reels 
Apparatus for baling and testing 
Silkerae tte ont prt 40,0) =) 
Small appliances ... bee a AO) 
Packing and freight charges from 
Japan Ae ee >. 200 0 
Rs. 1,481 8 
A Cornish boiler, 7? x 24, with fire 
box fittings and chimney and 
freight charges from Madras ... 1,265 0 
Erection of boiler and setting up 
machinery in working order with 
carpenter’s and _ blacksmith’s 
tools, etc., for repairs «. 645 10 


Rs. 1,910 0 


Live Stock. 


I do not know the actual cost of the 
Bangalore buildings. They were simple 
and inexpensive. 


The recurring expenses for cultivation 
should not exceed Rs. 50 per acre per 
annum and probably will cost less. ~ 


Mr. Tata paid his Japanese Expert 
Rs. 150 per month at first; now he is 
also given, I understand, a commission 
on results. 


INDIAN WILD-FOWL. 


Tu INDIAN DucKS AND THEIR ALLIES. 


By EK. C. Stuart BAKER. 


(Review from Nature, January, 1909.) 


The enormous flocks in which many 
members of the duck tribe visit the 
plains of India during the cold season, 
coupled with the relatively large num- 
ber of species by which the group is 
there represented, affords ample justi- 
fication for the issue of this handsome 
and superbly illustrated volume. For 
the swarms of ducks, geese, swans, and 
mergansers naturally attract the atten- 
tion of a host of sportsmen, many of 
whom are anxious to identify the species 
of the birds which go to form their bag, 
and ascertain something about their 
natural history. « Neither is the book of 
less importance to the ornithologist— 
either professional or amateur—for Mr. 
Stuart Baker has much new matter to 
record concerning many of the species 
passed under view, while the thirty 
coloured plates—reproduced from sket- 
ches by Messrs. Cronvold, Lodge, and 
Keulemans—have a distinct scientific 
value of their own, altogether apart 
from their beauty as works of art. 


The origin of the book dates from 1896, 
when the author was asked to communi- 
cate a series of illustrated articles on 
Indian ducks to the Journal of the 
Bombay Natural History Society which 
should incorporate the numerous notes 
on the group published in the Indian 
scientific journals and sporting papers 
since the issue of Hume and Marshall’s 
well-known ‘“Game-birds of India.” 
These articles were commenced in the 
eleventh volume of the aforesaid serial, 
and the work now before us is a reprint 
of the series with such additions and 
emendations as were necessary to bring 
them up to date. 


560 


[Junn, 1909, 


Apart from the flamingoes, which are 
brigaded with the ducks under the 
general title of ‘‘Chenomorphe,” the 
author recognises no fewer than forty- 
three representatives of the group as 
visiting or permanently residing in India. 
He is, however, somewhat of a‘‘split- 
ter,” and certain of his species, asin the 
goose-section, would very probably be 
relegated to a lower grade by many 
naturalists. We are also ‘inclined to 
disagree with his views as to the multi- 
plication of generic groups. The divi- 
sion of the flamingoes into two genera, 
and likewise the splitting of the brent- 
geese into Rufibrenta and Branta, are 
examples of what appears to us totally 
unnecessary complication in this matter. 
The author has, however, taken Count 
Salvadore’s British Museum catalogue 
of the group as his guide, and he has 
adhered religiously to the classification 
therein adopted. We confess to a feel- 
ing that it would have been better to 
follow the late Dr. Blanford’s volume 
in the ‘Fauna of British India,” 
whereby greater simplicity would have 
been secured and at the same time 
some advance made towards uniformity 
in the names of Indian animals. In this 
connection we may note the urgent need 
of a proper table of contents at the com- 
mencement of the volume, the one which . 
does duty therefor being too absurd for 
words, two out of its half-dozen items 
being ‘‘ title-page” and ‘‘ contents,” while 
a third is “ Indian Ducks.” 


For a book which must be largely 
patronized by sportsmen (ifit is to make 
a profit), we also venture to think that 
too many technical terms, or definitions, 
are introduced without any sort of 
explanation. What, for instance, will 
the sportsman (or, for that matter, the 
amateur naturalist) make of the bald 
statement that the Chenomorphx are 
characterised by having the ‘palate 
desmognathous,” or what will he under- 
stand by the ‘‘neotropical region”? If 
such expressions are used at all, they 
ought to be adequately explained, but in 
our opinionthey are altogether out of 
place in a work of this nature, the pro- 
fessional naturalist does not want them, 
and the amateur and the sportsman do 
not understand them. In the place of 
the former a statement to the effect 
that the palate in the dry skull is of the 
closed or bridged type, and that the 
difference between the bridged and the 
open or slit type may be realised by 
comparing the skull of a duck with that 
of a fowl, would have been much more 
to the point, while as regards the latter 
it would have been infinitely better to 
use the ordinary names, South and 


Central America, in place of neotropical — 


region, 


= 


fk aioidhge cides, i iaad in? an, veil a amine cael 
’ i 


_ JUNE, 1909.) 


With these exceptions—if it be added 
that the author has an extremely old- 
fashioned: and obsolete way of spelling 
Indian place-names—we have nothing 
but commendation for the volume before 
us, the species being clearly and care- 
fully described, with full and _ well- 
written notices of their distribution and 
habits. As Mr. Baker observes, the 
collection and collation of a vast amount 


561 


Inve Stock, 


of seattered information concerning the 
Indian Anatids 1enders it from the 
first possible to know the extent of our 
information on the subject, and to 
realise what gaps require filling up. 
The book should be in the library of 
every Indian sportsman, by whom it 
should be taken into camp in each 
winter’s sporting trip. a 


SCIENTIFIC AGRICULTURE. 


THE CONSERVATION OF SOIL 
MOISTURE AND ECONOMY IN 


THE USE OF IRRIGATION 
WATER. 


By EH. W,. HILGARD AND R. H. 
LOUGHBRIDGE. 
(From the University of California 
Agricultural Hauperiment Station 
Bulletin 121.) 


(Continued from pp. 456,) 


Basin Irrigation.—It will be noticed 
that this principle is practically the 
same as that of the basin irrigation of 
orchards, which was originally largely 
practised in California, but has now 
been mostly abandoned for furrow irri- 
gation. The latter has been almost 
universally adopted, partly because it 
requires a great deal less hand-labour, 
partly under the impression that the 
whole of the soil of the orchard is thus 
most thoroughly utilized; partly also 
because of the injuriovs effect upon 
trees produced at times by basin irri- 
gation. 


The explanation of such injurious 
effects is, essentially, that cold irrigation 
water depresses too much the temper- 
ature of the earth immediately around 
the roots, and thus hinders active vege- 
tation to an injurious extent, sometimes 
so as to bring about the dropping of the 
fruit. This, of course, is a very serious 


- objection, to obviate which it might be 


necessary to reservoir the water so as to 
allow it to warm before being applied to 
the trees. In furrow irrigation the 
amount of soil soaked with the water 
is so great that the latter is soon effec- 
tually warmed up, besides not coming 
in contact too intimately with the main 
roots of the tree, along which the water 
soaks very readily when applied to the 
trunk, thus affecting their temperature 
much more directly, Itis for the fruit- 
-grower to determine which consider- 
ation should prevailin a given case. 


71 


the water-supply be scant and warm, 
the most effectual use that can be made 
of it is toapply it immediately around 
the trunk of the tree, in a_ circular 
trench dug for the purpose. When, on 
the contrary, irrigation water is abun- 
dant and its temperature low, it. will be 
preferable to practise turrow irrigation, 
or pessibly even flooding. As to the 
more complete use of the soil under the 
latter two methods, it must be remem- 
bered that while this is the case in a 
horizontal direction, yet unless irriga- 
tion is practised rather sparingly under 
the furrow system, it may easily happen 
that the gain made horizontally is more 
than offset by a corresponding loss in 
the vertical penetration of the root-sys- 
tem. This is amply apparent in some of 
the irrigated orange groves of Southern 
California, where the fine roots of 
the trees fill the surface soil as do the 
roots of maize in a corn field of the 
Mississippi States ; so that the plough can 
hardly be run without turning them up 
and under. In these same orchards it 
will be observed, in digging down, that 
at a depth of afew feet the soil is too 
water-soaked to permit of the proper 
exercise of the root functions, and that 
the roots existing there are either in- 
active or diseased. ‘That in such cases 
abundant irrigation and abundant ferti- 
lization alone can maintain an orchard 
in bearing condition is a matter of 
course; and there can be no question 
that a great deal of the constant ery for 
the fertilization of orchards in the 
irrigated sections is due quite as much 
to the shallowness of rooting induced by 
over irrigation, as to any really neces- 
sary exhaustion of the land. When the 
roots are induced to come to and remain 
at the surface, within a surface layer 
of eighteen to twenty inches, it natur- 
ally becomes necessary to feed these 
roots abundantly, both with moisture 
and with plant food. This has natur- 
ally led to an over-estimate of the 
requirements of the trees in both 
respects. Had deep rooting been en- 
couraged at first, instead of over-stimu- 
lating the growth by surface fertiliza - 


Scientific Agriculture. 


tion and frequent irrigation, some delay 
ic bearing would ,have been amply 
compensated for by loss of current 
outlay for fertilizers, and less liability 
to injury from frequently unavoidable 
delay, or from inadequacy of irrigation. 


Conservation of Soil Moisture. —Along- 
side of economy in the use of irrigation 
water, the conservation of the moisture 
imparted to the soil either by rains or 
irrigation ismost important; critically 
so where irrigation is unavailable. 

Utilization of Winter Rains and 
Winter Irrigation.—However strong is 
the popular demand for storage of the 
winter rainfall and flood waters, too 
many do not appreciate the importance 
of the storage they can command with- 
out the use of reservoirs within their 
own soil mass. While there is a well- 
grounded objection to subjecting plough- 
ed land to the leaching action of the 
abundant raius in the humid region, no 
such objections hold in the case of 
lands lying within the limits of 20 to 
25 inches of annual rainfall. Here the 
absorption of the winter rains should be 
favoured to the utmost, for the run-off 
is mostly a dead loss. Fall ploughing 
wherever the land is not naturally 
adequately absorbent, and is not there- 
by rendered liable to washing away, isa 
very effectual mode of utilizing the 
winter’s moisture to the utmost, so as to 
bring about the junction of the season’s 
moisture with that of the previous 
season, which is generally considered as 
being a condition precedent for crop 
production in dry years. The same of 
course holds true of winter irrigation; 
the frequent omission of which in 
presence of a plentiful water supply at 
that season isa prolific cause of avoid- 
able crop failures. Moistening the ground 
to a considerable depth by winter irri- 
gation is a very effective mode of pro- 
moting deep rooting, and will thus stand 


in lieu of later irrigations, which being’ 


more scant, tend to keep the roots near 
the surface. 


Knowledge of the Subsoil._It caunot 
be too strongly insisted upon that in 
our arid climate farmers should make 
themselves most thoroughly acquainted 
with their subsoil down the depth of 
at least four, but preferably six or 
eight feet, This knowledge, import- 
ant enough in the Hast, is doubly 
so here, since all root functions are and 
must be carried on at much greater 
depths. It is hardly excusable that a 
business man calling himself a farmer 
should omit the most elementary pre- 
caution of examining his subsoil before 
planting orchard or vineyard, and 
should at the end of five years find his 
trees a dead loss in consequence of an 


562 


unsuitable subsoil. Similarly, no irri- 
gator should be ignorant of the time 
or amount of water it takes to wet 
his soil to a certain depth. We have 
lately seen a whole community suffering 
from the visible decline of thift of its 
fruit trees, which occurred despite what 
was considered abundant irrigation; 
a.e., allowing the water to run for a 
given length of time, deemed to be suffi- 
cient. Yet on being called in to investi- 
gate the causes of the trouble, the 
station staff found that the irrigation 
water had failed to penetrate during 
the allotted time to any beneficial 
extent, so that the trees were, in the 
main, suffering from lack of wmois- 
ture—a fact that could have been 
verified by any one of the owners con- 
cerned, by simply boring or digging a 
hols or two. But no one had thought 
of doing so, and all kinds of myste- 
rious causes were conjectured to be at 
work in the suffering orchards. <A defi- 
nite knowledge of the rapidity with 
which irrigation water penetrates 
downward and sideways in his soil 
should form a part of the mental equip- 
ment of every irrigator, particularly 
in arranging his head ditches. For in 
sandy lands it may easily happen that 
when these are too far apart, the 


water near the head ditch is already: 


wasting into the country drainage at 
the depth of ten or twelve feet before 
any has reached theend of the furrows, 
or has wetted the lower half adequ- 
ately. Many such cases come under 
our observation, and such ignorance 
of the conditions governing one of the 
most important factors of success is 
hardly excusable in any one. Nor is the 
quality of the water used indifferent in 
this connection; for waters containing 
alkali will fail to penetrate thesoil as 
quickly as would ordiuacy steam waters. 


Preventing Hvaporation.—But suppos- 
ing the moisture to have reached the 
depths of the soil, whether from rains 
or from irrigation, it is essential that 
proper means be employed for retaining 
it in the land, and especially to pre- 
ventevaporation. Thatthis is best ac- 
complished by a mulch onthe surface, 
and that the best mulch for the purpose, 
which need not be hauled on or off and 
is always ready, is a surface layer of 
loose, well-tilled soil, is pretty well 
understood by all. 
which the presence or absence of such 
a non-evaporating layer influences plant 
growth and fruit production in a criti- 
cal time, is not so fully appreciated. In 
the present case the cultivation was 
omitted in principle by one owner, who 
considered cultivation superfluous on 
the loose, 


(June, 1909, 


generous soil on Alameda — 


= 


ee 


‘ 
3 

q 
. 
; 


But the extent to 


Junn, 1909.) 563 


ereek; while his neighbour, across the 
way, held the opposite belief, and had 
this season cultivated to an extra depth 
to conserve moisture. The determin- 
ation of the moisture held by the soil 
in July to the depth of six feet gave 
the following results :— 


Cutivated. Uncultivated. 
Depth in Soil. Per Tonsper Per Tons per 
; cent. Acre. cent, Acre. 
First Foot . 64 128 4°3 86 


Second Foot 5'8 116 44 
Third Foot 164 128 3°9 
Fourth Foot ...6'5 130 51 102 
Fifth Foot 67 134 3°4 
Sixth Foot 6‘0 120 4°5 


Total for 6 feet. 63 756 4°2 512 


The difference of 244 tons per acre of 
ground shown by the analyses is quite 
sufficient, according to the data given 
at the beginning of this bulletin, to 
account for the observed difference in 
the cultural result. The causeeof this 
difference was that in the uncultivated 
field there wasa compacted surface layer 
several inches in thickness, which forci- 
bly abstracted the moisture from the 
substrata and evaporated it from its 


‘surface; while the loose surface soil on 


the cultivated ground was unable to 
take any moisture from the denser sub- 
soil, This «is well illustrated by the 
familiar fact that while a dry brick 
will suck a wet sponge dry, a dry sponge 
(corresponding to the loose surface soil) 
is unable to take any water from wet 
brick. Besides, the tilled surface soil 
forms a non-conducting layer protecting 
the subsoil from the sun’s heat and the 
dryness of the air. 


In the East, where the principle is well 
understood, it is considered that a sur- 
face layer three inches in thickness is 
sufficient to afford effective protection. 
But what is adequate in the region of 
summer rains is quite insufficient in 
California and in the arid region gener- 
ally. It takes fully twice the thickness 
mentioned, and perferably more, to 
afford protection against the drought 
and heat lasting five or six months ata 
stretch. Here, again, we find an im- 
portant point in which our practice 
must differ from that of the East and of 


the Old World. 


The beneficial effects of summer fallow 
in California are assuredly due quite as 
much to the conservation of moisture 
brought about by the tilled surface 
layer, as by the weathering of the soil 
to which the efficacy of the fallow is 
commonly ascribed. Witness the fact 
that weeds come up freely on summer- 


Scientific Agriculture. 


fallow as late as August, when un- 
ploughed land is as bare as a barn floor. 


Similarly on our mostly new and un- 
exhausted lands, the bad effects of 
weed growth are doubtless due fully as 
much to the waste of moisture going on 
through their leaves as to the competi- 
tion with the crop in plant food. Hence 
all good orchardists are very careful 
about keeping their ground clean in 
summer; butit must not be forgotten 
that by doing so they quickly deplete 
their lands of vegetable matter, which 
requires systematic replacement if pro- 
duction is to continue normally. Yet of 
the two evils, the loss of moisture is 
more to be dreaded, and very generally 
in practice the more difficult to remedy. 


INCREASED YIELDS OBTAINABLE 
THROUGH ADDITIONAL CULTI- 
VATION OF THE SOIL. 


By R, W. THORNTON, 
Government Agriculturist. 


(From the Agricultural Journal of the 
Cape of Good Hope, January, 1909.) 


This simple experiment has been 
carried out for two years in succession. 
The increases gained from additional 
cultivation were so remarkable the first 
season that it was thought that perhaps 
the cause might be in the land itself, so 
the plots were reversed this year, and 
those that gave the heaviest returns last 
season, instead of being thoroughly 
worked and reduced to the best mechan- 
ical condition possible, only received the 
usual cultivation, and, true to last year’s 
experiment, gave the smallest yields, 
whereas those that gave the small yields 
last season under the usual methods of 
cultivation have this year given the 
maximum returns under increased culti- 
vation, This proves conclusively that 
the increase was not due to difference in 
the soil of the various plots, but to the 
increased cultivation. 


In India, where the peasants often 
find it difficult to obtain fertilisers and 
labour is cheap, they depend largely on 
obtaining good crops by increased culti- 
vation, and will frequently plough their 
land four or five times. The good results 
they obtain are amply borne out by the 
result shown by this experiment. 


Last season the experiment was carried 
out at the Robertson Experiment Sta- 
tion with oats on the following lines ;~ 


Scientific Agriculture. 


The land was uniformly dressed with 
a complete fertiliser. Each plot receiv- 
ed the same quantity of water, including 
rainfall. After ploughing a cultivator 
was run over the land and the seed sown 
with the Superior Seed Drill, and the 
experimental area was then finally 
rolled. Each successive plot, however, 
received one more ploughing than the 
previous one, and the yields: are in 
steadily ascending order. Taking the 
cost of each ploughing after the first at 
6s. per acre and forage at 2s. 6d. per 100 
lbs., we have the following returns :— 


The actual harvest was very light and 
quite below normal, but this was entirely 
due te the ravages of the ladybirds, 
but as all the plots were affected in a 
like degree, the results obtained were 
none the less accurate. 


n a : vat M 

en 3 ntegtie S © 

z 4 ig ae ue aiees oF pear 

ys Me enemas ener era 
Pees ek Bes iseee. 88 
Ay => of oo bal Ae 5 a5, 

om ho Bam 62 x 

2 Sp SEO oe ge 

5 fm bon n 2a 

o = ° } 

Z = 15} D (e) 
1 one 750 -- — — 
Baeetwo 1,000 - “6/3: O)jzs> 2 Bde 
3 three 1,580 28/3 12/- 16/3 
4 four 3,800 76/8 18/- — 58/3 


This year the experiments were carried 
out with Wheat and Barley. The final 
ploughing and working of the land was 
commenced on the 15th July, 1908, and 
completed on the 16th July, 1908. The 
seed was sown with the Superior Drill, 
viz :— 


Wheat at the rate of 60 lbs. per acre. 
Barley do 30 do 


The normal dressing ot 200 lbs, of 
complete fertiliser per acre was applied 
to the whole area. lLadybirds were 
again very troublesome, damaging the 
barley: to a great extent, but as the crop 
was affected in like degree throughout, 
this did not interfere with the experi- 
ment, except that the yields throughout 
were far below normal :— 


564 - 


BARLEY. p 
» 5 ew 4 
a. A meso em 5 
A gi § 2382 2223 
c=) No. of ae Stee Sas & 
a Cultivations, Su @ eas ssa 
2° $ g8- eeu 
A bss OS 
1 Ploughed 
Cultivated} Once .. 1,035 490 — _— 
Harrowed 
2 Ploughed once 
Cultivated twice 1,505 6385 9/- Je 2yj- 
Harrowed once 
3 Ploughed once 
Cultivated 3 times 2,125 890 25/- 8/- 17/ 
Harrowed once 
4 Ploughed once 
Cultivated 4 times 2,340 981 30/- 9/- 21] 
Harrowed once 
WHEAT, 
on 
Su 
e 
ine 
a 
op? 
< 
] Ploughed once 
Cultivated once 2,245 617 _— — 
Harrowed once 
2 Ploughed once | 
Cultivated twice 2,350 695 97/9 7/- 94d, 
Harrowed once 
3 Ploughed once 
Cultivated 3 tine 2,475 740.12/3 8/. 4/3 
Harrowed once 


4 Ploughed once 
Cultivated 4 times! 2,975 825 20/9 9/- 11/9 
Harrowed once : 


Here again the cost of the first plough- 
ing was taken at 6s. per acre and the 
cost of each additional cultivation at 1s., 
and, as can be seen by the table, a fair 
profit was 1eceived for each additional 
cultivation. 


The cost of ploughing three or four 
times, such as was tried with the oat ex- 
periment of 1907, was found very costly, 
when by working the land with a culti- 
vator good results were obtained at one- 
sixth the cost, and, of course, the time 
saved by using the cultivator instead of 
the plough is enormous. 


565 


MISCELLANEOUS. 


LITERATURE OF ECONOMIC 
BOTANY AND AGRICULTURE. 


Cacao; Disease :— 

Lewton Brain, Fungoid diseases of 
eacao. Trin. Bull. Jan. 1906, p. 18. 

The Witchbroom disease in Surinam. 
Trop. Life, June 1906, p. 88, 

Cacao disease, Trin. Bull. July 1907, 
p. 245. ‘*T.A.” Mar. 1909, p. 257. 

Thrips on Cacao. Jam. Bull. 1908, 

8. 


Witchbroom disease of cacao. Journ. 
B. of Agr. Brit. Guiana, Jan, 1908, 


pr. 85. 
Thrips on cacao. W. Ind. Bull, 8, 
1907, p. 148. 


Fungus diseases of cacao, and sani- 
tation of cacao orchards. W. Ind. 
Dept. Agri. Pamphlet 54, 1908. 

Untersuchungen uber Krankheiten 
des Kakaos. von Faber in Arb, 
Kais. Biol. Aust. 1908. 

Holes in Cacao Trees. Trin. Bull. 
Oct. 1908, p. 29. 

Over schade en bestreiding van een 
bladretend-Kevertje aaa  jonge 
Cacaobladeren. Cultuurgids, 10, 
11, p. 148. 

Die “ Kriusel-treib” Krankheit des 
Kakaosin Surinam Tropenpflanzer, 
18, No. 2, Feb. 1909, p. 90. 

Cacao thrips. H. A. Ballow. ‘*T,A.” 
Jan. 1909, p. 55. 


Cacao: Harvesting, &c.— 

Lewton Brain. Wet cacao and dry 
cacao. Trin. Bull. Jan. 1906, p. 25. 

Les séchoins & cacao, au Camerun. 
Journ. d’Agr. trop. Dec. 1905, p. 358. 

Apropos de séchoirs & Cacao. do. 
Apr. 1906, p, 104. 

A cacao drying apparatus. ‘‘T.A.” 
April, 1906, p. 218. 

Fermentatie van cacao in verschil- 
lende productie-lander, Ind. Merce. 
Feb. 1907, p. 115, 

A demand for empty cacao pods. 
Trop. Life, July 1907, p. 106. 'T.A.” 
Nov. 1907, 357. 

How to get over the cacao drying 
difficulty. Trop, Life, Dec. 1907, 
p, 180, 

Yield of cacao in Trinidad. W. Ind, 
Bull. 1907, 141, ‘*T,A.” Feb. 1908, 


p, 123. 


Contributions to the knowledge of 
cacao fermentation. Trin. Bull. 
1908, p. 59, . 

Number of pods produced by trees 
onacacao estate. do. p, 67, *T.A.” 
Oct. 1908, p. 342. 

New cacao drier, Ag. News, 22. 2: 
1998. ‘*T.A.” June 1908, p. 586. 

Het fermenteeren van cacao. Ind. 
Mere. 2. 6. 1908, p. 406. 

Bejdragen tot de Kennis van het 
fermenteeren der cacao. Bull. 10, 
Insp. v. d. Laudh, W. I. 1908. 

Het waschverlies bij de cacao. do. 

Contributions to the knowledge of 
cacao-fermentation, Trin. Bull, 

_ Apr. 1908. “'T.A.” Oct. 1908, p. 340. 

The fermentation of cacao. Ph. Agr. 
Review, Sept. 1908, p. 351. 

Fermentation of cacao. ‘T.A.” Dec, 
1908, p. 5381. 

Zur Kakao fermentation Tropen- 
pflanzer, 13. 2. Feb. 1909, p. 87. 

The fermentation of cacao. Oscar 
Loew, ‘‘T,A.” Dee. 1908, pp. 584, con- . 
tinued, Jan. 1909, .p. 35, 


Calabash,— 
Calabash pipes. 
Nov. 1908, p. 244. 
La gourde ou_Calebasse. Journ.. 
d’ Agric. trop., Feb. 1909, p. 62. 
Calathea,.— 
Hart in ‘‘T.A.” May 1906, p. 349. 


Calophyllum.— 


Tropische Nutzholzer II. Calophyl- 
lum Inophyllum. Der Pflanzer, 30. 
6. 1906, p. 161. 


Calotropis.— 
Madar. Kew Bull. 1900, 


Madar, a fibre plant. 
1906, p. 42. 


Queensl. Agr. Jl. 


“TA.” July 


Calotropis as a fibre plant. ‘T.A.’ 
June 1906, p. 375. 
Camphor.— 
Production of camphor. W. Ind. 


Bull. 7. 1907, p. 185. 


Kampfer, seine synthetische Darstel- 
lang und pharmaceutische Verwen- 
dung, Pharm. Post, Wien, 1905, 
p. 399. Bot. Centr. 101, p. 271. 


Camphor cultivation. Chem, - and 
Drug, 18, 8, 1906, p. 308. 

The camphor industry. Trop. Life 
Apr: 1906, p. 57, Aug. 1906, p. 118. 


Miscellaneous. 


Camphor. R.B.G. Perad., Cire. I, 25. 

Le camphrier en Indochine. Journ. 
d’ Agric. trop. Apr. 1906, pp. 105. 

Kamfer-cultuur. Ind. Mere. 6. 11. 
1906, p. 749. 

Cultural directions for 
“T.A.” July 1906, p. 34. 

The crude camphor industry, “'T.A.” 
Feb. 1906, p. 82. 

The Ceylon camphor industry. 
Young. ‘‘T.A.” Dee. 1906, p. 475. 
Camphor oil. ‘‘T.A.” Feb. 1907, p. 62. 
Camphor in Japan. Chem. and 
Drug, 1. 6. 1907, p. 834. 
Les camphres de Tonkin. 

Indoch, 1907, p. 191. 


Camphor notes. Chem. and Drug* 
29. 6. 1907, p. 974. 
The camphor supply. Trop. Life, 
July 1907, p. 100. 
Camphor-growing in Florida. ‘““T.A.” 
Sept, 1907, p. 179. 
Camphor production in Formosa. 
Agr. News 13. 7. 1907, p. 217. 
*Camphor trees in Algeria. Chem. and 
Drug. July 1907, p. 148. 
The camphor industry. Haw. Fores- 
ter, July 1907, p. 210. 
Cheaper camphor. Chem. and Drug. 
21. 9. 1907, p. 4738. 
Le camphre de synthese. Journ. 
d’ Agric. trop. 31. 8, 1907, p. 227. 
Camphor oil. ‘‘T,A.” Oct. 1907, p. 253. 
L’huile de camphre. Journ. d’Agric-. 
trop. Oct. 1907, p. 295, 


camphor. 


Bull Ee. 


Synthetic camphor. ‘“ T.A.” Jan. 
1908, p- 9. 
Camphre naturel. Journ. d’Agric. 


trop. 30. 11. 1907, p. 335, 


Ueber verschiedene Versuche mit 
dem Anbau des Kampferbaumes. 
Der Pflanzer 18. 11. 1907, p. 317, 


Export of camphor seed from Japan. 
“TA.” Apr. 1908, p. 379. 


Thecamphor monopoly. Chem. and 
Drug. Feb. 1908. ‘T.A.” May 1908, 


p.. 42, 
Giglioli. La canfora italiana. Rome 
1908. 


The plantation camphor industry, 
““T.A,” Dec, 1907, p. 402. 


Japanese camphor. Chem. and Drug. 


April 1998, ‘“T.A.” June 1908, 
p. 523. 
Camphor, natural and synthetic. 


Houseman in Sci. Progress, July 
1908, abstract by J. C. Willis in 
“TA.” Sept. 1908, p. 212. 
Camphor oil. Schimmel’s_ report 
Apr. 1908. ‘T.A.” Aug. 1908, pp. 115, 


Camphor prospects. Trop. Life, Feb. 
1908. ‘T.A.” Oct. 1908, p. 318. 

Les vegetaux producteurs de cam- 
phre au Tonkin. Dubard. Bull. 
Jard. Col, Sept. 1908, p. 193. 

The future of the camphor trade. 
Gard. Chron. 17. 10. 1908, p. 280. 
“T. A.” Jan. 1909, p. 8. 

The possibilities of eamphor. Ind. 
Agric. Nov. 1908, p, 345. 

Natural and synthetic camphor. 
Nature 26. 11. 1908, p. 94. 

Synthetic camphor. Queens]. Agr. 
Jl. Dee. 1907, p. 824 

Camphor and its by-products. Trop. 


Life Dec. 1908, p. 180. “'T. A.” March 
1909, p. 215. 


La Culture du Camphrier aux 
Kstats Uries Journ, d’Agric. trop. 
Dec. 1908. 


Increasing camphor production. H. 
Pittier. ‘“‘T.A.” Feb. 1900, p. 122. 


Hssais de exploitation des cam- 
phriers italiens. Journ. d’Agr. trop. 
Feb. 1909, p. 60. 


AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE 
COIMBATORE. 


By C. J. W. SHEPPERSON, 
Principal of the Agricultural College, 
Coimbatore. 


(From the Madras Agricultural 
Calendar, 1909.) 


This College is situated in the village 
of Thelungapalaiyam, about three miles 
west of the town of Coimbatore. The 
estate consists of 450 acres of land, of 
which 50 acres are good single crop wet 
lands, of the remainder about 3800 acres 
are available for cultivation, the rest 
being occupied with buildings and the 
compounds attached thereto. The dry 
lands are of various kinds, about 126 
acres being black cotton soil of, how- 
ever, varying qualities. The red lands 
likewise vary from sandy to stiff clay 
loams. On the red lands there are ten 
wells which command most of the area, 
but there is a considerable area of unirri- 
gable land. It will be seen, therefore, 
that the lands are suitable for various 
crops and methods of cultivation. 


The institution is more or less divided 
into two sections, one devoted to the 
study of problems in Chemistry and 
Biology which arise in connection with 
Agriculture, and the other devoted to 
giving asound knowledge of the sciences 
upon which the Art of Agricultureis 


- 


es 


JUNE, 1909.] 


based, and of the principles which 
should govern any attempts to improve 
indigenous methods. Provision is made 
for the entry every year of twenty stu- 
dents, thus, usually, the students will be 
divided into three classes according to 
their year. 

The main building contains the neces- 
sary accommodation for the work of 
the Government Botanist and Agricul- 
tural Chemist, as well as class-rooms and 
laboratories for the instruction of the 
studentsin Chemistry, Biology, Physics, 
Agricultural Engineering, and _ the 
principles of Agriculture together with 
a library and reading-room for their use. 


The students will undergo instruction 
not only theoretical but also prac- 
tical in all the subjects of the course 
which includes a certain amount of 
Veterinary science sufficient for the 
treatment of ordinary cattle ailments. 
In Agriculture they will take part in all 
the ordinary farm operations such as 
ploughing, sowing, weeding, ete., and 
in their second and third years will 
each cultivate a plot of land themselves. 
It must be borne in mind, however, 
that agricultural practice is very 
largely determined by climatic condi- 
tions, therefore the practical agricul- 
ture followed will be that suited to 
Coimbatore, and operations carried 
out ina certain way at Coimbatore 
may require a considerable modifica- 
tion if introduced into another district. 
The object of the introduction given in 
the college is to enable men who 
have profited by it, to so modify their 
practices as to suit the conditions 
of any region to which they may go; in 
short, it should enable them to think 
out their own particular difficulties. 
The character of the soil again deter- 
mines very largely thekinds of imple- 


- ment which can be advantageously used, 


and during their course at the college 
students will have the opportunity of 
working, and of seeing worked, various 
implements designed to do certain work 
either more quickly or more efficiently 
than those in use at present, but they 
will not be expected to believe. that 
because an implement is either a success 
or a failure here, it must necessarily 
be soon their own lands; they must 
be prepared to make the experiments 
themselves if they see it is likely to 
succeed, and they should be enabled to 
suggest and put into practice modifica- 
tions which will render the implement 
suitable to their own conditions in case 
it is a failure. 


The college session begins on or about 
June 7th and ends on March 3lst. There 
are three terms ending respectively on 


567 


® 


Miscellaneous. 


or about September 30th (Dasara) ; 
December 20th (Christmas); and March 
3lst. At present no fees are charged, 
but students provide their own board 
and cook. There are hostels attached 
to the college for the accommodation 
of students, arranged in blocks of six, 
each block having a separate kitchen and 
dinning-room, thus, ‘students of differ- 
ent castes can be provided for. It will 
be found most economical for all the 
students of any one caste to join to- 
gether and have acook incommon. The 
cost of living will, of course, vary with 
the different tastes of different students 
and with the price of food-grains ; it may, 
however, be taken as being about Rs. 10 
per month for vegetarians, An Athletic 
Club is attached to the college to which 
all students must belong. The sub- 
scription has been fixed at the lowest 
possible, viz., 4 annas per month. A 
reading-room has also been started by 
the students themselves for the purchase 
of papers, etc., to which the subscrip- 
tion has been fixed by the members at 
4 annas per month. 


The question may arise: what is the 
use of attending the college, and what 
are the prospects of men who have 
passed through the course? To these 
questions it may be answered (1) as to 
prospects. Those who enquire about the 
prospects are, generally speaking, those 
who have not enough land themselves 
to enable them to make a sufficient 
living, and for such there are various 
Openings as managers of farms under 
zaminders and other large proprietors, 
and alarge farm like any other business 
always pays for good management. 
Several enquiries for men capable of 
managing such farms have been received 
at the college during the past year. 
As, however, the college is established 
for the benefit of Indian Agriculture, 
it is supposed that students will join in 
order to obtain knowledge to improve 
the yield of their own lands, and not 
merely in order to qualify for a post 
under Government ora zaminder. This 
leads to the answer to the other half of 
the question as tothe use of attending. 
In every large business, manufacturing 
or otherwise, there are usuaily two 
classes of men: the workers or labourers 
and the foremen or managers. The 
first of these classes is required to do 
the heavy and more or less mechanical 
work ; they arein many cases not requir- 
ed to be men of any_great mental capa- 
eity. The second class is composed of 
men who have brains and know how to 
use them for the benefit of the business, 
they guide the energies of the workers 
in the path which will lead to the best 
results, Itisthe latter class that wil 


Miscellaneous: 


gain most benefit in attending the 
Agricultural College, In too many 
instances an owner of a small area 
contents himself with letting his land to 
a cultivator, often of inferior mental 
capacity, and with receiving a share of 
the produce at harvest; whereas, if he 
used his superior brain power in direct- 
ing his labourers, he would very pro- 
bably obtain a larger return from the 
land. 


HEREDITY. 


By R. H. Lock. & 


The children of men are like their 
parents ;soare the children of animals 
and plants. The time is not so very 
remote when this was the sole definition 
which could be given to the term here- 
dity ;and information as tothe nature 
of this mysterious process was neither 
sought nor found. 


Simple as the above statement may 
seem, there is yet a valuable truth 
embodied in it. Our ancestors were 
endowed with powers of belief which 
enabled them to accept as true the 
most exaggerated assertions with regard 
to unlikeness between parents and their 
children. Among other remarkable 
manifestations of faith they believed 
that an animal might be the offspring 
of a plant or vice versa, as in the case of 
the celebrated barnacle goose. This 
was a tree described and illustrated by a 
famous savant of the Renaissance. The 
fruits of the tree were barnacles, and 
when ripe they opened and from eacha 
young bird emerged. The tree grew by 
the margin of the sea, greatly to the 
convenience of the geese, which fell 
immediately into the water and swam 
merrily away- 

Such a method of generation, if it 
were actually to occur, would offer a 
notable exception to the ordinary course 
of heredity. Every rule has its excep- 
tions, however, and it does not become 
an honestly inquiring mind to deny the 
possibility of even so remarkable an 
occurrence as the birth of the barnacle 
goose. Still anyone with a competent 
knowledge of the comparative structures 
of a goose, a tree, anda barnacle would 
require, like Huxley, considerable evi- 
dence before accepting the statement 
thata bird actually came into being 
in this way. The actual amount of 
evidence which would be required is a 
little difficult to estimate. No sane man 
would nowadays accept the evidence of 
his own eyes in sucha case; nor would 
the testimony of twelve good men and 
true approach the required standard of 
verification. 


568 


~ 


A universal belief, however exag- 
gerated, has very often some grain of 
truth concealed init, and.we may seek 
the kernel of these extraordinary stories 
in the fact that the children, whether of 
men or of plants, are never exactly like 
their parents. In some cases indeed 


they are very different, though usually 


partaking of the racialor specific type 
to which the parent belongs. 


The fact that a man has two separate 
parents who are not identical effectually 
disposes of any possibility of his exactly 
resembling both of them. He might 
indeed exactly resemble his father, but 
itis a matter of common experience 
that fathers and sons are always distin- 
guishable. Most people on the other 
hand show some points of resemblance 
to both their parents. A _ child may 
have its mother’s eyes, and may take 
after its father in the colour or texture 
of its hair, whilst its nose may be the 
very image of that to be seen in a family 
portrait of its great-grandfather. If we 
reflect upon the details of any particular 
case, -we shall very soon realise how 
great a number of separate points go to 
make up the complete hereditary endow- 
ment of the individual. 


When we thus remember the great 


number of separate features of resem- - 


blance to one parent or the other which 
may be exhibited in any particular case, 
we seeat once the great inconvenience 
of treating individual people as units in 
heredity. Butitisonly quite recently 
that anyone has ventured to adopt a 
different method. The new method 
consists in regarding the individual 
animal or plantas being builtup of a 
number of separate factors, comparable 


with the different kinds of stones with ~ 


which a house may be constructed. 
These factors correspond in a general 
way with the various features and 
characteristics of the creature, and they 
are inherited quite independently of 
one another. : 


The first point, then, which is to be 
emphasised in any account of modern 
ideas about heredity is that which con- 
cerns the existence of unit characters. 
It is no mere metaphor when we speak 
of the separate attributes of an organism. 
But itis quite a recent discovery that 
we can in effect take an animal or plant 
to pieces and deal separately with the 
inheritance of its separate parts. 


which are separately inherited so much 


as certain definite attributes or charac-- 


teristics of these. Thus to take an ex- 
ample, in the case of the domestic guinea- 
pig, @ kind of animal in which heredity 
has already been some what fully studied, 
the sort of characters which can be 


[Junn, 1909 


It is 
not, however, separate limbs or organs — 


“ae 5s 
+ 


— 


> te 


Jong, 1909. 


dealt with separately are the colour of 
the fur, whether black, brown, or white ; 
and the distribution of these colours, 
whether uniform or in patches; the 
nature of the hair, whether long or 
short, and its quality whether smooth 
or curly. We have here no less than 
five pairs of attributes all characteristic 
of a single organ, namely the fur of the 
guinea-pig; these attributes being: (1) 
the presence or absence of a_ black 
pigment ; (2) the presence or absence of 
a brown pigment—in the absence of both 
these pigments the coat appears white— 
(8) the distribution of these pigments, 
whether uniform or not; (4) length or 
shortness; and (5) curliness or smooth- 
ness. Itis found that these attributes 
may occur in all possible combinations 
with one another—impossible combin- 
ations being represented by the associ- 
ation of two members of the same pair, 
for instance the hair cannot be at the 
same time black and white. But we 
may have long curly black hair, or short 
strait white hair, and many other combi- 
nations. More than this, each of these 
attributes is inherited perfectly inde- 
pendently of all the others. The black- 
ness may be derived from one parent, in 
which the hair was perhaps short, and 
length from the other parent the colour 
of whose hair may have been white. 


The fact that the phenomena of here- 
dity have been found to be amenable to 
definite experiment, depends entirely 
upon the existence of definite unit charac- 
ters such as these. The young guinea- 
pig may take after one parent in colour 
and after the other in the length of its 
hair, whilst it may possibly exhibit a 
third character, for instance curliness of 
the hair, which was shown by neither of 
its parents, but which was perhaps visi- 
ble in one or more of its grandparents. 

But we are already in a position to 
speak much more definitely than this 
concerning the precise manner of trans- 


mission of unit characters from parents | 


to offspring. Since every individual is 
complete in itself, each parent must 
eontribute to its offspring one complete 
set of these factors. Every child, there- 
fore, is provided with a doubie set of 
factors, half derived from its father and 
half from its mother; and every charac- 
ter or feature which the child exhibits 
depends upon the presence of a pair of 
factors, one member of the pair being 
paternal, and the other maternal, in 
origin. 

We might expect from this description 
that every characteristic of the off- 
spring would be simply the mean of the 
corresponding characters of the two 
parents, since the contribution of each 
parent to that character is equal. But 


72 


560 


Miscellaneous 


this is not by any means always the case. 
In some instances indeed the influence of 
the two parental factors is about equal, 
and asa result the offspring shows an 
intermediate character. But in other 
cases one factor may beso much stronger 
than the other that the character of 
one parent is almost exactly reproduced, 
whilst that of the other remains entirely 
in abeyance. In other cases again, 
although one of the factors is stronger 
than the other, the weaker factor is still 
able to make its influence felt to some 
extent. 

In illustration we will consider a case 
in which one factor is so powerful as to 
render the other entirely invisible or 
recessive. The case is that of a cross 
between a black and a white strain of 
mice. A pure black mouse is to be 
mated with a pure white one. Into each 
of the offspring arising from this mating 
there enters something representing 
blackness and something representing 
whiteness. These representative some- 
things we may distinguish as factors— 
a black factor and a white one. It is 
convenient to use black and white 
draughtsmen as models with which to 
follow the subsequent moves of these 
factors. 


Within a pure black strain, each of 
the two parents of any individual con- 
tributes a black factor to that indivi- 
dual, and we may therefore represent 
such an individual, in respect of the 
character blackness, by two black 
draughts. We thus indicate the essen- 
tially double nature of all the higher 
animals and plants, this double nature 
being explained by the fact of their 
having arisen from two separate parents. 
In like manner, a member of a pure 
white strain may be represented by two 
white draughts, and the cross between 
a pure black and a pure white strain 
may be represented by one black and 
one white draughtsman placed together. 


In the yarticular instance which we 
are considering the cross bred individual 
appears black—in technical language 
black is said to be dominant over white, 
and white is said to be recessive. This 
fact can be represented by placing tha 
black draught on top of the white one; 
but we must be careful to remember 
that the white draughtis also present all 
the time, only it is hidden ucderneath. 
In the same way in the black cross- 
bred mouse, the character whiteness 
exists in a latent condition (better called 
recessive), although to all appearances 
the creature is pure black. 


We now arrive at the crucial point of 
the whole story. When the cross-bred 
individual forms its reproductive cells, 


— 


Miscellaneous. 


the behaviour of the black and white 
factors is the simplest conceivable. We 
have to picture the original black and 
white-determining particles—whatever 
their nature may be—to have multiplied 
to such an extent that there is now a 
pair—a black and a white—in every 
one of the cells which build up the 
organism. Each of these cells has been 
produced by the division into two equal 
parts of a previously existing cell, and 
in all ordinary cases the black factor 
(for example) divides into two before 
the cell divides, and half passes into 
each of the new cells formed, But in 
the division which leads to the forma- 
tion of the reproductive cells the factors 
do not split. On the contrary the 
black and the white factors separate 
from one another. And every repro- 
ductive cell which arises contains either 
one or the other—a black or a white— 
but never both together and never a 
blend of the two. Thus if we pay atten- 
tion simply to this pair of characters. 
black and white, we can represent the 
repoductive cells of the cross-bred indi- 
vidual by any number of single black 
and white draughts—an equal number 
of each; for it appears that in both 
sexes each of the two factors turns up 
in very nearly the same number of repro- 
ductive cells. 


Now suppose a pair of these cross-bred 
individuals to be mated together. The 
essential process of such mating con- 
sists, of course, in the union of a pair 
of reproductive cells, one derived from 
either parent. So far as we can tell 
these reproductive cells will meet 
entirely at random. It is like an 
experiment in which one draws a single 
draughtsman out of each of two bags, 
supposing each bag to contain an equal 
number of blacks and whites. 

Thus we may draw :— 

(1) A black from the first and a black from the second 
(2) black op white a 
(3) white * black ‘ 
(4) white i white # 

If this experiment is repeated a suffi- 
cient number of times the average 
result to be expected is 25 % BB, 50 % 
BW, 25 % WW, or | BB, 2. BW, 1 
WW, and in appearance they will be 
3B, 1W. 


The accompanying diagram shows the 
whole of the process of which a descrip- 
tion has so far been attempted. <A pure 
black individual, producing exclusively 
black reproductive cells (and this is 
the test of its pureness), is mated with 
a pure white. <A black anda white germ- 
cell meet, therefore, giving rise to an 
individual which is black in appearance, 
but which contains also the factor for 
whiteness. This cross-bred individual 

»gives rise to an equal number of repro- 


570 


ee 


[JUNE, 1909 ” 


ductive cells bearing the black and the 
white factor respectively. When such 
cross breds are mated together we get 
three different. kinds of offspring, of 
which one kind is just twice as numer- 
ous as either of the others. We have 
pure blacks—just as pure as the mem- 
bers of the original black strain—pure 
whites like the original white strain, 
and a third variety of individuals black 
in appearance, which, nevertheless, con- 
tain an element of whiteness in addition, 
and are thus of exactly the same nature 
as their cross-bred parents. If these 
last are again bred together they will 
give rise to exactly the same series as 
before; whereas the pure blacks when 
mated together can only give blacks, 
and the pure whites bred together can 
only give whites. 


In this particular instance the char- 
acter of the cross-bred individual ex- 
actly resembled that of one of the pure 
parental strains, such a character being 
said to be dominant over that of the 
other parent which is said to be reces- 
sive. The phenomenon of dominance is 
not, however, by any means universal. 
In some eases the cross-bred shows a 
simple blend of the characters of its 
parents. But even in such cases as 
these it is possible for the parental 
factors to separate completely when the 
reproductive cells are formed, and the 
actual process of heredity is just the 
same as that previously described. In 
other cases again the cross-bred may 
show a character quite different from 
that of either parent, and of these it 
will be as well to take an example. 


There is a certain strain of fancy 
fowls known as blue Andalusians which 
have long been knovwno to possess the 
troublesome tendency of throwing a 
large proportion of wasters, as they 
are called. In every brood arising from 
blue parents there are found a certain 
number of nearly black birds, as well 
as a certain number which are nearly 
white. The reason of this was not in 


the least understood until the question 
was taken up by Professor ateson 
of Cambridge a few years ago. In the 


first place Bateson showed, on raising 
a large number of chicks from blue 
parents, that blacks, blues and whites 
appeared among the offspring in the 
proportion of 1: 2:1 on the average. 
But he showed further thatif a pair 
of the black wasters were mated to- 
gether they produced black offspring 
only, and that ifa pair of whites were 
mated they produced only whites. If 
on the other hand a black and a white 
were mated together they produced 

only blues. He thus arrived at the © 
apparently paradoxical result that th 


ue oat all Be FE f nit 
. nigi u: * 


Jone, 1909.] 571 Miscellaneouse 


aa 


Co a (CI 


[Junn, 1969 
ee 
Ss 
| na! 


OA ypu 
: | SS a : 
i as 4 | 


SUA «OPUME ONTGe YP CLE Prd 


: : N q 
e = | f f 
CRI AST aU RSS SY CEST LS MRC REA GAO ag 


572 


STG 


Miscellaneous. 


INE x OU 


JUNE, 1909.] 


certain way of obtaining blue Andalu- 
sians was not to breed from blue birds 
atall, but to mate together the two 
kinds of wasters which are simply dis- 
carded by the ordinary breeders. 


Now the explanation of this curious 
fact is quite simple. There are no repro- 
ductive cells corresponding to the blue 
character. Blue arises as the result of 
the combined presence of a black anda 
white factor, and in no other way. And 
this is shown by the fact that on mating 
black and white together one gets 
nothing but blues. If we return to 
diagram 1 we shall tind that it represents 
this case exactly. A blue bird, arising 
from the combination of black with 
white, gives rise to pure black and pure 
white reproductive cells only. When a 
pair of such black-bearing reprcductive 
cells meet in fertilisation, a pure black 
bird is the result, and in spite of the fact 
that its parents were blue, the offspring 
of such a bird when mated with its like 
will never be anything but black. The 
proof of this explanation is obtained 
experimentally as follows: If a blue 
bird is mated with a black the result is 
found to be the production of equal 
numbers of blue and black chicks, but no 
whites. Andif a blue bird is mated 
with a white one, blueand white chicks 
only are produced in equal numbers. 
This seems to amount toclear proot that 
the blue birds are producing black 
and white reproductive cells—or repro- 
ductive cells bearing the factors for 
blackness and whiteness—in equal 
numbers ; it is impossible to explain the 
result in any other way, 


In such a case as this no amount of 
selection can leadtothe production of a 
pure strain. On the other hand the 
strain produced by the meeting of two 
similar reproductive cells is pure from 
the very outset, even if the parents 
from which it arose were both mongrels 
of the most pronounced description. 
This is entirely contrary to the ideas of 
old-fashioned breeders, tor whom a pure 
strain was a pure-bred strain. If a long 
series of ancestors all alike could be 
pointed to the strain was considered 
pure, and the longer the series of ances- 
tors the purer the breed became. Now 
we know that there is no such thing as 
relative purity, a strain is either pure in 
pasbedt of any particular character, or it 
is not. 


As usual, in the case of an almost 
universal belief, the view of the or- 
thodox breeder hasa certain element of 
truth in it. The breeder has not been 
accustomed to regard separate charac- 
ters separately, but to look at a parti- 
cular animal as a whole, and in this case 
along pedigree will certainly indicate 


573 


Miscellaneous. 


that a consideiable number of the 
factors of the breed are present in the 
pure condition, forin the case of any 
domestic breed a very large number of 
separate factors have to be reckoned 
with, comparable with those which we 
have been discussing, 


In our next article we shall deal with 
the behaviour of more than one pair of 
alternative characters in heredity, and 
with the explanation which has recently 
been put forward with regard to the 
phenomenon of reversion to a remote 


ancestor. 
R. H. L. 


SCHOOL-GARDENING IN THE 
PHILIPPINKS. 


(Krom the Queensland Agricultural 
Journal, Vol. XXI., Part I, 
July, 1908.) 

Whilst school-gardening is in _ its 
infancy in Queensland, we find that it is 
made a serious business. of the West 
Indies and in the Philippine Islands. 
Following is an account taken from the 
report ot Mr. North H. Foreman, super- 
vising teacher at Lubao-Aringay, La 
Union, Philippines, on school-gardening — 
in that province, published in the 
** Philippine Agricultural Review” :— 


Last year, during the month of Janu- 
ary, a contribution list for the _pur- 
chase of seeds was begun in each school. 
No assessments were made, and no 
amount stated as desired. As a result 
of this effort we soon had on hand 
P35 of seed money, I _ personally 
assured each pupil a garden and seed 
for tbe same. Every teacher was 
required to keep a list of the names of 
all pupils who contributed, and the 
amount, This list is filed in my office, 
and is now used in the distribution of 
seeds to pupils for home gardens, In 
no case was there a contribution of more 
than 5 centavos, and the most of the 
contributions were 2 and 3 centavos 
each. Eggs, coconuts, pineapples, &c., 
were accepted, and sold in the markets. 
The sum raised was spent chiefly with 
a firm in Chicago and one in Los Angeles, 
for the purchase of about 50 lbs. of 
seed, which arrived by mail during the 
month of May. The seed consisted of 
seventy-four varieties, many of which 
were unknown in the Philippines. [ 
found it advantageous to buy in bulk, as 
in this way you get many more seeds for 
a given amount of money, and many of 
our varieties were received in 4 lb. and 
4 lb. packets. The seeds were divided 
among the different barrios, according 
to the amount of contribution, and all 


wt 
°* 
; 
= 


[JUNE, 1909, 


ae od “ 


Miscellaneous. 574 


schools have had many varieties to give 
the pupils for planting at home. 


As a means of encouragement I shall 
offer a piize to the pupil who raises the 
finest specimen of each thing planted. 
Pupils are permitted to submit in this 
competition products from their home 
gardens, as many of the pupils have 
home gardens, which I _ personally 
inspect and encourage as much as 
possible. Ifa pupil can produce better 
plants in his home garden than we do 
in the school garden I want to know it, 
and also how it was done. 


I now have on my hands one more 
garden in Tubao than was desired. The 
first-grade pupils were told that they 
would have no garden, as they were 
too small. This announcement brought 
forth requests, petitions, and a tew 
tears, until I told the children in this 
grade to go to work. To have seen 
pupils seven oreight years old carrying 
bamboo and working their plots would 
convince anyone that the [locanos are 
agriculturally inclined. 

A garden is now found at every school, 
and is part of the school work. The 
central school of Aringay has an excel- 
lent flower garden, containing many 
beautiful flowers; also some _ experi- 
mental plats, and a vegetable garden. 
The central school of Tubao has two 
large gardens. All of these gardensare 
located near the school-house—in most 
cases adjoining the school-house. 

The general arrangement was to 
assign acertain part of the garden to 
each class, the teacher in charge of the 
class also having charge of the gar- 
den. I found that awakening a certain 
amount of class rivalry lent interest to 
the work. Inthe central schools the 
teachers have immediate charge, but in 
barrio schools each class chooses a 
leader, the teacher having an oversight 
of the work. This was found necessary, 
as the barrios contained but one teacher 
each. 

The part of the garden assigned to 
each class was subdivided, and eaeh 
member of the class was given a small 
plat. That plat was his. He planted 
what he liked, and the work in prepar- 
ing and cultivating the plants was done 
by himself. The arrangement gave each 
individual pupil a definite ownership. 
In this assignment of plats both boys 
and girls were included, 


PREPARATION OF GARDEN. 


No difficulty was experienced in 
securing the necessary land, and I found 
it best to build with school labour the 
fences required. Hach pupil in the 
school donated a portion of the bamboo 


needed, and the older boys, under the 
guidance of the teacher, built the fences. 

Every garden in my district was 
fenced by the pupils. These fences 
were built in July, after which no more 
“general”. work was done, each pupil 
being interested in his own plat and 
working on it alone. As the rains are 
heavy, borders were placed around each 
plat. These borders were made of rock, 
brick, bamboo or sod, the material that 
was most plentiful in the barrio being 
used. Numerous wide paths were made 
so as to give the pupils ample room for 
their work without stepping on the beds: 


FERTILISERS, 


The kinds and uses of fertilisers were 
taught, and each pupil was required to 
fertilise his own garden, some of my 
best gardens having been cn worn-out 
land. The pupils carried the fertiliser in 
baskets from their homes. After the 
ground was prepared to a depth of 8 
inches the seeds were planted. In order 
to give needed instructions in the pre- 
paration of seed-beds a part of each 
pupil’s garden was used as a seed bed. 


CARE OF GARDEN. 


Each pupil was required to have at 
the school some _ vessel for carrying 
water. Some of the schools had water 
close at-hand, and in others it was neces- 
sary to carry the water nearly one mile. 
The girls usually brought water in jars, 
while the boys used a long bamboo; in 
two barrios nothing but bamboo was 
used. Each school had one or more 
sprinklers. Some plants required daily 
watering, and others were watered once 
every two days. On Saturdays and 
other holidays a committee was chosen 
from each class to water the class 
garden, but many pupils preferred to 


come and water their own plat rather 


than trust a committee. 


RESULTS. 


When the products were ready to be 
used the pupils were encouraged to take 
them home, each pupil having been pre- 
viously instructed in regard to their 
use. Many a proud boy or girl trudged 
home with three or four radishes, beets, 
oc turnips, but no pupil was permitted 
to take all of any one kind from his 
garden. Atleast one plant was left for 
seed, each pupil being required to save 
seed from each kind planted in his 
garden. This seed was divided into two 
equal parts, one part for the pupil, the 
other to be kept for the school garden 
next year. Pupils were taught that 
saving of the seed was quite as essential 
as the planting of the garden. 


I will not attempt to attach a list of 


all plants that were grown in these 


JUNE, 1909.] 


gardens, but the following is a general 
summary :— 


Aringay :— Varieties, 
Vegetable garden ae 52 
Flower garden ... O85 126 
Experiment plats “Be 12 

Cava :— 

Vegetable garden se 20 
Santa Cecilia... he 37 
Tubao :— 

Vegetable garden No. 1... 30 

First-grade vegetable garden 

No. 2 e. oe 50 

Santa Tereza :— 

Vegetable garden Ms 35 
Rizal :— 

Vegetables ise ns 29 
Anduyan :— 

Vegetables aus bt 27 
Ambangonan :— 

Vegetables me ape 8 


Nxperiments were made in the experi- 
mental gardens with the following :— 


Broom corn: Grew very well, and 
had good long brushes. Winter wheat : 
Grew well, good head. Flax: Grew well, 


good stem and plenty of seeds. Spring 
wheat: Grew fairly well. Buckwheat: 
Grew well, but did not get large. Millet: 


Grew well, good head. Rutabaga: Grew 
well, good root. Sugar beet: Bad seed. 
Sugar corn: Only fair stand. Sun- 
flowers: Large heads, some 18 inches 
across, Sage: Grew well, but was killed 
by animals. Peas: Failed, few pods. 


INTEREST SHOWN. 


In no case have I any complaint to 
make of lack of interest shown by pupils. 
All of the pupils were willing to work, 
and felt slighted if not given a garden. 
As an example, I give the following 
occurrence in Tubao; It was first intend- 
ed to have only one gardenin Tubao, 
and have only second, third, aud fourth 


grade pupils do garden wo1k. The first-. 


grade pupils objected to this arrange- 
ment, and many in this grade cried 
when told that they would have no 
garden. [finally told them that they 
might have a garden if they would bring 
the materials for tences. The next 
morning every pupil came to school with 
one or more bamboos. Even little fel- 
lows seven years old brought a long 
bamboo, The larger boys of the grade 
built the fence, A corner of the plaza 
was utilised, andin three weeks every 
pupil in the school was working in his 
individual garden. Absolutely every 
pupil in my district does garden work. 


In most eases the teachers have shown 
great interestin this work. With pos- 
sibly two or three exceptions, the 


575 ' Miscellaneous. 


teachers have carried out my instructions, 
as the flourishing gardens show. 


The parents have shown a creditable 
amount of interest, often visiting the 
gardens. In only two cases have I had 
parents object to their children working 
in gardens. These objections were easily 
settled by a little explanation as to the 
individual ownership of the gardens. 


I find that the hardest problems I have 
had were the stealing of the plants from 
the gardens and insistence upon fre- 
quent waterings. The barrio of Cava 
being on the main road, and no houses 
near the gardens, the plants were stolen 
by people who were passing. I also had 
eonsiderable trouble in the barrio back 
in the hills among the “bagos.” The 
barrio of Ambanzanon was constantly 
depleted by thieves. There was also 
some difficulty in getting teachers to 
give minute attention to all detailed in- 
structions about the watering of plaats. 


SUMMARY. 


First.—The garden work was done 
willingly by all pupils. 

Second.—Attention was given the gar- 
dens on Saturdays and holidays. 


Third.—All gardens were owned by 
the pupils, and the products were the 
property of the pupils raising them. 

Fourth. —Instruction was given in the 
use of fertilisers, cultivation of plants, 
use of products, and saving of seeds. 

Fifth.—Garden work was done outside 
of school hours. 


Sixth.—It is believed that the gardens 
have been a success, and a great benefit 
to the pupils in teaching them industry, 
and to the parents and the community 
at large by the introductiou of new food 
plants. 


Seventh.—All that is necessary for a 
good school garden is plenty of hard 
work and close supervision on the part 
of the supervising teacher. 


Highth.—Previous to the starting of 
our school gardens, radishes, lettuce, 
beets, endive, carrots, rutabaga, kohl- 
rabi, turnips, and many other of the 
plants grown were unknown as food 
plants in my district. Now you will find 
many of these planted at the homes of 
the pupils. 


Ninth,--The only restrictions were that 
each pupil prepare the soil, cultivate the 
plants, and save seeds according to in- 
structions. The success of the work I 
attribute largely to the fact that each 
pupil was given his own individual plat, 
thus giving him a definite ownership 
and a right to use or sell the products of 
his garden. 


ALOES, Socotrine cwt. 
Zanzibar & Hepatic ,, 
ARROWKOOT (Natal) Ib. 
LEES’ WAX, ewt. 
Zanzibar Yellow 3 
Bombay bleached _,, 
im unbleached,, 
Madagascar 
OAMPHOR, Japan 
China fs 
CiaRDAMOMS, Malaba 


r 
TYellicherry 


Mangalore ,, 
Mysore 
Malabar 
EK. 1, & Ceylon ,, 

Ceylon Long Wild ,, 
Capivuk VIL, Calcutta ,, 
CHILLIES, Zanzibar cwt 
SINCHONA BARK.-— Ib. 


Ceylun. 


” 


Ceylon 
CINSAMON,Ceylon Ist 
per Ib, 2nds 
3rds 
4ths 
Chips, &c 
CLUVES, Penang lb. 
Amboyna 
Ceylon 
Zanzibar 
Stems 
COFFEE 


Ceylon Plantation cwt. 


Native 
Liberian a 
COCOA, Ceylon Plant. ., 


Native Estate “ 

Java and Celebes ,, 

COLOMBO KOOT rf 
CKOTON SEEDS, sift. cwt. 
CUBEBS * aS 
@INGKK, Bengal, rough,, 
Calicut, ae A,, 


Cochin Rough ,, 


Japan re 
GUM AMMONIACUM ,, 
ANIMI, Zanzibar 


» 


Madagascar 


akabl(C F.1.& Aden 
Turkey sorts 


Ghatti ry 

Kurrachee ” 

Madras rh 

ASSAF(BTIDA x 
KINO 

M\RKH, picked cwt 

Aden sorts ,, 

OLIBANUM, drop 7 

pickings ,, 

siftings ,, 


INDIA RULBEK 


Ceylon, Straits, 
Malay Straits, etc. 


Assam 
Rangoon 


576 


MARKET RATES FOR TROPICAL PRODUCTS. 
(From Lewis & Peat’s Monthly Prices Current, London, 12th May, 1909.) 


QUALITY. QUOTATIONS. 
Fair to fine **/85s a 90S 
Common to good °+/40s a 858 
Fair to fine --|28d a 4d 


Slightly drossy to fair ... 
Fair to good 

Dark to good genuine .. 
Dark to good palish 
Retined 

Fair average quality 
Good to fine bold 
Middling lean 

Good to fine bold 
Brownish = 
Med brown to fair bold 
Sm: ll fair to tinue plump 
Fair to good 

Seeds 

shelly to govd 
Ists and 2nds 
Dull to fine bright 


oe 


Crown, Renewed 
Org. Stem 

Red Org. Stem 
Renewed 
Roct 


Good to fine quill 


” ve 


.\Fair to fine pold 


Dull to fine bright pkd. 


-|Dull to tine 


é a” yy s 
Fair and fine bright 
-|Fair, 


Bold to fine 

Medium to good 

Good ordinary 

Fair to bold 

Special Marks 

Red to good 

Ordinary to red 

Small to good red 
Middling to good 

Dull to fair 

Ord. stalky to good 
Fair 

Small to fine bold 
Small and medium 
Common to fine bold 
Small and D’s 

Unsplit 

Sm. blocky to fair clean 
Pale and amber, str. srts. 
+ ob little red 
Bean and Pea size ditto 


Vair to good red sorts 

Med. & bold glassy sorts 
Fair to good palish 
ed ond 
ood pale 


’ ” r 
Ordinary to g 


Sorts to fine pale : 
Reddish to good pale ... 
Dark to fine pale ivr 
Clean fr. to gd. almon‘ts 
com. stony to good block 
Fair to tine bright 

Fair to fine pale 


£6 15s a £6 178 6d 
£7108 a £7 12s 6a 
£5 15s a £6 10s 
£6 10s a £6 17s 6d 
is 7d als 9d 

145s 

Is da 28 2d 
is€da ls 8d 


‘|48 a 286d 


ls 5d ais 10d 
2s 2d a 3s 2d 


..|208 a 42s 6d nom. 


258 a 328 6d nom.! 
30s a 4Us | 


20s a 30s 
158 a 25s 
85s a 100s 
2583 a 753 
éd aQd 
808 a 115s 


” 
” 


Middling to good 
Good to tine white 
Middling to fair 
Low to good pale 
Slightly foul to fine 
Fine Para bis. & sheets 
», Ceara 5 
Crepe ordinary to fir 


10. 
Fine Block 3 


Scrap fair to fine 
Plantation 
Fair II to ord. red No. 1 


‘|48 6dads 9d 


450s a 65s 
40s a 60s 

258 a 35s 

103 a 20s 

133 a 163 

5s 5d 

6s 3d 

2d a 5s 7d 


5s 
5s 9d 


New Guinea 


INDIGO, E.I. Bengal 
| 


| 


SHELLS, M. o° PHARL— 


Egyptian cwt. 
Bombay 
Mergui 

Manilla 


” 
” 


Banda mf 
CTAMARINDS, Calcutta.. 


» Macagascar ... } znd: 


48 
2s 6d a 88 9d 
2s 4d a 88 


| 


Seyche les =} 
VEKM:LLION .. 
WAX, Japan, squares 


ords .con aud inferior 


NN eee 


QUOTATIONS. 


QUALITY, - 

INDIARUBBER.(Contd. ) 

Borneo Common to good 1g a 28 8d 

Java Good to finered — --||2s a 38 9d 

Penang Low white to prime reds 6da 2s 10d 

Mozambique Fair to fine red Ball ...|/33 2d a 4s 6d 

Sausage, fair to good .. \38 3d a 48 3d 

Nyassaland Fair to fine ball -/2910d a 38 8d 

| Madagascar Fr to fine pinky & white}2s 10d a 3s 8a 


Majunga & blk coated ..|2s 3d a 2s 9d 
Niggers, low to good ..Jisa 2s ltd 
Ordinary to fine ball .. 332da3s8dnom 
Shipping mid to gd violet/3s 5d a 3s 10d 
Consuming mid. to gd. 8s 1d a 3s 4d 
Ordinary to middling |2s 9d a 3g 
Oudes Middling to fine \28 6d a 2/8 nom, 


Brae aan G Mid. to good Kurpah 2s 3d a 2 
. ed A a a | Low to ordinary te Bdintos ae 
igtiodtania utd Mid.to fine Madras 1s 5da 2s 4d 
lea ar isQd MACE, Bombay & Penang|Pale reddish to fine j1s 8da 2s 4d 
234 a 33d | per Ib, Ordinary to fair Is61 als 8d 
Blas elas Java a? » good pale |Is 5d a 281d 
Bombay Wild id 
aa |MYRABOLANES, — ewt|UG and Coconada 58 a 586d 
33d a 7d Bombay Jubblepore 439d 
2d a 6d | 5 teams ” 'Bhimlies ances 
1jd a 43d | 'Rhajpore, &c. hs ay a7s 
3d a 54d } Bengal ., (Calcutta Be a 6s 3d 
lida dd \NUTMEGS— Ib. 64’s to 57's Perce Be 
lddals 4d | Bombay & Penang ,, |110’s to 65’s 43d ¢ 5 d 
oda 1s 2d | 160’s to 115’s eae 
73d a 1i3d INUTS, ARECA ewt.|Ordinary to fair fresh (oc He 
63d a ged \NUX VOMICA, Cochin |Ordinary to good 98 a 11 6d 
ua a sea | per cat. Bengal, " 68 a és 6d 
pet Madras nA 3 
7hd a 9d (OIL OF ANISEED ,, Fair’ merchantable (93.288 
7d a $d | CASSIA », |According to analysis |4, 4 “45 44 
44d a 43d LEMONGRASS », (Good flavour & colour loq 4 oq 
| NUTMEG }, |Dingy to white 14d a Bid 
| CINNAMON Ordinary to fair sweet a als 
1103 a 112s | CITRON BELLE »» [Bright & good flavour |i 44a 1s 24 
a a ies \ORCHELLA WEED—cwt 
F 3 | Ceylon ° »» |Mid. to tine not woody...!)1s 
me eee ba | Zanzibar. » }Picked clean flat leaf ... foun gs 
Oca et 7On bd » wiry Mozambique] ,, 
418.0608 ‘PEPPER - (Black) 1b.) 
30s a 853 |  Alleppee & Tellicherry;Fair — _ + 134d 
153.2178 6d | Ceylon ,, Lo fine bold heavy .. Be aga 
3.sa 35s | Singapore “lean ss tee + |3hd 
70s a 80s Acheen & W. C. Penang|Dull to fine o -l3d a 34d 
27s (White) Singapore ,, [air to fine AO --|5kd a 8d 
65s a 853 | pam af fau aes 6d 
483 25 | enang coe a vee ase a |47 
abs a aa PLUMBAGO, lump cwt. Fair to fine bright bold Ss 
36s |Middling to good small 
31g “i chips Dull totine bright .. 
26s a 608 nom. | dust (Ordinary to fine bright 
£16 a £18 |SAGO, Pearl, large —.. Dull to fine =... «Haga 163 
£13 a £15 | pea ia slo” ” 12s 6da 15s 
58a £15 i ama ves| yp j 
pee 108 SEEDLAC cwt, Ordinary to g4. soluble fae od Raat 
£7 a £9 lbs |SENNA, Tinnevelly 1b. Good to fine bold green|sq 4 74 
£4 a £8 15s |Rair preenisn nano 
£4a £7 Ls |Commonspeckyand small}j14q 4 of4 


‘Small to bold 


” 


253 2908 nom. 
30s a 90s 
**|£0 28 6da 27 108 
+125 15s a £9 5s 
1263-4308 nom 
NYl11s a 138 


ae 


| Fair to good 
orts an 
| Mid.to fine bl’k not sto 


er cwt. Madrag | Stony and inferior «lisa 5s 
TORTOISESHELL— ie : ; 
Zanzibar, & Bombay lb, |Small to bold --l)1s 6d & 268 
|Nickings -- 6s a 14s 6d, : 
CTURMERIC, Bengal ewt. | fair - 18s % 
: Madras ,, Finger fair to dne bold}ygg 9 203 
Do. | Bulbs Lbright)i6s a 178 <4 
Cochin ,, Finger 168 a 
Bulbs + 1139 oe 
VAN{LLOES— Ib. | ; ‘e 
Mauritius ...) Ists Gd erystallized 35 a8} in|?s a 16s 


“sy w reddish 4a ,,163 a 12d 
«(73 6d a 98 
Kine, pure, bright k 


é . \23 1d 
Good white hard € 


| 78 


ove 


THE SUPPLEMENT TO THE 


Tropical Agriculturist and Magazine of the 6. A. 8. 


Comeitep By A. M. & J. FERGUSON. 


No. 6,] 


JUNE, 1909. 


[Vou. IV, 


A WELL-KNOWN RUBBER 
AUTHORITY IN COLOMBO. 


LIEUT.-COL. WYLLIE, F.R.G.S,, VISITING 
PARA RUBBER EXHIBITION. 


The Ravages of White Ants in the F.M.S. 
RuBBER IN BuRMA, 


We had the pleasure of a call some days ago 
from Lieut.-Colonel J A Wyllie, F.R.G.S., of the 
Indian Army (retired) and late Cantonment 
Magistrate at Rangoon, whose name is fam- 
iliar to rubber growers all over the Hast. 
Colonel Wyllie has made a special study of 
rubber fora longer period than most of those 
now interested in the plantation product, 
and it was he, ten years ago, who started 
the Cantonment Rubber Plantation in Kambé, 
Rangoon. After a considerable absence from 
Burma he returned recently and, on severing 
his connection with Government, undertook at 
the request of the authorities to put the Kambé 
plantation, which had long been neglected, into 
proper order again. Colonel Wyllie carried on 
extensive operations there, with most interest- 
ing results, which are embodied in an exhaustive 
report, a copy of which he has courteously placed 
at our disposal. 

RvusBBER Pranrine in Burma. 


Colonel Wyllie is surprised that in Burma, 
where in many parts the conditions are admir- 
ably adapted for rubber growing, the rubber 
industry has been so entirely neglected by Euro- 
peans, Heis strongly of the opinion that if 
residents in Burma visited the neighbouring 
Federated Malay States and saw what is being 
done there, an1 realised the profits being ob- 
tained, they would show some enterprise in 
the matter. Capitalists, however, do not 
seem keen on Burma as a rubber growing 
country and when recently an attempt was 
made to lease the (Government Rubber 


73 


Plantations at Mergui it failed although 
the price the Government were willing to ac- 
cept was such as would have left the lessee 
a very handsome profit. There are one or two 
very good plantations including the flourishing 
Shwegyin Estate of which Mr. O Shelton Agar 
of Ceylon is the Manager. But although Euro- 
peans have stood aloof irom rubber the Chinese 
have taken it up and there are several flourish- 
ing small gardens. Some 20 miles from Rangoon 
one enterprising Chinese gentleman has an 
estate of 4,000 acres, 2,000 of which are planted 
in rubber and doing extremely well, the oldest 
being about 3 years, The results obtained by 
Colonel Wyllie on Kambé, which are detailed 
in his report ought, we think, to attract capi- 
talists. We will quote these results, but 
meantime we may mention that off the equi- 
valent of an acre of rubber planted 10 by 10, 
435 trees, Colonel Wyllie got in January of this 
year :—first grade rubber (black, sheet and 
biscuit) 68 Ibs.; scrap and ball 9 lbs.=77 lbs. ; 
andin February 404 lbs. and 34 Ibs. respectively 
or 435 lbs. for the month. The total yield for 
the two months was 1203 lbs. This rubber, 
prepared without up-to-date machinery, with 
the most primitive appliances, fotched 4s 8d 
per lb. while scrap sold at 4s per lb. 


GOVERNMENT ENTOMOLOGIST DESCRIBES RUBBER 
as ‘‘An Unknown Weep !” 

As an instance of thelack of interest in rub- 
ber in Burma astriking demonstration is given 
in Colonel! Wyliie’s report. A species of cater- 
pillar attacked the trees in great numbers 
eating the leaves. Specimens were at once 20!- 
lected and sent, with a supply of the rubber 
leaves on which they were found, through the 
Agricultural Department to the Government 
Kutomologist for examination. He reported 
that they are Lymantrdex of the genus Noto- 
lophus—the tussock moth—but was not quite 
positive, as he was unable to rear them 
owing to delay on the journey and insufficient 
provision of food, their luncheon-basket being 


578 


filled only with ‘‘ sensitive plants and the leaves 
of some unknown weed’! And Colonel Wyllie 
pathetically asks :—‘t Has anything unkinder 
‘yet been said of rubber growing in Burma ? 
After 30 years of its cultivation on a vast scalo 
the Agricultural Entomologist of the Province 
calls Para Rubber ‘‘an unknown weed,” 


DEsTRUCTION OF RuBBER TREES BY WHITE 
Ants IN THE F.M.S, 

Colonel Wyllie has just come from the F.M.S8. 
where he has been seeing some of the oldest 
planted rubber in that country. He takes a very 
grave view ofthe ravages of white ants there, and 
was much surprised at the extent of the damage 
done by them. The alarming feature of this 
pest, according to the Colonel,is that it generally 
confines its attention to the matured trees. 
The ants work entirely from below getting 
into tho tap root and working up the trunk. 
In Rangoon, where the white ant also carries 
on its depredations, it works on the outside, 
building up mounds round the foot of the 
tree. ‘There it is at once seen and by digging 
them up and putting in ashes and_ other 
material the tree is saved. In the F.M.S. it 
is entirely different. It is almost impossible 
to tell when white ants are at work on a 
tree until the damage is done and the 
tree collapses. It was a sad sight to see in 
the vicinity of Taiping magnificent trees, 
some a8 many as twenty years old, absol- 
utely destroyed in this manner, Lieut,- 
Colonel Wyllie did not wish to generalise by 
his own brief observations, but it appeared to 
him that unless some effective means of eradi- 
cating the pest was discovered the F.M.S. 
would always have young rubber as a large 
percentage if the old trees were constantly 
being destroyed by Termes Gestroi. The 
planters and the scientific officers in the F.M.S. 
are doing all they can under the circumstances, 
In other respects the industry was flourishing. 


VISITING THE RUBBER EXHIBITION AT PaRA, 
Lieut.-Col. Wyllie’s-interest in rubber is not 
confined to the plantation product alone. 
Those who know his book, ‘‘ Notes on Rubber 
Cultivation with special reference to Portuguese 
India,” written in collaboration with Mr. O.G. 
Ferreira, M.R.A.8., one of the earliest books 
published when interest in rubber was red hot 
—will have realised how extensive his study and 
investigation in the matter have been. Col. 
. Wyllie is not content, however, with his existing 
knowledge and at the present moment he is hur- 
rying home en route to the Rubber Exhibition to 
be opened at Para on the 22nd June next, where 
he will see all there isto be seen and gather at 
first hand as much information as possible upon 
wild rubber generally. The boat by which he is 
to sail, according to his programme, will reach 
Para three days before the Exhibition opens. 
Colonel Wyllie’s impressions and full accounts 
of the information he will glean first hand will be 
published and will be reproduced in our columns, 
The letters of this well-known authority will be 
invaluable to the Plantation Industry as throw- 
ing light upon the real position and prospects of 
their remote Western competitor. 


A Visir to SAN THOME. 
After finishing at Para Colonel Wyllie sails 
for Madeira whence he visits San Thomé 


The Supplement to the Tropical Agriculturist 


island, which has recently 
unenviable a reputation on account of its 
alleged “slave grown’ cocoa. Lieut. Colonel 
Wyllie is already familiar with the Portuguese 
island and has placed the British cocoa indus- 
try under an obligation by translating from the 
Portuguese of Senhor Monteiro de Mendonga 
‘The Boa Entrada Plantation,” S. Thome, with 
an introduction and notes of his own. This 
book was reviewed at considerable length in 
the Tropical Agriculturist some two years ago. 
A new book on the island and the cocoa indus- 
try there has just been issued by a Portu- 
guese writer. Colonel Wyllie received an early 
complimentary copy and so struck has he 
been with its contents that he has arranged to 
stay in Lisbon on his way homeand obtain permis- 
sion to translate the volume into English. In 
the event of this permission being given —and it 
is not likely toa be refused—the Colonel goes to 
San Thomé to investigate the conditions for 
himself and he will embody his own observa- 
tions, experiences, and views in the translated 
volume. San Thomé is such an immense produ-~ 
cer of cocoa that the book cannot fail to be of 
very great interest to all interested in the 
industry. 


RUBBER-TAPPING IN BORNEO. 


TenoM EXPERIMENTAL GARDENS. 

A shipment of 106 lb, of rubber realised from 
the Tenom Experimental Gardens, sold at 3s 8d 
per lb. This was obtained during the first tap- 
ping. No further tapping has been done since and 
Mr Lease writes that the trees have been given ~ 
a good rest but tapping will be resumed shortly. 
—B.N.B. Herald, May 1. 


INSECT PESTS OF CACAO. 


A pamphlet by Mr. H A Ballou, m.se., Ento- 
mologist on staff of the Imperial Department of 
Agriculture for the West Indies, has just been 
issued by the Commissioner of Agriculture, Mr. 
Francis Watts, to whom we are indebted for a 
copy. Thecacao thrips and the cacao beetle, 
the insect pests chiefly found in cacao orchards, 
are carefully described and the necessary reme- 
dial measures clearly set forth. There are also 
several kinds of scale insects, mealy bugs, &c., 
that are often found in cacao orchards, which 
may at times be in sufficiently large numbers to 
require careful treatment. These are briefly 
mentioned, and the remedies that are recom- 
mended for each are clearly stated. Stress is 
laid on several occasions throughout this leaflet 
on the need for careful cultural methods to be 
adopted in cacao cultivation. The manurial 
experiment plots, and ‘sample’ plots that have 
been maintained for several years at Grenada, 
St. Lucia, and Dominica having clearly demon- 
strated the good results that are likely to accrue 
fromcarefulcultivation. It has further frequen- 
tly been noted in Grenada that where a high 
standard of cultivation is maintained, attacks of 
thrips and other insects are much less frquent, 
and little serious harm is occasioned. An interes- 
ting account for the measures to be adopted in 
combating the cacao beetle forms an appendix 
to the body of thepamphlet. ‘This is taken from 
an address by Mr. R. D. Anstead Agricultural 
Superintendent at Grenada. 


acquired so 


and Magazine of the Ceylon Agricultural Society. 


TEA CULTIVATION IN CEYLON AND 
THE CAUCASUS. 


Moscow, 2Ist March—8rd April, 1909. 


Srr,—In the ‘‘Supplement to the Tropical 
Agriculturist, Vol. XXXII., No. 4, October, 
1908, page 396: Russia’s Caucasian tea” is 
read :—‘‘Comparisons made between the tea 
produced in the Caucasus and that produced 
in Ceylon all show clearly in favour of the 
Caucasus,” says the journal. ‘After a 135 years 
trial the Caucasian fields yield 146 !b. an acre 
to 14 Ib. only from the Ceylon plantations— 
ten times less.” To these lines a remark is 
added, that the Russian journal has taken too 
little care of the Ceylon yields per acre, 

The ‘* Pharmatzertitschesky Journal,” it 
seems, has copied figures without duly enlighten- 
ing them from my report of 1906. There in 
tho table No. 4 is read as follows :— 

‘““The productiveness of the tea plan'ations in 
Ceylon, as compared with the tea plantations ona 
the Caucasia estates of Constantine Popoff, 
du ing the first 13 years of their existence, 


CEYLON, 
Number of culti- 


Year. vated acres, Salein lb. Years, 
167 10 none First 
1868 200 do 2 
1869 250 do 3 
1870 250 do 4 
1871 — 250 do 5 
1872 260 do 6 
1873 280 238 7 
1874 750 492 8 
1875 1,080 1,438 9 
1876 1,750 757 10 
1877 2,729 2,105 it 
1878 4,700 19,607 12 
1879 6,600 95,969 13 
1900 — 150,009,000 = 


PLANTATIONS OF CONSTANTINE POoporr, 
Sale inIb., of 


Black Tea 
Year, Extent of culti- (Tablets of Tea Years, 
vated land, and pilis not 
included), 
1897 ( \ none First 
1894 j do 2 
1895 | 20 3 
1806.13 dessateens of 37 4 
1837 | nurseries and | 1,0 5 
1898} 127 dessateens 2,900 6 
1899~ of Plantations. > 3,610 7 
1910 | 127 dessateens i 846 8 
180 = about 384 | 9,300 9 
1902 acres, 17,027 10 
1903 | 16,833} il 
1904 34,655 12 
1995 \ ) 56,346 13 


The tables show that the comparison of the 
Ceylon yields (1867-1879) is made exclusively 
with one plantation belonging to me hey 
indicate, that the increasing of Ceylon yields 
resnited on the increasing amount of culti- 
vated acres, the increasing of yields of my 
plantation had not such a dependence, as the 
amount of cultivated acres remained all the 
time the same. 

The details about my trial of tea culture 
in Trans-Caucasus can be read: The 7ropi- 
cal Agriculturist Vol. XXXI. No 5, November, 
1901.—Yours faithfully, 


CONSTANTINE POPOFF, 


549 


[Figures can be made to prove anything, it 
is sail; but our correspondent, the well- 
known Russian Tea Merchant, Mr, Constantine 
Popoff, really endeavours to make them do too 
much, Mr. Popoff evidently wants to maintain 
that the productiveness of his tea pJa:tatien in 
the Caucasus has proved greater than v 1.0 pro- 
ductiveness of tea plantations in Ceylon. He 
takes the number of acres of tea planted and the 
total quantity exported yoar by year for the 
first 13 years of the existence of the Ceylon 
tea industry ; and this he contrasts with the 
first thirteen years of the working of his own 
estates. Heo makes out that during tho period 
Ceylon attained the maximum production of 
14 lb. per acre, while on his plantation 146 lb. 
per acre was attained. His tigures as regards 
Ceylon merely represent the amount of tea ex- 
ported and take no stock of the quantity 
consumed locally ; but he does not point out 
that, in the early years, there was of course no 
tea in bearing. On the other hand he has been 
able to account for every ounce of tea produced 
on his own property. At the present moment 
Ceylon is producing 460 1b per acre all round on 
an average and not a few estates in the island 
are giving 1,000 lb. per acre. What is M. 
Popoff’s 146 1b. per acre compared to this ?] 


ne as a ree 


RUBBER IN THE PERUVIAN ANDES 
AND AMAZON. 


MR. J. B. CARRUTHERS EXTRAOTS 
INFORMATION FROM A LECTURER, 


A most interesting paper on ‘‘ The Resources 
of the Peruvian Andes and Amazon,” by Mr. 
C. Reginald Knock, F.r.¢s., Civil and Mining 
Kagineosr, was read before an ordinary meeting 
of the Society of Arts on April 28th. The paper 
dealt mostly with the mineral wealth of these 
countries, but rubber was frequently mentioned, 
and at the close some further interesting infor- 
mation was adduced in the course of discussion 
by Mr. J. B. Carruthers among others. From 
the lecturer's paper we extract the following : 


There are gold mines ; untold wealth of silver ; 
there is copper and coal and guicksilver in 
abundance; and farther on yet there is wealth 
of rubber and timber and chocolate and sugar. 
cane, great herds of sheep and cattle and alpa.- 
cas, and many other matters of satisfaction to 
the traveller, the capitalist, and the merchant... 
And far beyond tho great Cordilleras we shall 
see canoe-loads of ‘tblack gold,” the rubber from 
the forests, as the rubber-gatherer shoots down 
the rapids of the Amazon affluents towards the 
[quitos market. Tho wealth of an empire lies 
within and beyond the Andes and upon the 
Peruvian Amazon, waiting only the set of 
humanity that way to gather it in for huma- 
nity’s use. 


Leaving the high regions of the Andes wa 
descend to the third natural zone of Peru, the 
‘*Montana,” or region of the forests of the 
Amazon plain. The natural resources of this 
vast region might be summed up by saying that 
it forms one of the world’s great natural store. 


580 


houses for the future. It is traversed by navi- 
gable streams and rivers in great part; all 
affluents of the Amazon. Of these waters 10,000 
miles are navigable at all seasons of the vear for 
steamers of varying draught, whilst in the wet 
season tho total available navigable waters in 
rivers and streams, for steamers, launches, and 
canoes, exceeds 20,000 miles, all in Peruvian 
territory. 


The main product of this wild region at 
present is rubber, of which the output is valued 
at about 14 millions sterling per annum. In 
the Peruvian montana there are very extensive 
rubber- bearing forests, both in that part of the 
Amazon plain drained by the affluents of the 
Madre de Dios river, and, although less known 
the region to the north drained by the Maranon 
and Huallaga. The principal Peruvian rubber- 
bearing trees are the Shiringa or Hevea, and 
the Caucho. The Hevea is the superior kind, 
and is that which has made Brazil famous as a 
rubber producer, The tree requires a rich, deep 
soil and abundant moisture, and at times grows 
to great size. It lends itself to cultivation, 
although not much has been done in Peru yet 
in rubber-planting. Large areas of rubber- 
bearing land have been taken up in Peru; prin- 
cipally by Peruvians but partly by foreign com- 
panies; though much land still remains un- 
occupied, 

Discussion. 


Mr H Hamel Smith enquired about the nature 
of the labour available, and whether any would 
have to be imported, provided it was decided 
to cultivate rubber in Peru. It would also be 
of interest if informetion was forthcoming as 
to whether the cost of the land would be an 
important consideration in the question, and 
whether the transport of the rubber when it 
was grown would be a serious matter. Would 
it be possible to bring the produce down to the 
Pacific coast instead of, asat present, having to 
make the long journey down the Amazon to the 
Atlantic seaboard? Unless that were possible, it 
wouldrender the profitable cultivation of rub- 
ber in Peru quite hopeless compared with the 
Federated Malay States and Ceylon, where the 
costof transport was comparatively low. He 
understood that therubber grown in Peru was 
of excellent quality, asit wasin Bolivia, but the 
danger and expense of cultivating it was very 
great. 


Miss Webster thought the value of the paper 
would be increased if the author could givesome 
particulars of the trees found in the forests. 
Were there any timber trees ? 


Mr J B Carruthers asked the author for in- 
formation respecting the proportion of Para 
rubber trees in the natural jungle region he had 
described as rubber-producing, and what were 
the possibilities of extracting the rubber from 
them, apart altogether from the question of 
planting rubber. 


Mr Enock, in reply, said that labour in the 
forest regions was rather scarce, and he believed 
some of the rubber companies engaged there 
had found that their main difficulty. Peru was 
anxious to introduce Japanese labour, a good 
deal of which was employed on the coast. The 
natural outlet of the rubber region was down 


The Supplement to the Tropical Agricultwrist 


the Amazon, because the rubber forests existed 
on the tributaries of that river, It had, never- 
theless, been found cheaper by some of the 
companies working the rubber lands to bring 
the rubber over the Andes and down the rail- 
way to Mollendo. As soon as roads, perhaps 
motor roads, and short lines of railways were 
constructed on the natural outlet down the 
Amazon, he thought, there would be an enor- 
mous development of trade. The Amazon forests 
possessed the peculiarity that they were unlike 
the other forests of the world, which. consisted 
very largely of one kind of tree. They consisted 
of all kinds of trees, in fact, he believed it had 
been calculated that in one square mile there 
existed thonsands of different kinds of trees, and 
this rendered the Amazon forests perhaps of less 
value than some of the other forests of the 
world. If a particular kind of tree was re- 
quired, it was sometimes necessary to hunt 
about for it a good deal. There were, however, 
great groves of what was termed cedar there, 
although it was not a true cedar; but it was a 
valuable wood, Valuable hard woods also grew 
in the forests. The question of the proportion 
of rubber trees to other trees was hard to 
answer. The rubber-bearing land was confined 
to acertain zone of land upon the margin of the 
rivers which were tributary to the Amazon ; but 
it was impossible to state the exact proportion 
it occupied of the total area. 


CULTIVATION OF A SANDY SOIL. 


Sandy soils are of various descriptions ran- 
ging from those in which sand largely pre- 
dominates to othera which are of a sandy 
loam, and, in consequence, highly  desir- 
able for the production of potatoes and many 
other crops. The disadvantages of a sandy 
soil are that it is deficient in lime, in sub- 
stance, and in vegetable matter, while it is 
often so porous that it fails to retain moie- 
ture during the growing season, when, how- 
ever liberal the farmer may be in the provision 
of manure, especially of artificials, he fails to 
obtain a paying crop. It is extremely ditlicult 
to cultivate with profit sandy soils of many 
classes, for the simple reason that they are 
so subject to suffer in a droughty season. It 
is true that much is saved by the easo with 
which they are cultivated with the plough 
and other implements, while they can be 
cleaned at much lower rate than land of a 
more substantial character. An owner or at 
occupier of a sandy soil, if it isnot toolight 
in character and will pay. for extra cultiva- 
tion, will be well advised to improve it by the 
addition of clay or marl, and especially by 
the cultivation of crops which are rich in 
nitrogen for the purpose of ploughing in. 

In Germany very large areas have been 
improved so much: by persistent cultivation 
that they have reached a substantial price, al- 
though originally purchased at some 12s an acre. 
Suppose that a commencement is to be made. 
Something should be done in the way of mar- 
ling, while potassic and phosphatic manures 
may be supplied with some liberality for a 
few years in succession in order to feed the 
plants which are to be grown for ploughing 


and Magazine of the Ceylon Agricultural Society. 


in, Tho vetch might be taken as an example, 
for by the aid of the mineral manures it would 
be in a position to obtain its own nitrogen 
from the air, especially if aided by the dril- 
ling of some fertile soil with the seed, and 
thus, when ploughed beneath, it would not 
only provide a quantity of humus and make 
the soil more substantial, but provide feed- 
ing matter for the succeeding crops. There 
is no likelihood of a loss of the potash or the 
phosphates owing to heavy raiu, although, 
under certain circumstan2es, a loss of nitrogen 
might be sustained, A crop of vetches sown 
in spring and ploughed beneath might be 
followed by a crop of rape or rape and mus- 
tard, either ploughed beneath, as in the case 
of the vetches, or fed off by sheep receiving 
artificial food. And so, from year to year 
until a sufficient time has elapsed to induce 
the grower to attempt a potato or a corn crop. 
This he would do on ascale not too exter— 
sive, taking overy care to provide manure, 
IT am speaking of a farm upon which it is 
impossible to use dung, owing to the fact that 
crops are not grown with which to produce 
it. In course of tims—that time depending 
upon the original and substantial character 
of the soil, for the more it approximates to 
loam the better it would bo, and the earlier 
it could be cropped with grain—a great Improve- 
ment would be made. 
tinue to plough alarge quantity of green forage 
beneath the soil from year to year without 
obtaining some tangible result. ‘The soil would 
gradually accumulate fertilising matter in such 
quantities that it would be able to grow good 
crops of grain, roots, and potatoes, and, indeed, 
ofa variety of other plants, and with these chiefly 
consumed upon the farm, manure would be 
made, and the larger the quantity the better for 
distribution on the land. Thus, by the aid of 
the dung of the farm, it would not be essential 
to purchase so large a quantity of artificials. 


Some years ago an agricultural scientist in 
France made a number of experiments on a 
somewhat extensive scale, with the object of 
ascertaining how a soil should be composed in 
order to produce the largest yield of the leading 
crops grown by farmers. He found tiatif the 
four typical varieties of soil, those chiefly com- 
posed of clay, chalk, sand, and peat, were mixed 
together in equal volumes, he obtained the best 
results, Such a soil was mellow, easily worked, 
rich in lime and humus, and capable of retain- 
ing moisture in hot weather, while responding 
well to artificials. There are, indeed, certain 
varieties of plants with which the gardener is 
better acquainted which require soils of differ- 
ent types, but this fact can easily be verified by 
any observant man who examines the weeds 
which grow on every class of soil, He will, for 
example, find the sandwort, the field madder, 
the mugwort, and bent grass upon sandy soil ; on 
chalk land he will find the spikenard, the yellow 
hawksbeard, and the wooly thistle; and so, in wet 
soils, in marshes, on gravels, and clays, different 
varieties of plants are found which are seldom 
seen in other places ; indeed, the weeds, like the 
timber trees, indicate very closely the variety of 
soil upon which they grow. The farmer, how- 
ever, is compelled to adapt his crops to the soil 


Ié is impossible to con- © 


58i 


he farms, and itis for this reasou that he has 
adopted certain methods which enable corn and 
other crops to grow with freedom and success, 
ff asoilis damp, he drains it; if it is tenacious 
like a heavy clay, he endeavours to reduce its 
tenacity and make it porous by the addition of 
sand, lime, the ploughing in of green crops, 
heavy dressings of farmyard manure, and plough- 
ing ab particular seasons, when it falls to pieces 
and provides a finer tilth. So itis with soil of a 
sandy character, which fails to hold suftlicient 
nioisture for the use of plants, which is but 
slightly fertile, deficient in humus, lime and 
such matorials as clay, which are best catculated 
to make it more substantial and adapt it to 
retain moisture and prevent the loss of nitrogen, 
which is so easily carried through it by the rain. 


MERLIN, 
—The Field, April 17. 


THE TEA SEASON IN JAPAN. 


The now tea season is about to setin. The 
first shipment of new tea this year, says the 
“Mainichi Dempo,” was made by the ‘‘Korea,” 
which left Yokohama for San Francisco on April 
24th. In anticipation of the rejection of 
the proposed tea duty in America the Yokohama 
and Shizuoka tea markets are now actively pre- 
paring for the opening of tho season. This 
year’s tea crop is not particularly different from 
that of last year, but the state of the markets at 
home and abroad seems to be very promising, 
The amount of tea exported from Japan between 
May, 1908, and April, 1909, was 32 million 
pounds, showing a decrease of about two million 
pounds as compared with the previous year, In 
consequence stocks of last season tea in America 
this year are not so heavy as in ordinary years, 
while the remnants of old tea in Yokohama and 
Shizuoka, which will be exported in the course 
of the present month, do not exceed four million 
pounds in quantity. Thus stocks of old tea are 
comparatively low both at home and abroad, 
Moreover, the conditions in America in respect 
to the demand for tea are improved, the finan- 
cial crisis of last year having nearly passed away, 
On the other hand, the money market in Japan 
is easy. The situation is, therefore, advanta- 
geous for tea transactions at present. Accord- 
ingly, tea merchants in Japan are more encour- 
aged than in ordinary years, and itis believed 
that the amount of exports will be largor than 
last year, The standard price of new tea is ex- 
pected to be somewhat lower thau the average 
price last year (Y.24 or Y.25), Tho direct ex- 
portation of tea from Shizuoka is yearly on the 
up grade in volume. The Fuji and Kyodo 
Companies at Shizuoka, as well as the local 
branch of Messrs Jardine, Matheson & Co., 
have already commenced the necessary pre- 
parations. The favourable market conditions 
there will be maintained as hitherto in compe- 
tition with the Yokohama market. It is ex- 
pected that nearly all the representatives, in 
charge of tea, of various foreign firms in Yoko- 
hama will return to Yokohama by the ‘‘Siberia,” 
—Times of India, May 15, 


582 The Supplement to the 


THE MYGOLOGIST GIVES WARNINGS 
ON RUBBER TAPPING, 


Anp tHe NorTHWAY SYSTEM. 

We direct the attention of our rubber-plan- 
ting readers to the warnings given by Mr. 
. Petch, the Government Mycologist, on the 
question of rubber tapping; and specially should 
they note the injunction that on no system 
whatever is it permissible to tap over more 
than half the circumference of the tree at 
the same time, The Northway system directly 
contravenes this rule; the tapping, we be- 
lieve, 18 carried on right round the stem. We 
do not know that this is fatal tu the system, how- 
ever, for it is possible that the system could be 
modified in this respect if the present method is 
found to be injurious to the tree. In this con- 
nection a Colombo Estate Agent, answering an 
enquiry today, says :—‘* The Northway system 
is on its trial. Deviturai trees were doubtless 
heavily manured; and poor and unmanured trees 
will not give the rush of iatex which can be 
shown to visitors by Mc. Northway ; but I have 
no doubt damage by his system is being done 
(as at first by the old V method) owing to care- 
less work, and tapping trees which are too young 
with thin bark through which the pricker goes 
into wood—also, by the cutting through of thin 
bark by hoop-iron channels which in some cases 
have been stuck in without regard to their 
effect on the bark.” 

May 12th. 

Sim,—Your readers should be warned that on 
no system whatever is it permissible to tap over 
more than half the circumference of the tree 
at the same time. This is the maximum, where 
trees of small girth must be tapped for finan- 
cial reasons; the optimum is about one-quarter 

circumference. 
ao The statement that the latex from the 
upper incisions of the Northway system flows 
into the lower incisions, etc., must be accepted 
with more than the usual quantity of salt: 16 1s 


i sible. . 9 es ; 
cael the wounded bark is thin, it might be 


(3) IANA 
> ted to split away from the wood and die in 
patches. in ne drier rubber distritcs. This 


happened under the old system in the Kandy 
district, especially when the tree was tapped 
with consecutive V’s about a quarter of-an-inch 
apart. T. PETCH, 


PACKING PARA RUBBER SEEBS 
FOR EXPORT. 


{n the Agricultural Bulletin for November, i908. 
(Vol. VIL. No. 11), in which the method of 
packing Para Rubber seeds for export is fully 
described, mention will be found of a consign- 
ment of 52,000 seeds which was sent to the 
Botanic Gardens, British Guiana from the 
Botanic Gardens, Singapore and the seeds being 
sown they gave a germination of approximately 
30 p.c., this after a journey of over 53 days. 

Since then a further lot of 50,600 seods of 
Hevea brasiliensis was despatched to British 
Guiena packed as described in the November 
number of the Bulletin and we have to report 
the much more satisfactory germination of 
ag3p.c. The following communication on the 


Tropical Agriculiurist 


subject has been received from the Hon, the 
Colonial Secretary, Straits Settlements, by the 
Director of Gardens, Straits Settlements :— 
Government Secretary’s Office, Georgetown, Demerara, 
British Guiara, 25th Jan., 1909, 

Sir,—With reference to your letter C Agents 8752-1908 of 
the 23rd September last, Iam directed by the Governor 
to enclose, for the information of the Director of Gardens, 
Singapore, an extract from a letter from the Director of 
Science and Agriculture showing the results of the cultiva- 
tion of the ‘‘ Hevea brasiliensis ” seeds obtained from your 
Government, 

Extract from a letter from the Director of Science and 
Agricuiture, to the Government Secretary, dated 19th 
January, 1909. 

Thave the honour to state that 50,600 seeds of Heyea 
brasiliensis have been received from Singapore, of these 
£3,690 equivalent to of 86.3 p.c, germinated and 41,483 plants 
or a vate of $1°9 per cent have been raised from them. I 
believe that the proportion of seeds which germinated isa 
record for large packages of seeds of the Para Rubber 
which have been several weeks in transit. 

; (Sgd.) CHARLES T, Cox. | 

The Quarterly Journal of lhe Board of Agri- 
culture of British Guiana Vol. 11 No. 3. Jan., 
1909, publishes the following extracts from the 


West Indian Bulletin Vol. LX No. 3, 1908. 


‘* Professor Harrison (British Guiana) said that they had 
given up the importation of rubber seeds from Ceylon and 
they now got them direct from Singapore. Within the last 
few months ho had imported 62,00) seeds and had got 
nearly 82 per cent germinating. These seeds cost on arrival 
about 1,2c each. They were packed in dry charcoal in seed 
b_xes and were sent by parcel post to ensure quickest 
delivery. The plants when ready for delivery had cost al- 
together 2°58c each. The last consigument of Hevea bra- 
siliensis seeds from Singapore had alrei:dy given a propor: 
tion of very nearly 86 per cent germinating in a total of 
about 59,000 se ds.” 

These figures speak for themselves and go to show that 
proper packing and careful planting at the end of the 
journey is all that is necessary to ensure the entirely satis- 
factory export of para rubber seeds to other ‘Tropical 
Colonies, 

: ; _ I. WILSON MAIN, 
+Straits Agricultural Bulletin for May. 


SAN PAULO’S COFFEE SCHEME. 


How ‘‘ VALORISATION” I8 PROCEEDING. 

Ata meeting of the Committee charged with the 
management of the State of San Paulo Govern- 
ment coffeo, held today under the chairman- 
ship of Baron Bruno Schréder, the following 
statement was approved :— 

1. With reference to clause 2 of the circular dated 
January 5, 1909, the Committee states that no sales of 
coffee have been made, that the contemplated sale of 
500,000 bags will not be undertaken until the trade is ready 
to pay the price stipulated therein, or its equivalent in 
any of the markets, and that in no case shall the sales 
during the current year exceed 500,000 bags. 

2. Vhe Government has lately had under its considera- 
tion the advisability of replacing the existing law, limi- 
ting the export of coffee, by 

A NEW LAW CREATING AN EXTRA DUTY 

of 10 per cent on all exports of coffee payable in 
kind, such coffee to be destroyed under the control of the 
Committee. This law would, in the opinion of the 
Government, bring aboutthe same result as the existing 
law, but in a more satisfactory manner. The change 
would appear to the Government to be most desirable, as 
it would obviate the rush to market the crop, which 
would undoubtedly take place under the existing law; the 
planter would thereby be given time properly to prepare 
bis coffes, the exports would then, as in former years, be 
spread over the whole 12 months, and the qualtty, of the 
coffee reported would bo improved by the destruction of 
the lowest grades. Such alteratiou of the law would also 
bo desirable in the interests of the coffee trade, of labour, 
and of the railway and shipping companies, and would at 
the same time assure the stability of the exchange. 

The Guvernment has now approached the Committee 
officially on the subject, having set forth its reasons. as 
above, for desiring an alteration of the law, and the Com: 
wittes, after careful conslderation of all interests, is of 
opinion that the proposed change of the law 4s destrable, 
and will ocnsider the feasibility of such an alteration. 

The Federal Government of Brazil is ready to sanction 
the proposed change in the law.—London Times, April 28 


and Magazine of the Ceylon A yriculliural Society. 


RUBBER IN SUMATRA. 


PROGRESS ON THE EAST COAST. 


The opening of the east coast of Sumatra 
(Sumatra Oostkust) goes back to tho ‘sixties 
when tobacco was first grown by Kurcpeans. 
Why was this parf of Sumatra opened in pre- 
ference to any other on that side of the Straits 
of Malacca ? Was the soil unique in its com- 
position as tobacco requires it to be? Was it 

ecause Deli and the neighbouring districts lay 
nearer to the busy island of Penang, an old 
landmark on the trade route between Europe 
and the Malay Archipelago ? As with ali sub- 
sequent wonderful developments, the origin of 
tobacco cultivation on the east coast is sur- 
rounded by legends. Tho tact, however, re- 
mains that the attention of Kuropeans was one 
day attracted to Sumatra tobacco grown by 
natives on the vast coast, and from that date to- 
bacco has been and remained the agent of the 
whole progress of the east coast, progress un- 
paralleled elsewhere in the Kast except in the 


F.M.S. 


Tho measuro and peculiar significance of that 
progress is to be judged from the official statis- 
ties (1906)—the only reliable source of informa- 
tion. Whereas, for the same extent of territory, 
the west coast has an excess of officials over non- 
officials (409 officials, 88 traders, 34 contractors, 
and 42 planters), the east coast stands in the 
opposite relation (134 officials, 146 traders, 
307 contractors and 507 planters). The prepon- 
derance of officials in the west is to be explained 
by the greater density of tho native population, 
its better climate, and in Padang, up to quite 
recently, the coffee cultivation under Govern- 
ment control. 


The preponderance of civilians in the east is 
due to the development of tobacco cultivation 
asa private enterprise. Striking features ap- 
pear in the statistics for the east coast, the low 
density of the native population, the high per- 
centage of imported races, Chinese and Javanese 
especially, Klings, -Bengalis, etc. Let us ox- 
amine those features before we pass on to what 
concerns us here—the work of Europeans, with 
epecial reference to rubber and their life gene- 
rally. 


THe Native PopuLation, 


Tobacco is not responsible for the low density 
of the native population, as, for instance, rubber 
has been in vast districts of the Congo, although 
it has accommodated itself rather well to the 
situation. For greediness of laud tobacco is un- 
equalled. 1t devours larger and larger spaces 
until after eight years it can come back—with- 
out prejudice—to its growth in the soil it first 
occupied, Reservations for natives would neces- 
sarily stand in its way, and it was not a misfor- 
tune that the country was more or less empty. 
Java would have been an awkward place for it 
to move about in. Going from Tandjong Balei to 
Tandjong Poera, that is, from south to north- 
for milesand miles one sees endless strips of land 
covered with lalang and blukar where tobacco 
has passed and left devastation behind. One 
longs to arrive at kampongs, which are like so 


583 


many oases in that desert. ft must be con- 
fessed, en passant, that the sight is less unseemly 
than that of the scars and holes that disfiguro 
beautiful spots in mining districtsin the F M.S, 


THE CHinese IMMIGRANT. 

Just as in the F.M.S.—always one’s standard 
of comparison when one wants to measure the 
progress of other colunies—the country has 
been opened and developed by the Chinese 
before the advent of the god Rubber;in the 
same way Sumatra’s east coast has looked for its 
labour to China, I say “has looked for its 
labour,” for there has been no initial Chinese 
enterprise except in the petty trade of the 
towns. ‘The Chinese cannot obtain conce ssions. 
The Dutch tobacco companies have protected 
themselves against their possible competition. 
Kich towkays would have commanded Chinese 
Jabour to the exclusion of any other and might 
have proved a state within the State. As it is, 
the Chinese represent 20 per cent. of the popu- 
lation, But their community has no perma- 
nency, owing to its special character, being 
composed almost entirely of men (88,856 unmar- 
ried as against 9,877 married.) The few rich 
Chinamen are the captains of an army (the ex- 
pression “Capitan China” is not inappropriate) 
rathor than the heads of a community. 
Their influence over the coolies is great, but 
the coolies will remain a huge army which can 
be disbanded when its services are no more 
wanted. That event we shall not wibtnoss. 
Tobacco would have to cease to exist, and, as 
we shall see, Dutch people do not believe in its 
disappearance. The high percentage of the Chi- 
nese population can only be counterbalanced 
by an influx of another imported race, and that 
the rubber industry can be expected to bring 
about—as it is doing in the F.M.S. with Tamils, 


LaBour. 

Javanese are the imported race on rubber 
plantations in Sumatra. The cost per coolie is 
80 guilders (1 guilder=70 dollar cents), 30 of 
which are recoverable, Though the contract 
lasts three years only, the coolies, on an ave- 
rage, remain seven or eight years, which brings 
the cost of recruiting to about the same as in the 
F.M.S. The source of supply is inexhaustible 
which ismore than can be ‘said of the Tamil 
districts in Southern India. If we add that 
climate and soil are as good as inthe F.M.S8 
one can look forward to an increase in the 
acreage under rubber. That increase will 
receive a great impetus once Dutchmen en- 
gageinit. Up to the present no Dutch com- 
pany has been formed for the purpose of 
planting rubber. The Dutch tobacco com. 
panies have. more’ than 350,000 acres 
wholly unsuitable for tobacco, though in most 
parts very good for rubber. They pay a quit 
rent of 1 guilder a bouw (1? acre) for land 
that cannot be used, and yet they will not part 
with a plot of it, even when it would oblige a 
rubber company, their neighbour. It would 
take away something from their standing and 
dignity. The only tobacco companies that have 
taken up rubber are English, the Shanghai Su- 
matra Tobacco Co., the United Langkat and 
Paya Jambu. A fow small tobacco properties 
belonging to private individuals or defunct com- 
panies have also been turned into rubber estates, 


584 


Op Correrk Lanp, 


The greater part of the coffee land has been 
put under rubber, most of the estates under- 
going the same transformation asin Malaya; and 
all of them were started with Swiss or German 
capital. Their rubber is not very old and not 
kept up tothe mark, owing to lack of funds. 
The soil is not alluvial, as was most of the 
soil under coffee in the F. M. 8., but had 
it received proper care and attention, it 
would show ultimately a better growth and 
a heavier yield in rubber, judging from 
similar soil under more fortunate circum- 
stances. This leads me to consider the position 
of estates belonging to companies with more 
capital. The work dons is impressive, both on 
account of the short time allowed to managers 
to put it through, and the large scale on which 
it has been done. Very little of the land was 
virgin forest ; a great deal of it was lalang, and 
much of the remainder was and is under coffce. 
The growth is good on lalang or old tobacco land, 
and this is what surprises one most, Though 
looking for the difference between the product 
of either class of soil and virgin forest, one is 
almost disappointed not to find it. The only 
rational explanation would be perhaps that 
lalang or old tobacco land has been dug over a 
sufficient number of times to make it as good as 
virgin land which has not been turned over at all. 


LALANG V, JUNGLE, 


The moncy disbursed for getting the soil ready 
for planting amounts to very much the same for 
lalang and virgin forest, for the following rea- 
sons : felling is dear, whereas digging lalang or 
blukar is cheap, the latter process being often 
resorted to. ‘Thus, taking all these circum- 
stances into consideration, we are gradually 
led to understand the following assertion of a 
Sumatra planter: ‘‘[f I were to open again, | 
would rather open on lalang er tobacco land.” 
Planters, who are now struggling with fungus 
and white ants, will fully appreciate this view, 
The hosts of virgin forest are not to be go 
easily driven out of their abode unless 
every stump and root is taken out and burnt. 
Then it is no more clearing the jungle as in the 
old days; it is modern cleansing with all its 
cortege of machines. The expense of opening 
jungle land is therefore increased, but in that 
case the earth has necessarily been turned over, 
and the returns must prove greater than in the 
case of previously cultivated Jand. There is 
much of this latter class in Sumatra, and it will 
be interesting to see what yields 1t gives. The 
experiment was needed. 

A Goop ScHooL, 


The impression one carries away is that 
tobacco is a very good schcol for planting life. 
Comparatively young men acquire great exper- 
jence in handling large and mixed labour forces, 
and older men, in managing the huge resources 
placed at their disposal by their powerful com- 
panies. English planters, from want of previous 
experience, might encounter more difficulties in 
dealing with such bulky concerns. The training 
has been longer and not so chequered and in- 
terrupted as in Ceylon and the ¥.M.S. It is 
quite normal to hear of Europeans having only 
been home twice in 20 years. The only holidays 


The Supplement to the Tropical Agriculturist 


are the Ist and 16th of the month—no Sunday 
rest. The work is hard and especially exacting 
in May, June and July—everybody in the field 
at 5-30 a.m., back at ll a.m., and out again at 
1 p.m. till 6 p.m. 


SPANDARD OF LivING. 


Against this, living is on a higher standard 
than in Ceylon or the F M §&., judged 
from the point of view of food and houses. 
It is a real pleasure to go to a far-away 
estate and find fresh milk, fresh butter and 
new-made bread, instead of tinved or stale 
articles. The meat is excellent, owing to the 
presence in the country of Kuropean butchers, 
who cater for the other Europeans. It isa pro- 
fitable business and not below their dignity. By 
the way, why should it be infra diy, to trade 
in fresh products, and not so to deal wholesale 
in tinned ones? There is no objection amongst 
Dutch people to keeping a shop or managing a 
hotel, and consequently there are good shops 
and good hotels. 


In Sumatra, as in Java, the houses are very 
comfortable, being well furnished and provided 
with all the conveniences that may be found in 
Europe. The tobacco companies have not be- 
grudged the money for the grounds surrounding 
managers’ houses, with the result that the latter 
are laid out with a certain grandeur. Sumatra 
planters are fond of saying that assistants in 
the FMS are sometimes put in bungalows 
where they would not put their coolies. 


The Impression throughout is that Europeans 
are there for a longer time than in the FM§, 
and it is confirmed by their relations with the 
natives and their treatment of the Eurasian 
question. One realises that every detail of their 
hfe isin accordance with the rest. The travel— 
jer in Sumatra, as elsewhere, notes that every 
country has stamped its colonies with the mark 
of its own nationality.—Malay Mail, May 11. 


Maracca Rosser Phanrarions, Lrp,—Output 
dry rubber for March 12,500 lb. Total for three 
mouths ending March 3st, 1999, 34,000 Ib. For 
the same period 1908, 4,835 Ib. Increase 
29,165 lb.—Malay Mail, April 5. 

Yam Senc Ruseer Estate.—The output for 
March was 3,160 lb. 

{ncn KennttH Crop.--The rubber harvested 
on Inch Kenneth Rubber Estates, Ltd., for 
March was 3,836 lb. estimated dry. 


Lepgpory Crop.—The manager of the Ledbury 
Rubber Estates, Ltd., reports that the rubber 
crop harvested during the month of March was 
4.444 lb. dry; corresponding month last year 
1,738 lb. dry : total for first three months of 1909, 
12,021 1b. dry ; total for corresponding period 
last year 5,610 1b. dry.—Ibid,, April 7 

RaGALta RusBEk Co., Ltp:—A cable has boen 
received by Messrs McAlister & Co., Singapore, 
from the manager of the Ragalla Estate in which 
he advises that the estimated crop for the 
mouth of March is 940 lb.—Ibid., April 8. 


DamMAnsARA Rugper Crop.—Mr H F Browell, 
Manager, Damansara (Selangor) Rubber Co., 
Ltd., sends the following crop returns :—Crop 
secured list quarter, 1909, 32,124 lb; to date last 
year 24,587 Ib,—Malay Mail, 


and Magazine of the Ceylon Agricultural Society, 


THE CULTIVATION OF THE 
ALMOND TREE. 


( Special.) 

The common almond tree (Amygdalus com- 
munis) is a native of Asia Minor andthe North of 
Africa where it has been cultivated from ancient 
times. One of the earliest references to it is 
found in the Old Testament. The fruit is either 
sweet or bitter—a fact which many botanists 
have endeavoured to explain by a differenco in 
species. The probability is that the original 
almond was bitter and from it the sweet almond 
was produced by selection, the latter being after- 
wards brought to perfection by careful culti- 
vation and broken up into a number of varieties. 

In the cultivation of the almond in modern 
times the 


FIRST RANK HAS BEEN CLAIMED BY FRANCE, 


from which country the best and the best- 
known varieties are, for the most part, obtained. 
Some of these varieties, which belong to the class 
of the sweet almonds, are known as Amande des 
dames, Languedoc, Sultana, Pistache and Douce 
a coque dure, and each is characterised by the 
size, form, flavour, etc., of its fruit. This 
position, however, occupied by France, has 
recently been imperilled by the formidable 
rivalry of California, which has succeeded in 
producing several new valuable varieties such as 
Excelsior, Non plusultra, Nonpareil, Il Suprama 
and Commercial. The latter deserves special 
mention. The tree exhibits a peculiar com- 
pressed growth and retains some leaves until 
the end of winter. It is very prolific and the 
almonds, provided with a thin husk, are 
sweet, delicate and very large. In the 
trade, however, the 


JORDAN ALMONDS ARE PKIZED 


the most. These are not, as is commonly sup- 
posed, produced on the Jordan, but in the 
neighbourhood of Malaga (Spain). No doubt 
their good qualities are due to the influences of 
soil and climate, for this variety does not meet 
with the same favour in other countries. Next 
in order of merit come the broad almonds of 
Valencia, to which the previous remark is also 
applicable. The almonds of Provence are 
also renowned, which is indicated by the fact 
that in the commercial city of Aix the annual 
turn-over in this commodity reaches the value 
of £125,000. France’s total exports of almonds 
to foreign countries are valued yearly at £800,000, 


THE SWEET ALMONDS 


contain considerable quantities of a very delicate 
fatty oil, also sugar, gum and mucilage. Beside 
being very nutritious they possess a pleasant 
taste. They are used for the most part in fancy 
bakery, in the kitchen, as dessert and in medi- 
cine for the purpose of making cooling drinks. 
The bitter almonds contain the same substances, 
but in addition Amygdalin, from which a pecu- 
liar volatile oil is prepared. This oil, when 
puritied, is likewise used in the kitchen and 
fancy bakery but also in the toilet soap factories 
for perfuming purposes. In the impure state 
it is sometimes employed in medicine in place 
of pure prussic acid, 


74 


585 


The almond tree 
THRIVES BEST IN THE SUB-TROPICAL ZONE, 
where it is indeed a native, for neither a 
moist nora cold climate is favourable to its 
growth. In the warm revions of the temperate 
zone, however, its cultivation is also successful; 
only the harvests are always very uncertain on 
account of the injury that is often inflicted by 
the frost on the early shooting buds. The 
sweet almond is even more sensitive to cold 
than the bitter one,and consequently its sphere 
of cultivation is much more limited. This fact, 
combined with the keener demand there is for 
it renders the sweet almond dearer in price and 
therefore, its cultivation more remunerative. 
For this reason the preference should always 
be given to the cultivation of the sweet al- 
mond; that is, in those places where the cli- 
mate and soil are quite suitable. Like the 
fig tree, the almond cannot stand the exces- 
sive moisture of the tropics and it is only 
grown there at the expense ofits fertility. The 


CLIMATE AS WELL AS THE SOIL SHOULD BE WARM 

AND DRY; 
addition, must be free and 
possible, rich in lime 
—such a soil, in fact, as is required for 
the cherry tree in the temperate zone. The 
most favourable situation for its cultivation is 
on the ridge or slope of a hill, Level land 
should only be chosen when there is no 
danger of it being flooded. While a large 
amount of moisture is injurious, it is also im- 
portant that the needs of the almond tree are 
completely satisfied in this respect. It has 
been found by experience that artificial irri- 
gation has a detrimental effect. Although the 
tree is not specially sensitive to wind, it should 
not be left exposed on all sides. If there is 
no protection afforded by elevated ground, a 
natural barrier in the form of trees may be 
set up to break the force ef the wind. For the 
CULTIVATION AND PROPAGATION OF THE FINEST 
varieties of the almond tree, grafting is 
also essential, and this gives rise to the ques- 
tion: What are the most suitable trees to use 
for this purpose? The selection of these will 
depend, to a great extent, on the soil and cli- 
matic conditions. In districts, for example, 
where it is desirable that some power of with- 
standing the influences of the weather should 
be imparted by the process, the plum tree will 
be found the most advantageous (Myrobolama 
excepted}, and especially’ the fast-growing and 
early ripening varieties. The grafting should 
be done on a twig not thicker than } inch ; 
otherwise the growing over, of the part where 
the grafting has taken place, will last too long. 
If, on the other hand, the soilin question con- 
tains more moisture than is good for the 
almond tree, the peach tree, as being partial 
to a moist situation, should be chosen asa 
base. In the case of avery dry soil, however, 
it is recommended to employ the almond tree 
itself and preferably the bitter variety, if the 
soil and climatic conditions are favourable to its 
growth. Where the latter is not available, the 
hard-husked sweet variety or even one of the soft- 
husked varieties may be taken for the purpose, 

In the growing of almond trees for the 
purpose of grafting, the seeds should be first 


the latter, in 
deep and, wherever 


586 


pressed gently on the sides until the out- 
side green husk is no more than evident. 
Care must, of course, be taken in the process 
that no harm is done to the kernel, The seeds 
are then put into a carefully prepared bed at 
a distance of 6 inches from one another and 
covered with light fine earth toa height of 2 
inches. If protection is necessary against vermin 
some lime and ashes may be spread over the 
seeds. In districts where the wiuter is so severe 
that the sowing of the seeds harvested in the 
summer or autumn must be postponed until 
spring, or where the postponement is deemed 
advisable, the seed should be placed in slightly 
moist sand and stored in the cellar during the 
interval. 


When the trees areas thick as a pen-holder 
they are grafted 1—2 inches above the ground. 
Inthe sub-tropics when the treesare well-treated 


THE GRAFTING CAN TAKE PLACE IN AUGUST, 


provided that the seed was sown in the spring 
or in the previous autumn. The transplanting 
will then be carried out in the following spring. 
The most suitable distance to be left between 
the trees is 5 yards in each direction; it is 
only in dwarf culture that the distance can be 
reduced to 4 yards. 


The harvesting of the almonds is simple and 
convenient. It is only necessary to wait until 
the green outside fruit husks have sprung open 
when the almonds, which have fallen out, may 
be picked up from under the trees. This, how- 
ever, requires a good deal of time, for the 
springing open of the husks does not take place 
within a narrow limited period and is besides 
only incomplete in the case of many varieties. 
It is preferred, therefore, in the larger plant- 
ations to pluck the almonds like other fruit 
and break open the husks after they are brought 
into the granary. Thisis alsoa slow process 
if carried out by means of a wooden hammer, 
so that the invention of a machine for 
doing the work is a ‘‘consummation de- 
voutly to be wished” by the almond cultivator. 


FERTILISATION, 


With regard to this subject there is unfortu- 
nately not much available data on which to 
base conclusions, but the facts that are known 
are presented here for the consideration of the 
reader. The amount of plant food contained in 
the leaves and branches of the almond tree is 
practically immaterial for our purpose, as_it is 
for the most partreturned to the soil, What 
we must consider is the quantities of the im- 
portant constituents that are withdrawn per- 
manently from the soil through the medium of 
the fruil. According to the analysis of Zedeler, 
the almond contains :— 

38°20 parts per 1,000 of Nitrogen 
13°70, aa 3 99 Potash 


», Phosphoric acid 
», Lime 


£30 aisie he stah se 
A tree, therefore, in full bearing, which yields 

annually 45 1b of almonds (without husks), will 
remove annually from the soil :— 

1°68 lbs Nitrogen 

0°60 ,, Potash 

0:94 ~,, Phosphoric acid 

o'19 ,, Lime 


The Supplement to the Tropical Agriculturist 


Assuming now there aro 40 trees to the acre, 
we find that the quantities of the important 
fertilising ingredients removed per acre from 
the soil by the corresponding crop of almonds— 
1,800 tb,—are :— 

67°2 Ib. Nitrogen 37°6 lb. Phosphoric acid 
24:0in. Potash (Pas Lime 

From these figures it is plainly evident that, 
if the almond tree is to maintain its prolifity, 
the soil must be replenished with the proper 
amounts of plant food. How is this to be ac 
complished? In the first place, it will be neces- 
sary to find an economic method of supplying 
Nitrogen, for it would prove too costly to 
apply this constituent all in the form of 
chemical manures. From the figure given 
above there would bo necessary for this purpose 
no less a quantity of Nitrate of Soda than 3} 
cewts. per acre. It is preferable, therefore, to 
have recourse to green manuring and to supple- 
ment this with small quantities of Nitrate of 
Soda or Sulphate of Ammonia. 


On calcareous soils, or soils which are not poor 
in lime, Sainfoin should be cultivated every 
third, fourth or fifth year and ploughed in at the 
time of flowering. This will supply with roots, 
stems, etc., at least 180-220 lb. of Nitrogen per 
acre, corresponding to 10,000-13,000 Ib. gresn 
material. This manuring along with an appli- 
cation of 2-24 lb. Nitrate of Soda or Sulphate 
of Ammonia per tree will provide sufticient 
Nitrogen. 

On sandy soils it isadvisable to grow lupines 
every second or third year. This crop, buried 
in the green condition, will supply 130 Ib.- 
Nitrogen per acre or 13,000 lb. of green material. 


Inthe case of many sandy soils or sandy- 
loams the better plant is Bird’s-foot (Orni- 
thopus), which will supply 10,000 lb. of green 
material, equivalent to 120 lb. of Nitrogen per 
acre, It is recommended to cultivate this crop 
every alternate year, In the same way, many 
other leguminous crops may be grown for the 
purpose of enriching the soil with Nitrogen, but 
at the same time it will be found advantageous 
to supplement this method by the application 
of artificial nitrogenous manures at the rate 
indicated above. 


Referring again to the figures at the begin- 
ning we find that each almond tree requires 
yearly 060 1b, Potash or 40 trees (occupying 
one acre) 240 lb. To restore this constituent to 
the soil, ong of the three following salts should 
be applied and at the rate suggested :— 

Per Tree Per acre (40 trees) 


Sulphate of Potash 14 lb. 60 Ib. 
Muriate of Potash nn “4 
Kainit 6 lb. 240 lb, 


The Sulphate ot Potash should be employed 
preferably on the heavy soils deficient in lime, 
while the Muriate is to be reserved for those 
containing sufficient lime and Kainit for the 
sandy soils. 

With regard to phosphoric acid we observe 
that each tree is responsible foran annual loss 
of 0°94 lb. or 40 trees (occupying 1 acre) 37°6 lb. 
It will, therefore, be necessary to use the fol- 
lowing quantity of one or other of the phos- 
phatic manures :— 


Per tree. 
Superphosphate 5 Ib. 
Basic Slag 6 1b. 


Per acre (40 trees.) 
200 Ib, 
240 Ib, 


and Magazine of the Ceylon A gricultural Society. 


In cases where tho soil is well supplied with 
lime it is recommended to use Superphosphate, 
and Basic Slag wherever there isa deficiency of 
this constituent, 

Asa summary of the foregoing remarks, the 
following manurial prescriptions, in addition to 
greeu-manuring, may be laid down for the 
different classes of soils :— 


I. Heavy soils deficient in lime. 


Per tree. 
Basic Slag 6 lb. 
Sulphate of Potash _ 13 5, 
Sulphate of Ammonia.. Dees, 

Ii. Soils containing sufficient lime. 

Per tree. 
Superphosphate 5 Ib. 
Muriate of Potash Ws 
Nitrate of Soda 2h yy 


III. Sandy Soils. 


Per tree, 
Basic Slag . 6 lb. 
Kainit ie (a 
Sulphate of Ammonia... CAPR 


These manurial recipes, of course, apply only 
to trees which are in full bearing. In the case 
of younger trees and trees planted more closely 
togethor, the quantities of the different manures 
fer application per tree will have to be lessened 
and calculated in the same way according to the 
yiold per acre, 


The above calculations were also made on the 
assumption that the soil on which the almond 
trees are cultivated is naturally poor. If the 
soil be fertile, however, it is clear that tho 
quantities of tho manures may be correspon- 
dingly reduced. It is impossible here to enter 
into details, but it may be stated generally that 
the best and surest method of determining the 
requirements of the soil is to carry out suitabio 
experiments. 


While the phosphatic and potash manures 
should be applied and ploughed in ix the autumn, 
or at the beginning of the winter, the Nitrate 
of Soda or Sulphate of Ammonia will be more 
advantageously appiied in the spring and in- 
corporated with the surface soil. 


In soils which contain an abundance of lime, 
good effects will be produced by tho use of [ron 
Sulphate applied at the rate of 40-70 lb. per acre. 


In order to show finally the actual advan- 
tages that may be obtained in practice by the 
judicious manuring of the almond trees, we 
may quote the results of an experiment carried 
out in 1907-08 by Mr Emilio Albiach in Ali- 
cante, Spain. The trees, which were 20-25 years 
old at the time of the experiment, had been 
previously manured merely with the ashes of 
the husks. Three plots in all were taken and 
while one was feft uamanured and another 
received Superphosphatoe, 330 lb. per acre, and 
Nitrate of Soda and Sulphate of Ammonia each 
80 lb, per acre, the other plot got the same 
quantities of the iast-mentioned materials and, 
in addition, a dressing of Kainit at the rato of 
450 Ib, per acre, that is a ‘‘ complete manu- 
ring.” The Superphosphate, Sulphate of Arm- 
monia and Kainit were applied round the base 
of the trees on the 5th December, 1907, and the 
Nitrate of Soda in the following spring, one 
half in March and the other half in May, The 


587 


harvest took place on the 28th August, 1908, and 
the results may be represented as follows :— 


per 


Ib 
Increase in 
yield per acre 
over un- 
manured Ib. 


anuring 
acre 
crease in yleld 


per acre over 
unmanured— 
| Cost of manu- 
res or actual 
profit per acre 
from manuring. 


Value of in- 


a 
I. Unmanured 
II. Incomplete manuring 
(without potash) 
330 Ib. Superphosphate 
80 1b. Nitrate of Soda 
801b. Sulphate of 
Ammonia 975 642 £2 13s 
III. Complete manuring 
330 lb, Superphosphate 
80 lb, Nitrate of Soda 
80 1b. Sulphate of 
Ammonia 
450 Ib, Kainit 


® Yield per acre 


| 


1,532 1,099 £6 8s 


Comment on these results is needless. They 
testify clearly enough to the practical im- 
portance of restoring to the soil in the culti- 
vation of the aimond the three chief ele- 
ments of plant food—Nitrogen, Phosphoric Acid 
and Potash. 


GEORGH A. COWIE, M.A., B, se, 


CLEAN-WEEDING RUBBER ESTATES. 


May 14th. 


Dear Six,—A good deal has been written on 
the subject of clean-weeding rubber estates, 
Both those iu favour of, and against the system 
have much to say in support of their convictions 
which deserves serious consideration. But 
what the rubber planter wants is the ultimate 
analysis of the whole question, Personally, I 
find that clean weeding tends to promote 
greater growth of the tree, and this is generally 
acknowledged. Jf exposure of the soil results 
in surface deterioration, it obviously does not 
affect the plant injuriously, while the decidu- 
ous character of the Para rubber tree would 
seem to prevent impoverishment of the soil. 
Then again, clean weeding is only necessary 
during the first few years of the life of an 
estate, 7,.¢. until the branches of the tree afford 
over-head shade, If, therefore, the planter 


. finds that clean weeding helps the tree to grow 


more quickly, returns on his outlay are sooner 
realisable, This is a consideration not to be 
neglected unless if can be conclusively proved 
that clean weeding during the earlier years of 
the existence of a plantation affects it injuri- 
ously later on, 


I have adopted a system of clean weeding 
along the lines of the trees, and at right angles 
to the slope of the ground, which seems to me 
to serve several useful purposes. The root 
areas of the trees are kept free from noxious 
weeds, and light and air are freely admitted. 
The cleared strips form paths which facilitate 
inspection of the estate, and the uncleared 
strips of scrub between the lines of trees pre- 
vent wash and thus eavethe expense of drains, 
whilo affording protection to the young rubber 
against wind. 


‘“ HEVEA BRASILIENSIS,” 


088 
RUBBER PLANTING IN THE STRAITS. 


AN INTERVIEW WITH MR. E, V. CAREY. 


Mr, E. V. Carey, the well-known rubber 
planter of the Straits, was spent a fortnight in 
Ceylon on his way home, was good enough to 
give a Ceylon Observer representative a full ac- 
count of the present conditions and future pros- 
pects of rubber planting in the parts which he 
has just visited. Everything, it seems, was 
flourishing extraordinarily in the Straits and 
things were going on satisfactorily in every way. 


CROTALARIA AND Passion FLOWER. 


One question was greatly interesting planters 
there, that of growing crotalaria and passion 
flower. ‘‘ Personally,” he said, ‘‘I don’t think 
there is any one of them to be compared to 
clean weeding, simply on the score that on a 
clean estate a manager can supervise a very 
much larger area of land. Management is none 
too easy a question and to have the burden of 
attending to these different products, that are 
planted to keep weeds down, means an 
enormous amount of extra supervision. In 
some cases out there you see crotalaria over 
a@ man’s head and it is impossible to supervise 
a gang of coolies working in stuff standing over 
their heads. How about 


Mimosa ? 


I don’t think there’s a single advocate of 
mimosa in the country. It is full of thorns, 
which cause coolies’ feet to ulcer badly, and alto- 
gether, as far as I can judge, it is quite an 
undesirable thing as compared with passion 
creeper. There 1s a good deal to be said for 
the passion creeper as long as itis the fashion 
at whatever cost to try and thoroughly clean 
land of weeds, which are probably in themselves 
almost harmless, such as small -needle grass, 
and the plant known as valacha which Ceylon 
planters know very well. From what [ 
saw, passion creeper on land which is extraordi- 
narily expensive to weed, and I am not inclu- 
ding lalang in that, ought to be a very useful 
thing indeed. It is very easily cultivated on 
most lands and very easily exterminated; and 
there is no doubt that it kills all the weeds 
under it. It forms a tremendous thick blanket 
on the ground and the weeds don’t have a 
chance with it. They aresimply choked. I have 
not sufficient experience to say that it is going 
to do an extraordinary amount 


To Krrp Latane Down. 


1 was told in one place in which the lalang 
had been cut out, and probably not properly 
eradicated, that the passion creeper had taken 
a tremendous hold to start with ; but that after 
some timethe lalang began to shoot up through 
it. I think that most old planters feel that 
clean weeding is the best thing, and next to 
that this passion creeper. Crotalaria does not 
seem to kill weeds, although it chokes them. 


TAPPING. 


And how about the tapping yield ? 

The tapping yield is all thatcould possibly 
be expected, and better. Tapping on most estates 
that I saw was very carefully done and all the 


The Supplement to the Tropical Agriculturist 


men that I spoke to seemed to take a very 
keen and intelligent interest in the whole thing, 
especially in the way in which the trees were 
treated, and they have the uld Ceylon spirit of 
thoroughly discussing and thrashing things out. 


Tue Nortuway SystEM, 


There is a lot of talk about the new Northway 
system of tapping, although nobody has any 
data to go upon. The general feeling seems to 
be that it is impossible to handle the pricker so 
carefully that it won’t penetrate the cambium 
and wound the wood. Our experience has been 
that wherever the wood is wounded, you get a 
knotty uneven development of the bark and stem, 
instead of a smooth healed surface; and a good 
many men appear to fear that people who com- 
mit themselves to the new pricking system may 
possibly create a condition of things in the 
shape ofthe trees which will render any ordinary 
methods of tapping by knives practically an 
impossibility in the future. I have no per- 
sonal experience of any of this suggested 
damger in connection with the Northway 
system of pricking and I only repeat what 
people say and seem to fear, my own expe- 
rience being confined to the definite knowledge 
of what results from wounds generally but 
not particularly in connection with pricking. 
It seems to me that we get very satistactory 
yields indeed; with a minimum of damage to 
the trees, by the ordinary shaving provess, and 
I think that the adoption of this new idea is 
rather a case of forsaking the substance for 
the shadow. I will not allowit on any estate 
with which I have anything to do although I 
shall, of course, be very glad to benefit by the 
experience of others. 


Tur YirLD UNDER THE EXISTING SYSTEM. 


Can you give me any figures as to yield under 
the existing tapping system ? 

Well, I can tell you that, on one estate, trees 
which are from seven to nine years old are now 
considered to be in full tapping order, and 
are yielding an 


AVERAGE OF SEVEN POUNDS A TREE, 


I can also tell you that at my own place I am 
getting this year 400 lb an acre from trees plan- 
ted 10 by 10 which are 53 to 63 years old. The 
feeling out there seems to be that in close 
planted rubber the renewal later becomes thin 
because it appears to be in direct proportion to 
the leaf head that the tree carries, and therefore 
it seems likely that in my own particular case, 
10 by 10 planting, there will have to be thinning 
out in the future. 


THE NuMBER OF CooLiES REQUIRED. 
How many coolies do you want for an acre? 


At the present moment I have a force amoun- 
ting to onecooly anacre. I have 187 acres being 
tapped and I have a force of under 200 coolies 
all told. These coolies, in addition to working 
all that, also weed another 275 acres, roughly, 
and keep them in order. The whole opened 
area is 450 acres and I have at present a force of 
something like 200 coolies. That, however, is 
insufficient and I am going to double my force, 
because I believe that one should always have a 
considerable margin of labour, for the reason 


and Magazine uf the Ceylon Agricultural Society. 


that trees are constantly coming into bearing 
and that their produce should be extracted 
instead of being left in the tree. The ideal of 
tapping seems to be that every quarter all the 
trees that have then attained the minimum tap- 
ping circumference, whatever it may be, 16 or 18 
inches, should be at once handled instead of 
being left idle, and that all the trees that have 
matured up tothat point should be taken regu- 
larly as they come on. I should think that 
when all the trees are in bearing, one cooly per 
acre would be a perfectly safe maximum for 
tapping purposes. I am, with the force men- 
tioned above, getting 400lb.an acre, but itis 
only in its second year of bearing. 


THE Cost of PRODUCTION. 


Is the cost of production of rubber being 
reduced ? 


Well, 1 can’t teli you that exactly. They are 
always improving. 

Do you think it will ever be put on the market 
at 6d or 8d per pound?—I don’t see later on why 
it should not be put on at 9d. per pound. 


A Surricrent Laspour Force. 


Do you think the labour force suflicient in the 
Straits P—I do, but the system has, of course, 
its apparent drawbacks. 


FREEDOM FROM DEBT. 


Do you agree with Mr R W Harrison that it 
is a bad mistake to Jand the coolies on the 
F.M.S. estates free of all debt ? 


No. I don’t. [think it is a very good thing 
as a general advertisement for the country. 
The individual may feol it, perhaps; but as a 
general advertisement for the country, 1 don’t 
think there could be a better scheme. I| think 
myself that speaking generaliy it is a splendid 
war cry for all recruiting that the coolies are 
landed without any debt. Obviously it must 
be. I don’t see how it can be refuted, If 
there is animpression broadcast in the villages 
that a cooly when he comes over, whatever has 
been spent on him. has nothing to repay, it 
must have a good effect. The advertisement of 
being able to come over free of debt seems to 
me of enormous value to the country. 


Does not the fact of their being free from 
debt give you less hold on them ? 


No. I don’t think so. As far as I under 
stand it, the attitude of the Gevernment is that 
if a cooly has a debt,the only process of recovery 
is a civil one. You can’t make a cooly stop 
longer than he wishes; and if by bolting he can 
evade a debt which is a burden to him, it seems 
to me that he is likely to do so. He is less 
likely to bolt if he has not got that burden. 


On Juara ISLAND, 


The Jugra Island property is of course surroun- 
ded by water. No spirit of any kind is allowed 
on the place and therefore there are no attrac- 
tions to coolies to enable them to squander their 
money. During this year, up to date, over 
R10,000 have been remitted to India from that 
place alone, through our manager, who remits 
all their savings, at the rate of exchange of the 
day, without any cost to the cooly. Planters are 
trying to get coolies as hard asever they can and 


589 


they aresaid to be coming in lots cf 10, 15 and 
20 men. On Jugra Island, however, there have 
been four shipments of 40, 75, 90, and 125. From 
what I could find out there was no parallel in 
any other property to anything of the kind. I 
attribute that directly to the fact that owing to 
our insular position and the fact that our labour 
is all raw material from the Coast, the coolies 
have not got into touch with the gin shops and 
other inducements to spend money and they 
remain at home. Their relations and friends see 
the money coming over, they think itis a good 
country to go to, and they go. 


THe Estate Kappt System. 


We supply all our stuff from the estate kaddi, 
practically everything that the coolies require, 
On pay days if they want things they cannot get 
from the estate kaddi they are, up to a certain 
number, allowed togo to Port Swettenham in 
order to get what they want. 


Do you think the kaddi system a good one? 


Yes, a thoroughly good one. I am the firmest 
possible believer in direct financial arrange- 
ments between the superintendent and each in- 
dividual cooly. I don’t believe in letting the 
kangani have any financial power whatever over 
the cooly and I believe iv helping the cooly to 
avoid chetties, shopkeepors, and all people who 
live on his stupidity. That is the secret of pro- 
per organisation and control. I don’t say itis 
possible in Ueylon, but I believe it is. 


THE HEALTH OF THE COOLIES, 


How about the health of the coolies ? 

The health varies very much in different 
places, but speaking generally one does not hear 
so much about ill health as before. On ourown 
piace, Jugra Island, for instance, the day that I 
went into the hospital [ found three in the hos- 
pital out of a labour force of something like 
1,700. I think that on the whole the conditions 
are in favour of labour going over, 


SANITATION, 


Have you done much in the way of sanitation? 

There isa movement on the part of Govern- 
ment now to regulate sanitation pretty closely 
in connection with this 


ANCHYLOSTOMIASIS, 


There is no doubt whatever that it isa move- 
ment in the right direction because the anaemic 
condition of the coolies, which is directly due 
to anchylostomiasis, is very pronounced and 
very common, especially when they come over 
from the coast, but the Government must be 
very careful how they get towork. They are 
trying to introduce the latrine system but 
there are difficulties in the way and they must 
proceed cautiously. They must be careful, for 
instance, not to run up against caste prejudices. 


WHITE ANTs. 


Mr. Carey then referred to the trouble caused 
by white ants and fungus and said :— 

I don’t think the white ants area very serious 
thing at all. I believe planters have the con- 
trol of them on quite simple lines, entirely in 
their own hands, but I don’t think the subject 
has been as carefully gone into as it should 
have been during the last few years and con- 


590 


sequently ants have got established on patches 
of estates and they take some time to eradicate. 
The new pump, by means of which a hole is 
bored in the tree and gas forced in, is likely to 
doa great deal of good. In one case I heard 
of, fumes were forced into a trea and came out 
of another 30 or 40 feet away. All the ants 
in that area were destroyed. Lhe nests must 
be got at and destroyed. There is a system 
now of putting on a gang of men to examine the 
old logs right through the estate, even when 
there are no particular outbreaks of ants 
to warrant it, in the hopo that the nests will be 
discovered and destroyed before the ants 
actually begin to attack the rubber. It 13 a 
remedial measure, a very sensible one, and the 
expense is not at all heavy. 


Funaus. 


There are all sorts of different stories about 
the fungus; but the general idea seems to be 
that if you have an alert Superintendent, he 
can isolate attacks by means of drainage. A 
trench is cut right round the spot where the 
fungus is, the ground is then thoroughly dug up, 
all wood carrying any trace of fungus on it 1s 
destroyed and the ground is very freely limed 
with the result that they seem to be able to 
handle it quite easily. 1t does not seem to 
attack trees of over three years of age, 


Proeress on JuGRa ISLAND. 


Finally, Mr. Carey, can you tell me what 
progress has been made lately on Jugra Lsland ? 


We started work in August, 1996, and by 
the end of this year we shall have 4,000 acres 
planted, mostly in rubber, although a few 
hundred aeres will be in coconuts, We have 
not got anything more than 20 months old. 
We extended our programme from 2,000 to 
4,000 acres and issued £42,000 of convertible 
debenture stock to enable us to doso. Over 
£100,000 was subscribed about 6 weeks ago and 
the prospects are very fine indeed. 


VULCGANIZATION TESTS IN PLANTA- 
TION RUBBERS. 


AT THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. 
Methods of Preparation more important than 
ages of trees. 


At the meeting of the London section of the 
Society of Chemical Industry, held on May 3, 
Dr J Lewkowitsch being in the chair, Messrs 
Clayton Beadle and H P Stevens described 
certain chemical and physical tests made on 
samples of rubber from plantation block, crépe 
and biscuit from young and old trees, and also 
a specimen of fine hard Pararubber. These 
experiments were made on the raw rubber, and 
on this material vuleanised either with sulphur 
only or with sulphur and mineral! mattor. These 
experiments, together with viscosity tests on 
raw and manufactured rubber, lead to the con- 
clusion that the method employed in coagulat- 
ing and treating the latex has a greater influence 
on variations in the quality of plantation rubber 
than any difference in the ages of the trees. 
—London Times, May 5. 


The Supplement to the Tropical Agriculturist 


THE WATTLE BARK INDUSTRY 
FOR CEYLON. 


We direct attention to the letter of MrA J 
Kellow which is prompted by a recent paragraph 
on the subject of the wattle-bark industry of 
Victoria in a commercial paper. We direct local 
Government attention to the need for some real 
enterprise in leasing, say, 1,000acre blocks of land 
on the Uva patanas for an industry like this, If 
such facilities were made known, there would pro- 
bably be enterprising growers ready to take it 
up. 100 percent. at the 8th year—even com- 
pared with rubber—is attractive enough; and 
this on a basis which is little above 50 per 
cent, of the current range of prices in London 
and Australia, a level that keeps fairly steady, 


Albion, Nuwara Eliya, May 20th. 
Dear %in,--The accompanying cutting, re 
‘‘Wattle Bark,” contains much Interesting in- 
formation :— 


THe WartLe Bark INDUSTRY OF VICTORIA: 


A Market 1n LonpDon, 


The Master Tanners and feather Manufacturess of 
Victoria haye not been able to comply with the condition 
laid down by the Government that they should guarantee 
a fixed price per ton for all wattle bark grown by the 
Government during a term of years, in connection with the 
Association’s request that the Government should provide 
an adequate supply of home grown bark. The Association 
has forwarded a letter to the Minister of Forests, stating 
that while the members of the Association will always be 
willing to pay the highest price of the day for all bark for 
sale by the Government, they cannot guarantee any fixed 
price, At present tanners are paying fancy prices for bark, 
and many members of the Association have been compelled 
to reduce their output of leather for export solely on 
account of their inability to secure sufficient supplies of 
wattle bark. The Association considers that its request 
can be justified on sound business lines, as at £5 per ton it 
pays the land owner handsomely to grew wattle bark, and 
“there is practically, if not absolutely, no possibility of the 
price ever again going below £6.” Itis further urged that 
if in years to come, a3 a consequence of the planting of large 
areas with wattle bark by the Victorian Government, the 
supply should exceed the local demand, there will always 
be a sure and profitable outlet for any surplus ia London, 
where the present quotation for good Australian bark is 
£1010s. The Association therefore reiterates its request 
that the Government should largely increase the area of 
its wattle plantations. 


Considering the proved suitability of the upland 
patanas for the growth of Acacia decurrens— 
the variety producing the ‘‘ Wattle Bark” of 
commerce—there is a wide field open for the 
enterprise, if the Government could be brought 
to see the desirability of encouraging the move- 
ment, by either selling, or leasing, a few blocks 
of 1,000 acres each, for the sole purpose of Wattle 
cultivation, and thus bring more traffic to 
that portion of the Railway referred to by Mr. 
Ferguson at the last meeting of the Highland 
Tea Coinpany, as follows :— 

Mr Ferguson—said he would remember it when he went 
back to Ceylon. With others he had been pointing 
out to the Government the expense of the Haputale 
extension of the Railway, which was bringing in little or 
no traffic to the Government which had spent hundreds of 
thousands on abeut 15 miles of Railway. They had said: 
“Tf you cannot sell land, cannot you lease it on condition 
that the buyers should plant a certain area with trees for 
wind belts; and in that way you would get traffic for 
the railway and not at all affect the rainfall or anything 
of the kind,” (Hear, hear.) A few trees would even improve 


the rainfall. It would keep the rain on the ground better 
than patana. 


and Magazine of the Ceylon Agricultural Society. 


Many estates have already planted up Acacia 
decurrens—first for wind belts, or fuel supply, 
and latterly as a source of green manure. Occa- 
sionally one hears of a consigument of a few 
ewts. of bark to London, and because—as might 
have been expected—the experiment has proved 
a financial failure owing to the small quantity 
sent in, the verdict has always been against it 
as a possible paying ‘‘ege basket’; but any one 
might as well send a few odd Ibs. of—say tea— 
and expect to get its full value. What is wantod 
is a regular supply in appreciable quantities. 


In 1904, I wrote an essay (for the Tropical 
Agriculturist) entitled ‘* Wattle Cultivation in 
Ceylon,”—obtainable in pamphlet-form at the 
Observer office—in which I endeavoured to show 
what it might do if taken up ona sufliciently 
large scale: with an estimate, based on actual 
experience, of the quantity of bark procurablo 
per tree; and taking £6 in Colombo as probable 
value per ton, showing a profit of over 100 per 
cent in the Sth year, whereas present quotation 


is £10 10s per ton in London. 
Dr. 
Expenditure on 100 acres to 7th year R18,C00 
do do in 8th year 73,000 


Cr. 
By 1,500 ton bark at £6 in Colombo £9,000=R135,600 


120,000 trees for fuel at 50 cts, each 60,000 
Total expenditure R91,000 

Profit 104,600 R195,000 
R195,090 


Yours faithfuliy, 
A. J. KELLOW. 


LOCUSTS ON LAWNS: A CURE. 


May 21st. 

Dear Srr,—A species of small locust or grass- 
hopper is very destructive to lawns in the 
Ceylon low-country. Most people, who take 
pride in having a lawn in the garden, find these 
pests most troublesome, and on the Colombo 
Golf Links, L believe, they prove to be a great 
pest. 1 send you this cutting, which I have had 
by me for some time, and I feel sure it will be 
found worth trial by the Ground-Secretary of 
the Colombo Golf Club ; whileit is worth pub- 
lication in the Tropical Agriculturist, as of use in 
all countries where such locusts are troublesome: 


What has come to be knownas the ‘Criddle mixture’ is 
giving most satisfactory results in dealing with grasshop- 
pers on the ranches of both the United States and Canada. 
The mixture is composed of half a barrel of fresh horse 
droppings in which is mixed a pound each of salt and 
Paris green. If the horse droppings are not fresh the salt 
is dissolved in water and mixed with the manure and 
poison. When this mixture is scattered freely about where 
the grasshoppers are abundant they seem to be attracted 
to it, for they devourit readily and are poisoned thereby: 
Dr. James Fletcher, Entomologist for the Dominion of 
Canada, cites an instance where this mixture had been 
scattered freely around the edges of a field, and states that 
this particular field stood out as a green patch in a brown 
plain, asit was situated in the midst of field where no- 
thing had been done to destroy the grasshoppers, This 
‘Criddle mixture’ now seems preferable to the poisoned 
bran remedy thathas given, and still continues to give, 
beneficial results, forit is less expensive than the latter 
and less likely to poison other animal life. 


The grasshopper in the States and Canada is 
a species of Melanoplus; I do not know the 
Ceylon species,—Yours truly, 
L. L, C, 


591 
PLANTING METHODS IN B.C. AFRICA. 


Nyasaland, April 2nd. 

DEAR Srr,—I see a letter in your issue of 
January last, written from Mlanji and dated 
lith November, criticising H. B.’s methods of 
cultivation, &c, My reply to the gentleman who 
sigus himself ‘‘ Planter’ is: ‘‘Would the power 
the giftie gie us,” as Burns put it, to enable 
‘+ Planter’ to see himself as others see him. 
Your remarks, viz, that ‘‘ Planter” does not 
want Ceylon men to come to Nyasaland is quite 
true; but it would do him good and others too 
to have a Job of Ceylon here, although there 
might be the danger of ‘‘Planter” losing his billet 
which is evidently the crux of his whole letter. 


Plenty of men in this country have started 
planting on less than even a few hundred 
pounds of capital—with the assistance of the 
Cottou Growers’ Association alone, and have 
done well, too. Of course they had the land. 


Ceara rubber has been in Nyasaland growing 
like a weed in the bush for 20 years and more, 
and many, who tried it, could not make it pay 
any more than Ceylon planters did, and have 
dug it out. New methods of tapping may yield 
better results, but this remains to be proved. 
**Planter’’ speaks of drink being the ruin of men 
here (he might as well have mentioned drugs, 
too); this takes place all the world over un- 
fortunately. ‘‘Planter’ wants figures regarding 
the yield of tea, &c. ‘There is no need for this 
request seeing, as he says, he has been 5 years in 
Mlanji, for he should be in a position to supply 
them himself ; and I am sure all will be pleased 
to see those tigures published. 


A great drawback to this country is the want 
of the experienced Visiting Agents system, the 


same as exists in Ceylon. 


Company Managers are the men who usually 
visit and report on estates in Nyasaland and 
their visits are made perhaps once in a year and 
perhaps not for two years, so that Superinten- 
dents of estates do absolutely as they please. 
The result is reckless expenditure of public 
money, as far as Companies are concerned, 


I have known a man put in charge of an estate 
here who, without consulting his neighbours, 
raised the pay of ordinary labour to more than 
twice the amount paid by others—for no reason 
whatever except to impress upon the natives 
that he was a big white man. Of course, the 
money was not his own. 


Unfortunately this throwing away of money 
is not confined to new-comers, but to men who 
have been in the planting line for a long time. 
So itis not to be wondered at that ‘ Planter” 
says £1,500 to £2,000 isrequired to start planting 
in Nyasaland, 


I have known men here start paying 3s. per 
month, the usual rate for village labourers, and 
keep these men on, raising their pay to 6s. 
because they were too lazy to teach other men 
pruning. How would Ceylon planters fare 
if they were too lazy or indifferent to teach 
thoir coolios pruning ? I guess they would get 
their walking ticket, 


592 


A few hundred pounds would enable any man 
to start in Nyasaland. The purchase of land or 
lease is a mere trifle and the rest of his capital, 
if employed to grow acrop of tobacco, he can 
double in a year to 18 months’ time, getting 
spot cash for the leaf from the Imperial To- 
bacco Co. in Blantyre. Actual costof opening 
100 acres of landin Nyasaland for coffee in 1898 
was as follows :— 


Felling and clearing 160 men. 
Holing and felling in Me 80 
Lining and peg-making a 10 
Planting and supplying in 20 
Shading om on 30 
240 
Equalto £1 per acre on £100 
Roads 8 miles 800 men—per acre 4 
Supplying !00 acres, 5 men—per acre 2 
Weeding 100 acres, 20 men—per acre 8 
Nurseries seed, &c. ie 10 
Superintendent i . ey 
Tools oe nih nee 10 
R214 
£ECOND YEAR. 
Weeding as above — Ad nee RS 
Nurseries and supplying it ile 3 
Superintendent sa ae 80 
Drains A rip a 10 
Lidl 


There was no bungalow built, as the Superin- 
tendent lived with a neighbour, Inthe second 
year the yield of chillies planted between the 
lines of coffee paid for all the expenses in con- 
nection with the opening and left a handsome 
prcfit to the owner. Noestimate is given for 
the planting of chillies as they were simply 
dibbled in and the cost was absorbed in the 
other items of expenditure. 

Labour is a trifle dearer now than it was in 
1898, but the above estimate is near enough and 
quite reliable. Of course the cost of opening 
and bringing an estate in bearing may be any- 
thing from £2 or £3 per acre to £20 or more en- 
tirely depending on the man and his purse. 

CRITIC. 


CARBON BISULPHIDE ON ESTATES. 


We received by a recent mail from home an en- 
quiry on behalf of a manufacturer, in connection 
with the rubber-growing industry, as to whether 
and in what ways carbon bisulphide will, in fature, 
be largely used on plantations. Onour enquiring 
of Mr. M Kelway Bamber, that gentleman is good 
enough to tell us that carbon bisulphide is 
used for destroying white ants, and attempts 
were made to have apparatus for its manufac- 
ture erected in Ceylon and the Malay States. 
It is very efficacious, but it is difficult to find 
the nests of the ants in rubber clearings as they 
are below the ground level or under tree stumps, 
&c. Mr. Bamber, however, believes they can be 
found if carefully looked for. About 1 or 2 oz. 
of CS2 is poured into the nests and all exits 
closed ; the vapour, being heavier than air, sinks 
down through the nest, destroying the ants en- 
tirely. ‘This was referred to by Mr. E V Carey 
in our interview. If cheaply produced, its 
use might be largely extended in tropical coun- 
tries; but at present Shipping Companies do 
not readily carry it even as deck cargo, owing 
to its poisonous and explosive nature when the 
vapour is mixed with air. 


The Supplement to the Tropical Agriculturist 


JAPANESE SYSTEM OF CHARCOAL 
MANURE 


is one which ought to interest all agricul- 
turists, in the tropics as wellas elsewhere. We 
direct attention, therefore, to the letter of the 
Yokohama Nursery Co., which describes it and 
the points in which it differs from a simpler sys- 
tem it resembles. We shall be glad to hear the 
experiences of any practical planter who takes 
the method up, or meanwhile any criticisms of it 
based on practical knowledge of manuring (tea 
and rubber, especially) already acquired, 

21-35 Nakamura, Yokohama, April 26th, 1909. 

Dear S1r,—While questions of scientific 
fertilisers are under discussion, it may not be 
amiss to report what is doing here in Japan, in 
that matter. We havea method known as the 
“Oyaidzu system of charcoal manure” which is 
highly recommended by Mr Ikeda Kenzo, the 
president of Japan Agricultural Society, and is 
now widely practised. 


This is nothing but charcoal made ofstraw, or 
any other combustible rubbish materials, mixed 
with ordure or other manure which is claimed 
to be very efficacious and produce good crops. 
One-third is said to be sufficient for the purpose 
as the charcoal resists against actions of weather 
and retains power longer than any other way, such 
washing away, blowixg off or evaporating, etc. 
This may seem like the old way of ash _ utilisa- 
tion, but what differs is how the charcoal is pre- 
pared. Great care being taken not to allow the 
material to burn but make it smoulder in a pit 
by adding little by little slowly so as to keep 
flames down yet the whole turn into charcoal with- 
out any portion remaining unburnt. 80 per cent. 
charcoal itis said can be made out of the material 
burnt. If too much be reduced into ash, the per- 
centage will naturally be less. While the char- 
coal is stiJ] warm, liquid manure is poured over 
to a certain degree of moisture when it is ready 
to be stored for future use. It has no offensive 
smell and is very convenient to handle, especially 
where supplies of manure are scarce or transport 
dificult. This may be worth while for your 
planters to try and see what benefit there is in it. 


To sum up, the points are that 80 lb. charcoal 
should be produced out of every 100]b. material 
burntand while the charcoal is still warm manure 
must be sprinkled over.—Y ours faithfully, 


THe YokouamMa Nursery Co., Lrp. 
S. IIDA, Manager. 


THE BARRYDO TAPPING KNIFE. 


We have received from Messrs Brown & David- 
son a booklet regarding this new tapping knife 
(GS Brown’s patent). This is thelatest inven- 
tion in tapping knives, it is claimed, and its chief 
feature is that recurrent expenditure is reduced 
to a minimum. The neat blade with four cutting 


‘edges can be reversed in a minute and the re- 


maining sharp edges employed in whatever dir- 
ection the operator is paring. It cuts right and 
left hand, ‘‘ Puli or Push” without any altera- 
tion or adjustment Itcannot possibly choke 
aud requires no sharpening: itis the simplest 
knife on the market. Requires no adjustment, 
Perfectly safe. 


and Magazine of the Ceylon Agricultural Society 


THE NORTHWAY TAPPING SYSTEM. 


A SERIOUS DISCOVERY. 

It will be remembered that about six months 
ago there were rumours that anew system of 
tapping rubber trees had been discovered, for 
which there were claimed mary advantages over 
the various styles of tapping then in vogue, 
The inventor, Mr. Northway, supported by 
experienced Ceylon planters, stated that it was 
to be commended for simplicity in working, less 
likelihood of damage to the tree and increased 
work by the tappers, and these were among the 
powerful reasons for giving the system an 
exhaustive trial. 


If there were no other reason, the fact that 
our rubber estates in the future would, by the 
new system, require 75 per cent less cooly labour 
for tapping was in itself a sufficient justification 
for the inventor’s clever idea being thoroughly 
exploited ; and we believe that in many in- 
stances the experiments, which have been macte 
up-to-date, have realised expectations. We have 
then learnt with more than ordinary regret that 
the results of trial upon some properties have 
disclosed drawbacks and disadvantages which 
appear to imperil the future and assured 
success of this mode of extracting rubber latex. 


It appears that in certain trees which are 
exceptionally rich in latex at this season of 
the year the incisions caused by the pricker 
close up prematurely, and before the flow 
of latex from the cambium layer has 
ceased, with the result that the latex flows 
down the tree between the cambium layer 
and the bark, where it formsa pad of coagu- 
lated rubber, much resembling a rubber patch 
which is used for repairing the inner tube of 
a motor car tyre. This pad swells and causes 
the bark of the tree to burst away, the pad 
adhering firmly to the wood, which, with 
the cambium, becomes discoloured and black, 
and may prove the fore-runner of decomposi- 
tion of the wood itself unless the pad of rubber 
and the bark are carefully removed. 


Perhaps the most peculiar phase of this state 
of affairs is that these breakaways occur upon a 
small percentage of trees, and those which are 
particularly vigorous and robust and growing 
upon rich, low-lying lands, where undoubtedly 
the secretion of latex is much _ greater 
than upon the hill sides. Wo may mention 
that the trees on which this has taken place 
were pricked about six weeks to two months ago 
and it is only within the Jast three weeks that 
these unfavourable symptoms have developed. 
We sound this note of warning in order that 
all rubber planters (and they are many), who 
are experimenting with the Northway System, 
may carefully watch their pricked trees ; and—if 
they have discovered these danger spots of sub- 
cortical pads of coagulated latex—take such re- 
medial measures as they may consider necessary. 
Should this unsatisfactory state of affairs mani- 
fest itself generally, we fear that the Northway 
system will stand self-condemned. The occur- 
rence of these rubber accumulations under the 
bark would suggest that for any but the slowest- 
flowing latex-bearers there is the danger of the 


(6) 


593 


latex not being able to flow sutticiently freely 
through incisions made by the pricker and that 
thesystem is therefore most suitable—or suitable 
only ?—for the youngest trees, where a free flow 
isnot yet fully established, or those few older 
trees which promise never to give rich yields, 
The wider incisions of the knife, which, with 
subsequent paring, have given perfectly re- 
newed bark, may well—after the above dis- 
coveries—return again to a popularity which 
had only been temporarily shaken. 


In conclusion, in reply to Mr. Wiggin, 
we are quite ready to learn; but the system 
has not yet been tried nearly long enough 
yet for even its warmest advocates to commit 
themselves wholly either! And we under- 
stand the possibility of mistakes through ex- 
cess of zeal is less with the older systems than 
with this new one that starts work on three 
and four-year-old trees in Ceylon. 


Lindula, May 24th, 


Sir,—The coagulation of the orifice made by 
the pricker and sequence as described by your 
article can simply arise from one thing : in- 
sufficient spraying—a result that must arise 
without supervision, Does any one imagine 
Ramasamy carrying and using water if he can 
avoid it ? Why he would actually starve him- 
self if he could exist without the trouble of 
eating ? It is only hunger that makes self-exer- 
tion evident. ‘To the present-day cooly work is 
no pleasure. Neither, since Companies came into 
existence, does he take any interest in his 
estate as a domicile. Make and clear is the order 
of the day as he sees the Agent is to sweat for 
shareholders, so is his ‘‘make for himself.” 
Take private properties now (there are some). 
The life of the labour force thereon is an Eldo- 
rado, No impossibilities forced on to the Super- 
intendents. No impossible estimates to keep up 
to,and only donein many instances at the expense 
of the cooly. This isthe predominant factor 
of the discontent and miserable state our labour 
force has got into, want of sympathy and’ co- 
operation. The Straits appear to have learnt 
their lesson and labour seems to flow over there 
freely enough. Here, Tempora mutantur et 
nos mutamur in itis and not to our advantage 


or welfare.—Yours, &c., 
EK. R. WIGGIN. 


[We would be glad to hear a rubber planter 
on the phenomenon referred to!] 


IT. 
MR. NORTHWAY IN REPLY. 


Deviturai, Ambalangoda, May 25th. 

Srr,—In reference to your article on a defect 
alleged to result from the new tapping system, 
I have not a single tree here that shows any 
sigus whatever of any disease since [ started 
new tapping. There is nothing new in pricking. 
We have used prickers here for the last five years 
and 50 per cent. of other estates have conti- 
nuously used them for about that time.— Yours 
faithfully, 


CHAS. NORTHWAY. 


II. 


Glendon, Neboda, May 28th. 


Dear Sir,—I see in your leader in the 
Observer of 22nd, mention is made of injury done 
to rubber trees by the incisions of the pricker 
closing up prematurely and causing the latex 
to coagulate inside the tree and burst the bark. 

Inoticed this some two years ago on a 15-year- 
old tree growing on a Aili and tapped with an 
ordinary knife and never pricked. | put it down 
to tapping in February (avery dry month) and 
when the leaves were off. However, it only 
occurred in this one case and the bark was cut 
away and subsequently healed up. Judging from 
what has been written about the new tapping 
system, it does not appear likely to supersede 

aring though it may be suitable, in certain loca- 
ities, for trees 3-4 years old.—Yours faithfully, 


R. J. BOOTH. 


IV. 
Kalutara District, May 29th. 


DrAR Sir,—The phenomenon, which has arisen 
with the Northway system oftapping that you 
refer to in your leader of the 22nd, I understand, 
has only been noticed on old trees. It would be 
interesting if you could get Mr Northway to 
publish figuresin support of his statement that 
equally good results, at less cost, can be ob- 
talned by his new system, as by the one usually 
in use. They should, I think, take the following 
form ;— 

(1) Quantity of rubber obtained in 1908 off a 
specified group of trees, giving average girth, 
number vofdays tappedand cost of tapping. 

(2) Quantity secured this year, from same 
group, by the newsystem (and anticipated yield 
for year), with number of days tapping and cost. 


Mr Northway should be easily able to provide 
you with these figures and it would give other 
users a line to go on and show them what can be 
done. Itis, I think, important that the average 
girth and approximate age of the trees should 
be given.—I am, yours faithfully, 


RUBBER-GROWER., 


V.. 
In Repty to MR Wiecrn. 
Ruanwella, May 31st, 1909. 


Dear Sir,—fe Mr Wiggin'’s letters on the 
New System of tapping, they are polite—to say 
the least of it. He regrets the lack of brain 
power in rubber planters tosee the damage done 
by what he calls butcher's knives, but he seems 
himself to lack the brains to see the damage 
the blunt prickers can do. 


He does not really understand (judging by 
his letters)—the vascular system of the Hevea 
tree; or he would understand the great often- 
times hidden damage which is done to the tree 
by the new system. 


I would advise him to visit his friend Mr 
Northway’s estate, or any other where the 
tapping has been done for two months, and take 
off a piece of the pricked cortex right to the 
wood and then write to the papers the result. 


The Supplement to the Tropical Agriculturist 


There isa proverb which says; ‘‘ Don’t teach 
your grandmother to suck eggs’’ ; and certainly 
rubber tapping is not taught in Dimbula, 
and I for one don’t consider that a visit now 
and again to the low country, to see a few 
rubber trees tapped, is sufficient to entitle Mr 
Wiggin to teach his brother rubber-planters,— 


Yours faithfully, 
LOW COUNTRY, 
RUBBER IN COLOMBIA. 


The following curiousadvertisement appeared 
the other day in the London Times :— 

RUBBER PLANTATION.—Offer at 16s of 500 £1 fully-paid 
Shares in dividend earning, old-established Company. 
Capital £100,000. Estimated yield of rubber this year, 
£12,000, increasing to £40,000 on further maturity of 
plantations. | 

An enquiry brought a letter to the following 
purport :— 

“ As requested we send you particulars of the 500 £1 
fully paid shares in the Colombian Rubber Company 
offered at 17s 6d or at 16s (£400 if taken in one lot. 
The Company having now reached the dividend-earning 
stage the most modern machinery for preparation of the 
rubber was shipped to Colombia last December and 
Mr. Sloan left early last month forthe estate to superin- 
tend the preparation and consignment of from £10,000 
to £12,000 worth of rubber part of the proceeds of 
which will be applied to the payment of a first divi- 
dend of 8 per cent or 10 per cent and concurrently with 
its declaration application willbe made for a Stock Ex- 
change settlement in the shares. On fuller development 
of the resources of the estate and on erection of the 
saw-mills the Company will be able to pay perma- 
nent dividends of not less than 20 per cent, for rubber 
can be produced on this estate at a lower cost (?d 
per lb.) than in any other part of the world. We make 
these statements on the authority of Mr. Jas. Stuart 


Sloan, the Managing Director, who himself holds 30,000 - 


shares and if you enquire through your own Bank of 
Mr. Sloan’s Bankers the Societe Generale, 53, Old Broad 
Street, as regards this gentleman’s commercial status 
and reputation you will find that confidence can be re- 
posed in the success of any enterprise which he directs.” 

A pamphlet accompanying the letter gave in- 
teresting particulars (and illustrations) of the 
estates belonging to the 


CoLomBiAN RuBBER Co., LTD., 

on the Pacific Coast of the Republic of that 
name, 2 degrees north of the equator and 
midway between two ports, total area being 
168,000 acres, held under 99 years’ lease. 
Forest land covers 150,000 acres with wild 
rubber trees (Castilloa Elastica and Sapium) 
averaging five to the acre, which are ex- 
pected to be tapped gradually and to give 
5 1b. rubber per tree. There is said to be £10,000 
to £12,000 of rubber ready for shipment, and 
I must say the growth of castilloa trees in an 
avenue, eight years old, shown in one engraving 
is very good indeed. The investment ought, 
therefore, to be a promising one for any 
person caring to invest in South America. Alto- 
gether 105,731 castilloa trees have been planted 
and are from 1 to 8 years old. Manioc, 
banana (a crop every 8 months), but are used to 
shade the young rubber trees; also Abaca, a 
new product, yielding a fibre like Manilla hemp ; 
Mahogany trees are common in the forest. 
The Colombian Government is so anxious to 
have cotton, coffee, tobacco and rubber pro- 
duced, that up to July, 1914, they offer a pre- 
mium of 4s per 100lb. of each of the first three 
and 16s per 1001b. of plantation rubber. The 
profit for the first year is estimated at £28,770, 
so it is difficult to see why shares should haye 
to be offered at 3 discount, 


and Magazine of the Ceylon Agricultural Society. 


’ THE FUTURE OF PARA RUBBER IN 
THE AMAZON DISTRICT. 


We direct attention to the article which we 
here reproduce. Mr. Sandmann, the writer, 
was sent out by the German Colonial Office to 
the East in 1906 and to Brazil in 1907 to study 
the rubber industry. In the September num- 
ber of the Zropenpflanzer a long abstract of 
his official report appeared, and Dr. 8. H. 
Berkhout replied to this in the Febrnary 
number. The tenor of Dr. Berkhout’s paper was 
to show the difficulties Brazil has to encoun- 
ter in producing rubber, and her inability to 
compete as regards cost of production with the 
East. He concluded: ‘‘Just as South America 
failed in the competition against cultivated 
- cinchona, 80 will its wildrubber be unable to 
hold out against the plantation article.” It 
will be seen from Mr. Sandmann’s reply that 
he differs from Dr. Berkhout considerably. 


An article with the above heading from the 
en of Mr. D. Sandmann appeared in the 

ropenpflanzer for April. Mr. W. J. Gallagher, 
M.A., has kindly translated and annotated it 
for us as follows :— 


WILD v. PLANTATION, 


“ Before I had visited the Amazon District 
I was of the same opinion as Dr. Berkhout, 
and. in my report on the rubber; industry in 
Ceylon I expressed the view that it will be 
impossible for the collection of rubber in the 
primitive forests to compete with Plantations, 
Dr. Berkhout built on a very certain found- 
ation when he assumed tho conditions im 
Surinam (Dutch Guiana) to be similar to those 
in the Amazon region. I have reached an 
opposite conviction, although [ have never 
been to Surinam, but have been informed of the 
local conditions from Huropeans resident there 
for many years, Hspecialiy do the political, clim- 
atic, and agricultural conditions differ consider- 
ably from those in the Amazon. ‘Dr. Berk- 
hout says: ‘In the future it will be absolutely 
necessary for the owners of cultivated rubber 
for the production from Brazil to decline.’ 
I am of acontrary opinion though admittedly, 
with a much larger amount of rubber thrown 


on the world’s market, the present high prices, | 


which give profits far beyond the normal, will 
not be reached. With cheaper prices suflicient 
to give well-cultivated plantations a normal 
profit so many new applications of rubber would 
arise that not only the present production of 
70,000 tons but even several hundred thousand 
tons per annum would be consumed, The main- 
tenance of the Brazilian output isa danger only 
to estates which produce their rubber dear and 
of poor quality. 


‘Dr. Berkhout agrees with mo that1 kilo 
(2.1/5 lb.) of rubber can be produced easily on 
an estate for 2 marks (2 shillings).” [This is 
equivalent to 11d per Ib. At least one estate has 
to my knowledge laid rubber down in London 
at this outlay. Apparently the cost f.o.b. at 
the nearest port is meant. Inthe F.M.8. this 
varies from slightly under 10d to over 13d. The 
higher figures refer to estates producing 


595 


small quantities, and are of little value for 
purpose of comparison.—W. J. G.] ‘‘When 
Dr. Berkhout states that the cost of production 
at the present day in the Amazon area is 5 marks 
per kilo (2s 33d per lb.) 1 must emphasise, as I 
didin my report, that these 5 marks are not 
money in the German sense of the word, but re- 
present so much provisions and implements of 
production which at the present time possess so 
high a nominal value in the rubber producing 
areas, but which under changed conditions, es+ 
pecially if produced locally, would fall consider- 
ably. There isno ground for doubting that the 
provisions and luxuries consumed in the Amazon 
area could easily be produced there. Indeed the 
soil and climate are such that these articles of 
consumption could be produced more quickly 
and easily there than in most other regions. 


‘‘In the present prices of rubber labour 
is paid so high that all cultivation of food 
products is left aside. After four to six 
months’ work of a 6 to 7 hour day, a tapper 
is able, notwithstanding the high price of neces- 
sities, to support himself, and with carefulness 
he can even eave something. This is also the 
reason why the emigrants from Ceara will not 
go, as Dr. Berkhout thinks they must in the 
future, to districts in South Brazil where, to 
support themselves, they must work not 6 to 7 
hours a day for four to six months, but a 10- 
hour cay the whole year round. Further, the 
Ceara people profer the free life in the forest to 
that onthe estates (cocoa and coffee) of Sao 
Paulo or Pernambuco. 


‘* With the 
PRODUCTION OF FOOD CROPS 


in the Amazon region the conditions will imme- 
diately change, because not only the male 
labourers but their families also will immigrate 
there. This would not alone lower the cost of the 
journey but the working strength would be con- 
siderably increased. Besides, the Seringuero 
(rubber-tapper) has no yearning after big towns, 
If the Ceara natives who immigrate to the 
Amazon district worked their day of 6 to 7 hours 
the year round, instead of for 4 to 6 months as 
they do now, the production would be certain, 
and the workers would still have shorter hours 
inthe pleasanter Amazon area (pleasanter to 
them) than on the estates of South Brazil, 


‘*To decide the question it is necessary to 
have studied the habits of these people on the 
spot. Only when one has convinced himself how 
satisfied with his life the Seringuero is, and how 
he sees the dolce far mente as the greatest object 
of his labours, can one understand that only 
necessity will make him work more. 


‘‘The variations in the quantity of rubber 
exported annually also confirm this. I agree 
with Dr. Berkhout that only in the following 
year does a fall in price have an effect on the 
production. When the price for years steadily 
fell from 48 3d and in 1902 reached its lowest 
at 3s 2d, only then did the Seringueros, when 
need compelled them, do more work ; and the 
expression of this is found inthe export of the 
year 1903 with 31,094 tons against 25,430 in 1899, 


‘‘T have already shown in my report (abs- 
tracted in Tropenpflanzer in September, 1908) 


596 


that the production of food in the Amazon 
district would reduce the present cost of collec- 
ting and preparing 1 kilo of rubber from 5 marks 
(=5 shillings) to 1°60 marks (=1s 7d.) 

‘* A comparison of the returns in rubber 
from a hektar (=22-5 acres) compared with 
those from the same area on an estate is 
not possible. The value of a hektar of 
primitive forest to that of an estate often 
is as 1 to 1,000. Large areas of primitive 
forest can at the present day be obtained 
in the Amazon region for one marka hectar, 
that is for the cost of the measuring only. 
Beside rubber the Brazilian forests yield many 
other valuable products. Dr. Berkhout is in 
error when he thinks that, because “Terra firma” 
(the area which is not flooded when the river is 
at its height) is often far from the banks ofa 
river, it must likewise be far from the areas 
where the rubber is collected. It is true that 
the areas which Hevea prefers are not always 
bordering the ‘‘Terra firma,’ but the suitable 
land for the raising of foodstuffs is exactly the 
‘Terra firma,” and it can be cultivated when the 
flooded areas cannot be worked. 


‘So long as rubber brings a high price, no one 
thinks of improving anything, but 


WITH A FALLING PRICE 


the need for improvement and better work would 
make itself felt and would be met. 


“The Brazilian Government compared with 
the Colonies of England, Holland and other 
countries has yet done little, it is true, in 
the way of experiment stations and the like to 
improve land industries, though even here it 
cannot be denied that Brazilis making progress. 


“Dr. Berkhout’s view that a decline in the 
price of rubber will lead the people to plant 
cocoa and other cultivations is to be accepted 
conditionally. If through high cost of living and 
dear labour the exploitation of rubber muststop, 
so will the cocoa estates, etc., inthe Amazon 
region with equivalent rates of labour pay be 
just 2s little able to withstand the cocoa, etc., 
estates of Asia and Africa. 


“The comparison withthe cinchona industry 
of Java, which defeated that of Bolivia, would be 
applicable only if the poorly remunerative cin- 
chona of the Bolivian forests was comparable to 
the highly remunerative rubber of Brazil. Ifa 
better paid and more easily worked product than 
rubber was available in the Amazon, the natives 
would turn to it from the rubber industry, But 
as long as no easier way of making a livelihood 
is possible, the natives ofthe Amazon area must 
give their attention to rubber.” 


‘*T must still maintain my conviction that the 
production of rubber in the Amazon region will 
be a thing to reckon with in competition when 
the plantation areas are in full bearing. It is 
on this account necessary to consider, before 
opening up new estates, how far these will be 
capable of yielding a profit in the competition 
in production and price with Brazil." 

It is interesting to note in the foregoing that 
a fall in the price of rubber, within limits 
of course, will increase the Brazilian output, 
and further the latent capabilities of even the 
present labour force,—Matay Mat, May 20, 


The Supplement to the Tropical Agriculturist 


THE CONSERVATION OF LAND 
AND WATER. 


A large proportion of the rain, which falls on 
the land, is practically lost to the cultivator by 
its flowing over instead of into the soil, But 
apart from this there is a far greater loss due to 
erosion, which is responsible for carrying away 
immense quantities of soil material, partly 
in solution, but chiefly in suspension. The value 
of this loss is not easy to compute, but it will 
be readily admitted that it must be very great 
when it 1s recognised that the wash consists of 
surface soil which is the richest part of it—being, 
indeed, the ‘‘cream” of the land. The opening up 
of new lands and the exposure of new surfaces, to 
the action of falling and running water goes to 
increase this loss. When rain falls, a part of it 
evaporates directly, a part flows away and joins 
the streams to finally find its way to the sea, a 
part soaks in to the soil and sub-soil either to 
emerge as springs, &c., or remains underneath 
the surface to serve the requirements of plants if 
it is not allowed to be drawn up and evaporated. 


The amount of water which runs off depends 
on the slope of the land and the nature of the 
growthupon it. Forest vegetation, a close growth 
of grass, on a deep friable soil, will so check or 
absorb the flow that there will bea minimum of 
loss of moisture to the soil. The chief scurce of 
our prosperity as a colony is the soil; it is the 
duty of the Government to encourage the con- 
servation of the soil and its improvement for the - 
immediate benefit of the planter and native cul- 
tivator, and the ultimate welfare of the Colony. 
The most valuable asset to the agriculturist is 
the water that falls on the land and permeates 
the soil where it can aid in the production of 
crops. It is, therefore, also to the interest of the 
Government to see that this water shall be so 
controlled and conserved as to yield the greatest 
benefits to the cultivator of the land and even- 
tually to the whole colony. 


It is on cultivated land, however, that the 
evils of soil erosion begin ; while it is clear, 
therefore, that the remedy must begin on these 
areas, it is the duty of Government to see that 
the remedy is prescribed and applied. The 
course to be adopted is in some particulars at 
least quite evident :— 


a. Deep cultivation and good tilth on culti- 
vated areas. By this means the maximum of rain- 
fall will be absorbed and the minimum allowed 
to run off the surface. This treatment of the 
land will, moreover, be an advantage in other 
respects, inasmuch as it will assist in drawing 
up plant food to within the reach of the shorter 
rootlets and also carry down humus to feed the 
deeper roots. 


6. Deep underground drainage (preferably tile 
drainage) on flat lands and tenacious soils where 
the ground water moves sluggishly. This mode 
of drainage is little known and less practised in 
the East, but under the conditions referred to 
its action is most important in helping both soil 
and subsoil to crumble and disintegrate and 
through the mechanical and chemical changes 


and Magazine uf the Ceylon Agricultural Society. 


induced to become friable and susceptible of 
retaining the right amount of moisture for 
plant growth. The indirect result, however, 
is the reduction of surface flow and erosion 
when rain falls. 

¢. Contour Cultivation on Rolling Lands.— 
The plough-furrow (where ploughing is done) 
and crop rows should be carried round the slopes 
in such a manner that each furrow or row will 
lie level, so that there will be no tendency 
for them to be widened into gullies by storm 
water, but rather to close runnels and form 
receptacles in which water may lodge till 
soaked into the soil. 

d. Inhilly land contour cultivation should 
be supplemented by ‘‘ balks” or ‘* breaks,” i.¢., 
strips of grass separating cultivated stretches, 
and these should be level like the cultivated 
portions. The tendency would thus be towards 
the formation of a series of terraces. 

e. On very steep land it is. advisable that 
agriculture should give place to silviculture 
which might be combined with grazing. 

On mountain heights, forests should be 
retained and extended, for, as the Spanish say, 
the mountains are the mothers of waters, and 
every lofty range being a ‘‘ Sierra Madre,” and 
the forest trees acting as distributing agents, 
and reducing erosion and wash to a minimum, 

It would appear from what has been said that a 
scheme of classification is desirable, so that lands 
of different elevation and situation may have each 
the most suitable crops assigned to it—whether 
timber, grass, shrubs, grain crops and so on. 
But to carry outa policy such as is here indi- 
cated, individual and collective action is neces- 
sary. For educative purposes it is necessary that 
information should be widely diffused as to the 
magnitude of the loss by erosion, the facility 
with which it could be checked, and the cer- 
tainty that the result will be profitable to each 
individual while serving the general weal. In- 
dividual action could, of course, be confined 
chiefly to improved methods of cultivation, as 
indicated above, with a view to conserving 
both soil and moisture, while more extensive 
operations with the same object in view can 
only be carried out by co-operation, 

The evils resulting from the neglect of the 
course prescribed is amply exemplified in this 
colony, where, indeed, afresh source of trouble 


has arisen through the damage done by the 


silting of paddy fields. 

The duty before the agriculturist as well as 
the Government is clear, and we trust that we 
have, to some extent, succeeded in arresting 
their attention and proving the necessity for 
conserving soil and moisture by every means 
in their power. 


CULTIVATION OF THE SOIL. 


With reference to the subject of the ‘‘culti- 
vation” of the soil and the very useful letter of 
“Delta” in the Tropical Agriculturist, in 
drought-affected areas, and more especially 
where the soil is very stiff, as on either bank 
of the Deduruoya, where the soil is chiefly 
alluvial, too much time and money cannot be 
expended in keeping the surface soil in a fine 
state of tilth. The suggestion is unpractical 
to stir the surface soil after every period of 


597 


rain, though, of course, it will be very bene- 
ficial. The least coconut planters with a stiff 
soil to work could do, is to thoroughly 
plough or till the soil one year, and in the 
following year harrow it, or break the clods 
thoroughly with mamoties, On a free, sandy 
soil, the latter operation is not an absolute 
necessity, as the surface soil does not cake. 
On estates that I know of on either bank of the 
Deduruoya the growth of grass is so rank that 
aeration of the soil, so necessary tu improve 
its mechanical and chemical condition, cannot 
take place. My advice has always been to 
turn over the surface soil, which will mean 
green manuring as well, though not with the 
now fashionable Leguminosz, and to lime it. 
This latter treatment will not only convert the 
luxuriant herbage into humus, but will set free 
all the latent and dormant elements of fertility 
in such soils, and will also improve its mechani- 
cal condition. Those with a book learning of 
Acricultural Chemistry say ‘*‘Do uot lime the soil 
oftener than once in 3 or 4 years, as it exhausts 
the soil.” This is, of course, true where enor- 
mous quantities of lime are used. My advice 
has been to lime after ploughing every alternate 
year with moderate quantities ofit. The rich 
growth of grass that will follow should be wee- 
ded with mamoties in the dry weather, when 
other works are not possible, and the grass be 
allowed to remain on the surface to act asa 
mulch. The weeding will also stir the surface 
soil and make that too act as a mulch. 


RUBBER PRICE CONDITIONS. 


The topic of the utmost interest in the India- 
rubber industry today, and that which is most 
considered, is the present and prospective price 
of crude rubber, Whether the manufacturer 
be located at Malden, Manchester, Mannheim, 
Melbourne, Menin, Milan, Mjondalen, Montar- 
gis, Montreal, or Moscow, the question is ever 
present, as one which must be take into account 
in planning every detail for the future, This is 
a fact which makes the whole rubber industry 
akin, for the price of rubber everywhere at any 
moment practically is the same, while the same 
uncertainty exists as to what the price may be 
tomorrow. The producers of rubber and the 
traders in rubber have troubles of their own in 
relation to the same subject, but here we shall 
treat more particularly of the manufacturers, 
Where rubber prices are made, or how they are 
made, are questions not now ‘pertinent to our 
purpose. The uncertainty of prices is the thing, 
and what the consumer of rubber can do about 
it. Low priced rubber is not so essential. 
When every consumer of a given grade of 
rubber must buy it practically from the same 
source, and it costs them all precisely the 
same figure, they are all on the same footing. 
Whether the cost is 50 cents or $1 a pound, or 
more, would be immaterial—if permanent prices 
could becounted upon. But they cannot. The 
average price at New York of fine up-river Para 
rubber during the year 1902 was 76 cents; 
during 1905 it was $1°284; since then it has been 
less, the figure for 1908 declining to 93} cents. 
This year, so far, the price for this grade has 
kept in the neighbourhood of $1°20, hen itis 


598 


considered that the difference between the 
highest and lowest year prices here quoted 
amount to no less than $1,157:42 cents per 
metrical ton, and that these fluctuations usually 
occur without warning, the buying of raw 
rubber by consumers approaches almost a 
speculative basis. The producers of rubber in 
the Amazon region, far from satisiied witha 
condition under which they have no say in 
fixing the market price of their produce, 
have determined upon a course of action, 
in which, with the help of the government 


and of a_ great bank, they mean to 
hold their rubber whenever prices are 
not high enough to be attractive. Now the 


holding of rubber anywhere is an expensive 
practice, when storage costs are considered, 
insurance, interest on advances—and the ine- 
vitable shrinkage in weight. Itis well enough 
to speak of rubber as being a modern neces- 
sity, but there are limits to what people will 
pay, even for necessities, and manufacturers 
would have to halt somewhere in the matter 
of paying advancing rates on rubber, even were 
the Amazon region the world’s only source. 
There would be an inevitable check to rising 
prices, due to increased production and the 
hesitation of consumers to buy, after which 
the banks would have to unload, with such 
results as followed Vianna’s state aided rub- 
ber ‘‘ corner ”—a fall to half the former prices 
aud loss to everybody concerned. The India 
Rubber World, a dozen years ago, printed an 
article on ‘‘ What Vianna Did for African Rub- 
bers,” showing that his speculative ‘ bearing ” 
of the market for Para rubber opened the way 
largely for the increased use of African grades. 
Nowadays, African rubbers having won an 
established position in the industry, though 
now apparently falling off in the rate of pro- 
duction, an important new source of supplies 
has been developed—the Eastern plantations, 
the product of which (Hevea) is better cal- 
culated than even the best Africans for sup- 
planting the Amazon rubber in the industry. 
Without meaning to advise our friends on the 
Amazon, it would seem that their best interest 
lies, not in forcing up prices to an artificial 
level, but to so improving their business 
methods as to enable them to sell at 
a profit at even lower prices than at present. 
Their devotion to any policy gives the plan- 
ters of Ceylon aud Malaya, backed by un- 
limited European capital, the very encourage- 
ment which they want and most need. The 
Eastern planters have it in their power 
to appeal strongly to the consuming markets 
in the matter of guaranteeing prices for longer 
periods than have ever been known in the 
trade before, and we shall be surprised if this 
does not strengthen the demand for their pro- 
duct,—Jndia Rubber World, May 1. 


ee ee 


INTERPLANTING RUBBER WITH 
COFFEE. 


Dr. Cramer, an agricultural expert has de- 
livered a lecture to a gathering of planters at 
Serdang, in Deli, on linking coffee growing 
with rubber cultivation. He dwelt on the 
Robusta variety of coffee, which is being 


The Supplement to the Tropical Agriculturist 


favoured by plantersin Java. The point was 
made that, in Europe. Robusta coffee fetched 
as good prices as the Santos variety from 
Brazil. In his opinion a_ large stretch of 
country in Kast Sumatra is admirably adapted 
for Robusta coffee as a catch crop on runeee 
estates. —Straits Times, May 28. 


TAPPING YIELDS. 


Mucu LArGerR BY THE OLD METHOD. 


Mr W H P Dias, of Wawulugala, Horana, 
writes to the local ‘‘Times” of the relative results 
obtained on that estate from 225 trees of 5-year- 
old rubber tapped in the old half-spiral method 
of paring, and 225 trees of the same size, age, 
and in the same field tapped by the Northway 
prickling system :— 

““] began tapping by the Northway system 
on the 17th of April. To this date I had secured 
63 lb of dry rubber from the 225 trees I marked 
off in January and tapped for 47 days by half- 
ee system. Below I give the results in tabu- 
ar form :— 


Dry rubber Dry rubber Ib. 
lb. by old by Northway 
Tapping No. of method method 
Period. days. from 225 from 225 
trees. trees. 
47a 63 not tapped 
April17 to 8rd May 14 22 11 
iday 11 to 27 15 235 9 
Total 110 2¢ 


a January 16 to 30, February 1to 8, March 8 to 29and 
April 2 to 16. 

‘* By the old method, Ihave secured 110 Ib of 
dry rubber in 76 days, and I still have about half 
of the bark left on the side I have tapped, and 
there is the possibility of my securing more than 
110 lb of rubber trom the remaining bark on 
this side. Whatever it is, I am certainto obtain 
220 lb of dry rubber from these 225 trees for this 
year. Whereas from the trees tapped by the 
Northway system, I have secured only 20 lb of 
dry rubber, and [ may obtain another 20 lb at 
the most for the other 30 tappable days in the 
year which will make 401b for the year. Of 
course, these trees were not manured year after 
year like Mr Northway’s. Last week I went 
round, passing several well-known estates at 
Neboda and Tebuwana, the centre of rubber, 
and I found that many had taken to the North- 
way system, but that now most of them were 
giving itup. So I am convinced of what Mr 
Harrison says; it is safer to walk on known 
ground than try to flyin unknown places. 


RUBBER PLANTING IN NEW GUINEA. 


Mr. H. A. WickHam’s 10,000-acrE LrEasz. 


Mr R Tweed Baird, the partner of MrH A 
Wickham (the well-known Brazil rubber pio- 
neer) in the 10,000-acre lease in New Guinea to 
be taken over by the Mombiri Rubber Planta- 
tions, Ltd., was on his way out to Papua by the 
‘‘ Macedonia ” which was in Colombo on May 
28th. The capital of the company is £52,500 and 
among the directors is Mr C de Winton, who is 
also director of the Castlefield (Klang) Rubber 
Company, Cicely Rubber Estates, Ltd., and 
Hidden Streams Rubber Syndicate. 


and Magazine of the Ceylon Agricultural Society. 


A FRENCH ESTIMATE OF PLAN- 
TATION RUBBER. 


The conclusion reached by M. Edouard Payen, 
in an article on rubber which he contributes 
tothe Heonomiste Frangais, is that the present 
situation is not permanent, and that itis pro- 
hable that in ten years’ time it will be necessary 
tu turn towards the plantations of the Far Kast 
when we wish to foresee the state of the rubber 
market, instead of to Brazil and Africa, as is 
the case today. Itis almost certain now that 
there is no lack of thisarticle to fear; but if, 
on this side, security is obtained, it is lostin 
the countries for which the exploitation of the 
wild rubber is a source of riches. These 
countries must prepare themselves, while there 
is yet time, to support without too much 
inconvenience and hardship the consequences 
of the competition of plantation rubber. The 
writer mentions that Professor Perrot, of the 
Ecole de Pharmacie of Paris, recently esti- 
mated the land under rubber in the Far East 
as follows:—Malaya, 186,000 acres; Ceylon, 
182,000 ; Java, 60,000; Sumatra, 32,000; Borneo 
and New Guinea, 10,000 ; India and Burmah, 
30,000 acres. Specialists think that if, about 
1916, the Far East produces 15,000 tons of 
rubber, planters should count themselves very 
fortunate,— Ld ( Express, May 14. 


COPRA FROM THE DUTCH EAST 
INDIES. 


The British Consul at Amsterdam, reporting 
on the trade of that neighbourhood, remarks : 
—Copra has sprung into prominence in the 
Netherlands in recent years. The Notherlands 
consumed in 1908 about one-sixth of the world’s 
production, much of which comes from the 
Dutch East Indies, Most of the copra for the 
Dutch market comes to Amsterdam, where it is 
manufactured into various kinds of oils, edible as 
wellas for the manufacture of soap. In 1906, 
1907, and 1908 the following quantities were 
imported into the Netherlands: 47,689, 52,632 
aod 71,432 tons respectively, of which the share 
of Amsterdam was 38.867, 46,744and 57,702 tons 


respectively. Great care istakenin the Dutch | 


East Indies to secure a fine quality of copra, as 
it is only from the finest qualities that the best 
edible fats derived from this source can be pro- 
duced, Small crops are anticipated for 1909. 
During 1908 the average price for Java copra 
was £1 148 4d per bale of 220 Ib LL GC. BHa- 
press, May 14, 


JAVA GCOPRA 


is fast losing its good name in the market 
owing to careless methods of preparation. The 
Chamber of Commerce at Samarang has urged 
the Java Government to take action by ins- 
pecting all copra prepared for foreign markets, 
so that only the certified article shall be ex- 
ported. The Chamber has drafted a bill for the 
purpose which is now under the consideration 
of the Government. Java copra hasa high re- 
putation from being mostly dried in the sun, 


599 


and not artificially. But now fire-drying has 
become so common that the time is approach- 
ing when Java copra can no longer be marketed 
as fair, merchantable sun-dried. There is danger 
of its being classitied low as fair merchantable, 
or fair merchantable, kiln-dried. Further dis- 
favour has fallen upon the article by preparing 
it from unripe coconuts.—Straits Times, May 28, 


SOUTH CAROLINA TEA. 


Mr Consul Donnelly, reporting on the Con- 
sular district of Savannah, says:—...Tea, which 
was for a long time considered one of the pro- 
ducts peculiar to the Far Kast, is now accepted 
as fully naturalised in the south, and it is stated 
by those interested in the matter that South 
Carolina tea will soon be as well known to 
drinkers of this beverage as is the best leaf of 
Formosa or Japan. The South Carolina teas 
that seem to thrive best are of the better varie- 
ties, and teas grown in this State can now be 
bought at one dol (4s 2d) per lb, which are said 
to compare favourably with good grades of im- 
ported China, Japan or Formosa teas in flavour, 
quality and price. Good foreign teas cost in 
this country as much as 1 dol or more per lb. 
South Carolina tea could not compete in price 
with much of the cheaper importations. The 
majority of the people here are not tea drinkers 
—cotiee being the favourite beverage, but there 
seems to be a change taking place in this re- 
spect.—Financier, May 1. 


A BiG CROP OF COCONUTS. 

A paragraph in an F, M. 8, Contemporary 
states that there is on Klanang Estate a coconut 
tree which had upon it a short time ago 360 nuts. 
Though it has not quite so many at present, the 
tree is still a very remarkable sight. Not only is 
it literally loaded with large nuts, but a number 
of small ones are to be seen in the earlier 
stages of development. Curiously enough the 
tree is by no means a large one, and is only 
about eleven years old. 


PRUNING ORANGE TREES, 


‘Orange Tree” asks :—Do orange trees require 
pruning? Ifso, state to what extent. 


The answer to this question might be ‘‘Yes” or 
‘“No,” but to be more definite I would say that 
anyone who requires to ask the question will be 
well advised to let his trees alone, for he is more 
likely to do harm by pruning as the word in 
generally understood than by allowing nature tu 
take her course. You give me no idea as to 
whether you are referring to old or young trees, 
but it may be worth whiie indicating in a general 
way the principles which should guide the owner 
of an orange tree in his treatment. 


We will suppose that you are referring to young 
trees just planted. Contrary to the generally 
accepted ideas [ believe that it is as important 
to cut orange trees hard back at the time of plan- 
ting as it fs to so treat apples, pears, and other 
deciduous fruit trees, and for the sam) reason, 

te oe 


’ 
if 


600 


hen the tree is taken from the nursery its roots 
ae mutilated and probably at least four-fifths of 
them and possibly much more have been cutaway 
by the spade. lt is, therefore, wise to remove a 
corresponding portion of the top, and personally 
when planting a young tree 1 would invariably 
eut it back to short spurs of from 3 to 8 inches 
long and remove the majority of the small twigs. 


When a tree so treated, or indeed if it has 
not been so treated, starts to grow, it will 
be found to almost imvariably put out a great 
number of buds. If all these are left, they 
result in small spindly growths, and the proper 
plan is to rub off all but those that are 
required when they are from half-an-inch to 
two inches long. If my advice is followed and 
the young tree is cut hard back, you will only 
require to allow from 3 to_6 shoots to grow. | If 
one cr two of these begin to make eXCesB1VE 
growth ahead of the others, 1t 1s advisable to 
nip vut the tender tops to allow the develop- 
meut of those that are less strong. Any shoots 
which put out from the trunk of the tree below 
where it branches should be rubbed off as soon 
as they appear. 

In the second year’s growth you will generally 
find that from the ends of the previous years 
shoots from three to slx buds start, and the 
proper treatment is to remove all but one or two. 
If this plan be followed no pruning as generally 
understood will be required for many years. 


In the case of older trees all the pruning re- 
quired is to remove any weak and spindly wood, 
any shoots that seem to be diseased or dying, 
anc to generally thin out the tree just sufficiently 
to allow light and air to pass right through it. 
If you will take notice of old trees which have 
not been thinned in this way you will find that, 
although they may be perfectly healthy, they are 
so dense that all the inner twigs are spindly 
and of poor colour and practically all the fruit is 
borne on the outside of the tree exposed to the 
light. If a tree is kept open in the way I have 
indicated this will not be the case, and the fruit 
will be distributed throughout the tree. This 
results ina bigger maximum crop and better 
development of the fruit. —Western Mail, May 22. 


TEA IN THE ANDAMANS. 


ay not be generally known that tea is 
as as a small scale at the Andamans, where 
160 acres were placed under this crop in 1907-08, 
and the outturn of the finished product amounted 
to 41,605 lb, against 60,290 lb. in the preced- 
ing year, which was a record, or nearly 376 1b, 
per acre. The decrease is attributed to the un- 
favourable weather. Itis, however, not quite 
clear why this tea gardenis maintained, because 
it was worked at a loss of R17,808. If the tea 
garden were self-supporting, even though there 
were no profits, there might be some extenuation 
for its upkeep. The greater portion of the out- 
turn was supplied to the Supply and Transport 
Department, and 3,423 Jb. was sold locally, to 
the former at 0-5-3 and to the latter at 0-4-0 per 
Ib. There is also a coffee garden in the Settle- 
ment which has been leased to a contractor for 
R750 per annum.—Madras Times, pee 31. 

NEL 9) 


The Supplement to the Tropical Agriculturist 


A SUGAR-CANE FACTORY, 


In SoutH Arcot, 

It is stated that a Company will shortly be 
floated with a capital of R1,35,000, for for- 
ming a sugar-cane plantation of about 450 
acres in extent at Valavanur, in Villipuram 
Taluq, South Arcot, the intention being to 
work it on up-to-date scientific methods, under 
the management of a specialist, as is done 
in Java, and to erect a small factory with the 
necessary plant for dealing with the produce 
of 100 acres and converting it into refined 
sugar. For the plantation purposes an outlay of 
about R60,000, inclusive of the cost of the land, 
irrigation appliances, etc., is contemplated, 
with an annual expenditure for upkeep of 
about R15,000 for 100 acres cultivated. The 
cost of building a Sugar Factory, and provi- 
ding it with the necessary machinery is esti- 
mated at R60,000. The average cost of gro- 
wing cane locally works out at R90 per acre, 
and the receipts average, on the basis of the 
price of R2) per candy of jaggery, R250 an 
acre. On the Government Farm, at Palur, 
however, and on Messrs. Parry & Co.’s Farm 
near their Nellikuppam Factory, the annual 
expense is said to be about R120, and the 
yield about R450, an acre. The ryots, who 
have been able to put up the bullock-driven 
crushers supplied by some Madras firms, are 
said to be able to realise, after meeting the 
expenses of jaggery-making, a net profit of 
R25 per candy of jaggery, 

Taking, however, the lower yield of R250 an ~ 
acre, the receipts from 100 acres would amount 
to R25,000, while in the remaining area belong- 
ing to the Company local crops can be raised 
to the ordinary yields obtained. The cane from 
100 acres (6,000 cart-loads of 3,000 tons, worth 
R25,000, as abve shown) is calculated as a re- 
sult of actual experience to yield 200 tons of 
sugar wortha 217 a ton, z.e., R43,400, and 100 
tons of molasses worth R54 a ton, 7.e., R5,400. 
The expenses of manufacture amount to 
R8,200 at R41 a ton of sugar, and allowances for 
depreciation of machinery, building, etc., at 10 
per cent. of their value, would come to R6,000. 
There would be then from sugar manufacture 
alone a profit of R9,600. This, with the R25,000, 
the value of the cane raised on the lands, 
brings up the total income from the plantation 
and the factory to R384,60C, which, on the 
capital of R1,35,000, means a return of 25 percent. 

That there is a very wide field for sugar in- 
dustry in this country is admitted, asthe imports 
of sugar from Java, Germany, Austria, etc., are 
steadily increasing ; and with a view to deve- 
loping the industry, the Government, at the 
Industrial Conference held at Ootacamund last 
year, expressed their willingness to give all 
possible encouragement to promoters of the 
sugar industry. The enterprise being shown 
in this connection by certain Hindu gentle- 
men of Valavanur, which has hitherto been 
famous rather as a ground-nut growing and 
trading centre, is very much to be commended; 
and everyone will |wish the promoters such a 
measure of success thatit will lead to many 
other similar undertakings being established. 


—M Mail, June 4. 


No. XL. 


Printed for the Ceylon Agricultural Society 


THE RICE-BUG OR PADDY FLY. 


‘He rice-bug is the same insect that in Ceylon is known as the paddy fly, and causes great damaye 
to local crops. Indeed, the necessity for rigid observance of seasons in paddy cultivation is chiefly 
due to the attack of fly which an out-of-season crop is invariably subjected to. An Indian report 
(by Mr. H. Maxwell-Lefroy, the Imperial Entomologist) contains a very full account of the pest, its 
distribution, habits, and life history, as well as the method of combating it ; and the information given 
below is mainly abstracted from that report. 


The scientific name of the rice-bug is Leptocorisa varicornis, and the genus is believed to include 
three species ; but the points of distinction are very slight, and probably do not imply any difference in 
life history. The bug is commonly found in long grass and thick vegetation, being present here singly. 
It is only at special times and on special crops. such as paddy, that it occurs gregariously. The morning 
and evening are its most active periods, and during the hot part of the day it goes deep into shelter. As 
all who are familiar with the insect know, it is coloured green, and associated with an objectionable odour, 
being hence sometimes called the “Green bug.”’ Its normal food is the sap of flowering shoots of grasses. 
When infesting paddy, it feeds on the tender developing grain. which is full of milky sap. The dark 
brown eggs are laid on leaves in clusters or rows, and number from twenty-four to thirty. They are 
protected by a gummy substance, which helps to attach them to leaves and prevents their being washed 
away byrain. The eggs take from six to eight days to hatch out. Between hatching and maturity the 
nymph passes through five stages, occupying, say, about eighteen days, during which time the wings 
are gradually developed. It is not exactly known how long the imago, or fully developed insect, lives, 
but insects have been kept alive in captivation for three months. The following is an actual record : 
Eggs hatched on September ~, adults reared on 18th, and lived until November 2. Of enemies to the 
rice-bug, there are two known: Cicindela seepuncta, Lin, which is abundant in rice fields in India from 
August to October. This is a flying insect and destroys the rice-bug in numbers. Another is an egg 
parasite, which has not been described as yet. Ordinarily, the bug occupies « life cyele of from tour 
to five weeks in warm weather, breeds freely with the rains, and feeds on rice, dry grain, and grass. 
There are apparently five broods, depending, however, on local conditions, food supply, &c. With 
cool weather the insect leaves the open field and goes into the denser shelter of uncultivated land. 
There is nothing to show that it breeds again till the following rains. 


We now come to the most practical part of the circular, namely, that referring to treatment. 
(1) There is the treatment resting upon superstition, and consisting of “‘ mantras”: or charms. This 
may be put down as utterly useless. (2) Smoking by burning aromatic herbs and resinous substances 
to windward. This is only a temporary remedy and, though useful in saving individual fields, merely 
shifts the enemy. (3) Ropes saturated with resin or kerosine or fish oil are drawn over the fields so as 
to brush against the ears of paddy. This is rather more effectual than the last. (4) A paddy winnow 
smeared over with some glutinous substance like birdlime (e.g., jak milk) is tied to a long pole and passed 
over the heads of paddy, so that the insects are caught in large numbers on the sticky substance on the 
winnow. The process has to be repeated over and over again. It is tedious, but simple and effective. 
(5) An elongated cloth bag is run across the field sweeping in the bugs as they rise. The bag is either 
soaked in crude oil emulsion (1 pint emulsion to 2 gallons water) or the inside smeared. with something 


9(4)09 


(2) 


sticky. A bag, 8 ft. wide and 3 ft. high, is a convenient size, the sides kept open by bamboos 3 ft. long, 
which serve as handles for grasping it. The width is about as much as two men can run with. A smaller 
bag may be suspended by ropes (see fig.). Mr. Lefroy strongly recommends such an appliance, and 
doubts whether any better will be found. The work is best done by co-operation and the treatment of 
large areas together, as bags cost something to make. (6) It has been found that a mixture of bran and 
jaggery serves as a bait for the bugs, and that they could be captured and destroyed easily when they 
can be got to congregate together by this means. 


An important point to be remembered is that the best work can be done by attacking the rice-bug 
when in the field and before the rice comes into ear, and not by waiting till it has invaded the fields. 
The cultivator should therefore look out for the insect and its eggs and destroy them. For, if let alone, 
each pair will in a month or so produce about 24 bugs and in two months 288, and so on. The enemies 
of the bug should also be recognized, and must never be destroyed. 


[To make kerosine emulsion: Boil 4 lb. sliced bar soap in 1 gallon water till dissolved. Take off 
fire and add 2 gallons kerosine, agitating mixture till a milky emulsion is formed. Dilute to required 
strength (usually with 6 to 10 parts water) for use. Where crude oil is used, dilute each gallon with 
66 gallons water, or 4 a pint to one kerosine tin water. | 


Bag ready for use. 


C. DRIEBERG. 


No. LXI. 


Printed for the Ceylon Agricultural Society. 


NITROGEN-GATHERING CROPS. 


Ir is needless to discuss the value of Papilionaceous crops in agriculture. The manner in which 
these plants import atmospheric jnitrogen into the soil with the aid of the bacteria in the nodules on 
their roots is now pretty well known, since it has been explained over and over again in the Society’s 
publications and by its travelling instructors. 


The question is: often asked, what ‘leguminous ‘crop ‘should: be grown with the objectZof its being 
wholly. or’ partially returned to the land. The tendency in most matters is to look for something new, 
and the newer the better! As a’general rule, however, these new plants are unsuitable to local conditions, 
unless, of course, they came from countries with almost identical natural conditions. 


Wild species of Crotalaria have been highly recommended and utilized with marked benefit both 
in up-country and low-country estates. The difficulty, however, in inducing the native cultivator to 
grow such a crop as Crotalaria striata is that he does not see sufficient virtue in a plant that does not 
give him some tangible return. 


For this reason, it is politic to reeommend to him—for the present at least—a crop which yields him 
some useful produce. The American cow-pea (Vigna catiang) is a plant that has come back to}Ceylon 
with a new name, since it is no more than a variety of the familiar mé beans largely cultivated, 
particularly about Colombo. The legumes are wholesome and palatable when taken early, and command 
a ready sale as “ curry beans.” 


There are other crops which similarly yield marketable produce, such as dhall (Cajanus indicus), 
san-hemp (Crotalaria juncea), dhaincha (Sesbania aculeata). Whether cow-pea or one of these three 
should be selected is for the cultivator himself to decide after carefully considering the “ pros and cons ”’ 
of the case. 


All are excellent in rotation, or as “‘inter-crops”’ in permanent plantations. The dwarfish forms of 
cow-pea or mé are perhaps more suitable from the point of convenience, especially when grown as 
inter-crops. 

Dhall (Sin. rata-tora, Tamil thavarai), which yields one of the staple foods in India, is a shrubby 
plant, which sometimes grows up to a height of 15 or,20 ft., and will suit cases where shade is also 
a desideratum. These two plants (cow-pea and dhall) are therefore of economical value as food crops. 
{In this connection may also be mentioned ground-nuts (Arachis hypogea), but the great difficulty 
of protecting and harvesting the crop in Ceylon has made it unpopular among cultivators. ] 


Crotalaria juncea and Sesbania aculeata, on the other hand, are fibre plants, and will suit localities 
where there is use for fibre. The first is already under cultivation in, the Chilaw District, and in parts of 
the Northern, Province, the fibre, which is extracted by the,simple process of retting or steeping in water, 
being in requisition for fishing nets, &c. Dhaincha is practically unknown in the Island, but is closely 


9(5)09 


e 


( 2 ) 


related to our katurumurunga (S. grandiflora) so commonly grown in vegetable gardens, and of which 
both the flowers and leaves are used as food. The reasons why it is brought forward in this connection 
may be stated as follows :— 


(a) It is referred to in the “‘ Handbook of Indian Agriculture” as ‘‘ richer in nodules than 
perhaps any other plant.” 


(6) 

(c) It is suitable for low wet land, and will therefore do for most paddy fields. 
(d) It was recommended to Indian tea planters by Dr. Mann, and gave excellent results. 
(e) ” and by 


Roxburgh to be “ more durable than san-hemp for use in water.” 


Dhaincha is a plant which, under favourable conditions, may grow up to about 14 ft., though it is 
generally of smaller growth. When broadcasted fairly thick—say, at the rate of 30 lb. of seed per acre— 
it keeps down weeds, and should be ready for cutting for fibre in 4 or 44 months, so that if sown in April, 
the ground, fertilized by the crop-residue, will be available for other cultivation in September. The fibre 
was at one time valued at from £30 to £35 per ton, but this valuation will have to be revised on a present- 
day basis. The seed has proved useful as a famine food in India. Without any desire to exaggerate the 
properties of dhaincha, the statement may be given for what it is worth that the lack of organic matter 
and cohesion of soil particles in land is easily remedied by growing one or two crops of dhaincha. 

The plant may be seen growing at the Government Stock Garden. Orders for the seed can be 
booked through the Secretary. 

C. DRIEBERG, 
Secretary, Ceylon Agricultural Society. 
Colombo, February 20, 1909. 


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