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https://archive.org/details/tropicalagricul331909ceyl 


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The Tropical Agriculturist 


AND 


Magazine of the Ceylon Agricultural Society. 


(FOUNDED 1881.) 


EDITED BY 


R. H. LOCK, 


Acting Director, Royal Botanic Gardens, Peradeniya. 


Vos. XXXII. 
Containing Numbers | to VI,: July to December, 1909. 


2 = yeraiod P54 
One g 2D Psd) 3.92 23 

Set 
> > “ pa 
o'9 'e'a:01 > Bs , 


442g 
A. M. & J. FERGUSON, 
COLOMBO, CEYLON. 


1910. 


\ 


INDEX. 


Pace. 
A. 
A Valuable ere Plant: Asclepias Semi- 

lunata 117 
Accounts, C.A.S, 56 
Acidity in Soils 433 
Advance in Rubber ~ 398 
Afforestation Branch of the Forest De- 

partment: The Need for an 42 
‘Agricultural Board: Minutes 170, 251, 252, 441 

do College, Coimbatore a 289 

do Conference, Poona ae 542 

do Credit Banks 66 

do do Societies 166 

do Institute, The International 258 

do Instruction in the UO.S8., 

Popular bod eve 537 

pe coture t in the Tropics... 193 
Aitterature of Economic Bot- 

any and 44, 155, 249, =) 439, 532 

~ do , Modern 453 

do ” Water i In 263 
Amazon, Development of the. 206 
American Cotton Trade a 215 
Andaman Marble or Zebra Wood 189 
Annatto 10 
Annual Report, C. ‘A, Ss. 50 
Areca Palm Disease 563 
Area Cultivated in Ceylon 265 
Aroma of Black Tea —~ 364 
Asclepias Semilunata: A Valuable Fibre 

Plant 117 

B. 
Bacteria, Fixation of Nitrogen by 246 
Bamboo Pulp, Treatment of.. 186 
Banana Cultivation 422 
do in West Africa 374 
do Rubber 567 
Bananas Grown in Kent 565 
Bark Disease of Tea 266 
Beans, Lima and other 90 
do , Soy or Soya 576 
Bee, Colour Sense of the Honey 524 
Bee-keeping: Notes on ; 149 
Black Hevea Fungus in the F.M.S. 576 
do Tea, Aroma of 364 
Blood of Plants... 68 
Board of Agriculture : 

Minutes of Meeting of June 8th 251 
do July 8th 252 
do October 18th 44) 
do Progress Report ...252, 441 
Bombay Manure for Ceylon Estates 568 
Botanical Facts for Rubber Planters... 3 
Brazil Nut, The ... 218 

British Cotton Growing Association, 

Fourth Annual Report 12 
British Rubber Fever ie ve 392 
Bubbles in Rubber Biscuits... 286 
Burma Rice Cultivation 507 

Cc. 
Cacao Beetle es ah < 90 
do in German Colonies .. a 461 
do in Jamaica ae aa Fs et 


Pace, 
Cacao in La Guaira aE 464. 
do in Portuguese West Africa 465 
do in St. Thome On 371 
do Industry of Ecuador .. fe 561 
do or Theobroma Cacao Cultivation 508 
do Spraying in Trinidad toe la) 
do , Theobrama Spherocarpa 375 
do, ; the Grafting of 2 561 
do, The production and ‘Consump- 
tion aa 421 
do The Woeld’s Production of 480 
do Thrips, Washes for... 465 
Camphor 501 
do , Apparatus to Extract 181 
do ; Chinese 561 
do Exports, Ji apanese... es 376 
do in amaica a 565 
do in the F.M.S. me see 286 
do Industry, The Ss 217 
do 7 52N aerealt and Artificial ae, 96 
do ” Oil i in 1908 an “i 94. 
do _, Preparation of 501 


Cane Farming at Trinidad, Further 


Notes on He 130 

do Seedlings in Java 512 
do Sugar versus Honey 333 
Caravonica Cotton * 463 
Cardamom Cultivation in South Mysore 29 
Castilloa Elastica .. oS 206 


do do Fruiting i in Singapore... 174 
Castor Silk, or Eri : 242 
Cattle Breeding i in Trinidad... 147 
Ceara Plantations, Some Notes on 203 

do Rubber (Manihot Glazivoit) 103 
do do Tapping 566 
Ce fon Mesronleaeal Society. Annual Report 50 
do Statement of 
Accounts.. 56 
do , Planting Industry of 265 
do } Rubber Cultivation in 386 5 
Chillies in Nyasaland = 475 
China Tea, Reports on CoD 91 
Chinese Camp or ce 561 
Cinchona in Java Bab 472 
Cinnamon Oil, Ceylon oth bag 395 
Citronella do eae 93 
Coconut 90, 91 
do Crop Increase 186 
do Cultivation 297 
do Disease in Jamaica... 560 
do do in Southern Sea 560 
do in Jamaica a 461 
do inthe F\M.S. 282 
do Milk 5 576 
do Pest in Panama 76 
do Products 180 
do Stem Disease 73,75 
Coffee in Portuguese West Africa 467 
Coimbatore Agricultural College 298 
Colour Sense of the Honey Bee a 524 
Combating Lice and Mites on Poultry .. 148 
Commercial Orange Production in the 

Philippines... 27 
Gomnicaes of Agricultural Experiments 60 
Co-operation in Agriculture rE] 


ii. INDEX, 
PaGeE. 3 
Co-operative Credit in Bengal 261 Fertilization of Rice 
Copra in B.S. Islands 480 Fertilizer Action ... 
do Inspection in Fiji 187 Fibre Plant, A (U anda Hemp) - 411 
do Preparation 179 clo do, AV sluable fel aiepias Semi- ao 
do Trade, The 479 lunata) ps pS 117 
Cotton . 113 Fibres, Lecture on. 473 
do at Barbados, Recent Results in, Ficus Elastica, The Passing of 484 
the Cultivation of 298 Fixation of Nitrogen by Bactaria 246 
do : British Cotton Growing Asso- Forests on Rainfall, The Effect of 260 
ciation, Fourth Annual Report 12 Forward Sales of Rubber ; 556 
do , Caravonica, Experimental Culti- Fruit Growing in Zanzibar ... 561 
vation of 463 Fruit} Indian Californian... f 129 
do Cultivation m the Sea Islands 301_—Ss Further Notes on Cane Farming ‘at Trinidad 130 
do Factory, The Barbados Co-oper- 
ative . bac 116 ; 
do from the Solomon Islands 365 G. a 
do Growing .. 14 Garden Work, Labour Saving Tools for 237 
do do on the Coast, Report Ginger os 425 
on Progress of 403 do: Cultivation and Preparation of 127 
do Improvement in Madras 490 Grain, Threshing .. ¢ eae, OLD 
do__, Improving Madras... 406 Granadilla, The ... 426 
do in Batticaloa 184 Grass and Fruit Trees round Coconut 
do in Nyasaland oud 475 Palms 066 500 . 368 
do in Sind, Egyptian .. 300 Green Manuring A 346 
do in the Sea Islands ... 115 Groundnut Oil, Preservation of Mixtures 
do in Uganda 367 of Sesamum and sas 489 
do Industry, Lancashire 407 do Trials in the West Indies ... 312 
do Picking ... 115 Growth of Palmyras, The Rate of 258 
do Plant in Ceylon, Insects Asso- Gouraini, Introduction of 87 
ciated with the . 318 Guayule Rubber I. 108 
do Seed, Disinfection of 209 do do Industry, The 484 
do Seed Oil, Possibilities of : 488 Gutta Percha Planting in Java 106 
do Spinning and Weaving, Indian 299 
do Trade, American 215 
Country Life Commission, Pal 546 H. 
Credit Societies, Agricultural 160 Harvesting Rubber in Hawaii cis 297, 
Cultivation and Preparation « of £ Ginger... 127 Hedges and Hedge Plants at } Antieae «Ss 134 
do in South Coorg . 368 Heredity Ab 46 
Hevea Stem, Twisted : 294. 
D Honey versus Cane Sugar 333 
z Horticulture, Imperial Training in 156 
Dairy Farming: Will it Pay in eae 37 ~=How to Transplant a Tree ee 523 
Degumming Ramie 366 Humus, Value of.. as via eon, 
Development of the Amazon. 206 
Didymosperma Distichum 134 Fi 
Disinfection of Cotton Seed ., 209 : 
Drill- Sowing and Intercultivation, The Imperial Training in Horticulture 156 
Introduction of ate ra 216 Indian Crops, Value of 534 
Drugs, Report on oe 18 do Insect Life 481 
Dry Farming: Notes on aE 68 do  kubber and its Manufacture 102 
Dorian Fruit. The 307 do Tea Industry, The 505 
do Seed for Deore Packing 307 ; oe " ane an ues Dah SS re a eee 
atural a 2 Infertility in Soils, wae 
Evecuultes Nat a Insect iat Indian 481 
Insects Associated with ‘the Ootton ; 
E. ! Plant in Ceylon ... ~318° 
Keanda Rubber ..555, 567 do that Carry Diseases: Economie 
Economic Loss to the People through Loss to the People throu van OD 
Insects that carry Diseases 195 Instruction for Beginners, Practical 323 
Egyptian Votton in Sind... 300 Interview with Mr. Bowle Evans 83 
Entomological Notes eee o4s 136, 238, 431 Ipecacuanha Cultivation _... 306 
Eri or Caetor Silk .. 242 Irrigation, Some Indirect Benefits not 
Estimates of Rubber Output | 361 ‘Generally Recognised of., an eae 
Experiment Station, Paradeniya 61 
Experiments on the Value of Nitro-Bacterine 530 J. 
Japanese Camphor Exports ... Fam =) B16 
F. Jugra Island, Rubber Cultivationin ... 675 
Farming out Rubber Trees Pad 187 Jute in 1908 Bi ann «. 190 
Fertilisers and Manures _.., « 666 Jute Industry, The we 17 


iNDEX. 


PAGE. 
K, 
Kola ona 563 
L. 
Lecture: Prof, Ross’ Lecture before the 
Royal Institute of Great Britain 145 
Leguminous Crops and Soil Inoculation 325 
Lignum Vitae: Philippine Substitute for 30 
Lima Beans ; 181 
Lime and Phosphates i in Soils 562 
Litchi, or Litchee Fruit of 413 


Literature of Economic Botany and Agri- 
culture 


44, 155, 249, 335, 439, 


532 


Loranthus Parasite, The... 80, 92, 97 
do _, The Propagation of r 142 
M. 
Mango in West Africa 374 
Mangoes, Ripe Rot on : 320K 
Manihot Dichotoma 383, 567 
Manurial Trial on Young Rubber Trees 200 
Manuring in Ceylon var be $3 
do of Rubber ee coe 290 
do Tea and Rubber ... 181 
Mexican Rubber Planters and the State 479 
Miscellanea : Chiefly Pathological 35, 137, 239, 
429, 521 
Modern Agriculture ore oes 453 
N. 
Natal Rubber Notes 381 
Natural Dyestufis 402 
New Diseases of Rubber a5 377 
do Fibres for Paper sal yalan 
do Rubber Plant, A 559 
do do Shrub, A 558 
do Sources of N itrogen ‘ ‘e 153 
Nitro-Bacterine, Experiments on the 
Value of a 530 
Nitrogen, New Sources of _... me oe 
Northway System of Tapping Dig tesa 
- Notes and Queries 63, 250, 356 
do from Nyasaland 475 
do on Bee- keeping 149 
do on Dry Farming 68 
Nursing of Sick Animals \ ... 241 
0. 
Oilsand Seeds... 399 
Orange Production in, the Phipps 
Commercial ... bce 27 
Organism of the Soils 525 
P. 
Paddy, Single Planting in... 462 
Palmyras, The Rate of Growth of 258 
Panama Hat Industry ; 235 
Papaya Juice 303 Be 217 
Paper and Papier Mache in Bengal S40 OZ 
ge from Coconut Husks .. 85 88 
New Fibres for ne LO seul 
i Rubber ; 276 
do Seeds and Bamboo Pots’ 560 
Parasites or Insects Introduced to Check 
or Exterminate Injurious Insects ... 140 


Paspalum Dilatatum Grass ... 

Passiflora Foetida and Mikania Scandens 
Passing of Ficus Elastica, The + 
Personal Notes ... 

Petrzea Volubilis .. 


Philippine Substitute for Lignum Vite 


Pineapple Fibre ... 3 
do Industry of India 
Plantains, Dried, from Ceylon 
Plantation Rubber Yields 
Planting Experiments at Agricultural 
Experimental Station, Zimbiti 
Planting Industry of Ceylon... 
do — Notes from P.W, Africa 
Plants: Blood of . 
Plinatus Rubber: a New Substitute 
Plough for Sind, New : 
Poona Agricultural College ... 
Popular Agricultural Instruction in the U.S. 
Possibilities of Cotton Seed Oil 
Poultry ;: Combating Lice and Mites on 
Practical Courses at Pusa oe 
do Instruction for Beginners 
Preparation of Camphor 
Preservation of Mixtures of Sesamum_ 
and Groundnut Oi] 
Preserving Copra from Mould 
Pruning aud Disease: Thumb-nail 
“Purub” Rubber Coagulator 


R. 
Rainfall, The Effect of Forests on act 
Ramie Degumming process .. ett 
Raphia W 
Report on e Visit to India and Ceylon... 
Rice Cultivation, Burma. 
do do in Lowlying Land in 
Burma __... 
do Cultivation in the Atlantic Coast.. 
do , Fertilization of Sos 
do ’ Growing 
do : Single Planting i in Paddy 
do , Traneplanting of 
0, do of in Chattisgarh... 
Ripe Rot in Mangoes 50 
Rise in Rubber... 
Rotation of Crops and Reclamation of 
Lalang land, The Chinese Method of 
Babee A New Plant (. A sclepius stellifer g 
Acreage for German Colonies .. 


a Advance in 

d@ and Termes Gastroi... 

do and the Demand for Taxicabs... 

do and Tobacco in Sumatra 

do at Beaufort | 

do Bark Disease in Hevea 

do Bubbles in Biscuits 

do Ceara, in South Coorg 

do do (Manihot Glaziovii) 

do do Seeds, Germination of ... 

do  Coagulant, New 5362; he 
do do do (another) 370, « 
do Coagulating Latex by “Purub” 

do Cultivation in Ceylon me 

do  : Dry Rubber Yields per Tree 

do Ecanda (Paphionacmeutilis) ...555, 
do Effect of Green Manure on 

do Estimates of Output 

do Exports from Para .., te 


265 


3, 465-72 
64 


572 
157 
542 
537 


iv. INDEX, : 
PAGE, , 
Rubber Fertilisers and Manures oes 366 ee Sgrepe coperhan ot toe mee 
do Fever, British q 392 do Substitute, a New: Plinatus 
do Figures to June, 1909 Bi 185 do ,Tacky ... aN o 1 
do from Banana Plants 457, 559, Be? AG Tapping ... -T7s78,79,89, 381,081 
do from South India ... ‘do in Brasil 479 
- do — from the Banana 16559, 567 dé % , Ceara oe 566 a 
Lf , = , 
oe Pens ef eae Elastica ... 1 ie ap ” Experiments i int@anras 81 
ae ’ Gaavale C : 108 558 do, Taxicabs and the Demand for... 568 ee! 
° ua oe a do ’ Trees, Farming out.. ea ABT am 
do , Dapeel Institute Report on. 395 an do-: .. Manueial oul riale ane ae 
do in Assam.. he tee 363 ety 200 oie 
do in B.N. Borneo... ++ 192,570 do do Para, Effect ofa Gale on.. 174 
do in Brazil 11007, 071 ae Vislds of. 393 
do in Chile, a New Shrub as 558 ane ag Plantation ee ai 102 
do in Cochin China... ahd 571 ee aes ts 
do _in Hawaii, Harvesting AG 292 
do in Malacca b= By 188 Ss. 
do in Malaya Suh ...182,268 School Gardens ... ois oon 65 
do in Mexico We 475,479,566 Sea Islands: Cotton in the ... re 115 
do in New Guinea AE ...280, 363 Seeds, Oils and... a 399 
do in Nyasaland ae 178, 475, 570 do The Life and Death of oc 357 
do in Papua... 36h 87, 472, 566 Selecting Laying Stock 50 na 37 
do __ in Patani, Siam es 559 Sesamum and Groundnut Oil, Preserva- 
do in Portuguese West Africa... 465 tion of Mixtures of ob G0 489 
do in Siam ... nea ae 472 Shows, Agri-Horticultural .... a6 455 
do in South Coorg wee eae 557 ~~ Show, "Agri- Horticultural (Galle) om 256 
do in South India eee a 100 Show Report, Anuradhapura ae 58 
do in Travancore ich 187 do Hanguranketa va 59 4 
do in the British Empire - 553 do Kegalle 257 Reg: 
do inthe Hor Hast and Amazon ... 185 do Kegalle Agri- -Horticultural 455 
do inthe F.M ast se 192 do Mannar 57 
do in West nee ae 190 do Panala Village 455 
do: India Rubber and its Manufac- do Telijjawila aye Horticul- 
f ture... Dn 102 tural 455 
do Industry, The Ace 566 do Welimada act 59 5 
do do The Guayule na 484 Sisal Planting in German East Africa ... 492 = 
do _ Interview with Mr. Bowle Evans 83 Sleeping Sickness.. sae) ik 
do _ Lanadron Co.’s Expert’s Views 89 Soils, Acidity in ... we . 488 
do  Landin B. N. Borneo 2900 478 Soil, K Square Deal for the ... a6 354 ¢ 
do, Licenses to Sell a ie 569 do Inoculation ... 150 
do  , London Forward Sales of bac 596 do do » Leguminous Crops and 325 
‘do  , Malay Planters’ Methods as 82 de Organism _... & 530 
do , Manihot Dichutoma ... 385, 567 do of the si 525 
do , Manuring of eae e200 Soils The Cause of Infertility i in on 40 . 
‘do Mexican, Outlook for Pe 280 Soy Bean <a 295 > 
do , New Diseases of _ ... 500 377 do Bean Trade in China... 2 401 
do New Root i 567 ~=do Beans, Oil and Cake __... ie 207 & 
do New Tappin System 77, 78, 79,89 Soy or Soya Beans ae 576 
do Notes from Natal ... ae 381 Spraying for Weed Destruction Sar 152 
do  onSo-called Peat Soil oa 477 Stock: Selecting Laying _... oO 37 
do onthe Ivory Coast . BaD 458 Stumps, Danger of Old ISL 
do on the Nilgiris aoe -- 755 Sugarcane, How Java came ‘by her Pre- 
do Packing Bepenience so, SS sent Excellent ie a 313 
do Pads, Mr. Petch on.. ae 285 Swamp Cultivation ‘ rE 369 
do Palo Amarillo pot bc 363 Sweet Potatoes, The Cultivation of  ... 230 
do , Para ay aapik aes 276 
do », »A New Fungus Pest on ... 183 
do », Growth in Sumatra Site 384 T. = ¢ 
do ,», , in South Nigeria nf 457 Tacky Rubber _... me i 1 - 
do Plantation in American Factories 279 Tanning Materials ao .. 9, 402 : > 
do Planters, Botanical Facts for . 3 Tapping, New System of : Ar 77 yh 
do Planting Distances .. pe 478 Taxicabs and the Demand for Rubber ... 568 = 
do Price Conditions _... Rete 486 Tea, Bark Disease in ; nc 266 Bs 
do Production and Consumption ae , Culture. 6 a ie 25 a. 
do Prospects in Brazil. 90 do in Nyasaland a on 570 ee 
do Pure, New Process of f Producing 362, 38 FF do in Russia 562 ie 
do Quality of 478 », Indianand Ceylon, Advertising Fund = 175 
do , Risein ... Ae Pe 03 eee do Seed and Blister Blight ... 574 


do ’ Sales, Forward tee «. 906 4, Industryand Labour-saving Machinery 578 


Toa Industry, of Eastern Bengal and 


Assam 
me do The 
F do The Indian 


», in Nyasaland... 

,, in Travancore... 

,, Manuring . 

», Reports of China 

» The Quality of 

Trade in Batoum 

Termes Species of Ants 
The ee Co-operative Cotton Fac- 


6 chine Method of Rotation of Crops 
and Reclamation of Lalang Land 

Propagation of Loranthus 

Treatment of Weed in Permanent 
Crops 3c 8 Se 

Threshing Sain ac 

Thumb-nail Pruning and Disease 

Timber Production 


39 
39 


Tobacco Cultivation in Ce lon 


do do in Cuba.. 
do in Nyasaland 

do in Sumatra 

do in Trincomalie 


do Industry : Development of the 1 19, 


do Séed Beds, Transvaal 
do : Turkish Tobacco Experiments 
in Cape Colony 20 
Tomato: The Tree e 
Transplanting of Rice af 
do do in Chattisgar hee 
Transvaal Tobacco Seed Beds ay 
Travancore Agricultural Peper nent 308 
Treatment of Bamboo Pulp .. 
Pee How to Transplant a ... 
Planting 


ne do at Antigua 


_ INDEX, 


PAGE, 


“'308, 


Vv. 

PAGE. 

Tree Tomato, The 120 

Treub, Resignation of Dr... 480 
Turkish Tobacco Experiments in Cape’ 

Colony 900 000 9 

Turnera Klegans ... obo apa 317 

Twisted Hevea Stem onc toe 208 

U. 

U.S. Popular Agricultural Instruction 537 
Utilisation of Waste Wood ... : 518 
Vv. 

Vaiue of Humus ... 437 

do Indian Crops Do 534 
Vanilla: How it is Grown in Hawaii 424 
do Preparation and Packing of . 281 
Visit : Report on a Visit to India and 
Ceylon Sc ...850, 447 
Ww. 
Water in ae 263 
Wax, Raphia 5 7 
Weed Destruction: ‘Syraying for 152 
Weeds in Permanent Crops, The Tr eat- 
ment of 163 
White Ants Destroyer: a New German 
Apparatus... 384 
Wood, Andaman Marble or Zebra a 189 
do Fulp, The Supply and Manufac- 
ture of 409 
do Utilisation of Waste . 518 
Work at the Imperial Institute 412 
Y. 
Yield of Rubber ~ .., 393 


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Photo by (See p, 34.) 
H, F. Macmillan, PETRAA VOLUBILIS. 


TROPICAL AGRICULTURIST 


AND 


MAGAZINE OF THE 


CEYLON AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY. 


Vou, XXXII, 


COLOMRO, JULY 15x, 1909, 


No. 1. 


Reviews. 


TACKY RUBBER. 


[Ueber einige einleitende Versuche zur 
Klarung der Ursache des Leimigwerdens 
von Rohgummi. Von. Dr. D. Spence 
(Universitat Liverpool). Sonder-abdruck 
aus Zeitschrift fiir Chemie und Industrie 
der Kolloide, Bd. IV., Heft 2 und 3.] 


The author has for some months been 
engaged in the study of the causes of 
tackiness in rubber, and has issued a 
preliminary account of some of his 
experiments. He refers rather causti- 
_ eally to the various theories which have 
been propounded in explanation of this 
phenomenon, eé.g., oxidation, putrefac- 
tion, the action of Bacteria, and 
Enzymes, and points out that none of 
these is based on any scientific experi- 
ment, He agrees with Professor 
Bertrand, who read a paper on the 
subject at the Rubber Exhibition of 
1908, that Bacteria cannot be the direct 
cause of tackiness. Unfortunately, the 
Report of these lectures is not yet 
available. 

‘Thanks to the experimental researches 
of Bertrand, we have no _ longer 
much to fear from Bacteria with regard 
to tackiness. To pacify those who still 
pin their faith to the theory of the 
bacterial origin of tackiness, it may be 
pointed out that it remains to be proved 
whether bacteria have not perhaps an 
indirect influence, inso far that they 


may possibly create a suitable medium 
in which tackiness can afterwards occur. 
I refer here especially to the formation 
of acid substances through the action of 
bacteria on the protein substances and 
their constituent carbohydrates in raw 
rubber. To me it is quite unthinkable 
that bacteria can have any direct action 
upon the actual caoutchouc, but it is 
however imaginable that they might 
exert a small indirect influence in giving 
rise to conditions which favour tacki- 
ness. This possibility appears to have 
been hitherto totally overlooked, and I 
bring it forward since it indicates the 
need of further investigations into the 
action of bacteria—not on caoutchouc 
but—in caoutchouc,” 

“Bor the benefit of those who, in 
spite of the lack of logical experimental 
evidence, believe in the enzyme theory 
of tackiness, I may point out that I have 
taken the trouble to prepare a large 
number of rubbers from latices which 
were freed from enzymes as far as 
possible, and that, evenin those pre- 
parations to which I had given the 
greatest conceivable care in the removal 
of the enzyme before coagulation, I have 
several times observed exceptionally 
well-developed tackiness, Consequently 
the enzyme is not directly concerned in 
the production of tackiness, though 
naturally here again the possibility of 
an indirect action because of the pre- 
sence of the enzyme in the rubber must 
be taken into consideration. It can be 


imagined that in some cases the enzyme 
favours the* subsequent occurrence of 
tackiness by setting up such conditions 
as facilitate the initiation of the changes 
which heat and sunlight afterwards 
accelerate.” 


The author proceeds to describe an 
experiment in the coagulation of 
Funtumia latex which had been pre- 
served ina liquid state by means of 
ammonia. The ammonia and salts were 
separated by dialysis, and the latex was 
then sterilised. Part of the sterilised 
latex was coagulated by means of 
decinormal sulphuric acid, while the 
other was treated with sterilised water 
only. Absolute alcohol was then added 
to both, and they were heated to 100°C 
to obtain complete coagulation in both 
cases. The rubber obtained by water 
and alcohol only was a white elastic 
mass with very good tenacity and with 
‘nerve,’ while the rubber coagulated 
with sulphuric acid was very soft and 
plastic without either tenacity or 
“nerve. After the samples had been 
washed and dried, the former was a 
sample of good rubber, while the latter 
melted into a soft resinlike paste. Thus 
from the same sample of latex, two 
entirely different specimens of rubber 
were obtained, one sound and the other 
excessively ‘‘ tacky.” 


The dry weight of the samples proved 
that no “ Oxidation” had taken place, 
and acetone extraction showed that 
the percentage of resin was practically 
the same in both, while further ana- 
lysis proved that the tackiness was 
not due to chemical changes. These 
facts, together with experiments on 
the viscosity, etc. lead the author 
to the conclusion that tackiness depends 
not on chemical changes buat on 
physical changes. Sunlight and heac 
appear to be the most efficacious agents 
in its production, but it may also be 
produced by dilute sulphuric acid. 


The result detailed above is of extreme 
interest to rubber planters at the present 
time, since it indicates that the same 
latex, coagulated by different methods, 
may produce rubbers varying enor- 
mously in strength. Forseveral years it 
has been anarticle of faith that rubber 
from young trees is weaker than that 
from older trees. Certainly the avail- 
able samples of rubber demonstrated 
this, and it will require strictly con- 
trolled, logical, scientific experiment to 
upset this belief, though, from a botanical 
standpoint, it must be confessed that 
there is no valid explanation why rubber 
from young trees should be weaker. 
The oft-quoted statements about the 
greater amounts of resin present in 


[JULy, 1909, wy 


young rubber do not agree with the 
recorded analyses. 
argument which supports the current 
belief may be pointed out, though the 
possible error may not be so important 
as it appears. The comparisons between 
rubber from old and young trees have 
been made on samples from different 
estates, possibly coagulated by different 
methods or by unavoidable variations of 
the same method. Seeing that different 
methods of coagulation may produce 
such strikingly different results, it is 
evident that, trom a scientific stand- 
point, the question of the strength of 
the rubber from trees of different ages 
must be regarded as more or less an open 
one, until samples have been prepared 
by the same method and by the same 
operator. 


Practical observations on tackiness are 
all, at present, more or less vague. It is 
confidently asserted that tackiness is 
communicable, 7.e., that a tacky biscuit 
infects others in contact with it, but 
the possibility that, in the supposed 
instances of this, similar external or 
internal conditions may have produced 
tackiness in these biscuits successively 
is overlooked. Itis not sufficient to put 
a tacky biscuit on the top of an appa- 
rently sound one, and then to argue that 
the ‘‘ disease ” has been transferred when 
the lower biscuit becomes tacky. 


I have been informed by one planter 
that he can induce tackiness in crepe 
rubber at will, by including in it serap 
rubber which has been allowed to remain 
on the tree for several days. 


At present no experimental evidence 
can be offered, but the following 
instances may be recorded, since they 
show the improbability that tackiness is 
due to bacteria or fungi. In November, 
1907, some biscuits were made from latex 
from the old Hevea trees at Henarat- 
goda, and were left lying in the labora- 
tory at Peradeniya. Some of these 
were by accident placed ona table where 
the sunlight fell on them, and these 
subsequently became tacky. 
these tacky biscuits has been lying on 
the top of a sound biscuit for over six 
months, but the lower biscuit has not 
become tacky. Again, in March, 1908, a 
sample of crepe (Hevea) which showed 
pale yellow spots, the first stages of 
tackiness, was sent in for examination. 
A piece with a large yellow spot was 
selected, and, after the yellow area had 
been accurately marked out, the piece 
was covered witha bell glass, and left 
lying exposed to light (not to direct 
sunlight) on the table. The yellow area 
subsequently became semi-fluid, but this 
condition has not spread in the slightest 


But one flaw in the 


One of © 


_ Juny, 1909.] 


degree up to the present time, and the 
- transference of this semi-fluid rubber to 
sound parts of the same piece has no set 
up tackiness at the spots to whic it 
was applicd. Further, tackiness affects 
vuleanised rubber as well as raw rubber, 
though the causes may be different. In 
1906,some small glass pipettes, such as 
are used for filling fountain pens, were 
bought from England for use in the 
laboratory. They were furnished with 
red vulecanised rubber teats. Six of 
these were wrapped up in paper and put 
away in stock, while one, which was 


‘used occasionally, was kept ina drawer 


on acardboard tray. The teats of the 
six in paper were found to be tacky and 
in parts semi-liquid in March, 1909, while 
that in the drawer (usually in darkness) 
had tflowed fora length of four centi- 
metres along the glass tube and over 
the cardboard. But another similar 
pipette, with a black teat, has been kept 
ina drawer for more than four years, 
avn oceastogal use, and the teat is still 
sound, 


T. PETCH, 


GUMS, RESINS, SAPS AND EXUDATIONS. 


BOTANICAL FACTS FOR RUBBER 
PLANTERS. 


By R. H. Lock. 


Recent discussions in the local press 
on the best methods of tapping Para 
rubber have revealed so many remark- 
able misunderstandings of the actual 
way in which arubber tree grows and 
gets its living, that it appears as if the 
following facts, although describing 
matters which are doubtless familiar to 
many planters, may yet be of some 
service to those who are not equipped 
with a knowledge of botany. We shall 
endeavour in what follows to avoid 
.technieal terms as far as possible, and 
to describe the few simple facts which it 
behoves anyone who has charge of a 
rubber plantation to understand, in 
language which can be grasped without 
any previous scientific training what- 
ever. 


The organs or parts of a plant may be 
divided into two chief kinds: on the one 
hand those which are concerned with 
growth and feeding, namely, the leaves, 
roots and stem, and on the other hand 
those which are concerned with repro- 
duction, namely, the flowers and seeds. 
For the present we shall disregard 
all questions concerning the seed and 
younger stages of the plant, and, ima- 
gining our rubber tree to be already 
well established and grown to some con- 
siderable size, we shall consider the 
growing parts of the tree and how they 
are likely to be affected by the operation 
of tapping. 

As already remarked, the growing 
organs of the tree consist of leaves, stem 
and roots. Thefunction of the roots—to 
take the last-mentioned organs first, is 
firstly to hold the tree firmly upright 
by anchoring it in the soil; and, secondly, 
to absorb certain substances contained 


in the soil which are essential for the 
nourishment of the tree. Among the 
most important of these substances, as 
is well known to all who are familiar 
with the application of artifical manures, 
are certain compounds of nitrogen, 
phosphorus and potash. 


Before these materials can be made 
use of as food by the different parts of 
the plant, it is necessary for them to be 
altered and combined with the still more 
important substance carbon, which is 
obtained only by the leaves, one of 
whose functions is to absorb this sub- 
stance from the air in the form of car- 
boniec acid gas, We may compare the 
leaves of the tree to so many minute 
kitchens in which the different in- 
gredients of the tree’s food are prepared 
and compounded into a form in which 
they can be utilized by the roots, stem 
and other organs. 


We now pass to the functions of the 
stem. or trunk of the tree. The first 
of these is to support the leaves in a 
position where they are well exposed 
to air and sunshine, and the second is 
to conduct the necessary mineral sub- 
stances from the roots to the leaves, 
and also to conduct the elaborated food 
supply downwards from the leaves to 
the roots. 


The trunk of a tree is well known to 
consist of two main portions—the wood 
and the bark, If the bark is stripped 
from the wood the separation takes place 
atan extremely soft and delicate layer 
of tissue known as the cambium. Chan- 
nels for the corduction of sap occur both 
in the wood and in the bark, and two 
entirely different streams of sap are 
associated with these two regions. An 
upward current of sap occurs in the 
outer part of the wood, by means of 
which current the mineral substances 
absorbed by the rooteg are carried to the 
leaves in a state of very weak solution, 


Gums, Resins, 


The perfected food materials are carried 
down through definite channels in the 
inner part of the bark by a stream of 
sap which is entirely independent of the 
upward stream. The system of minute 
vessels which contain the latex or rubber 
milk are entirely separate from both the 
above mentioned sets of channels, and 
have nothing to do with either of them. 
The upward and downward streams of 
sap are found in all trees, but latex 
occurs only ina few. 


The evil results of ringing the bark, 
or severing it by a cut which penetrates 
to the cambium and extends right round 
the tree, are primarily due to the inter- 
ruption of the downward food supply 
which must ultimately lead to the star- 
vation of the roots and the consequent 
death of the tree. Such ringing may 
occur more or Jess completely as the 
result of injudicious tapping. Any cut 
or prick which reaches the cambium 
must sever a certain number of the 
channels through which the sap passes 
down to the roots, and it is highly pro- 
bable that the weakening etfect of exces- 
sive tapping is quite as much due to the 
starvation of the roots asto the removal 
of the latex. Any system of tapping 
which involves the cutting or pricking 
of the whole circumference of the tree 
at one time is especially bad from this 
point of view, and it must be considered 
advisable never to tap more than a 
third, or at the most one-half, of the 
total circumference of the tree at any 
one time. 


After a certain interval tapping may 
‘extend to the untapped portion of the 
circumference. This is owing to the 
strong recuperative powers of the bark 
or rather ot the cambium. This im- 
portant layer consists of a very delicate 
tissue in which growth and the forma- 
tion of new and more permanent tissues 
are constantly going forward. On the 
outer side of the cambium, and conse- 
quently on the inner side of the bark, 
new additions are constantly being 
made to the bark itself to replace what 
is removed by ordinary wear and tear 
or by the tapping knife. These addi- 
tions include both new channels for the 
descent of sap and new vessels for the 
storage of latex, the two systems being, 
as we have already pointed out, entirely 
independent of one another. 


The latex tubes being entirely separ- 
ate from the vessels in which the food 
bearing sap is transported, the question 
naturally arises what is their use to the 
tree? aud whatis the precise function 
of the milky emulsion of rubber which 


they contain. This is a point as to. 


which we are still very much in the 


« 


[JuLy, 1900. 


dark, From the fact that the great 
majority of trees get on perfectly 
well without any latex at all, we are 
driven tothe conclusion that this sub- 
stance is not absolutely essential to 
the life of the plant, and it is certainly 
the case that large quantities of latex 
can be removed without causing any 
visible injury to the health of the tree. 
On the other hand, the latex is undoubt- 
edly formed at the expense of valuable 
food material, and the removal of latex 
must thus indirectly cause a drain 
upon the supply of food available for 
the roots and for the purposes of general 
growth. This drain is additional to 
that check to the food current which is 
caused by the partial ringing effect 
which even the best tapping produces. 
The amount of tapping which can be 
safely carried out is therefore limited, 
though only experience can decide the 
point at which safety ends and danger 
begins. 


Even the most expert tapping is there- 
fore dangerous if carried to excess. In- 
expert tapping is attended with another 
and more serious danger in the injury 
to the cambium which it involves. The 
cambium is such an important part of 
the tree that it is very desirable for the 
planter to have a definite idea as to its 
nature and functions. Situated as it is 
between the wood ard the bark, the 
cambium is the seat of growth of both 
these regions. Injury to the cambium 
involves the cessation of growth at the 
spot where the injury occurs, and since 
only the younger portion of both wood 
bark are active in the upward and down- 
ward sap-transport already described, 
any extensive injury to the cambium 
involves serious damage to the whole 
economy of the tree, quite apart from 
the danger that the germs of disease 
may make their entry at the point of 
weakness. 


Owing to the extreme thinness of the 
cambium itself, injuries to this tissue 
involve corresponding damage to the 
outer part of the wood and to the inner 
part of the bark. Taking first the case 
of the wood, if the injury to the cam- 
bium is not extensive, a renewal of 
growth soon takes place and the in- 
jured wood becomes buried beneath 
tresh layers of woody tissue. By cut- 
ting into the outer part of the wood the 
traces of old injuries can often be 
found. Injuries to the inner part of the 
bark caused by irregular tapping are 
often of a more serious nature, especially 
when fragments of the outer_bark or 
other foreign substances are driven in 
to the neighbourhood of the cambium 
through injudicious pricking. In this case 


_ ae 
ae >. 
\? 


Jury, 1909. 


there often arises an abnormal growth 
of woody nodules in the bark itself, 
as has been fully described by Mr. Petch 
in a recent circular (Vol. IV., No. 18). 
~These nodules lead to serious difficul- 
ties in the tapping of the renewed bark. 
Mr. Petch associates this form of injury 
especially with the use of the blunt 
pricker, although we are assured that 
this instrument has frequently been 
used without the peiuetign of any of 
these nodules. The precise effect no 
doubt depends to a considerable extent 
upon the individuality and vigour of 
particular groups of trees. At the 
present time we do not consider that 
the problem of what is the best possible 
method of tapping is by any means 
settled, and whilst recommending that 
every new method should receive a 
thorough and extensive trial, we are 
inclined on purely theoretical grounds 
* to adopt a somewhat conservative atti- 
tude, believing that the greatest safety 
lies in careful paring by the herring- 
bone or half-herring-bone method. In 
operating this method not more than a 
third of the circumference of the tree 
should be attacked at any one time. 


RUBBER CULTURE IN CEYLON. 


(From the Gardeners’ Chronicle, XLY.., 
1, 151, January, 1909.) 


Attention was drawn in our issue of 
October 3rd last, to the developments 
which have taken place during recent 
years in the cultivation of rubber plants. 
It was pointed out how largely these 
-developments have been due to the 
activities of the Government Botanic 
Departments in various parts of the 

world. Although the cultivation of 
- Rubber is being prosecuted with zeal in 
the tropical possessions of other nations, 
itis gratifying to be able to record that 
the pioneer work was carried on within 
the British Empire. The first important 
step was the introduction to Ceylon 
and elsewhere of the supplies collected 
by Mr. H. A. Wickham in the Amazon 

alley and brought to Kew under cir- 
_ cumstances of considerable difficulty. 
The expense of Mr. Wickham’s expedi- 
tion was borne by the Government of 
India, but, as Ceylon seemed to offer 
more suitable conditions, the young 
plants were despatched “thither, and 
later this colony acted as the distribut- 
ing centre for other British possessions. 
The staff of the Ceylon Botanic Gardens, 
moreover, carried out experimental 
work and made discoveries which were, 
in a large measure, instrumental in 
securing for rubber cultivation the 
position of a profitable industry, 


Saps and Fxudations. 


The world’s annual output of rubber 
is now about 69,000 tons, of which amount 
tropical America contributes some 64 
per cent., tropical Africa 84 per cent,, 
and tropical Asia the remaining 2 per 
cent. The tropical American yield is 
credited in the main to three plants, 
Hevea brasiliensis (Para rubber), Mani: 
hot Glaziovii (Ceara rubber), and Castil- 
loa elastica (Central American rubber). 
Other species of Hevea and _ various 
species of the allied genus Sapium pro- 
bably also contribute to the output of 
‘‘Para rubber.” More than one species 
of rubber-producing Castilloa have also 
been recognised, and recent observa- 
tions point to there being other useful 
species of Manihot besides M. Galziovii. 
The three plants mentioned may, how- 
ever, be regarded as being the main 
source of American rubber. They have 
all been introduced into Ceylon, and we 
may consider separately their histories 
in the colony. 

Of Hevea brasiliensis, a supply of 
some 2,000 young plants was received 
in Ceylon in 1876, transmitted from 
Kew in thirty-nine Wardian cases. 
These plants had been raised from the 
seed collected by Mr. Wickham in the 
Amazon Valley. A special garden was 
prepared for their reception at Hena- 
ratgoda in the low, moist country, 
and some were also planted at Pera- 
deniya, about 1,500 feet elevation. 
The plants succeeded very well. Hena- 
ratgoda soon supplied plants to widely 
distant parts of the tropics, at first 
from cuttings and later from seed, 
As the plants became old enough to 
yield rubber—usually about their sixth 
year-—experimental tappings were com- 
menced. Tothis end V-shaped incisions 
were made in the bark of the young 
trees, and the exuding latex collected 
in cups of coconut shell placed at the 
base of each trunk. In this manner the 
late Dr. Trimen, F.R,S., the then Director 
of the Gardens, obtained from one tree, 
during six years, by tapping made in 
1888, 1890, 1892, and 1894, a yield of over 
103 lbs. of good dry rubber. A definite 
step forward resulted from the experi- 
mental work of Dr. J. C. Willis, the 
present Director of the Ceylon Botanical 
Gardens, and Mr. J. ©. Parkin, who 
carried out the investigations from 1897 
ouwards. They discovered the existence 
of the phenomenon known as ‘“ wound 
response.” It was found that if a definite 
region of the bark was tapped several 
times at short intervals the yield of 
rubber increased considerably at each 
tapping. Many methods of the coagu- 
lation of the latex were also tried, result- 
ing in the preparation of the now familiar 
thin ‘‘ biscuits.” The net result was to 


Gums, Resins, 


show that Para rubber cultivation in 
Ceylon might be looked upon as a 
reasonably profitable industry. Planting 
made such rapid strides that, at the 
present time, there are in the colony 
some 180,000 acres under rubber crops. 
Definite evidence of the progress of the 
industry is afforded by the increase in 
amount and value of the exports of 
rubber from Ceylon during the past 
seven years, Whereas, in 1900, the 
quantity of rubber exported from the 
colony was but 8,228 lbs. of £859 in value, 
by 1908 it had increased to upwards cf 
three-quarters of a million pounds, and 
was valued at £195,475. 


It was thought at first that Para rub- 
ber would not succeed in Ceylon at eleva- 
tions greater than about 500 feet, but 
the tree has since proved to do well at 
heights even exceeding 2,000, and pro- 
bably 3,000 feet should be regarded as 
the limiting altitude in the colony. The 
tree will grow at much higher elevations, 
Dat would not be likely to prove profit- 
able. 


The history of Hevea cultivation in 
Ceylon affords an excellent example of 
the usefulness of Botanic Gardens 
equipped with proper facilities for the 
carrying out of experimental work. If 
the Ceylon Gardens had done nothing 
else during their history than established 
this industry, they would have more than 
justified their existence. But, in addi- 
tion, they were, as is well-known, the 
means of introducting coffee, tea, and 
einchona, to take only the more strik- 
ing instances, ’all of which plants have 
played important parts in the economic 
history of Ceylon. 


Ceara rubber (Manihot Glaziovii), 
another South American tree, was intro- 
duced into Ceylon by Kewin 1877, the 
supplies of seeds and plants having been 
obtained by Mr. Cross. By 1883 as 
many as 977 acres were reported as 
being under this plant. The yield of 
rubber, however, was very disappoint- 
ing, and, with the rapid development of 
the tea industry about this period, the 
cultivation of the Ceara-rubber tree fell 
into neglect. The Para rubber tree 
afterwards gave more promising results 
and interest was ;transferred to it. 
Recently, however, it has been shown 
that rubber of very high value can be 
prepared in Ceylon from the Manihot, 
and it is not improbable that, in the 
future, it will be grown in places too 
high or too arid for the Para rubber tree 
but well suited to the more drought- 
loving Ceara plant. 

Central American rubber (Castilloa 
elastica), known to the Spaniards as the 
Uleé, was introduced into,Ceylon with the 


(juny, 1900, 


Para rubber plants in 1876. It was 
grown like the Para rubber at Pera- 
deniya and Henaratgoda. Trees are now 
distributed about the Island, but they 
have not been cultivated in an extensive 
scale, and comparatively little is known 
as to the yields obtainable from this 
species in the island, althovgh experi- 
mental tappings have yielded rubber 
of high value. 


Amongst other rubber trees intro- 
duced into Ceylon are the Assam rub- 
ber tree (Ficus elastica), the familiar 
India-Rubber plant of this country. 
The avenue of this handsome tree lead- 
ing into the Peradeniya Gardens is well- 
known to visitors to Ceylon, the curious 
buttress-roots being very characteristic. 
No serious use has ever been made in the 
island of Ficus elastica as a rubber-pro- 
ducing tree. 


From Africa there have also been 
introduced the Lagos silk rubber tree 
(Funtumia elastica), which has not provy- 
ed successful owing to the young plants 
being very liable to defoliation by the 
attacks of a caterpillar, and the various 
rubber vines (Landolphia spp.) which, 
from their climbing habit, are not well 
adapted for estate cultivation. 


RUBBER PROSPECTS IN BRAZIL. 


(From the Tropical Life, Vol. V., No. 4, 
April, 1906.) 

One of the leading South American 
houses interested in rubber sent us the 
following letter under date February 
2nd :—‘‘ We should be much obliged if 
you would kindly let us know if there is 
any literature existing relating to the 
prospects of the natural rubber produc- 
ed in South America, in view of the 
increased cultivation in the Hast. A 
client of ours in South America, who is 
much interested in the development of 
the rubber industry, has asked us for 
information on this point, and as it 
Opens up a somewhat complicated 
problem, we think it probable that the 
question has been dealt with.” In 
answer to this we sent some articles on 
the subject, including a copy of Tropical 
Life for March last, with our leading 
article on ‘‘The Fall in the Price of 
Hard Para,” together with the following 
letter: ‘‘In answer to yours of February 
2nd, the only trustworthy matter 
printed re the prospects of rubber will 
be found in current tropical literature. 
In face of the present prices being paid 
for rubber, one can only feel that, for 
the present at anyrate, the demand 
exceeds the supply, although at the 
moment trade is not good, at least itis 


~ Juuy, 1909] 


said not to be, and motor-cars, cham- 
pagne, &c., are stated to be in less 
demand. 


“‘T therefore feel that we can take 
to-day’s trade as a good average, and 
this at present brings in too high a price 
for rubber to put tyres and floorings on 
a popular basis. I agree with those who 
maintain that when Para rubber comes 
permanently to 2s. 6d. per lb., so many 
uses will be made of it, that all the areas 
under cultivation even then will be well 
employed to supply the demand. 


“Of the Eastern centres, I would fear 
Ceylon the least; it deserves all it can 
get, but its soil tends to be worked out. 
Malaya, with its virgin soil and large 
uncultivated tracts, is more dangerous, 
but lacks labour. Brazil’s most dan- 
gerous rival in the future will be Java, 
with its teeming industrious population, 
who are just the class to work rubber, 
as it is not an exacting crop, and enables 
the Javanese to go home and plant and 
gather intheir rice. If, in face of all 
this, Brazil ever allows herself to be 
cut out by the East it will be entirely 
her own~-fault, for she has the ecards in 
her hand. We understand that besides 
cultivating the areas already worked, 
Brazil has still vast areas untouched. 

“Let the States, therefore, really 
federate and co-operate together, and 
not put on vexatious inter-State restric- 
tions and taxes. Put motor-boats on the 
rivers, and encourage men capable of 
developing her cultivated rubber and 
other resources without destroying them 
to go up into the interior to bring down 
the rubber, paying a royalty on the 
same to one centre only, not a tax to 
each State that they have to pass 
through. If Brazil does this she would 
attract outside labour and capital to 

_ develop her dormant riches.” 


RAPHIA WAX. 


(From the Bulletin of the Imperial Insti- 
tute, Vol. VI., No. 4, 1908.) 


In acommunication mai: to the Paris 
Academy of Sciences in December, 1905, 
Professor M. H. Jumelle of Marseilles 
drew attention to a vegetable wax, pre- 
pared by the natives in certain districts 
of Madagascar, from the leaves of the 

_raphia palm (Raphia Ruffia), well known 
as the source of the “bass” used by 
gardeners for attaching plants to stakes, 
A fuller account of the preparation of 
this material was given in the Bulletin 
Economique de Madagascar (1906, 6. 48). 
As it appeared, from the first accounts 
published, that this product might be 
of some economic value, the Director of 


Saps and Euudations. 


the Imperial Institute applied to H,.M. 
Consul at Tamatave for samples of the 
wax, and these were supplied early in 
1907. The wax has now been examined, 
and submitted for technical trial to 
manufacturers. As the results of this 
work present many points of interest, it 
has been thought desirable to give a 
short account of it in the Bulletin. 


Raphia bass consists of the epidermal 
portion of the upper side of the leaf of 
the raphia palm. When the leaf opens 
out, the two surfaces which have been 
in contact in the young stage form the 
upper surface of the leaf. This has a 
glossy epidermis, which, on being strip- 
ped off, forms the raphia bass. It is on 
the dull under surface of the leaf that 
the wax occurs as a whitish layer or 
bloom, readily detachable by rubbing 
lightly with the finger. 


It isfrom the residues of the leaves 
left after the extraction of the bass, that 
the wax has, up to the present, been 
obtained, These residues, called by the 
natives ‘‘Taimbontgona,” are available 
in large quantities in the neighbour- 
hood of the raphia groves which have 
been worked for bass. They are spread 
out to dry on cloths in the open air, 
sheltered from the wind, as even a slight 
breeze is sufficient to blow away much 
of the light waxy matter. The drying 
usually takes from two to four days, and 
at the end of that time a white pellicle is 
apparent on the under surfaces of the 
leaves. It is then only necessary to 
shake the leaves or to rub them between 
the hands to cause the waxy matter to 
detach itself, mostly in the form of 
powder or fine dust. The powder is 
collected, sifted from foreign material, 
and placed in boiling water, when the 
wax melts and floats to the surface, 
whilst any earthy impurity settles to 
the bottom, The liquefied wax is then 
transferred to a receiver, where it is 
allowed to cool and solidify. The pro- 
duct thus prepared is yellow to dark 
brown in colour, rather harder and more 
brittle than beeswax. 


The following quantities are given as 
the yields of bass and wax in an experi- 
mental extraction of these products in 
Madagascar. The experiment was made 
on ten raphia palm leaves of medium 
size (84 to 44 metres in length) :— 


Total weight of leaves 
Weight of dry bass obtained 
Weight of dry residue (less the 
ribs of leaves) ace a 11:0 
Weight of wax after preparation 0°78 
In this experiment the yield of wax 
was equal to 0°75 per cent. of the weight 


Gums, Resins, 


of leaves used, and to about 17 per cent: 
of the weight of dry fibre extracted. In 
practice, however, it would be lower, 
and possibly equal to about 10 per cent: 
of the weight of fibre. 


Examination of the Wax. 


Professor Jumelle showed that in many 
respects this product resembles the car- 
nauba wax of commerce, obtained from 
Copernica cerifera. It hasapproximate- 
ly the same melting-point (83° C.), and 
behaves in the same way towards various 
solvents. Raphia wax has been subjected 
to a wore detailed examination by Prof. 
Haller and M. Deseude. The results of 
these investigations indicate that al- 
though in physical properties raphia 
wax resembles carnauba wax to some 
extent, the two differ considerably in 
composition. 

Two samples of the raphia wax were 
received at the Imperial Iustitute. The 
first consisted of a solid cake weighing 
330 grams. 

It was yellowish brown in colour, for 
the most part, but greyish at the edges, 
and was sufficiently brittle to powder in 
a mortar. 

The second sample was larger, and con- 
sisted of two cakes weighing together 
eight pounds. The lower part of one 
of these cakes contained a large quantity 
ot sandy or gritty impurity due to care- 
less preparation. Only the upper portion 
of this was taken for chemical examin- 
ation. 

The results are given in the following 
table, which also includes, for the pur- 
pose of comparison, the corresponding 
values for carnauba wax and beeswax. 


Raphia Raphia Carnauba Bees 

: wax.Il wax.2 wax. wax. 

Specific gravity at aS 0836 ©0"832,—ss«'8 42 0 820 
Acid value _.. oe 49° 65 3°4-7'0 19-21 
Saponification value .. 51°3. 50.3 79-84 90-99 


Todine value 


or yes} 10.7 13'5 8-11 
Melting-point of wax .. 82°C, 83°C. 83°-86°C. 63°-65°C 


[Juny, 
Results of Technical Trials. 


The results of the comparative ex- 
amination showed that the raphia wax 
agreed closely in physical characters 
with carnauba wax, and it was con- 
sidered likely that it might be used for 
the same purposes, such as the manu- 
facture of polishes, candles, ete. 


A firm of boot-polish manufacturers, 
who were consulted on this point, were ~ 
at first inclined to view the product 
favourably, and asked for a larger 
sample for trial. Unfortunately the 
second large sample received at the Im- 
perial Institute, as indicated above, con- 
tained a good deal ot gritty impurity, 
and this the manufacturers reported 
rendered the material unsuitable for 
their purpose. 


A firm of candle and soap manu- 
facturers who were also consulted, re- 
poited that in some respects the mate- 
rial possessed the qualities of certain 
waxes already on the market, and al- 
though they took exeeption to the in- 
herent ‘‘ oiliness” and the dark colour of 


the wax, they expressed their willingness 


to purchase a small consignment at the 
rate of £40 per ton, for trial on a large 
scale. Inquiries made by H.M. Consul 
at Tamatave as to the possibility of 
obtaining commercial supplies otf the 
wax, indicate that a price of £40 per ton 
would not cover the cost of collecting, 
preparing and shipping the wax, and 
that the latter cannot be produced at 
present for less than £80 per metric ton 
f.o.b. Tamatave. 


As the present price of carnauba wax 
ranges from £4 10s, to £7 per ewt., it is 
possible that if raphia wax of good 
quality, pale colour, and free from grit 
could be shipped in quantity at £80 per 
ton, it might find considerable use as a. 
substitute for carnauba wax. 


aime 


: Jury, 1909.) — 


TANNING MATERIALS. 
(From the Report on the Work of the 
Imperial Institute, 1906-1907, No. 584.) 


Samples 
Samples awaiting 

reported on 4} investigation | 6 

during 1907. Z/at the end of Z 


Samples 
reported on 5 
during 1906, 


1907. 

Transvaal ..) 1/Gambia 1\Gold Coast .. 1 
Uganda ...| 2|/Sierra Leone | 1|Foreign Coun- 
Somaliland ...| 3|Gold Coast .. }| fries |’ 
Sudan ..| 1/Transvaal nl 
Seychelles ..| 1/Cape Colony 10 
India .. |L4/Uganda | 3 
Western Aus-| |Sudan vac], 2] 

tralia .. | 3\Seychelles . 12 
British British Hon- 

Guiana ...} 1} duras 4 

> e411 a eee ae Ui 


Total -../26/Total =. |36)Total =. 4 


1906.—None of the samples of tanning 
materials examined proved to be suffi- 
ciently rich in tanning to be worth con- 
sideration for export to the United 
Kingdom, but most of them were otf 
fair quality and suitable for local use 
in tanning. This is the case, for ex- 
ample, with the three interesting mate- 
rials from Somaliland, viz., ‘‘ Wattu” 
leaves derived from Osyris abyssinica, a 
near relative of the plant which yields 
the so-called ‘‘Cape Sumach,” “ gallol 
root bark,” from a_ species of Acacia 
near Acacia latronum, and ‘‘maua 
bark,” of unknown botanical origin. 
These yielded respectively 24°8, 24:0 and 
13:7 per cent. of tannin. The two first- 
mentioned furnished leathers of medium 
quality, whilst that prepared with maua 
bark was of fair quality, but rather 
harsh and somewhat dark coloured. 


The samples from India were extracts 
prepared from the barks of Shorea 
robusta, Terminalia tomentosa and 
Rhizophora mucronata. Of these the 
most promising were those prepared 
from the lastnamed bark. They con- 
tained high percentages of tanning, but 
were rather dark coloured, indicating 
the need for greater care in evaporating 
the liquors prepared as a first step in the 
manutacture of the extracts. 


1907.—The samples from Cape Colony 
‘included six samples of wattle bark 
derived from the golden wattle, Acacia 
pycnantha, and the black wattle, Acacia 
decurrens. All these proved to be of 
good quality and similar in type to the 


DYES AND TANS. 


wattle barks now imported from Natal 
and Australia. They were valued from 
£7 10s, Od. to £7 15s. Od. per ton. 


The other samples from Cape Colony 
were samples of barks from indigenous 
trees, ‘‘ White thorn” (Acacia horrida), 
“ Krupeehout,” ‘“ Kliphout,” and of Cape 
Sumach. These were all of poorer 
quality than the wattle barks, and most 
of them though suitable for local use 
were of no value for export. 


The samples from Uganda included 
‘*Busana bark,” derived from a species 
of Acacia, probably Acacia spvrocarpa, 
This is being used in the neighbourhood 
of Entebbe as a tanning material. It 
contains about 10 per cent, of tannin and 
yields a rather harsh, dark-coloured 
leather, and should only be used in 
admixture with the better materials 
imported to Uganda from India. A 
sample of the bark of Terminalia 
velutina was also received from Uganda. 
This contained 12 per cent. of tannin and 
yielded a light-coloured leather of fair 
quality. 

The Sudan materials were samples of 
Kili bark from ficws sp. and ‘‘ Alimu” 
bark from Ximenia americana. The 
latter proved to be of fair quality for 
local use. 

The samples from Gambia, Sierra 
Leone, Gold Coast Colony, Seychelles 
and British Honduras were all mangrove 
barks, Of these samples certain of those 
from Seychelles alone yield sufficient 
tannin (%e., over 40 per cent.) to be 
worth consideration for export. The 
other samples could only be used locally 
for tanning or for the manufacture of 
tanning extracts. The samples from 
British Honduras and the Gambia, 
however, included barks which were 
of special interest on account of 
the unusually good and light-coloured 
leather they produced for mangrove 
barks. The examination of this large 
collection of mangrove barks has enabled 
some useful information to be obtained 
regarding the value of scraping off the 
outer bark before shipment, and it seems 
certain that in most cases the outer bark 
contains little or no tannin, and _ its 
removal before export raises the average 
tannin content of the bark and reduces 
the bulk, 


The sample from Brazil was ‘‘ barba- 
timao bark” sent by the British Consul 
at Rio de Janeiro with a _ view to 
ascertaining whether this material, 
largely used in Brazil for tanning, is of 
commercial value, The sample proved 


Dyes and Tans. 


to contain 27°8 per cent. of tannin and to 
yield a leather of very good quality. It 
is worth noting that this tree has been 
introduced recently into German Kast 
Africa with a view to the utilisation of 
its bark for tanning purposes. 

At the end of the year a sample of divi- 
divi pods from the Gold Coast and 
samples of mangrove bark from Portu- 
guese East Africa were still under 
investigation. 


ANNATTO. 

(From the Agricultural Journal of 
India, Vol. IV., Part I, 
January, 1909.) 

Annatto is employed as a dye for 
calico, silk, wool, skins, feathers, ivory 
and bone and in colouring butter and 
cheese. It produces a fasc colour of 
both yellow and red tints. The plant 
(Bixa orellana) is a native of West 
Indies and other parts of tropical 

America. 

It is a shrub or small tree of very 
branching habit of growth and attains 
a height of 8 to 12 feet. It is a hardy 
plant and fruits very freely in the 
plains of India in any ordinary soil and 
climate, 

The fruitis a capsule which, when ripe, 
splits into two valves, on the inside of 
which are attached seeds covered with 
a thin coating of reddish waxy pulp. 
This waxy substance contains the 
eolouring matter knownas Annatto. 


The dye is extensively used for colour- 
ing butter and cheese in nearly all 


[JuLY, 1909. ee 


countries, for which purpose. in India 
the seeds are ground to a fine powder 
and soaked in pure olive, sessamum or 
safflower oil. The extractis then strain- 
ed through fine muslins. 


The plant is propagated from seed 
which should be sown in a_ shaded 
nursery. When the seedlings are about 
four months old, at which time they 
should be 6to8 inches high, they should 
be transplanted about 12 feet apart, if 
the soilis good. Pits should be dug out 
to a depth and diameter of 18 inches 
for each seedling. 


Fair crops may be expected in three or 
four years, but it takes longer to get a 
fully established plantation. 


In India the plant has been grown 


chiefly in Government gardens. It is | 


a plant of considerable economic value 
and should be more widely cultivated. 


The seeds, when ripe, should be ex- 
tracted from the capsules and dried in 
the sun. They may then be steeped in 
very hot water, By stirring, the 
waxy testais then washed off from each 
seed. After somedays the whole mass 
should be strained. The liquid should 
be allowed to ferment for a week and 
then the dye matter settles. ‘The clear 
water should then be poured off, and 
the dye dried in shallow pans. When 
the substance is semi-hard, it may be 
moulded into rolls, wrapped in banana 
leaves, and then becomes the ordinary 
Annatto of commerce. 


In Jamaica, Annatto is an important 
export, almost entirely produced by the 
peasant class. These exports are increas- 
ing and go chiefly to the United States. 


FIBRES. 


NEW FIBRES FOR PAPER.—III, 
FIBROUS ANNUALS, 


By WILLIAM Raitt, BANGALORE. 


Although bamboo is likeiy to take the 
leading position among new sources of 
paper-making material, it by no means 
exhausts the possibilities of our tropical 
and sub-tropical forests, which teem 
with fibre-yielding plants of every order 
and variety. The difficulty is not to 
find them, butto make a selection of 
those likely to prove profitable in use. 
It is not necessary here to enter into 
details of the methods used, and _ princi- 
ples underlying the process of elimination 
of the unfit. Suffice it to say that out 


of the many hundreds of fibre-yielding 
species, only those of the order 
Graminew are suitable for modern paper- 
making, and of these comparatively few 
fulfil all the necessary requirements. 
It is desirable to be explicit on this 
point, in order to avoid the disappoint- 
ment which is certain to result from 
attempts to exploit plants, merely 
because they have been proved to 
contain fibre. 


It is, above all things, essential that 
the plant isin sufficient abundance, in 
any given locality, and sufficiently 
gregarious in habit, to bring the cost of 
collection down to a minimum, The 
importance of this will be fully realised, 
when it is remembered that all costs 


Juty, 1909.] 


incurred in handling the raw material 
must be multiplied by 24 or 3, in order 
to arrive at the cost on the finished 
product, since the yield of cellulose will 
rarely exceed 10 %, and may be as low 
as 80 % of the dry weight of the plant. 
Then, the quantity available, at or near 
the proposed factory site, must be 
sufficient to produce a paying output. 
This isan item which will vary con. 
siderably in accordance with other 
manufacturing facilities available, but 
‘aS a minimum I would be inclined to 
insist on an annual crop of 7,500 tons, 
dry weight, within economic range of 
the factory. In the case of bamboo, 
the amount should be at least 10,000 
tons. The question of what constitutes 
a profitable yield of cellulose also largely 
depends upon local conditions. Where 
the manufacturing and export facilities 
are exceptionally favourable, a raw 
material giving 30 % may provea pay- 
ing proposition. Under other circum- 
stances 40 % may be necessary. Generally 
speaking, nothing under 30% is worth 
considering. 


Most of the fibrous annuals can_ be 
successfully treated by the alkaline 
method of reduction, and in this respect 
they have an advantage over more 
highly lignified materials like bamboo, 
which require acid treatment. The 
capital cost of buildings and machinery 
is considerably less, and need not be on 
so large ascale inorder to get ontoa 
paying basis. On the other hand, the 
working cost per ton of pulpis greater, 
but this again is compensated for by 
the product being of a better quality 
and worth a higher price. 


It is impossible to deal at length with 
all the fibrous grasses known, but as 
types of the classes most worthy of 
attention we may refer to three species 
which have already proved of value for 
paper-making. 

Muriz (Saccharum Sara)—a reed-like 
grass found on chur and waste lands in 
Northern India. Very gregarious in 
habit, growing in dense thicket-like 
masses, which can be cut and collected 
at low cost. Being generally found in 
the neighbourhood of rivers, the econo- 
mic radius cf collection is widened by 
the possibilities of water transport. 
Yields an excellent, easily bleached pulp, 
similar to that of wheat straw. 


Bhabar or Sabai (Ischamum augusti- 
foliunr)—a grass of the bent or rye-grass 
type, growing extensively on the Central 
Indian tableland, in tussocks, and fairly 
gregarious. Produces a pulp similar to 
that cf esparto, Is the leading staple 
of the Calcutta paper mills. _EKconomic 
radius of collection limited by the 
hilly nature of its habitat, and the 


il 


fibres. 


cost of cart and rail transport. In 
certain localities this could largely be 
eliminated by pulp mills erected in the 
centres of producing districts. 


Eta (Beesha. Travancorica)—a_ reed 
alied to bamboo —common on the Tiane- 
velly and Travancore hills. Although 
found only at high elevations, (3,000 ft. 
and over) it issodensely gregariuus and 
luxuriant in growth, that its low cost of 
cutting and collection compensates for 
transport charges out of the hills, and 
in several localities water carriage is 
available. One of the most promising 
sources Of paper-making material. 


Wild grasses, similar to those in nature 
and habit, are to be found scattered all 
over South Eastern Asia. Provided 
that they contain atleast 30 % of cellu- 
lose, their value as paper-making ma- 
terial depends entirely on the manu- 
facturing facilities associated with their 
locality of growth. The proper sur- 
veying, testing and valuation of these 
searcely falls within the scope of the 
non-expert observer, but certain broad 
principles may be laid down for his 
guidance, which will at least prevent 
him going toany expense over proposi- 
tions which the expert would at once 
condemn as hopeless. These will be 
briefly indieated in the fourth and con- 
cluding article of this series. 


Before leaving this branch of the 
subject, a word may be said about rice 
straw. Usually the cultivated straws 
are worth more for other purposes, and 
it may be accepted as an axiom that 
the paper-maker can only use that which 
has no value for any other purpose. 
Rice straw has a considerable payper- 
making value, and in districts where it 
is grown in quantities largely in excess 
of local requirements for fodder and 
other uses, and where suitable manu- 
facturing facilities exist, there are good 
grounds for enquiry into the possibili- 
ties of astraw-pulp industry. It jyields 
a pulp of high quality, and for which 
there is a good demand, Textile wastes 
lie outside the scope of these articles, 
but I may be excused for referring to 
one of them, in order to announce a 
development which may be of consider- 
able interest to the cotton grower, and 
especially to the decorticator and presser 
of the seeds. The fine down adhering 
to the decorticated husks, though of high 
value as a paper matetial, has hitherto 
been impossible to work, owing to the 
difficulty of separating it from’ the 
husks. This difficulty has now been 
overcome. By a simple and inexpensive 
process, the down can be isolated and 
made use of for the highest grades of 
paper. 


Fibres. 12 


The ordinary waste of cotton factories 
and gins has too much dirt, foreign 
matter and particles of husk associated 
with it to be of much value for pulp- 
making; but where a local demand 
exists for brown, grey and easing 
papers, it may be profitably trans- 
formed into these. Spinning mills are 
themselves considerable users of casing 
and packing papers, and groups of 
these would find it advantageous’ to 
have a paper mill in their midst to use 
up their waste and supply them with 
the product therefrom, 


BRITISH COTTON GROWING 
ASSOCIATION. 


FouRTH ANNUAL REPORT. 


(Krom the British. Cotton Growing 
Association’s 4th Annual Report, 
December, 1908.) 


In presenting their fourth Annual Re- 
port of the work carried on by the 
Association singe Incorporation, the 
Council regret that, owing to the serious 
drought which occurred throughout the 
whole of West Africa in 1907, they have 
to record the first serious important 
check which has as yet been experienced. 
On the other hand, great progress has 
been made in other parts of the 
Empire, and more especially in Uganda. 
It may be mentioned that in West 
Africa droughts. such as occurred last 
year, while not unprecedented are of 
rare occurrence, and over thirty years 
have elapsed since the last serious 
failure of rains. 

The Council again record their thanks 
to His Majesty’s Government for the 
great assistance rendered in many direc- 
tions, and also to the officials of the 
various Government Departments both 
at home and in the Colonies, who have 
taken an active part in forwarding the 
objects of the Association. The Confer- 
ences at the Colonial Office have been 
continued under the chairmanship of 
Colonel Seely, D.S.O., M.P., the Under- 
Secretary of State for the Colonies. 


The Council regret to record the death 
of their esteemed colleagues, Mr. Henry 
Higson and Mr. Herbert Milne. 

During 1908 the Council have met on 
fourteen occasions, and there have been 
seventy-six nieetings of Committees and 
Sub-Committees. 

On March 20th, 1908, a Banquet was 
held, the principal guest being the 
Right Hon. Winston S. Churchill, M.P., 
the then Under-Secretary of State for 

~ the Colonies. The President (Sir Alfred 
L, Jones, K,.C.M.G,,) again most gener- 


ously defrayed the expenses of the 
guests. A presentation of a silver des- ee: 
sert service was made to Mr. Churehill <A 
by some members of the Council on the 
occasion of his wedding in recognition 
-of the invaluable services rendered by yy 
him to the promotion of the Cotton 
Growing Industry in the British Empire. 

In May the Annual International Cot- 
ton Congress was held in Paris. The 
late Mr. Henry Higson read a paper on 
the work of the Association. - 


A Conference was held in July in Man- 
chester and Liverpool with representa. . 
tives of the West Indian Cotton Growing 
Industry, which is expected to have 
most valuable results, The proceedings 
have been previously very fully reported 
and circulated in pamphlet form, but 
the Council wish again to record their 
thanks to Colonel Seely for his atten- 
dance at the Conference at considerable ‘ 
personal inconvenience. Thanks are also 
due to the Lord Mayors of Manchester 
and Liverpool, to the Mayor of Oldham, 
and to the Chairman and Directors of 
the Fine Cotton Spinners and Doublers 
Association who most kindly assisted 
in the entertainment of the guests. Sir 
Alfred Jones also entertained the dele- 
gates at luncheon on behalf of the Associ- 
ation both in Manchester and Liverpool, 
The hotel expenses were defrayed by 
the Members of the Executive Com- 
mittee. Thanks are also due to Sir 
Alfred Jones and to Mr. Owen Philipps, 
M.P., who made arrangements for con- 
veying the delegates to England at 
reduced fares on the steamers of the 
Imperial Direct West Indian Mail Co., 
and the Royal Mail Steam Packet Co. 
The Directors of the Manchester Ship 
Canal Company and the Mersey Dock 
and Harbour Board also most kindly 
placed steamers at the disposal of the 
delegates to enable them to inspect the 
Liverpool and Manchester Docks. 


The thanks of the Association are also 
due to Mr. Reynolds, the President of the 
Liverpool Cotton Association, who has 
taken the greatest interest in the de- 
velopment of British grown cotton, and 
to whom is due the recent action of the 
above Association in standardising the 
various grades of the West African cot- 
ton. 


The arrangements entered into with the 
British Cotton Ginning Company, Ltd., 
have now been completed. Of the sub- 
seribed capital of £100,000, £72,980 has 
been paid up, and £65,344 has been 
handed over to the Association in pay- 
ment for buildings and machinery trans- 
ferred to the Company. The sum of 
£5,870 has been paid in interest and ex- 
penses, and a further sum of £9,059 has 


been paid by the Association towards 
the sinking fund for the ultimate re- 
ayment of the Compauy’s capital. This 
atter amount is invested in first-class 
securities as shown in the Balance Sheet, 
and the interest therefrom will be paid 
to the Association. 


As stated in the last Report, the Coun- 
cil did not feel justified in continuing 
the expenditure on canvassing. The 
total amount of shares subscribed for 
on December 3lst, 1908, amounted to 
£261,195. Although the financial resources 
of the Association are sufficient for the 
~ present commitments, the Council are of 
opinion that additional capital will 
shortly be needed, more especially in 
view of the rapid extension of cotton 
growing in Uganda and of the immense 
field which will shortly be opened when 
os Northern Nigeria Railway reaches 

ano. 


The Council regret exceedingly that 
the depression in trade, following the 
financial crisis in the United States, has 
had a most serious effect on the transac- 
tions of the Association during 1908, and 
this was much aggravated by the dis- 
pute in the Lancashire Cotton Industry. 
During the latter part of the year es- 
pecially, cotton was difficult to sell and 
eould only be disposed of at low prices, 
It is to be feared that this may have the 
effect of discouraging, and will certainly 
check for a time the development of 
new cotton fields. There are, however, 
distinct signs of improvement in trade, 
and it isto be hoped that the present 
depressing conditions may soon dis- 
appear, and that there may shortly 
arise a steady demand for cotton goods 
and consequently for raw cotton. 


The work of the Association continues 
to grow in every direction, and hardly a 
day passes without requests for advice 
and assistance from some part of the 
Empire. The following statement of 
the letters despatched during 1908 will 
convey the best idea of the almost over- 
whelming extent of the work :— 


United Kingdom _.., w.- 24,783 
West Indies _ ei .» 8,880 
West Africa nt 1,639 
East Africa as 124 
Nyasaland a ad 38 
South Africa er _- 56 
Australia NSE Se iy Pe 28 
France eis eo 77 
Germany See a 23 
Sundries aan ra 9] 


Total 30,259 


This represents an average of over 100 
letters per working day, and, as a simi- 
lar number of letters are received, over 


JuLy, 1909.} . 13 


Fibres, 


200 letters have to be dealt with every 
day by a staff of only fifteen in number. 


The engineering portion of the work 
has inereased so largely that it has been 
found necessary to add a competent 
engineer to the Head Office Staff, and 
the Association are now able to give 
expert advice to planters and others 
when ordering ginning and other machi- 
aery, and to supply plans and detailed 
estimates. No charge is made for this 
beyond an agency commission of 2 per 
cent. on the cost of any plan ordered 
through the Association. Arrangements 
have been made for supplying planters 
with baling materials and other stores, 
which, owing to the Association’s 6x- 
ceptional buying, can be supplied on the 
lowest terms. Arrangements have also 
been entered into tor insuring cotton 
and seed at moderate rates, and policies 
can be effected whereby cotton is covered 
against all risks, fire and marine, from 


_ the time it is weighed in at the planter’s 


store up to delivery at the warehouse 
at Liverpool. The commissions for 
these services and also on the sale of 
cotton it is hoped may eventually cover 
the whole cost of the administrative 
charges in England. 

The Association have been carrying 
out some very important experiments 
with cotton seed as fuel for gas engines, 
and two experimental plants have been 
sent out, one to Lagos and the other to 
Mombasa. If these experiments are 
successful they will have most important 
results in Northern Nigeria, Uganda, 
Nyasaland, the Soudan, and other dis- 
tricts where the cost of coal is pro- 
hibitive and seed is at present of little 
or novalue, as they will prove that 
cotton seed will be the most economical 
fuel for providing power, not only for 
ginning and baling factories, but also 
for other works, such as railway repair- 
ing shops, pumping stations, ete. 

In view of the great difficulty of 
obtaining trained agricultural experts 
witha knowledge of cotton and other 
tropical products, representations have 
been made tothe Government urging a 
system whereby suitably trained men 
should receive a further practical train- 
ing in the West Indies, Ceylon, and else- 
where, and the Council are glad to 
report that a start has been made in 
this direction. The Council has urged 
the establishment of agricultural scholar- 
ships, and the proposal is still under 
consideration. 


Following the resolution passed at the 
Conference with the delegates from the 
West Indies, representations have been 
made to the Government urging the 
formation of a Bureau tor Tropical Agri- 


Fibres. 14 


culture for the collection and collation 
of information and the direction of 
agriculture in our tropical possessions. 
On the initiative of the Oldham Chamber 
of Commerce, a_ resolution support- 
ing the above was unanimously approv- 
ed at a meeting of the Associated 
Chambers of Commerce held in London 
in March, 1908. 


The arrangement with the Govern- 
ment asto the grants-in-aid from the 
Local Governments in Africa expires on 
March 38list, 1910. Under this arrange- 
ment the following annual grants are 
made :— 


Southern Nigeria £3,000 
Northern Nigeria ae 1,000 
Gold Coast cenuee te: 1,500 
British Mast Africa... ba 1,000 

Total £8,500 


By the above arrangement it is 
stipulated that the Association shall 
contribute a like amount, and that the 
total of £17,000 shall be annually spent 
in experimental and instructional work. 
The present state of the Association’s 
finances will prevent the continuance of 
the existing arrangement, and the whole 

uestion is now under discassion with 

is Majesty’s Government. Itis hoped 
that some satisfactory arrangement 
may be come to whereby the useful 
work which the Association has carried 
on during the last seven years will be in 
no way curtailed, and by which the 
co-operation, as between the Local 
Administrations in the various colonies 
concerned and the Association, will be 
maintained. 


REPORT OF WORK IN THE COLONIES, 


INDIA AND CEYLON. 


Messrs. Shaw, Wallace. & Co’s experi- 
ments with ‘‘Tree” and other cottons 
have been continued during 1908, but the 
results have not been satisfactory. 

Some progress has been made with 
the cultivation of Egyptian cotton in 
Sind, with the following results :— 


Acres. Yields. 
1905 1,000 459 bales of 400 lbs, 
1906 5098) ...° 7005.2 .,5 hs 
19C7 6,885 pS: as 
1908 6,000 — 


It is understood that the arrange- 
ments for marketing the crop are now 
satisfactory, and the native growers are 
receiving remunerative prices for their 
cotton. 

Some experiments are being carried on 
with acclimatised American seed in the 


[JuLY, 1909. 


Punjab. The 1907-8 crop was a failure, 
but the present crop is doing well, and 
not only are the growers obtaining 
higher prices than for indigenous cotton, 
but the yield of the American cotton is 
also iarger. 


An extension of cotton growing has 
also taken place in Ceylon, and the 
Association advanced £1,000 for the 
erection of a ginning plant. Unfortun- 
ately the firm to whom the machinery 
was sent are unable to carry on the 
work, and negotiations are in progress 
with the Ceylon Government to secure 
the working of the plant. A consider- 
able amount of selected West Indian 
Sea Island seed has been sent out by the 
Association free of charge. 


A grant of £10,000 was made by the 
Association for experimental purposes 
to the Indian Government in 1905, and 
£2,000 of this has been spent in varioue 
ways with useful results. As, however, 
the demand for financial assistance from 
other parts of the Kmpire were more 
urgent, representations were accord- 
iugly made to the Government request- 
ing that the Association should be 
relieved of further liability. The 
Council are glad to report that the 
Government of India have kindly 
acceded to this request. 


COTTON GROWING. 


By DANIEL JONES, 


(From the Queensland Agricultural 
Journal, Vol. XXII., Part 3, 
March, 1909.> 


GATHERING AND PREPARATION. 


Much misapprehension exists relative 
to the method of picking cotton in our 
State. 


Very much has been said of the great 
necessity for care in this process to 
avoid unduly gathering leaf and other 
débris along with the fibre; alsoon the 
need for drying and separating stained 
and immature fibre. 

Too much emphasis has all along been 
laid on these precautions, resulting in 
valuable time being lost. 


That ordinary care must be observed, 


in justice to the buyer, needs no reiter- 
ation, nevertheless the trader’s interests. 
along with the producer’s, are not 
advanced by methods which in them- 
selves are not called for, and in the end 
serve to add largely to the cost of 
production, 


Linu Salata m1 rh . 


ee 


JULY, 1909,] 


For some years past it has been my 
object to lay before growers the import- 
anee of economically handling this crop 
so as better to meet local labour condi- 
tions, and generally expedite the picking 
operations, The cultural methods in 
vogue in Queensland, for the most part, 
eallfor little attention, the cotton crop 
requiring little, if any, more tillage or 
experience than what is demanded for 
ordinary field crops. 


In the picking, however, we are 
lamentably lacking in that celerity 
common to the American cotton-grower. 
It will best serve my purpose to give, in 
as brief a manner as_ possible, the 
manner in which the farmer in the 
United States handles his great crop. 


The American planter to-day, by reason 
of labour conditions, has little or no 
advantage over the Queensland grower, 
The day of abundance of negro field 
labour is now a matter of histroy ; the 
negro, although once largely in evidence 
asa help in the cotton fields, has now, 
by reason of his advanced education, 
drifted into other, and, to him, more 
congenial fields of activity than that of 
the ordinary farm hand. 

So it happens that a large percentage 
of American farms have no coloured or 
cheap labour whatever employed. Thus 
Queensland farmers are under no dis- 
ability in the matter of low-priced 
labour. The secret of American superi- 
ority lies in the fact that their simple 
and methodical handling of the crop 
gives them a very material advantage. 


In Queensland a picker, if, at the eud 
of a day’s toil he has gathered 100 Ib. of 
fibre in the seed, it is regarded as a good 
evidence of brisk effort, while an increase 
of 20 to 380 lb. constitutes a_ record, 
working on Upland varieties. With the 
American this quantity represents a 
very poor. day’s work, three and even 
four times this amount being frequently 
gathered for periods of time. 

The Washington Department of Agri- 
culture makes the official statement 
“that first-class pickers can pick, by 
hand, an average of 500 to 600 lb. of seed 
cotton per day, and as much as 800 lb. 
occasionally. A white hand was timed 
in 1894, and he picked 60 Ib. in an hour, 
or 1 lb. par minute.” ‘This, of vourse, is 
not possible unless there is a good blow 
of cotton out, and in the process a more 
than ordinary amount of leaf-trash is 
collected with the fibre. 


As evidencein substantiation of the 
claim here made on behalf of the 


American picker, I may give my personal 


experience at Capella, in Central Queens- 
Jand, in June last, on the farm of Mr. 


fibres. 


Willis Hargrove, an American grower 
recently settled in that locality, and 
who is chiefly engaged in this vocation, 
beginning in a small way with a few 
acres. Mr. Hargrove then had employed 
a young American, a Mr. Rowan, who 
has since gone into cotton-growing on 
his own account, and, at the present 
time, has 380 acres looking well and 
nearly ready for harvesting in the same 
district. This person elected to prove 
that American claims were genuine, and, 
in my presence, in two hours he gathered 
58 lb. cotton, 27 lb. in the first hour, and 
3L in the second, which, at the price of 
4d. per lb. for picking (the rate allowed) 
shows his earnings to bea fraction under 
Is. 8d. per hour. It may be said this 
was an exceptional spurt, but asit was 
done in but a half-crop of cotton, it is 
easy to realise that an average of 250 to 
300 lb. a day would be no extraordinary 
result for an active experienced picker. 


In handling such cotton as Sea Island, 
Egyptian, Mascotte, or Caravonica 
varieties, equally good results will not 
be attained, by reason of the character 
of the cotton bolls, which are not free in 
parting with the fibre, and not as large 
in pod. 

The person here referred to claimed to 
have picked, in the States, 500lb.a day 
on many oceasions. Toenable this to be 
done, very expert handling must be 
acquired, especially the ability to gather 


_equally as well with the left as with the 


right hand, using both simultaneously. 
This training is acquired by degrees, 
and it is always impressed on the young 
picker that both hands must be trained 
to acquire the ability to pull the fibre 
with equal facility. This once mastered, 
solves the problem of economically and 
profitably handling a large cotton crop, 
without which the Americans would 
often lose a large portion of their annual 
14,000,000-bale harvest, and ensures for 
the pickers, even at a much lower scale 
of payment than our growers are 
satisfied to pay, a fair remuneration for 
his service. 


To enable the picker to best carry on 
his work without impediment, the 
Americans use a different picking bag to 
ours, being in every way much easier on 
the pickers. It is made of strong calico, 
and isabout 7 or 8 ft. long, with shoulder 
straps made so as to allow the bag to 
swing on the left side, and, for the most 
part, trailing on the ground behind the 
picker, This bag is thus constructed to 
permit the free use of both hands, and 
avoid loading the picker with the weight 
of tibre gathered which liesin the bag 
trailing behind him, This bag when 
full is emptied on a sheet placed ina 


Fibres. 1¢ 


convenient position in the field, and is 
usually all the drying the cotton gets, 
Of course, no cotton is gathered under 
wet weather conditions. Should rain 
take place before the cotton is placed 
under cover, then a further drying 
process is imperative. 


It must be expected that cotton so 
rapidly picked is not as free from leaf 
and dirt asin the case of the slower 
process ; nevertheles, the American 
buyer is content to have his article in 
this form, and no diminution of value 
ensues as the result of a little foreign 
matter in the fibre, which is practically 
unavoidable under the circumstances, 

In Queensland we have erred too 
much in our method of. picking and 
drying of this crop. My remarks here 
refer only to the Upland and low-priced 
fibres. Such high-quality cotton as Sea 
1lsland must have very much more care 
taken in its picking and preparation for 
market. Upland cotton then is easy to 
gather, particularly if the picke1s do 
not enter the field to look for cotton. 
Too often our growers start their hands 
into the field, and, after rambling about 
all over the rows, they have little to 
show for their time. This practice is 
often indulged in by those unfamiliar 
withthe pursuit, who have lent the ear 
to needless warnings of danger from 
over-ex posure to weather, wet or dry. 


My local experience is that the weather 
rarely injures-a cotton crop when fit for 
gathering. Cotton, if well opened, will 
stand heavy rain with Jittle injury. It 
is when the pods are partly opened, and 
lodgement is found for the wet, that the 
greater damage is inflicted. However, 
this is a misfortune not often experienced 
here, the reverse being too often the 
ease, since the absence of rain isa more 
dreaded feature of agrarian interests 
than surplus moisture, which may, in 
any serious degree, menace a cotton 
crop. 

Stained cotton also is sometimes 
referred to as2n undesirable feature of 
the crop, and too much has been said 
about the liability of the Queensland 
crop to this risk. Rarely, if ever, does 
the cotton ccme to hand in commercial 
quantities where this objection can be 
raised. Cotton which is stained is 
seldom gathered, nor does it pay the 
picker to trouble with any cotton but 
the clean, ripe, and well-opened, Stained 
cotton, unless the discolouration be due 
tothe depredations of beetles, is rarely 
seep in Queensland, is usually due to 
weather or boll worm attack, and, so 
far, in very limited quantity, hence 
it is never considered profitable to 
bother with any fibre but that which 
is of first quality. This simplifies and 


[JuLY, 1909. 
accelerates very much the operation of 
gathering. ast season’s cotton was 
gathered in satisfactory condition. after 

three months’ exposure to the weather, 

no reduction in value being entorced on 

the grower. This disproves the idea 

expressed by those unacquainted with 

cotton that it is too tender in its nature 

to stand long exposure without detri- 

ment to its value. Here, with our dry 

warm Summer and Autumn weather, 

when the cotton opens out, the condi- 

tions for successful harvesting are ideal 

ones, no other cotton country having 

any conditions superior to ours in this 

respect, save perhaps Egypt, where rain 

rarely falls, and the crops cannot be 

produced otherwise than by.an expensive 

system of irrigation. 

In pointing out, as here stated, the 
most economical methods of picking 
cotton, it will, I trust, be understood 
that in no sense is it laid down that the 
crop can just be hustled in without any 
care or supervision. It is not judicious 
nor safe to neglect ordinary precautions 
in preparing the fibre in good order and 
condition, tor this, in justice to the 
buyers, must be attended to. Hitherto 
we have undoubtedly erred on the other 
side, and in our extreme anxiety to have 
our article in top condition, we have 
materially and unnecessarily increased 
the cost of production. The American. 
has no such scruples, and thus is enabled 
to handle his 200 to 300 lb. of cotton per 
hand with ease. Again, his field oper- 
ations are also much less extended than 
ours, whereby he saves labour at points 
where our methods are super fiuous. 


Briefly stated, in the United States, 
the planter sends his hands into the 
field when the blow is good—no looking 
for fibre. The pickers gather with their 
usual speed, the picking bag, as_ hereto- 
fore described, is emptied on to a large 
sheet, which is about all the drying the 
cotton receives. This remains on the 
sheet until noon or till the day’s work 
isover. The four corners of the sheet 
are then drawn together, and the cotton 
therein carried to the wagon located in 
the field ready for it. Often the fibre is 
carried direct from the pickers’ bags to 
the wagon. It is here weighed and 
loaded. When the wagon is transferred 
and filled, the mules are hitched in, and 
the team pulls the vehicle to the ginuery, 
located in the most central position 
convenient to the general body of 
planters. 

On arrival at the ginnery theload is 
placed on a weighbridge and recorded. _ 

Subsequently a suction tube, operated 


_by a fan, is lowered into the wagon and 


the contents are rapidly drawn into the 
battery of gins operating in the build-~ 


JULY, 1909.] 


ing. The lint and seed are separated, 
the seed dropping into sacks for trans- 
port, the lint falling into the hydraulic 
presses. Thus, scarcely a hand has 
touched the fibre since the picker placed 
the article in his bag. 


This is how the up-to-date Yankee 
now handles his huge cotton crop and 
makes a living under much greater 
difficulties than the Queensland grower 
has to contend against. 


American land is dearer than ours; it 
invariably must be fertilised with costly 
manures ; the yield per acre does not, 
onthe average, come up to the Queens- 
land yield; insect troubles are greater ; 
the quality of lint is not so good as ours. 


This is admitted by the British Cotton . 


Growers’ Association, who have repeat- 
edly stated our fibre to be worth ld. 
per lb. over average American. 


If our motto now is as it once was: 
‘* Advance Australia,” it then becomes 
the duty of all to recognise the poten- 
tialities of this vocation. So far as our 
limited plantings have shown during 
the past few years, cotton has given 
better returns to farmers than most 
farm crops. 


Economy in handling as here outlined 
will do much to popularise this pursuit 
if the country is to become an agri- 
cultural State. 


The outlook inthis direction is not 
too promising ; with the heavy decline 
reported in agriculture last year, total- 
ling, as per report of Department of 
Agriculture, 30,000 acres, it looks as 
though this State is to be noted for 
little else than its mineral, grazing, and 
dairying activities. These, in them- 
selves, are very important, but are not 
the interests which best promote close 
and permanent settlement, just as im- 
portant? <A cotton planter with little 
capital, under ordinary conditions, can 
make sure of a good living on 30 acres of 
crop, usually returning from £6 to £9 or 
over per acre. He gets from one acre 
quite as much as a dairyman does from 
one cow, with much less risk and atten- 
tion and deprivation of home comforts. 
One point I wishto emphasise is this— 
that the so-much-talked-of interference 
with the children’s education as the 
sequence of cotton cultivation stands 
without point. Most farm pursuits 
engage the little ones, but I know none, 
gave sugar, which offers the same oppor- 
tunity of satisfying theadult in point of 
remuneration as this crop does. 


If the American can gather—and he 
undoubtedly does gather—the amounts 
credited to him, we need no juvenile or 
cheap labour. An active adult trained 
to the work, whichis quickly acquired, 


3 


Fibres, 


earning his 6s. or 7s.aday in a light, 
healthy, open-air pursuit, should have 
no ambition to seek the unhealthy, 
cramped occupations of the factory. 


As achange of vocation for our male 
and female factory operatives, this work 
should be very popular, for not only 
would the earning be superior to the 
city vocation, but the cost of living 
would be much cheaper, and the work 
ealling for little skill or strength, would 
be within reach of many who, under 
present conditions, are either or nearly 
on the verge of becoming unemployable. 


The season’s crop is now nearly ready 
in some districts for gathering, and it 
will be well for growers to study the 
system outlined for the cheaper hand- 
ling of the crop. Farmers in dry 
weather can safely transfer such cotton 
as is free from wet or dew and fully 
ripe, direct from the picking bags to the 
bale, which will be economy in handling 
and economy of space and room. 


THE JUTE INDUSTRY. 


(From the Indian Trade Journal, 
Vol. XIII., No. 159, April 15, 1909.) 


{t would perhaps be difficult to dis- 
cover a more striking record of indus- 
trial progress than that which is 
presented by the Indian Jute industry 
in recent years, says a writer in the 
Times Financial and Commercial Sup- 
plement. The rapidity of the progress 
can best be realized from a few figures 
which show how the business of jute 
manufacture has developed during the 
last 28 years : — 


Your No. of _Nominal ; 

Mills, Capital£. Employés Looms; Spindles, 
1879-80 22 2,246,000 27,510 4,950 70,800 
1889-90 26 2,600,000 59,500 7,700 156,900 
1899-1900 34 3,978,000 102,400 14,100 295,300 
1904-05 38 5,395,000 133,200 20,000 409,200 
1906-07 44 6,330,000 166,900 25,300 520,500 
1907-8 50 7,019,000 187,800 27,200 562,300 


This table brings out the remarkable 
fact that, while the number of mills 
has increased by 127 per cent. and the 
capital by 212 per cent., the looms and 
spindles have increased by 450 and 694 
per cent. respectively. Moreover, em- 
ployment is now found for about seven 
times as many persons as formerly. All 
but three of the mills are located in 
Calcutta or its vicinity, and all but two 
are worked by joint-stock companies. 
Itis worth noting that a considerable 
change has occurred in the relative 
amounts of sterling and rupee capital 
invested in the industry, the former con- 
stituting nearly two-thirds of the total 
of nominal capital in 1879-80 and only 


Fibres. 18 


two-fifths in 1907-08. If paid-up capitaT 
and debentures are taken together, 
the rupee investments amounted to 
£5,643,000 and the sterling to £3,020,000 
in 1907-08, 


INCREASE IN PRODUCTION. 


The increase in actual production has 
been even greater than the growth in 
productive power as indicated by the 
number of looms and spindles, owing to 
the enhanced demand for jute manu- 
factures, and possibly also to improved 
organisation of the industry and greater 
skill on the part of the workers, Thus 
the average annual exports of gunny 
bags for the quinquennium 1879-80 to 
1883-84 were 54,900,000, while those of 
gunnoy cloth were 4,400,000 yards, the 
whole being valued at £833,000. In 1907- 
08 the corresponding figures were 
293,000,000 bags and 790,000,000 yards of 
cloth of a total value of £12,199,000. So 
during the period the exports of gunny 
cloth rose from an insignificant figure 
to a gigantic total, and their value was 
greater than the value of the exports 
of bags. The average price of Hessian 
cloth (103 oz., 40 in.) in 1907-08 was 17s. 
10d. per 100 yards, as compared with 19s. 
6d. in 1906-07 and 15s. 2d. in 1905-06. The 
rise in the value of jute manufactures is, 
of course, largely due to the increased 
value of the raw material, the output of 
which, though showing a considerable 
increase, has not risen in proportion to 
the demand in India and abroad. 


GROWTH OF EXPORTS, 


_ 1t1s noteworthy that exports of raw 
jute have risen with the outturn of jute 
manufactures in India, though by no 
means proportionately. During the 
period from 1879-80 to 1883-84 the price 
of ordinary jute was Rs. 233 per bale of 
400 lb., and the average annual export 
of the fibre was 7,500,000 ewt. In 1907-08 
the exports were 14,200,000 ewt., and 
the price was Rs. 42, as compared with 
Rs. 653 in 1906-07 and Rs. 44 in 1905-6. 
Thus the fall in 1907-08 was greater than 
the rise in 1906-07. The last estimate 
for the season’s jute crop was 6,310,800 
bales, or a decline of 35 per cent. on the 
preceding one. The imports into Cal- 
cutta and _ Chittagong for the six 
months to December last amounted to 
5,837,000 bales, while the exports 
amounted to 3,196,000, and the takings 
of the local mills to 2,391,000 bales. 


The trade returns for the nine months 


ended December 3lst last show that - 


India’s exports of raw jute ard jute manu- 
factures, as compared with the_corres- 
ponding period in 1907, wereas follows :— 


Raw Jute. Bags. Cloth. 
1908 0 Cwt. 13,562,829 No. 224,747,780 No. 610,807,253 

£ 10,264,260 4,030,778 _£ 4,282,776 
1907 ws Cwt. 10,670,926 No 212,747,488 No. 632,106,238 

£ 9,440,694 £ 4.333829 £ 5,345,963 


These figures serve to show that in 
spite of financial troubles and a dimin- 
ished demand from certain markets 
the trade of the current financial year 
has been by no means unsatisfactory. 


DRUGS AND MEDICINAL PLANTS, 


DRUGS. 


(Report on the Work of the Imperial 
Institute, 1906-1907. No. 584.) 


Samples 
Samples Samples awaiting 
reported on /°/reported on || investigation|,o 
during 1906. }“|during 1907.|4 lat the end of 
1907, 
Gold Coast ...| 4/Gold Coast | 3/Sierra Leone} 4 
Sierra Leone... 13,Northern Ni-| {Northern Ni- 
Uganda | 1) geria ..| 41 geria 1 
Rhodesia __,,.} 1/Sudan ...| 2] Lagos nee l fol 
Zanzibar  ,..| }|Nyasaland ..| l|British Hast 
Transvaal .| 1/Natal ve | L| Africa 1 
Sudan 3\India ...| 1{Somaliland ..:) 1 
India 3/S. Settlements|19]India .../80 
Federated Ma-| {Straits Settle- 
lay States...; 1) ments 1 
NewS. Wales! 1/NewS. Wales} 1 
B. Honduras | 2|/Foreign Coun- 
For.Countries| 2] tries 2 
we 2 =Total . .J37] Total pon [42 


A considerable number of drugs have 
been dealt with during the two years 
1906 and 1907. In this connection it 
may be noted that Indian Podophyllum 
(P. Emodi) and Egyptian henbane (Hyos- 
cyamus muticus), the constituents of 
which have been previously examined at 
the Imperial Institute and shown to_ be 
of medical value, are now being regular- 
ly exported for use as drugs. 

The most important of these investi- 
gations conducted in the two years re- 
ferred to are those carried on for the 
Government of India, and include the 
chemical examination of Indian species 
of Aconites, Hyoscyamus, Datura and 
Strychnos, and also Indian opium and 
opium alkaloids. Considerable progress 
has been made with the first four of 
these enquiries, which are, however, not 
yet completed. 

The investigation of the best process 
of extracting the alkaloids from Indian 
opium is now practically complete. A, 


Sed 


ay 


Tuty, 1909.) 


new process has been devised for the 
reparation of morphine and codeine 
‘from waste Indian opium at the Indian 
Government Factory at Gazipur. Preli- 


’ minary trials of this process on a small 


commercial scale have been carried out, 
and these were so successful that plant 
for carrying out this process has been 
devised, and is now being constructed 
under the supervision of the Department 
for despatch to India. 


The other samples referred to above 
have been mainly drugs in use by natives 
in the countries mentioned, and in a few 
eases the preliminary examination of 
these has shown that they are likely to 
be worth full investigation, and arrange- 
ments have been made for undertaking 
this. Passing mention may be made of 
drugs from the Sudan, which were speci- 
mens of the well-known drugs, senna 
leaves and pods. These were of fair 
quality. 


The samples from the Straits Settle- 
ments in 1907 consisted of morphine salts, 
forwarded fora report on their purity 
and commercial value. A sample of coca 
leaves was received from the Federated 
Malay States, where the cultivation of 
this plant is now receiving attention. 
These proved to be of fair quality, and 
suggestions were made as to improve- 
ments in the preparation of this material 
for the market. 


Other samples received in 1907 and 
worth mention were kola nuts from the 
Gold Coast Colony which were of sale- 
able quality, hops from India, valued at 
30s. per ewt. as compared with English 
hops selling at 40s. per cwt., and a 
number of arrow poisons from Northern 
Nigeria, which proved almost invariably 
to be species of Strophanthus. 


Two so-called ‘soap plants” were ex- 
amined, ‘“‘Gusangus” root from Somali- 
land and ‘‘soap berries” and leaves 
from British Honduras; both of these 
contained saponin-like substances. 


The products awaiting investigation 
at the end of 1907 were mainly native 
drugs of the types already alluded to. 
Those from India were Hyoscyanvus, 
Datura and Aconitum species, the in- 
vestigation of which is being continued. 


19 Drugs and Medicinal Plants. 


TURKISH TOBACCO EXPERIMENTS 
IN THE CAPE COLONY. 


By L. M. STELLA, 
Turkish Tobacco Expert. 


(From the Agricultural Journal of the 
Cape of Good Hope, Vol. XXXIV., 
No. 4, April, 1909.) 

Owing to information received by the 
Department of Agriculture, which indi- 
cated latent possibilities of success in 
the culture and curing of Turkish To- 
bacco in the Colony, experiments were 
started in 1906 on several farms lying in 
the westerm portion of the Colony and 
also on the Government Experiment 
Stations, with varying results, but on 
the whole with sufficient success to 
warrant their continuance. The area 
under cultivation comprised in all 7% 
acres, on which 120,000 plants were grown, 
and as a result of which 3,000 lbs. of to- 
bacco sold at an average price of Is. 6d. 
per lb. Taking into consideration the 
several initial difficulties of inexperience 
which militated against anything like 
a good crop, the result though appa- 
rently small, gave promise of future 
success, especially as, had the seed been 
sown earlier, and two seasonable crops 
instead of one late one secured, higher 
returns would have been received. 


Variations in the nature of the soil 
were also factors to be contended with ; 
in some instances new land was used. 
It can now be definitely stated, as an 
experience of these past experiments, 
that the soil found most suitable for 
Turkish tobacco growing in the area 
where theexperiments were conducted 
should be well drained, such as grey 
orchard land or red ground with a 
percentage of from 30 per cent. to 40 
per cent. of clay, as far removed as 
possible from the locality of gardens, 
vineyards and orchards, preferably on 
the slopes of or close to mountains. 
Black and damp soils should be avoided, 
especially when stituated in flats and 
surrounded by trees, as the plants are 
liable to be affected with mildew. 


Irrigation has not been found neces- 
sary in the districts where Turkish 
tobacco has grown up-to the present, 
excepting when planting so as to give 
the plant a good star6; and when well 
established and cultivated, plants will 
stand drought, in some cases better than 
a vineyard will, 


_ The experiments were continued dur- 
ing 1907 in nine different districts, in- 
cluding those farms on which the former 
experiments were conducted, and a 
successful crop of 13,000 lbs, was raised 


Drugs and Medicinal Plants. 20 


and sold at an average price of Is. 11d. 
per lb. or 5d. per lb. in excess of the pre- 
vious year’s crop. Of these experiments 
failure took place in two cases, those 
of Riverdsale and Mossel Bay Districts. 
In both these places the crop at the 
outset grew luxuriantly, but when com- 
ing into maturity during the months of 
January and February, these localities 
were visited by heavy mists which 
damped the tobacco leaves and caused 
mildew. On this account the experi- 
ments had to be abandoned. 


In addition tothe foregoing, fourteen 
private farms were again selected for 
experiments during 1908, and there is 
now under cultivation nearly seventy 
acres, which, it was estimated, would 
yield 35,000 lbs. of tobacco, but owing 
to severe drought and the presence of 
‘cut worms, it is feared that this figure 
will not be realised. Great improve- 
ment has been made in curing, as a 
-result of which a fairly good quality 
of tobacco is confidently expected. 

The labour involved, while not ardu- 
ous, requires some skill and, above all, 
constant attention to detail. In curing 
‘the services of women, girls and boys 
can be used with advantage, as the cost 
is not so great as when the ordinary 
labourer is employed. 


The proper sorting and grading of the 
leaf is imperative, asa slight difference 
in the quality seriously affects the value, 
especially where moth-eaten and diseased 
leaves are threaded with good ones. 
Skilled supervision is therefore essential 
and in the end justifies itself by greater 
profit. - 


It is somewhat difficult to adequately 
describe the appearance of the leaf at 
its various stages, or to explain how 
skillin the handling of the leaf can be 
attained. The only practical means of 
instruction is by ocular demonstration, 
the value of which will be apparent to 
all, especially growers themselves. 


Preparation of the Land.—In the 
Western Province, where the annual 
rainfall can be depended upon, virgin 
soils must be ploughed and allowed to 

_lie at least one year before being used. 
In April, or after the firstrain, the land 
must be repioughed to a depth of 8 
inches. Three ploughings, which are 
practised in Turkey, are recommended, 
and the soil must be brought into a 
fine tilth and deeply stirred. During 
June the ground must be manured, and 
the manure ploughed in, and at the end 
of August it must be reploughed and 

~ harrowed, or better still, rolled. 

Manuring of Land.—Thus far past 
experience shews that Karoo or sheep 
and goat manure, at the rate of 6 tons 


—_ 


per acre, answers best, but experiments 
are being carried out with artificial 
manures, and it will be seen whether 
they are suitable for the purpose and 
which gives the best result. 
Seasons.—For the past two seasons the 
seed was sown from the end of May 
to the first week in August, and it has 
been found that the best time for Dis- 
tricts such as French Hoek, Drakenstein, 
Paar], Wellington, Stellenbosch, Cale- 
don and Cape is at the beginning of 


‘July, provided the seed beds are well 


prepared and covered with muslin. By 
these means plants have been raised this 
season fit for transplanting within fifty - 
four days, whereas in some cases where 
the seed beds were prepared and sown ~ 
at the end of May, the plants were not 
ready before the middle and end of Sep- 
tember. 


The Seed Beds.—The best way of mak- 
ing the seed bed is to select a warm, 
sheltered spot with soil not liable to 
dry out and perferably with a northerly 
or easterly aspect. The ground should 
be trenched, unless it already happens 
to be a piece of watered garden soil, 
Mark out beds 3 feet wide and any 
length, separated by paths a foot in 
width. Remove thesoil toa depth of 10 
inches, and lay at the bottom 4 inches of 
pure hot manure, which must be tramped 
down well, then fill in the trench with a 
porportion of one-third soil to two-thirds 
of old rotted manure, well mixed to- 
gether. A very fine seed bed is then 
prepared with the rake, after which 
it must be thoroughly wetted and 
the seed sown on the wet ground 
very thinly at the rate of about one 
ounce to sixty square yards of seed bed. 
To do this, the seed is well mixed with 
sand or ashes, about 4 oz. of seed to 
a soup-plate of sand, and sown half in 
one direction and half in another, to 
secure uniform distribution. The seed 
is covered by riddling over it a quarter 
of an inch or less of sand or a mixture 
of old manure—sifted—and sand. To 
protect the plants from insect pests, 
weeds, ete., the proposed seed beds 
should be burnt by making a fire of 
branches or rubbish on top of them 
till the soil is scorched to adepth_ of 3 
inches; the resulting ashes must be 
mixed with the soil previous to sowing 
the seed. The sprouting plants must 
be protected from frost and wind. This 
is best done by surrounding the beds 
with planks and covering them with 
muslin or butter cloth. 


Treatment in Seed Beds.—The beds are 
kept moist until the seeds sprout, which 
may take from ten to fifteen days ac- 
cording to the weather. The beds are 
then watered every day, before sunrise, 


ee ek ME Pept 


Jory, 1909.] 


with a watering can having a fine hose, 
held low soas not to wash the plants 
out of the ground. When the plants 
stand about inch high, either a little 
guano water, say about one handful of 
guano to every three gallons of water, 
or fine sifted old manure, should be 
given at least once a week, the remain- 
ing days pure water. Should sifted 
manure be applied, it must be watered 
at once so as to prevent any damage to 
the foliage byburning. After the plants 
are well grown, the covering must be 
removed at least a fortnight before 
planting, and watering must cease one 
week before planting so that the plants 
may. be hardened for their change. 


The rate of growth during the first 
month is very slow, but thereafter at 
the rate of about 14 inches per week. A 
commor fault is to sow the seed too 
thickly. Ifthe plants are dense, it is 
imperative that they be thinned out— 
but not before they stand an inch high 
—otherwise the plants grow thin and 
lanky and about 25 per cent, to 30 per 
cent. die off in transplanting. The most 
important branch in tobacco culture is 
the raising of good and healthy plants 
without which a good crop of tobacco 
need not be expected. 


Planting Out.—It is customary in Tur- 
key, when the plants attain a height of 
5 inches above the level of the bed 
and after watering has ceased for a 
week, to test a plant by twisting it 
round the finger, and should it not be 
brittle, the plant is considered fit for 
transplanting, but if it shows signs of 
being brittle it must be watered again, 
after which it must remain a few days 
without water. When the plants are 
fit for transplanting, they may be 
watered the previous evening, soas to 
facilitate the pulling the following 
morning. The plants are conveyed in 
flat boxes or baskets to the field, great 

- care being taken to prevent the roots 
from drying in transit. It is better 
to transplant on cloudy days, other- 
wise the best time is late in the after- 
noon. As regards distance, it is found 
best to have the rows 3 feet apart and 
the plant 8 or 9 inches in the rows, 
which rows should run in the direction 
of the prevailing winds. This distance 
apart has the advantage of permitting 
cultivation with horse hoe, free circu- 
lation of the air, and it also produces 
straight stems, with a large number 
of leaves of small but equal size. 


The time recommended for planting is 
during the month of September, and 
the process, if possible, should be com- 
pleted within a fortnight, care being 
taken that all plants subsequently des- 
troyed by cut-worms be immediately 


91 


Drugs und Medicinat Plants. 


replaced, otherwise an uneven crop will 
ensue, causing great inconvenience and 
involving extra labour in_ packing, 
sorting and grading the leaf. Every- 
thing possible must be done to raise 
a uniform crop, as the expense and 
work afterwards is thereby consider- 
ably minimised and facilitated. It is 
impossible to conduct curing operations 
satisfactorily with irregular’ crops. 
As before stated, after the first water- 
ing given when transplanting, nofurther 
irrigation is necessary in localities 
having.a dependable annual rainfall. 
The actual planting may be done with 
adibble, just as cabbages and the like 
are putin. Backward, worm-eaten and 
weak drawn-up plants are to be re- 
jected. 


Treatment during Growth.—A_ fort- 
night after planting, hoeing by hand 
is necessary, and when the plants are 
well established and the rows dis- 
cernible, the horse hoe may be passed 
through to keep down weeds and main- 
tain asurface mulch, Cease cultivating 
as soon as priming, viz., the removal 
of lower waste leaves, is completed. 


As the tobacco is liable to suffer from 
the attack of surface caterpillars (cut- 
worms), ete, trapping with poison 
should be resorted to asa remedy. The 
poison may consist of cabbage leaves, 
lucerne or green barley steeped in 
arsenite of soda, and scattered over the 
land towards evening a few days pre- 
vious to planting. 


Mildew is another cause of damage 
to tobacco, mainly due to climatic in- 
fluences, but it may be checked some- 
what by avoiding damp sheltered and 
close situations and by allowing free 
circulation of the air. Inthe event of 
mildew, it is advisable to remove the 
diseased leaves from the field and des- 
troy them, particular attention being 
paid that no such leaves are threaded 
with good ones, as such a _ procedure 
would ruin the quality of the tobacco. 


Tobacco planted early inthe season 
in wide rows running in the direction of 
the prevailing winds, is not so liable 
to mildew. 

If the seed is sown at the right time, 
and the flower heads are left undisturb- 
ed, very little trouble will be caused by 
suckers, butif planted out of season and 
in damp places, these grow vigorously, 
and reduce the strength of the tobacco 
very materially. All suckers should be 


nipued out when between 1 and 2 inches 
ong. 


The flowers are on no account to 
be remcved as is done with ordinary 
tobacco, 


Drugs and Medicinal Plants. 


Priming.—When the plant commences 
to bloom, and the lower leaves to turn 
yellow, four to six of these should be 
picked, removed from the field and des- 
troyed ; in fact, in Turkey eight or ten of 
the lower leaves are destroyed, although 
in the Colony to remove so great a 
number seems unnecessary. Compared 
with the upper, the lower leaves are 
weaker, smoother, flatter and thinner. 
About ten days or a fortnight after 
the priming—according to the weather 
—the crop leaves proper commence to 
ripen. 


Signs of Ripening.—The indications of 
ripeness are ;— 


(1) The lowest and the oldest leaves 
show a yellowish tinge in place of 
the previous vivid green, and this is 
most obvious towards the tip of each 
leat. 

(2) A limp feeling instead of the crisp- 
ness of an unripe leaf. 


(3) Translucency in place of the previ- 
ous opacity when held up to the light. 


With Cavvalla and other varieties, 
when grown on rich soil, yellowish 
spots appear on the leaves, and when 
these are distinct, the leaf is ripe. 
These signs of maturity are much more 
easily seen before sunrise or in cloudy 
weather, as bright sunshine misleads 
the eye. 

Gathering the Leaf.—The first illustia- 
tion will give an idea how the leaf is 
gathered. Each man takes a single row 
of plants and the leaves are plucked 
with the right hand, using the thumb 
above and two fingers beneath the leaf 
stalk, the main stem being held firm by 
the left hand. The leaf is gathered in 
the early hours of the morning, which 
not only allows of easier discrimination 
between ripe and green, but at this 
time the leaf breaks from the stem 
sharply without causing injury to the 
plant. In packing, err rather on the 
sidé of over-ripeness than risk taking 
green leaves. For the foregoing reasons 
the leaf is harvested from bright day- 
break up till 8 a.m. in summer, and 
until about 11 a.m. on dull and cloudy 
days. Never under any circumstances 
gather tobacco after rain till all signs 
of moisture has disappeared, as the leat 
isapt to turn mouldy if this is done, 
beside losing its oil and gum, 

Unripe leaves always retain a green- 
ish tinge, which is very objectionable ; 
overripe leaves lose colour and strength. 
One or more ripe leaves are plucked 
from each plant, in no case over four 
at one picking. Theleaves are gathered 
from the lowest leaf upward in succes- 


(Joy, 1909. 


sion, The leaves gathered are placed 
evenly one above the other, and all facing 
the same way, in boxes or baskets. 
Methodical handling at this stage facili- 
tates subsequent treatment. The remain- 
der of the day will be occupied in 
manipulating the leaves gathered dur- 
ing the morning hours. If left over the 
day, fermentation is likely to set in. 
This has happened occasionally (owing 
to pressure of other work) when the 
leaves turned black and had to be thrown 
away. 


Threading the Leaf.—The second illus- 
tration shows how the threading is 
carried out. The baskets or boxes, when 
full, are conveyed to a cool shed where 
the leaves are graded into two or more 
grades, according to size. Damaged 
leaves are set aside. If the leaves are 
properly sorted at this stage and graded 
according to size, much time is saved at 
later stages and a more uniform colour 
is secured. This matter cannot be too 
strongly emphasised. Ultimate price de- 
pends very much on attention to this one 
simple detail. Past experiments show 
that those who neglected this matter 
were put to much labour and trouble at 
pressing time. The aim must be to keep 
the leaves as flat as possible, and if they 
vary in size the edges become folded 
and crinkled and a_ ragged, shrivelled 
effect is the result. The assorted leaves 
are now picked up one by one and 
threaded on to the tobacco needles at a 
point about one-half inch from the base. 
The leaves are then passed on to a thread 
of strong twine about 8 feet long, care 
being taken to keep all the butts of 
the leaves at the same level. All leaves 
must face the same way and be packed 
close together. A rod islaid along the 
string of threaded leaves, either end of 
which is attached to the corresponding 
end of the rod whilst securing bands, 
keeping the threads to which the rods are 
tied on at intervals of about a foot apart. 
Finally a label is attached to each rod, 
giving the date of picking and grade of 
the leaves. 


First Step-in  Curing—The rods with 
their burdens of leaves are taken to 
the curing shed and supported at 
their ends on wooden rails, and the rods 
should be kept about 6 inches apart 
on the rails. The aim is to let the leaves 
wither slowly andturn toa pale yellow 
colour without moulding or decaying. 
Under ordinary circumstances this 
process will occupy from three to four 
days, including the day of picking, - if 
the leaves were properly ripe before 
picking. If there is too much draught, 
the edges of the leaves dry, and shrivel 
instead of becoming faded and limp. 


oe eee it 
et 


JULY, 1909.] 28 


The curing house proper may consist 
of any convenient outhouse, clean and 
cool, and, if possible, with a temper- 
ature not higher than 70 degrees. An 
empty wine cellar or coachhouse will 
serve the purpose, the essentials being 
freedom from heat, hot wind, dust, 
rain and light. Lofts under corrugated 
iron roofs, stables where animals are 
kept, verandahs or lean-to sheds exposed 
at side and front, are to be avoided. 


Second Step in Curing.—The third 
illustration represents the curing camp 
and the rods hanging on the trellis and 
lying on the ground. 


The greatest care must be taken to 
prevent the tobacco from touching or 
rubbing and the rods from. slipping 
along the wire; to prevent this the ends 
should be secured with strong string. 
The first day the rods are kept 
two inches apart, the tobacco being 
close but not touching, and in the event 
of a scorching hot day, should be cover- 
ed by bags or canvas sheets, though 
for the first day only. The second day 
the rods are kept about four inches 
apart, and the third and subsequent 
days six inches. 


gradually and prevent sudden or too 
rapid drying and to attain a good colour. 
The leaves gradually change from a 
pale yellow to a warm yellow brown 
colour and become dry to the touch. 
This process takes usually from 12 to 15 
days, subject to the weather. 


In the event of threatening, all rods 
hanging outside must immediately be 
brought under cover and hung up singly, 
but not touching, nor must they be taken 
out again until the weather is’ per- 
fectly clear. It sometimes oceurs that 
the weather continnes threatening for 
‘two or three days and the fresh tobacco 
may become mouldy. As a preventive, 
a heating oil stove may be allowed to 
burn in thecuring shed to reduce the 
dampness in the atmosphere... 


The tobacco in the curing camp must 
be covered without fail every night, 
dew or no dew, otherwise loss will result, 


Third Step in Curing.—When the 
mid-rib of the leaf is brittle and per- 
fectly dry, the rods are removed from 
the trellis ard laid onthe grass or on 
clean sacking, each one singly, and 
allowed to remain thus for the whole 
day and covered at night with bagging 
to keep out thedew. After removing 
the sacking the next morning, the rods 
must be turned, exposing the other sur- 
‘face of leaves to the sun. This is 
repeated for two days, and on the 
third morning the tobacco is removed to 
the shed and stacked. 


The object of vary-. 
ing the widths is to expose the tobacco 


Drugs and Medicinal Plants. 


Itsometimes happens that the leaves 
having been picked a trifle green, or 
from some other cause, do not colour 
properly. In such cases they are 
damped with pure water applied as a 
very fine mist spray through a spray 
pump at sunrise. One day the one side 
is sprayed, the next day the other. 
This is repeated only once on each side 
of the leaf. Spraying is not necessary 
in every case if the proper colour is 
acquired without it. 


The fourth illustration represents a 
trolley which is brought in the curing 
camp for conveying the dry tobacco to 
the shed. The trolly consists of three 
stories, each accommodating 30 rods 
without causing damage to the leaves. 


The fifth illustration shows the stacked 
tobaceo on a platform of planks raised 
about 18 inches from the ground. The 
tobacco is covered well with sacking 
to retain its moisture and keep out dust 
and air. In this state the tobacco may 
be kept until! a convenient time for 
pressing. Before pressing, in case the 
tobacco is very dry, a little water may 
be gently sprayed on to it with an 
**Abol” syringe or spray pump having 
a ‘* Vermorel” nuzzle, preferably on one 
side of each rod as it is laid down, where 
it must then remain at least two days. 
This permits of the whole mass becom- 
ing soft and elastic. 


The Baling Press. —Probably any hand 
baler might be adapted to the purpose 
of pressing the Turkish tobacco into the 
form in which it is customarily put on 
the market, but one specially designed 
for the purpose, as used in Turkey, is a 
material advantage and can be impro- 
vised at small cost. 


A stout wooden platform, 2 feet by 
7 feet, is required. Near one end two 
uprights are erected and joined together 
by across piece, in which a worm and 
vertical screw is affixed, or other device 
for exerting a pressure downwards may 
be arranged. The press proper consists 
of a box 2 feet by 16 inches by 2 feet, 
which slides in and out under the screw. 
One end of the box is fixed to the wooden 
floor; the other end and sides are 
attached by hinges, and a wooden frame 
fits round the top to keep the sides in 
position. The lid consists of a flat piece 
fitting just inside the box, and when in 
operation the pressure is exerted by the 
screw upon this lid. At any time either 
side or the one end may be opened with- 
out disturbing the rest, and the progress 
of the pressing process watched and 
controlled. 

Baling.—Pressing may be undertaken 
at any convenient time after the con- 
clusion of the drying {process. The 
operation is best carried on in wet 


Drugs and Medicinal Plants. 


weather, when the leaves are supple and 
elastic in the stack, If the weather is 
fine and the material dry and crisp, then 
two days before pressing, the rods are to 
be lifted one by one and sprayed very 
finely with water on one side only and 
re-stacked and covered. The leaf then 
becomes soft and pliant, but if too much 
water is used fermentation will take 

lace and the leaf become mouldy, and 
it will thus be seen that great care must 
be taken in carrying out this simple but 
dangerous process. It may here be 
observed that some growers last season, 
not having any experience in curing 
tobacco, or any one to show them, were 
very unsuccessful in their efforts, and as 
a result obtained poor prices for their 
tobacco, or as much of it as could be 
sold, the majority of these crops remain- 
ing unsold owing to the manner in 
which the tobacco was cured and tlie 
excessive amount of wateradded to the 
leaf before pressing, causing fermenta- 
tion and mouldiness in the leaf. 


W hen the tobacco is in a fit condition, 
_the strings are cut from the supporting 
rod and divided into lengths corre- 
sponding to the size of the bale. 
tobacco is packed in layers, the butts all 
turned outwards and the tips towards 
the centre. When half full, the lid is 
put on and the pressure applied for a 
quarter of an hour, after which the box 
is filled, and for three or four hours the 
pressure is repeatedly applied, the sides 
of the box being open occasionally to 
inspect progress. The usual weight of a 
bale is 80 lbs. Ultimately the bale is 
removed and sewn up in canvas, with 
the ends showing the butts of the leaves 
left open, at these ends the canvas is 
laced together criss-cross like a widely 
laced boot. 


In this condition the leaf is stored and 
improves much with age, tobacco 


The 


(JULY, 1909. i‘ 


coming out of the bale a year or several 
years old, being very much superior to 
the new immatured article. 


In Turkey, while maturing, the bales 
are turned every day, much as is the 
custom with ripening cheeses. 


Accessories Required per Acre (ap- 
proximate). 


(1) Six needles, 14 inches long by about 
4 inch broad, flat and smooth with 
sharp points, and dull edges, pro- 
vided with an eye, and made of 
good steel. Obtained at Messrs. J. 
H. and E, Youle, Long-street, 
Cape Town, . 
Six baskets or boxes. 
One “‘ Abol” syringe for entire crop. 
Five hundred rods, 8 feet long. 
These may be light wooden spars, 
bamboo or stout reed, and must 
be of uniform length, that given, 
i.e., about 7 feet, being approxi- 
mately a convenient length. 


A supply of canvas sheeting, bags 
or other material for protecting 
the tobacco from dew. 
A trellis. A simple arrangement 
consisting of two parallel wires 
about 7 feet apart, supported . at 
intervals or short stakes to pre- 
vent sagging, and carried along 
about 2 feet aboveground and made 
fast at each end. The trellis 
wires should run across the 
direction of prevailing wind. A 
separate set should be provided for 
each quality of tobacco. The 
site of the trellisshould be some 
convenient sheltered and sunny 
spot, preferably in a grass camp, 
but protected from wind and the 
f prying attention of livestock and 
fowls. 

(7) A supply of butter cloth for cover- 

ing the seed beds. 


(2) 
(3) 
(4) 


(C)) 


. (6) 


EDIBLE PRODUCTS. 


THE FERTILIZATION OF RIC&. 


(From the Louisiana Planter and 
Sugar Manufacturer, XLIL., No. 5, 
January 30, 1909.) 

Rice being an aquatic plant, it has 
been a debatable question as to just 
how to secure the best crops of it. In 
Louisiana it has become the general con- 
clusion that almost any sugar plantation 
can be utilized successfully for two or 
three years in rice culture, and the more 
successfully because of the fact of the 
land having been in cane culture, This 


can hardly be because there is any im- 
provement in the soil because of cane 
culture, other than the fact that cane 
culture, being a very intense culture, 
leads practically to the extirpation of 
ail of those grasses which become so 
annoying in rice culture and _ have it yet 
to learn. On the other hand, we know 
from actual experience that lands that 
have been planted in cowpeas, the 
cowpeas ploughed under and the lands 
thus. intended for sugar cane subse- 
quently diverted to rice culture, have 
produced crops oi rice almost unheard 
of in quantity, and in fact to the exten 


ee te 


any change in the market price. 


Rem PORN oP NN SEE es Rie mE mer RL ee 


- Jouy, 1909] 


of over 30 barrels per acre, the barrel 
being 162 lbs. of rough rice, including 
the sack. This would seem to indicate 
that the nitrogen accumulated from the 


‘air and into the land by the leguminous 


crop had a very positive effect upon the 
rice planted upon such lands, Apart 
from this, it has been noted that where 
there has been stable manure dropped 
on the land, the manured spots showed 
arapid and early growth of the rice, 
even though it isan aquatic plant and 
grows with its roots in the water. 


The Gueydan News now reports the 
facts about the fertilization of a tract 
of rice land in that vicinity. Messrs. 
Riley & Neelis own arice farm three 
miles North-West of Gueydan. Last 
year they planted and fertilized six 
acres, keeping it entirely separate from 
the rest of their fields. This six acre 
field yielded twelve bags to the acre, and 
each bag weighed 203 pounds, which 
would be equal to fifteen standard bags of 
rice per acre. In the milling of this rice 
it was found to yield 108 ponnds of head 
rice, the broken rice and other offal not 
being included, The rice brought the 
top of the market price and the gross 


yield was $57'60 per acre. 


These results were carefully compared 
with those obtained from the land lying 
alongside, which was not fertilized, but 
which had otherwise received exactly 
the same treatment. This yielded only 93 
bags to the acre, each bag weighing 185 
pounds of rough rice, and that the vice 
mill yielded 100 pounds of head rice, 
which sold for $3°50 per standard barrel, 
the gross proceeds being $31‘50 per acre. 
It was not stated whether the rice was 
harvested and marketed at the same 
time, nor whether or not there had been 
It may 
be left fair for usto infer that the best 
rice was sold for seed rice, and hence 
brought the fancy price. It, however, 
was evidently very heavy rice, the bags 
being of the same size, of about five 
bushels each, and the fertilized rice 
weighed 2083 pounds to the sack, indi- 
cating a very large amount of rice kernel 
and less of rice hull than the other, which 
only weighed 185 pounds. for the same 
measure, and had a less yield in clean rice 
to the extent of eight pounds per bag. 


In the description of the transaction, 
in giving the yields stated, the yields of 
108 pounds and of 100 pounds of head 
rice are stated as being this much per 
bag, but it is not stated whether the 
bags of 203 pounds and 180 pounds 
respectively were meant, or whether the 
standard bag or barrel of 162 pounds 
meant, when the yield of 108 pounds and 
100 pounds respectively was reported. 


25 Edible Products. 


If these data are all accurate as given 
and the difference of the gross proceeds 
per acre actually amounts to $26°10, itis 
a striking instance of the value of what- 
ever fertilizer was used in this instance. 


THEA CULTURE. 


EXPERIMENTAL WORKS AT HESLBEAKA. 


(from the Fane Apricultuniat Vol. 
XXXIII., No. 12, December 1, 1908.) 


GREEN MANURES. 


The following are the _ concluding 
portions of Dr. C. M. Hutchinsou’s in- 
teresting report on the investigations 
carried at the Heeleaka Experimental 
Station during 1905, 1906, 1907. Dealing 
with the question of green manures Dr, 
Hutchinson says :— 


One of the most interesting points in 
connection with the use of green manures 
in tea culture is the very wide diver- 
gence of opinion as to their values; this 
suggests at once that in certain soils and 
climates their effects are not sufficiently 
marked to be obvious; whereas, under 
different conditions obtaining elsewhere, 
no doubt arises as to their efficacy. 
Another reason exists for this difference 
of opinion, and that may be said to be 
due in some eases to want of knowledge 
of what a good crop of such green 
manure as Mati Kalai is really like; in 
many soils this plant makes such a feeble 
growth that, as a green manure, it is 
practically valueless, and planters who 
have only seen it under these conditions 
very naturally have a low opinion of its 
use. Itis unfortunate that the Heeleaka 
soil is of this character, and this has 
made it necessary to givea preliminary 
dressing of manure to all the plots under 
treatment with green crops, in order to 
get sufficient growth of Mati Kalai to 
serve for comparison. 

The increased yields of leaf produced 
by the use of green manures are very 
small when compared with other manu- 
rial treatment; the increase on these 
plots, however, was decided enough to 
show the value of such treatment, besides 
indicating the relative advantages of 
the various crops experimented with, 
and it cannot be too often insisted upon 
that the principal object of growing 
green manures is not so much directly 
to increase the yield of leaf, as to im- 
prove the condition of the soil both 
mechanically and chemically, by re- 
placing organic matter which the ordi- 
nary processes of growthand cultivation 
tend to remove, no rotation of manures 
being complete without the inclusion of 
a green cropinthe series. In the case 


Edible Products. ; 26 


of these plots a more accurate idea of 
this action of the green ciops may be 
obtained by consideration of the relative 
yearly improvement of the plots than 
by comparison of the total weights of 
leaf taken from them. 


IMPROVEMENT OF THE PLOTS. 


By far the most improvement has 
been shown by Plot No. 6 on which 
Arahar has been grown for three conse- 
cutive seasons; this may, [I think, be as- 
cribed to the large amount of organic 
matter produced and the method of 
introducing it into the soil, which con- 
sisted in trenching the alternate rows 
and burying the whole year’s growth in 
the trenches, The improvement in the 
texture of the soil due'to this method of 
treatment is very marked, and the condi- 
tion of the bushes is equally altered for 
the better, the strong growth of new 
wood piomising well for the future 
continuance of their vigorous condition. 
The method of growing Arahar in teas 
is very similar to that in use for Tephro- 
sia candida, except that the latter is 
generally left to make two or three 
years’ growth before being cut down 
and buried, whereas in the experiment 
plots the Arahar has been hoed up and 
buried at the end of each season, a fresh 
crop being sown in the following spring. 

Tephrosia candida (Boga Medeloa) was 
not included in the original scheme of 
green manuring, but has been planted 
in the new clearance with great advan- 
tage to the young tea, and two plots 
are now under treatment with this plant 
in the green manure series. 

One other very important action of 
green manures is the fixation in the soil 
of nitrogen derived from organic matter; 
this nitrogen, originally present in an 
insoluble form in the humus, is rendered 
soluble by the action of soil bacteria, 
and, as this change probably takes place 
to some extent even in the cold weather, 
the resulting nitrates are liable to be 
removed by the first spring rains beyond 
the reach of the roots of the tea bush, 
the activity of the latter at this early 
part of the season not being sufficient to 
allow of their absorption as fast as they 
are formed. A good crop of green man- 
ure, however, will be able to take up a 
considerable amount which would other- 
wise pass into the drainage water, re- 
taining the nitrogen for use by the tea- 
bush later in the season; and although 
in many soils under tea, and especially 
such as are in a good state of cultivation, 
much of the nitrate carried down into 
the subsoil by rainwater is probably re- 
turned to the surface by capillary rise 
of the latter, yet, a great loss of nitrogen 
in this condition must inevitably occur, 


(JULY, 1909. ; 


which green manures grown at this sea- 
son of the year would help to diminish. 
I¢is also probable that the ordinary pro- 
cesses of nitrification of organic matter 
are considerably modified and reduced 
during the period of growth of a legu- 
min jus crop, and this would account to a 
great extent for the falling off in yield 
of the tea bushes, whilst the land was 
occupied by such green manures as Matai 
Kalai and Dhanicha, and emphasises the 
necessity for limiting such occupation to 
the shortest time consistent with the 
production of a fair crop of the green 
manure, 


PRUNING. 


These experiments were designed to ob- 
tain information as to the best methods 
of light pruning old tea. Six plots of 
one acre each were laid out, and the fol- 
lowing styles of pruning were adopted :— 

Nos. Land 6 were treated in accordance 
with the local method of light pruning, 
no cleaning out of weak shoots or laterals 
being done. 


No. 2. This plot was thoroughly cleaned 
out both at the sides and centre of the 
bushes and no weak laterals were left. 


No. 8was ‘‘Table” pruned, 7.e,, cut 
straight across, leaving two inches in 
the centre, but no cleaning out was 
done. 


No. 4 was similarly treated, but four 
inches of wood was left. 


No. 5 was pruned on the “ Baghjau ” 
system, that is practically all the new 
wood was cut out, the new growth being 
intended to come away each year from 
the same point, thus forming a knot 
which yearly increases in size. Owing to 
the great age and mixed character of 
the bushes ot these plots, it has been 
found impossible to carry out this system 
in the same way as that which has been 
adopted at Baghjan itself, but the ap- 
proximation has been sufficiently close 
to allow of comparison. Owing to want 
of vitality in many of the bushes many 
stems have died back from the pruned 
knot, necessitating a certain amount of 
cutting back, so that the general effect 
is due partly to the individual style of 
pruning and partly to the system aimed 
at. 


There was a very marked difference in 
the yields obtained from the various 
plots ; those on which the Table pruning 
was adopted demonstrate very clearly 
the failure of this method to stimulate 
vigorous growth, and should be sufficient 
to convince the most conservative of its 
character, It has been found necessary 
in consequence of the weedy character 
of the harmful growth produced on these 
two plots, to abandon this method of 


J ULY, 1909.} 


pruning them and to cut back the 
bushes; it is not anticipated that any 
such hard pruning will be necessary on 
the cleaned out plots for some years to 
come. 


The general character of growth on 
Plot No. 2 compares very favourably 
with the table pruned bushes, and also 
with those on the control plots, Nos. 1 
and 2; the healthy appearance of the 
bushes, which is very noticeable, was 
further in accordance with their free- 
dom from red rust, which was prevalent 
onthe table pruned plots and also on 
the control plots, where the small 
twiggy shoots and ill-nourished laterals 
afforded favourable opportunities for 
the development of thisdisease. Thread 
blight was altogether absent from this 
plot, although many ‘Table pruned 
bushes suffered from its attacks, and 
on the whole it may be said that this 
method of pruning has completely justi- 
fied its adoption as a means of keeping 
up the yield of the bushes, and of 
rendering them less liable to such dis- 
eases as red rust and thread blights, 
There can be no doubt that, in dealing 
with other blights such as mosquito, 
this method would allow of more success- 
ful adoption of the appropriate remedial 
measures, besides rendering the bushes 
themselves more capable of resisting 
attack. 


PLUCKING HXPERIMENTS. 


The experiments on plucking have 
been confined, so far, to an attempt to 
determine the relative merits of the 
*““Sadiya Road” system, and that in 
vogue in other districts; the former 
method consists in plucking at intervals 
of ten or more days, and taking all 
growth above the number of mature 
leayes which it has been decided to leave 
for the time. Plots Nos, 8 and 10 of 
one acre each were plucked in this man- 
ner, whereas only the fully formed two 
leaves and bud were taken every seven 
days on Nos. 7and 9. This experiment 
has now been in operation for three 
consecutive seasons and certain con- 
clusions can be drawn from the results. 
At the end of the first season, 1905, 
seventeen pluckings of ten-day leaf had 
yielded half a maund per acre move tea 
than twenty-two pluckings of seven-day 
leaf ; inspection of the bushes after prun- 
ing, however, led to the conclusion that 
the excessive drain on their resources, 
exercised by this style of plucking, had 
produced an unhealthy and exhausted 
condition, and this surmise was borne 
out by the fact that, in the second year 
of the experiment the first season’s gain 
was not repeated, the two styles of 
plucking producing the same amount 


27 Edible Products. 


of leaf. A further loss of condition 
was apparent, and although the yield 
of the whole four plots was increased by 
an application of cattle manure in the 
cold weather of 1906, the ten-day plots 
failed to regain their former position, 
although the stimulus of the rmanurial 
dressing prevented any further compara- 
tive deterioration in crop. The local 
Advisory Committee, on inspecting these 
plots at the end of the third seasor, were 
of opinion that the results obtained, 
taken in conjunction with the condition 
of the bushes, demonstrated clearly that, 
in such soil and climate as obtain at 
Heeleaka, this method of plucking is 
bound to result in deterioration of the 
tea, with no correspondingly great ad- 
vantage either in increased crop or im- 
provement in quality. It was therefore 
decided to abandon this experiment, and 
to utilise these plots for other purposes, 


BonE MANUREsS. 


Experiments on the manurial action of 
bones were commenced in 1907 on a 
series of plots laid out on young tea of 
good ‘‘Jat.” The plots were treated 
with # inch bones, bone meal, and dis- 
solved bones, and control plots were 
included in the series manured with oil- 
cake and with a mixture of oil-eake and 
superphosphate, containing amounts of 
phosphoric acid and nitrogen equivalent 
to those provided by the bone manures. 
No manurial effect was observable at 
the end of the season, but these experi- 
ments will be continued in 1908, with a 
view to observing any differences that 
may arise from the gradual action of 
the bone manures, 

An account of the experiments now 
being carried out at Heeleaka, and those 
which it is proposed to undertake, has 
been published in the programme of 
work for the Experimental Stations for 
1908, I.would cordially invite sugges- 
tions from planters, says Dr. Hutchin- 
son, as to problems needing investi- 
gation and expression of their views as 
to the practical application of the re- 
sults which have been obtained at 
Heeleaka, 


COMMERCIAL ORANGE PRODUC- 
TION IN THE PHILIPPINES. 
BY WILLIAM 8S, LYON. 

(From the Philippine Agricultural 
Review, Vol. I., No. 2, Pebrivarys 1909.) 

Inquiries for buds or scions of im- 
proved varieties of American or Euro- 
pean oranges are so frequently addressed 
to the Bureau of Agriculture that, as 


> 


[Juny, 1909 


Edible Products. 98 


a matter of general interest and infor- 
mation, a brief résumé of the experi- 
ences of the Bureau with these varieties 
is here made public. 


Early in 1902 the standard sorts in 
common cultivation in Florida, Cali- 
fornia, Matta, Italy, and Japan were 
introduced and planted at Malate, 
Manila at sea level; also near Abucay, 
Bataan Province, at an elevation of 
about 200 meters; and atLa Trinidad, 
Benguet, atan altitude of 1,500 meters, 
The story is best and most briefly told 
by saying that the results have been 
so far most disappointing. The trees 
were, in trade jargon, ‘‘ two-year buds” 
and are now approximately 6 years old, 
and under fair condition should be pro- 
ducing oneand one-half boxes (200 to 
300) oranges per tree. The Japanese 
varieties are the only kinds that have 
proven productive, but the fruits have 
deteriorated so badly as to be hardly 
edible, and are practically worthless. 

OF the other foreign varieties, those 
planted in Benguet Province have 
nearly all died, and those in Bataan, 
though grown upon an inviting-looking 
soil with good drainage and protection 
from high winds, have fared but little 
better. In Manila, the trees of most 
varieties have madea fair growth, but 
only one tree (a St. Michael sweet) has 
maturedany fruit, and of that only to 
the number of three. The Valenica late, 
Malta blood and the famous Washington 
navel have, up to theage of six years, not 
fruited. The three fruits of St. Michael 
sweet were quite up to standard in all 
respects, expect colour, remaining bright 
green when otherwise perfectly mature. 
This last feature was to be expected; 
and, while we are not prepared to say 
that there are no places in the Philip- 
pines where these foreign varieties may 
not prove productive, the prospective 
planter shouid fully realize that he can- 
not hope to produce anything but 
bright-green noucoloured fruits. This, 
from a commercial aspect, is @ more 
serious defect than is apparent at first 
glance. The eye does much to influence 
the palate, and the influence is clearly 
shown in higher price generally brought 
for the brilliant, highly-coloured Cali- 
fornia navels over the intrinsically 
finer fruitsfrom Jamaica and Florida, 
handicapped as these latter are by the 
dull greenish russet colour which chat- 
acterizes oranges grown in the Tropics. 


This feature is common to the Philip- 
ines as wellas to all tropical countries. 
e see it in theclosed-skinned ‘“‘cajel” 
so common througout the Visayas and 
in the free-skinned tangerine or “‘naran- 
jita” so abundant at certain seasons in 
our markets, 


These oranges are at their very best 
while still bright green. When begin- 
ning to colour, as they do toward the 
close of the season, it is an index of 
incipient decay which may not be 
exhibited in disintegration or in any- 
thing worse than loss of juice and 
flavour. 


The experiences of all orange-growing 
countries conclusively show that the 
crange, although cosmopolitan in the 
mere matter of existence, is most fasti- 
dious in the soil requirements which 
bring its fruit to perfection. Witness 
the heavily loaded trees in and about 
Santa Barbara, California, whose fruit 
is discarded while the local markets are 
suppiled with fruits brought from Los 
Angeles and Riverside counties—100 or 
more miles away. Nearer home, note 
the superlative excellence of the naran- 
jitas grown at Tanauan and at Santo 
Tomas, and observe how utterly inferior 
is the fruit of the same tree grown at 
near-by Calamba, and still worse on 
seemingly like soil at Lipa—less than 15 
kilometers distant, 


On this account it is not denied that 
in this particularly favoured district 
satisfactory results may he achieved 
with imported varieties of oranges, 
with the odds nevertheless greatly in 
favour of better success being obtained 
through careful selection and cultivation 
of the native tangerine. It is not 
claimed that this orange is free from 
defects, but these defects could be 
partly eliminated in a single generation 
of careful seed selection in the orchard. 
In the commercial essentials of produc- 
tiveness, juiciness, favour, and shipping 
qualities, these oranges are unexcelled ; 
and the selected fruits of Santo Tomas 
or Tanauan at their prime are superior 
to the showy bat insipid California fruit 
that reaches this market in cold storage. — 


From ex-General Malvar, a _ large 
grower in Batangas, we learn that there 
are many thousands of hectares of 
typical orange lands still unplanted to 
orchards, which offer an inviting field to 
the planter; especially to the one who 
would grow only selected stocks, and 
improve a little on the spontaneous 
methods now in vogue. The writer saw 
asingle tree in Tanauan, the crop of 
which sold for P10 on an estimated yield 
of 2,000 oranges, or one-half centavo per 
orange. As a few dozens of selected 
fruits from this tree sold for 24 centavos 
per dozen, there is hardly a doubt that, 
hed the tree been thinned down to one- 
half (which could have been done at a 
cost of less than Pl), the remaining 
thousand fruits would have found a 


Suny, 1900.] 


quick sale at 14 to2 centavos apiece, 
giving a net return of Pl4 to P19 for the 
tree instead of P10. 


The orchard value of these fruits, ‘‘ as 
they run” in seasons of great abundance, 
is seldom under P5 per 1,000, and more 
generally is P8 to P10, rising to double 
these figures in time of scarcity. The 
grower need scarcely consider the ques- 
tion ofa surplus and consequent glut. 
The Chinese are exceedingly fond of these 
oranges and there is a ready export 
market to Hongkong for many million 
fruits, whenever the price falls low 
enough to permit of shipment and 
still leave a handsome margin for the 
producer. 


CARDAMOM CULTIVATION IN 
SOUTH MYSORE. 
By D. J. EVERS, 

Forest Ranger, Manzarabad Range. 
(From the Indian Forester, Vol. 
XXXIV., No. 11, November, 1908.) 

In the Manzarabad and Belur taluks 

of the Hassan districts, Mysore State, 
and more especially in the Ghat forests 
of these taluks, the cardamom plant is 


~ cultivated extensively. Messrs. Middle- 


ton and Brooke-Mockett, said to be the 
two largest cardamom planters in S: uth 
India, have several hundreds of acres 
under cultivation, while there is scarcely 
a coffee estate which cannot boast of 
its ‘‘hanal” or “kool,” however modest 
in extent. The word ‘hanal” and 
‘‘kool” mean a valley or watercourse. 
The cardamom plant and the _ leech 
revelin moist localities (of which there 
are enough in the Ghat forests), but the 
plant, it is said, will not thrive on 
southern and western aspects. In the 
Ghat forests the plant comes up spon- 
taneously, wherever a little light has 
been admitted by the felling of a few 
large trees, and superstition attaches 
much virtue to the Balagi (Poeciloneuron 
indicum), the Dupa (Vateria indica), the 
Halmaddi (Canarium strictum), and the 
Naga Sampige (Messua ferrea), The ryot 
does not seem to be quite sure as to how 
the plant suddenly makes its appearance, 
but the general belief is that the seed is 
disseminated by monkeys, rats and 
snakes! This belief about the snake 
seeius to be.on a par with that other, 
about the peevit sleeping on his back 
with his legs raised high to prevent the 
sky falling on him ! 

There are two methods of cardamom 
cultivation—the Brooke-Mockett and 
Middleton method, and the Coorg 
system. In the former (I quote from the 
Inspection Note of the Conservator of 
Forests in Mysore) the modus operandi 


29 Edible Products. 


‘is to thin out the forests by removing 
small poles to such an extent as to let in 
the required amount of light, and 
to plant the area thus cleared with 
nursery-raised seedlings.” This done, 
if facilities exist for the purpose, the 
area is irrigated, otherwise the area is 
simply weeded. In the Coorg system 
‘a careful selection ismade of suitable 
areas, such localities being indicated by 
the presence of plants which have come 
up spontaneously. In February and 
March clearings of one square chain, 
more or less, are madein the selected 
locality, taking care to fell only small 
poles from 2 to 3 feetin girth and brush 
wood. One or two large trees standing 
hy the sides of the cleared plots are 
then felled right across it, the object of 
whichis two-fold—first, to let in more 
light; and secondly, to loesen the soil 
andthus cause the dormant seeds to 
germinate. The plots are made at 
intervals of 2 to 10 chains so as to not 
open out the leaf canopy too much in 
one place. The seedlings make their 
appearance at the first burst of the 
monsoon, and by the close of the mon- 
soon attaina height of 3 or 4ineches. At 
the beginning of the following monsoon 
they are thinned out wherever they are 
over-crowded, and blank spaces are 
stocked. All that need be done in 
subsequent years is to keep the plots 
clear of weeds. The plants begin to 
crop in the fourth or fifth year, accord- 
iug to the richness of the soil, and give 
full crops in the seventh year. They 
continue to produce good crops till the 
fourteenth year, when they begin to 
decline, languish, and die. Thenone or 
two large trees standing by the side are 
again felled right across the plot. The 
plants at once begin to revive, and the 
rhizomes throw out new shoots. This 
process is repeated every seventh year, 
and thus renovated the plots last many 
years, Little orno crop is collected in 
the years in which the renovation 
fellings have been made”. Inthe former 
system of putting out nursery-raised 
seedlings or bulbs: ‘* This is the Brookes 
Mockett and: Middleton system, but it 
hardly commends itself, even though 
the plants begin to crop earlier, inas- 
much as it is more expensive than the 
Coorg system and the plants cease to 
yield sooner. Moreover, as rightly re- 
marked by the Conservator of Mysore, 
the Coorg system causes the least 
injury to the forest growth,” and, there- 
fore, the risks of interference with the 
rainfall, or with the head-water of 
streams, are reduced to 2 minimum. 


There are two methods of drying the 
produce—spreading it on mats or in tin 
trays and exposing it to sunlight, and 


Edible Products. 


drying it over a fire. The ovenisa long, 
brick-and-mud_ structure, the roof of 
which is either zine sheeting, or a_thin 
mortar trough, like a long pot-tile. I 
saw the latter kind of oven at a village 
named Bimbli,and I hope the accom- 
panying diagram may explain what itis 
like. As soon as the zine sheet or mortar 
trough is sufficiently hot, a cloth is laid 
on it and the fruit spread thereon. The 
object of the cloth is to absorb the 
moisture, but it is not always used. 
After the fruit is dried, the stalks are 
cut off, and the produce is then ready 
for the market. The fruit is not col- 
lected till the covering isa white-yellow 
colour and the seeds nearly black. 


CROSS SECTION. 


he Trough 


Kanone sennans snen eocnacencnnnncames 9 U7 


paneer renee: 


 [ELEVATION. 


Cardamom is a produce which finds a 
ready sale locally, and during the cold 
months of the year, a class of people 
called ‘‘Beris,” come across from South 
Canara and buy up large quantities of 
it. The Hindus pickle the tender green 
fruit, while in the dry stage itis much 
used in their confectionery. In Coorg, 
it would appear that the Forest Depart- 
ment leases out certain plots of forest 
land for cardamom cultivation for 
periods of 14 to 21 years, and in this 
way realizes an annual revenue of 
Rs. 2,000 to Rs. 3,000, and if the Mysore 
Forest Department will do likewise, 
instead of playing at Cardamom eulti- 
vation by departmental agency, asic is 
now doing, it too might realise similar 
amounts, instead of insignificant trac- 
tions of those figures. Cardamom eulti- 
vation should, I think, be left to private 
enterprise, as in the case of coffee, and I 
am sure that the planting community of 
Mysore is quite as enterprising as that 
anywhere outside the State. 


‘“Hanals” and ‘Kools” in forests 
which are not reserved are sold by the 
Revenue Department by auction, and 
fetch Rs. 30 and upward per acre.. The 
land, of course, then becomes the private 
“holding” of the highest bidder, and he 
has thereafter to pay an annual asses- 
ment of Re. 1-1-0 per acre. do not 
know what objection there would be to 
following the same procedure in the 
Ghat State Forests which are at present 
practically unworkable for timber for 
wane of roads. But I leave the matter 
there. 


Saklaspur, Mysore State, 
13th August, 1908. 


TIMBERS. 


A PHILIPPINE SUBSTITUTE FOR 
LIGNUM VITA. 


(From the Bureau of Forestry, Bulletin 

No. 9, Manila, Philippine Islands.) 

One of the most valuable woods in the 
world is Lignum vite (Guajacum offi- 
cinale, L.). The greater part of the 
market supply is obtained from the 
West Indian islands. During recent 
years, heavy and indiscriminate cutting 
has so depleted the forests of this tree 
that manufacturers are at present 
seriously engaged in the search for a 
suitable substitute. 

There are many excellent hardwoods 


in the Philippine Islands, but only one 
species possesses the qualities necessary 


toallow of its use in place of Lignum 
vitse; that is, Mancono (Xanthostemon 
verdugonianus, Naves). This wood, it is 
believed, can be used to advantage in 
the manufacture of a number of articles 
made at the present time exclusively 
from Lignum vitee. 

In order that the similarity of struc- 
ture of these woods may be more clearly 
understood, a short description and a 
comparison of the two species follows :— 
LIGNUM VITA (Guajacum Officinale, L.). 

The heartwood of Lignum vite is 
greenish brown, and the sapwood a 
bright yellowish colour. It is very 
heavy and hard, with a specific gravity, 
when air-dry, of from 1°17 to 1°39. The 
grainis fine, and the wood fibres small 


Jury, 1909.] 


and exceedingly twisted, thus making 
the wood very difficult to split. 


MANCONO (Xanthostemon verdugonianus, 
Naves.) 


The heartwood of Mancono is brown- 
ish, turning purple when exposed to the 
air ; the sapwood is very narrow, and of 
a pale reddish colour. The wood is very 
heavy and hard, having a_ specific 
gravity, after drying for fifty-nine 
hours at a temperature of 105° to 110° C. 
of 1:236, equal to a weight of 77 pounds 
per cubic foot.* The grain is fine and 
twisted, and the fibres rather short and 
exceedingly thickwalled. The hardness 
of the wood is due mainly tothe thick- 
walled fibres, but partly also to deposits 
in the vessels. 

COMPARISON OF MANCONO AND 
LIGNUM VITA. 


Botanically, these two species are not 
closely related. In colour, the woods 
differ materially. Lignum vite also has 
a resinous odour distinct-from that of 
Mancono. 


Sufficient tests have not been made to 
allow of an accurate comparison as to 
weight and hardness. Lignum vit will 
probably average a trifle heavier than 
Mancono; the Philippine species, how- 
ever, being the harder. 


The grain of both woods is fine and 
twisted, but the West Indian species 
has much the finer grain, and is there- 
fore more difficult tosplit, In structure, 
Lignum vite differs from all known 
woods in the weave of its fibres, which 
are noticeably smaller than those of 
Mancono. 


The seasoning qualities of Lignum 
vite are unknowr. Mancono checks 
badly upon exposure to the air, the 
eracks, however, being _ superficial. 
From the coarseness of the fibres, it is to 
be expected that this species would 
suffer somewhat in seasoning. 

Summarizing, it may be said that 
Mancono is evidently inferior to Lignum 
vite in some respects, but that it has 
enough good qualitics to indicate that 
it may be utilized, ‘profitably, as a 
subtitute. 

DISfRIBUTION OF MANCONO. 

Mancono, one of the important first- 
group trees, is found in the southern 
islands of the Philippine Archipelago, 
commercial forests being restricted to 
the coast hills of the Surigao Peninsula, 
aud Dinagat, Bucas, and adjacent islands, 
in the Provinces of Surigao and Agusan, 
Mindanao, P.I. As the tree has never 
been extensively exploited the many 

*The weight of air-dry wood varies from 80 to 

*9) pounds per cubic foot, 


Timbers. 


excellent qualities of the wood are but 
little known to the general trade, though 
the timber is highly prized by the 
Filipinos of the south on account of its 
durability and freedom from the attack 
of white ants. 


A conservative estimate places the 
total area of Mancono forest suitable for 
logging, at 2,000 hectares (4°942 acres). 


DISCRIPTION OF THE FOREST. 

On steep, rocky hillsides, rising sharp- 
ly from the beach, it is usual to find 
Mancono in almost pure stands, to the 
practical exclusion of all other com- 
mercial species. In_ such situations, 
where the soil is a dry, compact, red- 
dish clay, the tree attains maximum 
development. 


From a distance, Mancono can be 
easily distinguished by its rugged 
branches, small leaves, and thin, spread- 
ing crown. The tree flowers in May, 
the blossoms being bright crimson in 
colour. The bark of the tree is slate- 
white, peeling in irregular flakes simillar 
to the Sugar Gum (Hucalyptus curyno- 
calyx) of Australia. Itis very thin and 
easily removed from the log after felling. 


The trees are rarely buttressed, but 
the bole is irregular in shape, and tapers 
rapidly, The maximum recorded dia- 
meter, breast-high, is 115 centimeters 
(45 inches), and the maximum clear 
length 10 meters (83 feet). The average 
clear length of fairly straight, mer- 
chantable trees varies from 5 to 8 meters 
(16 to 26 feet) It is estimated that 
50 cent. of the trees measured on the 
Island of Dinagat, Suriago Province, 
had a trunk divided within 2 or 2°5 
meters (64 or 8 feet) from the ground, 
in many cases the fork occurring at a 
distance of from 60 to 90 centimeters 
(24 to 85 inches) above the base of the 
tree. 


Table I, gives the average stand of 
Mancono per hectare, and per acre, as 
obtained from valuation surveys in a 
practically pure stand. 


Table I.—NUMBER OF TREES PER 
HECTARE, AND PER ACRE, OF MANCONO, 
DIANAGAT ISLAND, PROVINCE OF 


SURGAO, MINDANAO, 
[Average of 4 hectares (9°88 acres. )] 
4 Mai Number ot 
Diameter breast-high. esos: 
Per Per Per 

Centimeters. Inches, hectare. acre, cent, 

13 to 30 5 to 12 106°7. 432 86 

31 to 60 13 to 24 48°3 195 f 

61 to 90 25 to 35 20°0 81 14 

Overs90 Over 35 5'8 2°3 

Total 180°8 = 73°1 100 


Timbers. 82 


In the above table, 86 per cent. of the 
trees are under 60 centimeters (24 inches), 
a minimum diameter limit prescribed in 
the cutting rules for certain forest tracts 
where first-group woods are protected. 

With logging under the supervision of 
a forest officer, this limit could proba- 
bly be lowered to 30 centimeters (12 
inches). 

As previously stated, Mancono usually 
grows in pure stands, to the exclusion 
of all other merchantable species. Near 
the upper limits of the type, however, 
such hardwoods as Yacal (Hopea pla- 
gata), Batete (Hardwickia alternifolia), 
and Sudiang (Hugenia sp.) etc., are 
occasionally found. These species are 
widely scattered, and of little import- 
ance. 

On account of the steepness of the 
slopes on which Mancono grows, litter 
and humus are rarely present, The un- 
derbrush is usually dense, consisting of 
a heavy stand of seedling trees, vines, 
and herbs. 

Reproduction is abundant inall situ- 
ations, although the growth is slow on 
account of the quality of the soil of the 
locality. Surveys made on plots Or 
a hectarein area give an average stand 
of 14 saplings, 2°5 to 10 centimeters (1 
to 4 inches) in diameter, per plot, or 
5,600 per hectare (2,266 per acre). The 
actual amount of reproduction is greater 
than indicated by these figures, as in 
the surveys no account was taken of 
seedlings. 


MERCHANTABLE VOLUME. 


From data available at the Bureau of 
Forestry, the merchantable volumes of 
trees of different diameters has been 
roughly computed, and from these the 
yield of Mancoco per hectare, and per 
acre, ascertained. These volume figures, 
however, are based upon the clear length 
of the bole only. Almostall trees have 
large branches which would furnish 
short logs or bolts of merchantable 
value. No figures on the volume of 
such wood have been obtained. 

The average and total yield of the 
Mancono forest, based on a cutting dia- 
meter of limit of 30 and 60 centimeters 
(i2and 24 inches), is given in Tables 
Il. and III 


Table II.—AVERAGE YIELD IN MANCONO 
FOREST. 
(Average of 4 hectares (9°88 acres.) 
Average yield por 
. hectare. 
Cubic Cubic 
meters. feet Pounds. 
30 centimeters (12 inches) 45°00 1,590 127,200 
60 centimeters (24 inches) 33°40 1,180 94,400 


Minimum cutting 
diameter limit. 


- along the shore, or in the woods. 


[Juy, 1008, 


Average yield per 
acre. 
Cubie Cubic 
. meters. feet, 
30 centimeters (12 inches) 18°21 648 
60 centimeters (24 inches) 13°52 477 
Note.—1 cubic foot = 80 pounds, 


Table I17.—ToTAL YIELD OF MANCONO 
FOREST. 
[2,000 hectares (4,942 acres.)] 


Minimum cutting 


diameter limit. Pounds 


38,160 


Minj ti out yield, 
Inimum cutting Cubic Subic 
diameter li cee meters. feet. Pounds. 


30 centimeters 
(12 inches) 
60 centimeters 

(24 inches) 


90,000 3,180,000 254,400,000 
66,800 2,360,000 188,800,000 


ay : Total yield 
Minimum cutting Cubic Cubic Pound 
diameter limit. meters. feet. rei” 


30 centimeters 
(12 inches) 
60 centimeters 
(24 inches) 


36,420 1,286,000 102,880,000 
954,000 
LOGGING. 

Extensive logging opperations have 
never been carried on in the Mancono 
stands of the Philippines, The wood, 
though prized by the natives, is rarely 
used on account of the difficulty of 
felling the trees. To cut a 70 centi- 
meter (28 inch) tree, with the crude 
axes manufactured by the Filipinos, 
usually takes twodays. To fell a tree 
of equal diameter, with a saw, requires 
only four hours. Diamond-point saws 
should be used exclusively, on account 
of the great hardness of the wood. If 
extensive operations are undertaken, all 
trees should be cut as close to the ground 
as possible in order to obtain butt logs 
of large diameter. The taper of the first 
two meters (63 feet) of the bole is very 
rapid. 

As Mancono grows on steep hill sides 
along the coast, the logs can readily be 
skidded to the shore by means of a small 
yarding engine located on the beach, or 
transported down a rollway or dry slide. 
The maximum length of haul would 
rarely exceed 200 meters (610 feet), To 
transport logs to a steamer from the 
beach, it would be necessary to load 
them into large, shallow-draft scows, or 
native ‘‘lancans” (dugouts). 

Suitable locations for camps are found 
Corru- 
gated iron roofing may be used to ad- 


27,040 76,320,000 


vantage in the construction of shacks, . 


on account of the scarcity in this region 
of the nipa palm, the leaves of which 
are ordinarily used for thatching pur- 
poses in the Philippines. Water, in suffi- 
cient quantity to supply a camp, is rarely 
found in the immediate vicinity of a 
Maneono ivvrest, although -never far 
distant. 


51,440 - 


Mera. 


Jury, 1909.] 


LABOUR. 


To carry on extensive logging oper- 
ations in the Mancono stands of Surigao 
and Agusan Provinces, it would be neces- 
sary to import workmen from the near- 
by Visayan Islands, on account of the 
scarcity of local labour. Foreman, ac- 
quainted with the woods and the location 
of the heaviest stands of timber, could 
probably be obtained from Dinagat, 
Surigao, and various other coast towns, 
The daily wage would vary from P0°75 
for ordinary labourers, to P1‘50 for ex- 
pert axmen or sawyers, Gangbosses are 
usually paid P50 per month, and the 
head cook in large camps P40. In addi- 
tion to the above wages it is necessary 
to provide food for all labourers. The 
average cost of feeding the men is about 
P0‘16 per day. The necessary American 
foremen, etc., should be secured in the 
United States. 


Filipinos, when given fair treatment, 
make fairly steady and permanent work- 
men. They are quick to learn how to 
handle machinery, and work well in the 
woods. With patience and a knowledge 
of local customs. excellent results may 
be obtained. 


Cost oF LOGGING. 


Table IV.—GIVES THE ESTIMATED COST, 
PER CUBIC FOOT, OF CUITING AND 
TRANSPORTING MANCONO TO 
NEW YORK. 


Estimated 

cost. 

Cost of felling and hauling to 
beach o53 ue P, 0-11 
Loading on shipboard _... 04 
Government stumpage ... 07 
Freight to New York via Suez 40 
Incidental expenses os 16 
Total *-80 


* PO'80 per cubic foot of 80 pounds or $10, 
United States currency per ton, 


Note,—P2=$1, United States currency. 
TRANSPORTATION, 


Any company undertaking to market 
Mancono on a large scale should make 
definite arrangements for the transport- 
ation of all timber direct from the 
southern islands of the Philippines to 
-~New York. To tranship logs at Manila 
would add materially to the cost. 


There are a number of good anchorages 

for large boats near the various forests 

to be logged, orif necessary. a central 
5 


33 Timbers. 


timber depot could be established at 
Surigao, and all logs brought to this 
point and loaded directly into the 
steamer from a dock. 


From November to March, inclusive, it 
would be impossible to carry on loading 
operations along the Pacific coast of 
Mindanao and adjacent islands, on 
account of the north-east monsoon; a 
similar condition prevails along the west 
coast of the Surigao Peninsula, and of 
Dinagat Island, from about July 15 to 
October 15, at which time the south- 
west monsoon is blowing, The port of 
Surigao is, however, open throughout 
the year. 


TESTS OF MANCONO. 


Mancono is the hardest and heaviest 
of Philippine woods. It is practically 
impervious to decay, and is not subject 
to the attack of anay (white ants), or 
the sea worm (teredo). Posts, 40 years 
old, examined inthe town of Dinagat, 
Province of Surigao, were found to be 
decayed only to the depth of 1 centi- 
meter (0'4inch), and that only in the 
sapwood at the point where the post 
entered the ground. Piles which had 
been in salt water at Surigao for several 
years, were found untouched by the 
teredo, although ordinary hardwoods 
are readily destroyed. 


The only official tests of Mancono to 
date was made at the United States 
Naval Station, Cavite, P. I. The wood 
was installed, on side grain, as a bearing 
for journals rotating in salt water, in 
the stem bushing of a small launch 
which was in constant use. At the end 
of seven months the bearing was split 
out for examination. The wood was 
found to be but little worn, and was 
reported by the commander of the naval 
station to be ‘‘ quite the equal of Lignum 
vitee, when both are used for bearings 
on side grains” 


In the manufacture of rollers, pulleys, 
toolhandles, bowling balls, tempins, 
bearings, ete., itis believed that Mancono 
can be used profitably. The supply, 
though limited, can, by methods of con- 
servative logging, be made to last for an 
indefinite period. Not only is this 
species found in merchantable sizes and 
quantity, butit can be cheaply exploited. 
Asa substitute for Lignum vite, it is 
atleast worthy of a trial by all hardwood 
manufacturers. 


The Bureau of Foresty will furnish. on 
application and without charge, samples 
of this wood. Requests for samples 
should. state form and dimensions 
desired, 


7 ¥ hi A Se eo 


34 [Jony, 1002, 


HORTICULTURE. 


PHTRAA VOLUBILIS. 

No member of the vegetable kingdom 
can surpass, and few can equal, the ex- 

uisite beauty of this plant when in full 

ower. The blossoms which are helio- 
trupe with a violet centre, are borne in 
loose pendant sprays (racemes), which 
are hung gracefully from the slender 
arching branches. These combined with 
the rigid green leaves suggest almost a 
perfect artificial blossom, and the beau 
ideal of the milliner’s art. The plant is 
a woody climber, native of Tropical 
South America and some of the West 
Indian Islands. There is no record of its 
date of introduction at Peradeniya, 
though this cannot obviously be far back. 
It bears a few seeds occasionally at 


Peradeniya, but these need not be depend- 
ed upon for propagation, as cuttings; 
if inserted in the rainy weather, will grow 
readily. The plant is seen to best-ad- 
vantage when allowed to ramble of its 
free will amongst the branches of a low 
spreading tree. But it may also be 
grown, with much effect, by itself as a 
bush, or over an old tree stump. A 
white-flowered variety of Petrea is 
found in British Guiana, Trinidad, ete. 
There is also a tree-form (Petrea erecta) 
indigenous to the same habitat. This 
has been introduced and established at 
Peradeniya, and promises to become an 
acquisition to the Island’s most beauti- 
ful flowering trees. 


H. Kk. MACMILLAN. 


PLANT SANITATION. 


ENTOMOLOGICAL NOTES. 


By E. ERNEST GREEN, 
3 Government Entomologist. 

Branches of Camphor, injured by a 
small Scolytid beetle (allied to the ‘ shot- 
hole borer’ of tea) have been received 
from the Ambawella district. The same 
pest was reported from Hewaheta in 
November, 1906 (See 7.A., December, 
1906, p- 42) In the present case the 
trees had been killed by root fungus 
(Rosalinia); but this little borer un- 
doubtedly attacks healthy trees also. 
The mycelium of a fungus subsequently 
develops in the galleries of the insect, 
penetrating the woody tissues for acon- 
siderable distance and often killing the 
bark round the entrance to the tunnels. 
The branch may be completely ringed by 
these diseased areas. The presence of the 
pest is marked by dark brown patches 
on the bark. The pestshould be kept in 
check by cutting out and destroying the 
affected branches. Ifa still is in oper- 
ation, there is nothing to prevent the 
diseased branches (which still contain 
camphor) from being utilized for distil- 
lation. 

The cotton (Gossypium) plots, on the 
Experiment Station, are badly infested 
by the ‘ Pink Boll-worm’ (Gelechia gossy- 
piella, Saund). Nearly every pod ap- 
pears to be infected. This is the first 
crop and the first occasion upon which 
cotton has been grown here. Nor is there 


any wild-—or half wild--cotton on the 
place. This insect is—to the hest of my 
belief —confined to the cotton plant. Un- 
der these circumstances, it is difficult to 
understand how the pest has appeared in 
such enormous humbers. It can scarcely 
have been introduced with the seed,* as 
the eggs are laid on the immature seed 
pods. It is possible that the insect 
breeds also in the fruit of some allied 
malvaceous plant; but I have been un- 
able to find any evidence of this. A 
species of Abelmoschus, with a blossom 
and fruit somewhat similar to that of 
the Gossypium, is common in the jungles ; 
but an examination of the locality shows 
that these plants are not in either blos- 
som or fruit at the present time. The 
dried seed pods, of which a few were still 
remaining on the plants, showed no signs 
of having been tenanted by any borer. 


The bolls are also infested by myriads 
of the small Lygaeid bug—-Oxycarenus 
letus, Kirby. The irritation of the 
numerous punctures apparently causes 
the pods to open prematurely, when 
the insects swarm into the lint, fouling 
it with theirexcreta. After gathering 
the crop, the insects may be driven out 
of the lint by spreading it in thesun. 


A few examples of Helopeltis (antonii) 
were captured on the foliage of the 
cotton plants. No damage from this 
cause was noticeable, and it is possible 
that the insects were merely resting, 
having wandered from the neighbouring 
cacao. But, when confined with some 


* Mr. Maxwell Lefroy informs me that, in India, the borer winters in the seed, so it is possible that 


the pest may have been introduced in this way. But, in that case, the larva must remain quiescent un- 
derground, for several months, until the plants have grown up and commenced to fruit, The remedy 
will be to fumigate the seed before planting.—H, EB, G. 


- 


ee Juuy, 1909.] 


young shoots of the cotton plant, they 
fed freely and their punctures were 
followed by the ususal discoloration. 
After confinement for twenty-four 
hours, the insects died without deposit- 
ing any eggs in the shoots. 


Other insects captured in some nuim- 
bers upon the cotton plants were Calli- 
cratides rama, a species of Husarcoris: 
Graptostethus servus, Geocoris  tri- 
color, Lygus biseratensis, and one or 
two small Capsids. 


Tea seedlings, killed by an ‘Hel-worm’, 
have been received from the Haldum- 
mulla district. The roots are thickened 
and corky, and the bark is more or less 
separated from the woody part by a 
layer of decayed tissue of an_ earthy 
consistency. In parts, the whole of the 
tissues are decayed, and large canker- 
ous holes appear in other parts. On 
standing the roots ina vessel of water, 
a few nematodes emerged; but the 
plants had been dead and dry for some 
time, andhad been abandoned by most 
of the worms, which have probably 
migrated to the neighbouring plants. 


This is a distinctly serious pest; but. 
fortunately one of uncommon occur- 
rence, Only two cases have come tomy 
notice within the last ten years. Seed- 
lings from this nursery should on no ac- 
count be distributed. The plants should 
be destroyed at once. Thesoil should be 
treated with a heavy dressing of either 
quick-lime or ‘Vaporite,’ and the ground 
left fallow for at least nine months. 
The superintendent of the estate reports 
that these plants were on the site of a 
previous nursery in which the same 
trouble had been noticed. The nature 

of the disease being misunderstood, 
manure had been applied before sow- 
ing the second lot of seed, Manure has 
no deterrent effect against eel-worms. 
In such eases it will bea grave mistake 
to make a fresh nursery in the same 
soil. The ground must be left fallow, 
or planted with something that is not 
attractive to the nematodes. 


MISCELLANEA: CHIEFLY PATHO- 
LOGICAL. 


By T. Pretcu. 


The extension of the Northway system 
of tapping to estatesin other districts 
has produced a volume ot correspondence 
dealing with the pathological eftects 
which have been observed to follow its 
application. It by no means follows, 
however, that the undesirable effects 
noted are an inevitable consequence of 
the employment of that system, and it 


35 


Plant Sanitation. 


is fairly certain that some of them 
would have been found to exist after the 
application of other systems, if they had 
been looked for. 


Several planters have stripped off the 
bark a few days after it has been 
pricked, and have found black spots on 
the cambium, or rather on the wood and 
bark where the cambium has been killed, 
round the incision made by the_pricker, 
As far as my observations go, the pricker 
always makes a black mark, i.e., locally 
kills the cambium, when it penetrates to 
the wood, but with tie sharp pricker 
the mark is only small. The larger 
marks now seen are the natural result of 
the blunt pricker, both on account of its 
greater area and the fact that it pushes 
into the cambium pieces of bark which 
assist the decay. In this respect the 
difference between the effects ot the two 
prickers is one of degree ; and if the bark 
can be pricked without injury to the 
cambium there will be no black spots. 
What subsequently happens on these 
spots is shown by a specimen which has 
been in my possession since 1906. The 
cambium over the discoloured area is 
killed, and for a brief period no further 
ReONveD can take place at that spot. 

ut in a very short time new cambium 
grows in from the healthy cambium 
round the spot, and this proceeds to 
cover the discoloured area with a uew 
growth of wood. At the same time, a 
new bark is formed underneath the old 
bark, with the result that the original 
bark dies and scales off, This leaves a 
small round scar, surrounded by the 
slightly upturned edge of the original 
bark. The process is exactly the same 
as if a circular patch of bark had been 
cut out at first; the subsequent healing 
processes in that case, t.e., the growth of 
new cambium, wood, and bark from the 
edges of the wound, follow the same 
course as in the case of the black spots, 
The sear which is left in the latter case 
usually resembles a branch scar, i.e., the 
scar which forms where a branch has 
been broken off close tothe stem, and its 
area is roughly equal to that of the 
underlying black patch. Though the 
death of the cambium at these spots 
may make itadvisable to cease tapping 
for a time, there is practically no_ per- 
manent injury to the tree. The black 
spots are ultimately buried in the wood 
and cannot do any further harm. It 
was suggested that, as the vessels of the 
wood are destroyed there, they would 
hinder the flow of water, in the wood, 
up the tree; but as the patches are ex- 
tremely thin, and their breadth bears 
only an infinitely small ratio to the total 
area of cross section of the tree, this 
effect is entirely negligible, 


Plant Sanitation. ; 36 


The above account is based on the 
supposition that the original black 
patches remain distinct. If, on the 


other hand, each patch spreads to any. 


extent, or if the pricker-cuts into, the 
wood are close together, then the 
adjacent patches will coalesce, and the 
subsequent ingrowth of cambium can 
only arise from the cambium which 
remains healthy. In these cases the 
patch of bark which dies off and is cut 
out will be much larger, corresponding 
in size, as before, to the underlying black 
patch, and in extreme cases the tree may 
be ringed. 

These facts bring usin conflict with 
another of those plausible phrases which 
have been promulgated and accepted 
without due consideration, viz., ‘‘inci- 
sion, notexcision.” In the case where the 
planter incises and injures the cambium, 
the tree immediately begins to excise 
very much more bark than was expected, 
Even when the cambium is not injured, 
the tree excises a small cylinder of bark 
immediately round the incision made by 
the pricker; these may fall out, and 
leave the bark pitted, or they may re- 
main in sitw and constitute so many 
obstacles tothe free flow of the latex. 
It has been previously pointed out 
that if the planter ‘‘incises,” the tree 
‘*excises” the tissues round the wound. 
In the old system of paring and pricking 
practically all the pricked bark was 
subsequently scaled off. Further, it is 
known, that the renewal of bark after 
paring (te, uniform excision) is satis- 
tavtory as far as regards the number 
and arrangement of its latex tubes, while 
on the other hand we have been warned 
that this is not the case after pricking 


(i.e, incision and consequent local 
.excision). The theory of ‘incision, not 
excision,” however admirable it may 


appear, fails therefore in practice. 
Through the courtesy of the Editor of 
the Times of Ceylon, I have received the 
two samples of bark referred to in that 
paper, on May 17th last. One of these was 
pricked six months previously and the 
other apparently more recently. Both 
show that evenif the pricker does not 
actually penetrate to the cambium, its 
effect is telt there in that the cambium 
subsequently produces abuormal tissue, 
and the sample with six months’ renewed 
bark completely confirms the result 
arrived at by Dr. Fitting, 7.e., that the 
renewed bark beneath the pricker-cut 
consists of stone cells without latex 
tubes. Now that the specimens are 
preserved in alcohol, this difference in 
structure is clearly indicated to the 
naked eye. For the tissue built up of 


[Junx, 1900 


stone cells is denser than the normal cor- 
tex, and therefore does not contract to 
such an extent as the latter when placed 
in alcohol. The tissue underneath each 
pricker-cut forms, therefore, a small 
elevation on the inner (cambial) side of 
the preserved cortex. 

Another phenomenon which has caused 
some alarm is the occurrence of pads of 
coagulated latex between the wood and 
the bark surrounding the pricker-cuts. 
In some cases this will be only an exten- 
sion of the effect noted above, 1.e., the 
occurrence of black spots in the same 
situation. The explanations which have 
been furnished, however, are widely at 
variance with the known structure and 
reactions of the Hevea tree. It may be 
laid down as a general rule, after four 
years’ investigation of the subject, that 
when the bark decays owing to the 
attacks of fungi or from other causes, 
latex does not exude from the decayed 
tissue. The latex in the vessels is 
coagulated by the products of decay, or 
dries up because of the interruption of 
the water supply. Latex can only exude 
if the tissues are suddenly wounded, 
For example, the whole of the bark of a 
Hevea may be killed by Corticium 
javanicum without the appearance of a 
single globule of rubber on or under 
the bark. But if any expansion or 
contraction occurs, either in the diseased 
tissue or the surrounding healthy bark, 
then the diseased tissue separates 
from the wood, and, as it does so, 
the fracture may extend along the 
cambium tor a short distance into 
the surrounding healthy tissue, and 
consequently cause the flow of latex 
from the latter into the gap between the 
wood and the diseased bark. It has 
been claimed that a periodic contraction 
and expansion occurs daily ina Hevea 
stem, though the evidence in favour of 
the contention is scarcely satisfactory ; 
but there is undoubtedly a difference in 
the tension of the bark cells in the 
morning and afternoon of adry day, 
owing to the removal of water from the 
latex. This is shown by the greater 
percentage of rubber in the latex of 
afternoon tappings than of morning 
tappings. These differences in tension 
may be quite sufficient to produce the 
slight splitting required, though there 
may be other causes, eg., direct 
sunlight; and given the existence of black 
spots where the organic connection of 
bark and wood is destroyed, we have 
all the conditions 
accumulation of pads of rubber under- 
neath the bark. The point’ ignored in 
the explanations offered in the local 
press is that there must be a split 


necessary for the~ 


- Juny, 1909.) 


between the bark and the wood _ before 
the latex can accumulate there. If, as is 
contended, the pricker-cut is closed by 
coagulated latex prematurely, then the 
latex would remain where it was beiore 
pricking, in the latex vessels, It is im- 
possible that it should flow internally 
into the solid tissue.” 


The insertion of the metal channelling 
is a weak point of the Northway system. 
It would surely be possible to devise 


Plant Sanitation. 


some method of building up a channel of 


clay or some similar material round the 
base of the tree. It must be remembered, 
however, that this material must not 
contain any oil, etc., which would soak 
into the bark, since if this occurred the 
tree would be effectually ringed, as 
happened when Smearoleum was applied. 
The tar oils (?) in Smearoleum soaked 
through the bark into the wood and 
stopped the upward flow of water; 
consequently many of the trees treated 
with it died. 


LIVE STOOK, 


SELECTING LAYING STOCK, 


By H. V. HAWKINS, 
Poultry Expert. 


(From the Journal of the Department of 
Agriculture of Victoria, Vol. VIL., 
Pt. 2, February 10, 1909.) 

_There are a great many methods adver- 
tised in various pamphlets and papers 
stating that, if you will practise this or 
that method of selecting as laid down 
in the paper, you will be able to deter- 
mine the drones from the workers. The 
writer has tried a few of these so-called 
certainties, and has come to the conclu- 
sion the trap nest is the only accurate 
test. Itis by selection and keeping re- 
cords, that advancement is made along 

this line. 


_ Each hen has her own individuality: 
i-e., certain hens lay eggs that are in 
nine cases out of ten hatchable. Some 
hens lay well, but, although their eggs 
are usually fertile, they will not hatch 
whether set under a hen or placed in the 
best incubator. The chicks develop to 
a certain size, in many cases being fully 
tormed, but die in the shell. Again, 
many hens lay eggs that are seldom 
fertile, 

_ In selecting birds one has several ob- 
jects. Thesaying ‘‘that the hen that 
lays is the hen that pays” is often heard. 
The majority of those engaged in the 
poultry business consider egg production 
the best end of the business. It is often 
the surest. Thereis not the same amount 
of risk attached to it. At the same 
time, if people are foolish enough to be- 
lieve that Mr. So-and-So can supply eggs 
from hens, tested by the so-called new 
system, which have produced 300 eggs 
per annum, they have more faith in the 
poy ortieer and the hen than the writer 
as. 


There is no doubt that certain charac 
teristics should be looked for ina good 
laying hen. She should be low. set, and 
stand on a pair of shanks fairly wide 
apart. The head should be nice and 
clean cut with a full’ bright eye. In 
other words, hens should show feminine 
character and not wrinkled and sunken 
features. Hens of the latter type should 
be discarded; in short, masculinity in the 
hen isa bad sign. A hen with a large 
capacity for food, i.e., has a large crop 
(craw), is usually a payable bird to feed. 
The smaller the sack of food she takes to 
roost at night the fewer eggs will she 
produce. Dairymen know that a cow 
must have plenty of room for food in 
order to produce a large milk yield. 

The advertised systems serve one pur- 
pose, viz., by examining the lay bones 
the amateur knows which bird is about 
to lay, or is laying. Should the lay 
bones be relaxed to the extent of about 
three fingers (closed) the bird is laying; 
if they are almost in contact, that is the 
hen to market, but so much depends on 
tke bine of year one wishes to sell table 

owls. 


DAIRY-FARMING: WILL [T PAY 
IN CEYLON ? 


By P. Geo. SCHRADER. 
(From the Ceylon Independent, 
22nd January, 1909.) 


(Continued from last issue.) 


_ BurLpines.—I do not believe in sink- 
ing a lot of non-interest bearing capital 
into palatial buildings. I say leave it 
to the cows to provide for the building 
of substantial permanent buildings later 
on—surely it is not asking too much 
from them, in asking them to provide 
comfortable houses for themselves and 
for those that tend and look after their 


* Specimens since submitted by he Editor of the “Times” prove that the rubber pads can form 


before pricking. 


Live Stock. 


welfare. For the start all that is neces- 
sary is a comfortable bungalow for the 
manager, a bungalow to accommodate 


the overseer and the two responsible. 


milk delivery men, a line for eight 
men, a milking shed with ten bales, 
and stabling for four horses, with an 
unwalled extension for carts and im- 
plements; also a large open shed for 
the cows to camp during wet weather, 
As the timber will be secured during 
the clearing, and the roof will be thatch, 
and the walls of wattle and daub, the 
cost will not be great. In the course of 
a few years, certainly, put up good, 
substantial buildings. 


GROWING Foop.—This is the question of 
the greatest importance, ason a plentiful 
and good supply of green food, grass 
and ensilage depends entirely the success 
of thefarm. It is a well-known fact that 
dry food—for example, chaff mixed with 
oats, bran (crushed), maize, etc., does not 
and will not increase the yieldof milk. 
Bran, oats, maize and oil cake increases 
the percentage of fat but not the 
yield. In fact, dry food decreases the 
yield—if given at all it must be steamed. 
On the other hand, it is well known 
that green succulent food of good qual- 
ity and ensilage greatly increases the 
yield of milk. It will be noticed that |in 
the first year’s working expenses I have 
included oil cake to the value of 
Rs. 2,740'50. I did this simply asa safe- 
guard and a stand-by especially for the 
first year, as the growing capacity of 
the soil, etc., is not known. The farm, 
except under exceptional circumstances, 
must grow all the food it requires, or 
else most of the profits will go to the 
supplier of the food, One of the best 
foods for cows eitherin the green state 
or in the form of ensilage is maize—we 
know that maize grows well in Ceylon. 
My experience in Australia was that 
on ordinary good land a crop of 15 to 20 
tons of maize can be procured per acre. 
An average cow requires 50 lbs, of silage 
or green fodder per day—we have 48 
head of stock including horses, stud 
bull, and working bulls, so it would be 
advisable to store in the soils food suffi- 
cient for them for six months, this means 
at the rate of 50 lbs. each per day that 150 
tons of silage is required. Then, taking 
the lower estimate of being able to 
grow 15 tons per acre of maize, it will 
be necessary to put in tenacresof land 
under it; but as we do not know the 
growing capacity of the particular land 

- and to be on the safe side, I would put in 
twenty acres of land under maize for 
silage making. For the making of the 
best. silage underground roofed bricked 

its are necessary. A pit 15x15 feet 
holds 50 tons of silage, so we will re< 


quire three pits of that size to store 150 
tons we intend to make. I will not go 
into the subject of ensilage making, as 
in a previous article I dealt with it 
pretty fully; suffice it to say that al- 
though the making and use of silage 
is very little known in Ceylon, that 
it forms one of the chief factors of 
dairy farming. For the feeding of the 
stock for the remaining six months we 
must grow some green fodder crops and 
grass. I would put in twenty acres 
under guinea grass—it grows and thrives 
splendidly in the low country, and, ac- 
cording to analysis, has proved to be 
a splendid food for dairy cows; this 
will be a permanent pasture. For green 
fodder crops we have the well known 
varieties of millet known by the Sinha- 
lese as Kurakkan and Sorghum known 
as Karal-iringu—these two will make 
excellent green fodder crops as well as 
silage. The sowing for green fodder 
has to be done with acertain number 
of days intervening, so that the whole 
crop will not be fit for use at the same 
time, but rather that it can be cut as 
required for daily feeding. It is very 
important that the cows should be 
given a variety of diet—they appreci- 
ate and enjoy it justas muchas human 
beings, and the result is more milk. As 
we did for the silage crops we will de- 
vote twenty acres of land for growing 
Millet and Sorghum. We still have 
twenty acres left—of course, the build- 
ings with their respective kitchen gar- 
dens, etc., will take up an acreor more 
—all the balance will be required in the 
future when the stock increases. It is 
very important that a series of experi- 
ments should be tried with other green 
fodder and grass crops, so that rotation 
of crops and variety of food could be 
succesfully carried out. In feeding cows 
salt must not be forgotten, as it is most 
necessary for keeping the cows in health. 
It assists digestion, is good tor the milk 
supply, and is said to prevent worms. 


IMPLEMENTS NECESSARY AND APPROXI- 


MATE Cost. 3 

; Rs. e 

2 ploughs eee 198 00 

1 set of harrows sas Ofara0 

3 hand seed drills peal 7 ne 51 

1 cultivator .. =49 00 

1 roller -- 100 00 
1 chaff cutter for silage 

making 115 00 


I set horse gear for driving 
cutter by bullock power... 285 00 


Freight 100 00 
Tools, ete. 10e 50 ‘ 00 
Rs. 1,088 75 


[Juny, 1900- 


ea aes 


“Joy, 1909,] 39 


Live Stock: 


WatTsER For Cows.—The importance 
of providing a plentiful supply of good 
water for milch cows is one of the secrets 
of success, and a matter to which very 
few dairy men give one iota of consider- 
ation. The cow should be induced to 
take all the water she will, and at no 
time should she be allowed to suffer 
from thirst. A cow that gives a large 
supply of milk must be _ provided with 
an ample supply of good water, for we 
must remember that of the constituents 
of milk about 87 parts are water. Ex- 
periments have proved that the quantity 
of milk had been increased several 
quarts per day and without affecting 
the quality. The amount of milk 
obtained was approximately propor- 
tionate to the amount of water drunk. 
It is of very great importance that the 
water supplied to cows should be clean 
and pure. A quantity of the water 
consumed by the animal is passed into 
the milking utensil, andif the solids are 
held in an impure solution, which must 
be the case if the cow is allowed to drink 
bad water, we cannot expect pure whole- 
some milk. 


CHOICE OF Cows.—The all-important 
question—as the best manager and a 
supply of the best foods and water will 
not produce alarge supply of good milk, 
unless the cows are by breeding and 
training a machine to convert food into 
a plentiful supply of milk—is the choice 
of suitable cows. I would recommend 
procuring the cows from Queensland, 
as it being a semi-tropical country the 
cows will suit our climate better than 
cows imported from a_ cold region. 
The choice of individual cows is very 
important, but as it is not possible 
for anybody from here to do that 
personally, it would be possible to get 
the help of the Queensland Agricultural 
Department, who will no doubt depute 
the Agricultural College authorities, or 
their dairy expert, to do their best for 
us. Isuppose the ordinary laymen or 
even most of those who are interested in 
dairying little know how much depends 
on the choice of the best miik breed and 
the individual choice of the cows for the 
success of the industry. For Ceylon the 
best breed would be the Ayrshire or the 
eross with the Ayrshire bull and any 
good milking strain. They are strong 
and healthy and produce a large supply 
of very rich milk and are known to do 
well in sub-tropical regions. In choosing 
a milk cow an experienced dairy man 
would look for the following points :— 
Forehead and muzzle broad, face long 
and clean out, ears fine, horns smooth, 
neck tapering, forequarters deep, the 
back and loins leve) and wide, the legs 


fairly short with a good amount of bone, 

the hams allowing plenty of udder room, 

the frame well rounded, with deep chest; 

the skin should be soft and pliable, the 
tail long and the hair fine. But still 

experience has proved that the points of 
acow is not a sufficient guide for the 
choosing of dairy cattle. Buying cows 
without knowing their performances 

is like buying a pig in a bag—you never 

know what you have got until you oper 
the bag. If we want good results from 
a horse we look for the performances of 
his ancestors. Why not do likewise in- 
selecting acow? Although [ have made 
a study of the points ofa cow I would 

rather have a record than all the points 
she could carry. Individuality, quality 

and performance are what we require 
in all animals for the dairy, and these 

points can only be determined by placing 

each cow on her own merits. In Ceylon 

all that we can do is to get the best cows 

selected from the best herds and by 

keeping a record of their performances 

and retaining the progeny of the best 

milkers, we will establish a first-class 

dairy herd of our own. 


_ In ccnelusion, I must state that there 
is good money to be made out of the 
business, but the present modes of crun- 
ning dairies must be altered beyond 
recognition—for instance, calves must 
not be allowed to-run with their mothers 
and suck them, they must be removed 
and kept separately two or three days 
after birth, and fed with fresh milk 
drawn from their mothers. The present 
process of allowing the calves to suck 
the mothers during and after milking 
means the waste of a lot of time during 
milking ; means that the calves get the 
best of the milk as the last stripplings 
are the richest in fat, and the great loss 
sustained by not being able to milk a 
cow at all in case of the death of the 
calf. The hand feeding of calves has 
another great advantage, that of making 
them tame and docile from their very 
birth. The two-hand system of milking 
must be insisted on as it is of great 
importance. Cleanliness in everything 
must be a speciality. The introduction 
of delivery horse-cart is of great im- 
portance, as it makes possible the 
delivering of milk from a reasonable 
distance from the city and also greatly 
facilitates an early delivery. The two 
horses and carts that I have estimated 
for could cover a very big milk deli- 
very round. 


This matter is well worth the consider- 
ation of capitalists who wish for quick 
ane handsome returns with no great 
risk, 


40 


[JuLy, 1909. 


SCIENTIFIC AGRICULTURE. 


THE CAUSE OF INFERTILITY 
IN SOILS. 


By C. DRIEBERG 


(Paper read at the Annual General 
Meeting of the Agricultural Society on 
June 8, 1909. | 


This brief note deals with a subject of 
the very greatest importance to the 
agriculturist, and upon which important 
deliverances have recently been made 
by two leading schools of scientific 
thought. 

The cause of infertility and the means 
of maintaining fertility in cultivated 
land have been matters for great diver- 
gence of opinion from the time of de 
Candolle and Liebig to the present day. 
Within comparativeiy recent times the 
purely chemical theory of soil exhaustion 
has had to be modified so as to admit 
the all-important influence of bacteria 
in their relation to the soil and plant. 
More recent researches in America by 
Whitney and Cameron have tended to- 
wards what may be said to be a rever- 
sion to de Caddolle’s excretory theory, 
and the attributing of infertility to an 
insanitary state of the soil arising from 
the presence of toxic bodies consisting 
of plant excreta. The means of main- 
taining a sanitary condition are said to 
be aération provided by proper culti- 
vation, rotation of crops, green manur- 
ing, and the judicious use of fertilizers— 
all of which, according to the American 
view, act directly or indirectly as cor- 
rectives or disinfectants, and result in 
the soil being purged of the poisonous 
substances which reduce the yield of 
crops grown continuously on the same 
land, or cultivated without due regard 
to the requirements of the soil. The 
American school goes so far as to deny 
that soil exhaustion in the chemical 
sense of the term takes place at all, since 
all soils contain solutions sufficiently rich 
in the elements of plant food to nourish 
a full crop, provided some other factor 
does not come into play. Humus as an 
ingredient of soil is looked upon as a 
sort of “cure-all,” giving to it those 
qualities which make for sanitation and 
productivity, 


The above is a very brief statement of 
the American theory of infertility in 
soils. 

The British view of the question is 
that expounded by Hall of Rothamsted. 
He is not prepared to allow all the deter- 
minations claimed by the American 


-Wwater culture. 


scientists, and certainly does not agree 
with their theory of plant food, and the 
denial of its exhaustion; but, on the 
other hand, recognizes the need there is 
for some fertilizing agents, of which the 
composition has to be determined more 
by the soil than the plant, to rectify the 
deficiencies of the soil as regards the re- 
quirements of the crop in question. A 
knowledge of these requirements can, 
we are told, only be decided by experi- 
ment, with a view to ascertaining the 
‘“‘idiosyneracies” ot plants which are 
sometimes somewhat paradoxical (note 
the attitude of wheat and swedes to- 
wards phosphoric acid. 


The best notion of fertility, according 
to Hall, is got by extending Liebig’s “law 
of minimum” to all factors affecting 
vield—plant food, temperature, soil tex- 
ture, water supply, &c. 

Hall finds fundamental difficulties in 
accepting the poison theory. In fact, he 
doubts whether the toxins extracted by 
Whitney were really excreted by the 
roots, and whether they}are really toxic 
in the soil because they were found 
so in dealing with seedlings and through 
He instances the case of 
ammonia under similar con ditions. 

Experience in the continuous and sue- 
cessful cultivation of wheat at Rotham- 
sted for fifty years with proper culti- 
vation and fertilizing, in his opinion, 
negatives the excretory theory. 

He is prepared to admit that there is 
such a thing as the ‘‘sickness” of land 
which is kept continuously under one 
crop, and further that most crops (some 
specially so) effect changes in the soil 
which unfit it for the continued growth of 
thecrop. This injurious factor may be the 
excreted toxins of the American theory 
orsome “secondary effects due to the 
competition of injurious products of bac- 
teria and other micro-flora” in the soil. 
If we assume that there is some kind of 
‘‘debris” (not of the nature of excreta) 
left by the plant as the result of bac- 
terial action upon it, we may, he thinks, 
ultimately obtain a clue to certain pheno- 
mena at present imperfectly understood. 


The value of a rotation is readily ad- 
mitted, but its beneficial effects are 
attributed mainly to good tiliage and 
the clearing away of weeds, insects and 
fungoid pests, though, it is thought, 
there may possibly also be certain bene- 
ficial effects beyond these. Itis also ad- 
mitted as possible that there is a clue in 
“ disinfection ” of some kind, as indicated 
by the iacrease of fertility which follows 


a 


JoLy, 1909.] 


partial sterilization of the soil such as 
can be produced by heat or the use of 
certain volatile antiseptics. 


The following remark of Hall indicates 
how much there is yet to learn regarding 
the questions of fertility and infertility, 
and how far we still are from being able 
to control the soil :—‘‘ The soil is sucha 
complex medium—the seat of so many and 
divers interactions, chemical, physical, 
and biological—and is so unsusceptible 
of synthetic reproduction from known 
materials, that experimental work ‘of a 
crucial character becomes extremely 
difficult, and above all requires to be 
interpreted with extreme caution and 
conservatism.” 

There is here evidently intended a 
gentle reprimand to the American scien- 
tists. for propounding theories which 
must be considered ‘‘not proven;” and 
yet it is evident that Hall himself is 
travelling along the same line of thought 
though his caution will not permit him 
to dogmatize. 

The conclusion of the whole matter, 
from an agricultural point of view, 
emphasizes the necessity for specific 
knowledge of the habits of cultivated 
plants, and (to use Hall’s expression) their 
“ idiosyucracies ’—knowledge only to be 
derived through experiment and experi- 
ence. 


FERTILIZER ACTION. 
(From the Journal of the Board of Agri- 
culture, British Guiana. Vol. IL., 
No. 3, January, 1909.) 


Mr. A, D. Hall, of the famous Rotham- 
sted Experiment Station, which for over 
half a century has keen the scene—as 
it was the pioneer—of continuous agri- 
cultural experiments on an agricultural 
scale, contributes to the American 
Journal ‘‘ Science,” of November 6th, an 
important and most informing paper on 
“Theories of Manure and Fertilizer 
Action” which was read by him as a 
lecture at the Graduate School of Agri- 
culture, Cornel University, in July, 1908. 
While summing up the present state of 
knowledge on this vital matter, the 
English expert finds occasion to criticise 
adversely the new and revolutionary 
theory, recently advanced by Messrs. 
Whitney and Cameron, that the beneti- 
cent activn of fertilizers is really due to 
their destructive effect on the toxins or 
poison excreted by the roots of plants 
inthe soil (which itis alleged tend to 
accumulate to a harmful degree if the 
same crop iscontinuously grown on the 
same plot of land) and not to theiz 
modifying influence on the quantity 

6 


Scientific Agriculture. 


and quality of the plant-food. The 
paper is too long for reproduction here, 
and a brief summary only can be given; 
but this may serve to draw attention to 
a valuable contribution to the science of 
Agriculture, 


Commencing, as is natural, with 
Liebig, Mr. Hall neatly re-states the 
German chemist’s theory of the action 
of manures thus :—‘‘ The proper fertilizer 
for any particular crop must contain 
the amounts of nitrogen, phosphoric 
acid, potash, and other constituents 
which are withdrawn from the soil by a 
typical good yield of the plant in 
question,” and proceeds to show from 
Rothamsted experiments on _ wheat, 
barley and swede turnips that the theory 
is inadequate to explain the results 
observed. Thus wheat and_ barley 
though taking identical amounts of 
phosphoric acid from the soil are quite 
differently affected by phosphoric acid 
as a fertilizer; the effect on the former 
being of quite secondary importance, 
but in the latter comparing with that of 
the all-essential nitrogen, For both 
plants the addition of potash counts for 
little or nothing, although wheat with- 
draws 29 Ibs. of that constituent from 
each acre of soil, and barley 56 lbs. 
Evidently the soil is able to supply all 
the requirements of the plant for potash 
in spite of the large amounts which the 
crop removes; and it is here, as Mr. 
Hall says, that Liebig’s theory fails—it 
takes no account of the soil and the 
enormous accumulation of plant-food 
therein contained. ‘A still more note- 
worthy example is provided by the 
swede turnip crop; the analysis of a 
representative yield would sho:sv it to 
withdraw from the soil about 150 lbs. 
per acre of nitrogen, 3801bs. of phosphoric 
acid, and 120 lbs. of potash, Yet the 
ordinary fertilizer for the swede crop 
will consistin the main of phosphatic 
material with but a small quantity of 
nitrogen and rarely or never any potash. 
These differences in manurial require- 
ments are, as the lecturer points out, 
correlated with the habits of growth of 
the plants. The wheat possesses a very 
extensive root system anda long period 
of growth, hence it is specially well 
fitted to obtain whatever mineral con- 
stituents may be available in the soil ; 
barley is aspring sown crop, but being 
shallow-rcooted and having only a short 
growing season, the plant experiences a 
difficulty in satisfying its requirements 
for phosphoric acid; the swede is sown 
late inthe season after a very thorough 
preparation of the soil, so that the 
nitrification alone of the nitrogenous 
residue in the soil is capable of furnish- 
ing almost all the large amount of 


Scientific Agriculture. 


nitrogen it requires, but it is very 
shallow-rooted and must be supplied 
with an abundance of phosphoric acid.” 


A CoMPLEX SUBJECT, 


Yet this explanation does not begin to 
exhaust the possibilities of what is an ex- 
tremely complex subject. ‘‘Many plants 
do not exhibit such idiosyncrasies as 
are shown by wheat and swedes, but 
require a general fertilizer, the com- 
position of which is determined more by 
the soil than the plant. Indeed, no 
theory of manuring can be based upon 
the plant alone, but must also take the 
soil into account, so that a_ fertilizer 
may be regarded as rectifying the 
deficiencies of the soil as far as regards 
the requirements of the cropin question. 
What those special requirements are can 
only be decided by experiment. Mr. 
Hall comes tothe conclusion that the 
best general point of view of the action 
of fertilizer is, perhaps, obtained by 
extending the ‘law of the minimum” 
originally enunciated by Liebig (accord- 
ing to which the yield of a given crop 
will be limited by the amount of the one 
particular soil constituent which may 
happen to be deficient) and extending 
it to ‘‘all the factors affecting the yield 
as well as to the supply of plant-food, 
eg., to such matters as the supply of 
water, the temperature. the texture of 
the soil. On poor soils the water supply 
is very often the limiting factor, on 
very open soils because the water 
actually drains away, on extra close soils 
because the root range is so- restricted 
that the plant has but little water at 
hand, and the movements of soil water 
to renew the supply are very slow; in 
either case the plant will be sure to 
have as much nutriment as. is required 
for the small growth permitted by the 
water present. It is only when the 
water supply is sufficient that the 
resources of the soil as regards all or 
any of the constituents of a fertilizer 
are tested, and may become in their 
turn the limiting factors in the growth 
of the crop. Hence it follows that 
fertilizers may often be wasted on poor 
land where growth is limited by the 
texture of the soil, by the water supply 
or some other factor.” Points are made 
by the lecturer of the huge amount of 
plant-food actually present ‘‘ thoughina 
highly soluble condition,” in soils—*‘ The 
soil of the manured plot ov the Rothams- 
ted wheat field contained in 1893, after 
54 years’ cropping without fertilizer, 
2,570 lbs. per acre of nitrogen, 2,950 lbs. of 
phosphoric acid, and 5,700 lbs. of potash” 
—and of ‘the law of diminishing re- 
turns” by which the first expenditure of 
fertilizer or other factor of improvement 
is the most effective, each succeeding 


[Jury, 1909. 


application producing smaller and 
smaller returns, until a further addition 
causes no increase in the yield; and are- 
markable proof is given of the direction of 
the movement of soluble salts in the soil. 
It appears that in the soil all reactions 
are extremely localized, since they take 
place in the thin film of water normally 
surrounding the soil particles, in which 
movement of the _ dissolved matter 
takes place very slowly and mainly 
by diffusion. At Rothamsted two grass 
plots have received for 52 years in 
succession very large amounts of soluble 
fertilizer (in the one case 550 lbs. per 
acre of nitrate of soda and in the other 
600 lbs. peracre of ammonia salts), and 
though these plots are separated only by 
an imaginary line from others receiving 
either no fertilizer or characteristically 
different one, the distinction remains 
perfectly sharp ‘‘and the rank herbage 
produced by the excess of nitrogenous 
fertilizer on one side does not stray six 
inches over the boundary.” A test of the 


-soil to a depth of seven feet (in 1893) in 


the Rothamsted wheat field—in which 
the fertilized plots are separated from 
each other by unfertilized strips only 
12 inches‘in breath—showed clearly that 
the amount of nitrates found “was in 
each case characteristic of the supply 
of nitrogen to the surface of the plot, 
and right down to the lowest depth 
there were no signs of the proportions 
approximating to a common level as 
they would have done had any consi- 
derable amount of lateral diffusion taken 
place.” As the treatment has been 
continued in all cases for at least 40, 
and in some instances for 50 years, Mr. 
Hall seems justified in his conclusions 
that the evidence indicates that ‘‘ the 
movement of the soluble salts in the 
soil are confined to up-and-down motions 
due to percolation and capillary up- 
lift, and take place laterally only to an 
insignificant extent.” 


THE ‘‘PoISON” THEORY. 


Having come to these general conclu- 
sions, Mr. Hall proceeds tu consider 
Messrs. Whitney and Cameron’s theory 
of the action of fertilizers. This would 
appear to be inspired by a real difficul- 
ty—indeed, the Rothamsted expert ad- 
mits it to be ‘ fundamental ”—which 
may be illustrated by the behaviour 
of phosphoric acid when applied as a 
manure. It is a fact that a soil may 
contain enormous quantities of plant- 
food and yet be by no means notably 
fertile—for instauce, 2,500 lbs. per acre of 
phosphoric acid may be present, and yet 
swedes will not do well unless supplied 
with an additional dressing of 50 Ibs, 
per acre of soluble phosphoric acid—and 
‘it is usually assumed that the effect of 


ea? ee a. er. eee ee 


ee ae 


Suny, 1909.j 


this phosphoric acid manuring is due to 
the soluble nature of the fertilizer, be- 
cause of which the additional plant-food 
is directly available for the crop.” A 
study of the re-action in the soil, how- 
ever, shows that this theory is in- 
sufficient ; the soluble phosphoric acid 
is very rapidly precipitated in the soil, 
and remains so close to the surface 
that it is never washed out in the 
drains. Upon such facts. as_ these, 
Messrs. Whitney and Cameron argue 
that ‘‘the concentration of the soil 
water for a given plaut-food, such as 
phosphoric acid, must be approximate- 
ly constant for all soils of the same type, 
however much or little phosphatic ferti- 
lizer may have been applied, and since 
water culture experiments show that 
this low limit of concentration attained 
by the soil water is more than sufficient 
for the needs of the plant, no soil can be 
regarded as deficient in this or any other 
element of plant-food. It therefore fol- 
lows that the action, if any, of a 
fertilizer must be due to some other 
eause than the direct supply of plant- 
food, with which the soil water must 
always be saturated toa degree which 
is quite unaffected by the supply of 
fertilizer ;” and following up this con- 
clusion they suggest this theory of ferti- 
lizer action :—‘‘A soil falls off in ferti- 
lity and ceases to yield normal crops, 
not because of any lack of plant-food 
brought about by the continuous with- 
drawal of the original stock from the 
soil, but because of the assimilation of 
injurious substances excreted from the 
plant itself, These toxins are specific to 
each plant, but are gradually removed 
from the soil by proegesses of decay, so 
that if a proper rotation of crops is 
practised, its yield will be maintained 
without the intervention of fertilizers. 
The function of fertilizers is to precipi- 
tate or put out of action these toxins 
rather than to feed the plant.” 

Mr. Hall’s criticism of both theory and 
arguments cannot be considered as any- 
thing less than destructive. He declares 
that Messrs. Whitney and Cameron’s 
views cannot have any bearing whatever 
on the amount of nitrates in the soil 
water ‘‘since they come into a dissolved 
state as fast as the nitrifying bacteria 
produce them, and are not in equili- 
brium with any store of undissolved 
nitrates in the background. As regards 
phosphoric acid the theory assumes such 
as excess of bases that all soils behave 
alike and immediately precipitate the 
phosphoric acid in practically the same 
form; while as regards potash the 
argument seems to forget that though 
the addition of a soluble potassium salt 
may throw some of the other sparingly 


"Ie 


43 Scientific Agriculture, 


soluble potassium compounds out of 
solution, the total amount of potassium 
remaining in solution is still greatly in- 
creased. The function of the carbonic 
acid in the soil water is ignored, as again 
the fact that the processes of solution 
in the soil must be in a constant state of 
change.” The crucial test by analysis of 
the soil water fails, so far as Rothamsted 
is concerned, for ‘‘When the Rotham- 
sted soils, with their long-continued 
difference in fertilizer treatment, are ex- 
tracted with water charged with carbon 
dioxide, the nearest laboratory equi- 
valent to the actual soil water, the 
amount of phosphoric acid going into 
solution is closely proportional to the 
previous fertilizer supply.” The new 
theory also supposes that the plant its 
self exerts no solvent action ; but besides 
Sachs’ famous “etching” experiment, 
an ingenious device by Kossowitsch 
seems to prove conclusively that roots 
have a preponderating influence on the 
assimilation of phosphoric acid at any 
rate. ‘‘The only factor determining the 
supply of phosphoric acid and the conse- 
quent difference in growth,” says Mr. 
Hall in quoting this experiment, ‘‘ was 
the solvent action of the roots where 
they were actually in contact with the 
calcium phosphate, and this solvent 
action..,.,may most probably be attri- 
buted to the carbon dioxide secreted by 
the roots.” 


Not PROVEN. 


With regard to the “toxin” part of 
the theory, Mr. Hall has some pertinent 
comments to make. He doubts whether 
the alleged toxins extracted from the 
soil by Whitney are really excreted by 
the roots of the plants and whether they 
are really toxic in the soil merely be- 
cause they have been proved so in water 
cultures. ‘A body like ammonia, itself 
a product of protein decay and present 
in the soil, is exceedingly toxie to water 
cultures, yet when applied to the soil 
it increases the growth of the plant.” 
Particularly is it the specific action of 
tertilizers thatis so difficult to explain 
on this hypothesis. ‘‘ Why,” he asks, 
‘*should substances so dissimilar as ni- 
trate of soda and sulphate of ammonia 
exert the same sort of action on the same 
toxin? Why should phosphates cause all 
classes of plants to develop in one direc- 
tion, or why should it be appropriate to 
the toxins of all plants on one particular 
type of soil, whereas potash answers on 
another type? Lastly, there is a lack 
of evidence for the fundamental thesis 
that the rotation will take the place of 
fertilizers, and that the yield only falls 
off when a particular crop is grown 
continuously on the same land.” This 


Scientific Agriculture. 44. 


last he proves from the Rothamsted 
experiments which have shown “that 
wheat can be grown continuously upon 
the same land for more than fifty years, 
and that the yield when proper ferti- 
lizers are applied remains as large in the 
later as in the earlier years of the 
series. ... Mangolds. .. show no 
falling off in yield though they have now 
been grown upon the same land for 
thirty-two years.” 


Nevertheless the “sickness” of land 
continuously under one crop is a fact 
which the Rothamsted experiments 
undoubtedly confirm, and Mr. Hall is 
prompt to admit it. There is some 
positive evidence that ‘‘ most plants— 
some toa very slight degree, like wheat, 
and mangolds, others markedly, like 
clover, turnips and flax—effect some 


change in the soil which unfits it for the, 


renewed growth of the crop,” and this 
injurious factor may be, Mr. Hall thinks, 
** either the excreted toxins of Whitney’s 
theory or may be some secondary effects 
due to the competition of injurious 
products of the bacteria and other micro- 
flora accumulating in the particular soil 
layer in which the roots of the crop 
chiefly reside.” But ‘as it stands at 
present Whitney’s theory must be re- 
garded as lacking the necessary experi- 
mental foundation, no convincing evi- 
dence has been produced of the funda- 
mental fact of the excretion of toxic 
substances from plants beyond the 
autotrophic seedling stage, nor is there 
direct proof of the initial supposition 
that all soils give rise to soil solutions 


sufficiently rich in the elements of plant 
food to nourish a full crop did not some 
other factor come into play.” 


‘‘Tf, however, we give the theory a 
wider form, and, instead of excretions 
from the plant, understand débris of any 
kind left behind by the plant and the 
results of bacterial action upon it, we 
may thereby obtain a clue to certain 
phenomena at present imperfectly under- 
stood. The value of a rotation of crops 
is undoubted, and in the main is expli- 
cable by the opportunity it affords of 
cleaning the ground, the freedom from 
any accumulation of weeds, insect or 
fungoid pests associated with a parti- 
cular crop, and to the successive tillage 
of different layers of the soil, but for 
many crops there remains a certain 
beneficial effect from a rotation beyond 
the factors enumerated.” That the clue 
lies in ‘‘ disinfection ” of some kind would 
seem to be indicated by Mr. Hall; who 
in his closing remarks draws attention 
to the increase of fertility which follows 
partial sterilization of the soil either by 
heating or by the use of volatile anti- 
septics such as toluene or carbon bisul- 
phide. But he concludes with a warning 
which may well be taken as a ‘“‘ word to 
the wise.” ‘The soil,” he says finally, 
*‘is such a complex medium—the seat 
of so many and diverse interactions, 
chemical, physical and biological—and is 
so unsusceptible of synthetic reprodue- 
tion from known materials, that experi- 
mental work of a_ crucial character 
becomes extremely difficult, and above 
all required to be interpreted with 
extreme caution and conservatism.” 


MISCELLANEOUS. 


LITERATURE OF ECONOMIC 
BOTANY AND AGRICULTURE, 


By J, C. WIrLis. 
Cardamoms.— 


Cardamom cultivation in Travan- 


core. “T.A.” Jan. 1906, p. 835. 
Cardamom cultivation in South 
Mysore. Ind. Forester. Nov. 1908, 
p. 657. 
Cassava.— 


Tapioca as acatch crop. Str. Bull, 
1906, pp. 188, 223, 

Caecave trials, Jamaica Bull. 1906, 
p. 73. 


Eene biolohische bereidingsmethode 
van Cassavemeel. Ind. Mere. 80. 10, 
1906, p. 784, Bl. 105, p. 316. 


Die Kriuselkrankheit der Manioc. 
Tropenpfi. June 1906, p. 145. 


Culture et traitement du manioe a 
Java. Journ. dAgr. trop. Dee. 
1905, p. 366. 

Manioc cultivation. 
Feb. 1906, p. 58. 

Starch manufacture from Cassava. 
«TT. A.” Jan. 1906, p. 833. 

Letude dumanioc daus 1’ Hst African 
allemand., Journ. d’Agr. trop. Jan. 
1907, p. 15. 

Zimmermann. HKinige Bemerkungen 
mbor Eiaulok. Der Pflanzer. 1906, 
p. - 


Lewis. ‘“‘T.A.’ 


7 Tuny, 1909.) 


Poison 
Cassava. 

Cassava. 
p- 80. 

Cousins. Cassava trials in 
Jamaica Bull. 1907, p. 78. 

its cultivation and manu- 
“T.A.” Aug. 1907, p. 126. 

Trin. Bull. July 1907, p, 240. 

Cousins. The Industrial prospects of 
Cassava starch. W. Ind. Bull. 8, p, 
260. *T.A.” Mar. 1908, p, 209. 

Die Deutsch-Ostafri- 

Der 


in food plants, especially 
“«T.A.” Mar. 1907, p. 161 


Haw. Forest2r, April 1907, 
1907, 


Cassava: 
facture. 


Cassava. 


Zimmermann. 
kanische Maniokvarietaten. 
Pflanzer 1907, p. 258 

Hydrocyanic acid content of cassava. 
Agr. News 21. 3. 1908, p. 87.“ T.A.” 
Aug. 1908, p. 126. 

Cassava roots and starch manu- 
facture. do. p. 91. ‘“T.A.” July, 
1908, p. 30. 

HKssai dintroduction de _ varietes 
de manioc Colombrienner a la 
Jamaique. Journ, d’Agr. trop. 
June 1908, p. 190. 

Tapioca cultivation. 
Sept. 1908, p. 3805. 

Cassava. Queens] Agr. JI., July 
1908, p. 42. 


Further analysis of cassava. 
Bull. July 1908, p. 109. 


Cassava, Manioca, or Tapioca. Willis, 
“TA.” Oct. 1908, p. 374. 


Cassava cultivation in Ceylon. “ T.A.” 
Suppl. Oct. 1908, p. 390. 


Cassava as famine food. 


“T,A.” Suppl. 


Trin. 


Booth- 


Tucker. Agr. Jl. Ind., July 1908, 
p. 227, ‘T.A.” Suppl. Oct. 1908, 
p, 390. 


Tapioca, Manioca, or Cassava. Bam- 
ber. Cire. R. B. G. Perad. IV. 13. 08. 

Manioca or Cassava. Phil. Agr. Rev. 
1908, p. 139. 

Cassava—famine fighting in India. 
Queens], Agr. Jl, Nov. 1908, p. 242. 

Cultivation of tapioca, Ind. Agric. 
Aug. 1908, p. 241. 

Manioc or Cassava. ‘T.A.” Dec. 1908, 
p. 52, 


Cassava. Trin. Bull. Oct. 1908, p. 51. 


The cultivation of tapioca in Travan- 
core. g. Jl. India, Oct. 1908, p. 
367. ‘*T.A.” April 1909, p. 374. 

Tapioca as a catch crop for Para 
rubber. Mathieu. Singapore, 1908, 
(Str, Times.) 

Manioc or Cassava. Hdwin B. Cope- 
land. _ “TA,” Jan, 1909, p. 32. 
March 1909, p. 250, 


45 


Miscellaneous. 


Cassia.— 
Dunstan. Report on C. auriculata, 
“T.A.” Jan. 1906, p. 871. 
Castor Oil.— 
Cniture du ricin et extraction de 


Vhuile au Tonkin., Ball. Jard. Col. 
1907, p, 345. 


Ricinusperskeok als veeooeder. 
Mere, 28. 7. 1908, p. 555. 


The Castor Oil Plant, Phil. Ag. Rev. 


Ind. 


Sept. 1908, p. 373, “T\A.” Mar. 
1909, p. 219. 

Casuarina.— 
Casuarinas, Str. Bull. June 1907, 
p. 16%. 

Chena.— 


Taungya cutting, 

May 1908, p. 264. 
Chillies.— 

The cultivation of chillie peppers, 
“T.A.” Jan. 1907, p. 24. 


Chillies or capsicums. Buttenshaw 
in W. Ind. Bull. 7, p. 213. 


La culture des piments dans les pays 


Ind. Forester, 


tropicaux. Journ. d’Agr. trop. 
April 1908, p. 100. 
Chilli-growing in Natal. “T.A,” 


Supp. Nov. 1908, p. 481. 
Chillies orcapsicums. Natal Agr. Jl. 
June 1907, **T.A.” Dec. 1907, p. 450. 


Chile culture. Queensl. Agr. Jl. Nov. 
1908, p. 240. 


Cinchona.— 


Ken intvoerrecht op Kinabast. Ind, 
Mere. 2. 10. 1906, p, 663. 

Ueber den Cinchona-Kultur in Java. 
Tropenpfl. 1906, pp. 222, 295. 

Cinchona,(pioneers). Chem. & Drug, 
26. 1. 1907, p. 142. 

Cinchona barks and their cultivation. 
Howard. ‘T.A.” July 1906, p. 46. 

Cultivation of cinchona on the 
Pacific Coast. ‘“T.A.” Mar. 1906, 
p. 181. 

Cinchona bark and quinine. ‘TA.’ 
Jan. 1906, p, 827. 

The quinine market in Europe. do. 
p. 829. 

Cinchona pitayensis. 
10. 1907, p. 781. 

Tets over het enten van Kina-varie- 
teiten. do. 26. 5. 1908. p. 385. 

Tets over de grondbewerking in 
Kina-plansoenen. do. 12. 5, 1908, p. 
339, 28. 7. 1908, p. 554, 

Positie der Kina-markt. 
1908, p. 675. 


Ind. Mere, 22. 


do. 15. 9, 


Miscellaneous. 46 


Kinamarkt. do. 6. 10. 1908, p. 725. 

De positie der Kinamarkt. do. p. 725. 

Java Cinchona market. Chem. and 
Drug. 24. 10. 1908, p. 651. 

De wereldproductie van Kinabast en 
de marktpositie. Ind. Mere. 2/, 
10 1908, p. 782. 

Cinechona and quinine. Chem and 
Drug. 14, 10. 08, p. 755. 

Cinnamon. — 

Ceylon cinnamon and the foreign 
markets. ‘“T.A.” Jan. 1906, p. 834. 

The cinnamon market. do. p. 835. 

Distillation of cinnamon oil. Ind. 
Forester. Feb. 1908, p. 88. ‘*T,A.” 
June 1908, p. 525, 

Ken mijtgal op Cinnamomum zeylani- 
cum Brergn. Caltuurgids 10. IL, 109. 

Cinnamon oil Industry in the 
Seychelles. Agr. News. Nov. 08. 
p. 365. 


HEREDITY. II. 


By R. H. Lock. 

In our first paper on this subject 
published in the Tropical Agriculturist 
for June, 1909, an attempt was made to 
explain the method by which simple 
unit characters are passed on from 
parents to their offspring. We have 
now to show how, by the application 
of this knowledge, a number of problems, 
which have baffled students of breeding 
for many centuries, are capable of a 
reasonable and comparatively simple 
explanation. 

It may be well to summarise briefly 
the points which are now to be taken 
as understood, 

Supposing by any possiblity two pa- 
rents were to breed together whose 
hereditary endowments were in every 
respect identical—the parents being 
alike not only externally, but in all the 
inward essentials of their nature—we 
should expect the offspring to be exactly 
like the parents except for such points 
as might be modified by differences of 
education and external conditions. 

As arule, however, the two parents 
are not alike, and the student of 
heredity is concerned with the problem 
ot how those points or characteristics 
in which the parents differ, are passed 
on to future generations. 

We are usually concerned with a pair 
of simple alternatives. To take anu 
extreme case, one parent may be black 
and the other parent may be white. 


In such a case we suppose that the 
black parent has something in it—a 


black factor—which causes it to appear 
black, whilst the white parent contains 
a white factor. 


The offspring of such a pair will con- 
tain both factors, black and white— 
and its appearance will depend upon 
the relative power of the two factors. 
In many cases the black factor com- 


pletely overpowers the white, and the 


mating results in the appearance of 
exclusively black offspring. Although 
the white factor is present, itis invisible. 

In the reproductive elements of these 
last individuals, the black and white 
factors separate completely. There are 
produced pure ‘ black” reproductive 
cells and pure “ white” ones in approxi- 
mately equal numbers. 

When two such individuals are mated 
together, therefore, the offspring may 
arise either from 

a black male coll meeting a black female cell 


black 3 ,, white ‘a 
white 3 5, black “A 
or a white of ,, white female cell 


In consequence of this there will 
appear onthe average one pure black 
individual, one which is pure white, and 
two which contain both factors just as 
their cross bred parents did. 

A pure black individual is one which 
will breed true to its proper character 
when mated with a similar individual ; 
and the same thing holds good in the 
case of a pure white individual. 


A factor which is able, like the black 
one, to overpower its rival, so that any 
individual which contains it shows the 
black character externally, is known as 
‘‘dominant”; whilst a character like 
the white one which may be present 
though invisible is called ‘‘ recessive.” 


We have yet to consider what happens 
when parents are mated which differ in 
more than one pair of factors. It will 
be convenient to designate these factors 
by letters. B andb are the two alter- 
native factors of one pair; Aanda those 
of another. Suppose a parent bearing 
the two dominant factors A B is mated 
with one bearing the two recessive 
tactors a b. Suppose we are concerned 
with aspecies of plants in which A repre- 
sents the character redness and B blue- 
ness of the fluwers, whilst a and b re- 
present the absence of colours. res- 
pectively. Then A B will have both the 
red and the blue character and will 
appear purple, and a b will be white. 

The offspring of the cross will also 
have purple flowers AB ab. 

The cross bred plant produces the 
following different kinds of reproductive 
cells AB, Ab, aB, ab, According tothe 
rule explained in a previous paper, half 


| ida oh la ll 
y a - 


~ Jury, 1909.] 


Bi cv 


the reproductive cells contain A and the 
other half a. Furthermore half the re- 
productive cells bear B and half b. And 
the characters of the original parents 
do not stick together when the repro- 
ductive celis are formed, but segregate 
completely, so that the new combina- 
tions Ab and aB are formed just as 


Miscellaneous. 


readily as the old ones ABand ab; and 
all these four sorts of reproductive 
cells are produced in equal numbers. Ip 
self-fertilisation--a process common in 
plants—the four kinds of reproductive 
cells meet at random, and the different 
combinations which they form are shown 
in the accompanying diagram — 


PAM Ab 


Hic 


In this diagram each square represents 
an individual plant. The constitution 
of each individual on the female side is 
written above it, whilst the nature of 
the male element which entered into its 
formation is written on the left-hand side. 


Cross-hatched squares represent indi- 
viduals with purple flowers, vertical 
shading indicates red flowers, and hori- 
zontal shading blue. It will be seen 
that all purple flowered individuals 
contain both the elements A and B. 


Red-flowered plants contain A and not 
B, whilst blues contain B and not A. 
One individuals out of sixteen contains 
neither A nor Band has white flowers. 


_{t will readily be}seen that the propor- 
tion in which the coloured individuals 
occur is 9 purple: 3 red :3 blue: 1 white. 

Tn actual practice when a very large 
number of individuals is grown the pro- 
portionate numbers found will approxi- 
mate closely to some multiple of the 
above. 


Miscellaneous. 


The most remarkable feature of this 
result is that in this second generation 
we get two apparently new forms, red 
and blue, in addition tothe purple and 
white types with which we started. 
Really these novelties are only new 
combinaticns. The original purple was 
a combination of red and blue; and the 
white was the combination of ‘‘ absence 
of red” with ‘‘absence of blue,” if che 
use of such expressions may be per- 
mitted. In the rearrangement which 
takes place at the formation of the 
reproductive cells of the cross bred, we 
get the new combinations red with 
absence of blue and blue with absence of 
red. Whena pair of reproductive cells, 
each member of which bears one of 
these particular combinations, unite, the 
flowers of the resulting plant are either 
red or blue as the case may be. 


Noone can fail to recognise that the 
possibility of thus obtaining new com- 
binations of characters at will is of the 
very greatest importance in horticulture 
and stock raising—in the breeding of 
new varieties of plants and animals. If 
we find in distinct strains different 
useful features not common to both, 
we can very often take, as it were, 
one character from one and a second 
character from the other and combine 
them together by cross breeding. What 
is more, by selecting the proper indi- 
viduals of’ the second generation, we 
can at once obtain a strain which will 
breed true to the new combination of 
characters. It is hardly an exaggeration 
to say that we can now deal with 
separate useful characters as if they 
were the different useful ingredients 
of a pudding. We can take one useful 
quality from one variety of wheat 
for example, and combine it with 
other useful qualities taken from other 
varieties. This hasactually been done on 
a considerable scale by Professor Biffen 
on the experimental farmof the Cam- 
bridge University Department of Agri- 
culture. 

One part especially of Professor Biffen’s 
work upon wheats calls for particular 
notice on account of its great theoretical 
and practical importance. This relates 
to his discovery of the manner of inheri- 
tance of immunity to certain diseases. 
Biffen found that some strains of wheat 
suffered terribly on his plots from the 
attacks of the fungus disease known as 
yellow rust ; other strains grown side by 
side with the first proved to be perfectly 
indifferent tothisenemy. Biffen crossed 
a diseased strain witha resistent one. 
Next year he found that the offspring of 
the cross were all badly diseased. There 
is no doubt that any breeder without 
the special knowledge possessed by the 


48 


Professor would under these circum- 
stances immediately have given up the 
experiment as having failed of its 
purpose, which was the production of 
animmune strain. Biffen was notin 
the least discouraged but raised a second 
generation from the seeds of the diseased 
plants. Next season the rows exhibited 
a very remarkable appearance. Among 
a majority of brown and rusted plants 
the minority stood out bright and green 
and were entirely free from the pest. 
When the plants were counted over at 
harvest it was found that the propor- 
tion of diseased to resistent plants was 
very nearly 3: 1. Susceptibility and 
immunity are in fact a pair of characters 
exactly comparable with our case of 
blackness and whiteness, and the im- 
mune plants obtained in the second 
generation constituted a pure resistent 
strain. More than this, the original 
immune strain was one of little value 
to the farmer, whilst the susceptible 
plant with which it was crossed was of 
excellent quality in other 
Among theimmune plants of the second 
geueration were found some which com- 
bined the character of resistance to 
disease with the good quality of the 
susceptible parent, precisely as was to 
be expected from our rule of the in- 
heritance of two pairs of characters. 


Many facts which have long presented 
an insoluble puzzle to practical breeders 
and students of evolution alike, meet 
with a ready and simple explanation in 
terms of this conception of separately 
heritable factors. We need only refer 
to the facts of reversion or throwing 
back to a more or less remote ancestor. 


Itis well known that when a pair of 
pigeons belonging to two distinct breeds 
are mated together, the result is often a 
blue bird more or less closely resembling 
the wild rock pigeon from which all our 
modern stocks of fancy pigeons are 
supposed to be descended. The offspring 
of such a cross are said to revert to the 
ancestral type. 


The simple reappearance of the re- 
cessive character in the second gener- 
ation from across in the manner just 
described, may be called a kind of 
reversion, but the reversion is only to a 
very near ancestor, in this case a grand- 
parent. Wherea very remote ancestral 
character makes its appearance we 
require a different explanation. Here 
again it will be simplest to take a 
definite example—the one selected is 
from Professor Bateson’s work with 
sweet peas. 

There seems to be very little doubt 
that the original type of the cuitivated 
sweet pea was the purple. And the 


respects. - 


(w 


aoe ° 
{JULY, 1909. _ ” 


; 


PPR 
~ JuLy, 1909.] 


‘earliest sports from this were the pure 


ly tah i ee 


ert ee a pe ae 


white form and the variety known as 
painted lady—with a red standard and 
white wings. Subsequently an enormous 
number of other colours have been 
roduced. In one of his experiments 
rotessor Bateson crossed together 
two sweet peas with perfectly white 
flowers, and from the cross he raised 
plants with purple flowers—not a con- 
juring trick but a case of reversion. 


49 


Miscellaneous 


The next step was to sow the self- 
fertilised seed of the zoloured cross-bred 
lants to produce a second generation, 
o this generation a very large number 
of plants was raised, some with white 
and some with coloured flowers, and it 
was found that the proportion of 
coloured to white-flowered plants was 
9:7. The explanation is given in the 
diagram below which shows the com- 
position of the second generation. The 


Fic, 2. 


cross bred ABab contained both factors, 
and the purple colour at once became 


secret is as follows. The appearance of 
any colour depends upon the simul- 
taneous presence of two factors A and B. 
If either of these factors is absent from 
a plant its flowers appear white. Thus 
Ab andaB are both white. The two 
original parents are supposed to have 
been of this nature, from one of the 
two necessary factors for colour was 
wanting, and from the other the 
second factor was wanting. But when 
these two were crossed together, the 


lod 
4 


~ 


visible. The further history of the 
case may readily be traced from the 
diagram, refering if necessary to the 
description of the inheritance of two 
pairs of characters already given at the 
beginning of the present article. We 
must suppose that originally white forms 
arose from the coloured by two distinct 
processes of sporting. In one of these 
the A factor was lost and in the other the 


Miscellaneous. 


B factor, Here then we have a perfectly 
simple explanation provided for the 
phenomenon of reversion. Although we 
may hesitate to suggest that the same 
sort of thing is going on when baby’s 
nose unexpectedly resembles the striking 
portarit of his great-great-grandfather, 
itis at least quite possible that this 
may be the case. 


We have indeed no grounds for exclud- 
ing man from the operation of these 
rules of inheritance. In fact, in the case 
of one or two simple characters inheri- 
tance of this kind has already been 
demonstrated in human beings. 


Those who are only familiar with > 


what was known of the laws of heredity 
ten years ago, will be struck with a 
sense of the complete novelty of the 
ideas here inculeated. The somewhat 
vague notions current only so short a 
time since are not so much extended 
or even altered as replaced by an entirely 
new set of ideas. And in passing it 
may be remarked that the biologists of 
fifty years ago and more were much 
closer to our present line of inquiry 
tuan their successors were. 


These new conceptions may be briefly 
summarised. 


We have in the first place the concep- 
tion of unit characters. We find that 
separate features of an organism may 
be inherited quite independently of one 
another. It is this fact alone which 
renders experimental work upon here- 
dity possible. 


Characters of this kind we find to be 
inherited according to a definite arith- 
metical scheme or law, in which, as a 
general rule, each character pursues its 
own course unaffected by any other 
characters which may happen to be 
present. We do in some cases find so 
called correlations where groups of fea- 
tures behave more or less as if they 
were single characters, but into these 
complications we do not propose to enter 
on the present occasion. 


We find our conception of what con- 
stitutes purity in a strain of animals or 
plants to be completely altered. We 
now know that purity does not depend 
simply upon the number of generations 
during which the race has exhibited a 
constant character. On the contrary 
a strain of perfect purity may arise 
from the second generation from a cross. 
Sucha strain may exhibit an entirely 
new combination of the parental charac- 
ters. But this is so far the only kind of 
povelty which we can produce at will. 
We know next to nothing about the 
method by which genuinely new charac- 
ters arise, as they sometimes do. We 
can only take advantage of such charac- 


a es 


[JuLy, 1909 


ters when they do happen to make their 
appearance. 


Special attention should be drawn to 
the definiteness of the characters with 
which we deal. Wedo not invoke im- 
proved features by gradual selection ; 
these characters are either present or 
they are absent. It is further to be re- 
membered that every process of definite 
inheritance which has been worked out 
in the case of a plant can be paralleled 
by similar phenomena taking place in one 
or other of the higher animals and vice 
versa; heredity in animals and plants 
seems to follow precisely similar lines. 


R. H. L. 
CEYLON AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY, 


REPORT, 1908-1909. 


MEETINGS, 


The last Annual General Meeting was 
held on June 15, 1908. The present re- 
port deals with the ensuing twelve 
months since that date. 


At the suggestion of His Hxcellency 
the President rule 3 was amended to 
provide for ordinary Board Meetings 
being held every other month instead of 
monthly. Accordingly meetings were 
held on August 8, October 5, December 3, 
1008, and February 4 and April7, 1909, His 
Excellency presided at all the meetings. 


MEMBERS. 


The total numer of members at date is 
984, an advance of 70 over last year’s 
number. Actually 110 new members 
joined the Society, but 40 names had to 
be removed from the list for various 
reasons. 

The Society has lost a valuable mem- 
ber, who rendered it much service that 
did not come to public notice, by the 


lamented death of the Hon, Mr. Nicolle. 


CHANGES. 


The place of Mr. H. T. S. Ward, who 
retired from the service of the Colony, 
has been taken by Mr. R. W. Smith. The 
temporary vacancy created by Mr. F. 
Beven’s absence in England is being filled 
by the Hon. Mr. Jas. van Langenberg. 
In the North-Central Province Mr. Simon 
Dabre has displaced Mr. Sampander ; 
in the Southern Province Mr. V. 
Wickremanayake has been appointed to 
represent Tangalla, Dr, Willis went on 
leave in April last, and Mr. R. H. Lock 
is acting for him as Organizing Vice- 
President and Editor of the ‘ Tropical 
Agriculturist and Magazine of the Ceylon 
Agricultural Society.” 


INSPECTIONS. 
The Organizing Vice-President and. 


the Secretary, severally and together, 


* se Ss fc) Topas SB ae a aaa 


JULY, 1909.] 


toured in different parts of the Island, 
inspecting gardens, attending meetings 
of Branch Societies, visiting Shows, and 
generally studying the condition and 
requirements of rural agriculture. The 
districts visited included Jaffna, Putta- 
lam, Chilaw, Kegalla, Kurunegala, 
Kandy, Nuwara Eliya, Kalutara, Anu- 
radhapura, and Matara. 
AGRICULTURAL INSTRUCTORS. 


Three additional Instructors were ap- 
Ddointed, bringing up the total number 
to five : three are available for the Sinha- 
lese districts and two for the Tamil dis- 
tricts. These officers are at present sta- 
tioned at the under-mentioned centres 
so as to enable them to conveniently 
reach all parts of the Island. Mr. S. 
Chelliah at Jaffna, Mr. S. R. Brecken- 
ridge at Batticaloa, Mr. Walter Molegoda 
at Kandy, and Messrs. N. Wickreme- 
ratne and L. A. D. Silva at Colombo. 


Messrs. L. A, D. Silva, Chelliah, and 
Breckenridge are passed men from the 
late School of Agriculture ; the rest have 
undergone training at Peradeniya and 
at the Government Stock Garden. 


Already these officers have made de- 
tailed tours, traversing some of the 
remotest parts of the Island which need- 
ed their presence and assistance most. 
As a result a good deal of useful infor- 
mation as to the condition and require- 
ments of these areas has been made 
available, and a way opened to localities 
which would not otherwise have been 
reached by the Society. Their duties 
have been greatly facilitated by the 
co-operation of the Government Agents 
working through the chief headmen. 


I would like to say a word in commen- 
dation of Messrs. Chelliah and Wickre- 
maratne, who possess initiative and 
enthusiasm, qualities which should-en- 
able them to serve the Society well. 


More instructors are needed, but 
additions to the present staff will pro- 
bably have to await the opening, it 
is to be hoped in the near future, of a 
school for training such officers. 


EXPERIMENTAL GARDENS. 


Of these gardens, the one at Banda- 
ragama is perhaps doing the most sys- 
tematic work. It was started under the 
auspices of the Rayigam Korale Branch, 
and owes its success chiefly to the per- 
sonal interest of Mr. Conroy, Assistant 
Government Agent of Kalutara, and the 
zeal of Mr. Wirasinghe, the Mudaliyar 
of the korale. 

The newly-formed Pasdun Korale 
Branch, established through the enter- 

rise of Mr. Ff. D. Samarasinghe, Muda- 
hear of Pasdun Korale Kast, has laid 
the foundation of three gardens at Bel- 
Jana, Agalawatte, and Warakagoda, 


51 Miscellaneous. 


Arrangements for starting gardens at 
Jaffna and Anuradhapura, to be worked 
directly under the Agricultural Instruc- 
tor stationed in the Northern Province, 
are now under consideration. 


I may here mention that Mr. Wickre- 
maratne, Mudaliyar of Weligam korale, 
has done much to encourage the cultiva- 
tion of fruitsin the South through his 
own garden at Tellijjawila, the Dampella 
girls’ school, and a number of smaller 
village plantations belonging to his 
headmen. 


I regret to say that nothing could have 
been done with regard to the proposed 
garden at Horetuduwa (for which the 
late Sri Chandrasekera Mudaliyar donat- 
eda sum of Rs. 2,500) owing to difficul- 
ties that have arisen over the transfer of 
the site selected for it. 


SHOWS. 


Shows were held at the following 
centres :—Hikkaduwa, Mannar, Balalla, 
Pilessa, Kuliyapitiya, Anuradhapura, 
Welimada. 

The tendency to multiply small shows 
in village centres is adeparture in the 
right direction. Such shows appeal to 
the cultivator with greater force than 
large town shows, which, however, have 
their own value. This was quite appa- 
rent at the three village shows at Balalla, 
Pilessa, and Kuliyapitiya, successfully 
and economically worked by Mr. G. S. 
Saxton, Government Agent of the North- 
Western Province. Mr. Horsburgh’s 
show at Anuradhapura and Mr. Steven- 
son’s at Mannar also demonstrated the 
utility of village shows. 

Ceylon’s chief agricultural products 
were, on the invitation of the Indian 
authorities, represented at the Mysore 
and Nagpur Exhibitions held last year. 


REGULAR PUBLICATIONS. 


The English, Sinhalese, and Tamil 
monthly magazines published by the 
Society were issued regularly through- 
out the year. The arrangements for 
their publication remain the same. The 
proportion of original matter in the Eng- 
lish periodical (‘Tropical Agriculturist 
and Magazine of the Ceylon Agricultural 
Society ”) has been recently increased. 
By exchange the Society receives a large 
mass Of agricultural literature in the 
shape of periodicals, reports, &c., from 
abroad, 

The Sinhalese Magazine (‘‘Govikam 
Sangarawa”), which completes its fourth 
volume in June, and has a circulation 
of 1,400, isa valuable medium of commu- 
nication and instruction as far as the 
native cultivator is concerned. It finds 
its way into the hands of every Govern- 
ment teacher and many teachers of 


& 


Miscellaneous. 5 


aided schools, and, through them, reaches 
a large proportion of the school-going 
population. Itisto be regretted, how- 
ever, that it does not, as it should, reach 
every headman in the Sinhalese districts 
to whom it is available at the almost 
nominal rate of 50.cents perannum. The 
Society weuld do well to allow an in- 
creased vote for illustrating and other- 
wise improving this publication. 


The Tamil magazine (‘‘Kamat Tholil 
Valakkam” is, lam sorry to say, very 
badly patronized. 


OCCASIONAL PUBLICATIONS. 


Leaflets dealing with the following sub- 
jects published in English, Sinhalese, and 
'PFamil were issued from time to time :— 
Transplanting and Manuring in Paddy 
Cultivation ; Tobacco Cultivation, Dis- 
ease, and Treatment; Cultivation and 
Preparation of Arrowroot; Further notes 
on Transplanting Paddy; Continuous 
Cultivation of Chena land; Rice Bug or 
Paddy Fly; Nitrogen-gathering crops; 
the Silk Cotton Tree. 

In addition, Agricultural Calendars 
were published in English and Sinhalese. 


SUBJECTS DISCUSSED BEFORE THE BOARD, 


The following list indicates the sub- 
jects of papers, lectures, and discussions 
that came before the Board at its regu- 
lar meetings, together with the names 
of the authors, lecturers, or leaders in 
each case :— 


Recent researches into the cause of 
infertility in Soils (C. Driberg). 

Castration of Cattle (G. W. Sturgess). 

Possibilities before the Agricultural 
Society: its Board and Branch Associ- 
ations (the Hon. Mr. J. Ferguson). 


Improvement in cultivation, and the 
curing of tobacco for foreign markets 
(Dr. J. C. Willis). 

Introduction of Agricultural Instruc- 
tion into the curriculum of Rural Schools 
(the Hon. Mr. Obeyesekere). 

Plant Breeding and Tropical 
culture (R. H. Lock). 

Alkali Soils and Water-logging in Irri- 
gated Lands (R. W. Smith). 

Beautiful Tropical Trees and _ their 
uses (H. F. Macmillan). 

The Village Cultivator and Paddy 
Cultivation (A. Dissanaike). 

Vermin Destruction (F. West), 

Cassava cultivation as a Local Indus- 
try (Dr. Willis). 

Native Agriculture, and howit might 
be improved (W. A. de Silva). 

Loans to Paddy Cultivators (A. Dissa- 
naike). 

Recent researches regarding the germi- 
nation of the Coconut and its Products 
(C. Drieberg): 


Agri- 


2. 


A 


[Junx, 1909 


Relation of weather to crop in the 
Coconut Palm (J. D. Vanderstraaten). 


Cotton cultivation in Kurunegala 
District (Dr. H. M. Fernando). 


Agriculture in Ceylon and its improve- 
ment (Dr. Willis). 

Loans to Native Agriculturists (Dr. 
Willis). : 

Agriculture in the North-Central Pro- 
vince (Dr. Willis). 


DISTRIBUTION AND EXCHANGES OF 


SEEDS AND PLANTS. 


A considerable amount of work was 
done in the distribution of plants— 
chiefly improved varieties of fruits and 
seeds of rice, maize, cotton, fodder, 
green manure crops, and vegetables— 
during the year. In this connection I 
should wish to acknowledge the assis- 
tance rendered by Mr. Alex. Perera and 
Mr. D. D. Fernando of the School Garden 
staff. The seedsman’s records for 1908 
show that approximately 7,000 packets 
of seed and 1,000 plants were distributed 
during that period. 


The following list indicates some of 
the introductions, made ic many cases 
at the special request of members :— 
Cenchrus  biflorus, Chou wmeellier, 
Sesbania aculeata, Soy bean, Teff, lemon- 
scented Hucalyptus, Mysore Coffee, 
Buckwheat, Dindigul Tobaceo, Jute, 
Cowpeas, Moulmein Paddy, Logwood, 
Safflower, Casuarina, Carolina Golden 
Rice, Indigo, Senna, and Sea Island 
Cotton. 


In this connection it should be men- 
tioned that the Svuciety was able to 
meet a large demand for paddy and 
vegetable seed for distribution in the 
distressed areas in the North-Western 
Province. 


A variety of seeds (paddy, cacao, 
papaw, teak, tobacco, shade trees, &c.) 
were sent to the West Indies, United 
States of America, Philippine Islands, 
Java, Portuguese Kast Africa, Bengal 
and Madras Presidencies, the Maldives, 
Burma, New Hebrides, and West 
Australia. Locally asystem of exchange 
has been carried on by means of the 
School Garden organization. 


The thanks of the Society are due to 
the Royal Botanic Garden, Peradeniya, 
for grants of seeds and plants. 


AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION. 


The Committee appointed by the 
Society to report on this subject, and 
consisting of the Director of the Royal 
Botanic Gardens, the Director of Public 


Instruction, Sir Solomon Dias Bandara- 


naike, the Hon. Mr. S. C. Obeyesekere,. 
the Hon. Mr. P. Arunachalam, Dr. H. M. 


SS 


| ; JULY, 1009.] 58 


Fernando, and the Secretary of the 
Ceylon Agricultural Society, recom- 
mended: (1) That the number of school 
gardens should be increased and the 
work further encouraged by the offer 
of a larger number of prizes; (2) that 
arrangements be made for a course of 
lectures to teachers on Nature Study on 
the same lines as the present sanitary 
lectures ; (3) that Dr. Willis and Mr. Lock 
be requested to prepare a Manual of 
Nature Study lessons, and that the 
Superintendent of School Gardens be 
asked to prepare an Agricultural Reader 
for Ceylon, both to be translated into 
Sinhalese for use in village schools; (4) 
that definite agricultural teaching be 
provided and illustrated by practical 
experiments in a select number of verna- 
cular schools; (5) that the curriculum 
for teachers under training at the 
Government Training College be made 
to include Nature Study, and that a 
special teacher be appointed to take 
charge of this work as soon as one is 
available ; (6) that a school of agriculture 
be started at Peradeniya for the training 
of Agricultural Instructors, and a course 
of training be provided for the benefit 
of candidates nominated for village 
headmanships. 


Since this report was submitted, the 
subject of Agricultural Education was 
brought prominently before the Board 
in the torm of ascheme drafted by Mr. 
W.A. de Silva. At the present time 
the whole matter is in the hands of 
a new Committee appointed by His 
Excellency the Governor to consider 
and report upon a comprehensive 
memorandum which His Excellency has 
- himself written on the subject for their 
guidance. This new Committee is com- 
posed of the Hon. Mr, Lewis. the Hon, 
Mr. Booth, the Director of the Royal 
Botanic Gardens, the Director of Public 
Instruction, Dr. . M. Fernando, Mr. 
S. D. Mahawalatenne, and the Secretary 
of the Ceylon Agricultural Society. 


AGRICULTURAL CAPITAL. 


The Organizing Vice-President has 
repeatedly referred to the great need for 
capital in rural agriculture, and explain- 
ed how the lack of it hinders agricultural 
progress among the poorer classes who 
form the bulk of the rural population. 
Laudable efforts have been made by a 
few branch societies to meet this 
ditficulty. Chief among them is the 
Dumbara Branch, whose co-operative 
credit society has been successfully 
worked through the efforts of Mr. W. 
Dunuwille, Disawa, Mr. R. E. Parana- 
gama, Ratemahatmaya, and the in- 
defatigable Secretary, Mr. C. Rasana- 
yagam Mudaliyar. A recent report on 


Miscellaneous. 


this institution will be found in the 
‘Tropical Agriculturist and Magazine 
of the Ceylon Agricultural Society” for 
February, 1909. Similar operations, 
though on a smaller scale, have been 
carried on by the Telijjawila and Galle 
Wellaboda Pattu Branches. In all these 
cases the transactions were confined 
mainly to loans of paddy. The subject 
of loans to cultivators has been well 
ventilated at recent Board Meetings— 
the chief contributor being Mr. A. 
Dissanaike, late President of Salpiti 
korale. At the suggestion of the 
President, further contributions were 
invited by the Society from those quali- 
fied to advise, and the papers received in 
response are now before His Excellency, 
who has announced his intention of 
submitting his own memorandum toa 
special committee to be appointed to 
deal with the matter. 


TRANSPLANTING IN PADDY CULTIVATION, 


This mode of cultivation, which the 
Society has done much to foster by 
means of leaflets, lectures, and demon- 
strations, is gaining ground, receiving 
particular attention at the hands of 
the Mudaliyars of Weligama, Galle 
Wellaboda Pattu, Bentota-Walallawiti 
korale, Pasdun Korale Kast, and Rayigam 
korale. A number of school gardens, 
notably that at Paraduwa, have helped 
in this work through the successful 
experiments carried out by the school 
boys themselves. Accounts of these 
experiments have appeared from time to 
time in the Progress Keports, tending to 
show that the advantages of the system 
are being appreciated. 


MANURING. 


The necessity for employing green 
manures or artificial fertilizers is now 
more generally recognized by native 
cultivators, and the manuring of paddy 
is following that of coconuts. Messrs. 
Freudenberg & Co, have come to the 
aid of the Society in its efforts to 
demonstrate the efficacy of manures, as 
fertilizers or correctives, and, though 
that firm is likely to ultimately benefit 
through their enterprise, the Society 
appreciates their co-operation in show- 
ing the cultivator how he could increase 
his crops. In the North, where animal 
and vegetable -manures are systemati- 
cally used, and at considerable cost, 
the economy of employing prepared 
mixtures has been proved by experi- 
ments carried out by the Agricultural 
Instructor stationed in Jaffna, 


ROTATION OF Crops, 
The advantage of adopting a rotation, 
wherever possible, has been pressed upon 
cultivators in the Sinhalese-speaking 


Miscellaneous. 


areas at every opportunity, particularly 
in connection with the much-condemned 
-hena system, the chief objection to 
which, from au agricultural point of 


view, is its improvident method of culti- . 


vation. The opportunity presented for 
enforcing certain regulations for con- 
serving soil fertility by fixing rotations 
for different districts and requiring the 
periodical manuring of land isone that 
should not be missed by Government, 
which, while it is obliged to countenance 
a primitive system of land tenure and 
cultivation, could at the same time teach 
agricultural economy and_ discipline. 
Arrangements have practically been 
completed for carrying out demonstra- 
tions in the continuous cultivation of 
chena lands at a few centres with the 
help of the Government Agent of the 
North-Western Province. 


SCHOOL GARDENS. 


The report of the Superintendent of 
the School Gardens for last year records 
continued progress in this department. 
The number of gardens working under 
the scheme is 180, and, what is most 
encouraging, teachers are entering fully 
into the spirit of the movement. The 
desice on the part of aided schools to 
participate in the scheme goes to indi- 
cate that it is appreciated as an edu- 
cative factor. The best work, generally 
speaking, is to be seen in the Kurunegala 


District, though individual cases of 
special excellence are found in the ' 
Western Province. In Uva, Matara, 


Kandy, Matale, and Kegalla Districts, 
progress is satisfactory, in other parts 
there is still much up-hill work to be done. 
The proposal to specialize in agricul- 
ture, in schools where special facilities 
exist, has been approved of tentatively. 
One monitor is at present under-going 
a training at the Government Stock 
Garden and the Royal Botanic Gardens, 
Peradeniya, witb a view to being appoint- 
ed to the School Garden at Mirigama, 


SERICULTURE. 


There is no progress to report as 
regards mulberry silk worm culture 
through the silk farm which, indeed, has 
temporarily suspended operations to 
allow time for the growth of mulberry 
plants. 

As regards eri silkworm culture, pros- 
pects are better. A French firm of 
spinners have made an encouraging 
report on a 50-pound sample from which 
an excellent specimen of yarn was 
turned out. Itis found that mulberry 
and erisilk will not dye uniformly in 
the same bath. The firm referred to 
has offered to finance an experiment in 
the rearing of the eri worm on acom- 
mercial scale, and negociations regarding 
this proposal are still in progress. In 


7 ae 
- 


Ly te 


[Juny, 


the meantime another firm (Swiss) has 
sent a quotation, which, for the sample 
submitted, is decidedly encouraging. A 
small order for 200 lb. for purposes of 
experiment has already been filled, and 
if the trialis a success, an annual demand 
of some 200,000 lb. will be forth-coming, 
An enterprising Sinhalese gentleman is 
arranging to establish a silk farm on a 
commercial basis with a view, if possible, 
to ultimately meet this demand. 


BrE-KEEPING. 


Bee-keeping continues to make, neces- 
sarily, slow progress. Through the kind 
help of Mr. Herbert Campbell, late of 
Nuwara Eliya and now in Englaud, it is 
hoped that comb foundation for Apis 
indica bees will very soon be available. 
Among the foreign bees that are being 
tried are Carniolans and Cyprians. With 
the new miniature dcuble hive designed 
by Mr. Shanks for the native bee, the 
complete domestication of this excellent 
honey-gatherer is much nearer at hand. 
Hives have been established at three 
school gardens. 

LIVE STOCK. 


The Government Dairy continues to 
be the chief organized ageney for the 
improvement of our local brecd of cattle. 
Its influence, though slow, has spread 
far. It is through the Veterinary 
Department that any further measures 
to hasten such improvement can be 
satisfactorily controlled, and the expan- 
sion of that Department is much to be 
desired for this and other reasons. 

Castration work was carried on system- 
atically for two years, but owing toa 
strong prejudice on the part of cattle 
owners, who believe that the operation 
spoils bulls for ploughing, itis now done 
only by special request, 

The provision of adequate pasture, 
and the cultivation of fodder plants, 
must also be looked to for the improve- 
ment of cattle for agricultural purposes, 
In South India, where there is_ practi- 
cally no pasture, and no wasteland to 
speak of, the cultivator is forced to 
grow fodder crops—chiefly sorghums— 
to meet the difficulty. Here the village 
bull is allowed to wander about seeking 
what he may devour, proving a fruitful 
source of litigation, and from his peri- 
patetic nature making the control of 
contagious disease a herculean task for 
the Government Veterinary Surgeon 
and his small staff of Stock Inspectors, 

The year was marked by a serious 


“outbreak of rinderpest, which has unfor- 


tunately not been stamped out as yet. 
Stock INSPECTORS, 
In addition to their veterinary duties 


the services of these officers, when not 
otherwise engaged, are available for 
agricultural work. Mr. Wijenayake 


909. 


| 
| 


~ Jury, 1909.] 55 


stationed at Kurunegala, proved useful 
in looking after the school gardens in 
the North-Western Province, and has 
showed his interest in their success by a 
gift of 100 fruit plants for distribution 
among them. 

. casionally it has been found neces- 
sary to utilize Agricultural Instructors 
for veterinary duties. In connection 
with the recent outbreak of rinderpest 
in the Eastern Province, Mr. Brecken- 
ridge, Agricultural Instructor stationed 
at Batticaloa, assisted in enforcing the re- 
gulations of the Veteriuary Department. 


PASTURE. 

The necessity for providing pasture 
where cattle could be grazed on certain 
terms has been pressed upon the Society 
from more than one quarter, and some 


practical results will probably be 
apparent before long in Badulla, 
Gampola, and Ambalangoda, where 


the question has been under con- 
sideration. An elaborate scheme has 
been submitted by Mr. S_ Chelliah, 
Agricultural Instructor, with a view to 
meeting the difficulty that arises in the 
Jaffna peninsula during the dry months 
of the year, when cattle have to be sent 
to the mainland for grazing purposes 
at considerable risk and cost. 


This scheme, which has the sympathy 
of the Government Agent of the Pro- 
vinee, will, if found practicable, confer 
a great buon on the agricultural classes, 
aud, if properly controlled, should, even 
from a commercial point of view, prove 
a success. At present the seiection of 
a suitable area of 100 or 200 acres is 
under consideration. 


PLANT PsEstTs, &c. 


The newly-constituted Plant Pest 
Boards began to operate with the ap- 
pearance, or: rather discovery, of the 
coconut stem bleeding disease, which, 
Lowever, under the control of Mr. Petch 
and his staff of inspectors, has so far 
abated, as to allay the serious apprehen- 
sions which beset the coconut planter. 

Specimens of insect and fu goid pests 
have been forwarded to the Government 
Mycologist and Entomologist from time 
to time, and their advice has proved 
of much value. 

The Agricultural Chemist has kindly 
furnished analyses of soils and vegetable 
products for the Society whenever called 
upon. 

TOBACCO. 

The proposed experiment in tobacco 
cultivation, in order to ascertain the 
possibilities of raising produce likely to 
find a place in foreign markets, has still 
to be undertaken. The initial difficulty 
as to site has been got over by the deci- 


Miscellaneous. 


sion to conduct the trial at Maha Ilup- 
palama Hxperiment Station, where there 
is suitable land available. A subsequent 
difficulty arose with regard to the ser- 
vices of an expert to control the experi- 
ment. The remuneration expected by 
such a man is considered out of pro- 
portion to the funds available, which 
are made up of a Government grant of 
Rs. 7,200 plus the Society’s vote of Rs. 
27,500. At present there is a proposal 
before the Tubacco Committee to send 
some one to study cultivation and curing 
in the tobacco growing countries of the 
East, with a view to ultimately placing 
him in charge of the experiment. 


The opinion of an expert in the tobacco 
tradein England is being obtained on 
samples of Ceylon tobacco, So far, the 
only encouraging revort received is that 
on Dumbara leaf. 


COTTON. 


The Society’s efforts to introduce cot- 
ton growing on an extensive scale have 
up to date not been attended with very 
encouraging results, though there is a 
general desire to take up the cultivation. 
The chief drawback has been uncertainty 
regarding (1) the cotton area, (2) the 
proper season, and ~%) the best variety 
to grow in this country. 

The opportune visit of Mr. McCall, 
Director of Agriculture in Nyassaland, 
will probably prove to be the means of 
settling all these doubts. Possessing 
wide and intimate experience of cotton 
cultivation, Mr. McCall, at the request 
of His Excellency the Governor, pre- 
pared a comprehensive report on the 
subject with reference to Ceylon, and 
his advice will no doubt be the means of 
helping growers to successfully place 
their produce on the English market. 


IMPLEMENTS. 


Theintroduction or adaptation of im- 
plemeuts from abroad has been a good 
deal before the Society, and with the 
advice and assistance of Mr. William 
Hunter, of Messrs. Walker, Sons & Co., 
aunumber of suitable ploughs, &c., have 
been tried on different kinds of soil in 
various parts of the Island. In the 
north, where dry-land ploughing is 
practised, the introduction of improved 
inplements has not met with insuperable 
ob stacles but in the Sinhalese districts, 
and in wet cultivation there are serious 
prejudices to contend with, since the 
cultivator strongly objects to alter his 
primeval programme for the prepar- 
ation of his field by ploughing it when it 
is in suitable condition for carrying a 
mould board plough. 

The success of the implements working 
at Maha Iluppalamaj Experiment Sta- 


Miscellaneous. 56 . 


tiv 1 ought to convince the mcst scepti- 
cal that it is possible to use such effective 
labour-saving appliances in most soils. 
At the Anuradhapura Show held on May 
6 a practical demonstration of the work- 
ing of up-to-date implements was one of 
‘the most interesting features of the 
funetion, and certainly the most useful 
from an educative point of view. 


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS. 


The Society is indebted to Govern- 
ment for the continuance of its annual 
grant, toHis Excellency the Governor for 


ye ee ee oe 


_ (JULY, 1909. — 
the encouragement afforded by his pre 
sence at Board Meetings, and the interest 
he has at all times shown in the work of 
the Society, to the Director of the Royal 
Botanic Gardens and his staff for their 
advice, to the Revenue Officers and their 
chief headmen for their assistance. 

I should wish to express a word of 
thanks to the Indian Departments of 
Agriculture, particularly of Bengal and 
Madras, for their courtesy and recipro- 


cality. 
C. DRIKBERG, 


STATEMBNT OF RECEIPTS 


Colombo, May 26, 1909. 


To the Members of the Ceylon Board of 
Agriculture :— 


GENTLEMEN,—I have the honour to 


Secretary. 
CEYLON AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY. 
AND PAYMENTS FOR 12 MONTHS ENDING 
DECEMBER 381, 1908. 
STATEMENT, 
Amount. Total. 
RECEIPTS. Re: Rime ec! 
Balance at Bank of Madras, 
December 31st, 1907... ~ 20,633 92 


report that I have audited the accounts 
of the Ceylon Agricultural Society for 
the year 1908, and that the statement of 
receipts and payments, which I have 
to-day signed, is to the best of my belief 
correct. 


The audit has been conducted upon 
the same lines as described in my report 
dated September 25, 1908. 


I find that various liabilities, amount- 
ing together to Rs. 489:48, were incurred 
in 1908, but were not discharged until 
1909, and are consequently not included 
in the present account. As long as the 
present practice is adhered to, of pre- 
paring only a cash account instead of 
arevenue account, it is very desirable 
that a special point should be made of 
discharging as many liabilities as pos- 
sible in the year in which they are in- 
curred. 


Since the close of the year about Rs. 600 
has been collected in respect of sub- 
scriptions for the year 1908, but a large 
number of subscriptions still remain 
unpaid. Some of these will be recover- 
ed, but many are regarded as doubtful. 
I am writing a special letter to the 
Secretary on this subject. 


I have pleasure in stating that th® 
Cash Book is neatly kept, and the 
vouchers methodically arranged, and 
that all my inquiries have been readily 
answered, 


I am, &c., 
H. P. CHURCH, 
Auditor. 


Members’ subscriptions :— 
Local subscription for1906 10 


Do 1907 168 
Do 1908 4,799 
Do 1909 


0 
0 
0 
232 0 
426 50 


Foreign subscriptions ... 
; 5,635 50 
Less paid to Ceylon Observer 
for foreign subscriptions ;— 
On account 1907 371 15 


Do 1908 292 87 
664 2 
—— 4,971 48 
Government grant :— 
Grart for 1908 Re — 30,000 0 
Seed supplies :— 
Purchase. Sales, 
Vegetable seeds, 
April 308 18 301 91 
Do October 236 80 271 15 
Paddy | 11 75 5 0 
Cotton seed 1 43 150 0 
Sapodilla grafts 6 21 40 75 
Bellary onions 16 87 3 50 
Indian arecanuts 12 95 7 10 
Grafted plants 481 15 318 50 
Winged aspragus 
seed — 1 50 
Ground nuts 26 53 30 0 
Udo plants 2 10 — 
Maize and Buck- 
wheat 12 56 — 
Dadap seed 1 95 — 
Sundries 10 91 5 60 
1,129 39 1,134 91 
2 re 
Bye, § 52 
Interest :— 
On Bank of Madra ace unt 510 26 


—_—-— —__. 


Total 56,121 18 


ae hc) ae ances 


JULY, 1909.] 


PAYMENTS. 
Amount. Total. 


Eve aC ie, ct 
General expenditure : — 

Personal emoluments :— 
Organising Vice- 

President 3,000 0 
Secretary 3,000 0 
Clerks & peons 2,440 0 
Agricultural in- 


structors 862 13—9,302 13 
Stationery Ae 157 5 
Postages and tele- 

grams 506 606 1 
Office furniture oF 23 39 
Bank charges and com- 

mission ues 7 96 
General printing... 38 75 
Misscellaneous petty 

expenses S0c 180 40 
Auditor’s fee for 1907 ths 

accounts be 150 0—10,465 69 


Travelling expenses :— 
Secretary, Ceylon Agri- 
cultural Society and 


Staff 1 \ 1,182 34 
Agricultural instructors 1,629 30 
Show Judges 76 99 


Organising Vice-Pre- 
sident and staff 
Tropical Agriculturist and 
Magazine of Ceylon 
Agricultural Society : 
Printing English Maga- 


544 65—-3,433 28 


zine (less sales, R5) 5,790 69 
Sinhalese Maga- 
zine Hditor’s fees 450 0 
Sinhalese Maga- 
zine printing, 
postages,&c. 433 91 
883 91 
Less subscriptions 
received 795 14 
88 77 


Printing Tamil 
edition 200 O—--6,079 46 


ey 


Carried over 19,978 43 


Miscellaneous. 


Brought Forward .., 
Agricultural shows :— 
Grant to Balalla, Pilessa, 
& Kuliyapitiya shows 150 0 
Cost of medals ae 137 50 
Expenses on exhibits 


19,978 43 


for Mysore ae 36 10 
Storing show building 
materials ack 10 0—-—333 60 
Sericulture Experimental 
Farm :— 
Upkeep allowance for 
12 months Foe 480 0 
Repairs of buildings, &c. 153 55 
Purchase of cocoons ... 261 43 


Despatch of cocoons 
to Paris Ais 
Experimental Gardens, &c:— 
School gardens grant 
(out of which R14°51 
subsequently re- 


19 99—-—914 97 


turned) ne 500 0 
Loan to villagers on ac- 
count of experimental 
coconut cultivation.. 150 0 
650 0 


Less refund on account 
Mahauswewa rubber 
experiment BEE 

Seed Store at Government 
Stock Garden :— 
Cost of furniture, &c. — 27 46 
Castration of cattle :— 
Cost of sundry de- 


48 50-——-601 50 


monstrations ; 707 65 
Less refunded on 
account 1907 ot 36 12 -671 53 
Sundry payments :— 
Apiculture experiment 106 77 


Agricutural implements 40 24 
Fibre machinery 71 46-——-218 47 
Balance in hand December 
31st, 1908 :— 
At Bank of Madras ... 
Dishonoured cheques 
in hand ae 55 
Stock of stamps 8 


33,311 93 


Total ot 56,121 18 


I certify that I have prepared this account of receipts and payments from the books of the 
Society, and that to the best of my belief it is correct, as per my report of this date. 


Colombo, May 26, 1909. 


THE AGRI-HORTICULTURAL AND 
INDUSTRIAL SHOW, MANNAR. 


REPORT BY MR. ALEX. PERERA. 


This was the first Show ever held in 
Mannar, and fora first attempt it more 
than realised expectations. The exhibits 
were displayed in six cadjan sheds and 
two tents. Inspite of the drought which 
prevailed during the last three months, 
and the lateness of the season, most of the 


8 


H. P. CHURCH, 
Incorporated Accountant, 


vegetables and fruits shown were good 
and, judging from the Tomatoes, Cucum 
ber, Beet, Knol kohl, Carrot and Lettuce 
exhibited by Mr. C. Zanetti, I. E., it 
would appear that even in dry and 
distant Mannar, witha little care and 
attention, it is possible to grow many 
varieties of native and exotic vegetables 
and fruits of good quality. 

There was a large collection of Pump- 
kins, Melons and Cucumbers of different 
varieties, Bandakka, Brinjal, Chillies, 
Beans and Spinach were of very tair 


Miscetlaneous. 


quality. Yams and Onions were not 
well represented. 


Pomegranates, in the fruit section, 
were the best I have seen anywhere, and 
the oranges, limes and plantains were 
good; mangoes, papaws and pines (of 
the common * rock” variety) were not so 
good as they might have been, and the 
custard apples were altogether poor. 
Grapes were represented by three small 
bunches. 


In the class of Commercial Products, 
there were some fairly good bunches of 
ordinary and king coconuts, gingelly, 
margosa, coconutand mi (iluppai) oils of 
fair quality. The different products of 
the Palmyrah palm naturally took a 
prominent place in this section, and 
‘**Odiyal” flour, jaggery and “ Pinnadu” 
were well represented. A large quantity 
of tobacco was shown, as wellas some 
cigars, all of poor quality. There were 
several bottles of wild honey, and some 
combs of Apis florea, as well as a few 
varieties of gumsand resins, and only 
two ‘“‘hands” of betel of poor quality. In 
a place like Mannar the exhibits of pre- 
served fish was expected to be large and 
varied, but it was rather disappointing. 

The products of the Palmyrah again, 
in arts and manufactures, were well 
represented. Mats, baskets, hats, ropes 
of good workmanship, and other articles 
of every day use were shown in fair 
quantity. A few pieces of wood and 
coconut shell carvings, as also a fairly 
good collection of lace and drawn-thread 
work, were exhibited. Agricultural im- 
plements were represented by some 
native ploughs, and the fishing industry 
by afew specimens of fishing lines and 
nets. Iron work, pottery and tin work 
were very poorly represented. 


The collections of paddy and dry 
grains were interesting. Of paddy there 
were eighty-two varieties, and about 
fifteen to twenty from the district. Dry 

rains chiefly consisted of Kurakkan, 

lundu, Kampan Pillu, Indian Corn, 
Kadai Kanni, etc. 


Live stock was represented by some 
seven pairs of cart bulls, a Sindh bull 
and cow, six buffaloes of good average 
quality. Native bulls and cows were 
poorly represented in every way. There 
were besides eight pairs of goats, three 
pairs of sheep, one sow, seventeen entries 
of poultry, six of ducks, two each of 


turkeys and Guinea fowls, three Mannar— 


ponies and three donkeys were also 
shown, and the following wild animals, 
viz., deer, pea fowl, monkeys, parrots, 
squirrels, mungoose, jackals, hare, 
cranes, pole-cats and canaries. 

_Dairy produce consisted of about 
sixty bottles of buffaloe and cow ghee, 


~*~ ~ 


butter of poor quality, milk, curd, 
fowls’ eggs and ducks’ eggs. 


Some good fruit preserves, jellies, 
pickles and milk-wine were also shown; 
as well as cakes, bread and native sweet- 
meats. 


I helped in thearrangement and judg- 
ing of the vegetables, fruits and live 
stock and dairy produce—the latter in 
conjunction with Dr. Tillakaratne. 


A meeting of the local Agricultural 
Society was held on the following day 
under the presidency of the Assistant 
Government Agent. I was present at 
this meeting by request, and spoke a few 
words on behalf of the OC, A. S., 
regarding its aims and objects. I under- 
stood from the remarks made by the 
Chairman that, although there had been 
a long interval between this meeting 
and the last one, with this Show it was 
expected that a new era in matters 
agricultural had dawned. The success 
of this Show was chiefly due to the 
keen interest taken by Mr. Stevenson, 
Assistant Government Agent of Mannar, 
in whom agricultural interests finda 
warm supporter, It is to be hoped that 
this successful Show may be the 
forerunner of many more. 


ALEX. PERERA, 
Assistant Superintendent, S. G. 


ANURADHAPURA SHOW, MAY, 1909. 


REporRT BY MR. N. WICKREMARATNE; 
AGRICULTURAL INSTRUCTOR, 


A Show in Anuradhapura cannot of 
course be judged by the same-standard 
as Shows held in Colmobo, Galle, or the 
larger towns, But, considering the cli- 
mate of the North-Central Province, the 
nature of the produce and the distances 
from which exhibits have to be brought, 
it must be admitted that the Show was 
a success. The numbering of exhibits 
was carefully done, and the exhibits 
themselves were representative of all 
products of the Province, except live 
stock, the addition of which would have 
made the Catalogue complete. 


The demonstrations of the improved 
implements were greatly appreciated by 
the villagers who had the good fortune 
to be present. This shows that even the 
most conservative ‘“ goiyas” can be lifted 
up from his apathy if he is given practi- 
cal and ocular instructions. 


The exhibits themselves were good, 
and, except for one or two items in 
the vegetable class, all sections were 
represented. The quantity of paddy 
and rice required for exhibit might have 


~ 


| [Jony, 1 a 


ed Ee SI ey eS er a SANT ry 
* ¥ , 


’ oe M3 


JuLy, 1909,] 

been larger. There were several good 
bunches of coconuts. All the exhibits of 
the citrus family: oranges, mandarins, 
heen-naram, limes, citrons, etc., were ex- 
cellent. Plantain (especially the cooking 
variety), pumpkins, yams, (including 
cassava and sweet potatoes), were all 
good, but better specimens of Indian 
Corn should have been forthcoming. 
The curing of the tobacco exhibited 
was not. satisfactory. Cotton, the 
future hope of the N. C. P., made a poor 
show. 


Four of the School Gardens sent a col- 
lection of their produce; they were all 
most creditable, 


The Society had a special stand for its 
publications and seeds which were free- 
ly given away. 


~ N. WICKREMARATNE, 
Agricultural Instructor. 


HANGURANKETA A. H. SHOW. 


Report By Mr, ALEX. PERERA. 


The Agri-Horticultural Show which 
was held at Hanguranketa, in connection 
with the Empire Day celebrations, on 
the 24th May, was the first held in the 
district. Thelarge Ambalani, in front 
of the historic Temple, was enclosed and 
utilised for the display of exhibits, and 
it wasfull to overflowing. Lassisted in 
the judging of Fruits and Vegetables, 
Mr. W. Molegoda, Agricultural Instruc- 
tor, being associated with me. The most 
noticeable exhibits in fruits, both for 
quality and quantity, were the papaws 
and citrons. Mangoes were unripe, and 
the oranges as arule inclined to be acid. 
Pomegranates, limes, coconuts, and jak 
were fairly good. I would make special 
mention of two plates of grapes and a 
few mangosteens grown in the district. 
The grapes (both fruits and bunches) 
were of very fair size. Among vege- 
tables there was a goodly collection of 
pumpkins, ash pumpkins, luffa, brinjal, 
tomato and_ cooking plantain of average 
quality. Bottle gourds, bandakkas, 
drumsticks, cucumbers, snake gourds, 
and cabbages were rather poor. There 
was also a good collection of English 
vegetables and uncultivated vegetables. 
But the most noticeable exhibits in this 
class were the capsicum chillies and 
onions; they were well above the 
average. 


Thiee schools competed for the school 
garden prize, viz., Karandagolle, Ekiriya 
and Munwatte. Ekiriya was awarded 
the 1st prize, and Munwatte Hon. Men- 
tion for collection of School Garden pro- 
duce from the respective schools, 


59 Miscellaneous, 


C@MMERCIAL, PRODUCTS were 
sented by coconut, mi, castor, and 
kekuna oils tobacco, cigars, cotton, 
rubber and medicinal products. The 
oils and tobacco were good. 


Foop PRopuctTS consisted of coffee, 
Indian corn, cacao, paddy, arecanuts 
and betel of average quality. Jaggery 
and pepper were not very well repre 
sented. There were several collections 
of chena grains, and the prize exhibit of 
Mr. Andrewewa’s was an excellent one. 


In ARTS AND MANUFACTURES there 
was a good and varied collection of 
blacksmith’s work—hunting knives, 
catties, hatchets, pruning knives, mas 
moties, scythes, etc. Special attention 
was drawn to a combination hatchet, 
knife, saw, hammer and screw driver, 
by the well-known Punchirala of Matu- 
rata. Some mats and baskets of good 
workmanship and a box of Kandyan 
jewellery were also shown. Carpentry 
was poorly represented. A few good 
pieces of drawn-thread work, lace em- 
broidery and other needle work were 
shown. Pickles, preserves, and native 
sweets, prepared by the ladies of the 
district, were also exhibited, 


LIVE Stock consisted of some native 
and ecross-bred bulls and cows, a few 
buffaloes and some poultry of uncertain 
breed. Excepting a bull or two and a 
pair of buffaloes the rest of the live 
stoek were poor, 


DaIRY PRODUCE was represented by 
ten or twelve bottles of ghee of medium 
quality. 


EXTRAS consisted of an old native 
cotton ginning machine, a collection of 
medicinal oils and a few honey combs. 

A special prize was offered to the Head- 
man whose division carried off the 
largest number of prizes, 


ALEX. PERERA, 
Asst, Superintedent of School Gardens. 


repre- 


WELIMADA SHOW. 


REPORT BY Mr. J. K. Nock. 


Ihave the honor to forward the fol- 
lowing report on the Agricultural Show 
held at Welimada on the 27th and 28th 
May, at which I assisted to judge. 

VEGETABLES.—The quality was good, 
especially ot Leeks, Garlic, Pumpkins, 
Brivjals, Chillies, and Bandakkas. Toma- 
toes, Cucumber, Cabbages, and Potatoes 
should have been very much better. 


FrRuits.—Beyond two good pine-apples, 
one large jak, and several lot of guavas, 
there was nothing stand-out in this 
class. Oranges, Limes, Papaws, and 
Pomegranates were poor for the district, 


Miscellaneous. 


COMMERCIAL PropucTs.—This was a 
very good class, the Tobacco grown by 
a Bandarawela resident, and the Cotton 
grown at Welimada being notable for 
their good appearance ard quality; the 
Coconuts sent from Udukinda were of 
good size; and there were very good 
exhibits of Tea, Yams, and Sweet Pota- 
toes, dry Chillies, and Ginger. 

MISCELLANEOUS.—The Pottery, Brass- 
ware, and Carpentry work showed 
clever workmanship, and added variety 
and interest to the Show. 

ScHooL-Boys’ EXHIBITS.—These form- 
ed the stand-out feature of the Show, 
there being no less than forty-eight 
éxhibits, the bulk of which were of really 
good class, this being proved by the fact 
that eleven awards were made. 

LIVE Stock.—There was only one cow 
shown, but it was worth an award. Most 
of the bulls appeared to have a touch 
of English or Australian in them, for 
which they were disqualified ; the price 
was given for a nice little native bull 
shown harnessed to a hackery. 

TRANSPLANTING OF PADDY.—On the 
morning of the 28th five paddy-fields were 
visited, to inspect the work commend- 
ably initiated in the district by Mr, 
Dambawinne, late R. M. The very supe- 
rior condition of the portions trans- 
planted over those sown broadcoast was 
remarkable both as regards general 
growth and crop prospects. As often 
pointed out previously, this is a work 
which should receive serious encourage- 
ment, and I trust the Parent Society will 
be able to see its way to help the Weli- 
mada branch still further by making 
some donations of manure to those who 
have commenced transplanting; their 
names are:—Mr. Dambawinne, late R. 
M., Divitotavilla Appuhamy, Divitota- 
villa Arachchi, and Kalubanda. Every 
attempt should be made to get larger 
areas transplanted each year, and care- 
ful records should be kept. Prizes were 
awarded for each plot. 

GENERAL.—The whole Show showed 
marked improvement over the previous 
one, but the space was inadequate for 
the exhibits, and next time an additional 
building should be erected. 

J. K. Nock, 


Curator, Hakgala Gardens. 


COMMITTEE OF AGRICULTURAL 


EXPERIMENTS. 
MEETING JANUARY 8TH, 1909. 


Report of Progress by the Assistant 
Director, R. B, G. 

Meeting of the Committee of Agricul- 

tural Experiments held on January 8th, 


[Juny, 1909. 


_ Reverting to the Minutes of the meet- 
ing held on July 10th, 1908 :— 


Photographs of Cacao Machinery were 
laid upon the table. (The machinery 
illustrated is far too large for use on 
E.S., and probably too complicated for 
economical working any where in Ceylon.) 


The Still is still undergoing recon- 
struction. The matter is at present in 
the hands of Messrs. Bamber and Jowitt. 


Cacao.—Considerable progress has 
been made in clearing up the plots, and 
the boundaries have been better defined. 
Cacao planters who were acquainted 
with the place in its previous state have 
recently expressed satisfaction with 
the present condition of the plots. 


Four acres of Forastero Cacao are being 
planted out for treatment as half-acre 
plots. Mr. Bamber will propose experi- 
ments to be carried out on these. 


Planting operations of all kinds have 
been very much handicapped by un- 
fortunate conditions of weather, never- 
theless. 


An acre (plot 11) of Jequié Manicobar 
Rubber (Manihot dichotoma) has been 
planted out successfully. 


A further 4,000 seeds of the same 
variety and a like number of seeds of 
Remanso Rubber (Manihot Piawhyensis) 
received from Kew, have been planted 
out in nurseries and are germinating. 

Tywo-acre plots for pepper have been 
surveyed and cleared of undergrowth, 
but are not yet planted. 


It seems legitimate to express some 
dissatisfaction with the fact that the 
agricultural machinery ordered early in 
August through the Crown Agents has 
not yet arrived, and will have to be paid 
for out of next year’s vote. 


Thanks to Mr. Mee’s personal exertions, 
however, a large part of the young 
coconut plot has been ploughed success- 
fully. An acre of groundnuts, an acre 
of Hickory King maize, half an acre of 
Sea Island and half an acre of Egyptian 
cotton, and quarter of an acre of tobacco 
have been established. 

The girth of practically all the Rubber 
trees on the Experiment Station has been 
measured. 

The tea plots have been taken in hand 
and thoroughly tidied up under Mr. 
Bamber’s personal supervision. 

Plants of several varieties of oil 
grasses were very kindly presented to 
the Hxperiment Stationby Mr. Jowitt. 
Small plots of the following have been 
established :— 

Maha-p engiri, 
Lena-batuspengiri, 
Cymbopogon flexuosus. 
C. polyneuros. 


; 
' 
4 
" 
: 


>) Ss 


JoLy, 1909.] 


Cymbopogon Martini most unfortun- 
ately failed, owing to a misguided 
effort to get too many sets out of a small 
plant. 


A series of small show plots has been 
laid out near the office at Mr, Bamber’s 
suggestion. 


I cannot help remarking in conclusion 
that, although there has not yet been 
time or opportunity for carrying out 
quite all the resolutions of the last two 
meetings, stillthe Committee may very 
properly congratulate itself on the 
great improvement in general appear- 
ance, and still more upon the real pro- 
gress in experimental work which has 
been made during 1908. For this pro- 
gress the greatest credit is due to the 
Superintendent and staff of the Experi- 


ment Station, 
R. H. LOCK, 
Assistant Director, R. B. G. 


PROGRESS REPORT ON_EXPERI- 
MENT STATION, PERADENIYA. 


Submitted to the Committee of Agri- 
cultural Experiments on March 11th, 
1909, by Mr. Kelway Bamber, Govern- 
ment Chemist, 

Since the last meeting January 8th, 
1909, I took over charge of the exper!- 
ments on Gangraoowa from Mr. Lock. 

Practically all the suggestions of the 
minutes have been carried out, or the 
work commenced as far as climate and 
conditions allowed. 


Tra.—Plot 141 has been forked up alter- 
nate lines and mulched with compost of 
jungle material 

The plot to be manured artificially will 
He done after the pruning, which is soon 

ue. 

Plots 143 and 147 have had the alternate 
lines forked and crotalaria cut and 
heaped for the second time; 38,609 lbs. 
and 1,755 lbs. being obtained respectively. 
The plots were not forked at the first 
cutting and the material was more or 
less lost, 


Plot 148 will be sown with crotalaria 
and slag and potash just before pruning. 

Plots 151 to 154 have been supplied with 
Para stumps from old trees and young 
trees and will be re-supplied. 


The Hon’ble Mr. Turner suggests one 
plot should have prunings buried and 
the other forked and heaped for com- 
abe using Basic slag and Potash 
only. 


CocoA.—All the experiment plots have 
been manured ; those receiving single 
constituents have had the amount 
doubled so as to get a more marked 
effect. 


61 


Miscellaneous. 


All the supplies in the plots have been 
forked and mulched with mana grass. 

Experiments are being conducted to 
train shoots to form lateral branches 
where needed, with promising results. 

The cocoa plots from seeds of special 
trees have been manured with a soluble 
mixture, forked and mulched with al- 
ready marked results. 


Five acres of cocoa from No. 2tree of 
Forastero from Plot 1 have been planted 
15x15’ and Dadap stumps put in as 
suggested for shadeand manurial pur- 
poses. 

Mixed ¢rotalarias and Indigofera have 
been sown on one plot. 

This cocoa was put out in baskets, 
shaded, the ground forked and mulched 
with Micania scandens, &c., and hardly 
a vacancy is to be seen notwithstanding 
the drought. 


PiLots.—The acreage has been divided 
into 10 half-acre plots. 

Plot No. 119 has been forked and 
mulched as suggested. A little canker 
appeared here and there through the 
cocoa, but this has been carefully re- 
moved. The unmanured plots above the 
paddy and near the river had 40 to 50 
trees and the manured plots 5 or 6 only. 
All the trees have been measured in 
every plot. 

RUBBER.—PARA: Plot 78 
manured with ammonium sulphate 
150 lbs., Concentrated superphosphate 
100 Ibs., Sulphate of potash 100 Ilbs.— 
350 lbs. in rings round the trees, forked 
and mulched.° 
Plot 79 has been drilled with Crotalaria 18” apart 

8 Indigofera 18’ apart 
ure as yet, 

Plot 80 has had one row mulched with 
Lemon grass, All have been weeded 
clean and all the trees measured. 

CEARA.—Experimental tapping has 
been commenced on these. 

DicHoToMA.—The clearing 20 x 20’ plant- 
ed October, 1907, has been kept clean 
weeded. The clearing 12’x12’ has been 
established with hardly a vacancy not- 
withstanding the drought. 

350. A new clearing 6x6’ has been 
lined and is being planted. 

A fallen tree of the first clearing was 
cutinto 18” lengths, and supplied 56 cut- 
tings all of which are growing. 

Seed from the young trees have been 
collected and are germinating well. 

PIAUHYENSIS.—There are very few 


plants of this variety, soa plot has not 
yet been made. 


CASTILLOA.—Experimental tapping 
has_ been commenced on the lower row 
of Plot 129.: 

Coconuts.—A census has been taken 
giving 927 trees available for experiments 


has been 


> 93 
both without man 


Miscellaneous. 


These have been divided into plots of 
60-70 trees practically one acre each, and 
some of the treatment suggested has been 
commenced. The nuts will be collected 
separately from the next plucking so 
that the manurial results, which will 
hardly beapparent for two years, except 
perhaps on the foliage, can be compared 
with present yields of each plot as well 
as with the control plots. 


The barbacue has been prepared for 
copra making and the chekku oil mill 
also repaired so that oil estimations can 
be made from the manured plots. Owing 
to insufficient labour it has been im- 
possible to remove the coconut trees from 
the cocoa manurial plots as yet. 


S1saL.—A plot of sisal fibre has been 
made from suckers from the Royal 
Botanie Gardens planted 8’ x 8’. 


Several new plots of leguminous plants 
have been established, including the 
Berseem variety of Clover from Egypt. 
Various beans from the Togo Islands, 
Soy beans from the United States, &c. 


CITRONELLA.—A plot of the pure Maha 
Pengiri from Java plants has 2lso been 
made. Itis expected that this variety 
may replace the others used in Ceylon, 


Loss oF Soin.—Five plots of one-fiftieth 
of an acre have been made on sloping 
ground and planted with Desmodium, 


Crotalaria, Dadaps, Albizzias and con-- 


trol. 


PADDY.—Small green manuring experi- 
ments with native beans have been done 
and others with Berseem Clover will be 
commenced. 


StTorRE.—Cocoa fermenting experiments 
have been done with satisfactory results, 
the best system apparently being to 
ferment 12 hours, partly wash, ferment 
again 24 hours, wash, again ferment 24 
hours, wash and dry as rapidly as pos- 
sible. These experiments are being 
continued, 


Some Nitro-bacterine samples have 
been received, aitd the method of appli- 
cation will be shown. 


Label boards have been made and 
marked with the variety of plant, date 
of planting, manuring, &c., and others 

will be done for all the experimental 
plots. = 


VISITORS,—Several Planters and Visi- 
tors have been shown round the estate ? 
the former taking special interest in 
the green manuring experiments. 


M. KELWAY BAMBER;, 
Government Chemist. 


bw. 


——, > FL a ee” eee. ae 


2 
. 


— Jun 
PROGRESS REPORT OF THE EX- 


PERIMENT STATION, PERA- 
DENIYA. \ 


Submitted to the Committee of Agri- 
cultural Experiments, May 18, 1909. 


RusserR.—Plot No. 12 Manihot Di- 
chotoma has been planted successfully 
6' x 6, 98 % good. Three blown down 
trees of Manihot Dichotoma have been 
cut and planted, every cutting of a 
previous tree having struck well. 

Manihot piauhyensis plot of 67 trees 
established 12’ x 12’ near the Temple 
on the Papaw plot. All stumps re- 
moved and land ploughed. 4 


Measured Para Rubber on Lemon 
grass plot. : 

Tapping experiments on Castilloa 
plot 129in progress on the bottom row by 
Mr. Rothwell. 

Ceara tapping also tried with vary- 
ing results. 

TeA.—Plot 141 mulched with fresh 
jungle material 508 Ibs. up each line as 
before by 36 lines—about 18,300 lbs. 


Plot 142 had alternate lines forked 
and crotalaria and indigofera sown up 
the lines. 

_ Assam hybrid plots re-supplied fiom 
Seaforth estate, Dolosbage. 
; a the boundary dadap trees pruned 

o 4. 

Rested bushes on plots 151 to 155 are 
Deine pruned and have formed good 
wood. 


Plucking has been to the fish leaf for 
six rounds on the indigenous and hybrid 
plots, and four rounds on the _ single 
indigenous, when whole leaf plucking 
was resumed, 


The yields from plots 149 and 150 have 
been very good, viz., 731 and 749 lbs. in 
April, while plots 145 to 148 have given 
over 500 lbs. green leaf, 

The indigenous plots are being sup- 
plied with Manipuri from Mr. J. R. 
Fairweather, Mabopitiya Estate, Kegalle. 

Cocoa.—5 acres all planted and sup- 
plied dadaps, all taking well. 


Lind all ploughed. One-half aecr® 
sown with mixed crotalarias and indigo” 
fera on steeper portion. 

All stumps have been removed and 
Arecanuts cut out. 


Canker excision continued as usual, 
very few trees being affected. 

All suckers removed every two 
months, 


Mr. Rettie sent two coolies to be 
taught the process of Canker excision. 

Remaining plots 94 to96 A & B have 
been manured, and all experimental - 
plots labelled. 


a 
1900, 


br 


Had ae es " 
~ Jury, 1909.] 


All Pomelo trees with parasites re- 
moved from along the main drive. 


Grass.—The contract has been taken 
from Mr. Alwis andthe grass is being 
sold daily at 3 cents a bundle, about 
120 bundles per day. 


_ Loss or Som.—The silt was weighed 
on the 27th April after some heavy rains, 
with the following results :— 


Piot1. Desmodiumtriflorum 282 lbs, 
2. Crotalaria up the slope 545; ., 
3. Dadaps 1,685 ,, 
4, Blank er S653%: 55 
5. Albizzias f.. - 661-,, 
The three last plots had some self- 
sown crotalaria about them, which 
saved a little wash, but the dadaps and 
albizzias are not yet affording any 
protection. 


GREEN MANuRES.—New plots 
been made of 
Boga medeloa from India. 
Tephrosia hookeriana from Sarawak. 
Indigofera hirsuta. 3 
Tephrosia villosa from Maha-illup- 
palama. : 
Tephrosia purpurea, var pumila ,, 
Coconuts.—The manuring experiments 
have not yet been commenced beyond 
marking out the trees in lots of about 
70 or. 1 acre owing to want of labour. 


Pappy.—Various beans were sown in 
small plots for green manuring purposes 
and grew fairly well, but were all taken 
by the Sinhalese and coolies. 


The one acre plot of Indian corn 
Hickory King was reaped in 23 days by 
18 coolies at 34 cents average. 

4,433 plants weighing 4,553; Ibs. 
yielded 3,824 cobs a 2,051¢ ,, 
gave 1,219+ lbs of dry seed. 


Fibre and cob covers 785 lbs, 


Sriinu.—A small still has been repaired 
and erected for distillation of the small 
plots of pure grasses. About _two acres 
of land have been cleaned and prepared 
for the citronella oils. 


have 


A Rubber-smoking apparatus has been 
received from Mr. Wickham of Brazil, 
and can be seen working after the 
meeting. 


NOTES AND QUERIES. 

J. A. G. J —It is not necessary to plant 
a grafted plant up to the point of 
grafting. Where the point is low on the 
stock this might be done; but where 
it is high it would not be desirable to do 
so, as the roots will then be smothered. 
A well grafted plant should not die 
down if carefully handled and protected 
from injury. 


63 Miscellaneous 


BLAcK HAMBURGH.—I would hesitat 
to advise your trying to grow grapes in 
the Western Province, which is far too 
wet, though I have known exceptional 
cases of productive vines in Colombo, 
and there are still some in Matale which 
is a wet district. Besides the dry 
North where the Black Hamburgh 
variety is now being tried, the Kastern, 


North-Eastern and Uva _ Provinces, 
Chilaw, Puttalam, Hambantota and 
Hanguranketa districts are likely to 


suit the grape. The Continental and 
Australian system of low pruning 
does not suit our conditions of climate 
in Ceylon where there can be no 
‘‘wintering,” Mr. C. Zanetti, Irrigation 
Engineer in charge of Giant’s Tank, is 
perhaps the best local authority on the 
subject of grape cultivation. 


KF. D. W.—The Queensland Ayricul- 
tural Journal for November last refers 
to the packing of mangoes for transport 
and recommends the Safety Export 
Fruit Case. It is described as a basket 
box 201” long, 97” wide and 6} deep. 
Iuside this a set of cardboard ‘‘ pockets ” 
is placed in which the fruit is packed, 
each fruit thus having a ventilated 
compartment to itself. After the 
packing of the bottom layer a flat piece 
of cardboard is placed on the top along 
which a second layer is packed, and 
then the lidis nailed on. The cardboard 
“pocket” or ‘‘ filler” isa strip of card- 
board just a fraction less than the inside 
measurement of the case. For a basket 
such as that deseribed the size would be 
20’x9" x23. This is cut at regular dis- 
tances, and another strip of cardboard 
also slit horizontally, is placed trans- 
versely acrossit. The slits dovetail, and 
thus by placing several pieces in position 
the box is divided into neat and regular 
compartments. Theabove is the regula- 
tion size, but it is quite easy to modify 
the size of the compartments to suit the 
fruit; it only means cutting the slits in 
the cardboard at the people intervals. I 
ought to mention that the Safety Ex- 
port Fruit Case is protected by patent. 


I lately received a case of fine mangoes 
from Bangalore, carefully packed in 
straw ina sealed case; but, though the 
journey took but three days, the fruit 
reached me quite spoilt. 


C,S.—Thanks for your recipé for the 
preparation of slime-apple confection 
which I am sure many will be glad to 


have, and I am therefore giving it 
below :— 


“Serape out the pulp and, after 
thinning it with water, strain away the 
seeds and fibre. Having poured the 
resulting paste into boiling syrup the 
mixture should be vigorously stirred 
with a ladle until it thickens to the 


Miscellaneous. 64 


degree that it will harden when cooled. 
Then spread out the paste ona marble 
slab and cut into any size and shape you 
like. During the process of boiling 
some flavouring essence like vanilla or 
cinnamom might be added, The pro- 
portion might be2 lb. sugar (for the 
syrup) to 1 pound of the fruit pulp. The 
possibility of the extended usefulness, 
especially from a medical point of view, 
of this confection of slime-apple (the 
virtues of which are too well known), 
like the confections of figs and tamarind 
now in use, are I think considerable. 


C. DRIEBERG, 
Secretary, C. A. S. 


THE BLOOD OF PLANTS. 
(From the Gardeners’ Chronicle, XLYV., 
1169, May, 1909.) 

It has long been known that the blood 
of animals contains substances—respira- 
tory pigments—which act as carriers of 
oxygen; that is, which are capable of 
uniting with oxygen and of yielding it 
up to the tissues of the body. Such 
respiratory pigments are contained, for 
example, in mammalian blood, and to 
them that fluid owes its characteristic 
colour. The change of colour which 
blood urdergoes in passing from the 
arterial to the venous state is due to the 
change in colour of the _ respiratory 
pigment. When united with oxygen it 
is bright red, and when deprived of 
oxygen it is of a darker colour. 


Again, itis well known that in the 
process of respiration, both in plants 
and animals, the energy which this 
process releases and puts at the disposal 
of the organism is in part dueto oxida- 
tions. The raw materials of respiration 
are complex organic compounds—sugar 
and also nitrogen-containing bodies: 
the final “ waste” products of the process 
are fully oxidised substances, such as 
earbon-dioxide, water and the like. 


It has always been a puzzle to physio- 
logists to understand by what chemical 
course of events the respired substances 
are oxidisedin the cells of the plant or 
animal. 

It has been evident for some time that 
respiration is not a simple oxidation 
process, for if it were, then increasing 
the supply of oxygen should result in 
increased respiration. This is not the 
case with plants, for, the amount of 
oxygen in the air supplied to the plant 


may be varied within extraordinarily 


wide limits without increasing the rate 
of respiration. 

That certain processes go on in the 
plant preliminary to the oxidative pro- 


v oe. 


2 [JuLy, 1 


cesses which constitute the last stage of 
respiration is evident from the study of 
fermentation by yeast. 


Yeast is a fungus which, as is known 
to all, converts certain sugars into 
aleohol and carbon dioxide. Yeast 
(Saccharomyces cerevisece) is remark- 
able, inasmuch as it may live in the 
presence or in the complete absence of 
oxygen; or, in other words, it can live 
eerobically or anzerobically. 


When oxygen is present yeast, besides 
fermenting a certain amount of sugar to 
alcohol, converts some sugar into carbon 
dioxide and water, thatis, it sets up 
fermentation and also respires like an 
ordinary plant. When oxygenis absent 
yeast obtains its supplies of energy 
solely by breaking sugar molecules into 
alcohol and carbon dioxide. 


Yeast, as an serobe, derives the major 
part of its energy thus :— 


Ce Hi2 05+6 02=6 C02+6 He VU 
as an anzerobe, thus :— 

Cs Hiz 06e=2 C2 Hs H 04+2 Coz 
and since the energy obtainable from 
a given weight of fermentable sugar is 
greater when the oxidation is complete, 
asin the former case, than when the 
sugar molecule is splilt into an unoxi- 
dised part (alcohol) and an oxidised part 


(carbon-dioxide), it follows that, to get — 


the energy necessary for its routine 
work of living, yeast as an anzrobe 


must decompose considerably more 


sugar than when it is living as an 
eerobe. This is confirmed by the ex- 
perience of brewers, who limit the 
amount of oxygen available for the 
yeast during alcoholic fermentation. 
Till recently the facts of alcoholic fer- 
mentation were regarded rather as 
eurious than significant. Two sets of 
observations have forced them into 
prominence as throwing light on the 
chemistry of respiration. The first set 
of observations indicates that alcoholic 
fermentation is not confined to yeast and 
various other micro-organisms, but may 
be demonstiated to occur among the 
higher plants, That this is so, anyone 
may determine very readily by keeping 
Bean seeds under water for afew days, 
and then rubbing the seeds between 
the fingers, when a distinct smell of 
alcohol is to be recognised. EHxperi- 
ments on the behaviour of the higher 
plants when deprived of oxygen have 
led to the conclusion that in these 
circumstances, though no oxygen is 
absorbed, carbon-dioxide continues for 
some time to be evolved; and, as we have 
just seen, alcohol is also produced. This 
process of respiration without oxygen is 
ealled generally intra-molecular respira- 
tion. It agrees in the most exact manner 
with the alcoholic fermentation of sugar 


4 


= 


909, 


2 


JULY, 1909] 


_ by yeast, and, indeed, ‘only takes place 


in plants which contain sugar in their 
tissues. Thesecond set of observations 
bearing on the chemistry of respiration 
are due to Buchner, who has succeeded in 
isolating from the living yeast-cell a defi- 
nite substance which he terms zymase, 
and which, like the living yeast-cell 
itself, has the power of decomposing 
sugar into alcohol and carbon-dioxide. 


» 

From these results it would appear pro- 
bable that in yeast, living in oxygen, res- 
piration takes place in a series of 
stages, of which the first is the disrup- 
tion by zymase and similar agents of 
complex, organic substances such as 
sugar (and also  nitrogen-containing 
bodies), and the second the oxidation of 
the alcohol and other substances pro- 
duced by this disruptive action. 1f this 
is the probable course of events in the 
respiration of yeast, it is also, for the 
reasons already given, the probable 
course of events in the respiration of 
all plants. 


In this scheme the respiratory pig- 
ments find a definite place. These pig- 


ments consist of readily oxidisable 
bodies, and, under the influence of 
special agents of oxidation called 


oxidases and peroxidases, take up oxy- 
gen. They act as temporary storers of 
oxygen. The oxygen, which they hold 
but loosely, is taken from them and 
induced -to combine with the products of 
the disruptive process described above, 
-with the consequent production of fully- 
oxidised substances—the so-called pro- 
ducts .of respiration—such as carbon- 
dioxide and water. <A_ respiratory 
pigment may have different colours 
according as it isin the oxidised or the 
reduced state ; thus indigo is blue in the 
former, but colourless in the latter con- 
dition. Various fungi, such as species 
of Boletus turn blue when broken and 
exposed to the air owing to the taking 
up of oxygen by the respiratory pigment. 
Many of the common colour changes 
in vegetables, as, for example, «the 
browning of Apples may be the visible 
sign Of a similar oxidative process where- 
by a respiratory pigment is converted 
from its reduced, colourless state to its 
oxidised, coloured condition ; the oxygen 
so taken up being destined for respir- 
atory purposes. Inasmuch as_ bodies, 
having these peculiar relations to 
oxygen and exhibiting marked colour 
characteristics when oxidised, exist in 
the sap of the most varied kinds of 
plants, it has been suggested by Palla- 
din, to whom the most recent investi- 
gations are due, that the cell-sap of 
plants, because it contains these respi- 
ratory pigments and also the oxidising 
agents, is to beregarded as fulfilling the 
same respiratory functions as the blood 
of animals, 


7) 


Miscellaneouos. 


Looking at matters from the stand- 
point of the plant, the problem which 
it solves by respiration is how to’ obtain 
the energy for doing its work. The 
complex substances which it manufac- 
tures contain potentially great stores of 
energy. Allthatis required is that these 
substances should be oxidised. At the 
low temperature at which plants work 
this cannot be done directly. Itis done 
indriectly in two series of operations. 
First, by special, elastic (decomposing) 
agents, like zymase, the organic sub- 
stanees are split up into intermediate 
bodies. Inthe second set of operations 
oxygen is broughtinto close association 
with the respiratory pigments. In the 
last place, this store of oxygen is intro- 
duced to, and caused to combine with, the 
decomposition-products of the first stage. 
Thus more or less fully-oxidised pro- 
duets are evolved, the fullness of oxi- 
dation being a measure of the complete- 
ness with which the potential energy of 
the original food substance is liberated, 
Although it cannot yet be described in 
simple language, easy of apprehension 
to the layman, the great problem of the 
mode of origin of the vital energy of 
organisms, by virtue of which they live 
and move and have their being, begins 
to beintelligible. 


SCHOOL GARDENS. 


THeiR OBJECT, MANAGEMENT, &C. 


(Teachers’ Leaflet No. 1 for 1909,) 


The following circular, under the three 
heads (1) Object of School Gardens; (2) 
Conditions under which they are work- 
ed; (8) Points in the judging of Gardens, 
is sent for your information and guid- 
ance :— 


1.—Objects of School Gardens. 


(a) To brighten the surroundings of 
the school, and make it what it ought to 
be, viz., a pleasant resort for the boys 
and not a bare and unattractive build- 
ing. 7 
(6) To lighten the routine of class 
work by varying it with outdoor work 
of a recreative nature. 

(c) To exemplify order, form, neatness, 
and good taste in the laying out of the 
premises, 

(ad) To furnish a field for nature study, 
i.e., the study of natural objects in their 
natural surroundings. 


(e) To serve as object lessons in horti- 
culture, i.e, the cultivation of useful 
and ornamental plants. 


(f) To give a practical turn to school 
life, and provide a training in element- 
ary agricultural science. 

(g) To serve as centres for the disse- 
mination of seeds and plants and of 
information concerning them. 


Miscellaneous. 66 


(h) To be mediums ‘of communication 
between the agencies that aim at the 
improvement of agriculture, and the 
cultivating classes. 


(t) To induce the cultivator, directly 
or through the school boys, to take up 
new and improved products and adopt 
better methods of cultivation. 


(7) To awaken in school children a new 
interest in the cultivation of plants, and 
instil into them a love of nature, and so 
reconcile them toa country life and to 
agricultural pursuits. 


(k) To encourage school children to 
establish gardens at their homes. 


(Z) To make school boys take an honest 
pride in manual labour, and induce a 
healthy competition among them as well 
as between one school and another. 


2,—Conditions under which School 
Gardens are worked. 


(a) Any school which presents possibi- 
lities for school gardening -will be fur- 
nished with a stock of implements, and 
supplied with seeds from time to time: 
where required, fencing wire will also be 
supplied. 


(6b) Garden work should be carried on 
by the teacher with the help of the 
monitors and scholars. After setting 
aside such part of the produce as is re- 
quired for purposes of propagation the 
remainder should be divided between 
the Headmaster, Assistant Masters, 
Monitors, and boys who have actually 
assisted in the work of the garden. 


(c) In the case of produce not actually 
used as food, and which it is desirable 
to dispose of with a view to profit, the 
amount realised is to be entered in the 

uarterly report form. The revenue 

rom such cultivation will at the end of 
the year be equally divided, half to go to 
the Headmaster, and half to be devoted 
to a garden prize fund for the school. 


(ad) Quarterly Reports should be fur- 
nished in the forms provided. 


(e) The School Gardens will be inspect- 
ed periodically by the Superintendent 
and his assistants, and prizes will be 
awarded by the Department to teachers 
who show the best results. 


({) A certificate will accompany each 
prize, setting forth the nature of the 
award, &c., and certificates of honorable 
mention will also be awarded to deserv- 
ing teachers. 


3.—Points to be considered in the 
judging of School Gardens. 


(a) Area cultivated. 

(b) Situation and lay of land. 

(c) Climate and rainfall. 

(d) Number and variety of plants 
grown: (1) economic ; (II) orna- 
mental. 


' village tradesman, 


i se tee 


Pa 


{J UL¥, 1909. ae 


(e) Laying out. 

(f) Arrangement of plants and trees. 
(g) Grouping for effect, ; 

(h) Skill in cultivation. 

(t) Cleanliness of premises. 

(7) Cultivation in pots, tubs, and boxes. 
(k) Bowers and arches. 

(l) Fruit trees. 

(m) Fences and hedges. 

(n) Paths and drains. 

(0) Lawn and playground, 

(p) Furnishing of reports and returns. 
(q) School garden records. 

(r) Activity and intelligence ofscholars. 
(s) Care of implements. 

(€) Aptitude and interest shown by 


teacher. 
C. DRIEBERG, 
Supt., School Gardens, 


AGRICULTURAL CREDIT BANKS. 
(From the Board of Agriculture and 
Fisheries’ Leaflet No. 214.) 


A Credit Bank is a Co-operative Society 
through which personsina small way 
of business may obtain advances of 
money for useful purposes at a reason- 
able rate of interest. 


Some people may be inclined to 
question the wisdom of supporting: or 
encouraging any system which makes it 
easy fora man to conduct his business 
with borrowed money. This idea, how- 
ever, is based upon a_ misconception. 
The wisdom of borrowing upon reason- 
able terms is generally a question of the 
security which the borrower can offer, 


Credit is at the foundation of modern 
business methsds. Most public com- 
panies work with borrowed money, and 
so long as the company can show good 
security for its liabilities, nobody ques- 
tions the soundness of the principle. 


A business man of any standing in 
the commercial world experiences little 
difficulty in obtaining temporary ad- 
vances cf money to meet special require- 
ments. Butthe small manin an agtri- 
cultural community does not, as arule, 
possess the same facilities. 


In the days when private banks were 
scattered up and down the country the 
position was somewhat different. A 
trustworthy man could then more easily 
obtain a credit accommodation merely 
on the security of his character and 
position. But with the gradual absorp- 
tion of private firms into large Joint- 
Stock Banks conditions have changed. 
The small farmer, the labourer with his 
allotment, the market gardener and the 
may not be in a 
position to borrow money through the 


ordinary channels of credit, because . 


ability, experience, and honesty of 


JuLy, 1909.] 


character do not necessarily constitute 
a sufficiently acceptable security for an 
advance. It is such persons that a 


’ Credit Bank is intended to benefit. 


A Credit Bank, however, is not a 

philanthropic institution, but a society 
based and conducted _ strictly upon 
business principles. The distinctive 
features of a Credit Bank are :— 


(i) It is co-operative—its 
being ‘‘ Self-help.” 

(ii) Itislocal—its members living with- 
in a small area and being well 
known to one another. 


These two features will become clearer 
when we proceed to consider its 


CONSTITUTION AND OPERATIONS. 


The village or parish is the most con- 
venient unit of area fora Credit Bank. 
The intending members form themselves 
into a society which adopts rules and is 
duly registered by the Registrar of 
Friendly Societies. 

Fall information as to the proper 
procedure can-be obtained from the 
Chief Registrar of Friendly Societies, 
28, Abingdon Street, Westminster, S,W 
The Secretary of the Agricultural 
Organisation Society, Dacre House, 
Daere Street, Westminster, S.W., will 
also supply model rules on application, 
and is willing to conduct the necessary 
proceedings as to registration. 

The Credit Bank appoints its officers 
and committee of management, and, as 
soon as it is properly constituted and 
registered, is in a position to borrow 
money on the joint security of its 
members. This money it lends out to 
those of its members who are at the 
moment in need of ready money. 


Credit Banks do not distribute divi- 
dends, and, the expenses of management 
being very small, money can be lent ata 
low rate of interest, and this is the main 
object for which the Bank is formed. 


The wisdom of borrowing, 1t has been 
stated, depends upon the purpose for 
which the money is borrowed. The 
Credit Bank will only lend money for 
purposes of production or economy. 
This, however, allows ita wide field of 
action. To give but afew examples of 
the useful objects for which money 
might be advanced there may be 
mentioned the purchase of  imple- 
ments, seeds, manure, poultry, &e., 
or the erection of a fowl-house, green- 
house, or pigstye. A member who 
wishes to borrow money must state 
the purpose for which he requires it, 
and must undertake to apply it to that 
particulay purpose. It will then be 
within the discretion of the Committee 


key-note 


Miscellaneous: 


to decide whether the loan shall be 
granted or not. 


A Credit Bank can only lend to its 
own members, and its success will de- 
pend upon its admitting as members 
only those whose industry, honesty, and 
integrity are beyond question. A man 
who possesses these qualities should 
have no difficulty in becoming a member 
of a Credit Bank, or in obtaining from 
it an advance of money for any useful 
and productive purpose. The Bank will, 
however, require him to furnish sureties 
for its repayment. 


There can be no more thoroughly 
democratic institution than a Credit 
Bank. It elects its officers and commit- 
tee to manage its affairs, but the action 
of these officers will be subject to vigi- 
lant checking, and it will be to the 
interest of every member to see that 
the character of the membership is strict- 
ly maintained, and that the affairs of 
the Bank are conducted in an efficient 
and businesslike manner. 


The interest in good management will 
be the more vital because a Credit Bank 
of this type must necessarily be con- 
ducted upon the principal of the 


UNLIMITED LIABILITY 


of its members for the money raised 
by the Society. 

Lest this should cause any misgivings 
as to any risk incurred by the individual 
members, it should be pointed out that 
the risk may be most effectually guarded 
against. The possibility of loss is in any 
case very remote owing to the effectual 
control which the members can exercise 
over all transactions of the Bank, and 
it is reduced to practically nothing by 
adopting arule limiting the amount of 
money that can be lent either in all or 
to any one member each year. Section 
46 of the Friendly Societies’ Act provides 
that a Society shall not make auy loan 
to a member on personal security beyond 
the amount fixed by the rules, or make 
any loan which together with any 
money Owing by a member to a society 
exceeds £80. 


On the other hand, itis just the secu- 
rity of such unlimited liability which 
enables the society to borrow money 
without trouble on advantageous terms. 


How very remote the risk of loss really 
is may be judged from the fact that in 
Germany, where there are between 4,009 
and 5,000 societies of the Rruiffeisen 
Union proper, in addition to a much 
larger number similarly organized, it is 
said that no depositor or other creditor 
has lost afarthing since the movement 
was started in 1849, 


Miscetlaneous. 68. 


In Ireland an almost equal immunity 
from loss is claimed by the Irish Agri- 
cultural Organisation Society, which has 
about 300 affiliated Credit Banks; and 
the few existing Credit Societies in 
England can tell the same story. 

DEPOSITS. 

To every Credit Bank there should 
be attached a department for receiving 
on deposit the savings of its members. 
The money thus received would to some 
extent supplement that borrowed by 
the Society, and would assist it in its 
lending operations. 


CENTRAL BANK. 


As Credit Banks are started in various 
localities, they will strengthen their 
position and increase their resources by 
uniting to a Central Bank. Such Cen- 
tral Bank could then receive on deposit 
any surplus funds from the local Banks, 
and assist them, if necessary, by making 
advances. It would, in fact, stand in 
somewhat the same relation to the local 
Credit Banks as these would to their 
individual members. The principle of 
unlimited liability, however, which is 
essential in the case of the separate 
banks, would be generally unsuitable as 
regards their relation to the Central 
Bank. In connection with the Village 
Co-operative Credit Societies affiliated to 
the Agricultural Organisation Society, a 
Central Co-operative Agricultural Bank 
-has already been formed. 


SMALL HOLDINGS AND ALLOTMENTS. 


The useful part which Credit Banks 
may play in the successful cultivation 
of small holdings and allotments has 
been recognized by Parliament, which 
has included in the Small Holdings and 
Allotments Act of 1907 certain provisions 
relating to these and other co-operative 
institutions. 

County Councils are given power 
under the Act to promote the formation 
and extension of Credit Banks, and they 
may, with the consent of the local Gov- 
ernment Board, assist such societies by 
making grants or advances upon such 
terms and such security as the Council 
think fit. Even if they do not them- 
selves lend money, County Councils may 

uarantee advances made to the Credit 

ank from other sources. Thecredit of a 
County Council being first-class security, 
this provision should prove quite as 
usefulin practise as the one enabling the 
Councils to advance money. 


The recognition of the principle of 
eredit banking inan Act of Parliament, 
added to the experience of Continental 
countries extending over half a century, 
during which the system has_ been 
thoroughly tested, should be a sufficient 
gurantee of its soundness and utility, and 


; (Juty 


a” 


o. 


it may with confidence be expected that 
the spreading of information on the 
subject will be accompanied by a steady 
increase in the number of Credit Banks, 


which, wherever established, have been . 


attended with such signal success. 
Note.—This Leaflet has been prepared 
with special reference to operations 
under the Small Holdings and _ Allot- 
ments Act 1907, and is therefore intend- 
ed for Englandaud Wales only. At the 
same time, it may be said that the 
Friendly Societies and the Industrial 
and Provident Societies’ Acts apply also 
to Scotland, and the Leaflet therefore 
contains information of interest to Scot- 
land as wellas to England and Wales. 


NOTES ON DRY-FARMING.* 


By WILLIAM M. JARDINE, 
Agronomist in Charge of Hxperiments 
with Dry-Land Cereals, Grain Inves- 
tigations. 

(From the U. S. Department of Agricul- 
ture, Bureau of Plant Industry, Circular 
No. 10, June 12, 1908.) 


DrRyY-LAND AGRICULTURE IN MONTANA. 


For the past three years the Montana 
Agricultural Experiment Station, in 
co-operation with certain railroad 
systems, has been conducting experi- 
men min dry-land agriculture in various 
sections of the State. One of the sta- 
tions is Iceated near Forsythe, in the 
Yellowstone Valley, about 100 miles east 
of Billings. I visited this station on 
my way to Bozeman and found there 
some very interesting developments. 
Up to the present time this particular 
section of Montana has been devoted 
almost entirely to grazing. However, 


asa result of the two crops harvested 


on this experimental farm, many of the 
ranchers are now either selling out to 
prospective farmers or have begun 
farming themselves, 


The yields so far obtained there have 
‘been most satisfactory. Turkey Red 
wheat last year produced 58 bushels to 
the acre, while a number of other winter 
varieties yielded above 40 bushels. As 
much as two tons of alfalfa hay has been 


* The observatio contained in this paper are 
abstracted from a Progress Report made during 
April of this year by Mr . Jardine, relating to farm- 
ing in the arid sections 0’ Montana, Utah, and 
Coloardo. Mr. Jardine has had a long experience in 
arid farming in Utah from both a scientific and 
a practical standpoint. His bulletin on Arid 
Farming Investigations (No. 100 of the Utah 
Agricultural Experiment Station) is one of the 
most valuable yet issued on this subject.—B, 
Galloway, Phystalogiat and Pathologist, and Cha 
af Bureau, 44195—-C ro, 10-08. ; 


1909, 


~ Juby, 1909.) 


harvested per acre; also 250 bushels of 
potatoes, 69 bushels of oats, and other 
hardy cropsin equally large quantities. 

The altitude of this station is be- 
tween 2,000 feet, and the climate is much 
milder than of the western Dakotas. 
The average annual precipitation is be- 
tween 13 and 15 inches, Last year, when 
the yields above mentioned were secured, 
there was little more than 15 inches of 
rainfall, 6 to 7 inches of which came 
during the growing season, 


There is every indication that a large 
percentage of the tillable land of 
eastern Montana heretofore grazed will 
be brought under cultivation within the 
next few years, Hach month new 
settlers are moving into this country. 


My chief purpose in visiting Montana 
at this time was to begin work on the 
Fergus Country sub-station, recently 
established. The first crops are to be 
seeded this spring, but owing to the 
lateness of the season it was impossible 
for me to accomplish anything by visit- 
ing the station itself; hence, I did not 
go farther than Bozeman, Mont., where 
I met Professor Atkinson and Mr. Nelson, 
the two men in charge of the work. 
Mr. J. S. Cole, recently appointed in the 
Office of Dry-Land Agriculture Investi- 
gations, accompanied me and remained 
in Montana to look after the spring 
planting. Our work will be thoroughly 
established there this spring, Weare 
planting this yearin plats and in the 
nursery a hundred or more varieties of 
spring grains, and hope to secure con- 
siderable information that can be used 
immediately to good advantage by the 
farmers, as wellas to accumulate: data 
of value for the further and permanent 
improvement of crops for this section. 

The principal grain crop now grown 
here is wheat. The two main varieties 
are Turkey Red winter wheat and 
Kubanka durum spring wheat. The 
winter wheat is preferable, as it yields 
10 to 20 bushels more per acre than the 
best spring wheat known. Various 
crops are being introduced this year, 
looking toward the elimination of the 
one-crop system of farming by substitut- 
ing a variety of crops that can be grown 
to advantage in rotation. 


PLOUGHING WITH GASOLINE TRACTION 
ENGINES, 


While in Montana I had an opportunity 
to observe for the first time a gasoline 
traction enginein operation. <A 22-horse- 
power outfit was at work ploughing up 
sod land onthe open prairie. I spent 
one day following this engine in order 
to collect reliable data on its perform- 
ance. From the information obtained 
at this time, together with that pre- 


69 Miscellaneous. 


viously secured from reliable men who 
had had experience with gasoline engines 
with ploughing, I am convinced that its 
success is practically assured. The 
gasoline engine is quite simple in its 
mechanism and is easily handled, only 
two men being required to operate both 
engine and ploughs. 

This outfit had been running for ten 
days, and had averaged during that time 
a little more than 25 acres a day on heavy 
sod, ploughing to adepth of 4 inches 
and turning it over in good shape. The 
cost, including labour, was about 80 cents 
anacre. The two young men operating 
the engine were inexperienced hands, 
and yet everything seemed to be moving 
smoothly. They informed me _ that 
they had thus far met with no serious 
delays on account of breakages, The 
contract price for breaking sod land in 
Montana varies from $4 to $5 per acre. 
It would require twenty-five horses and 
five men atacost of not less than $3°30 
to $4°50 per acre, to do the same amount 
of work per day that these two young 
men were doing with their engine. 

The gasoline-engine proposition for 
ploughing and other farming operations 
is entirely feasible where farming is 
done on a large scale, but it would not 
be practicable for the smaller farmer to 
own and operate an outfit. However, a 
number of small farmers could join 
together in the purchase of an engine 
without involving themselves as heavily 
as by purchasing the horses necessary to 
do the same amount of work. This 
method is followed in the West in 
buying thrashing outfits and is found 
thoroughly practicable. 

If itis possible to produce crops at a 
cost of $2 to $4 less per acre by the use 
of gasoline engines on our dry farms 
this method should be adopted. The 
saving would be remarkable, especially 
where the average yield of wheat per 
acre probably does not exceed fifteen 
bushels. Some twenty of these plough- 
ing outfits have been placed in Montana 
this year. In my judgment the gasoline 
ploughing outfit is here to stay and will 
aid materially in the cheap production 
of farm crops on our dry lands. 

Dry-LAND AGRICULTURE IN UTAH. 


At Logan, Ucah, I spent one day 
at the Agricultural Experiment Station 
and two days visiting among the 
dry farmers of the Bear’ River 
Valley of northern Utah and the 
Malad Valley of southern Idaho. These 
two valleys offer splendid opportunities 
to study dry-land farming where it has 
been practised for the last forty years 
under an annual rainfall of less than 
18 inches, with an average of less than 
5 inches during the growing season, 


Miscellaneous. 


Generally speaking, the farming methods 
in this region are not above the average, 
Very frequently the best of farmers 
crop their land twice with one ploughing, 
and only occasionally do they rotate 
their crops or summer fallow their 
fields. Most of them consider that they 
can make at least a good living if they 
can be sure of 15 bushels of wheat per 
acre each year, as they figure that it 
does not cost them more than #4 an acre 
to produce a crop. 

At Nephi, Utah, where we are co-oper- 
ating with the Utah Agricultural Experi- 
ment Station this year, weare doing 
more extensive work with dryland 
cereals than atany other point. Mr. F. D. 
Farrel isin charge of this farm and is 
much interested in the work. We have 
planted at this station about all the 
varieties known to be at all worth while, 
and hope to obtain much useful infor- 
mation here. Rust epidemics and insect 
pests are practically unknown in this 
area. The only adverse condition with 
which we have to deal is drought; hence, 
any variety found to be superior in 
yielding capacity will. indicate its 
ability for maximum production witha 
minimum amount of moisture. We have 
our work so arranged as to be able to 
watch the development of individual 
plants, and thus secure data of a very 
reliable nature looking toward the 
development of new types of superior 
quality. 

Dry-LAND AGRICULIURE IN COLORADO. 


In Colorado I visited the dry farm of 
Mr. E. R. Parsons, located 23 miles 
south-east of Denver, on the Colorado 
and Southern Railroad, near Parkers. 
Mr. Parsons is a very intelligent Hnglish- 
man. He came to this country from the 
Transvaal, South Africa, where he had 
considerable experience in dry farming. 
He kas a commercial orchard, which was 
set out in 1895. Mr. Parsons is now 
independently wealthy, and I am in- 
formed that he has made nearly all of 
his money out of hisdry farm. He says 
that the success obtained in producing 
crops without irrigation in eastern 
Colorado will depend on the man. 

Mr. Parsons has been living on this 
farm since 1886, and is therefore familiar 
with the whole of eastern Colorado and 
thoroughly competent to speak intelli- 
gently on the conditions obtaining in 
this part of the Great Plains. He states 
positively (and his farm will bear him 
out in his statements) that there is no 
sane reason why the average farmer 
cannot succeed on the plains of Colorado 
if he will tarm intelligently. 

The orchard is planted on land sloping 
tothe north and west. Thesoil is a 


very heavy clay. It is 800 to 5U0 feet 
to water. The annual precipitation 
averages about 18 to 15 inches. Last 
year the precipitation was 13 inches. 
Five to seven acres are planted to cherry 
trees of the varieties Montmorency and 
Morrello, which are now ten years old, 
the first-named being the most hardy 
and drought resistant, and hence the 
preferable variety. Mr. Parsons has 
secured from this orchard on an average 
one crate of cherries to the tree during 
the past three years, except last year, 
when they were frozen down at the time 
all fruit was frozen in Colorado. He has 
about 120 trees planted to the acre, and 
receives $3 a crate for his cherries 
delivered in Denver. He also has about 
four acres of apple trees now bearing 
fruit. The 10-year-old trees are bearing 
about four bushels to the tree. He has 
more than 100 trees to the acre, but has 
since decided that this is tooclose plant- 
ing, and in his new orchard, recently set 
out, trees are placed about 40 feet apart, 
or 80 trees to the acre. The Jona- 
than, Rome Beauty, and Ben Davis seem 
to be the most profitable varieties to 
grow in this particular locality. : 


In addition to his cherry and apple 
orchard, Mr. Parsous has four acres of 
currant bushes of the London Market 
variety. These are planted 8 feet apart 
each way. During the past three 
seasons he has taken from each of the 
5-year-old bushes one gallon of currants, 
realizing 15 cents. per gallon. In 1906 
Mr. Parsons realized in cash from his 
orchard $1,500. This was in addition to 
fruit necessary for home consumption 


and generous distribution among friends. 


Considerable alfalfa, corn, and wheat 
are also grown by Mr. Parsons; in fact, 
everything necessary to feed his animals. 
His corncrib was filled with excellent 
corn, samples of which I brought to 
the Department. This last winter he 
fattened 100 head of beef steers on 
alfalfa grown on his farm without irri- 
gation. He has harvested each year 
from 14 to 23 tons of excellent hay to the 
acre. Turkey Red wheat yielded him 
last year a little more than 40 bushels 
to the acre. 


During 1907 Mr. Parsons produced 40 
bushels of corn to the acre on sod land 
that was ploughed 9 inches deep. This 
is alittle contrary to the general belief 
as to what can be done on sod _ land. 
The general practice is to plough sod 
as shallowly as possible, in order that 
it may rot the better during the sum- 
mer. Mr. Parsons, however, in_ his 
twenty years’ experience ona dry-land 
farm has obtained far better results by 
ploughing the sod deeply, 


: ae : PA 
(Juty, 1909. 


) 


a pu 
z JULY, 1909,] 71 Miscellaneous. 


Karly Ohio potatoes have been found 
most profitable for his section. The 
best yields are always obtained from 
this variety, planted about April 1. 


Mr. Parsons attributes his success to 
the thoroughness with which he eculti- 
vates his soil. He never ploughs his land 
less than 9 to 12 inches deev, whether it 
be sod or otherwise. This is usually 
done with a hand plough pulled by four 
large ~horses. Mr. Parsons does not 
approve of disk plough now so common- 
ly used, by our dry-land farmers. In 
this respect I heartily agree with him. 
Sod land» especially should be turned 
over completely, in order that the sod 
may rapidly and fully decay, and at the 
same time serveas a blanket to retain 
the moisture that has fallen and accu- 
mulated in thk.zoil previous to plough- 
ing. This cannot be accomplished 
with a disk plough. The disk twists 
and breaks up the sod, leaving it in 
eclods, thus presenting avery loose and 
uneven surface, which permits a free 
circulation of air and thus favours rapid 
evaporation of moisture from the plough- 
ed land. On the other hand, where the 
sod is turned over completely the mois- 

- ture is retained during the entire sum- 
mer, thus enabling the farmer to pre- 
pare a favourable seed bed for planting 
to winter grain—the crop that now 
predominates in‘eastern Colorado. 


In this connection I may state that one 
of the greatest mistakes new settlers are 


making in breaking up their land on the 
plains is in use of the disk plough instead 
of the moldboard breaking plough. This 
is probably due to the fact that with the 
disk plough, which is of somewhat 
lighter draft, the farmer can plough up 
his land more easily and more rapidly, 
The results obtained from this hasty 
method are, however, fully evident at 
harvest time. In my judgment the use 
of the disk plough should be discouraged. 


Work at the Akren sub-station, Colo- 
rado, is progressing nicely. Although 
the land was broken up for the first 
time last June, it isnow in fairly good 
condition. Winter wheat seeded in Sep- 
tember and as late as November came 
through the winter in good condition, 
In most places there is a stand of 95 to 
100 per cent. About half an inch of rain 
fell there April 16. This practically in- 
sured a good stand of spring grain. At 
the time of my visit, April 23, most of 
the spring grain and all the winter 
Wheat were up and showing a strong 
growth. 

From Akron along the Burlington 
Railroad en route for St. Louis I observ- 
ed many excellent fields of winter wheat. 
Considerable farming is being done in 
this territory this year, and while the 
precipitation since Ist February has been 
very light, the crops look promising, 
and those farmers with whom I had 
an opportunity to talk are very confident 
that this year will be a successful one 


MARKET RATES FOR TROPICAL PRODUCTS. 


(From Lewis & Peat’s Monthly Prices Current, London, 9th June, 1909.) 
a a 


QUALITY. QUOTATIONS. QUALITY, QUOTATIONS. 
ee ae INDIARUBBER.(Contd.) xe 
ALOES, Socotrine cwt.|Fair to fine 85s a 90s : e 

Zanzibar & Hepatic ,, |Common to good «+/40s a 858 Borneo eae: eorg Isa $s 
ARROWKOOT ered) the Poste dine * 23d a 4a Penang Low white to prime red ea 38 9d 
PERS Nae °W"\stightly drossy to fair .. |e Mozambique Fair to fine red Ball _,,.|ig2 644 28 10d 

Zanzibar Yellow ” ehtly y £6 15s a £6178 6d Ssusave cfaletoisedd 8s 38d a 4s7d 
Bombay bleached ,, |Peir togood £7 10s a £71286@) — Nyascaland Pal thine ball © [es ode as eale 
” unbleached,, {Dark to goo: Search £5 16s a £6 10s Malagacen: Fr to five pinky & whitel?®442 4s 8d 
Madagascar », (Dark to gcod palish [£6 10s a £6 17s 6d Bascar ae nathoees - bieeoatea les 10d a 3s 8d 
GEER ORs open ce Eee quality de As od Nigeate low to good 6 ae ae feat 
Pye 142 et Abed) og 'g 
CARDAMOMS, Tuticorin Gecd tone bold" edda as 2d aN SME ay nt a ead aoa 2848 Ga om 
Tellicheriy Good to sine bold : He ca x oe : ousting mide gd. ld pes ae 
Brownis . 1 7,|18 3d als 7d ELEY ee 2s 9d a 8s 
Mangalore ,, Med brown to fair boldjos 04 a 3s 2d aber ce ane 286d a 2/8 nom. 
Ceylon. Mysore ” Smell fair to fine plump /15 3d a, 38 To _ tS Bo dina pe 2s 8d a 2s 6d 
Malabar. Ee pole cor" » |is4da 1séd Manito ane Matas 1s 6d a 2s 2d 
Set eer bong Wild [shelly to good |. dd. a daGd” MACE, Bombay & Penang[Pale reddish to fine {18 tid'a 29 4d 
Casi Uk OIL, Calcutta ,, ists and 2nds «+|284 a per Ib, Ordinary to Anite a 1s 8d a 1s 10a 
CPRIITLIES, eee oe Dull to fine bright 185s a 403 Bombay wild nf Pp ie a 281d 
CINCHON A Beat UG and Coconada 
Ceylon Crown, ener ed 3gd a 7d MYBAB Bone cyt IABEIeGOnE 58 a 596d 
a fred AP St 2d a 6d ” 'Bhimlies 489d a 63 9d 
Re Org. 13d a 43d Rhajpore, &e. 439d a 7s 
aes: 3d a 5} Bengal » (Calcutta 4s 6d a 63 38d 
Sa satel _ Root | 1jda 4d NUTMEGS— Ib. |64’s to 57’s 53a 5s 6d 
CINNAMOD, Ceylon Iste|Good to fine quill 10d ails 4d Bombay & Penang ,, |110’s to 65’s 1s 8d a 1s 6d 
per Ib, au ” ” 9d als 2a. ? 160’s to 115’s 43d alg 2d 
aths 3 ze adie ane Rate ewt./Ordinary to fair fresh ort 
Chips, &C..|Fair to fine bold 28d a Bid ss rp erage ear ammo 2 93 a 11s 6d 
CLOVES, Penang b.|Dull to tine bright pkd.)is a 1s 1d Madras 2 63 a €s 6d 
ea *|Dull to fine oF Pe OIL OF ANISEED  ,, Fair merchantable Seed aes 
0 hehe ’ 9 4 A i t alysi 
Zanzibar Fair and fine’ bright 42d a 43d PR ONGRASS 2 Gacd. tS Se enhane eae 4s4d 
po Stems .-|Fair lid NUTMEG , Dingy to white fda 
Cc A F ' ti ir s 
Ceylon Plantation ewt. Medium to Bold nominal Pao ELLE , Bright eOmintoe 23d a 1s 
Native Good ordinary nominal ORCHELLA WEED—cwt lsa lsid 
POEO A Ceylon Plant. i Spociel Be pas a 28 6d Ceylon « |Mid. to fine not woody...|7¢. a, 128 
, rte Heats Boae ' 659 a 72s 6d pid og ascar »» |Fair >"! 10s 
ative Es » |Ordinary to red 4isa 60s ; 
Meee and Celebes ,, |Small to good red 30s a 858 PEPPER—(Black) Ib.|_ 3 
CULUOMbU KOU » |Middling to good 15sai17s 6d ~ Alleppee & Tellicherry|Fair — ; + |34d 
CKOTON SEIDS, sift. ewt./Dull to fair 30s a 358 Ceylon », Lo fine bold heavy ..|31q a 4d 
cae: Bengal, rough, Pair sale t0,g000 pes as Acheon ew 0} Penang Dull to fine x ee pad 324 
a Gh.k, , ” : z . ve . J or 3d a 
ee Calicut, Cut A ,, [Small to fine bold 558 a 858 (White) Singapore ,, Fair to fine + ltd a ie 
eee de ; ” small and medium = 52s a 55s Y ae 4) cae see « lad 
ochin Rough ,, |Common to fine bo 383 a 42s enang ir arenes a 4 
" \Small and D's a eae PLUMBAGO, lump cwt.|Eair_to fine bright bola|#¢ 


Japan ” 
5tM AMMONIACUM 


oo 


ANIMI, Zanzibar 


Madagascar ,, 


SEARIC F.1,& Aden ,, 
Turkey sorts 


Ghatti as 

Kurrachee _ 

Madras AN 

ASSAF Q 4114 3 
KINO 

M)RREH,}icked cwt 

Aden sorts ,, 


OLIBANUM, drop ” 


pickings ,, 

siftings _,, 

INDIA RULBEk | 

Ceylon, straits, ay 
Malay Straits, ete. 


Assam 


Rangoon 


Unsplit- 
ye 

Bean and 

. red 


oD 
Ordinary 


Fair to fine bright 
Fair to fine pale 
Middling to good 


Good to tine white 


Middling to fair 


59 ” 


Sorts to fine pale 
Reddish to good pale ...|20s a 308 
Dark to fine pale 
Clean fr. to gd. almonds|85s a 10s 
com. stony to good block|25s a 75s 


Low to good pale 
Slightly foul to fine 
Fine Para bis. & sheets|5s 4d 


£9 a £13 1Ca 


+ /£4 a £8 15s 
«(£4 a £7 LOs 


32s 

Sm. blocky to fair clean}25s a 60s nom, 
Pale and amber, str. srts./£16 a £18 

a little red|£13 a £15 
Pea size ditto|75sa £12 

Fair to good red sorts 
Med. & bold glassy sorts|£7 a £9 59 
Fair to good palish 


to good pale 25s a 82s 6d nom. 


278 6d a 47s 6d 


-/208 a 42s 6d nom. 


«(158 a 258 


6d add 

80s a 115s 
558 a 703 
40s a 608 
25s a 35s 
10s a 20s 
13s a 158 


s, Ceara on, axl Osuna 
Ciepe ordinary to fine..|5s 6d a 6s 
dine Block ../68 1d 
Six p tair to fine [48 9d a 6s 2d 
Phea-tution 4s 8a 


Fair II tocrd, red No. 1/8s 8d a 4s 2d 


28 8d a 88 6d 


” 
” 


chips 
dust | 
SAGO, Pearl, large a 
medium . 
small on 
SEEDLAC ewt. 
SENNA, Tinnevelly  1b.| 


SHELLS, M. o’PEARL— 
Egyptian ewt. 
Bombay 
Mergui 
Manilla an 


Banda a 
TAMARINDS, Calcutta.. 
er cwh. Madras 
TORTOISESHELL— 
Zanzibar, & Bombay Ib. 


»” 
” 


TURMERIC, Bengal ewt. 
Madras _,, 
Do. fH 
Cochin _,, 
VANILLOES— Ib. 


Mauritius .. 
Madagascar ... 
Seychelles... 
VERMILLION .. 
WAX, Japan, squares 


|Dull to fine 


Middling to good small 
Dull to fine bright no 
Ordinary to fine bright 


” Ld 


Ordinary to ad. soluble 


Good to fine bold green 
Fair greenish 
Commonepeckyand smal] 


Smallto bold  ., 


” oe 


” ” 
Fair to good 
Sorts ae ma 
Mid.to fine bI’k not stony 
Stony and inferior 


‘Small to pold 
Pickings 


as 
[Fair 5 


Bulbs 
Finger 4 
Bulbs 2 


Ists Gd crystallized 33 a8} in|?s 216s 
2nds Foxy x reddish 4} a 
ards Lean and inferior 


” 
Fine, pure, bright ete 
Good white hard ~ 


0 1580 16s 6d 


lds a 15s 

lls 6d a 133 6d 
bus a 908 nom. 
56d a7d 

34d a 43d. 
lida 24d 


|Finger fair to sine bold ie a 203 
[bright|14s a 1¢9 


265 a 90s now. 
30s a 908 

£0 28 6da £7 10s 
£5 16s a £9 6s 
zb3 a30S nom. 
1ls a 183 
dsa bs 


12s 6d a 268 
63 a 249 


1658 
189 


88 8d a 123 
833d a 8s 9d 
28 lld . 

46s 6d 


THE SUPPLEMENT TO THE 


Tropical Agricu 


turist and Magazine of the G. A. 8. 


ComeitEep py A. M. & J. FERGUSON. 


No. 1,] 


¥ 


JULY, 1909. 


(Von. V. 


THE COCONUT STEM DISEASE. 


EXHAUSTIVE INVESTIGATIONS 
BY MR. PETCH. 
Lecture AT THE AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY 
MEETING, 

At last meeting of the Ceylon Agricultural 
Society Mr. T Petch, the Governmens Mycolo- 
gist, gave an interesting and instructive, though 
somewhat technical, lacture on the Coconut 
Stem Disease. 

He started by mentioning the investigations 
he had made in connection with the 


PREPARATION OF COIR 

and said he had taken samples of the 
husks from Mirigama, where they had been 
soaking for about three weeks, from a river at 
Weligama, and from pools near the shore, Those 
husks were examined for the fungus of the 
coconut disease. In the case of Mirigama he 
found numerous fungi, but no Z'htelaviopsis 
Ethaceticus, At Weligama on the river he found 
a little Thiclaviopszs in the husks, but not suffi- 
cient toaccount for their decay; and in the pools 
near the shore at Weligama there was a little 
more Thielaviopsis, but again not sufficient to 
account fordecay. It wasevident from the con- 
dition of the husks and the amount of fungus on 
them that whatever fungi were found on the de- 
caying husks had grown there before they were 
placed in the water. 


The water was tested as wellas samples of 
husks. [t was allowed to settle and the sediment 
was sown indiscriminately on sterilised plates. 
In that way he could get growths of the coconut 
disease fungus inthe water from the coir mills 
and in the water from the pools on the shore; 
but he could not get it from the water taken 
from the river at Weligama, because there was 
so much sulphuretted hydrogen in it that it 
gave a thick deposit of sulphur and nothing 
would grow. Taking it all round, it was evi- 
dept that the small amount of fungus spores 


10 


found on the coir grew there before the husks 
were placed inthe water and that the decom- 
position of the coconut husks was not effected 
by the fungi at all. Another interesting point 
which came out in the investigations, and which 
was worth remembering when considering the 
question of the 


APPLICATION OF SALT TO COCONUTS, 
was that the water from Mirigama inland was 
salter than the water in the pools on the shore 
at Weligama. The difference was :—Mirigama, 
"13 per cent., Weligama °08 per cent, ‘05 more. 
The next question was: 
HOW FAR THE FUNGUS WOULD GROW ON DEAD 
COCONUT TISSUE ? 
Of course they all knew that the leaves and husks 
of coconuts were left lying about the estates or 
were used in manuring; and if the fungus would 
grow well on the tissue, it would be dangerous 
to leave them about. His investigations 
showed, however, that it they sowed the spores 
of the fungus on the white tissue inside the 
fresh husks and leaf stalks, they got a very poor 
growth. 1f they took the brown husk and tried 
to grow the fungus on the husk they got no fun- 
gus atall. The leaves followed the same rule. If 
they took the green leaf, they would get a small 
amount of the fungus to grow. On the interior 
of the stem the fungus grew in abundance. 
That was practically the only tissue of the coco- 
nut on which it would grow, that was, grow to 
any dangerous extent. If they took the top of 
the stem, 7.¢., the cabbage, and cut sections 
of that, and sowed the spores of the fungus 
on it it absolutely refused to grow. That ex- 
plained the fact that when the stem of a 
coconut was hollowed out by the disease, the 
cabbage was not touched. The explanation 
seemed to be that the fungus would only 
grow on tissues which contained a fair 
quantity of sugar. There was sugar in the 
coconut stem, in the lower part, the white 
part, but there was none at all in the coconut 


74 . The Supplement to the Tropical Agriculturist 


husk or the leaf stalk after it had fallen, or the 
tissues in the bud. The fungus grew, as he 
said, on the tissues of the coconut which 
contained sugar. Asamatter of fact they had 
to grow it in a solution of sugar before they 
could get it to germinate at all. He had there 
a flask in which was some of the fungus in a solu- 
tion of sugar. 


(The flask was handed round for the inspec- 
tion of the Chairman and members.) 


If they sowed the spores in pure water, 
or in ordinary tap water, they would not 
grow at all. Another point about the growth 
was that it would grow very much better in 
darkness thaninlight. Many fungi would grow 
better in darkness than in light, but they 
produced spores only in the light. Thiedaviopsis 
formed a very much greater weight of spores in 
the darkness than in the light. Inabouta week 
they got 50 per cent. greater growth in darkness 
than in light. They could not get the spores 
to germinate in the absence of oxygen. 


The question as to 


HOW LONG SPORES WOULD RETAIN THEIR 
GERMINATING CAPACITY 


was rather an important one, but the experiments 
were not altogether finished, In one experiment 
spores were distributed over a filter paper or 
rather a series of about a dozen filter papers; 
then the papers were: exposed under. different 
conditions. Two sets were dried in a desiccator 
and two sets by exposure to the air; one of 
each was placed in the sunlight and the other 
leftinthe dark. Calling the air dried spores 
damp, as they possibly would be, the damp spores 
were killed by the sunlight of about three 
hours a day in less thanafortnight, whereas the 
perfectly dried spores exposed to the sunlight re- 
tained their vitality for ten weeks. If thespores 
were kept in the dark, they retained their 
germinative capacity longer. An experiment 
was begun at the end of November last year, 
and the spores kept in the dark were not 
dead yet; so there was a great difference in the 
germination of the spores kept in darkness from 
those exposed to sunlight. That, on estates, 
might be an important point. He had taken 
_ black patches from the trees and tested the 
spores in the black patches. Of course there 
was no knowing how long the spores had been 
on the tree; they might have been there two 
months or two years. In patches obtained 
from Batticaloa he did not getasingle germi- 
nation in three cases, and in the case of patches 
from Kalutara he got one germination out of 
three. It might, therefore, be taken that in cases 
of ordinary estates where the sunlight reached 
the trees most of the spores were quickly killed 
by the sunshine. The other experiment he re- 
ferred to was to find out how long the spores 
would take to die if they were dried in the sun- 
light. This had not yet been determined. 


THE EFFECT OF VARIOUS CHEMICALS ON THE 


FUNGUS 


was tried. Copper sulphate was recommended 
last year, and carbolic acid was suggested, as 
well as various other agents. In testing that ques- 
tion the fungus spores were placed in a flask, 


in a solution in which they would grow, and then 
a certain percentage of the chemical was 
added. A chemical had not a poisonous effect 
unless 1t would stop the growth of the fungus 
with about one per cent. If they had to use ae 
per cent. there was no poisonous action. Potas- 
sium nitrate was recommended, but the fungus 
would grow in 12 per cent. of potassium nitrate 
and was stopped b7 13, so they could put that 
out as a fungicide. Kainit was strongly re- 
commended. The fungus would grow in a 
solution of 13 per cent. It stopped at 14 per 
cent. so that the fungicidal action in that case 
was absolutely nil. Common salt, that was the 
ordinary dry cooking salt, stopped the growth of 
the fungus at seven per cent. If they took 
sodium chloride instead of common salt, the 
growth stopped at six per cent., a slight im- 
provement. It was thought that the magnesium 
salts might have some action and so magnesium 
sulphate was tried. He found that the fungus 
would grow in a solution containing 25 per cent. 
of magnesium sulphate, so he stopped that and 
did not go any further. By the rate it was gro- 
wing it would possibly have grown in a solution 
containing 50 per cent. Chloride ought to have 
been tried, but he had not got it. Caustic 
potash and caustic soda both stopped the 
growth as soon as the solution became alkaline, 
This fungus would grow inacid solution, but not 
at allin alkalisolution, Tannic acid gave a pecu- 
liar result, the growth of the fungus being 
stopped by ‘3 per cent. of tannic acid. It was 
thought that that might explain the fact that the 
fungus did not grow in the cabbage of the coco- 
nut, but there was no tannic acid even in the 
cabbage. 


With regard to the poisons, copper sulphate 
stopped the growth of the fungus at ‘04 per 
cent., 4 parts in 10,000, whereas the other 
chemical recommended, carbolic acid, only 
stopped the growth at *1 per cent., one part ina 
thousand, so that as far as stopping the growth 
was concerned carbolic acid was very much 
behind copper sulphate, but it had a great 
advantage in one respect, in that it killed the 
spores very much sooner than copper sulphate. 


The figures he had been giving them re- 
lated to the stoppage of the growth of the 
fungus, but the 


ABSOLUTE KILLING OF THE SPORES 


was quite a different matter. They might find 
thatthe spores would not grow ina solution 
containing so much per cent. of tannic acid; but 
if they took them out of that solution, and put 
them in another without tannic acid then they 
would grow. Tannic acid did not kill them ; it 
simply stopped the growth. ‘1 per cent, 
carbolic acid did not kill the spores, but it 
stopped their growth. When they tried to find 
what percentage killed the spores, they dis- 
covered that one per cent. of carbolic absolutely 
killed them ina day, whereas one per cent, of 
copper sulphate would not kill them in a month, 
In fact he had spores in a five per cent. copper 
sulphate solution which were not dead in seven 
weeks; so that the best thing for killing the 
spores was carbolic acid. Unfortunately they 
could not use it because it could not be applied 
with safety to the tree, ; 


and M agazine of the Ceylon Agricultural Society. 15 


It was evident that the 
EFFECT OF THE DISEASE 
was not so great as was formerly stated. He did 
not think it could now be said that the tree 
died in three or four, or even five years. 

Mr. Petch then produced some photographs, 
which were handed round for inspection. 

The first, he sald, was of a tree which had 
three bleeding spots about half-way up. It had 
been in that condition for two years. It had 
over a dozen branches of nuts and the crop was 
as good as ever. It stood the gale of last week. 

Another was of a tree which was inoculated 
in September, 1907—the tree, therefore, being 
about 20 months from inoculation. The bleeding 
spot on that was not more than two inches 
broad and not more than half-an-inch wide, in 
fact he had to mark it with a card at the base 
of the stem or it would not have been seen in 
the photograph. The result on the crop had 
not been shown at all. 

The third photograph gave the kind of tree 
which died. As they would see, it was planted 
among areca nuts, breadfruit, and coconuts, at 
distances of about 8 feet. The tree was pro- 
bably ten or eleven years old and from the 
position of the spot it might have been infected 
about four years. The tree was planted under 
the dense shade of other coconut trees, and trees 
planted in such circumstances certainly did die. 


The fourth photograph showed an old scar 
with a recent bleeding patch just above it. The 
scar was at the base of the tree. The tree was 
about 40 or 50 years old, so it was impossible to 
guess the age of the scar at all. 


The CuatrMaAn (H E the Acting Governor) :— 
Do you find that when you cure a tree it shows 
any increased vitality ? 


Mr Percu:—I cannot say that has been 
observed, but I should expect it to show an 
increased crop. Statistics for export do not 
give any support to the supposition that the 
crops diminish because of the disease. There 
is one thing I would like to correct. It was 
reported in 1906 that an estate was badly 
aftected and that the crop had been diminished. 
Asa matter of fact, the estate returns showed 
that there had been a regularly increased crop. 


In answer to another question, 


Mr Percu—said that when he said there was 
no sugar in the cabbage, orin the leaf, he meant 
there was no sugaras such, There was sugar 
bound up with other things, which might be set 
free, but there was no 


FREE SUGAR FOR THE FUNGUS TO GROW UPON. 


Mr. Lusuineron—said thas Mr. Petch con- 
trasted Batticaloa and Kalutara trees and men- 
tioned particularly that sugar was very essen- 
tial for developing the disease. Had he found 
in his experiments that there was very much 
more sugar in the coconuts in districts like 
Kalutara than in the dry districts like Batti- 
caloa? He mentioned it because all toddy 
drawing was always done in the western dis- 
tricts, and if they went north, there was very 
much less toddy, he believed. 


Mr, Percu—said they only had analyses from 
that (the Colombo) side of the island so he could 
pot make acomparison, They had no analyses 


from the Batticaloa side, but he would attribute 
the absence of the disease on the Batticaloa side 
to the fact that it was drier, 


Mr. VANDERSTRAATEN—enquired if Mr. Petch 
had experimented with Cyllin or Jeyes’ disin- 
fectant. 

Mr. Percu—said he had not and added that 
he did not recommend the use of carbolic acid, 


In answer toa further question—Mr PErtcu said 
he had found the disease within about 4 feet of 
the cabbage. lt was practically certain that the 
spores found in the pool were blown on to the 
husks from the trees. 


Mr SHERIDAN Patterson:—Is there any use in 
washing the stems of trees with copper sulphate 
as a preventive ? 

Mr Prton :—I hardly think the advantage is 
worth the cost. 

Mr SHuRipan Parrerson:—I think it costs 
R2°50 to R3 an acre, 


Mr Petcu :—In that case I should do it. 


The discussion was closed by the CHAIRMAN 
who said:—I feel sure, poner a, that I shall 
be echoing your wishes if [ express to Mr Petch 
the great obligation under which we feel our- 
selves for the mostinteresting discourse he has 
given. 


COCONUT STEM DISEASE 
AND CROPS. 


Marawila, June 13. 


Dear Siz,—Surely Mr, Petch ought to have 
known the habits of the coconut tree better 
than to stato that stem disease has not affected 
crops. Mr, J D Vanderstraaten read a paper 
not long ago and said that the results of his 
dissections showed that the crops of three years 
are inside the stem of the tree. He should 
have told Mr. Petch that it was too soon for 
him to have drawn inferences. I must, how- 
ever, state that my invariable experience 
has not been in accord with the conclu- 
sions drawn by Mr. Vanderstraaten as the 
result of his surgical investigations. Without 
exception, I have always found improvement in 
the appearance of the trees and in blossoms, 
12 to 18 months after the application of manure. 
The resulting crops are gathered 12 months 
after that.—Yours faithfully, 

B. 


GROWTH OF RUBBER. 


We are credibly informed that on a well- 
kuown estate in the Malay Peninsula 3,060 trees, 
planted 15 by 15 ft. apart, attained a girth of 
18,” 3 ft from the ground, in four years from the 
date of planting. This is about equal to the 
growth of the rubber on several of our more 
advanced estates. But what is most gratifying 
in connection with those trees is the fact that 
they produced, during the fifth year of their 
existence 7,629} lb of rubber or an average per 
tree of 2°49 lb,—British North Borneo Herald, 
May 17. 


76 The Supplement to the Tropical Agriculturist 


BRASSOLIS ISTHMIA, A COCONUT 
PEST iN PANAMA. 


A LepiportErovus [nsecr HicHty [NsuRIOUs TO 
THE Coconut. 


The attention of coconut growers in these 
{slands is called to the following facts regarding 
the above insect, from a report of Mr Henry F 
Schultz, Horticulturist for the Canal Zone, 
Isthmus of Panama:— 


Early in May, 1906, the majority of the coco- 
nut trees in the neighbourhood of Ancon were 
defoliated by the attacks of a carterpillar. Large 
trees, which had been bearing crops for a num- 
ber of years, stood without a particle of foliage 
with their bare petioles and midribs resembling 
skeletons. Some had to be cut down, but the 
remainder recovered under the special care 
given them, 


Later in the same year, about the middle of 
September, the caterpillars again appeared, 
although not in as large numbers as before, and 
began to strip the trees anew, All coconut trees 
were, therefore, sprayed with a strong solution 
of arsenate of lead, a most tedious and trouble- 
some, although very effective, method of fighting 
these insects, in view of the height of the tree, 
which were mostly from 30 to 35 feet, Although 
torrential rains washed off the arsenate of lead 
after a few weeks, it stayed on long enough to 
kill all the insects on the trees which had re- 
ceived treatment. 


This year the caterpillars made their appear- 
ance again in May. Apparently this is the 
time of year when the mature insects deposit 
their eggs freely on all coconut trees in the 
vicinity, for about the latter part of August 
thousands of their larve began to defoliate 
these palms again and were evidently deter- 
mined not to leaveasingle leaf on the trees. 
However, one fact was noticed, viz., that the 
larve feed only at night and that they retire 
before the first rays of the suninto a tough web 
spun with pinnz of the leaves, where frequently 
as many as 700 to 800 crowd together in one 
nest. The lower part of this, where the ends of 
the pinns meet, is left slightly open and the 
nest presents the appearance of a long narrow 
bag from 30 to 60 centimeters in length, accor- 
ding to the number of insects it contains. 
Frequently a tree will have two, three, or even 
four of these nests and some were found where 
the number of full-grown larvz were estimated 
to be over 2,000. What even half of this 
number can do to a full-grown tree if their 
ravages are not speedily stopped can be 
imagined, especially if the fact is kept in mind 
that they attain the respectable size of 5 to 10 
centimeters in length and have enormous 
appetites like most caterpillars. 


A bearing coconut tree will thus be stripped 
of every inch of its foliage in a few nights and 
receive such a severe check in its growth that 
even with all due care in preventing the re- 
appearance of the pest in following years, at 
least two or three crops of nuts will be lost, and 


it is no rare occurrence that a true dies outright 
or becomes so weak that it cannot resist fungoid 
and other diseases, and gradually perishes. 


After reaching maturity or when the supply 
of food gives out, the larva passes into the chry- 
salis stage, in which it remains twelve to sixteen 
days, and this is the time when the larve of an 
apparently dipterous insect help in the exter- 
mination of ‘‘ Brassolis.” It has been impossible 
to determine whether the mature parasite de- 
posits its eggs into theskin of the caterpillar or 
into the chrysalis, or whether its ova are intro- 
duced through the alimentary tract of the larvee 
with its food. Dr. Darling, chief of the board 
of health laboratory at Ancon, has examined 
mature larve of ‘*Brassolis” under a high- 
power microscope without finding any traces of 
parasitic ova in either the skin or the intestinal 
ducts. However, as only a small number were 
examined on account of lack of time, it is possi- 
ble that the few specimens observed were not 
infected with parasites. 


As the parasitic larvee are not protected with 
a skin, which in the judgment of the writer 
would be tough enough to withstand the gastric 
juices of ‘‘Brassolis,’’ the probability of cuta- 
neous infection suggests itself. The destruction 
of ‘‘Brassolis’ through its parasites seems to 
be rapid, though the actual time cannot be 
given, as those in captivity seem to be free 
from infection. 


As previously stated, the larve feed only at 
night and try to hide in their nests during the 
day, but this hiding becomes in reality a means 
of their being more easily detected and des- 
troyed, for it is a great deal easier to cut down 
these nests than to spray the trees. However, 
thie requires constant vigilance on the part of 
the grower, as in the groves where the tree tops 
frequently touch each other, the caterpillars can 
crawl from tree to tree. 


The writer seems to believe that ‘‘Brassolis” 
is one of the most formidable enemies of the 
coconut grower if it is allowed to spread, and 
that every possible attention should be given to 
the immediate destruction ofthe larve at their 
first appearance, 


The ‘‘Brassolis isthmia’’ has also been found 
on the following palms:—‘‘Martinezia caryo- 
taefolia,” ‘‘Acrocomia solerocarpa,” ‘‘Oreodoxa 
regia,” ‘‘Oleracea,” and two unidentified species 
of ‘‘Thrinax.”’ 7 


Any coconut growers who find that ‘'Bras- 
solis isthmia” has made its appearance in these 
Islands are requested to advise the Bureau of 
Agriculture at once, giving all the details pos- 
sible with reference to its ravages in. their 
vicinity.—Philippine Agricultural Review, for 
April, 1909. 


[Have any growers come across this pest, or 
anything similar, in Ceylon estates? Perhaps 
the Government Entomologist, Mr, Green, will 
be able to say if the insect is known in Ceylon. 
Jt is not mentioned in his list of pests of the 
coconut palm given on p. 839 of the Tropical 
Agriculturist for July, 1906.] 


eM 


and, Magazine of the Ceylon Agricultural Society. 77 


THE NEW TAPPING SYSTEM. 


FRESH SCIENTIFIC INVESTIGATION 
WANTED. 


When the new tapping system was first an- 
nounced, it was (as is stated again in a special 
article in the London Times of May 21st) for- 
tified by a favourable report from Dr. Willis, 
Director of the Botanic Gardens. That was 
in November last year, eight months ago ; but 
on the recommendation given by Dr. Willis 
there was not anything like full scientific 
testimony to its effects; and even if it had 
been given, it might have been open to the 
criticism that the system had not been in 
uso sufficiently long for the chief points about 
it to receive authoritative commendation. 
For a few months all went swimmingly and a 
large number of Ceylon rubber estates paid 
their 8500, which, it may be remembered, was to 
be repaid to the estate experimenting if the 
method failed in the advantages claimed ; we 
heard, not long ago, of a cheque for as much as 
R18,000 being signed by a prominent visiting 
agent on behalf of some 36 estates. But since 
then a defect was brought to our notice which 
was said to have arisen from the employment of 
the new system, namely, the formation of co- 
agulated rubber pads between the cortex and 
the cambium which would eventually rot whole 
trees. Following on this discovery we under- 
stand that a number of estates under one 
agency were instructed to give up the new tap- 
ping system and return to the old use of the 
knife and the paring that follows it. There 
have not been many expressions of opinion in 
favour of the system since the announcement 
of the discovery ; and no doubt those who have 
been satisfied with their first results of pricking, 
&c., have not wished to commit themselves be- 
fore they had endeavoured to trace any similar 

henomenon on their own property. Now, 

owever, we havea letter from a well-known 
Ratnapura planter, ‘‘P. D. G,,” who comes for- 
ward with athoroughly practical suggestion, 
pointing out that it is in vain to argue the 
merits or demerits of the Northway system, 
from the striking discoveries which received 
prominence in our columns. On Deviturai 
estate itself the thing is demonstrated, for 
those who wish to pay the fee, in a thoroughly 
practical way by Mr Northway himself, even 
to the showing of sections of the bark bearing 
the results of the system on trees previously 
tapped, and in view of the strong faith that is felt 
in the system by the true believers we cordially 
support the suggestion that it is time the scienti- 
fic department at Peradeniya went thoroughly 
into the system and made investigations of a 
much wider and more exhaustive nature than Dr 
Willis, as far as we know, made before he went 
home on leave. If Messrs R H Lock, Acting 
Director, and T Petch, the Mycologist, could 
meet Messrs Northway, W Forsythe and CO 
Macadam, a very valuable report might be ob- 
tained, This report, however, should not be 
confined, we consider, to the show place of the 
system, Deviturai Estate ; but should also in- 
clude a visit to some properties where rubber 
pads have been discovered under the bark. 
Then if those instances wore clearly traced 


to faulty work, it is possible the Agency in 
question would, on obtaining fuller knowledge, 
revert to the new system—? On the other hand 
it is equally possible that the scieitists from 
Peradeniya might, on examining the trees at De- 
viturai, say that even there they had not been 
long enough subject tothe ‘“‘new” tapping, to 
enable a verdict that might be depended on by 
the rubber planting community at large for a 
long series of years to come, At any rate 
what ‘‘P,D.G.” says—that it would be aggra- 
vating six months hence to realise the loss of 
time incurred in arriving at the settlement of 
the question if nothing definite were to be 
done now—is perfectly sound; and on this 
score, if on no other, we trust Messrs. Lock and 
Petch will, on their own initiative, or that of 
the present Executive Government, arrange the 
proposed visit at an early date and allow the 
utmost possible time they can spare to the 
study of a question of so great importance to 
the second largest section of European planters 
in the island. 


P, D. Gs LETTER. 


Ratnapura, June 5th. 

Dear S1r,—It would seem that we are to drift 
along, with the advancement of the present 
season, vainly arguing the merits and demerits 
of the Northway System in view of one or two 
instances of tapping which appear to haveshown 
rather poor results with damage to the tree. 
Any one, who has visited Deviturai estate and 
observed the thoroughly practical manner in 
which Mr. Northway demonstrates his system 
both in the actual process of tapping and in 
sections of the bark as showing the after-eflects 
of the system on trees previously tapped, cannot 
but be convinced of the efficiency of the system 
and that at the least possible expense to the 
tree. Wohave a scientific department to which 
to apply to for guidance and I would suggest 
that Messrs. Lock and Petch be asked to meet, 
say, Messrs. Northway, W Forsythe, and/or J 
P Anderson, and C O Macadam who might be 
afforded opportunities of reporting upon those 
trees on different properties where the system 
has been reported to have failed, and when such 
questions as the blistering of the bark with the 
exudation of rubber might be traced to a cause. 
I cannot but believe that those instances alluded 
to above will eventually be traced to faulty work, 
when it would indeed be aggravating to realise, 
at the end of 6 months, the loss of time incurred 
in arriving at a settlement of the question. 
—Yours faithfully, 

P. D. G 


SUB-CORTICAL RUBBER PADS AND THE 


NORTHWAY SYSTEM. 


The following letter from the inventor of the 
new tapping system is illuminating, with re- 
ference to specimens of bark and rubber pad 
sent to him and reported to be the result of 
using his method of tapping. We cannot quite 
follow the first case: Mr. Northway first says 
the pricker did not go through the bark at 
all, and then says it went through the green 
bark ; bu} he does not say whether the pad 


78 The Supplement to the Tropical Agriculturist 


was formed under the green or under the dry 
portion of the bark surface. The second case 
is a curiosity; the mark of the pricker was 
found in a pad already formed. As Mr. North- 
way surely does not mean to tell us that these 
rubber pads are formed of themselves—like 
sub-cutaneous Hevean boils !—we would like to 
know whether his inference was that a knife 
must already have been at work ?—orhad a 
pricker been over the same bit of bark before ? 
In conclusion, does Mr. Northway, by his 
remarks on the third piece of bark, mean that 
the use of the pricker is not to be recom- 
mended for older, but only for young trees with 
easily pierced bark ?—the pricker being used 
always as lightly as possible. 


MR. NORTHWAY ON FAULTY TAPPING 


BY HIS SYSTEM. 
EXPLANATION OF THE RUBBER Paps. 
Deviturai, Ambalangoda, June 6th. 


Sir,—I received three pieces of bark from an 
estate—two with pads said to be caused by 
my system. Youcanform your own opinion if 
you simply look between the padand bark. In 
one case you will see the pricker has not gone 
through the bark at all! Why? Because the 
bark was dead and dry and the pricker could 
not go through. It has gone through the green 
bark on both sides of the dry. 


In the other piece of bark, the pricker mark 
is seen on the outside, and can be distinctly 
traced to inside the pad itself, This again 
proves the pad was there at the time of pricking 
or the pricker marks could not be inside it. 


The other piece of bark, showing pricker 
marks, is suite natural and will invariably be 
seen shortly after any pricking done with too 
much pressure, but in a few months will -be 
completely covered. Now, judging from these 
bark samples, it would appear the trees have 
been cleaned months ahead, because it has a 
hard dry corky coat outside. JI would not 
expect anything else but failure if I tried to 
work on such a surface.—Yours, &c., 


CHAS. NORTHWAY. 


II. 
Sunnycroft, Ruanwella, June 10th. 


Dear Sir,—With reference to Mr. North- 
way’s letter 7¢ pads of rubber under the bark of 
Hevea trees, as [ am the person who sent him the 
pieces of bark mentioned and as his letter is 
somewhat misleading, I must ask you fora small 
space in your paper to correct it. 


lst. Inall the boils which I have seen caused 
by Mr. Northway’s system the pad of rubber 
always lies between the rows of pricks inside 
the bark; and I have never seen prick marks, on 
the inside of tt next the wood, proving (as Mr. 
Northway says) that it was there before. 

The pieces of bark I sent Mr. Northway, with 
pads of rubber on them, were taken from trees 
which had never been tapped before, but were 
tapped on his system—some of them six days 
and others 12; and none of them had boils of 
any sort on their bark before the operations, in 


fact, we watched some of these boils with pads 
of rubber underneath them grow from day to 
day until the final stage was reached and the 
bark, cambium, and wood were in a rotten state 
caused by the putrefying of the drying latex 
shut up inside the bark. 


The trees, as Mr. Northway says, were not 
scraped months before, but one to two weeks 
before Mr. Northway’s system was tried, and 
in every tree where the bark was examined the 
prickers went in right to the wood, far too 
deep—not too shallow as Mr, Northway insin- 
uates was the case—owing to the corky bark 
not being all rubbed off. 


In_conclusion, I must say that although 
Mr. Northway thinks that rows of pricks one- 
sixteenth-of-an-inch deep in the wood of the 
Hevea tree will do them little or no harm, 
Mr. Petch and others hold a different opinion ; 
and it is the impossibility of working care- 
fully with the blunt pricker—which requires a 
lot of force to start it and once started goes 
right to the wood—that is the grave danger. 


It is rather ridiculous the way some people 
write and run down those who do not believe 
in Mr. Northway’s system; for I can assure you, 
Sir, that there is not a single rubber planter 
in the country who would not rather use Mr. 
Northway’s system on account of its simplicity, 
if only he could level up yield per acre, and 
level down cost of upkeep of the system and 
freedom from disease—to the old systems. 


I ask you, Sir: is there any one, Superinten- 
dent or cooly, who can judge from the out- 
side of the tree the exact thickness of the bark ? 
And if not, how is it possible to putin the 
pricker just the right distance—so that all the 
Jatex is drawn out without injury to the wood ? 
What happens in practice is that either the 
pricker goes in too far in a thin-barked tree, or 
else not deep enoughin a thick-barked one ; and 
so the latex cells are not all touched and the tree 
does not yield satisfactorily. 


Iam not against the sharp pricker. I think 
it a most excellent tool, but it must be used in 
conjunction with paring, or not at all,—Yours 


faithfully, 
i D, B. WILLIAMSON, 


[We are exceedingly glad that Mr. D, B. 
Willamson has written this illuminating letter 
over his own name—as it was, we believe, 
on Sunnycroft Estate, that the rubber pads 
resulting from the new tapping system were 
first discovered, a phenomenon which was first 
nade public in our columns. We are not so 
much concerned with the initial correction 
of Mr. Northway’s examination of the pads of 
rubber on the specimens of bark sent down to 
Deviturai, although the most startling discovery 
made by that expert—that there were pads 
already existing before the pricker pierced the 
bark in some cases—is denied by the Kelani 
Valley planter. What is more important is the 
opinion, with which it is difficult to quarrel, that 
the use of the pricker is dangerous in so far as 
it is impossible for coolies to judge of the thick- 
ness of bark and to regulate the depth to which 


and Magazine of the Ceylon Agricultural Society. 79 


they force the instrument accordingly. There 
is, therefore, a continual Vat of reaching 
and penetrating the wood and setting up the ac- 
cumulations of unreleased rubber which forces 
the bark away from the tree and sets up “ bark 
rot,” as a Kalutara Superintendent describes it 
elsewhere, Mr. Williamson emphasizes the fact, 
which the valiant defenders of the Northway 
system would do well to note, that all rubber 
planters would prefer the Deviturai mothods, 
because of their simplicity, if they afforded 
an equal yield and freedom from disease 
with no higher cost of upkeep. Referring 
again to the following letter from Kalutara dis- 
trict, we see Mr. R. J. Booth’s case of sub-cor- 
tical rubber pads, where tapping had been done 
with the knife, is explained by attributing it to 
decomposition of the laticiferous cells due to 
Bark Rot, which in the early days of tapping 
often resulted from the use of a scraper instead 
of the more careful paring now practised. He 
differentiates the pads formed by the new sys- 
tem as being entirely due to the essential action 
of the pricker itself, Further, he points out 
that the quality of work done by the cooly 
under the new system is impossible to check : 
that it requires men of very good physique if it 
is to be applied to mature trees with, say, bark 
three-quarters of an inch thick. As matters at 
present stand, it seems that. the use of the knife 
in tapping is still the best, though the ideal 
system both to work and check may have yet 
to be discovered. 


III. 


Eagles Land, Neboda, June 10th. 


Dear Sirn,—Mr R J Booth, in a previous 
letter, stated that the pad found in one of his 
trees was due to tapping in February when the 
trees were wintering and the remedy was cutting 
away the bark. In this case I should be in- 
clined to think that the pad was formed by the 
decomposition of the laticiferous cells due to 
“Bark rot.” But inthe case of pads formed by 
the new system the pricker must not be held 
responsible though its faults are well-known. 


In the early days when tapping—say, hacking 
the cambium—was considered a novelty, clea- 
ning the stem by a scraper—similar to sweat 
scrapers—was one of the processes involved in 
that system. Some of the coolies did this work 
judiciously under my personal supervision and 
some, where I was not in touch with them, did 
it as they liked. Those trees that were badly 
scraped so as to irritate the cortical cells in dry 
months got weaker and bark dricd up in patches 
with the result that they got ‘‘ Bark rot” with 
accumulations of dried latex—or rubber pads, as 
they are termed now. 


I am, therefore, inclined to think from the ex- 
planation given by Mr Northway that the 
formation of rubber pads by using his system was 
due to scraping the stem. 

As regards the new system, I do not think it 
has any advantages over the established paring 
system. What check have you on the quality of 
work done by the cooly? He can dig into the 
wood with the pricker as deep as he can and 
yet will come forward as an Al tapper and get 


his 40 cents a day. It will take years to find out 
the mischief done by him and by that time he 
gets his tundu and walks off. 


Surely, it requires giant’s strength to force the 
blunt teeth of the pricker into matured bark 
in. thick. Paring is now done by boys, girls, 
women and shuck coolies; in fact, by all coolies 
who can neither prune nor handle a mamoty 
or an alavangoe, but mature trees under the 
new system require men of very good physique. 

As regards yield, a set of 2 coolies by paring 
on my system bring in (10) ten 1b. of dry rubber 
(5 lb. each) a day from 125 mature trees 12 years 
old, Thisisthe maximum at present. , Where 
the trees are scattered, mixed with 20 in trees, 
the minimum they bring is four lb. dry rubber 
216. each), It must be understood, when con- 
sidering tie yield, that the rubber trees on this 
estate are all planted through tea, A system 
that is easy to work and to check with good 
results will be a boon.—Yours faithfully, 


T. L. SRINIVASAGAM. 


A Wrut-KNown V. A.’s OPpinrion. 


Mr J PAnderson, the Kelani Valley Visiting 
Agent, seen by a representative of the Ceylon 
Observer and asked what effect he thought 
the new tapping system would have on rubber 
trees said he could not yet say as they were 
still experimenting with it. He did not quite 
like it up to date, but he had not given up 
all hope of it because he had not givenit a lon 
enough trial. He wanted several monthsto try it. 


LESS HARM WITH A PRICKER, 


Asked whether he thought it could be regu- 
lated equally as well as the ordinary knife tap- 
ping systems, Mr Anderson said he certainly 
did, Less harm was done with a pricker than 
with a knife. It was known exactly where 
the latex lay, next to the cambium, and 
to get at it they had to cut as near the 
cambium as possible and there was a ver 
great danger in cutting to that depth. What 
he liked about the pricker was that they could 
with the knife, make a shallow incision and 
then get the latex out with the pricker, He was 
of opinion that out of an equal number of 
trees far more had been damaged with the knife 
than with the pricker. 


THE HALF-SPIRAL SYSTEM, 


In answer to a query as to what methods 
of tapping he had found most satisfactory so 
far Mr Anderson said that up to date he liked 
the half spiral. 


Mr, Wititamson’s LETTER. 


Mr. Williamson's letter, which appears on 
the previous pages, was then shown to Mr. 
Anderson who, after reading it, said it was 
quite right, he quite approved of it. 


Mr T Petch, Government Mycologist, to our 
contemporary recently said that black patches 
and the rubber pads depend on whether the 
pricker goes through the cambium into the 
wood. If youcan prick without touching the 
cambium, you will not get either of these symp- 
toms, It is impossible for the rubber pad to 


80 The Supplement to the Tropical Agriculturist 


form until the bark separates from the wood, 
The cambium is killed ; that causes the black 
patch and separates the bark from the wood. 
The black patch is the death of the cambium 
round the pricker-hole. There would be a black 
mark with the old pricker, but there isa bigger 
one in this case because the old pricker was 
sharp, and this one is blunt. Mr Northway 
certainly has pricked without touching the 
cambium, but Mr Northway’s bark—at least 
that which I moasured—is about six to eight 
millimetres thick. Other people are working on 
thinner bark. A lot of rubber trees have a 
much thinner bark than that at the age of from 
four to. seven years. Ifthey prick this thinner 
bark, they are absolutely bound to go into the 
wood. These questions of rubber pads, and 
whether you can prick without touching the 
cambium, miss the main objection to the pric- 
ker, and that is that the bark which is formed 
unde: the pricker cuts is not /aticiferous. That 
is Dr. Fitting’s discovery, and [ found it fully 
borne out in samples of Mr. Northway’s bark. 
Tho use of the renewed bark would be delayed, 
say, eight or ten months, as compared with 
the renewed bark with the knife. I do not sup- 
pose that the effect of the pricker would never 
work out, but it certainly would take more 
than six months. This is the main objection. 
The black patches and rubber pads may be a 
little alarming, but the ultimate effect of the 
black patches will be absolutely nil. It is 
against the system inasmuch as you cannot go 
on pricking as long as you ought to. The tree 
will recover. The results complained of by 
planters are the effect of following the North- 
way system too well. Their bark is probably thin, 
and they have put the pricker right through. 


LORANTHUS IN NUWARA ELIYA 
DISTRICT. 


New Galway, June 5th. 

DEAR Sir,—The discussion ve Loranthus at 
the recent meeting of the Nuwara Eliya District 
Planters’ Association though—in a way—inter- 
esting is scarcely instructive, as it makes it 
appear that this undoubted pest is of recent 
origin, or introduction. I do not know how 
many years back the speakers alluded to, but 
I can remember over 40 years ago the dilapi- 
dated appearance of the Acacia Melanoxylon 
trees then growing round ‘ Barnes’ Hall,” (now 
the Grand Hotel), and how they were gradually 
killed out by this parasite. The spaces now 
occupied by the market and K. A. Saibo’s shop 
were then covered with dense growths of Rho- 
dodendron trees, many of them carrying finer 
specimens of Loranthus than are generally seen 
now; and the surrounding jungles were full of 
it, so it israther misleading to say that ‘‘ it has 
begun to enter our jungles.” 

As to a scientific report on Loranthus, not 
many years ago—under 10, probably—a member 
of the then Scientific staff of the Botanic 
Gardens madea study of the subject and I think 
read a paper on it. His great concern was to 
discover how it was propagated, 7.¢., did the 
birds swallow the fruit, and sospread them, or 
did they merely carry them to the most con- 
venient perch, swallow the pulp, and allow the 
seeds to remain to grow in time into other 


plants ? Several birds were sacrificed to his 
thirst for knowledge. Some time back the pre- 
servation of bird life was much advocated with 
a view to keeping down insect pests. Does 
this account for the “alarming spread of Lor- 
anthus to the tea fields ?” If so, shall we now 
be called upon to shoot all birds at sight ? How 
is it proposed to work the Pest Ordinance in 
this connection ? The source, from which it has 
spread, is undoubtedly the Government jungle. 
Will Government ignore its responsibility, and 
only require private owners to eradicate the 
pest ?—or will there bea general crusade ? If 
so, ‘* what will it cost, and what will it pay ?” 
and ‘‘is the game worth the candle?” Like 
everything else, it takes time to develop, and 
as the tea bushes are so frequently pruned there 
should be very little ditticulty in keeping them 
free of the parasite. The case cited of a large 
area having to be collar-pruned on account of 
it must be quite exceptional ! 

Il have seen Loranthus on coffee, tea, cin- 
chona, camphor, gums, grevillea, and dozens of 
other trees. The question is not—where will it 
grow, but the reverse: during the fruiting season 
it is not uncommon to see the germinated seeds 
hanging from the telegraph wire where it 
passes by Loranthus infested trees.—-Yours 
faithfully, A. J. KELLOW. 


DRIED PLANTAINS FROM CEYLON. 


1p 
Croydon, May 20th. 
Sir,—It seems to have been forgotten that in 
the ’60s the Rev. Mr. Thurstan used to prepare 
dried plantains for export. They were packed 
in soldered tins to preserve them from damp. 
When I was a boy at school in England, an 
occasional present of a tin of these dried plan- 
tains was most welcome. As regards reviving 
this industry, I fear that Ceylon cannot compete 
with Jamaica, which is able to send its Mafuta 
dried bananas to England in wooden boxes or 


even cartons. 
DONALD FERGUSON. 


11. 
June 11th. 

Dear Sir,—The information given by Mr. 
Donald Ferguson in your last issue is most inter- 
esting. 

There is a _ great difference between 
“dried plantains” and the Mafuta brand 
bananas. I knew of people who sun-dry plan- 
tains, but the product is very different from 
thearticle on the English market, which brings 
out the fig flavour that is absent in ordinary sun- 
dried fruit. One thing is certain, viz., that it 
is not every variety of the fruit that is suitable 
fordrying. Mr. J. D. Vanderstraaten, who has 
been lately experimenting in the desiccation 
of ripe plantains, has proved this fact con- 
clusively. Our finer ‘table. plantains” will 
not do, but coarse mawkish fruit common in 
upcountry bazaars seem to be the most suit- 
able, There is also possibly something in the 
‘‘curing,” even if it be only of the simple kind 
which makes all the difference between new 
cheese and ‘“ ripe” cheese. It would be worth 
knowing how Mafuta bananas are prepared.— 
Yours truly, 

C.D. 


and Magazine of the Ceylon Agricultural Society. 81 


EXPERIMENTS IN TAPPING CEARA 
RUBBER. 
In NYASALAND. 
(From the Handbook of Nyastand.) 


(Tho African Lakes Corporation, Limited, 
Chitakali Estate.) 


These experiments were commenced in 
November, 1906, and are still being continued. 
Of several systems tried the ‘full herring 
bone ” has been adopted as the best for trees 
measuring between 25” and 35” in circumference 
3 feet from the ground, 


BOWMAN-NORTHWAY NO, 2 


Patent Tapping Knife was selected as the 
most suitable for trees of this description, 
both for opening the grooves and paring off 
the lower edge of the grooves in subsequent 
tappings. A much simpler knife is, however, 
being prepared and will shortly be tried. After 
stripping off the outer covering of thin bark 
the trees are left fora week or 10 days before 
tapping. This allows the tissues to recover 
from the exposure to the atmosphere, and 
another thin crust will have formed over the 
surface. By removing the shield and leaning 
the knife a little to one side a vertical groove 
is cut, 6or7 feet long, running down to within 
a few inches of the ground level, Great care is 
necessary, both in cutting the original grooves 
and in subsequently paring the lower edge of 
the grooves, not to cut through the cambium 
and expose the wood. The cambium, unlike 
the cortex, does not recover after being 
incised but produces a knot in the wood, and 
if badly incised the tree will be killed. 


After making the vertical groove, a small tin 
spout is inserted at the lower end, under which 
a vessel is placed to receive the latex. A right- 
angled triangular piece of tin, the right angle 
measuring 2’ and the sides 17”x17" approxi- 
mately, is used as a guide for cutting the 
oblique grooves which should be at an angle 
of 45° and 1 foot apart, all leading into the 
vertical groove. On trees from 18” to 20” in cir- 
cumference the ‘‘half-herring-bone” system 
is sufficient. On trees branching out near 
the ground or measuring over 35 in. in circum- 
ference it is advisable to have two vertical 
grooves On opposite sides of the tree, and the half 
or full herring-bone system followed. It is ad- 
visable to leave a space of 2 or 5 inches between 
the extreme ends of the oblique grooves running 
from opposite sides of the tree. 


At first it was found that the latex dried very 
quickly in the grooves, and that only a small 
portion found its way into the receptacle at the 
base of the vertical groove, With the assistance 
of drip-tins this difficulty has been largely over- 
come. A few drops of liquid ammonia are added 
to the water in the drip tins to prevent the latex 
coagulating too quickly. Two smart lads are oc- 
cupied in collecting the latex and arranging the 
drip-tins for each tapper. 


THE DRIP-TINS ARE NOT FIXED 


to the trees, but are held by the boy and 
shifted from groove to groove as the latex ceases 
to flow. After the latex has ceased to flow in 


11 


allthe grooves it is strained through a fine wire 
mesh and poured into the coagulating bowls. 
These should be of uniform size and fairly flat, 
as a thin biscuit is preferred. The latex com- 
mences to coagulate ina very short time after 
leaving the tree, especially if it is in small quanti- 
ties, and is mixed with a considerable quantity 
of water, which is the case when using the drip- 
tins. There should be no delay, therefore, in 
pouring the latex into the coagulating bowls. 
By 4 p.m. on the same day on which it is tapped 
the latex has generally all coagulated, It is 
then rolled on a table, or slanting board, with a 
hand roller, and constantly washed in clear 
water. Thewet biscuits are then placed on a 
wire frame, and left to dry in a well-ventilated 
shed, from which the sunlight is practically 
excluded. If the biscuits are sufficiently thin 
they should all be dry and ready for packing in 
the course of three weeks or a month, 


The table of statistics will show the results 
obtained from one batch of trees after follow- 
ing the foregoing system. The trees were 
tapped about every other day for one month, 
making 12 or 13 tappings for the month, then 
allowed to rest a month, and tapped again 
the following month, and so on until the trees 
had undergone either acomplete cortical strip- 
ping, or only half, as desired. It is estimated 
that one-tenth or one-twelfth-of-an-inch is all 
that should be removed of the cortex in one 
tapping after the grooves have once been 
opened, If this rule is followed, it will take two 
years to entirely strip a tree, after which time 
operations could probably be continued on the 
new bark. After nearly two years’ experiments 
the trees are showing 


NO ILL EFFECTS THROUGH EXCESSIVE TAPPING 


except where the cambium has been inadver- 
tently incised. 


It may be added that the Ceara trees on this 
estate are of various ages, and had received 
practically no attention before these tapping 
experiments were commenced. Many of them 
had been damaged by- bush fires, etc. 


The weight of dry rubber is approximately 
one-half the weight of wet rubber. 


Ceara rubber biscuits produced as above, and 
sent home from here, were 


VALUED AT 48 10D PER LB., 


since which ‘time, however, the market for 
all classes of rubber has fallen considerably. 


Regarding the cos¢ of collecting Ceara rubber 
in the manner above described the following 
statistics may be of interest, being compiled 
from the latest 5 months’ results (to September 
1908) on this estate. One native tapper, with 
an assistant, taps 50 trees per day, the average 
quantity of wet rubber obtained daily, taking 
the average for 86 working days, being 9°24 
ounces, yielding 4°62 ounces of dry rubber. The 
cost of collecting and preparing the rubber 
works out at 1s 24d per lb., excluding cost of 
European supervision, 

It is anticipated that with the most suitable 
type of knives it will be possible to tap the 
trees every alternate day throughout the year, 
viz., 156 working days ; and—taking the past 86 


82 The Supplement to the 


working days as a basis for calculations, 
—100 trees tapped every alternate day for 
86 days give a daily average of 18°49 oz. 
wet rubber, Therefore 100 trees tapped 
every alternate day for 1 year of 165 days 
give in the year 2,884°44 oz wet rubber. 
2,884°44 oz. of wet rubber for 100 trees=28°84 
for one tree. Therefore if the land is planted 
up with 1,000 trees to the acre (64 x 64) which 
is about the most suitable number, this means 


Tropical Agriculturist 


that 1 acre of land should when the trees average 
the same girth as those now being tapped, 
yield 1,803 lb. wet rubber or say 9014 Ib. dr 
rubber, value at 2s 6d perlb. = £112 13s 9d. 

It would probably take the trees about 6 years 
to attain an average size equal to those now 
being tapped, though they would be yielding a 
certain amount of rubber from the time they 
were 3 years old if properly cultivated and 
cared for. 


STATISTICS OF 18 CEARA RUBBER TREES TAPPED 62 TIMES. 


Dating from 21st November, 


1906, to 6th September, 1907. 


Bar (es i Slo 
ct 4) oO > os uo) Os rel 
3 2\ 55 FA 2 | ms 5 
o B SR) bo 2k 79 By | Bo of 
Le 7 aed a} 8 =|} Ye 
SL 6> | Say SS 67 sa fe) 
Ag VARS eis Ag Peake OS Ag 
Spe BS tide ogg ager 
5 5) oF E 5 | oF z 
a a 
Oz. Oz. 
21 Nov.| 1 53130 Jan. | 13} 2 | 3 Apl 
26 3; 2 | 64| 1 Feb. |, 14] 26]. 5 .,, 
OB) F. Boh 6d A css 15 |. 224.8: 4, 
30 asd 4; |p Oke tyOus 43 16] 24]}10 ,, 
3 Dee 5 64.1.8. 4, 17 | 38112. ,, 
6x bins 6 35 Ll -,5 18| 323715 ,, 
LOW is 7 32413 ,, 19| 32/17 .,, 
nee 8 Selby ws 90} 3 119 .,, 
Le wash Did it SdUS-cussae| Bbw Sl Lorene 
1, sh as 10 354120 245 22). 34] 24..,, 
D0 dat dy Ube a Obs lara: 93| 4 1296 ,, 
DP igsdrodl2|, 4a25iaa, 24). 4/99. ., 
One. 25| 321 1 May 
R ” 
564 402 


z ; |z ; wisi 
welee | 2 |. 2| BEL Seen 
epee] eg (25) 2a) ee lees 
35 | sm ae of | ap ae o> | ae 
23 i Sef 3.) 49) Sei Fe, Wms 
£| Sp : £| Se I £ |S. 
ae} Sg ao) Fas B _p g 
Oz. Oz. Oz. 

26] 33]11June.| 40 e 50| 6 
27| 38113. ,, 41] 6 51| 7% 
28| 54/15 ,, 42| 43 52| 54 
299| 5 |18 ,, 43| 74 53| 34 
30} 53]20 ,, 44] 6 54| 23 
31 | 78}22) 4, ©) 45] 53 55j 3 
32| 52/25 ,, | 46| 5% 56| 2 
33| 54127 , 47 | 5 57| 1% 
34 |-62]29 .,, 48| 33 58 | 2h 
35 63] 4 July ji49 4 SF, 59} 22 
36.| 64 | 1Sept.| 60| 32 
371 73 ALT 61| 2% 
388 | 7 6 55 62} 2 

39| 84 

833 554 44} 
Total 280 Oz. 


RUBBER-PLANTERS’ METHODS IN 
THE MALAY STATES. 


MR. BOWLE EVANS’ VIEWS. 


An important interview with the latest 
Ceylon planting visitor to the Malay States, 
who has kept his eyes and ears open and 
visited no less than 17 properties, appears in this 
issue and doubtless will be carefully read by many 
investors in, as well as growers of, the elastic 
product. Mr Bowle-Evans first of all gives 
a nasty knock to rupee scrip, but we do not 
think it will make this class of share any 
less popular; and if there is uncertainty 
about labour, it will affect sterling companies 
just.as much as the dollar or rupee ones! Of 
course we admit that the home country pro- 
vides a much largerjnumber of investors, and so 
far Mr Bowle-Evans makes his point. He com- 
pliments planters further east on their excellent 
work under much more difficult circumstances 
generally than in Ceylon; on this account the 
schooling here has been an excellent preparation 
for the all round work required in Malaya. 
Onthe Northway tapping system the point 
emphasized in condemnation is the quantity of 


additional transport required ; and this, of 
course, is against it on rough or hilly country. 
The view that Sumatra’s indenture system is 
better than free cooly labour is a novel one for a 
Ceylon man ; but, other things being equal and 
tree cooly labour having caused increasing trou- 
ble in the past, it is not surprising that a 
more dependable force becomes praised at this 
date. ihe remarks on the cessation of Tamil 
emigration will be noticed, especially as the idea 
of a Government-fixed limit tc coast advances is 
mooted. Mr Bowle-Evans speaks with much 
commonsense on the nervousness prevalent with 
regard to increasing the cost of rubber per lb. 
when necessity demands—at the same. time 
as strenuous efforts are being made to reduce it 
all round. This, however, depends on directors 
and proprietors; no doubt there will be more 
leniency when the crop is big, eveu if cost of 
production has risen slightly. We cannot com- 
ment in detail on the highly important para- 
graphs with reference to disease in the Malay 
States; but while every other prospect is glowing, 
these sections of this valuable contribution to 
present-day knowledge should be read and re- 
read and applied individually. Though optimistic 
as to prices Mr Bowle Evans has his fears of the 
facilities for the spread of disease;.and we gall 
special attention to his concluding remarks. 


and Magazine of the Ceylon Agricultural Society. 838 


INTERVIEW WITH MR. H. ST. C. 
BOWLE-EVANS. 


Mr. H. St. C. Bowle-Evans, who returned 
from the Straist on the 17th June, was kind 
enough to grant an interview to our represen- 
tative. 


VALUABLE INFORMATION. 


In answer to a preliminary enquiry Mr. Bowle- 
Kvans said:—I have been away a month and 
have seen an immense amount in that time and 
gained information that is of the greatest value, 
T have received the greatest kindness from 
everyone. 


I suppose you went on business ?—Yes, busi- 
ness and pleasure combined, As a matter of 
fact I have a fairly large book in rubber in 
Sumatra and the Straits. 


CEYLON SHARES. 


I suppose you are also highly interested in 
Ceylon shares ?—Oh! dear no. Not anything 
like the same interests, 


Have you any farticular objections to giving 
your reasons?—Well, in the first place rupee 
scrip is not nearly so easily handled as 
sterling scrip. | mean that there is a very 
much larger market for sterling shares, and the 
investing public at home donot want to be 
bothered about ‘‘rupees ” andalso do not seem 
to know how to set about the purchase or 
sale of these shares. Again, transactions in 
rupee shares are, of course, more or less con- 
fined to those living in or closely connected with 
Ceylon ; and, ifthe market weakens, or money 
is scarce, transactions are restricted to a com- 
paratively few individuals. Lastly there is 
some uncertainty about labour ; possibly not 
at the moment, but as to the future and when 
an appreciable quantity of the large planted 
acreage comes into bearing. This, I think, 
has frightened mary ‘‘ would-be” investors: in 
rupee stock, quite apart from the fact that 
the rubber in the Straits and Sumatra is of 
quicker growth and in many instances the soil 
is richer and the climate more equable for 
rubber than in some parts of Ceylon. 


IMPRESSIONS OF THE TRIP. 


Would you mind giving your impressions of 
your trip P—No, I don’t mind in the least, but I 
particularly wish it to be understood that what 
I say are my own impressions, knowledge 
goined by coming in contact with many 

anagers, visiting some 17 estates, by obser- 
vation and the cheerful way in which everyone 
I met answered my numberless questions and 
gave me their ideas from practical experience. 


How do you think the management of the 
general run of estates compares with Ceylon ? 
Do you think Mr Val Carey’s letter that appeared 
some time ago was a just criticism on the 
Superintendents ?—In reply to the former 
question, I must say things are totally differ- 
ent if a comparison is to be made with tea 
estates, As compared with our rubberestates I 
think the management every bit as efticient ; 1 
would go further than that in saying that the 


way the hugeacreages have been opened up in 
the Straits often under adverse circum-— 
stances reflects the greatest credit on all con- 
cerned. The work, too, is much harder than 
in Ceylon as we have a large trained staff of 
Conductors to assist and Surveyors to cut out 
blocks of the required size after a survey has 
been made, whereas in the Straits it appears 
that the planter has to do all this work himself, 


As regards Mr. Val Carey’s criticisms, the 
M.S. planters are still very sore about it 
—the general feeling being that he included 
in his criticisms all and sundry, whereas 
the rowdiness and = drinking, which ap- 
peared to have inspired this letter, was con- 
fined to a few well-known Superintendents 
who have the sympathy of no one, and who did 
not play the game. One might just as well say 
hat most of the Ceylon men were ‘‘rotters ” 
because of the indiscretion of a few individuals, 


Ican only say that all the Managers and 
Assistants I met were excellent, keen, and in- 
telligent workers and will compare more than 
favourably with any other part of the Hast. 


Tat NorTHWAY SYSTEM. 


What about tapping and the Northway 
System ? 

Some of the oldest rubber shewed signs of 
bad tapping in the past—the result in some 
cases, I am afraic, of ignorance and careless- 
ness combined. The tapping now carried out 
is excellent, in some cases too carefully done, 
if anything a fault, however, onthe right side. 
As regards the Northway System, some estates 
are experimenting ; but I fear no one had a 
very good word for it. Of course, there is the 
one objection, e.g., that on Bukit land, it will 
be impossible to carry about the quantity of 
water required ; besides there is tho additional 
bulk in transport. There is a feeling too that 
Ceylou men are too fond of getting the 
leading V.A.’s to append their names to ex- 
periments—the practical worth of which, over 
a reasonable period, has not been by any man- 
ner of means conclusively proved, Mr R W Harri- 
son’s recent letter of a parallel in the Alleyn 
plucking system being very much to the point 
aud also sounding a noteof warning. It must be 
remembered that the F.M.S. planters are very 
conservative and are not inclined to adopt a 
new system of tapping or new tapping tools 
until the system or tools have been found 
thoroughly efficient. Hence instead of finding 
many and various tapping knives, there were 
only two or three places that I found using the 
pull and push knife; the tools usually and 
generally adopted being the ordinary gouge 
and the large and smaller farrier’s knife. 1 can- 
not say that I agree entirely with the views of 
a large number of F.M.S. men that Ceylon 
planters are too much given to patenting 
knives, as after all the thoughts of the Ceylon 
men are directed towards an implement that 
is cheap in the long run, easily handled by 
coolies that are not experts, and one that will 
do the least damage in inexperienced hands. 
Again I venture to think that the different 
machines, vow universally used, were originally 
the outcome of ideas and the inventive genius 
of Ceylon Planters and Engineers, 


84 The Supplement to the Tropical Agriculturist 


LABOUR. 


What about labour ?—Ah, Hereit behoves me 
to be very careful. My own feeling is that Sumatra 
with its 3-year indenture system has one of 
the best labour forces going. The cost of each 
cooly is approximately £4. 48. 0d. but 1 believe 
that the Javanese, at any rate on the estates 
1 visited, are freely re-indenturing themselves 
for a further three years. Now think fora 
moment what this means as compared with un- 
indentured labour or compared, say, with ordi- 
nary labour or Sinhalese village labour. The 
important thing to my mind is that with 
indentured labour the Manager always knows 
the available labour force for tapping, whereas 
with the ordinary labour forces or a village com- 
munity, you never know how many tappers 
may be available. You may get too many or 
too few, or none at all at times, and it is an 
indisputable fact that regular and frequent tap- 
ping gives the best yields. Tapping at inde- 
finite periods can never give the best results. 
As regards the F,M.8., I do not think the 
labour question need alarm anyone, in spite of 
the huge acreages opened up. Any number of 
Javanese could be imported, and local Chinese 
are available and are excellent tappers although 
they are rather expensive, ¢.g., 45 to 55 dollar 
cents against an all-round average of abont 27 
cents for Tamil labour. 


Tamit LABOUR. ’ 


There is some anxiety expressed as to the 
rather sudden cessation of an influx of Tamil 
Jabour—a serious matter when it is understood 
that Tamil labour is the cheapest and most eco- 
nomical, I hardly feel justified in expressing any 
opinion as to the cause, owing to my short 
duration in the F. M.S., but it is alleged by 
many that the elimination of Sunday names by 
the majority is to some measure responsible, 
This, however, 1 would not consider the cause 
of the great falling-off in arrivals. I should 
be inclined to think that it is partly due tothe 
system of recruiting now in vogue, the law 
being that no debts contracted between em- 
ployer and employee, prior to arrival, car. be 
recovered. Itis possible that a system of Gov- 
ernment allowing a fixed and limited sum to be 
advanced to the cooly before arrival, over 
and above the amount necessary to bring him 
free to the country may have to be adopted ; 
but this will open up a big question and would 
probably lead to register legalised discharge 
notes, bolting, and many other attendant 
evils with which we in Ceylon are only 
too well conversant and which under ~- the 
present system in the F.M.S. are unknown. 
On every hand one hears of the strenuous 


EFFORTS BEING MADE TO REDUCE THE COST OF 
RUBBER PER LB. 


f.o.b., also comparisons being made as to cost 
of tapping ; but there is one point that seems to 
have been lost sight of by Directors and others 
alike—and that is, it is nonsense tying Superin- 
tendents down to any particular cost for 
tapping, as [ feel that the maxim of rubber 
estates should be tap—tap—tap !|—and if a sufb- 
cient Tamil labour force is not available, recruit 
for all you are worth ; but in the meantime take 
on Chinese, even at a much jncreased cost, and 


get quantity. What amazed me was that some 
estates rest their trees and tap at indifferent 
periods rather than increase their cost of tap- 
ping per lb. of rubber by taking on other 
labour. It may be found necessary at times to 
rest the original tapping area, but why not tap 
above this even if more expensive and if the latex 
is rather less in quantity ? Surely rubber at any- 
thing over 2s per lb. would amply repay the small 
initial cost involved, let alone rubber at 6s ? 
The sooner Directors and others recognise this, 
the better for all concerned, although everyone 
is in accord with the Directors that strict 
economy even at 6s per lb is absolutely essential 
even on estates making big profits. Generally 
speaking, most of the estates appear to have suf- 
ficient labour. One well-known dividend paying 
Company could, however, I feel sure, make a 
considerably bigger profit with more labour. 


DISEASE. 


What about disease ?—As you know, alarmist 
reports have frequently been circulated in 
Ceylon and elsewhere about white ants, but 
little has been heard about other diseases. 


THE WHITE ANT PEst. 


The white ant pest (Termes Gestroi) is dif- 
ferent from the Ceylon white ant and need give 
no cause for anxiety, as Managers are taking 
all sorts of precautions. The ant exterminator 
with sulphur and arsenic, although only lately 
taken up, is likely to solve the difficulty, but 
failing it doing what is claimed, the more ex- 
pensive but effective method of clearing the 
land of all dead timber by burning it, will prac- 
tically eradicate this pest. 

FUNGUS. 

The root fungus (fomes semitostus) is very 
prevalent on all clearings, and attacks rubber 
from 2 to 5 years old and may be compared 
to the Rossillinia radicerperda so common in 
Coylou. Great attention is being paid to this 
fungus disease and many Managers are eradica- 
ting the disease by burning all dead wood and 
cutting out stumps, a very expensive addition to 
the initial cost of bringing rubber into bearing, 
but effective in both eradicating white ants 
and fomes semitostus. There is a difference 
of opinion as to whether such an expensive 
method is or is not justifiable, or whether 
careful watching ard checking of the above 
is not only more practicable, but economi- 
cal. Whatever the opinion expressed there is 
one thing to be said, that when once thoroughly 
cleared of dead timber the work is finished 
once and for all, and the future cost of checking 
disease will be practically nil. The cost seems 
to be anything from $20 to $45 per acre atter 
the first two years, much of the timber having 
by then rotted. 


BRANCH DISEASE. 


The most important disease to my mind is 
the branch disease, which I had an opportunity 
of examining on one estate, The branches 
appear to darken, with the underlying cambium 
of a dark bruised colour. These branches die 
back until they meet a fork, when they continue 
an upward or downward course which quickly 
kills the tree. The whole point seems to beas 
towhether this disease is internal or external, 


and Magazine of the Ceylon Agricultural Society. 85 


If the former, and always provided all known 
infected areas are carefully watched, and the 
branches topped off and burned, no serious 
damage should ensue, If thelatter, the spores 
will be carried from estate to estate and the 
whole area rapidly affected. Having had 
no opportunity of meeting Mr Gallagher, the 
Government Mycologist, I am unable to ascer- 
tain for certain as to the possible danger of 
this disease becoming universal. From those 
whom I discussed the question with, very littlo 
information could be obtained. It appears that 
in most instances this branch disease has been 
confounded with the ‘‘fomes semitostus.” There 
isno doubt, however, that unlesstaken in time, 
this disease rapidly spreads, I understand 
that the disoase is not uncommon in Ceylon. 


LaLanG, Passion FLOWER, ETC. 
What about Lalang, Passion Flower, &c.? 


I was agreeably surprised to find that prac- 
tically all the places I visited were tree of 
weeds, especially lalang, the curse of Rubber 
estates. That lalang can be easily and effec- 
tively dealt with, I have no hesitation in saying; 
but the initial cost of eradicating it is heavy, 
but when once done, with proper care and 
supervision it should never give any further 
trouble. Many thousands of pounds have 
been wasted over a want of organisation or 
rather a want of grasp of the situation. 
It is whispered that Ceylon men, without 
much knowledge of this pest, men who have 
not been long in the F.M.S., have been the 
worst sinners ; this is as it may be. Holing 18” 
all over—and shortly afterwards, taking out all 
“points” and roots and continuing at frequent 
intervals—is the only effective method and 
will ina few months overcome any lalang, but 
everything depends on labour and frequent 
weeding at the commencement. Let a little 
lalang get a footing in a clean estate even, 
and it spreads with incredible rapidity. Much 
passion flower is growing over large areas; 
crotalaria also finds favour on somo estates. 
Both these should be avoided if possible ; or at 
any rate crotalaria, if planted, should not be 
allowed to grow tothe extraordinary height to 
be seenon some estates. It stands to reason 
that overgrown crotalaria isso dense that no one 
can move about the fields ; hence considerable 
damage is done by ‘fomes semitostus’ and pos- 


sibly white ants, before it is discovered. Crota- . 


laria is not a weed-destroyer although it keeps 
down weeds when it entirely covers the ground. 
Passion flower on the other hand does effectively 
kill out lalang and other growths, but is 
generally a sign of want of sufficient labour. 
It occurred to me that much expense could be 
saved by sowing passion flower directly the clea- 
ring is burnt off and sufliciently cool—not wait- 
ing, asis generally done, until lalang appears. 
This would enable the work of planting up to be 
carried on without great anxiety about weeds. — 
A CoMPARISON. 

How do you compare Ceylon withthe FMS 
and Sumatra, and what are your general im- 
pressions of the future of rubber prospects ? 

Tho general feeling is that Coylonis behind 
both places in quickness of growth, with the 
posiiple exception of some parts of Kalutara, 


My own idea is that for the first two years or so 
there is not a vast difference as compared with 
the most favoured Ceylon districts, but after 
three to four years the growth in Malaya is far 
ahead, In the F,M.S. there are many blocks of 
four years old rubber with a large percentage 
of woll-grown, tappable trees—many being 30” 
and upwards in girth. 


RuBBER PROSPECTS. 


As to the future, I think that there is an 
immense fortune to be made out of rubber, 
almost at any price ; and there is no knowing 
which quantity per acre can be obtained when 
the rubber isa bit older. I don’t fear labour, 
root disease, or white ants, but am apt to bea 
little pessimistic; with the huge areas opened 
up, there is always a possibility of uature step- 
ping in and disseminating some virulent disease 
by the aid of spores—more especially as little 
sunlight can get through well-grown rubber, 
if at al! closely planted and this alone would 
tend to foster and encourage fungoid disease. 


MANURING IN CEYLON. 


USEFUL INFORMATION. 
‘¢ PROFITABLE MANURING 1N CEYLON” is the 


title of a handy, exceedingly useful, and attrac- 
tively got up little bookletissued by the Colombo 
Commercial Company. After a short sketch of 
the development of agricultural science as 
applied to manuring, mention is made of the 
three substances, Nitrogen, Phosphoric Acid 
and Potash, which the plant finds a scarcity of 
in the soil. Lime, it is mentioned, is more for 
the purpose of improving the mechanical or 
physical condition of the soil than for use as a 
plant fooa., All soils contain large supplies of 
these plant foods in solid form but a plant 
does not absorb solid matter, and, therefore, 
the foods must be brought into solution 
which is brought about partly by moisture 
in the soil, but to a greater extent by the 
juices, or sap, secreted by the roots. These 
secretions are faintly acid and only materials 
which are readily attacked by this weak acid 
solution are available as plant foods, the fer- 
tility of the soil depending on the proportion of 
the plant food it contains which is soluble in 
this weak acid. This proportion is limited and 
as crops are grown year after year the supply 
diminishes. The object of agricultural science, 
therefore, is to increase the stock of available 
plant food in the soil, and this increase is 
brought about by tillage and manuring. In 
Ceylon, farmyard manure is scarce and the 
planter has to rely on artificial manure. Ana- ° 
lysis, however, proves these ‘‘artificial”” manures 
to be perfectly ‘‘natural” ones, when their 
origin 1s considered. 


The whole question is then dealt with under 
three headings: ‘‘Manuring for Nitrogen,” 
‘‘Manuring for Phosphoric Acid,” and ‘‘ Manu- 
ring for Potash.” In each the particular uses 
of the substance are exhaustively explained 
and the best form in which they can be applied 
to the soil discussed. 

In the section devoted to nitrogen it is stated 
that green manuring is the practical applica- 
tion of the theory that leguminous plants have 


86. The Supplement to the Tropical Agricutturist' 


the power of assimilating Nitrogen direct from 
the air by means of their root nodules, which 
are colonies of nitrifying bacteria, which con- 
vert atmospheric nitrogen into forms in which 
it canbe assimilated by the plant aud enable it 
to store up large quantities of nitrogen in this 
way. If, then, a leguminous crop is grown and 
returned to the soil after maturity the amount 
of nitrogen is largely increased, and the supply 
of the nitrifying organisms which are so essen- 
tial to fertility is maintained. It is further 
stated that the theory is one which deserves 
consideration by all planters. 

‘*Not only is the amount of Nitrogen in the 
soil increased by green manuring, but the 
amount of decaying organic matter and humus 
also; and consequently the texture, retentivity, 
and condition of the soil generally, is improved. 
The soils of Ceylon are, for the most part, defi- 
cient in humus, so that organic manures are es- 
pecially necessary. Green manuring is one of 
the best ways of applying such, and is one 
which we venture to predict wiil come more 
and more into favour with Planters as its bene- 
ficial effects are realised. Of course the main 
object ef green manuring is to increase the 
amount of Organic matter and Organic Nitro- 
gen, and it cannot take the Place of Artificial 
Manuring for Potash and Phosphoric Acid or 
as a source of quickly acting Nitrogen, It how- 
ever brings the soil into the condition in which 
it is best able to take advantage of artificial 
manures, and forms a good basis for the econo- 
mical use of such fertilisers.” 


Phosphoric acid is said to rank next to L’otash 
as a necessary constituent of healthy wood,and 
muriate of potash is mentioned as a good 
fertiliser for 

Coconut TREES. 


The general conclusions drawn are as follows : 
“The manurial requirements of the Tea plant 
are, in order of importance, Nitrogen, Potash, 
and Phosphoric Acid. Shortage of the last two 
is not followed by any immediate diminution in 
yield, although continued lack of them produces 
poor, scrappy bushes liable to attacks by pests 
and blights. Shortage of Nitrogen is always, 
and very soon, followed by diminution in yield 
and in the general vigour of the bush, What 
should be aimed atis to keep an ample supply 
of these plant foods in an available form for the 
plants’ nutrition, and so to build up their struc- 
ture as to produce strong healthy bushes with 
plenty of reserve energy to resist the attacks of 
pests and the advent of the unfavourable seasons. 
Bearing these general considerations in mind 
what course should the planter take to ensure 
his system of manuring being profitable ? Having 
decided in what way his soil needs fortifying, 
his own judgment should indicate to him what 
manures to choose from the list of those which 
supply the ingredients heneeds.. He has two 
things to consider, first, the need of his crop for 
immediate nutriment, as against slowly acting 
manures ; and second, the cost per unit of the 
various constituents of the manures at his dis- 
posal, (found by dividing the price per ton by 
the percentage). Thus he will find that at the 
present time Sulphate of Ammonia is cheaper 
per unit of Nitrogen than Nitrate of Soda, 
although, as regards availability, the order 


is reversed ard Nitrate of Soda takes first 
place. Again, Kainit, which appears at 
first sight to bea cheap manure, is really dearer 
per unit of potash than either Sulphate of 
Potash or Muriate of Potash. What he has to 
decide is how. to get the best value for his 
money, value being not only a matter of 
quantity, but also of quality, as deter- 
mined by the suitability of the manure for 
the needs of his crop. A chemical analysis 
of the soil isin some cases necessary before 
one can judge what plant foods are lacking, 
and in the early days of artificial manuring, 
in Ceylon, this was even more necessary than it 
is now. The Planter has been early alive to the 
fact, with the result that a large number of use- 
ful soil analyses have been made, and the 
average composition of the soil in the 
various tea districts is now well known. 
Still, soil analysis should not be neglected alto- 
gether, for such analysis may furnish useful in- 
formation concerning the condition of avail- 
ability of the fertilising elements. A strict watch 
should be kept for signs of falling off in either 
quantity or quality of the tea crop, and steps 
taken to correctit. Mixtures which are suitable 
for bringing an estate up to the mark as regards 
yield are not always the best for maintaining or 
improving the quality, where the bushes are 
already strong and healthy and the yield suffi- 
cient. While the Chemist can, by analysis, tell 
the apparent needs of the soil, yet he alone can- 
not satisfactorily settle the question of estate 
manuring. It is tothe Planter—the man on the 
spot—that he must look for help and co-opera- 
tion. Informaticn regarding quality and yield 
of tea, health of the tea bushes, local conditions 
of climate and rainfall, and personal obser- 
vations regarding best methods of working can 
only come from the planter, and itis by such 
co-operation that the latter can ensure the best 
results for himself, and make it certain that 
his manuring is not only profitable but that 
it is maintained at its highest efficiency.’ 


Finally, an account is given of the manure 
trade in Ceylon, with special reference to the 
Colombo Commercial Co.’s participation there- 
in, and atthe end of the pamplet an excellent 
series of definitions of the various manures in 
use in Ceylon is given, 


-1,910 RUBBER CROPS: FORWARD SALES, 


GRAND CrntRAL.—No. | Crepe, quantity not 
exceeding 112,000 lb., at R3°7U per pound. 
No. 2. Crepe, quantity not)exceeding 20,000 Ib., 
at R3-60 per pound. 

PatLtEcopA.—No. 1, quality only, on an esti- 
mate of about.40,000 lb.—for R3°70 per lb. 

Ripu Russer Co,, Lrp.—Pending report of © 
1910 crop estimates, (1) No. 1 Pale Crépe up to 
30,000 lb, at R3-70 per Ib. and (2) No. 2 Crépe 
up to 5,0u0 lb, at R360 per lb. Crop figures are 
subject to amendment by 31st Dec., 1909. 

Katutara Company, Lrp.—No. 1 quality rub- 
ber (Best Biscuit, Pale Crépe or Sheet) of, 1910 
crop at R3:70 per lb. Itis estimated that about 
40,000 Ib. will be delivered under this contract. 

SEREMBAN RUBBER Co,—best Crépe A rubber 
of 1910 crop from the Company’s estate at R3‘70 
perlb. It is estimated that about 180,000 Ib, 
will be delivered under this contract, 


and Magazine of the Ceylon Agricultural. Society. 87 


RUBBER PLANTING IN PAPUA. 


‘“‘[T have come back with the opinion that 
Australia has got a good thing in Papua,” said 
the Minister for External Affairs, Mr. Batchelor, 
who arrived in Sydney yesterday from a visit 
to that territory. The Administrator, Judge 
Murray, accompanied him in the steamer 
‘‘Merrie Kngland” to the different spots on 
the coast; Mr, Staniforth Smith, the Director 
of Mines and Agriculture, took him up in the 
hills. There was nothing in the way of a 
“big feller white man” in the Minister's appear- 
ance among the dusky denizens of Papua. So 
many difficulties occur in, the way of getting 
interpreters that he was not formally intro- 
duced. The variety of languages, he said, is 
almost as great as among the peoples of Europe. 
He visited the big rubber plantation belonging 
to the syndicate with which Sir Rupert Clarke 
is connected. Here there were 600 acres under 
rubber, and the manager, 


MR. WESTLAND, OF CEYLON, 


proposes to plant another 200, This planta- 
tion has now trees on it, some of which are 
two years old, Five years from commencement 
have to elapse before they can be tapped. No 
rubber is at present exported except the native 
variety, which is of considerably less value 
than the para rubber. A planter at Sogeri, 
Mr. Ballantyne, has some trees which will be 
ready next year, so that the trade will pro- 
bably then make a start. 


Back again at Port Moresby Mr. Batchelor 
shaped his course for Dedeli, inspected a 


COCONUT PLANTATION 


there, and then went to Rigo, where he saw 
a plantation of 
SISAL HEMP 

and three machines installed for treating it. 
The London Missionary Society has a fine 
station at the place. It is also the locality 
of a Government nursery. On an island of 
Cloudy Bay is another mission station. The 
Minister called at it, and was entertained by 
the Rev. Mr. Sackville. Thence he passed on 
to Samarai, Milne Bay, and Woodlark Island, 
and also to one of the most interesting parts 
of Papua from a scenic point of view—-Cape 
Nelson, with its magnificent fiords, said to 
surpass those of Norway. 


‘« The soil in New Guinea,” said Mr Batchelor, 
‘*ig, as far as I saw it, 


WONDERFULLY FERTILE. 


The climate is strangely variable. In the dry 
belts the rainfall averages about 30 inches a 
year. In the others it’s about 180. Those 
planters who have experience in rubber say that 
in no place in the world does the tree make 
such early progress. I met the miners on the 
goldfields. Those at Woodlark wero very hope- 
ful. They told me that a fresh impetus had 
been given to things by an amalgamation of 
Companies, and by the good results that have 
been met in the mines at depth. They are down 
as deep as 500 ft. At Sogeri [ saw the copper 
mines. They are waiting there for operations 
to be started by a new Company.” 


Mr Batchelor was surprised to find many 
different opinions about tho value of the native 
labour in Papua, ‘‘ It appeared,” he remarked, 
‘to be according to the country the men were 
drawn from. Some of the Papuans are good 
workmen. They told me at Woodlark Island 
that they considered the labour the best in 
the world.” 

“The best native labour?” was suggested. 

‘‘No,” replied Mr Batchelor, ‘tthe best. in 
the world. They are working ground on the 
goldfields that wouldn’t pay here.” In other 
parts, among both miners and planters, he 
found the opposite opinion. 

There was considerable dissension in the 
Government service in Papua about a year or 
more ago. The Minister reports that no friction 
whatever exists now, and he was exceedingly 
pleased at the work done by the oflficers,— 
Sydney Herad, May 19. 


INTRODUCTIGN OF GOURAMI 
INTO CEYLON. 


The gourami (Osphromenus olfax) is a fresh- 
water fish belonging to Java, which has been 
introduced into Huropees an aquarium fish, and 
into Mauritius, Cayenne, and India as a food- 
fish. It is recorded as attaining a length oftwo 
feet and a weight of 20 Ib. ; but it seems doubt- 
ful whether 20 lb. of muscle can bo concentra- 
ted into a length of two feet. However that 
may be, it has long been known to possess an 
‘‘exquisit® flavour”; and has quite recently 
been characterised in the Cambridge Natural 
History as ‘* one of the best flavoured fishes of 
the Far East,” Under these circumstances I 
had no hesitation in recoramending Govern- 
ment to communicate with the Government of 
Mauritius in order to ascertain definitely whe- 
ther the culture of the gourami is carried on 
there with conspicuous success, This was done, 
and a reply duly arrived, forwarding papers 
relating to this matter, and adding ‘‘ that if it 
is desired to introduce the gourami in Ceylon, 
this Government will be glad to arrange fora 
supply of young fish being sent,’ The gourami, 
it appears, is not made the object of methodical 
cultivation in Mauritius, but, when desired, it 
is transplanted from one place to another. A 
gentleman who has interested himself in accli- 
matisation experiments in Mauritius, Mr A 
Daruty de Grandpré, states that the rearing of 
the gourami is very easy, asit will exist in any 
kind of fresh water, flowing or stagnant; its 
habits are herbivorous and insectivorous, and 
it is therefore valuable asa consumer of mos- 
quito-larvee; it . constructs a nest amongst 
aquatic herbs, where it deposits its eggs, which 
are defended by the male. [Interesting extracts 
are quoted, through the obliging kindness of the 
Government of Mauritius, to show the value of 
the gourami, and the couparative ease with 
which it might be introduced in Ceylon.] Its 
distribution after its arrival would be a matter 
neq careful consideration. The liberation 
and re-capture of introduced fishes without any 
record being’ kept would probably be an unsatis- 
factory proceeding.—ArtHor WriLKy.—March 
31, 1909.—Administration Report on Marine 
Biology. 


88 ‘The Supplement to the Tropical Agriculturist 


UTILISATION OF PARA RUBBER SEED. 


Experimeat with Seed sent from Ceylon. 


Attention has been directed already in this 
Bulletin (1903, 1. 156, and 1904, 2. 22) to Para 
rubber seed as a source of 

A DRYING OIL, 

The seed has a thin shell which forms about 
58 per cent. of the whole, This contains a small 
amount of oil which for practical purposes may 
be neglected. The kernels contain about 42 per 
cent. of oil, which when exposed to the air 
“dries” in the course of a few days, yielding a 
clear transparent film. It generally resembles 
linseed oil in properties, and like the latter 
could probably be used in the manufacture of 
paints and varnishes, rubber substitutes, cil 
cloth, soft soaps, and similar products. A small 
consignment of the kernels (decorticated seed) 
was received recently in this country from 
Ceylon, and the oil expressed therefrom has 
been sold at the rate of 21 shillings per cwt. to 
a manufacturing firm in this country for trial 
on a small commercial scale. Analyses of the 
‘‘eake” left after the extraction of the oi], were 
made at the Imperial Institute in 1903, and 
these showed that it had about the same 
‘*nutrient value” as linseed cake. Up to the 
present practically all the supplies of para 
rubber seed available have been used for plan- 
ting purposes, and consequently feeding trials 
with press cake prepared from the kernels have 
not been carried out, but such experiments will 
need to be undertaken before the cake can be 
marketed as a feeding-stuff. Owing to the great 
extension of para rubber planting in Ceylon, 
Malaya, and elsewhere in recent years, large 
supplies of this seed will be obtainable as a by- 
product in the near future, and these can pro- 
bably be put to remunerative use asa source 
of drying oil and feeding cake, It is probable 
that it will prove more remunerative to export 
the seeds or the kernels (i.e. the shelled seeds) 
to this country than to express the oil locally, 
since it will probably be easier to find a market 
for the press-cake in EKurope than in the coun- 
tries in which the seed is produced. Further, 
the cost of packages for the transport of the oil 
would doubtless prove to be high in the tropics, 
Before exporting kernels great care should be 
taken to see that they are thoroughly dry, so 
as to avoid deterioration during transit. The 
Imperial Institute will be glad to receive any 
further information or inquiries relating to the 
utilisation of these seeds.—Bulletin of the Im- 
perial Institute. 


PAPER FROM COCONUT HUSKS. 


‘¢ Chambers’s Journal ” for April gives a brief 
account of the interesting experiments being 
conducted by Messrs. J Brown & Co., Penicuik, 
paper manufacturers, with coconut husks for 
the manufacture of paper. The outer rind of 
this husk is of a very liquified character. In- 
side this rind is a pithy structure about two 
inches in thickness, interlaced throughout with 
very strong, long fibres of a jute-like, inquified 
appearance, Inthe boiling treatment of the 
husks, two large samples of the selected mate- 
rial were dried ata temperature of one hun- 


dred degrees centigrade, and then accurately 
weighed. The outer rind of the one was then 
pulverised and the other left in its original con- 
dition. Each sample was then placed in a 
separate bag made of Hessian cloth, and boiled 
for four hours at a pressure of thirty pounds 
per square inch, with 18 lb. of sodium oxide per 
cwt. in esparto boilers alone with the esparto 
grass. The boiling operation completed, the 
husks were examined, and it was then ascer- 
tained that this treatment was not sufficiently 
drastic to destroy the pithy constituent in the 
rind, while the latter was scarcely affected or 
softened by the boiling. These results proved 
that to separate the cellulose from the non-cellu- 
lose portions of coconut husks much higher 
temperatures and pressures would be required, 
The sample of coconut husk in which the rind 
was broken up was resolved toa greater extent 
than that left untouched. Further experiments 
were, therefore, carried out with the former 
bulk. It was treated with thirty-six pounds of 
bleaching powder per hundredweight ; but even 
with this excessive proportion of bleaching 
agent (which is about four times that required 
to impart a pure white colour to esparto) the 
husk was but slightly whitened, another proof 
that the boiling process was not sufticiently pro- 
Jonged or severe. To prepare a suitable paper- 
making materialfrom such a waste as coconut 
husk is obviously very difficult, if not impos- 
sible, but laboratory experiments are to be con- 
tinued with a view to give the material a further 
chance. 

THE GULTIVATION OF PASSIFLORA 
FC-TIDA AND MEIKANIA SCANDENS. 
To Kzzp Down OrHeR WEEDS. 

The Agriculturat Bulletin of the Straits and 
F.M.S. for June, 1909, reproduces from the 
Supplement to the ‘‘ Tropical Agriculturist,” 
the article on the above written by Mr. M. Kel- 
way Bamber. The Editor adds the following:— 

Nore.—We reprint this excellent article from 
the Supplement to the ‘‘ Tropical Agriculturist,” 
April, 1909, p. 393, as it will be of interest to 
planters. I fear the F.M.S. planters cannot 
claim as original the employment of the Passi- 
flora as a Lalang strangler. It was utilised very 
many years ago by the Dutch and seeds were 
sent to German New Guinea for this purpose 
about 1898, from the Botanic Gardens, Singapore. 
Its adoption as a weed killer here came much 
later. The plant is a native of Brazil, but seems 
to have been introduced probably as an orna- 
mental plant to England in 1731, thence to the 
East Indies. [t is now common all over the Hast. 

One of its advantages as a weed killer is that 
it does not climb up the trees asso many other 
climbing plants such as the Ribu-Ribu fern 
Lygodium does. Mikania scandens, not an un- 
common plant here, is not, (here at least) so 
strong a grower. It is a stouter plant, and I 
should say does not possess so many advantages 
as the Passion flower. 

Some of the common Convolvuluses might be 
used. I have seen one in particular growing 
over Lalang and scrub along the line between 
Klang and Kwala Lumpur, which seems to do 
its work of strangling the grass and weeds well. 
It is Ipomea sepearia. 4 


and Magazine uf the Ceylon Agricultural Society. 89 


THE NEW SYSTEM OF TAPPING. 


“ Notwithstanding recent adverse criticism, 
Mr. Northway’s faith in his tapping system, our 
representative learned in conversation with him, 
remains absolutely unshaken ; and he has every 
confidence that it will yet justify his belief 
in it on any estate where it is properly carried 
out and given a fair chance. Discussing the 
question of the ‘‘ rubber pads,” Mr, Northway 
explained that before tapping a tree, in order 
to get a good result, it is 

NECESSARY TO CLEAN THE TREE, 


by scraping off the dry bark. The effect 
of allowing the light and heat on to the 
green bark is to attract the latex there. If 
the tree is not tapped soon after the dry bark 
is scraped off, the latex stagnates there and 
pads are formed. Many people who tried the 
system cleaned their trees days ahead of tap- 
ping. Mr Northway does not fear that the action 
of the pricker will prove destructive to the 
tree. The pricker goes into the cambium, he 
stated, but the cambium heals very rapidly. 
The wound begins to heal almost immediately 
on the cessation of the flow of latex. What 
he did consider bad was 
PRICKING WITH A BLUNT PRICKER 


which, instead of distinct pricks, gave a kind of 

ragged cut all round. Distinct pricks were 

essential to success. A consignment of 

2,000 PRICKERS SPECIALLY SUITABLE FOR THE 
SYSTEM, 


and on which the depth of the teeth can be 
regulated, is expectedin Ceylon shortly. Mr 
Northway is quite satisfied that he can get in- 
finitely better returns from his trees by this 
system than by any other. He has many expla- 
nations to offer which would account for the 
failure of other planters to secure equally good 
results by the adoption of the system ; and he 
hopes that some time in the near future his own 
business may be so arranged as to permit of. his 
occasionally visiting other rubber estates and 
personally. instructing brother planters in how 
to successfully apply the system. 

Personally we must admit that the reports 
which have been reaching us have not been vory 
favourable; but we hear of 


ONE ESTATR IN THE KELANI VALLEY WHICH 1S 
DOING EXTREMELY WELL WITH THE SYSTEM, 


It may be that Mr Northway is right and now 
that the first wild rush into the system has been 
checked by the unsatisfactory results obtained 
those who take it up calmly and carefully 
will get the results and reap the benefits of it. 


Mr H B Kirk, 
Muvattupuzha, 8., India, 
the Local ‘‘ Times” :— 

‘‘The fallacy of the figures given by the 
witnesses to Mr Northway’s demonstration on 
December 19th, 1908, was that they omitted to 
mention that December is the best yielding 
month in the year, and, having observed Mr 
Northway’s best cooly extract 4 lb. 14 oz, of dry 
rubber from one acre of rubber on a most 
favourable yielding day, they then multiplied 


12 


of Periyar Rubber Estate, 
writes as follows to 


it by 36 days and gave the result. If you apply 
this method to tea and turn on your best 
plucker to a given area during your best crop 
months, and then multiply it by 300 plucking 
days, you will establish a record new plucking 
system. Mr Northway’s check-roll figures in 
May show us 

WHY SO MANY SUBSCRIBERS ARE DISAPPOINTED 
in their results. Here he has six of 
his best tappers working for 23 days and 
averaging 1 lb. 1 oz. per diem, presumably 
obtained from 100 trees which, taking 200 trees 
to the acre, gives you 804 Ib. dry rubber, 
including scrap, against 1762 lb. on December 
19th, 1908. Mr Northway, in December, con- 
sidered 36 days tapping ample for the year, but 
he now advocates 60 days, which, on May 
results, will give him a yield of 131 lb. an acre, 
Mr Northway, in reply to Mr Carson, said :— 
“The trees are not at their best. I[t is too 
soon after wintering.” Quite so! His happy 
selection of December to demonstrate it shows 
us this. Had he demonstrated on May 7th, 1909, 
his yield per acre for 36 days would have 
been 55 lb., and for 60 days 78 lb., or about 3-8th 
of alb per tree. But I find May is a fair 
‘‘average” month, and I attach, for your perusal 
only, my yield per tree for each month of the 
year, which seems to show that, inJuly, August, 
September, October, February, March, or 
April, Mr Northway will get less yield per 
tree than in May. To obtain a yield of 1 Ib 
per tree on the Northway system, we will have 
to tap about 95 average days ina year. Or, if 
the trees will stand it, tap them from December 
Ist until January 15th, the whole acreage 
with 2 coolies an acre, sail for home with your 
crop, and return in November, Only you must 
increase your factory accommodation slightly. 


Seriously, will Mr Northway cblige us with 
figures showing his yield per acre, or per tree, 
for each month of the year?—and many disap- 
pointed subscribers will take heart and try 
again in December who now sleep ill of nights, 
writhing uuder Mr Wiggin’s stigma. And I 
would suggest our being informed as to the 
average cost of tapping per lb. in each month. 
Sadris Appu brings in 14.1b. of dry rubber a day 
in May, while Theneris can manage but 1 lb, 
and Punchi Nonais not quoted. I would be 
obliged if you could inform me what the maxi- 
mum and minimum temperatures were ou 
December 19th, 1908, compared with other 
December days. 


LANADRON CO. EXPERT’S VIEWS 
ON RUBBER. 


June 17th. 

Dear Sir,—In the Ceylon Observer of the 14th 
you publish a very full report of the Lanadron 
Rubber Estates Co. I had the pleasure of 
being a fellow-voyager ot the Chairman of this 
Co (Mr. Andrew Mcllwraith) to Ceylon from 
Marseilles last November, and he favoured 
me with the opinion the Consulting Chemists 
of the Company, Messrs. Clayton Beadle and 
Stevens of London, had formed regarding rubber 
from their estates as follows :— 


90 The Supplement to the Tropical Agriculturist 


‘a.’ The quality of the rubker is not affected 
by the age of the tree which yields the latex. 

b. Vacuum drying, as at present carried on 
in the estates, lowers the quality of the rubber ; 
but this may be moditied by curtailing or leng- 
thening the time it is in the vacuum press. 

c. ‘The quality is the same from natural or 
renewed bark. 

d. The use of formalin in the latex does not 
affect the quality of the rubber. 

e. The quality of the rubber obtained, when 
acetic acid is used, appears to be at least equal 
to that obtained by natural or spontaneous co- 
agulation. 

They also added: We are as yetunable to come 
to any decision in the keeping qualities of vulca- 
nised rubber.—Yours truly, 

W. D. G. 


GACAOD BEETLE. 


A useful little pamphlet on the ‘‘ Insect Pests 
of Cacao” has just been published by the Im- 
perial Department of Agriculture for the West 
Indies, in which the following methods are 
recommended for dealing with the cacao beetle: 
—'‘*When it is known that the grub is iv the 
tree, it may be dug ont or the tunnel probed 
with a stout wire. The presence of this grub 
may be detected by the chips and excrement 
thrown out at the mouth of the burrow. The 
bark over the infested arca shows a dried and 
shrunken appearances, and by removing a portion 
of such bark the burrow may be found, Any 
wounds mado in the tree in digging out the 
beetle grubs should be promptly tarred over, 
or treated with a mixture of rosin oil and tar, 
to prevent the entrance of fungi. It will pro- 
bably be best to remove all dried bark, and 
thoroughly clean the wood, wherever these in- 
jured places are found. If the wood thus 
cleaned is properly tarred over or painted with 
rosin oil mixture, the bark will grow over the 
wound satisfactorily. The adult beetles are 
active by night, and may be found resting on 
the trunks and larger branches of the cacao tree 
in the early morning. At this time they may 
be collected, and if thrown into the water, to 
which a small amount of kerosene has been 
added, they will be quickly kil'ed. in Surinam, 
it is the common practice to tie large pieces 
of bark of the silk cotton tree to the trunks 
of the cacao, to furnish a hiding-place for the 
beetles. They may be collected from these 
places during the day.- It would seem likely 
that strips of burlap (bagging) tied round the 
cacao trunks would, as in the case of silk cotton 
bark, furnish convenient places for collecting 
these beetles. In Grenada, the cacao beetle is 
trapped by leaving the branches which are cut 
from the trees on the ground for about three 
weeks, All ‘wounds on the trees which might 
attract the egg-laying beetle are tarred care- 
fully. The adult beetles will visit the dead 
branches on the ground and deposit their eggs. 
These branches are then collected and burned. 
It is necessary that the branches be thoroughly 
destroyed. Ifthey are neglected or left too long, 
they become ' breeding-places for increasing the 
“numbers of the beetles.”—Grenapa.—Journal 
of the Royal Society of Arts, May 28. 


LIMA AND OTHER BEANS.) | 


Colombo, June. 24th. ~ 

Dear S8ir,—In the March number of the 
‘“ Tropical Agriculturist and Magazine of the 
Ceylon Agricultural Society,’ there is a letter 
from the Hon, Mr. J. P. Lowis on this subject, 
together with a list of the vernacular names 
of beans commonly found inthe Kandy market, 


As these names are apt to vary it is not 
sate to rely upon them for purposes of iden- 
tification, and this is proved by the errors 
that have crept into Morris’ list of pulses 
ou page 71 of his catalogue of Ceylon plants, 
as well as in Trimen’s Hortus Zeylanicus. 
To give one instance, mé-karal, the common 
long bean (Vigna sinensis) is given in both 
lists as Phaseolus lunatus, the Lima or Duffin 
or Rangoon bean. 


In Mr. Lewis’ list awara-damala, as far as I 
can make out, is a variety of Canavalia ensi- 
formis, the sword or sabre beans, Daluk-damala 
is the Princess or 4-winged bean (called in 
Australia the Asparagus pea) and known botani- 
cally as Psophocarpus tetragonolobus. Machehu 
(or Mutcheh) kotte is Dolichos Lablab—a favou- 
rite with Indian Tamils. ‘The other three 
dambalas mentioned (1, Kos-etaand Ratu) are, I 
take it, varieties of Phascolus lwnatus, regardin 
which Church, inhis ‘‘ ood Grains of India,’ says 
that the seods are variable in colour, marking 
and size. He also mentions that the large 
white seeded kinds, with at most a brown or 
black mark close to the hilum (the place of at- 
tachinent to the pod) are to be preferred’ to 
those with flattened and rather reniform seeds 
with blotches of red or veinings of black. 


Iam getting for distribution a supply of the 
best eating varieties of the lima bean, which, as 
Mr, Lewis remarks, is much to be preferred to 
the French, Kidney or Haricot bean. 


The.4-winged bean deserves to be cultivated 
more extensively than it is at present. It is 
sometimes grown for its ‘‘yam.” The guar or 
cluster bean (Cyamopsis psoralioides), intro- 
duced from India, is getting to be commonly 
known locally through school eardens ‘as ** Kota- 
ranga.” Like the soy bean the pcds are somé- 
what hairy. Many varieties of Amorican “Cow 
peas,” which are hardy and _ prolific, are worth 
cultivating for the sake of the pods and are, 
indeed, being grown for that purpose about 
Jolombo, having spread from the Government 
Stock Garden,—Yours truly, 


C. DRIEBERG, 
Secretary, Ceylon Agricultural Society. 


COCONUT STEM DISEASE AND CROPS. 


Kandawala, Negombo, June 17th. 

Dear Sir,—I had expected some valuable'con- 
tribution to accurate knowledge from ‘so 6x- 
perienced a planter as‘ B” of Marawila instead 
of bare contradictions and _ill-disguised sneers, 
and further such an old and frequent contributor 
toyour journal as ‘‘B” should have taken’a little 
more trouble to ascertain what I had stated in 


und Magazine of the Ceylon Agricultural Society. 91 


the paper of mine he refers to before flatly con- 
tradicting my statements. I give in parallel 
columns both my statements and ‘‘ B’s” contra- 
dictions and leave your readers to decide whereiu 
we differ, adding only that’in my paper I gave 
reasons for my statements. I[ shall be glad if 
others as well as ‘* B” will undertake the simple 
‘surgical operations and investigations” “B ’ 
scofiingly refers to in this and a previous con- 
tribution and report results, I was in hopes 
that many would have done so in the interests 
of accurate knowledge :— 


“Bp” 

Mr. J. D. Vanderstraaten 
not long ago read a paperin 
which he said that the crops 
of three years are inside the 
stem of the tree. I must, 
however, state that my in- 
variable experience has not 
beon in accord with the con- 
clusions drawn by Mr. J.D. 
V..as the result of his surgi- 
eal investigation. 

Without exception, I have 
always found improvement 
in, the appearance cf the 
trees andin blossoms, 12 to 
18 months after the appli- 
cation of manure. The re- 
sulting crops are gathered 
twelve months after that. 


J.D. Vs paper :—‘S In 
manuring we find an in 
crease in the crops during 
the 1st year, simply because 
the blossoms for the 1st 
year’s crops were all out and 
set and in various stages of 
developmont already when 
the manuring took place— 
perhaps after a few months 
we find less of the tender 
young coconuts falling,owing 
to the increased nourishment 
afforded by the manure; so 
also we notics a_ slight 
improvement in the kernel 
from the same cause. During 
the 2nd and 3rd years there 
is a marked and gradual 
increase of crop, still due 


to the improved vigour of the trees and consequent ferti- 
lising properties of the pollen which otherwise would 
have been largely infertile, The increase of crop during 
the 3rd year may be quite double the previous yield 
or even more, but itis after the 3rd year that the 
full effect of manuring are felt by the trees, the increase 
in nuts of previously unmanured gardens being quite 
four to five fold. .. Counting all the flowers from the one 
just opened to the smallest spathe in tho heart or cab- 
bage that could be examined by a magnifying glass, T found 
there were 34 flower spathes in the tree I examined and 
the smallest spathe had clearly distinguishable  fe- 
male flowers. Now taking 16 as the average number of 
branches put forth ona healthy tree we get two years 
and say two or three months for the last distinguishable 
spathe to arrive at the crown of the tree and burst into 
blossom—to this must be added another 10 or 12 months 
before we can gather the fully matured nuts from that 
branch, 

The question of how long if would take for 
the bleeding disease to killa treo or to affect 
the crops is quite distinct from that of the time 
from first formation of the flower buds to the 
maturing of the fruit in ordinary cases. What- 
ever affects the vitality and nutrition of the 
tree, must necessarily affect it throughout—to 
what degree and within what time depending 


entirely on the extent of the interference. 
J. D. VANDERSTRAATEN., 


June 19th, 


Dear S1rx,—Before Lreply to my friend, “J. 
D. V.”’s letter, I must bow my acknowledgmonts 
to him for his complimentary reference to my 
experience, though it is more than countoracted 
by his expression of disappointment at my not 
answering his expectations of ‘‘accurato know- 
ledge,” &c., &c. It is very evident that what 
moved ‘J. D. V.” to write and to indulge in 
comparisons through the means of parallel 
columns, washis discovery of ‘‘ill-disguised 
sneers,” where such were not intended. 


In his lecture before the Agricultural Society, 
Mr. Vanderstraaten stated that he dissected 
the heart or cabbage of acoconut tree, I play- 
fully referred to that asa ‘surgical operation” 


and in another instance as a, ‘‘ surgical investi- 
gation.” Was my interpretation of the word 
wrong? No, not by any, :.maans,~ unless my 
motives are ‘‘dissected.” and false conclusions 
drawn fromthem., 972532) (3,5 0,53) 2223 

1 must, however, ‘apologise 'to My. Yander- 
straaten for not studying his lecture with the 
attention that so valuable a contribution to 
coconut cultivation deserved. I glanced over 
it and discovered, immediately after his long 
quotations in parallel columns : “‘this gives us 
the period of three years at least, and I sup- 
pose a few months must be allowed from the be- 
ginning of the manuring period, for the initial 
formation of the flower spathein embryo.” I 
got the idea of ‘‘three years” from the hasty 
perusal of the paper. | see I must deduct nine 
months from that period. I have not the inclis 
nation, qualification or time, to criticise Mr 
Vanderstraaten’s or any other lecture. [ made 
a few romarks on it casually, and have very un- 
fortunately trodden on his ultra-sensitive corns. 

It might be newsto Mr Vanderstraaten to 
be told that I too dissected the womb of a 
cocovut tree, called in Sinhalese parlance ‘ pol- 
bada,” and discovered immature flower-spathes 
with ‘‘kurumbetties,” or immature nuts formed 
onthem. But I must confess that the opera- 
tion was not performed to gain ‘‘ accurate know- 
ledge,” but to satisfy idle curiosity. 1 did not 
uso a magnifying glass, nor did {£ count the 
flower-spathes. The more shame to me, 

During a_ business visit to the estate from 
where I write, I imparted the information 
had gained by my idle curiosity to Mr Kelway 
Bamber and presented him with a ‘ polbada.” 
It is to be hoped that ho has investigated, the 
subject scientificaby.—Truly yours, 

B. 


1963-9 EXPORTS OF CHINA TEA. 
Sussex, June 3rd. 

Six,—The difficulty experienced at home and 
abroad of obtaining accurate information ro- 
specting the China toa trade has been forcibly 
illustrated by the difference noticeable during 
the past season between the statistics issued in 
Hongkong—which have been quoted in Colombo 
and copied in London—and a computation made 
from information derived direct from other 
sources in China. For example, it was reckoned 
here months ago- that the total exports were 
rather heavier than in 1907-8, whereas at the 
beginning of April the figures printed in Ceylon 
stated that they were 24,000,000 lb. lighter, 
while atthe end of the month an increase of 
26,000,0001b. was mentioned. [Tho latter error 
was afterwards corrected.—Hp., (.0.] In theso 
tabular statements the entries relating to 
Russian and American shipments are not re- 
concilable with the advices received in England 
from China: The final statistics have not yot 
been published, and the figures at the foot are 
subject to correction, but they are based upon 
the bestinformation obtainabie here, and will 
probably prove to be nearly exact. 

It is, of course, recognised that the volume of 
business done in China tea has not now the 
same influence upon the market for Ceylon or for 
Indian tea asit had in times past; but if is 


92 The Supplement to the Tropical Agriculturist 


desirable to know with some approach to certi- 
tude what js:being taken from China by the 
foreign counties ta:whieh we are looking hope- 
fully for, expansion in the business we do with 
them, apdin theiight of- trat knowledge to re- 
adjust ‘estimates which’ perchance have been 
made from imperfect data. Those who are con- 
vinced of the superior merit of British-grown 
tea naturally believe that it will eventually 
supersede its rivals in most of the world’s 
markets; but that cannot be until two things 
have happened, the first being a total supply of 
it large enough for the purpose, and the second a 
dannelsts change in the taste of those who prefer 
to use kinds of tea which we either cannot or do 
not produce. Neither of these conditions is 
within sight. Inthe meantime, :foreign buyers, 
who have no preferential interest in our indus- 
tries, have made larger purchases in China, aided, 
no doubt, by a favourable rate of exchange; and 
it is well to know it. 


APPROXIMATE ‘TOTAL Export or CuHina TEA 
(not including Brick.) 
Season 1907-8. Season 1908-9. 
Ib lb. 


To the U.K. 


22 500,000 15,000.000 

re Continent 12,250,000 16,500,000 
»  Bussia 41,500,0 0 48,50 ',000 
1 America 42,500,000 51,006,000 
4 Other places 4,250,400 4,000,009 
Total. 123,000,000 135,000,000 


Formosan tea, although now passed through 
Japanese hands, is by custom reckoned ‘as 
Chinese and is included in the above figures, 

Of the total increase of 12,000,000 lb. about 
5,000,000 Ib. are black and about 7,000,000 Ib. 
are green tea. The increased entry for the 
Continent is about equally composed of black 
and green, the probable destination of the 
Jatter being for North African markets. 

Russia has taken rather less black, but much 
more green tea, which is said to be for sale in 
the Central Asian provinces where green tea 
is in demand, and the means of buying it pro- 
vided by a bountiful harvest. 

America hastaken less green tea, but a much 
larger quantity of black, far in excess of any 
known rate of consumption, coincidently with 
the heavy purchases made in London for the 
United States under the belief that an import 
tax would be imposed. 


AN ENGLISH SUBSCRIBER, 


——. 


THE LORANTHUS PEST. 


An article in “‘ Ceylon Men” by Mr C Drie- 
berg, B.A., F.H.A.S., is of timely interest. He 
says: Considerable attention has lately been 
drawn to the plant known by this name (called 
in Sinhalese Pilila and in Tamil Kuruvichchai), 
owing to an alarming report that itis threaten- 
ing the destruction of the tea plant in the 
neighbourhood of Nuwara Hliya. 

The genus Loranthus, to which the English 
mistletoe is closely related, includes some 
seventeen species, five of which are found in the 
moist low country, twoin the dry region, and 
four at high altitudes ; the rest are more or less 
general in their distribution. No less than 
eight species are endemic, that is peculiar to 
the Island. 


The flowers are tubular and variable in colour 
being green, yellow, pink, purple, scarlet, 
orange or brown, or of mixed hues. Loranthus 
does not grow on the ground like any ordinary 
plant ; but attaches itself to another, plant. 
Hence it is called a parasite, and the plant 
upon which it grows the host. Parasites may 
be divided into two classes :— 

(1) Complete or trae parasites, which depend entirely 
ona host for their nutrition, neither procuring nor pre- 
paring food on their own account. 

(2) Partial parasites, which look to the host to supply 
them with only part of their crude food, procuring the rest 
for themselves, They are able to prepare their own food. 

To the former class belong the parasitic fungi 
which cause serious diseases in plants, such as 
the coffee leaf disease which ruined the industry 
in Ceylon. Loranthus belongs to the latter class. 

To more clearly understand the difference 
between these two classes it is necessary to know 
something about the nutrition of plants. 
Ordinary plants get part of their food, by means 
of their roots, from the soil; and a part, by 
means of their leaves, from the atmosphere. Now 
the presence of green colouring matter in the 
leaves is necessary for getting food from the air. 
As the complete parasite has no need for doin 
this, it is destitute of green colour, but a partia 
parasite, like Loranthus, is coloured green, 
which. indicates that while it gets its soil-food 
trom its host, it procures its atmospheric-food 
direct, and also elaborates or prepares its food, 
that is, transforms the raw materials, consisting 
of solutions of inorganic matter, into organic 
substances. t 

Though it would appear that Loranthus does 
not cause such serious loss to the hostas.do the 
true parasites, yet the damage it does is consid- 
erable, and if not interfered with it generally 
kills its host in the end. 


In the low-country Loranthus is commonly 
seen on old mango trees ; in the Nuwara Eliya 
district it infests the Australian acacias (wattles) 
found growing about the town. 


The eradication ofa partial parasite, like 
Loranthus, is a very much easier matter than the 
eradication of a complete parasite. Loranthus 
is propagated by birds conveying the seeds to 
the branches of trees, to which the parasite 
attaches itself by sending its roots into the wood 
tissue of the host from which it sucks the crude 
sap brought up from the soil. Parasitic fungi 
on the other hand are propagated by spores, 
which are microscopic bodies, corresponding to 
seeds in the higher plants, and easily conveyed 
by wind and other agencies. When it is further 
stated that the parasitic fungi are extremely 
minute organisms and mostly live in the in- 
ternal tissues of the host, it will be understood 
how difficult it is to deal with them. In order 
to protect trees from Loranthus it is only 
necessary to watch for and cnt out the parasite 
as soon as it appears; but it must be removed 
completely, ‘‘root and branch,” orit will start 
growing again. Inthis way we can soon getrid 
of Loranthus, but there is always the danger 
of its again finding its way into our gardens 
if our neighbours harbour the pest. Land. 
owners and householders should therefore co- 
operate with one another in order to keep, out 
this enemy of our cultivated plants,—“Ceylon 
Men,” June, 1909, r\tis 


and Magazine of the Ceylon Agricultural Society. 


CITRONELLA OIL. 


As was to be foreseen, the prices of this 
article have moved in very narrow limits; nomi- 
nally they remain below 1/- cif. even at the pre- 
sent time, although exporters in Ceylon until 
quite recently stood out for somewhat higher 
rates. 


The exports from Ceylon 


amounted to 1,276,965 lb, 1908 


against 1230:159 5, 5; 1907 
* fe 107,650. 3, ,.,.. 1906 
- BERET Og9 ag S Ol Fons 


The exports from Ist 
Jan. to 15th Feb. 1909 amounted to 126,038 lbs. 


do. 1908 5 76,291 ,, 
do. 1907 47,041 ,, 
do. 1906 113 @LE6OU7",, 


The above figures show that the excess of 
exports in the first five or six weoks of the new 
year is already about 50,000 lb. as compared 
with the year before, from which it may be 
concluded that the reports as to scarcity of 
supplies which periodically reach us from 
Ceylon are not to be taken very seriously. 


At the present time it is difficult to judge 
what course prices will take within the near 
future. Although on the one hand the in- 
creased exports may give rise to the belief that 
the consumption of this oil is again on the in- 
crease, we have on the other hand to take 
account of the fact that, because of the 


SEVERE COMPETITION 


which exists among them, large soap manufac- 
turers, especially in England, no longer consume 
anything like as large a quantity of citrovella 
oil as in former years, Almost everywhere, 
slightly scented household soap is being 
superseded by strongly perfumed cheap toilet 
soaps—a result of the extremely low-priced 
synthetic perfumes which in recent times have 
found more and more favour with the public, 

In these circumstances, we believe that it may 
be assumed with some certainty that the 


PRESENT PRICES WILL NOT SHOW ANY SERIOUS 
FLUCTUATION 


for some months to come. There is absolutely 
no ground for expecting an advance in prices. 


The sale of the highly popular 
JAVA CITRONELLA 


oil within the past few months has also been 
extremely sluggish, and indications are already 
perceptible of over-production, on the ground of 
which a prospective decline in prices of this 
variety is also to be looked for. 


As in the case of lemongrass*, de Jongt has 
also conducted experiments on the oil content 
of the various parts of Java citronella grass 
(Andropogon Nardus Java ; sereh wangit) in 
different stages of development, in order to 
discover which is the most favourable time for 
distilling. The result was exactly the same as 
in. the case of lemongrass ; as the leaf ages, the 
oil content decreases; the sheaths of the leaves 


* See Report November 1908, 81. 
{ Teysmannia, 1908, Irom a copy kindly sent to us. 


93 


and the roots contain much less oil-than the 
leaves themselves. In this case also, de Jong 
considers it the best plan to cut the grass as 


soon as four or five leaves have developed. The. 


greater richness in oil of citronella grass as com- 
pared with lemongrass was remarkable; the 
former usually. yielded three or four times 
much oil as did the latter. As regards the pro- 
perties of oil from different batches. of old 
leaves, the optical rotation and total geraniol 
content (= geraniol + citronellal) show only 
insignificant variations. The rotation varies 
irregularly ; values ranging from—270’ to—7o 36’ 
beivg observed in oil from Jeaves of various ages. 
The total geraniol content first increases in an 
ascending scale from the newest up to the 
oldest leaf and afterwards decreases in a corres- 
ponding manner; the lowest value was 85:5% 
the highest 93°3%. The results of this invest. 
gation induced de Jong to make experiments as 
to the time required for acetylation, the beha- 
viour of the oil towards acetic anhydride, the 
volume of acetate of sodium to be added. and 
the time required for saponification. On the 
basis of these enquiries de Jong considers that 
two hoursare needed both for acetylation and 
for saponification, and that for every 20 ce. of 
oil and acetic anhydride, 29. of sodium acetate 
are required in order to produce accurate re- 
sults. He concludes this because in his experi- 
ments on citronella oils, he obtained the best 
values by following this method. 


_ The oils examined by de Jong were soluble 
in their parts of 80 per cent. alcohol; when 
more than four parts of the solvent were 
used, turbidity ensued. According to our ob- 
servations, the Java oils of commerce make a 
clear solution with 1 to 2 vols. of 80 per cent. 
alcohol and more, Only in exceptional cases does 
the diluted solution show opalescence. 


In our last April reportt we cailed attention to 
the occurrence of dextrorotatory citronella oils 
a phenomenon which had never previously been 
observed, An oil of this kind is also referred to 
in the Buitenzorg Annual Report for 1907s. It 
had an optical rotation of + 0° 45’ and a specific 
gravity of 0,87. 


CITRONELLA IN GERMAN Pacrric Iszzs. 


_ The experimental cultivation of citronella grass 
in the German Pacific. Islands having been 
crowned with: success, and resulted in the pro- 
duction of oils of good quality, closely approxi- 
mating Java oil, wenow gather froma paper 
read in Berlin by Prof. Preuss|| that Andropogon 
Nardus (author?) isto be more extensively culti- 
vated, as its distillation has already been taken 
up ona large scale, From a specimen sent for 
our examination we have heen able to satisfy our- 
selves of the good quality of thesample distil- 
lates. The specimen examined has the following 
characteristics; dis5° 0,8819, ap — 0° 46’, np20° 
1,46278 ; joint, content of geraniol and citronella 
85,9 o/o, soluble in 1,3 vols. and more of 80 per 
cent alcohol.—Schimmel & Co.’s Semi-Annual 
feport for April, 1909. q 


5 Beness fehiak 7 32, 
aarboek van het Departement : i ~ 
derlandsch-Indié 1907, en Batavia 1908. ltd 
| Berichte d, deutsch, pharm, Ges, (1909), 25, 


94 The Supplement to the Tropieal Agriculiurist 


CAMPHOR OIL IN 1908. 


There has been very little change in the 
tendency of the camphor oil market during the 
course of the past five monilis. The dull state 
of business, as well as the fact that the existence 
of important supplies tied the hands of those 
interested, caused a further reduction in the 
quotations, and even at the present moment 
holders in Japan are inclined to accept reduced 
offers. The shipments from Japan were quite 
insignificant, except as regards a few thousand 
cases which were exported to the United States. 
Within the past few weeks camphor has shown 


A SOMEWHAT MORE ANIMATED TENDENCY, 


probably accounted for by the fact that, since 
prices have reached a lower level than has been 
known for a very long time, the competition of 
artificial camphor may be regarded as entirely 
removed. For the present we regard it as very 
little probable that this firmer tendency will 
also influence the camphor oil market, especially 
in view of the enormous quantities which must 
have.accumulated in Japan. With regard to 


CAMPHOR PLANTATIONS IN CEYLON, 


the American Vice-Consul W C Doylea reports 
that in 1907 the area under cultivation was 
increased from 142 to 1,106 acres, and that 
for 1908 apparently a still greater increase was 
projected. As a result of these extensions a 
perceptible contribution to the World’s require- 
ments in camphor was to be expected. The 
camphor tree does not flourish in the coast 
region, but it does well in the mountainous dis- 
tricts of the Island, at altitudes between 2,500 
and 8,000 feet. The yield of camphor irom a 
cultivated area of 15,000 to 20,000 acres is esti- 
mated at 8,000,000 1b, which (according to most 
authorities) is the quantity needed to supply the 
world’s requirements, and hopes are entertained 
in Ceylon that, within the course of a few years, 
more camphor will be produced in the Island 
than is consumed on the entire globe at the 
present time. Among planters, the rapid growth 
of the branches of the camphor trees is regarded 
as the cause of the pre-eminence of Ceylon over 
other camphor-producing countries. The cost 
of produeine, natural camphor in Ceylon 
is estimatec to be considerably lower, 
weight for weight, than the cost of the 
American synthetiv product from oil of 
turpentine, The first experiments of cultiva- 
tion in Ceylon were made by the Government 
with Japanese camphor seed, and the mode of 
cultivation consists in allowing the tree to reach 
a height of 40 ft. (which it does in about 3} 
years), when itis cut down to 4 or5 ft. With 
this object in view the trees are pruned every 4 
and sometimes every 3 months. The trees are 
planted at distances of 4 by 8 ft., which gives 
1,360 trees to the acre. Experiments of distil- 
lation made with the wood cut from an acre of 
ground, produced 190 lb. of camphor. Ono 
planter maintains that he has obtained a parti- 
cularly 
HIGH YIELD OF CAMPHOR BY PRESSING THE 
BRANCHES . 

instead of distilling them. But although he 
vouched for the truth of this statement, he 


@ Oil, Paint and Drug: Reporter 74 (1908), No. 23, page 52. 


refused to disclose any particulars as to the 
process, 


_ The Official Customs Statistics indicate that 
in 1997 a, parcel of camphor weighing 562 1b. was 
exported from Ceylon, and itis inferred from this 
that the quantities to bejexported annually in the 
future will increase in geometrical proportion. 


An American expert, Prof. Hilgard 6, has’ 
written on the subject of the question of: the 


CULTIVATION OF CAMPHOR TREES IN THE 
UNITED STATES, 


his paper being a sequel to that of Riviere 
which was discussed by us at the timec 
and which takes the same view. Prof. 'Hilgard 
has made enquiries from the experts. in the 
Agricultural Department at Washington and in 


the Southern States of the U.S.; as to 
the prospects of camphor cultivation. The 
first-named authorities informed him that 


although the Government had made experi- 
ments in the growing of camphor trees in 
its Southern Experimental Stations, it 
doubted greatly the financial success of such 
an undertaking, and for this reason: it 
does not supply camphor seed to any private 
people, who areable to obtain their require- 
ments ofsuch seed from the trees which had 
already previously been planted in Florida and 
California. In most of the plantations the trees 
are regarded only as ornamental, an! are treated 
as such, butin some of thom experiments have 
been made to obtain camphor by distilling the 
leaves, either with or without stalks: The re- 
sults of these experiments are not reported by 
the author, who only deals with his own _ ex- 
periments in making industrial uso of the Cali- 
fornian camphor tree. According to these ex- 
periments, mature green Jeaves yield about 1 
per cent by weight of camphor, and it is to be 
noted that leaves and green twigs contain more 
liquid oil and less solid camphor. Op to the 
present no higher yields of camphor have 
been obtained. Hilgard observes that he 
has experimented only with trees growing 
in the misty, cool climate of the coast, 
aud not with trees from the warmer 
and higher altitudes, for instance those 
from the interior of California, Although the 
latter treesno doubt might promise a higher 
output, seeing that odoriferous. plants such as 
jasmine, mignonette, and heliotrope also flourish 
in the interior of California, Hilgard refrained 
from making any far-going experiments, because 
of the excessively high wages (for the harvesting 
of the leaves), which in those districts are an 
obstacle in the way of the development of the 
camphor industry as well as of other industries. 
The author, therefore, agrees with Riviere that 
there.is no question of any American industrial 
competition with the natural riches and low 
wages of the island of Formosa, particularly as 
just at the present time the prices for crude 
camphor are low and are likely tc remain 50, _ 


With regard to the 
PROSPECTS OF SYNTHETIC CAMPHOR, © 
Hilgard is of opinion that any serious com- 
petition with the natural product is out of the 


b Journ. d’Agriculture tropicale § (1908), 360. ¢ Report 
November 1908, 36, 


and Magazine of the Ceylon Agricultural Society. 95 


question until there has been a considerable in- 
crease in the present moderate yield, which 
equals only 25 per cent of the turpentine oil 
used. Moreover, a:count has to be taken of the 
quickly progressing exhaustion of the American 
turpentine forests. Hilgard conjures up a future 
vision of the preparation of camphor from petro- 
leum, which is certainly a distant prospect and 
not avery credible one at the present time. At 
any rate, the experiments which have for their 
object the replacement of camphor by similar 
materials have much more chance of being 
realised, 

In an appendix to the paper, Cayla lays stress 
upon the complete agreement of Hilgard with 
the views frequently expressed by him (Cayla), 
to which we have referred in previous Re- 
ports. Cayla regards Hilgard’s statements as 
an indirect coufirmation of the conclusions 
arrived at by Gigliolid, in so far as the latter 
particularly referred to the lowness of the 
wages in Italy and the age of the italian 
camphor trees. Cayla is of the same opinion 
as Beille and Lemaire e, and also Giglioli, 
that the camphor production of the future 
will be established on the basis of 


MAKING USE OF THE LEAVES, 

a process which is already being applied in 
Formosa and Ceylon. Cayla also calls special 
attention to the impossibility of synthetic 
camphor becoming a_ serious competitor, 
in view of the present state of the prices; but 
in regard to this aspect of the matter he thinks 
that a change might be brought about if coni- 
ferous trees yielding turpentine or a similar oil 
were cultivated in suitable countries, especially 
jn India and in Tonquin. 


Cayla/, in his review of Giglioli’s books La 
canfora italiana (to which work reference has also 
been made in our Report g, points out, in oppo- 
sition to Riviére A, that according to the experi- 
ence of Giglioli itis not necessary to remove the 
newly-grown leaves from the tree, thereby check- 
ing its growth. According to’ Giglioli, a satis- 
factory yield of camphor may be obtained from 
the leaves which have been shed by the tree and 
have been dried naturally by exposure to the 
atmosphere, the loss caused by the drying pro- 
cess not being considerable, Artificial desicca- 
tionon the other hand, may cause a loss of 
camphor-content up to 50 per cent. The suit- 
ability of dry leaves for distilling purposes is of 
interest, because this fact would appear to 
inake 1t possible to pressthe leaves for trausport 
to distilleries situated in suitable localities. 

Watts and Tempany i have prepared essen- 
tial oil from the wood, leaves and twigs of cam- 
phor trees grown in the botanival sardens in 
Dominica, with the following results :— 

1. 90 lb. wood yielded 7,1 fl. oz. of oil ; 
d27°-16,6° 0,9012, av—13,1°. 

2. 33 1b. leaves and twigs yielded 2,75 fl. oz. 
of oil ; d27°-16,6° 0,9024, ap —18;4° 

3. 29 1b. leaves and twigs yielded 6,2 fl. oz. 
of oil; d27°-16,6° 0,8987, ap—19° 


d Report November 1908, 36 
eReport April 1908, 21; November 1908, 35. 
fJourn. d Agriculture tropicale (1909), 60. 
Report November, 1908, 28. 
Report November, 1908, 36. 
i West Indian Bulletin 9 (1908), 275, From a copy kindly 
sent to us, P 


The low yield of oil: inthe ‘second experiment 
is attributed by Watts and Yempany to the 
insufficiency of the coudensing apparatus, 
which caused the loss of a cousiderable pro- 
portion of the oil. All the distillates were 
clear and colourless, and even during the cooling 
no camphor separated from them, which shows 
that that substance cannot be present in any 
considerable quantities; Watts. and Tempny 
also state that in his annual Report for 1906), 
Consul Playfair pointed out that the occasional 
absence of camphor from the oil was ascribed 
by many theorists to the circumstance that only 
those camphor trees which grow near the coast 
attain their full developmentx, while others 
declare that male and female camphor-trees 
grow isolated and that only the former contain 
camphor. [l.ayfair considers the last-named 
theory to be incorrect, as the flowers of Cinna- 
momum are polygamous.—Schimmel & Co.,’s 
Semi-Annual Report for April. 


CEYLON GINNAON OIL IN 1968. 


We continue, as-before, to devote special in- 
terest to the distillation of this important 
article, and wo are able to state with satis- 
faction that owing to the exquisite quality of 
our product our sale has experienced a con- 
siderable increase. The prices of pure cinna- 
mon oil remain unchanged, and the market for 
the raw material also has shown but slight 


fluctuations. ‘The exports of Ceylon cimnamon 
chips were as follows :— 

in 1908 2,785,824 Ib. 

»» 1907 2,835,936" ,, 

», 1996 2,531,614 ,, 

., 1905 2,325,514 ,, 


Of this total, Hamburg imported :— 
in 1908 about 554,400 |b. 
ue kO07 Asie, 453,200, ws 
ep L906) 4.) ears] ee BBG 400 45, 
Our own consumption inthe past year reached 
about 115,000 kilos, that is to say, approximately 
about one-half of the total quantity imported 
via Hamburg. 

It is remarkable that in 1908, 200,878 ounces 
of cinnamon oil distilled in Ceylon were. ex- 
ported, a figure reached never before, of which 
over one-half went to England, Compared with 
1907, these figures indicate an increase in the 
exports of over 100 per cent, and the fact that, 
this notwithstanding, our distillate found a 
ready sale at full prices, should afford sutlicient 
proot ofits superiority. 

In considering the export figures of Ceylonoil 
given above, it should be remembered that 
within the past year large quantities of cinna- 
mon leaf oil were shipped from Ceylon, and 
that these are included in the above statistics. 
The manufacture of the last-named ‘article has 
been carried on with an intensity that can only 
be characterised as senseless, no regard having 
been paid to the very limited consumption. 

In an article in Southali’?s Report 1 the just 


96 -The Supplement to the Tropical A griculturist 


should be extended so as to include a definite 
aldehyde content, in order to prevent adultera- 
tion by means of artificial cinnamic aldehyde. 
The cinnamie aldehyde content of norma! oils 
has been ascertained to range between 70 to 71,4 
per cent whereas adulterated oils have been 
found to contain from 77,6 to 86,4 per cent. The 
specific gravity of normal oils moves between 
1,012 and 1,023, in adulterated oils it ran from 
1,027 up to 1,055. 


The observations relating to the specific gra- 
vity of alleged authentic oils recorded in this 
article do not agree with our own findings, which 
are the result of records of very numerous ob- 
servations with our own distillates. We have 
found the specific gravity of normal Ceylon 
cinnamon oils to vary from 1,023 to 1,040 ; lower 
specific gravities may perhaps be due to the use 
of defsctive raw material or to unreasonable 
methods of distillation, According to our ex- 
perience, the aldehyde content of good Ceylon 
cinnamon oils ranges from 65 (to 76 per cent. 
—Schimmel & Co.'s Report. 


NATURAL AND ARTIFICIAL 
CAMPHOR. 


AN ImMporTANT LECTURE. 


At the Congress of Applied Chemistry on Satur- 
day Professor Haller, whose lecture on the 
chemistry of camphor preceded the above, said 
that the extended use of camphor dated from the 
time when celluloid, of which it formed a consti- 
tuent part, became the object of intensive and 
increasing manufacture. The important part it 
played in the industry of this plastic material, 
and the special qualities which it lent to the 
introcellulose with which it was incorporated, 
rendered it valuable for other purposes. It was 
used for the manufacture of pegamoid, a new 
substitute for leather, and entered into the com- 
position of certain smokeless powders either as 
such or in the form of borneol. They were 
awere that camphor was prepared by distilla- 
tion with steam from the wood of the camphor 
laurel, a fine tree which grew in Japan, in For- 
mosa, where it still formed immense virgin 
forests more and more diflicult of access, in 
various Japanese islands, and also in several 
districts of Central China. Since 1899 Japan 
had secured the monopoly of the camphor crop 
throughout its territory andin Formosa. Ac- 
cording to statistics published in a Japanese 
journal and reproduced by the Chemist and 
Druggist, the amount of camphor exported 
from Japan increased from 280,892 kilos, valued 
at 200,452f., in 1868, to 1,834,594 kilos, valued at 
13,069,831f., in 1907; and during the same time 
the price increased from 69f. to 708f. per 100 
kilos. In spite of an increasing production in 
China it appeared from the statistical evidence 
-that the aggregate 


OUTPUT OF CAMPHOR WAS NOT INCREASING, 


and that they must rather expect to see it 
gradually diminish. And since the demand 
‘onthe contrary went on increasing, it waseasy to 


-understand the high prices’ reached, which had 


driven the camphor industry to make up the defi- 
ciency in the production of thenatural substance. 


Tt was about 1905 that the first attempts to 
supplementthesupply by artificial camphor came 
into view. All the processes of. manufacture 
started with pinene, a carbon compound found 
in the essential oil of turpentine. The latter was 
obtained by steam distillation from the resin 
yielded by various conifers growing in the forests 
of the temperature zone. The principal countries 
of origin were, in order of importance, the 
United States, France, Russia, the Central Euro- 
pean States, Germany, and Austria. In recent 
years Spain had also contributed to the world’s 
mickets. The EH'rench essence produced from the 
sea pine was considered to hold the first place in 
respect of quality; that of the United States, 
from pitch pine, was less valued; and those of 
Russia and Germany, obtained chiefly from the 
Pinus silvestris, were of inferior quality. The 
question of industrial camphor depended as 
much on the price of a good essence as on the 
methods employed. ‘The efforts expended on 
the problem had resulted in no new fact or 
original discovery. The numerous methods 
employed were only improvements or variants 
of reactions previously known, They might 
be divided into two large groups according to 
whether the essence was first converted into 
hydro-chlorate of pinene, or was submitted 
direct to the action of organic acids. The high 
prices of camphor, to which they owed the 
evolution of the new industry, had only been 
temporary for reasons which it was extremely 
difficult to discover. Only those establish- 
ments which in the fortunate period of high 
prices found themselves in possession of an 
economical and thoroughly efficient process 
and were in a position to organize a prompt 
supply in response to the demand of the 
moment had been able tg take advantage of 
the remunerative prices and recover the cost 
of installation. He should add that the cam- 
phor which they produced, apart from its op- 
tical inactivity, possessed in all respects the 
same properties as natural camphor when it was 
sufficiently refined. Comparisons had been made 
between the camphor industry and the alizarine 
and indigotine industries, and some evthusiastic 
spirits had not been afraid to celebrate this new 
triumph of industrial science. With regard to 
the two substances mentioned, science and in- 
dustry had incontestably got the better of nature, 
The cultivation of madder had completely dis- 
appeared from the departments of the Midi in 
France and artificial indigo was on the way to 
ruinthe immense and numerous plantations of 
India, Java and Guatemala. Would the same 
thing happen with camphor? It would be rash 
te say so, for various reasons which he enume- 
rated. The conditions were very different both 
with regard to the supply of natural product, 
the cultivation of which had been freshly ‘stimu- 
lated, and with regard to the fundamental 
substance used in producing artificial camphor, 
namely, the essence of turpentine, the supply of 
which was limited and the price fluctuating. For 
these and other reasons the future of the cam- 
phor industry was uncertain.—London Times, 
May 31, aD 


Alek ' cls Bat 


TROPICAL AGRICULTURIST 


AND 


MAGAZINE OF THE 


CEYLON AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY. 


Vou. XXXIIT, 


COLOMBO, AUGUST 157H, 1909, 


No. 2. 


THE LORANTHUS PARASITE. 
The genus Loranthus is represented 
by seventeen species in this country, 
seven of which are common upcountry, 
whilst eight of the species are endemic, 
or found only in Ceylon. 


Loranthus belongs to the group of 
plants known as semi-parasites, that is 
to say, it possesses green leaves of its 
own, butis nevertheless dependent upon 
some other plant for a portion of its 
food supply. Its habit of growth is 
closely similar to that of its near relative 


Z the mistletoe. 


The seeds, which are distributed by 
birds—and chiefly by the very small 
flower-pecker which rejoices in the 
name of Dicaeum erythrorhynchum— 
germinate upon the branch of some tree 
or shrub, particular host plants being 
affected to some extent by particular 
species of the Loranthus. Some of the 
species seem to be almost indiscriminate 
in their attentions, but a full study of 
the different hosts of the different 
species still remains to be made. 


When the seedling germinates, instead 
of forming roots like those of an ordi- 
nary plant, it develops a special kind of 
suckers known as haustoria, which pene- 
trate beneath the bark of the tree 
attacked by the parasite, and, 1amifying 
chiefly between the bark and the wood, 


absorb a portion of the nutriment which 
the host had prepared for its own pur- 
poses. Ifa tree is badly attacked in this 
way the drain upon its resources may be 
so great that it may become seriously 
crippled or even eventually killed. 


Some prominence has recently been 
given in the local Press to accounts of 
the appearance of this parasite upon tea 
at Nuwara Eliya. Wemay state at once 
that we consider anything in the nature 
of a scare on this account to be entirely 
devoid of justification. It has been 
known for a considerable number of 
years that more than one species of 
Loranthus will attack tea if this crop is 
neglected, or allowed to cun for long 
periods without pruning. As might be 
expected, it is especially common to find 
the parasite upon tea plants which have 
been allowed to grow up as seed-bearers. 
It is generally thought that, with a 
moderate amount of care, healthy tea 
bushes can be kept entirely free of the 
Loranthus parasite. 


It sc happens that some of the 
commonest of the species of Loranthus 
which are known to attack tea also 
affect the species of Acacia which are 
commonly planted amongst, or in the 
neighbourhood of, tea at high levels. It 
is therefore desirable that a watch 
should be kept upon these as well as 
upon the tea itself, and that any plants 


observed should be removed before they 
have time to flower. The same species 
are also abundant upon jungle trees in 
the neighbourhood of tea clearings and 
elsewhere, and for this reason anything 
like the total extermination of the pest 
is undoubtedly quite out of the question. 
It may perhaps be worth while to 
remove Loranthus plants from the 
fringes of the jungle bordering upon a 
tea estate, since the seeds are more 
likely to get carried on to the tea from 
such a position. 


Loranthus is not a plant which is 
likely todevelopinto a rapidly spread- 
ing pest after the fashion of some 
fungus diseases. Its rate of reproduc- 
tion is so comparatively slow and the 
plant itself is so comparatively con- 
spicuous that, with a little trouble, it 
could readily be kept in check upon such 
a closely cultivated crop as tea, even if 
the parasite were to become very much 
more persistent in its attacks than is the 
case at present. Nor is Loranthus likely 
to spread in any abundance over large 
distances, since it is dependent upon one 
or two species of birds for its distribu- 
tion, and therefore unlike a fungus, the 
spores of which may be earried to 
indefinite distances by wind. 

As regards the method of dealing 
with Loranthus asa pest there is only 
one remedy, and that is the knife. 
Whenever the plant is seen upon a tea 
bush or upon any other plant, the life of 
which is valued, the parasite should be 
immediately cut out together with a 
considerable portion of the branch which 
bears it. The haustoria of the parasite 
may travel down to quite a considerable 
distance below the point at which the 
leafy shoot emerges, and if any of this 
rooting portion is left within the branch, 
the partremaining will be capable of 
giving rise to fresh shoots of the Loran- 
thus. By close inspection of the section 
of a branch it can generally be ascer- 
tained whether the parasite has been 
completely removed ornot. It is also 
advisable to remove the Loranthus as 
far as possible from other trees in 
accessible places near estates, and badly 
affected trees may be cut down. 


We take this opportunity of drawing 
attention to some extracts made by Mr. 
Petch froma paper published by Pro- 
fessor Keeble in the Transactions of the 
Linnzean Society as the result of obser- 
vations made during a visit to Ceylon. 
These extracts deal chiefly with the 
fertilization of the flowers of Loranthus 
and with the distribution of its seeds by 
birds. These extracts appear on a later 
page of the present issue of the Tropical 
Agriculturist. 

R. H. L. 


98 


tack for insects or fungus spores. 


Reviews. 


THUMB-NAIL PRUNING AND 
DISEASE. 


[Note sux la ramification de lHevea 
par la taille et par l’effeuillage par M. 
A. de Ryckman. Journal d’ Agriculture 
Tropicale, No. 91, Jan. 1909, pp. 5-7. | 


‘‘The development of the branches of 
young heveas is always a subject of 
engrossing interest to planters. There 
has been much discussion on this point, 
but no completely satisfactory solution 
has been reached. The natural tendency 
shown by young heveas to produce a 
tall stem certainly retards their growth 
in diameter, and consequently in tap- 
pable area. It does sometimes happen 
that a slender tree gives a greater yield 
of rubber than one with a short thick 
main stem, but thatis not the general 
rule. 


“H. Wright has advised pollardirg the 
stem at a height of about twelve feet. 
In this way, an excellent length of trunk 
for future tapping, and a much more 
rapid growth in thickness are effectively 
produced ; but the practice appears to be 
attended by some disadvantages. 


_ “After the pollarding, a crown of young 
branches appears below the wound, form- 
ing a head like that of a pollard willow 
at a single point of the stem. Two only 
of these shoots are preserved in order to 
form the fork of the tree; the suppres- 
sion of the others naturally causes 
numerous wounds which, if they are 
not immediately covered with some pre- 
servative, afford as many points eee 

e 
first pruning must generally be followed 
by a second, sometimes even by a third, 
whence occur fresh wounds as dangerous 
as the first, 


“In support of his theory, H. Wright 
correctly observes that the foliage, thus 
increased, exerts, a favourable influence 
on the growth of the trunk, But may 
not the following consideration be set 
against this; isa very young tree capa- 
ble of supporting without injury an 
abnormal augmentation of its foliage? 
Indeed, though the leaf is the organ in 
which the sap is elaborated, it is also the 
chief organ of evaporation; from which 
it follows that in multiplying the num- 
ber of leaves, the evaporation (trans- 
piration) is increased tenfold. Hence it 
may happen that the equilibrium _be- 
tween the root system and the foliage 
may be disturbed, and that the tree may 
hereby acquire a more marked predis- 
position to disease, in spite of its appa- 
rent vigour. 
hypothesis deduced from my observa- 


rr. 


[Avaust, 1909, 


This is only a personal . 


‘Avuaust, 1909.| 


tions in Java and Sumatra, where 
fungus diseases, of which the most fre- 
quent is caused by Corticium javanicum, 
Zimm. (called in Malay  ‘‘Djamoer 
Oepas”), attack principally those trees 
on which the desired branching has been 
produced naturally, and those on which 
it has been induced by human agency. 


“This terrible disease, which Dr, 
Bernard has written about, seems in fact 
to originate, for preference, in the axils 
of branches where rainwater lodges, and 
to spread afterwards in all directions. 
Under the shade of a crowded plantation 
where the air is constantly humid, fungi 
develop with extreme ease. It is certain 
that their spores, falling in a favourable 
situation, on a wound incompletely 
healed, grow very rapidly, and cause 
immediate injury to the trees. 


“If these observations are correct, 
the branching of the stem ought to be 
induced with as little pruning as pos- 
sible. With this object, I have cut off all 
the leaves of several young heveas, 
about fifteen months old and four metres 
high, leaving only the buds arising from 
the terminal crown, thus giving the 
tree theappearance of along switch. At 
the end of a month young shoots ap- 
peared in the axils of the old leaves. 
These shoots, the future branches of the 
tree, have the advantage of being 
arranged at irregular distances suffici- 
ently far apart. 

“The terminal crown, alone, produces 
too many branches, and some of them 
must be suppressed; but at this stage 
the tissues are so yOung that cicatri- 
sation is very rapid, and does not permit 
the development of the terrible Corti- 
cium, which appears rather on stems 
with wood already formed or in course 
of formation. 


** Among the trees experimented upon, 
some which possessed leaves scattered 
along the whole length of the stem in- 
stead of being grouped in false whorls 
were intentionally chosen; for trees of 
this type, which expand with the greatest 
readiness, removal of the leaves appears 
very suitable, The result sought by 
Mr. Weight, t.e., the increase of the cir- 
cumfterence of the stem in consequence 
of the increase of the foliage, is here 
gaually attained while a presumed source 
of danger is avoided. 


“Personally, I do not believe that 
there is any great advantage in inducing 
branching before the end of the second 
year. At that time, the majority of 
heveas branch of their own accord, and 
it would be sufficient then to induce it in 
those which proved refractory, Finally, 
up to the present itis scarcely decided 
that, as a producer of rubber, a dwarfed 


tree has any real advantage over one 
which has not been dwarted (rabattu). 


‘* P,S, —In addition to these interesting 

observations, M. de Ryckman has for- 
warded an excellent photograph of a 
plot of heveas which have been treated 
by defoliation; these young trees are 
perfectly shaped, and their branching 
is not less symmetrical than that of 
trees in Ceylon, made to branch by 
pollarding, of which we have been per- 
mitted to see photographs.— EDITOR, 
Journal @ Agric. Tropicale.” 
_ To the above may be added the follow- 
ing extract from the Continuation Report 
on the Kambe Rubber Plantation, Ran- 
goon, by Lt.-Colonel J. A. Wyllie:— 


** As the young trees come on, they will 
require pruning to encourage develop- 
ment of the crown and stem, and to 
check too rapid upward growth. This 
can best be carried out by simply nipping 
off the terminal bud when the tree has 
attained a height of anything from six 
to fifteen feet. <A tree ot fifteen feet that 
has not been pruned is, as a rule, suffi- 
ciently flexible to allow of its being bent 
down within reach of the operator. This 
is what is known as thumb-nail pruning, 
but may of course be done witha knife or 
a paic of scissors if preferred. The oper- 
tion may subsequently be extended to the 
top lateral shoots, and a bushy growth 
of the whole crown produced. Some 
trees have a habit of sending out 
lateral shoots all down the stem, which 
should be discouraged severely by means 
of pruning. The best type of tree for 
practical purposes is one forking about 
five feet (sic) from its base, as the tap- 
ping area is thus likely to be larger 
than in the case of a single stemmed 
tree.” 


Evidently the idea of thumb-nail prun- 
ing has been regarded more seriously 
in other countries than in Ceylon. It 
would be interesting to know whether 
any large areas have been treated in 
this fashion in Ceylon, and where the 
photographs alluded to were taken. It 
is certainly not a common practice, as 
the authors quoted appear to think. 
The objection taken by M. Ryckman— 
that parasitic fungi readily develop in 
the forks of trees because of the flow 
of rainwater over them, and the conse- 
quent disintegation of the bark,-—was 
privately urged in 1906, but, in the 
absence of any enthusiastic adoption 
of the proposed system, it was not con- 
sidered worth while to press the matter 
further. Corticiwm javanicum is fairly 
common in Ceylon, but its effect is not 
so terrible as it appears to be in Java 


100 


It occurs at Nuwara Eliya on Plum 
trees, and in the Southern Province on 
Orange trees—in both cases gradually 
killing back the branches. In the wet- 
ter upeountry districts it sometimes ap- 
pears on tea towards the end of the 
south-west monsoon, and then causes 
‘* branch canker.” Instances of its occur- 
rence on Hevea have been recorded from 
most of the rubber districts. On Hevea 
it usually begins in the fork of a tree 
which divides at a short distance from 
the ground, or where two or three 
branches spring in a whorl from the 
main stem. The fungus spreads over 
the bark in a thin pink sheet, and, 
when this sheet dries, it splits into 
patches which are supposed to resemble 
hieroglyphics; for this reason it is known 
in the i. M.S. as the writing fungus. 


ee 
pe tye: 


23) i 
[Avaeust, 1909. 


It lives entirely on the bark, gradually 
killing itand ringing the tree. Proba- 
bly the dry periods in Ceylon prevent 


its spreading to such an extent as in™ 


Java. In South India, however, it does 
considerable damage, attacking the 
main stems of young trees and killing 
them out completely if they are not 
‘‘stumped.” It is hoped to issue a cir- 
cular on this subject shortly. 


It may be pointed out that this fungus 
and a common root disease provide the 
chief objections to interplanting rubber 
and cacao. An undergrowth of cacao 
ensures a humid atmosphere which 
favours the growth of parasitic fungi 
on the stems of the Hevea. 


T, PETCH. 


GUMS, RESINS, SAPS AND EXUDATIONS. 


RUBBER IN SOUTH INDIA. 
(from the Indian Agriculturist, Vol. 
XXXIV., No. 4, April, 1909.) 


The Madras Mail calls attention to the 
further light thrown on the prospects 
of the rubber industry in Southern 
India by the publication of the Reports 
and the proceedings of the General 
Meetings of a number of rubber-growing 
Companies, with land in the Native 
States of Travancore and Cochin and in 
the Madras Presidency, A perusal of 
the details given leads one to the con- 
culsion that Mr. Proudlock in his 
Report on Rubber in Malabar was 
correct in his belief as to the exceeding 
suitability of the coastal country which 


lies between the sea and the foot of the 


Western Ghauts, both as regards climate 
and soil, for rubber cultivation on an 
extensive scale. The Periyar Rubber 
Company is perhaps the most interesting 
concern at presentin Southern India, 
because tapping operations have already 
commenced there in earnest. Of the 
867 acres planted with rubber 238 were 
planted in 1902, and from this area 
11,340 lb. of rubber were harvested last 
year. Details are given in the Report 
which afford an idea of the profit 
to be derived in these days from 
rubber trees which have reached the 
tapping. stage, the generally accepted 
standard for which is a girth of 18 in. 
at 3ft. from the 
stance, the cost of production after 
debiting a fair proportion ot standing 
charges and irrecoverable coast advances 


ground. For in- 


to working account was Rs.*.14,038'08 or 
only Re. 112 per lb., while the average 
price realised for the rubber was R. 8:23 


per lb. The estimate for this year is — 


32,500 lb. of rubber from 29,984 trees, and 
it is expected that this will be obtained 
at a still lower cost, t.e., after including 
a fair proportion of the _ standing 
charges. at 93 cents per lb. Itis also to 
be noted that clean weeding is favoured 
by the management of this estate; that 
porcupines did so much damage to the 
clearing made in 1903 that it had practi- 
cally to be replanted in the following 
year; that it has been decided to adopt 
the tapping process newly introduced in 
Ceylon; and that in the opinion of 
Mr. J. A. Hunter, a Ceylon expert who 


visited the property recently, there is _ 


no doubt about the quality of the soil 
and its suitability to the growth of 
Para rubber. The possibilities of this 
Company, the offices of which are in 
Colombo, will be admitted to be con- 
siderable when it is remembered that 
many authorities believe that an acre of 
ten-year-old rubber will annually yield 
300 lb. of dry rubber; and it is in con- 
sequence scarcely surprising that the 
4,000 shares of Rs. 100 of which its capital 
consists stand at a premium of over 
100 per cent. 


Another well-known Travancore rubber 
estate belongs to the Rani-Rubber 
Company; Limited. Atits General Meet- 
ing, held recently in Colombo, the 
Chairman, Mr. J. G. Wardrop, said that 
the Company had now 2,875 trees 18 in. or 
more in girth 3 ft. from the ground: and 


~ Auaust, 1909.] 


-thatas a result of a little experimental 
tapping work carried out towards the 
end of last year 674 lb. of rubber of good 
quality had been harvested. He also 
said that he expected to undertake a 
considerable amount of tapping in the 
latter half of this year and to secure 
quite a large crop in 1910; and to make 
provision for this it has been decided to 
build a permanent factory and equip it 
with the best machinery, at a cost of 
Rs. 25,000, Out ofatotal area of 1,907 
acres this concern has 1,296 acres planted 
with rubber, its paid-up capital amounts 
to Rs. 4 lakhs, and its Rs. 100 shares are 
quoted at a premium of nearly 100 per 
cent, The Annual Meetings of two 
other Travancore Rubber Companies 
were held in Colombo on the same day 
as that of the latter concern, viz., the 
Perinaad Valley and the Shaliacary 
Rubber Companies. The oldest rubber 
on the estates of the former consists of 
333 acres planted in 1906, andit is ex- 
pected to get some return from this in 
1911. A further 415 acres were cleared 
and planted in 1907, bringing the total 
area planted with rubber trees to 748 
acres. The growth of the rubber is 
described as being good, except on some 
exposed faces which suffered from wind. 
The paid-up capital of this Company 
amounts to Rs. 2,10,000, its shares being 
quoted at about par. Atthe Shaliacary 
Company’s Meeting the Chairman, Mr. 
W. Shakespeare, stated that the growth 
of rubber on some fields had been 
retarded by the spread of illuk or lalang 
grass, but that it had been satisfactorily 
checked by hand-weeding and by plant- 
ing a variety of passion flower which 
covers the ground so completely as to 
choke the grass. The Directors have 
decided to manure the property, but it 

is not stated what is to be applied. The 
Chairman said in the course of his speech 
that 54 lb. of Para and 19 lb. of Castilloa 
had been sold last year. The 541b. ot 
Para were secured from six 12-year old 
trees each of which averaged 9 lb. of 
dry rubber. Again, at the Meeting of 
the Travancore Tea Estates Company, 
Limited, held in London on the 11th 
March, Mr. D,G. A. Reid, who visited 
that Company’s Estates last December, 
told his audience that they “had a num- 
ber of Para trees, eight years old and up- 
wards, which have been planted along 
the roadways and the yield per tree on 
experiment was so satisfactory that it 
was considered advisable to clear and 
open up more land two years ago for the 
cultivation of rubber.” 


Yet another South Indian rubber 
concern which held its Annual Meeting 
recently in Colombo is the Cochin 
Rubber Company, Limited. On _ this 


101 Saps and Hxuudations. 


estate, the Chairman, Mr. P. Bois, said 
that weeding had proved rather more 
expensive than had been anticipated. 
Some experiments were tried with 
mulching plants, “‘but our Visiting 
Agent prefers dadaps (EHrythrina 
lithosperma) to anything else, and we 
have large nurseries of these plaats 
ready for May-June planting. Fork- 
digging has given excellent results. In 
the 1906 clearing six trees were measured 
at 3 ft. from the ground in December, 
1907, and showed a girth of 4? inches, 
This had increased to 8} inches in 
December, 1908. The trees in this clearing 
have branched well, and a great in- 
crease in the girth of the trees is 
expected this year.” This Company 
owns 800 acres under rubber, half of it 
having been planted in 1900 and the 
remainder in the two following years. 
Its paid-up capital amounts to Rs. 1,92,000, 
and its Rs. 15 shares (Rs. 14 paid) are 
quoted at par. 


Lastly, we have received the Annual 
Reports of two rubber concerns which 
have their headquarters in Madras, viz., 
the South India Rubber Company and 
the Thodupuzha Rubber Company, the 
Secretaries of each of which are Messrs. 
Huson and Robinson. The former 
Company is growing Para rubber trees 
ata higher elevation than is generally 
cousidered most suitable and has in- 
terplanted them with coffee, and it has 
990 acres devoted to these two products 
and to Ceara rubber, The growth of 
the rubber is reported to be regular, 
and the coffee, from which a crop of 
7 tons is expected this year, is said to be 
coming on well, while 500 acres have 
been reserved for cardamoms. This 
policy of not putting all one’s eggs into 
one basket has much to recommend 
it. The authorised capital of the Com- 
pany is Rs. 3 lakhs, divided into 3,000 
shares of Rs. 100 each, of which number 
2,292 were allotted when the Company 
was formed, and the balance, 708, 
reserved for future issue. The 'Thodu- 
puzha Company, whose lands are in 
Cochin, planted 550 acres with Para 
rubber plants, 18 ft. apart, last year, and 
the tapping stage is expected to be 
reached in 1913, while the question of 
interplanting with pepper is receiving 
consideration, The authosised capital 
of the Company is Rs. 3 lakhs, divided 
into 3,000 shares of Rs. 100, aud 2,250 
have been or are being issued. 


The above are some of the rincipal 
Companies growing rubber in Southern 
India, and there are besides a number of 
rubber estatesin private hands or being 
worked by Syndicates. The industry 
has advanced well beyond the experi- 
mental stage, and, as far as can be seen 


Gums, Resins, 


at present, it seems destined to have a 
brilliant future, especially in those 
fortunate districts where labour is cheap 
and plentiful; and it must not be for- 
gotten that, if present estimates prove 
correct and present prices continue, 
each acre of ten-year-old rubber is 
capable of yielding a profit of £50 per 
acre. Suca prospects are but rarely 
held out by agriculture in any form, 
either in tropical or temperate zones ; 
and though few planters in South India 
are sanguine enough to expect quite 
such handsome returns as that, they 
can, in our opinion, contemplate a fall 
in prices with less concern than their 
confreres in any other part of the 
world. 


INDIA RUBBER AND ITS 
MANUFACTORE. 


WITH CHAPTERS ON GUTTA-PERCHA 
AND BALATA. 


By Huspert L. Terry. 
(From the Review in Science, 
December, 1908.) 


One may fairly say that, next toa 
mining, the growing of rubber has of 
recent years been increasingly regarded 
asa golden path to material ease. In 
common with mining, the project has 
its risks and drawbacks, and the only 
safe guide to intelligent investment in 
both is knowledge. This the general 
public does not have, but many indivi- 
duals desire specific information, either 
for the reason observed, or for the sake 
of general enlightenment. With regard 
to rubber and its manufacture, Terry’s 
book fairly meets this need; it is for 
such that it has been written. Though 
dealing with a distinctly technical field, 
the author has succeeded in making a 
very readable book, and this is due not a 
little to his pleasing style, occasional pro- 
lixity to the contrary notwithstanding. 


One experiences a slight feeling of 
disappointment in reading the first two 
chapters, those dealing with the history 
of the matter and with the botanical 
origin of crude rubber. It would have 
been justifiable to have dealt with these 
topics with greater liberality, and the 
addition of treatment of greater length 
of the cultural aspects of the industry 
would have heightened the value of 
the book in a marked degree. It seems 
to the reviewer a fair criticism that the 
chapter on India-rubber Plantations is a 
trifle pessimistic. Mr. Terry’s attitude 
is safe, because negative. A more just 
statement of the legitimate attempts 
which are being made in Mexico to 


ae ey i . 


102 fAveust, 190% 


cultivate rubber trees (Castilloa) would 
have had greater merit. Sharp practices 
do great damage to infant industries. 
So much more therefore do these demand 
proper representation at the hands of 
the critic. 


. To be commended in this connection 
is the effort to point out the need for 
adequate conservation of the natural 
forests of rubber-prgducing trees, a 
problem to which our modern forestry 
methods have not yet reached. Science 
will be needed in meeting this aspect of 
the industry quite as muchas any other. 
Already her face has been turned toward 
plantation culture, with no little success, 
but the inevitable struggle of man with 
nature has already discovered a quite 
handsome array of parasitic enemies, 
whose energies appear to be largely con- 
centrated upon cultivated rubber trees. 


PLANTATION RUBBER YIELDS. 


(From the Tudo eGee World, 
January, 1909.) 


The latest mail advices to hand at this 
writing report the shipment from Ceylon 
and Malaya, during something less than 
eleven months of this year, of 3,401,784 
pounds of plantation rubber. The 
figure for the corresponding period of 
1907 was 1,935,103 pounds, and for the 
preceding year 908,965 pounds. Five 
years ago the amount was almost nil. 
The rapid growth in the volume of ship- 
ments evidently is due (1) to the increas- 
ing number of tappable trees, and (2) 
to an increased annual yield from those 
trees which have now been tapped for 
three or four seasons. Itseems worth 
while to emphasize, in this connection, 
that in the mass of information that 
has come from the Hevea planting region 
of the Far East—reports so detailed as 
almost to suggest that every individual 
rubber tree has been scrutinized—no 
hint has appeared that one tree on 
suitable soil has failed to yield some 
rubber, or that any tree, once tapped, 
has failed to yield at subsequent tap- 
pings. 

Thus far it has not been possible, how- 
ever, to fix upon a definite minimum 
yield to be expected reasonably from 
a cultivated rubber tree, of any given 
age or size. But this is hardly essential. 
Is there a fixed law of yield of tea or 
coffee plantations, or of wheat or corn, 
or of grapes or pears? f[t is enough if, 


generally, the product per acre, _ or. 


for a whole estate, affords a profit. The 
figures given above show that cultivated 


trees do yield rubber, and details con- . 


stantly coming forward indicate an aver- 


a. 


- Avavust, 1909.] 


— 
¥ rf 


age producticn of 2 or 5 pounds per 
tree over considerable areas, taking 
young and old trees together, In addi- 
tion to the data on this subject on 
another page of this issue, it may be 
noted that Mr, J. B. Carruthers esti- 
mates that all the rubber trees tapped 
in Malaya in 1907 yielded an average 
of 1 pound 12 ounces. The trees included 
in Perak alone yielded 2 pounds 1 ounce, 
and those in Negri Sembilan 2 pounds 
7 ounces. These are not exceptional 
yields, but the figures relate to upwards 
of 1,300,000 trees. 


We might pause here to consider the 
ultimate rubber production of Malaya, 
where, according to Mr. Carruthers’ 
figures, the’ rubber planted to date— 
nearly all within three years—covers 
about 280 square miles of territory. In 


_this great forest formed by the hand 


of man it is estimated that there are 
97,558,440 rubber trees, planted generally 
at what is intended to be permanent 
distances apart. If all these eventually 
should give a yearly average of 
pounds, the result would vastly exceed 
the world’s present total production of 
rubber. In none of these estimates, by 
the way, is any accourt taken of Ceylon 
or the Dutch Indies, or of any part of 
America or Africa where rubber has 
been planted. 


But our interest at this time is con- 
fined to the present yield ot plantation 
rubber, and it appears abundantly estab- 
lished that the yield is ample for 
present profits on ascale beyond what 
is usual in most branches of agriculture. 
We must not leave the subject, however, 
without poinding out that all the figures 
used in this connection bear solely upon 
the cultivation of one rubber species— 
Hevea—in one part of the world. The 
study of other species, and under other 
conditions, remains to be earried to a 
practical conclusion. 


CEARA RUBBER (MANIHOT 
GLAZIOVII). 


By H. PowEtt.. 
(From the 4 gricultural Journal, British 
Kast Africa, I. 8, April, 1, 1908.) 


-Ceara or scraprubber of commerce is 
produced by a smalltree growing to a 
height of about 30 to 35 feet and attain- 
ing a stem, when fully developed, of a 
foot or more in diameter. The tree 
belongs to the natural order Euphor- 
biacex, and its natural habitat is said to 
be the Province of Rio Janerio, though 
if is now common in many tropical 
countries. 


103 


Saps and Haudations, 


Well-grown trees are established at 
Mombasa and Rabai, and cultivation of 
Ceara rubber has during the past year 
or two been taken upon a commercial 
scale at Voi and Kibwezi. In the 
country around Malindi, also at Meritini 
and higher up the railway in the Mazeras 
district fairly large numbers of Ceara 
seedlings have recently been planted, and 
a much larger increase in this direction 
is anticipated during 1908, the demand 
for Ceara seed through the Agricultural 
Department being considerable. 


A large plot of Ceara rubber trees at 
Meritini Experiment Station, Rabai 
district, isin vigorous health, the most 
advanced trees—about 20 months old—- 
having already yielded good samples of 
rubber. 


Several acres are being established at 
the Mazeras farm where the soil and 
general climatic conditions are seemingly 
eminently adapted for Ceara; the condi- 
tions existing at this place are typical 
of much of the surrounding country. 


So far as can be ascertained the first 
Ceara trees in British Kast Africa were 
planted at the Mission Station. Rabai, 
whence the trees in the grounds ot 
Mombasa Club were obtained by Mr. D 
J. Wilson about nine years ago. 


In 1883 Ceara rubber plants were intro- 
duced to Zanzibar from the Royal Gar- 
dens, Kew, and about 1892 or 1893 Baron 
Von St, Paul Ilaira obtained seed from 
another source and raised plants at 
‘Tanga, which were given by him to Mr. 
Koehier of Lewa in the Pangani district, 
and from these the extensive Ceara rub- 
ber industry in German East Africa has 
been mostly established. 


The seed now being imported into Brit- 
ish East Africa is from the Tanga 
district. 

PROPAGATION.—This is usually effected 
by seeds which should be at.least a year 
old from the time they fall from trees, 
and the latter should be from 3 to 4 
years old, as seed collected from young 
trees do not produce such vigorous plants 
as from those of the age given. 


If fresh seed is planted, i.e,, seed newly 
collected, germination is very slow, if 
at all, whereas seed one or two years 
old germinate readily and well and give 
good results, 

SOAKING THE SEED.—Some growers 
place the seed in water for varying 
lengths of time, and others pour boiling 
water over the seed with a view to soften- 
ing the shell or seed coat. In connection 
with this subject Mr. Gustav EKismann 
of Hale, Niussi, near Tanga, carried out 
a series of experiments by soaking the 
seed in water froma few hours up to a 


eae Bt 
[AvGust, 1909. 


ee 


Guns, Resins, (104. 


month.and then planting these side by 
side with unsoaked seed, when results 
weie found to be same. As stated before, 
the great point is to use seed at least a 
year old from strong healthy trees of 
about 3 to 4 years’ maturity. 


Selection of seed from the best rubber- 
producing trees is receiving the atten- 
tion of experienced growers, by whom it 
is expected increased yields of rubber. 
will result therefrom. 


Asarule, the seed is sown in nursery 
beds, and when a few inches or a foot or 
more high, the plants are transferred to 
their permanent places in the fields. 
Some transfer the tiny seedling from 
the nursery beds or seed boxes into pots 
made of banana leaf sheaths or bamboo 
stems before final planting out. 


The method of planting the seed in the 
field, or as it is known at ‘‘ stake” is also 
practised by some, but by others con- 
demned on the ground that many vacan- 
cies occur and the trees are of uneven 
growthin addition to more work being 
entailed in keeping the fields free of 
weeds during the first six months or so. 


CUTTINGS.—Propagation is also carried 
out by sections of the branches an inch 
or more in diameter and a foot or 
upwards in length. These grow readily, 
but the trees readily assume a dwarf 
straggling habit and give off several 
stems which, if not early removed, retard 
the development of the tree. The rub- 
ber obtained from trees raised by seeds 
or cuttings is said to be of the same 
quality, and as regards yield no records 
are available. 


Soin, &e.—The tree thrives best in a 
good friable loamy soil of fair depth, and 
where the temperature and humidity 
are high, such as at many parts of the 
coast and other similar districts, but 
the elevation must not exceed about 
3,000 feet. The tree thrives at higher 
altitudes, but the rubber has been prove 
to contain too much resin to be of suffi- 
cient commercial value. 


PREPARATION OF LAND.—Should the 
land contain scrub this must be cut 


down and burnt or placed in rows to rot. © 


Jn the same manner it will be found 
beneficial to clear away grass and weeds 
which may also be burnt when dry or 
allowed to decay to provide humus. It 
the land has not been under previous 
cultivation it would be much improved 
by ploughing or hoeing, but if hoeing 
is intended the land need not be turned 
over as subsequent weedings would stir 
up the soil. 

LINING AND HoLInc—In the matter of 
distances to plant opinions and practices 
differ very considerably, but for general 


purposes 12x12 is recommended. A — 
favourite method by many is to allow 12 
feet between the rows and 6 feet from 
plant to plant, and to tap each alternate 
tree in the rows to exhaustion after a 
year or 18 months’ growth, the per- 
manent distances being then 12’x1z. 
Six feet square is also allowed, and each 
alternate tree tapped to exhaustion. 
Others again allow about 9 feet per- 
manently each way, but this distance is 
thought by most Ceara rubber planters 
to be too close. 


The digging of holes 18’ in diameter 
and the same in depth is very desirable 
especially in new land where the soil is 
usually of a somewhat sour nature and . 
needs exposure to the atmosphere. It 
is also advisable to allow the holes to 
remain open for a week or two before 
being fillled in with good surface soil. 
Tn the event of planting at stake being 
adopted holes should be prepared or a 
thorough stirring up of the soil carried 
out so as to give the seedlings a fair 
chance. From 5 to7 seeds are placed at 
each stake, and should two or more seeds 
germinate, the strongest plant only is 
allowed to remain, 

PLANTING.—This can best be carried 
out at the commencement of the long or 
short rains. 


WEEDING.—As in the case of other eul- 
tivations the trees will be much benefit- 
ted by keeping the land free of weeds, 
for which three or four annual weedings 


- will be ample. 


PRUNING.—Some experienced growers 
remove the terminal bud or growing 
point when the plant is about 2 feet high. 
This is done to cause the lower part of 
the stem to thicken as it has been found 
that more rubber is obtained by tapping 
the lower part of the trunk than higher 
up. One trunk only should be allowed, 
and any branches appearing thereon 
should be early removed but no further 
pruning is necessary. The more nu- 
merous the terminal branches the more 
vigorous the tree becomes as the number 
of leaves is increased which are the lungs 
of the tree. 


AGE AT WHICH TRER SHOULD BE 
TAPPED.—Practical experiments carried 
out over a series of years are said to 
have proved that tapping should be 
commenced at the end of the 2nd year, 
or shortly afterwards, as it has been 
found that trees that have remained — 
untapped till the 4th or 5th year yield 
less rubber and of poorer quality than 
do such trees of a similar age, but which 
have been tapped early, say at the end 
of the 2nd year, and regularly after- 
wards; in fact, early tapped trees are 
found to yield rubber in increasing quan- 


al AvaustT, 1909.] 


tity and are said to be like cows that 
are regularly milked. Of course, judg- 
ment must be used not to tap the trees 
to exhaustion, by which is meant tapping 
the whole area of the trunk at one time 
and often. By tapping only a small area 
of the trunk at one time a fresh section 
of strip can be treated about every fourth 
or sixth day, or in all about twenty-four 
times yearly, leaving out the very dry 
months, the already tapped surfaces 
being gone over several times during the 
year. 


TAPPING.—Formerly the mode of col- 
lecting Ceara rubber was as follows :— 
The loose stones and dirt around the 
base of the tree were removed by means 
of a bundle of twigs and large leaves 
were laid down. The collector then 
sliced off the outer layer of bark to a 
height of 4 or 5 feet and the milk exuded 
by many tortuous courses, a good. por- 
tion of which fell to the ground, When 
thoroughly dry the rubber was either 
rolled into the balls or put into bags in 
loose masses in which form it entered 
the market under the name of Ceara 
Serap. This method was very wasteful, 
and for want of a satisfactory system of 
collecting large areas of Ceara trees had 
been abandoned in various countries. 
To Mr. Koehler of Lewa, Pangani dis- 
trict, is given the Credit of devising a 
method of collecting Ceara rubber which 
has resulted in establishing a successful 
and extensive industry io German Hast 
Africa. The system referred to which 
is known as the ‘‘ Lewa” method may be 
deseribed as follows :—About a quarter 
more or less of the surface of a tree is 
freely coated with the juice of a Citrus 
fruit such as sour orange, lemon or lime 
(to about the height of the tree), the 
citrus fruit being roughly peeled and cut 
in two. The bark is then horizontally 
stabbed with the point of a knife having 
a sharp thin edge, at distances of about 
8 inches apart. The milk immediately 
exudes from the numerous small in- 
cisions, and at once coagulates on the tree 
from which it is easily collected about 
three-quarter of an hour to an hour at ter- 
wards, and made into the balls. Sweet 
oranges may be used, but as the labourers 
are apt to eat them sour ones are more 
suitable. Vinegar and weak carbolie acid 
have been proved to be suitable for 
coagulating the rubber. Hven in a weak 
state, however, carbolic acid is found to 
injure the labourer’s hands, consequent- 
ly this is notin favour, even though the 
avid be applied with a brush. The juice 
from the sisal plant has also proved 
fairly successful inthe matter of causing 
coagulation, If no acid be applied, it 
will be found that much of the milk is 
lost on the ground. Of the various 


14 


105 


Saps and Hxudations. 


knives tried, that known as a ‘“ Book- 
binder’s” knife has given the most 
general satisfaction in German Hast 
Africa. A chisel-edged knife is to be 
avoided, as the bark is injured thereby 
and does not readily heal up. 


The authorities at Amani have found 
that the latex-ducts of the Ceara tree 
run principally perpendicularly, hence 
the need for making the incisions hori- 
zontally. About thirty average-sized 
sour oranges or lemons are said to be 
sufficient to coagulate a pound of Rubber. 


Other methods of tapping are being 
experimented with in German East 
Africa, but for utility and simplicity the 
‘‘Lewa” method hasso far proved the 
most satisfactory and is readily under- 
stood by the labourers, The matter of 
obtaining a sufficient supply of citrus 
fruits is, however, of great importance. 

A good man can easily collect I lb. or 
more of rubber per day, buta general 
average would be about }alb. to # lb. 
per labourer daily. 

The early morning is the best time to 
eollect the rubber, which, after being 
made into a ball, can be placed in papaw 
ov banana leaves for conveyance to the 
store, where it is washed and squeezed 
in clean water to remove as much as 
possible of the impurities. It is then 
placed in an airy position to dry out of 
the direct rays of the sun, and when 
practically all moisture -has been ex- 
pelled it is ready for shipment. 

Where proper machinery is available, 
the raw rubber is subjected to a 
washing, rolling and drying process, 
with the result that allimpurities are 
quickly removed and the rubber rendered 
ready for shipment in a short time. 

A ball of freshly collected Ceara 
rubber weighing 805 grammes was seen 
subjected to the washing, rolling and 
drying process referred to, at Amani, 
and finally weighed 144 grammes. 

YIELD OF TREES.—These vary con- 
siderably, though the following figures 
supplied by an extensive grower in 
German Hast Africa may prove of 
interest :—- 


2nd to 3rd year i lb. 

8rd to 4th year eS, re op 

4th to 5th year ah Sie 

5th to 6th year ito IIb 


Taking one tree with ancther a good 
yield of rubber per tree in full yield per 
annum would be from ? tollb., though 
individual trees frequently very largely 
exceed this quantity, instance—On the 
Lewa estate there are several Ceara 
rubber trees from 9 to 10 years old 
which have produced from 10 to 14 lbs., 
German, each per annum. Again, six 


Gums, Resins, 106 


trees about 5 years old on the Frederick 
Hoffmann Plantations yielded 8 lbs. of 
rubber each during the year. 


As arule trees of 10 years old are said 
to cease to yield rubber in paying 
quantities. 


VALUE OF CEARA RUBBER.—For ordin- 
ary collected Ceara rubber the present 
price in Hamburg is from 38s. to 8s. 6d. 
per lb., but for machine-cleaned rubber a 
much higher price is obtained. 


Cost oF CULTIVATION.—As in the other 
cultivations the cost varies according to 
the nature of the land, rate of wages, &c., 
but the maximum cost is given as 
Rs. 85 per acre up tothe end of the 
2nd year. 

At the lowest computation the rubber 
obtained from the trees at the end of 
the 2nd year, after paying cost of collec- 
tion, would more than balance the 
expenditure on cultivation, and by the 
3rd or 4th year a profit of from £10 
to £15 per acre could be reasonably 
expected. 


PRODUCTION.—Authorities agree that 
there is no danger of over-production of 
rubber tor many years to come, as the 
demand for rubber is continually in- 
creasing, Itis also admitted that the 
natural sources of supply are being 
gradually exhausted, and that in the 
future ‘‘ Plantation ” rubber will be more 
than ever sought after. 


OIL FROM THE SEED OF THE CEARA 
RUBBER TREE. 


Ina recent Bulletin of the Imperial 
Institute mention is made that seeds of 
Ceara rubber had been examined in the 
Scientific-Technical Department, and 
that somewhat similarfixed oil to that 
yielded by Para rubber seeds was 
obtained. The oil is described as a 
greenish-yellow colour with an odour 
resembling that of olive oil and asome- 
what harsh and bitter taste. The value 
of the Ceara oil is not given. 

LABOUR,—In this matter a serious 
difficulty presents itself. as the native 
shows a distinct aversion to take up 
regular employment, if indeed any at 
all, and without a regular supply of 
iabourers rubber cultivation cannot be 
profitably carried on. For each acre of 
trees at least five labourers will be 
needed for collecting the rubber, and it 
is found more satisfactory to pay by 
results. 


The India Rubber Journal of April 
9th, 1906, has the following :— 
‘“ NEGLECTED CHARA.” 


Many Ceylon planters are now wishing 
they had not been so precipitate in 
cutting out the trees already planted. 


Tes 


[Aucust, 1909, 


A year or two ago Mr. J. Cameron, 


Superintendent, Government Gardens, 
Bangalore, published an interesting note 
on the Ceara rubber tree (Manihot 
glaziovii), and its possible utility in the 
Mysore State. From the date of its 
introduction in 1879 the Ceara took 
kindly to the climate of Mysore, and 
though Mr. Cameron described it as of 
all the trees latterly intrcduced the 
easiest to cultivate, yet till quite 
recently it has attracted little or no 
attention. 
by coffee planters sixteen and seventeen 
years ago, the greatest care being taken 
to file each seed in order to expedite 
germination. In the next decade, how- 
ever, the price of rubber went down and 
that of coffee went up; and the Ceara 
which subsequently reproduced itself in 
large quantities were voteda trouble- 
some weed and for the most part up- 
rooted. Here and there, however, some 
trees survived this period of unpopu- 
larity, and when in course of time the old 
order changed, as it is alwaysdoing in 
tropical agriculture, and rubber went 
up, while coffee went down, the now 
well-grown Ceara trees provide the best 
opportunity for making expeximents. 
Those carried out at the Lal Bagh at 
Bangalore were especially instructive, 
though Mr. Cameron admitted on their 
conclusion that there was still much to be 
learned about tapping the tree and pre- 
paring good marketable rubber. But he 
made what is rightly styled the remark- 
able discovery that a single Ceara rubber 
tree would yield 7 lbs. of rubber 
during the year without being in the 
slightest exhausted. The produce of 
Mr. Cameron’s trees was valued by 
London brokers at38s. perlb. As he 
remarked at the time, to hear that a 
Ceara rubber tree was worth a guineaa 
year was certainly most encouraging, 
and he concluded that ‘if the average 


-result in working a large plantation 


amounted to half or even a quarter 
of that amount, it will still be a 
good industry. Ceara rubberis grown 
successfully in Ceylon at elevations of 
2,300 and 2,700 feet.” 


GUTTA-PERCHA PLANTING 
IN JAVA. 


(From the India Rubber World, Vol. 
XXXIX., No. 6, March, 1909.) 
The importance to the world of com- 
merce, of the work that is being done in 


Java in cultivating gutta-percha can 
hardly be over-estimated. Indeed, Ee - 


the writer personally met Dr. = kts 
“Tromp de Haas, the superintendent of 


the Government gutta plantations in 


It was planted extensively © 


Avuaust, 1909.] : 


Java, and weut through the whole sub- 
ject step by step, he had but a vague 
idea of the subject. 


To begin with, only three of the many 
gutta-producing trees produce gum fit 
for cable insulation, and at the same 
time adapted for profitable propagation. 
Botanically, they are al) species of the 
genus Palaquium, being respectively P. 
oblongifolium, P. Bornéense, and 
gutta. (This genus, by the way, is better 
known to English readers as Dichopsis.) 
The species referred to grow chiefly in 
the Dutch possessions in Java, Sumatra, 
and Borneo, The natives, whom it is 
impossible to control, always destroy the 
tree when extracting the gum. Hence 
the supply from wild sources is sure to 
cease ere long. Then, too, as the tree 
matures slowly, not reaching a tapable 
size under fifteen years, planters are not 
interested in it. 


As far back as 1856 a small plantation 
of gutta-percha trees was started in 
Banjoemas, Java, but it was not until 
1885 that Professor Treub really laid the 
foundation for work on a large scale by 
starting the plantation at Tjipetir, on 
the same island, Then, in 1900, when it 
was decided todothe work on a large 
scale, there was at hand an abundance 
of seed. As the seeds perish within four 
weeks after maturity, and as the bats 
carry off much of the fruit, which they 
consume on the wing, the difficulties in 
getting sufficient fresh seed are obvious. 


The time will come, however, when 
every mile of the 247,888 miles or more of 
submarine cable now existing must be 
renewed, to say nothing of the need for 
new cable lines. And in view of this the 
Dutch Government took hold of the 
problem in a manner that assures its 
solution. 


The great plantation at Tjipetir is 
situated in a healthy country in the up- 
lands not far from Buitenzorg. The 
rainfall is abundant, the soil good, and 
cheap labour plentiful. The seeds are 
first planted in ‘nurseries. When about 
a year old they are taken up, the tap 
root and young stem is shortened, and 
they are planted about 4 feet apart. 
After the third year the plants have 
closed up so that they need thinning out. 


_Almost from the first Dr. Tromp de 
J{aas planned to make use of the leaf 
and the bark of the plants that were 
destroyed in thinning. He even went 
further and extracted gutta from the 
fallen leaves that littered the ground in 
_the older plantings. All of this extrac- 
tion is by chemical means, and the pro- 
duct is not the green gutta once on the 
market, but a high-grade gutta as good 
as the best, This will be seen to be 


107 


Saps and Exudations. 


practical when it is remembered that 
the bark contains 5 per cent. of gutta- 
percha (made up of 85 per cent. gutta 
and 15 per cent, resinous matter), and 
fresh leaves contain 10 per cent. of 
gutta-percha (made up of 90 per cent. 
gutta and 10 per cent. resinous matter). 
The yield from fallen leaves is smaller, 
but worth considering. 


In this manner the plantation begins 
to produce when the trees are three years 
old. . By pruning and thinning they have 
got for the third year about,890 kilograms 
(=1,958 pounds of fresh leaf to the acre, 
and the year following 2,744 kilos 
(=6,037 pounds) of fresh leaf. From the 
older trees they found that the fallen 
leaves amounted to about 20 kilos (=55 
pounds) a tree. These figures are of 
course only approximate, as the experi- 
ments are still going on, but they are 
successful. and show wonderful skill, 
forethought, and thoroughness. Be- 
youd all this the almond-shaped seed 
has been found to produce a vegetable 
fat with a high melting point which can 
be used in the arts. It is planned that 
the real tapping of trees shall begin in 
1915. The planting now embraces 2,240 
acres, and the estimateis made that it 
will produce 11 kilos of dry gutta-percha 
per acre, or a total of 26,840 kilos 
(=59,048 pounds) a year. 

The amount of gutta-percha which 
has gone into commercial use during the 
last half century is evidence that a tre- 
mendous number of trees yielding this 
gum existed at the time when the 
material first came to the notice of 
manutacturers, but just as the largest 
bank account will some time disappear 
if constantly drawn upon without any 
additions being made to it, the native 
gutta-percha resources in the regions 
which formerly supplied the world’s 
principal needs for this material have 
become well nigh exhausted. It is 
almost impossible now to find a native 
specimen of the best gutta-percha spe- 
cies. The practicability from a scienti- 
fic standpoint of producing guttapercha 
under cultivation having been estab- 
lished, the owners of private capital 
naturally hesitated to undertake plant- 
ing, on account of the supposed length 
of time which would be requisite for 
returns, since the gutta-percha trees 
felled by the collectors were commonly 
supposed to be a century old. 

A well-established Government, how- 
ever, such as that in the Dutch colonies, 
accustomed to making investments for 
the future as well as for the present, 
and particularly investments not ex- 
pected to yield direct dividends, can 
well afford to finance such an enterprise 
as planting gutta-percha, regardless of 


Gums, Resins, 


the length of time which must elapse 
before the trees become productive. 
There is all the more reason for the 
Dutch Government to undertake this 
work in the fact that gutta-percha trees 
occur naturally over so small.an area, 
and that embraced principally in the 
Dutch possessions. There is now being 
laid a cable, insulated with gutta-percha, 
between Germany and Brazil to be one 
of the longest cables in the world, and 
there is no indication that the age of 
eable building is passing. ‘Ultimately, 
at the present rate of consumption, 
there will be no forest gutta-percha, and 
all the activity of the Dutch govern- 
ment and such private enterprise as it 
may inspire can hardly lead to over-pro- 
duction of this important material when 
the world’s need for it becomes acute. 
It is true that gutta-percha trees 
under cultivation may mature at an 
earlier age than where they are scat- 
tered in forests, justas has proved true 
of Hevea rubber in Ceylon and Malaya. 
The fact is also important that science 


has demonstrated the possibility of 
obtaining gutta-percha from young 
trees.. The most important substitute 


for gutta-percha yet known is balata, 
of which important native resources 
still exist, and in connection with which 
some facts are given in a brief article 
which follows. 


GUAYULE RUBBER. I. 


By THEODORE WHITTELSEY. 
(From the Journal of Industrial and 
Engineering Chenistry, Vol. I., No. 4, 

April, 1909.) 

1t has long been known that the natives 
of Mexicoin some of their games use 
balls composed of an elastic substance 
which they obtain by chewing the bark 
of a shrub called Guayule. Attempts 
have been made from time to time to 
introduce this substance industrially, 
but without success until recently, The 
first practical experimentation on a 
commercial scale seems to have been 
made in 1903-4. In the following year 
the product, which has been found to be 
atrue rubber, began to be put on the 
market. From this time on tbe industry 
developed with extraordinary rapidity, 
and the excitement in northern Mexico 
is said to: have been comparable to that 
in Texas when the oil fields were dis- 
covered. By 1906 practically all the 
Guayule within reach of existing trans- 
portation facilities was contracted for, 

The Guayule, Partheniwn argentatum, 
is found on the semi-arid lands of the 
plateau of northern Mexico, growing in 


108 


_the expense and the belief that rubber 


NY NNEY 6 ee ee) ae 
SF. “ 
[Aveust, 1909. 
the dry, rocky soil of the foot-hills. It 
is not large; the dimensions of plants 
of factory size are approximately as 
follows :— a mae 
. ‘ . lameter at base 
Height. Dry weight, Of anak 
6 ounces ~ inches 
or) 12 9 $ 9 
36) are BIA ae Ady ash 

The acreage weight of factory shrub 
is probably between 12 and 16 ounces, 
The plant shown in the cut is an excep- 
tionally large one, weighing 53 lbs. It 
was 444 inches high and 2} inches in 
diameter at the ground level. 

The shrub is collected by pulling up 
the entire plant, and is pressed either in 
the field or at the railway station into 
bales weighing from 80 to 120 kilos. In 
1904 these are said to have brought 
7 pesos* per ton; in 1905the price had: 
risen to 30 or 40 pesos, and recently has 
been above 100 pesos. 


The Guayule contains in the neighbour- 
hood of 9 per cent. of pure rubber, 
calculated to the perfectly dry plant. 
The methods that may be used to extract 
the crude rubber are entirely different 
from those used with most rubber plants. 
These contain a milky juice or latex 
from which the rubber is obtained by 
coagulation, while in the Guayule the 
rubber exists as such preformed in the 
plant. The earlier processes were of 
three types: (1) the alkali process, in 
which the shrub was boiled with a 
solution of caustic alkali; (2) the solu- 
tion processes in which the rubber was 
extracted by carbon bisulphide or some 
other solvent; and (8) the mechanical 
process. The first of these is still used 
in apparently only onefactory. Accord- - 
ing to the patent specifications, the 
ground shrub is boiled with three times 
its weight of 6 per cent. caustic soda for 
six hours, after which the rubber is 
skimmed off and freed from alkali, Of 
the second class, the carbon bisulphide 
method has been abandoned, because of 


12 inches 
20 


when recovered from a solvent does not 
possess certain desirable physical quali- 
ties to the same degree as an undissolved 
rubber, A process that belongs to this 
type has been extensively experimented 
within anew factory during the past, 
two years. This process is said to be 
based on the extraction of the dried 
shrub with benzol. A solution of rubber 
and resin is obtained, from which the 
former is pecipitated by the addition of 
alcohol. It has been prophesied that this 
process will prove a failure for the same: 
reasons that have led to the abandon- 
ment of the bisulphide extraction, but 
the product is now on the New York 


* peso = $0°50 gold, 


Avaust, 1909.1 


market, and the outcome is awaited 
with interest. Rubber produced in this 
way should run lower in resin than that 
obtained directly by the other processes. 
The great bulk of the Guayule_ rubber 
now coming into the market is obtained 
by the third, the mechanical process. In 
this the shrub is crushed and then 
ground with water in pebble-mills. The 
rubber in the plant then becomes appa- 
rent as small particles 4 inch in diameter 
and from ;'; to} inch long. The details 
of the succeeding operations to separate 
the rubber from the woody matter are 
for the most part kept secret and doubt- 
less vary in different factories, but it 
may be said ina general way that the 
procedure is based on the fact that when 
soaked with water the woody fibre 
becomes water-lodged and sinks, while 
the rubber being lighter than water 
floats on the surface of the tanks and is 
skimmed off. It is then washed, sheeted 
on steel rolls, and either shipped moist 
or first dried by hanging the sheets in 
any airy room or by heating gently in a 
vacuum. If the mechanical process is 


109 


Saps and Exudations. 


properly conducted, a practically com- 
plete extraction of the rubber from the 
shrub is secured. 


Guayule rubber obtained by the 
mechanical process is black on the 
surface when it reaches the market, but 
olive to light brown within. The dry 
crude rubber contains about 20 per 
cent, resin. Some factories also produce 
a brand from which the resin has been 
in great part extracted, but the demand 
for this seems comparatively small. 
Guayule rubber softens more quickly on 
the rolls than most other rubbers, and 
therefore requires to be handled some- 
what differently, but once this is under- 
stood, the working of Guayule rubber of 
good quality presents no difficulty. It 
can be substituted for many of the 
African rubbers, is used to advantage 
in boots and shoes and many other lines 
of manufacturing, and seems to be grow- 
ing in favour. The Guayule rubber 
recently reported as received at the 
port ‘of New York was—September 
850,000 lbs,, October 929,500 lbs., November 
1,444,000 Ibs. 


DYES AND TANS. 


BLACK WATTLE. (ACACIA 
DECURRENS). 


By D. E. HUTCHINS. 
(From the Agricultural Journal of 
British East Africa, I., Pt,I., April, 1909.) 


The well-known Wattle that has been 
so largely planted in Natal (under the 
name of A. Mollisima) is Acacia 
currens variety mollis. The average pro- 
duction cf bark, mine-poles and firewood 
is estimated as being worth £100,000 ayear 
for Natal, £75,000 for bark and £25,000 
for poles used locally or sent to the 
mines. It grows best in Natal at ele- 
vations between Maritsburg and Colenso, 
particularly along the so-called ‘‘ mist 
belts.” The coastwise limit of good 
growth is at Inchanga 2,000 feet ele- 
vation, 40 inches rainfall, and about 30 
miles from the sea. The mean temper- 
ature at Inchanga would be about 63” 
or 64° which is the mean temperature 
of Nairobi. There are several yarieties 
of Black Wattle, viz., mollis normalis, 
pauciglandulosa, leichardtii. The three 
last occur in Queensland. Two at least 
of these are growing in Natal. A. de- 
currens var. mollis is the commonest in 
Australia, and that which is almost ex- 
clusively planted in Natal, Cape Colony 
and the Transvaal. Normalis is the local 


de- . 


Sydney variety, and leichardtii and 
pauciglandulosa local varieties found 
north of this as far as the tropics. As 
an ornamental tree the normalis variety 
is the prettiest with its delicate foliage, 
like that of Asparagus creeper in our 
ferneries. At Tokai near Cape Town 
this variety has been grown sufficiently 
abundantly to yield afair supply of seed. 

have seen occasional specimens of it in 
Natal. It is well worth growing as an 
ornamental tree. The Black Wattle is 
one of the ‘‘Golden Wattles” of. Aus- 
tralia, and allits varieties most beauti- 
ful when in flower in Spring. 


Those who wish to consult an Aus- 
tralian work on the subject of Wattle 
growing cannot do better than read 
*“ Wattles and Wattle Barks, being hints 
on the conservation and cultivation of 
Wattles, together with particulars of 
their value” by J. H. Maiden, Govern- 
ment Botanist, N.S. Wales. (Technical 
Educational Series, No. 6, Sydney.) 


Those who are interested in Black 
Wattle cultivation in Natal should read 
an excellent paper by Mr. T. R. Sim, 
Conservator of Forests, printed in a re- 
cent number of the Natal Agricultural 
Journal. ; 


The data given below are extracted 
from Mr, Sim’s paper and my own 
otes during a visit to Natal, 


Dyes and Tans. 110 


Average data :—Conservator of Forests, 
Natal, 


RAINFALL. 

From 20 inches, if soil is deep and moist 
and mist frequent 80 inches to 40 inches 
most suitable. 

Price of land £1 to £6. 

Cartage limits | Fuel 8-10 miles 

killing profits. § Mine props 16-20 miles. 


SEED PER ACRE. 


In lines 1 lb. to 14 lbs. 
Broadcast 8 lbs. to 5 lbs. 


THINNING. 


Cut out dominated stems, prune back 
dominating stems ; first unremunerative 
thinning at 3 or 4 years; keep as far 
apart as you can so long as canopy is 
maintained and stems are clean. Usual 
final espacement 6-10 feet or 220 to 400 
stems per acre, 


CROP. 
Time from 5 years: average 10 years. 


YIELD. 


Average 5 tons of dry bark, 30 tons of 
dry timber. 
PRICE. 


Bark average at Dalton, the centre of 
Noodeberg district: £6 to £6 10s. per 
ton for bark in bundles, 

Ground and bagged £1 more. 

Fuel £5 to £20 per truck of 20 tons. 

Pit props (heavy) double fuel prices. 

There are some 80,900 acres of Black 
Wattle plantations in Natal. 


Owing to the dry weather in 1906 
hindering the stripping of the trees, the 
Natal export of Wattle bark fell from 
£112,000 worth in 1905 to 80,000 worth in 
1906. A considerable increase is, how- 
ever, looked for during 1907. The price 
of bark for 1907 is about £1 per ton 
higher than in 1906. Owing to the ex- 
tent of land suited for the growth of 
this tree being somewhat limited, such 
lands have changed hands at prices vary- 
ing from £5 to £10 peracre. £6 per acre 
may be looked on as the average value 
~of good Wattle land in Natal. In Natal 
the industry is now a_ well-established 
and, generally speaking, a profitable one. 

YIELD OF FIREWOOD. 

The yield in firewood, at 40 lbs. per 
c. ft. and cropping at 10 years, amounts 
to a mean yearly timber yield (Acrim) of 
150c. ft. Where the Wattles grow very 
quickly and can be cut at 5 years the 
Acrim would be 300 c ft. The Black 
Wattle grows as well in the Hastern 


districts of Cape Colony asin Natal. The - 


average over 643 acres of wattle planta- 
tion (mostly Black Wattle) at Fort 
Cunnynghame, cropped at seven years, 


was an Acrim of 83.c. ft. (Sim in For. FB: 


of Cape Colony). : 


In the Transkeian district of Cap 
Colony where there has been much des- 
truction of forest by natives, special plan- 
tations of Black Wattle have been formed 
to supply the natives with poles and thus 
save the young trees in the forest. 


An average sample of Natal Black 
Wattle analysed by Mr, A. Pardy, F.G.S., 
of Maritzburg gave :— 


Soluble matter sat a 47:90 
Non-tannin dee aS 11°94 
Tanning matter... a 35°96 

95°80 


BLACK WATTLE PLANTING HXPERIMENT. 


The planting of Black Wattle in Bri- 
tish Kast Africa can at present be looked 
upon as an experiment only. At best, it 
is a climatic exiotic here, its success 
depending on altitude compensating 
latitude, and herein is a serious element 
of doubt. Inthe early days of tree-plant- 
ing on the Rand (Johannesburg) it was 
commonly remarked that every South 
African tree would grow. Here it was 
assumed that altitude would compensate 
latitude ; but after a few years the num- 
bers of successful introductions rapidly 


fell off; and every severe year since,_ 


(either of frost or drought), has marked 
a further elimination of the unfit. _ 

On the Nilgiris, in Southern India, 
the climatic. conditions almost exactly 
repeat those of the highlands of British 
East Africa. Between 85 and 40 years 
agoa number of extra-tropical trees were 
introduced, and a few of these have thri- 
ven amazingly. In no part of the world 
does the Blue-gum (Eue. glokulus) yield 
higher returns, One of the Himalayan 
pines, Pinus longifolia, has for a pine 
an almost equally remarkable growth. 
When first introduced on the Nilgiris 
the Dealbata variety of Black Wattle 
grew well, After afew years, however, 
it gradually altered its flowering period, 
and degenerated, in most localities, to a 
nearly worthless scrub about 30 feet 
high. In 1883 I averaged the yield of 
Black Wattle on the Nilgiris at 38 tons 
(dry wood) per acre per annum. Mr. 
Cowley Brown, a Madras Forest officer 
who has recently written an extremely 
interesting report on the Australian and 
other trees introduced on the Nilgiris, 
states that now the yield is under 3 tons 
per acre per annum. Whenl left the 
Nilgiris in 1880 tne Silver Wattle was 
looked on as a pest, and people were pay- 
ing at the rate of £10 per acre to have it 


dug out, root and branch, from the com- 


pounds of houses. x 


So far Bp pcarances are in favour of 
the Black Wattle succeeding better on 


 ‘Aveust, 1909.] 


OE Fig ae RE ee en 2a ee 
ar oe: st me 2 => > 3 


the highlands of British East Africa 
than on the Nilgiris; though a tendency 
to branch from the roots has already 
been remarked by Mr. Battiscombe, 
and young wattles in plantations near 
Nairobi sometimes die off without any 
asstznable reason. At Messrs. Favre 
and Kelix’s plantations the Black Wattle 
looks well. It is still, however, quite 
young. I saw there none of the ordinary 
mollis variety. It is all var normalis, 
with a little leichardtiit and dealbata, 
In the Railway plantation at Nairobi the 
Black Wattle (mollis var) does not look 
well, but the situation is; unfavourable. 
At the French Mission near Nairobi 
there isa fine avenue of quite healthy 
Wattles: thisis avarmollis. At Nakuru 

saw some healthy-looking Black 
Wattle (mollis) which is stated to be 
now over four years old. 


Black Wattle has been planted for 
five years in British East Africa, and the 
growth, up to the present, is generally 
good. The different varieties are grow- 
ing so far with equal vigour. It is 
stated that a sample of bark from the 
oldest trees at Nakuru has lately been 
sent to Natal and given a good analysis 
of bark. 


DY STUFFS. 


(From the Report on the Work of the 
Imperial Institute, 1906-1907, No. 584.) 


Samples 
Samples Samples awaiting 
reported on |No.| reported on j|No.| investigation |No, 
during 1906, during 1907. at the end of 
ts 1907. | 
Lagos 1 |Sierra Leone | 1 Nil | 
Bhodesia ..| 2 {Rhodesia 1 
Sudan 2 
Seychelles 4 \ 
ndi 4 
Miscellaneous | 3 
Total ..\3 Total ory les Nil 


Natural dye stuffs are now of little or 
no economic importance, and with the 
exception of indigo and a few of the 
yellow dyewoods and logwood, they 


lil Dyes and Tame. 


have been almost entirely supplanted in 
European dyehouses by synthetic dyes 
of chemical origin. 

1906,—The samples received in 1906 con- 
sisted of annatto seeds from Lagos and 
native-made indigos from KHKhodesia. 
Annatto is still used to a considerable 
extent in colouring butter and marga- 
rine. The Lagos sample was of good 
quality. The MRhodesian- indigos con- 
tained only 3°7 to 18°5 per cent. of real 
indigo, and were of no value for export 
purposes, 

1907.—The “Gara” plant is used as 4 
blue dye stuff in West Africa. It con- 
tains indigotin identical with that 
present in the various species of Indigo- 
fera used as sources of indigo in India, 
Java and elsewhere. 


The Sudan samples were of the red 
dye ‘‘Sikhtiyan,” derived from a species 
of ‘‘dura,” the stems of which secrete 
the red colouring matter. The latter 
was shown to be a substantive red dye 
of the type presenc in red sandalwood. 


The Seychelles samples were ‘‘ orchella 
weeds,” for which there is still some 
slight demand as a dye. Three of these 
samples were of good quality and equal 
to the weed now exported from Ceylon 
and Portuguese East Africa. 


Of the three Indian dye stuffs Onos- 
mea echioides contained a red dye like 
that present in alkanet root; Hibiscus 
Sabdariffa, two yellow colouring mat- 
ters, one of which is of the quercetin 
type of yellow dye; and Thespesia 
Lampas, the yellow colouring matter 
quercetin. In Baccaurea sapida no evi- 
dence of the possession of tinctorial pro- 
perties could be obtained. 


During 1907 a memorandum describing 
the cultivation of annatto and the pre- 
paration of the seed and dye for the 
market was prepared for the Govern- 
ment of Ceylon. 


The miscellaneous dye stuffs received 
were mainly from commercial firms in 
this country, and included camwood 
and several lichens of the orchella and 
other type. 


- 


NEW FIBRES FOR PAPER.~—IV. 


By WILLIAM Raitt. 


FACTORS OTHER THAN CELLULOSE. 


The modern division of paper-makin 
A 4 
into (1) pulp manufacture, and (2) paper 
manutacture proper, has greatly extend- 


FIBRES. 


ed the area from which it is possible to 
draw supplies of raw material, by 
eliminating freight cost on the waste: 
whereas formerly the paper-maker had 
to import from 2 to 3 tons of material to 
produce a. ton of paper, he now imports 
the pure cellulose from the pulp maker, 
from which he can produce 90 to 95 % 
of paper. As a matter of trade con- 


Fibres. 112 


venience the division suits both parties. 
The pulpmaker’s principal interest is to 
be near his sources of raw material, and 
the paper-maker’s to be close to his 
market, since he has to meet a demand 
which is continually varying in its 
requirements of quality, colour, size, 
weight and finish. 


The search for new sources of paper- 
making material can therefore be con- 
ducted solely from the view point of the 
pulp maker, and it may be useful to the 
non-expert observer if we conclude this 
series by indicating the chief consider- 
ations other than an abundant supply 
of raw material necessary to the success- 
ful conduct of a paper-making enter- 
prise. Unless these exist in association 
with, or within economic reach of, the 
material, the most promising supply of 
the latter may be comparatively useless. 
If they do existin more or less abund- 
ance,a prima facie case may be estab- 
lished for submission to expert examina- 
tion to ascertain their exact value, and 
the compensatory effect which the 
excellence or abundance of any oneor 
more of them may have upon the 
deficiency or inferiority of others. 

We willassume that a perennial supply 
of raw material, yielding a paying per- 
centage of useful cellulose is in sight. 
The most important of the other neces- 
sary factors are as follows :— 

(a) Site for mill—its position with 
respect to export of the manufactured 
goods, and the facilities for bringing the 
raw material to it, in cases where it 
must be at some distance from its 
supplies. Cases may occur where it may 
be important to decide whether the mill 
had better be situated close to the raw 
material, or near a port of export. The 
ideal, of course, is for material, mill site, 
and port to exist together. 

(b) Labour —especially the forestlabour 
required for cutting, collection and 
transport of material. 

(c) Source of Power—either stedm or 
water-power. Inthe case of the latter 
electrical transmission from a distance 
may be feasible. 

(d) Fuel for manufacturing purposes— 
waste timber will usually be available, 
but where the driving power must be 
steam, it may he necessary to havea 
supply of coal. 

(ec) Water for manufacturing pur- 
poses—a plentiful supply, clean and 
bright, or capable of being made so 
by simple settling and filtering arrange- 
ments. 

(f) Asupply of lime within economical 
reach—with these in sight plus raw 
material, a fair case can be made out for 
full and exacting enquiry into the 
possibilities of a pulp-making industry. 


Judging from some enquiries received, 
it seems necessary to specify exactly 
whatis meant by ‘‘ pulp” in this connec- 
tion. I have, for instance, been asked if 
the waste ‘ pulp’ produced in separating 
Aloe fibre from tne leaf is of use. The 
more technical term of ‘ half-stuff’, that 
is, half-made paper, describes it more 
precisely. It consists of the nearly pure 
fibre or cellulose of the plant, separated 
and isolated from the lignose and 
pectose constituents by chemical and 
mechanical means, made into thick 
slabs and dried. Though sometimes 
b.eached by the Huropean and American 
paper-makers, it will be preferable to 
export it from the tropies in the un- 
bleached condition, and the bleaching, 
if necessary, done by the paper-maker. 

As we have been dealing with new 
fibres for paper, we have not considered 
it necessary hitherto to make any 
referenceto new sources of old fibres. 
In South Hastern Asia these may be said, 
speaking broadly, not to exist; but an 
exception must be made in favour of the 
higher ranges of the Himalayan region 
containing varieties of Spruce and pine 
similar in composition to those now 
being used in Hurope and America as 
pulpwoods. When we _ consider the 
splendid floatway and water powers 
afforded by the Himalayan rivers, the 
possibility of pulpmaking there does not 
appear to be remote; but apart from 
this, suitable soft-wooded non-resinous 
timbers are, in the tropics and sub- 
tropics, conspicuous by their absence 
in sufficient abundance to warrant 
attention. 


Mr. Gladstone’s phrase, ‘“‘the con- 
sumption of paper is the measure of a 
people’s culture,” has passed into a 
commonplace, and although doubts may 
be held as to whatextent the consump- 
tion of the yellow press, the penny 
dreadful and the sixpenny awful, is 
represented by culture, yetin the main 
it may be accepted as a pregnant and 
suggestive truth, and especially so in the 
case of a people just emerging from 
ignorance into knowledge, The struggle 
to reacha higher plane may be pro- 
tracted and apparently doubtful, the 
gropings in the dim of the dawn weari- 
some and disappointing, but the bound 
into fuller light is apt to come with the 
suddenness of sunrise. It is this which 
makes any prophecy as to the future 
requirements of the chief medium in the 
distribution of culture somewhat like 
guesswork. In the United Kingdom the 
average consumption per head of popu- 
lation is something like 50 lbs. per 
annum, In Bosnia it is 1 1lb., in India 
one-tenth of a pound. Atany momenta 
suddea advance of such communities in 


-[Avause, 1909. | 


, 
P 
-_ 


 Avaust, 1909.] 


the scale of culture may create a situ- 
ation parallel to that between 1890 and 
1907, when the world’s consumption 
increased from under three million tons 
to eight millions per annum. But if we 
leave such spurts out of account, and 
base estimates on the steady and normal 
growth only of the past few years, we 
shall open.out a prospect quite suffi- 
ciently encouraging to the pioneers of 
new sources of supply; and in putting 
the present deficiency at 250,000 tons per 
annum, and estimating a gradual growth 
in the demand, in excess of what present 
sources can supply, amounting ten years 
hence to one and a half million tons, we 
shall be on perfectly safe ground. 


COTTON. 
By J. E, JoNgs, 


(From the Agricultural Journal of 
British Hast Africa, Vol. I., Part 2, 
July, 1908.) 

It is a commonplace remark that great 
results often come about from insigni- 
ficant causes, butit is nevertheless in 
many instances perfectly true. In no 
ease is it more so than in the generally 
accepted version of the introduction of 
Cotton and the commencement of its 
eultivation in Kgypt. The story goes 
that a Turkish Dervish on his way 
home from India, presented an impor- 
tant personage in Hgypt of the name of 
Maho-Bey el Orfali with some Cotton 


seed which he had obtained in India. . 


These were planted and the bushes re- 
tained as ornamevtal shrubs until a 
wandering Swiss of the name of Immel 
saw them and recognised their value. 
He persuaded Maho-Bey to cultivate the 
Cotton seriously, which he did with 
complete success. This was the begin- 
ning of the present era of Cotton growing 
in Kgypt. 


From researches made by many emi- 
nent botanists, it has been conclusively 
proved that there existed an indigenous 
type of Cotton in Egypt previous to 
the enterprise of Maho-Bey. ‘‘ Cotton,” 
under the name ‘Gossypium” was 
known to post classical Roman writers, 
and the word is evidently derived from 
Greek. That bears witness to the anti- 
quity of the plant. It is quite possible 
that the Romans, who were for a long 
period in possession of Egypt, obtained 
their knowledge of it from that country. 
However that may be, and however old 
its origin, it had become an absolutely 
degenerate product previous to 1800 or 
so, for that is approximately the date 
of the introduction of the above men- 
tioned Indian seed to Egypt. Krom that 
date to this the cultivation of Cotton 

15 


118 Fibres. 


has expanded so greatly, that it is now 
probably the most important product of 
the world, giving employment to count: 
less thousands. 

To-day we have in Egypt several 
varieties, the principal of which are, 


(1) Achmouni. 
(2) Gallini. 
(3) Bamieh. 
(4) Mitafifi. 
(5) Abassi. 
(6) Janovitch. 

How these varieties arose it is difficult 
to trace satisfactorily, in all cases, but 
some are the results of crossing and 
hybridisation. It is possible also that 
climate and soil play an important part 
in determining the colour, lengta and 
fineness of staple of a particular class. 

Their chief characteristics are :— 


1, ACHMOUNI,—Slightly brown, plant 
short, yield only moderate, moreover it 
does not yield well in the Ginnery ; most 
probably a variety of Gossypium Bar- 


badense, type egyptiacum. Taken 
its name from Achmoun, a town in 
Menoufieh. : 


2. GALLINI.—A sub-variety of Sea Is- 
land. Yields fairly but requires water, 
Ripens very slowly. The staple is long, 


3. BAMIEH.—Taken its name from a 
Garden plant (Hibicus esculentus) which 
it resembles. Long, fine staple ;it suffers 
from variations of climate and must be 
regularly watered. Cultivation gener- 
ally abandoned, 


4. MITAFIFI—The chief variety of 
Gossipium barbadense, though it bears 
traces of other varieties. It is also called 
““Sukari” owing to the fact that its 
brownish colour resembles that of burnt 
sugar. It made its first appearance at 
Mitafifi in Menoufieh about 1884, since 
which date its cultivation -has been 
enormously extended. It is currently 
supposed that its brown colouration is 
due to action of salt in the ground, a 
statement which is borne out by the fact 
that Afifi grown near the Coast at 
Malindi is browner than that grown 
inland. : 


Its chief features are—long staple, 
heavy yield both in the field and Gin- 
nery, and the fact that climatic condi- 
tions have less effect on its vegetation 
than on any other variety. 

_5. ABASSI.—This variety gives a bril- 
liant Cetton:. White in colour and a 
stronger and finer staple than Mitafifi. 
It was evolved originally by a Greek 
named Zafiri out of a prior variety 
called Zafiri which was itself a variety 
of Mitafifi. It is cultivated extensively 
in Hgypt, and realises a higher price 
than Mitafifi but, as a crop, it is not so 
productive as the latter, 


Fibres 114° 


6. JANOVITCH,—This—the longest and 
finest staple cotton in Egypt—was dis- 
covered by an Albanian named Jono- 
vitch. Itis the form of Mitafifi, resem- 
bling the latter in its leaf and flower. 
Unfortunately its cultivation demands 
great care and_ skilled labour, and, 
though it fetches the highest prices, its 
productivity is Jess than Abassi or 
Mitafifi. A peculiarity of it is that the 
moment it is ripe it falls, and the pick- 
ing season must consequently involve 
constant supervision. : 


These are the six chief varieties in 
Egypt at the present time, and out of 
this number, only the three latter are 
cultivated extensively. But there are 
two others which are found there, 
namely, ‘‘Hindi” and ‘Sea Island.” 
The former is mostly found mixed with 
Mitafifi. it is of two varieties, one bear- 
ing ashort, and the other a long plant. 
The flowers ave different to those of 
Mitafifi. They are white, slightly yellow 
with no red ring round the base. The 
capsules also contain four and sometimes 
five valves instead of the usual three, 
The cotton itself is white, of moderate 
length, and once the boll is open, a slight 
shower of rain will cause considerable 
damage. 

Considerable progress has been made 
with the planting of “Sea Island” in 
Egypt lately, and actual experiments 
have proved that, side by side with 
Abassi, the yield is if anything slightly 
superior. It has the undoubted advan- 
tage of being higher in price, fetching at 
home just over ls. 8d. per lb. 

In choosing what variety of cotton to 
cultivate, the Planters must keep in view 
the following :— 


(1) The choice of a plant of quick 
growth, whichis least subject to vari- 
ation of temperature and atmospheric 
conditions. 


(2) The choice of a variety that yields 
best in the field and in the Ginnery. 
The amount produced per acre must 
vary according to locality and rainfall, 
but the yield in the Ginnery should 
be a third or more of the seed Cotton. 


(8) The choice of a cotton yielding the 
longest, finest and highest priced fibre. 


Looking over above varieties, one 
must conclude that the most-suitable for 
use in B. H. A. are Mitafifi and Abassi, 
and these are the two that are generally 
planted in the Coast belt. 1t may soon 
be found, for Planters are making ex- 
periments this year that Sea Island will 
be a success on our alluvial soils, but 
previous experiments of this variety 
sown in the lighter soils have proved 
failures. 


After deciding on what variety to sow: 
the Planter must next secure good seed. 
So far all seed has been imported direct 
from Egypt, and it will be wise to 
continue this practice for two or three 
years to come. But as nearly every 
plant takes sooner or later some 
characteristics from the soil into which 
itis imported, we shall probably find 
that the Cotton grown on ‘the Coast 
will be differentiated from that of Egypt 
in certain ways. It bas already been 
proved that Mitafifi does not give us 
that creamy burut sugar colour which 
is its main feature in Egypt, and in course 


of time anew type of this Cotton wvill be. 


evolved in this country if a proper 
selection of seed is made. 


There are three methods by which a 
proper selection can be made. 


(1.) In the Ginneries.—This isa very 
doubtful process, especially whereas in 
this country the quality of the Cotton 
varies so much. A proper selection by 
this method presupposes the employ- 
ment of an expert at each Ginnery, 


(2.) By Planting Selected Areas.— 
This could easily be done on the alluvial 


soils of the Coast where a certain acre- ~ 


age could be set apart, carefully eculti- 
vated and the seed from it selected for 
sowing. : 


(3.) By the employment of certain 
Planters for the special purpose of Cot- 
ton exclusively for seed.—{n certain 
parts of America there are Planters who 
devote themselves exclusively to this 
purpose, and very successful the practice 
has been. 


ln any ease the selection of seed should 
be under a Government expert, prefer- 


ably aman of experience in Egypt. 


Cultivation of Cotton--So much has 
been said and written on this, that it 
is hardly necessary for me to do more 
than touch on a few points. 


Cotton has long passed its elementary 
stage here, and there are quite a number 
of experienced Planters on the Coast by 
this time who have taught not only the 
natives in their actual employ, but 
others as well. Hence the cultivation of 
Cotton on the Coast is rapidly growing. 
When one considers that practically it 
was only begun in 1904, its expansion is 
not a little marvellous. 


The chief points to consider :— 


(1.) To plant in straight rows in ridges 
or on the flat.—That depends entirely on 
the soil. It may be stated at once that 
water-logged soil is absolutely unsuitable 
for cotton. If, owing te a heavy fall, 
rain water is likely to stand on a shumba 


[Avausr, 1909 


ct 7 


Avaust, 1909.] 115 


for a little time, it is advisable to sow 
on ridges, If, however, the soil is porous, 
sowing on the flat is best. 


(2.) To keep the Cotton clean.—That is 
essential, for the plant must have light 
and airin order to make good growth. 
If grass is allowed to encumber it, it will 
grow upintoa weedy plant, the leaves 
of which will speedily turn yellow. The 
yield consequently will be poor. The 
number of weedings neeessary in & sea- 
son will depend entirely on the quantity 
and quality of the grass and onthe rain. 


(3.) To pick the Cotton clean.—This is 
of vital importance to the Planter if 
he wishes to secure good prices. He 
will himself realise the importance of 
exercising constant supervision while 
the picking is going on, 

(4.) To grade the Cotton.—This is 
almost as important as the last point, 
for in case of good and bad cotton being 
mixed, the Planter will only obtain the 
price current for hislower quality. No 
consideration is paid to the fact that 
there may be good cotton mixed up 
with it. 

Cost of Production.—Itis difficult to 
make even a general estimate of this. 
So much depends on the quality of the 
soil, the presence or absence of thick 
bush, and the quality of the labour. 
When land is moderately covered with 
bush, it will cost approximately £2 per 
acre to clear, burn and stump. In addi- 
tion to that, there is the cost of hoeing, 
sowing, cleaning and picking; the total 
amount of which may be estimated at 
another £2, making £4 inall. This isa 
moderate estimate for the first year’s 
work. 


The yield should be about 750 lbs. 
of seed cotton (Abassi) and about 
1,000 lbs. Afifi. After adding the cost of 
ginning, handling and freight, broker- 
age, etc., it should leave a profit to the 
Planters, 


But as long as labour is purely manual, 
no fortunes will be made, The use of 
oxen and ploughs will not only chea pen, 
but also improve cultivation, and it is 
to be sincerely hoped that in a short 
time it will be found possible to utilise 
them on every plantation, 


PICKING COTTON. 
(From the Queensland Agricultural 
Journal, Vol. XXII., Part 2, 
February, 1909.) 


_There is no difficulty in picking well- 
ripened cotton, but much judgement is 
required to pick properly and to the 
best advantage. here pickers are 
engaged to pick atso much per cwt., it 


fibres , 


is manifestly to their advantage to pick 
rapidly, and in so doing not to be very 
particular as to selecting the best, ripest, 
and cleanest bolls. Unless the clean 
cotton is kept apart from that which is 
stained, additional expense and loss of 
time are incurred by the grower and 
the ginner, in sorting it on arrival at 
the ginnery. We write from experience 
on this matter, as it was no uncommon 
thing to pick out from 10 to 20 lb. weight 
of stained cotton when delivered atthe 
gin house by the farmer, and this in 
addition to such added trifles as stones, 
gravel, horse shoes, and even old _ boots. 
It isa very simple matter to so arrange 
the picking-bag that it shall be provided 
with a separate pocket, into which the 
stained bolls may be placed, the clean 
cotton going into a larger receptacle, 
The usual custom, in the old days of 
cotton-growing in Queensland, was to 
bag the cotton after only afew hours’ 
exposure to the sun, and to cart it in at 
once to the ginnery, causing great loss 
to the buyer. Cotton should, after being 
dried, be kept in store for three or four 
weeks before being ginned, and turned 
over several times until the seed isso 
dry that it will crack between the teeth, 

The ‘‘Cyprus Journal” has the follow- 
ing notes on picking :— 

When the cotton-picking season begins, 
cotton-growers would do well to bear in 
mind the following hints :— 

Do not leave the ripe cotton too long 
on the plants, but pick as soon as it 
is ripe. 

Send all pickers, as far as possible, to 
gether to one field. In this way more 
careful supervision can be kept on the 
pickers and the cotton picked. 


Stained and dirty cotton, when picked, 
should be put apart at once from the 
clean cotton. For this purpose a pocket 
on the picking-bag is very useful. It is 
easier to separate the stained cotton at 
the time of picking than afterwards. 

Cotton, when cleaned and dried, should 
be kept in store from three to six weeks 
before being sent to the ginnery 


Cottons of different qualities should 
not be mixed. 


COTTON IN THE SEA ISLANDS. 


(rom the Agricultural News, Vol. VIII., 
No. 177, February 6, 1909.) 


The market prices for cotton from the 
Sea Islands still remain very low as 
compared with those which prevailed a 
year ago, The demand, however, is 
stated to be good, and itis possible that 
prices may improve somewhat, In their 


Fibres. 


Sea Island cotton report, dated January 
9 last, Messrs. Henry W. Frost & Co., of 
Charleston, write :— 


There was an active demand through- 
out the week, resulting in the sale of 
a total of 1,900 bales of cotton from 
Charleston, and 3,144 bales from Savanah. 
(These sales, of course, include cotton of 
coarser grade from Florida and Georgia, 
as well as the finer quality lint from 
Carolina.) The prevailing prices for 
Islands cotton are as follows :—‘ Extra 
fine” quality, 18d, per lb. ; ‘‘ fully fine” 
12id. to 123d., “fine” 11d., tinged cotton, 
O#d.; and stains, 74d. to 8d. per lb. The 
buying was general for England, France, 
and the Northern mills. As the entire 
stock of odd bags has been sold, we are 
now dependent on future receipts for gra- 
ded cotton. No sales of ‘ planters crops’ 
cotton have been made, since factors 
are unwilling to accept current prices. 


The total amount of American Sea 
Island cotton ginned up to January 1 of 
the present year has been 86,016 bales, as 
compared with73,425 bales ginned to same 
date last year. The present year’s crop 
(American) is estimated at 100,000 bales. 


On January 16, Messrs. Frost & Co., 
write :— 


There has again been an active demand 
throughout the week for all the offer- 
ings of odd bags of all grades, and also 
for all the crop lots of ‘fully fine” 
quality, which could be purchased up to 
1éd., leaving the market swept of all 
offerings excepting crop lots held at 133d. 
and upwards. In view of reduced stock, 
factors are now disposed to hold these 
with more confidence, as the receipts 
from now on are expected to be small. 


ORIGIN AND ESTABLISHMENT OF 
THE BARBADOS CO-OPERATIVE 
COTTON FACTORY. 


By Hon. F. J, CLARKE, C.M.G-, M.A, 


President of the Barbados Agricultural 
Society. 
(From the West Indian Bulletin, Vol. 
IX., No. 8, 1908.) 


With a view to encouraging the culti- 
vation of cotton and onions in this 
island, the Imperial Commissioner sug- 
gested that the Barbados Agricultural 
Society showd appoint a Committee to 
co-operate with the Imperial Department 
of Agriculture with that object. 


This Committee was appointed on 
Febuary 6, 1903. It consisted of seven 
members, Sir Daniel Morris being one, 
and I had the honour of being the Chair- 
man. Subsequently four others were 
added to the Committee, : 


116 


of a giunery. There were then a few 
trial plots of cotton which had been 
planted at the suggestion of the Imperial 


Commissioner. The Committee was lent 
one of three gins and one of three baling 
presses sent out to the Imperial Com- 
missioner by the British Cotton-Growing 
Association. 


On the application of the Committee, 
the Government lent them a wooden 
building which had been erected as a 
small-pox hospital, which was no longer 
required for that purpose, and a site on 
the pierhead for the erection of the gin- 
nery. The British Cotton-Growing As- 
sociation lent them two gins. 


The Legislature voted and placed at 
the disposal of the Committee £250 for 
erection purposes. 


A second-hand engine and boiler and 
the necessary fittings were bought, and 
the ginnery ou its completion was for- 
mally opened by Lady Morris on July 31, 
1903. The result of the first year’s work- 
ing was satisfactory, and as it was 
found that the next year’s cotton crop 
would be about 800 acres, the Committee 
decided to enlarge the ginnery. : 

The British Cotton-Growing Associ- 
ation lent them three more gins and a 
cotton seed disintegrator, the Legisla- 
ture voted.a further sum of £120, and 
the British Cotton-Growing Association | 
gave £100 to defray the cost of erection. 


The enlarged ginnery was equipped 
with six gins, a baling press, and a seed 
disintegrator. It was opened on Janu- 
ary 25, 1904. 


During the first two years of their 
work, the Committee were not only 
helped by the Government in the ~ 
erecting and enlargement of the ginnery, 
but money was lent them by the Gov- 
ernment to purchase seed-cotton from 
sinall growers, aud to pay their work- 
ing expenses. The Imperial Commis- 
sioner of Agriculture also lent money 
for this purpose. 


The growers of cotton were now per- 
fectly satisfied with the results obtained 
so far, and the area in cotton for the 
season 1904-5 appeared likely to be very 
much larger than that of the previous - 

ear, The Committee therefore decided © 
that the time had arrived when the cot- 
ton industry should be carried on with- 
out any government or other assistance, 
they therefore called a meeting of cot- 
ton growers and proposed to them that 
they should form a co-operative com- 
pany to take over and work the ginnery, 
This was done, and thus there came 
into existence the company known as 


- Aveust, 1909] 
the 


Barbados Co-operative Cotton 
Factory, Ltd., which was registered 
under the Companies’ Act on August 16, 
1905, with a Capital of £800 divided 
into 1,600 shares of 10s. each. 


- On the formation of the Company, the 

Government agreed to accept £600 first 
debenture bonds at 5 per cent, redeem- 
able in 21 years, for the £683 which they 
had from time to time lent to the Com- 
mittee, and the British Cotton-Grow- 
ing Association agreed to accept £150 
for the six gins and the distintegrator 
which they had lent. 

The Company worked the ginnery 
taken over from the Committee for a 
year, but the Directors found that it 
would be wholly inadequate to deal with 
the cotton that would be sent to them 
the following season, and with the 
increased amount that was certain to 
be grown in the future.. The Directors 
therefore proposed to the shareholders 
that the capital of the Company should 
be increased so as to erecta very much 
larger ginnery. This was agreed to on 
March 20, 1905, and it was decided to 
issue 16,000 shares at 10s. each. On this 
number, however; only 10,524 were issued. 


The Directors bought the site where 
the factory stands, ordered the neces- 
sary machinery, and commenced work on 
the new buildings on May 4, 1906. The 
factory was opened on January 22, 1907. 

The working of the factory has been 
highly satisfactory both to the cotton 
growers who have: had their cotton gin- 
ned there, and to the shareholders who 
have received good dividends. 


The factory is equipped with a double 
expansion engine, a Stirling water tube 
boiler, twenty-four gins, a hydraulic 
baling press, and a seed disintegrator. 


It is hoped that in the near future oil- 
extracting machinery wili be. added. 


From small beginnings and through 
many struggles, there has come into 
existence the largest Sea Island cotton 
ginnery in the world. © 

The following table showing the 
growth ofthe cotton industry in this 
island is of interest as illustrating the 
increased demandfor ginning facilities 
of which I have spoken in giving the 
history of the cotton factory :— 

TABLE SHOWING THE AREA PLANTED in Cor- 
TON, THE YIELD, AND THE EstiMaTED VALUE 

oF THE CoTTON EXPORTED FROM BARBADOS 


FROM 1902-7, 

Value 

Value of Seed 
Year, Area Lint Seed of at £5 Total 
planted, Pounds, Pounds. lint. per ton. vane 

£ S y 

1902-3... 16 5,550 13,450 ., = 318 
1903-4 .., 800 192,061 472,510 12,388 1,055 13,443 
1904-5 .. 1,647 844,232 846.882 20,869 1,890 22,759 
1905-6 ., 2,000 479,418 1,179,468 30,363 2,633 82,996 
1906-7 .. 5,000 853,408 2,042,840 72,326 4,560 76,876 


-higher price to others. 


117 Fibres. 


The factory has turned out the follow- 
ing amounts of lint :— 


Season. Pounds. 

1902-3 4,826 ) When under the 
1903-4 104,926 } direction of the 
1904-5 215,500 Cotton Committee. 
1905-6 328,341 1 When owned by the 
1906-7 588,507 Company. 


For the first three months of the 
season 1907, 66,667 lbs. have been turned 
out. The factory purchases seed-cotton 
chiefly from smali growers at a price 
which is generally about one-fourth of 


. the price of lint on the day of purchase. 


Cotton is ginned, baled, and shipped 
for growers, and the money received 
from Hugland and paid to them at an 
inclusive price of 8t¢. per lb, of lint. 

The seed is either taken over from the 
growers at £5 per ton or sent to Messrs 
H. E. Thorne & Son’s oil-extracting 
works at their option. In the latter case 
the growers are paid a price per ton of 
seed regulated by the price of oil accord- 
ing to a scale agreed upon between 
Messrs. Thorne & Son and the Directors 
of the factory. This, however, does not 
fall below £5 per ton, and they have 
returned to them 1,700 lbs, of cotton- 
cake-meal for each ton of seed. 


The factory also sells selected and 
hand-picked cotton seed at 38d. per 1b, to 
growers in this island and at a slightly 
The seed from 
the finest varieties is reserved for this 
purpose. 


Advances are made to growers on the 
cotton sent by them to be ginned, to the 
extent of half the value of the lint at 
a lowrate of interest, and to the extent 
of three-fourths of the price of lint at a 
slightly higher rate. 


Paris green is ordered for growers who 
wish to get it in large quantities, and a 
stock of itis kept for those who buy in 
small quantities, 

The Directors endeavour todo every- 


thing in their power to help cotton 
growers. 


A VALUABLE FIBRE PLANT: 
(ASCLEPIAS SEMILUNATA.) 


By CuHas. A. WHITE, F-R.H.S., &c., 


Uganda Protectorate ; late Forest Officer, 
Coolgardie, W. A. 


(From Tropical Life, Vol. V., No. 4, 
April, 1909.) 

When the Coolgardie goldfields were 
first known, I was an employe in the 
Melbourne Botanic Gardens, and having 
been seriously attacked by the gold 
fever was, with thousands of others who 


Fibres. 118 


have been more or less successful, soon 
upon the field. That was at the end of 
1893. Some two years after, while 
camped near Bulla-Bulling at an old 
deserted camp, I was astonished to find 
some oats in full ear; but what struck 
me principally was a plant producing 
white clusters of flowers, and large blad- 
der-like capsules containing a fluffy, 
silky fibre like the Scotch thistle, and 

roducing a white milky substance simi- 

ar to rubber. This plant must have 

been brought by seed in imported for- 
age. 

When the South African War broke 
out, I got the war fever, and prozeed- 
ing to Africa, remained there, having 
travelled from the Cape to the Zambesi, 
Portuguese Africa, and then to the Hqu- 
ator and Congo. In all these countries 
this particular plant was seen_in iso- 
lated parts, but not cultivated. Nobody 
knew of its value, only that the silky 
cotton could be used like kapok for 
stuffing furniture, and would not pay 
to export. This is merely mentioned to 
show that it can adapt itself to various 
climates, although indigenous to the 
Conguv, Uganda, and Abyssinia. While 
at Uganda, planting rubber at the head 
of the Nile on the Victoria Nyansa, I 
wanted some rope for aline, and request- 
ed a native to get some, thinking he 
would get the bast of a banana. Much 
to my surprise the boy started pulling 
this particular plant, and drawing the 
fibre, then twisting it into rope of re- 
markable strength. I then forwarded 
samples of rope, fibre and botanical 
specimen to the Imperial Institute, 
London, with the result that the plant 
was identified as Asclepias semilunata, 
and the fibre, if properly prepared, was 
valued, on_the London market, at £35 
per ton. The examination of samples 
sent from Uganda has shown that it is 
very strong and of excellent quality, 
and would doubtless be used for cordage 


a 


-s 


tAvausr, 1900, 


manufacture, but it has not yet been ex- 
ported in sufficient quantities for actual © 


trials on a manufacturing scale. It is 
possible that the fibre might also be 
utilised for the manufacture of explo- 
sives, but this question is at present 
under investigation. I sent a sample of 
the fibre and a quantity of seed to the 
Hon. John Perry, M.P., to test if it can 
be successfully grown in New South 
Wales. I feel confident that it can be 
profitaly grown, as its geographical dis- 
tribution is so well known to me; I have 
seen it at an elevation of 7,000 ft. above 
sea-level at Johannesburg ; also at Rhode- 
sia, and in Australia; but have not seen 
it near the coast, though it may succeed 
near the sea. The cultivation of A. 
semilunata is simple: sow as you would 
wheat or oats, after the land has been 
harrowed ; seed thickly, so as to produce 


stems 5 ft. to 6 ft, long. It will grow on 


stony land, on the flat or hill-sides; it 
requires no irrigation, and will with- 
stand drought with impunity. With 
cheap freight from Sydney to London, 
let alone local market, this fibre may 
prove to be a desirable subsidiary indus- 
try for New South Wales. The writer, 
who is an Australian, thinks that the 
seed must at some time have been intro- 
duced into Australia by the late Baron 
von Mueller, otherwise it is a mystery 
how he saw itat Coolgardie. The writer 
trusts that through the columns of the 
Agricultural Gazette more will be heard 
from tests in New South Wales. 


The sample of fibre forwarded to the 
Hon. the Minister for Agriculture was 
submitted to Messrs. Forsyth and Co., 
rope manufacturers, Sydney, who re- 
ported as follows: ‘The fibre is equal to 
manila, and is valued at £85 per ton. 
The length and colour are good. They 
would give £35 per ton for it, but the 
fibre must not be Jess than 4 ft. long. 
The quantity submitted was too small 
to make a test.” 


DRUGS AND MEDICINAL PLANTS. 


TOBACCO CULTIVATION IN CUBA. 
(From the Agricultural News, Vol. VIIL., 
No. 188, May 1, 1909.) 

The methods of raising tobacco, and 
the prices paid for labour on tobacco 
estates in Cuba, have been investigated 

"py the United States Consul at_ Havana, 
and are reported upon in detail in 
the Consular and Trade Reports for 
February last, issued from Washington. 


The chief tobacco-growing districts of 
Cuba are in the provinces of Havana and 


Pinar del Rio, and it is here that the 
best quality leaf is grown, Of late years 
the cost of production has largely in- 
creased, owing to the greater demand 
for labour in connexion with other 
industries. 


The Consul takes asthe basis of his 
estimate an area equal to an English 
acre, and gives the details of expen- 
diture necessary to produce the tobacco 
from the young plant to the leaf in bale, 
both when sun-grown, and when raised 
under shade provided by cheese cloth, 


4 


 Avausr, 1909.] 


By far the greater part of the Cuban 
tobacco is raised in the open without 
shade of any kind. Generally speaking, 
the shade-grown tobacco is for wrappers 
of cigars, and that raised in the open 
(the less expensive process) serves for 
filler purposes, 


The following statement of expense is 
given for producing an acre of tubacco 
in the open :— 


Sun-grown (open) Tobacco. 


Ploughi’ g, 20 days’ wages at $1°20 $24°00 
I Planting, 10 ” 4 ote 39 12:00 
Supplying, 3 ,, ae 3°60 
Hoeing (3 times) 21 days’ ,, , 25°20 


: att 
Other cultivation expenses (estimated), such as 
topping, pulling off suckers, etc. 15:00 
Gathering crop, 15 days’ wages at $1°20 18:00 
Labour in curing house (perhaps 2 days’ wages) 3°00 


Packing labour (unskilled) 8 bales at $6°00 48°'U0 
Total, Spanish currency $148°80 
Total, American currency ..- $129°40 


In order to reduce the Spanish figures 
to their equivalent in American currency, 
it is necessary to make a deduction of 
about 13 per cent, It will be seen, there- 
fore, that the average price given for 
labour on the Cuban tobacco plantations 
amounts to about $1'05 per day. This 
labour must be regarded as more or less 
skilled. The sum of $24:°00 (Spanish) for 
ploughing an acre of land may seem an 
expensive item, but it should be pointed 
out that under this heading are really 
included all the operations of cultivation, 
and it may really involve several plough- 
ings of the land, which is thoroughly 
prepared before planting. 

The expenses of growing the crop 

- under shade are far greater, and are 
--placed at an average of $3828°20 per acre. 
When shade is provided, a somewhat 
higher yield is usually obtained—about 
10 bales per acre, and the value of the 
product is, of course, considerably 
greater. The figures which have been 
quoted do not represent the total cost 
of production. In addition to the items 
enumerated, the cost of supervision, 
depreciation of plaat and implements, 
etc., must be takeninto account. It is 
mentioned that the total time occupied 
in ths production of tobacco from seed 
to bale is aboutsix months. The average 


119 


Drugs and Medicianl Plants. 


price realized per bale 150 lb.) of Cuban 
tobaceo is not far from 360, and the best 
qualities command prices of from $70 
to uearly $100 per bale. On the whole, 
therefore, the industry would appear to 
be highly profitable. 


DEVELOPMENT OF THE TOBACCO 
- INDUSTRY. 


(Krom the Journal of Agriculture, 
Victoria, Vol. VIil., Part 5, May, 1909.) 

The following figures in relation to 
the tobaeco industry show the progress 
made since Mr. Temple A. J. Smith was 
appointed Tobacco Expert in 1901 :— 


Searonl: | NHRDE Of Acroage., Breas of tobaste 
1901-02 ... 17 108 345 
1902-03 ... 24 171 781 
1903-04 ... 25 129 848 
1904-05 ... 20 106 1,112 
1905-06 ... 31 169 1,405 
1906-07 ... 30 138 603 
1907-08 ... 49 845 1,767 


It will be noted that the number of 
growers, and also the area under culti- 
vation, has been trebled, and that the 
yield has increased in still greater pro- 


portion, The low yield of 1906-7 was due 
to the exceptionally bad season. For 
the present season, 1908-9, the area 


prepared for the crop considerably 
exceeds any of those quoted. 


One of the most pleasing features of 

the development of the industry is the 
fact that Victoria can and does produce 
a good quality cigar leaf, although it 
was predicted by several manufacturers 
that it would be impossible to grow 
cigar leaf under prevailing climatic con- 
ditions. Another proof that Victorian 
leaf is improving in quality is shown by 
the increased prices obtainable. The 
pipe tobaccos now sell at 7d. to 9d. 
per li., while for cigar leaf 1s. to Is. 6d. 
has been obtaired, and, in one instance, 
2s, per lb. 
_.The foregoing figures will give some 
idea of the crop to producers. Crops of 
1,000 lbs, to 1,500 lbs. of cured leat per 
acre are not uncommon, the value at 
present prices being from £30 to £40 for 
pipe tobaccos, and as high as £100 per 
acre for cigar leaf. 


120 


EDIBLE PRODUCTS. 


THE TREE TOMATO. 


By H. F. MACMILLAN. 


Cyphomandra betacea (N. O. Solana- 
ces): “Tree Tomato”; ‘‘Gas-takkali,” 
Sinh.—An evergreen semi-woody shrub, 
native of Peru, and introduced to Ceylon 
through Hakgala Gardens in 1882. It 
has become thoroughly established in 
many hill gardevs, and is commonly 
grown about Nuwara Eliya for market. 
The egg-shaped and smooth-skinned 
fruit, produced in great abundance. and 
hanging in clusters at the ends of the 
branches, is in season almost throughout 
the year, but chiefly from March to 
May. At first greenish purple, it changes 
in ripening to reddish yellow. Some 
varieties are of a deep purple colour, 
The sub-acid succulent fruits are re- 
freshing and agreeable when eaten raw, 
but their chief use is for stewing; they 
may also be made into jam or a preserve. 
The tree isaquick grower, and com- 
mences tc bear fruit when two or three 
years old, remaining productive for 
several years. Propagated from seed. 


THE TRANSPLANTING OF RICK IN 
CHHATTISGARH. 


By D. CLOUSTON, M.A., B.S¢c.; 
Director of Agricuiture, Central 
Provinces. 


(From the Agricultural Journal of India, 
Vol, Ill., Part 4, October, 1908.) 


In the year 1906 there were 4,259,826 
acres of rice in the Central Provinces 
and 28,027 acres in Berar, or a total area 
of 4,287,853 acres for these Provinces. 
Of this area 754,342 acres were trans- 
planted and 3,533,511 acres broadcasted. 
Of the transplanted area 365,047 acres 
were irrigated, and 389,295 acres unirri- 
gated. The chief rice-growing districts 
are Chanda, Bhandara and Balaghat in 
the Nagpur Division, and Raipur, Bilas- 
pur and Drug in Chhattisgarh. In the 
Nagpur Division 684 per cent. of the 
total area under rice is transplanted ; in 
Chhattisgarh with 2,880,074 acres, 37,873 
acres or only 1°3 per cent. are trans- 
planted, and even this small area is con- 
fined to tracts bordering on_ the dis- 
tricts where transplanting is already in 


vogue. It is difficult to account satis 
factorily for this important difference 
in agricultural practice between these 
two tracts, which are situated at no very 
great distance from each other, and hbe- 
tween which there is a good deal of 
inter-communication. Whilst the Wain- 
ganga valley districts consist of soil of 
erystalline formation, Chhattisgarh soil 
is mostly of laterite origin, but both 
secm equally suitable for transplanted 
rice. Want of knowledge or difference 
in the habits of the population can hard- 
ly account for the distinction. The 
most likely reason is that Chhattisgarh 
has hitherto had few facilities for irriga- 
tion, which is of more importance to 
transplanted than to broadeasted rice; 
but this difference is rapidly disappear- 
ing with the construction of irrigation 
works in Chhattisgarh. Chhattisgarh is 
the most backward agricultural tract in 
these provinces, and the Chhattisgarh 
is recognised as one of the laziest and 
least enterprising of cultivators. Alarge 
proportion of them are charmers by 
caste. As-a race they are strong and 
hardy, make good farm servants if 
properly managed, but are quarrel- 
some and are much given to agrarian 
disputes. / 


The soils of this division are mostly of 
laterite origin. They may be divided 
into four distinct classes. The partially 
decomposed laterite rock of the higher 
lands, which gives a reddish gravelly soil, 
locally known as bhata, is the typical 
soil of large high-lying ridges covered 


with scrub and stunted grass, some of - 


which bear at intervals a poor crop of the 
lesser millets (Paspalum scrobiculatum 
and Panicum psillopodiwm). The bhata 
grades gradually into matasi, a fine- 
grained yellow loam which is considered 
the ideal soil for paddy in this tract. 
Matasi like bhata is unsuitable for 
double-cropping on account of its ten- 


deney to harden after the rains into a ~ 


brick-like mass, which it is almost im- 
possible to reduce to a fine state of 
tilth by means of the cultural imple- 
ments in use in this tract. Moreover, it 
does not retain moisture well. Dorsa, 
or dorasa (meaning two kinds), is a mix- 
ture of matasi and kanhar; it is dark 
grey in colour, grows rice and rabi crops 
fairly well, and is therefore suitable for 
double-cropping. Kanhar is a dark 
loamy soil found at still lower levels; it 
contains less sand, and if pure, no nodules 
of limestone; it is very retentive of 
moisture. Kanhar i. the best wheat- 
producing soil of the tract, but is not 


Photo by H. F, Macmillan, 
THE TREE TOMATO. 


(Cyphomandra betacea,) 


y. Pe a ee az 


AvuGust, 1909. | 121 


so good for rice, being too heavy. Dr. 
Leather’s analysis ot these soils is given 
below :— 

Dorsa Kanhar 


Matasi. soil. soil. 

Insoluble silicatesandsand 84:41 74°68 69°73 
Ferric oxide ... eae 8:71 7°64 
Alumina 30 56 4°78 11°43 13°83 
Lime a cee OARS} 0-85 1°05 
Magnesia 50 »» 0°30 O81 075 
Potash Rn . 048 0-86 «60°79 
Soda ars ree Ordo 0:20 0°25 
Phosphoric acid po. OXY 0-12 0:02 
Sulphuric acid +. very little, 
Carbonic acid... wae OD 0:09 0°08 
Organic matter and 

combined water i. 2°40 4:35 5°86 

100:00 100-00 10:00 

Total Nitrogen... SBE 053 ‘041 +036 


Available phosphoric acid — :001 001 = 001 
Do do, potash -010 OTS 012 
Equivalent to calcium car- 
bonate wa 30 "20 = 10 


The Haipur Experimental Farm is 
fairly representative of this grading of 
soils, ranging from bhala on the higher 
land outside the farm limits to the 
gently sloping fields of matasi, dovsa 
and kanhar of the farm itself. The 
matast area is reserved solely for rice; 
the dorsa for rice tollowed by pulses, or 
wheat as the sole crop of the year, and 
the kanhar for wheat and sugarcane. 
The farm was established mainly with 
the view of solving problems relating to 
the cultivation of rice, the staple crop 
of the tract. One of the problems was 
to find the best method of sowing and 
after-cultivation. The methods prac- 
tised in these provinces are transplant- 
ing, biasi, broadcasting and lehi. As 
practised in the Raipur Farm trans- 
Penting is carried out as follows :— 

igh lying plots, where water does not 
collect, are selected as seed-beds, the 
whole rice area being divided up into 
one-tenth acre plots which are embanked 
with bunds 1} feet high. The bunds 
were constructed five years ago, and 
have so far required very little repairs. 
The area of the plots selected for seed- 
beds is one-tenth that of the area 
to be transplanted. The seed-beds are 
ploughed by the country plough, soon 
after the removal of the previous year’s 
crop, when the soil is moist after the 
winter showers. The plots are then 
twice harrowed in April or May, 
manured with cattle dung at the rate of 
about 5 tons to the acre in June, and 
again harrowed after the first shower of 
the rains. Seed is broadcasted at the 
rate of 200 lbs. per acre. The seed may 
be sown before the outbreak of the rains 
if the land is sufficiently free from weeds, 
The seedlings are aay in from thiee 

16 


Hdible Products. 


to four weeks, the time depending 
largely on the quantity and quality of 
the manure used. The plots to which 
the seedlings are to be transplanted are 
ploughed once in the dry weather. In 
the beginning of the rains when the soil 
is sufficiently saturated with moisture, 
the plots are again ploughed and cross- 
ploughed by the country plough, and 
finally puddled by means of the dotari, 
4.€., a 6-feet beam fitted with harrow 
teeth. If the field is uneven, mud is 
dragged down from the higher to the 
lower ground by means of the same im- 
plement turned upside down, and then 
called a kopar or mai. 


Buffaloes are mostly used for rice cul- 
tivation, because they are stronger than 
bullocks and take kindly to wet work of 
this kind. In Chhattisgarh no nose 
strings are used for working cattle, but 
by a dexterous use of the goad, and 
cries of ar-r-r-r, hra-ba-ha-ha, etec., which 
to the uninitiated are meaningless 
enough, the ploughman manipulates his 
animals with considerable skill within 
the small area circumscribed by the 
bunds of the rice plots. When the soil of 
the plot hasall been reduced to a creamy 
consistency (of wet mud), the plot is con- 
sidered ready for transplanting. The 
seedlings, which are, when ready for 
transplantation, about one foot high, 
are uprooted, the worker resting on one 
knee in the muddy water while doing 
so. Each handful is tied into a small 
bundle and placed on a khirri ov sledge, 
which is dragged to the plots in which 
the seedlings are to be transplanted. 
The khirrz is so shaped so as to run easily 
over the rice bunds. 


The bundles are scattered equally over 
the plot to be transplanted soas to be 
within easy reach of the labourers as 
they move backwards. The root and 
lower part of the stem of each seedling 
is pushed into the soft mud to a depth 
of one or two inches and at distances of 
six or nine inches apart. The plants 
take root in a week, at the end of which 
time blanks are filled up. By planting 
only one seedling to the hole the seed 
rate is about 20 lbs. per acre. At this 
rate the seed-bed will suffice to trans- 
plant ten times its own area. In some 
districts where transplanting is widely 
practised, the seedlings are planted out 
in bunches containing from two to five 
plants, and the seed rate per acre is 80 
lbs. One seedling per hole is the 
standard adopted both on the Experi- 
mental and Demonstration Farms. One 
woman can transplant one-tenth aere in 
one day of ten hours when seedlings are 
brought to her. In most parts of Bhan- 
dara and Balaghat the method of trans- 


Kdible Products. 122 


planting is different, the bunches of 
seedlings being simply thrown into 
the mud while the worker moves back- 
ward. The time spent in pushing the 
seedlings into the mud is thus saved, 
and the work is done much faster. 
This method, however. is open to 
objection. 
in the mud, it sometimes 
that they are washed 
heavy rain before they have time to 
take root. A long break in the rains just 
after transplanting may prove equally 
injurious, many of the young plants 
being killed by the drought before they 
have time to take firm root. The method 
now being introduced into the Chhat- 
tisgarh is open to neither of these ob- 
jections and is practised by the very best 
rice-growers in the best rice districts. 
It requires more time, but reduces toa 
minimum the risk of injury to the young 
seedlings from too much or too little 
water. Asa protection from the rains 
many of the workers wear a large topi 
made of leaves. 


happens 


Of transplanting in Balaghat where 
rice cultivation is more skillfully carried 
out than anywhere else in the Central 
Provinces, Mr. OC. E, Low, I.C.S., De- 
puty Commissioner, writes: —‘‘ Trans- 
planting is the system usually pursued ; 
itis said to give a larger outturn and 
grain of superior quality of flavour, and 
to be indispensable for the best kinds of 
rice. Broadcasting is usually practised 
in black soil where transplanting is 
more difficult than in light soil, and 
where early ripening varieties are sown 
to enable a second crop to be reaped. 
It is also adopted when a season of short 
rainfall is feared, or when the skill or 
resources of the tenants are not equal to 
‘transplantation ; this is often the case 
with aboriginal cultivators in jungly 
tracts. For transplanting, the nursery 
is sown by the usual method adopted for 
all Kharif crops. Before sowing it is 
cultivated twice with a nagar or narrow- 
bladed plough. A searifier or bakhar is 
not used in light soil till a plough has 
twice been over the ground, so that the 
scarifier is not used for rice nurseries 
unless the land has been already plough- 
ed up by the plough in the cold or hot 
weather. The manure consists of cow- 
dung, and before the application of this, 
straw, and, near the jungle, twigs and 
branches often spread over the nursery 
and burned. (Saj Terminalia tomentosa 
is the favourite tree for this.) When 
the rain falls, this is ploughed into the 
ground, and the datari or harrow worked 
over the land to break up the clods. 
Seven or eight cartloads per half acre of 
nursery is considered a full manuring. 
Malgusars with a large home-farm have 


The seedlings not being fixed 
away by a- 


“us 


to start their manuring a month or so 
before the rains break. Manure is not 
always, or even usually, given to any 
part of the field besides the nursery. — 
For transplanting the seed rate is about 
85 lbs.-per acre. A transplanted field can 
be easily told even after reaping, as the 
plants tiller far more than if sown broad- 
cast, and the ground is more free from 
weeds. The nursery, after ploughing, 
manuring and clod-crushing is com- 
pleted, is cleaned of weeds by women with 
sickles. The seedlings in 20 or 25 days 
grow to a foot in height, when they are 
fit for transplanting. Meantime the re- 
maining area is ploughed again and left 
for a week. The (datari) harrow is used 
to break up clods, for which purpose it is 
turned upside down. The plough and 
the harrow are used twice each, by which 


time the surface consists of a smooth 


and creamy mud. Heavy rain just be- 
fore transplantation. spoils the consis- 
tency of the mud, and it has to be 
ploughed up again. The seedlings are 
uprooted from the nursery and stuck 
into the mud in bunches of about three 
or five; they lie flat fora day or two 
and then stand upright, except where 
there is very high rainfall, when they 
lie and rot: garakha gaye (the mud has 
eaten it) says the unfortunate cultivator. 
The crop later in the season looks miser- 
abiy stunted and is scarcely in ears; 
while surrounding fields contain a full | 
erop. The seedlings are carried in head- 
loads in the case of small tenants, but on 
a khirri or sledge drawn by buffaloes, 
where cultivation is more extensive. If 
things go well, the transplanting for the 
districts should be over in a month. 
The daily wages for transplantation are 
said to have risen from one anna before 
the 1896 famine to 14 annain 1905. The 
above methods, which in the best villa- 
ges are conjoined with very careful 
seed selection, are not susceptible of 
much improvement. It is, however, 
likely that the seed rate could be con- 
siderably lowered, if the area outside 
the nursery were well manured and the 
seedlings were transplanted singly, in- 
stead of three to fiveatatime. The seed 
rate on the Government farms where 
this is done is less than half that des- 
cribed above.” 


Biasi is the method widely practised 
in Chhattisgarh. The land is ploughed 
once before sowing. The seed is broad- 


‘casted at the rate of about 1001bs, per 


acre. Whenthe plants are about one 
foot high the land is ploughed, which 
uproots many of the plants and covers 
some with mud. 


This rough-and-ready process thins out 
the plants and strengthens the root- 


[AvaUsT, 1909 


growth of those that are left. Five or 
six days later the plot is levelled by 
means of the kopar, which flattens all 
the surviving plants in the mud. In 
five or six days more weeding operations 
are commenced ; two or three weedings 
at intervals of abouta fortnight are 
generally necessary. : 

Broadeasting is the easiest and cheap- 
est of all the methods in vogue. It is 
similar to biasi, but the seed is allowed 
to grow as it is sown; there is no 
thinning out of the plants. In its 
erudest form as practised in some of the 
Native States in Chhattisgarh, the land 
is ploughed at the beginning of the rains, 
the seed sown broadcast and covered _ by 
means of the kopar, and the crop is left 
untouched till it is ready for barvesting. 
As a broadcasted fleld ripens earlier 
than a transplanted one, broadeasting is 
generally practised in high-lying fields 
which are less retentive of moisture, and 
where, for that reason, the earlier 
maturing rices only can be grown. This 


aust, 1900.) 128 


Edible Products. 


method is an alternative to transplant- 
ing in Bhandara and Balaghat. 


By the lehi or koorah method the seed 
is steeped before sowiug so as to hasten 
germination; otherwise, the method is 
the same as broadcasting. This method 
is practised in the Nagpur Division and 
parts of Chhattisgarh, aud to the 
greatest extent in years in which the 
sowing has been delayed by heavy and 
continuous rain. In Jubbulpore and 
Damoh under the name of WVachhawa, it 
is the method commonly followed in the 
best rice soils. On the Raipur Farm 
these four methods are beiny tested in 
series A and B of the experimental pro- 
gramme, A being irrigated and B unirri- 
gated, Bothseries of plots are uniformly 
manured with cattledung at the rate of 
20 lbs, of nitrogen per acre; the soil of 
the two series is matast. Tite plots ‘are 
each one-tenth of an acrein area. The 
paddy grown is Parewa, a medium 
variety. The results obtained are given 
in the statements following :— 


UNIRRIGATED :—OUITURN PER ACRE 1N LBS, 
Plot. 1904-05. 1905-06. 1906-07. 
Grain. | Straw. | Value. | Grain. | Straw. | Value. | Grain, | Straw. | Value 
eee Re | «| ae Rs. 
1s Transplanted... 1,940 1,440 49 1,630 1,050 48 1,840 1,340 4] 
II. Biasi ..| 1,450 1,000 36 430 340 13 1,600 1,240 39 
Ill. Broadcasted ... 750 640 19 740 580 22 1,240 690 29 
IV. Lehi Pee 30 1,010 24 470 410 14 790 570 19 
Ee 
UNIRRIGATED :—OUTTURN @ 1s leersysics 
Per ACRE IN LBS, = 4 85 63 
Sei ee |. 88¢ 
Plot. 1907-08. 23 isi 9 oS 
a oe) 235 
he 2§ BE 
. get te > 1 Q 
Grain. | Straw. | Value a? S53 43 
Rs. Rs, A Rs. A, Risva eA 
I, Transplanted : 1,080 | 1,130 46 46 0 S14 S7as 1 
Il, Biasi- He pa0 710 78) 30 29. 8 NOR 2 19). 6 
III, Broadcastd __... Aa 750 890 32 O58 6 14 18 10 
LV. Lehi Pe ks 270 280 ll P= aod) Oi 7 6 69 
i] 
eee ee ee 
IRRIGATED :—OUTTURN PER ACRE IN LBS. 
Plot. 1904-05, | 1905-6 1906-7 
Grain, | Straw. | Value, | Grain, | Straw. | Value. | Grain. | Straw. | Value, 
Or a Rs. Rs Rs, 
I. Transplanted...) 2,000 | 1,560 47 1,940 | 1,220 5. 1,940 | 1,430 47 
Il. Biasi | 1,670 | 1,070 40 1,610 | 1,160 49 1,240 | 1,150 30 
Ill. Broadcasted .. 960 700 24 1,190 970 36 1,220 1,410 31 
1V. Lehi oe| * EO eal T.27 0 BA» 1,120 860 34. 730 690 17 


[AuGuUST, 1909. | 


Edible Products. 124 
| 
TRRIGATED :—OvuTTURN 2. eo oa 
Sr > Ss 2 
PER ACRE IN LBS, ae? Bod 3 
Pa | Bae eee 
ao 1907-08. oF OFg 1 ote 
a ° gS. es S 
A = pee ta Ese g 
Grain. | Straw. | Value. ee 38° oe: 
Rs. Rs. A. Rs. A, Rs. A. 
I. Transplanted 1,550 1,480 66 57: an 10 12 43 12 
II, Biasi 1,140 1,120 48 Alle a2: 120 29 12 
III. Broadcasted 1,120 | 1,180 48 34 12 8 12 26 0 
IV. Lehi 980 | 970 | 4l 28 8 12 5 eS) 


Transplanting without irrigation has 
increased the value of the yield by 
Rs. 17:12 per acre. Irrigation alone has 
raised the value of the yield by Rs. 10°6, 
even with biasi. When transplanting and 
irrigation are carried out together, the 
monetary value of the increase when 
compared with the Chhattisgarh method 
of biasi sowing without irrigation is 
Rs. 24'6 per acre. 

The conclusion in brief to be drawn 
from these results as far as they apply 
to this division are: (1) that trans- 
planting is a most profitable method 
even without irrigation where medium 
paddy is grown; (2) if the Chhattisgarh 
will but irrigate his biasi paddy, he can 
improve the value of his crop by over 
Rs. 106 per acre; and (3) by adopting 
transplanting with irrigation, he can 
increase his profits by Rs. 24°6 per acre. 


(To be continued.) 


THE TEA INDUSTRY. 


Some MopDERN DEVELOPMENTS. 
the Gada “Agriculturist, Vol. 
(Fro XIV. No. 2, February, 1909.) 


The advent of science in the tea 
industry is rapidly inaugurating new 
methods and new ideas, aud where, not 
so very many years ago, the planting of 
tea was carried on in old-fashioned and 
rule-of-thumb methods, we have now a 
Scientific Department devoted to the 
promulgation of principles advocated by 
the best schools of agricultural practice 
in England and America, In this connec- 
tion it is interesting to review some of 
the changes that have to be recorded in 
the application of these principles to the 
culture of the tea plant and the manu- 
facture of the product itself. 


THE SOIL. 


take the question of the growing 
eee the soil, the planter of to-day 
not only understands its physical tex- 
ture and the functions of the different 
chemical ingredients which go to make 


up its bulk, but he grasps the significance 
of manurial possibilities, and endeavours 
to compensate for deficiencies by the 
studied applicatiou of organic and inor- 
ganic matter to suit his purposes. The 
old days when hoeing either deep or 
light expressed practically all that the 
word cultivation held for the planters 
has gone, and cultivation in its truest 
and best sense is now part and parcel of 
the enterprising assistant’s conversation. 
The effect of water onthe soil, of heat, 
and the effects of draining and the 
manipulation of the soil is discussed 
with a grasp of the subject that is 
worthy of a student of the Rothamstead 
Agricultural College. Manuring is no 
longer limited to line sweepings and 
bheel soil, but on all sides we see experi- 
ments being carried out with artificial 
manures and the different means by 
which organic matter can be added to 
the soil to increase the humus, while the 
question of the introduction of ' nitro- 
genous trees and shrubs is universal. 
The conservancy of cow-dung manure by 
the advice of the Scientific Department 
and the dissemination of the recom- 
mendations of agricultural chemists like 
Hall and King is reaching a fine art, and 
the more up-to-date gardens have, 
dotted throughout their coolie lines, 
pucca manure pits, brick-lined and 
covered with corrugated iron or thatched 
roofs. In many gardens it is the custom 
to mix with the manure, collected daily 
from the lines, cut jungle which, in 
layers with the manure, forms a compost 
at the end of a season invaluable as a 
fertilising agent. 


THE APPLICATION OF MANURE. 


Not only is the question of the actual 
manures themselves receiving assiduous 
attention, but the method of application 
is constantly undergoing observation 
and experiment. It was too long the 
custom to apply manures loosely on the 
surface of the soil, but the experiments 
which have been carried out at the 
Heeleaka Experimental Station, chiefly 
by Mr. Hutchinson, have proved so con- 
clusively that manures in this way are 


wasted to a certain extent, that they are 
now buried in trenches with a view to 
inducing greater vertical depth of roots. 


Perhaps one of the most notable 
features of manuring in the Tea Districts 
has been the increase in the use of oil- 
cakes; and the discovery that homc- 
pathic doses of these give practically the 
same results that large doses do, has 
led, and will continue to lead, to their 
general application. 


But the most striking of all manurial 
innovations in the tea districts is the 
extension and use of green manuring 
both as a means of adding organic matter 
to the soiland because of the faculty 
which the family of leguminous plants 


- enjoy of drawing nitrogen from the air 


and the parting with the same to the 
soil in a form that the plant can 
assimilate. Here, indeed, it is not ~too 
much tosay that the whole face of the 
tea districts has been changed, and 
there are few gardens which have not 
their area of land planted with nitro- 
genous crops. every year, A_ writer of 
distinction declared in an article which 
he wrote’ for the Statesman some little 
time ago on Green Manuring that every 
garden should be able todo atleasta 
sixth of its acreage every year with some 
nitrogenous crop. To those who are in 
straits for labour this estimate may 
appear out of the question, but if itis 
an over-estimate it at least represents a 
degree of excellence worth striving for. 
Indeed, itis unreasonable to aver that 
sooner than neglect the planting up of at 
least a sixth of the area of.a garden with 
a nitrogenous plant, it would be better 
to sacrifice some other work which 
might at first sight appear to be more 
productive of immediate return. 


BENEFITS OF DRAINING. 


To return from manuring to draining: 
it isnow recognised by the majority of 
tea planters that whereas many stretches 
of land were considered to be so-called 
self-drained these are now realised to be 
very much in need of this operation. It 
is no longer the. desire of the modern 
planter to get rid of water as it falls 
from the heavens, but to induce that 
water, instead of passing over the face 
of the earth, to soak into the soil, taking 
with it the air and the mineral sub- 
stances with their life-giving properties. 
The improvement by drainage may be 
summed upin an improved texture of 
the soil which makes it more friable and 
more easily worked, with the result that 
when the level of the water in the rainy 
season is lowered it allows the roots to 
penetrate deeper so that they have a 
wider range of feeding ground. Not 
only is this latter of immense benefit 


Aveust, 1909.| 125 


Edible Products. 


towards the greater growing condition 
of the roots, but it prevents the effects 
of drought, as the roots become inde- 
pendent of surface conditions and get 
enough capillary water to keep them 
going. Thedamage from drought which 
results to tea gardens in many districts 
anaually is too well-known to be written 
of here, and there is nothing that 
counteracts a drought to the same 
extent as thorough and deep draining, 
Another great benefit which accrues 
from the removal of excess water from 
the neighbourhood of the roots is that 
the sun’s heat reaches the soil without 
wastage and the air and water get the 
opportunity of carrying the surface tem- 
perature downwards. As McConnell 
pvints out, water is a poor conductor of 
heat, and, therefore, the warmth of the 
sun’s rays is carried very slowly into 
the soil when itis wet, If drained, the 
ordinary action of conduction will warm 
up the particles of soil much more quick- 
ly. There may be a difference of from 
5 to 10 degrees Fahr. in temperature 
between drained and undrained soil, 
simply from the presence or absence of 
excess of water. The effect draining has 
with regard to blights is one of the 
other points which must not be lost sight 
of in tea, and flushing capabilities are 
enormously increased, first from the~- 
moist heat, and secondly from the 
absence of these blights. To continue 
the advantage of drainage, soil wash is 
to a great extent prevented, as the rain 
water is permitted to percolate down- 
wards, whereas if the soil was already 
wet, the inclination is for it to run 
over the surface, carrying with it the 
finer particles of the soil. Again, drain- 
ing is imperative before we can get the 
full benefit of manurial dressings we 
apply to the soil, as only in this way can 
those which have been applied to the 
surface be carried down to the roots. 
Asa result of the improved texture of 
the soil above mentioned, the better 
capilarity, oxidation, and action of 
manures, the tea bush flourishes as it 
never would in a cold undrained soil, be 
the natural drainage whatit may. But 
the improvement which results from 
drainage is soimmense and so extensive 
in its character that space forbids deal- 
ing with it further. 

What science has done for the actual 
soil conditions in conection with the tea 
plant has here been roughly outlined, 
and the progress which has been made 
in other directions and which are as 
drastic and of as much importance will 
be dealt with later. 

If the knowledge of what constitutes 
the principal ingredients of the soil and 
their various functions and also the 


Edible Products. 


question of the improvement of the soil 
as a growing medium are characteristic 
of the interest displayed by intelligent 
planters of to-day, the same may be said 
with regard to the botany of the tea 
bush itself. To the casual observer the 
tea bush or any other kind of bush in 
existence consists of a vegetable item of 
which the greater part, and certainly 
the more important part, appears above 
ground, is entirely and wholly visible to 
the eye, and has the faculty of produc- 
ing for the use of mankind certain edible 
products which are valued in a greater 
or less degree. It has been recognised 
by men who have spent the greater part 
of their lives growing edible products 
for their fellows, that plants of different 
descriptions have a_ tendency to give 
larger quantities of their individual pro- 
ducts after subjection to special treat- 
ment. It has been found that by manur- 
ing the soil the actual bush or shrub 
which appears above ground gives a more 
pronounced growth, or in some cases a 
crop of finer quality, andit has also been 
discovered that a certain amount of 
judicious curtailment of the grewing 
part of a bush will result in a great pro- 
duction of fruit ov flowers or leaves. 
The study of these questions has led to 
the foundation of the arts of horticul- 
ture and arboriculture and various other 
agricultural systems applied to the pro- 
duction of flowers in the one case and 
timber or leaves in another, and fruitina 
third. Now these arts have been so 
developed in course of time that the 
horticulturist has been enabled to stunt 
the growing parts of any individual bush 
in whatever direction he pleases, to 
induce it to grow that which he specially 
requires. Not only does he find that by 
judicious pruning a bush can be forced 


into channels other than those which | 


nature has laid down forit, but also that 
by skillful application of different manu- 
rial ingredients he can stimulate the bush 
in such away that either quantity or 
quality is the result, as the case may be. 
More, it has been found that different 
kinds of cultivation are applicable to 
different kinds of fruits and flowers 
and trees, and the gardener or the 
arboriculturist cultivates his  stock- 
in-trade for the different purposes 
accordingly. 

As the process of evolution applied to 
forestry and market gardening has 
widened and developed, the planter has 
worked along similar lines, and in the 
treatment of the tea bush, both below 
ground and above, he exercises that 
skill, which comes after years of experi- 
ence, in inducing the greatest growth 
that is compatible with the continued 
well-being of the tea bush. 


126 


THe Roots oF THR TEA BUSH. 


Root development is a question that is 


closely associated with that of cultiva- 
tion,and while the planter still exists 
who pins his faith to cultivation as a 
surface operation and to mere plucking 
and pruning as another, the man who is 
selected for the better charges considers 


underground growth of his bush in — 


conjunction with its functions, and 
views all operations above ground as 
dependent upon the conditions under- 
neath. It should be palpable tc the 
veriest tyro that before healthy grow- 
ing conditions can be established above 
the surface the feeding arrangements of 
the plant below the ground must be 
healthy and vigorous, but this very 
point is one that is apt to be lost sight of 
when the great cry is profits, and profits 
at any cost, The tendency to consider 
the surface part of a bush as the most 
important is very great when it is re- 
membered that allthe profits are appa- 
rently made from the surface part only. 
Old traditions die hard, but when intel- 
lect points to what is sound and commer- 
cially satisfactory in the long run, the 
needs of the present become more and 
more sacrificed to prospects of the future, 
with the result that the permanency of 
the bush receives proper attention at the 
hands of the planter. Wehave always 
had the keenest scrutiny of the frame- 
work of the bush from the represen- 
tatives of Calcutta Houses who have 
visited the Tea Districts, and while 
it is quite true that much of the 
history of what is going on beneath 
is obvious from surface conditions, that 
is no reason why the roots should not 
receive the same careful examination as. 
the branches of a plant. 

The planter of to-day works for a 
spread and depth of roots, encouraged 
by artificial means if necessary, that 
will give him better branches and a 
more vigorous flow of sap. Given roots 
ina healthy condition, clean, straight, 
healthy stems are bound to follow, and 
with a framework, massive and clean, 
once established, it is the planters’ care 
to retain it in that condition. 


PRUNING, 


We here come to the question of 
pruning, and it is no exaggeration to 
say that since the establishment of the 
Scientific Department the whole system 
of pruning the tea bush has been revolu- 
tionised. Pruning was atone time an 
operation that consisted in the cutting 
of a bush straight across from a point 
in the centre, which was decided by the 
position of the previous year’s pruning. 
This process was continued year by year 
until the bush became so high that 


a“ 
l le 


[Avevst, 1909. 


x 


a 


“Avaver, 1909.) 


. 


12 


it was unwieldy, and hard to pluck. 
That point having arrived, the usual 
decision was to cut the bush back, some- 
times as much as two feet, and then 
begin the process again. A more simple 
process could not very well be imagined, 
and since it required not very much in- 
telligeuce and no great amount of expe- 
rience, it had its advantages in its day. 
But the tea bush is grown as a commercial 
euterprise after all, and there can be 
very little doubt that the oldsystem of 
pruning could not possibly prove for long 
a success. A point was reached sooner 
or later when it was imposible tocut the 
bush back again, as no clean wood was 
left to cut back upon, and when the cut 
was made inthe centre of a mass of 
knotty wood anda temporary return to 
vigour was established the bush became, 
asit was bound todo, more and more 
impoverished, with the inevitable result 
that deterioration set in and the yield 
gradually decreased. With the bush at 
that stage of its existence—a gnarled 
and twisted mass of re-grown wood from 
collar to tip—some more than usually 
smart planter, with some glimmering of 
horticultural science, cut his bushes 
across atthe collar where no knife had 
ever entered before, and behold, a new 
bush with clean straight wood and the 
world before itagain. No sooner was 
this system of collai pruning instituted, 
than it was hailed as a panacea for all 
deteriorated tea, and hundreds and 
hundreds of acres were treated to this 
severe knifing process throughout Assam 
and other Tea Districts. The result of 
collar pruning was successful more or 
less, but its success depended to such an 
extent on climatic conditions, soil and the 
treatment of the bush after the oper- 
ation, that at last it became evident 
that the process was as often a failure 
asasuccess. At this point the Scientific 
Department stepped in, and, after a 
thorough examination of tea-planting 
methods, it practically condemned the 
whole system of pruning in vogue, not 
necessarily as a system but more in its 
method of application. It was averred 
by the Scientific Department that 
systems of pruning and plucking were 
rapidly reducing all tea bushes in yield 
year by year, and while it was seen 
that pruning was a process which had 
to be preserved in, suggestions were 
made for its modification along scientific 
lines, which it was hoped would lead to 
the same, if not better, results as regards 
yield, while at the same time it would 
ensure the permanent life and vigour 
of the plant. It was also recognised 
that whereas collar pruning practically 
rejuvenated a plant that had been badly 
treated for many years, the invigoration 
of sucha plant depended so enormously 


7 


Edible Products. 


upon the quality of the soil, the climate, 
and its subsequent treatment that collar 
pruning could by no means be recom- 
mended as a cure for deterioration. 


The Scientific Department has gone 
into the whole question very fully, and 
there is no need to labour the question 
any further in this article. It is suffi- 
cient to say that a bushis now pruned 
upon scientific laws to induce it to give 
the maximum amount of leaves without 
detracting from its eventual well-being. 


SIRDAR, 


MEMORANDUM ON THE CULTIVA- 
TION AND PREPARATION 
OF GINGER. 


(From the Imperial Institute.) 


Ginger is the underground stem (vhi- 
zome) ot the plant known botanically as 
Zingiber officinale, indigenous to the East 
Indies, but now cultivated in many tropi- 
cal countries, such as the Westand Kast 
Indies, West Africa and Queensland. 


CULTIVATION.—Two methods of culti- 
vation are adopted. That by which the 
best ginger is obtained consists in plant- 
ing in March or April (in Jamica) por- 
tions of seclected rhizomes trom the pre- 
vious year’s crop, care being taken that 
each portion of rhizome planted contains 
an ‘‘eye” (embryo stem). These por- 
tions of rhizome are placed a few inches 
below the surface of the prepared soil 
and about one foot apart, the process 
being much the same as that observed 
in planting potatoes. Itis advisable to 
thoroughly clear the land of weeds before 
the sowing of the rhizomes is done, as 
otherwise the removal of weeds becomes 
difficult later on when the ginger plants 
have developed. Unless the rainfall is 
good,it is necessary to resort to irrigation 
as the plants require a good supply of 
water. The’ginger produced in the fore- 
going way is known as “ plant ginger,” 


_ “Ratoon ginger” is obtained by leav- 
ing in the soil from year to year a por- 
tion of a “hand,” i,e., rootsanda portion 
of a rhizome contianing an “ eye.” This 
“eye” develops in the normal way, 
giving rise to a supply of rhizome in the 
succeeding season. “ Ratoon ginger” is 
smaller and contains more fibre than 
“plant ginger,” and the-product obtain- 
ed by this means is said to deteriorate 
steadily from year to year. 


The foregoing relates mainly to the 
cultivation of ginger as followed in Ja- 
mica. The plan pronto in Cochin (India) 
differs from it but little. In the latter 


Edible Products. 128 : 


country the land is ploughed two or three 
times before the rhizomes are planted, 
and these are usually placed about 9 
inches apart in parallel furrows 15 inches 
apart. The field is then covered over 
with the leaves of trees or other green 
manure to keep the soil moist, and over 
the leaves organic manure is spread to 
a depth of abouthalfan inch. At the 
end of the rainy season it is necessary 
to resort to irrigation. During the first 
three months of the dry season the field 
is weeded about three times. 


COLLECTION AND PREPARATION OF THE 
RHIZOMES.— ‘‘ Ratoon ginger” is gathered 
from March to December, but ‘‘ planted 
ginger.” is not ready for digging until 
December or January, and from then 
until March is the ginger season. The 
rhizomes are known to be ready for dig- 
ging wher the stalk withers, this taking 
place shortly after the disappearance 
of the flowers. The plant flowers in 
September in Jamaica. The rhizomes 
are twisted out of the ground with a 
fork. In performing this operation 
great care is necessary, as any injury 
inflicted on the rhizomes depreciates 
their market value. Considerable ex- 
perience is necessary in order to lift gin- 
ger rhizomes properly. 


The “ hands” (complete rhizomes and 
adherent fibrous roots) are piled in 
heaps, the fibrous roots are broken 
off, and the soil and dirtremoved im- 
mediately, as otherwise it is difficult 
to get the finised ginger white. The 
roots should not be allowed to liein heaps 
long as they are liable to ferment. The 
usual plan is, as soon as the rocts and 
excess of soil have been removed, to 
throw the ginger into water to be ready 
for “ peeling or scraping.” This is done 
by means of a special knife consisting 
merely of a narrow straight blade rivet- 
ed to a wooden handle. The operation 
of peeling is a very delicate one, the ob- 
ject being to remove the skin without 
destroying the cells immediately below 
it, since chese cells contain much of the 
oil upon which the aroma of the best 
qualities of ginger depends. As fast as 
the roots are peeled they are thrown 
into water, and washed, and the more 
carefully the washing is done the whiter 
will be the resulting product. Asa rule 
the peeled ‘‘ hands” are allowed to re- 
main in water overnight. Some planters 
in Jamaica add a small proportion of 
lime juice to the wash-water at this 
stage. After washing, the peeled rhi- 
zomes are placed ina ‘‘ barbecue,” which 
consists merely of a piece of levelled 
ground covered with cement, on which 


the ginger is placed to dry in the sun, 


Where a “‘ barbecue” is not available a 


‘ ee a ae 


‘*mat,” consisting of sticks driven into 


the ground across which are laid boards, 
palms or banana leaves on which the 
ginger is exposed until it is dry, is used. 
Careful planters put their ginger out 
daily at sunrise and take it in each night 
at sundown; conducted in the latter 
way the operation of drying takes from 
six to eight days. 


The finished ginger is graded accord- 
ing tosize and colour of the ‘ hands,” 
the best grades consisting of the large 
plump ‘‘ Lands” free from traces of mil- 
dew, and the poorest the shrivelled dark- 
coloured ‘‘hands.” As a rule the crop 
is divided into four or five grades. The 
best ‘‘ hands” obtained in Jamaica weigh 
as much as eight ounces, four ounces 
being an average weight. 


Unpeeled ginger is merely freed from 
its rootlets and excess of soil and then 
thoroughly washed in water and finally 
dried in the sun, Much of the Cochin 
ginger is placed on the market in an un- 
peeled condition, but the best grades are 
peeled in the same fashion as in Jamaica 
and fetch similar prices in the United 
Kingdom. 


SoIL AND MANURE. 


Comparatively little attention has been 
paid to the nature of the soil best suited 
to ginger cultivation, and to the kind 
of manure which should be employed to 
fertilise soils exhausted by ginger crops. 
In Jamaica the primitive plan of clear- 
ing forest lands by fire has been largely 
followed, and on this cleared land ginger 
is grown until the soil becomes exhaust- 
ed, when it is abandoned and a new 
piece of land put into cultivation. This 
wasteful method has resulted in the pro- 
duction of large tracts of exhausted 
land which are no longer under culti- 
vation in the Colony, and the reclam- 
ation of whichis still an unsolved pro- 
blem. (See Kilmer, ‘‘ Bulletin, Depart- 


ment of Agriculture, Jamaica,” 1898, _ 


V., p. 241.) 


In Cochin, on the other hand, manur- 
ing is regularly practised, the manures 
generally employed being oil-cake or 
dung. The principal constituents re- 
moved from the soil by ginger are stated 
to be lime, phosphoric acid and soda, 
and it is the replacement of these consti- 
tuents which should be aimed at. The 
soil should be readily permeable by 
water, as if this collects about the rhi- 
zome, the latter is apt to rot. The best 
varieties of Jamaica ginger are grown 
on a sandy loam, and in India the ginger 
produced on the compact black soils is 
said to be poorer than that grown on 
the lighter sandy soils. 


[Avaus, 1909 


: 
c 
‘ 
% 


ii 


“Avavst, 1909.] 
INDIAN AND CALIFORNIAN FRUIT. 


(From the Indian Agriculturist, Vol. 
XXXIV., No. 5, May 1, 1909.) 


Why should not India strive to do 
what California has done and make her 


- oranges and citrons the desired of all 


nations? California has not succeeded 
without considerable sustained and in- 
telligent effort in reaching the pre- 
eminence graphically described by a 
writer in a London journal. India owns 
thousands of orange trees, but their 
fruit is not precisely the delicious luxury 
that Californian and Southern European 
oranges prove to be. There is good 
Swadeshi work tobe done in this direc- 
tion if Indian fruit-growers can be in- 
duced to copy modern methods by experts 
educated in Indian agricultural colleges. 
We read of a golden harvest in California 
worth six millions sterling, from which 
in freight alone the railways earn two 
millions, the balance affording the orange 
farmers a handsome profit on their 
year’s toil. The crop amounted to 1,500 
million oranges, giving thus about 875 
oranges to the pound sterling, a price 
that seems small enough when it is 
remembered that oranges sell now-a- 
days, allover Eugland and elsewhere, 
at fabulously cheap rates. But the 
Californian growers’ must feel content, 
for they cheerfully devote all their ener- 
gies to the harvesting of their citrus 
crops, tens of thousands of persons being 
employed at them during the critical 
period, The United States alone consume 
70 per cent. of the Californian oranges 
and 40 per cent. of the lemons. This 
year there cannot be quite the usual 
contingent of Sicilian oranges and 
lemons, but that will make little odds 
to America, for California, in spite of 
the taking up of land for town lots, 
parks, etc,, has been bringing yearly 
more ground under citrus cultivation. 
Even the loss by the dying out and 
partial failure of old orchards has been 
provided against by industrious new 
planting. There are now in California 
about 100,000 acres under 10,000,000 
orange trees and 20,000 under lemons. 
The fruit farmer who treats his land 
carefully can get a return of £100 
to the acre, and if he grows the 
best of all species, the Washington 
Navel, he can even make £120; and 
lemons areas profitable but require in- 
tense care. Land that gives such colossal 
crops sells at £100 to £400 per acre. One 
district, Riverside, that was in olden 
days a sheeprub, is now, with its orange 
orchards, valued at four millions sterling. 

In 1870 California made her first serious 
attempt at superior orange-growing. 

17 


129 


Edible Products. 


Until then railway facilities were scant, 
and the cultivation of the fruit round 
the stations of the Spanish Missions, 
which introduced it, was found sufficient 
for home wants and such other markets 
as could be reached. Los Angles was 
the pioneer exploiter of distant parts, by 
sending shipments to San Francisco, in 
barrels, boxes, sacks, in bulk, and in 
every way that seemed easiest to the 
haphazard trade of the time. The 
growers have now combined for the 
adoption of the best methods of treating 
the orange from the moment of planting 
and grafting to the despatch of the fruit 
to the buyer. The California Fruit- 
Growers’ Exchange allows no diminu- 
tion in the closest attention to prescribed 
rules and thus protects the cultivators 
and insures them a market for their 
fruit. Mexico has recently become a 
rival, sending grape-fruit, tangerines and 
other citrons to American markets, 
regardless of the half penny a pound 
tariff she has to pay. California has 
taken fright and has demanded pro- 
tective measures to compensate her for 
this inroad, has applied to railways for 
reduction of freight charges, while she 
has tested the economy in time and 
money of taking the short cut to the 
Eastern markets offered by the isthmus 
of Tehuantepec. The packing of oranges 
is now-a-days by no means a simple 
process. The first duty of the packers, 
when the carefully picked fruit comes to 
them from the orchards in canvas bags, 
is to run the oranges through a hopper 
which removes any dust trom them. 
Then afterdue rejection of all inferior 
specimens they are passed to the brush- 
ing-box where spiral brushes minutely 
perform their toilets. From the brushes 
they run onto belts that mechanically 
keep the produce of each grove separate 
and send the fruit onto a weighing 
machine. Thence they go to the sizers, 
where a belt carries them past springs 
which respond to the touch of each 
orange with an electric current that 
operates ‘‘kickers” which send the fruit 
into troughs according to size. Thence 
the oLanges go to bins and are wrapped 
in paper by machinery, which includes 
a printing press that stamps the name 
of brand and packer onthe wrapper. 
The last process is dropping the oranges 
into shallow bins whence they are placed 
in the packing-boxes of commerce, which 
are then automatically nailed up. 
Lemons require even more care, they 
are cut, not pulled, from the trees while 
green, and hung to ripen from the 
rafters of the packing-house where they 
are given ample time to colour before 
being shipped. An accidental bruise to 
their rind must be avoided, the packer 


Hdible Products. 


of lemons for this reason often wearing 
gloves. The citrus-growers of California 
got the better of the ‘Box Trust” by 
threatening to manufacture their own 
boxes, and forced a big reduction in 


price from the packing-case_ makers,. 


amounting to an aggregate of £160,000, a 
very nice sum to hold in reserve in case 
of a falling market. Nagpur orange- 
growers might do worse than look up 
the system pursued by Californian 
owners of paying orange groves. 


FURTHER NOTES ON CANE FARM- 
ING AT TRINIDAD. 


By PROFESSOR P. CARMODY, F.1.C., F.C.S., 


Government Analyst and Professor of 
Chemistry, Trinidad. 


(From the West Indian Bulletin, 
Vol. IX., No. 2, 1908.) 


During the last discussion which took 
place on this subject at the Agricultural 
Conference held in Trinidad in 1905 
(West Indian Bulletin, Vol. V1., pp. 3-32), 
I promised to obtain some reliable 
figures as to the yield of canes per acre 
obtained by cane farmers in Trinidad. 
I am greatly indebted to Mr. J. McInroy, 
Manager of the Government estate (St, 
Augustine), for collecting the detailed 
yield obtained by 328 tarmers on that 
estate, and thus enabling me to submit 
the following summary to this Con- 
ference :— 


CANE FARMERS’ Crops(StT. AUGUSTINE). 


Tons. Cwt, 
Lowest yield per acre reaped = 14 
Highest ,, +p ” 29 12 
Average ,, 5 a0 Aon 11 14 
or) ” 34 rented fog 9 ¥f 

Number of cane farm.rs, with 

yield under 5 tons per acre 49 

35 9) a9 9 5-10 ee) a9 99 116 

49 ” a9 Sy 10-15 99 54 ” 99 

cB 99 29 9) 15-20 95 9 ” 47 

J) a ph Oe 20 iH EL ans 8) 17 

Total ... 328 


The average yield of the seventeen 
farmers producing over 20 tons was 24% 
tons per acre. 


It was stated at the Conference of 1905 
that the average yield obtained by 399 
farmers holding 1,753 acres was 5 tons 
per acre, the above figures show that 
328 farmers produced, on land of no 


130 


better quality, an average of 9 tons 7 
ewt. on the acreage held, and 11 tons 


14 ewt. on the acreage cultivated. In 
1905, I estimated the average yield to be 
10 tons per acre, which is shown by 


the above return tobe very nearly 


correct. 


The figures are of great value to us in 
Trinidad, because we can now con- 
fidently represent to our cane farmers 
thatan average yield of only 11? tons 
per acre cultivated is far below what 
might reasonably be expected of them, 
and to our estate owners the manifest 
advantages of the share system of cane 
cultivation practised in Fiji, Hawaii, and 
Mauritius, and described by Sir Henry 
M. Jackson, K.C.M.G., in West Indian 
Bulletin. Vol. VI., pp. 18-21 and Vol. VIL., 
pp, 311-6. 


Iam satisfied that itis on a _ co-oper- 
ative system of production, such as this, 
that we must rely for the future stabi- 
lity of thesugar industry in Trinidad, 
Our central factories are well equipped 
for manufacture, and our principal weak 
point has been for many years in the 
cultivation. It is cnly quite recently 
that we have re-introduced mechanical 
implements for tillage, and these are 
almost confined to steam ploughs at 
present. The success of mechanical 


- tillage in other countries, and the ex- 


perience in this direction recently gained 
in the neighbouring colony of Antigua, 
should encourage us to adopt mechanical 
tillage toa much greater extent than 
has previously been attempted. And 
this can be done well under the share 
system of cultivation with its suitably 
balanced division of labour. 


The heavy work of preparatory tillage 
should be done by mechanical imple- 
ments, for which the cane farmer hag 
not the capital to provide, in order, 
among other advantages, to ensure a 
sufficient feeding area for the roots. 
This isnot available under the present 
method of hand tillage, and the result 
has been shown in the very small yield 
of 11 tons per acre. The lighter work of 
subsequent cultivation would be easily 
accomplished by hand labour provided 
by the farmers. 


The estate owners would be better 
able to treat the cane_tops before plant- 
ing by immersion in Bordeaux mixture, 
or other similar preparation, which is 
now known to be necessary for the 
prevention of fungoid diseases. The 
cane farmers cannot, or will not do this, 
and their plots will become centres of 


infection from which these diseases will | 


spread. 


t 
4 
= 
¢ 

P 
Hy 
4 


Avaust, 1909.] 


-The estate owners would provide the 
manures shown by experience to pro- 
duce the best results on their land. 
The cane farmer can only provide pen 
manure, and very little of that. He has 
neither the money to purchase artificial 
manures nor the knowledge to apply 
them to the best advantage. 


The money advances now made by 
estate owners, presumably for the above 
purposes, would be of more advantage 
if the expenditure were made in the 
ways above indicated, under proper 


‘direction and supervision. 


An enormous advantage under the 
share system is the continuous control 
which the owner retains during the whole 


_period of the crop. The return for St, 


Augustine estates shows that only seveun- 
teen out of 38238 farmers could be ex- 
empted from. control under any good 
system of cane cultivation, and the 
timely assistance which the manager of 
anestate could givein order to bring 
neglected cultivations up to a reasonable 
standard would be certain to increase 
the productive capacity of the land, and 
to serveas a valuable object-lesson in 
the advantages to be derived from 
intelligent and experienced supervi- 
sion, 


At one of the district Agricultural 
Shows, held last November, the estate 
owners voluntarily contributed four 
prizes, to which the judges added a fifth 
prize, for the best farmers’ canes then 
growing in the district. The result of 
this spontaneous evidence of the interest 
taken in good cane farming is reported 
to have been most beneficial, and as 
these prizes are likely to be offered in 
future years, there is every reason to 
expect a marked improvement in the 
small cultivations in that district. 


In order to bring up to date previous 
records, I present the following table 
compiled from returns made to the Agri- 
cultural Society. 


From this it will be seen that the num- 
ber of cane farmers is still increasing 
and has more than doubled in the last 
ten years, and that notwithstanding 
this increase, the cane production on the 
estates has not diminished, except in the 
bad year 1905, 


It can also be estimated (on the basis 
that the average yield per acre is ten 
tons of canes) that from 17,000 to 29,000 
acres of land are under cane cultivation 
by farmers, Under proper cultivation 
this acreage ought to yield at least 400,000 
tons of cane, or double the present 
output ;— 


i131 Edible Products, 
CANE AND SUGAR Propuction, Tri- 
NIDAD. 
4 f 
Ce 77) a=) 
an} eck Bp eee 
Year. as 8 s pas a é & Cane Farmers. 
=Oon HPA os o 
=e eee & ge = Number and 
= : a Nationality 
fons. Tons, Tons. § West Last 
: Indian. Indian, 
1895 .. 55,900 No os 5 a cE 
1896. 59,000 ; 3,000 — 3,744 — 
1897 32.000 ee 


1898 ... 58,000 105,090 203,000 2,824 2.396 
1899 ... 58,800 426,000 106,000 219,00) 3.870 2,826 
1900 ... 46,000 364,000 106,000 228,00) 3,591 2826 
1901 .. 61,010 434.000 170,000 369,000 4,737 3,819 
1902 .- 57,83 338,000 185,000 327 000 4,850 4.506 
1903 .. 47,009 337,000 166,000 348,000 4.440 4,443 
1904 ... 43,010 385,010 172,000 360,000 4,685 4,646 
1905 .. 38,210 244.418 144,863 43203 5,462 5, Qt 
1903 ... 62,975 317,912 237,814 469,1'2 5,446 6,197 
1907 ... 50,564 395,853 166,993 340,527 5777 6,557 
DISCUSSION. 


Mr. J. R. Bovell (Burbados) asked 
whether the land referred to by Profes- 
sor Carmody had not been out of eculti- 
vation for some time, As far as he could 
remember, the Government took over 
estate lands which had been out of culti- 
vation for some time, and if this was 
part of the land reterred to by Professor 
Carmody, that might account for the 
difference in yield. 

Professor Carmody said that was not 
the case. Although the land was out of 
cultivation so far as the manufacture of 
sugar by the proprietors was concerned, 
yet it had been let by Govern-ment to 
tenants, and had been used for the pur- 
poses of cane farming ever since. It might 
be taken, therefore, as fairly representa- 
tive of the cane lands of Trinidad. 


Hon. Mr. H. Howell Jones (British 
Guiana) said that very little cane farm- 
ing was carried on in British Guiana, the 
difficulty being the means of transport 
between the various villages and the 
estates. The development of the rice 
industry, therefore, does not in any way 
affect cane farming, 


Dr. Francis Watts (Antigua) said that 
the basis of trading at Antigua was dif- 
ferent to that described by Professor 
Carmody for Trinidad, although the 
effect might be somewhat similar. Pea- 
sants’ canes were bought at the rate of 
43 lb. sugar per 100 lb. cane, which during 
last year realised 8s. 73d. per ton of 
canes, He was unable to say how many 
acres there were in farmers’ canes. 


Hon. W. Fawcett (Jamaica) said there 
was asmall amount of cane farming going 
on in Jamaicaat: Westmoreland, where 
one or two small estates had abandoned 
their machinery and were selling their 
canes to large estates. But there were 
no peasant farmers as in Trinidad, 


° 


° 


132 


[Avausr, 190, 


TIMBERS. 


TREE PLANTING, 


By Guy S. BAKER. 


(From the Agricultural Journal of 
British Hast Africa, Vol. 1., Pt. III,, 
October, 1908.) 


With the exception of a few species, 
tree planting with the object of pro- 
ducing timber does not pay the private 
individual unless he is a rich man who 
can afford to wait years for his profits, 
and it is even then a doubtful invest- 
ment, as the money can usually be more 
profitably invested in some sound finan- 
cial securities than in tree growing, 


Forestry at its best yields small profits ; 
to calculate these it is necessary to con- 
sider the compound interest upon the 
sum expended on the plantation from 
the age of one year until the crop is cut, 
or in the case of a permanent high forest 
the value of the land and the amount of 
capital the forest represents, the annual 
yield, then being the interest produced 
from the capital. Intermediate expenses 
have also to be included, and it is found 
that when all has been taken into account 
the interest on the invested capital rarely 
exceeds 3%. The above remarks apply 
solely to tree growing with the object of 
producing timber not to minor products 
yielded by forests such as rubber, bark, 
gum, fibre, peat, turpentine, bamboos, 
etc. 


From 20 to 200 years are necessary to 
produce timber of any size according to 
the species grown. This period is termed 
the rotation, and if mistakes are made 
in the management of the crop they 
cannot be corrected until the end of the 
rotation. Moreover, forests are subject 


to many dangers, andit is not usually- 


possible to sell them for their value in 
times of need or to borrow much money 
upon them. Forests, however, provide 
employment for a large number of work- 
men; it is estimated that 12% of the 
population is engaged in actual forest 
work. 

Formation and Plantations.—To ob- 
tain plants for the formation of the 
plantation it is necessary to either dig 
up the seedlings from places in the 
forest where they are abundant, to 
raise them in nurseries, or to purchase 
them. The latter will be found most 
satisfactory when they can be procured 
at reasonable prices, and the cost of 
transport to the area to be planted is 
not too great. Digging up trees direct 
from the forest is usually attended with 


‘it should usually be covered with its own 


poor results, as the seedlings here grow 
under conditions which do not fit them 
for removal, and which are changed 
when they are ina plantation. 


Nurseries.—A suitable piece of ground 
must be chosen for the nursery. This 
should be as near to the area to be 
planted as possible in order to avoid 
transport, and close to water. The soil 
should be light friable and well drained ; 
soil which is apt to cake and crack makes - 
a bad seed bed. The ground should be 
broken up fine, the finer the better in 
order to allow the roots of the young 
plants to penetrate. The beds may be 
made about 3ft. wide, so that a man 
can reach to the centre to weed, and as 
long as is found convenient. Before 
sowing, the bed must be raked over and 
all lumps of unbroken soil removed. 
Should the beds be made on a hill side 
they must be made along the contour of 
the bank in order to prevent floods 
washing them away. ‘The paths or 
trenches between the beds may be 4” to 6” 
deep. Before the seed is put in, the earth 
should be carefully worked in the beds 
and pressed down slightly, so that seeds 
may not be exposed to the washing away 
of the soil, The soil must be moderate- 
lv moist but not wet enough to stick 
to the fingers; some seeds require the 
soil carefully mixed with charcoal, sand, 
or other substance before good germin- 
ation can be assured, but it is not neces- 
sary to deal with such elaborate methods 
here. The seed should be sown in 
parallel: drills or furrows 4” or 6” apart, 
asit will be found easier to afterwards 
weed the beds and to remove the 
seedlings; the sowing must be done eare- 
fully ; theseed must not be thrown down 
in handfuls. It must be covered with 
earth to prevent it being washed away, 


thickness of soil. Large seeds are gener- 
ally put in separately by hand, but 
small seed can best be sown from a paper 
packet or bottle. The season for sowing 
seed in this country depends upon the 
rate of growth of the seedling, it should 
be sown in time for the seedling to have 
reached a sufficiently large size to enable 
them to be planted out during the rains, 


After sowing until the time of picking 
out the seedlings, the seed beds must be 
kept continually moist, not soaked with 
water one day and let dry the next. 
After germination the seedlings are 
liable to be attacked by a number o 
enemies. Many preparations have been 
invented for keeping off insects, but no 
simple remedy has so far as I know 


Aveust, 1909.] 


proved quite satisfactory. Wood ashes 
paused over the beds has often a good 
effect. 


It will usually be found necessary to 
protect the beds fromthe hot midday 
sun by erecting a shade ove: them. As 
the seedlings develop the shading should 
be thinned out so as to accustom the 
seedlings gradually to the sun, After 
germination the seed beds require con- 
stant care or must be kept weeded. It 
not infrequently happens that the 
ground is allowed to cake and the seed- 
ling becomes yellowin consequence ; the 
soil should then be loosened between the 
plants and be well-watered or irrigated. 

Pricking out Plants.—As it is more 
satisfactory for several reasons to put 
large plants into plantations than seed- 
lings, the seedlings are first pricked out 
some distance apart andallowed a height 
of usually not less than 9’. In Hurope 
they are pricked out about one foot apart 
into beds, but itis here found better to 
employ the more expensive but surer 
method of potting them singly in pots or 
to plant theminto shallow boxes about 
4’ deep. They can then easily be moved 
to the plantation. Plants should be 
lifted from the seed beds as soon as they 
area convenient size to handle. The 
larger the plant the more care it requires. 
The best way to lift the plant where the 
seed has been sown in lines is todig a 
small trench parallel to the line and to 
push the seedlings in the trench by 
inserting a spade or trowel behind. The 
soil used for potting must be of the best ; 
leaf mould mixed withan equal quantity 
of soil into which aslight admixture of 
ashes has been put will be tound most 
suitable. The soil used must be taken 
from the surface when the air has acted 
upon it. 


After potting, the transplants must be 
kept well-watered and put in the shade 
for a few days until rooted. It is a good 
plan to put the potted transplants under 
shades and to thin them gradually in the 
same way asisdone inthe case of the 
seed beds. 

The size of the pot should not be less 
than 4’ diam. at the top and 4’ deep. 
They may be made of banana leaves or 
any similar material which will last 
sufficiently long to keep the soil together 
until the plants are ready to put out 
into the plantation, 


Planting.—The size which plants 
should attain before being planted into 
places where it is intended they should 
grow is generally 9’ to14’. The ages at 
which young trees reach the height de- 
pends upon the kind of trees. 


The plantations should be selected in 
a place where the trees have a fair depth 


183 Timbers. 


of soil, if possible, although trees are 
usually content with much poorer soil 
than farm crops, and for this reason are 
planted upon land unfit for agriculture 
they thrive best upon deep well-drained 
soils. Having chosen the site for the 
plantation the undergrowth must be 
cleared away, if denseit should be cut 
aud burnt, the grouud hoed or ploughed 
in order to root out noxious weeds. 


In plantations the closer the trees are 
planted at the outset the better; 
although there is an additional expense 
in close planting it is more satisfactory 
because the closer together young trees 
are placed the better they shelter one 
another, and the soil close planting also 
serves the purpose of keeping down 
jungle weeds; the branches of the young 
plants soon meet across and exclude 
light without which weeds cannot grow. 
It will be seen, therefore, that by close 
planting there is a considerable after 
saving in the cost of cleaning the plant- 
ation, as instead of the weeds smothering 
the trees the latter are able to hold 
their own and eventually kill the weeds. 
Many kinds of trees unless grown in 
numbers close together never develop 
well. Fast growing trees such as 
Kucalyptus and wattle may.be planted 
+’ x 4, slower growing trees should be 
planted 3’ x 3’ oreven 2’ x 2’, The best 
season for planting is of course at the 
beginning of the rains. 


Only healthy plants should be taken 
for planting out, all sickly or weak 
plants should be thrown away or left 
until another season when they may 
have recovered, 


In cases where plants have been pricked 
out into banana leaf pots or trays there 
will be no difficulty in transport or in 
planting. If in banana leaf pots the pot 
may be planted with the plant, but it is 
better taken off. Ifin trays the plants 
should be carefully lifted from the tray 
witha ball of earth;a trowel will be 
found best for this purpose. 


Should it be found necessary to trans- 
plant trees which have not been pre- 
viously put into pots or trays, great care 
must be exercised in their removal. The 
most important point is to see that the 
roots are not injured. They may be 
dug with a ball of earth, but this is my 
experience especially when plants have 
to be transported any distance; it is 
difficult to keep the earth from falling 
away from the roots of the plant, and 
when the soil is light and friable almost 
impossible. Planting with bare roots 
has given poor results in this country. 

Thelarger the holes dug for the plants 
the better, as the roots can then pene- 
trate more easily into loosened soil, 


Timbers. 


Care should’ be taken to see that the 
level of the surface of the soil recurs at 
the same pointon the stem of the plant 
as it did when the plant was in the 
nursery. The earth filled into the pit 
must be pressed down by the foot. 


Tending the Plantation.—As soon as 
the trees are planted it is advisable to 
fence the plantation. 

Plantation require to be cleared of 
rank jungle growth, while the plants are 
young where such growths choke the 
plants. 

As the trees get taller they may 
require thinning. When the plantation 
is first formed there are several thousand 
plants on anacre of ground; as these 
develop it is obvious that some must be 
thinned out, it being impossible for all 
to remain alive on the same land till 
they have reached maturity. The object 
of thinning is to remove the weakest 
trees in favour of the stronger. The 
trees thinned out form an intermediate 
yield of poles which are useful for many 
purposes, Care must be taken when 
thinning that too many trees are not 
removed at one time, and that the 
canopy is not sufficiently opened. to 
expose the-soil, A good deal of skill is 
necessary in making the thinning, or 
more harm than good is done by the 
operation. Unless there is a particular 
species of tree which it is wished to 


favour, the suppressed and dominated - 


trees only should be removed. A sup- 
pressed tree is one which is growing 
entirely in the shade of those surround- 
ing it and which enjoys no light. A 
dominated tree is one which is domi- 


184 


nated by those around it, only a few — 


of its top branches being free to enjoy — 


light. In heavy thinnings a number of 
thedominated trees are usually removed, 
but in light thinnings they are left and 
only suppressed trees eut. 


“Avenues and Windbreaks.—Avenues 
intended for shade to be effective should 
be formed of trees which grow to a 
height of 50 to 100 feet, and which form 
dense crowns. The trees may be planted 
at any distance apart and alternate trees 
cut out as found necessary. Unlike 
plautations, the branches of treesin an 
avenue should not be allowed to inter- 
lace, usually some protection is required 
against animals by young plants on the 
edges of roads. A wattle fence will be 
found cheapest and most satisfactory. 


Avenues to be effective must be formed 
of the same kind of tree. Care must be 
taken when watering piants that the 
water does not lie round the stem, if it 
does the bark becomes softened, the sun 
then dries and hardens it, and the next 
application of water softens the bark 
again; if the process is constantly re- 
peated the bark cracks and the plant dies. 

Trees intended to form wind breaks 


should be planted at right angles to the © 


direction of the prevailing wind. The 
lines of trees should be kept sufficiently 
far apart to prevent the branches of the 
trees in different lines interlacing. The 
object of this is to produce as much leaf 
surface as possible to stop the foree of 
the wind. Branches of trees planted 
close tegether soon interlace, the leaves 
then drop off, and the bare branches 
offer little resistance to air currents. 


HORTICULTURE. 


DIDYMOSPERMA DISTICHUM. - 


This remarkable and rare palm is sel- 
dom seen in cultivation in Ceylon, or 
indeed elsewhere outside its native habi- 
tat, viz. Sikkim. It was introduced 
by the Royal Botanic Gardens, Pera- 
deniya, in 1880, and has become quite 
established and acclimatised here. It 
may well be called the ‘ Fanpalm,” 
owing to the peculiar distichous arrange- 
ment of its long graceful feathery leaves. 
The latter are effectively set in a pretty 
network of black fibre and bristles, 
which forms a striking characteristic. 
The palm grows toa height of about 30 
feet, and, like many other palms, dies 
soon after flowering and fruiting. The 
pinnate leaves are slender and arching, 
being about 15 feet in length from the 
base. There is a young avenue of this 
striking palm at Peradeniya. 


HEDGES AND HHDGE PLANTS 
AT ANTIGUA, 


(From the Agricultural News, Vol. 
VIII., No. 184, May 15, 1909.) 
Very few hedges are in existence in 
Antigua, and with the purpose of giving 
an object-lesson to planters in this direc- 


tion, successful efforts have been made 


to develop growing fences round the 
Experiment Station at Skerrett’s. The 
plants mentioned which appear to be 
especially satisfactory for the purpose 
of the establishment of hedges are the 
bread-and-cheese (Pithecolobium Unguis- 


~ cati), the Barbados cherry (Malpighia 


glabra), and the logwood (Haematoxylon 
campechianun). Since the hedges at 
Skerrett’s have attracted considerable 
attention at Antigua a number of 
enquiries have been received by the 


See p. 134, Photo by H. F. Macmillan. 


DIDYMOSPERMA DISTICHUM. 


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1 
4 


sur? 
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+ 
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f 
ra 


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PORE MT 


“Avevst, 1009). ae : 135 


Curator (Mr, T. Jackson), and it would 


appear that many people in the island 
are intending to follow the example 
thus started and to plant hedges on 
their own properties. Mr. Jackson re- 
cently forwarded to this Department 
some notes On hedge plants and hedge 
planting, which may be of general 
interest outside Antigua. 


In addition to the three plants already 
named, Mr. Jackson mentions the hibis- 
cus, the pomegranate (Punica granatum, 
Agave Americana, Agave vivipara, wild 
coffee (Clerodendron aculeatum), and 
several species of bamboo, all of which 
would be useful in the establishment 
of fences. 


Apart from the use of these plants for 
larger hedges, trials made at the Anti- 
gua Botanic Station have shown that 
at least one or two of them can be 
utilized for the formation of low orna- 
mental borders after the manner in 
which low ‘box’ hedges are frequently 
employed in England. These borders, 
when well cared for, form ax attractive 
feature in an: English garden, and in 
addition to their ornamental value, 
serve a very useful purpose in defining 
boundaries, and keeping up the sides of 
walks. Mr. Jackson points out that 
the bread-and-cheese plant, when kept 
well trimmed, forms a useful substitute 
for the ‘box-edging’ referred to, and 
there is no doubt that such dwarf 
boundaries (kept about 8 or 9 inches high) 
could be introduced into West Indian 
gardens with striking effect. 


The ‘ bread-and-cheese’ hedge is estab- 
lished by sowing seeds on a border 
about 18 inches wide, the seeds beirg 

lanted in drills from 3 to 4 inches deep. 

fa thick, rather wide hedge is desired, 
two rows of seeds can be planted, the 
rows being about 6 inches apart. When 
the young plants are abouts inches high 
they should betrimmed. The first trim- 
ming should consist only of taking off 
the points of the young plants so as to 
force them to grow from the bottom 
and form a shrubby undergrowth. If 
wet weather ensues, the next pruning 
should be performed a few weeks after 
the first. Subsequent trimmings will be 
at the discretion of the grower, 


As already mentioned, in addition to 
their ornamental valueas a dwarf hedge, 
these plants are capable of forming a 
useful boundary fence. The foliage is 
somewhat liable to be attacked by leaf- 
mining caterpillars, which disfigure it. 
When so attacked, it should be sprayed 
with kerosene emulsion. 


Another plant which can also be 
grown to form a dwarf hedge is the log- 


Horticulture. 


wood. Itis not so satisfactory for this ~ 
purpose, however, as the _ bread-and- 
cheese, on account of the fact that its 
shoots are so much stiffer and stronger 
growing. The best dwarf hedges of 
logwood are grown on very poor soil. 
On the other hand, if it is required to 
establish a fence for the purpose of 
keeping out stock, no plant is more 
useful than the logwood, since it forms 
a thick serviceable hedge, which is 
almost impenetrable on account of the 
thorny growth. Planted around culti- 
vated lands it would certainly prove a 
formidable brrrier against preedial 
larceny. Like the bread-and-cheese, the 
logwood plants are best established by 
sowing seed at the place where the hedge 
is to be grown. 


Two other useful plants for stock-resist- 
ing fences are the Barbados cherry and 
the pomegranate. The bright green 
foliage of the former makes its appear- 
ance very handsome. The seeds of these 
plants should be sown ina nursery and 
transplanted when the young plants are 
about 6 inches high. 


The pomegranate makes a fine fence 
which can be established either by sow- 
ing seeds or planting cuttings. 


Persons who are intending to plant 
hedges, which would at once be useful 
and ornamental, might well utilize the 
strong-growing hibiscus for the purpose. 
The best method to establish a fence of 
this would be to transplant rooted cut- 
tings. A further advantage in favour 
of this plant is that the numerous 
varieties which exist offer the grower 
some scope for a colour scheme. 


The Bougainvillzea, it is well-known, 
forms a fence of highly ornamental 
appearance. Plants of this must be 
propagated by cuttings or layers. In 
starting a hedge of this description the 
best plan would be first to establish a 
light trellis work, which would serve as 
a support for the young plants. Later 
on when the trellis decays, the plants 
would be able to support themselves. It 
is advisable that the quick-growing 
shoots should be tied in, and that prun- 
ing should be done freely. 


A pant which has given very satis- 
factory results in Barbados and other 
islands for hedge purposes is the sweet 
lime (Tviphasia Aurantioda). This, if 
kept well trimmed, forms a thick, bushy 
growth, which is ornamental, highly 
useful, and also quite capable of keep- 
ing out stock and serving as a general 
protection to the enclosed area. The 
only drawback tothe more general use 
of this plant for the purpose mentioned 
is that its growth is very slow. 


. 136 


z , < a te 
[Avaust, 1909. 


PLANT SANITATION. 


ENTOMOLOGICAL NOTES. 


By EH. ERNEST GREEN, 
Government Entomologist, 


Ihave examined fresh samples of the 
tea seedlings infested by ‘Helworm’ 
(mentioned in last month’s Notes). 
These had been gathered from different 
plots and prove that the whole nursery 
is equally affected. I have also been 
able to determine that the species 
is the common ‘ Root-knot’ EKelworm’ 
(Heterodera radicicola) which occurs 
practically allover the world. In Ceylon 
it has long been known to attack the 
voots of various garden plants and vege- 
tables. In the present case the en- 
cysted female worms were found in 
numbers, occupying small cells in the 
bark and cambium of the diseased roots. 
A circular on this pest is being prepared 
and will be issued shortly. 


Larger numbers of the young brood 
of the ‘Spotted Locust’ (Aularchus 
militaris) have attracted attention on an 
estate in the Rattota district. They 
are reported to be defoliating ‘ Dadap’ 
(Erythrina) and Cinchona trees and to 
be sampling the tea, but without doing 
any serious damage to the last plant. 
The life history of this locust has been 
worked out. A single brood only is 
produced during the twelve months. 
The eggs are deposited in the ground in 
October and November; the young 
locusts hatch out in the following March, 
and gradually increase in size 
August or September, when the adult 
winged insects appear; pairing and 
egg-laying complete the cycle in Octo- 
ber and November again. These dates 
have been found to be fairly constant 
for the Kandy, Matale and Rambukkana 
districts; but they may very possibly 
vary in other parts of the Island, 
where the incidence of the monsoons is 
different. Itisimportant to remember 
that itis the egg-laying period that is the 
most vulnerable pointin the cycle. The 
eggs are always deposited in circum- 
scribed areas of ground which—with 
ordinary care—may be located quite 
easily. Ifthese spots are forked to a 
depth of about twelve inches and treated. 
with quick-lime, very few of the eggs 
will hatch out. 5 

Specimens of the ‘Fringed Nettle- 
grub” (Natadau nararia) have been re- 
ceived from Hikaduwa, where it is said 
to have spread over ten acres of tea. 
This is the species that sometimes gives 
considerable trouble on the Badulla 


until — 


and Haputale side of the Island; but 
its attacks seem to beless frequent and 
less severe in the Central Provinces. 


The large hairy caterpillars of Suana 
concolor occasionally attract attention 
by their depredations upon various cul- 
tivated plants. A native cultivator 
from Harispattu submits specimens of 
this caterpillar for determination, and 
reports that they have eaten up a num- 
ber of his cacao plants. They seldom 
occur in sufficient numbers to be a 
serious pest, but their large size and 
hearty appetite seldom fail to attract 
attention. Their very size isa safeguard, 
as they are easily seen and can then be 
picked off and destroyed. Care should 
be taken in handling them, as they are 
armed with a band of short but very 
sharp black hairs which can cause painful 
irritation. 

Two separate correspondents have 
sent me specimens of the large white 
grubs of a Longicorn beetle, extracted 
from the stems of dead or dying rubber 
(Hevea) trees. The symptoms in each 
case make it tolerably sure that the 
tree had previously been attacked by 
some other disease, and that these insects 
had made ‘their entry subsequently. I 
have not yet received satisfactory 
evidence of any boring insect being able 
to penetrate the latex-bearing tissues of 
a healthy rubber plant without being 
puuutpled in the consequent flow of 
atex. 


But a new rubber pest has put in an 
appearance in the form of a species of 
slug. My sorrespondent describes it as 
‘a white snail about I4in. long,” but 
subsequent enquiries showed that the 
creature was not possessed of ashell. He 
continues, ‘“‘I caught oneon the top of a 
tree, ‘in flagrante delictu,’ and found the 
same species at the bottom of each 
damaged tree. They creep up the stems 
at night and inthe early morning, and 
nibble off all the teuder shoots just 
breaking away, and the rubber plant 
or young tree hangs fire and cannot get 
a start. Some of the tops of the plants 
were transformed into green reds—full 
of sap—but with no growing points left. 
When the terminal growing point is 
destroyed the plant attempts growth 
at each axil lower down, only to be 
foiled every time by the snail.” The 
slugs are said to retire into the grass or 
under dead leaves at the base of the 
trees during the daytime. The logical 
remedy will be to keep a clear space of 
bare earth-around each tree and to 
sprinkle this occasionally with lime. 


aut 


Avaust, 1909, | 


Mr. Maxwell Lefroy (Hntomologist to 
the Government of India) informs me 
that, in India, the larve of the ‘ Pink 
Bollworm’ hibernate in the cotton seed. 
To guard against the recurrence of 
the pest, the cotton seed is always 
fumigated before being sown. This 
habit of the bollworm may possibly 


account for its sudden appearance 
in the very first crop of cotton 
grown on the Experiment Station 


at Peradeniya, though it is difficult to 
understand howit could have occurred 
in such overwhelming numbers that 
practically every pod of the first crop 
was infested, There is no doubt that 
other cotton pests are liable to be in- 
troduced with imported seed, on which 
account I have recommended to Govern- 
ment the compulsory fumigation of all 
imported cotton seed. 


Another bollworm, which is common 
both in India and in Kgypt, is the 
eaterpillar of the moth Farias insulana. 
Though this moth occurs in Ceylon, it 
has not hitherto been noticed here asa 
cotton pest. Buta single example of 
what I believe to be this caterpillar was 
recently found inacotton boll on the 
Peradeniya Experiment Station. Owing 
to an injury during its extraction from 
the boll, it failed to complete its trans- 
formations, sol am unable to determine 
the species with certainty. 


The Vermorel acetylene lamp was 
placed in position in the cotton plots for 
one night, to see if the moths of the 
‘pink bollworm’ (Gelechia gossypiella) 
could be attracted to the light and 
destroyed. But, though vast numbers 
of other and harmless insects were 
captured, not a single specimen of the 
Gelechia could be recognized amongst 
the victims. 


The Camphor plants on the Experiment 
Station have been partially defoliated 
by a species of ‘bag-worm’ (Clania 
variegata). @ 

Ina Report on “Rubber in Nyassaland” 
(from the Government Handbook, Ist 
issue, 1909), mention is made of injury to 
Para rubber plants by cockchafer grub. 
“To get rid of the latter pest_a mixture 
consisting of one pound of Paris green 
and three pounds of salt to 40 pounds of 
donkey manure was used and proved 
effectual, when dibbled in some little 
distance from the roots at the time of 
planting.” This is the poisoned bait 
used against locusts in Africa. It might 
be tried (with the substitution of horse 
for donkey manure), under similar circum- 
stances, on our rubber clearings in Ceylon. 
_ Thestems of a common climbing bean— 
in frequent use asa native vegetable— 
are sometimes attacked by the grubs of 
8 large black beetle with enormously 

18 


137 


Plant Sanitation. 


thickened, hind legs (Sagra sp.). The 
presence of these grubs causes con- 
spicuous tumour-like swellings on the 
stems. As many as fifteen of these 
white grubs have been found teeding 
within one of these swellings. It is 
astonishing that the plant shows such 
little sign of inconvenience from the 
presence of so many and such large 
insects. 

In a recent number of ‘ Nature’ (May 
13, 1909) is a letter describing a method 
of killing house-flies by exposing dishes 
containing formaldehyde (in the propor- 
tion of two teaspoontfuls of the chemical 
to a soup-plate full of water). The flies 
are said to drink this mixture with 
rapidly fatal results. 


MISCELLANEA: CHIEFLY PATHO- 
LOGICAL. 


By T. PETCH. 


The death of tea and other seedlings 
in the nursery frequently results in 
serious loss, not so much from the value 
of the plants as from the delay it causes 
in the establishment of new fields. <As 
a rule the seedlings die out in patches, 
but sometimes whole beds are destroyed. 
In many instances this is due to eel- 
worms, and the cause can then be readily 
ascertained by examining the root, which 
in such cases is distorted and tuberous. 
When the plants are attacked by fungi, 
the stem usually turns black at the 
base, and the leaves fall off, but the 
root is not swollen. It was pointed out 
at the Rubber Exhibition of 1906, that 
the health of nursery plants depended 
chiefly on the care expended over the 
selection and preparation of the nursery. 
It often happens that, owing to diffi- 
culties with regard to water supply or 
the lay of the land, the same ground is 
used for nurseries continuously. It is 
quite true that the same patchcan be used 
repeatedly. as a nursery, but in that 
case it must be thoroughly worked be- 
tween the sowings and preferably should 
bear a crop of some other plant before 
being used asa nursery again, Where 
the seedlings have been destroyed by 
any disease, it is useless to expect a 
subsequent healthy growth on the same 
ground without thorough and repeated 
working of the soil and the application 
of some method of disinfection. If pos- 
sible, the site of the nursery should be 
changed. 


In the case of tea seedlings, their death, 
when due to fungi, is usually attributed 
to Pythium, but this cannot be said to 
have been definitely established, and 
further investigation is necessary. An 
instance of the death of Albizzia seed- 


Plant Sanitation. 


lings was recently brought to notice, and 
in this case the cause was undoubtedly 
Pythium. But the fungus attacked the 
top of the plant, not the base of the stem, 
and bound together all the leaves and 
the stem with a white film of mycelium. 
It spread at first over the surface of the 
leaf and the apex of the stem, and then 
entered and killed the tissues. 


When nursery plants begin to die 
off in patches, all the dying plants must 
be removed and burnt at once. If their 
death is not due to eelworms, the bare 
patches should be watered with one per 
cent, solution of formalin, i.e., one part 
of commercial formalin in forty parts of 
water; or they should receive a liberal 
dressing of slaked lime. In the ‘‘ damp- 
ing off” of coniferous seedlings, it has 
been found that the disease was to a 
great extent prevented by disinfecting 
the beds with a one per cent. solution of 
formalin five days before sowing the 
seed; and further, that it could also be 
orevented by sprinkling clean sand, as 
fot as it could be handled, over the beds 
to a depth of about one-sixteenth of an 
inch immediately after the germination 
of the seed. It is obvious that when 
nurseries are attacked by any fungus 
disease, all shade should be removed as 
far asis possible without injuring the 
plants. 


In the last number of the Tropical 
Agriculturist, it was_ stated. that the 
death of the bark of Hevea, or at least 
its separation from the wood, must 
precede the accumulation of rubber be- 
tween the wood and the bark. Since that 
was written, I have received, per the 
Editor of the Times and Mr, C. North- 
way, two specimens showing these rub- 
ber pads; they were described by Mr. 
Northway in the local papers on June 
Sth. Each specimen consists of a strip 
of bark, 10 centimetres broad (t.e., hori- 
zontally round the tree), and 6 centime- 
tres high. The thickness of. the bark, 
after several days’ drying in transit, is 
three to four millimetres (4e., three- 
twenty-fifths of an inch); it would be 
thicker when fresh. The trees had been 
scraped some considerable time before 
pricking, since each piece shows a well- 
developed outer brown layer, one-fiftieth 
of an inch thick, scaling off, and a fur- 
ther thickness of one-twenty-fifth of an 
inch turning brown; so that half the total 
thickness of the bark is already cor- 
king off as a consequence of the scrapings 
his uniform scaling off has nothing to do 
with the formation of the rubber pads. 
Specimen A has, in the middle, a patch 
of dead bark (i.e., dead right through 
to the cambium) about 5 centimetres 
in diameter, with a pad of rubber of the 


438 


a. Se 
A Le oe 


, [Avausr, 1009, 


same size behind it; it forms a blister 
raised about 6 millimetres above the 
surrounding level; there are two lines of 
pricker cuts across the specimen ; one of 
these just touches the edge of the rubber 
pad. The other passes over the pad at 
a distance of one centimetre from its 
edge; the outer surface of the pad is 
marked with the incisions of the pricker, 
and fragments of bark have been pushed 
into it, while the inner surface bears 
corresponding projecting teeth of rubber 
which have been pushed out by the 
pricker ; the pieces of bark within the 
pad and the marks of the pricker on both 
surfaces prove conclusively that the pad 
was formed before the bark was pricked, 
Specimen B is similar; the blister in this 
case measures 8 centimetres by 5 centi- 
metres, and the rubber pad is one centi- 
metre thick; there are three lines of 
pricker cuts, of which the upper and 
lower just touch the edges of the pad, 
while the middle line goes right across 
it, but, in consequence of its thickness, 
the pricker cuts do not penetrate com- 
pletely through it; as before, the dead 
bark has been driven by the pricker into 
the pad, and this shows that the pad 
was formed before the bark was pricked. 
The bark round the blister, which was 
living when pricked, shows only the 
usual pricker cuts throughit. In speci- 
men B,a new bark is growing under 
the edge of the pad at one side, and as 
this new bark is 6 millimetres broad, the 
pad must have been in existence for 
some time. 


Further light is thrown on this pheno- 
‘menon by another specimen which has 
been sent in, showing the death of the 
bark in patches after scraping. In this 
case it was detected at once, and there 
had been no time for its separation from 
the wood and the consequent formation 
of arubber pad. Normal Hevea bark is 
protected from injury by its outer brown 
dead layer. When this layeris scraped 
off, the inner tender living tissues are 
exposed and they immediately begin to 
die back. Asarule they die back uni- 
formly and form another continuous 
outer brown layer, but in some Gases, & 
patch of bark two or three inches in 
diameter dies right down to the cam- 
bium. When this dead patch splits 
away from the wood, rubber pads are - 
formed by the inflow of latex from the 
surrounding healthy bark. There seems 
to be no explanation, other than expo- 
sure to sunlight, ete., for the production 
of these patches of dead bark. I have 
not been able to find any fungus in them, 
though there is a well-known semi-para- 
sitic fungus of Hevea which might. be 
expected to produce sucha result. The 
fact that the dead bark is strictly 


limited, t.e., that the effect does not 
spread continuously, argues against any 
fungus agency. 

The facts detailed above support the 
statements that (a) the rubber pads can 
form independently of the use of the 
pricker, (6) the bark dies in patches in 
consequence of scraping, (c) the rubber 
pad is formed after, not before, the 
death of the bark. 

Exception has been taken to the state- 
ment recently made in this column that 
the rubber in Heveais a ‘waste pro- 
duct.” There have been practically 
no experiments or observations in this 
direction, the majority of investigators 
having occupied themselves with the 
question of obtaining the maximum 
amount of rubber from the tree, without 
troubling to consider how and where 
it was formed. The following observa- 
tion tends to support the ‘‘ waste pro- 
duct” theory. If a_ naturally shed 
Hevea leaf is taken, anda thin layer of 
the midrib on the back of the leaf is 
peeled off slowly, strands of rubber will 
be seen stretching across the angle 
between the strip which is being peeled 
off and the remainder of the midrib. 
This shows that when the leaves are 
shed naturally, e.g., at the initiation of 
the ‘‘ wintering” stage, the rubber which 
they contained remainsin them. The 
same result may be obtained with rather 
more trouble by extracting the rubber 
from the fallen leaves by means of 
carbon bisulphide. Now, according to 
Sachs’ investigations, before a tree sheds 
its leaves, all the potash, phosphoric 
acid, starch, etc., in them—in fact every- 
thingy which can be of further use to the 
- plant,—is transferred from the leaves to 
the stem. The dead leaf retains only 
waste products. The fact that the 
rubber is cast off inthe dead leaf tends 
therefore to support the view that it is 
also a waste product. 

Itis generally believed that all the rub- 
ber which is formed in the stem of 
a tree accumulates in the laticiferous 
tissue until the planter chooses to tap it ; 
that if he does not tap until the tree is 
eight years old, he will obtain all the 
rubber which was in the tree when it 
was, say, six years old, plus the amount 
which has formed in the additional two 
years, From a botanical standpoint 
this is improbable. After the stem has 
passed its green stage, it acquires the 
normal secondary cortex with a dead 
corky layer on the outside; aud as it 
grows. older, this corky layer increases 
in thickness. But the corky layer is 
formed from the laticiferous layers, 
This is readily seen when a tree is pared ; 
the exposed laticiferous tissue is then 


189 


Plant Sanitation. 


rapidly covered by a new corky layer 
which is obviously formed from it, 
Further, if a tree is tapped by the full 
spiral method with spirals one foot 
apart, and the tapping is stopped after 
a breadth of six inches has been cut 
away along each spiral, the original 
bark left between the spirals will in 
some cases scale off in flakes down to 
the level of the renewed bark. I have 
taken off seales of brown bark, ten 
inches long, which were formed between 
two spirals. Now, the brown corky 
layers, and the scales just referred to, 
were originally laticiferous ; and the cur- 
rent belief asswmes that this latex was 
transferred inwards to the inner bark 
when the corky layer was formed. But 
if the brown scales of corky bark are 
pounded up inamortar, and then ex- 
tracted with carbon bisulphide, it is 
found that they contain an appreciable 
quantity of rubber. Just asin the case 
of the leaves, therefore, rubber is dis- 
carded with the brown bark, and thus 
the current belief is shown to be incor- 
rect. When laticiferous bark is convert- 
ed into corky bark, the latex which it 
contains dries up, and the rubber is left 
in the dead layer. Some of the rubber 
which was in the tree at the age of six 
is undoubtedly rendered unavailable 
before the tree is eight years old. The 
amount might be estimated if the rate 
of growth of bark were known; it 
cannot bea very considerable quantity 
when the tree is young. 


lt appears therefore that the tree is 
always discarding rubber as well as 
manufacturing it, the balance being of 
course in favour of the latter process. 
This obviously contradicts the idea that 
the rubber from a six-year old tree is 
itself six years old, or that rubber 
extracted from an eight year old tree is 
necessarily older than that extracted 
from a six year old tree. However, this 
contradiction is superfluous, for it is 
evident that in any tree most of the 
latex is derived from near the cam- 
bium in the present systems of tap- 
ping, and that that latex is the most 
recently formed. 


It must be pointed out that the experi- 
ment referred to here is qualitative only, 
1.e., it only proves that rubber is dis- 
carded with the dry brown bark. Obvi- 
ously it is necessary to compare the 
actual weights-of rubber in equivalent 
volumes of laticiferous and brown bark 
respectively, before it can be asserted 
that all the rubber in a given thickness 
of laticiferous bark is rendered unavail- 
able when that bark is transformed into 
the corky brown layer. 

This is not intended to serve as an 
argument in favour of early tapping, 


Plant Sanitation. 


That interpretation of the experiment 
would involve the confusion of two 
distinct theories, viz., (1) thatall the 
rubber formed is stored in the laticifer- 
ous tissue and so ‘‘matures” there, and 
(2) that the rubber formed at the age of 
six is as ‘“‘strong’” as the rubber formed 
at the age of eight. The experiment 
proves that the first of these is, at least 
in part, incorrect; it gives no informa. 
tion whatever with regard to the second 


« 


NOTES ON PARASITES OR INSECTS 
THAT HAVE BEEN INTRODUCED 
FROM FOREIGN COUNTRIES TO 
CHECK OR EXTERMINATE 
INJURIOUS INSEOTS. 


Extracted from the Official Report on 
Fruit, Fly and other Pests, 1907-8. 


W. W. FROGGATT.) 
PARASITES, AND THEIR VALUE AND LIMI- 
TATIONS IN CONTROLLING INJURIOUS 
INSECTS OF THE GARDEN AND 
ORCHARD. 


One of the most interesting problems 
in the study of economic entomology is 
that of how far we can avail ourselves 
of the services of predaceous or useful 
insects that devour the injurious species, 
by introducing them from other coun- 
tries to check or exterminte in an arti- 
ficial manner native pests, or foreign 
accidentally-introduced ones that have 
become pests in their adopted home. 


The subject is sucha fascinating one, 
that most people are apt to rush to con- 
clusions before the matter las been in- 
vestigated from all points of view. 


After many years’ study in Australia, 
both in the field and _ laboratories, 
after information received personally 
from entomologists, horticultural com- 
missioners, orchardists, and inspectors 
during my extended travels, and after 
caretul reading of the many reports, 
bulletins, and newspaper cuttings issued, 
I propose to state my views on this pro- 
blem, and shall quote in conclusion 
the opinions of some of the leading 
authorities on the question. 

It is a fact that, if it were not for the 
countless millions of parasites (the majo- 
rity of them so minute that their work 


is never observed) which swarm in our ~ 


gardens and fields, there would be such 
an overwhelming multitude of caterpil- 
lars, grubs, aphides, and scale insects 
at work, that there would not be a green 
thing on the surface of the earth. 
Nature in this abundance of natural 
checks has provided for this balance of 
power, and it is so maintained under the 


140 


[Avaeust, 1909. 


ordinary natural conditions of the native 
forest and plains. Thus probably not 
more than 5 per cent. of the millions of 
eggs laid ever reach maturity and deve- 
lop into the adult insect. 


From their size, colour, and activity 
the fact that ladybird beetles were use- 
ful insects was well known by entomo- 
logists at a very early date, and in Kirby 
and Spence’s Entomology, published in 
1816, the authors called attention to 
the value of the common English lady- 
bird beetle to the hopgrowers in devour- 
ing their great pest, the hop aphis, in 
the south of England. ‘If we could but 
discover a mode of increasing these in- 
sects at will, we might not only clear 
Our hot-houses of aphides by their means, 
but render our crops of hops much more 
certain than they now are.” 


This is one of the earliest suggestions 
made regarding the artificial production 
of parasites. It is rather a significant 
fact that though this ladybird (Coccv- 
nella en uncals) is often so abund- 
ant in Kent that they are either blown 
out to sea in such quantities that the 
returning tide sweeps them up in long 
ridges along the sea shore, or else they 
cause quite a scare by Swarming into 
the houses in the summer time, yet the 
hop aphis regularly occurs every few 
years as a very serious pest. I, with 
many of the leading entomologists of 
the world, contend that, while we quite 
recognise the importance of parasitic 
insects in the work of keeping down 
insect pests under natural conditions of 
climate and cultivation in their own 
land, yet we certainly dispute the state- 
ments continually being made that every 
pest (and they even proposed to cure 
the bacterial disease ‘‘ pear blight” in 
California with a parasite) can be dealt 
with by finding and introducing para- 
sites from the country whence the pest 
is supposed to have originated. 

If wishing for popularity, nothing 
could be simpler than to advocate the 
adoption of parasitic methods, for there 
is a certain amount of plausibility in 
the theory of introduced parasites to 
eradicate all pests that appeals to in the 
general public, who have not gone into 
tbe why and the wherefore of the matter, 
and particularly to the orchardist, who 
naturally wishes to give up spraying 
and: fumigating, if he can simply turn 
outa colony of parasites, sit back, and 
they will do the work. As the results of 
the parasite introductions become better 
known, and the misstatements and 
exaggerations with which they have been 
surrounded are swept away, there will 
be a revulsion of feeling, results credited 
to parasites will be explained in other 
ways, the introduced parasites will take 


Avaust, 1909.] 


the position in our methods of eradicat- 
ing pests that their services deserve, and 
will not be extolled as a cure for every ill 
connected with horticulture. 

Any observant person can follow the 
rise of insect life in its native land under 
natural surroundings. For example: A 
tree becomes so badly infested with scale 
insects that they form a regular incrust- 
ation on the stem and twigs, then, as 
with one of our commonest eucalptus 
scale insects, Hriococcus coriaceous, we 
soon find a host of hungry insects taking 
it in hand. Several of the black lady- 
bird beetles (Rhizobius) devour the scale 
both in the beetle and larval state ; then, 
too, the eggs of the pretty little moth 
Thalpocharis coccophaga are placed 
among the scale by the moth, and the 
resultant larve not only devour the 
scale but use up portions of their outer 
skin to construct the stout cocoons under 
which they are well protected. Other 
parasites also are attracted by the 
abundant food supply, until the twigs 
are only frigned with ragged bits of 
scales, and before the season is over the 
tree is apparently clean and quite 
recoversits former vitality. If, however, 
you visit the same bush the following 
season you will be almost sure to find it 
more or less intested with the same 
scale from the survivors of the last year ; 
it was only the surperabundance of scale 
that had been destroyed; and the in- 
festation will increase until it again 
attracted insects looking for food, which 
again breed np. 

Itis a question of cause and effect > 
the pest must appear before the parasite; 
or there is no food, and in the forest and 
uncultivated land this works out its own 
salvation; but under the different con- 
ditions of the growth of cultivated plants 
and trees we cannot afford to wait until 
they are badly infested. 


And another important factor in the 
sole control of pests with useful insects 
is that the latter cannot eat up all their 
food supply, or elsethey in turn would 
die out, while if they leave even a small 
percentage in the orchard (in particular) 
their value is very much discounted. 


Changes of climate make an in:mense 
difference to insects ; and thousands of 
parasites have been forwarded from 
temperate climates to semi-tropical coun- 
tries, with the result that, theugh 
surrounded with food when liberated, 
they have wandered away and died. 
This was the case with large quantities 
of ladybird beetles that we sent to India 
and Ceylon some years ago; there was 
plenty of food for them, but they never 
became acclimatised, so the experiment 
was dropped, and other means were 
taken by the tea and coffee planters. 


141 


Plant Sanitation. 


It has also been the habit to credit the 
introduced insect with all the dead seale 
upon the infested plant, whereas we 
always find on a badly-infested tree a 
large percentage Of dead scalés that have 
died or remained undeveloped from many 
other causes. The native useful insects, 
perhaps more numerous than the in- 
troduced ones, and often quite as active, 
are ignored in tbe glowing and _ usually 
exaggerated accounts given ‘by the 
parasite introducer. 


There is another great factor in 
the increase of insect pests that under 
their natural surroundings were per- 
fectly harmless to cultivated plants and 
crops; we cut down and burn up the 
forests and plough up the grass lands, 
and thus destroy the food supplies of 
the insects that existed there. Many of 
the more delicate perish, while the more 
robust, or those that are fortunate 
enough to find plants alied to those des- 
troyed in the newly-planted trees or field 
crops suitable for food, turn their at- 
tention to the cultivated things, and 
adapting themselves to the altered con- 
ditions and with a bountiful supply of 
food, they often increase to such swarms 
as to prove the very worst kind of pest. 


The question is often asked ‘‘ Why 
do the grasshopper, locust, and cut- 
worm plagues only Occur every few 
years ina very acute state, though we 
always have a few about?” There are 
several reasons :—First, climatic condi- 
tions, suchasa very dry or very wet 
season, check or increase the develop- 
ment of the eggs; next, we find that 
many Of these recurrent plagues gradu- 
ally increase in intensity for several 
years until they have reached their 
limit; then parasites increase in pro- 
poration, or fungus diseases, which are 
spread by the immense number of 
insects contaminating the feeding 
grounds, ill them off in millions. 


Before we can go into the question of 
pests and parasites, itis only reasonable 
that we should first know something 
about the habits and life histories otf 
the insects of both pests and parasites 
before we attempt to alter the balance 
of nature, and set ‘‘bug to fight bug” 
-—a pupolar saying in the United States. 
Yet we are often told, in the news- 
papers and elsewhere, that it is not 
necessary to be an entomologist to un- 


_ dertake the collection and introduction 


of foreign parasites; that it is a dis- 
advantage, in fact, for one may be too 
good an entomologist to be a practical 
man. The danger of a practical man 
whois nota naturalist introducing nox- 
ious insects or the parasites of useful 
insects is very much greater than if the 


Plant Sanitation. 


work be in the hands of a trained 
entomologist who knows his work. The 
latter may not introduce so many 
insects, but there is a very much greater 
possibility of their being of use. 


The ideal introduced parasite is one 
that can be bred ina large State or a 
private insectarium in sufficient num- 
bers that it can be distributed just at 
the critical time when the particular 
pest it destroys is in evidence, which, 
when it is once liberated in the orchard 
and garden, can establish itself against 
all comers in sufficient numbers, adapt 
itself to its surroundings, and, when 
its food supply is exhausted or has 
reached the vanishing point (a natural 
consequence if it is to be an effective 
parasite), will either find some other 
insect to devour, or will hibernate until 
fresh supplies come into existence. 


The discovery of such an admirable 
parasite has been proclaimed again and 


142 


[Avevst, 1909 


again; but it is much to be regretted 
that. it has become the habit of entomo- 


_ logical collectors to enlarge upon the 


great value of their discovery before 
the insects have reached their desti- 
nation, and to proclaim, not what it has 
done, but what it is expected to do 
when introduced intoits new home. 


Its admirers should be perfectly hon- 
est ; and if a friendly introduced insect 
from which, rightly or wrongly, great 
things had been expected turns out on 
further trial to be a failure, they should 
say so;andthey should never proclaim 
results for a parasite till those results 
have actually been proved in its adopted 
country, for the wisest can never be 
sure of the results of any experiment. 

Economic entomology is a _ great 
commercial science, and those at work 
for its far-reaching interests could do 
it no greater harm than by misleading 
or unproved statements. 


MISGELLANEOUS PESTS. 


THE PROPAGATION 
LORANTAUS. 


OF 


(Extracts from ‘‘Observations on the 
Lovanthacee of Ceylon,” by F. W. Keeble. 
Trans. Linn. Soc., Vol. V., Pt. 8, 1896.) 


Many Cingalese members of the genus 
Loranthus have large and conspicuous 
flowers; in such the corolla is brightly 
coloured, more or less tubular, and 
generally 5-lobed. 


In many of the Cingalese species a slit 
occurs in the corolla-tube, whereby, at 
the time of opening, the upper part of 
the tube by growth of its inner surface 
opens out laterally, so that all the five 
lobes, whose inner surfaces also at the 
same time grow more rapidly than their 
outer, come to stand in arow, and the 
stamens also which arise from the bases 
of the lobes similarly stand side by side. 

In enquiring into the significance of 
these slits it must be remembered that, 
as other observers have already shown, 
these tube-flowered Loranths are bird- 
fertilized. My own observations confirm 
this, for in Ceylon the common honey- 
sucker, a species of Nectarinia, is always 
to be found, especially in the early 
morning, visiting these flowers. 


I shot some of these birds which were 
busy ina Loranthus bush and found their 
beaks covered with pollen. Whether 
other birds also act as carriers of Loran- 
thus pollen I could not determine. Now, 
birds are less precise in their methods 


than buttertlies, and the pcl!en-carriers— 
their beaks—are much larger and by no 
means symmetrical. By the spreading 
slit or throat a bird’s beak has ample 
space to reach the nectar which fills the 
pottom of the tube. Thus the natural 
slit saves the flower to some extent, but 
not wholly, from being torn. Further, 
the arrangement of the stamens side by 
side, rendered possible by the opening 
cout of the part of the corolla-tube above 
the slit, has the important effect of ex- 
posing the dehiscent surfaces of all five 
stamens to one side (the upper) of che 
birds’s beak, so that the pollen is rubbed 
on the whole of that surface. Since the 
stigma, projecting beyond the stamens, 
is so placed that it too will touch this 
upper surface, it is clear that the con- 
finement of the pollen to this surface, 
effected in the manner just described, 
tends to render pollination more certain. 


The most noticeable appearance in a 


‘bush of L. loniceroides is the large num- 


ber of fully mature flower-buds contrast- 
ed with the number of open flowers. The 
explanation is simple. The fower-bud of 
L. loniceroides, though fully developed 
in all respects, remains closed. If the 
apex of the corolla of such a flower-bud 
be gently struck, the lobes fly apart, 
exposing stigma and ripe pollen-bearing 
stamens. These lobes, once released, 
continue, by growth of their inner sur- 
faces, to bend backward till they are 
reflexed on themselves, and there is no 
doubt that fully-developed flower-buds" 


 Aveust, 1909.] 


‘remain closed, when all that is required 
for the release of the adherent apices of 


the lobes isa gentle tap. Such a tap is 
rovided by the fertilising agent, a bird 
a species of Nectarinia); and I would 
suggest that this remaining closed of the 
ripe flowers is an instance of close rela- 
tionship, beneficial to both ‘‘ parties,” 
between flower and fertilizer; the bird 
knows it is worth its while to “tap a 
new barrel” as it were; moreover, the 
parts of the flower are protected from 
the damaging effects of exposure to 
wet. 


Such exploding flowers are by no 
means confined to this species (L. lont- 
ceroides), but in a more or less degree 
characterize the Cingalese large-flower- 
ed Loranths, 


Whether opening of ripe flower-buds 
without a tapping on the apex occurs, 
I cannot assert; although various obser- 
vations seem to show that, at all events, 
many buds, unless tapped, remain closed. 

Thus unopened corollas which have 
become detached at the base of the tube, 
and slipped down the style, are com- 
monly to be seen hanging on this persis- 
tent style. Insuch cases there is some 
chance of self-fertilization, as has been 
suggested for other genera. The inac- 
cessibility of the flowers rendered experi- 
ment difficult; but the following was 
tried, with a view to determining the 
question of the opening or non-opening 
of the untouched flower-bud. Twelve 
apparently fully-developed flower-buds 
of L. loniceroides (on a Peach tree) were 
covered by fine muslin. At the end of 
three weeks the results were :— 


Unopened, Opened. Unopened and Opened and 
dropped, dropped, 
4 2 4 2 


so that, though the numbers are too 
small to admit of generalizing, it may 
be pointed out that two-thirds of the 
flower-buds did not open—and that the 
sources of error, such as rubbing against 
the netting, all favour of the opening 
of the buds, 


The first day on which explosions were 
observed by me was bright and sunny, 
and it was subsequently noted that the 
explosions occurred with greater readi- 
ness on such occasions than on days 
when rain was falling. When a host- 
branch was cut down, the flower-buds 
on the Loranthus bush borne by it soon— 
in the course of less than one hour-—lost 
their power of opening, even in response 
toa smart tap. 


Iu addition to the ‘‘use” suggested 
above for this prolonged flower-bud 
state—viz., in procuring a closer relation 


148 


Miscellaneous Pests. 


between flower and fertilize r—-another 
advantage, the protection of the pollen 
from rain, may be urged. 


It might be supposed that in tropical 
flowers there is no need for protection 
against damp or rain effects, but the 
Loranthacee of Ceylon, probably fora 
reason to be referred to immediately, 
flower very largely in the wet season, 
and of the fifteen Cinhalese species five 
are, according to Trimen, confined to the 
moist low country (L. nodiflorus, L. ensi- 
folius, L. lonchiphyllus, L. Gardneri, 
and LZ. capttellatus). 


Many of the Cingalese species flower 
all the year round, and when I mention 
that eight species which do so grow in 
the hills, and that of these hills Blanford 
states ‘‘the only season that can be 
called fine is restricted to the first 4 or 
43 months of the year, and even in 
these it rains on one day in 3 or 4,” it 
will, I think, be conceded that a pro- 
tection of pollen against rain is by no 
means unnecessary. 


Roxburgh, in his ‘Flora Indica,’ and 
Kurz, in ‘Forest Flora of British Bur- 
mah,’ both distinctly mention, in des- 
eribing various species, that some, e.g., 
Loranthus scurrula, flower during the 
wet season, and that others flower all 
the year round. 


Hence I conclude that this ‘‘ exploding 
mechanism” has the highly important 
function of protecting the pollen from 
rain, and that an additional advantage 
is gained in that a more specialized rela- 
tion betweer bird and flower is enforced. 

The ‘“‘reason” why flowering occurs 
during the wet months lies probably in 
the fact that the seeds will only ger- 
minate in moist air; at all events I 
have found that in moist air the hypo- 
cotylsreach their host-branch in a few 
days, whereas in dry air two weeks are 
often insufficient. Hence it may be that 
many Loranthus species have acquired 
the habit of flowering in the wet season 
in orde: that their seeds may germi- 
nate rapidly, and on this view the 
special pollen protection is of no little 
interest, 


MoDE OF DISTRIBUTION OF THE SHEDS. 


The berry-like fruits of these Loranthus 
are, technically speaking, indehiscent; 
yet, owing partly to growth of the 
embryo, partly to the weakening of the 
fruit-wall, in some species, this latter 
becomes ruptured on the ripening of the 
fruits, eg., Loranthus neelgherrensis, 
L. cuwneatus; in others a very slight 
pressure is sufficient to cause the com- 
plete extrusion of the seed, sometimes 
basally, sometimes apically. In most 


Miscellaneous Pests. 


eases the seed slips out, butin Viscum 
orientale, Wild., a gentle pressure causes 
the fruit-wall to crack and the seed to 
be jerked out. The fruits of Cingalese 
Loranthaceze are comparatively large, 
often 2. cm. in leugth. 


On the other hand, the two birds 
which in Ceylon chiefly feed on the 
Loranthus fruits are very small; one 
Diceum = mininum=Diceuwm_ erythro- 
rhynchum (Legge), is the smallest bird 
in Ceylon; the other is Pachyglossa 
vincens (Legge)=Prionochilus vincens 
‘Murray), a flower-pecker peculiar to 
Ceylon. Of these, the former has, on 
account of its assiduity in visiting: Loran- 
thus fruits, earned foritself in Ceylon 
the name of the ‘ Parasite-bird.’ 

The smallness of the bird and the 
largeness of the fruit may together con- 
stitnte the main reason why the bird 
has adopted—as will be shown—the habit 
of squeezing the seed out of the fruit 
and rejecting the fruit-coat. The large 
quantity of tannin which this fruit-coat 
contains may also have operated to 
produce this result. That the above- 
mentioned birds have acquired the habit 
of extracting the seeds is shown by the 
following observations. Under a tree, 
bearing a Loranthus bush in fruit, many 
empty husks are to be found, and such 
husks bear V-shaped marks of birds’ 
beaks. lhavealso seen a bird, Diceum 
minimum, perched on a Loranthus bush 
sucking a seed, having rejected the husk. 
This proceeding is doubtless a very 
general one with birds. The ‘Paddy- 
bird’ in Ceylon extracts the rice-grain 
and leaves the husk; and I have seen a 
Parrot ‘‘shuck” a pea-pod, extract the 
peas, and reject the pod. 


Further, in none of the many birds I 
shot and dissected, did the gut contain 
a fruit-coat, though it was generally 
quite distended with pulpy matter which 
had been extracted from thefruit. That 
this habit of squeezing out the seed 
betokens a special love, on the part of 
the birds, for Loranthus berries seems 
shown by the fact that other birds, 
which only visit the fruit when their 
more usual food is scarce, have not 
acquired the habit. Thus I shot a 
common Bulbul (Chloropsis Jerdoni) in 
whose crop were several whole fruits of 
L. loniceroides. About a dozen ‘ Para- 
gite-birds’ were dissected ; in some pulp 
only was found (pulp of L. loniceroides), 
in others pulp with one seed, in others 
pulp with as many as three seeds. 

Of the seeds so obtained, some (L. neel- 
gherrensis) germinated successfully ; 
others, however, were soft and rotten, 
having been quite killed by the digestive 
juices. 


144 Fs 


|Avaust, 1909. ; 


Now, in the course of a morning, a bird 
visits far more than three fruits ; indeed, 
the assiduity of the bird in gorging 
berries is remarkable; yet three was the 
greatest number found. Moreover, of 
seeds swallowed,-some are so attacked 
by digestive juices as to be killed; thus 
when, as not infrequently happens, 
groups of seeds of Loranthus and Viscum 
species are found mixed with birds 
excrement, most are completely rotten. 


Hence probably the birds seek the 
large fruits of such Loranthus species as 
L. longiflorus, £. loniceroides, L. neel- 
gherrensis, L. capitellalus, &c., primarily 
for the pulp formed from the middle 
layer of the fruit-coat; but occasionally 
the birds in their greed swallow the 
seeds; and of these, some are digested 
toan extent to render them unfit for 
germination, while possibly others pass 
through the gut uninjured. Ifa reason 
other than that of the large size of many 
of the Ceylon species of Loranthus be 
sought to account for the fact that the 
birds generally avoid swallowing the 
seeds, it may perhaps be found in 
this,—that the endosperm and embryo ot 
such seed as those. of L. neelgherrensis, 
L. loniceroides, and L. longifiorus, and 
probably of many others, are ex- 
ceedingiy rich in tannin. A curious 
observation confirms the view to which 
the above remarks point, viz., that the 
birds get rid of the seeds by wiping or 
striking their bills against branches or 
other convenient objects. At the Hill 
Garden of Hakgala (5,500 ft.) Zoranthi 
grow luxuriantly. On the single tele- 
graph-wire there are every year hun- 
dreds of seedlings of ZL. loniceroides, all 
in early stages of germination. It can 
hardly be supposed that the seeds arrive 
at this anomalous position as a conse- 
quence of being voided, but rather that 
the birds free their beaks of them by 
striking or rubbing against the wire. 


If due weight be given to the above- 
enumerated considerations and obser- 
vations, it will, I think, be conceded 
that, at least in the majority of cases, 
the seeds of the large species of Loran- 
thus reach their hosts without having 
passed through the alimentary canals of 
birds, and that their distribution is asso- 
ciated with an acquired habit on the 
part of the birds. This acquired habit 
consists in the birds first extracting the 
seed from the fruit-covering, and second- 
ly, rejecting the seed and fruit-wall, both 
of which are richin taninn, the bird’s 
object being to obtain the sweetish pulp 
(which contains a little, but only a little 
tannin); and thirdly, in the wiping-off 
of the seeds which stick to the bill on a 
convenient place, usually a branch. 


| 
ee ee 


-Avaust, 1909] 


- The alternative mode of distribution 
mentioned by Engler and Prantl, where- 
by the seed, shaken ont from the fruit 
as it falls, sticks to any opposed object, 
is, I believe, of such rare occurrence as 
to be negligible, although the seeds are 
frequently dropped by birds, feeding on 
a branch, on the ground beneath. 


PROFESSOR ROSS’ LECTURE 
BEFORE THE ROYAL INSTITUTION 
OF GREAT BRITAIN. 


(From the African Mail, Vol. II., No. 85, 
May, 1909.) 

On 7th May, Sir Francis Laking, Bart., 
G.C. V.O., Vice-President in the chair, 
Major Ronald Ross (Nobel Laureate ) 
read a paper before the Royal Insti- 
tution of Great Britain on ‘The Cam- 
paign against Malaria.” The following 
are extracts from the above paper :— 


More than nine years ago [ had the 
privilege of addressing the Royal Insti- 
tution on the subject of my researches 
on the mode of infection in malarial 
fever; and I am now called upon to des- 
eribe what has been done, or not done, 
in various countries to utilise for the 
alleviation of the disease the information 
then obtained. 


As deseribed in my previous lecture, 
the broad principles of this theorem 
were really fully established by the end 


‘of the year 1898. Although numerous 


minor details still required study—such 
as the precise species of mosquitoes 
which carry the infection in various coun- 
tries, the exact habits of each species, 
and so on,—-yet I held that these ques- 
tions could now be elucidated without 
dfficulty in the ordinary course of work, 
and that we are already in a position to 
apply the discovery at once to the sav- 
ing of human health and life. I propose, 
therefore, to take up _the story again 
from this point. 

First, let me emphasise the great im- 
portance of this practical side of the 
subject. Malarial fever is spread over 
nearly whole of the Tropics, abounds 
in many temperate climates, and has 
been known to extend as far north as 
Sweden. In vast tracts of Tropical 
Africa, Asia, America and of Southern 
Europe, almost every town and village is 
infested by it; millions of children suffer 
from it from birth to puberty ; and native 
adults, though they tend to become parti- 
ally immune, still remain subject to 
attacks ofit. Although it is not often 
directly fatal, yetit is soextremely pre- 
valent, so edemic in locality, so persistent 
in the individual, that the total bulk of 


19 


145 


Miscellaneous Pests. 


misery caused by it is quite incalculable, 
More than this, its special predilection for 
the most fertile areas renders it economi- 
cally a most disastrous enemy to man- 
kind. ‘Throughout tropical life it 
thwarts the traveller, the missionary, 
the planter, the soldier, and the adminis- 
trator. Krom one-quarter to one-half of 
the total admissions into military hospi- 
tals are returned as being due to it, and 
it is often the most formidable foe which 
military expeditions have to encounter. 
There are reasons for thinking that it 
directly increases the general death-rate 
of malarious countries by something like 
50 per cent., and | venture to say that 
it has profoundly modified the history of 
mankind by doing more than anything 
else to hamper the work of civilisation 
in the Tropics. Only those who have 
studied the disease from house to house, 
from village to village, can form any 
true notion of the total effect which it 
must produce throughout the world, 


Next let us recall briefly the various 
methods which we possess for preventing 
and reducing the disease.- The oldest 
of these—known to us since the time of 
the Romans—is drainage of the soil. The 
reason why it succeeds became quite 
obvious after 1898—because it tends to 
remove the terrestrial pools and marshes 
in which the Anophelines, that is, the 
family of mosquitoes which carry mala- 
ria, breed. But the new discoveries not 
only explained the eld method, but also 
rendered it more simple, cheap, and yet 
precise by showing us exactly what 
waters, namely, those in which the larve 
of the Anophelines actually occur, are 
to be drained away, or filled up, or 
otherwise treated. But science has given 
us other methods as well. Thus we have 
known for along time that quinine is a 
preventiveas well as a cure—thatif, for 
example, a body Of men are given qui- 
nine with regularity they will suffer less 
from fever in consequence. Still further, 
the old saying that the use of mosquito 
nets at night will keep off malaria was 
now fully justified—not because the nets 
exclude any serial poison, but simply be- 
cause they exclude the infecting insects. 

This simple precaution can, moreover, 
be extended by protecting all. the win- 
dows of a house by wire gauze, as already 
frequently done in the Southern States 
of America, Punkas and electric fans 
also serve to keep away the insects ; and 
lastly, segregation of Europeans from 
native quarters, as used so largely in 
India, will help to keep them from 
mosquitoes infected by native children 
(who suffer so frequently from the 
disease). It was thus apparent that if the 
inhabitants of malarious countries could 
be persuaded to protect themselves by 


<2 es 


Miscellaneous Pests. i Avaust, 1909. be 3 


146 


mosquito nets or quinine, or if the 
Governments of such countries could be 
persuaded to undertake suitable drain- 
age and other measures against mosqui- 
toes, much improvement in the public 
health was likely to accrue. 


But how precisely was such persu- 
asion to be undertaken? Of course I 
do not allude to utterly barbarous 
peoples, to areas far beyond the _ influ- 
ence of civilisation—which are happily 
shrinking in magnitude every day. 
allude to independent or dependent 
States professing themselves civilised, 
and to the numerous colonies of the 
great civilised nations. Here we already 
possess the requisite machinery. Such 
States or colonies are administered by 
Governors and Councils, and for the most 
part possess medical and sanitary depart- 
ments controlled by well paid Officials, 
whose special duty is to attend to such 
affairs. Many dependencies, moreover, 
such as some of those of Britain, are 
placed under the central government 
of the nation concerned, and can be 
influenced by it. It might be supposed, 
then, at the period referred to. all such 
administrations would have gladly inter- 
ested themselves in the prevention of a 
disease which produces so much mis- 
ehief, and of which the cause had been 
so clearly elucidated; that they would 
at once have set about collecting preli- 
minary information and commencing at 
least some experimental trials. So far 
as I can see there is no real reason why 
this was not done every where nearly ten 
Years ago. 


Unfortunately, though science may 
provide us with facts, humanity is slow 
to eredit them, and still more slow to take 
advantage of them. History is full of 
examples of this. For instance, years 
elapsed before the discovery of Jenner 
was fully utilised—it is not fully utilised 
even yet. Another instance, closely con- 
nected with malaria is that of filarvisis, 
a parasitic disease of which elephantiasis 
is one manifestation. More than thirty 
years ago very good evidence was given 
to shew that it is carried by mosquitoes; 
and, considering the horrible and wide- 
spread deformities which it produces, 
one would have thought that strong 
efforts would have quickly been made 
to control it by reducing the carrying 
agents. So far asI can ascertain, how- 
ever, scarcely anything has yet been 
even attempted againstit. No one has 
interested himself seriously in the mat- 
ter, and consequently nothing has been 
done. 


1t was therefore early apparent to me 
that, although the machinery for exten- 
sive anti-malarial work existed in many 


countries, yet it would not easily be got 
to work unless someone could be found 
who would devote himself to the task 
—neither a pleasant nora profitable one 
—of urging it forward, and I felt that 
the duty devolved on myself in the ab- 
sence of others, as regards British terri- 
tory. Happily Angelo Celli and Robert 
Koch occupied themselves similarly as 
regards Italy and Germany; and the 
creation of the Schools of Tropical Medi- 
cine in Liverpool and London in 1899 
did much to popularise the recent dis- 
coveries. 


When I left India in 1899 I hoped that 
the great dependency of the British 
Crown, with its powerful Government 
and well-appointed medical and sanitary 
services, would lead the way against 
malaria, a disease which causes untold 
sickness and possibly some millions of 
deaths annually in the country; but 
though many local campaigns have been 
started by individual medical men, and 
though there has been a steady fall in 
the malaria rate of the army, I can find 
no evidence of the generalised effort 
agairst the disease. Less than three 
months ago I attended the Medical Con- 
gress at Bombay, largely for the purpose 
of inquiring into the reason of this, and 
concluded that though many eapable 
officers both of the Indian Medical Ser- 
vice and of the Royal Army Medical 
Corps had done their best, yet that the 
necessary leadership and organisation 
were wanting in India as in West Africa. 
An ill-judged and_ ill-conducted experi- 
ment at Mian Mir had done much to 
paralyse all efforts in this direction, and 
I gathered that anti-malarial campaigns 
were not popular among certain officials. 
Neither the Indian Government nor the 
Medical Services can be congratulated 
on the result. 


Some years ago the Secretary of State 


for the Colonies issued a cireular to the 


Governors of Crown Colonies asking for 
information as to what has been done in 
each against malaria and other mosquito- 
borne diseases, and statements on the 
matter from twenty-one colonies were 
published in the Report of the Advisory 
Committee of the Tropical Diseases Re- 
search Fund for 1907. I have ecritised 
these statements in detail elsewhere. 
Only those furnished by seven Colonies, 


namely, Southern Rhodesia, Papua, 
Mauritius, British Central Africa, Gam- 
bia, Ceylon, and Southern Nigeria, 


shewed evidence of any real interest in 
the matter. 


For a number of years I have had 
very good opportunities of learning the 
truth as to what is really being done in 
many of these and other dependencies. 


_ Auaust, 1909.] 147 


It may generally be summed up in two 
words —very little. 

Festering pools, which might have 
been cleared years ago tor a_ few 
shillings or pounds, are left in the heart 
of important towns to posion all around 
them ; quinine prophylaxis is neglected, 
and house-sereening forgotten. Kew 
efforts are made even to estimate the 
local distribution of the disease, much 
less to organise any serious efforts 
against it, although it may be causing, 
perhaps, half the sickness in the place. 

Want of funds is always an excuse 
which is urged, and is always a false 
excuse. Muchcan be done at almost na 
expense, and the men who have actually 
carried out the work successfully in 
Panama, Ismailia, the Federated Malay 
States, and Italy, have expressly de- 
clared the cheapness of it. Many a 
town could be kept clear of malaria for 
the amount, say, of the salary of a 
single Huropean official. I estimate that 
a sixth of the medical and sanitary bud- 
get should generally suffice to reduce a 
disease which often causes half the sick- 
ness. But instead of doing really useful 
work which would benefit everyone, the 
Authorities too often fritter away their 
funds on trifling schemes. I maintain 
that the health of the people has the 
first claim on the public purse. 


Miscellaneous Pests. 


Another excuse is that the possibility 
of preventing malaria has not been 
proved, but when one questions the 
sceptics one generally finds they have not 
troubled to study literature. 


I have now outlined the general course 
of events, The immediate success 
which we had hoped for ten years ago 
has not been attained. 


The battle still rages along the whole 
line; but it is no longer a battle against 
malaria, Malaria we know, we under- 
stand fully, we can beat down when we 
please. The battle which we are now 
fighting is against human stupidity. 
Those of us who have taken part in it— 
not too numerous—know what it has 
been. We have written and lectured 
aud nauseam; we have interviewed 
ministers, members of Parliament and 
Governors ; we have appealed to learned 
societies; we have sought the support 
of distinguished people, and we have re- 
ceived—sympathy., We have reasoned, 
and been ridiculed ; we have given the 
most stringent experimental proofs, 
and been disbelieved; we have pro- 
tested, and been called charlatans. I 
think that not one of those young men 
who have pioneered this important 
work in the field has ever received 
thanks for his labours. 


LIVE STOCK. 


CATTLE BREEDING IN TRINIDAD. 
(From the Agricultural News, Vol. VIL, 
No. 183, May 1, 1909.) 

A Select Committee of the Agricultural 

Society of Trinidad and Tobago was 
appointed in July last to consider and 
report upon the question of cattle breed- 
ing in the colony, with special reference 
to securing the full benefit of stock at 
the Government Farm for breeding for 
beef, milk, and draft. The report of this 
Committee was published in the Proceed- 
imgs of the Society for February last. 
_ The average annual value of the cattle 
imported into Trinidad during the past 
five years has been £43,000, and the num- 
ber 7,000. It will be seen, therefore, that 
there is abundant reason for making 
every possible effort to encourage cattle 
breeding in the colony, and provided the 
most suitable breeds are selected, the 
industry should be made to prove 
remunerative. 

_The Committee discuss in separate sec- 
tions the raising of cattle for beef, for 
milking purposes, and for draft respec- 
tively. In breeding for beef, itis stated 


that the most suitable crosses hitherto 
obtained in Trinidad appear to have 
been those of the Hereford and half-bred 
Zebu, and the Red Polled and half-bred 
Zebu. The Red Polled has shown itself 
to bea satisfactory butcher’s beast; it 
requires less fattening than many other 
breeds, and has the further advantage of 
being a good milker, There does not 
appear to have been much experience in 
T'rinidad with the Hereford, which is the 
primary beef breed of cattle in England. 
A number of Hereford bulls have been 
imported, but these have all died shortly 
after importation—a fact which leads to 
the suggestion that all bulls should be 
imported as calves, and not as full-grown 
beasts. This breed hasa great reputa- 
tion in Jamaica, and has done well in 
Tobago, Theanimals fatten readily, and 
give beef of very good quality. 


Opinion in Trinidad is divided as to 
the breeds of cows which are likely to be 
most successful for dairy purposes in the 
colony. The Committee, in their report, 
draw attention to the well-known and 
excellent milk-yielding qualities of the 
Jersey and Guernsey breeds. Cows of 


Live Stock. 


these breeds have piroved very satis- 
factory inthe West Indiesand fully kept 
up their high reputation. No mention 
is made of the Ayrshire, which is recog- 
nized all over Great Britain as a most 
economical and satisfactory cow tor the 
dairyman. The Holstein or Dutch breed 
is another variety which in England as 
well as in many continental countries 
has earned. a well-established reputation 
for yielding alargeand profitable return 
of milk. The butter-fat content of this 
milk, however, is usually slightly below 
the average. Dutch cows have done 
well in Trinidad, and one practical cattle 
breeder recommended a cross between 
this breed and the Zebu, the result of 
which, in the opinion of the gentleman 
referred to, ‘should make an invaluable 
dairy cow, combining the temper and 
milk-giving qualities of the Holstein 
with the hardy and healthy constitution 
of the Zebu.’ The Red Polled and the 
Shorthorn breeds have also given satis- 
factory results as dairy cattle in 
Trinidad. 


Yor draft purposes, it is evident that 
the Zebu breed of cattle is pre-eminently 
suitable. The further fact that they are 
so useful for crossing with other breeds 
renders this variety the most valuable 
yet introduced into the colony. Apart 
from the pure-bred Zebu, the animals 
resulting of across between this breed 
and the Hereford are also especially 
useful as draft cattle. 


The Committee recommend that bulls 
of the breeds referred to, together with 
pure-bred cows, be imported, and that 
an effort be made to establish and main- 
tain three separate classes of cattle 
especially suitable for beef, milk pro- 
duction, and draft respectively. 


COMBATING MITES AND LICE ON 


POULTRY. - 


(Krom the Agricultural News, Vol. VIILIL., 
No. 176, January 23, 1909.) 

The accompanying notes, dealing with 
lice and mites on poultry and in poultry- 
houses, supplement~> the information 
given on this subject in a recent rumber 
of the Agricultural News (November 14 
last, p. 862). These notes, with others, 
have lately been issued in leaflet form 
by the United States Department of 
Agriculture :— : 


There are several varieties of lice that 
attack poultry. 
the feathers, and perhaps on the epider- 
mal seales. They are found largely on 
the head and neck, under the wings 


148 


They subsist mainly on. 


Meh 
343 Ae 
Sa 


be 


in large numbers they cause the fowls 
much discomfort. Pyrethrum, or Per- 
sian insect powder, powdered sulphur, 
und some of the various preparations on 
the market, such as the louse powders, 
are good in combating these pests. The 
hens can be dusted with one of these 
powders after they have gone to roost. 
Have the powder in a box with a per- 
forated cover, grasp the fowl] by the legs, 
and shake the powder well among the 
feathers. Dust atleast three times, at 


_ intervals of about a week, in order to 


eatch the lice which hatch out after the 
first dusting. The mites subsist on the- 
blood of the fowls, and are not usually 
found on the bodies of the bird, except 
when at roost or on the nest, During 
the day they inhabit cracks and crevices 
of the walls, roosts, and nests. Sitting 


‘hens ave often so annoyed that they are 


compelled to leave the nest in order to 
relieve themselves of these parasites. 
The free use of kerosene about the nests 
and perches is useful in fighting the 
mites. The walls of the house may be 
sptayed with kerosene, the operation 
being repeated every three or four days 
for two weeks. Insect powders are of 
little avail. 


The following method has proved ex- 
cellent in ridding houses of mites and lice 
when the weather conditions are such 
as to permit the birds being kept outside 
the house for five or six hours: Close 
all the doors and windows, and see that 
there are no cracks or other openings to 
admit air. Get aniron vessel and set it 
on gravel or sand near the centre of the 
house ; place a handful of shavings in the 
vessel, saturate this with kerosene oil, 
and then sprinkle on the top of the shav- 
ings a quantity of sulphur, estimated at 
the rate of 1 lb. to every 90 or 100 square 
feet of floor space. Instead of using the 
shavings and kerosene, the sulphur can 
pe saturated with wood alcohol. When 
everything else is in readiness, light the — 
material and hastily leave the house. 
There is very little danger of fire when 
proper precautions have been taken to 
have plenty of soil beneath the vessel. 
Allow the house to remain closed for 
three or 1{0ur hours, at the end of which 
time one can safely conclude that there 
are no living beings inside. Now throw 
all the doors and windows wide open, 
so as to drive out the sulphur fumes 
thoroughly, and then the fowls may be 
allowed to enter. Let them in one by 
one, and as each enters catch it and dust 
it well with insect powder, which will 
destroy the pests on the birds. — 


- Tobacco dust is also good to use in- 


stead of insect powder. The birds an 


[Aueus , 1900. pie 


and about the vent, and when present — 


eee Te eee 


we. Va 


“c 
; 


queens of the same race. 


she is three to six days old.” 


- Aveusii, 1909.] 


~ house will have been freed from vermin 


fora time, but the eggs of the insects have 
not been destroyed, and in a week an- 
other swarm will be hatched out. There- 
fore, it will be necessary to repeat the 
operation once or twice before the pests 


149 


Live Stock. 


are exterminated. After this, care 
should be taken to see that no strange 
fowl be admitted to the house or yard 
without having been thoroughly rid of 
lice, as one affected hen will contaminate 
all the rest. 


APICULTURE. 


NOTES ON BEE-KEEPING. 
By A. P. GOONATILLAKE. 

Amongst the inmates of the hive, 
the Queen claims our first attention. 
She is the mother of aJl the inmates 
under normal conditions, the life of the 
colony and the source of its prosperity. 
She lives from three to six years, which 
is extraordinary when compared with 
that of her worker or drone offspring. 
With regard to the egg-laying powers, a 
queen is at her best in her second year. 
The queen is larger than the other 
inmates, viz., drones and workers, her 
body is more tapering, and her wings 
proportionately shorter, and when closed 
are folded across the body. The colour 
of her body is generally more decided, al- 
though varying to a degree with different 
Fler tongue 
is shorter than those of the wcrkers, as 
also the sting, whichis short and curved, 
and seldom used except in combat with 
arival. Herlegs are longer than those of 
the workers, of dark brownish colour, 
and are minus the pollen baskets pro- 
vided on the legs of the worker. The 
queen’s sole duty and concern is the 
reproduction of her species. She mates 
but once in her life, and this takes 
place outside the hive, generally pice 
er 
food is of a rich nutritious character, 
and is supplied her by the workers. 
During the height of the season the 
queen lays up to 3,000 eggs a day. 
When her body is dissected some im- 
portant peculiarities are observed, a 
knowledge of which is absolutely neces- 
sary, accounting as it does for some 
apparently curious phases of bee culture. 


Situated in the abdomen and taking 
the place of the large air sacks found in 
the worker are two large ovaries or egg 
chambers, having tubes brought to a 
junction like the letter Y ; this is the 
channel carrying the eggs to the ovipo- 
sitor. In the region of the junction just 
referred to is a small spherical chamber 
called the spermatheca, which receives 


* 


“Gleanings in Be Culture” gives ‘iustances 
where fertile queens take their mating ffight more 
‘than once. 


the male element at time of copulation, 
and whichis sufficient to fertilise millions 
of eggs. The queen has power to lay 
eggs that will produce workers or 
drones at will. It isnow known that an 
egg which is destined to become a 
worker, receives in its passage to the 
Ovipositor a minute quantity of the 
fertilising agent stored upin the sper- 
matheca just spoken of. On the con- 
trary, if the queen wishes to produce 
drones the egy passes direct from the 
ovaries to the cell prepared for its 
reception, and thus by a process known 
as parthenogenesis a drone has a mother 
butno father. By this we understand 
that, should a young queen fail to be- 
come impregnated, she must inevitably 
become a drone breeder only, or if 
through injury to the spermatheca or 
exhaustion by reason of old age, she will 
only be able to lay drone eggs, Not- 
withstanding all the noble qualities that 
have been attributed to the queen, she 
is little mure than au egg-laying machine 
to be cared for and valued as long as she 
can be of service to the stock ; but when 
exhausted through old age or no longer 
able to fulfil the duties of her position, 
she is speedily superseded without 
ceremony, although for several months, 
perhaps, after her successor has taken 
over her duties, she is allowed to live as 
a pensioner. We have known the 
mother and daughter to live peaceably 
together in one hive for anumber of 
months, both laying during this period. 
In some instances we have found two 
queens in wild hives too. 


THE Drone.—The drone is the male, 
and cannot well be mistaken for either 
queen ov worker. He is a dark burly 
looking insect larger than the worker, 
and broader than the queen. He flies out 
during the warmest part of the day, at 
which time the virgin queens usually go 
out for their wedding flight. In flying 
he makes a peculiar buzzing sound quite 
unlike the noise made by the worker, 
and much less musical than the tone 
produced by the queen. The drone has 
very large compound eyes meeting at the 
top of the head and crowding the three 
simple eyes below; he has no sting, his 
tongue isshorter, andhe has no wax 
secreting organs. The drone is frea 


Apiculture. 150 


quently spoken of in Africa as a_water- 
carrier, but this is not so, nor does be 
gather honey or pollen. Like the queen, 
he has no pollen basket. He is entirely 
dependent on the workers for sustenance. 
There has been much speculation as_ to 
the duties performed by the drone, but 
as far as is known at present his sole 
duty, if not the only function, is that of 
continuing his race. In most districts 
drones are called into existence at the 
commencement of the swarming season, 
and may be ruthlessly expelled at the 
close. He is, so to say, a tenant at will, 
and may be ejected atany time accord- 
ing to the fancy of the workers. It is 
nothing unnatural if drones are allowed 
to live on throughout the year, which 
they frequently do where stores are 
abundant and the supplies not altogether 
suspended. We can with care keep 
drones all the year round. Queenless 
hives and those having fertile workers, 
although weak in stores, instinctively 
tolerate drones until provided with a 
laying queen. 

Tor WorRKER.—The worker, or neuter, 
as sheis frequently called, is really an 
undeveloped female, having only traces 
of the generative organs found in the 
body of the queen; a few can lay drone 
eggs under special circumstances, and 
these are called fertile workers, to which 
we shall presently allude. To the 
worker, the bee most diminutive in size, 
devolves the entire work and adminis- 
tration of the hive. ‘There may be from 


<7 ys 4 


[Aveust, 1909. 
twenty to fifty thousand workers in a 
Bon stcck, so, ‘many hands make light 
woik, 


Nectar gathering, collecting pollen, 
wax, secreting, comb building, brood 
rearing, storing honey and pollen in the 
various cells, feeding the queen, the 
ventilation of the hive, removal of the 
dead from the vicinity of the hive, the 
defence of the colony against intruders, 
keeping the hive clean and tidy, and 
numerous other duties are performed by 
the workers. The worker is provided 
with a longer tongue than either the 
queen or drone, and a_ beautifully 
aranged organ it is, allowing the owner 
to adaptit tothe ever-varying depths 
and surfaces of Howers, and also for 
many other duties for which it is 
required in the hive. The worker has 
two stomachs, the stomach proper and 
the honey sac. Under the body between 
the abdominal segments are situated 
small wax pockets, which furnish the 
wax for comb building. The sting of 
the worker is straight and barbed, which 
make its extraction very difficult when 
deeply inserted. At. the base of the 
sting is a poison bag furnished with’ 
wouscles for injecting the poison. The 
smell of the poison is pungent and easily 
discernible. The posterior legs of the 
worker are provided with indentations 
and stiff hairs, upon which the gathered 
pollen is carried to the bive: these are 
called pollen baskets. “a 


SCIENTIFIC AGRICULTURE. 


SOIL INOCULATION. 


(From the Agricultural News, Vol. VIIL., 
No. 184, May 15, 1909,) 


Agricultural literature has of late years 
included numbers of papers and reports 
on the subject of ‘soil inoculation.’ 
This term is applied to the various 
attempts that have been made to in- 
crease the crop-yielding power of soils 
by the introduction of bacteria which are 
known to be the cause of the nodules 
frequently observed on the roots of legu- 
winous plants, and which are capable of 
assimilating free nitrogen fiom the 

-atmosphere, that can be utilized as 
food by the plants in whose roots the 
bacteria live. 

Practical agriculturists have for gener- 
ations past been wellaware of the fact 
that the growth of a Jeguminous crop 
such as peas, beans, alfalfa, etc., results 

in an increase in the  crop-yielding 
capacity of the land cultivated, although 


itis only within comparatively recent 
years that a satisfactory explanation 
of the matter was brought forward. 
One of the early observers in respect to 
this subject was a Frenchman, Bous- 
singault, who, as the result of weighing 
and analysing the crops grown on his 
own farm throughout six separate 
courses of rotation, was able to state 
definitely that from one-third to one- 
half more nitrogen was removed in the 
produce than was suppliedin the man- 
ure. He observed, too, that the gain 
of nitrogen was particularly large when 
clover or other crops of the same family 
Were grown. 

Investigation work in relation to the 
manner in which leguminous plants 
obtained the supply of nitrogen was 
undertaken by a number of experi- 
mentors, but the credit of carrying out~ 
the researches which ultimately cleared 
up the whole matter belongs to two 
German scientists, Messrs. Hellriegel and 
Wilfarth, who published their results ip 


aa 


‘ 
; 
: 


oie Sa el Lek Se Ol ara ee sli 


re Avaust, 1909,] 


1886. These results demonstrated, con- 
elusively, that leguminous plants were 
capable, under certain conditions, of 
obtaining and utilizing nitrogen from 
the atmosphere. It was further shown 
that this nitrogen assimilation was 
dependent upon the _ production of 
nodules on the roots of the plants. In 
later research work it was found that 
the root nodules were full of bacteria, 
which were the evident agents by which 
the free nitrogen was appropriated, and 
to these the name Pseudomonas radici- 
cola was given. Other observers have 
since confirmed the results obtained by 
Messrs. Hellriegel and Wilfarth. Al- 
though these have been fully establish- 
ed, it may: be added that the exact 
details of the whole process by which the 
nitrogen of the atmosphere is first 
assimilated by the bacteria and _ after- 
wards taken over and utilized by the 
plant not yet clearly understood. 


The importance of the whole question 
is indicated by the large quantities 
of nitrogen which a leguminous crop is 
frequently enabled to withdraw from 
the air, evenin the course of a single 
season, through the agency of the 
bacteria obtained in the nodules on 
its roots. As examples, it may be men- 
tioned that in experiments carried out 
atthe New Jersey Nxperiment Station, 
a crop of crimson clover was found to 
have added over 200 lb. of nitrogen per 
nere to the land in one year, while trials 
with velvet beans have shown nitrogen 
gains amounting to 213 lb. per acre in 
Alabama, 172 1b. in Louisiana, and 141 1b, 
in Florida. 


In the light of the knowledge thus 
accumulated on the subject, the question 
naturally suggested itself to investiga- 
tors as to whether the co-operation of 
leguminous crop and nitrogen-gathering 
bacteria might not be more extensively 
utilized in enriching the soil and increas- 
ing its crop-yielding capacity. With 
this object, therefore, a number of pre- 
parations for inoculating the soil, all 
containing the bacteria Pseudomonas 
vadicicola, have, at different times, been 
placed on the market, and a good deal 
of experimental work has been carried 
out in the United States, Germany, 
Canada, and in England. The value 
ot inoculation under certain circum- 
stances has undoubtedly been indicated, 
but, speaking generally, the results 
have so far—for different reasous—been 
distinctly less premising than was at 
one time anticipated. 


So long ago as 1887, some inoculation 
trials were undertaken in Germany. In 
this case, the land under experiment— 
reclaimed moor-land—was dressed with 


51 Scientific Agriculture. 


soil from a field which had previously 
borne flourishing legume crops, The 
results were successful, and eminently 
encouraging, and the example thus set 
was speedily followed in many districts. 
In view of the expense of carting soil 
over long distances, and of the danger 
of introducing weeds or plant diseases, 
this method was, however, soon  substi- 
tuted by the introduction of pure cul- 
tures of the nitrogen-gathering bacteria, 
put up ina convenient form for inocu- 
lating either a quantity of soil, or of the 
seed about to be sown. 

The first preparation of the kind intro- 
duced on a commercial scale was placed 
on the market about 1895 by a German 
experimentor, Nobbe. It was known as 
‘Nitragin,’ and consisted of pure culti- 
vations of the Pseuwdomanas organism on 
a gelatine medium. ‘ Nitragin’ was ex- 
tensively tested both in Europe and 
America, but the results, on the whole, 
were not at all satisfactory. This failure 
was generally believed to be due to the un- 
suitable nature of the medium (gelatine) 
on which the bacteria were grown, and 
when this was changed a greater degree 
of success was attained. Another scien- 
tist (Hiltner) brought forward a method 
of cultivating the bacteria onagar jelly, 
while Moore introduced the still greater 
change of sending out the bacteria con- 
tained in cotton wool, which had been 
soaked in liquid cultures and afterwards 
dried. This preparation is added to a 
large bulk of water, with which the 
seed to be inoculated is treated before 
sowing: Moore’s preparation was used 
in a very extensive series of experiments 
carried out by the United States Depart- 
ment of Agriculture in 1904. The results 
were very conflicting, but, on the whole, 
were unfavourable, although slight in- 
creases of crop were noticeable in many 
cases as the result of inoculation. Pro- 
bably many of the failures noticed were 
due to lack of skill in preparing, hand- 
ing, and employing the cultures. Cul- 
ture preparations are still sent out by 
the United States Department of Agri- 
culture, but they are now put up in 
liquid form, enclosed in hermetically 
sealed bottles. 


In 1907, Professor Bottomley, of Lon- 
don, brought forward a new preparation 
of nitrogen-fixing bacteria for inocula- 
tion purposes, to which the name of 
‘ Nitro-bacterine’ was given. This was 
tried in numbers of experiments, but its 
introduction into the soil appeared to 
have little influence on the yields of 
the various leguminous crops treated. 
Sample cultures were obtained by this 
Department and by one or two estate 
owners for trials with various crops in 
the West Indies (including sugar-cane, 


Scientific Agriculture. 152 


sine» Professor Bottomley devised special 

preparations, which he hoped would be 
useful not only with legumes, but wich 
plants of other orders as well), The 
experiments made are reported upon on 
page 151 of this issue. It will be seen 
that while inoculation had _no influence 
on the returns obtained with cowpeas 
at Antigua, the crop yields of woolly 
pyrol showed, in the case of one estate 
at least, considerable increase as the 
result of treatment. The results at 
Grenada also show one or two points of 
interest. Inoculation of sugar-cane at 
Antigua and Barbados had no effect 
whatever. 


There are undoubtedly certain condi- 
tions under which inoculation of the 
soil with nitrogen-fixing bacteria may 
prove to be of very considerable value, 
but on the majority of cultivated lands, 
which have already borne leguminous 
crops, inoculation is likely to prove 
beneticial only if the bacteria intro- 
duced belong to a more vigorous race of 
nitrogen-gatherers than those normally 
present in the soil, or are specifically 
adapted to the peculiar crop to be 
grown. In this connexion it may be men- 
tioned that it has not yet been fully 
decided whether nitrogen-fixation is 
earried on by more than one species of 
soil bacteria, or whether the bacteria 
which are associated with the various 
leguminous crops all belong to the 
species Pseudomonas radicicola. Points 
of similarity and slight points of differ- 
ence are observed in organisms from 
different plants, and it would appear 
that if all are of the same species, there 
are « number of varieties of this species 
in existence, Evidence has been brought 
forward in support of the beliet, held 
by many investigators, that the 
bacteria, when grown continuosly in 
association with one kind of leguminous 

-erop only, become in time so modified 
as to be capable of giving the best re- 
sults with that crop alone. At any 
rate, a greater degree of success has in 
many cases been obtained when each 
species of legume is directly infected 
with bacteria from nodules taken from 
other plants of the same species. 


The most notable instances of success 
in soil inoculation that have so far been 
recorded have naturally been obtained 
on lands which have not previously 
borne a leguminous crop, more especially 
on virgin soil newly broken up, or on 
heath or bog land lately reclaimed. 
The preseuce of suitable quantities of 
lime and mineral manures are necessary 
for success, and must be provided, if 
normally deficient in the soil. In Hast 
Prussia very large areas of barren sandy 
heath land have been reclaimed and 


= ee 


[Avaven, 1900, b. 


made valuable for agricultural purposes 
by working on this principle. Dressings 
of basic slag and kainit were applied to 
the soil, and after preliminary inocula- 
tion, crops of lupins have been repeatedly 
grown, and ploughed in. Asa result, 
the nitrogen content of the first § inches 
of land has been raised trom 0:027 to 
0177 per cent. in the course of twenty- 
five years, while it has also become 
proportionately richer in the mineral 
constituents of fertility. 


SPRAYING FOR WEED 
DESTRUCTION. 


(From the Agricultural News, Vol. VIIL., 
No, 178, February 20, 1909.) 


Spraying with various chemicals has 
in many cases been found to be the best 
means of destroying certain pestilent 
weeds. This method of destruction is 
especially worthy of adoption when the 
weed in question occurs over extensive 
areas, is of vigorous growth, and re- 
produces itself readily by vegetative 
means. Cheapness of the chemical em- 
ployed is an essential factor in the eco- 
nomic success of the method. 


In England and other European coun- 
tries, spraying with a solution of copper 
sulphate is frequently adopted for the 
destruction of ‘charlock,’ a pestilent 
and vigorous weed which occurs largely 
in fields of wheat, oats, and barley, at 
an early stage of the development of 
these crops, and tends to choke out their 


growth. This method, which was first 


adopted about ten years ago, has proved 
both successful and economical. The 
‘ charlock,’ which possesses broad, rough 


leaves, and is allied to the mustard plant 


(Brassica alba), is destroyed, while the 
growing corn suffers little or no injury. 


Another example of the application of 
spraying methods to weed destruction 
comes from the Malay States. In that 
country large areas of land are covered 
with what is known as ‘lalang’ grass 
(Imperata arundinacea). Thisis acreep- 
ing weed, with underground stems, 
which rapidly propagates itself by vege- 
tative means as well as by seed, and 
quickly covers the ground with its thick, 
coarse growth. Slow-growing crops are 
checked out, and cattle refuse to eat 
the dry, coarse lalang. Digging out 
the weed proved to be a costly and 
unsatisfactory method, but experiment 
has lately shown that the lalang can 
be got rid of by spraying with a solu- 
tion of arsenite of soda. The leaves 
are all killed within a comparatively 
short time, and are either turned into 
the ground, or allowed to rot on the 


e 


surface. 


_ Avaust, 1909.] 


In the latter case, the dead 
vegetation acts asa mulch, and prevents 


_ evaporation of moisture. Not only la- 


lang, but also other weeds, more especi- 
ally those presenting a large and flat 
surface to the spray, were found to be 
readily destroyed by the solution. 


The price of the chemical is the chief 
item in the cost of the spraying work. 
This price amounts to about 6d. per lb., 
includicg freight. The solution can be 
applied by means of any of the ordinary 
sprayers on the market. 


In the Malay States the arsenite solu- 
tion was used vn land monopolized by 
the lalang grass and not applied to the 
weed growing among cultivated crops. 
The object was to clear the land in 
a cheap and efficient manner before 
bringing it under cultivation, and the 
maximum cost for freeing from weeds is 
mentioned as about 2s. per acre, while 
usually it does not reach half this figure. 
It will therefore be seen that this method 
et best be adopted in clearing waste 
and. 


Since the soda arsenite is so destructive 
in its action, it is probable that it would 
not be advisable to use it in spraying 
weeds occurring in a cultivated crop, as 
it appears more than likely that the lat- 
ter would also be injured. In any case, 
experiments should first be made on a 
small scale. 


NEW SOURCES OF NITROGEN. 


(From the Gardeners’ Chronicle, XLV., 
1, 154, Heb. 6, 1909.) 


Since the investigations of Liebig, 
Boussingault, Lawes and Gilbert, during 
the first half of last century, into the 
nature and sources of the elements neces- 
sary for the nutrition of plants, the 
great importance of an adequate supply 
of nitrogen has become fully recognized 
by all who are concerned with the culti- 
vation of the land. Among plant-food 
constituents nitrogen may be said to 
take first place, being at once the most 
costly, and, under the ordinary con- 
ditions which prevail inthe garden or 
on the farm, the most effective element 
for increasing the yield of all kinds of 
crops. Without the constant addition 
of an abundant supply, either in the 
form of organic material such as dung, 
oras nitrate of soda or other chemical 
fertilizer, the cultivation of field and 
garden produce rapidly becomes un- 
profitable, 

All kinds of plants with the exception 
of those belonging to the leguminous 
class, take up the nitrogen which they 
require from the soil in a combined state, 

20 


153 Scientific Agriculture, 


almost entirely as a nitrate of lime, soda, 
or some other base. Even before the 
nitrogen in the farmyard manure and 
other organic substances becomes avail- 
able for the nutrition of crops, it is 
changed into nitrates by the activity of 
special soil bacteria. 


Unfortunately, from all cultivated land 
there goes ona constant drain of this 
element, and not more than 75 per cent. 
of it added in manures is ever recovered 
in the crops, even under the most favour- 
able conditions. On account of the 
soluble nature of nitrates they are 
rapidly washed out of the soil into the 
drainage-water, especially in winter, 
when no plants are present to absorb 
them, and acertain amount is decom- 
posed with the formation of free nitrogen 
gas, which escapes into the air and is 
lost. Large amounts are removed in the 
crops, and as these or the products 
derived from them are transported into 
towns and other areas away from the 
land which produces them, it will be 
readily understood that soils which have 
been cultivated for centuries have been 
undergoing a process of gradual exhaus- 
tion of one of their most important 
constituents. The demand for supplies 
of nitrates, which has increased to an 
enormous extent both in the Oldand 
New Worlds during the last 30 or 40 
years, becomes intelligible after con- 
sideration of the points just mentioned, ~ 
and the spread ot intensive methods of 
cultivating the land is destined. to in- 
crease the demand. About 1830 nitrate 
of soda was introduced from Chili and 
Peru, and since that date it has tended 
to stave off the nitrogeu famine and 
keep up the crop returns. In 1860 it 
was assumed that the deposits would 
last for more than 1,500 years at the rate 
at which the fertiliser was then being 
used, but an increase of population and 
a great extension of cultivated areas 
along with increased intensive manage- 
ment of the soil have falsified the 
prediction. The world’s markets are 
now consuming 1} millions of tons of 
nitrate of soda per annum, and the 
exhaustion of the present source of 
supply is well within sight; a few 
decades will see an end of it. Tem- 
porary checks to the development of a 
nitrogen famine have been made by the 
addition of sulphate of ammonia to the 
list of fertilisers supplying this all- 
important ingredient, but no permanent 
alteration in the growing need for it 
could be expected from either of these 
materials. 

That the food supply of the increasing 
population is bound up with the dis- 
covery of some new source of nitrogenous 
plant-food has become more and more 


Scientific Agriculture. 154 [AuGusT, 1909. — 


evident, and the existence of a prac- 
tically unlimited amount of nitrogen in 
the atmosphere has fired the imagination 
of scientific men and stimulated per- 
sistent research into the question of the 
conversion of the free nitrogen of the 
air from its inert gaseous condition toa 
combined state suited to the needs of 


all crops, 


The efforts to utilise this constituent 
of the atmosphere for the production of 
a nitrogenous plant-food on an econo- 
mical ‘scale have been crowned with 
success during the last three or four 
years, and at the present moment two 
new fertilizers are being placed on the 
market. One of them, calcium cyana- 
mide, introduced under the trade name 
of ‘‘ Nitrolin” is obtained by heating the 
pure nitrogen of the air with calcium 
carbide (the well-known material used 
in bicycle lamps) in an electric furnace ; 
the nitrogen is absorbed by the carbide, 
and calcium cyanamide is produced. It 
is a fine powder, somewhat like basic 
slag, containing 20 per cent. of combined 
nitrogen, an amount equal to that in the 
best samples of sulphate of ammonia. 
It contains also a certain amount of lime, 
which is of benefit upon soils deficient 
in that material, In comparative trials 
with sulphate of ammonia and nitrate of 
soda upon Potatoes, Cabbages, Wheat, 
Mangels, as well as many garden crops, 
it has proved itself an excellent substi- 
tute for these manures. Since it is 
liable to check germination and damage 
seedling plants, it is best applied to 
the land 10 to 14 days before sowing 
seeds. The application may be made 
at the rate of 1 ecwt, to 2 cwt. per 
acre, and when intended for use as 
a top-dressing it should be mixed 
10 to 14 days before application with one 
to four times its weight of finely-divided 
soil. Like sulphate of ammonia, it does 
not act immediately upon crops, but 
must first be nutrofied or changed into a 
nitrate in the soil.. Itis adapted for use 
in all kinds of land, with the exception 
of those of an acid character or on light 
sands where the nitrifying bacteria are 
are not abundant. 


The other product whose nitrogen is 
obtained from the air is calcium nitrate, 
a compound which is certain to become 
a formidable rival of all nitrogenous 
fertilizers, and, with ‘“Nitrolin,” is 
destined to have a far-reaching effect on 
the production of the world’s crops. As 
far back as 1786 Cavendish discovered 
that the combination of the nitrogen and 
oxygen of the air can be brought about 
by the passage through it of an electric 
spark, This fact has never been lost 
sight of by chemists and engineers, but 


its practical and economic application 
have not been attained until recently. 
Several methods of bringing about this 
chemical combination on a large scale 
are now known, but the process which 
is apparently giving the best results is 
that devised by Birkeland and Eyde 
in Norway. The union of the gases 
occurs in a specially-constructed electric 
furnace, the oxides of nitrogen being 
afterwards passed into water, and the 
nitric acid formed subsequently com- 
bined with limestone. The nitrate of 
lime produced is sent into commerce 
75-77 per cent. pure and containing 13 
per cent. of nitrogen—about 2 per cent. 
less than in nitrate of soda. It is a 
brownish substance without smell, very 
soluble in water and as active as nitrate 
of soda upon plant growth. Experi- 
ments both in this country and abroad 
have shown that its nitrogen is quite 
as efficient, unit for unit, as that in the 
latter manure, and on soils deficient in 
lime it is likely to be more effective. 


The prophetic statement by Sir 
William Crookes that starvation may be 
averted through the laboratory, and his 
suggestion, that the production of elec- 
tricity ata cost sufficiently low to make 
the manufacture of nitrates from the 
air a commercial success may be attained 
through the utilisation of water power, 
are now being realised. Thedanger ofa 
nitrogen famine and its consequent 
bearing upon the growth of human 
food cereals bas been removed by these 
new achievements of the chemist and 
engineer. 


The first factory for the manufacture 
of calcium cyanamide was erected at 
Piano d’Orte in Italy, but others have 
been established in Austria, Germany 
and France. The North-Western Cyana- 
mide Co.’s works are situated at Odda, 
near the southern end of the Hardanger 
Fjord in Norway, and from this centre 
the new fertiliser will be supplied to the 
United Kingdom and its colonies and the 
greater part of north-western Europe. 


Nitrate of lime is manufactured by 
the Norwegian Hydro-Hlectric Co. at 
Notodden, in Telemarken, the energy 
for the electrical power being obtained 
from a neighbouring waterfall. The 
output of the factory is at present about 
20,000 tons per annum, butin less than 
two years, when anew factory will be 
in working order, with power derived 
from the Rjukan Falls—the largest in 
the country—the production will be 
increased to 100,000 tons per annum. 


The question of cost will largely deter- 
mine the use to which the new ferti- 
lisers will be put. The unit of nitrogen 


ee ee eee 


Pita 


er em Onn 


Avaust, 1909.] 155 


in each is practically the same as in 
nitrate of sodaand sulphate of ammonia, 
but the new products have a valuable 
asset in them in the form of lime, and 
with new improvements in the process 
of manufacture and a reduction in the 


Scientific Agriculture. 


cost of production a substantial lowering 
of price may reasonably be expected. 
In the meantime we can confidently 
recommend both of these products for 
trial in the garden during the coming 
season. 


MISCELLANEOUS. 


LITERATURE OF ECONOMIC 
BOTANY AND AGRICULTURE. 


By J. C. WILLIS. 
City onella.— 


Where Citronella and Nutmegs grow. 
Chem, and Drug. 26. 1. 1907, p. 180. 


Ceylon Citronella oil. 
“TA.” Aug. 1906, p. 142. 


Wright. Citronella and lemongrass 
in Ceylon. ‘“T.A.” May 1906, p. 280. 


London report on Ceylon citronella 
and lemongrass oils. do. _ p. 282. 


The Ceylon citronella oil industry. 


Schimmel. 


do. p. 288 
Ceylon citronella in America in 1905. 
do. p, 288 


Ceylon citronella oil in 1905. **T.A.” 
Feb. 1906, p. 23. 


Citronella oil (Schimmel). ‘‘T.A.” 
Feb. 1907, p. 67, and Sept. 1907, p. 
182, and April 1908, p, 319. 


Citronelia oil: the question of a new 
test. “TA.” Feb, 1908, p. 118. 


Lemongrass and citronella in the 
Seychelles. do. Dec. 1907, p. 410. 


Aetherische Olien. IV. Korte Ber., 
Buitenzorg, 1908, 


Citrus Fruits :— 


On ascertaining the strength of con- 
centrated lime juice by means of a 
hydrometer. Watts in W. Ind. 
Bull. VIL, p, 36. 

Orange cultivation in the Khasi 
hills. Basu. Ag. Jl. Ind. L, p. 62. 
Cultivation and marketing of citrus 
fruits. Jamaica Bull. 1906, p, 49. 
The orange industry in the West 

Indies, Trin. Bull, July 1906, p. 68. 

Levy on the cultivation and market- 


ing of citrus fruits, Jamaica Bull. 
1906, p. 49, 


The orange industry in the West 
Indies. Trop. Life, Jan. 1906, p. 7. 

Citrate of lime (Dunstan). “T,A.’ 
Nov, 1906, p. 386. 
Orange cultivation, in the Central 
Provinces. Agr. Jl. Ind. II, p, 64. 
Citrate of lime. W. Ind. Bull. 7. 1906, 
p. 831. *‘T,A.” July 1907, p. 28. 

The West Indian lime. Journ, R. 
Hort. Soe. June 1907, p. 172. 

Citrate of lime industry of Sicily. 
“TA.” July 1907, p. 28. 

Citrate of lime. Agr. News, 18. 7, 
1907, p. 218. 

Citron. Jamaica Bull. 1907, p. 77, 

The citrus family and variation from 
seed. Trin. Bull. July 1907, p. 256. 

Citrus culture in volcanic districts. 
Agr. News, 1907, p. 205, 

Principal citrus insects in Hawaii. 
Haw. Forester May 1907, p. 110. 

Citrate of lime, ‘‘T.A.” Nov. 1907, 
p. 865. 

The West Indian Lime. do. p. 367. 

Lime crops and products. Agr. News. 
1908, p. 14. © T.A.” May 1908, p. 440, 

Cultivation of limes. Agr. News. 
1907, p. 414. ‘T.A.” Mar. 1908, p. 206, 

Concentrated lime juice and citrate 
of lime. Agr. News, 8. 2. 1908, p; 46. 
“T.A.” May 1908, p. 448, 

Orange Industry of the West Indies, 
W. I. Bull, 8, 1907, p. 148, 

How to encourage orange trees to 
bear early in Jamaica. do. p. 149 

Citrate of lime and concentrated lime 
juice. do. p. 167, ‘‘T.A.” May, 
1908, p. 441. - 

Citrate of lime. do. p. 170. 

Lime juice concentrated. do. p.171, 

Packing and marketing citrus and 
other fruits. Agr. Gaz. N.S. W. 
Apr. 1908, p, 285. 

The cultivation of limes, Journ, B. 
Agr. Brit. Guiana, I. 1908, p. 45. 


West Indian Citrate. 
Drug. 2. 5. 1908, p. 675. 
1908, p. 67, : 


Chem. and 
“TA.” July 


Miscellaneous. 


The taxon Citrate. do. 25. 7. 1908, 
p. 183, T.A.” Nov, 1908, p. 481. 

A. B.C. of lime cultivation. W. I. 
Dept. of Agr. Pam. 53, 1908., **'T.A.” 
Nov. 1908, p. 485, Dec. 585. 

Spineless limes and ordinary limes. 
Agr. News, 7. 1908, p. 84, 229, 

Wind breaks for orange groves-in 
Porto Rico. Agr. News, 22. 8. 1908, 
p. 298. *T.A.” Jan. 1909, p. 61. 

A. B. C. of lime cultivation. ‘‘T.A.” 
Dec. 1908, p. 588, contd. Jan. 1909, p. 
38, Feb. 1909, p. 155. 

Citrate of lime and concentrated lime 
juice. ‘T.A. Jan. 1909, p. 46. 

The co-operative marketing of citrus 
fruits. ‘‘T,A.” Feb. 1909, p. 187. 


Citrus Industry for India. Indian 
Trade Journal, XII. 151, Feb. 1909. 
“TA,” May 1909, p. 488. 

Coca :— 

de Jong. Extractie van cocablad. 
Korte Berichten, Buitenzorg, 1906. 

Die Aussichten der Kokakultur. Der 
Pflanzer, 1905, p. 288. 

de Jong. De verandering van _ het 
alkaloid der cocabladeren met den 
onderdom van het blad. Korte 
Berichten, Buitenzorg, 1906. 

Die Kultur des Eocainstrauches, 
Mitth. Amani 384. 4, 6, 1904. 

Winkler. Ueber den Kultur des 
Kokastrauches, besonders in Java. 
Tropenpfl. 1906, p. 69. 

A substitute for coca. Kew Bull. 
1907, p. 186. 

The coca plant; cultivation and 
curing. ‘“T.A.” Sept. 1907, p. 70. 
The drying of coca leaves. ‘‘T.A.” 

Feb. 1908, p. 187. 


Over Java coca. Ind. Mere. 25. 2. 


1908, p. 127. Rev. in ‘“T.A.” June 
1908, pp. 525. 

Java coca. deJong indo. 5.38, 1908, 
p. 815. 

Cheap cocaine. Chem. and Drug. 
Mar. 1908. ‘‘T.A.” May 1908, p. 451. 


Cocaine in India. do. do. p. 462. 

van der Sleen. Over Javacoca. Ind. 

- Mere. 19. 5. 1908, p. 861. 

Komt inde Java coca Kristalliseer- 
bare cocaine vor? de Jong. Ind. 
Mere. 28. 7. 1908, p. 553. 


do. van der Sleen. do. 4. 8. 1908, 
p. 571. 

_ Coca leaves, Str. Bull. Aug. 1908, 
p. 386. 


de Jong. Java coca. Ind. Mere. 18. 8. 
1908, p. 605. van der Sleen. Java 
coca, do. 1. 9. 1908, p. 637. 


156 


-planted within them. 


[AvGUS 

IMPERIAL TRAINING IN 
HORTICULTURE, 

(Krom the Gardeners’ Chronicle, Vol. 
XLYV., No. 1159, March, 1909.) 

The task of cultivating the land of 
the Empire is becoming more and more 
one for trained’ horticulturists. The 
increasing complexity of modern life 
causes an increase in the number of com- 
modities indispensable to that life. ‘The 
natural or agricultnral rate of produc- 
tion being too slow to meet the demand, 
it has to give place to intensive 
methods which are essentially horticul- 
tural in their character. 

Our point of view is strikingly illus- 
trated by the custom which is growing 
up in various tropical regions of holding 
what are called ‘‘agri-horticultural 
shows” in the place of the purely agri- 
cultural and purely horticultural shows 
commonin our own country. Though 
the word agri-horticulture is ungainly 
enough, it is expressive of the modern 
trend of development of the science of 
the cultivation of the earth. 

In treating of the training of horticul- 
turists for the Empire, we have not 
primarily in mind the training of men 
for service in the Government Botanical 
Gardens at home or abroad. Kew pro- 
vides, in a manner not to be rivalled 
elsewhere, the technical education and 
practical experience necessary for the 
men who are to fill official posts of this 
kind, and in the present, as in the past, 
Kew men are giving an excellent ac- 
count of themselves in all parts of the 
civilised world. 

But even with respect to such posts as 
these more might be done than is at 
present attempted. For botanical] gar- 
dens are becoming also experimental 
stations. .Now, the director of an _ ex- 
perimental station requires — special 
training of a kind not yet available at 
Kew. Insucha man practical skill in 
the science of horticulture should be 
combined with a knowledge of the. 
methods of experimentation. 


We are concerned tor the moment 
with the need for training young men 
who possess small available capital, or, 
in default of capital, a fair endowment 
of energy, and who are willing to emi- 
grate to one or other part of the Empire 
in order to till the soil. 

It would be well for the Empire if the 
home country were engaged in prepar- 
ing and sending out year by year 
colonists who had a knowledge of the 
methods of horticulture already im- 


The reader may ask: Is it likely that 
apy system of training at home will be of 


APR eee Fee a | RN heel ee i el Pa 


— Aveust, 1909.) et 157 


real value in the novel conditions which 

‘the emigrants are likely to encounter ? 
Willit not be better to send them as 
boys to the new countries, there to learn 
their work by experience ? 


When the diverse conditions under 
which hortriculture is carried on are 
considered ; when the climate of Canada, 
severely continental in type, is coutrast- 
ed with the insular climates of our 
tropical island possessions; when re- 
gard is paid to the varied produce of the 
Empire, it may well seem as though the 
_experience to be gained at home could 
be of but little service to the emigrant 
in his new surroundings. 


Nevertheless we believe that to draw 
such a conclusion would be to make a 
profound mistake. The successful horti- 
culturist learns by experience to control, 
in as large a measure as is. humanly 


possible, the conditions under which his 
plants are growing. He knows, con- 
sciously or unconsciously, the ideal con- 
ditions for certain plants, and proceeds 
sagaciously to provide the closest ap- 
proximation to those conditions. His 
plants, like all plants, have simple wants 
—water and air, sunlight and armth, 
together with small quantities of 
soluble compounds such as nitrogen and 
phosphorus. Some plants, it is true, 
need more water or light than others. 
But the peculiarities of the plants which 
grow at home are as wide as those that 
grow anywhere. 


Therefore, the knowledge he has 
gained here will stand him in good stead 
abroad. He will make mistakes ; but so 
he does at home. He will be contronted 
with special difficulties; but so he will 
be wherever he may practise his craft. 


The training which he had at home 
would, moreover, unless it were of an 
inadequate kind, teach him caution ; for 
it is only the half-trained who think 
they have nothing to learn. 


It would bea good thing if the men 
oing out from these shores to grow 
ruit in British Colombia, rubber in 
Malaya, or tea in Ceylon, were men 
trained in the general, universal princi- 
ples of horticulture, and not men, 
trained or untrained, selected haphazard 
by the careless hand of chance. 


For this purpose no small horticultural 
college, with its good intentions and 
necessary limitations, would suffice. 
Such a horticultural station as that con- 
templated by the Innes bequest might, 
without detriment to home interests 
which should be its first care, forma 
centre for such Imperial training. What 
is wanted is an Imperial Institute of 
Horticulture; an institution amply 


Miscellaneous. 


endowed and supported by the consti- 
tuent members of the Hmpire. Suchan 
institution would not, of course, be a 
teaching body only; it would investi- 
gate as well as instruct. Nor wouldit 
exist solely for the service of the colonies 
and dominions of the Empire; it would 
benefit also the home country. An insti- 
tution vf the kind would not only train 
men to go abroad and train men for home 
horticulture, but it would attract men 
from the Colonies themselves. To it 
would come men from the east and from 
the west in order that they might learn 
the latest word of horticultural wisdom. 


This is no place to discuss detail; as, 
for instance, whether anyone should be 
admitted to study at the Imperial Insti- 
tute of Horticulture before he had 
worked for a term at the practice of 
horticulture, or whether the manual and 
mental parts of the work should be 
carried on simultaneously—we refrain 
from using such words as “ practical” 
and ‘‘scientific” in antithesis, To do so 
is ridiculous ; for if science is not practi- 
cal, and if practice is not scientific, then 
both are nonsense. 


The proposal thus outlined in briefest 
fashion may seem, even to those who 
sympathise with the aspirations suggest- 
ing it, too bold to be likely of realisation. 
It is true that such a scheme would 
require the expenditure of a large sum of 
money. But when the importance and 
the magnitude of the work which such 
an institution would perform are con- 
sidered, it cannot be doubted that the 
money would be well expended. Other 
industries, great and imposing, it is 
true, but, nevertheless, of lesser magni- 
tude than those of agriculture and 
horticulture, have their ‘‘ Charlotten- 
burgs.” In this country we are still 
without a Chair of Horticulture at any 
of the Universities, and itis not long 
since the first Chair of Forestry was 
established. Why, at the next Imperial 
Conference, should not such a proposal 
ie Bey outlined here be given consider- 
ation 


NEW PLOUGH FOR SIND. 


By G. S,; HENDERSON. 
(Illustrated.) 


(From the Agricultural Journal of India, 
Vol. IV., Pt. 1, January, 1909.) 

On the Mirpurkhas Farm the following 
form of wooden plough has been found 
todovery good work. It is a slight 
m odification of the indigenous wooden 
plough of Egypt. With perennial irri- 
gation, where the land can always be 


Miscellaneous, 


softened by water, itis a most efficient 
implement. Along with the leveller or 
“ghasabiah” it forms practically the 
whole stock-in-trade of the Egyptian 
cultivator. It has there held its place in 
the estimation of the cultivator against 
repeated attempts to introduce iron 


Construction.—The pole is made of 
jarrah or any long grained wood and 
should be about 11 feet long and 4 inches 
broad and 24 inches thick. The body is 
of babul wood, about 3 feet 6 inches long. 
The body and pole are dove-tailed into 
each other and fastened by a moveable 
bolt. Thehandle is fastened to both 
ends of the body, leaving the pole free 
to move on removal of bolt. Half way 
along the body an iron bar is fastened 
through the body, and goes through the 
pole. Atthe top of theiron are several 
holes by means of which the angle 


158 


[Auaust, 1809, 


ploughs. ‘he broad share deals effec- 
tively with weeds. The sharp-pointed 


Sindhi plough, on the contrary, is very 
apt to miss a considerable number of 
these, and in particular often fails to 
pull up the very troublesome creeping 
stems of ‘‘ kull” and other plants. 


between body and pole can be regulated. 
The share is 63 inches broad and_ spear- 
shaped, being fastened to end of body. 
The total cost of construction, including 
labour and material, is between Rs. 7 
and Rs, 8. 


Demonstrations of this implement are 
being arranged to be held in each Taluka 
town, when a sufficient supply of imple- 
ments has been made. 

Ridging.—For ridging up land a piece 
of wood of the following shape is inserted 
behind the iron bar :— 


General Use.—The cost of ridging with 
the plough is very considerably cheaper 
than the same work done by hand with 
the ‘‘kodar.” Witha couple of plough- 
ings, any land should be in sufficiently 
good tilth for ridging up. It is essential 
for the proper growth of Egyptian cotton 
and all other crops that the land must 
be in good tilth and properly cultivated, 
and this can be done probably better by 
means of this plough. than by emy loy- 
ing an expensive English iron one. It 
has an advantage over the latter, in that 
the cultivator takes to it naturally. He 
has no difficulty in holding it as he has 


with the two-handled plough. On the 
other hand, there are several makes of 
light one-handled iron ploughs having 
wooden poles. These have, however, 
beer found quite unsuitable for this 
class or hard soil, it being almost impos- 
sible to keep them in the ground, 

In comparison with the Sindhi plough, 
though slightly heavier in draught, it 
will do a half more work and go a couple 
of inches deeper. The dimensions given 
above were adopted for ploughs worked 
by cattle of the Cutchi or Guzerati type. 
The sizes may, however, be varied to 
suit smaller cattle. 


a 


AveustT, 1909.) 
THE CHINESE METHOD OF ROTA- 


_ TION OF CROPS AND RECLAMATION 


OF LALANG LAND. 


By Dr. Lim Boon HENG. 
(From the Agricultural Bulletin 
of the Straits & F. M. S., Vol. VIL, 
10th October, 1908.) 


The most conspicuous evidence of the 
folly of the Government leasing of agri- 
cultural land in the Straits Settlen.ents, 
is the existence of enormous tracts of 
valuable land, now overgrown with la- 
lang (Imperata cylindrica) and_conse- 


.quently thrown back upon the Govern- 


ment as a practically valueless asset. 
It generally takes about ten years for 
such land to be covered with good 
secondary forest growth. MHad_ the 
Government stipulated that every acre 
of land should be replanted with some 
permanent trees, or had they made the 
conditions of the lease such that it would 
be more profitable to cultivate such land 
than abandon it and take up new virgin 
jungle, we might have had all these 
waste areas beautifully afforested or at 


_ least yielding some returns. Fortunately 


since the cultivation of Para Rubber has 
proved to be asuccess, even with tapioca 
asacatch crop—thanks to the pioneer 
work of Mr. Tan Chay Yan at Bukit 
Asahan—now the Malacca Rubber Plant- 
ations Limited, the Government or the 
officials of the land office, are quite 
awake as to the necessity of preventing 
tapioca and other lands going into waste 
under lalang. 


It may therefore be of considerable 
importance to planters to know that 
Chinese vegetable growers practise an 
economical method of reclaiming lalang 
land. In discussing this, it may be inter- 
esting also to note in passing their sys- 
tem of manuring, for the lalang is not 
merely weeded out but is also choked 
out by a caretul rotation of valuable 
crops, Asarule, it costs about twenty 
dollars at least to clear one acre of lalang. 
The Chinese, who pay their farm hands 
at $12-$615 a month, mana se to get good 
returns within two years by reclaiming 
lalang land, and to convert it into a use- 
ful vegetable garden. 


The fact that this system has succeeded 
so wellin Singapore, where the soil is 
generally poor, argues that it should be 
more successful, wherever the soil is 
more fertile. It must be admitted that 
without the use of farm-yard or human 
onure this system cannot succeed very 
well. 

The essence of it may be explained in 
a few lines. The stems of the lalang are 
exposed by hoeing or deep ploughing, 


1 


9 Miscellaneous. 


and removed by the rake and burned. 
The soil has to be turned up two or three 
times if necessary to remove the weed 
completely. 

At the same time, the aid of nature 
iscalledin. Rapidly growing plants are 
planted at once in carefully manured 
beds. A struggle for existence is thus 
artificially introduced, and within three 
months or so, the patch of waste land is 
covered with green vegetables. The 
transformation is very impressive, but 
the steps require to be seen. The change 
affords a striking object lesson of the im- 
portance and value as well as feasibility 
of permanent cultivation of the soil. 


But unfortunately in Singapore, culti- 
vation of the soil is not profitable unless 
“night-soil” is utilised. Human excreta 
constitute the most efficient and at the 
same time the cheapest manure. The 
Municipal authorities evidently do not 
take the slightest interest in the utili- 
sation of this refuse. They proposed an 
extensive scheme of casting it out tosea, 
and dumping it all into the deep ten 
miles off Singapore. Surely, when this 
was proposed, neither the Engineer nor 
the Medical Health Officer had in mind 
the state of vegetable cultivation in the 
Colony. The bulk of our’ population 
consists of people, whose food is princi- 
pally a mixture of rice and vegetables. 
Without the night-soil removed from 
town the numberless vegetable gardens 
in the country must be abandoned. The 
result will inevitably be that vegetables 
will be grown in Johore and elsewhere— 
Rhio perhaps, and if there is danger in 
the use of such matter, the risks of in- 


fection will be increased, since our 
sanitary authorities cannot possibly 
control these foreign growers. It seems 


to us that the most useful method of 
disposal of excreta for this Colony—in 
view of the urgent needs of vegetable 
growers—is some scientific means of 
treating the manurein different depots 
in the country and then distributing it 
to the gardens. The risks of this form 
of manure carrying infection are not 
great, inasmuch as the _ night-soil is 
thoroughly fermented before it is put to 
the soil. One can easily conceive of its 
utilization in an appropriate manner 
without offending the taste of even the 
most fastidious. | 


Without some good manure, it is not 
easy to raise plants on such exhausted 
soilas forms the habitat of lalang as a 
rule. This much-maligned grass is in our 
opinion a friend to man in disguise. 
When the soil is composed principally 
of clay—and the _ surface humus has 
been all washed away, there are very 
few plants that can grow on it. But 
such land is sooner or later invaded by 


Miscellaneous. 


lalang—whose underground stems pene- 
trate deeply, and ramify in-all directions. 
In this way the surface soil is broken up. 
As the grass grows up and dies down, 
a quantity of organic debris begins to 
collect, and in course of time affords a 
suitable nidus for the growth ofshrubs 
and forest trees. Ifit were not for the 
lalang, the afforestation of such waste 
land would take a very long time indeed. 
But unfortunately lalang is very treach- 
erous to get rid off, and is very fatal to 
the growth of young plants. There are 
very few tree seedlings that can survive 
in the struggle for existence. Hven 
such hardy trees as the coconut palms 
become sallow and sickly and eventually 
stunt and die. Para Rubber trees make 
n brave struggle, andif there is enough 
humus in the soil, soon outgrow the 
lalang, andif closely planted may force 
the latter to die out on account of the 
shade. 


The method of stamping out the lalang 
must be carried out systematically. As 
soon as an acre or so of the land has 
been ploughed, holes 3’ x 3’ are dug out 
at about 20’ intervals, and filled with 
manured humus, the seeds of labu—the 
bottle gourd, or of other species of 
quickly growing cucurbitas are sown. 
The young plants quickly spread all 
over the ground. In the meantime, the 
ground is turned up a second time, the 
stems of lalang being thrown up, collected 
and burned. 


Inacouple of months the gourd has 
flowered and witheredaway. Again; the 
land is hoed, and then as a rule some 
atropaceous plant such as chillies or 
egg-plants are planted in beds. The 
ground is by this time well freed of 
lalang, and is scrupulously weeded, ‘The 
young plants, replanted usually from a 
nursery, are manured with a diluted 
mixture of ripened excreta and water 
daily or thrice weekly. The chillies are 
well nigh exhausted about four months 
from the time of planting. They are 
generally succeeded by a crop of sweet 
potatoes, after which the land is allowed 
to lie fallow for a couple of months. 
Then the weeds are ploughed up and 
used as green manure mixed with farm- 
yard compost. 


Briefly the order may be stated cate- 
gorically. 


1. Chillies. 

2. Some leguminous plant. 
3. Sweet potatoe. 

4. Tapioca. 


Indigo is a favourite leguminous plant 
to be cultivated. It requires very careful 
manuring, and generally yields three 
crops of cuttings—after which the land 
is allowed to rest for a few months. 


160 — 


Avuaust, 1909. 

By careful tillage and judicious manur- 
ing, these Chinese vegetable gardeners 
are able to makeuse of the poorest land 
available and to obtain good returns for 
their toil and investment. When lalang 
land has been thus reclaimed, it is not 
unprofitable to plant it up with rubber 
between the vegetable grown, 


AGRICULTURAL CREDIT 
SOCIETIES. 


(From the Towra ‘of the Board of Agri- 
culture, Vol. XV., No. 6.) 


Agricultural credit societies or banks 
are combinations of small farmers or 
labourers formed for the purpose of rais- 
ing capital to be advanced at a reason- 
able rate of interest to members re- 
quiring temporary loans for the purpose 
of reproductive undertakings. The small 
holder, the labourer with an allotment, 


“the market gardener, or the small village 


tradesman may occasionally require a 
loan to enable him to make purchases 
on fayourable terms of such require- 
ments as live stock, seeds, manures or 
implements, and it is to meet this want 
that the establishment of agricultural 
credit banks has been urged in Nagland. 
Among the fpeasant proprietors of the 
Continent, these co-operative loan so- 
cieties have proved very successful, and 
in districts where small cultivators are 
sufficiently numerous there seems no 
reason why the methods which have — 
proved successful elsewhere should not 

be adapted to meet local conditions in 

Evgland. : 


Limited and Unlimited Liabslity.— 
There is, however, no one method which 
has been universally adopted abroad, 
and even as regards broad general princi- 
ples, there exists the widest diversity. 
The continental societies may, however, 
be broadly divided into two classes, 
those with limited and those with un- 
limited liability of members. The latter 
type is perhaps the more largely develop- 
ed, and it was on this basis that the two 
main systems of credit, called after 
their inventors the “Raiffeisen” and the 
“‘Schulze-Delitzsch,” were first founded. 
The main features of banks of the “‘ Raif- 
feisen” type are (1) that no shares are 
issued, the capital being raised ~ by: 
entrance fees, subscriptions and deposits, 
and loans bearing a fixed rate of inter- 
est; (2) that the liability of members is 
unlimited, every member being jointly 
and severally responsible for any losses 
that may be incurred by the society ; (8) 
that the loans advanced by the societies 
are for reproductive purposes only, the 
borrowers being required to satisfy the 
managing committee that the object for 


yr wes, 


a ay hae i oad 


= Avaust, 1909.] 


~ which the loan is required is one that 


affords a reasonable security for his 
being able to repay the loan at the date 
fixed; and (4) that the operations of the 
society are confined to a small area in 
order that the personal character and 
needs of applicants for loans may be 
known to the members and committee. 

The collective liability of the members 
to the extert of their whole means arose 
partly from the fact that it was the only 
system on which such societies without 
means of their own could raise money 
to lend to their members, and also that 
at the time of their foundation it was 
the only system recognised by the 
German law. In some parts of Ger- 
many, however, the principle of un- 
limited libility has not been received 
with favour, and the explanation is to 
be found apparently in the distribution 
of the agricultural population. In dis- 
tricts where small peasant proprietors 
predominate, all of a similar station in 
life and not varving very greatly in 
wealth, the Raiffeisen principles have 
made great headway, but where farms of 
different sizes occur the various classes 
are disincliaed to share on equal terms 
the burden of unlimited liability, and 
some form of limited liability has been 
preferred. Itis possible for this reason 
that co-operative credit banks based on 
unlimited liability have up to the present 
made so little progress in England, while 
in Ireland, where there is a greater pre- 
ponderance of holders of the same class, 
they have increased in numbers with 
considerable rapidity. It appears, for in- 
stance, that in 1907 there were only 15 
agricultural credit societies in England 
and apparently none in Scotland, where- 
as there were 246 societies in Ireland, 
which had loans outstanding in that 
year to the amount ot £50,164, and had a 
membership of 15,100. With an exten- 
sion in the numbers of small holdings in 
this country, the opportunities for the 
establishment of credit banks are likely 
to become more numerous. 

The agricultural co-operative credit 
societies formed up to the present are 
usually based on the principle of the 
unlimited liability of the members for 
the debts of the society, because this 
joint. liability provides a security on 
which money can be borrowed at normal 
rates of interest. A community of small 
cultivators, who may wish to form a 
society of this kind are unlikely to be 
able to raise enough money among them- 
selves to provide a sufficient capital to 
enable an institution of this sort to be 
founded on an independent footing. It 
has therefore been found necessary to 
work on the lines of the Raiffeisen 
banks, but in order that the societies 


- may be maintained on a sound financial 


al 


161 


Miscellaneous. 


footing, it is in the highest degree essen- 
tial that the importance of the two 
main principles of the Raiffeisen banks 
should be fully recognised. 

Loans Granted for Reproductive Pur- 
poses only.—It is necessary in the first 
place that the societies should lend 
money for reproductive purposes only; 
such as, for example, the purchase of 
manures, feeding stuffs, cattle, sheep, 
pigs and poultry, the erection of build- 
ings, glasshouses, &e. Itmust be remem- 
bered that borrowed money can only 
be utilised with advantage if the margin 
of profit obtained from its employment 
is higher than the rate of interest paid 
for it. The possibility of obtaining 
money on favourable terms constitutes 
one of the strongest arguments for co- 
operative banks, but it is necessary that 
the probablity of obtaining a higher 
profit from money thus obtained should 
be clearly shown. In this connection it 
may be noted that the Department of 
Agriculture for Ireland in its Annual 
Report for 1906-7 observes, ‘‘It is of the 
greatest advantage to the poor farmer 
to obtain a loan on easy terms if the 
money is properly applied to a repro- 
ductive purpose, but if the loan merely 
tempts him to increase his liabilities, 
without any ultimate prospect of finding 
himself in an improved position, it can 
but injure him.” 

Moreover, it is essential that the pro- 
missory note signed by the borrower 
should depend for its value not merely 
on the signature of the borrower and 
his sureties, but that it should have 
behind it, as it were, goods actually 
purchased with the money. Loans 
should never be granted for the pay- 
ment of debts, nor is it desirable that 
loans should be renewed, or new loans 
granted, in the place of old ones which 
have not been discharged. The possi- 
bility of unfavourable seasons, unpro- 
ductive crops and unsatisfactory prices 
should always be borne in mind, 

Need for Limiting the Operations of 
each Society to a Small <Area.—The 
second principle of importance in un- 
limited liability societies is that of con- 
fining their operations to a small area. 
It is obvious that where loans are 
granted on personal security an _ inti- 
mate acquaintance with the circum- 
stances of each of the members and parti- 
cularly of their character, for sobriety, 
honesty and integrity is absolutely 
necessary. This can hardly be the case 
if a society extends beyond the limits of, 
at the most, two or three parishes, but the 
need for limiting the area necessarily 
results in each individual society possess- 
ing but small powers of raising money. 

Advantages of a Central Bank,—The 
drawbacks connected with this restric- 


Miscellaneous. 


tion of the operations of the societies 
were recognised in Germany at a very 
early stage in the existence of the 
Raiffeisen banks, and the need was felt 
for a central institution which could 
borrow money on the collective respon- 
sibility of a number of societies, and also 
utilize any available balance in_ the 
hands of one society for the benefit of 
another. Provincial central banks were 
therefore formed, and these were again, 
in some cases, centralized in a still larger 
institution. At the present time the 
principle of a central bank may be said 
to be recognised in all the continental 
countries where co-operative credit has 
been at all developed, though there is 
some difference of opinion as to the 
methods on which it should be managed. 
In England an institution of this kind, 
known as “The Central Co-operative 
Agricultural Bank, Limited,” has been 
registered under the Industrial and Pro- 
vident Societies Act, 1898, for the pur- 
pose of financing the village co-opera- 
tive credit societies affiliated to the 
Agricultural Organisation Society. 

It is hoped that this bank will also 
enable the societies to overcome certain 
difficulties which have been experienced 
in dealing with their deposits. These 
deposits ought to form the principal 
from which their working capital is 
obtained, but it is pointed out in the 
report of the Agricultural Organisa- 
tion Society for 1906 that if a large 
deposit is offered, the society may not 
be able at the moment to lend it out, 
and its only course is to pay it intoits 
own account at the local joint stock 
bank, where, if it is earning interest at 
all, it is not earning as high a percent- 
age as the society is obliged to pay for 
it, and the society accordingly loses. 
Again, if the deposit is withdrawable 
at short notice, the society caanot with- 
out risk of being placed in a difficulty lend 
out the money for long periods. The new- 
ly-established bank will place the socie- 
ties ina better position in this respect, 
as it will be prepared both to receive sur- 
plus deposits from local societies and to 
advance money to them when required. 

Methods of forming a Society.—An 
agricultural credit bank of this type 
may be registered as a “‘ specially autho- 
rised society” under the Friendly 
Societies’ Act, 1896, on application ta 
the Registrar of Friendly Societies, 
28, Abingdon Street,S.W. This appli- 
cation must be made ona special form 
to be obtained from the Registrar, and 
must be accompanied by two printed 
copies of the proposed rules, No fee is 
payable for the registration of an agri- 
cultural credit society. The rules must 
comply with the Act, and it may be 
noted that the Act provides that the 


162 


loans must be confined to members ; that 
the rules must fix a maximum for any 
loan made to a member on _ personal 
security: and that no loan can be made 
which, together with moneys owing for 
the time being by the member to the 
society, exceeds £50; that the’ total 
amount held at any one time on deposit 
cannot exceed two-thirds of the total 
sums for the time being owing to the 
society by the borrowing members ; and 
that no member can hold an interest 
in the funds exceeding £200. Where, 
however, sucha ‘‘ specially authorised 
society” divides no profit among its 
members and watches over the applica- 
tion of the money lent, it is entitled 
under the Societies’ Borrowing Powers 
Act, 1998, to make arule authorising it to 
borrow money from any person whether 
a member or not; otherwise the 
Friendly Societies’ Act requires the “loan 
fund” to be formed by contributions 
or deposits from members only, subject 
to the limitations menticned above. 

A form of rules has been prepared 
by the Registrar of Friendly Societies 
tor the purpose of asssisting specially 
authorised societies in complying with 
the provisions of the Frendly Societies 
Act so far as they relate to such 
societies. A set of model rules specially 
adapted to agricultural credit societies 
is also issued by the Agricultural Organ- 
isation Society, Dacre House, Dacre 
Street, Westminister, S.W., and this 
society will assist in the formation of 
these agricultural credit banks. 

These rules prescribe the terms of 
membership and provide for the appoint- 
ment of the committee, trustees, 
treasurer and secretary, for the holding 
of meetings, the keeping and auditing 
of the accounts and other matters. 

The rate of interest on loans and the 
date of repayment are not fixed by 
law, but the model rules of the Agricul- 
tural Organisation Society provide that 
when a loan is granted it may be for 
some fixed term not excceding twelve 
months, or it may be repayable in 
instalments at intervals of one, two, 
four, six or eight weeks, or three 
months; the interest to be charged for 
loans not made repayable by instalments 
is not to exceed 6 per cent. per annum ; 
the interest on deposits is not to exceed 
4 per cent. per annum; noprofit, bonus 
or dividend of any kind is to be divided 
among the members, and any surplus 
after payment of the cost of administra- 
tion is to be carried to the reserve fund. 

While loan societies, registered as 
specially authorised societies, cannot 
claim exemption from stamp duty, 
priority of claim against the estates of 
their officers in event of death or bank- 
ruptcy,; agricultural credit societies have 


Avuausi, 1909.] 


the advantages of those sections, but the 
other special privileges of the Friendly 
Societies’ Act, 1896, are not extended 
to either. pee 

Assistance of County Councils in the 
Formation of Credit Banks.—The posi- 
tion as regards the formation of credit 
banks has been somewhat modified by 
the Small Holdings and Allotments Act, 
1907, which authorizes a county council 
to promote the formation o1 extension of 
cO-operative societies having for their 
object the provision or the profitable 
working of small holdings or allotments, 
and under this definition societies for 
the purpose of credit banking are speci- 
fically included. The county council, 
with the consent of, and subject to, 
regulations made by the Local Govern- 
ment Board, may assist such societies 
by making grants or advances, or may 
guarantee advances made to_ the society 
upon such terms and conditions as the 
Council may think fit. eres 

Number of existing Societies.—Only a 
few of these societies exist in England 
at present, but they appear to be doing 
a useful work among small cultivators, 
village tradesmen, allotment holders and 
the rural labouring classes. ; 

According to the Report of the Chief 
Registrar of Friendly Societies for 1906 
(Part A, Appendix N, Sections I-IX), 
the following twelve societies were regis- 
tered in England on the 31st. December, 
1905. The Muskham Credit Society, 
which was registered in 1904, was dis- 
solved in 1906 :— 


Ziol. ee 
Sas/8 3/8 
233/85 8\o45 
Sag\s ©|8 os 
Aa "2s Bid & 
a | ee [Ee 
Cambridge— ; 19 
Cottenham Agricultural Credit 
Society se! 1896 20 11 
Hampshire— 
Hedge End Agricultural Ciedit 
Society AD | 1896 32 | 219 
Bedford— 


Clophill Credit Society se} 1900 16 = 
Liucolnshire— 
Spalding and District Credit 
Society OG ee} 1904 98 | 203 
Friskoey Oredit Society -.| 1904 27 12 
Seawby Agricultural Credit 


Society of 1894 28 42 
Norfolk— 
Whissonsett Small Holders 
Credit Society 1905 18 26 
Wiggenhall Agricultural Credit 
Society or s~| 1896 46 
Suffolk— ; 
Laxfield Agricultural Credit 
Hociety oes «| 1894 10 10 
Warwick-— 


Grandborough Village Bank...| 1895 7 | 165 
Worcester— 
Far Forest and District Credit 


Society ote We «| 1903 11 50 
Castle Morton Agricultural 
Credit Society ... +»| 1895 | 19 1 


163 Miscetlaneous. 


Some account of the operations of 
these societies will be found in the pub- 
lications of the Agricultural Organi- 
sation Society. The Wiggenhall Agri- 
cultural Credit Society, for example, is 
described in the Society’s Journal for 
March, 1908. This society, which has 
been in existence twelve years, was 
established with the assistance of a local 
landowner, who provided part of its 
first capital by placing the sum of £50 
on deposit. It also raised capital by 
taking deposits of ls. and upwards from 
members to bear interest at 4 per cent. 
up to £20, and at 3 per cent. when over 
that amount, In December, 1906, the 
funds of the society amounted to £188, 
of which about £68 were deposits, while 
the outstanding loans amounted to £114. 
The purposes for which loans have been 
granted are buying horses and ponies 
for tradesmen and small holders, buying 
live stock, manure, seeds, repairing green 
houses, &c. One member has been able 
to make a small holding with the assist- 
ance of a loan from the society, together 
with his deposits over a number of years. 
The present membership is 47. 

Another society at Friskney ad- 
vanced money in 1905 to the amount of 
£97 for such purposes as the purchase of 
acow and apig, of implements on the 
borrower taking a larger holding, and 
to assist a man who was purchasing his 
holding. The Hedge End Credit Society 
granted loans amounting to £180 for the 
purchase of seeds and manure. None of 
the societies appear to have suffered any 
losses. 

Societies with Inmited Liability.— 
Where the principle of unlimited liabil- 
ity is felt to be unsuitable, or unneces- 
sary for the purpose of raising capital, a 
society “for carrying on the business of 
banking” with limited liability can be 
established under the Industrial and 
Provident Societies’ Act, 1893. Theshare 
capital must be transferable and not 
withdrawable, and no member can have 
any interest in shares exceeding £200. 
Application for registration must be 
made on a special form to the Chief 
Registrar of Friendly Societies, 28, 
Abingdon Street, S.W., and the fee is 
a unless the society adopt certain model 
rules. 


THE TREATMENT OF WEEDS IN 
PERMANENT CROPS. 


By F. A. STockDALRE. 


(rom the Journal of the Bourd of Agri- 
culture of British Guiana, Vol. II,, No. 4, 
April, 1909.) 

What is the most economic treatment 
of weeds in plantations of such crops as 
cacao, coffee, oranges, limes, or rubber ? 


Miscellanéous. 


This is a question that has often been 
raised by cultivators, and is one that has 
received attention at the hands of 
experimenters. ‘ : 

In the tropics, vegetative growth is 
exceedingly rapid, and consequently the 
expenses of weeding crops that take 
some years to -reach the full-bearing 
stage are often enormous, and not infre- 
quently they represent a very large 
proportion of the total expenses of the 
plantation. It is possible that this 
expense can be reduced, without sacri- 
ficing in any way the health and vigour 
of the permanent crops or without 
damaging the condition of the soil? 
This question is particularly of import- 
ance to the cultivator who is commenc- 
ing with small capital, who therefore 
desires to raise a plantation of healthy 


trees as economically as possible. Nor is 
it without interest to the capitalist, 
especially when low prices render 


it necessary to reduce expenditure. 
Further, it is a matter that should 
receive the attention of the peasant 
proprietor. 

In planting a large number of per- 
manent crops, it is the common practice 
to interplant with such temporary crops 
as bananas, plantains, cassava, ete., in 
order that some returns may be obtained 
during the first few years of growth, 
This practice may be considered a satis- 
factory one from a weeding point of 
view, for the shade afforded by the tem- 
porary crops considerably reduces the 
number of weeds, and therefore reduces 
expenses. Sooner o1 later, however, it 
is necessary for the growth of the per- 
manent trees that the greater portion of 
the provision crops should be removed. 
Weeds now become more numerous and 
require more constant attention, and 
again the question arises as to what is 
the most economical method of dealing 
with weeds in order that the best results 
may be obtained from the permanent 
crops. 

METHODS. 

The different methods that may be 
adopted may here be grouped under 
separate sub-heads. It is possible to 
practise the following methods :— 

(a) Clean weeding, either by means of 
constant use of the fork and hoe or by 
means of the hoe alone. 

(b) Clean weeding and cutlassing —by 
clean weeding acircle around each tree, 
and allowing the weeds in the intervals 
to grow; to be cutlassed down at definite 
intervals. 

(c) Cutlassing— by allowing the weeds 
to grow and to cut them down periodi- 
cally with a cutlass, and either to use 
the weeds as a mulch around the trees or 
to allow them to remain where cut, 


164 


Bbc 


[Aveust, ! 

(d) Green mulching—by — growing 
‘““smother crops” to kill out the weeds, 
to be cutlassed down periodically and 
allowed to rot on the ground. 


The advantages and disadvantages of 
the different systems may now be briefly 
discussed :— 


(a) Clean weediny.—This is carried out 
by forking the land between the trees 
at definite intervals and by weeding 
with a hoe. Sometimes the forking is 
dispensed with. The hoe alone is then 
used, and the weeds are either buried or 
allowed to rotin heaps. This system is 
adopted on many cacao plantations 
inthe West Indies, where a thorough 
forking is given once in every two or 
three years, and the weeds that grow 
during the intervening years are cut up 
with the hoe and buried in small pits 
dug throughout the fields, while the 
fields are lightened by ‘“ cracking” the 
earth with the fork without turning the 
soil. On other cacao estates the forking 
is dispensed with and hoeing is practised, 
the weeds being buried in small. pits, 
while on some lime estates where hoeing 
alone is practised the weeds are allowed 
to rot in heaps or are collected around 
the roots of the trees. 

Thorough forking of the soil renders 
it more pliable and more easy of drain- 
age, and prevents the drying of the lower 
soil by capillary action. It also lets in 
light and air into the soil and generally 
improves the tilth. Against this it may 
be pointed out that as the land is denuded 
of any covering, a large amount of 


SURFACE EVAPORATION 


of moisture and of heat radiation takes 
place, while the ‘‘ baking” effect of the 
tropical sun may have some injurious 
effect upon the normal bacterial action 
in the soil, whereby the dormant plant 
food is made available. Heavy rains, 
moreover, wash most of the finer soil 
particles and humus of the surface soil 
deeper down, and a large quantity of this 
valuable soil may eventually find its way 
into the drains, especially if the land is 
not quite flat. If the permanent trees 
have grown to a fair size, the forking 
may produce heavy root pruning, that 
may set them back for some time, 
Further, forking is a particularly costly 
process, as also is hoeing and the burial 
of weeds. The use of the hoe alone is 
not generally to be recommended, for it 
has usually been found that only the top 
soil is scraped, thata hard surface is 
left beneath this, and that the weeds 
are rarely satisfactorily dealt with. 

(b) Clean Weeding and Cutlassing.— 
This method consists of keeping a circle 
clean around the trees, with forkings at 
definite periods, and allowing the weeds 


AvGust, 1909.} 


to grow in the intervening spaces. This 
method isa compromise between clean 
weeding and cutlassingsolely. The fork- 
ing around the trees must cause some 
injury tothe roots, but this may be 
ofiset by the fact that the roots of the 
trees are kept freefrom the injurious 
effects of weeds, and if the grass that is 
cutlassed down is applied as a mulch on 
these cleaned circles, loss of moisture by 
evaporation is prevented and the general 
tilth of the soil is improved. This mulch 
should not be placed immediately around 
the trunk of the tree, for such a practice 
has been shown to be injurious, but it 
should be spread evenly in a circle 
commencing atleast 18 inches or 2 feet 
from the trunk, and as the trees grow 
this circle should be enlarged. On the 
other hand, care must be taken thata 
hollow is not left around the tree, in 
which water may accumulate. 


(c) Cutlassing.—On many estates, 
where the rainfall is heavy and the 
growth of weeds luxuriant, the weeds 
and grass are allowed to grow, and 
they are cutlassed down at periodical 
intervals, and either used as mulch 
around the trees or allowed to rot on the 
ground where cut down. This system is 
adopted in many young cacao planta- 
tions, and in a very large number of 
the Dominica lime cultivations. By this 
surface covering of weeds, the soil is 
prevented from being ‘“‘ washed,” and it 
is protected from the harmful effects of 
‘the sun. The conditions are also favour- 
able to the bacterial action for the 
liberation of plant food, for the moisture 
content and temperature of the surface 
soil are favourable to bacterial growth. 
Against this, it is urged that the soil 
willsuffer in tilth from lack of proper 
tillage, and that the soil will be im- 
properly aerated. The cutting down of 
the weeds, however, causes some of 
them to die, and the drainage and aera- 
tion that results from the death of the 
roots is a matter that must receive 
consideration, The weeds and grass use 
upsome of the plant food that should 
be available for the trees, but it is 


NOT PERMANENTLY REMOVED 


from the soil, as the grass and weeds are 
cut and left on the soil to increase the 
humus in the soil, Again, they evapurate 
directly from their leaves a large 
quantity of soil water, and thereby 
cause a loss of moisture directly from 
the soil. It has, therefore, practically 
to be decided whether the benefit derived 
from the surface covering, sufficiently 
offsets the loss of moisture and plant 
' food through the weeds and grass; 
particularly when the reduction of the 
expenses over the clean weeding method 
is borne in mind, 


165 


Miscellaneous. 


On many of the lime and cacao estates 
in Dominica this from of culture has 
been practised for a considerable time, 
and the results have during the last ten 
years been closely investigated by 
Dr. Watts, now Imperial Commissioner 
of Agriculture, andit has been found 
that the physical condition of the soil 
generally remains good. The permanent 
crops grow well under this system, and 
‘‘ wash” of the soil is prevented, even on 
the steepest slopes. The application of 
the cut grass and weeds as a mulch 
around the roots of the tree is probably 
better than allowing them to rot where 
cut down, as it affords direct protection 
and good addition where the feeding 
roots of the permanent trees are situated. 
This system is practised in the coffee 
cultivation at Onderneeming~ School 
farm, under the direction of the Depart- 
ment of Science and Agriculture, and on 
some sections is assisted by bringing in 
additional material for mulching pur- 
poses. It has been quite satisfactory, 
and increased crop returns have been 
obtained. The weeds or mulch must 
not, however, be packed too close to the 
trunks, or otherwise they keep the 
trunks too damp and favour the growth 
of fungus diseases and the presence of 
insect pests. 

It is well here to add a 


i WORD OF WARNING 
in regard to this system. Para grass 
should on no account be allowed to grow 
in permanent cultivations. It should 
always be dug outand burnt, or other- 
wise it is likely to become a troublesome 
pest. lt was once observed on a cacao 
plantation in St. Lucia that the removal 
of Para grass was not properly done 
from the beginning, with the result that 
larger expenditure was incurred in doing 
itat a later date, when its injurious 
eftects were being felt by the cacao trees, 
The difficulty of getting rid of this pest 
when once established is well known in 
this colony, and care should therefore be 
taken with it. 

(ad) Green mulch.—This system con- 
sists of growing cover crops, preferably 
of leguminous plants, to smother out the 
weeds. These crops are cut down just 
as they commence to flower, and allowed 
to remain on the soilas a mulch. The 
advantages of this system over the 
cutlassing of weeds is that control is 
kept of the growth between the per- 
manent crops, that the leguminous crops 
benefit the soil by their root nodules, 
and that a larger amount of material is 
available for mulching purpuses. Less 
cutting down is needed, and the expenses 
thereby reduced, but against this reduc-. 
tion must be placed the cost. of the seed 
and the cost of establishing the cover 
crops. For cover crops purposes a 


Miscellaneous. 


number of leguminous and non-legu- 
minous plants have been experimented 
with. Cow peas, Bengal beans, and 
Canavalia ensiformis have been found 
suitable in the West Indies, while 
Crotalaria striata, Mimosa pudica and 
Desmodium triflorum have given good 
results in Ceylon and the Hast. 

In the foregoing, the chief merits and 
disadvantages of the different systems 
have been briefly discussed, and it now 
remains to ascertain what is to be 
advised for the conditions pertaining in 
this colony. 

EXPERIMENTS. 


Experiments by the Department of 
Science and Agriculture to ascertain 
what plants are the most suitable for the 
cover crops in this colony will be made, 
and the different systems will be given 
a trial atthe various experiment stations 
distributed throughout the . colony. 
Those plants which are found to be 
suitable, will, during the first year, be 
saved for seed, in order that quantities 
may be available for distribution to the 
planters and others that are desirous of 
carrying out experiments in their 
cultivations. Seed of Crotalaria striata, 
from Ceylon and also locally grown, is 
to be sent for trial at the Rubber Station 
at Isorooro, in the North-West, while 
other local plants are to be under careful 
investigation at the various experimental 
fields. Among these will be tried 
Crotalaria retusa, Canavalia ensiformis, 
Canavalia obtusifolia, Canavalia gladi- 
ator, Phaseolus sennerctus, Bengal beans, 
Iron cow peas, and Wooly Pyrol, 


166 


while experiments will also be carried 
out with others that give promise 
to be suitable for the purpose of green 
mulching. 


One of the most interesting points in 
connection with the green mulch system 
has recently been raised by Mr. J.B 
Carruthers, in his Annual Report for 
1907, as Director of Agriculture in the 
Federated Malay States (shortly to take 
up duties in the newly organized Agri- 
cultural Department in Trinidad). By 
sowing seeds of such a plant as Crotalaria 
striata as soon asthe land is felled and 
burned for rubber planting, and before 
the rubber plants are put in, the growth 
of weeds and under scrub is greatly 
prevented and expenses, therefore, con- 
siderably reduced. From this report the 
following extract has been taken, and 
may prove of interest:—‘‘By far the 
best time to establish one of these plants 
ata minimum costis directly the land 
has been burnt off. Having once got 
the plant established, the immediate 
necessity of putting the rubber in is 
over, since the fields do not get any 
worse, but rather better, for the reception 
of the rubber plants aud the cost of 
cutting away the crotalaria, mimosa, or 
other plant to put in lines and. holes is 
very little. The only weeding necessary 
is in case Jungle trees or scrub sprout, 
and these can easily be noticed among 
the prevalent growth of a single plant 
and removed. No soil is lost from the 
beginning of the opening of the land, 
and the gain in this to the roots of the 
rubber plant is not to be neglected.” 


Correspondence, 


“TROPICAL LIFE.” 


2nd June, 1909. 
DEAR SiR,—Will you kindly note the 
particulars of the enclosed copy of 
“T. L.” re a competition that we have 
started to encourage further research 
work on the Fermentation of Cacao, and 
report same in your publications, as I 
am most anxious for the Ceylon men to 
know of the competition. so that they 

ean take part if they wish to do so. 


Details have still to be arranged, and 
will be published month by month in 
the Journal (T.L.), but you can take 
it that we shall start officially next 
month (July) and close in December, 1910 
—giving 18 months in which to prepare 
the papers. 

Further copies of this issue of T. L. 
will be sent with pleasure, if needed. 


Thanking you in anticipation. 


I remain, yours very truly, 
(Signed) H. HAMEL SMITH 


The tenth £5 just to hand, so I have at 
least the £50. 


The following is an extract from 
Tropical Life which relatesto the com- 
petition in question,—(HD.) :— 


THE FERMENTATION OF CACAO: 


PROPOSED PRizE FUND TO ENCOURAGE 
FURTHER RESEARCH WORK. 


During the last twenty years several 
improvements have been introduced in 
the systems and methods employed to 
dry cacao, butas regards the fermen- 
tation planters still have much to learn. 
German and Dutch authorities have pub- 
lished accounts of their investigations 


[Auaust, 1909. 


in this line, and have added to the 
scientific knowledge of the subject. 
What we now require is to have a popu- 
lar scientific treatise drawn up in KEng- 
lish on the termentation and drying of 
cacao; one that will fully explain the 
why, when, and where of the biological 
and other changes that take place in the 
beans. Such a treatise will, we consider, 
encourage the planters to continue the 
experiments on a large seale, and by 
adopting the method found to give the 
best results they will be able to assure 
an improvement in the quality, colour, 


“appearance, and more even break of their 


beans. It should also enable small pea- 
sant and other proprietors, as in the 
West Indies, to turn out from number- 
less small plantations large bulked ship- 
ments of cacao, as similar in appearance 
as is the case with the exports from 
Bahia, San Thomé, the Gold Coast, &c., 
cacao that can be depended upon to turn 
out to type, and not show a marked 
difference in appearance in every few 
bags. 

In order, therefore, to encourage fur- 
ther research work on the lines stated, 
and to ascertain exactly what changes 
(together with their causes, and whether 
these changes cccur during the ferment- 
ing process only, or whilst being dried) 
take place in the cacao bean between the 
time that it leaves the pods until it is 
shovelled into’ the bag for export, the 
Editor of TROPICAL Lire has much plea- 
sure in heading a list of donors of £5 
each towards a prize fund for the best 
treatise on the subject, the said treatise 
to be competed for on terms as shall be 
agreed upon by the various subscribers 
as soon as the list is closed. 


It is hoped to raise at least £50. 
Whether one or more prizes will be 
awarded depends on the decision of the 
subscribers and the amount raised. At 
present three promises have been re- 
ceived, and two more from the Continent 
seem likely to follow. Those already 
subscribing include :— 

The Editor of Tropical Life. 
Messrs. Cadbury Bros. 
Die Indische Mercuur. 


PARA CURVATING SEEDLINGS. 


Gikiyanakanda, Neboda, 
April 26th, 1909. 


Sir,—l have proved to my entire satis- 
faction that this trouble is due entirely 
to nurseries being kadly laid down. 


The seeds should be laid flat with the 
erease up or down, and should be only 
just covered with fine soil. On no 
account should there be any depth of 
soil over the seed, 


Avaust, 1909.) 167 


Correspondence. 


Nursery work is one which amply 
repays constant and absolutely reliable 
supervision. 

If your correspondent will bear in 
mind whatI havesaid above, I can pro- 
mise him a nursery free from turned 
roots. 

The same thing applies when laying 
downa Tea nursery. Unless you make it 
impossible for the seed, in either case, 
to be roiled into a hole which is said to 
bea certain depth, the result will be 
disappointing. Of course, some few 
roots turn from contact with small 
stones, but the percentage of these 
would be very very small, provided the 
nursery site has been suitably chosen 
and properly worked.—Yours faithfully, 

GEORGE H. GOLLEDGE. 


|The subject of the above letter is dealt 
with in The Cireulars and Agricultural 
Journal of the Royal Botanic Gardens, 
Ceylon, Vol. IV., No. 17. Mr. Peteh in- 
forms us that in his experiments the 
depth at which the seed was planted did 
not seem to have any effect, and that 
the position of the seed is the chief 
factor concerned.—ED. | 


EFFECT OF FLOODS ON TAPPED 
RUBBER TREES. 


Tavoy, 4th June, 1909. 


Sir,—Will you or any of your readers 
beso good as to tell me the effects of 
floods on tapped rubber trees ? Does the 
water getting into the cuts cause rot 
and thus injure the tree? In the case of 
jute trees, which are tapped by Burmans 
for use as birdlime, rot is thus caused 
and the tree often eventually dies. 
Would such evil effect be probable in 
the case of Para rubber? The flood 
water level in part of my grant is, every 
three or four years, 6’ to 8’, This would 
entirely submerge the tapped surface of 
trees planted in these lowlying parts. 
What would be the effect on the tree? 
Any information will be gratefully re- 
ceived.—Yours truly, 


BURMAH. 


[No injury is likely to be caused unless 
the tapping had been severe and the 
bark split away from the wood, but the 
result will depend, to some extent, on 
the time of immersion. Apart from this 
slight risk, immersion should do the 
trees good, and probably increase the 
subsequent flow of latex. Trees in the 
low-country of Ceylon, which have been 
tapped by the herring-bone system and 
are submerged 4 to 6 feet at every rise 
of the river, have not been affected, and 
the bark heals well.—M. K. B.] 


ALOES, Socotrine cwt. 
Zanzibar & Hepatic ,, 
ARROWKOOT (Natal) Ib. 
bEES’ WAX, ewt. 

Zanzibar Yellow + 
Bombay bleached ,, 
xD unbleached ,, 
Madagascar 
CAMPHOR, Japan 
China h 
CaRDAMOMS, Tuticorin 


” 


” 


Tellicherry 


Mangalore ,, 
Mysore 
Malabar 
Seeds, E. I, & Ceylon 


Ceylon. ” 


168 


MARKET RATES FOR TROPICAL PRODUCTS. 
(From Lewis & Peat’s M onthly Prices Current, London, *th July, 1909.) 


QUALITY. QUOTATIONS, 
Fair to fine +. /85s a 90s 
Common to good --[40s a 853 
Fair to fine --|2¢d a 4d 


Slightly drossy to fair ... 
Fuir to good 

Dark to good genuine .. 
vark to good palish 


£7108 a £7 12s 6d 
£5 158 a £6 10s 
£6 10s a £6 15s 


Retined i Is 64d a Is 9d 
Fair average quality ...|140s 

Gocd to fine bold 1s Yda 2s 2d 
Middling lean Is 4d a 1s ¢d 
Good to fine bold -|Is9d a 2s 
Brownish 1s 8d als 7d 


Med brown to fair bold 
Sm: ll fair to fine plump 
Fair to good 
Fair to good 


2s a 3s 5d 
ils da 38s 
Is dda 1s ¢d 
is 7d a 1s 8d 


£6 12s 6d a £6 15s 


INDIARUBBER.(Contd.) 
Borneo 
Java 
Penang 
Mozambique 


Nyassaland 
Madagascar 


New Guinea 


INDIGO. I. Bengal 


MACE, Bombay & Penang 


Ceylon Long Wild ,, |Shelly to good .-6d a 1s6d nom. 
CAbii Die OIL, Calcutta ,, |Good 2nds p ./3d 
CHILLIES, “Zanzibar cwt.|Dull to nne bright 35s a 4°s 
SINCHONA BARK.- lb. 
Ceylon Crown, Renewed 32d a 7d 
Org. Stem |2d a 6d 
Red Org. Stem |13d a 41d 
Renewed 3d a 54d 
Root lida 4d 
CINNAMON, Ceylon lste|Good to tine quill 1lUd als 4d 
per Ib 2nds rs ” 9d a 1s 2d 
3rds ue = 73d a 113d 
4ths oe os 63d a gid 
Chips, &¢../Fair to fine bold 23d a 34d 
CLOVES, Penang Ib.|Dull to fine bright pkd.|1s 1d a 1s 3d 
Amboyna -|Dull to tine 8d a 9d 
Ceylon : ” ” 4 4d a od 
Zanzibar Fair and fine bright 43d a 49d 
Stems -|Fair 13d 
SOFFEE | 
ig Ceylon Plantation cwt./Medinum to Bola nominal 
Native Good ordinary nowinal | 
Liberian »» |Fair to bold 488 a 55s } 
CUCOA, Ceylon Plant. ., |Special Marks 658 a 738 | 
Red to good 60s a 688 \ 
Native Estate », [Ordinary to red 40sa 54s | 
Java and Celebes ,, |Small to good red 30s a 868 } 
COLUMBYU KOU t 1, |Middling to good lisal7s 6d | 
CKOTON SELDS,sift. cwt.|Dull to fair 3Us a 35s 
CUBEBS a6 »» |Ord. stalky to good 80s a 90s 
aI NGhk, Bengal, rough,, |Fair 303 
Calicut, Cut A ,, [Small to fine bold 6Us a 858 
B »» Small and medium 52s a 60s 
Cochin Kough ,, [Common to fine bold [38s a 42s 
Small and D’s 378 6d 
Japan Unsplit 328 
@UM AMMONIACUM ,, |Sm. blocky to fair clean|253 a 60s nom. 
ANIMI, Zanzibar  |Pale and amber, str. srts.|216 a £18 
as AY little red/£13 a £15 
7 Bean and Pea size ditto|75sa £12 
Vair to good red scrts |£9a £13 1(8 
Med. & bold glassy sorts]2£7 a £9 5s 
Madagascar ,’ [Fair to good palish ...|/£4 a £8 15s 
red ..|£4 a £7 10s 


ARABIC F,1, & Aden 
Turkey sorts 


Ghatti ” 

Kurrachee ae 

Madras ” 

ASSAF(b TINA 7 
KINO 

MYRRH, ; icked cwt 

Aden sorts ;, 

OLIBANUM, drop ” 

pickings ,, 

siftings ,, 


INDIA RU KBEK 


Ceylon, Straits, 
Malay Straits, etc. 


La ”> G 
Ordinary to good pale}/25sa3vs 6d nom. 
27s 6d a 47s 6d 
Sorts to fine pale «(208 a 42s 6d nom. 
Reddish to good pale ...|20s a 30s 
Dark to fine pale +1158 a 25s 
Clean fr. to gd. almonds|g5s a 100s 
con). stony to good block|25s a 75s 


” 
” 


Fair to fine bright 6d a 9d 

Fair to fine pale 80s a 115s 
Middling to good 45s a70s 
Good to tine white 40s a 508 
Middling to fair 268 a 35s 
Low to good pale 10s a 20s 
Slightly foul to fine 138s a 158 


Fine Para bis. & sheets|és td 


Assam 


Rangoon 


», Ceara » 9 |68 6d 
Crepe ordinary to fine..|63 a 6s 1¢d 
bine Block +l78 : 
» (Mp 1222 CO fine «-|53 1d g 584d 
Plararcarcn 4s 10q a 5s 
Fair II tccrd. red No. 1l4s a , od 

” 3s 2d*#a, 4a 


y 


ewt. 
Ib. 


SEEDLAC 
SENNA, Tinnevelly 


SHELLS, M. o’PEARL— 
Egyptian cwt. 


Bombay A 
Mergui seul 
Manilla 5 
Banda | 
TAMARINDS, Calcutta... 
per cwt. Madras 
TORLOISESHELL— 
Zanzibar, & Bombay lb. 
TURMERIC, Bengal cwt. 
Madras ,, 
Do. * 
Cochin vs 
VANILLOES— lb. 
Mauritius .. Ists} 
Madagascar ... } 2nds! 
Seychelles ..J rds) 
VERMILLION .. 


QUALITY, QUOTATIONS. 
Common to good ls 6da 5 
Good to fine red 1/2 ands a 
Low white to prime red/}2s a 3s 3d 
Fair to fine red Ball ...|83 8d a 53 


Sausage, fair to good ..! 35 6d a 4s 10d 
Fair to fine ball - Bs 8d a 49 7d 

Fr to fine pinky & whitel2s 10d a 3s gd 
Majunga & blk coated ../25 3d a 2s 9d 
Niggers, low to good ..|is 6d a 2g 2d 
Ordinary to fine ball .. 3s2da496dnom 
Shipping mid to gd violet}3s 5d a3s lid 
Consuming mid. to gd.'3831d a 3s 4d 
Ordinary to middling [2s 9d a 3s 
Oudes Middling to fine 236d a 2/8 nom, 
Mid. to good Ku. pah les 3d a 2s 6d 
Low to ordinary ‘ls 6d a 2s 24 
Mid. to fine Madras ls Bd a 2s 4d 
Pale reddish to fine {1s lid a 2s 4d 


per Ib. Ordinary to fair ls 8d als 10d 
Java < », good pale |1s 7d a 231d 
Saeeaare Ga dc d ch 
MYkaSOLANES,  ewt|UG and Coconada 
Bombay _,, |Jubblepore is9d a 6s 9d | 
Bhimlies 439d a 78 
|Rhajpore, &c. 4s 6da 6s 3d | 
| Bengal », Calcutta 53a58 6d 
NUTMEGS— Ib. |64’s to 57’s ‘Is 3a a 1s 6d 
Bombay & Penang ,, |110’s to 65’s 43d a 1s 2d 
160’s to 115’s ; 
NUTS, ARECA ewt./Ordinary to fair fresh oe ; 
NUX VOMICA, Cochin /Ordinary to good Os a lis 6d 
per cwt, Bengal | H ve 6s a-€s td ' 
Madras BIO ” 6s 3d a 8s : 
OIL OF ANISEED _,, Fair merchantable 4s 6d : 
CASSIA », |According to analysis |g, juga 49 2d 4 
LEMONGRASS ,, (Good flavour & colour |oq 9 2d 
NUTMEG ,, }Dingy to white 1sa a 13d 
CINNAMON Ordinary to fair sweet 2d a 1s 
CITRON ELLE » {Bright & good flavour [15 o'd a lgid 
ORCA WEED—cwt) : 
Ceylon » |Mid, to fine not woody.. 
Madagascar yy |Fair a fe is, ae 
PEPPER - (Black) Ib.) x 
Alleppee & Tellicherry Fair - |3}a 
Ceylon ,, Lotine bold heavy .. Bid a 4d 
Singapore ra lees bo ao + (34d 
Acheen & W. C. Penang)Dull to fine ne /8d a 34d 
(White) Singapore ,, |Fair to fine ee --|58d a 8d 
Siam > |Pair eee » (5d 
Penang sy |Fair oe tee - 14h 
PLUMBAGO, lump cwt.|Fair to fine bright bold} ~_— 
Middling to good small} — 
chips Dull to fine bright =...) i“ 
dust Ordinary to fine bright} — 
SAGO, Pearl, large ..|Dull to fine : --158a 16s 6d 
medium ” ” 14s a.15s 
small ot} lis 6d a 18s 6d 


? 
Ordinary to gd. soluble {503 a gus nom 
Good to fine bold green|5q a 7q . 
Fair greenish 34d a 44d 
Commonspeckyand smalliqiq a 2d 


37s a 97/6 nom. 
368 a 80s 

ay ” -|£7a £8 23 6d 
Fair to good £5 568s a £9738 6d 
Sorts 0 + 1258 a30s nom 
Mid. to fine bl’k not stony|i1s 213s 

Stony and inferior -l4s a 59 


Small to bold 


” 


Small to vold »- {12s 6d a 268 
Fickings 6s a 243 
Fair 18s 


Bulbs [bright}14s a 153 a 
Finger - Lbs 2 
ulbs + {189 €d 


Gd cry stallized 3} a8} in|fs a 16s 


WAX, Japan, squares 


Foxy & reddish 4a ,,| 882d a 123 
Lean and inferior _.., 883d a 889d 
Fine, pure, bripht 28 11d 
Good white hard [468 


THE SUPPLEMENT TO THE 


Tropical Agricu 


turist and Magazine of the C. A. S. 


Compitep By A. M. & J. FERGUSON. 


No. 2,] 


AUGUST, 1909. 


[Vou. V, 


TOBACCO CULTIVATION IN CEYLON. 
THE PROPOSED EXPERIMENTS. 

The possibility of improving Tobacco culti- 
vation in Ceylon has been brought prominently 
before successive Governors of the Colony—more 
particularly by administrators and residents in 
the Jaffna Peninsula. The late Mr. R. W. 
fevers, when G. A. in the Northern Province, 
more than once recommended in his adminis- 
tration reports the appointment of an expert 
to introduce among the local cultivators new 
methods of growing and curing their leaf in 
order to suit it tothe European markets. The 
tobacco industry at one time was a considerable 
one. Latterly it has declined. Parts of Southern 
India, formerly the best customers for the 
Ceylon product, have commenced to supply 
their own demands and naturally the Ceylon 
growers have suffered from the competition. 
With the decline in the trade the cry for an 
expert has become more insistent, and there is 
now every prospect of something being done in 
the way of experiment to decide definitely, once 
and for all, whether Ceylon tobacco can be im- 
proved and whether it can be improved to such 
an extent as will ensure a demand being created 
for it on its merits in the Hast and in Europe. 
Private enterprise in the past has been respon- 
sible for many attempts—conducted by Eu- 
ropeans—to improve the Ceylon product and to 
start an industry in it, but these have all been 
abandoned after a time, presumably as failures. 
The reasons why these experiments failed, 
have not been placed on record, It may have 
been for reasons quite apart from the suita- 
bility of Ceylon soil and climate for growing 
a better class tobacco. Government have 
never been persuaded to officially experi- 
ment, The present experiment will certainly 
be productive of much more satisfactory 
and definite results than any experiment in 
the past. It will be conducted systematically 


22 


and the results will be carefully recorded, The 
experiment must be regarded as an exceedingly 
important one, It is being conducted more or 
less with public money and will be the crucial 
and final test of whether Ceylon tobacco is 
capable of being improved to a degree likely to 
create a flourishing and remunerative industry, 
It is well, therefore, that the Agricultural So- 
ciety should consider well on what lines the 
experiment is to proceed—-so that full advantage 
may ultimately be taken of it before launching 
out on any scheme. The difficulty which faced 
the Agricultural Society at their last meeting 
was as to the qualifications of the ‘‘expert,” 
or rather ‘Superintendent of Tobacco experi- 
ments” to be employed. The Committee appa- 
rently are prepared to accept an officer, with 
some knowledge of agricultural science, who 
would spend the first year of his appointment 
in acquiring a knowledge of the methods of cul- 
tivating and curing tobacco employed in Ceylon, 
India, and such other countries as the Com- 
mittee may decide ; the second and third years 
to be spent in carrying out experiments in’ the 
growing and curing of tobacco at the Ex- 
periment Station, Maha Iluppalama. The ad- 
vice of the expert would also be available 
to cultivators in other parts of the island. 
They do not regard previous experience in to- 
bacco cultivation and curing as a sina qua non. 
We can see no reasonable objection to this; 
although personally we think, if 1t were at 
all possible to get the services of an 
experienced tobacco planter from Sumatra, 
to work out the above programme, the re- 
sults would be infinitely more satisfactory. 
We certainly think it would be an advantage 
if the gentleman selected had some previous 
knowledge of tobacco and its cultivation and 
curing on the most up-to-date principles. 
The meeting thought otherwise, however, and 
finally adopted a suggestion made by Mr 
Bernard Senior that an officer be selected ta 


170 


undergo a training for one year 4t some Colloge 
or place to be decided by the Committee, the 
Committee paying his tuition fees, boarding 
fees and reasonable travelling expenses ; on his 
obtaining a certificate of proficiency the officer 
shall be offered an appointment under Govern- 
ment at a salary to be fixed by the Com- 
mittee, and such appointment to be for 
three years. In the meantime the matter is 
referred back to the Tobacco Sub-Com- 
mittee for further consideration and report. 
Mr. W. D. Gibbon at the meeting ex- 
pressed surprise that R27,500 was to be spent 
on this experiment. All we can say is that 
if it succeeds in assisting the industrious cul- 
tivators of tobacco inthe North and elsewhere 
to improve the cultivation of their leaf and 
restore a once flourishing native industry 
to its pristino prosperity, the money will 
have been well spent. In conclusion we can 
only say that we sincerely hope that the ex- 
periment will now be set on foot without un- 
necessary delay and that the results will even- 
tually prove satisfactory. Jamaica, after experi- 
ment, succeeded in growing Sumatra tobacco 
which sold for from 6/- to 7/- per lb. May 
Ceylon be equally successful. Sir Henry Blake 
was of opinion Ceylon could not growa good 
covering leaf like Sumatra: Mr. Gibbon re- 
iterated this opinion, but the contemplated 
experiment alone will definitely decide whe- 
ther Ceylon can or cannot produce a satisfac- 
tory covering leat. 


Meeting of the Board of Agriculture. 


QUESTION OF ENGAGING AN EXPERT. 
THE ACTING GOVERNOR'S VIEWS: REPORT 
REFERRED Back TO THE COMMITTEE. 


A special meeting of the Board of Agriculture 
was held at the Council Chamber on July 5th, 
to consider the following resolutions of the 
Tobacco Sub-Committee brought up by Mr R A 
Lock at the annual meeting of the Society held 
on June 8th :— 


1. That Government be requested to re-vote the sum of 
R7,200, or such larger sum as they may be disposed to grant, 
in three equal instalments, in the Estimates for 1910, 1911, 
and 1912, The money to be placed at the disposal of the 
Board of Agriculture for the payment of part of the 
salary of 2 Tobacco Expert. 


2. That arrangements be made for allowing the sum of 
R27,600 appropriated for the purpose of carrying out 
tobacco experiments, tobe drawn upon during the period 
October ist, 1909—September 30th, 1912, or such longer 
period as may be determined. 


3. That an officer be appointed locally ona salary of 
B3,000, rising by instalments of R500 to R4,000 per annum, 
and reasonable travelling expenses, who shall be called 
the Tobacco Kxpert to the Ceylon Board of Agriculture. 


4, That the appointment be made for three years from 
October 1, 1909; and that the officer appointed be re- 
quired to refund the first year’s expenditure made on 
sa ary and travelling expenses in the event of failure to 
serve for the full period, unless in the event of illness, 
reasonable sick leave being allowed, 


5. That the appointment be made by the President of 
the Society on the recommendation of the Tobacco Com- 
mittee, with the approval of the Board, and that the 
officer be under the direct control of the Committee 
through its Chairman, the Organising Vice-President of 
the Society. 


6. That the expert spend the first year of his appoint- 
ment in acquiring a knowledge of the methods of culti- 
vating and curing tobacco employed in Ceyion, India, 
and such other countrjes as the Committee mayldecide ; 


The Supplement to the Tropical Agriculturist 


the second and third years to be spent in carrying out 
experiments in the «rowing and curing of Tobaeeo at 
the Experiment Station, Maha Iluppalama. The advice 
of the expert would also be available to cultivators in 
other parts of the Island. 


_ 7. That the expert be required to pass an examination 
in colloquial Tamil at the end of the first year’s service. 


H. E. the Acting Governor, Sir Hugh Clifford, 
K.C.M.G., presided and the others present were: 
—The Hon. Messrs H L Crawford, c.M.c., 
Bernard Senior, 1.5.0., LW Booth, 8 C Obeye- 
sekere, A Kanagasabai, SirS D Bandaranaika, 
c.M.Gc., Messrs W D Gibvon, J Harward, R H 
Lock, 4 N Galbraith, J 1) Vanderstraaten, W A 
de Silva, G W Sturgess, Tudor Rajapakse, Gate 
Mudaliyar. Daniel Joseph, Dr. H M Fernando 
and Mr. C Drieberg (Secretary.) 


Tue History oF THE PROPOSALS. 


Mr. R H Locx—called upon by the President 
~-said he would briefly trace the history of the 
peoppesie to consider which that meeting had 

een called, and he hoped that after his doing 
so, they would agree with the proposals made 
by the Sub-Committee. At a meeting of the 
Society on May 4th, 1908, the following Com- 
mittee, on the motion of Mr, Kanagasabai, was 
appointed to consider what action, if any, the 
Society should take in the improvement of the 
local tobacco industry, and to submit an esti- 
mate of cost of such measures as 16 may re- 
commend:—Dr. Willis, Mr. F H Price, Mr CJ C 
Mee, Mr. M Kelway Bamber, Mr. Edward 
Cowan, Hon. Mr. A Kanagasabai and Mr. RH 
Lock. After several meetings a good deal of 
discussion, and a special visit by Mr. Drieberg 
and Dr. Willis to the Jaffna Peninsula to 
go into the question, the Sub-Committee 
submitted its report ata meeting of the Society 
on October 5th, when a resolution, proposed by 
Mr Ferguson, was passed that a sum of R27,500 
out of the balance estimated tobe in the hands 
of the Society be reserved for an experiment in 
the growing and curing of tobacco for the 
foreign market. That having been resolved, the 
further business of the Committee was to con- 
sider the details and to say how the expenditure 
was to be carried out. He would briefly ex- 
plain the reasons for the present resolution. 
The Sub-Committee concluded that the only 
way in which the tobacco industry could be 
enlarged into a thoroughly paying business was 
by adopting new methods of cultivation, 
especially in the curing and manufacture of the 
tobacco to suit the European and American 
markets. The question arose as to whether new 
markets could be got for the new produce. He 
met two gentlemen, who were Directors of the 
American Tobacco Co., and, although not 
interested in the cigar tobacco business, they 
expressed the opinion that in tobacco, as in other 
produce, they must send large samples. They 
would receive consideration and, if they were of 
good quality, would have a ready sale. The 
idea at first was to appoint a tobacco expert, 
who had experience of planting and curing in 
Sumatra, but the terms of the only available 
expert were beyond the means of the Society 
and the present alternative proposals were 
made. There was a good deal to be said for the 
latter as opposed to the other. The Committee, 
therefore, suggested that the gentleman ap- 
pointed should have previous knowledge. of 


and Magazine of the Ceylon Agricullural Society. 


agricultural science and spend a year in 
getting up his subject, visiting other countries 
where tobacco is grown and on returning take 
charge of experiments at Maha-Illupallama. 
There were one or two reasons in favour of that 
proposal as against getting an outside expert. 
If the proposal was to commence a large tobacco 
estate such as in Sumatra, then it would be 
necessary to get an expert, but Ceylon was not 
Sumatra, and the object would be too ambitious 
as a good cigar leaf binder tobacco was probably 
beyond them. That was what the proposals 
amounted to. What the result would be 1t was 
Impossible to say, but there were good prospects 
in tobacco planting on a large scale and in 
their dreams they saw a flourishing industry, 
There was one amendment he had to make, 
viz., the substitution of the words ‘‘ Super- 
intendent of the Tobacco Experiment ” in 
place of the word ‘ Expert,” If His Excel- 
lency (the Chairman) as President put the 
case in a favourable light to the Officer Admin- 
istering the Government, there was no doubt 
that Government would agree to the proposals. 
The rest of the resolutions explained them- 
selves. With those few remarks he would pro- 
pose the resolutions standing in his name, 


SECONDER’S SPEECH. 


Mr. J. D. VanpEerstRAATEN—said he begged 
to second the resolutions, the more so as it 
was not intended in the-first instance to cope 
with Sumatra. From his own slight experience 
in the growing of tobacco he could say there 
was great need for improvement in the tobacco 
leaves of the cigars smoked locally apart from to- 
bacco exported. He had himself experimented 
and couldspeak of the unevenness of the curing 
and fermentation. If they were successful in 
learning how to cure properly for local con- 
sumption, then they would be able to export 
successfully. There was vast room for im- 
provement in the local manufacture, He was 
told by Rev. Father Massier of Trinco- 
malee that the tobacco from a garden in 
Trincomalee was purchased by one grower who 
exported it to Madras asa cover for cigars. 
If that was—and he had no reason to doubt 
that what Rev. Fr. Massier told him was—the 
truth, there was room in Ceylon for growing 
tobacco. He was told that tobacco could be 
very successfully grown in the North-Central 
Province. He _ believed thero was a great 
future before tobacco in Ceylon and he had 
great pleasure in seconding the resolutions. 


Mr. Grppon’s Horror or EXPERTS. 


Mr W D Gizpon :—I had great pleasure in 
listening to what the proposer of the resolutions 
said, but I regret | did not hear one word of 
what passed from Mr Vanderstraaten—(laugh- 
ter); so if he said anything to contradict what I 
have tosay he must remember it is not with any 
desire to contradict him, but I do not know 
what he said. But what is this expert ? I think 
we are really tired of experts, Weare full up 
with them ;and the name of ‘expert ” is a 
misnomer. We always meet with *‘ expert 
opinion ”; and sometimes, we find the expert 
a fraud—that is, his opinions are not worth any- 
thing. (Laugbter,) Then as rogards Sumatra 
tobacco, Your ow oxperionce of the place, Six, 


171 


will tell you that we can never grow Sumatra 
tobacco here. The Sumatra and North Borneo 
tobacco is a covering leaf quite different from 
the leaf we havein Ceylon. Ours is a filler for 
cheroots. You can never get a good covering 
leaf out of Ceylon. We all know what Sumatra 
tobacco is. For its production large forests, 2U0 
and 300 acres in extent, are felled at a time and 
planted and after the harvest the land is aban- 
doned and a fresh lot of jungle opened out and 
planted again, and so on, Avother question I 
should wish to ask is: are we going to confine 
ourselves altogether to tobacco cultivation ? 
We are going to spend R27,0U0 we have in the 
Agricultural Society. Is that 


TO BE EAR-MARKED SOLELY FOR TOBACCO 


cultivation? Are we going to be anything else 
but a Tobacco Committee or Sub-Committee 
because it is said here that ‘‘ arrangements” 
be made for allowing the sum of R27,500 ap- 
propriated for the purpose of carrying out to- 
bacco experiments to be drawn upon during 
the period October Ist, 1909, to Sept. 30th, 
1912, or such longer period as may be deter- 
mined ? That is to say, of the balance we heard 
of the other day only about R6,000 are at the 
disposal of this Committee. I think that isa 
question that should be answered. We should 
be very clear about the matter before we could 
consent to such a large sum of money which at 
present lies in our treasury being laid aside for 
tobacco—and tobacco only. What if we find this 
Superintendent, after he has been ayear here at 
work, telling us that it is not much good tryin 
to produce the required tobacco? We will 
have R27,000 of our money locked up for this 
tobacco experiment while there are other things 
requiring money—other agricultural matters of 
similar importance. (Hear, hear.) 


Mr. R H Lockx:—I might explain to Mr. 
Gibbon that the money has already been voted 
for this purpose—voted at the previous meetin 
of the Society that the money should be use 
in this way. 

H.E. Sir Huen Cuirrorp :—I think Mr. 
Gibbon was out of the island at the time, 

Mr. W D Giszson:—I only know that out of 
our balance of R33,000 we are setting apart 
R27,000 for this work. 


H.E. Sir Hues Crirrorp :—R27,500. 


Mr, W D Gipson :—Therefore we have only 
R5,500 to play with, 


“None BUT EXPERIENCED Men Negev Are y. 
VALUE OF RUBBER. 


Dr. H M FernanDo—remarked that para. 6 
of the resolutions foreshadowed the employment 
of a gentleman with no experience of tobacco 
growing. They had in theisland men with ex- 
pert experience in the matter of tobacco cultiva- 
tion and men with large experience in managing 
labour and getting work done in a short time, 
Such a one should be selected and sent out to 
study modern methods of tobacco cultivation 
and curing. To send the men selected to 
Sumatra, or the Philippines might not be quite 
successful as the tobacco growers there were 
mon jealous of outsiders. He was very anxious 
that an early start should bo mado, 


172 


H. E. the PresiDent—understood Dr. Fer- 
nando to say that the man selected should have 
had practical experience in tobacco planting and 
managing labour. 

Dr, Fernanpo—answered in the aflirmative. 


ToBacco IN JAFFNA AND THE HASTERN 
PROVINCE. 


Mr Daniet JoserH—heartily supported the 
resolution. The tobacco industry in the Nor- 
thern Province was a very important one 
anda large number of poor people depended 
onit for their livelihood. In the Kastern Pro- 
vince, too, tobacco was grown on a large scale, it 
was therefore important that they should do 
something toimprove cultivation. He suggested 
that the Agricultural Board should vote a sum 
of money to send cut two intelligent educated, 
and well-conducted young men to study tobacco 
growing andcuring. After qualifying themselves 
they could be sent out to the different Provinces 
in the island to teach the people improved 
methods of cultivation and curing. 


Tue PEARL oF GREAT PRICE. 


Mr A N GatpraAitra—referring to the state- 
ment that they could not get an expert from 
Sumatra—asked what steps had been taken to 
satisfy themselves to get an expert from there ? 
He spoke with humility, not knowing the sub- 
ject, but thought they could not get, anywhere 
in Ceylon, a man who had practical experience of 
scientific cultivation of tobacco. If there was 
one such, why did he not come forward before ? 
Of course they might find such a person, that 
pearl of great price, who would show the intel- 
ligence and enthusiasm required of an expert. 
At the same time they could not tell their pearl 
from the outside of the shell. On the other 
hand they could be able to tell their pear! when 
they took it froma well-known bank. They 
should first of all know whether they could not 
get such an expert, even if they offered a higher 
salary than that contemplated, from outside 
the Island. The present salary offered, R3000a 
year—he did not know how the estimate was 
arrived at—was very small; could they not offer 
R6,000 or so? He was presuming that the Su- 
matra tobacco estates were something like the 
Ceylon tea estates, and there must be some 
young creepers in Java or Sumatra to whom 
such a salary would be worth accepting. 
Supposing such a man came ona three years’ 
appointment and was recognised as the Ceylon 
Government Tobacco Expert, there would be 
no difficulty for him to get a billet. Then 
they had to consider the suitability of Maha 
Illupailama for tobacco growing. He under- 
stood fram the report of Mr. E EK Green that 
the Society’s tobacco cultivation experiments 
at Maha Lllupalama had to be given up owing to 
the presence of the tobacco stem-borer. He 
did not know if the pest had been got over. 


THE SysTEM IN AFRICA. 


Mr. BernarD SENIOR :—It appears to me 
resolutions Nos. 3 and 4 are hardly finan- 
cially sound, It is proposed to appoint a man 
and pay him a salary before he has got the 
special knowledge required, In the Colony 
IL served in, Africa, wo frequently had to get 


The Supplement to the Tropical Agriculturist 


officers with special knowledge. Instead of 
securing experts as is the custom here, the 
system adopted there was to select some 
youngster and send him to a College in 
America or Canada, or wherever it might be, 
to qualify himself in the particular branch of 


work. In fact, | think we did exactly the 
same as regards tobacco cultivation and 
curing. Instead of paying him any salary we 


paid his passage, tuition fees, College fees, and 
boarding for one year. At the end of his period 
at College he produced a certificate of proficiency 
and then came back and was given an appoint- 
ment for three years. Before he went out his 
parents or guardians, or whoever was responsible 
for him, signed an agreemens thatif he did not 
become proficient within that time they would 
refund the money expended. In that way Gov- 
ernment stood to lose nothing except a year’s 
time. At thesame time they got the services 
practically speakivg of an expert. Lf we do not 
safeguard ourselves we might appoint a man and 
be saddled with him for three years. At the 
end of his year’s training in Sumatra he might 
come back withont proficient knowledge and 
we will be saddled with a man who is useless for 
three years. 


A STRANGE SUGGESTION. 


Mr W A be Srtva—pointed out that a person 
who qualified himself over tobacco cultivation 
in Sumatra would be of no use in Ceylon, con- 
ditions being different, enormous acreages being 
opened there, and that was not possible in 
Ceylon. He suggested that a person with ex- 
perience of tobacco cultivation in the Island 
should be sent to a place where inferior tobacco 
was grown to bring his experience back to the 
Island. They could not produce superior tobacco 
and should, therefore, turn their attention to 
cultivation in small areas. It was not possible 
to get an expert on R3,000. He agreed with Mr 
Senior in the views he had expressed. 

Dr. FERNANDo—enquired if any applications 
had been received. 


Mr Lock—said one or two had been received 
by the Secretary. 


The Hon. Mr 8S C OsBzryssEKERE—said the 
most practical and safest scheme was that fore- 
shadowed by Mr Senior. Rather than jeopardise 
R27,500 they should first see whether on a 
small expenditure they could not train a man 
to suit their requirements. 


Tus ExpPpeERY AND His TAMIL QUADLLFICATION. 


The Hon. Mr H L Crawrorp—referring to 
the last resolution—thought it quite unnecessary 
for the man who wasto be sent out to Sumatra 
to qualify himself in the Tamil language. Tamil 
was not spoken in Sumatra. There seemed to 
bea slight misunderstanding as to what type 
of tobacco should be grown. The opinion of Hite 
Committee was that competition with Sumatra 
tobacco was out of the question. (Mr Gibbon: 
Hear, hear.) Mr Senior had raised a very im- 
portant point. Their duty would be to see 
how the efficiency of the Superintendent would 
bedecided : how could they devise a test. 


Mr Bernard SEnrIOn:—There are training Col- 


leges in America and Canada. That is where 
the youngsters from Africa are sont to, 


and Magazine of the Ceylon Agricultural Society. 


Mr R.H Locx:--Is there any Training Col- 
lege where the cultivation of tobacco is specially 
taught ? 

Mr Bernarp Senior :—I think so. 

Mr RH Lock:—1 might add that I have at 
present attached to my Department four gentle- 
mon employed in various African Governments. 
They have come here to study and they have 
agreed to refund their salary in the event of 
their not taking up the appointments, 

Sir Hueu Cuirrorp:—A portion of their 
salary. 

Mr R H Lock:--Yes, inthe event of not 
taking up their appointments. With regard to 
what Mr de Silva said I think tho introduction 
of new species is certainly what we should aim 
at. J do not countenance for a moment the 
suggestion to goin for inferior tobacco. [ think 
the only chance of developing the Ceylon to- 
bacco trade is by obtaining markets for good 
tobacco outside Ceylon. On the question of the 
salary for an expert Dr. Treub of Java has 
written to our Society, saying that no expert 
grower would come from Sumatra for a salary of 
£400 or £500 a year. 


The Hon. Mr. A. Kanacasabar—thought the 
meeting seemed to bo agreed as regarded some 
of the resolutions proposed by Mr Lock. As 
regarded the first there seemed to be almost a 
conseususof opinion. As regarded the second, 
the same might be said of it. Thon there was 
a divergence of opinion as regarded the third, 
fourth, sixth and seventh. So it would seem 
that they were agreed with the proposed experi- 
ment of growing new kinds of tobacco and ot 
adopting new methods of curing tobacco as they 
found to be necessary, in the interests not only 
of Jaffna but all other parts of the island. To- 
bacco was cultivated in the Northern and Has- 
tern Provinces as well as in the North-Western 
and certain other parts of the island. The ex- 
periment proposed to be made would therefore 
be of practical value to the island generally. 
Such being the case, he hoped the difference of 
opinion as regarded certain of those resolutions 
would not delay the accomplishment of the idea. 
Asregarded resolution No. 3 they would leave 
it together with the other items in the string 
of resolutions to the Society to decide in which 
way applications should be invited for the ap- 
polntment of the expert or Superiatendeut of 
the tobacco experiments. The proposal made by 
Mr Sonior was no doubt a commendable one, but 
he was afraid it would delay the accomplish- 
raerit of the object in view. 


AcTING GOVERNOR’S REMARKS, 


H.E. the Acring GoveRNoR—said he nad 
listened to the discussion with very great in- 
terest andthe impression on his mind was that 
they were not in a position to arrive at a de- 
cision on the subject that day. As. Mr. Kanaga- 
sabai said, there was a concensus of opinion on 
the first resolution. That was not surprising. 
Any demand of a contribution from Government 
was always unanimously supported, He would 
also be happy to give his support. Ifa satisfac- 
tory proposal was put before him, he was pre- 
pared on his own behalf to approve and recom- 
mend to Sir Henry McCallum that the full 

' 10,500 roquived for the payment of the proposed 


173 


salary of the expert be given; but he was 
not prepared to make.such a proposal on the 
present system outlined. He would strongly 
urge on those present and the members of the 
Committee that all the sides of that question had 
not been adequately or finally considered. Ho 
agreed with Mr Gibbon’s horror at the ‘‘ expert” 
who exercised tyranny and from whom it was 
often impossible to escape. From his small 
knowledge of 
SUMATRA AND BORNEO, 


ho knew 16 was not possible to obtain an expert. 
The system in the Dutch Colony was to pay 
sinall salaries for enormous toil to the young 
assistant who corresponds in Ceylon to the 
‘‘creeper.” From the Manager to the cooly 
every employee had a certain interest in the 
estate; and if the crop turned out good, so 
did the speculation ; and a Manager, who got 
3 or 4 successful crops, would be enabled to 
retire into private life. Vhe salary given to 
a really expert Manager was very big. What 
they should consider was how best to secure a 
suitable man, He should not be sent to Sumatra 
ore Borneo, but to places more nearly analogous 
to Ceylon. Ge doubted whether Mr Senior’s 
scheme, good and sound in every way as it was, 
was a guide in the usual terms of such an ap- 
pointment. The present circumstances seemed 
altogether different. Mr Lock had referred to 
the difficuity of testing the officer on his return. 
lt they could not get an expert, who would be 
the expert who would test the expert? What 
they should dois to select some person they 
could rely on. At present there was no remedy 
ifhe idled his time. According to the resolu- 
tions the ofticer would have to spend the first 
year acquiring a knowledge of tobacco cultiva- 
tion in India and simultaneously learning Tamil. 
it was essential that the officer should first 
learn all about Ceylon tobacco and then take 
up the study of Indian tobacco. Ceylon tobacco 
took in the characteristics of the soil and he 
was told that Sumatra tobacco taken across 
the Straits of Malacca and planted proved 
inferior to the variety from which it was 
taken. So in Ceylon, where there are varie- 
ties of soils and climates, they should ex- 
periment in various districts. He was doubtful 
if it would be possible to confine the experi- 
ments to Maha-Illupallama, There were many 
other points to be considered and he would 
suggest that the report be referred back to tho 
Committee for further report. 


REPoR?T REFERRED Back to ComMirreEn, 


The Hon. Mr. H L Crawrorp—then formally 
moved that the report be referred back to the 
Tobacco Committee along with Mr. Senior’s 
amendment for further consideration. The 
amendment was :— 


‘That an ofticer be selected to undergo a. training for 
one year at some College or place to be decided by the 
Committee, the Committee paying his tuition fees, boar- 
ding fees and reasonable travelling expenses. ‘these ex- 
penses shall be guaranteed by some responsible person on 
behalf of the officer and shall be refunded if the officer does 
not obtaina certificate of proticiency ; on his obtaining a 
certificate of proticiency the officer shall be offered an 
appointment under the Board of Agriculture at a. salary 
to be fixed by the Committee, and such appointment to 
be for there years.” 


Mr W A bw Sitva—seconded.—Carriod, 


174 


THE PRICE OF JAMAICA TOBACCO. 
June 9th, 

Dear Sir,—You are quite wrong in stating 
that Jamaica tobacco has been sold for 6s or 7s 
per lb. The-facts are as follows :— 

A quarter-of-an-acre of Sumatra tobacco was 
grown under shade cloth, and the best leaves 
were valued by a local capert at 4s to 6s per lb. 
But a sample of the crop was sent to England, 
and was there valued at 3s for first lengths, 2s 3d 
for second lengths and 1s 3d to Is 6d for third 
lengths. They could only pick out six good 
leaves for this sample! Nothing is said about 
the bulk of the crop, and it is distinctly stated 
that there was none for sale. So Jamaica 
tobacco has not been sold at 6s, and it has not 
been valued at more than 3s by European 
valuers: thatis, for the best of it, twenty-four 
leaves per acre. The cost of growing tobacco 
under shade cloth in Jamaica is 2s 2}d per Ib., 
provided the cost of the woodwork is spread over 
five ycars. Evidently there is no fortune in 
that, and in the last report on tobacco in 
Jamaica it is stated that it does not pay large 
growers to cultivate tobacco at the present 
prices. It is hoped to establish a market for 
Jamaica leaf at 7d alb.—Yours, &c., CIGAR. 

{Our authority for the statement was Sir 
Henry Blake, who stated at Jaffna on August 
19th, 1905:—‘'L heard from Jamaica only a 
month ago of the success of their experiments 
in that great Island and they tell me that there 
they have grown Sumatra tobacco which is 
valued from 6s to 7s a pound, or we may say 
from Rd to R6 a pound.” Our ex-Governor 
must have been misinformed and wedo not doubt 
the figures of our correspondent, who is well- 
informed on all matters of tropical agriculture. 
—Ed., C.0.] 


DR, H. M. FERNANDO’S VIEWS. 

In an interview to a representative of our 
contemporary, Dr. H M Fernando said, on the 
subject of tobacco cultivation in Ceylon :— 

‘‘We have got the assurance that if tobacco is 
grown here from Havana, Manila or Sumatra 
seed and properly cured and then sent to conti- 
nental markets in sufficiently large quantities 
to attract the buyers, it willcommand satisfac- 
tory prices. Ofcourse, it will not approach the 
well-known grades such as Havana, but there 
are a lot of mediocre grades coming from South 
America and other places. Howdid they create 
a market for them? Sir Henry Blake told us 
that ten years ago Jamaica was exactly in the 
same position as Ceylon is today. Small plan- 
ters grew tobacco for local consumption, but it 
was absolutely useless for foreign markets, 
However, experiments were made and an expert 
appointed, who told them what seed to use and 
how to cure the leaf. They grew tobacco from 
Cuban seedand now they are exporting tobacco 
which is fetching prices equal to those obtained 
for Cuban tobacco. A German Syndicate from 
Sumatra came to Ceylon some years ago and 
worked in the Kurunegala District successfully 
for two years with both Sumatra and Ha- 
vana leaf. They grew tobacco which was said 
to be equal to that grown in Sumatra. 
That syndicate gave up the enterprise in 
Ceylon, because they could not get the large 
tracte of Janc they required on terms equal 


The Supplement to the Tropical Agriculturist 


to those upon which they could obtain it in 
Sumatra. As I have said, you cannot grow high- 
class tobacco on the same land year after year, 
80 you require large areas of land, and for that 
reason I do not think tobacco will be a conti- 
nuous cultivation, but will enable a start to be 
made with the opening up of the Wanni lands. 
You put down after tobacco, cotton, maize, 
oil crops, leguminous crops such as gram, etc., 
which are all paying things, with rice in irri- 
gable areas. Of course, cotton must be alter- 
nated with other crops, because it takes too 
much out of the soil. There isa much smaller 
return from these products than from such 
things as tea and rubber, but it is a quick re- 
tucn. Coconuts take a very long time to give 
any return, and I think Ceylonese capital will 
be attracted toward products which give a much 
quicker return, even though it be much smaller, 
provided, as I say, that experiments conducted 
on sound lines demonstrate that there is money 
in these cultivations.” 


CASTILLOA ELASTIGA FRUITING 
IN SINGAPORE. 


A number of trees, raised from seed of 
Castilloa elastica, were planted iu a low swampy 
bit of ground in the Botanic Gardens in 1898. 
The plant has not done well here at any time 
or in any place, and of those planted in this 
damp spot, some perished and others made 
little or no growth, after a few years. One 
however which had a certain amount of shade 
and had the advantage of having a rubbish 
pit within easy reach of its roots, has deve- 
loped into a fine looking tree about 46 feet 
tall and has commenced to fruit plentifully. 
The seeds seem to be sound ; I believe this 
is the first record of the tree fruiting here, at 
least I have no other record. Perhaps some of 
our readers know of other cases.—Straits Agri- 
cultural Bulletin, for July. 


EFFECT OF A GALE ON A PARA 
RUSBER TREE. 

A correspondent sends 1n a letter an account 
of a Para-rubber tree where the taproot seemed 
to have lost its bark which was growing again, 
and on which were large lumps of rubber. The 
tap root itself seemed sound and solid, though 
small in proportion to the size of the tree. The 
side roots were very numerous and healthy. 
Some of the side roots ata foot from the tree 
have broken up into a tuft of smaller roots. 
rather suddenly as if the end had died and the 
tree was trying to save itself by producing fresh 
roots from the cut ordead end. The tree itself 
looked as healthy as any in the block, No signs 
of disease of any kind were found. It appears 
that the ground on which this tree stands is 
liable to an annual gale and, while other trees 
in the block have been blown down or into a 
slanting position, this has resisted the violence 
of the gales. There is no doubt that the tree 
has had a violent wrench in one of these gales 
and some ofthe side roots parted and probably 
the tap root got cracked as well, so that the latex 
exuded to repair the damage. The tree however 
had so strong a hold in the ground by its 
anchor-roots that though some broke the others 
held firm and the treo did not fall.—Straits 
Agricultural Bulictin, duly. 


and Magazine of ihe Ceylon Agricultural Society. 


INDIAN AND CEYLON TEAS; AMERI- 
CAN ADVERTISING FUND. 


[We have received, with the compliments of 
the Secretary, ‘‘ Thirty Committee,” the follo- 
wing report by Mr Blechynden :—] 


Report Season 1908-1909. 

I have the honour to submit my annual report 
for 1908-1909, the fourth season during which 
operations have been conducted by the Joint 
Fund, and the last, as joint work will now cease. 


GENERAL PLAN, 


2. My previous reports have been very full 
and have set forth in detail the system pursued. 
As the same lines have been followed the ground 
need not again be traversed here, and freed from 
the necessity of detailed explanations this report 
can be made brief. For the sake of uniformity 
subjects will be dealt with under the general 
heads previously used. 


NEWSPAPER ADVERTISING, 


3. Towards the middle of season 1907-1908, 
for reasons of economy, to offset expenses in 
other directions, considerable reduction was 
made in the area over which newspaper adver- 
tising had been conducted up to that timo, and 
at the date of my last report we were using 65 
newspapers in 33 towns in 4 States viz : Mis- 
souri, Indiana, Ohio and Illinois. Practically 
all these papers were regularly used for at least 
three years, and in a number of instances for 
four years. 


4, During the season special work was ex- 
tended, and as towns where newspapers are 
published were covered, the newspaper adver- 
tising was also extended, so that in March 1909 
we were finally using 85 newspapers in 44 towns, 


5, As we realised that the advertising in the 
new places could not be carried on for any 
great length of time, we tried to compensate 
for the absence of that continuous and persis- 
tent work which is recognised to be the most 
efficacious, by initiating and finally coucluding 
our advertising, with extra large display. In 
starting in these new places we used quarter- 
page display advertisements for some days: 
these were then reduced to half the size, 
and in places where the conditions were 
suitable, grocers’ names were in due time added 
to the regular advertisement. Later, when post 
cards were being sent to consumers, the news- 
paper advertisements were changed and included 
acut corresponding with the figure shown on 
the post card., Finally, during the last two 
weeks of the season, a double-column five-inch 
advertisement was placed daily in all the papers 
we were using. Specimens of the various forms 
of the advertisements referred to are attached. 
This season newspaper paper advertising came to 
about 30 per cent of the total expenditure against 
542 per cent last season and 664 per cent in 
1906-1907. 

SpecraL Work. 

6. The work done by our Special men has 
been fully described under this head in the 
reports for the last two seasons. During the 
season we visited 520 towns and villages. and 
tes was placed in 1,600 different stores. These 


175 


bought 57,144 lb, of toa giving an average of 
about 35:7 lb. per store. Of this 23,099 lb. was 
black tea and 34,045 lb. green tea, giving an 
average of 14'4 lb. black and 21'2 Ib, green, 


7. Experience during the year has fully 
borne out the conclusions previously drawn, 
that the results obtained where our men accom- 
pany the Jobbers, Salesmen justify the expense. 
Unaccompanied Salesmen give incongruous 
results, appear to make spasmodic efforts 
and finally get discouraged, or confine their 
efforts to selling green teas, a relatively easy 
matter. These points might be clearly illus- 
trated from our records, but I will not burden 
this report with details. 

Stated briefly an analysis shows sales :— 


With specialty men 16°6 lb. black tea, 20°2 1b. green tea, 
36°7 lb. pev store. 


Without specialty men 7'2 lb. black tea, 24°2 lb. green tea, 
33° lb. per store. 


With specialty men mailing lists filled by 75°71 per cent. 
of stores, 


Without specialty men mailing lists filled by 66°49 per 
cent. of stores. 

8. As our aim is to have our black tea well 
distributed, so that there shall be a supply 
immediately available to meet any demand we 
can create, placing small quantities in a larger 
number of stores, answers our purpose better 
than placing large quantities in a tew stores. 
To effect our object requires continuous steady 
work day by day, and calling atthe small as 
well as the large stores. Our advertising 
scheme will sell tea to one class as readily as to 
the other, if it is properly presented. 


SPECIAL TERRITORY. 


9. During this season we have tried to round 
off and fill up the blanks in the territory 
with which we have been dealing. The four 
States mentioned have together about the same 
area as the two Bengals and Assam, containing 
over 200,000 square miles with an aggregate 
population of about 15 millions. These figures 
include the City of Chicago, with a population 
of about 2 millions, but we have made no 
organised attempt to deal with this great city. 
as to do this effectually we would have to devote 
our entire efforts and funds to this one 
purpose for a considerable period. There 
are special difficulties in dealing with Chicago 
into which [need not enter. We are likely to 
get better results at a smaller cost in lesser 
places, inthe aggregate more important to us 
than that one city. Meantime the packet teas 
continue active there; while they cannot, or do 
not, attempt the work we are doing, the result 
of our work will also benefit them in due time. 


10. Maps are attached to show the places we 
visited during the season. If these are com- 
pared with the maps attached to previous re- 
ports it will be seen that there are but few 
places in these four States left uncovored, ani 
these not important ones. 


Post Carbs, 

\1. In my last report [ mentioned that we 
had just received a new (the fourth) post card 
entitled ‘‘A Tea Picker,” that 153,500 had been 
printed and some Nine thousand of these used in 
season 1907-1908. Later another edition of 
26,00 of this card was printed, so that allowing 
for the number used last scason we had 170,500 


176 


for the current season. This supply proved 
insuflicient for our requirements, as by the end 
of March we had mailed 178,276 post cards and 
there were still mailing lists aggregating several 
thousand names to be deait with. To make up 
the deficiency we have used cards printed for 
the India Separate Fund. They differ only in 
respect to the type matter, having been litho- 
graphed at the same time and from the same 
stones. 

12, The number of mailing lists received dur- 
ing the last few weeks greatly exceeded esti- 
mates, as Jobbers made special efforts to obtain 
and send these, when they realised that it was 
their last opportunity. The monthly average 
number of cards sent out m the four months 
November, December, January and February 
was 6,298, while in the one month of March 
11,639 cards were mailed. But for this final 
rush the estimate made 12 months ago, in the 
2Uth paragraph of my last report, would have 
proved accurate. 

SHow Carns. 

13. Show Cards for Grocers’ stores to cor- 
respond with the post cards were received from 
the press in time for specimens to be sent with 
last season’s report. Sixteen thousand three 
hundred of these were printed and have all 
been distributed. 


SAMPLES OF TRA. 

14, The advertising system we have followed, 
fully described before, includes sending through 
the mails direct to consumors, a sample of tea 
and a measuring spoon enclosed in a box carry- 
ing printed instructions for making tea. The 
address tag bears the name of the Grocer who 
supplied the address and thus conforms to the 
system followed with the post card. 

15. During the season 83,119 samples were 
mailed and several thousands have yet to be 
sent in accordance with our obligations to 
Jobbers who are in turn committed to the 
Grocers to whom they have sold tea, At presont 
our liabilities in this way are estimated to be 
between 15 and 16 thousand samples, so that by 
the time we close the account we will, on 
accouut of this one season, have sent out some 
100,000 samples as follows :— 


April, 1908 17,507 | July, 1908 7,936 
May, 1908 6,453 | August, 1908 5,546 
June, 1908 10,166 | September, 1908 3,141 
October, 1908 4,414 | January, 1909 4,990 
November, 1908 3,253 | February, 1909 6,112 
December, 1903 4,480 | March, 1909 9,165 
Total 83.119 

Estimated commitment 16,000 

Probable total 99,219 

16. It is convenient here to summarise the 


figures for post cards and samples together and 
show the number of pieces of advertising matter 
sent through the mails direct from this office: — 


Post cardssent to 380th March .. 178,276 
Hstimated requirement to close.. 12,659 
190,935 
Samples sent to end of March 83,119 
Kstimated requirement to close.. 16,000 
——— 99,119 
290,054 


Against 257,000 pieces sent out last season‘ 
TEA MEASURE. 
17. We have continued to use these with the 
samples sent out. There may bea few gross left 


The Supplement to the Tropical A griculturist 


in hand when the last lot of samples yet to go, 
have gono. These will be handed over to our 
friends the Jobbers who will be exceedingly 
glad to get them, and they will be fully utilised 
for the purpose for which they were designed. 


Foop SHows. 


18. There have beenno Food Shows held in 
this territory during the season as the Grocers 
suffered greatly from the depression in business 
and did not care to incur the expense. We have, 
however, assisted a Jobber who ‘‘demonstrated”’ 
tea in a department store, sharing the expense 
with him, As all sales of tea were registered to 
the credit of the Grocer patronised by the pur- 
chaser, and the retailers’ profits sent to the 
various Grocers concerned, no antagonism was 
aroused, 

19. For a part of the year we continued our co- 
operation with the Jobber mentioned in para- 
graph 30 of my last report, who had a special 
man calling upon Grocersand showing them and 
their clerks how tea should be made and indu- 
cing as many of them as he could persuade, to 
try acup. This work is excellent where it can 
be watched and followed up by the Jobber, but 
is something we cannot usefully attempt our- 
selves. It was discontinued only because the 
Jobberin question desired to utilise the services 
of his special man in a more directly remuner- 
ative way,and was unable to find a suitable man 
to carry on this special work. 


INDIAN AND Cryton Posr CaRgps. 


20. This is our novelty this season. It is also 
so far as we know and as we believe it to be, an 
entirely novel and original form of advertising 
the products of one country in another country. 
The idea behind it is that post cards bearing 
foreign stampsand post marks, carrying views of 
attractive subjects, wili attractimmediateatten- 
tion, and the advertising matter these bear will 
have greater consideration than if it came before 
those weaim toreach, in a more ordinary way. 
The appeal made to the Grocer by the importance 
givento him when his name is printed on a post 
card mailed in a foreign country is a factor to be 
considered. The fact that he is selling genuine 
Indiaand Ceylon teaisalsoin a measure vouched 
for to his customers. To realise the advertising 
value of the scheme one has only to consider 
how asimilar scheme worked for, say, Havana 
or Porto Rico Cigars would influence a person 
residing in a small town in Hngland, where he 
and some of his friends to receive different post 
cards from Cuba mentioning the name of a 
local tobacconist. 

21. The detailed working of the plan has 
thrown a great deal of work upon the executive 
of the Indian Tea Cess Committee in Calcutta. 
Theuse of post cards in such a manner was 
not quite clearly covered by the rules of 
the Postal Union, so, before we ventured 
upon printing the large number required 
the points raised were placed before the 
proper authorities in India and then test 
lots were sent through the post. Some of these 
were surcharged owing to the rules not being 
very clear, but finally the difficulties were 
cleared away. Meantime through the kind 
offices of Sir James Buckingham negotiations 
had been opened with Messrs. Rapheel Tuck & 


and Magazine of the Ceylon Agricultural Society. 


Sons and during the summer, when in Hngland, 
I arranged for 150 thousand post cards with 
printing outfits to be sent to Calcutta. 

22, Since then we have had to order about 
60 thousand more of these cards as the mailing 
lists sent to Calcutta together with those yet to 
go areestimated to contain over 200 thousand 
names. The organising of a proper staff to deal 
with this large number of names and generally 
to handle the scheme properly has been thrown 
entirely upon the Calcutta executive, and I de- 
sire to point out that but for their kindly con- 
senting to assist in this matter it would have 
been difficult to have carried out the scheme. 

23. The postcards have been arriving with 
considerable regularity, but it is not possible to 
obtain precise reports as to their effect. In their 
nature they are appeals to individuals widely 
scattered over a large territory with no common 
channel of communication with us ; and likeall 
other general advertising not keyed by direct 
sales, the value has to be assumed. We know 
that the cardsaid inselling tea to Grocers. 

24. Before concluding the subject I may 
menticn that 18 cards were selected, ten of theso 
being Indiaandeight Ceylon views, Although 
each consumer will receive but one card, it may be 
assumed that many of the recipients will compare 
cards and a variety has been used with this in 
view, to enhance the interest the cards are in- 
tended to create. 

Wacon UMBRELLAS. 

25. The last section dealt with a novel form 
of advertising and I have here to record our 
use of a well-known and favoured one. Wagon 
Umbrellas are substantial affairs 5 feet in 
diameter mounted upon strong 6 foot poles and 
provided with metal attachments to fix them 
upright to the driver’s seat or allow of their 
being closed and laid flat if desired. The stout 
cloth tops, of six panels alternate red and white 
are lettered in bold characters with the words 
India and Ceylon Tea in each panel, The un- 
usually cool weather has delayed their distri- 
bution but 2,000 will be in use during this 
summer, In effect a wagon umbrella is a 
portable and travelling bill board, carried 
into all parts of the City in accordance to the 
wagons errands. As a large number of these have 
gone into country places we can count upon 
their being carried allover the State. We could 
distribute a great number more with advantage 
but summer is the season when they are in de- 
mand and the work has now ceased, 

GENERAL, 

26. Last year’s report included a statement 
showing the imports of tea into the United 
States for each of the years since 1898, the 
amount of Indiaand Ceylon teaimportedin each 
of these years and the percentage of these to the 
entireimports. The figures were compiled from 
the United States Customs returns made up to 
the 30th June and those to 30th June 1907 were 
the latest then available. I now therefore add 
the figures to 30th June 1908 and may point out 
how they compare with those for the previous 
year :— 


Imports to 30th All teas, India and Ceylon, 
June, 1903. 
1908 .» 94,149,564 19,241 ,271—20°4 per cent 
1907 . 86,368,490 16,657,791,,19°2 —,, 
Increase .. 7,781,074=9°/, 2,683,480 ,, 1595 —,, 


23 


177 


(Ross [mMports oF Tha INTO UNIPED SPATES 
FoR YEARS ENDING 3018 JUNE. 
All Teas. India & Ceylon. Per Cent. 


i) 
1398 17,957,912 6,984,375 o'°7 
1899 74,039,899 4,930,317 66 
1900 84,845,107 38,246,230 9°7 
1901 89,806,453 7,187,594 83 
1902 75,579,125 8,475,179 11‘2 
1902 102,574,905 15,007,367 13°3 
1904 112,905,541 16,485,554 14.6 
1905 102,706,599 17,013,678 163 
1906 93,621,750 17,696,994 18°9 
1907 86,368, 490 16,657,791 19°2 
1908 94,149,564 19,241,271 20°4 


27. Thecurrent season will end on the 30th 
of June and it will, I think, mark the beginning 
of a new condition for {ndia and Ceylon teas in 
this market. The possibility that an import duty 
would be imposed upon tea began to have a per- 
ceptible effect on the market in November, when 
several wellknown tea men gave evidence before 
the Ways and Means Committee of the House 
of Representatives at Washington. By about the 
end of January the available Japan and China tea 
having changed hands, sometimes more than 
once, attention was turned to India and Ceylon 
teas. These are always the last to share in 
market activity owing to the proximity of the 
stock carriedin London. As it is anticipated 
that the tariff bill will be passed before the lst 
June, and new teas will not be available from 
China and Japan to arrive within that date, 
Importers have brought in unusually heavy 
shipments, not only from London and Canada 
but even from Bremen and Hamburg to antici- 
pate a teaduty being imposed. While all the 
teas thus imported may not be India and Ceylon, 
by far the larger part comes from those 
countries. Much of this tea was bought when 
the London market was affected by the fear of 
an increase of the British tea duty, so that the 
purchases made were probably not so exclu- 
sively cheap that they can be shipped back pro- 
fitably. Therefore we may anticipate that 
whether a duty is imposed, or otherwise, these 
teas will beforced into consumption and _ will 
help to create a market for further supplies. 


28. I realise thatthe matter dealt with in the 
last paragraph does not fall strictly within the 
limits of a report dealing with the work done by 
ourselves, but I desire to point outthat but for 
the work carried on by the India and Ceylon 
Fundsin past years, the market here would not 
have been prepared to deal largely with teas 
that had not been properly introduced to the 
public, and for which no outlet had been cre- 
ated. India and Ceylon are now getting the 
benefit of the opening created by past work. 


29. I have on aprevious occasion pointed out 
that the expansion of this market will, within 
a very few years, require larger supplies of India 
and Ceylontea than appear likely to be avail- 
able unless larger areas are planted out. Already 
there has been agreat increase in the impor- 
tations of China Black teas, and should the 
demand for India and Ceylon teas in this 
country increase in the future at the rate it has 
done in recent years (it was 8,000,000 lb. in 1902 
and 19,000,000 Ib in 1908) prices will rise, and a 
great impetus will be given to China black 
tea importations, here and in Canada.—h 
3LECHYNDEN, St. Louis, 10th May, 1909, 


178 The Supplement to the Tropical Agriculturist 


RUBBER IN NYASLAND. 

(From the Government Handbook—1st issue 

—1909.) 

Rubbber for export is chiefly obtained from 
the indigenous Landolphia vines which are 
found on the banks of streams throughout the 
country. It is usually collected by natives ; 
brought to the stores and traders for sale ; 
occasionally Europeans engage in collectirg it 
in districts where it is plentiful, employing 
natives to carry out the work of tapping the 
vines and drying the latex that exudes imme- 
diately the incisions are made in the bark. 


The export of rubber for the past eleven 
years is as follows :— 


Ib. perlb. &£. 

Year ended 31st March 1898 21,416 Valuedati1/- 1,049 
do do 1899 91,264 do 2/3 10,267 
do do 1900 118,720 do 2/3 13,356 
do do 1901 85,904 do 2/3: 9,669 
do do 1902 14,393 do 2/3: 1,619 
do do 1903 11,723 do! 5.2/5" 1,972 
do do 1904 4,372 do 2/- 437 
do do 1905 17,664 do 2/6 2.208 
do do 1906 17,280 do 2/6 2,160 
do do 1907 = 16,403 do 4/3 3,436 
do do 1908 15,533 do «4/3 3,30 


There is a duty of 4d per pound on the un- 
cultivated product, but none on rubber ob- 
tained from cultivated trees. 


It is estimated that about 1,500 acres are now 
under rubber cultivation by Europeans, and the 
following information on the industry has been 
supplied by the rubber experts employed by 
the African Lakes Corporation on the Chombe 
estates in the West Nyasa district, and on 
the Chitakali estate in the Mlanje district. 


INDIGENOUS RuppER (Landotphia). 


The cultivation of the vine from seeds in 
nursery was commonced in January, 1903, when 
10,000 young vines were raised; and_ trans- 
planted to the forest in 1904. Again in 1904, 
100,000 vines were raised ; in 1905, 50,000 ; and 
in 1906, 600,000. The plants were at first kept 
in nursery for from ten to twelve months and 
then transplanted to the forest, but the trans- 
planting proved to bea great check, and the 
rate of growth afterwards was not satisfactory. 
At the same time direct sowing throughout the 
forest on prepared mounds was tried, but also 
proved unsuccessful, as those seeds which did not 
rot were tornup by wild pigs. The best results 
have been obtained by sowing the seeds in bam- 
boo pots, four or five in each pot, keeping 
them under shade in nursery for a year, and 
then transplanting to forest. The cultivation 
of the vine involves very considerable initial 
expense, and then waiting ten to fifteen years 
for a return. 


Para RuspBer (Hevea Brasiliensis). 


Early in 1906 a Wardian case was received 
from Ceylon containing 2,000 Para seedlings. 
Of this consignment 266 plants survived and 
are doing very well, some of the trees being as 
much as 12 feet in height in July, 1908. In 
January, 1907, the same trees were only five 
feet high, and the further growth is re- 
garded as very satisfactory. None of the 
plants up to the present have shown any signs of 
disease, In January 1907, a further consignment 
of six Wardian cases was received. When 


DESPATCHED FROM CEYLON THESE CASES 
CONTAINED 6,000 SEEDS, 

but only some 2,500 survived the journey, 
and were planted out at 20’ x 20’. Of these about 
1,600 are alive and doing well, the large per- 
centage of deaths being due principally to white 
ants and the grub of the cockchkafer. To 
get rid of the latter pest a mixture consis- 
ting of one pound of Paris-green and three 
pounds of salt to 40 pounds of donkey manuro 
was used and proved effectual, when dibbled in 
some little distance from the roots at time of 
planting. With Para the best results have been 
obtained on good dambo land, well drained; the 
danger of the plants being killed by the two 
pests mentioned is very much less on such 
ground than on the drier and lighter red soil. 
If the present rate of growth be maintained, 
tapping operations ought to commence by 1911, 
and the trees may be expected to flower in 1910, 
Tn order to ascertain whether Para trees can be 
raised from seeds packed in charcoal, a large 
consignment of these was brought out from 
Ceylon in 1907, but none of the seeds germina- 
ted. A further trial was made in 1908, and with 
better results, as out of 100,000 seeds 14,850 have 
germinated and show promise of doing well. 


CastTiLLoA ELASTICA, 

Seeds of this variety were first received from 
Ceylon early in 1906, and were sown in a pre- 
pared nursery. A very large percentage of the 
seeds were rotten on arrival, but over 400 plants 
were raised from the lot, and they were planted 
out atthe commencement of the rains. There 
are now 448 plants alive and doing well. 
The rate of growtn has not been so rapid 
as that of Ceara and Para, but the plants 
are all very strong and healthy, the highest 
trees being now nine feet high. Castilloa 
does not like a wet soil and should not be 
planted where there is any ckance of water 
lying during the rains. As in the case of Ceara, 
it would appear that Castilloa does best ina 
good red soil. Experiments go to show that 
better results would be obtained by sowing at 
stake, 2 to each, and transplanting later, pro- 
vided the seeds were in good condition. As re— 
gards distance between the plants, probably 
20’ x 20’ apart is wide enough inthis country, 

Czara (Manihot Glaziovit). 

The cultivation of Ceara was commenced jin 
1907, and so far as growth is concerned is very 
satisfactory, plants raised from seed sown at 
stake in January, on good deep red _ soil, being 
6 to 8 feet high in August, 1907, and as much as 
16feet high in July, 1908, ¢.e. 16 months from 
date of sowing. The land for Ceara should be 
prepared and made ready for planting at the 
commencement of the rains. The seeds should 
be filled at the radicular end, and not sown too 
deep. Sowing at stake is by tarthe best method 
and if the seeds are sown early, 2 to each hole, 
the plants will, by the dry season, be able to 
fend for themselves and require neither water— 
ing nor shade. If the seeds are sown late the 
plants remained small and stunted. Ceara 
seems to thrive on any soil except a wet one; 
12’x 12’ is about the right distance apart. There 
are some 7,000 Ceara trees growing, which were 
sown in January, 1907, as well as many thousands 
of later date, 


© 


and Magazine of the Ceylon Agricultural Society. 


Kuncumra ELastica, 


A small quantity of seeds was received in 
November, 1907, from Uganda, -and they ger- 
minated well. The seedlings look well at pre- 
sent and have attained a height of 2 feet 9 
inchesin eight months, Funtumia latifolia is 
found in the forest. The seeds that fall on the 
ground germinate freely and the young plants 
spring up quickly. It is only found in lowlying 
sandy partsof the forest. Unfortunately the 
latex of Funtumia latifolia is of no real com- 
mercial value butif this variety does weil in the 
West Nyasa district so also should Funtumia 
elastica, Some of the seeds of the latter ob- 
tained from Uganda were packed in tinfoil, and 
others in slightly damped charcoal powder. 
The last named gave the better results. 


JEQUIE MANICOBA AND REMANOO MANICoBA. 


Seeds of these two varieties have just been 
imported, but it is not yet known whether they 
will be successful, 


TAPPING AND AVERAGE YIELD OF LANDOLPHIA, 


Vines may be tapped every year for a long 
time if tapping be carried out in a@ proper 
manner, but there is much danger of injuring 
the inner tissues, and the greatest care is re- 
quired. Vines yield on the average about | 
ounce of rubber per annum, dependent princi- 
pally on the age of the vine. As much as7 ounces 
have been obtained in one year from specially 
fine vines, 


MANURE, 


Both Para and Castilloa benefit greatly from 
agood manuring with cow manure and wood 
ashes during the rains, When manuring, 12 
inches of a spread for each year of growth is 


allowed the roots. 
, 


THE PREPARATION OF COPRA. 


Under present conditions, when the copra 
reaches the European market, it has already 
undergone at the place of production a pre- 
paration which consists in cutting the fruit and 
letting the albumen dry by exposure to the 
air, the sun, or artificial heat, after which the 
albumen is separated from the shell and shipped. 


This preparation presents the serious draw- 
back of allowing micro-organisms to develop 
on the surface of the albumen, penetrating 
the mass and bringing about a partial de- 
terioration of the fatty matter. At present a 
large quantity of the copralanded is covered 
with mould, and gives out a strong rancid odour. 
There is thus a considerable waste, and all oil 
extracted has to be purified. 


M. Dybowski, the Director of the Paris Co- 
jonial Gardens, is of the opinion that this difli- 
culty can be overcome, He proposes a treat: 
ment by which the surface of the copra is 
sterilised before shipment in such a manner as 
to withstand the action of the micro-organisms. 
He has been conducting experiments since 1905 


with sulphurous acid and some samples pre- 


served since that date still show no sign of 
deterioration, while the product not so treated 


179 


deteriorates in a few weeks. M. Dybowski 
made a further trial in June last on a consign- 
ment of 3,000 coconnts imported from the Malay 
Archipelago. The nuts, after being cut in two, 
were exposed to the action of the sulphurous 
gases, by means of the Marot apparatus. This 
operation was repeated on successive Jots, and 
it has now been established beyond doubt that 
under the sterilising influence of this gas the 
original condition of the copra is maintained. 
This is an important discovery that should 
give a considerable impetus to the copra trade. 
—L & C Express, July 9. 


SUGGESTED CACAO SPRAYING EX- 
PERIMENTS AT TRINIDAD. 


In order to obtain accurate results upon which 
to base recommendations for the use of fungi- 
cides in cacao cultivation, the Mycologist to the 
Trinidad Board of Agriculture (Mr J Birch 
Rorer) has drawn up a scheme of cacao spraying 
experiments, which was recently submitted to 
the Board for approval. This scheme includes 
experiments in which insecticides are also to be 
used, both alone, and in combination with the 
fungicides. For the work which it is proposed 
to undertake, a block of 800 cacao trees in good 
bearing, located in a district where diseases are 
prevalent, will be required. ‘The trees should 
be in good condition so far as pruning and cul- 
ture are concerned, and should be in fertile soil, 
so that they will be able to mature a good crop 
of pods, For purposes of experiment, the 800 
cacao trees will be divided into forty plots, each 
containing twenty trees, Thirty-six plots will be 
sprayed, and the remaining four will be left un- 
sprayed as control plots. The thirty-six plots to 
be sprayed are divided into six classes (each 
class containing six plots), and each class is to 
be treated with a different spraying mixture. 
Thus the first six plots are to be treated with 
Bordeaux mixture, the second lot with Bordeaux 
mixture and arsenate of lead, the third with self- 
boiled lime and sulphur, the fourth with com- 
mercial lime and sulphur, the fifth with arsenate 
of lead and lime, and the sixth class with con- 
tact insecticides. In addition to the question 
of the relative value of the different spraying 
mixtures, the experiment is also designed to in- 
vestigate, in the case of all the mixtures, the 
influence of the frequency with which spraying 
is carried ovt, The six plots in every class are 
to be treated with the same mixture, but. the 
frequency with which the six plots are sprayed 
will vary from two to eight weeks. The amount 
of cacao gathered from each plot throughout the 
year will be recorded, and an accurate account 
of the cost of spraying will be kept, The bene- 
ficial or injurious effect of the mixtures upon 
pods, trees and flowers will be noted. No results 
of the experimental work are to be published for 
at least one year. In these experiments the 
Board of Agriculture will furnish all spraying 
apparatus, mixing plant, and materials for the 
work, but the labour required for the spraying 
operations would be supplied by the owner of 
the estate cn which the work was done, —- West 
Indian Agricultural News, Tune Ly, 


180 
OUR COCONUT PRODUCTS. 


———— 


PROGRESS DURING THE HALF-YEAR, 


The exports for the half-year, with the ex- 
ception of desiccated nut and copra, show a 
shortage as compared with the same period of 
1908, but, taking them all over, the demand 
seoms to have been very steady. The greatest 
increase to end June we find in copra, which 
shows some 107,552cwt. exported in excess of 
last year, the figures for the six months being 
no less than 272,893 ewt., resulting to date 
(30th June) in low but steady prices. Un- 
fortunately, owing to inferiority in quality of 
our nuts—the like of which must, we think, be 
unknown to the oldest inhabitant, and which 
is doubtless the result of an abnormally short 
rainfall in 1908—less severe, perhaps, in the 
Galle and Matara district—over our coconut 
belt which extends practically from Puttalam 
in the North-West to Hambantota in the South- 
East, it has been taking trom 30 per cent to 50 
per cent more nuts to produce a candy (5 cwt,) 
of copra; so that, with thin kernel on the one 
hand and low selling prices on the other, it 
has been, we conclude, anything but a good 
paying year so far for the copra drier. 


The strange part of it is, however, that with 
practically 18 months continuous drought to end 
of June North of Colombo, there has been little 
or no shortage of nuts—such as they avre—over the 
half of current year. The very reverse of this 
was predicted by those experienced in nut cul- 
tivation. In fact, we know of one mill when the 
nut supply was actually in excess and more work 
was done than in any previous year ; so that it 


would appear that while a very short rainfall. 


causes a considerable falling-ot! in the quality 
of the kernel, there is but little if any decrease 
in number of nuts this remarkable tree pro- 
duces, even in our very driest zone. Here con: 
siderable extensions may be looked for with 
the advent of the Puttalam railway, really the only 
line ever clamoured for by the sons of the soil, and 
which is bound to come after our Governor 
has made himself heard in Downing Street. 
Now, with regard to the excess of sume 5,370 
tons of copra shipped already this year—and 
which probably will be doubled by Decem- 
ber, we think it is not hard to account for 
this. It must be remembered that while 
nearly all the European and American oil was 
formerly used for scoap-making, a new and very 
important industry has sprung up on the Con- 
tinent andin U.S. America, in edible fat—-to 
which we have before now alluded. The con- 
sumption of this, owing to its cheapness 
as compared with other fats, is in great and 
ever increasing demand; and the manu- 
facture of it is, we think, bound to in- 
crease rapidly and probably in a far greater 
ratio than nut planting anywhere. Besides, 
we must not forget that ‘‘as the tree lives, so 
must it die.” The most remarkable feature in 
this new nut produce is thatit is to date made, 
we may say, entirely from the ordinary sun- 
dried copra; so that, there must be room for 
improvement. Indeed, we do not see why this 
same fat should not be made locally with an 
abundance of cheap village labour and become 


The Supplement to the Tropical Agriculturist 


a very important Island industry. Of course, 
it might reduce our other nut products ; but to 
do that would doubtless increase the demand 
for them and*“so raise their prices commensu- 
rate with the cost of the raw nuts when the 
great menace of today, the demon Over- produc- 
tion, would vanish. 

The falling off in the export of coconut oil 
(some 24,752 cwt.) can easily be accounted 
for when we turn to the excessive export of 
Copra and desiccated nut. And we must not 
orget that the drying of this product depends, 
on the price of oil, and this while being 
very low cover the period now under review 
was very steady, ranging between R378°75 and 
R430 per ton; but, from what we can gather, 
everything points to arun of very high prices 
for oul, and which is sure to reflect on copra and 
nuts. All the same we do not suppose nuts will 
ever go to the price they did in 1907, our record 
year, when our present and future great oppo- 
nent, Java, sent away in the lst quarter only 
13,464 tons against nearly double that in 1908— 
little Lanka figuring in 1907 at only 3,832 tons, 
against sume 14,750 tons over the same period 
of 1908. This proved conclusively that 1907 was 
the very worst on record for our palm pro- 
duce, when nuts went in some cases to R75 
per 1,000, and copra exceeded R87. 


The figures for desiccated coconut an ever-in- 
creasing product, show a very small increase 
over same time last year with its huge 4,000,000 
lb. over 1907, all of which, while causing a con- 
siderable glut at home, went off. Inthis mills 
also were hard hit, with very low prices on the 
one hand and the poorest outturn on record 
on the other ; it took nearly 34 nuts at times 
to the pound, against the usual three nuts 
and at times under that and which they 
generally get over the first half of the year. 
Nuts came in very freely, in tact, more so 
than usual, owing no doubt to copra men 
going slow; forit was equally hard for them 
to make ends meet with such poor nuts, taking 
at times fully 7,500 to make a candy of copra. 

The advanced bree of nuts in sympathy with 
the rise in oil and copra has caused a rise in’ 
desiccated of 2 cts. to 24 cts. per lb. and, if 
there is a furtherrise in oil, it will go higher, 
there being a regular run on copra-drying, very 
high prices being paid by these men who know 
exactly when to procure the very bestnuts. 

Poonac shows a decided falling off and 
points to crushers at home and elsewhere 
getting their poonac cheaper and fresher than 
they can import it. 

There isa slight falling off in coir, but many 
mills being still closed down should relieve 
the over-production of the last year or two. 


MANURING TEA AND RUBBER. 


With reference to the paragraph record- 
ing a visit of Messrs. Joseph Fraser and G. 
A. Talbot to Rothamstead, in which it was 
stated that ‘slag’ is regarded as a medici- 
nal dressing for certain soils, just as arsenic 
is used as a medicine for certain complaints, 
an experienced authority in England, who 
reads the Overland Observer, writes:—“1 om 


and Magazine of the Ceylon Agricultural Society. 


sure of this, that the average Ceylon tea soil 
which is deficient both in organic vegetable 
matter and phosphato of lime is not the kind of 
soil upon which basic slag gives the best results. 
I should like to see experiments made with 
Basic superphosphatic—equal money value— 
against Basic slag and a careful report made on 
same, There is not, in my opinion, much at 
Rothamstead that could apply to Ceylon.” 


APPARATUS TO EXTRACT CAMPHOR. 


A Burmese [NVENTION, 


Bassein, June 26.—It is not generally known 
that after many years of quiet experimenting, 
Maung Thein Maung, ab present Township 
Judge of Ngathainggyaung in this district has 
at last invented an apparatus for extracting 
‘“‘noai camphor” from Blumea balsamifera, 
which grows Jluxuriantly everywhere’ in 
Burma and is locally known as ‘* ponmathein.” 
The inventor claims that by a process of con- 
densivg in this apparatus, camphor or a sub- 
stance with all the qualities of camphor, can 
be produced at a minimum of cost and labour ; 
and he has now filed a specification with the 
Government of India of his invention under 
the Patents Act, wherein he describes the in- 
vention as follows :—The lower vessel or boiler, 
which is made of tin or galvanised sheet iron, 
has a neck and a false perforated bottom. There 
are two pipes which run to an inch of the 
bottom of the boiler. The tops of these pipes 
are funnel-shaped. The top vessel, which is 
called the condenser, is slipped into the neck 
of the boiler. The condenser has an inner vessel 
called the collector, with pipes. The outer shell 
of the condenser holds water which runs down 
the pipe, and the heated water is drained away 
by another pipe. Taps are attached to the con- 
denser and the boiler respectively, for drawing 
away their contents. The method of extracting 
the camphor is as follows :—The boiler is filled 
with water in which is placed the plant Blumea 
balsamifera. The condenser is then filled with 
cold water, and heat isapplied to the -boiler. 
When the water begins to boil, the steam 
draws the camphor in the plant and car- 
ries it up to the collector. The condensed 
steam which more or less contains dissolved 
camphor, runs down by the pipe back into the 
boiler ; consequently the camphor is carried up 
again by the steam to the collector. The dis- 
tillation is thus carried on until the plant is 
found to contain no more camphor, The 
novelty of the invention lies in the fact that, 
unlike an ordinary still, the extraction of the 
camphor is perpetual and automatic, The 
specification is illustrated with diagrams ex- 
plaining the process of condensing. Maung 
Thein Maung is confident of the success of 
his apparatus, and has already manufactured 
aconsiderable amount of camphor by it, samples 
of which he has sent to China, the Straits and 
élsewhere for opinion as to its quality and in 
order to ascertain whether this camphor will 
haveagood market there. It is his intention to 
ask Government to permit him to manufacture 
camphor without prejudice to bis appointment 
as a public rervant.—Rangoow Gazette, July 5. 


1st 
LiMA BEANS. 
Just now the following extract from 


an American bulletin ou beans may be of 
interest :— 

Under the name ot Lima beans two distinct 
types are now recognised: Pole Limas and 
dwarf, or bush, Limas. These types are made up 
from two distinct species, known to botanists 
as Phaseolus lunatus, which includes the Sieva, 
or Carolina, type of Lima beans, and Phaseolus 
dunatus, variety macrocarpus, the true Limag of 
the Amerigan garden, which includes both types 
ot this bean, i.e., the flat, or large-seeded, Lima 
and the Potato Lima, The pole Lima beans, 
then, aremade up from the Sieva, or Carolina, 
Limas, the true Limas, the flat, large-seeded 
Limas, and the Potato Limas, The dwarf Limas 
are represented in the Sieva type by Hender- 
son’s Dwarf Lima, in the Potato Limas by 
{Cumerle’s and Deer’s Dwarf Lima, and in the 
true Limas by Burpee’s Dwarf Lima. It will be 
seen, therefore, that botanically the pole Lima 
and the Dwarf Lima cannot be separated—that 
varietal differences alone make the distinctions 
which characterise these two groups. 


Lima beans are of very great commercial value, 
butare not sufficiently appreciated as a table 
food because it isnot generally known that in a 
dry state they can be used in practically the same 
manner as are the common beans, In reality they 
are richer and more delicate in flavour than the 
common beans, and can be used in as many 
different ways. The virtues of these types as 
green beans need only a passing mention, and 
their value as an accompaniment of corn in 
succotash is well known to every consumer of 
canned goods. 


THE DANGER OF OLD STUMPS. 


(By F. A, S.,—in the Journal of Board of 
Agriculture, British Guiana.) 


Considerable areas of forest land in the colony 
are being taken up and cleared for the culti- 
vation of such crops as rubber, cacao and limes. 
It is thought desirable to warn cultivators that 
the logs and the stumps of trees that have been 
felled may constitute a danger to the cultivation, 
and that certain precautions should be taken. 
lt has repeatedly been noticed that plants 
planted in very close proximity to a fallen log 
or old stump may sooner or later die. This has 
been held to be due to ‘* poisonous juices” from 
the rotting of the log or stump, and on account 
of this a large number of planters will rarely 
put in a young plant near to eithera log ora 
stump. As the stumps or logs commence to rot, 
it has been observed that fungi are invariably 
present, and instead of the ‘‘ poisonous juices” 
causing the death of the seedlings, it is the 
fungi spreading from these rotting logs to the 
roots of the plants that destroy them. On 
several occasions fungal threads have been 
traced directly from a rotting stump tothe roots 
of young lime plants, and it is concluded that 
the fungus on account of increased growth in pu 


182 


suitable a medium as a rotting log may have be- 
come sufficiently vigorous to kill out those gro- 
wing plants in the immediate neighbourhood. 
A large number of plants in the West India 
Islands have been lost in this manner, and in 
the report of the Government Mycologist for the 
Federated Malay States for 1907 it is stated that 
the greater number of inquiries from planters in 
respect to diseases of rubber referred to the 
root disease caused by a fungus that had spread 
from some of the numerous old jungle stumps 
among the rubber trees to the healthy young 
plants of from fifteen and thirty months old, It 
is further reported that fungal threads have, on 
different occasions, been traced from an old 
stump in the nursery to young plants imme- 
diately around it. ‘ihe removal of stumps from 
large areas of newly opened land is of course im- 
practicable, and, therefore, planters must be 
prepared for some cases of these root diseases. 
In planting out, however, it is preferable that 
young plants should be set out of the ‘‘line” 
rather than they be planted too close to either 
stumps or logs. Further, any plants that subse- 
quently show signs of root disease should at 
once be isolated by digging trenches around 
them at least 18 inches deep, and those that 
die should always be removed and burned or 
otherwise they will become sources of infection. 
On no account, however, should stumps be allo- 
wed to remain in any land that is to be used for 
the purpose of a nursery. They should always 
be carefully removed, for when planting is being 
done the young plants that might become 
affected would, in most probability, be distri- 
buted throughout the whole plantation. Those 
diseased plants would not alone die out, but 
would form centres of infection and therefore 
be a danger to the entire cultivation. In cacao 
cultivation in the West India Islands it has 
been noticed that root disease frequently com- 
mences from bread-fruit, bread-nut, or avocado 
pear trees that have been planted in the cacao, 
and it is, therefore, advised that in new planta- 
tions these trees should not be planted, and that 
when any such trees have to be removed from old 
plantations care shouldbe taken to extract their 
roots.—Proceedings of the Trinidad Agricultural 
Society for May, 


RUBBER EN MALAYA. 


DUTCH EXPERT OPINIONS. 


Yesterday there passed through Singapore 
Dr. A H Berkhout, late Conservator of Forests 
in Java, who was in the rubber planting field 
in the island a quarter of a century ago, and left 
for Soerabaya this morning. 


Dr. Berkhout has spent three weeks on the 
rubber estates of the Peninsula, and as he 
has also had experience in Surinam, Brazil, as 
well as Java, his observations should be of value. 
In answer to questions by a representative of 
the Singapore ‘‘ Free Press,’’ he said he had 
visited estates in Province Wellesley, Perak, 
Selangor and Malacca, and had made careful 
observation of the nature of the soil, and the 
effect of close or wide planting. He has to study 
out the full effect of the observations yet, but 
is well ablo to form an opinion already. 


The Supplement to the Tropical Agriculturist 


MaAtLaya For HEVEA, 


Hevea, thinks the Doctor, grows on the 
alluvial of the Peninsula better than in any 
other part of the world he has visited. The 
exporters in Brazil have no chance to compete 
with the planters of Malaya, They can put 
their clean plantation rubber on the market at 
at anything between one and two shillings a 
pound. The least that can be done with Para 
1s over 3s a pound, 


*« With better methods of tapping ?” 


‘The tapping in Brazil is irregular and un- 
scientific, and three or four tappings spoil the 
tree. Then the quest has to be carried further 
afield, and the wild rubber becomes still more 
expensive.” 


THE RAINFALL; AND PLANTING. 


Dr Berkhout thinks that it is not the quantity 
of rain that falls that makes any difference, but 
the regular distribution over the whole year. 
That is the climatic strength of Malya. The 
estates, generally speaking, are well managed, 
but there is much yet to be learned by careful 
observation and experiment on the best way of 
cultivating and tapping. Planters will have to 
exercise their sound sense, and profit by their 
experience in this respect, The manner in which 
the young plants are transferred from the nur- 
sery and planted strikes him as being far too 
rough. It would be better to plant the seeds in 
baskets and carry them in the baskets to the 
site of planting. 


CLOSE PLANTING. 


Dr Berkhout favours close planting, with 
subsequent thinning out judiciously. He says 
it is quite a mistake to:suppose that every acre 
of the estate shall bear a certain number of trees. 
He would plant 12 feet by 12, and no harm will 
result, but before the age of 20 the number of 
trees will be very largely reduced. No dead trees 
are to be replaced, except whena patchis for some 
reason cleared, The thinning out must be con- 
tinuous, and regardless of symmetry. Pruning 
to get a great number of trees on the land, he 
considers harmful, the wounds being particu- 
larly susceptible to parasites. The thinning 
out must be continuous, he repeated. It does 
not, however, mean cut down every other tree, 
nor half of the trees, 


WEEDING. 


Clean weeding is a costly process at the com- 
mencement, but it ensures quick growth of the 
young trees. Dr Berkhout does not think much 
of the experiments in planting mimosa, crota- 
laria, desmodium or passiflora. It is true the 
first three plants add to the®soil nitrogenons 
constituents derived from the air; but are not 
the soils of the rich lowlands - nitrogenous 
enough, and do not the leguminosz do harm in 
preventing aération of the surface layers of the 
soil? At the present price of rubber Dr Berk- 
hout is clearly in favour of clean weeding ; the 
returns will stand it. 

Dr Berkhout desired to acknowledge the cour- 
tesy shown him by officials and planters. He 
hopes to visit Ceylon on his way home from 
Java, for which island he sailed this morning.-—= 
& I Press, July 17. 


and Magazine of the Ceylon Agricullural Society. 


TERMES GESTRO!I AND RUBBER. 


INTERESTING NotEs By THE F.M.S. DEPARTMENY? 
or AGRICULTURE. 


Mr H C Pratt, Government Entomologist, 
F.M.S., has just issued a bulletin containing 
“ Observations on Termes gestroi, as affecting 
the Para Rubber -tree, and methods to be em- 
ployed against its ravages.” It will, of course, be 
necessary for estate managers tv read the 
pamphlet themselves ; no mere summary could 
give an accurate view of its valuable contents, 
We merely indicate them. Mr Pratt points out 
that the factors which decide the prevalence of 
Termes gestroi ona rubber plantation are mis- 
understood. ‘‘ There is,” he says, ‘‘a popular 
impression that gestroihas reached its deserved 
designation as a pest merely because rubber 
(Hevea Brasiliensis) has been planted in the 
F.M.S. I wish to show here that it is not the 
product which is planted that isthe main cause 
of the encouragement of gestroi, but the inter- 
ference with nature when large acreages are 
felled ; it is therefore the object of the planter 
to meet as far as lies within his power these 
changed conditions. take into consideration 
the method of planting in the F.M.S.  1,0v0 
acres of land are taken up for the purpose of 
planting rubber. The virgin forest is felled, 
burnt and the acreage planted. The burn may 
have been good, then so much the better; on 
the other hand it may have been bad, and 
very little of the timber is destroyed. 
Whether the burn was good or bad a great deal 
of the harder wood is left undestroyed. In 
either case the land is planted, and no heed 
whatever is taken of the mass of felled forest 
trees which form a continued network of logs 
lying upon the surface of the soil. 


‘The sole object of the planter is to bring his 
trees to a tappable stage as quickly as possible, 
and atthe lowest possible cost, regardless of 
the consequences which may follow such a pro- 
cedure. He forgets, or does not attach suflicient 
importance to the fact, that at least two per 
cent ofthe larger and sometimes of the smaller 
logs and stumps, very few of which are ever 
complotely burnt away, either have gestroi in 
them, or will harbour them in time. A freshly 
felled piece of land is thus a perfect home for 
this insect; every facility is present for its mul- 
tiplication; its dissemination from stunip to 
stump, and log to log, is rendered so easy, and 
there is a food supply sufficient for several years. 
Atter having encouraged gestroi to such an ex- 
tent, and furnished it with every means cal- 
culated to increase its number and its distribu- 
tion, it is not a matter for surprise that an in- 
sect with its habits, and which has no aversion 
to the living Para tree, does attack the rubber 
trees which are planted in the midst of such an 
infected area.” 


Mr Pratt proceeds to explain the most eftec- 
tive methods of exterminating the pest and ends 
with a warning as to the future. He says :— 

The great majority of estates in the F.M.S. 
are between the ages of 1-6 years, and the 
damage that will be caused by gestroi on these 
various estates rests entirely with their re- 
spective managers. Those planters who take 


183 


steps to eradicate the insect from their young 
clearings will be more than repaid in the future. 
The amount of money spent in freeing the 
estate from this pest will depend on several 
factors, as for instance the nature of the soil, 
the formation of the land, the age of the clea- 
ring, and whether the burn was good or bad, all 
of which have direct bearing on the prevalence 
of this insect. Once eradicated the planter 
need have no fear of its return asa pest, but | 
would strongly urge the importance of taking 
stringent methods against gestroi on these low- 
lying, heavily-timbered soils recently opened, 
Unless this is done on land of this character 
probably 20 per cent. of the trees will be lost 
in the course of 6 or 7 years. There is, however, 
absolutely no cause for alarm even on these 
places. As yet they are young clearings, and if 
the managers of such estates are provided with 
the means to rid their plantations of gestroi 
there areno reasons why these places should 
not be quite free from the pest in the course 
of three years.—Strarts Times, July 8. 


A NEW FUNGUS-PEST ON PARA 
RUBBER. 


DISCOVERED IN PERAK. 


Ihave recently received from a planter in 
Perak portions of the branches and boughs of 
Para rubber trees destroyed by the attacks of a 
bark fungus hitherto unknown to me. The at. 
tack commences on theshoots which presently 
turn black and die, and the disease continues to 
descend to the trunk of the tree which eventually 
perishes. On examining the bark attacked 
there can be seen numerous raised spots, which 
split and show a black fungus pushing ont in 
the crack. In some places the bark is quito 
thickly marked with short straight cracks 
parallel to the axis of the branch. In older parts 
of the branch the grey bark is covered with 
larger elevated patches, black in colour and loo- 
king as if soot had been thrown on the tree, Tho 
CAMBIUM IS DEAD AND BLACK, THE woop pry 
and soon perishes. Examination with the mic. 


‘roscope shows that in these black patches aro 


round spaces (perithecia) imbedded in a black 
mass, (stroma) from the interior of which are 
discharged large numbers of oval spores, mostly 
transversely divided. The fungus evidently be- 
longs to the group of Ascomycetes and appears to 
me to be allied to a genus Cucurbitaria parasitic 
on the Laburnum in Europe in much the same 
way as this fungus attacks Hevea here. The cor- 
respondent who sends the specimens writes : 
‘* Trees with apparently the same disease are 
dotted about theestate singly and in groups, Lam 
CUTTING DOWN ALLTHE DISEASED TREES To THE 
POINT WHERE THE LATEX EXUDES 
healthily. This cutting back appears to 
stop the disease as_the stumps shoot again 
in about 7 days. The disease appears to be 
a bark or leaf one as the death seems to 
start from the tip or tips of the branches and 
travels down the tree and if leftalone in a short 
time will completely kill it.” Of one specimen he 
writes : ‘The tree I send you was alive 12 days 
ago and yesterday I had to cut it back 4 inches 
from the ground to get to healthy wood. The 


184 


treois little over 2 years old.” From this I gather 
that the disease is very rapid in action. In a 
lator letter he says : ‘‘The fungus appears to be 
ripe in the wet season, aud seems to be either dy- 
ing or stationary during the now dry season. The 
trees are planted 15 feet by 15 in hilly land. The 
DISEASE APPEARED’ IN THE HEAVY RAINS 
of March, April and May. The particular tree I 
sent you was apparently wintering when I left for 
Singapore on 11th of May and was dead to within 
5 inches of the ground on my return on the 28rd. 
It was 24 years old.” There can be no doubt that 
this fungus might prove avery serious pest espec- 
ially in the case of large trees where in an estate 
it would be both difficult to detect at first and 
troublesome to getat. Planters should there- 
fore in going over their estates watch very care- 
fully to see if there are any trees beginning to 
goat the top, branches dying and blackening. 
If so, they should be at once cut off and as 
quickly as possible burnt. They must not be 
left lying about, or the spores will be blown by 
the wind onto other trees. The spores in the 
specimens before me are extremely abundant, 
and one fruit of the fungus contains enough 
to infect half the trees in the estate. Should 
this pest become aggressive in an estate, it might 
be advantageous to check it by 
SPRAYING WITH BORDEAUX MIXTURE 

which would destroy the spores ; and this would 
be especially valuable in the case of big trees 
affected, as it isvery difficult to cut back the end 
twigsin an adult Para rubber as the branches 
are too thin an brittle to bear an operator. For 
big trees afull sized spraying machine would be 
required as they rise to 60 or 80 feet in height ; 
such a machine as is used in spraying orchards 
in America. In cutting back the infected boughs 
the planter must be careful to cut far enough 
back. The mycelium running in the cambium 
layer as it appears to do is probably consider- 
ably below the point at which the sooty fruit is 
produced, and even below the point at which the 
bark appears definitely dead, I would suggest too 
thatthe bark of theinfected tree round the place 
where thedead tree is cut, and the branches of 
any neighbouring trees should be treated with 
Bordeaux mixture to prevent any further infec« 
tion by spores.—Straits Agricultural Bulletin 
for July. 


MR. JAS. RYAN ON RUBBER 
PACKING EXPERIENCE. 


A very interesting article from the pen of Mr 
James Ryan appears in ‘‘The India Rubber 
Journal” on the important subject of ‘‘ How 
should rubber be packed?” ‘‘ Before meas I 
write,” he remarks, ‘tare two samples of rubber 
which, as our volatile friends across Channel 
would say, give one furiously to think They 
were both originally cut from the original block 
of Lanadron rubber which attracted so much 
attention at the first World’s Rubber Exhibi- 
tion at Peradeniya, Ceylon, and deservedly won 
for Mr Pears the gold medal for the best rubber 
inthe show. Two and a half years have passed 
since then, and, side by side these twin sam- 
ples have journeyed far from the mother creeks 
of Johoreto Ceylon, to Burma, up the length 
and across the breadth of India; they have 
seen the damat Assouan and wandered from 


The Supplement to the Tropical Agricultaist 


the toe of the boot of Italy through Switzerland 
and France till at last they have come to anchor 
in the City of London. 

‘‘They have known every gradation of tem- 
perature, from 90 deg. F. at duskin the damp 
heat of Bombay to a bone dry 10 degrees below 
freezing pointin Rome, from 7,200 ft. on the Hor- 
ton Plains of Ceylon to the subterraneous tombs 
of the Pharaohs and the catacombs of the Apis 
Bulls at Sakkava, But though treated identically 


‘(with but one exception) ..sw differently have 


they behaved! The one :emains clear amber: 
brown, tough, elastic and resilient as the day it 
was turned out of the screwpress; the other is 
black, soft, and sticky—more like half-chewed 
toffee than rubber, and obviously valueless from 
a commercial point of view. What is the differ- 
ence of treaament which has caused the one to 
successfully resist so many changes of climate 
of temperature, and of hygroscopic variation— 
to improve it at least in so far as to prove its 
permanency of good qualities, whilst the other 
is valueless, except as a warning how very easily 
good stuff oan be spoiled by bad, though well 
intentioned, treatment? Asa matter of fact, 
the good sample has merely been carried about 
loose in a kit-bag or in a suit-case. Very rarely 
has it been even wrapped in a bit of paper. On 
the other hand, the piece which has gone so 
hopelessly tacky has been carried in an air-tight 
metal case, and has been prevented from shaking 
about by being fixed to the lid, The process ot 
degeneration set in within three weeks.” 

From this it may be judged that much has 
yet to be learned in the way of suitable packing 
for shipment of raw rubber. 


PINE-APPLE FIBRE. 

It is strange, a correspondent writes, that in 
a country where pine-apples grow as easily aS 
they doin Burma attempts do not seem to have 
been made to utilise pine-apple fibre. In the 
Philippines a very beautiful material is woven 
from it. It surpasses flax-fibre in strength, fine- 
ness, and glossy appearance. Trials made some 
time ago at Singapore showed that whilst a cer- 
tain quantity of flax fibre would support a 
weight of 260 lb the quantity of pine-apple fibre 
would support 350 lb, It also resists damp so 
that ropes made from it can be immersed in 
water forany length of time without suffering 
damage. The process of bleaching destroys ad- 
hesion between the bundles of fibre and spin- 
ning can then be proceeded with as in the case 
of flax.—Rangoon Advertiser, June 30. 


COTTON CULTIVATION IN 
BATTIGALOA, 


Mr O'Grady of Karative estate planted 38 
acres of cotton at Karative during the last year 
and we are glad to know that he has had a 
successful crop, fetching 103d per lb. Mr Sinna- 
lebbe of Punnaikuda also tried the same species 
(Egyptian) and though much attention was not 
paid by him to the improved methods he 
had a crop which fetched him 8d per lb. The 
land where it was cultivated, was in both cases 
close to the sex. We learn that there are 
several who intend cultivating cotton ona 
large scale during the coming wet season.— 
“Lamp,” July 17. 


and Magazine uf the Ceylon Agricultural Society. 185 


RUBBER IN THE FAR EAST AND 
THE AMAZON. 


A VIEW FROM PARA. 


And now about the competition of Ceylon 
and the Malay States as producers of rubber 
of a type produced in the past only in the 
Amazon region. To my mind the British in- 
vestor in rubber labours under a great mis- 
take in regard to Brazil, not unnatural in 
view of the failure of London Companies 
organised to exploit forest rubber. But the 
Manapers sent out from London have attempted 
to control the business on London ideas, with- 
out recognising the possibility of learning from 
the Brazilian. In Ceylon the Britisher is at 
home, and his rule is supreme; he has no 
competitor there ; he produces rubber and sells 
it at a profit. The wish being father to the 
thought, he indulgesin visions of the ignorant 
Brazilian native, with his lack of system, gradu- 
ally being forced out of the business of pro- 
ducing rubber, after which the Far Kast will 
have a monopoly. ‘‘ We can grow rubber at 
a shilling or less a pound in Ceylon,” they 
say ; ‘‘can you beat that in Brazil 2?” 

No man today knows the cost of a pound 
of rubber in the Amazon country, either on 
one seringal or in.general. In a land where 
no money circulates, this man or that taps so 
many trees, cures his rubber, and gets from the 
seringal store enough to eat, some clothes and 
tobacco. The cost of rubber does not interest 
him ; its selling price is nothing. So with the 
proprietors : the world needs rubber, and ina 
few years trading init brings him a fortune, 


But suppose rubber prices should drop to half 
—something of whichat present there is abso- 
lutely no indication. On the thousands of care- 
fully laid out seringats of. the Amazon are mil- 
lions acd millions of mature and productive 
trees, yielding rubber which has never been 
wholly equalled elsewhere in the world. They 
are owned by people who have capital,.and are 
skilled in business and adaptable to circum- 
stances. While temporarily lower prices may 
disturb business conditions, a permanently 
lower level would mean simply that the serin- 
gueiros, still in goods, would be credited with, 
say. 2milreis instead of 4 milreis per kilogram 
on the books of the se:ingal; they might become 
less extravagant, and the proprietor might lessen 
his rate of profit on the goods dispensed ; but 
so long asthe trees are here and the rubber 
workers on the ground, there will be capital 
available whereby the natives will be able to 
sustain life by their labour, the capitalists will 
profit,and the Government will derive revenue 
from the business. The consolidation of the 
business of aviador and seringal owner is a step 
toward the possible new condition. 

Another point is that the ability now of rubber 
producers to store their product when prices are 
unfavourable, thus rendering the market more 
stable, will lessen the risks involved in rubber 
trading, and the necessity for “long” profit on 
goods. But more than this: With such returns 
as have been obtainable from rubber 1n the past, 
little thought has been given to other produc- 
tion. Why trifle with growing food when it can 


24 


be imported, with the world eager to throw 
money at Brazil for rubber? All hands, then 
to collecting rubber ; and when the rivers rise 
and stop rubber work, they can live from the 
store supplies until next crop season. Already, 
however, on the better seringats cattle have 
been introduced for the supply of meat and 
crops are being cultivated to take the place, in 
part, of imported food. 

I have not figured out here the cost of a pound 
of forest ‘‘ Para” rubber ; the difficulty of doing 
this is, | think, plain. But the reader who has 
entertained any idea of the disappearance of 
rubber gathering from the Amazon country 
may find in my article reason for less confi- 
dence on this score. 

Gustav HEINnsoHN. 

Para, May 19, 1909. 

—-India Fubber World, July 1. 


RUBBERS FIGURES, 1909: TO END 
OF JUNE. 


STaTistTics IN Tons or Para GRADES 
MontuH or June, 1909. 
(Including Peruvian). 
Liver- 
pool. America. 
= 


FOR 


as 
BS 
& sc. 
ao 


FE SU Ea a el = 
Sage He 5 FS Ses 
ECG a sap n= eC 
houses 8 aA a a 2A 
During June, 1909 1570 960 920 1102 1189 1620 1460 140 270 
Do do 1908 1660 1050 1110 984 1427 1530 1680 350 400 
Do do 1907 16001100 930 958 1301 880 970 510 480 
Do do 1906 1650 830 700 799 907 600 690 340 370 


Noret.—The Receipts at Para for June, 1909, 
show a decrease of 90 tons against 
June, 1908. 

The Shipments to Europe for June, 
1909, show a decrease of 90 tons against 
June, 1908. 

The Shipments to America for June, 
1909, show a decrease of 190 tons 
against June, 1908, 

Liverpool Imports for June, 1909, show 
an increase of 118 tons against June, 
1908. 

American Imports for June, 1909 show 
an increase of 90 tons against June, 
1908. 

English deliveries for June, 1909, show 
a decrease of 238 tons against, June, 
1908. 

American deliveries for June, 1909, 
show a decrease of 220 tons against 
June, 1908. 

WoRLD’s VISIBLE SUPPLY, ON JULY Ist, 1909. 


1909, 1908. 1907. 1906. 

aaa! 

: Para. Cauch. 

Stock in England, 1st hand 109 — 868 796 739 
Do do andhand = 205 _ 356 148 187 
Stock of Caucho in England — 798 1240 608 299 
Stock in Para, 1st hand 50 20 180 30 — 
Do do | 2nd hand 190 10 250 170 230 
Do America 380 = 410 510 570 550 
Do on Continent 10 20 250 170 560 
Afloat to Murope 480 290 570 S10 490) 
Do America 100 60 410 300 390 

152% 1608 


TOTAL 3132 4634 


186 


Nore.—World’s visible supply on July 1st, 1909, 
shows a decrease of 1,502 tons against 
July Ist, 1908. 

Stock in U.S.A. on July Ist, 1909, shows 
an increase of 280 tons against July 
1st, 1908. 

Stock in England on July Ist, 1909, 
shows a decrease of 1,352 tons against 
July Ist, 1908. 

Stock in Para on July Ist, 1909, shows a 
decrease of 160 tons against July Ist, 
1908. 


Crop Sratistics, 30TH JUNE, 1908, TO 30TH 
JUNE, 1909, 


1908-9 197-8 1906-7 1905-6 

Para Receipts 38,090 36,650 38,000 34,490 
» Shipments to Europe 19,200 21,740 19,300 20,125 
” . America 39050 14,670 18,730 14,295 
England Landings Net 13,932 15,751 12,622 13,528 
¥) Deliveries Net 15,284 14,928 12,295 13,049 
America Landings Net 20,520 14,560 18,420 13,660 
; Deliveries Net 20,215 14,600 18,400 13,860 
Continental Imports Net 3,660 4,615 4,915  5,6%0 
” Deliveries Net 8,880 4,535 5,305 5,160 


STATISTICS OF ALL GRADES.—ForJuNE, 1909. 
TOTAL STOCK, 


LONDON. 1907. 


Tons. Tons. Tons, Tons. Tons. 
East Indian, Borneo, 
Cc. 59 58 164 184 326 
Plantation (Ceylon, 

Malaya, d&c.) 265 301 183 178 153 
Mozambique 4 28 32 67 58 
Madagascar 4 4 6 69 1i4 
South American and 

West Indian 62 32 88 317 180 
African & other kinds 8 5 26 68 78 

422, 428 499 863 969 

LIVERPOOL, 

Para 542 823 314 1,220 942 
Other Grades 943 834 1,235 2,064 1,322 

1,486 1,657 1,549 5,284 2,264 
Total England 1,907 2,085 2,048 4,147 3,233 


Wm. JAS. & Hy. THOMPSON, 
38, Mincing Lane, London, H.C. 


sd 


TREATMENT OF BAMBOO PULP. 


Messrs, James Scott Turner and Arthur 
Wellesley Maxwell have applied for a patent 
for improvements in or relating to the treatment 
of bamboo pu!p and other similar materials :— 


This invention relates to the treatment of bamboo fibre 
so asto render it fit and ready for commercial processes 
of bleaching. It is not intended chat this treatment should 
constitute a method of bleaching; but it is claimed that 
ordinary matured bamboo hitherto commercially unbleach- 
able is rendered bleachable thereby. 


According to this invention the method of preparing 
bamboo and the like for bleaching consists in steeping 
bamboo pulp in sea water or other suitable salt solution 
containing oxygen in solution, sulphuric acid or other acid 
being added, washing the pulp iand then steeping it in a 
weak alkaline solution. 

“We take a solution of brine, preferably made by adding 
salt to sea water, and passit through the apparatus here- 
inafter described, whereby it is electrolyzed by a current 
of adjusted voltage, part of the water is decomposed, the 
lighter gases are released and expelled, and oxygen is 
absorbed by the brine and the various chlorides present, 
We also take a solution of water and sulphur dioxide and 
pass it through another but similar apparatus, where 
it is treated in the same way, the nascent oxygen 


The Supplement to the Tropical Agriculturist 


being absorbed by the sulphurous 
lighter gases, not held in solution, released and ex- 
pelled. We now run_ both solutions together into the 
mixing vat or reservoir presently to be described, and 
in the resultant yellow solution we steep the bam 
boo or other pulp for a_ suitable period, that is, 
until the whole mass becomes of a bright lemon colour. 
The mass should be of a light yellow and not of an orange 
colour, In the resulting yellow solution nascent oxygen is 
produced, and upon this the action referred to depends. 
The yellow solution is now drained off, and the pulp is re- 
moved and thoroughly washed, No sediment or solid mat 
ter is given off at this stage. Both solutions and washed 
pulp remain of a bright yellow colour. 


“What probably forms, when sulphuric and certain other 
acids are added to solutions of chlorides containing oxygen 
in solution, isan oxy-acid of chlerine which again liberates, 
in contact with the fibre nascent oxygen which combines 
with the coloured film or pellicle that is sought to be re- 
moved without free chlorine being produced. 


““Wenow prepare a weak alkaline bath of limewater or 
caustic soda, ora mixture of carbonate of soda and borax, 
or other suitable alkali, and in this bath we steep the pulp 
(already steeped and washed as before described) for a sui- 
table period or until the whole mass becomes of a dark 
brown colour. The pulp is now removed and again thor- 
oughly washed, and this time the whole of the objection- 
able film, which has now changed its chemical composition 
and lost its power of adhesion, is run off along with the 
dark coloured liquor, and a well-cleaned cellulose, free 
from encrusting matter, remains. 


“The pulp can nuw be bleached in any suitable manner, 
for example, ina much-diluted solution of the yellow solu- 
tion obtained as above referred to. Or it can be bleached 
ina 2 per cent solution of ordinary bleaching powder, which 
now causes noinjury to the fibre. No other fibre at present 
in use for paper making can be bleached with such a weak 
and therefore inexpensive solution ; most require say an8 
per cent or 12 per cent solution.” 


The apparatus preferably employed ls described and illus- 
trated ; consisting of a divided trough in which the elec- 
trolytic action is carried out and avat having a stepped 
cone for further freeing the gaseous particles not freed by 
the corrugations of the electrodes in the trough. 

The method, the treatment, and the apparatus are 
claimed. 

Thirteen claims: three sheets of drawings,—Gazette. 


acid, and the 


THE GOCONUT CROP INCREASE: 
AND RISE IN OJL. 


Marawila, July 25th. 


Dear Sir, —I do not agree with the conclusions 
you drew recently in your review of the coconut 
industry, as to the causes of the increase of 
nuts. I have not your article before me ; but I 
believe you wrote that the drought, instead of 
being detrimental, was beneficial to coconut 
cultivation. That the very severe drought in 
the North-Western littoral has reduced crops 
and affected the quality of the nuts is 
an undoubted fact. The increase in crops 
is due to the thousands of acres that 
are annually coming into bearing. I quoted 
recently from the letter of a V.A., who, in a 
motor drive along the high road to Puttalam, 
saw thousands of acres of young coconut plan- 
tations. Inland, there are very many more, 


A correspondent in your columns recently 
said that the rise in the price of copra was 
due to the rise in the price of oil. Why not 
the other way? Oil is extracted out of copra. 
If the price of copra rises, the price of oil must 
of necessity rise with it,— Yours faithfully, 


(* What we wrote was that while short rain- 
fall caused falling off in quality of kernel, there 
was little if any decrease in number of nuts; 
a somewhat different statement,—ED. C.0.] 


and Magazine of the Ceylon Agricultural Society. 


COPRA INSPECTION IN FIJI. 


The following is a draft of a letter forwarded 
by the Levuka Chamber of Commerce to the 
Honorable the Colonial Secretary, Suva, re the 
suggested appointment of Copra Inspector :— 

“*Sir,—I kave the honour under instructions 
from my Chamber to reply as follows to your 
letter on the above subject. Your letter 
was’ carefully considered and discussed at a 
special meeting of this Chamber. The subject 
is a difficult one and the questions you ask 
cannot be answered off-hand. In the first place 
we must make the following admissions :— 

(a) The copra exported from this colony is not, on an 
average, of the best quality and does not command the 
best price in the world’s markets. 

(b) Under present conditions there is no inducement for 
producers toimprove the quality of their output, because 
copra is not graded in the local market and first class 
realises no higher than poor quality. 

(3) Some system of inspection and grading would pro- 
bably bring about an improvement in the average quality 
of the copra produced in the colony and thereby lead to 
the realisation of higher prices for this commodity. 

[ may say, therefore, that in theory this 
Chamber’ would favour the appointment of a 
Copra Inspector ; but we recognise the many 
practical difficulties which must be faced. This 
Chamber contains several members who have 
for many years been deeply interested in the 
copra trade as traders, buyers and exporters, and 
yet we find it very difficult to work out the 
details of a scheme by which effective inspection 
and grading of copra would be secured without 
greatly hampering and harassing the exporter. 
To secure effective grading, every sack of copra 
must be marked—and that means a large amount 
of work for an Inspector at each shipping port. 
Copra exporters would have to be licensed in 
each port. We think the best way to recover the 
cost of inspection and grading would be to treat 
each port separately and divide the salary and 
expenses of the Inspector pro rata amongst ex- 
porters in proportion to quantity of copra ship- 
ted by each. Before expressing a more definite 
opinion than that contained herein, the mem- 
bers of my Chamber would like to have an op- 
portunity toconsider carefully the details of any 
suggested scheme. Meanwhile we wish to take 
this opportunity of impressing upon your Gov- 
ernment the fact that a very large proportion, of 
low grade copra exported from Fiji, is made by 
natives and that a substantial improvement in 
this direction could be effected if the Native 
Office would take the matter up and urge upon 
Rokos, Bulis, and other native officials the 
necessity for more care in the making of copra. 
We suggest that in many towns it would be 
advisable to erect drying sheds with proper 
vatas, so as to replace by a more up-to-date 
system the present crude and wasteful methods.’ 
—fiji Times, June 30, 


FARMING OUT RUBBER TREES. 


At THREE Dowttars A MonrH, 


According to a native report, certain owners 
of rubber trees in and about the town are far- 
ming them out at $3 per tree per month. Even 
at this price, there should bea good profit with 
rubber where it is.—Malay Mail, July 22. 


187 
TEA AND RUBBER IN TRAVANCORE: 


Mr. H. M. Kyieut’s Opinions. 
Yields of 5lb. rubber per tree. 


In a conversation one of our representatives 
with Mr H M Knight, the veteran Travancore 
planter, who was going homeafter having sold 
all his estates to Mr A Lampard, of Messrs. 
Harrisons and Crosfield, he learnt that practi- 
cally all the land which was suitable for rubber 
growing in Travancore had beentaken up. 


“There-have been very great difficulties in 
getting the land,” said Mr Knight, ‘‘and now 
there is practically none available under the 
present conditions. Rubber is doing exceedingly 
well and extraordinary yields are being given. 
lam told that some trees, only about 10 years 
old, have given up to five pounds atree. From 
my own experience I can say we are getting . 
nost extraordinary tea yields. On Surianalle I 
have been gotting 900 pounds an acre at 5,000 
feet elevation.” ‘ 


The Estates Sold. 


Four estates were sold by Mr Knight, most 
important being Surianalle in the higher ranges. 
538 acres of this are under tea and there isa 
balance of 793 acres, making 1,331 altogether. 


Lockhart, which is nine miles west of Suria- 
nalle, on the same range of hills, buta little 
lower down, contains 279 acres under tea, and 
120 under coffee, the balance being 321 acres, 
making 720 altogether. 

Manale, which is in the same valley, on the 
opposite side, has 218 acres under tea, and 20 
under cinchona, the balance of 175 acres, making 
413 altogether. i 


Gudampara, a cardamom garden, situated in 
the Cardamom Hills, ten miles south of Suria- 
nalle, has 627 acres under cardamoms, and 19 
acres grass land, 646 in all. 


TEA TRADE IN BATOUM. 


Tea planting in the neighbourhood of Batoum 
continues to progress slowly. Land under tea 
cultivation is annually increasing, and, although 
private tea growers have, for the most part, 
abandoned their enterprises, yet the Imperial 
Domains authorities continue to augment the 
area of their plantations, The quantity of tea 
collected during the year 1908 and three differ. 
ent periods was as near as possible 203,000 Rus- 
sian lb., or 200,700 English Ib., all of which 
was bought up for the midland markets of 
Russia and none was exported. The tea is of 
fairly good quality, but lacks the aroma which is 
so prevalent in Chinese teas, still it makes agood 
beverage, and a number of persons inspired with 
patriotic feelings appear to prefer the taste of 
it to China, India or Ceylon teas. Pioneer tea 
growers along the coast here are now making 
anattempt to prevail upon small farmers and 
the natives to include small tea plantations in 
their agricultural pursuits, but itis difficult to 
forecast success in ascheme of this kind. At 
any rate, it will take considerable time to per- 
suade the native into growing anything but 
maize within the limits of his allotment, 


188 


The imports of tea from China, India 
and Ceylon during the year 1908 exceeded 
all previous records. Of course, most of the 
tea went to Russian possession in Central 
Asia, and notwithstanding the troubles in 
Persia a considerable quantity was forwarded 
to towns in Northern Persia. Indian teas 
were mostly sent to the province of Azer- 
baidjian and to Tabriz. There were, in all, 
eight Volunteer Fleet steamers that brought 
Chinese teas to Batoum during the year 19u8. 
Together these vessels landed over 130,000 half 
ehests of tea, : 

Indian and Ceylon teas principally found 
their way to Batoum by Austrian-Lloyd steamers 
and by steamers of the Russian Steam Naviga- 
tion Company, which took them over at either 
Port Said or Alexandria from Peninsular and 
Oriental Company’s steamers and other British 
vessels. 

The quantity of Indian and Ceylon teas im- 
ported for consumption in the Caucasus was 
22) tons, and for passage through the Caucasus 
to Persia and Central Asia was 10,072 tons. 
Apparently, in course of time, this trade will 
develop and assume even more extensive pro- 
portions than it has hitherto done. The demand 
in Northern Persia for these qualities of tea is 
steadily increasing, and when the country be- 
comes pacified there is every likelihood of further 
development in the trade. 


From the Consular Report on the Trade and 
Commerce at Batowm (Russia) for 1908, by Mr. 
Consul P Stevens.—Indian Trade Journat, July 8. 


RUBBER PLANTING IN MALACCA. 


Interview With MR S W MoorHovse, 


In view of the rapid strides which rubber- 
planting is making in the Straits, particularly in 
Malacca, where the catch crops are such useful 
products as tapioca and gambier, from which 
the well-known gamboge dye is produced, an 
interview which an Observer representative had 
with Mr SW Moorhouse, who has had great 
experience in that part of the world, is of es- 
pecial interest. Mr Moorhouse, who has for 
several years been on Diamond Jubilee estate 
inthe employ of the London Asiatic Rubber 
Co, is so convinced of the prosperity which lies 
before planters in that district that he has 


STARTED A NEW COMPANY ENTITLED 
‘*PEGOH LIMITED.” 


The estate of Pegoh which has an total area of 
about 3,300 acres has 2,100 acres which have 
been opened up by Chinese and have uponthem 
rubber about six years old and in splendid condi- 
tion. 


Prick oF RUBBER: SETTiInG Crores FoRWARD. 


Asked as to how high they in the Malay 
States expected the price of rubber to rise, Mr 
Moorhouse said : When I left they were talking 
about 7s. and I see it is up tothat already. That 
was about as far as they thought it would go 
and the generalopinion was that it was very 
good at that. 

Is there much setting of crops ahead on 
contract on the part of Companies?—I have 
heard of about seven or eight companies setting 


The Supplement to the Tropical Agriculturist 


their crops forward, mostly through Colombo, It 
is nearly all done through Colombo ; very little 
is donein Singapore. I have not heard of any 
private proprietors setting their crops forward. 


PLANTING GENERALLY. 


To what extent is actual planting going for- 
ward in the Malay Straits >—They are planting 
practically everywhere. There was rather a 
check two or three years ago when the prices 
went down; but now they are planting all over. 
In Malacca there is a lot of planting, though 
there is not so much in Selangor. On one 
estate I know in Malacca they have planted 
over 3,000 acres during the last two years. 


Lapour. 


How do you get on with regard to labour ?— 
Where I am there is any amount and always 
hasbeen. We employ a great many Chinese in 
addition to Tamils. The place to which Iam 
now going is to be worked entirely with Chinese 
labour without any Tamils at all. There will be 
no Europeans but myself, as my assistants 
will be Chinese, One reason why we do not 
employ Tamils is that Government réstrictions 
are so severe, and, also, they really cost more 
than Chinese. A Chinaman is paid a few cents a 
day more but it is not necessary to build hos- 
pitals for him, or pay assessment, or do the 
many other things which have to be done for 
Tamils. 

How much do you pay him ?—Forty five to 
fifty dollar centsa day on an average. It is 
piece work and they reckon to make that. It 
is all contract work. The Tamils get 30 cents 
and they are generally employed on day labour. 
Another great advantage of Chinese labour is 
that thereare noadvances. Younever lose any- 
thing in advancesto a Chinaman, If you know 
how to work Chinamen they are very good labour, 
They never give any trouble, or fight, or quarrel, 
as the Tamils do, and they never seem to get 
sick. All the time I have been on Diamond 
Jubilee | have never known a cooly die. They 
don’t cost anything for medicine, 


THe NortHway TAPPING SYSTEM. 


What have you to say about the Northway 
tapping system ?—It does not seem to have 
caught on in Malacca and I don’t think it will. 
Tapping is done so cheaply and we get such 
good yields that it does not seem worth while to 
makeany change. I have not seen it tried at 
all. People are using just the ordinary old 
knives, Farrier’s knife, and the ordinary gouge. 
Nobody knows anything about the Northway 
system and they want to know more about it. 
All I have heard is not very favourable towards it. 


WEEDS AND PEstTs. 


Are you troubled much with weeds ?—No, 
not particuiarly. I believe in clean weeding, 
which is cheapest in the end. They are trying the 
passion flower and crotalaria in Malacca and I 
believe the former has been a great success In 
many places. Crotalaria is not a weed killer but 
amanure. Hor that it is very good but for to 
plant it on a virgin soil is nonsense. 

Are you troubled with pests ?—Not very 

reatly. There are a few white ants. The “omes 
Semitostus is confined to the coast and flat 
low lying land. 


and Magazine of the Ceylon Agricultural Society. 


TAPPING. 


Have you any decided views on tapping ?— 
I believe in tapping every day and as much as 
you can but I also believe in giving the tree a 
rest now and again for a month at a time. Some 
people go in for the every other day tapping. 
I think that is a mistake. 


ForM oF PREPARATION. 


What sort of rubber do youchiefly prepare, 
Mr Moorhouse ?--The ordinary crépe and sheet. 
Malacca is going tobe a very good place for 
turning out good quality rubber because cf the 
good water we have there. 


Mr Moorhouse comes of a family of planters. 
He is at present accompanied by his brother, 
Mr T O Moorhouse, who is opening up an estate 
with his father, Mr T H Moorhouse, in Johore. 


ANDAMAN MARBLE-WOOD OR 
ZEBRA-WOOD. 


From Forest Pamphlet No. 7 of the Forest 
Economy Series No. 2 on Diospyros Kurzii, 
Hiern by RS Troup, F.c.u., Imperial Forest 
Economist to the Government of India, we ex- 
tract below. [The frontispiece is an excellently 
marked thin strip of the wood, set in a thick 
paper frame. ] 


Mr Troup, writing from Dehra Dun, 28th Jan. 
1909, says :—‘‘This publication is the first of a 
series dealing with some of the more important 
Indian timbers, many of which are at present in- 
sufficiently known in commercial circles. Simi- 
lar pamphlets on other timbers will be brought 
out from time to time, and will contain such 
information as is likely to be of use to wood 
merchants, engineers, architects and others 
interested in the utilisation of Indian timbers.” 


VeRNACULAR Names.—Pecha-da, And. ; Kala 
lakri Hind. (in Andamans); Thitkya, Burm. (in 
Andamans. ) 


DistTRIBUTION.—Throughout the Andamans ; 
also found in the Nicobars and Coco Islands, 
(rare, according to Prain, on Great Coco Island.) 


Tyre OF Forest.—The tree is found scattered 
in semi-deciduous and evergreen forests at ele- 
vations of about 50 to 300 feet, usually on low- 
lying and undulating ground. According to Mr 
B B Osmaston, it is never gregarious or very 
numerous. Often 1 or2 mature trees may be 
found to the acre, and sometimes more, in 
small patches.. Mr Osmaston also states that 
natural reproduction of the species is fair, and 
that artificial methods of reproduction have not 
been tried, 


DESCRIPTION AND SizE or TREe,—An ever- 
green tree with smooth thin grey bark. Kurz 
states that it attains a height of 50 to 60 feet 
with a clear stem of 25 feet and a girth of 6 feet, 
but according to Mr Osmaston, this is only ex- 
ceptionally the case in the Andamans, the tree 
reaching aheight of 40 to 50 feet with a clear 
bole of 15 to 20 feet and ‘a girth up to5 feet, 


189 


Size or Timper OsratNaBLe.—Mr Osmaston 
states that logs extracted average about 2: feet 
mid girth, but that as the heartwood is small, 
squares of over 6 inches siding are unobtain- 
able. Mr C G Rogers is of opinion that in forest 
which has not previously been worked squares 
up to 9 inches siding could be obtained. Some 
years ago Mr Heinig reported that it squared 
up to 20 feet long with siding up to 9 inches, 
while Mr Ferrars gave the length as 20 feet with 
siding up to 12 inches. From this it is evident 
that the larger sized timber has to some extent 
been cut out in accessible localities. Mr Osmas- 
ton further states that a log of 12 cubic feet 
wouid yield on an average only about 1 cubic 
foot of converted heartwood. Mr Rogers be- 
lieves that with regular working, resulting in 
the improvement of the forests, a larger pro- 
portion of good heartwood could be obtained, 
because many of the trees now available are 
over-mature, and full of faults. 


Descriprion or Woop. 


Marble-wood, like the ‘‘Calamander-wood ”’ 
of Ceylon (Diospyros quesita, Thw.), is a varie- 
gated ebony, the chief value of which, for orna- 
mental purposes, lies inthe remarkable effect 
produced by alternating streaks of black and 
grey. Gamble’s description may here be 
quoted:—‘‘Wood hard : sapwood grey: heartwood 
streaked black and grey in more or less alter- 
nate layers, or rarely quite black. Pores small 
and very small, scanty. Medullary rays very 
fine, numerous, uniform and equidistant. Trans- 
verse bars very fine, numerous, irregular, faint.” 
I have had an opportunity of examining a 
number of specimens of the wood, with special 
regard to variations in marking. The grey mark- 
ings are of various shades and sometimes have 
a pinkish tinge. The dark markings also vary 
in intensity, merging from jet black, sometimes 
with a deep purplish tint, into brown or greyish 
brown. The greater the contrast between the 
dark and light markings, the handsomer is the 
specimen. 


Mr, Herspert Stone’s REPORT. 


In 1907 I sent a sample of marble-wood to Mr 
Herbert Stone, of Birmingham, the well-known 
specialist on timbers. He has kindly examined 
the specimen, and reports as fullows, on it :— 


‘This wood is well-known to turnersand makers of “Tun- 
bridgeware,’ but it is surprising how rarely one seesit in 
use. I cannot recall having seen a piece of furniture in 
which Marble-wood was used. Nevertheless, it is highly 
spoken of by men in the trade, and I suspect that the irre- 
gularity of the supply, coupled with high price, may have 
something to do with its limited use. I do not doubt that 
all that can be sent over here will be readily purchased. 
The specimenis avery good sample and quite marketable. 
The greater the contrast between the alternate bands of 
ebony and whitewood, the more valuable it will be, and I 
suggest that logs in which the lighter bands are too brown 
should be carefully weeded out. We are now so much 
accustomed to seeing ebony opening brown, that logs 
of marble-wood in which the bands are not quite white 
will be taken for a very inferior ebony, and the trade 
will be prejudiced. Ebony, now-a-days, is not so black 
as it is painted, or rather stained. I found the sample 
hard to saw, as might be expected, hard to plane, but 
coming up to almost a natural polish, and excellent to 
turn. It is a true turner’s wood and .is not nearly so 
brittle as ebony. Polish makes the black parts blacker, 
which is good, but it also makes the brown bands 
browner, which is bad. It needs a little study and special 
treatment. The effect when polished is very fine. Laslett 
says that it is one of the handsomest timbers in the 
world, and I fully agree with him,” 


190 The Supplement to the Tropical Agriculturist 


I might add, with reference to the working 
qualities of the wood, that a furniture-maker 
to whom I submitted samples in India found 
it by no means difficult to work, as compared 
with many other Indian woods. 


Weicut.—The weight per cubic foot has been 
ascertained from specimens, all of which were 
thoroughly seasoned. The average weight 
works out at 61 lb. per cubic foot (excluding 
Nos. 7 and 8 which consist only of sapwood 
and heartwood respectively). 


STRENGTH. 


In 1906 Professor Everett, of Sibpur Engi- 
neering College, published the results of tests 
carried out on three specimens of marble-wood. 
The figures are higher than those obtained at 
the same time for teak in all four classes of tests. 


Seasoning Quatiries.—Messrs. Heinig and 
Ferrars say the wood is difficult to season 
and is liable to shrink and warp ; Mr. Osmas- 
ton adds that it is liable to split and warp 
if felled green. Undoubtedly it requires great 
care in seasoning, but the marble-wood planks 
which [ have received from Andamans have 
shown less tendency to warp and split than 
planks of several other Indian woods. I selected 
one of these marble-wood planks and carefully 
measured its volume by means of a Xylometer 
in November 1907 and again a year later ; the 
shrinkage was only 0°2 per cent., which is 
practically negligible. The plank was a seasoned 
one, and the experiment would indicate that 
after seasoning there should be little fear of 
shrinkage with age. 


So far the marble wood logs in the Andamans 
have always been kept in the sea, and the 
wood has therefore never had a chance of being 
seasoned in any other way. It is possible that 
girdling some time before felling, or dry seaso- 
ning, may havea better effect on the timber 
than salt-water seasoning. In any case it would 
appear necessary to season thoroughly before 
converting into scantlings of small size. 


PRICE. 


The price at which the wood has _ been 
supplied to the Government Workshops at 
Port Blair is R90 per ton of 50 cubic feet, 
which 1s far too low, as it does not even pay 
the cost of extraction. Mr. Osmaston considers 
that it would probably cost the Forest Depart- 
ment R4 per cubic foot of heartwood f.o.b. Port 
Blair, and that in order to be remunerative the 
price should be fixed at about R6 per cubic foot 
of heartwood. 


A small trial consignment of 8°5 cwt. sent 
home and sold by auction by Messrs. Churchill 
& Sim in London in 1878 fetched £2-15-0 per 
ton weight. Regular consignments at the present 
day would probably bring a much higher price. 


Usgs or rHE Woop.—The wood is used entirely 
for ornamental purposes, for which it is one of 
the handsomest woods in the world. It is par- 
ticularly suitable for cabinet-work, ornamental 
furniture, walking-sticks, fancy boxes, carving, 
turning, Inlaid work, picture-frames and other 
similar articles. 


WEST AFRICAN RUBBER 
CULTIVATION. 


Srr ALFRED JONES ON DEVELOPMENTS, 


A meeting of the members of the African 
Trade section of the Liverpool Chamber of 
Commerce was held yesterday in the Board- 
room of the Chamber, Exchange buildings, 
for the purpose of hearing an address on ‘‘The 
Prospects and Possibilities of Rubber Culti- 
vation in West Africa,” by Mr. J J Fisher. 
Sir Alfred Jones presided. Sir Alfred Jones, 
in opening the proceedings, said they offered 
their congratulations and welcome to their 
friend, Mr. Fisher, who had been out to West 
Africa in an endeavour to utilise the British 
territories for the purpose of growing rubber, 
He was sorry to say that the British people 
had not made the best use of their territories 
under their flag. The Liverpool merchant had 
not been quite so smart in making money as he 
might have been. Ceylon and Malaya had 
very profitable rubber plantations, paying from 
108 to 300 per cent, and it proved that the 
British had been very apathetic in availing 


themselves of a great source of revenue. In 


his efforts to make his rubber plantations 
successful in West Africa he had consulted 
men who had had a great deal of experience, 
and the African trade section of the Liver- 
pool Chamber of Commerce had done a great 
deal in bringing forward the best views. They 


HAD HAD MR. HERBERT WRIGHT DOWN TO 
LIVERPOOL, AND SIR DANIEL MORRIS. 


There was no reason why they could not grow 
rubber in West Africa as well as others did 
in Ceylon and other parts of the world. 

There was no doubt that other nations were 
ahead of them in rubber production, and the 
French, Belgians and Germans were produ- 
cing better rubber than they were. The Afri- 
can trade section of the Chamber was making 
every effort to improve the production of 
rubber and encourage its growth. The Liver- 
pool merchant was celebrated for his enter— 
prise, and he hoped that they would show their 
enterprise in rubber growing, (Applause.) 


Mr. FisHer—said the possibilities of rubber 
cultivation in West Africa were immense, In 
proportion to her territory the Gold Coast came 
first ; then the two Nigerias, Southern and Nor- 
thern ; and Sierra Leone, and last the Gambia. 


‘““PUNTUMIA ELASTICA ” 


was indigenous through central or equatorial 
Africa, from 13 to 15 degrees North, and not 
quite so far South, The supply had gradually 
diminished, bevause the natives: had cut down 
most of the trees (in doing so they got the latex 
quicker and in larger quantities). They were 
told by the Goverument not to cut the trees 
any more, but only to tap them, and there were 
now agricultural instructors showing them how 
to do it. The idea came to some merchants that 
rubber should be planted in West Africa. The 
Germans and some French ordered seeds and 
seedlings from Para, but had no success after 
having made various attempts. Tne Germans 
then started to plant Funtumia, and had now 
large plantations in Cameroon beginning to 


and Magazine of the Ceylon Agricultural Society. 


yield, and were thus several years ahead of us. 
They also had planted Para rubber (Hevea 
Brasiliensis), but more as experiments. Funtu- 
mia rubber was now coming to the front. A strip 
cut off from a biscuit 5 in. long, 1 in, wide, and 
about } in. thick stretched out to 35 in., 
seven times its length, before it broke, Fun- 
tumia elastica rubber would, therefore, take the 
first place, always provided it was planted and 
its latex scientifically treated. Next came Para 
rubber (Hevea Brasiliensis) ; for West Africa 
an exotic tree, These two kinds were the most 
important. Hevea was from the Brazils and 
from the East. On the Gold Coast, however, 
the natives brought the 


RUBBER FROM Landolphia Owariensis, 


from the Kastern part of the Colony, It was a 
fine white rubber, which did not turn black in 
coming into contact with the air. So far, how- 
ever, it had puzzled the planters. I[t took too 
long atime to get a tapping face on its main 
stem. Manihot, an exotic tree from Ceara Mani- 
coba, would grow on drier land and on rather 
higher altitudes, where Hevea and Funtumia 
would not do well. It was an interesting tree, 
and grew fast. Some species often made seed 
after the second year and could be tapped in the 
third. In Aburi, Manihot Glaziovii did not do 
well, but there the ground was too rocky and too 
dry. The Germans in East Africa had found 
that this was the most remunerative for their 
country there. In Ceylon also they were taking 
it up again after having abandoned it for some 
time. Of late, however, 


THREE KINDS FROM MANICOBA 


had been introduced (they are Manihot dicho- 
toma, M. heptaphylla, M, piauhyensis) which 
promised much better results, and they were to 
replace everywhere by Manihot Glazievii. The 
rubber came near to Para rubber. was harder 
but had less elasticity ; its price was about 6d 
below Para. Last came 


FICUS ELASTICA, 
several kinds; the cne or the other kind grew 
all along the coast. There was one tree which 
had proved very unsuccesssful. He thought no 
further attempt to introduce it in West Africa 
should be made. It was the Castilloa, a fast 
growing, soft-wooded tree from Mexico. In 
Aburi everyone had been attacked by the bore- 
worm after good growth and withered away. 
Some years ago when he saw the scarcity or 
rather the increased demand for rubber com- 
ing on (it was thetime when the Cotton Gro- 
wing Association was formed) he went to Sir 
Alfred and told him that rubber also, and 
even principally, should be grown in West 
Africa, and he said rubber could be grown 
as well as cotton, but that rubber took a long 
time to grow. The general opinion was then 
not so far advanced as it was now. It was now 
generally acknowledged that rubber had become 
anecessity as much assteel andiron, If rubber 
did not take so long to grow or rather to give 
returns, all the plantations now working and 
being still started would never have come into 
existence. If rubber had been an annual like 
wheat and many other products, or even if it 
was a biennial, it would never have reached 
such prices 38 it had today. When once the 


19] 


trees began to yield they went on, some as far 
as eighty toa hundred years, and increased in 
yield up to about fifty years, after which they 
remained somewhat stationary. They required 
vory little attention during that time. Only the 
Manihot family made an exception. These were 
at their best at about twenty years of age 
some even sooner, and then declined, but these 
reproduced quickly, and were at their tapping 
stage at the age of three years. There was, 
therefore, plenty of compensation for the in- 
vestor who could wait. There were 


NOW ANNUALLY ABOUT 80,000 TONS oF 
RUBBER GROWN, 


of which about 50,000 or more are good quali- 
ties. Besides this there were about 


65,000 TONS RECLAIMED RUBBER CONSUMED, 


It was only the fine rubber there would be a 
demand for, and that must be planted; wild 
rubber must now decrease year by year and be 
superseded by plantation rubber. He meant 
that the 40,000 tons Para rubber coming annu- 
ally from the Brazils would, as it were, be domes- 
ticated and become plantation rubber. Every 
tree would be cared for and qualities improved, 
too. And for such plantations, Africa, especi- 
ally West Africa, and the territories named 
had the widest and most suitable field. Whon 
rubber plantations were started, many other 
products would be planted with it. Fruit fibres 
spices, tobacco and so on, and when with the 
extension of railways, these could easily be 
brought to the ports, quantities would always 
bo large, and Sir Alfred would have to increase 
his fleet to carry them. 


On the invitation of the chairman, Mr. Jamos 
Irvine said he spoke as chairman of the company 
of which Mr. Fisher was the trusted managing 
Director, in which capacity he had already three 
times visited the property since the formation of 
the company. The rubber grown thereneeded no 
proof now, for they all knew that in something 
like seven years 


THE EXPORT FROM THE GOLD COAST 


alone rose from £100 a year to over half-a-million 
sterling—that, however, was accomplished by the 
most reckless disregard of the life of the tree 
and such treatment had been, and was still re. 
ceiving, the close attention of the Government. 
Concurrently, and following the example of the 
Malay States, Ceylon, and many other tropical 
regions, attention had been largely given to the 
systematic and scientific cultivation of the 
various kinds of rubber trees in West Africa 
chief among which two species stood out pro- 
minently, the Hevea from the Amazon region 
known to them familiarly as Para rubber. 
and the indigenous Funtumia, of which he 
would presently speak. Before pianting seeds 
of the Para species, a close scientific study was 
undertaken by several experts, notably by Mr 
Herbert Wright, who for a year or more was 
the official adviser of this Chamber, and it was 
discovered that the climatic conditions and the 
soil alike were precisely those of the Amazon 
Valley. There was therefore every reason to 
anticipate that when the many thousands of 
Hevea Brasilensis trees—now growing vigo- 
rously on their properties (that was the. : 


192 


WEST AFRICAN RUBBER PLANTATIONS, LTD.) 


—had matured, say in three or four years’ time, 
perhaps less, results such as were now so com- 
mon in the rubber Companies of the East would 
be the pleasant experience of all who were 
investors in similar enterprises in West Africa. 
He had mentioned the Hevea species, but his 
own hopes centred still more on the indigenous 
Funtumia, which as far as experience had gone 
promised to yield more rubber per acre, and 
of a better quality, It was natural that they 
in that Chamber should prefer West African 
rubber enterprises to those in the Far Kast, 
and they had, he thought, good reason. Thanks 
to the efforts of the Tropica! School of Medicine, 
the climate was probably now as healthy as in 
the Malay States—the 


LAND COULD BE OBTAINED FOR ONE-TENTH OF 
THE COST 


—labour was abundant and cheap, and with the 
railway, ere long, passing through their pro- 
perties, they had every facility for doing as 
well as their competitors ia the East or else- 
where. He had said as_ well as their com- 
petitors—wasit known what they were doing ?— 
let him at random take three companies, the 
annual reports of which had appeared within 
the last week or two; the Federated Selangor 
Rubber Company, which paid its maiden 
dividend last year of 8 percent., this vear had 
paid 30 per cent.; the Bukit Rajah, which for 
the two previous years had paid only 30 per 
cent., this year distributes 55 per cent.; the 
Vallambrosa, which had only paid that same 
amount of 55 per cent. in 1906 and 1907, this 
year paid the immense total of 80 per cent. 

The CHarRMAN proposed a vote of thanks to 
Mr Fisher ; the proceedings then terminated.— 
Journal of Commerce, July 13th. 


RUBBER IN THE F.M.S. 


The following extract is taken from the Re- 
sident-General’s report on this Federation for 
the past year :— 


According to the Report of the Director of 
Agriculture, Mr J B Carruthers, the ayricul- 
tural acreage of the Federated Malay States, 
excluding padi lands and horticulture, was 
planted with staple products as follows :— 


Coconuts 118,627 acres 
Rubber oe 168,°48 
Cottee on Si4315 0 hie 
Other forms of cultivation, 

chiefly tapioca 24,546 


319,722 acres 
The lands under rubber inthe several States 
were :— 


Total 


Perak 56,706 acres 
selangor 82,246 ,, 
Negri Sembilan 27,805 | 4, 
Pahang 170 ueee 


168,048 acres 


A feature of rubber cultivation is the extent 
to which para rubber holds the field to the 
almost entire exclusion of rambong (Ficus- 


Total 


The Supplement to the Tropical Agriculturist 


elastica), which as being indigenous, as grow- 
ing freely, and as yielding a rubber of excellent 
quality, was regarded with favour by many a 
few years ago. The symmetrical stem of the 
para rubber tree, the regularity of its growth, 
the facility with which the latex can be col- 
lected and its reaction to wounds appear to com- 
mend it to those engaged in rubber cultivation. 


The yield of rubber trees is, of course, a matter 
of the first importance, and in this connection 
the Director gives some interesting figures. The 
average yield for 1908 over the whole Peninsula 
the Director puts at! lb 152 oz., an increase of 
11 per cent as compared with the preceding 
year. This he considers to bea satisfactory yield 
having regard to the fact that most of the 
trees that were tapped were in their first year. 
In Negri Sembilan the average was 3 lb 23 oz, 
and this as the average yield of nearly a million 
trees he regards as extraordinarily high. Negri 
Sembilan trees show a higher average than other 
trees because of their greater age, but the 
figure in question is satisfactory as showing what 
may be expected in respect of trees that have 
been tapped for two or three years,—Mulay 
Mail, July 10. 


RUBBER IN B. N. BORNEO. 


Mr W H Penney, Protector, visited Sekong 
Estate on the 13th inst. He reports that the 
Manager hag had a letter from London inform- 
ing him thata recent shipment of their Rubber 
has realised 6s. 5d. per lb.. also that he has 
just received a telegram that the following 
shipment realised 6s. 10d. A fine plant of the 
latest type of Rubber Machinery has now 
arrived, and as the preparations for fixing up 
same are already made, it is expected tbat 
another two or three weeks will see it running, 
About 200 of the 400 acres estimated extension 
for this year on the other side of the Sekong 
River are felled; the work is steadily proceeding, 


A visit was recently made to Woodford estate 
near Beaufort. Everything in the estate looked 
remarkably clean, and all the trees were doing 
well. The estate belongs to the Beaufort Borneo 
Rubber Co., Ltd. Planted areain Para Rubber 
about 800 acres, the trees varying in age from 
3 years old. The jungle felled over and above 
area planted and being cleaned is 250 acres. It 
is expected to have over 1,000 acres planted by 
end of 1909 and 1,500 acres by 1910. The Com- 
pany owns 8,000 acres on 999 years’ lease free 
of rent. Woodford estate, the present estate, 
is about 6,500 acres. It is expected to com. 
mence tappping in 1911. 


Information re Klias estate:—This estate is 
about 5 miles from Beaufort. The concession 
is of 500 acres and option of a further 500 acres, 
on 999 lease free of rent and rubber free from 
export duty for 50 years. Operations were 
started in August, 1908. The planted area to 
end of May, 1909, in Para Rubber agd Lime is 
130 acres. lt is expected to have upwards of 
250 acres planted by end of 1909. The pro- 
prietor is Mr Chee Swee Cheng. - British North 
Borneo Herald, July 16. 


~~ ao 


TROPICAL AGRICULTURIST 


3 AND 


MAGAZINE OF THE 


CEYLON AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY. 


Vou. XXXII, 


COLOMBO, SEPTEMBER 15tu, 1909, 


No. 3S. 


SS 


Reviews. 


AGRICULTURE IN THE TROPICS. 


An Elementary Treatise by J. C, Willis, 
M.A., S¢.D., Director of the Royal Bota- 
nie Gardens, Ceylon; Organising Vice- 
President, Ceylon Agricultural Society ; 
Editor of the Tropical Agriculturtst. 


Dr. Willis’ long-looked for work on 
Tropical Agriculture has lately reached 
us, and will be eagerly read by all whose 
duties bring them into contact with the 
theoretical side of agriculture and the 
problems of its improvement. 

The book is not a technical treatise on 
methods of cultivation. The author’s 
object, as stated in the Preface, is :— 
‘‘To place before the public, as clearly as 
may be, something of the underlying 
‘political’ and theoretical side of the 
subject, setting forth what such agri- 
culture really is, the conditions under 
which it is carried on, its successes and 
disasters and their causes, the great re- 
volution which is being effected by 
western influences, and other general 
principles underlying the whole subject, 
in whatever country if may be carried 
on.” With this object in view the book 
is primarily addressed to ‘the student, 
the administrator and the traveller” by 
an author who, in addition to being him- 


self a traveller and a student, will soon 
be left without a rival to dispute his 
position as the leading authority on agri- 
cultural administration in the Eastern 
Tropics, owing to the approaching re- 
tirement of Dr, Melchior Treub, the 
famous Director of Agriculture of Java. 

The book is divided into four parts 
with the following titles :—Part I. The 
Preliminaries to Agriculture. Part IL. 
The Principal Cultivations of the Tropics. 
Part III, Agriculture in the Tropics 
(general), And Part. IV. Agricultural. 
Organisation and Policy. 


In the first part Dr. Willis deals with 
such matters as soil and climate, labour 
and capital, irrigation and cultivation 
and similar fundamental factors of agri- 
cultural progress, from a general stand- 
point, whilst Part II. contains a series 
of separate sketches dealing with the 
main products of tropical agriculture in 
turn. In this part, in accordance with 
the general plan of the book already 
referred to, all practical details of culti. 
vation are omitted, but the student will 
find here, nevertheless, a well-balanced 
general account of the principal agricul- 
tural resources of the tropics, 


It is to Parts III. and IV., however, 
that experts and those Specially inter- 
ested in the progress of agriculture will 
turn with special attention, for here 


194 


they will find discussed those questions 
of organisation and policy which have 
been made the subject of special study 
by the author ever since his first arrival 
in Ceylon. 

As regards the policy to be adopted 
with reference to native agriculture, the 
author’s position is decidedly a progres- 
sive one. He is all for improvement and 
development; and it would scarcely be 
becoming for the temporary editor ot 
a journal devoted to this very object 
to differ from his chief in this respect. 
The ideal to be aimed at, according to 
Dr. Willis, is the creation of a class of 
native capitalist planters who shall grow 
produce for export just as the European 
planters now do. 

But, however much we may be inspired 
by. the passion for progress, we must not 
try to move too quickly. The innertia, 
the innate conservatism of the Eastern 
mind is enormous, andin face of such 
an attitude, which is by no means 
necessarily a defective one, false steps 
are particularly dangerous. The agri- 
cultural expert ought to be particularly 
sure of his ground before he indulges in 
any assertions as to the superiority of 


new methods over old ones, and every 
new importation of machinery or seed 
ought to be made the subject of careful 
and exhaustive tests under the new con- 
ditions before itis adopted as suitable 
for introduction amongst the native 
cultivators. 

With regard to the importation of 
new machinery another point has to be 
remembered. The most modern imple- 
ments were not invented suddenly. 
They arrived at their present stage of 
comparative perfection by a gradual 
process of evolution which wert on side 
by side with a similar evolution in the 
minds of the men who had to use them. 
If the native with his stereotyped ideas 
of agriculture looks askance at what is to 
hima totally new invention, we have 
only ourselves to blame for adopting an 
unnatural method of amelioration. 
The proper plan is to start with familiar 
implements and methods, and to in- 
troduce gradual modifications in the 
right «direction. 


For the small cultivators ‘co-operation 
is the watchword. By this means alone 
can the small holder of land expect to 
continue to existin a country of capital- 


Oto ee 
[SEPTEMB 


ER, 1909, 


ists. Co-operation, says Dr, Willis, is | 
excellent in agriculture, and the reason 
that the continental agriculturists of 
Europe are probably more prosperous 
than their British colleagues is mainly 
that they have gone in largely for co- 
operation. Co-operative credit, co- 
operative seed supply, co-operative dis- 
tirbution of produce must all be under- 
taken if the small proprietor is to retain 
his position and avoid the necessity for 
earning the wages of capitalists. Not 
that capitalist agriculture is to be 
deprecated in the tropics. It is chiefly 
by the example of his more progressive 
and wealthy neighbour that the tropical 
native may hope to advance his own 
methods of cultivation. All progress 
requires capital. 

And this policy of progress has been 
tacitly adopted by all those tropical 
governments which have embarked upon 
a career of road making and railway 
construction, since railways at least are 
meaningless except in relation to an 
export trade. 

Throughout the book the example of 
Ceylon is continually upheld and made 
a basis for comparison, but this will 
not be regarded asa defect by readers 
of the Tropical Agircluturist. Ceylon, 
weare told, has generally led the way 
in the various Kuropean planting enter- 
prises, first with coffee, then with 
cinchona, cacao, tea, cardamoms and 
rubber; although the cultivation of 
sugar—probably the oldest of all such 
enterprises—has never been made a 
success here. Certainly few tropical 
countries can compete with Ceylon in 
the variety and interest of its agricul- 
tural productions. 


A number of valuable suggestions are 
also given as regards the policy to be 
adopted in opening up a comparatively 
new country for agricultural purposes. 
Many of these are drawn from the com- 
prehensive report written in 1904 by 
Dr. Willis for the Government of the 
Federated Malay States, Thus _ the 
question of road reservations is fully 
discussed. In a swampy country a 
similar system of drainage reservations 
will also be required. In opening out 
such acountry the author recommends 
the development of native and estate 
agriculture side by side. The large agri- 
culturist serves as an example to the 
small one, and in his turn can draw 
upon the villages for additional labour at 
times when that commodity is scarce. 

The book is published by the Cam- 
bridge University Press, and nothing 
more need be said with regard to its 
appearance and general production. 

R, H, L. 


Zz 


REVIEW. 

‘*Hconomic Loss to the People of the 
United States through Insects that 
carry Disease.” By L, O. Howard, Ph. D., 
Chief of the Bureau of Entomology, 
U.S.A. 


Under the above title, Dr. Howard 
has published a most important circular 
(of 88 pages), in which he brings forward 
overwhelming evidence of the maleficent 
agency of certain insects in the disse- 
mination of disease. 


In his introduction, he instances the 
now generally accepted (and—in many 
cases—fully demonstrated) connection 
between 


(1) The Anopheles mosquito and Mala- 
rial Fevers ; 


(2) The Mosquito Stegomyia fasciata 


and ‘ Yellow Fever’; 
(3) Certain species of Culex and Filari- 
asis (including Elephantiasis) ; 
(4) The House Fly and Typhoid Fever, 
Asiatic Cholera, Dysentery, Purulent 
Ophthalmia and Tuberculosis ; 


(5) The Rat-Flea and Bubonic Plague : 
(6) The ‘ Tsetse Fly’ and ‘Sleeping 
ickness’ ; 
to say nothing .of the conveyance of 
numerous dangerous diseases of domestic 
animals by ticks and other insects. 


Dr. Howard draws attention to the 
fact that Mosquitoes are responsible for 
considerable monetary loss in other 
ways than as carriers of disease. 
“*Possibly the greatest of these losses is 
in the reduced value of real estate in 
mosquito-infested regions, since these 
insects render absolutely uninhabitable 
large areas of land available for suburban 
homes, for summer resorts, for manu- 
facturing purposes, and for agricultural 
pursuits,” ‘‘ All over the United States, 
for these insects, and for the house fly as 
well, it has become necessary at great 
expense to screen habitations.” 


MALARIA. 


After describing the ravages of malaria 
in different parts of the world, and 
pointing out that, besides actual loss of 
life, it is the cause of enormous loss of 
efficiency to labour in malarious local- 
ities, the author goeson to emphasize 
the fact that ‘‘ malaria is a preventable 
disease. It is possible for the human 
species to live and to thrive and to 
produce in malarious regions, but ata 
very considerable inconvenience and 
expense. The Italian investigators, and 
especially Celli and his staff, have shown 
that by screening the huts of the pea- 
sants on the Roman Campagna and by 
furnishing field labourers with veils and 


SepremMBer, 1909 ] 195 


gloves when exposed to the night air, it 
is possible even in that famous hotbed 
of malaria to conduct farming operations 
witha minimum of trouble from the 
disease. Moreover, Koch and his assis 
tants in German East Africa have shown 
that it is possible, by stamping out the 
disease amongst human beings by the 
free use of medecine, that a point can 
be gained where there is small oppor- 
tunity for the malarial mosquitoes to 
become infected. Moreover, the work 
of the parties sent out by the Liver- 
pool School ot Tropical Medicine and 
other English organizations to the 
west coast of Africa has shown that 
by the treatment of malarial-mosquito 
breeding pools the pernicious coast 
fever may be greatly reduced. Again, 
the work of Englishmen in the Federated 
Malay States has shown that large areas 
may be practically freed from malaria. 
The most thorough and satisfactory of 
all measures consists in abolishing the 
breeding places of the malarial mosqui- 
toes. Witha general popular appreci- 
ation of the industrial losses caused 
primarily by the malarial mosquito, 
and secondarily by the forms which 
do not carry malaria, as indicated in 
the opening paragraphs, it is incon- 
ceivable that the comparatively inex- 
pensive measures necessary should not 
be undertaken by the General Govern- 
ment, by the State Governments, and by 
the boards of health of communities just 
as it is inconceivable that the individual 
should suffer from malaria and from the 
attacks of other mosquitoes when he has 
individual preventives and remedies at 
hand.” 

A few excellent examples of anti- 
malarial work may be instanced. 


‘*The latest reports on the measures 
taken to abolish malaria from Klang and 
Port Swettenham in Selangor, Federated 
Malay States, indicate the most admir- 
able results. These measures were 
undertaken first in 1901 and 1902, and 
have been reported upon from time to 
time in the Journal of Tropical Medicine. 
The expenditure undertaken by the 
Government with a view to improving 
the health of the inhabitants of these 
towns has been fully justified by the 
results, which promise to be of per- 
manent value. The careful tabulation 
of cases of deaths and of the results 
of the examination of blood of children 
in especially drained areas indicates 
the following conclusions: (1) Measures 
taken systematically to destroy breed- 
ing places of mosquitoes in these 
towns, the inhabitants of which suffered 
terribly from malaria, were followed 
almost immediately by a_ general 
improvement in health and decrease in 
death rate. 


(2) That this was duedirectly to the 
work carried out and not to a general 
dying out of malariain the district is 
clearly shown by figures pointing out 
that while malaria has practically ceased 
to exist in the areas treated, it has 
actually increased to a_ considerable 
extent in other parts of the district 
where anti-malarial measures have not 
been undertaken.” 


“‘ Another striking example of excellent 
work is found in the recently published 
report on the suppression of malaria in 
Ismailia, issued under the auspices of the 
Compagnia Universelle du Canal Mari- 
time de Suez. Ismailia is now a town of 
8,000 inhabitants. It was founded by De 
Lesseps in April, 1862, on the borders of 
Lake Timsah, which the Suez Canal 
crosses at mid-distance between the Red 
Sea and the Mediterranean. Malarial 
Fever made its appearance in very 
severe form in September, 1877, although 
the city had up to that time been very 
healthy, and increased, so that since 1886 
almost all of the inhabitants have 
suffered from the fever. In 1901 an 
attempt to control the disease was made 
on the mosquito basis, and this attempt 
rapidly and completely succeeded, and 
after two years of work all] traces of 
malaria disappeared from the city. The 
work was directed not only against 
Anopheles mosquitoes, but against other 
Culicids, and comprised the drainage of 
a large swamp and the other usual 
measures. The initial expense amounted 
to 50,000 frances, and the annual expenses 
since have amounted to about 18,800 
francs.” 


“The results may be summarized 
about as follows:—Since the beginning 
of 1903 the ordinary mosquiotes have dis- 
appeared from Ismailia. Since the au- 
tumn of 1903 nota single larva of Ano- 
pheles has been found in the protected 
zone, which extends to the west for a 
distance of 1,000 meters from the first 
houses in the Arabian quarter and to 
the east for adistance of 1,800 meters 
from the first houses in the Kuropean 
quarter. After 1902 malarial fever ob- 
viously began to decrease, and since 1908 
not a single new case of malaria has been 
found in Ismailia,” 

“ A very efficient piece of anti-malarial 
work was accomplished in Havana dur- 
ing the American occupation of 1901 to 
1902, incidental in a way to the work 
against yellow fever. An Anopheles 
brigade of workmen was organized 
under the sanitary officer, Doctor Gorgas, 
for work along the small streams, irri- 
gated gardens, and similar places in the 
suburbs, and numbered from 50 to 300 
men. No extensive drainage, such as 
would require engineering skill, was 


news a 
f *, 


attempted, and the natural streams and — 


gutters were simply cleared of obstruc- 
tions and grass, while superficial ditches 
were made through the irrigated mea- 
dows. Among the suburban truck gar- 
dens Anopheles bred everywhere, in the 
little puddles of water, cow tracks, horse 
tracks, and similar depressions in grassy 
ground. Little or no oil was used by 
the Anopheles brigade, since it was 
found in practice a simple matter to 
drain these places. At the end of the - 
year it was very difficult to find water 

containing mosquito larve anywhere in 

the suburbs, and the effect upon mala- 

rial statistics was striking. In 1900, the 

year before the beginning of the mos- 

quito work, there were 325 deaths from 

malaria; in 1901, the first year of the 

mosquito work, 171 deaths; in 1902, the 

second year of mosquito work, 77 deaths. 

Since 1902 there has been a gradual 

though slower decrease, as follows : 1903, 

51; 1904, 44 ; 1905, 82 ; 1906, 26 ; 1907, 23. 


YELLOW FEVER. 


The theory that Yellow Fever was 
conveyed by the mosquito Stegomyia 
fasciata, was first proposed by Finlay, 
of Havana, in 1881. Butit was not until 
ten years later that the truth of this 
theory was finally demonstrated. 


“Phe importance of the discovery can- 
not be over-estimated, and its first 
demonstration was followed by anti- 
mosquito measures in the city of Havana, 
undertaken under the direction of Gor- 
gas, with startling results.” 

“Yellow fever had been endemic in 
Havana for more than one hundred and 
fifty years, and Havana was the princi- 
pal source of infection for the rest of 
Cuba. Other towns in Cuba could have 
rid themselves of the :disease if they had 
not been constantly reinfected from 
Havana. By ordinary sanitary measures 
of cleanliness, improved drainage, and 
similar means the death rate of the city 
was reduced, from 1898 to 1900, from 100 
per thousand to 22 per thousand; but 
these measures had no effect upon yellow 
fever, this disease increasing as the 
non-immune population following the 
Spanish war increased, and in 1900 there 
was a severe epidemic.” : 


Stegomyia calopus (= fasciatus) was 
established as the carrier of the fever 
early in 1901, and then anti-mosquito mea- 
sures were immediately begun. Against 
adult mosquitoes no general measures 
were attempted, although screening and 
fumigation were carried out in quarters 
occcupied by yellow fever patients or 
that had been occupied by yellow fever 
patients. It was found that the Stego- 


myia bred principally in the rain-water 


Prk 
i | 


Le od 


ce ih Nite Fa 


iia URE Wit a ie at 


ee eS eae 
iter 
t 


aman Ne oa | 


‘ 


Fat 
: 


—— 


SEPTEMBER, 1909.1 


—eollections in the city itself. The city 
was 
‘and to each district an inspector and two 


divided into about thirty districts, 


labourers were assigned, each district 
containing about a thousand houses. 
An order was issued by the mayor of 
Havana requiring all collections of water 
to be so covered that mosquitoes could 
not have access, a fine being imposed in 
eases where the order was not obeyed. 
The health department covered the rain- 
water barrels of poor families at public 
expense. All cesspools were tieated 
with petroleum. All receptacles contain- 
ing fresh water which did not comply 
with the law were empied and on the 
second offence destroyed. The result of 
this work thoroughly done was to wipe 
out yellow-fever in Havana, and there 
has not been acertain endemic case since 
that time.” 


In 1904, similar work was commenced 
along the route of the Panama Canal, 
with the most complete success. 


«The remarkable character of these 
results can only be judged accurately by 
comparative methods. Itis well known 
that during the French occupation there 
was alienormuus mortality among the 
European employes, and this was a 
vital factor in the failure of the work. 
Exact. losses cannot be estimated, since 
the work was done under seventeen dif- 
ferent contractors. These contractors 
were charged $1 aday for every sick man 
to be taken care of in the hospital of the 
company. Therefore it often happened 
that when a man became sick his em- 
ployer discharged him, so that he would 
not have to bear the expense of hospital 
charges. There was no police patrol of 
the territory, and many of these men 
died along the line. Colonel Gorgas has 
stated that the English Consul, who was 
at the Isthmus during the period of the 
French occupation, is inclined to think 
that more deaths of employés occurred 
out of the hospital than in it. A great 
many were found to have died along the 
roadside while endeavouring to find their 
way to the city of Panama. The old 
superintendent of the French hospital 
states that one day three of the medical 
staff died from yellow-fever, and in the 
same month nine of the medical staff. 
Thirty-six Roman Catholic sisters were 
brought over as nurses, and twenty-four 
died of yellow-fever. On one vessel 
eighteen young French engineers came 
over, and in a month after their arrival 
all but one died.” 


THE TypHoip Fy. 

But the part of Dr. Howard’s paper 
that is of more particular interest to us 
at the present moment is that which 
relates to what he calls the ‘Typhoid 


= 197 


Fly.” This is our domestic pest—the 
House-fly. He says:—‘‘The name “ ty- 
phoid fly” is here proposed asa substitute 
for the name ‘house fly,’ now in general 
use. People have altogether too long 
considered the house fly as a harmless 
creature, or, at the most, simply a nui- 
sance. While scientific researches have 
shown that it isa most dangerous crea- 
ture from the standpoint of disease, 
and while popular opinion is rapidly 
being educated to the same point, the 
retention of the name house fly is con- 
sidered inadvisable, as perpetuating in 
some degree the old ideas. Strictly 
speaking, the term “ typhoid fly” is 
open to some objection, as conveying the 
erroneous idea that this fly is solely 
responsible for the spread of typhoid, 
but considering that the creature is 
dangerous from every point of view, and 
that itis an important element in the 
spread of typhoid, it seems advisable to 
giveit aname which is almost wholly 
justified, and which conveys in itself 
the idea of serious disease.” 

‘The true connection of the so-called 
house fly with typhoid fever and the 
true scientific evidence regarding its 
role aS a carrier of that disease have 
only recently been worked out. Celli 
in 1888 fed flies with pure cultures of 
the typhoid bacillus, and examined 
their contents and dejections microsco- 
pically and culturally. Inoculatons 
of animals were also made, proving 
that the bacilli which passed. through 
flies were virulent. Dr. George M. 
Kober, familiar with Celli’s researches, 
in his report on the prevalence ot 
typhoid fever in the District of Colum- 
bia, published in 1895, called special at- 
tention to the danger of contamination 
of food supplies by flies coming from 
the excreta of typhoid patients.” 


Though a very unsavoury subject, 
its importance—in connection with the 
prevalence of typohid fever in Colombo— 
makes no excuse necessary for entering 
fully into these unpleasant details and 
for quoting largely from Dr. Howard’s 
paper. It should be mentioned that— 
some ten years ago—He made a rather 
thorough investigation of the insect 
fauna of human excrement, and made a 
further investigation of the species of 
insects that are attracted to food sup- 
plies in houses. Ina paper entitled ‘A 
Contribution tothe Study of the Insect 
Fauna of Human Excrement (with 
special reference to the spread of typhoid 
fever by flies’), he showed that 98:8 
per cent. of the whole number of insects 
captured in houses throughout the 
whole country under conditions indi- 
cated above were Musca domestica, 
the typhoid or house fly. He further 


4 


198 


showed that this fly, while breeding 
most numerously in horse stables, is also 
attracted to human excrement and will 
breed in this substance. Itwas shown 
that in towns where the box privy was 
still in existence the house fly is attract- 
ed tothe excrement, and, further, that 
it is so attracted in the filthy regions 
of a city where sanitary supervision is 
lax, and where in low alleys and cor- 
ners and in vacant lots excrement is 
deposited by dirty people. He stated 
that he had seen excrement which had 
been deposited overnight in an alley- 
way in South Washington swarming 
with flies under the bright sunlight of 
a June morning (temperature 92 F.), and 
that within 380 feet of these deposits 
were the open windows and doors of 
the kitchens of two houses kept by poor 
people, these two houses being only two 
elements ina long row. 


The following paragraph is quoted 
from the paper just cited :—‘* Now, 
when we consider the prevalence of 
typhoid fever, and that virulent typoid 
bacilli may occur in the excrement of 
an individual for some time before the 
disease is recognized in him, and that the 
same virulent germs may be found in the 
excrement for a long time after the 
apparent recovery of a patient, the 
wonder is not that typhoid is so 
prevalent, but that it does not prevail 
toa much greate: extent. Box privies 
should be abolished in every com- 
munity., The depositing of excrement 
in the open within town or city 
limits shouldbe considered a punish- 
able misdemeanour in communities which 
have not already such regulations, and 
it should be enforced more rigorously 
in towns in which it is already a rule. 
Such offences are generally committed 
after dark, and it is often difficult or 
even impossible to trace the offender ; 
therefore, the regulation should be 
carried even further, and require the 
first responsible person who notices the 
deposit to immediately inform the police, 
so that it may be removed or covered 
up. Dead animals are so _ reported; 
but human excrement is much more 
dangerous. Boards of Health in all 
communities should look after the 
proper treatment or disposal of horse 
manure, primarily in order to reduce the 
number of house flies toa minimum, and 
all regulations regarding the disposal of 
garbage and foul matter should be made 
more stringent and should be more 
stringently enforced, 

“It is not alone as a carrier of typhoid 
that this fly is to be feared. In the 
same way it may carry nearly all the 
intestinal diseases. It isa prime agent 
in the spreading of summer dysentery, 


: 
ve 


|SEPTEMBER, 1909, _ 
and in this way is unquestionably 
responsible for the death of many 


children in summer. One of the earliest 
accurate scientific studies of the agency 
of insects in the transfer of human 
disease was in regard to flies as spreaders 
of cholera. The belief in this agency 
long preceded its actual proof. Dr. 
G. K. Nicholas, in the London Lancet, 
Volume 11, 1878, page 724, is quoted by 
Nuttall as writing as follows regarding 
the cholera prevailing at Malta in 1849 :— 
‘My first impression of the possibility of 
the transfer of the disease by flies was 
derived’ from the observation of the 
manner in which these voracious crea- 
tures, present in great numbers, and 
having equal access to the dejections and 
food of patients, gorged themselves in- 
discriminately, and then disgorged them- 
selves on the food and drinking utensils. 
In 1850 the Superb, in common with the 
rest of the Mediterranean squadron, was 
at sea for nearly six months; during the 
greater part of the time she had cholera 
on board. On putting to sea, the flies 
were in great force; but after a time 
the flies gradually disappeared, and the 
epidemic slowly subsided. On going 
into Malta Harbour, but without com- 
municating with the shore, the flies 
returned in greater force, and the cholera 
also with increased violence, After 
more cruising at sea, the flies disappeared 
gradually with the subsidence of the 
disease.’ ”’ 


‘“‘With tropical dysentery and other 
enteric diseases practically the same 
conditions exist.” 


“The typhoid fly also possesses im- 
portance as a disseminator of the bacilli 
of tuberculosis.” This was shown to 
occur in the following manner :— 


“1. Flies may ingest tubercular 
sputum and excrete tubercle bacilli, the 
virulence of which may last for at least 
fifteen days.” 

“2, The danger of human infecticn 
from tubercular flyspecks is by the 
ingestion of the specks on food,” 


Some interesting experiments upon the 
number of bacteria carried by flies are 
recorded. Krom these it appears that— 
“The numbers of bacteria on a single 
fly may range all the way from 550 to 
6,600,000, Harly in the fly season the 
numbers of bacteria on flies are compara- 
tively small, while later the numbers are 
comparatively very large. The place 
where flies live also determines largely 
the numbers that they carry. Ihe 
average for the 414 flies (employed in the 
experiment) was about one and one- 
fourth million bacteria on each. It 
hardly seems possible for so small a bit 
of life to carry so large a number of 


oe a? a 


organisms. The method of the experi- 
ment was to catch the flies from the 
several sources by means of a sterile fly 
net, introduce them into a sterile bottle, 
and pour into the bottle a known quan- 
tity of sterilized water, then shake the 
bottle to wash the bacteria from their 
bodies, to simulate the number of 
organisms that would come from a fly 
in falling into a lot of milk.” By count- 
ing the number of bacteria in a definite 
small quantity of this water, it was 
possible to estimate the total number 
that were present inthe infected liquid. 


Dr. Howard then considers the prac- 
tical means for mitigating the serious 
danger to humanity. He says :—‘‘ Even 
if the typhoid or house fly weie a 
creature difficult to destroy, the general 
failure on the part of communities to 
make any efforts whatever to reduce 
its numbers could properly be termed 
criminal neglect; but since, as will be 
shown, it is comparatively an easy 
matter to do away withthe plague of 
flies, this neglect becomes an evidence of 
ignorance or of a carelessness in regard 
to disease-producing filth which to the 
informed mind constitutes a serious blot 
on civilized methods of life.” 


“Strange asit may seem, an exhaus- 
tive study of the conditions which 
produce house flies in numbers has never 
been made. The life history of the 
insect in general was, down’ to 1873, 
mentioned in only three European works 
and few exact facts were given. In 1873, 
Dr. A. S, Packard studied the transfor- 
mations of the insect and gave descrip- 
tions of all stages, showing that the 
growth of a generation from the egg 
state to the adult occupies from 10 to 
14 days.” 


“In 1895 the writer traced the life 
history in question, indicating that 120 
eggs are laid by a single female, and 
that in Washington, in midsummer, a 
generation is produced every ten days. 
Although ‘numerous’ substances were 
experimented with, he was able to breed 
the fly only in horse manure. Later 
investigations indicated that the fly 
will breed in human excrement and in 
other fermenting vegetable and animal 
material, but that the vast majority of 
the flies that infest dwelling houses, 
both in cities and on farms, come from 
horse manure.” 


“Tn 1907 careful investigations carried 
on in the city of Liverpool by Robert 
Newstead, indicated that the chief 
breeding places of the house fly in that 
city should be classified under the 
following heads :— 

(1) Middensteads (places where dung 1s 
stored) containing horse manure only. 


199 


(2) Middensteads 


containing 
hops. 


spent | 


(3) Ashpits containing fermenting ma- 
terials. 


‘He found that the dung heaps of 
stables containing horse manure only 
were the chief breeding places. Where 
horse and cow manures were mixed the 
flies bred less numerously, and in barn- 
yards where fowls were kept and allowed 
freedom relatively few of the houseflies 
were found. Only one midden contain- 
ing warm spent hops was inspected, and 
this was found to be as badly infested as 
any of the stable middens. A great deal 
of time was given to the inspection of 
ash pits, and it was fonnd that wherever 
fermentation had taken place and 
artificial heat had been produced, such 
places were infested with house fly 
larvees and pupee, often to the same 
alarming extent as in stable manure. 
Such ash pits as these almost invariably 
cortained large quantities of old bed- 
ding or straw or paper, paper mixed 
with human excreta, or old rags, manure 
from rabbit hutches, etc., ora mixture 
of all these. About 25 per cent. of the 
ash pits examined were thus infested, 
and house flies were found breeding in 
smaller numbers in ash pits in which no 
heat had been engendered by fermen- 
tation. The house fly was also found 
breeding by Mr. Newstead in certain 
temporary breeding places, such as col- 
lections of fermenting vegetable refuse, 
accumulations of manure at the wharves, 
and in bedding in poultry pens.” 


‘Still more recent investigations were 
carried on during 1908 by Professor S, A. 
Forbes who has reared it in large num- 
bers from the contents of paunches of 
slaughtered cattle, from refuse hog 
hairs, from tallow vats, from carcasses 
of various animals, miscellaneous gar- 
bage, and so on.” 


‘‘ All this means that if we allow the 
accumulation of filth we will have house 
flies, and if we do not allow it to accu- 
mulate we will have no house flies. 
With the careful collection of garbage 
in cans and the removal of the contents 
at more frequent, intervals than ten 
days, and with the proper regulation of 
abattoirs, and more particularly with 
the proper regulation of stables in 
which horses are kept, the typhoid fly 
will become a rare species, It will not 
be necessary to treat horse manure with 
chloride of lime or with kerosene or with 
a solution of Paris green or arsenate of 
lead, if stable men are required to place 
the manure daily ina properly covered 
receptacle, and if it is;carried away once 
a week.” 


“The orders of the health department 
of the district of Columbia, published 
May 8, 1906, if carried out will be very 
effective. These orders may be briefly 
condensed as follows :”— 

“ All stalls in which animals are kept 
shall have the surface of the ground 
covered with a water-tight floor. Every 
person occupying a building where 
domestic animals are kept. shall main- 
tain, in connection therewith, a bin or 
pit for the reception of manure, and 
pending the removal from the premises 
of the manure from the animal or ani- 
mals shall place such manure in said 
bin or pit. This bin shall be so con- 
structed as to exclude rain water, 
and shallin other respects be water-tight, 
except as it may be connected with 
the public sewer. It shall be provided 
with a suitable cover and construct- 
ed so as to prevent the ingress and 
egress of flies. No person owning a 
stable shall keep any manure or permit 
any manure to bekeptin or upon any 
portion of the premises other than the 
bin or pit described, nor shall he allow 
any such bin or pit to be overfilled or 
needlessly uncovered. Horse manure 
may be kept tightly rammed into well- 
covered barrels for the purpose~ of 
removal in such barrels. Every person 
keeping manure inany of the more 
densely populated parts of the district 
shall cause all such manure to be re- 
moved from the premises at least twice 
every week between June 1 and Octo- 
ber 31, and at least once every week 
between November! and May 31 of the 
following year. No person shall remove 
or transport any manure Over any public 
highway in any of the more densely 
populated parts of the district except 
in a tight vehicle, which, if not enclosed, 
must be effectually covered with can- 
vas, so as to prevent the manure from 
being dropped. No person shall deposit 


manure removed from the bins or pits _ 


ed 
Ras 4 


(SEPTEMBER, 1909. 


within any of the more densely popu- 


lated parts of the district without a 


permit from the health officer.” 

A significant pragraph in Mr. New- 
stead’s Liverpool report, referred to 
above, contains the following words :— 
“The most strenuous efforts should be 
made to prevent children defecating in 
the courts and passages; or that the 
parents should be compelled to remove 
such matter immediatedly; and that 
defecation in stable middens should be 
strictly forbidden. The danger lies in 
the overwhelming attraction which 
such fecal matter has for house flies, 
which later may come into direct con- 
tact with man or his food stuffs.” 


‘““We have thus shown that the typhoid 
or house fly is a general and common 
carrier of pathogenic bacteria. It may 
earry typhoid fever, Asiatic cholera, 
dysentery, cholera morbus, and other 
intestinal diseases; it may carry the 
bacilli of tuberculosis and certain eye 
diseases; it is everywhere present, and 
it is disposed of with comparative ease. 
Itis the duty of every individual to 
guard so far as possible against the occur- 
rence Of flies upon his premises. It is the 
duty of every community, through its 
board of health, to spend money in 
the warfare against this enemy of man- 
kind. This duty is as pronounced as 
though the community were attacked 
by bands of ravenous wolves.” 


This illuminating paper concludes with 
a short account of ‘‘Kndemiec Disease 
as Affecting the Progrees of Nations.’ 


After reading the crushing indictment 
set forth so ably in Dr. Howard’s paper, 
one is constrained to ask--What are we 
doing in Ceylon towards the scientific 
prevention or mitigation of our insect- 
borne diseases ? 


EK. ERNEST GREEN. 
Government Entomologist. 


GUMS, RESINS, SAPS AND EXUDATIONS. 


ACCOUNT OF MANURIAL TRIAL 
ON YOUNG RUBBER TREES. 


By EK. MATHIEW. 


land Road. 
Owner.—F. M. Elliot, Esq. 


Age of Trees.—The trees are from seed 
sown in February, 1907. 

Nature of Soil,—Light-grey sandy o0 
yellow clay sub-soil.—Poor in humus and 


other plant food, but mechanically in 
very good condition, 7.e, loose and 
friable. 

A field was selected 150 feet by 156, con- 
taining 160 trees planted in quincunx 
15 x 18 feet, and occupying the lower 
part of a gentle slope, 

Before the application of the manures, 
the trees were well weeded for 3 feet 
all round the foot of the trees, and each 
was given a light hoeing. All the trees 
reccived exactly the same treatment 
with regard to cultivation. 


x" take 
5 a ase 
_ SEPTEMBER, 1909.) _ 201 


The field of 160 trees was divided in 4 
plots of equal size, each plot containing 
4 rows of 10 trees=40 trees per plot. 

Plot O, of 40 trees remained unmanured, 
Plot NPK, (Nitrogen-Phosphoric acid and 

Potash, received 80 lb. 
Ammonia super- 
phosphate 55 
Muriate of Potash 

and Bonemeal 25°55 


of a mixture 
containing 


fee 
Sere 
77 PLab Nex 
We ; : 
¥ to brees ae 


<4 
N 
4 = ee 


Zi v2 
vy “irths: /P lot N.P. 
PAs 507.2557 
Z 
7 
SAH /Sfoq 87 
sc iiiles 626. 50 , 


SS 
. 


a) trees 


pe ~N 
7P Lait NP ae 
40 trees Phat (on Sr A 


Saps and Hxudations. 


Each tree received 2 lbs. of this 
complete manure. 


Plot NP, received the Ammonia 


Superphosphate and Bonemeal 55 lb, 
but no potash, each tree get- 
ting 22 Oz, 
Plot N, received the Ammonia alone 20 Ib, 
Hach tree getting 8 oz. 


The field had somewhat the following 
contour :— 


‘ 
ZENS 
“ 
~ 


7 


— 


ee 
3I/5fag 167 —; 
No °94 oo th Ao trees L 
aN Z3{i]09, 624,25 7 Be PL 
7 Re 


Ye Wi: 
SI 25 


OFS 


The manures in each case were sprin- 
kled in a shallow trench, 8inches deep, 
dug all round the trees 2 feet from the 
stem, the dug earth being put back to 
cover up the manures. The plot O, al- 
though unmanured, was also trenched in 
order to insure complete similarity of 
treatment. 

On 31st January, 1909, the girth 
measurements of the 160 trees were 
taken, 3 feet fromthe ground, and the 
figures were those. recorded on sheet A 
enclosed. 


At that date, the 40 trees (each 2 years 
old exactly, from seed) of each plot 
measured respectively :— 

Total measurement 40 trees. Plot O.—648 centim, 
=per tree 62” yearly incremen of girth 3 3/16” 
Total measurement 40 trees. Plot NPK.= 624°25” 

=per tree 64’ = yearly increment of girth 34” 
Total measurement 40 trees. Plot NP. = 626°50’ 

==por tree 6 3/16’’=yearly increment of girth 

3 3/32” 

Total measurement 40 trees, Plot N. =507°20” 

=per tree 5” yearly increment of girth 24” 

It will be_ seen that plot O, the un- 
manured plot, showed much _ better 
growth than the other plots, by reason 
of its position at the foot of the slope. 
We shall have to take this into account 
in the summing up of the experiment. 


26 


302° 
a 


On 31st of May last, exactly four months 
after the application of the manures (too 
short a period for the manures to have 
given their full effect) the trees were 
again measured, the figures being those 
recorded on sheet B. The trees were 
measured in the same order as on 
sheet A. 


Summing up the experiment, we get :— 
Measurement of 40 trees, Plot. O. 648 on 31-1-09, 
802 0n 31-5-09, Gain=154 centim. 
Measurement of 40 trees. Plot NPK, 642:25 on 
31-1-09, 799'25 on 31-5-09, Gain =175 centim. 
Measurement of 40 trees, Plot NP. 626:50 on 
31-J-09, 767'75 on 31-5-09, Gain =141:25 centim. 
Measurement of 40 trees. Plot N, 507:25 on 31-1-09, 
608 on 31-5-09, Gain=100°75 centim, 


The fact that the unmanured plot O 
shows a larger increase than either NP. or 
N. plots, would be disconcerting were it 
not that, as already pointed out, the 
anomaly is explained by the favoured 
position of the plot atthe foot of the 
slope below the other plots. At the 
start of the experiment, i.e., on 31st 
January, it showed far better growth 
than the otherplots, its yearly increase 
of girth, as shown above, being at the 
rate of 3,; of aninch as compared with 
the next plot, N, which gave 33, inch, 


Gums, Resins, 


This shows that the trees of plot O 
were of more vigorous growth owing to 
oe washings received from the upper 
plots. 


This fact, although it vitiates the trial 
to a great extent, gives it added interest 
if we compare with the results 
obtained from plot NPK, for whilst O 
has more than kept pace with NP and N, 
it has not done so with NPK, 40 trees of 
NPK gaining 175 centimetres in the 
four months, while the 40 trees of O 
only gained 15425. 

How is that O, which gained by the 
wash at the expense of NP and N, failed 
to gain at the expense of NPK? 


To my mind, the ressult shows plainly 
that the failure of plot O to gain on 
NPE is solely due to the presence of 
potash in NPK, for whilst both nitrates 
and phosphoric acid are subject to be 
carried away in solution in the wash, 
this is not the case, at least to the same 
extent, with potash which is energeti- 
cally retained by clay, and thus it only 
benefits the trees to which it is applied. 


If, now, we compare the plots NPK 
and NP, we find that these two plots 
started almost exactly at the same stage 
of growth—the plot NP had, in fact, a 
slight advantage of 2 centimetres ‘25 at 
the start, NPK measuring 624C:25. to 
NP 626C‘50. 


We may say, therefore, that the two 
plots started on January 31 with ab- 
solutely even chances. Yet, four months 
after we find that NPK has gained 175 
centimetres on 40 trees, while NP has 
gained 141'25 centimetres on 40 trees. 

In 4months each tree of 

N has gained 3°53 =per year 

NP oie 


” ae 3? 


10°59 or 44 in, 
13°11 or 54,, 
which means to say that, assuming the 
manures to continue acting at the same 
rate till the end of the year, the com- 
plete manure (nitrogen—phosphoric acid 
and potash) will bring to each tree one 
inch more of girth than the nitro-phos- 
phatic manure without the potash. 


The improvementin growth brought 
about by the application of nitrogen 
only to plot N has been only slight, i.e., 
100°75 centimetres in the four months on 
the 40 trees. This shows a yearly in- 
crease (over and above the normalincrease 
of girth before manuring) of half an inch, 
which is not wholly negligable, but 
considering the cost of nitrogenous 
manures, it is doubtful whether a 
purely nitrogenous application is pro- 
fitable, apart from the fact that such 
a one-sided application exhausts the 
reserves of other constituents in the 
soil, thus tending to retard growth 
later on. 


202 


MPO ot 
([SHPTEMBER, 1909. 

AsIhave already stated, the plot O 
started with too great an advantage to 
make the comparison with NPK quite 
fair. Yet we find that at the end of the 
four months Plot O grew from 648 to 
802025 gaining 154C'25. Plot NPK grew 
from 624'25 to 799°25 gaining 175C, a gain 
of 20C'75 which will be found to work 
out at 9/16 of an inch yearly. 


But we can get ata truer estimate of 
the effect of the full manure by comparing 
the rate of growth of the trees of 
the same plot NPK before and after 
manuring. 

The 2-year old 40 trees of NPK grew 
from 624C'25 which shows a_ yearly 
growth of 3;; inch to 799°25 which shows 
a yearly growth of 54} inch. Each tree, 
at this rate, would therefore gain, by 
manuring with a complete manure, 2!, 
of aninchin one year, over and above 
the normal rate of increase of the trees 
without manure. 


To put it otherwise, if we assume the 
tappable stage ofa tree to be reached 
when atree has attained a girth of 20 
inches, a tree manured with a complete 
manure would be tappable at the age of 
4 years, while the same tree, unmanured, 
would only be tappable after its 6th year. 


These conclusions apply of course to 
the present case, and they are liable to 
vary with variation of soils and other 
factors. 


The one fact which it is important to 
show is that a complete manure it- 
creases girth, and, therefore, quickeus 
the growth of wood and bark, and the 
inference to be drawn from this is, since 
the elaboration of the latex depends on 
the formation of new ducts in the 
renewed hark tissue (already tapped)— 
that the production of latex itself must 
be quickneed. This, however, is too big ~ 
a question to be settled by inferences, 
and I hope to be able later on to givea 
more tangible demonstration of the fact. 


Sheet A, 


Mr. F. M. Evuiot’s RUBBER PLANTA- 
TION, HOLLAND ROAD, SINGAPORE. 
Girths of 160 trees. 

2 years old on 3lst January, 1909. 


Plot. O. Plot, N.P.K, Plot. N. P. Plot.N 
40 Trees. 40 Trees, 40 Trees. 40 Trees. 
21° 18° Me 12°50 
20°50 18: 17:50 12°50 
23: 19°50 16:50 16°25 
16°50 20° 16°25 11:25 
19° 18°50 17'25 12° 
14°50 15: Le eel 450 
10° 9: 9°50 ab 
9°50 9°50 18° 10°50: 
13°75 15° 14° 15: 
14°50 10°50 13° 24° 


aiid 


EMBER, 1909.] 


Average 15:20 = 64 inch. 


Plot,O. Plot, N.P.K: Plot: N.P; 
40 Trees 40 Treess 40 Trees. 
13'50 0° 18°50 
11°50 16: 20°25 
14:50 , 16°50 rer 
10°25 12 Uf: 616 2» 
are 5). 17°50 s1¢ 3 
13:2 4 18 8 18°50 2 
Deo «= «17°75, wn 144° A 
te 2 9: q 15°25 ao 
OES 8:50 © 16°50-< 
Bean! © 10: © 12°50 ef 
Heat 20° = 20; Ss 
1250 o 2i1° o-l8' 2.35 
14: Ss 17° SPELT a 
1950 =~ 15. 1G 14°50 9 
20°50 » 17: Oeste 1 
22'25 a 19° ei eae 
24° = 16°25 els 00. se 
21°75 b> 8°75 Pals oe 
20°50 <4 10° 15:50 > 
22° 10°50 12 
20°35 22: 19°50 
21. 20°50 16°50 
15°50 17°25 20° 
15°50 14°30 Bey 2'd0 
18° 16°25 15: 
18° 17: 13° 
20° 10:50 16° 
12°50 12: 14: 
19° 18°50 (double 15° 
lies 8 stems) 14°50 
748 624°25 626°50 
Sheet B. 

Girth of 160 T'rees on 81st May, 1909. 
O, NPK. INP: N. 
26- 24° 20°50 15°50 
24:50 23: 22°50 16° 
27°50 =. 2450 21: pps 
22:50 2 25° 19: 14 
23° 24° 19°75 15°25 
20°25 19° 20°50 18°50 
14:25. 13°75 11°75 21°50 
12°25 13°25 23°75 12°75 
iG 20°25 18°50 = 18°25 
16°50 15° 18°50 16°25 
19:25 24° 24°50 15°25 
16° 20°25 22°75 . 16°75 
ede 2a" 22°. - + 19°50 
tS 2210 em 20° «8 14°50 
14:75 -& 22: 4 109° -2 16°25 
15°50 «© 22°25 8 18° = 16: 
9°50 F 24°25 wm 16°75 < 19° 
16°25 — 13° i 19-50 i 13°25 
11° i 12°25 | 20:25 5 10°75 
17°25 _ 12°50 Q 15:25 = 10°25 
ie = 29 27°500a 24:25 2 15°50 
15°50 & 26°25 g On ae dG 
18° S 22°50 5 20°50 & 138° 
123'25 & 17°50 & Viera Oe 
21°. 8 20.25 15°25 % 10° 
28°50 & 24° 21° 13°50 
28°50 21°25 15° [4:25 


4) Trees 


5 inches. 


Average 12 cent. 68 


Saps and Hauudations, 
O.. Se NESE: NP. N. 

26°50 10°50 17° 14°50 
24°25 13°50 17°25 12°50 
au 13°50 15°50 14: 
23°50 27°50 25°50 ibe 
24: 26°50 21°75 15° 
19° 21° 25°50 18° 
18° 16° 13°25 19: 
22°75 19.50 18° 18-25 
2ikis 21° 17° 13:50 
24°50 23°75 18:25 7: 
16° 16°25double15'75 1225 
23: stem 1875 6: 
21°25 ll: 19°50 = =138°50 

12°50 10°75 

10°50 
802°25 767°75 ~=608: 


799°25 


SOME NOTES ON CEARA 
PLANTATIONS. 


By GEOFFRY WILLIAMS. 

(Krom the Agricultural Journal of 
British East Africa, Vol. 1., Part 
1V., January, 1909.) 

Of all the open districts of Kast Africa 
perhaps the least known is the forest 
belt between Makindu and Voi, The 
few of us who live there dwell in a 
solitude that is but seldom broken. 
The trains pass by in the night, and 
when the hungry passenger reaches 
Kiu or Samburu he quite fails to realise 
that he has covered 150 miles of country 
during the hours of darkness. To this 
day I am asked in Nairobi if Kibwezi is 
not the next station to Voi, or if Ido 
not find it trying to live in the middle 
of the Taru Desert. But for all that the 
day may come when this little known 
area is one of the mostimportant in the 
country, and we even live in hopes of 
the time when we may hope to board a 
train ata more christian hour than two 
in the morning. 

In spite of its bad reputation for fever, 
our part of the country is favoured in 
many ways and offers good opportunities 
to the planter. Everyone of course 
knows of the big Sansevierea Fibre 
Concession at Vciand elsewhere, and I 
will not refer to them here further 
than to say that in spite of the dangers 
of fluctuation in price to which fibre is 
subject and other difficulties, they 
should become, with the aid of large 
plantations of sisal, one of the most 
important industries of the Protectorate. 

This articleis, however, more parti- 
cularly concerned with ‘‘ Ceara Rubber,” 
the prospects of which are undoubtedly 
promising. The sojl and climate appear 
to suit the tree admirably, and the some- 


Gums, Resins, 


what variable rains to which we are 
subject in this part of the Protectorate 
do not seriously affect it. As is of 
course well known, ceara is a very tricky 
species of rubber, and though it will 
grow almost anywhere, it gives an 
unsatisfactory yield unless the condi- 
tions are exactly right. Too much rain 
is as bad or worse than too little, and 
many a tree that appears all that it 
should be, proves a sad disappointment 
when tapped. But judging from small 
first samples taken home last summer, 
and valued at least equal to the best 
Para, it seems that the tree is at home in 
this district, and that it should not now 
be long before the venture emerges from 
the experimental stage and begin to 
yield a satisfactory profit. 


The Kibwezi Plantations have cer- 
tainly not been granted the best of good 
fortune on starting, The rains of 1908 
were lamentably small and development 
was seriously hampered. Many thou- 
sands of trees died in the long drought 
owing to their not getting the start one 
had every reason to expect in March 
and April, and those that survived were 
greatly weakened and took some time 
to recover even with the good rains 
that have fallen since October last; but 
on the other hand, the trees which were 
over six feet high before the failure of 
the rains suffered little if at all, and we 
have the satisfaction of knowing that 
once a Plantation is established we need 
not unduly fear a drought, At the 
worst the trees will cease to increase in 
girth and possibly give a small yield 
for the time, and that is one anxiety off 
the planter’s mind, Since November 
this establishment has planted out some 
80,000 young trees, the majority of 
which have taken hold satisfactorily, 
and this year the plantations may 
fairly hope to recover from the drought 
and disappointment of 1908. Fortunately 
sufficient trees were planted before the 
failure of the rainsto enable a certain 
amount of tapping to be carrried out 
this year, and by July or August some 
return of a practical kind ought to be 
forthcoming. 

One does not care to make too many 
roseate prophecies, but the planters 
here can at least say that, after some 
experience they still believe, and with 
more solid grounds of faith than before, 
in the excellent prospects of their 
venture, 


To turn from generalities to detail, I 
will give a few particulars of the 
management of our own estate, The 
first thing that any intending planter, 
at any rate in this district, should bear 
in mind is that a Rubber Estate absorbs 


204 


wey 


[SEPTEMBER, 1909, Boe fe 


labour as a sponge water. It is easy to 
draw up tables, more or less accurate, 
giving the cost of planting a given 
number of acres, but the expense does 
not stop there, and [ama firm believer 
in the absolute necessity of capital for. 
the proper development of an enterprise 
of this kind. At certain times of the 
year labour is required in quantity, and 
as these dates caunot be accurately fore- 
seen since they depend on the fall of the 
rains, it is essential to keep a good head 
of labour in freadiness. Boys cannot be 
obtained here at a moment's notice, 
and the end of August is none too 
soon to begin gathering numbers for 
work during the rains in October and 
November. Our labour is drawn from 
so many services that it is almost impos- 
sible to make out a fixed scale of pay. 
All tribes drift up and down the 
line from Wanyanwezi and Swahili to 
Wakikuyu and Kitui-Wakamba, and 
conditions are quite different to those 
obtaining in the Highlands, Roughly 


speaking however, the scale i 
follows :— ae 
Wanyanwezi are taken on at Rs. 8 and no posho 
Wachaga ” , 


» Gor Rs.7 ,, 


Wakikuya and Wakamba at Rs Bor 4 and 
posho or at Rs, 5 or 6 and no posho, 


The rates are of course so i 
raised after a few months. Bondi 
speaking, we find that taking trouble to 
understand the various typesand make 
them contended _ has its effect in keeping 
down the scale of wages since, here at 
any rate, a native does not readily want 
to work, and if heis not satisfied high 
wages will not keep him. But enough— 
this article is not intended to be a disser- 


tation on the much prayed labour 
question. 


From the plantation point of view, 
our year begins at the end of the long 
rains in May. It is then that the 
boundaries of new shambas are marked 
off and the limits of new plantations 
fixed. Most of the available force of 
labour is armed with the inimitable 
panga, and clearing is the order of the 
day. Week after week and month after 
month one spends one’s time perambu- 
lating in the sun under a green cotton 
umbrella (at least I personally insist on. 
the umbrella) superintending the des- 
truction of the bush. At first sight it 
would seem as_ if superintendence was 
hardly required for such work, but it is 
annoying how little commonsense is 
shown by the average boy. A tall tree, 
for example, is a useful wind break, but 
that tree if cut down takes four boys a 
week to get rid of it, yet none but one’s 
best boys can discriminate between such 
a tree and a rambling bush ten feet high, 


SEPTEMBER, 1909] 


Then all this cleared stuff must be piled 
into vast bonfires and burnt, a proceed- 
ing which when a belt of thorn is being 
negotiated is most trying to the temper 
ae calls for an immense expenditure of 
matches. Of course, if one could wait 
till September to burn the refuse, it 
would then all go in grass fires, but alas ! 
this course isimpossible, and our grass 
being of the most stubborn type utterly 
declines to burn early in the season. 
Behind the cleaners the ground must be 
got ready for the ‘‘ marker out” at this 
time, quite the most important person 
on the estate, and in one case a Many- 
erna from Tanganyika way with that 
possession most rare in the native—a 
straight eye—attended by three satel- 
lites one at each end of a wire fifty yards 
long. and one acting as feeder with an 
armful of pegs, he meanders about check- 
ing angles and squaring corners, and 
behind him stretches an ever-increasing 
vista of neat rows 12 feet by 6 feet to 
mark the ultimate resting places of the 
rubber trees, some of which will be 
“permanent” plantation at 12 feet and 
the rest tapped to death in two years 
or so, 


Attached to the ‘‘marker out” is a 
small force of five or six boys who sit ina 
shady bit of forest near at hand ever- 
lastingly cutting and sharpening pegs. 
The way is prepared for him behind the 
cleaners by a gang with jembies who cut 
through the grass roots and skin the 
land ; this, by the way, being one of the 
most tiresome and slow of all the steps 
in the making of a shumba. While all 
this is going on, there are the seed beds 
to be looked to, and they are quite as 
important as anything else. Seeds do 
not germinate nor young trees grow as 
well as one could wish in the cold season, 
and yet trom 50,000 to 100,000 seedlings 
must be got ready against the rains. 
For all one can do the loss is heavy owing 
to sun, rats and other causes, and not 
every seed that germinates sees the 
shamba; but with fair luck October is 
reached with a good shamba ready and 
plenty of young trees waiting to be 
planted, and then comes a pause in the 
general activity while every one waits 
in ill-concealed anxiety for the rain. 
Will it come up to time (October 30th is 
the day with us) or not; so much hangs 
on that, a week more or less in the 
length of the rains makes such a dif- 
ference. This year happily it did come 
on the fateful 30th, next morning there 
is a rush to the raingauge. An inch or 
over is enough to risk planting out. If 
the inch is passed one’s energy is porten- 
tous; before breakfast the seed beds 
-_ must be visited and seedlings got up 

by the thousand, Every available boy 


205 


Saps and Hxudations. 


plants furiously till dark, while a stream 
of porters passes to and fro from the 
river to the shamba (now over a mile 
and a half) with bundle after bundle of 
trees. Ouraim is to get in 10,000 trees 
in oneday, and once we achieved it, the 
luckless partner whose fate it is to count 
the plants gets a backache that lasts a 
week, After this another lull and more 
waiting for rain, and so onwards till the 
rains are over any time between the 
middle of December and the middle of 
January. Then comes the cleaning of 
the shambas. Everything becomes en- 
gulfed in a sea of grass, creeper and 
bitter apple, and the young trees are 
simply swamped. Cleaning some 250 
acres [may point out is not done in a 
day, and until March itis a race to get it 
finished. Only the grass up the lines of 
trees is cleared, but that alone is more 
than enough. In March come rains 
again, and all the misses in the shambas 
are planted up-.aud every effort made 
to keep down the grass, and before there 
is time to think of it, itis May once more. 
Take it all round a fairly strenuous year. 


Just a word on the enemies one has 
to fight as I have done. Happily they 
are not many, but what they are are 
serious. First, isthe grass. The more you 
remove it, the more it seems to grow, 
and if the trees are not kept free they 
do not take long to make their dissatis- 
faction evident. Second, come the rats 
in the seed beds. They have a parti- 
cular liking for afreshly burst seed and 
take such heavy toll that it is neces- 
sary to plant vastly more than you need 
to plant out. Third, are the small buck 
who nip off the tips of the young trees 
scon after they. have sprouted after 
being cut back on planting out. They 
do not destroy the tree, but they delay 
the growth just at a time when every 
moment is of value and are a great and 
most exasperating nuisance. Fourth, 
last and worst are the _porcupines. 
There is nothing a porcupine likes so 
much as the bulbous root of a young 
tree, and when we first started planting, 
we were horrified to find our trees 
destroyed by hundreds every night. 
The porcupine digs them up, one by one 
in the rows and eats the roots leaving 
the rest to wither. But luckily a low, 
wide meshed wire fence isa sufficient bar 
to his depredations, and we now enclose 
each new shamba before a tree is planted 
therein, On the whole I think we have 


reason to be thankful that our enemies 
are not worse. 


I have not mentioned wild pigs, as 
though I believe they are tioublesome at 
the coast, they have not as yet touched 
any trees up here, 


Gums, Resins, 


DEVELOPMENT OF THE AMAZON. 
(From the India Rubber World, Vol. 
XXXIJX., No. 4, January, 1909.) 

The company referred to on another 
page as having been formed to execute 
greatly needed improvement works at 
the port of Para, through which the 
great supply of Amazon rubber passes, 
and at which arrives the miscellaneous 
assortment of the world’s products which 
pay for this rubber, is composed of men 
of responsibility and distinction in the 
development of enterprises in new 
countries which the Amazon region 
distinctly is. The merit of their propo- 
sition is evident by the sale of their 
bonds in the leading bourses of the 
world, though this may count less with 
some people than the success of the 
members of the directory in such enter- 
prises as the Canadian Pacific Railway, 
the United Fruit Co., and certain im- 
portant undertakings in South America. 


It is impossible that the southern half 
of this hemisphere should always remain 
undeveloped. It happens that the 
development of the Amazon States 
naturally proceeds along the lines of 
least resistance by handling its most 
valuable’ natural. product—rubber. In 
order to handle rubber economically and 
to get into the rubber interior the 
manufactures of North America and 
Europe, itis necessary to make it possible 
for ships to approach nearer to the 
city of Para. What is proposed to be 
done there has been done on an immense 
scale at Liverpool and in New York, 
and why not at Para?. The work is 
lower at Para because of a smaller 
volume of traffic up to date, and the 
fact that the owners of capital are 
not generally informed as to the possi- 
bilities of commercial development 
there. It is not a chimerical proposition 
at all. lt is to the interest of every 
user of a rubber tyre, to every railroad 
company, to every consumer of rubber 
in any form—that the cost of rubber be 
minimized, and one important item 
involves the expense of handling freight 
at the mouth of the Amazon. 


‘Considered alone, the improvement of 
the port of Para does not measure with 
the great engineering works of the 
world, yet it is of distinct importance 
and interest to the rubber trade on 
account of the fact that more than half 
the crude rubber entering into consump- 
tion of the world is to-day ‘‘lightered ” 
from the Para trapicthes into steamers 
for New York and Europe. There is, 
beyond this, however, the possibility 
that allied capitalistic interests may go 
much further and combine with this 


206 


large works of utility. that likewise 


larly careless Castilloa Planter. 


of Castilloa which are catalogued as 


aN Tee Pen ‘ 
sie Pe x 
(SEPTEMBER, 


assured improvement at Para other 


have a bearing upon commerce in rub- 
ber. Prior to the beginning of the | 
Para enterprise something had been 
done at Mananos to facilitate the ship- 
ment of rubber, and last of all is the 
projected Madeira-Mamore railway, -« 
which now appears to be a certainty. 
With the Para and Manaos harbour . 
improvements facilitating ocean ship- <a 
ments, and the circumventing of the falls 
of the Madeira accomplished, and all 
working inconcert—through an under- 5 
standing between the investor—isn’t it 
possible that the handling of rubber be- 
tween forest and factory may be materi- 
ally cheapened. ; 

The dream has been indulged in 
many times that by “bottling up the 
Amazon” the Para rubber supply could 
be so monopolized as to enable a few 
men to put their own price upon the 
raw material. But this would be against 
public policy, and could not long prevail. 
However, the mere suggestion of the 
matter has done more than any other 
one thing to stimulate the planting of 
rubber in Asia. The intelligent invest- 
ment of capital does not depend for 
success upon monopoly, but upon pro- 
moting permanently the general good, 
and this seems to afford a sound basis 
for the grouping of such interests as 
have been mentioned here in connection 
with the rubber region. We do not 
know that this suggestion has been put 
into words before, and it may be long 
before the idea here outlined is realized, 
butits realization would seem as natural 
as has been the development of the 
systems whereby wheat from the 
Western United States is so cheaply 
placed in the hands of consumers beyond 
the Atlantic. The prospect may not 
be pleasing to the rubber planting 
interests, but the latter will have 
ample time in which to strengthen their 
position before the possibilities of the 
Amazon have been taken advantage of. 


CASTILLOA ELASTICA. 
(From the India Rubber Journal, Vol. 
XXXVII., No. 4, February, 1909.) 


The pits dug for the unwary Planter 
who opens out land in Hevea brasi- 
liensis without obtaining a preliminary 
grounding in Plantation lore are shallow 
compared with those that threaten, or 
have threatened in the past, the simi- 
In the 
first place there are at least three species 


a 
: 

i 

E 

3 
} 

: 

: 

| 
. 
‘2 
- 
| 
; 


rubber yielding. The first, most impor- 
tant, and the best yielding variety, is 
Castilloa elastica, Cervs, a 


from the 


TEMBER, 1009,] 


~The two other varieties, Castilloa 
Tunu, Hemsl., and Castilloa australis, 
Hemsl., are not so well known. The 
former is distributed through the forests 
of British Honduras, Nicaragua, and 
Costa Rica, but the gum yielded by it 
does not compare favourably with that 
of C. elastica, Cervs., though it has uses 
of its own. C. australis is not widely 
distributed and has no high character as 
a rubber producer. 


It may be judged how unpleasant the 
consequences might be if the wrong tree 
was planted, as we believe has occurred 
more than once. When Kew nods, as 
it once did, confusing Castilloa elastica, 
Cervs., and Castilloa Tunu, Hemsl., the 
individual planter must work warily. 


Castilloa elastica, Cervs., occurs in 
Mexico, San Salvador, Nicaragua, Costa 
Rica, Colombia, Ecuador, Guatemala and 
Honduras through an enormous range in 
latitude. It probably contributes the 
greater bulk of the Caucho rubber which 
comes upon the market. 


The exports ofrubber (mainly Castilloa) 
following countries is thus 
stated: Costa Rica 132,857 lb. (1906), 
Honduras 68,000 Ib. (1905), Panama 238,760 
Ib. (1907). 


CASTILLOA AND CULTIVATION. 


We received a letter from a corres- 
pondent by the last mail, in which the 
effect of wind on Hevea was described, 
and a remark made to the effect that the 
wind-blown plants of Hevea were subse- 
quently attacked by pests. To our 
surprise we learned that the Castilloa 
trees on the same estates stood the wind 


207 Saps and Hew dations. 


better and were free from pests. In the 
West Indies, where Castilloa is used 
largely asa shade for rubber trees, the 
leaves and stems are subject to the 
attacks of various fungi and insects. 
Generally speaking, as a separate pro- 
duct or as one for shading minor crops, 
it is not regarded favourably in the 
Kast. In Mexico, however, matters are 
somewhat different, and a hopeful view 
is taken of this species. 


In its natural state it grows best at a 
low elevation ; above 2,000 to 2,500 feet it 
grows slowly. The native method of 
tapping is to inflict a wound by means 
of a long machette, and to inserta leaf 
at the base of the gash. These incisions 
are made around the tree at a distance 
of 2 to 2% feet above each other. 
Throughout the coagulating and drying 
processes, the natives do not appear to 
protect the rubber from exposure to 
light. Very often the latex is spread 
out on long leaves and exposed to the 
sun to dry, the result being that a large 
proportion becomes sticky. 


The bark of Castilloa elastica is thicker 
and rougher than that of Hevea, and 
differs in different parts of the tree, 
The laticiferous system is also unlike 
that of Hevea. 


ACREAGE UNDER CASTILLOA, 


The Republic of Mexico can probably 
claim a larger acreage than any other 
part of the world under Castilloa, it 
being estimated by one anthority that 
something like 110,000 acres have been 
planted since 1872. We are informed 
that there are over a dozen plantations 
each a few thousand acres in extent, 
planted with this species. ; 


OILS. 


SOY BEANS, OIL AND CAKE. 


OPENING FOR INDIAN TRADE. 


(From the Indian Trade Tovniial, Vol. 
XIV., No. 170, July 1, 1909.) 


Rapid development has recently taken 
place inthe tradein soy beans in the 
United Kingdom and other Western 
markets. These beans, which are the 
seeds of (Glycine soja, are grown ona 
very extensive scale in China and Japan, 
where they are used as food and also as 
a source of oiland bean cake. The soy 
bean oil has proved suitable for many 
manufacturing purposes, and hence the 
demand for it has rapidly increased ; its 
price in London is about £21 15s. per 


ton against £21 10s. for linseed oil an 
£22 17s. 6d. for cotton seed oil. The 
beans when crushed give about 10 to 16 
per cent. of oil, and the cake, as we shall 
show presently, is used for feeding 
purposes like linseed cake ; while, asa 
manure, 1t is said tobe particularly 
useful. Although a comparatively new 
article of import in England, it is stated 
that as muchas 350,000 tons were im- 
ported into the United Kingdom this 
season, and it threatens to interfere 
somewhat. seriously with the Indian 
tvade in linseed and cotton seed, The 
value of the beans landed in London is 
about £6 15s, a ton, whereas cake sells 
at about £6 5s. The oil, itis said, has 
not been found serviceable for the 
making of paint, linoleum or varnish as 
it dries very slowly ; but it is being used 


Oils. 


for soap, for lubricating and also for 
human food. 


The soy bean is essentially an Asiatic 
product and comes mainly from Man- 
churia. There is reason to believe that 
it has been tried in various parts of the 
world, but has not proved a_ success, 
requiring a tropical climate. It is culti- 
vated ona considerable scale in India 
already, but mostly only for local use 
as a food-stuff or as green manure, and 
there appears to be no large supply 
available for export at the present time. 
In view, however, of the very large 
demand to which we have referred, it 
seems to be worth while to determine 
whether it would not be profitable to 
undertake the cultivation of soy beans 
in India asa regular crop for export. 
The bean will grow fairly well where- 
ever maize can be grown; and, like 
many other leguminous plants, it has 
the property of enriching in nitrogen 
the soilin which it is grown, so that it 
is particularly suitable for cultivation 
in rotation with maize and similar crops. 
This last consideration will probably 
weigh with the Indian agriculturist, 
who is not always in a position to 
purchase manures to improve the out- 
put of his fields; while Indian exports 
of this product would enjoy an advan- 
tage over those from Manchuria. in the 
matter of occean freight. 


In Farmers, Bulletin No. 58, published 
by tbe United States Department of 
Agriculture, the soy bean is dealt with 
exhaustively from every point of view. 
It is there stated that the bean thrives 
best in soils of medium texture, well 
supplied with lime, potash, and phos- 
phoric acid. It endures drought well, 
and is not easily injured by excess of 
moisture. The early varieties are best 
for seed crops, and the medium or late 
varieties for hay, forage, and silage. 
Seeds may be planted at any time during 
the spring and early summer, but 
preferably as soon as the ground be- 
comes well warmed up. If sown broad- 
cast, about three-quarters of a bushel of 
seed to the acre are required, but only 
half a bushel if drilled. Little cultivation 
is needed when growing for forage; 
when for seed, weeds must be kept down 
until the plants shade the soil. The soy 
bean may be used for soiling, pasturage, 
hay, and ensilage, or the beans may be 
harvested and fed as grain. The forage 
is very rich in fat and muscle-making 
materials, and should be fed with fodder 
corn, sorghum, or some other feeding 
stuff rich in fat-forming nutrients. The 
seed can be fed to the best advantage 
when ground into meal, and is almost 
without equal as a concentrated food. 
It is cut for hay when the plants are in 


°e 


= 


208 SEPTEMBER, 1909. 


late bloom or early fruit; for ensilage 
the crop can be cut later, but itis better 
to cut before the pods begin to ripen; 
for green forage, cutting may begin 
earlier and continue rather later than 
for either hay or ensilage; the crop 
may be cut for seed after the pods 
become about half ripe. The soy bean 
is also excellent for green manuring. 


There is reason to believe that the soy 
bean cake is making headway in England 
not only on account of its cheapness, 
but also owing to its superiority over 
its rivals. For instance, we see it stated 
ina London newspaper that Professor 
Douglas A. Gilchrist recently carried 
out certain trials to test the comparative 
feeding values of soy and decorticated 
cotton cake. These trials were carried 
out at Newton Rigg, the Cumberland 
and Westmorland Farm School, under 
the supervision of the manager, Mr. W, 

Lawrence. Three cows and three 
heifers, after their first calf, were set 
apart on February 6th, 1909, for these 
experiments, which continued for twelve 
weeks. They were all at an early stage 
of their lactation period at the com- 
mencement; and, since the milk natur- 
ally declined in quantity asthe trials 
progressed, it was decided to feed soy 
cake during the first and last three 
weeks, and decorticated cotton cake 
during the middle six weeks. The total 
milk yield of six weeks (throughout the 
first and last three weeks), when thev 
were receiving soy cake, was _ 5,576 lbs. 
or an average of 223th lbs. (equal to 
21/7th gallons) per cow daily; while the 
total milk yield of the same cows during 
the middle six weeks, when they were 
receiving decorticated cotton cake, was 
5,438 lbs. or an average of 213th lbs, 
(equal to 2/1lth gallons) per cow daily. 
So far as milk production, therefore, is 
concerned there was a slight advantage 
in favour of soy cake. The milk of the 
cows that received soy cake contained 
37 per cent. fatin the first three weeks 
and 4'1 per cent. fatin the last three 
weeks. This is equal to an average of 
3:9 per cent. fat. The milk of the cows 
that received decorticated cotton cake 
in the middle six weeks contained on 
the average 3°9 per cent. fat. Both 
foods, therefore, gave the same results 
as far as the fat content of the milk is 
concerned. Each cow gained 108th lbs. 
in live weight during the six weeks they 
were receiving soy cake, and 6th lbs. 
during. the six weeks they were receiving 
decorticated cotton cake. The advantage 
in this respect is, therefore. again 1n 
favour of the soy cake. 


There seems to beno reason to doubt 


that the trade in soy beans, in the 
United Kingdom at least, will rapidly 


 SEPTE MBER, 1909, } 


53s 


: 


expand, and it rests with the merchants 
in India to decide whether they are to 
havea share in it. This is the more 
necessary should the product continue 
to cut into the linseed and cotton seed 


209 Fibres. 


affect the demand for Indian cotton 
seed, the resultant drop in the internal 
price will afford compensation in that 
it willimprove the projects of those 
companies that engage in the manu- 


trades, as recent market reports state facture of cotton seed oil and ghi 
that itis doing. Should it permanently substitutes, 

FIBRES, 
DISINFECTION OF COTTON SEED. In order that the seed may be 


From the A gricultural News, Vol. VIII., 
No. 187, June 26, 1909.) 


Now that the time is at hand for plant- 
ing cotton for the coming crop, it might 
be well to consider again the advantages 
to be derived from the disinfection of 
cotton seed, and the methods to be 
employed. 


Corrosive sublimate is a poisonous sub- 
stance and a germicide. If eaten by 
insects, animals or persons, it is a 
poison in the ordinary sense, and a very 
powerful poison at that. As a germicide 
it kills bacteria, fungus spores, and 
similar organisms by coming in contact 
with them. It isusediu a water solu- 
tion, at a strength of 1 part of corrosive 
sublimate to 1,000 parts of water. To 
make this strength, use 1 oz. of corro- 
sive sublimate and 7 gallons of water or 
1 1b. to 100 gallons. The poison may be 
dissolved in a small amount of hot 
water, and then poured slowly into the 
full amount of water. It is essential 
that the poison should be thoroughly 
dissolved in water before the solution is 
used. 


There are two points that must be 
borne in mind—one is, that the wooden 
tub or cask in which the cotton seed is 
usually soaked will probably absorb a 
certain amount of the corrosive subli- 
mate, thus weakening the solution ; and 
the other is that the seed must be 
thoroughly wetted, but must not stay 
in the solution too long. Indealing with 
the first of these points, the tub or 
cask may be prepared some time 
before it is proposed to disinfect the 
seed. After it has been thoroughly 
washed, the tub should be filled with 
a solution of corrosive sublimate, 
1-1,000, and left to stand a few hours. 
By this time the reaction between the 
wood and the solution will have been 
completed. The solution may then be 
thrown away, and the tub is ready for 
use in disinfecting cotton seed, 


thoroughly wetted it is only necessary to 
stir it in the solution for a few minutes, 
whenit is first putin, so that the solution 
may come in contact with all parts of 
the surface, Ten to twenty minutes 
should be quite long enough for thorough 
disinfection. 


It is estimated that the cost of disin- 
fection amounts to about one cent for 
12 lb. of seed, 1 gallon of the solution 
being sufficient satisfactorily to disinfect 
12 lb., and the planter should always 
bear this in mind. This solution is 
weakened by the loss of corrosive subli- 
mate, which is absorbed by the testa or 
hard outer covering of the seed. 


When the seed has become thoroughly 
wetted it should be taken out and, if it 
is desired, may be planted at once, with- 
out drying ; butif it is not to be planted 
at once it should be thoroughly dried 
before being put in bags for storing. 


There are no disadvantages to the dis- 
infection of seed except the cost and the 
labour required, each of which is only 
a small item. The advantages to be 
expected are several. Seed often germi- 
nates better asa result of disinfection; 
it is reported that fields of cotton 
planted with disinfected seed suffered 
less from leaf-blister mite than the 
adjoining fields, the seed for which was 
not disinfected; the spores of fungus 
diseases are often transported with the 
cotton seed, and disinfection is the best 
means known of killing such spores and 
thus warding off subsequent attacks. 


One of the most troublesome of the 
fungus diseases liable to be transported 
with the seed is anthracnose. This 
fungus causes the damping off which 
often kills the young cotton seedlings 
when only a few days above ground, 


When this attack is serious, a large 
proporuas of the seedlings may be 
illed. Tater in the life of the cotton 
this fungus causes the well-known 
anthracnose of the boll. If the process 


Fibres. 210 


of disinfection is carefully carried out, 
and the directions given herewith are 
observed, there ought to be no ill-effects 
from it, but rather well marked benefits 
ought to be realised. 


THE INTRODUCTION OF DRILL-SOWING 
AND INTER-CULTIVATION : 
ON To THE BLacKk Corton Soits or TINNE- 
VELLY, MADRAS PRESIDENCY. 


By H. C. SAMPSON, B.A. 


(From the Agricultural Journal of India, 
Vol. IV., Part IL., April, 1909.) 


In 1907-8, the Government of Madras 
gave an allotment of Rs. 5,000 for the 
improvement of cotton cultivation, and 
it was decided thata part of this sum 
should be utilised in introducing the 
practice of drill cultivation for cotton 
into the Tinnevelly District. 


To some extent, the way had been 

repared, This method of cultivation 
ad been introduced on to the Koilpatty 
Agricultural Station, and in the 1906-7 
season, after this station had been en- 
lacged, there were 51°85 acres of cotton, 
all sown with thedrill. The crops which 
were much superior to those outside the 
farm began to attract attention in the 
neighbourhood. In March, 1407, when 
the cotton-picking was at its height, Mr. 
Couchman, Director of Agriculture, and 
Mr. Wood, Deputy Director of Agri- 
culture, who then had charge of this 
division, when inspecting this station, 
assembled the neighbouring ryats. The 
methods of cultivation were explained 
to them, the farm crops were compared 
with those outside, and the implements 
were shown at work and even handled 
by the ryots. Several of them there and 
then promised to try this method of 
eultivation if assistance were’ given 
them. The very roughness in the work- 
manship of the impJements pleased them, 
as such work could easily be turned out 
by their own carpenters and blacksmiths. 
But a promise given when a crop is ripe 
for picking is a very different thing to 
its fulfilment at the next sowing time, 
and there were many obstacles to be 
overcome before such a revolutionary 
change in the methods of cultivation 
could be brought about. <A brief descrip- 
tion, therefore, of the people and the 
local conditions, and the method of culti- 
vation which it was wished to introduce, 
seems necessary. The black cotton soil 
cultivators of this district are both 
delugus, who, it is said, came. south 
Nuring the timeofthe Vizianagar and 
Taick dynasties and settled in the 
district, and Tamils. The Telugu is 


(SEPTEMBER, 1909, 
noted throughout the Presidency for his--2--3 


love of the black cotton soil, and through- 
out the whole of the Tamil country 
Telugu villages are to be found wherever 
there is any extent of black cotton soil. 


In two of the three Taluks which ad- 
join the Koilpatty Agricultural Station, 
viz., Ottapidarum and Satur, the verna- 
cular of one-fifth and one-third, respec- 
tively, of the total inhabitants is Telugu, 
and when one bears in mind that this 
race is almost entirely confined to the 
black soil areas, the proportion who 
cultivate cotton must be much greater. 
The chief Tamil castes are the Vellalas, 
Pallars, Maravars and Shanars. The 
first two are both good cultivating castes. 
The Maravars also cultivate, but depend 
also on dacoity and ecattle-lifting, and 
are, therefore, not so thrifty. The 
Shanars are the toddy-drawing caste 
and are excellent petty - cultivators, 
growing ircigated garden and cereal 
crops under wells. Thus, the introduc- 
tion of any improvement has to be 


_repeated in almost every village, for it 


by no means follows that if one village 
adopts an improvement, the next village, 


if of a different caste, will follow its — 


example. And besides the natural con- 
servatism of the ryot, superstition and 
tear of offending the deities have also to 
be overcome. Asan example of this:in 
November, 1907, a very heavy rain of 
more than 7 inches fell on one day and 
breached several tanks, besides doing 
considerable damage to the standing 
crops on the black soil. Asa result, some 
ryots refused to work the bullock-hoes 
in their drill-sown crops, as they said 
that this rain was a signal of divine 
wrath. One man actually ploughed up 
his crop. 

The present agricultural practice on 
the black soi) was dealt with in detail in 
the Scientific Report of the Koilpatty 
Agricultural Station, 1907-8. From this 
it will be seen that the Tinnevelly black 
soil ryot is an excellent cultivator.. 
Suffice it to say here that instead of 
sowing cotton broad-cast, covering with 
the plough and doing the after-cultiva- 
tion with hand-hoes, we wished to in- 
troduce the practice of sowing in rows 
with the bamboo seed-drill, covering the 


-seed with the blade cultivator and doing 


the after-cultivation with the small 
blade bullock-hoes. All these imple- 
ments, though common in the Northern 
Districts and in other parts of India, are 


‘unknown in the South of Madras. 


When it was decided to take steps to 
introduce this system of cultivation, 
there were only two coolies in the 
district who knew how to work these 
implements, and these* were only local 


is 


ter 2 ee 


oe 5 
_ SEPTEMBER, 1909] 


en. who had been trained on the 


= 


‘Ipatty Agricultural Station, and who 
— ae that particular class of soil. 
Therefore, it was decided tc bring down 


men who had been used, all their lives, - 


to these implements from the Bellary 
District. Accordingly, some twenty-six 
sets of implements were made during the 
hot weather months, ready to be lent 
out to ryots, and six Bellary men were 
sent down at the beginning of September 
(six weeks before the sowing season), 
Five of these only reached their des- 
tination ; one being afraid to go so far 
from his native country, left the train 
atthe next station after its departure 
aad went back home. These men were 
purposely brought down early in the 
season, so that they could become accus- 
tomed to the South Country bullocks 
and could train the other coolies 
employed in the Agricultural Station. 
It proved afterward that it was well 
that this precaution had been taken, for 
these men were, with one exception, 
only of use in training the local farm 
coolies under the supervision of the 
farm staff. They proved to be just as 
conservative, in their own way, as the 
ryots, whom they had been intended to 
teach. They were unable to handle or 
drive the bullocks which were unused to 


the noises made by them when driving. 


In fact, several ryots refused to let 
these men continue working, as they 
could not drive astraight furrow and 
preferred the newly-trained local coolie 
who was used to their local cattle. 
This was not the only objection to these 
Bellary men. They knew no Tamil, and 
their language was a mixture of Telugu 
and Canarese, so that they could only 
make themselves understood in the 
Telugu villages. Also their different 
customs and unthrifty habits at once 
Ee eaiciced the Tinnevelly ryots against 
them. : 


During the first year of the introduc- 
tion of these implements, the Manager 
of the Agricultural Station selected the 
adjoining Telugu village in which to 
concentrate his efforts. The selection 
was a good one. The Telugu, who is 
comparatively a recent arrival in the 
district, is not so bound down to custom 
as the aboriginal Tamil, and it is easier 
to get him to try improved methods. 
The village mainly depends on its black 
soil which was, on the whole, excellently 
farmed land. Some sixty acres were 
sown with the drill last season and some 
excellent crops obtained. In one or two 
other neighbouring Tamil villages, small 
areas of 4or 5acres were sown. Inone 
case, the owner of the land quarrelled 
with the whole of the rest of the village 
for introducing something new, but 


211 Fibres, 


they were appeased when they saw _ his 
crop, and this season in the same village 
more than seventy acres have been 
sown with the drill. In the first year 
about 200 acres were sown on ryots’ 
fields with the drill. 


In the year 1908-9, a similar allotment 
was made for cotton improvement, and 
it was decided to continue this work 
as well as to introduce seed-farms for 
growing pure Karangani cotton of the 
strain selected on the Koilpatty Agri- 
cultural Station. This gave an oppor- 
tunity of spreading this system of culti- 
tion turther afield than Koilpatty, but 
was a much more difficult matter to ar- 
range, asin many parts of the district 
the Department was unknown, and the 
Agricultural Station at Koilpatty had 
not been heard of. 


In order to cope with this work as 
well as the extension, probably on the 
success of the previous year’s operations, 
several new hands had to be trained. 
This meant a very careful selection on 
the part of the Manager at Koilpatty, 
and many of the would-be sowing ex- 
perts had to be got rid of after a trial. 
Besides this, the Manager had to bear in 
mind the villages in which the extension 
would probably take place, and to train 
either a man of that village or a man of 
similar caste. The best men it was 
found were petty ryots who owned land 
in the village where they were to work. 
They, as a matter of course, looked 
after their own interest and sowed their 
own lands first. This new introduction 
naturally attracted much attention in 
the village and gave others confidence in 
the practice. When the sowing season 
commenced, there were some twenty-two 
trained coolies available. Their train- 
ing was by no means complete, as they 
had only been taught to sow in dry land, 
at first with coarse sand, and afterwards 
with boiled cotton seed. Thus, they had 
never seen any crops which had come up 
with their sowing and had never sown 
in a moist seed-bed. It was necessary, 
therefore, for one ot the staff to be 
present at the commencement to see 
that the work was started properly. 


The seed-farms were, however, the 
main outside centres of the introduction 
of this improvement, Five centres had 
been selected in different parts of the 
district, and to each of these trained 
coolies were sent with a set of imple- 
ments. My assistant, M. R. Ry. J. 
Chelvaranga Raju, had charge of this 
work and made the necessary arrange- 
ments with the owners of the land. The 
terms on which this was obtained were 
as follows:—The Jand selected should 
not have grown cotton the previous 


Fibres. 212 
season and would be required for one 
season only. The Government should 
pay the assessment, provide the seed, sow 
it: with the drill and do the subsequent 
bullock-hoeing when necessary. The 
ryot was to do the primary cultivation, 
was to pen the land with sheep, and was 
to do any hand-weeding, was to thinly 
crop as directed, and was to sell to the 
Department the main season Kappas, 
well-dried, at Rs. 4 per candy of 500 lbs, 
above the market price. It was interest- 
ing to follow each of these seed farms, 
as each was worked under different con- 
ditions. The most satisfactory was at 
Pallikkottia, a Vellala village, where 
380 acres of cotton were grown for us. 
The land belonged to several owners in 
the village, each contributing three or 
four acres. Noman in the village owned 
or rather farmed more than 15 acres, 
and most of them had to depend on this 
for a living. Thus, we had excellently 
farmed land to deal with. At first the 
ryot thought that he was risking a great 
deal, having never seen anything but 
his own cultivation before, but after- 
wards, when he saw the germination 
and subsequent growth, he looked after 
his share of the cultivation to the best 
of his ability. We were ingeniously 
told when inspecting this area that next 
year we could have our pick of the best 
lands in the village if we wished to grow 
cotton again, implying that this year 
they had given us anything but their 
best land. This village had already 
ordered two shares of implements to be 
made for them in Tinnevelly. The 
trained coolie who looked to the sowing 
of the seed-farm had also to sow land, 
for people wished to try drill cultiva- 
tion on their own account, but this was 
confined to another village some ten 
miles away, as the people of Pallikkottai 
thought at the sowing time that they 
were already risking enough in growing 
seed for us. Though 80 acres of seed 
farm are allowed for each trained coolie 
to manage, if we had not been particular 
about getting the seed sown in good 
time, he could have sown a larger area. 
Therefore, this demonstration work 
was also added, asit was thought that 
a man of this class would be spoilt if 
he were allowed to idle his time. In 
the village where the demonstration 
blocks were, some inducement was-neces- 
sary to get people to try this. My 
assistant offered to sow an area of three 
acres of land with two pairs of bullocks 
at the same time that one of the ryots 
who had just commenced sowing broad- 
castin the next field of similar area 
would with seven pairs. This offer 
decided the owner, and the work was 
completed in both fields at the same time. 
I saw the crops on inspection two months 


- lands, 


(SEPTEMBER, 1990. 


after sowing. Norain had fallen since 
sowing tilla few days before. In the 
broadcasted field there werea few stray 
plants, and the other seeds were just 
germinating. In the drill-sown field 
there was an excellent stand. 


In the next seed-farm at Maniyachi, 
it was only with the Tahsildar’s influence 
that people unwillingly consented to 
grow seed for us; 20 acres belonging to 
three owners were sown, and_ naturally 
they gave their worst fields for the 
purpose. Cattle could only be hired to 
work the implements through the in- 
fluence of the village headman. Sowing 
was, however, completed on November 
llth, having been delayed by previous 
incessant rain, and no more rain fell till 
the end of January. The third seed-farm 
at Mullakulam belongs to a retired 
Government official, who, until now, has 
leased out the land on a yearly lease. 
The land here is poor and very shallow,, 
and, asa result of the system of lease, 
very foul with weeds, but this year we 
had to be content with what land we 
could get. Here one of the objections to 
locally trained coolies was met with. 
The man had been used to sowing on 
the fairly deep soil of Koilpatty, and 
coming here he sowed at the same 
depth. Heavy rain soon waterlogged 
this shallow soil, and germination was 
spoilt. One of the owner’s own servants, 
an excellent Telugu cultivator, was 
trained locally to assist this coolie sent 
from Koilpatty, and he, knowing the 
land evidently, sowed accordingly, as his 
sowings gave an excellent stand. The 
owner has done everything to assist 
with his share of the work and has now 
got the land fairly clean, so that the 
next year his labour will not be lost. 
Demonstration plots in the neighbouring 
village of Telugu cultivators have given 
excellent crops, one of the best that I 
saw in the course of my last inspection. 


The fourth seed-farm of 80 acres is 
at Nainapuram. Here the owner is a 
rich man, and with the-help of his son 
and an agent attends to the cultivation 
himself. This has not been inspected by 
meas yet, but evidently the crop has 
proved satisfactory, as the owner has 
already ordered a set of implements to 
be made for him for next season. The 
fifth seed-tarm is at Ettayapuram on 
one of the zamindar’s Home-Farm lands, 
This is 100 acres and the largest of all, 
but here work is not so easy as it is 
when the land belongs to smaller ryots. 
The land is not so well cared for, and all 
the work has to be done through the 
managers of the several Home Farm 
» While the Home Farm coolie 
establishments naturally follow the lead 
of their master. This much depends on 


\ 


SEPTEMBER, 1909;] 


whether the manager happens to favour 
the work. ‘This seed-farm is doing well, 
and the ryots of the village say that this 
land has never borne such a good crop, 
but, at the same time, it shows a striking 
difference to a 20 acres block which the 
zamindar’s uncle has grown for seed for 
us. The owner attends to all the details 
of his cultivation himself, and has sown 
our seed with the drill, but though quite 
willing to grow seed for the Department, 
does not care to accept even the assess- 
ment. This gentleman frequently visits 
the Koilpatty Agricultural Station and 
takes a keen practical interest in what 
he sees there. He has also hada set of 
implements made locally for his own 
future use. His crop was the best I have 
seen this year. 


As these seed-farms were in a way the 
forerunners of the extension of drill 
cwtivation, the very best of the trained 
coolies were sent to these. A mistake, 
however, was made in one or two cases 
in not making proper arrangements for 
the welfare of these men. All of them 
were Pariahs or low caste men, and 
consequently in some cases they had 
rather a rough time of it. The sowing 
season is the commencement of the 
rains, and there is a great fall in the 
night temperature after rain. In 
consequence, several of the coolies fell 
sick with fever and had to be replaced 
by inferior men, and even these could 
illbe spared. In future, arrangements 
will have to be madein the village to 
house these men properly and to arrange 
for their food being prepared at a 
fixed rate. 


Apart from these seed-farms and the 
demonstration plots in their neighbour- 
hood, there has been a rapid extension 
ot drill sowing in the villages around 
Koilpatty, where some 500 acres have 
been sown. One villagealone accounted 
for more than 230 acres, while two more 
each had over 70 acres, Ina few cases, 
outlying ryots have also sown,-having 
either seen the farm crops last year or 
the crops of ryots who had sown with 
the drill the previous season. Including 
the seed-farms, there is an area of about 
1,000 acres this year sown with the drill, 


The mere fact of sowing is, however, 
by no means everything. Each ryot who 
has sown has to be seen constantly. 
He has to be induced to thin, and shown 
when and how, to use the bullock-hoe. 
As the thinning and, very often, the 
hoeing clash with other farm work, the 
royts are often unwilling at the time to do 
so. They may make promises, but they 
do not always fulfilthem. This means 
considerable patience and tact in dealing 
with them, Thinning especially goes 


213° 


Fibres. 


. 

against the grain, forthe ryot says, “It 
is like taking the life of my children to 
pull these plants which have grown,” but 
still this must be doneif this system of 
cultivation is not to degenerate into 
that of the Bellary District where the 
seed-rate is more than double that used 
in Tinnevelly and no thinning is done, 
Many of the wives and children of the 
Koilpatty coolie staff who are employed 
for casual labour on the Agricultural 
Station, have had to be pressed into 
service and sent out with one of the 
Assistant Managers to show royts how to 
thin their crops. Small boys are proba- 
bly the best, as their youth favours them 
in their training, and they ean do the 
work with that unconscious confidence 
which always appeals to a ryot. With 
all the success already obtained in this 
introduction, itis by no means certain 
yet whether this method of cultivation, 
if now left to itself, would last. The 
questions which next present themselves 
are (1) when should the Derartment 
withdraw its help, and (2) how to leave 
the work on a substantial basis. This is, 
of course, looking into the future, but 
it seems necessary that the Department 
should give some concession, but only 
if the ryot will do the same. The pro- 
posal next season is that the Department 
should lend one set of implements to 
the village for every one that the 
village is prepared to make, provided 
that 60 acres are sown with the two sets, 
and if the villagers among themselves 
guarantee to sow 200 acres with the 
drill, the services of the trained coolie 
will be lent to them for the season. To 
a very great extent, the success so far 
attained has depended on the Manager 
and the Assistant Managers of the 
Koilpatty Agricultural Station. The 
Manager, M. R. Ry. A. V, Tirumurunga- 
natham Pillai, has only been at this 
station for 38{ years, joining as an 
Assistant Manager. On 14th December, 
1906, he was put in charge of the station, 
and it says much for him that he, not 
being anative of this district, should, 
in that time, gain the confidence of the 
neighbouring ryots as well as the 
loyal support of his Assistant Managers, 
and that he can entrust his own coolies, 
most of whom are Pariahs, to carry out 
his instructions when sent out into the 
district. The success of the seed-farms 
from the very first has largely depended 
on the untiring efforts of my assistant 
M.R. Ry. Chelvaranga Raju. It is no 
easy matter to supervise work in five 
separate centres scattered over four 
Taluks, especially when one has to 
travel through black cotton soil 
country in the monsoon season, 


Fibres, 214 


FIBRES FROM FIJI. 
(From the Bulletin of the Imperial 
Institute, Vol. VI., No. 4, 1908.) 


The fibres described in the following 
report were forwarded from Suva, Fiji, 
in December, 1907, for examination and 
valuation. They consisted of very care- 
fully prepared specimens of Sisal, 
Mauritius and bowstring hemps, and of 
ramie ribbons and filasse. 


SISAL HEMP. 


It was stated that this sample had 
been grown in the Government House 
grounds, and prepared by a Death and 
Ellwood fibre machine. It consisted of 
perfectly cleaned and nearly white 
fibre, of very good lustre and even 
diameter. The product was from 4 to 
5 feet long, and of very good strength. 

On chemical examination it yielded 
the following results :— 

, ‘Sisal hemp 
Present from Brit.E. 
sample  Africafor 
from Fiji, comparison, 


Per cenr. Per cent. 
Moisture 7 111 
Ash ta O25, 1:0 
a-Hydrolysis (loss) ... 85 11'2 
b-Hydrolysis (loss) ... 107 14°1 
Acid purification (loss) 09 2°3 
Cellulose . 19°) 78°2 


This fibre was of excellent quality, 
superior in composition to many samples 
of Sisal hemp previously examined at 
the Imperial Institute, and would be 
valuable for rope-making. The com- 
mercial experts to whom the fibre was 
submitted considered that it was worth 
£34 to £85 per ton (with Mexican Sisal 
at £25 to £27 per ton), and that it would 
be astrong competitor of the Sisal hemp 
now produced in German East Africa. 


MAURITIUS HEMP. 


This fibre was stated to have been 
prepared at the Government Experi- 
mental Factory, Fiji, from leaves grown 
at Koronibello, Bua, Vanua Levu. 

It. was soft, well prepared, of good 
colour, lustre, and strength, and from 
4 to 6 feet long. 

The results of its chemical examin- 
ation are given in the following table, to 
which, for convenience of comparison, 
are added the results yielded by a 
sample of the fibre from Mauritius. 

Present Sample 

sample from Mau- 
from Fiji. — ritius. 

Percent, Percent. 


Moisture pee eo 5) 130 
Ash Rete ie) 2°5 
a-Hydrolysis (loss) ... 140 75 
b-Hydrolysis (loss) vues GD 18°3 
Acid purification (loss)... 9 il 20 
Cellulose we ho) 76°4 


til te > 


[SEPTEMBER, 1909. 


~The results of the chemical examin- 
ation show this fibre to be superior 
to the sample from Mauritius which 
was examined at the Imperial] Institute. 
It was of good length and strength, and 
would make excellent ropes. The fibre 
was valued by commercial experts at 
about £31 per ton (with ‘‘ good average ” 
Mauritius hemp at £22 10s. per ton). 


‘ BowstrinG Hemp. 


This fibre, derived from Sanseveira 
guineensis, was prepared at the Govern- 
ment Experimental Factory from leaves 
grown in the Government House grounds, 


It was an excellent specimen, nearly 
white, of good lustre, fairly even 
diameter and good strength, and 24 feet 
ong. 

-On chemical examination it gave the 
results which are tabulated and com- 
pared below with those furnished by a 
sample from Sierra Leone. 

Sanseveira guineenis 
Present sam- from Sierra 


ple from Fiji. Leone. 

Per cent, Per cent, 

Moisture a 6 106 
Ash au =e 0°5 04 
a-Hydrolysis (loss) 971 8:9 
b-Hydrolysis (loss) 12:71 13°9 
Acid purification (loss) 1:3 1'8 
Cellulose ae 75:0 78:0 


This fibre compared very favourably 
with previous samples examined at the 
Imperial Institute, but was rather short 
for rope-making. It was regarded by 
commercial experts as worth about £27 
per ton. 

CONCLUSIONS. 


These three fibres were of superfine 
quality, and would be readily saleable 
in large quantities. The bowstrin 
hemp was, however, rather short, an 
it was recommended that efforts should 
be made to obtain a fibre of longer 
staple, since the shortness detracts con- 
siderably from its value. 


The commercial experts, to whom the 
fibres were submitted, stated that they 
would be interested to learn whether 
ccmmercial supplies are likely to be 
available in the near future. , 


RAMIE. 
Two samples of ramie were received, 


one consisting of ribbons and the other 
of filasse. 


The ribbons, said to have been ob- 
tained by passing the stems through a 
Death and Ellwood fibre machine, were 


clean, well-prepared, of pale-greyish | 


straw clour and much stiffer than a 
standard sample of hand-scraped China 
grass. The strength was normal and the 


TN ee ee ee | ee ee 


ae. 


ee 


SEPTEMBER, 1909.] 


; length of staple 24 to 36 inches; for com- 
parison it may be stated that a standard 


sample of China grass had a maximum 
length of 42 inches. A somewhat pro- 
longed treatment of the ribbons with 
dilute alkali resulted in the production 
of a clean lustrous fibre. 


The commercial value of ramie ribbons 
of the quality of this sample would pro- 
bably be about £25 per ton in London, 
with hand-scraped China grass at from 
£25 to £30 perton. It was pointed out, 
however. that the demand for ramie is 
somewhat limited, and that it would 
therefore appear advisable to proceed 
very cautiously with the development of 
the industry. 


The sample of “filasse” consisted of 
very lustrous fibre, which was of even 
pale cream colour. When tested for 
strength and elongation in comparison 
with standard samples, it was found to 
be somewhat inferior, as is shown by 
the following table :— — 

Strength. Elongation, 


Grams, Per cent 

Standard sample (qa)... 36°10 2:80 
eS 3 (b)... 42:70 300 
Ramie from Fiji . 29°67 2°34 


The ultimate fibre had a maximum 
length of 10 inches and a diameter of 
0°0010 to 0:0025 inch, with an average of 
0:00162 inch. Microscopical examination 
showed that the material had the 
characteristic structure of ramie. 


The sample was not in a state suitable 
for the market, as manufacturers usually 
prefer to buy the scraped ribbons and 
to ‘‘degum” the material and prepare 
the filasse themselves. 


AMERICAN COTTON TRADE. 


Cost OF PRODUCING COTTON. 


(From the Indian Trade Journal, Vol. 
XIIT., No. 165, May, 27, 1909.) 


The Farmand Ranch, a paper pub- 
lished at Dallas, Texas, has been print- 
ing a voluminous correspondence on 
* What it costs to produce cotton,” con- 
tributed by farmers, who have given 
actual figures or estimates based on their 
own experience. Such estimates are, 
of course, likely toerr, if at all, on the 
high side, and indeed some of the figures 
given have been so obviously exaggerat- 
ed as to draw protests from other 
farmers. The whole correspondence in 
nine issues of the paper has been care- 
fally analysed by Messrs. A. Norden & 
Co. of New York, and excluding only 
a few letters which contained insuffi- 
cient details, they have tabulated and 


215 Fibres. 


averaged the figures contained in 
the remaining 45 letters, written by 37 
farmers in Texas, four in Arkansas, 
three in Oklahoma, and onein Louisiana. 
The size of the plantations dealt with 
ranged from 1 to 100 acres, and the 
aggregate area was 1,153 acres. The 
results of this analysis are so interesting 
that no apology need be made for repro- 
ducing them in detail, Messrs. Norden 
say :— 


We have taken everything exactly as 
given, correcting only some obvious 
errors, 7nd wherever some one detail 
was missing we have made full allow- 
ance, giving the producer the benefit of 
the doubt. To take up the items in 
detail,—preparation of the soil, planting 
and seed, and cultivation, are exactly as 
given, the only feature to be noted in 
these items is the fact that in most of 
the examples practically. none of this 
expense is really an actual cash outlay, 
but only aun allowance of suppositious 
wages that the farmer makes to himself 
for the work done by himself at rates 
varying from $1 to $3 per day, and 
averaging about $1°75 per day. ‘‘ Rent’ 
in most cases is figured at $4 per acre, 
some paying only $3, while others rent 
on shares of the produce, in which case 
it is considerably higher, contingent on 
the outturn of the crop. Where rent is 
not mentioned, the farmer owning his 
own land, we have charged it at $4 per 
acre. ‘*Wearand tear” on stock and 
implements is only included by a few, 
but from those few we gather that 75c. 
per acre would be a full allowance. To 
be sure,one man includes a three hundred 
dollar pair of mules and several hundied 
dollars worth of implements in his esti- 
mate of the cost of one crop of 50 acres, 
but such figuring is manifestly absurd, 
as the outfit would serve for at least five 
crops, possibly ten. We have figured 
on only five years’ life on such property 
or 20 per cent. annual deterioration. 
Many have omitted to account for the 
seed, or have given the seed to the 
ginner to pay for ginning. In these 
cases we have figured the seed at only 
$11 per ton, charging in the ginning 
column and crediting in the seed column, 
To arrive at the item ‘‘yield of lint 
cotton per acre,” whenever exact figures 
have not been given, or where the result 
has been stated only in bales orin seed 
cotton, we have taken a most unfavour- 
able basis, v2z., one bale to three acres, 
which is rather less than the average, 
500 Ib. per bale, though Texas cotton 
averages considerably higher, and the 
seed cotton to third itself (1,500 1b, seed 
cotton equals 1,000 1b. seed and 500 Ib. 
lint), though it will probably run 37 to 
38 per cent, lint. The estimated net cost 


Fibres, 


of production of one pound of lint in 


these examples ranges from 1*fc. per lb. 


to 22°8c. per lb., but neither of these 
extreme results should be taken as 
a basis. The former was the result 
of an exceptional yield—658 lb. of lint 
cotton per acre, and accounting for 
the seed at 50c. a bushel, while the latter 
was the result of a crop failure, 65 lb, of 
lint cotton per acre. In the following 
table we have separated the reports as 
Sele Net cost of production, 
General average of 45 reports . 7.78¢. per lb. 
Average of seven exceptionally favour- 

able reports figuring below 5c. per lb. 4°25¢. ,, 4, 
Average of 32 reports figuring between 

5e, and 3c, ate = 
Average of six exceptionally unfevour- 

able reports figuring over 9c, per lb. 16 04e, ,, 


6'°82c. 45 5, 


ol 3 vu 
So i828 4/88 4/86 
Qa (BS glee ge. 
s2 ig O/° 3 5/0 Gu 
Oe I> wo lA Solood 
as BE la Fl Oo la, woo 
G8 (S28 5[S wolS a9 
e HOOIF Fin 2B, 
s aH” | O'°15 2 
2 = > es 
o <q an id 
Acres reported on 1,153| 314 | 8803 241 
Preparation of soil (dol- 
ee per acre) A 1°62} 1°34] 1°55 1'78 
Planting andseed (dol- ie 
lars per acre) chee 65 BOD ‘67 62 
Cultivation to maturity 
(dollars per acre) 3-43 | 4:09} 2°78 | 5:70 
Rent (dollars per acre)| 4°13) 3:46] 4°18 | 4:01 
Wear and tear (dollars 
per acre) 75. |. STO ees Liew a 
anes een |—— 
Total cost to bring one; | 
acre to maturity 10°58 | 10°26 | 9°97 | 12°86 
Yield of lint cotton per | 
acre (1b.) soe YS) 290 | 209 | 100 
pane Ee eee 
Cost of lint cotton in | 
field (cents per lb.) ..) 5°60 | 3°54] 4°77 12°86 
Picking (cents per lb.) | 2°21 | 1°69 | 2-4 2°87 
Ginning and hauling 
(cents per 1b.) 1°10 84) 1:07 | 1:44 
Gross cost of lint cotton 
(cents per 1b.) 8:91 | 6°07] 7:98 | 17°17 
s value of seed per 
ae of lint 1:18) 1°82] 1°16 | 1°13 
t cost of lint cotton | 
aor lb. | 7°73 | 4°25] 6°82 | 16°04 


EE 
——S 


216 


personal expenses of the 


(SEPTEMBER, 1900, 


It is believed that with this elimina- 
tion of the extreme figures on both sides, 
leaving the average of the 32 replies 
showing cost of production 6-82 cents — 
per lb., the result is a very fair re- 
presentation based on the producers’ 
own figures of the average cost of pro- 
ducing cotton in Texas; though, as will 
be seen by the table, this cost depends 
principally on the yield per acre. No 
one can figure on the cost of a crop 
failure, and nothing is allowed for 
roducer and 
liis family. Obviously the man who 
raises a few bales of cotton only and 
nothing else will have a hard time 
getting along, no matter how high 
cotton may sell, while the man who 
raises his own supplies will make money, 
no matter how low cotton may sell. It 
is, of course, understood that nothing is 
included in these figures For ‘‘ fertilizers.” 
In the Eastern belt this is a serious 
addition to the cost, though it is pro- 
Lably compensated for to some extent 
by increased yield per acre. 


Messrs. Norden also call attention to 
the publication in the Cotton Trade 
Journal (Savannah) for April of a state- 
ment of cost of production said to be 
made up from figures given by Mr. J. M. 
Barwick, one of the leading farmers of 
Clarendon County, South Carolina. 
Adding rent and wear and tear to con- 
form with Messrs. Norden’s Texas calcu- 
lations, Mr. Barwick’s crop figures come 
out as follows :— 


Ploughing, putting in fetilizers, etc,, 20 


acresat $8... et ..  160:00 
Fertilizers, 20 acres at $25 -  §00'00 
Hoeing on0 oe 30:00 
Rent . 80 00 
Wear and tear ... si in 15:00 
Picking 35 baies at $750 .. ee 262°50 
Hauling, ginning, etc., 35 bales at $2 70:00 
Gross cost of production - 1,117-50 
Less seed x 262°50 

Net cost of production 35 bales, 
17,500 lb. cost of 1 1b, 4‘89¢ 855°0 


In the light of these figures it is diffi- 
cult to accept the Southern assurances 
that the farmers ‘‘ will go to the poor- 
house on 8c. cotton” and that they 
“must have 10c. to live above want ”— 
unless indeed we interpret ‘ want” in 
the liberal sense of the economists. 


pr 


217 Drugs, 


DRUGS. 


THE CAMPHOR INDUSTRY. 


(From the Indian Trade Journal, Vol. 
XIII., No. 169, June, 24, 1909.) 


At a meeting of the Congress of 
Applied Chemistry in London on May 
81st, Professor Haller delivered an 
address on the Chemistry of Camphor. 
In the course of his remarks he said that 
it was about 1905 that the first attempts 
to supplement the supply by artificial 
camphor came into view. All the pro- 
cesses of manutacture started with 
pinene, a carbon compound found in the 
essential oil of turpentine. The latter 
was obtained by steam distillation from 
the resin yielded by various conifers 
growing in the forests of the temperate 
zone. The principal countries of origin 
were, in order of importance, the United 
States, France, Russia. the Central 
European States, Germany, and Austria. 
In recent years Spain had also contri- 
buted to the world’s markets. The 
French essence produced from the sea 
pine was considered to hold the first 

lace in respect of quality; that of the 
United States, from pitch pine, was less 
valued; and those of Russia and_Ger- 
many, obtained chiefly from the Pinus 
silvestris, were of inferior quality. The 
question of Industrial camphor depended 
as much on the price of a good essence 
ason the methods employed. The ef- 
forts expended on the problem had re- 
sulted in no new fact or _ original 
discovery. The numerous methods em- 
ployed were only improvements or 
variants of reactions previously known. 
They might be divided into two large 
groups accordiug to whether the essence 
was first converted into hydro-chlorate 
of pinene, or was submitted direct to the 
action of organic acids. The high prices 
of camphor, to which they owed the evolu- 
tion of the new industry, had only been 
temporary for reasons which it was ex- 
tremely difficult todiscover. Only those 
establishments, which in the fortunate 
period ot high prices found themselves 
in possession of an economical and tho- 
roughly efficient process and were in a 
position to organize a prompt supply in 
response tothe demand of the moment, 
had been able to take advantage of the 
remunerative prices and recover the cost 
of installation. He should add that the 
camphor which they produced, apart 
from its optical inactivity, possessed in 
all respects the same properties as 
natural camphor when it was sufficiently 
refined. Comparisons had been made 
between the camphor industry and the 


28 


alizarine and indigotine industries, and 
some enthusiastic spirits had not been 
afraid to celebrate this new triumph. of 
industrial science. With regard to the 
two substances mentioned, science and 
industry had incontestably got the 
better of nature. The cultivation of 
madder had completely disappeared 
from the departments of the Midi in 
France, and artificial indigo was on the 
way toruin the immense and numerous ~ 
plantations of India, Java, and Guate- 
mala. Would the same thing happen 
with eamphor? It would be rash to say 
so, for various reasons which he enu- 
merated. The conditions were very 
different both with regard to the supply 
of the natural product, the cultivation 
of which had been freshly stimulated, 
and with regard to the fundamental 
substance used in producing artificial 
camphor—namely, the essence of turpen- 
tine, the supply of which was limited 
and the price fluctuating. For these 
and other. reasons the future of the 
camphor industry was uncertain. 


PAPAYA  JUICE.* 


(From the Philippine Agricultural 
Review, Vol. II., No 3, April, 1909.) 


Papaya juice is extracted from the 
fruit of the papaya tree, which grows 
rapidly, attaining its full bearing capa- 
city ina year. It produces from 40 to 
50 papaws of a dark green colour, ripen- 
ing to a deep yellow, in shape resembling 
asquash. A very light superficial inci- 
sion is made in the fruit, and a clear 
water-like juice exudes therefrom, 
which becomes opaque on exposure to 
the air. Asitdrips from the fruit it is 
received in a porcelain-lined receptacle. 
As itis very corrosive, metal receptacles 
would injure its appearance and quali- 
ties. It possesses great digestive vir- 
tues, and the refined article is con- 
sidered superior to all animal pepsins. 


After the desired quantity has been 
collected, the juice is placed in shallow 
porcelain or glass-lined pans and allowed 
to evaporate. While this is not a very 
delicate or difficult operation, it requires 
considerable attention, so that the juice 
will dry uniformly and the product be 
white and well granulated. In its 
granulated state it is shipped to the 
United States where it undergoes a re- 
fining process, and is sold as the papaw 
of commerce for medicinal purposes. 

* Extract from Annual Report of United States 
Consul, A, J, Lespinasse, Tuxpam, Mexico, 


' Drugs, 


The ripe papaw is palatable and is an 
excellent aid to digestion. Meat wrap- 
ped in papaw leaves for a short time 
-becomes quite tender without any 
impairment in appearance or taste. 


In extracting the juice the hands 
should be protected by rubber gloves, 
as in its crude state it attacks the tis- 

-sues. An average tree will produce 
about one-fourth of a pound of the gra- 
‘nulated juice. It sells in the United 
‘States for from $4 to $6 per pound in 
the crude state. 


~ -218 


7 (SEPTEMBER, 1909. — 
“Papaya, Carica papaya, ee (Passi-- ; 
floracece).—A tree commonly cultivated 


for its edible fruits, introduced from 
America.” 


“The Papaw. Merrill.”—A great many 
types of this tree grow in these islands. 
It is subject to great variations in 
growth, gives a heavy yield per acre, 
and makes good hog. feed. When set 


improves greatly in quality and quantity 
of yield.— EDITOR. | 


EDIBLE PRODUCTS. 


THE BRAZIL NUT, 


By. H. F. MacMILuan. 
Bertholetia excelsa (N. O. Myrtacece.)— 
“ Brazil-nut,” or ‘ Para-nut.”—A tall 
handsome tree, with oblong wavy leaves 
which are 14 to 16 inches long and 
about 3 in. broad, native of Guiana, 
Venezuela and Brazil. In its native 
- home, especially on the banks of the 
Amazon and Orinica, the tree attains 
a height of over 100 feet. I have no 
recoid of its success as yet in the East- 
ern tropics, exceptiat Peradeniya, Where, 
but for the indifferent ground chosen 
for it when first planted out thirty years 
ago (1880), it would seem to find a con- 
genial home. The tree referred to is 
now about 40 to 50 feet high, produces 
‘at the top every year, in the dry season, 
large erect racemes of white flowers 
followed several months later by a few 
fruits, which hang on the tree for many 
months after ripening. The large round 
fruit is from 4 to 6inches in diameter, 
-with a brown and hard woody shell, 
which has to be sawn, or broken with 
an axe, 1n order to get at the contents. 
-In the interior are arranged from ten to 
-twelve large angular seeds witha ‘hard 
woody testa; these are the Brazil-nuts of 
commerce, which form an important 
article of export from their native 
country, being largely used for dessert 
in Europe, America, &ce. The tree may 
-be propagated by seed or gootee (layer- 
ing), and thrives best on arich alluvial 
soil, in a hot and moist climate. 


THE TRANSPLANTING OF RICE. 


(From the Agricultural Journal of India, 
Vol. III., Pt. 1V., October, 1908.) 


(Continued from jp. 124.) 


The water supply on the Raipur 
station has so far been very inadequate, 


~ stration plots about a fortnight before 


inthe outturn must have been due to_ 


out 10 by 10 feet apart and cultivated it 4 
: 
: 
: 


and for that reason late-ripening paddy 
has not-yet been tried in these series. 
With alate heavy-yielding paddy and 
an adequate water supply, the results 
would have been still more favourable. 
This is at least indicated by the outturns 
obtained on the demonstration farms 
last year, where Gurmatia, a late paddy 
grown in this division, was sown. 
The results were as shown below :— 
OUTTURN OF PADDY IN LBS, 
PER ACRE. 


eT SO 


oO 
a FS o , Value of in- 
ne 5 Se creasesdue to 
25 3 == Transplanting. 
38 Og UE 
32 5% 28 In year 
SS 25 ah of, 
Bo 3 £8 normal 1909, 
eA os ef rain 
ee fall. 
H 
Rs A. Rs, A, 
Jageshwar Farm -. 3,940 2,450 1,460 385 7 49 i1 2 
_ Jawarbhandha Farm ... 1,690 60) 1,090 2515 386 6 
Kolar Farm . 2,880 1,272 1,€08° 38 5 53 9 


The transplanted plots of the depart- 
ment and the biasi plots of the eculti- 
vators were manured alike and irrigated 
alike, so that the difference in the out- 
turns is due to the superiority of this 
new method of sowing introduced. The 
result appeared all the more striking to 
the village cultivators, because the 
department only took over these demon- 


the rains,and no manure was applied 
save that which had been added by the 
_ryot himself. He followed the example 
set to him by the demonstration farms 
and irrigated his rice this’ year for the 
first time. Even the primitive mind of 
the chamar could not fail to see that 
under these circumstances the increase ~ 


the one varying factor, viz,, the method  — 
of sowing. As a cultivator, he could 
not help seeing that on the demonstra- 
tion plot the Sircar (Government) pro. 
duced a better crop than his own by 
means that were at his disposal. 


See pp 278. 


Photo by H. IF’. Macmillan. 


THE BRAZIL NUT (Bertholletia excelsa). 


bt ‘ \ . . 
f : ' : 
. - “ . e . om gwil= tigi . : 
i " fin ili 
s . =. a 
. - : 5 ' aa 
7 - 7 
: 7 
4 


— 


df a 


A 


PTEMBER, 1909.] 


- In his inspection note on these farms 


Mr. F, G. Sly, I. C. S., Director of Agri- 
culture, writes:—“It has 


been fairly 
demonstrated that the outturn of rice 
ean be very largely increased, indeed 
almost doubled, by adpoting transplant- 
ing instead of biasi. All the villagers 
frankly agreed to this conclusion, and 
have been evidently much impressed 
with this demonstration. In discussing 
the matter with them,I found that 
most had decided to transplant some 
of their land nextyear. Two objections 
were put forward to a large extension 
of the practice. The first is that trans- 


- planting is moreinsistent in its demand 


for water at a particular time; but 
they agreed that this is no difficulty 
under good irrigation tanks. Thesecond 
is that it demands a large supply of 
labour at the particular time of trans- 
planting, although the total expense 
is smaller owing to saving of seed and 
to the avoidance of all weeding after 
transplanting. This objection has some 
force, but it is hardly likely to stand 
in the way of the adoption of such a 

rofitable practice. A third objection 
is that the system is difficult in parts 
where the holdings are very much 
scattered (the survival of the lakha- 
bhata system); but this should not 
militate much against a large increase 
in the transplanted area. So far as our 
experience goes both on the Government 
farm and on the demonstration plots, I 
cannot point to any strong reason why 
transplanting should not succeed and 
extend in Chhattisgarh ; although if this 
is the case. it is extraordinary why it 
should not have been introduced earlier, 
seeing that itis practised in the neigh- 
bouring districts of Balaghat and Bhan- 
dara, and to a very limited extent in 
Chhattisgarh itself.” The introduction 
of transplanting in a paddy tract isan 
enormous boon in the increase in outturn 
due to this method of sowing. It is a 
means, too, of inducing the cultivator to 
irrigate his crop, as the department 
recommends that for the present trans- 
planting should be restricted to irrigated 
areas where late paddies can be grown. 
The importance of irrigation alone to 
this tract can scarcely be estimated, for 
the Chhattisgarh cultivator is more 
dependent on water than any other in 
these Provinces, In a year like that 
just past, irrigation for him meant a 
bumper crop, while the want of it meant 
avery poor yield, much suffering and 
the necessity of Government relief to 
tide him over a year of indigence. 
Despite these facts, the Irrigation 
Department has experienced very great 
difficulty in inducing the cultivators of 
this division to utilize the water of 


219 


Edible Products 


Government tanks, for that the Chat- 
tisgarh does not yet fully appreciate the 
value of water as afactor in increasing 
the yield of his crops, is evident from 


the fact that of 2,830,074 acres of rice in’ 


this division only 23,528 acres were irri- 
gated during 1907-08. It was clearly the 
duty of the Agricultural Department to 
take up this line of work iu earnest, and 
these demonstration farms were, there- 
fore, started last year (1907), mainly with 
the view of getting this backward class 
of cultivators to inco-operate into the 
general farm practice of their villages, 
the results of the work done at the 
Raipur station, by transplanting and 
irrigating their staple crop. 

Demonstration work has so far been 
beset with many difficulties, and has in 
the past been the least successful of all 
the lines of work undertaken by the 
Agticultural Department. The success 
of the work last year was due to the 
following reasons :—(1) that it was uuder- 
taken and carried through with a 
definite aim; (2) that the department 
only attempted to demonstrate methods 
which had been clearly proved by 
experiment at the Raipur Experimental 
Station to be practicable and profitable ; 
(3) that the work was carefully super- 
vised ; and (4) that the cultivators were 
made to feel that the work was done 
solely in their interests. 


Other steps taken to popularise this 
method may be described. Cultivators 
are encouraged t inspect the Raipur 
Experimental Farm and see for them- 
selves the results obtained from trans- 
planting there; this farm was visited 
last year by 4,203 visitors. All the 
meetings of the Raipur District Agri- 
cultural Association are held on the 
farm, and the members are shown plots 
of transplanted aud biast rice growing 
side by side, which is an object lesson 
that appeals toall. A statement of the 
results obtained from transplanted and 
biast plots, respectively on the experi- 
mental and demonstration farms, is 
prepared in the vernacular on large card- 
board sheets, and the results explained 
at meetings of the Agricultural Associ- 
ation and at Fairs. Short articles on the 
same have appeared in the vernacular 
editions of the Ayricultwral Gazette 
published by this department; and 
finally, transplanting was demonstrated 
last year on the demonstration farms. 


_ Asa result of these methods of bring- 
ing the advantages of transplanting to 
the notice of cultivators, it was telt this 
year that the time had come to induce 
cultivators to attempt this important 
Improvement on a large scale in their 
villages, ? 


Edible Products. 


Last year the object aimed at was 
tc make the demonstration farms a 
thorough success and to gain the good- 
will and confidence of the villagers. 
With this end in view the department 
supplied both bullocks and seed, and 
care was taken to see that the agricul- 
tural assistant did not worry the 
visitors by requests for supplies. 


It was found necessary, however, to 
promise the cultivators concerned that, 
if the crop of the demonstration farms 
proved a bumper one, they would get 
all the produce, while if it was only a 
medium crop, the department would re- 
coup itself by demanding one-half of the 
same, This condition proved most ef- 
fective in preventing the owners of the 
crop trom allowing their cattle to graze 
at night in the rice fields, which is a 
common practice in Chhattisgarh, and 
which threatened at first to interfere 
very seriously with our work owing to 
the injury done to the nursery beds. 


The agricultural assistant in charge 
allowed such cultivators as expressed 
their willingness to transplant small 
areas to take spare seedlings from the 
nursery plots’ of the demonstration 
farms. Cultivators from the neighbour- 
ing villages were encouraged to come 
and inspect the plots transplanted by 
the Department, and the names of those 
who promised to transplant this year, 
and the area to be transplanted by each 
were recorded. Before last year’s crop 
was harvested, a rough estimate had 
been formed of the area to be trans- 
planted this year, and nursery beds for 
the same were prepared during the dry 
weather. The villages were grouped 
into what we call demonstration cen- 
tres, there being four or five villages in 
each. Hach centre was under the charge 
of an agricultural assistant, and a 
ploughman experienced in transplant- 
ing was placed under his orders in each 
village. In villages where the malguzar 
complained of shortage of working cat- 
tle, a pair of buffaloes was also sent to 
him. It was decided to supply the seed 
free of cost wherever necessary, for two 
reasons :—(1) because where the cultiva- 
tors have not been accustomed to 
irrigate their rice, they grow early or 
medium varieties, which do not yield so 
well as the late variety, namely, Gurma- 
tia, which is largely grown on _ the 
Raipur farm, and which is recognized 
as the best heavy-yielding paddy in 
Chhattisgarh; and (2) free seed was to 
many an inducement to transplant, 
more especially to those who had fared 
badly owing to last year’s scarcity. 
The villagers as a whole share equally 
in the work of ploughing and sowing 


220 


ye 
% 


|SEPTEMBER, 1909. 


the nursery plots, and each transplants 
his own fields with the seedlings taken 
from the nursery plots. The nursery 
plots are thus common property. This 
co-operation is carried still further when 
the seedlings are ready for transplant- 
ing, and it is no uncommon sight to see 
almost all the village ploughs at work in 
one field. Inthe case of the work being 
unnecessarily delayed, the malguzar is 
always appealed to by the agricultural 
assistants in charge. In villages where 
the malguzar and tenants were well-to- 
do, they supplied their own seed. OF 
the area to be transplanted, the depart- 
ment has supplied seed for 550 acres; 
while the cultivators are using their 
own seed for nearly 1,000 acres. 


The one great difficulty experienced 
in carrying through this rather ambi- 
tious scheme of work has been that of 
supplying competent agricultural assis- 
tants to put in charge. Owing to the 
paucity of assistants, it was found im- 
possible to comply this year with all 
the demands made for assistance in in- 
troducing this new method. In the 
absence of trained men, the department 
has adopted a plan which promises to 
be successful in practice. Ploughmen 
experienced in transplanting have been 
obtained from districts that are more 
advanced in rice cultivation. These 
have been sent out together with a few 
Chamar ploughmen from the Raipur 
Farm, some being attached to demon- 
stration centres where they work under 
the agricultural assistant in charge, 
while others are employed in villages 
where they work under the direction of 
the malguzar, or other respectable culti- 
vator at whose request they have been 
sent. With the assistance of such men 
the malguzars of certain villages are 
transplanting from 20 to 40 acres this 
year, and some of them are retaining the 
services of the ploughmen at their own 
cost. With very few exceptions these 
malguzars are members of the District 
Agricultural Associations. In many 
cases these ploughmen have proved more 
reliable than some of the agricultural 
assistants who have been put in charge 
of this work. They are at least prac- 
tical agriculturists and belong to the 
best farming centres, which is not true 
of many of our assistants. As plough- 
men they have been accustomed to hard 
work under the rather uncongenial con- 
ditions which characterise village life in 
apaddy tract, and readily adapt them- 
selves to similar conditions when trans- 
ferred to another district. Not so the 
Brahmin who,. accustomed to the com- 
forts of town life and the society of his 
own easte-fellows, finds life in a humble 
Chamayr village almost unbearable, and 


—) | 


“ 


+ A eee 


SupremBer, 1909.) 


Jeaves his work to look after itself on 
the pretext of illness. 


As ploughmen for this kind of work 
are not available in Chhattisgarh itself, 
arrangements have been made to_ train 
boys in transplanting on the Raipur 
Karm. Twelve orphan boys varying in 
age from 13 to 19 have already con- 
pleted their training there this year, 
and will be employed in future, either 
by the Missions to which they belong, 
or by the Department of Agriculture, in 
introducing this method among cultiva- 
tors. Next vear a new batch will be 
trained, and members of the Agricul- 
tural Associations and others interested 
in the work will also be asked to send 
men to undergo this training. 


That this piece of demonstration work 
has produced results beyond all expecta- 
tion, that a great amount of work has 
been accomplished this year with a very 
small trained staff, and that even the 
Chamar cultivators have learnt a most 
useful lesson from it, is amply proved 
by the fact that this year with five 
assistants and twenty-four ploughmen 
experienced in transplanting, the De- 
partment is transplanting about 1,300 
acres scattered cver thirty-nine villages. 
In addition to this, the members of 
the Agricultural Associations, to whom 
assistance could not be given this year, 
have agreed to transplant in all about 
250 acres. 

The success of this piece of work is 
due in no small measure to the very 
effective supervision exercised over it 
by the Superintendent of the Raipur 
farm ; for in these Provinces the policy 
of the Agricultural Department is to 
put the Superintendent of the experi- 
mental station of each division in charge 
of the demonstration work of the same. 
This answers admirably where the 
Superintendent isa sound practical man. 
The experimental work and demonstra- 
tion work form parts of one great scheme; 
the one is incomplete without the other. 


If separate assistants were made res- 
ponsible for the different parts of that 
scheme, there would be less efficiency 
and much less work done per man, 
With one Superintendent for both, culti- 
vators are made to feel that the demon- 
stration farms are but off-shoots of the 
experimental farm, the one difference 
being that the former demonstrates only, 
while the latter experiments and 
demonstrates. The Superintendent in- 
spects each centre once a month. The 
assistants in charge of the different 
centres forward weekly diaries to the 
Deputy Director through the Superin- 
tendent. The Deputy Director inspects 
the different centres as often as possible. 


p77) ae Edible Products. 


This year’s results show that the opi- 
nion held by many to the effect that the 
Chhatisgarhi is too lazy and unenterpris- 
ing to adopt transplantation, that his 
bullocks are too weak for it and his soils 
unsuitable, is at least open to doubt. 
Our experience of the Chamar plough- 
men at the Raipur Farm is that they 
are very good workers when properly 
directed, though lacking in initiative. 
Judging from the large number of 
Chamar cultivators who have this year 
come from neighbouring villages for 
seedlings, which they have uprooted for 
themselves and carried away in head 
loads for four or five miles, I am con- 
vineed that the term “lazy” is not 
applicable to them all. In any case it is 
the duty of the Agricultural Department 
not only to demonstrate improvements, 
but also to encourage, direct and other- 
wise assist the less enterprising culti- 
vators toadopt them. That his soil is 
suitable for transplanting there is no 
shadow of doubt. 


That the weakness of the small Chhat- 
tisgarhi bullock will stand in the way 
of extensive cultivation of any kind is 
evident; still there are already in every 
village a few fairly good buffaloes and 
bullocks of sufficient strength to do all 
the extra work required for transplant- 
ing On a moderate scale even under 
existing conditions. Next year the 
Department intends to make the condi- 
tions still more favourable for trans- 
planting by encouraging the cultivators 
to make a lighter datari specially for 
this work, and by letting out buffaloes 
on hire to cultivators at the rate of 
one pair for each area of 50 acres to be 
transplanted. 


In his inspection note on the work 
which is being carried out this year, 
Mr. B. P. Standen, I.c,s., C.1 E., Director 
of Agriculture, writes as follows :— 


‘‘There can be no doubt that trans- 
plantation has come to stay in Chhat- 
tisgarh. Nearly the whole of the 38,000 
acres now transplanted in this division 
liesin the zamindaris situated in the 
hills and jungles to the south, east and 
west. I am told that a great deal of 
this so-called transplantation consists 
rather of thinning by hand than of 
transplantation proper. All cultivators 
who have witnessed the demonstrations 
have been deeply impressed by the 
great saving of seed and the large 
increase in the outturn, The difficulties 
to be overcome before the area trans- 
planted will expand largely, are those 
mentioned in Mr. Sly’s inspection note, 
together with the scarcity of strong 
plough cattle andarumour started by 
ill-disposed persons, that all transplant- 


Hdible Products. 299 


ed land will be assessed to rent and 


revenue ata specially high rate. The 
Settlement Commissioner has promised 
to take steps to contradict this rumour, 
and, as the revenue of the greater part 
of Chhattisgarh is about to be fixed for 
twenty years, it is not likely to af- 
fect transplantation after the current 
year. 


At present the demonstration plots 
are confined toirrigable land, and it is 
desirable not to urge transplantion at 
present on unirrigable land, although it 
is safely practised on large areas in ‘the 
Wainganga valley, where the rainfall is 
somewhat higher (vide Mr. Cloustons’ 
para 1). ‘‘In that part of the country the 
rice bunds are generally higher and the 
fields hold more water than in Chhat- 
tisgarh, so that_risk of damage by 
drought is less. When once well estab- 
lished in the irrigable lands of Chhat- 
tisgarh, the practice will be readily 
extended to dry areas. There is no 
reason to suppose that the labour 
difficulty offers any serious obstacle. 
Labour is more plentiful than in the 
Wainganga valley, but the transplanters 
naturally work very slowly; with 
practice they will complete their tasks 
in one-third or one-quarter of the time, 
and cultivators will find that they have 
ample leisure for weeding the biast crop 
after transplantation is completed. In 
connection with this part of the subject, 
it may be mentioned that although the 
cost of weeding a biast crop properly 
is not less than that of transplanting 
rice on a simaller area, the Chhattisgarh 
very often weeds his crop very per- 
functorily, securing ne doubt a much 
smaller crop, but at the same time 
avoiding expenditure which he perhaps 
eannot afford without burrowing at a 
high rate of interest. To such a man 


the unavoidable expenditure on labour — 


in transplanting is a _ serious con- 


sideration, 


“The want of a sufficient number of 
strong cattle seems to be the most 
important obstacle at present. The 
Chhattisgarh bullock is the smallest and 
weakest in the Provinces, rarely more 
than 386” high behind the hump and 
always in very bad condition in July, 
when the heavy work of transplantation 
has to be got through. Buffaloes are 
used for all heavy work, and with the 
datarit used now, are indispensable to 
prepare the fields for transplantation. 
It may be possible for the little bullocks 
to pull thesmall dataris which will be 
tried next year; but for really thorough 
cultivation, 1 think, buffaloes will be 
required. There is now one pair of 
butfaloes for every 28 acres of rice land 


Oe 

[SHPTEMBER, 
in Raipur District including the zamin- 
daris ; but the proportion of buffaloes 
to rice is much smaller than this in the 
open parts of the Khalsa. It is found 
impossible to breed useful buffaloes in 
the open country, owing tothe absence 
of good grazing areas and the great heat 
of the shadeless plains; consequently 
all the buffaloes in the open country are 
imported. By far the greater number 
come from Rewah and Saugor, and are 
bought at from Rs. 60 to Rs. 80a pair. A 
few are brought from the zamindaris of 
Kauria and Bindra Nawagarh. In these 
remote places there is little demand for 
ghi, and the calves get most of the milk, 


so that they are fine strong animals 
and sell for double the price fetched by 


those from the nurth. They are conse- - 


quently less used. Transplantation, while 
increasing the demand for buffaloes, will 
provide the cultivator with the means 
of purchasing them, and we may hope 
thatin a short time the effective demand 
may so far increase as to make it 


worth the while of the inhabitants of 


the northern Feudatories to follow the 
example of their neighbours in Rewah, 
and send cattle to the ‘ Khaloti.’ Mean- 
time, we must do what we can by hiring 
out buffaloes to needy cultivators, as sug- 
gested by the Deputy Director of Agri- 
culture, by taccavi loans and possibly 
by co-operative credit to make smooth 
the rough path of progress under the 
feet of the conservative Chhattisgarh 
till he begins to cry ‘ Excelsior’ without 
prompting.” 


This note may fittingly end with the 
statement that if anormal crop is reaped 
this year, the additional profits put into 
the pockets of cultivators by the labours 
of Mr. Clouston, Mr. Tundilall Powar 
and their assistants will considerably 
exceed the whole of the annual expen- 
diture on their salaries and the cost of 
the experimental farm at Labandih. 


Transplanting should in future extend 
very rapidly in Chhattisgarh if the 
Agricultural Department continues to 
work on the present lines, Ofthe enor- 
mous gains which its introduction will 
mean to the farming community of this 
division, it is impossible to form any- 
thing like an adequate estimate. It 
should be possible within the next 
twenty years to raise the standard of 
cultivation to that already attained in 
Balaghat. For Chhattisgarh that would 
mean 1,926,450 acres of transplanted rice 
or an increase of 1,897,892 acres, which 
wouid increase the profits of the farming. 
community of this division by nearly 
four crores of rupees annually, 


ile Sen 1 a neh i Bae ada 
me 


. a THE SPICHS OF THE TROPICS. 
THEIR DISTRIBUTION, CULTIVATION 
AND USES. 


By H. F, MAcmrian. 
(Paper read before the Board of Agricul- 
ture, 2nd August, 1909.) 


From remote ages the Spices of the tropics 
have attracted traders from distant lands, and 
formed a lure for adventurous explorers. 
More especially can this be said of the spices 
of Southern Asia, as the cinnamon of 
Ceylon, nutmegs and cloves of the Moluccas, 
cardamoms, ginger, and pepper of Southern 
India. Some of the ancient cities of Europe 
are said to have been indebted for a large 
share of their wealth to the trade in tropical 
spices during the time of the Romans. 
Cinnamon, which has long made the name 
of Ceylon famous, was from the earliest 
times perhaps the most coveted of all spices. 
It is mentioned in the Songs of Solomon and 
in the Book of Proverbs; the Arabians 
supplied it to the Greeks and Romans, but 
jealously shrouded in mystery the sources 
of its origin and the manner of obtaining it. 
It is supposed that the spice, being first 
brought from Ceylon to the western coast of 
India, was carried to Arabia and Egypt by 
African and Arabian traders, finally reaching 
Europe after a journey of very many 
months. Cinnamon was for a long period a 
State monopoly in Ceylon, and its cultivation 
was not declared free until 1833. At one 
time, it is said, cinnamon was sold for 
£8 per lb., pepper at 10s. a lb., while other 
spices commanded similar fabulous prices. 
As recently as 1880 cardamoms were sold for 
over 9s.a lb. In 1826 the English import 
duty alone on pepper was 2s. 6d. a pound, 
on nutmegs and mace 3s. 6d. a pound each, 
on cloves 5s. 74d., while vanilla was taxed 
to the extent of nearly 17s. per lb, 


DISTRIBUTION OF SPICES. 


For a long period the uncultivated or wild 
trees of the forests furnished the world’s 
supply of spices, which were consequently 
confined to the natural habitat of the plants. 
Subsequently the spread and cultivation of 
spice-producing plants was for along time 
retarded by the system of State monopoly 
established by the Dutch in the principal 
spice-producing countries. So severe, for in- 
stance, was the Dutch consorship in regard 
to Cinnamon in Ceylon that an infringe- 
ment was, it is said, punishable even by 
death. The history of Cloves, Nutmegs and 
Pepper at the hands of the Dutch in the 
Malay Archipelago might be told in similar 
language, the plants being either deliberately 
destroyed, or their cultivation enforced to 
suit the circumstances. An amusing story 
told in this connection is that the Home 
Dutch Government once despatched orders 


rer, 1000.) 2 


3 Edible Products. 


to theiv Colonial Governor requesting him to 
reduce the number of Nutmeg trees, but to 
increase the cultivation of Mace trees, being 
of course ignorant of the fact that both 
spices were produced by thesame tree. But 
this is an error which is not uncommon 
even nowadays. Sir Hugh Clifford in- 
forms us how the clove tree became extinct 
in the islands of Tidor and Ternate by 
being deliberately destroyed by the Dutch, 
in their endeavour to secure their monopoly 
of the spice by confining the tree to Am- 
boyna. Notwithstanding the severe restric- 
tions of the Dutch, however, the escape of the 
precious spice plants to other countries 
gradually took place, both by smuggling 
and by the agency of migrating birds, Of 
the latter the principal culprit was a kind of 
pigeon, which extracted the nutmeg from 
its pulpy covering, digested the mace, and 
voided the seed uninjured. The French 
succeeded in 1770 in introducing the Clove 
tree into Mauritius and Reunion, from 
whence it soon reached Zanzibar, &c. A 
striking result of this is that the world’s 
greatest supply of cloves now comes. from 
these Islands, and not from the native home 
of the tree, the Moluccas. Similarly Jamaica 
obtained Ginger from India, and has long 
practically commanded the supply of that 
product; and the same may be said of 
Reunion and Seychelles in regard to the 
production of Vanilla, whose native home 
is South America. Now with the free inter- 
change of plants from one country to another, 
followed by systematic methods of cultiva- 
tion, the supply of spices has increased many- 
fold, prices have been reduced so as to bring 
the articles within the reach of all com- 
munities, while the consumption and demand 
have enhanced in proportion. 


THE IMPORTANCE OF SPICES, 


Spices form one of the most important 
classes of vegatable products, Not only do 
they contain valuable medicinal properties, 
but their presence renders agreeable articles 
of food which are otherwise unpalatable. 
When used judiciously in cooking they aid 
the digestion by their effect in increasing 
the secretion of the gastric fluids; to the 
confectioner they are particularly essential, 
and are largely used for his purpose, more 
especially on the Continent of Europe; 
while in the preparation of superior bever- 
ages they are also important. In medicine 
certain spices, especially ginger, cardamoms, 
and cloves hold a very important place, and 
doctors also find them indispensable in 
disguising nauseous decoctions. The anti- 
septic properties of spices, especially cloves, 
due to their volatile oils, is well known, and 
for preservative purposes both in domestic and 
scientific uses, they are often unsurpassed. 
The appropriateness of spices to sacred 
uses has long been recognised, being 
always a favourite ingredient for burning 
in incense, while in certain social customs 


Edible Products. 


of oriental countries ‘spices are to this 


day used as an emblem of happiness. 
It is recorded, J believe, that spices 
were used in the funeral piles of the 


Egyptian Kings, and that the extravagant 
Nero burnt at the obsequies of his wife ‘‘a 
quantity of cinnamon and cassia exceeding 
in amount the whole importation into Rome 
for one year.” Finally, not the least virtue 
of certain spices is their effect in sweetening 
the breath of persons who are addicted to 
masticating habits, popularly known locally 
as betel-chewing. For this purpose  car- 
damoms especially are esteemed in India and 
Ceylon, star-anise in China, while the 
disguising effect of cloves is well-known to 
genteel topers of other climes. Certain 
authorities consider that the presence of 
spices has a beneficial effect on climate, their 
volatile oils acting as a preventive against 
mosquitoes and other germ-carrying insects. 

The following are the principal spices of 
the tropics in alphabetical order. These do 
not include the spices of temperate or warm- 
temperate countries, such as carraway, 
cumin, &c. 


DESCRIPTION, CULTIVATION AND USES 

OF SPICES. 

S,=Sinhalese, T.=Tamil. 
Order. 


Allspice; Pimento; ‘* Jamaica Pepper” 
(Pimento officinalis, N. O. Myrtaceze),— A 
small, smooth and white-barked tree, 25 or 30 
feet high, native of the West Indies and Cen- 
tral America, The dried unripe berries, which 
are of the size of small peas, are the Allspice 
or Pimento of commerce. The name ‘all- 
spice” is due to a supposed resemblance of 
the spice to a combination of the odour and 
flavour of cinnamon, nutmegs and cloves, 
The tree has been introduced into Ceylon 
over a century ago and establihsed at Pera- 
deniya, where it flowers in the dry weather, 
and occasionally sets a few fruits, but out- 
side the Botanic Gardens it is rarely met 
with in this country. It is considered to 
yield best in a hot and rather dry climate, 
and prefers a loose loamy or alluvial, well- 
drained soil. In Jamaica the berries are 
picked by hand while green, but just ripe, 
and then dried in the sun, the latter process 
taking 6 to 10 days. The fruits are known 


N. O.=Natural 


to be sufficiently dry when the seeds rattle — 


on shaking, and are of a dark colour. A 
crop cannot be expected within six or seven 
years, and when in full bearing a tree will 
yield a hundredweight of the dried spice, 
Jamaica is the only country that exports 
this spice. Allspice is sold at present in 
England at about 2d. to 3d. per Ib. 

Pimento oil, which is obtained by distil- 
lation from Allspice leaves, is imported into 
London and scld for 2s. 9d. to 3s, 6d. per Ib. 

Allspice, lemon-scented (Pimenta citrifolia, 
N. O, Myrtacez.)—This distinct spice-tree 


224 


- eg ae 


ers 


[SEPTEMBER, 1909, — > 


was introduced from Dominica to Peradeniya 
in 1888, and has become perfectly estab- 
lished here, being now about 30 feet high, 
of an erect slender habit; but it has not yet 
fruited, The leaves upon being bruised 
have a dehghtful lemon-scented odour. 


Allspice, Carolina (Calycanthus floridus, 
N. O. Calycanthacez).—A hardy shrub of 
North America, the wood and roots of which 
are of a spicy nature, and smell strongly 
of camphor, 

Allspice, Japan (Chimonanthus fragrans, 
N. O. Calycanthacee),— A shrub with smal} 
pale yellow flowers. Suited for high eleva- 
tions only. 


Bay-rum Tree, or ‘* Wild Cloves” (Pimenta 
acris, N. O. Myrtacee)—A small West 
Indian tree, the aromatic leaves of which 
yield by distillation an oil which is used in 
the preparation of Bay-rum. The tree has 
been established at Peradeniya, and may be 
seen in the spice collection there. The dried 
leaves are exported from Dominica and other 
West Indian Islands to America, &c, 


Cardamoms ; ‘‘Enasal,” S. (Elettaria Carda- 
momum, N. O. Scitamineeae),—-A perennial 
with large leafy shoots, 8 to 15 feet long, and 
strong creeping root-stock (rhizome), native 
of the moist forests of Ceylon and Southern 
India, up to 3,000 feet. In cultivation it 
thrives best at 2,500 to 3,500 feet, provided 
sufficient forest trees are left. to afford pro- 
tection from strong wind and sun. ‘The 
spice consists of the fruit, or rather the 
numerous small seeds enclosed by the green 
ovoid capsule. The fruits are gathered be- 
fore they are fully ripe, washed free from 
sand, &c., and then subjected to sulphur 
fumes, after which they are bleached in 
the sun; when dried and ready for export 
they are of a pale straw colour, As they 
vary in size and shape, from 4 to 3 inch 
long, and from oblong to oval or almost 
round, they are graded for export. Carda- 
moms are a powerful aromatic and are used 
chiefly in confectionery, as an ingredient in 
curry powder, and also in medicine. The 
seeds are much esteemed by the natives for 
use with masticatories, or for sweetening 
the breath. The plants are increased by 
division of the ‘bulbs” (rhizomes), or by 
sowing seed in well-prepared nursery beds. 
In, planting out, 2 to 4 ‘* bulbs” or plants are 
placed in each hole or clump, these being 7 or 

feet apart each way, or about 850 to the 
acre, Asmall crop may be expected in three 
years from the time of planting, and from 
the 6th year a return of 250 Ib. to 500 Ib. per 
acre may be obtained according to cultiva- 
tion, nature of the soil, &e, The plants are 
in bearing all the year round, the crop being 
gathered once every fortnight or three 
weeks ; the fruits must be cut by scissors, not 
pulled by hand. Cardamoms now fetch from 
1s, 5d. to 3s. per 1b, in London, Twenty years 
ago they were sold foras high as 9s. a pound, 


SEPTEMBER, 1909,] 


The total export from Ceylon for 1908 was 
715,418 lbs., and the highest price realised 
was about 2s, 7d. per lb. 


Varieties.—‘* Malabar Cardamom” is dis- 
tinguishéd by the leaves being softly pubes- 
cent on the under side, and the flower- 
racemes having a tendency to trail near the 
ground. ‘‘Mysore Cardamom” has the 
leaves glabrous onboth sides, and the flower- 
racemes are of amore erecthabit, The latter 
variety is therefore preferred for cultivation, 
as the fruits, being further from the ground, 
are not so liable to get damaged as those 
of the trailing racemes. 


Cassia Bark; Cassia Lignea, or Chinese 
Cassia (Cinnamomwm Cassia, N. O. Lau- 
racez),—A small tree, 20 to 30 feet high, with 
long lanceolate brittle leaves, allied to the 
Cinnamon. The tree is a native of Southern 
China, and has been introduced in 1882 to 
Peradeniya, where it is now well established, 
bearing seed each year in July and August. 
The whole tree is pleasantly aromatic. In 
its native country it is cultivated for its fruit 
“‘buds” or for the bark, the latter being 
peeled off much in the same way as cinna- 
mon, and made up in bundles for export. 
The first crop of bark is said to be obtained 
when the trees are about six years old, 
the yield per acre being‘‘about 11 piculs 
(1 picul=1334 lb.), which is sold by the pro- 
ducers for about $1°50 per picul, t.e., $18°50 per 
acre.” In addition to this, however, a yearly 
income is made from the sale of leaves and the 
dried unripe fruits, the latter being exported 
as ‘* Cassia Buds,” which are esteemed as a 
spice, especially for confectionery. The tree 
is propagated from seed, and requires similar 
conditions of soil and climate as Cinnamon. 


Chillies, or Capsicums; ‘‘ Miris” or ‘* Gas- 
miris,” S,; ‘* Cochika,” T, (Capsicwm spp., 
N. O. Solanaceze),—Small annual or bien- 
nial herbaceous, shrubby plants, cultivated 
throughout the tropics for the sake of their 
pungent fruits, which are usually an in- 
dispensable spice in the food of people in 
tropical countries, more especially that of 
the natives. The fruits are also used in 
pickles and sauces, in the manufacture of 
‘** Cayenne pepper,’ andin medicine. Though 
all are generally known as ‘‘ chillies” or 
““capsicums,” there are many species or 
varieties, such as Capsicwmannwum (Red- 
pepper), C. baccatum and C, minimum (Bird- 
pepper or Guinea-pepper), C. frutescens Goat 
or Spur-pepper), C, tetragonwm (Bonnet- 
pepper), C. fastigiatum (from Japan), &c. 
Some forms of chillies known as “ Bell 
Japsicums,” are entirely free from the acrid 
and burning pungency so characteristic of 
these fruits, and may be eaten cooked as a 
vegetable o1 in salads, Chillies thrive best 
in loose humous soil, which must be well- 
tilled, and will grow up to 3,000 feet or more 
above sea-level. Seeds may be sown in beds 
or boxes, the seedlings being planted out in 

29 


225 


Edible Products. 


well prepared ground when 3 to 4 inches high, 
at distances of about 2feet apart, or at the 
rate of 10,800 plants to the acre, A crop is 
obtained in about 8 months, and the yield may 
be from 1,000 lbs. to 1,400 lbs. dried chillies 
per acre. Chillies sellin London at 30s. to 
45s, per cwt., the ‘* Nepaul chillies usually 
fetching the highest price, these being some- 
times sold in London for £4 per cwt, 
Chillies are largely exported from Zanzibar, 
India, Natal, West Indies, &c. 


Cinnamon ; ‘‘ Kurundu,” S, (Cinnamomum 
zeylanicum, N.O, Lauracez).—A moderate 
or large-sized tree, 40 to 60 feet high, native 
of Ceylon and South India. In cultivation 
it is coppiced low, so as to induce the growth 
of long straight clean shoots, which are cut 
peviodically, close to the ground, for the 
bark, The young clean bark is slit longitu- 
dinally and removed by the “‘peelers”; it is 
then piled into heaps to undergo a slight 
fermentation, a process which facilitates the 
next operation of removing the cuticle or 
epidermis, which is done by scraping with a 
curved knife. The bark then dries and con- 
tracts into quills, the smaller of which are 
placed inside the larger, forming smooth canes 
about 8 feet long and, when dry, of a light 
yellowish brown colour. These are made into 
bales of about 1001bs. for export, Two cuttings 
a year are obtained, commencing with the 
rainy seasons, in May and October ; the shoots 
cut are mostly of 2 years’ growth. A return 
of a bale of 100 lbs, per acre may be expected 
from the first crop, in the 4th or 5th year 
from time of planting, the yield increasing 
each year until the 8th or 10th year, when 
as much as three bales per acre may be ob- 
tained, The present price of cinnamon in 
London is about 7d, to 10d, per 1b. The 
tree is propagated by cuttings, layers, 
transplanted stumps, or by seed; seedling 
plants from nurseries, though usually 
taking longer to yield a return, are often 
preferred. The plants are put out in the 
field at a distance of about 10 feet apart, 
or approximately 435 to the acre. A light 
sandy porous soil produces the best cinna- 
mon; the tree thrives up to about 2,000 ft. 
in the moist zone. ‘‘Cinnamon Chips” are 
the small waste pieces resulting from the 
cutting and peeling operations, and are 
exported chiefly for the distillation of 
‘*Cinnamon oil,” The latter is also manu- 
factured locally to some extent and exported. 
There are several varieties of Cinnamon, the 
principal being ‘‘Penni” or ‘‘Rasa-kurundu,” 
Tittha-kurundu,” and ‘‘ Kahata-kurundu,”’ 
all Sinhalese names. Cinnamon was the first 
article of importance exported from Ceylon, 
andatone time was sold in Europe for 
fabulous prices. 


Clove; °*‘Karabu,” S. (HLugenia caryo- 
phyllata, N. O. Myxtaceze).—A small conical 
tree, 30 to 40 feet high, native of the Moluc- 
cas, introduced and established in Ceylon 


Hadible Products. 


before the arrival of the British, The 
cloves are the dried unexpanded flower buds, 
These are picked green, usually during 
January and February in Ceylon, and being 
spread in the sun for a few days to dry 
they become brown. The tree likes a rich 
sandy soil on sloping land, and thrives up to 
1,500 feet. It is propagated by seed, which 
takes 5 or 6 weeks to germinate. The seed- 
lings, which are of very slow growth, may be 
planted out when 12 or15_ inches high, at 
distances of 25 ft. apart. The first crop may 
be obtained when the treesare 7 to 8 years 
old, the yield increasing until they are about 
15 or 20 years old, when 8 lbs, to 10 Ibs, of 
dried cloves per tree may be obtained. Zanzi- 
bar and Pemba furnish by far the greater 
part of the world’s supply of cloves, Penang 
and Amboyna coming next in importance as 
sources of supply. The present price of cloves 
in London varies from 8d. to 1s. 2d. per lb. 


Madagascar Clove, or Clove-nutmeg 
(Ravensara aromatica, N.O, Lauracez),— 
A medium-sized tree, 30 to 40 feet high, 
with smallleathery leaves, nativeof Mada- 
gascar, introduced at Peradeniya in 1847, 
The whole tree is strongly aromatic. The 
round fruits, of the size of marbles, have a 
large hard kernel which seems to combine 
the odour of nutmeg and clove, and is said to 
be used and esteemed as a spice in its native 
country, being also exported in small quan- 
tities to Europe, The tree is propagated by 
seed, and is suited to the moist low-country 
under 1,500 ft. altitude, 


Brazil Clove (Dicypelliwm caryophyllatum, 
N. O. Lauracez).—A tree of Brazil, the 
‘¢ cloves” of which are said to be remarkable 
for their fine aroma, being largely employed 
in their native country for flavouring as well 
as for medicinal purposes. The bark fur- 
nishes ‘‘ Clove Cassia,” 


Ginger ; “ Inguru,”S., ‘‘Inji,” T. (Zingiber 
officinale, N. O. Scitaminez),—A herbaceous 
perennial, with leafy shoots which grow to a 
height of about 18 inches, native of tropical 
Asia, but introduced and cultivated in all 
tropical countries. The underground tuber- 
ous stems (rhizomes), resembling thickened 
roots, are the ginger of commerce, These 
are called ‘‘hands” or ‘‘races,” from their 
palmate shape, and are exported in two 
forms, ‘‘ peeled,” and ‘‘ unpeeled” (or coated 
and uncoated) ginger. The former is_ pre- 
pared by scalding the tubers in boiling water, 
the epidermis being then removed by a 
narrow bladed knife. Unpeeled or coated 
ginger (i.e., not deprived of the epidermis) 
is merely washed, and then dried in the sun, 
The rhizomes are exported in bags or barrels, 
andare sold in London at from 40s. to 
60s. or more per cwt. according to quality. 
Jamaica ginger invariably commands the 
highest price, Calicut or Cochin ginger 
usually coming second. The plant requires 
an equable hot and moist climate, a shaded 


226 


Fe 


(SEPTEMBER, 1909. 


situation, a rich well-tilled, humous or 
loamy soil, and thrives up to 3,500 ft. in 
Ceylon. Itis propagated by division of the 
tubers or rhizomes, which are planted in 
rows 2ft, apart, with 16 inches between the 
plants in the rows. A harvest is yielded 
about 10 months from the time of planting, 
when the leaves begin to wither. Under 
favourable circumstances an acre will yield 
from 2,000 to 3,000 lbs. or more dried ginger. 
Ginger has long been highly valued for medi- 
cinal purposes, especially in England; it is 


oer 
ee 


also esteemed in preserves and confectionery. — 


Preserved ginger is prepared chiefly in 
China, where the plantis largely grown, 


Grains of Paradise, Guinea Grains, or 
Melegueta Pepper (Amomwm Melegueta, 
N. O. Scitaminez).—A herbaceous perennial, 
allied to the Ginger and Cardamom plants, 
native of West Tropical Africa, The small 
dark aromatic seeds are imported from 
the Gold Coast into Europe, where they 
are used chiefly in cattle medicine, for 
flavouring cordials, and for imparting an 
artificial strength ito spirits, wine and 
beer. In Africa they are largely used 
by the natives to season food, and are con- 
sidered very wholesome. It is said that 
about 1,000 ewt. of this spice is imported 
annually into England, and sold for 80s. to 
90s. per cwt. 


Mace; ‘* Wasa-vasi,” S., ‘‘ Poolie,” T.— 
This consists of the net-like wrapper (aril) 
surrounding the nutmeg, inside the husk 
(see Nutmeg). At first scarlet, it becomes 
yellowish brown with drying and exposure. 
Mace is a much esteemed spice in Europe 
and America, being used in confectionery 
and for culinary purposes. In yield the 
proportion of mace should be about one-fifth 
in weight of that of the nutmegs, and 100 of 
the latter will produce about 33 oz. dried 
mace. Good pale to fine red mace fetches 
from 1s. 4d, to 2s. 3d. per lb. in London. 


Nutmeg; ‘‘Sadikka” S. (Myristica fra- 
grans, N. O. Myrtacez).—A medium-sized 
tree, 30 to 50 ft. high, native of the Moluccas, 


‘introduced into Ceylon about 1804, now 


often met with cultivated in the low-country. 
The ‘‘nutmeg” of shops is the hard brown 
oval kernel of the fruit, Immediately sur- 
rounding it is the scarlet aril or mace in the 
form of a net, next to which is the thick 
fleshy juicy husk. The pale amber fruit 
much resembles a peach or an apricot in 
form and appearance. When ripe the husk 
splits and discloses the nut covered with the 
mace, The nuts drop to the ground, when 


they are collected and separated from the — 


mace ; both are then dried separately in the 
sun or in heated sheds. When exported the 
nuts are graded ; 70 to 120 or more go to a 
pound, these fetching at present in London 

about 8d. to 1s. 4d. and 43d. to 10}d. per Ib, 
respectively, the largest size commanding 
the highest price. The tree thrives best in 


deep loamy and well-drained soil, in a 
hot and moist climate, and up to 1,500 
ft. elevation. Being dicecious—that is, the 
male and female flowers are borne 
on separate trees—it is impossible to tell 
to which sex a tree belongs until it 
flowers. The proportion of one male to 10 
or 12 female trees (or 10 males to an acre) 
should be enough for ensuring fertilization 
of the flowers of the latter. The trees 
become productive at the age of 7 to 8 years 
of age, and increase in yield till they reach 
about 30 years, when the crop may be 3,000 
to 5,000 or more nuts per tree ; they produce 
two crops a year, and continue to be pro- 
ductive for very many years, Trees about 
70 years old in Peradeniya Gardens bear 
heavy cropsannually, Propagation is usually 
by seed, which take about three months to 
germinate. Sow in pots or boxes under 
cover or in a well-prepared bed in a shady 
corner, cover with aninch of fine soil, and 
water daily in dry weather; artificial shade 
is beneficial until the seeds are germinated. 
When the seedlings are old enough to handle, 
transfer them to baskets or bamboo pots, 
and plant out in permanent places when 
8 or 10 inches high, at distances of about 
30 ft. apart. Owing to the uncertainty of 
the proportion of male and female plants 
when raised from seed, propagation by bud- 
ding or grafting should as far as possible 
be resorted to. : 


Calabash Nutmeg, also called ‘‘ Jamaica 
Nutmeg ” (Monodora Myristica, N. O. Anona- 
cee).—A small tree of Western Tropical 
Africa, with large leaves and sweet-scented 
fiowers, introduced to Peradeniya in 1897. 
The large globular fruits contain a number 
of aromatic seeds whose odour and flavour 
are considered to resemble those of the nut- 
meg proper, The tree is suited to the moist 
low-country, and thrives in moderately good 
soil. It has not as yet flowered or fruited 
at Peradeniya, 


There are other so-called nutmegs, which 
are of little or no importance as a spice, 
such as the ‘‘ Brazil Nutmeg” (Cryptocarya 
moschata, N. O. Lauracez); ‘‘Clove Nut- 
meg” (See ‘*Medagascar Clove”), the 
Papua Nutmeg (Myristica argentea), and 
the ““Wild Nutmeg” of India and Ceylon 
(Myristica laurifolia). 


Pepper, ‘‘Black” or ‘‘White,”; ‘*Gam- 
miris,” S.; ‘*Molavu,” T. (Piper nigrum. 
N. O. Piperacez).—A creeping vine indi- 
genous to the moist low-country forests of 
Ceylon and South India. Both ‘ black” 
and ‘‘ white” peppers are obtained from the 
same plant. The berries (pepper-corns) 
when of a reddish colour are picked 
and spread in the sun, when they become 
black and shrivelled, This when ground 
with the outer covering left on, forms 
‘Black-pepper.” By depriving the fruits 


227 


Edible Products. 


or ‘‘corns” of the black covering by macer- 
ation in water, ‘‘ white-pepper” is obtained. 
The pepper vine requires a moist heat with 
shade, and thrives up to 1,500 feet above sea- 
level. Artificial or natural supports, in the 
form of posts or trees, are necessary, the 
latter being preferable and more durable, 
Erythrina, Mango, Jak and other quick- 
growing trees answer well the purpose 
of supports, while they also provide a 
light shade, which is beneficial. In Sumatra 
and Malaya posts of some hard and 
durable wood are generally used for sup- 
ports. Propagation is best by cuttings, 
which should be selected from the ends of 
the best bearing vines, and may either be 
started in a nursery bed, or put out in situ 
where they are to remain. A crop may be 
expected in the third year from pianting, 
but the vines will not be in full bear- 
ing till the sixth or seventh year. 
The pepper vine yields two crops a 
year, and with good cultivation a return 
of 2,000 to 3,000 lbs. per acre should be 
obtained, allowing for the plants to be 
planted 7 feet by 7 feet, 01 880 to the acre. 
The most economical method of Pepper cul- 
tivation is to grow the vines on trees which 
are used for shades for other crops, as 
‘**Dadaps” in Tea or Cocoa. Pepper plants 
will continue to yield good crops for 25 to 
30 years. The present market price of 
pepper in London is from 3$d. to 4d, per lb., 
and the chief sources of supply are Penang, 
Sumatra, and Malabar. 


Pepper, Cayenne.—This is made by drying 
and grinding the smaller and most pungent 
kinds of chillies, as the fruits of Capsicwm 
annuum and C. frutescens. The Cayenne- 
pepper of shops is usually adulterated with 
flour or other powders. 

Pepper, Long—consists of the unripe fruit- 
ing spike of Piper longum dried in the sun, 
The plant is a native of India and Ceylon, 
and is cultivated in parts of India, ‘‘Long 
pepper ” is used chiefly in medicine, being less 
pungent than ‘‘black” or ‘‘ white” pepper. 


Pepper, Japan (Xanthoxylon piperitwm. 
N. O, Xanthoxylacez).—A deciduous tree 
of Japan, the black aromatic pungent fruits 
of which resemble pepper-corns, and are 
used as a spice in Japan. 


Pepper, Negro; MHthiopian, or West 
African pepper (Xylopia aromutica, N. QO. 
Anonacez).—A tall shurb, native of Western 
Africa, producing clusters of pod-like fruits 
which are about 2 inches long. These have 
aromatic and pungent properties, and when 
dried are used in West Tropical Africa 
instead of pepper. 


Star Anise (Illiciwm verum, N. O. Magno- 
liaceze),—A shrub or small tree, native of 
Southern China, where it is cultivated for 
the sake of the fruits, which when vipe burst 
open and spread out in the form of a star, 


Edible Products. 


The whole fruit is agreeably fragrant and 
aromatic, and in China and Japan is much 
used as a condiment in cookery, also for 
chewing after meals to sweeten the breath 
and as a digestive, It forms an important 
article of commerce in the Far East, and 
is imported into Europe and America to 
some extent for flavouring liqueurs and 
spirits, being the chief flavouring ingredi- 
ent in the French “‘ Anissette de Bordeaux.” 
An aromatic oil is obtained from the fruit by 
distillation resembling Oil-of-anise. Seeds 
have been obtained on diffferent occasions 
and sown at Peradeniya, but never ger- 
minated. It is said that the Chinese always 
take good care to boil the seed before it leaves 
the country, so as to maintain the monopoly 
of the spice. The Japanese Star Anise is 
the fruit of Illiciwmn onisatwm, which has 
somewhat the odour of Bay leaves. 


Turmeric, ‘‘ Kaha,” S. (Curcwma longa, 
N. O. Scitaminez).—A pereninial herb, 
about 2 feet high, cultivated throughout 
tropical Asia. The rhizome or tuberous 
voots, which are of a yellow colour and a 
waxy resinous consistency, are ground into 
a fine orange-yellow powder, which has an 
aromatic taste somewhat resembling ginger. 
It is commonly used as a condiment in 
Native cookery, and is a prominent consti- 
tuent of curry powder ; it is also employed 
in India for dyeing wool and silk. ‘Turmeric 
is cultivated in India, whence it is chiefly 
exported to Europe, &c. The annual yield 
is from 12,000 to 16,000 Ibs, per acre. 
Turmeric fetches at present in London 5d. 
to 7d. per lb. The plant is propagated by 
the rhizomes, or division of the crown, and 
is suited to loose rich soil under partial 
shade, in a hot and moist climate up to 2,000 
feet. Cultivation same as for Ginger. 


Vanilla (Vanilla planifolia, N, O, Orchi- , 


dez).—A creeping vine with long fleshy 
leaves, native of Mexico, and introduced 
into Ceylon in 1847. ‘‘ Vanilla Beans” are 
the dried and cured pod-like fruits, so 
much esteemed from early times for flavour- 
ing purposes, Vanillin, the flavouring sub- 
stance of Vanilla, has of late been pro- 
duced artificially, and this together with 
over-production of the natural article has 
resulted in making the latter a less profitable 
cultivation. The vine thrives best in a hot 
and fairly humid climate, from sea-level 
to about 1,500 feet; it requires support in 
the form of light-foliaged trees, or trellises 
of bamboo, &c., anda mound of humous 
soil or leaf-mould should be placed round 
its roots at the base. Among the best live 
supports for Vanilla are Physic-nut (Jatropha 
Curcas), Calabash (Crescentia Cujete), 
Erythrinas, and the Temple Tree (Plwmiera 
alba). Cuttings of the vine from three to 
six feet long should be planted against the 
trees or other supports, and tied up to these 
until established. At the end of 18 months 


228 


{<a ae 
[SEPTEMBER, 1909. fe 


the plants should be pruned back to induce 
accessible branches. crop may be ex- 
pected in three years from the time of plant- 
ing. The principal flowering season of the 
vine in Ceylon is April to May. Owing to 
the construction of the flowers it is neces- 
sary to pollinate or ‘‘marry” them by 
hand, as otherwise no fruits will set. The 
marrying process must be done in the 
morning or forenoon ; the operation consists 
of lifting the adhesive pollen masses on a 
pencil and bringing these in contact with the 
viscid stigmatic surface. An expert can 
pollinate from 600 to 700 flowers in half a 
day. Not more than six flowers in a 
cluster should be fertilised, and a vine 
should not be made to bear more than 
25 to 30 pods, half that number being 
sufficient for a weak plant, The fruits are 
ready for gathering in six to nine months 
after fertilisation of the flowers, the proper 
state for harvesting being indicated by a 
slight yellowing at the end of pods. The 
latter when collected are dipped into almost 
boiling water, then placed in the sun to dry, 
after which they are ‘‘ sweated,”—that is, 
rolled up in blankets every evening and placed 
in aclosed box to ferment, being spread in 
the sun during each day. This process is 
continued for 8 or 10 days, when the pods 
will have become brown and pliable. When 
cured, vanillin accumulates as crystals on 
the pods. Pods which are inclined to 
split should be tied up at the end with a 
piece of thread. If for export, it is neces- 
sary to further dry and occasionally turn 
the pods under cover for five or six weeks, 
when they may be graded, made up in 
pound-packets and packed in soldered tins. 
On an average 125 cured pods will weigh a 
pound. They are usually exported in boxes 
of 12 lbs. An acre of good Vanilla with 
about 680 plants is considered to give a 
return of about 200 lbs, of cured pods. The 
price of vanilla fluctuates from about 8s, to 
18s, per lb. 


Vanillon or Vanillos (Vanilla pompona). 
—A native also of Mexico, yielding an in- 
ferior quality of vanilla known by the : 
names of ‘‘ Vanillon” or ‘* Vanillos.” It 
is claimed, however, to have advantages 
over the Vanilla, its pods not having a 
tendency to split, as well as being easily 
cured, whilst the vines are said to flower 
three or four times during the year. 


THE QUALITY OF TEA. 


(From the Chemist and Drugist, Vol. 
LXXIV., No. 1534, June 1909.) 


The subject of what factors determine 
the quality of tea, and of the best 
methods of improving the quality of 
certain grades, has long occupied the 
attention of tea-growers, and has re- 


; 


oe pe ge eal a ' ” 


(SEPTEMBER, 1909.]__ 


cently been most exhaustivelv studied 
by Dr. Harold H. Mann, Scientific 
Officer to the Indian Tea Association, 
who has embodied the results of his 
observations and experiments in pam- 
phlet form. Hitherto no satisfactory 
explanation of the variation in the 
qualities of different teas has been forth- 
coming, and a complete answer cannot, 
in Dr. Mann’s opinion, be given, Tea 
owes its value principally to three 
constituents : (1) Hssential oil, produc- 
ing the flavour; (2) caffeine or theine, 
producing the stimulating action; and 
(83) tannin, giving the astringency and, 
when fermented, the colour to the 
liquor. The essential oil, though often 
spoken of, is in reality a material of 
which extremely little is known. It 
can only be said that itis an oily body 
which can be driven off from the tea at 
a high temperature, especially along 
with the steam when the leaf is wet. 
On exposure tothe atmosphere the oil 
quickly changes into a resin with a very 
marked tea-like smell. It is evidently 
one of the chief factors in determining 
flavour in tea. It is equally certain that 
caffeine is the principal stimulating 
material in tea, and for long its quantity 
was supposed to bear, therefore, a close 
relationship to the market value. This 
supposition is now proved to be quite 
unfounded, and though the medicinal 
value of tea may vary with the quantity 
of caffeine, the market value certainly 
does not. It is, however, present in 
quantities which may vary from 3 to5 
per cent. in good teas, and in the lowest 
grades it may go down to2 ors per 
cent. The third constituent of tea of 
primary importance is tannin. This has 
generally, if not always, been  con- 
sidered by the medical profession as the 
objectionable part of tea; but the value 
of tea in the market, on the other hand, 
seems to be closely connected with the 
quantity of tannin easily extracted from 
the tea by boiling water. The tea, in 
fact, containing the most tannin, 
usually have the greater value unless 
possessed of less flavour—a fact which 
was proved by Dr. B.H. Paul some years 
ago. If teas possessing marked flavour 
be eliminated and the total soluble 
matter and tannin be determined and 
considered together, it is possible to 
form a fair ideaof the market value of 
a tea so far as it depends on the liquor 
given on infusion. The tannin is, asa 
matter of fact, the chief, if not the only, 
source of pungency in teas, particularly 
when inan unfermented condition, and 
when changed by fermetation it is the 
principal factor determining the colour 
of the liquor. Thus the market points 
which have value in a tea-liquor may be 
said to be chiefly caused as follows :— 


229 Edible Products. 


(a) FLAVouR.—Caused principally by 
the essential oil. 

(6) PUNGENCY.--Caused in great mea- 
sure by the unfermented tannin. 


(c) CoLouR oF LIquor.—Caused chiefly 
by the fermented tannin, 

d) Bopy or Liquor.—Measured prin- 
cipally by the total soluble matter, of 
which a large partis tannin, fermented 
and. unfermented. 


Apart from flavour, itis evident that 
the constituents which it is important 
to investigate from a commercial point 
of view are (1) the sum total of sub- 
stances capable of being dissolved under 
tea-drinking conditions, and (2) the 
fannin in. all its various forms. 


The principal factors leading to the 
production of quality are stated by 
Dr. Mann to be: 


1, Elevation and ina measure latitude. 
2. ; Rey, and sufficiency of rain- 
all. 


3. Variety of plant. 


4, Special character of soil and manur- 
ing, 

5. Kind of pruning. 

6. Method of plucking. 


lad 


7. System of manufacture. 


Each of these factors has its influence, 
aud these are exhaustively considered 
by Dr. Mann, who says it has too often 
been the first maxim learnt by a young 
planter that ‘‘ good tea is made inthe 
garden and not in the factory,” con- 
sequently comparative neglect of im- 
provement and of close supervision and 
care in the factory has been the result. 
Now itis being more and more recognised 
that while good tea can be made by no 
known process from inferior leaf, in a 
vast number of cases the tea actually 
produced is inferior to what could, by 
closer supervision and better-regulated 
manufacture, be made from the same 
leaf. It is established, therefore, that 
while no one factor has been found 
paramount, there is ample reason to 
believe that good tea is the result of an 
enormous number of detailed causes, 
some under the control of a planter, 
some beyond his power, and some 
beyond his knowledge. But once this 
is realised, and it is becoming in- 
creasingly realised in the Indian tea 
districts, it will become obvious that 
tea-planting merits more detailed study 
than has been given to it in the past. 


‘The Lancet,” in an annotation on 
tea, some time since said that the con- 
troversy has long been settled in the 
minds of scientific men, but has been 
revived by trade partisans also the 


Edible Products. 93) 


argument in favour of China tea on the 
ground that it is far less astringent 
than is Indian tea rests on a scientific 
basis, and that they are content to 
leave the controversy there. Again, it 
says, if a dyspeptic is permitted to take 
tea at all it should be China tea, since 
analysis has shown again and again it is 
less likely to derange a delicate digestive 
system. The adding of milk to tea is 
considered in the circumstances a per- 
fectly physiological, if not esthetic, 
proceeding, as the infusion of a powerful 
Indian tea would produce infinitely more 
harm than it does. 


THE CULTIVATION OF SWEET 
POTATOES. 


(From the Queensland Agricultural 
Journal, Vol. XXIII., Part 1, July, 1909.) 

The sweet potato, so-called, is botani- 
cally not related to the English potato, 
but to the Convolvulacez, and is scienti- 
fically known as Convolvulus batata or 
Batata edulis; also, rarely as Iponvea 
batata. The convolvulus-like flowers 
frequently produced by the plant often 
produce seed from which new varieties 
have been raised: The plant is culti- 
vated in the first instance forthe sake 
of its roots, which often grow to a very 
large size ; and, secondly, for its spread- 
ing vines, which, under certain condi- 
tions, afford food for stock, although they 
should be sparingly used for this pur- 
pose, since, like sorghum, they contain a 
certain amount of a poisonous element. 
The leaves when cooked make a good 
vegetable, resembling spinach in flavour 
and appearance. The sweet potato 
thrives well in all parts of the sea-board 
of Queensland, and in inland districts 
where there is suitable soil and a fair 
rainfall. Extremely moist climates are 


not favourable to its cultivation, owing © 


to centinuous wet weather producing 
fungoid disease in the roots. Hence, the 
most suitable districts for the plant are 
rather the semi-tropical than the tropi- 
eal. A good rainfall followed by two 
or three months of dry heat extending 
with slight rain at long intervals up to the 
harvest time are the climatic conditions 
which are most favourable to the sweet 
potato. ‘ 
CHOICE OF SOIL. 


The choice of soil is a matter of great 
importance. Stiff, wet soils are more 
injurious to the sweet potato than to 
the English potato. Clay soils and very 
rich alluvial soils are also objection- 
able. On the latter, there will be pro- 
duced an immense quantity of vines, 
but very few good tubers, the roots 


-” < Ts ee 


all running out long and thin in all 
directions. The very best soil is a 
light sandy loam, not necessarily deep, 
but loose and dry. Even on pure sand 
good results have been obtained by the 
judicious use of manure, A_ well-culti- 
vated sandy, loamy forest soil is prefer- 
able to rich black voleanie, or rich allu- 
vial scrub soils. 


The soil choseu, then, should be frees 
ry. and safe from inundation in time 
of flood. 


PREPARATION OF THE LAND. 


The land should be ploughed fairly 
deeply ; and, if the soil be very poor, 
manure of some kind must be used—a 
potash and phosphoric acid manure at 
the rate of 550 lb. per acre. Stable 
manure, if available, may be used, but it 
should be supplemented with kainit or, 
if procurable. wood ashes, 


PLANTING. 


The rows of furrows should be opened 
up ata distance of from 3 ft. apart, and 
well loosened and widened. The manure 
is then applied, the furrows covered 
with the plough, and flatly ridged up to 
a height of 6 or 8 in. The young vine 
cuttings are then planted on top of the 
ridges about 18 to 20 in. apart. The 
cuttings should be from 8 to 12 in. long, 
and the soil should be well firmed round 
them. Should the weather be very dry 
at planting time, it will be found advan- 
tageous to dip the cuttingsin a thick 
paste of cowdung and loam. 


When vines are unattainable, as some- 
times happens when planting in August 
is intended, small tubers should be 
procured and planted in a well-prepared 
bed in May. They will throw up an 
abundant supply of shoots, which must 
be covered with grass or litter during 
the winter months, as the sweet potato 
vine is very susceptile to frost. : 


AFTER CULTIVATION. 


The next business is to keep down 
the growth of weeds, which will be very 
much in evidence in the spring, and 
these are more deleterious tothe sweet 
potato than to many other crops. As a 
rule, the weeding should begin when 
the young plants begin to throw out 
runners. For this purpose a small 
harrow or cultivator may be run along 
the rows, and the weeds on the ridges 
destroyed with a hoe At the next 
cleaning, more hand labour is needed, 
as the vines will be running vigorously. 
After this, it is well to draw loose 
soil round the plants, but without bury- 
ing any of the vines. I 

Care must be taken, when using a 
cultivator, not to disturb the hills or 


[SEPTEMBER, 1000. as 


_ 


SEPTEMBER, 1909] 


ridges. Many growers run the plough 
between the rows for a third time, 
first turning over the vines on to their 
respective ridges. The half of the soil 
between the ridges is then turned on 
to the right-hand ridge and the other 
half upon the lett hand. The vines are 
then brought to their natural position, 
and the crop henceforth needs no more 
attention. 

HARVESTING. 


When the roots are ready for harvest- 
ing, which should be before the first 
frosts set in, the digging should only be 
done during dry weather. The first 
thing to dois cut away the vines with 
a sickle or scythe, when the roots may 
be lifted either with a digging fork or 
with a specially adapted plough, which 
is so constructed as to prevent the roots 
falling backintothefurrows. The roots, 
which are usually free from adhering 
soil, are then gathered up and carted to 
the barn, 


KEEPING. 


If itis intended to keep them for any 
length of time to await a favourable 
market or tor winter use, they should be 
pitted with sand. Put down a thick 
layer of sand either in the barn orina 
well-drained spot outside. On this place 
a layer of tubers, then run in sand until 
all the crevices are filled up, and the 
layer iscovered. Now lay down another 
layer of tubers, run in more sand, and 
repeat the process untilas many as may 
be required are pitted. Then cover with 
straw or bush hay, 


To ASCERTAIN THE RIPENEsS. 


When the sweet potato 1s ripe, the sap 
has reached what may, with some pro- 
priety, be termed the crystalisable stage, 
%é@., When the root is cut or broken 
and exposed to the air, a white crust or 
artificial skin is formed over the cut 
part, and protects it from the air and 
from the agencies of decay. If it is 
not ripe, the cut part turns black, and 
no such artificial skin is formed. If, 
therefore, proper judgment is exercised 
as to the time and manner of digging, 
handling, and storing, there is little 
danger of loss, . 


CHANGE OF PLANTS, 


Owing to the constant planting of cut- 
tings from the same stock, sweet potato 
tubers will deteriorate and become 
diseased. The grower will, therefore, 
do well to obtain cuttings or young 
tubers from another district. Another 
certain plan of obtaining a clean crop, 
free from disease, is to grow the plants 
from seed as has sometimes been done 
at the Penal Establishment at St. 
Helena. When the tubers are about to 


Edible Products. 


form, a good plan is to twist the vines 
upin aheap ontop of the mainstems. It 
will then be found that the potatoes will 
at once begin to increase in number and 
size. One grower says that it does not 
matter how rich the soil is, providing 
the tops are twisted, 


NON-SETTIFG OF TUBERS. 


It not unfrequently oceurs that no 
tubers, oratany rate only a few, will 
form. This non-setting may be brought 
about through various influences; but 
the most common one is the want of 
care in selecting cuttings from the most 
fruitful vines. It is a well-known fact 
that a cutting will, in almost any case, 
reproduce the peculiarities of the 
parent plant ; therefore, a crop of tubers 
cannot be expected trom vines taken 
from an unfruitful parent. 


The class of soil has also much to do 
with the non-tubering trouble. Many 
soils will produce a good crop of sweet 
potatoes when newly broken-up, and in 
a loose, friable condition; but having 
been under crop fora few years, and 
becoming, consequently, closer in 
texture, the results obtained will usually 
be—plenty of vines and strings, but no 


tubers. 


The best remedy is to obtain some 
good tubers from a reliable source, pre- 
ferably from another district. By plant- 
ing these in a hot-bed, and giving a 
plentiful supply of water, a number of 
cuttings _would be obtained from the 
same eye ina very short space of time, 


LIABILITY TO DISEASE—THE WEEVIL. 


Like most plants the sweet potato is 
liable to disease and the attacks of insect 
pests, which affect both vines and tubers. 

Of insect pests the worst in Queens- 
land is the sweet potato weevil, which 
was first noted in Australia in 1886, but 
whence it arrived here is not known. 
It was discovered in that year on Mr. 
A. Miles’ farm at Hemmant, near Bris- 
bane. The only remedies which could 
be suggested by the Government Ento- 
wologist were destruction of all affected 
tubers and a change of crop; but these 
extreme measures were not adopted. 
Accordingly, the weevil within the next 
two years made its way to Woolloon- 
gabba, a part of Brisbane itself, and 
shortly afterwards spread to all the 
farming districts in the South-eastern 
part of the State, eventually reaching 
Bundaberg, Mackay, and all the other 
Northern sugar-growing districts, ut- 
terly destroying the crops. 

The damage is noticeable in vines and 
tubers. The former possess much less 
foliage than they otherwise should ; they 
are thicker, shorter, and more irregular 


Edible Products. 


in growth than in a_ healthy plant. 
These thickened stems are found to be 
hollow and rotten. No tubers are en- 
abled to attain their full development, 
and they are seen to be pierced with 
holes, traversed through and through 
with brown tunnellings, and more or 
less completely destroyed. The only cer- 
tain remedy is that already given, viz., 
complete destruction of the whole crop, 
and other crops planted instead. 


Mr. S.C. Voller, however, says that 
he found sulphur to be a_ perfect 
remedy. He dusted dry sulphur into 
the crowns or butts of the plants when 
they began torun, by which means he 
completely defeated the . weevil. A 
second application might be necessary 
later on in the season. 


PoIsONOUS PROPERTY OF THE VINES, 

Recurring again to the already men- 
tioned poisonous properties of the sweet 
potato vine, in 1905 several farmers re- 
ported serious losses amongst their pigs. 
In all the cases, the animals had been 
given sweet potato vines as a portion of 
their rations. The matter was referred 
to the Government Analyst, who sug- 
gested the possibility of a poisonous 
glucoside in the vines being the cause 
of the mortality. : 


The importance of a closer examina- 
tion becoming apparent, samples of 
three different varieties of the sweet 
potato vine were obtained from the farm 
of the Agricultural College at Gatton. 
The analyses of these samples, carried 
out at the laboratory of the Agricul- 
tural Department, proved conclusively 
the presence of a glucoside, which, on 
standing for a short time, yields hydro- 
cyanic acid (prussic acid), similar to the 
poisonous principle found in cassava 
roots and. in the stalks of immature 
green sorghum. 


The following is the result of the 


analyses :— 
Hydrocyanic 
Acid, 
Percentage 
of Green 
Manure, 
Il. White Maltese — 
Moisture, 87°4 per cent.; or :973 
grains per ib, of green substance ‘0139 
II. Rosella— 
Moisture, 86°9 per cent.; or 11113 
grains per lb, of green substance ‘0159 
III, Spanish Giant — 
Moisture, 87 Oper cent:; or 1-323 
grains per lb. of green substance ‘0187 


These analyses show that the vines 
yield as much as 1 gr. of prussic acid per 
lb. of the green feed, which quantity 
accounts easily for the sudden death 
ot animals feeding on larger quantities 


232 


a 
[SEPTEMBER, 1909. 


of such food, Boiling the vines, and 
taking care to pour off the first water 
in which they were boiled, would consi- 
derably lessen the danger. 


Foop VALUE OF SWEET POTATOES. 


The food value of the sweet potato 
will be seen from the following com- 
parative analysis :— 


100 lb. of sweet potatoes contain— 


Per cent, 
Water Are ... 69°32 to 73°11 
Ash nee ‘0 1:09 fone 29 
Protein (i.e, flesh-form- 
ing) material... . 138. eae 
Fibre 0:86 ,, 1:28 


Nitrogen free extract 

(starch, sugar, gum, &¢.)... 29°78 ,, 28°46 
Fat as «. 048 ,, 0°85, 
a total of 27°46 to 32°49 of dry matter. 

Asa comparison, it may be said that 
100 lb. maize contain 89'1 dry matter, 
10°5 of protein, and 75 lb. nitrogen free 
extract; while 300 lb. sweet potatoes 
contain 867 lb. dry matter, 4°5 Ib. 
protein, and 75:3 lb. nitrogen extract. 


MANURE FOR SWEET POTATOEs. 


Where the soil on which sweet pota- 
toes are to be grown requires manure, 
the following mixture will be found to 
be very effcacious after applying stable 
manure or ploughing under a green 
crop:— 

90 lb. sulphite of potash 

90 ,, high-gr ade super- 

phosphate 
90 1b. Chili saltpetre 
or, iastead of 90 lb. high-grade super- 
phosphate, use 225 lb. superphosphate 16 
per cent. Mix well. 


per acre. 


PINE APPLE INDUSTRY IN INDIA. 


(From the A gricultural Journal of India, 
Vol. 1V., Pt. I., April, 1909.) 


In recent years, the demand for 
Indian-grown pine apples has so greatly 
increased that an effort should be made 
to establish this industry on a commer- 
cial seale. 


The pine apple is grown extensively 
in many parts of India and Burma. 

On the Malabar Coast, in Northern 
Bengal, in Assam and in Burma, the 
pine apple produces fruit of very good 
quality. 

On the Khasi Hills in Assam, it grows 
excellently and yields a fine fruit. 


There has been no particular effort 
made to develop the cultivation of the 
fruit on a commercial basis. Therefore, 
pine apples trom the Straits Settlements, . 
Ceylon and Mauritius, finda ready sale 
in India at remunerative prices. 


A warm moist atmosphere, a fairly 


high rainfall, a friable soil and a porous 


sub-soil appear tobe bast suitable for 


pine apples in India. 


Pine apples in India ‘thrive well on 
soils which have been improved, in 
forests, by partial clearing and by the 
natural addition through rainfall of leaf 
mould. A friable moist soil with a fairly 
high proportion of organic manure _ is 
apparently essential for successful culti- 
vation. 


Pine apple plantations, when estab- 
lished 3 or 4 years, should be removed to 
suitable areas with the view of improv- 
ing or renewing the vigour of the plant. 


When the fruit is formed, numerous 
suckers grow round the parent stem, 
These can be used for propagation. 
Plants may also be raised from the 
crown of leaves of the fruit, and from 
the black seeds of the fruit. 


In plantation, the suckers should be 
planted in rows 3 feet apart. 


233 


Rdible Products, 


In Bengal, the season for planting out 
pine applesis August. The plant there 
flowers in February and March, and its 
fruit ripens in July or August. In 
September and October it makes its 
perfect growth. 


Each fruit should be cut off with a 
sharp knife through the middle of the 
stock, a little before itis fully ripe, and 
for export should be very carefully 
packed-in soft material, andin venti- 
lated boxes to avoid fermentation and 
bruising. 

The leaves yield a good fibre. Iu the 
London market it fetches about £30 
(Rs. 450) per ton. In the Rangpur District 
of Kastern Bengal and Assam, the fibre is 
largely used by the shoemakersas string. 
In the Southern Mahratta country and 
Goa it is used for necklaces. The Fibre 
Expert to‘the Government of Eastern 
Bengal and Assam is, however, of opinion 
that the extraction of fibre from pine 
apple is not likely to be an extensive 
enterprise in any part of India. 


TIMBERS. 


TIMBER PRODUCTION. 
(From the Agricultural News, Vol. 
VIII., No. 185. May 29, 1909.) 


In most countries the question of the 
world’s supply of timber, and its relation 
to the increasing demand, has _ received 
attention of late years. In earlier times 
the virgin forests that existed in many 
parts of the world, even in Hurope, 
proved an adequate source of supply of 
all the timber required. Rapid increase 
of population, however, has demanded 
largely extended areas for food-produc- 
ing purposes, and as a result the 
primitive forest lands are being in- 
creasingly depleted, and applied to agri- 
cultural uses. Further, the advance in 
population has naturally brought about 
a greater demand for timber of all kinds, 
to be used in house construction, and in 
the manufacture of furniture, and many 
other necessities of modern life. The 
manutacture of paper pulp is another 
industry which of late years has 
drawn enormously upon the sources of 
timber supply. 

The question of a cheap timber supply 
isa most important one, but of late 
years there has beena constant tendency 
towards increase in price, and in most 
European countries warnings have fre- 
quently been given that the planting up 
of woodlands will have to be undertaken 
on a much more extended scale if produc- 
tion is to keep pace with demand. 


80 


Unfortunately for the general consumer, 
however, the question of time is the 
most important factor in raising market- 
able timber, and a number of years must 
necessarily elapse before the relationship 
between supply and demand can be 
placed on a more satisfactory footing. 


In Great Britain the total value of the 
wood and timber imported each year 
amounts to over £27,000,000, Of this 
enormous quantity, the great bulk 
consists of pine, iarch, spruce, ete., 
from Russia, Seandinavia, and Canada. 
Smaller quantities of more valuable 
woods, such as mahogany, teak, ebony, 
etc., are imported from tropical coun- 
tries, 


Since there exists over 20,000,000 acres 
of waste landin the United Kiagdom, 
the question has repeatedly been urged 
that portions of this enormous areamight 
well be utilized in the production of a 
good proportion of the timber now im- 
ported. Three Royal Commissions have 
within comparatively recent years sat 
to consider this matter, and the third 
has but lately issued its report. In this 
the Commissioners state that they have 
come to the conclusion that of the waste 
land existing in \the United Kingdom, 
about 9,000,000 acres are suitable for 
afforestation, and they suggest that 
about 150,000 acres should be planted up 
annually. The return obtained in course 
of time would be sufficient to repay both 
capital and interest, 


Timbers. 


In countries whee the natural wood- 
lands have been exploited for timber 
purposes, and adequate replanting has 
not been done, it iseasy to recognize 
the importance of taking measures that 
shall ensure an increasing supply of 
home-grown timber, and lessen depen- 
dence on declining foreign sources. But 
when matters have been allowed to drift 
fora long period of years, there fre- 
quently exist peculiar difficulties in the 
way of the establishment of systematic 
timber planting operations. Probably 
the chief difficulty depends upon the 
great extent to which the time element 
enters into the question of the monetary 
return that may be expected.  Re- 
afforestation is a question of national 
importance in numbers of countries, but 
it is also an economic question. The 

reat bulk of the waste lands of Great 
Britain belong to private land-owners, 
who in the present depressed condition 
of agriculture, may well argue that they 
cannot afford to enter upon an under- 
taking which will involve great outlay, 
and from which no return can be expect- 


ed for from twenty to eighty years or’ 


more, and the benefit of which will be 
reaped by another generation. 


These considerations, however, should 
yot weigh with the State, the life of 
which is continuous, and it is the obvious 
duty of every Government to see that 
ali the waste lands in its possession 
which are not adapted to give an 
adequate return if utilized for agri- 
cultural purposes, but which are fitted 
for growing certain kinds of timber, 
should be planted up with useful species 
of trees. Such plantations should serve 
as an object lesson to private estate 
owners, and be also useful as Forest 
Experiment Stations, at which valuable 
data in regard to the cost of estab- 
lishing and managing woodlands on 
the most economical basis could be 
accumulated. 


It should be remembered, too, thata 
poor soil is, in time, vastly improved by 
oearing aforest crop, if the trees are 
maintained in a proper condition as 
regards density, for the spreading roots 
permeate the subsoil, draw upon its 
sources of nutrition, and _ gradually 
convert it into soil proper. The fall of 
the leaves too, and their decay, impart 
a large amount of humus to the soil, 
keeping it moist and improving its 
fertility. The relationship between 
woodlands and water supply was dis- 
cussed in the last issue of this journal. 


Among European countries Germany 
has long taken the lead in regard to 
forestry matters. No less than 26 per 
cent. of the whole area of that country, 


234 


- 4 


|SEPTEMBER, 1909. 


or 35,000,000 acres, are under woodland, 
and the average timber return obtained 
has been estimated at about 40 cubic 
feet per acre rer annum. By means of 
University Departments and Forest 
Academies the German Government has 
provided excellent facilities for obtain- 
ing instruction in the subject. Much 
the same state of affairs, though ona 
Jesser scale, exists in France. In the 
Scandinavian countries, forestry is at 
once an art, and a very paying business. 
In all those countries, the State forests 
are making very handsome returns on 
the capital outlay. 


But in no country has the subject of 
forestry increased so much in import- 
ance, or received so much attention, as 
in the United States during the past ten 
years. It is stated in the Yearbook of 
the U. S. Department of Agriculture, 
that since 1897 the National Forests 
have increased from 89,000,000 acres, 
practically unused and unprotected, to 
165,000,000 acres, used, guarded, and 
improved in productiveness and accessi- 
bility. Though the Government forests 
have not been under expert control 
for more than a few years, they 
are already self-supporting, and will no 
doubt become highly remunerative with 
the lapse of time. The facilities for 
forest education have also largely in- 
creased, and reguiar, systematic courses 
of instruction, extending over two, 
three, or four years, are given at seven. 
universities, and a large number of 
forest schools. Advantage is being taken 
of these facilities, and the number of 
graduates from the American forest 
schools incresaed from three in 1899 to 
sixty-six in 1907. And yet the article to 
which allusion has been made ealls for 
more vigorous action in connexion with 
the national snpply of timber, and points 
out thatin the United States as much 
timber is now being used in one year as 
can be grown in three. 


In the West Indies this matter of re- 
afforestation has attracted some small 
amount of attention of late years, 
although little has been done so far. 
Large numbers of trees suitable for 
timber exist in the various islands, and 
a good deal of useful information in this 
connexion is contained in two papers 
entitled respectively, ‘The Timbers of 
Jamaica,’ and the ‘ Timbers of Dominica,’ 
which appeared in the West. Indian 
Bulletin, Vol. 1X, No. 4, just issued. 
Useful efforts might be made in the 
direction of increasing the supply of 
home-grown timber availablefor employ- 
ment in these islands, but the ability to 
establish an export trade would appear 
to be limited to particular cases in 
spécial islands, 


rs ian ie 
$ 


PTEMBER, 1909,] 


ei 


S 


285 


MISCELLANEOUS USEFUL PRODUCTS, 


THE PANAMA HAT INDUSTRY. 


(From the Philippine Agricultural 
Review, Vol. II., No. 4, April, 1909.) 
Owing to the large demand for Panama 
hats, Americans may be desirous of en- 
gaging in the business. I see no reason 
why the ‘palmicha” palm would not 
grow readily in the Philippines. Any- 
one desiring to start this industry there 
can get an expert boiler and hatter 
in Colombia at small cost to teach 
the art. 


These hats are made from the common 
fan-shaped palm, called ‘‘ palmicha,” 
which grows wild in abundance, gener- 
ally in moderate climate and fairly moist 
ground. Young shoots, uniform in size, 
are cut from the plant and boiled toa 
certain stage, being softened thereby 
and brought to a light yellow colour. 


The process of boiling appears to be 
an art in itself,and only afew people 
can turn out good straw. The boilers 
sell the straw at so much a pound, ac- 
cording to the quality and the prevailing 
prices of hats. 

When the proper boiling point is 
reached, the shoots are put up to dry 
and the leaves quickly separated. This 
is done indoors where there is a current 
of air but no sunshine. When the leaves 
are nearly dry they are split with a 
little V-shaped wood instrument, so that 
every good leat is the same size. When 
left alone to dry the leaves curl in at 
the edges and are then’ ready for use. 
At this point the straw is carefully 
wrapped in cJean cloths, as the light and 
dry atmosphere spoil it. When finished 
the straw is carefully pared with a 
pocket knife and then battered all over 
with a small hand maul, after which it 
is washed with common yellow soap and 


a little lime juice and left to dry, away 
from the sunlight. 


In the Suaza district they make the 
hats on solid wooden blocks, two to four 
persons—generally women—sitting op- 
pauie each other and working steadily. 

our women can make an average quality 
hat in six or seven days, while a fine one 
requires three to six weeks, The hats 
made in the Suaza district in Colombia 
are considered much superior to those 
made in Ecuador. About a year ago an 
average Suaza hat cost 45 cents first 
hand, a good one $1°50, and a very fine 
one $3; but prices have varied according 
to the demand, and during the last two 
years they have been rising steadily, and 
now, at times, as high as $5 and $61s paid 
for them, and not the very finest at that. 


The manufacture of these hats is 
effected to a great degree by climatic 
influences, an expert hatter being un- 
able to make as gooda hat in the dry 
summer weather as during the raining 
season; probably on this account hats 
in some parts of the Suaza district are 
superior to those made just a short 
distance away. 


Long training is necessary to become 
a good hatter, and the girls are started 
at the work at the very early age of ten 
years, and must practise constants 
Hatters work every day, from. early 
morning, wasting very little time in eat- 
ing, and often carrying on their work by 
candlelight so as to finish in time for 
market, for an hour may mean to them 
the loss of a market day, and the corre- 
sponding inconvenience caused by failure 
to receive the money which would 
have been acquired from the sale of 
the hat. 


Consul P. P. Demers states, in a letter 
from Barranquila, that one of the im- 
portant industries of the Republic of 
Colombia is that of making palm hats, 
known as Panama hats, of which 
nearly $400,000 in value are exported 
annually. 


This industry follows in importance 
those of coffee, gold, hides, cattle, tobac- 
co, and rubber, in the order named, and 
is carried on in the departments of Cun- 
dinamarca, Tolima, Antioquia, and San- 
tander, but mostly in the latter where it 
is the breadwinner of more than one- 
half the population. There are no re- 
gular factories, but the hats are hand- 
made by thousands of peasant women 
in almost as many households and sold 
or traded in the local stores in exchange 
for provisions or articles of clothing, the 
hat being in these regions a convenient 
medium of exchange, the housewife 
exchanging the product of her labour 
for so many pounds of flour, sugar, etc. 


How PANAMA HATS ARE MADE. 


Panama hats are made with the veins 
or fibres of palm leaf, the tissues of 
which are scraped off or combed in much 
the same way as hemp. The palm 
(Carludovica palmata), called locally 
‘‘jipijapa,” is very small in appearance 
and grows in great quantities on the low 
and swampy lands of the upper Magda- 
lena. Itgrows wild butisalso cultivated, 
although to a limited extent, in the 
largest hat districts, the palm producing 
in a little over a year. The preparation 
of the fibre after the tissues have been 
combed off consists of boiling the same 


Miscellaneous Useful Products. 236 


in water containing salt and lemon juice 
for whitening and rounding its surface; 
this operation takes a few hours. The 
straw is then exposed to night air for 
three consecutive nights, after which it 
is ready for use. Thematerial employed 
in the making of a hat is marked at 
from 15 to 40 cents, or the equivalent 
thereof, per hat, according to the fine- 
ness and whiteness of the straw, the 
youngest leaves generally giving the 
best quality. It takes a woman four 
days to make an ordinary hat, eight 
days fora good one, and as many as 
fifteen days for the finest hat made in 
Colombia. The salary of the peasant 
woman employed in the making of a 
‘‘jipijapa” hat is reckoned at 10 cents a 
day, including her food, which can be 
calculated at 10 cents additional. 


The best hats exported from this 
country are those ealled ‘‘ Suaza,” made 
in the city of that name in the Depart- 
ment of Cundinamarca. The next in 
order are the ‘“‘ Antioquenos,” made in 
the Department of Antioquia. Then 
follow the ones made in the Depart- 
ment of Santander, called, respectively, 
‘‘Zapatoca,” ‘‘Barichara,”  ‘' Bucara- 
manga,” and ‘‘Giron,” from the various 
cities in which they are made, and vary- 
ing in quality and price in the order 
named. But the “ Zapatoca,” although 
the most expensive from Santander, are 
supposed to be less durable. 


METHOD OF SHIPPING. 


The best Suaza hat exported costs on 
the premises $5, the cheapest of all being 
those from the Department of Santander, 
which range from 50cents to $2, accord- 
ing to the quality. Indeed, some 
Panama hats, made at the rate of onea 
day, sell for less than 50 cents, but these 
are made exclusively for home consump- 
tion and are not exported. 


Hats are generally exported by the 
local merchants, mostly through the 
_agency of a commission house at the 
port of shipment. In some cases foreign 
houses buy direct, whereasa few indi- 
viduals take their own merchandise to 
the foreign country where it is marketed 
by them personally. The hats are 
packed in boxes weighing 1382 pounds 
and containing from 40 to 50 dozens each. 
The shipping costs, per box, are as 
follows :—Packing 


port of shipment, $1, plus one per cent. 
ad valorem, freight to New York, three- 
fourths of one per cent., or 20 cents per 
cubic foot, plus 5 per cent,, should 
measurement be more than value ; com- 
mission, etc., about $1 per box. The 
box containing 40 dozens of the best $5 


and boxing $2, mule - 
- freight to river port $1, river freight to 


a ee 


[SEPTEMBER, 1909. 


Suaza hats, and the cheapest: kind ex- 
ported, 50 cents, will cost in New York 
the following :— 


Item. ou Cheapest. 
Purchase price .-- $2,400:00 $240:00 
Packing and.boxing ... 2.00 2:00 
Male freight to river... 1:00 1°00 
River freight to port ; 

of shipment ie 25°00 3°40 
Commission, etc. has 1:00 50 
Freight to New York 18:00 1:30 
Total cost of 40 dozens ... 2,447°00 248:20~ 
The cost per dozen in 
New York 61:17 6'20 


Panama hats exported from Colombia 
to the United States may then vary in 
value from $6'20 to $61:17 per dozen. It 
is absolutely impossible, without examin- 
ing the contents of each box, to put the 
right value on an average shipment, as 
itis the custom here to include many 
classes of hatsin the same box. It can 
be rightly supposed, however, that the 
average hat exported to the United 
States from this country is at least of a 
fair quality. 


GROWTH OF EXPORTS TO AMERICA. 


The first Panama hat sent from this 
port to the United States was in 1899, 
and the trade to the present time has 
increased, as the following statistics of 
Panama hats exported to the United 
States from Barranquils alone will show, 
for the fiscal years which ended June 
30:in 1899, $5386; in 1900, $518; in 1901, 
$14,425 ; in 1902, $84,342; in 1903, $112,649; 
in 1904, $111,108 ; in 1905, $79,448; and in 


1906, $151,676. The figures given repre- © 


sent the declared value in the consular 
invoices, averaging approximately 75 
cents per hat, a very low estimate. 


As above explained, Panama hats are 
made in a most primitive way. Accord- 
ingly, any machinery invented which 
could increase the output materially and 
at the same time reduce the number of 
employees would bea great benefit to 
the industry which is very attractive, 
sinceit needs buta small capital and 
promises good returns to anyone engag- 
ing in it systematically. 


(Ten plants of this species (Carludo- 
vica palmata) were recently imported 


from Ceylon and planted about March — ; 
6, 1909, at the Lamao experiment Aba e 
if satis-— 


for trial and propagation, 
factory.— EDITOR. | 


_ SEPTEMBER, 1909,] 


237 


HORTICULTURE, 


LABOUR SAVING TOOLS FOR 
GARDEN WORK. 


By H. SIMMERS. 


(From the Annu Report of the Horti- 
cultural Societies of Ontario for the 
Year 1908.) 


~ When your Secretary requested me 
to read a paper at this Convention on 
this subject, I accepted the same, not 
realising at the time the difficulty [ had 
before me of preparing an interesting 
and practical paper. 

The title of this paper is somewhat 
deceptive. At the first blush it has the 
appearance of a certain sweet simplicity, 
but when one goes into the subject, the 
‘real difficulties appear. 

For a practical man to go to work and 
pick out the tool or tools that he wants 
seems easy, as, before you commence to 
work, you have pretty well made up 
your mind what tools you are going to 
use on the particular work you intend to 
do; but to sit down and arrange as 
many as possible of the labour-saving 
tools that you would use, is a more dif- 
ficult task than I thought it would be 
until I got to work. 

Lassume that ] am to speak on tools 
most suited for amateur work, because 
to write on this subject for professionals 
would enlarge it considerably. 

The first, and still the most important 
toolin the garden, is the human hand, 
and no doubt in ages past it was the 
only one. Still, ata very early period, 
tools of some description had _ been 
devised to lighten the labour of the 
gardener. In our youthful days, also 
further back than some of us care to 
admit—a conundrum was propounded. 
It ran thus, ‘‘When Adam delved and 
Eve span, where was then the gentle- 
man?’ Of course, the answer, the 
obvious answer, is that Adam was the 
gentleman; and mark you, he was a 
gardener. Our immediate interest, how- 
ever, is to enquire what Adam delved 
with. No doubt he did much work with 
his hands, still in many gardening oper- 
ations the very best of tools, but he could 

not delve very well thus, unless he had 
something to aid him, The cradle of 
the human race is in the Kast, and it is 
there we can observe customs to-day 
which had their inception in Adam’s 
time or not long after. The Soil there is 
so sandy and easily worked, that a very 
primitive stick, sharpened, would be all 
the labour-saving appliances required. 
Irrigation is the great problem there, 


In lands under different climatic condi- 
tions, different circumstances naturally 
arise, and in our own land one must 
admit that stirring with a pointed stick 
would not have much effect. Therefore, 
other labour-saving tools had to be 
invented. The king of all is still the 
spade, which is the most inexpensive, 
and work well done with it produces more 
crops ‘than any other form of culture. 


You will find that among the first and 
the last things to be done in almost any 
garden in spring or fallis to have it dug 
in the spring and again in the fall, and 
those who are not so fortunate as to be 
able to employ a man for this work, 
will better understand the necessity of 
a pair of good strong arms. 

‘Che following is a list of good many 
articies that I have used myself, that 
I know are labour-saving tools: Spade, 
shovel, lawn rake, steel rake, field hoe, 
Dutch hoe, spading fork, manure fF ork, 
garden reel, garden line, grass hoo¥ or 
sickle, pruning knife, pruning shears, 
pruning saw, half moon edging knife, 
indelible pencil, labels, appliances for 
destroying insects, hot bed thermometer 
garden trowel, tree pruner, watering 
can, wheelbarrow, lawn mower, hand 
weeders, such as Hazeltine’s, Excelsior, 
oe wheel plow, wheel hoe, hand seed 

rill. 

This is a sufficient list of labour-saving 
tools for the amateur. It seems to me 
almost useless to go into the detail and 
description of all the tools that I have 
listed, and from which I will refrain, 
but amongst the list, I would like to 
draw more attention to the Combination 
Seed Drill, which has the garden plough, 
wheel hoe and seed drill combined. 
Now, to those who havea more _preten- 
tious vegetable garden, this modern im- 
plement is apt to encourage the amateur 
to extend his work. I would strongly 
urge the use of one of these combined 
machines. 

I would also suggest, that all the tools 
possessed by the amateur be hung up 
neatly and systematically, and that 
they should not be thrown in a corner 
in a careless manner. I see no reason 
why man’s labour-saving tools for garden 
work should not be kept in the same 
preces manner that a woman keeps her 

itchen utensils, I will add further, 
that the garden tools should also be kept 
clean and ready for use, 

In conclusion let me add, that many 
aman can be judged by the orderliness 
in which he keeps his tools, as also by 


the way that he keeps his garden free 
of weeds, 


LS 


PLANT: SANITATION. 
ENTOMOLOGICAL NOTKS. ‘Ant Exterminator,’ or by pouring 


By E. ERNEST GREEN, 


Government Entomologist. 


It has sometimes been stated by 
opponents of the burning or burying of 
tea prunings as a check upon the spread 
of ‘shot-hole borer, that the mere 
drying up of the prunings on the surface 
of the ground is equally efficacious. To 
settle this questicn, I obtained a large 
bundle of freshly pruned tea branches, 
badly infested by the borer, and spread 
them on the floor of an open verandah. 
A few of the branches were examined 
day by day. The living beetles, in gra- 
dually decreasing numbers, were found 
within their galleries, until the tenth 
day, when no further insects could be 
seen in the branches. During the whole 
of this period I[ did not find a single 
dead beetle inside the branches. They 
simply disappeared, one by one, as the 
branches became desiccated. It can 
only be presumed from this that the 
insects emerged from their retreat, 
when they found their surrondings un- 
suitable, and made their escape in search 
of more congenial quarters. These 
would be found, in the field, in the 
nearest living tea bush. It was notice- 
able that the larve also disappeared ; 
but I was unable to trace their migra- 
tions. They probably crawled away 
and died. 


Seeds of Manihot piauhyensis have 
been received, with the report that they 
were being attacked in the nursery, 
by a species of ant. Specimens of the 
ants were subsequently submitted and 
proved to be the common species (Myrmi- 
caria brunnea) that throws up circular 
funnel-shaped embankments around the 
entrance toits nests. The superinten- 
dent writesthat he has seen the ants 
attack the seed and has watched them 
clean out the shell as soon as it splits. 
In one instance they bit up and carried 
off the young germinating shoot. In 
Other instances they devoured all the 
supporting parts until the shoot fell 
over. The addition of ‘ Vaporite’ (in 
the proportion of 2 ounces to the square 
yard) to the soil, when making up the 
seed beds, should prevent any trouble 
of this nature. The nests of this’ ant, 
being conspicuous objects, can be easily 
destroyed in the neighbourhood of the 
nurseries, either by means of the patent 


dilute Phenol into the nests. ~ 


A bad attack of Helopeltis on tea has 
been reported from the Nawalapitiya 
district. 


I am constantly receiving sections of 
Hevea rubber stems said to have been 
killed by Scolytid beetles allied to the 
‘ shot-hole borer.’ Sure enough, the bark 
is 1iddled by the small beetles and, in 
some instances, latex has oozed from the 
perforations. ButI have always been 
sceptical of the ability of any boring 
insect to penetrate the latex-bearing 
tissues of a healthy tree. I have recently 
had the opportunity of examining one 
such tree in situ. I was accompanied by 
the Government Mycologist who was 
prepared to detect any signs of the 
presence of a fungus disease which 
would account for the original injury. 
In this case the fungus was apparent 
even on the surface. A large area of 
the bark was killed outright and a 
conspicuous network of mycelium was 
spreading over the surrounding parts. 
The presence of latex. oozing from the 
holes of the borers, can be accounted 
for by the supposition that the insects 
have made their entry during a dry 
spell when the already diseased bark 
had been deficient in latex. Subsequent 
wet weather has induced partial revival 
of the tissues, with a consequent flow 
of latex from the perforations. 


The common cotton-boll worm of Cey- 
lon is the small pink maggot-like cater- 
pillar of Gelechia gossypiella. I have 
recently bred out another moth (Harias 
fabia, Stol.) from diseased bolls grown 
both at Peradeniya and Maha Illu- 
pallama. Both of these moths are well- 
known cotton pests in India, where yet 
a third species (Harias insulana) also 
occurs. The Plant Quarantine Ordi- 
nance has now been amended to permit 
of the compulsory fumigation of cotton 
seed imported for purposes of cultivation. 


Specimens of the caterpillar of a 
Noctuid moth (C adrina reclusa) have 
been received from the Rakwana district 
where this insect is reported to be 
defoliating tea plants. This is not one 
of our common tea pests. I have re- 
ceived it only once previously, from the 
Talawakelle district, in July, 1908. Itis 
unlikely to prove a serious pest. ~ 

Cacao trees of the Nicaragua variety, 
on the Peradeniya Experiment Station, 
are being seriously damaged by Helo- 
peltis, his variety appears to be 


(SEPTEMBER, 1909. 


SEPT EMBER, 1909.] 


especially susceptible to this particular 
form of attcak. All the young shoots 
have been so persistently killed back 
that the trees are actually dying. It is 
proposed to coppice them and, upon the 
first signs of a repetition of the attack, 
to spray the young shoots with a soap 
solution. 


The same trees, in their weakened con- 
dition, have fallen an easy prey to the 
brown boring catterpillar (Arbela qua- 
drinotata). 


MISCELLANEA: CHIEFLY PATHO- 
LOGICAL. 


By T. PETCH, B.A., B. SC. 

In the Supplement to the Tropical 
Agriculturist for May, 1909, it is stated 
that Dr. Funk, of Apia, has discovered 
a new parasitic disease which causes the 
death of Cacao and Rubber trees, It 
has been named Hymenochete noxia, 
Hennings. I have not been able to find 
any further details of this. The descrip- 
tion of Aymenochete noxia has ap- 
parently not yet been published, and 
therefore identification is impossible. 
But it seems most probable that this 
disease is our well-known ‘‘ Brown Root 
Disease.” The latter is widely distri- 
buted throughout the Tropics, and is 
easily identified by its habit of cement- 
ing sand, soil, and stones to the roots of 
the trees attacked, by means of its 
brown mycelium. But while any desired 
number of specimens can be obtained, 
these seldom show any approach to a 
fructification. In one instance I was 
able to examine three large Hevea trees 
which had been killed by this disease at 
intervals of two years ; the stump which 
had been dead four years was almost 
entirely destroyed by white ants; that 
which had died two years ago was wellde- 
cayed but not eaten away; but on neither 
of these two, nor on the tree just dead, 
was there any sign of a fructification. 
Moreover, I have kept diseased stumps 
under cultivation for four years with 
equal lack of success. Under these cir- 
cumstances, it is impossible to say what 
the fungus really is. In the Report of 
the Mycologist for 1905, it was referred 
to Hymenochete, since one sometimes 
finds bright brown patches, just above 
the collar, which bear bristles resembl- 
ing those of a Hymenocheete ; but, in the 
light of turther experience, I consider 
this identification very doubtful. It 
has been assigned to Hymenochete, iu 
Samoa, where it attacks Cacao. But in 
Java, Zimmermann considered that it 
was a Sporotrichum, and named it 
Sporotrichum radicicolum; there are 


239 


Plant Sanitation. 


sometimes tufts of branching hyphz at 
the collar, which resemble the conidio- 
phores of a Sporotrichum. According 
to Ridley’s description, the same fungus 
occurs in the Straits. It is evident, 
theretore, that ‘“Brown Root Disease’ 
is common thoroughout the Tropics, and 
it is most probable that the disease re- 
corded from Apia is not a new disease, 
but only a new name. Whether its dis- 
coverer in Apia has been more fortunate 
than others in obtaining an identifiable 
fructification must reamin in doubt 
until the description of the species has 
been published. Butsolong as Kuropean 
Mycologists are willing to give a name 
to anything thatis sent them, and do not 
take the trouble to acquaint themselves 
with what has been written on tropical 
plant diseases, we may expect to be 
periodically alarmed by reports of ‘new 
diseases” which are merely the old 
diseases under a new name. In Ceylon 
“Brown Root Disease” attacks Tea, 
Hevea, Castillua, Cacao, Caravoniea, Cot- 
ton, Camphor, and several species of 
of ornamental shrubs; it is practically 
omnivorous. But it seldom spreads to 
any extent, and, asa rule, the removal 
of the affected tree and the addition of 
lime to the hole effectually prevents 
further loss. It is more easily controlled 
than any other root disease we have in 
Ceylon. 


In the Straits Agricultural Bulletin 
for July, 1909, a disease of Hevea is re- 
corded from Perak. The trees attacked 
are about two years old. They die back 
feom the tip, down to the base, if the 
tree is not stumped below the diseased 
part. A black fungus, with oval spores 
transversely divided, is found in the 
dead tissues. This appears to be identi- 
cal with *‘ Die back,” which has been 
known to occur in Ceylon since 1905, and 
has been referred to on several occasions 
in the Annual Reports. The fungus 
which attacks the leading shoot is a 
Gleosporium ; it turus the shoot brown 
aud soft, usually about the middle of its 
length. Afterwards the shoot becomes 
hard and grey, and the fungus produces 
spores in minute pink or white masses. 
According to my observations, this fun- 
gus does not attack those parts of the 
stem in which the wood isalready formed; 
but, after thedeath of the leading shoot, 
other fungi grow on the dead tissue, and 
these kill off the remainder of the tree. 
The chief of these secondary fungi is 
Botryodiplodia elastice; it forms black 
patches in the bark, and these produce 
large numbers of black, oval, transveisely 
divided spores. There is not much doubt 
that the fungus described in the Straits 
Bulletin is Botryodiplodia elasticce, This 


Plant Sanitation. 240 


fungus is extremely common on all dead 
Hevea, no matter what the cause of 
death was, and it is therefore very diffi- 
cult to determine when it is parasitic 
and when it is merely saprophytic. It 
does not appear to be a very active 
parasite. Itundoubtedly kills off stumps 
just after they have been planted out, 
and it has been found to kill Castilloa 
which had been damaged by fire. But 
in the majority of cases it can only 
attack the trees after some part has 
been killed. It grows in abundance on 
Hevea logs in the laboratory, though 
these may have been quite healthy 
when cut. Trees attacked by ‘‘ die back” 
should be pruned below the diseased 
parts; and the latter shou'd be burnt. 
In view of the fact that Botryodiplodia 
will grow on any dead Hevea tissue, all 
dead branches ought to be periodically 
removed and burnt; there is no doubt 
that this will have to become a regular 
practice in Hevea cultivation. Branches 
die from many causes apart from fungus 
diseases, é.g., wind, over-tapping. shade, 
ete., and if these are left on the tree 
they afford a starting point for fungi 
which could nct otherwise attack it. 


It is hoped to issue circulars on Brown 
Root Disease, Die back, and Botryodip- 
fodia, shortly. 

Botryodiplodia elastice affords another 
instance of the multiplication of names 
which results from the transmission of 
specimens of tropical diseases to Europe. 
Species of Diplodia occur everywhere in 
the Tropics, on all kinds of dead plants, 
but the majority of them are merely 
saprophytic, 2.e., they grow only~ on 
dead tissues. If a Diplodia occurs in 
masses, it is known as Botryodiplodia, 
and if the masses are surrounded by 
loose hyphe, it is known as Lasiodip- 
lodia. But, unfortunately, these appa- 
rent distinctions break down in practice, 
for the same species may exhibit all 
three forms. In thatcase it usually gets 
three different names, according to the 
form which each describer happens to 
have. Botryodiplodia is a convenient 
name for those species which may some- 
times grow in masses and sometimes 
singly. and distinguishes them from 
those species which always grow singly, 
but Lasiodiplodia is a purely herbarium 
distinction for which we have no use in 
practice.. 


The best known parasitic Diplodia is 
Diplodia cacaoicota, which, as its name 
indicates, grows on Cacao. Botryodip- 
lodia elastice is also semi-parasitic on 
Hevea and Castilloa. Another Botryodi- 
plodia causes a root disease of tea, and 
yet another a root disease of the Coco- 
nut palm. Now, the Diplodia on Cacao 


x : “ = 


>» ae 


(Diplodia cacaoicola) was sent to Ger- 
many, and was unnecessarily renamed 
there Lasiodiplodia nigra. More re- 
cently, a consignment of Hevea stumps 
was sentfrom Ceylon to Hamburg, and 
as some of them died in transit they 
developed Botryodiplodia elasticcee, but 
the fungus was, in this case also, 
assigned to Lasiodiplodia nigra. We 


may expect to hear, therefore, of a new 


disease of Hevea under the latter name, 
which is really only our old, well-known 
fungus. Buta much more serious ques- 
tion than the mere nomenclature is in- 
volved in this bestowal of the name of 
the West Indian fungus on the Ceylon 
species, for it has been thereby assumed 
that the fungus which attacks Cacao is 
the same species as that which attacks 
Hevea. This is a most important point 
which, if correct, will have to be taken 
into ccnsideration by those who estab- 
lish mixed cultivations. But while 
it may be admitted that the diplodias 
on cacao, Hevea, tea, and coconut 
show practically no difference in 
structure, this is scarcely sufficient to 
warrant the assumption that they are 
all the same species. The structural 
characters of a diplodia are very simple, 
and thereis little room for variation. 
Under these circumstances, it is neces- 
sary to prove the identity of the fungi 
by showing that the species, say on 
cacao, can be made to grow on the other 
plants. Until this has been done, the 
question of their identity must remain 
unsettled. The point was noted in the 
Report of the Mycologist for 1908, but 
since the investigation of the subject 
would occupy several months, it has not 
yet been found possible to undertake it. 


Opinions with regard to the distances 
at which Hevea should be planted have 
now come round to the view which had 
to be fought for in 1906. Itis no longer 
necessary to contend with the idea that 


_Hevea may be planted eight feet by 


eight; and it is being recognised that 
the minimum advocated three years ago 
is not “‘ wide planting,” if the plantation 
has been established as a permanent 
investment. But, as I was the first to 
oppose close planting in Ceylon, I have 
been asked on several occasions why, if 
Castilloa can be planted about eight 
hundred to the acre, the same cannot 
be done in the case of Hevea. The 
auswer is, of course, that the trees are 
of different habit, that is, they have a 
crown Of a different shape. Dr. Ohlson 
Seffer, who is the chief authority on 
Castilloa cultivation, described the 
Mexican methods when he visited Ceylon 
some yearsago. In the course of con- 
versation, he stated that when the trees 


(SEPTEMBER, 1909. ose 


_ 


_ structions. 


SEPTEMBER, 1909.] 


grew up and were too close some of them 
would be cut out. He was immediately 
asked what his criterion of closeness was. 
The answer was rather startling, even to 
advocates of a minimum of 20 ft, by 15 ft. 
«When the crowns of two trees touch, 
one of them is cut out.” It will be evident 
from this that it is impossible to deduce 
conclusions re Hevea planting from 
experience with Castilloa. Few Hevea 
planters would be prepared to thin out 
their trees when the crowns meet, though 
according to the last report of the Bukit 
Rajah Company it is proposed to thin 


241 Plant Sanitation. 


out trees planted 21 ft. by 21 ft. for 
this reason. In this matter, my con- 
tention that trees which are removed in 
the course of thinning out should be 
uprooted appears likely to be confirmed 
at no very distant date. ‘“ Uprooting,” 
by the way, does not mean the extrac- 
tion of every root. Fungi begin to grow, 
as a rule, on the stump left above 
ground ; and, for the prevention of root 
disease, the stump, and as much of the 
main roots as possible, should be extract- 
ed to a depth of about two feet. If 
more can be got out, so much the better. 


LIVE STOCK. 


THE NURSING OF SICK ANIMALS. 


By J, M. Curisry, 


Assistant Principal Veterinary Surgeon, 
Transvaal. 


(From the Veterinary Journal, Vol. V,, 
No. 409, July, 1909). 


Too much attention cannot be given 
to thissubject. My experience is that 
owners are far too liable to place implicit 
faith in medicinal remedies, and are 
either ignorant of how to nurse their 
patients through serious attacks of ill- 
ness or are too negligent to do so. 
Proper medicines intelligently adminis- 
tered play a most important part in 
combating all forms of disease, but to be 
successful they must be backed up by 
good nursing. We have all heard well- 
intentioned butignorant people extol- 
ling the medicinal virtues of anti-friction 
grease, paraffin oil, and gunpowder, but 
seldom hear them speaking enthusiasti- 
cally about nursing, which is a trouble- 
some thing, calling for energy and 
patience, 


- The most important duties of anyone 
in charge of sick animals is to see that 
his patients are made as comfortable as 
circumstances will admit, that proper 
food only, and at regular intervals, is 
given, and that any medicine prescribed 
is administered exactly according to in- 
Ido not assume to dictate 
to any man, but a quarter of a century’s 
experience in dealing with sick animals 
has impressed forcibly on me the good 
results following careful, intelligent 
nursing, as. opposed to indiscriminate 
administration of drugs, each of which 
is supposed to be a specific for the 
particular trouble for which it is given. 
There are few specific remedies for any of 
the many ills the animal body is heir to. 
The bodies of all animals undergo dis- 
integration and waste, and their growth 


31 


and repair require continual recuper- 
ation. By digestion and assimilation the 
food materials are prepared for their 
special uses, and build up or maintain 
the body at its normal standard. In 
health, food must be provided in suffi- , 
cient amount, of suitable quality, and 
with its several constituents in fitting 
pcoportion to furnish nutriment for 
every tissue. Water, which constitutes 
four-fifths of the total weight of most 
animals, is being constantly removed 
by the lungs, skin, kidneys, and intes- 
tines, and unless restored at short inter- 
vals, thirst and impared health ensue. 
Not only are water and watery fluids 
requisite for the normal nutrition of 
the tissues, and for dissolving and 
carrying away their waste products, but 
in sick anmials they also assist the 
removal of the products of disease. 


Even more imperative is the need of 
pure air to oxygenate the blood, maintain 
internal respiration and normal tissue 
change, and remove waste products. 
These requirements, essential in health, 
are even more important in animals 
affected by disease. Food, then, re- 
quires to be given with especial care, 
and in an easily digested form, for in all 
serious diseases the digestive functions 
are impaired. In many febrile com- 
plaints the ordinary foods being imper- 
tectly digested and assimilated are apt 
to produce or aggravate gastric derange- 
ment. Animals suffering from febrile 
and inflammatory disorders should 
therefore be restricted to easily digested 
foods, such as mashes, gruels, &c., given 
at short intervals, to which extra nutri- 
tive value can be given, as required, by 
addition of milk, eggs, or meat extract. 
Food should never be allowed to lie 
long before a sick animal. If not 
promptly eaten, it should be removed, 
and in a couple of hours or less time 
replaced by afresh supply. During and 
after attacks of debilitating diseases, 


Live Stock, — 


patients fed, as they should be, on 
small quantities of rapidly digested fare 
obviously require food more frequently 
thanin health. With returningappetite 
a convalescent occasionally greedily eats 
more than can be easily digested, and 
against this contingercy well-intention- 
ed attendants require to be warned. 
Relapses of stomach and bowel troubles 
sometimes occur by allowing animals, 
immediately after recovery, their full 
allowance of food. 


There are few diseases, if any, in 
which animals injure themselves by 
taking too much water or watery fluids, 
but they are often rendered uncom- 
fortable and injured by undue restric- 
tion. Asupply of water should always 
be within the patient’s reach. Cold 
water seldom does harm, and is more 
palatable and refreshing than when 
tepid. 


In towns, particularly, much mis- 
management occurs with regard to the 
ventilation and temperature of the 
habitations of sick animals. Draughts 
should be avoided, but cool air should be 
freely admitted, and the stable, kennel, 
&ec., kept scrupulously clean. No res- 
torative or tonic is so effectual as cool, 
pure air, and it is especially needful 
in diseases of the respiratory organs, or 
of a lowering or wasting nature, such 
2 infiuenza in horses and distemper in 

ogs. 


Sunlight is also an essential factor in 
the promotion of health, especially in 
the young. 
of the blood and tissues for oxygen, 
favours healthy excretion, and is an 
excellent disinfectant.. In the Transvaal 
it would be undesirable to allow the 
direct rays of the sun to play for any 
length of time on a sick animal; if a 
suitable stable or shed is not conveni- 
ent, a shade of some kind should be 
improvised. 


A comfortable bed greatly conduces to 
the restoration of most sick animals. A 
sick, exhausted horse, who to his dis- 


“one side is 


It increases the capacity 


(SEPTEMBER, 1909, _ 


advantage would continue to stand if 
kept in a stall, will often at once lie 
down and rest if placed in a comfortable 
box or nice shady place with a proper 
bed. In febrile and inflammatory at- 
tacks, and during recovery from ex- 
hausting diseases, it is desirable to 
conserve the bodily heat. For this pur- 
pose .a warm rug or two, and bandages 
to the legs, do good. They help to 
maintain equable temperature and com- 
bat congestion of internal organs, but 
at least twice daily these rugs and 
bandages should be removed, the skin 
wisped over, and the clothing at once 
replaced, 


Attention to the position of the 
patient is frequently important, and 
must be seen to; thus a horse allowed 
to lie for any great length of time on 
liable to suffer from con- 
gestion of the lung of the under- 
side; cattle when very sick, if allowed 
to occupy the same recumbent position 
for any length of time are liable to 
become tympanitic, and their chance 
of recovery is thereby seriously im- 
paired. Sick animals should never be 
allowed to lie prone in any position for 
a long period; turn them over occa- 
sionally, and hand-rub the parts they 
have been lying on; this will assist 
local and general circulation, and con- 
tribute materially to their general 
comfort and ultimate recovery. The 
feeding of sick and convalescent animals 
is of the greatest importance; the 
guides are, give nothing difficult to 
digest, tempt the appetite, but do not 
overload the digestive tract. 


To sum up, in dealing with sick ani- 
mals, we should use our common sense, 
which dictates that we should pay 
particular attention to the patient’s 
general comfort, his dieting and water- 
ing, and. only administer medicinal 
remedies whose action we understand, 
or that from previous experince we 
know to be beneficial in the particular 
trouble with which we have to contend, 


SERICULTURE. 


ERI OR CASTOR SILK. 


By H. MAXWELL-LEFROY, M.A. 
(From the Agricultural Journal of India, 
Vol. IV., Pt. I1., April, 1909.) 

Eri silk is the cocoon of an insect 
known to science as Attacus ricini, and 
probably the domesticated form of 
Attacus cynthia which is found in a wild 
state in Assam and along the outer 


forested slopes of the Himalayas.* Eri 
silk is domesticated in the Assam Valley, 
where itis grown for local use and, toa 
limited extent, for export. With Muga 
silk (Antherea assama) itforms what is 
known in India as ‘‘ Assam silk” as apart 
from Tusser and from mulberry silk. — 
At the present time, eriis not generally 
cultivated outside Eastern Bengal an 
Assam, Rungpur being about its western 
limit. During the past two years it has 


- been experimentally grown at Pusa, and 
it is being grown also at other parts of 
_ India, from seed obtained from Pusa, 


Eri silk has peculiarities which distin- 
guish it from all other silks cultivated or 
eollected in India. In the first place, the 
worms require only castor leaves for 
food ; mulberry isnot a food-plant. In 
the second, the cocoon is not a closed one 
and is not reelable in the same way as 
are mulberry or tusser silk cocoons. The 
caterpillar, in preparing the cocoon, 
leaves one end closed only with converg- 
ing loops of silk, so that, while nothing 
can get in, the moth can push out; but 
the cocoon is made in layers, is not com- 
posed of a single thread and cannot be 
reeled by the ordinary process. On the 
other hand, the silk has its immense 
advantage, that the cocoons do not 
require to be ‘‘stifled,” te, killed, to 

prevent the egress of the moth; in pre- 
_-paring mulberry and tusser silk, the 
eocoon is killed, since the moth in getting 
out so damages the cocvon that it cannot 
be reeled so well;in eri silk thisis not 
so ; the moth, as here utilised for spinniug, 
must be allowed to emerge, and the 
taking of life, so abhorrent to many 
classes in India, is not necessary. 


Another feature, shared with the 
‘*indigenous ” mulberry silk-worm, is the 
-number of broods; seven or eight broods 
are obtained yearly, and as the produc- 
tion of eggs is large, a large brood can be 
secured from a small quantity of initial 
seed when castor is plentiful, and several 
crops of cocoons are. obtainable yearly. 
The insect is completely domesticated 
in the sense that it will not run wild and 
become a pest; the whole life is passed 
in captivity, and the moths do not 
-attempt to leave the rearing hcuse. 
Rearing can be done in any building; 
the Pusa rearing has been done entirely 
ina grass and bamboo house. Lastly, 
the silk cocoons can be utilised just as 
cotton is, but yield a cloth far more 
durable and lasting; the cocoons are 
boiled, and then spun in the ordinary 
way that cottonis; the thread produced 
can be woven just as cotton thread is, 
and the cloth produced, while not so 
fine as machine woven cotton cloth, is 
white, durable and much in demand. 
Dyed cloth is produced with ease by 
dyeing the cocoons, the thread or the 
cloth ; and EK. R. Watson has shown that 
silk is more easily dyed in fast colours 
with the ordinary indigenous dyes than 
is cotton, and that the dyeing of silk is 
easier than is the dyeing of cotton. 
With the indigenous and the synthetic 
(aniline) dyes, a pene range of colours 
can be introduced, and the dyeing offers 
no special difficulties. 


248 


Sericulturey’ 


We here discuss eri silk solely from 
one point of view, its rearing and utili- 
sation in this country by ordinary indi- 
genous methods suited to any part of 
India. The question of building up an 
industry in this silk for export or for 
utilisation in India with power machi- 
nery for turning out the beautiful spun 
silks of commerce, is not here touched 
on, nor is the kindered question of 
producing reeled silk from these cocoons. 
The work of the past two years has 
been directed to ascertaining how far 
this silk can be utilised in India, and it 
is our belief that silk of this kind can 
be grown, spun and woven iu a very 
large part of India, almost wherever 
the castor plant is grown. The eventual 
fabric thus produced is ‘‘ Assam” silk, a 
very durable strong cloth, suited to the 
requirements of this country; but it 
must not be assumed that the finer silks 
of great delicacy and with beautiful 
gloss can be obtained. Fabrics more 
akin to cotton cloths are produced, but 
with the great durability characteristic 
of this silk, and by methods familiar in 
this country and requiring noappliances 
beyond those in ordinary use. It is im- 
possible here to give detailed and 
complete directions for the cultivation 
of eri silk, but we deal with some of the 
moreimportant points; anyone wishing 
to commence the cultivation can obtain 
eggs and fuller instruction from Pusa. 


Rearing.—The insect lives, as other 
insects do, in four stages; the moth lays 
eggs, which hatch to worms which feed 
on the leat of the castor plant; the 
worms moult four times, at each moult 
increasing in size; when full grown they 
retire into hiding and spin the cocoon; 
in this they change to the chrysalis, 
which lies motionless in the cocoon and 
requires no food; from this the moth 
emerges which is of either sex; the 
sexes pair and the females lay eggs, 
The insects require attention in only 
two stages, the worm and the moth, 
The eggs are placed ona tray and left 
till they hatch. In dry weather they 
are covered witha damp cloth. When 
they are about to hatch, or when the 
first one is seen to hatch, they are covered 
with the youngest and smallest leaves 
of castor, spread out over them. They 
crawl up on the leaves and feed, and 
they can be removed attached to the 
fine leaves and put ina clean tray. Ags 
more hatch, the leaves are lifted and 
transferred. At first they are fed on 
the young leaves, washed free from 
dust if necessary, Atintervals, moults 
occur, the worms ceasing to feed and 
throwing off their skin. This is a time 
when, if any are weak, they die. There 
are four moults before the last, the last 


Sericultwre. 244 


occurring inside the cocoon. The full- 
grown worms, when ready to spin, 
become restless and move about; they 
are then placed in baskets filled with any 
convenient dry packing material, e.g., 
the finely shredded wood used in pack- 
ing delicate goods, wood-shavings, torn 
paper, dry straw or dry leaves. Into 
this they crawl and spin cocoons, first 
making a foundation, then spinning the 
regular cocoon inside. This oocupies 
about three days; the cocoons are left 
for at least a week and are then picked 
out by band and laid out before the 
moths emerge. The moths emerge with 
crumpled wings and gradually spread 
their wings; they voidalarge drop of 
excrement, so it is advisable to let them 
crawl ‘up off the cocoons. The moths 
are then collected into baskets, where 
they couple. After twenty-four hours, 
the couples are separated, and the 
females put in other baskets to lay eggs, 
after which they die. The moths make 
no attempt to escape, and there is no 
need to confine them; but coupling and 
egg-laying are facilitated by placing the 
moths in baskets, to which they can 
cling and in which the light is not too 
bright. The moths lay, as arule, from 
200 to 800 eggs each, and if a large brood 
is required, all the eggs obtained may 
be kept for hatching ; if not, only those 
from the best moths or only those laid 
on the first night (80). 


In Pusa, seven broods are obtained 
during che year; in hot weather about 
forty-five days is the total length requir- 
ed for the egg, worm, cocoon and moth 
stages. This increases to as much as 
eighty days in the cold weather of 
January and February, when the worms 
feed less rapidly, and the moths take 
longer to emerge from the cocoons. The 
worms are resistant to all weather but to 
a dry; parching heat ; in the hot weather 
when the west winds bring a temperature 
up to 110°F. withan extremely low humi- 
dity and an atmosphere laden with fine 
dust, the worms are less resistant to 
disease and may be unable to spin 
cocoons or to emerge as moths. At this 
time large numbers also fail to pass 
through the first moult. This is especi- 
ally so if one has been rearing from too 
small an initial stock; ‘“‘in-breeding” is 
as bad in this species as in others, and 
if there is a period of dry, hot weather 
to be passed through, the stock should 
be as vigorous as possible. It is, there- 
fore, advisable to be able to introduce 
fresh stock at intervals, as can be readily 
done by obtaining fresh seed. 


_ The insect at Pusa is not subject to 
any of the usual silk worm diseases, but 
has a peculiar disease, allied to flacherie, 


more leaf than others. 


but with symptoms and characters 
which, in the opinion of the Imperial 
Mycologist, separate it clearly from that 
disease, The experience at Pusa has 
been that it is better not to rear it at all 
during the hot, dry months or, if that is 
desirable, to rear only trom good stock. 
As a supply of seed from Assam is now 
readily procurable, there is no reason 
for attempting to rear during unfavour- 
able seasons. In Assam a parasitic fly 
attacks the worms, but if only eggs are 
imported and not cocoons, this pest will 
not be found and does not occur gener- 
ally in India. The insect grows most 
favourably in a moist climate, whether 
hot or not, and could be grown during 
the rains practically all over the plains. 
Itis unsuited to the plains of Northern 
India during April, May and June. 
Starting on July Ist with 1,000 eggs, one 
would have 900 moths by August 15th, 
yielding about 80,000 eggs, which would 
give a very large brood; therate of in- 
crease is solarge and rapid that one can 
easily start afresh every season. 


Appliances.—_In_ rearing, very tew 
appliances are required. The rearing- 
house may be any roofed structure of 
grass and bamboos with earth-floor. A 
large supply of trays, made of split 
bamboo or similar material are required, 
some with fine mesh, some with coarse, 
open mesh; the former may be smaller. 
In these the rearing is done, and one 
may keep the largest worms also in large 
rectangular trays of any size up to four 
feet by three feet. For the cocoons and 
moths, baskets are required and a supply 
of paper, shredded wood, straw or other 
clean material for the worms to spin in. 
We have also used the special emergence 
trays, but it is not essential. The trays 
are placed upon machans of split bam- 
boo which may be covered with matting. 
The legs of the machan should be 
smeared with some sticky material if 
ants are a trouble. 


Food.—The worms are wholly fed 
upon castor leaves, plucked as required, 
and the castor plants must be available 
close at hand. For young worms small 
leaves are used, but later the large 
coarse leaves are required. Varieties of 
castor have been collected at Pusa from 
all parts of India; some are better leaf- 
yielders than others, but all are eaten, 
the bronze or red ornamental variety 
grown in gardens being, however, dis- 
liked. The varieties in cultivation are 
apparently all suitable, some yielding 
Weare not here 
discussing the question of growing the 
worm on a large scale for factories, but. 
rather of utilising available castor leaves, 


‘at present of little value, for producing 


[SEPTEMBER, 1909. 


4 
4 
* 
+ 
‘ 


we 


Jee 


‘SEPTEMBER, 1909.] 245 


silk. The best varieties for growing 
specially for silk and the best systems of 
plucking, etc.; are under investigation 
at present. So far as can be seen at 
present, an acre of castor, not too 
heavily picked, should yield fifty to 
seventy-five maunds of leat as well as a 
yearly normal crop of seeds. When cas- 
tor is not available, the leaves of Ber 
(Zizyphus jujuba) can be used, and in 
Assam the leaves of Papaw, (Carica 
papaya), Gulasiphol (Plumeria alba), 
Cassava and some trees are used, but 
not for rearing on any scale, only to 
keep a few worms alive from season to 
season. 


Utilisation of the Silk.—The cocoons: 
after the moth has emerged, are col” 
lected ; they sell at present for about 
Rs. 70 per maundin Calcutta, but can 
be more profitably grown for local use. 
Of good cocoons, 2,500 go to a seer ; of 
small ones, as many as 4,000. It requires 
75 lbs. of castor leaf to feed the number 
of worms, large or small, which produce 
a lb. of cocoons. A seer of cocoons, 
after treatment, yields about twelve 
chittacks of thread (75 %). The cocoons 
are, in Assam, both brown and white; 
in Pusa, by rearing from white cocoons, 
or from some other cause, only white 
cocoons are obtained ; the colour is imma- 
terial as, in the boiling off, the brown of 
the cocoons is dissolved off. The cocoons 
are boiled in water containing either 
castor ash or soda. Castor ash, 1.e., the 
ashes of castor stems and branches, con- 
tains about 28 % of Potassium carbonate ; 
on boiling the cocoons in water contain- 
ing aseer of ash to each seer of silk, 
with enough water to cover the cocoons, 
the gum on the thread is dissolved and 
the cocoon becomes soft. In using soda, 
one takes for each seer of silk a quarter 
of a seer of soda and boils for three- 
quarters of an hour, and this is the best 
treatment. 

The cocoons are then washed and are 
ready for spinning. Spinning may be 
done on the usual spinning wheel 
(Churka) used for cotton, from either 
the wet cotton or from the dry one, or 
on the Taku, used in Assam for this silk. 
One method is simply to spin from the 
wet cocoons, the spinner taking a lump 
of them in one hand. Another is to dry 
the boiled cocoons, and to cart out the 
silk into a mass like cotton or wool, 
loose, dry fibres, and spin from that. 
The former gives a finer, closer thread of 
dirty colour, the latter a white, fluffy 
thread less suited to fine weaving. The 
latter thread is readily made by those 
who understand wool-spinning, as in 
the Punjab. An improvement in spin- 
ning has been effected by the use of a 
new machine, in which the spinning is 


Sericulture: 


continuous by means of the “flying 
needle” and is done on to bobbins direct. 
The machine has been worked out at 
Pusa and is in use there. It facilitates 
the spinning of coarse thread suited to 
the requirements of the country, and is 
a simple machine easily made and 
worked. 


The thread produced is woven in the 
usual way and is suited to the hand- 
looms of this country. <A variety of 
looms are being employed, but we have 
nothing original to offer on this subject, 
and the usual method of weaving may 
be adopted. In this way, by using either 
the ordinary spinning methods used for 
cotton, or by using the new machine, 
and by utilising the ordinary weaving 
of the district, one can produce good 
durable cloth, of white or ecru colour, 
either fine or thick, with great dura- 
bility and wearing qualities. The silk 
has not the appearance of the fine reeled 
silk; it has not the gloss and the 
sheen, but is best described as being the 
familiar Assam silk. 

The dyeing of this silk is easy ; the indi- 
genous dyes of plant origin are especi- 
ally suited to it; alizarine or anthracene 
dyes give brilliant and fast colours; 
aniline dyes give a large range of bril- 
liant colours; some fairly fast, some 
fugitive. The cocoons may be dyed or 
the cloth, and a great variety of colours, 
fast to light, can be produced. Careful 
tests have been made of a great variety 
of dyes, and, while the ordinary methods 
of using indigenous plant dyes for silk 
are applicable to this silk, we would 
urge the use only of fast dyes, whether 
indigenous or not. It is impossible here 
to enter further into this question, but 
there are no special difficulties in dyeing, 
and full imformation can be obtained 
from Pusa. Good fast colours are ob- 
tained with indigo, lac-dye, backam, 
palas, manjista and jakwood, among 
indigenous colours; with the alizarine 
(mordanted) dyes with some aniline 
(acid, direct or developed) colours. The 
reader may consult Bannerjee’s Dyeing 
in Bengal or EK, K. Watson’s Fastness of 
the Indigenous Dyes of Bengal (Memoirs, 
Asiatic Society of Bengal, Vol. II., No. 
7, p. 155). 

ri as an Industry.—At the present 
time, eri silk is grown in Assam partly 
to supply clothes to the grower, partly 
to satisfy a demand for Assam silk 
cloth, produced at factories in Gauhati 
and elsewhere. We believe there isa 
large field for its extension, asa minor 
or home industry, wherever castor grows 
in India; the seed is obtainable and is 
readily sent by post to all parts of 
India ; the rearing is simple and can be 
done on alarge scale once it has been 


Sericulture. 


seen; the production of thread and 
cloth offers no difficulties to people 
accustomed to spinning and weaving 
cotton; and there is no inherent difficulty 
which would prevent its adoption in all 
parts of India where castor is grown 
and where the climate is suitable. The 
culture of the worm on a large scale or 
its utilisation on a large scale in power 
looms, isa matter of commercial enter- 
prise and not our immediate concern. 
Where castor is available, large quanti- 
ties could be produced and either spun 
or woven locally, or collected and 
utilised in a factory. 

In Behar, the cost of producing the 
cocoons, spinning the thread, and weav- 
ing the cloth, totals up to much less 
than the market value of the cloth, 
though full wages are paid to the rearers 
and spinners; where the rearing and 
spinning are done by whole families 
including women and children in_ their 
leisure time when field work is not 


SE Sse ae ee ee 


pressing, it represents a valuable minor 
industry. : 

At the present time, the seed is obtain- 
able only from Assam or from Pusa. 
We would emphasize the very grave 
danger of obtaining live cocoons from 
Assam, since they carry the parasitic 
fly, the most dangerous enemy to the 
worms; and, as a rule, seed obtained in 
the ordinary way from Assam is bad. 
Good seed will be sent from Pusa, and, 
if notice is given, a large supply of seed 
is usually available. A limited number 
of men, trained to the work, are avail- 
able for starting the industry in new 
places, and anyone wishing to learn it 
can be taught in the Pusa rearing house 
inashort time. The industry is being 
taken up in different parts of India, and 
wherever there is a demand for light 
remunerative work, such as can be done 
by women and children, if castor is avail- 
able, the rearing, spinning and weaving 
of this silk offer many advantages. 


SCIENTIFIC AGRICULTURE. 


FIXATION OF NITROGEN BY 
BACTERIA.* 


(From the Gardeners’ Chronicle, Vol. 
XLV., No. 1172, June, 12, 1909.) 


The fixation of nitrogen by bacteria, 
though a somewhat well-worn snbject, 
is one of the most fundamental problems 
of agriculture, and one which is con- 
stantly receiving new light from one 
source or another. Nitrogen is not only 
an essential element in the nutvition of 
the plant, but the fertilising substance 
most costly to purchase, although in its 
free, gaseous state it constitutes four- 
fifths of the atmosphere. Our ordinary 
plants, however, are incapable of draw- 
ing upon this stock of free nitrogen, 
and hence they must obtain combined 
nitrogen from the soil. This fact—the 
subject of long controversy—may be 
said to have received its crowning 
demonstration by the experiments of 
Lawes, Gilbert, and Pugh at Rothamsted 
in 1857-8. Despite these and other ex- 
periments, it became evident that some 
factor in the situation had been over- 
looked, because from many sources—the 
Rothamsted field experiments among 
others—it was shown that leguminous 
crops not only took away an exceptional 
amount of nitrogen, but left the ground 


~* Lecture delivered on March 11, 1909, by” 
r. A. D. Hall, Director of the Rothamsted 
Experimental Station. 


richer in nitrogen compounds than it 
was before their growth. These diffi- 
culties were cleared up by Hellriegel 
and Wilfarth in 1886-7, when they 
showed that leguminous plants were 
susceptible to the infection of an organ- 
ism which produced nodules upon their 
roots, whereupon they became able to 
draw upon the atmospheric nitrogen, 


The nodules contain in vast numbers a 
bacterium which effectsthe fixation of 
nitrogen; the combined nitrogen is 
passed on to the host plant, which in its 
turn supplies the bacteria with the carbo- 
hydrates they require. The nodule 
bacteria, which have only latterly been 
isolated in a pure state directly from 
the soil, exist in the soil in whatis called 
the neutral condition, because they are 
ready to infect many different species of 
leguminous plants indifferently. They 
are very small, about 0-8long by 0°2p 
broad, and are in active motion, each 
possessing a single cilium. Because of 
this activity they are sometimes said to 
be in the ‘‘swarm” stage, and in this 
form they infect the host plant by - 
entering through the root-hairs. 

Once they have entered the root-hairs, 
they begin to secrete slime and extend 
into the cells of the root, near the nuclei 
of which they begin to multiply rapidly 
as bacilli, rods about four times the siz 
of the bacteria free in the soil. - 


Finally, after two or. three weeks, the 
bacilli begin to form still larger entities, 


[SePrenpen, 1900, 


ei ‘SEPTENPER, 1909,] 


termed bacteroids, protoplasmic bodies, 


which after the fourth week show a 
granular structure, and later still disin- 
tegrate to allow the bacilli to fall out. 
The bacteroids show typical Y shapes in 
the nodules of Clover, Peas, Beans, and 
Vetches ; in some clovers they are also 
elub or dumb-bell shaped, but only of 
late has it been possible to get bacteroids 
to develop in artificial cultures. With 
the formation of bacteroids begins the 
growth of the nodules and the fixation 
of nitrogen; whenin certain cases ab- 
normal nodules have been found contain- 


ing only bacilli no fixation has taken 


place. 


The important question then arises as 
to whether there is only a single species 
of the nodule-forming bacterium, or 
whether each leguminous plant does not 
possess, if not a corresponding species, 
at least a race specialised to co-operate 
with it. It was early shown that certain 
leguminous plants—notably Seradella 
Lupins, and Lucerne—could not always 
be infected by soil which would inocu- 
late Clover. It was also shown_ that, 
if a particular species like the French 
Bean were inoculated with bacilli from 
a Clover nodule, it would not grow as 
well (in the absence of soil nitrogen) 
asif it were inoculated with bacilli 
from a nodule obtained from another 
French Bean plant. However, when 
the organisms from the Olover nodule 
had been for one generation in a 
French Bean, they then became as effec- 
tive on the latter as the original French 
Bean organisms which had had no known 
connection with Clover. Thus we may 
consider as established the existence of 
distinct races of the nodule organism, 
capable, however, of acclimatisation. 


Very soon after Hellreigel and Wil- 
farth’s discovery, attempts were made 
to utilise it by artificially introducing 
the organisms into soil on which legu- 
minous plants grew badly. Salteld, in 
Hanover, engaged in reclaiming waste 
heath land by ploughing in successive 
crops of Lupins, &c., found it of advan- 
tage to bring soil from fields where such 
crops had grown previcusly, and to sow 
6 to 8 ewt. per acre before the first 
leguminous crop was taken. Between 
1888 and 1892 he had achieved many 
successes in this way on the barren 
heath land manured only with basic slag 
and potash salts; the crop nodulated 
and gathered carbon and nitrogen from 
the air, out of which a fertile soil was 
eventually built up. In order to save 
the trouble attached to sowing such 
quantities of soil, Nobbe and Hiltner in 
1896 introduced artificial cultures of the 
nodule organisms, growing on a jelly 


247 


Scientific Agriculture. 


made from an extract of the plant stif- 
fened by gelatine. But in such a 
medium, rich in nitrogen, the nodule 
organism grows very slowly and becomes 
inert, so that for practical purposes this 
‘‘nitragin” proved a failure. 


Little by little, however, the methods 
of growing the bacteria artificially were 
improved, chiefly by the introduction of 
media containing little or no nitrogen, 
and in 1903-4 Hiltner put on the market 
a very effective series of cultures grown 
on agar-agar containing a little plant 
extract. 


Moore, of the United States Depart- 
ment of Agriculture, began about the 
same time to send out cultures in a dry 
form, prepared by dipping cotton wool 
into an active liquid culture of the 
nodule organism and slowly drying it. 
When required for use, a fresh prepar- 
ation was made by putting the wool into 
a solution of sugar and potassium phos- 
phate, in which the bacteria would begin 
to grow. Into this active liquid the 
seeds could be dipped before sowing. 
Moore’s preparations turned out unsatis- 
factory because the bacteria did not 
remain alive for long after drying. 
However, since that time, various im- 
provements have been made in _ the 
methods of growing the nodule bacteria 
in artificial media, and cultures which 
retain their activity for a considerable 
time are now obtainable from all the 
bacteriological laboratories concerned 
with agricultural work. Whether solid 
or liquid, they require to be diffused in 
a considerable bulk of water or separated 
milk, which can then be distributed over 
the land. A better method is to tie the 
seed in a bag of butter muslin, dip it in 
the fluid, and then allow the seed to 
dry somewhat before sowing. The seed 
should not, however, be allowed to dry 
for long, or the bacteria are apt to 
perish. The question now arises whether 
any practical benefit is to be obtained 
from such an inoculation of the seed of 
leguminous crops, and twc cases must at 
the outset be considered. Some soils 
exist, especially in new countries coming 
under cultivation for the first time, trom 
which the nodule organism is absent ; in 
such cases inoculation may be of the 
greatest possible value and may make 
the difference between obtaining a crop 
or none at all. Even in these cases, how- 
ever, the soil is often without nodule 
bacteria, because in some way its con- 
dition is unfit for their survival, so 
that it is of no use to introduce the 
organism unless at the same time the soil 
is made a suitable medium for their 
growth. Soils entirely without nodule 


Scientific Agriculture. 248 


organisms are rarely met with in 
the British Isles, but not infrequently 
soils are found on which such special 
crops as Lucerne, which requires a race 
of bacteria considerably differentiated 
from that which is found in Clover 
nodules, fail to nodulate and grow pro- 
pezly. In such cases a preliminary 
inoculation of the Lucerne seed may 
prove very effective in establishing the 
crop, which otherwise fails, although 
Clover will grow freely on the same 
land. Examples have been observed of 
the value ct inoculating Lucerne seed 
when that crop is being sown in a district 
in which it has not hitherto been grown. 


But in most of our soils, where Clover, 
Beans, and Peas have been cultivated 
in the regular way, the nodule organism 
is present, and the leguminous crop 
nodulates and begins to fix nitrogen 
without any artificial inoculation. In 
these cases the gain from inoculation 
is not likely to be large, 10 to 20 per cent. 
at the outside—a quantity only per- 
ceptible by careful experiment—and its 
existence must depend either upon some 
advantage to be derived from early 
inoculation or upon the establishment of 
an improved race of bacteria, more 
active in fixing nitrogen than those 
normally in the soil. Neither of these 
propositions has been established, and, 
though the work is still being actively 
pursued, a practical return for inocula- 
tion on ordinary field or garden soils is 
not yet to be expected. The nodule 
bacteria, either pure or mixed with other 
organisms, have not been induced to 
enter into partnership with the ordinary 
non-leguminous plants, which is not to 
be wondered at, considering the unlimit- 
ed opportunities the latter have had in 
ordinary soil of trying the experiment 
for themselves. An extensive experi- 
ment tried upon Tomatoes seemed to give 
an increased yield after inoculation, but 
this was shown to be due to the nutrient 
salts introduced by the culture medium, 
for a similar increase was produced when 
the same culture medium was given to 
the plants after it had been first 
sterilised by boiling. 

Turning now to other soil bacteria 
which fix nitrogen without the in- 
tervention of leguminous plants, mention 
must be made of the organism dis- 
covered by Beijerinck and called by him 
Azotobacter. ‘This organism is widely 
distributed, having been isolated at 
Rothamsted from virgin soils obtained 
from all parts of the world. In order to 
fix nitrogen it must be supplied with 
some form otf carbohydrate, by the 
oxidation of which it derives the energy 
necessary to bring the nitrogen into 
combination. Carbonate of lime as a 


base in the soil is also necessary for its 
growth. 


The history of a certain piece of land 
illustrates the dependence of nitrogen- 
fixation by Azotobacter on_ supplies of 
carboyhdrates in the soil at Rothamsted, 
The land in question has been allowed 
to run wild for the last 25 years, and has 
been gaining nitrogen during that period 
at the rate of nearly 50 lbs. per acre per 
annum, whereas the adjacent arable 
land has lost rather than gained nitrogen. 
On the ‘‘ wild” land the vegetation every 
year is allowed to die back, thus the 
soil is continually supplied with com- 
pounds of carbon by the oxidation of 
which Azotobacter is enabled to fix 
nitrogen; on the arable land, however, 
where the crop is almost wholly removed, 
there is no return of carbon compounds 
to the soil. 


Certain pot experiments have shown 
that the application to soil of sugar, a 
carbon compound containing no nitrogen, 
is followed by a gain of nitrogen, of 
great benefit to succeeding crops, but 
attempts to obtain similar results in the 
field at Rothamsted have so far yielded 
negative results. 1n the Mauritius, how- 
ever, the treatment of the soil with 
Molasses has been found beneficial to 
the following crops, and Azotobacter 
has been also shown to be abundant in 
the soil. 


The piece of “wild” land at Rotham- 
sted supplies the clue to the accumula- 
tionsof nitrogen in such virgin soils as the 
black lands of the North-west of America, 
the Russian Steppes, the Argentine, 
Pampas, &¢c., which are naturally 
occupied by aluxuriant, grassy vegeta- 
tion. However long such land has been 
growing grass, the plants themselves 
could not increase the stock of nitrogen; 
they could only take up what was 
originally in the soil and restore it again. 
But when the carbonaceous matter they 
have assimilated from the atmosphere 
falls back to the soil, material is provided 
by means of which Azotobacter, present 
in all these soils, can proceed to fix 
nitrogen. The low ratio of carbon to 
nitrogen in the organic matter of these 
virgin soils is in itself evidence that very 
active oxidation of the vegetable debris 
had been going on; in this respect the 


organic matter of the virgin soils re- — 


sembles that which had accumulated on 
the “wild” plot at Rothamsted, but 
differs from that which is found in soils 
devoid of Azotobacter. The gain in 
fertility of land laid down to grass, 
where a mass of stubble and roots 
accumulate, is also probably in part the 


work of this nitrogen-collecting micro- 


organism, 


i. 


[SEPTEMBER, 1909. 


SEPTEMBER, 1909.) 


2 = 


249 


MISCELLANEOUS. 


LITERATURE OF ECONOMIC 
BOTANY AND AGRICULTURE. 


By J. C. WiL.is, Sc.D. 


Coconuts : General and Cultivation 
Diseases.— 


Cultivation et commerce du cocotier a 
Ceylon. Prudhomme. Bull. Jard. 
Col. Apr, 1906, p. 296. 

Freudenberg. Profitable coconut 
manuring. Colombo 1906. 

Prudhomme. Le Cocotier. Paris 

Freer. On the water-relations of the 
coconut, &e. Phil, Journ. Sci. L, 


Copeland. do. do. p- 6. 

Walker. The coconut and its rela- 
tion to the production of coconut 
oil. do. p. 58 

Etherington. The germination of 
the coconut, ‘*T.A.” Sept. 1906, 
p. 282. 

The coconut industry of Trinidad 
“<T,A-” Aug, 1906, p. 155. 

Report on a sample of coconut water 
from Ceylon. Dunstan. ‘'T.A.” 
June 1906, p. 377. 

Changes taking place during the 
ripening of acoconut. do. p. 296. 

Coconut cultivation : manuring. 
“TA,” Mar. 1906, p. 160. 

Ceylon Coconut products in 1905. do. 
p- 165. 

Ceylon Coconut and Copra prospects 
in 1906, do, p. 166. 5 

Cultivation of the coconut. ‘T.A.’ 
Oct. 1906, p. 318, 


Petch. Diseases of the coconut palm. 


“T. A.” Dec. 1906, p. 489. 


Quelques recherches sur la com? 
position de Veau et sur les diastases 
du fruit de Cocos nucifera de 
Kruyft in Bull. Dept. Agri., Java, 
5, 1906. 

Notigen iiber den Boden und sein® 
Behandlung bei der Kultur de? 
Roker Der Plf. 10 8. 1907; 
ps 1. : 

Mole or seedless coconuts. Agr. 
News, 6, 1907, p. 87. 
Coconut cultivation in the Southern 
Province. ‘*T,A.” May 1907, p. 278. 
. Notes de voyage et d’expérience sur 
le cocotier. Journ. d’ Agr. trop. 
1907, p- 67, 1908, p, 198, 
Ba 


Diseases of the coconut palm. Str. 
Bull. June 1907, p. 165. 


Coconut beetles in the Philippines. 
do. p. 175. 


Manures and manuring of coconuts. 
‘“T,A.” Aug. 1907, p. 118. 


Ceylon coconut oil in America, 
“TA.” May 1906, p. 288. 

Coconut cultivation. ‘*T.A.” Suppl. 
Aug. 1907, p. 25. 

Coconut disease in the West Indies. 
do. p. 26. 

Coconut industry in the F.M.S. do. 
p. 4 eo 

Enemies of the coconut palm. do. 
p- 40. 

Coconut cultivationin Ceylon. Trop. 
Life, Aug. 1907, p. 119. 


Coconut palm disease. Jamaica Bull. 
07, p, 111. 

Quelques recherches sur la com- 
position de l’eau, et sur les dias- 
tases du fruit de Cocos nucifera, 
Bull. Jard. Col. 7, 1907, p. 339. 


Zur Dungung der Kokospalme. Der 
Pflanzer, 10, 8. 1907, p. 169. 


The Coconut, with reference to its 
products and cultivation in the 
Philippines. Manila Dpt. Agr. 
Farmers, Bull., “T.A.” Apr. 1908, 
p. 306, May, p. 424. 

Exploitation du cocotier & Samoa. 
Journ. dAgr. trop. Mar. 1908, 
p. 78. 

The coconut industry in Travancore. 
Ind. Agric. Nov. 1907, p. 3830. 
“*'T.A.” Feb. 1908, p, 128. 

The coconut in Samoa (review). 
“T.A,” June 1908, p. 544. 


The scientific study of the coconut. 
Trop. Life, Feb. 1908, ‘* T.A’” 
Sept. 1908, p. 229. 

Coconut cultivation. Agr. News, 

- Apr. 1908, “T. A.” Aug. 1908, p. 129, 

Coconut planting territory of Papua, 
Queens]. Agr. Jl. June 1908, p. 299, 
“T.A.” Oct, 1908, p. 385. 

Hunger. Over het mogelijke nut 
van vertakte Cocospalmen voor 
de leauerculpudr. Cultuurgids 

»p. 3. 


Walker. Notes on the sprouting 
coconut, &e. Phil. JJ. Sei. III. A. 
ILL. 1908. 


The coconut industry of Travancore. 
Ind. Agric. Oct. 1908, p, 311, ‘‘T.A.” 
Feb, 1909, p, 124. 


Miscellaneous. 


The Coconut. Queensl. Agr. Jl., 
Nov, 1908, p. 239. 

Coconuts and coconut produce. Trin. 
Bull. Oct. 1908, p. 40. 

The Cultn. of the coconut. Trop. 
Life, V. 1. Jan. 1909, p. 4. 

Coconuts in the dry zone of Ceylon, 
J. C. Willis, ‘‘T.A.” Jan. 1909, p. 26. 

The coconut palm; its relation of 
weather to crops. J. D. Van- 
derstraaten. ‘“‘T.A.” Jan. 1900, 
p. 27. 

Coconut diseases. Des Tropenflanzer. 
March 1909, p. 114. 

The coconut palm. With reterence 
to the export of its products. 
“TA.” Feb. 1909, p. 128. 

Coconut planting and cultivation. 
P.G. Schrader. ‘‘T.A.” Feb. 1909, 
p. 125, 

Coconut planting at Antigua. Agr. 
News, VIII, p. 84, Mar. 1909. 

Coconut culture. Queensl. Agr. J]. 
XXII, p. 196, April 1909. 

Bijdragen tot de Kennis van der 

okospalm. Bull. Kol. te Haarlem 
No. 41, April 1909, 160, pp. 

Coconuts in Laguna and Tayabas 
provinces. Phil. Agr. Rev., Dec. 
1908, **T.A.” May 1904, p. 422. 

Cocos nucifera. Agr. Journal of 
Brit. East Africa, I. 3., Oct. 1908, 
p. 225. 

Brassolis Isthmia: A coconut pest in 


Panama. Phil. Agr. Rev. April 
1909, p. 188, ‘T.A.” Suppl. July 
1909, p. 76, 


The coconut stem disease. ‘‘T,A.” 
Suppl. July 1909, p. 738. 

Les maladies du Cocotier et leur 
traitement Journ d’Agr. Trop. 
June 1909, p. 169, 


Coconut : Coir.— 
Indian coirindustry. Ind. Agric. Aug. 
1907, p. 244. ‘* T.A.” Oct. 1907, p. 261. 


Coconut : Copra Oil.-- 

Walker. Keeping qualities and 
causes of rancidity in coconut oil. 
Phil. Jl. Sci. I. 1906, p.117. ‘‘T.A.” 
June 1906, p. 869. 

Classification of coconut oil in 
America. ‘T.A.” Feb. 1906, p. 24. 

The keeping qualities of coconut oil. 
oT. A.” July 1907, p. 14. 

Puritication of coconut oil. Phil. Jl. 
Sci. III. 45 1908., ‘‘T.A.” Aug. 1908, 
p. 119. 

Coconut oil in the States. Trop. 
Life, June 1908, ‘‘T.A.” Oct. 1908, 


p. 334 


250 


Notes on the sprouting coconut, on 
copra, and on coconut oil. Phil, 
Jl. Sci. abstracted by J. C. Willis. 
‘oA. do» p. Alt 

The copra industry. Str. Bull, Jan. 
1909, p. 2. 

The copra industry. do. 
March 1909, p. 221. 

Recent researches regarding the 
germination of the coconut and the 
deterioration of its products. OC, 
Drieberg, ‘‘T.A.” Jan. 1909, p. 10. 


Coconut ; Desiccated.— 
Desicated coconut manufacture in 
Ceylon and New South Wales. 
“T.A.” Suppl, Oct. 1908, p, 885. 


6é 4 Axi 


NOTES AND QUERIES. 


By C, " DRIEBERG. 


G. A.—There are two methods of ex- 
tracting oil from seeds of castor, sun- 


flower, dec. :— 


Cold drawn Method.—The seeds are 
broken between rollers, setso that the 
outer hard covering is cracked off. The 
whitish kernels are then separated, 
placed in hempen bags, and submitted 
to heavy pressure in powerful screw or 
hydraulic presses. The oil which runs 
outis then boiled with water to separate 


the mucilage and albumen. The clear. 


oil is finally drawn off, strained through 
flannel and put into tins, barrels, hogs- 
heads or dubbers for exportation. <A 
dubber is a globular leather vessel or 
bottle used by the natives of India to 
hold oils and such like. 


Expression by Heat.—The seeds are 
first scorched in an earthernware pan 
over the fire and then pounded in a 
mortar; the husks are sometimes re- 
moved and sometimes left, but their 
separation produces a better oil. The 
broken seeds are then tied in alinen bag 
and boiled with waterin alarge pot, and 
the oil isskimmed off asit rises to the 
surface. 


T. M. (Fls1).—Ghee or Ghi is clarified 
butter. That is to say, the butter is heat- 
ed for about twelve hours or until the 
greater part of its moisture is evapor- 
ated. An oil is at the same time formed 
that rises to the surface, and the refuse 
(mostly casein) forms below as a sedi- 
ment. Too much heating is said, how- 
ever, to cause the ghi to assume an 
acid taste, while imperfect heating 
renders it liable to putrefaction. Great 
skill is thus required, but the ghi sold 


[SEPTEMBER, 1909, 


| 
! 


Pe ;EPTEMEER, 1909. ] 


in the market has usually been under- 
cooked owing to the loss in weight 
which takes place when fully cooked. 
Butter loses about 25 per cent, in the 
process of clarification. The yield of 
ghi from the butter of the buffalo is 
higher than from that of the cow. The 
boiling butter is allowed to be parti- 
ally cooled, when the ghi may be decant- 
ed off the top of the sediment. The 
ordinary ghi of the bazaars is principally 
derived from buffalo milk. One quart 
of buffalo milk yields about3 oz. of ghi, 
while the same quantity of cow milk 
may only afford about half that quatity, 
or, with extra fine qualities, three 
quarters of the ghimentioned. Ghi from 
goat milk is very inferior owing to the 
disagreeable odour it possesses, while 
that of sheep milkis often spoken of as 
superior even to buffalo butter. 

C. D, C.—The Acting Director of the 
Royal Botanic Gardens writes with 
reference to your enquiry :—‘‘ Your cor- 
respondent writes of the ‘interplanting 
of Cocoa with Rubber,’ but the remain 
der of his letter seems to 1efer to the 
interplanting of rubber with cocoa. I 
do not consider cocoa a suitable crop to 
plant with rubber in the Kelani Valley 
districts. Rubber may with advantage 
be planted in old cocoa where the latter 
is not a success with the object of even- 
tually supplanting it.” 


L. P. H.—With reference to your 
report of the death by the “ bleeding ” 
of orange trees, resulting as you thought 
in the death of one, the Government 
Mycologist says :—‘‘ Gummosis of orange 
trees may occur from any wounds, 
and can be stopped by cutting out 
the decayed tissue and tarring the 
wound. It is not likely to have 
killed the tree; death was probably 
due to exhaustion, It may be pointed 
out that the orange is not a tropical 
fruit, and that there are very few 
localities in Ceylon in which it will 
flourish continuously.” 


B. M.—The following from the Jamaica 
bulletin (New series No.1) gives infor- 
mation as to how the mango should be 
budded :—Plant out seeds of a woody 
sort to be budded when 18 months or 2 
years old. Buds from wood 14 to 2 
years old showing leaf scars on the 
bark should be selected. The bark 
should lift freely. Buds can be inserted 
either by cutting out a corresponding 
piece on the bark of the branch to be 
treated, or the bud can be slipped under 
a T-shaped incision in the ordinary 
way and then securely tied with fibre. 
In budding old trees,do not cut the 


251 


Miscellaneous. 


whole tree at once, or it will die; Cut 
the main branches about a foot from 
the stem, smooth and protect with tar, 
When the new growth is 1 to 14 inches 
in diameter it is fit to make a bud. 
When the buds have started to grow the 
other branches can be cut down and 
similarly treated. 


KF. D.—Dried blood for pine-apple, at 
the rate of 200 lbs. per acre, has been 
found very satisfactory in Porto Rico, 
where the pine-apple is grown exten- 
sively. An all-round fertilizer recom- 
mended for young plants is a mixture 
of dried blood, bonemeal and potash, 
which would analyse something like 5 % 
Ammonia, 30 % Bone phosphate, and 5 % 
Potash. This may be followed later on, 
when the plants are ready to blossom, 
by an application of Bonemeal and 
Potash. 


CEYLON AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY, 


MINUTES OF THE GENERAL MEETING 
JUNE 8TH, 1909. 

Minutes of a General Meeting of the 
Ceylon Agricultural Society, held at the 
Council Chamber at 12 noon on Tuesday, 
the 8th June, 1909. 


His Excellency the Hon’ble Mr. Hugh 
Clifford presided. 


There were also present :—The Hon’ble 
Mr. H. L. Crawford, c.M.G., the Hon’ble 
Mr. J. N. Campbell, the Hon’ble Mr. 
S.C. Obeyesekere, the Hon’ble Mr. P, 
Arunachalam, Sir S. D. Bandaranaike, 
Messrs. C, M. Lushington, A. Fairlie. 
J. S. Paterson, W. D. Gibbon, R. H. Lock, 
T. Petch, A. Bruce, G. E. Piachaud, 
G. Harbord, S, Rothwell, J. D. Vander- 
straaten, T. Rajapakse (Mudaliyar), 
J. H. Meedeniya, R, M., J. P, Obeyesekere, 
Francis L. Daniel, R. C. Proctor, M, 
Suppramaniam, Alex. Perera, W. A. de 
Silva, Drs. H. M. Fernando and G. H. de 
Saram, and Mr. C. Drieberg (Secretary). 

The minutes of the General Meeting 
held on 15th June, 1908, were read and 
confirmed. 


The Secretary presented his Annual 
Report (previously circulated) which was 
taken as read. 

The Hon’ble Mr. Crawford, Acting Colo- 
nial Secretary, moved, and Mr. Lushing- 
ton, Government Agent, Southern Pro- 
vince, seconded :—That the paragraph 
referring to Branch Societies be omit- 
ted.—Carried, 

The report in its amended form was 
adopted on the motion of the Hon’ble 


Mr. Crawford,- seconded by Dr. H, M 
Fernando 


Miscellaneous. 


The Secretary submitted the Auditors’ 
Report on the accounts of the year, a 
statement of which had been circu- 
lated. The Hon’ble Mr. Crawford moved 
aud Dr. H. M. Fernando seconded its 
adoption.—Carried. 


Mr. T. Petch, Government Mycologist, 
next addressed the Board on the subject 
of the Stem Bleeding Disease in the 
Coconuts, and announced the results of 
his scientific investigations 
disease. 

A vote of thanks to Mr. Petch, pro- 
posed by H. H. the President, was carried 
with acclamation. 

Mr. Lock, Acting Director, Royal 
Botanic Gardens, submitted the resolu- 
tions of the Committee appointed to 
report on the question of improving the 
cultivation and curing of tobacco. 


At the suggestion of H. EK, the Presi- 
dent, the discussion on this matter was 
postponed fora special meeting of the 
Board fixed for July 5th, 1909. 

MINUTES OF THE SPECIAL MEETING OF 
THE BOARD OF AGRICULTURE, 
JULY 5TH, 1909.- 


Minutes of a Special Meeting of the 
Board of Agriculture to consider the 
resolutions of the Tobacco Sub-Com- 
mittee, brought up by Mr. Lock, Actmg 
Organising Vice-President, at the annual 
meeting of the Society held on June 8th, 
and postponed for further consideration 
at the suggestion of H. E. the Acting 
Governor. 


Present :—His Excellency Sir Hugh 
Clifford (in the chair), the Hon. Messrs. 
H. L. Crawford, o.M.G., Bernard Senior, 
1.8.0., L. W. Booth, S. C. Obeyesekere, 
A. Kanagasabai, Sir S. D. Bandara- 
naike, KT., C.M.G., Messrs. W. D. Gibbon. 
J. Harward, R. H. Lock, A. N. Galbraith, 
J. D. Vanderstraaten, W. A. de Silva, 
G. W._ Sturgess, Tudor Rajapakse, 
Daniel Joseph. Dr, H. M. Fernando, and 
Mr. C. Drieberg (Secretary). 


Mr. Lock, in moving the resolutions, 
briefly traced the history of the proposal 
for the employment of a tobacco expert. 


Mr. J. D. Vanderstaaten seconded. 
Among other speakers were the 


Hon’ble Mr. Crawford, Mr, W. D: Gibbon, - 


Dr. H. M. Fernando, Mr. A. N. Galbraith, 
the Hon’ble Mr, Bernard Senior, the 
_.Hon’ble Mr. S.'C. Obeyesekere, the 
Hon’ble Mr. A. Kanagasabai, Mr. W. A. 
de Silva and Mr, Daniel Joseph. 


H. E. the Acting Governor summed up 
the discussion and suggested that the 
recommendation of the Tobacco Com- 
mittee be referred back for further 
deliberation (a suggestion which was 
unanimously approved of) along witha 


252° 


into the 


held at Anuradhapura, 


(SHprenemr, 1902 


recommendation made by Mr. Bernard 
Senior with reference to the terms of 
the proposed appointment. 


C. DRIEBERG, 
Secretary, C. A. S. 


CEYLON AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY. 


PROGRESS REPORT XLV. 

Membership.—Since the meeting of 
April 7, the following members have 
joined the Society :—Stephen Smith, W. 
M. Hall, C. C. Sheppard, Edwin Pate, 
A.C. Morrell, C. A. Hewavitarne, R. G. 
Shaw & Co., Carl C. Halling, Ernest. 
Hamilton, N. Dwarkadas, G. G. Simon 
de Silva, A. Balakrishna, W. Suppra- 
maniam, A. Cochrane, W. H. Sinclair, 
A. van Starrex, R. M. Peiris, and G. H. 
Colin de Silva. The newly-formed 
branch Society for Pasdun Korale East 
has been affiliated. 

Branch Societies.—The Harispattu 
Branch has been re-organized with the 
appointment of Mr. James R. Nugawela 
as Secretary and Mr, P. B. Ottanpitiya 
as Treasurer, the Ratemahatmaya, (Mr. 
Nugawela) continuing to act as Presi- 
dent. Since the appointment of an 
Agricultural Instructor for the Central 
Province, the prospects of this and other 
branches in the Province have improved 
considerably. 
~The Katunayaka Branch has under- 
taken to cultivate cassava on a commer- 
cial scale, and paddy with special ferti- 
lizers generously provided by the Chair- 
man, Mr. A, K. Rajapakse Mudaliyar. 

The new Magam Pattu Branch has 
decided to establish an experimental 
garden at Hambantota, for which the 
Assistant Government Agentis to select 
a Crown site. 

Official Tours.—The Acting Organizing 
Vice-President visited Matara, Galle, 
Anuradhapura, and Kegalla. The Secre- 
tary made inspections in the Northern, 
Southern, North-Central, North-West- 
ero, and Uva Provinces. Agricultural 
Instructor Wickramaratne toured in the 
Bentota-Walallawiti, Pasdum, and Rayi- 
gam korales; Mr. L. A. D. Silva in the 
Chilaw and Puttalam Districts; Mr. 
Molegoda in the Walapane, Hanguran- 
keta, Uda and Pata Hewaheta, Dumbara, 
and Harispattu districts; Mr, Chelliah 
in the Jaffna, Vavuniva, and Anuradha- 
pura Districts ; and Mr. Breckenridge in 
Sampanturai, Potuvil, and Panawa pat- 
tus in the Eastern Province. | 


Agri-Horticultural Shows.—Shows were 
Galle, Han- 
guranketa, Kegalla, Mannar, and Weli- 
mada. The reports of the judges at 
these Shows 


are reproduced in the 


_ bitions, 


E Supraupme, 1909.) 


- Society’s magazine, but it may be stated 
here that they-were all successfull exhi- 
Kegalla being deserving of 
special mention for its excellent arrange: 
ments. 


The Shows so far fixed for the latter 
half of the year will be held at Telijja- 
willa on August 25, Pannala on August 
21, Mirigama on October 30, and Hetti- 
pola on December 4. 


The Curator of the Royal Botanic 
Gardens has kindly undertaken to draw 
up aset of special instructions regard- 
ing the arrangement of exhibits. 


Arrangements are being made for 
securing a permanent exhibit of Indian 
cereals and dry grains for local Shows. 


School and Experimental Gardens.— 
So far, owing to the paucity of Govern- 
ment schools in the Northern and Kast- 
ern Provinces, and the difficulty of 
reaching these areas with only two_in- 
specting officers available, no gardens 
have been opened in connection with 
Tamil schools ; but, with the appointment 
of two Agricultural Instructors stationed 
at Jaffna and Batticaloa, it is now pos- 
sible to make a beginning in this work 
which will be encouraged as much as 
possible in the aided schools. 


The teacher of Weragala, 11 miles 
distant from Karawanella and only 
accessible by a footpath, is deserving 
of special mention for the excellent 
garden he has established there. 


The Vavuniya experimental garden 
will, with the permission of the Assistant 
Government Agent, be in future worked 
under the supervision of the Agricultural 
Instructor of the Northern Province. 


Paddy Cultivation.—The great loss of 
eattle through death by rinderpest has 
brought the paddy cultivator to a serious 
pass, particularly in the Hambantota 
District, where the preparation of fields 
has from time immemorial been done by 
the primitive method of ‘‘mudding ” or 
‘*puddling.” At the request of the Assis- 
tant Government Agent and on instruc- 
tions .received from Government, the 
Society has taken up the question of 
whether it would not be possible to get 
the fields ploughed with the aid of 
implements, and with a view to its 
practical solution a posse of Agricultural 
Instructors is being sent on special duty 
to Tissa, with a collection of suitable 
implements kindly lent by Messrs. 
Walker, Sons & Co., to make trials and 
hold demonstrations. A special report 
on this subject will be issued later. 

- The loss of cattle has also interfered 
with the threshing of the last crop in 
the Eastern Province. The use of a 


RU ee 


953 


Miscellaneous. 


simple contrivance has been suggested 
by Mr. Bamber, which may be found to 
meet the difficulty. 


In April-May the Society supplied 
1174 bushels of 60 days’ paddy and a 
large quantity of vegetable seeds at the 
request of the Assistant Government 
Agent, Puttalam, to help the cultivators 
of that district, who were threatened 
with distress asa result of the serious 
drought that prevailed there. 


Four new paddies were secured from 
India for Bibile Ratemahatmaya ; 
samples of twenty other varieties were 
received trom Nagpur, and information 
regarding quick-growing varieties pro- 
cured from Burma. <A quantity of 
Carolina gelden paddy has come from 
the Agricultural Department, United 
States of America. 


Reports of paddy cultivation by trans- 
planting seedlings from a nursery instead 
of sowing the seed broadcast have come 
from various quarters. In Rayigam 
korale planted out seedlings raised from 


one seer gave a yield equal to 96 bushels 
per acre. 


Mr. J. K. Nock inspected the trans- 
planted plots entered for competition 
in connection with the Welimada Show. 
He reports that ‘‘the very superior con- 
dition of the portions transplanted over 
those sown broadcast was remarkable 
both as regards general growth and 
crop prospects.” This was my own ex- 
perience at Baddegama in the Southern 
Province. 


Transplanting has also been carried 
on at Maragoda by the Paraduwa school 
in the Weligam korale, with. very satis- 
factory results. Seedlings from a 
nursery sown with 4 measures of seed 
paddy were transplanted in a field of 
1 bushel sowing extent (4an acre) and 
gave a crop of 21 bushels, making an 
average of 42 bushels per acre and a 
return of 168-fold on seed paddy used. 
No other fertilizers were used than 
the leaves of the ordinary Keppetiya 
(Croton, lacciferus) and the ashes of 
spent citronella grass. Similar experi- 


ments are being tried at Marambe and 
Dampella schools. 


Experiment with Artificial Manur- 
ing.—The Hon. Secretary of the Dumbara 
Agricultural Society reports as follows 
under date July 20 :—‘*I annex a report 
made by Mr. M. B. Rambukwella, Korala 
of Teldeniya, who was entrusted with 
the trial of artificial manure kindly sup- 
plied by Messrs. Freudenberg & Co. in 
the cultivation of paddy during the last 
maha harvest. The report, which ap- 
pears to bea very satisfactory one, will 
be submitted at a meeting of this Society 


Miscellaneous: 


to be held at Teldeniya on the 29th 
instant. \ 
munication on this subject after the 
meeting. The report states that ‘The 
artifical manure was applied to a field 
2 pelas in extent, which was sown with 
‘hatiyal’ paddy on the same day as 
another lot of the same extent adjoining 
the manured portion. Both the fields 
(manured as well as unmanured) were 
reaped on the same day, but threshed 
separately. The manured field yielded 
122 bushels of paddy, while the un- 
manured portion yielded only 62 bushels. 
In straw, too, there were 175 bundles 
more in the manured portion than in 
the other.” 


Grafling and Budding.—Mr. Alex. 
Perera conducted practical classes for 
Stock Inspectors and Agricultural In- 
structors for the purpose of instructing 
them in these methods of propagation, 
with a view to teachers and others being 
trained. The Instructors have been sup- 
plied with the necessary tools. 


Cotton.—A communication has been 
received from the British Cotton Growers’ 
Association with reference to the work- 
ing of the ginning plant which the 
Association sent out to Ceylon and is at 
present lying idle. Arrangements will 
probably be shortly made for resuming 
work. 

The Agricultural Instructor stationed 
in Batticaloa makes a favourable report 
on the growth of cotton in the HKastern 
Province. Two plantationsare said to 
have given promising results. A member 
in Uva who has planted cotton wrote 
last month asking for the loan of one of 
the Society’s hand gins. He has taken 
in 6,000 lb. seed cotton, and expects 
another 15,000 lb. This is said to be 
Caravonica. 

A correspondent from Galgamuwa 
writes hopefully of his Sea Island cotton, 
but is anxious to try Egyptian also. 


The pity is that it has not yet been 
possible to make a definite pronounce- 
ment as to the variety that should be 
cultivated in Ceylon. 1! understand that 
in Uganda, where cotton is doing very 
well, the Uplands variety has been 
selected, and that itis illegal for any 
other variety to be cultivated. 


Ginger.—The cultivation of this pro- 
duct is very much neglected in Ceylon, 
and, in order to extend and improve it, 
‘the Society addressed the Director of 
the Imperial Institute, London, on the 
subject, with a view to getting precise 
information as to best varieties to 
cultivate, and the most approved 
methods of cultivation and curing. 
Professor Dunstan has favoured the 


254 


I shall make a further com-. 


ee 


Society with an _ interesting | report, 
which will appear in the Society’s 
magazine, 


Orchella.—Inquiries made at the in- 
stance of the Imperial Institute as to the 
possibility of reviving the trade .in 
orchella weed (Hocella montagnet) has 
resulted in the offer of a Jaffna merchant 
to supply up to 12 tons per annum at 
£12 or Rs, 180 f.0.b. Jaffna. 

Seeds and Plants.—Special  distri- 
butions of seeds of new introductions 
have been madeat intervals. The most 
important of these is Cenchrus bifltorus, 
the fodder grass introduced by me from 


India. This grass bids fair to be one of 
the most useful of our introduced 
fodders. 


The biennial supply of vegetable seeds 
has just been indented for and will be 
distributed early in October. 


The Acting Director of Royal Botanic 
Gardens supplied the Society with a 
large quantity of Hickory King maize 
seed for distribution at the recent Shows 
held at Welimada and Kegalla. The 
giving away of this seed has been much 
appreciated by cultivators. A supply of 
selected durian seeds is shortly expected 
from Singapore, and from Egypt a con- 
signment of seeds of cottons reeommend- 
ed by Mr. McCall. 


Through the U.S. A. Department of 
Agriculture the Society has secured a 
couple of bushels of the famous Carolina 
golden rice. 


Bengal gram, indigo, and senna seeds 
have been obtained at the request of 
members. 

Tubers of the cluster sweet potato 
sent by the Agricultural Department of 
New South Wales arrived in good 
condition, and cuttings will soon be 
available for distribution. 


An order has gone forward for nearly 
1,500 grafted fruit plants booked to the 
order of members. These are expected 
about the end of September, 


A consignment of mangosteen and 
nutmeg plants presented by Mr. Martin 
D. S. A. Wijenayake, Stock Inspector 
and Agricultural Instructor, has been 
distributed among the schools of the 
North-Western Province with the assist- 
ance of the Government Agent. 


Plants of aspecies of Pandanus were 
received from Mr. Prautch of Manila, 
and the specimens of the woven materials 
sent with them show the possibilities of 
the screw pine so common in the Island. 


Implements and Appliances.—The 
patent hand maize-sheller introduced 
from Nagpur has been found very 
serviceable, aud six more have been 
imported, 


%, 


(SEPTEMBER, 1909. 


eee, 


Se. 


 gmpTaweEr, 1909.] 


The ‘‘Meston” plough stocked by 
Messrs. Walker, Sons & Co., Ltd., is now 
in demand ; a number of other light im- 
plements for paddy land have been 
imported by the same firm. The latter 
will be reported on after trial. Both 
Messrs. Walker, Sons & Co., and Messrs. 
Brown & Co. sent exhibits of implements 
to the Galle Show held onl6th June 
and following days. 

The irrigation of fields by means of a 
steam pump for raising water from the 
Deduru-oya is being tried by Messis. 
Fernando Bros. of Marawila. 


The set of Duchemein fibre machires 
imported by the Society has been. sent 
for trial to the Experiment Station, 
Peradeniya. 


Inquiries from Burma about rice 
hullers have elicited some useful inform- 
ation, which has been placed at the 
disposal of a local firm dealing in agri- 
cultural implements and appliances. 


Sericulture.—The Society’s operations 
at the Peradeniya Mulberry Silk Farm 
have been entirely suspended, and the 
farm leased for a nominal sum to Mr. 
Perey Braine, the local expert in seri- 
culture. In the meantime a proposal to 
establish an eri silk farm_in the low- 
country is under consideration. A 
turther sample of 200 lb. of eri cocoons 
has been sent to Paris, in addition to 
the previous consignment of 200 1b. for- 
warded to Switzerland, both the French 
and Swiss firms already referred to 
being favourably impressed with the 
possibilities of the silk. In the mean- 
time a communication has been received 
from the Imperial Entomologist of India 
inviting the co-operation of this Society 
to establish eri silk as an industry for 
India as well as Ceylon, and inquiring 
for the address of likely buyers which, 
after persistent efforts, the Society has 
sueceeded in discovering. The Seri- 
culture Committee have advised that all 
information be placed at the disposal of 
the Indian authorities, 


Reports and Analyses.—Specimens of 
a resinous substance received from the 
Agricultural Instructor, Batticaloa, was 
first submitted to Mr. Fredrick Lewis, 
who reported :—‘‘The sample you sent 
of leaves and wax I think without doubt 
is Gardenia latifolia (Gallis S.), which 
occurs in the dry country as wellas the 
wet up to about 1,200 feet elevation. 
The wax is obtained from the top of the 
leaf buds, and often forms quite an 
appreciable mass.” On being forwarded 
to the Imperial Institute, the Director 
reported :—'‘The material appears to 
resemble the ‘‘dikemali” resin obtained 
from Gardenia gummifera. The latter 
pas been known froma long time, and 


255 


Miscellaneous, 


has been frequently investigated. It 
was at one time held in high repute as a 
drug, but is of no commercial importance 
at present, If the exudation from the 
Gardenia latifolia is obtainable in large 
quantities, it would be worth examin- 
ation with a view to its possible commer- 
cial utilization. At least 2 lb. of the 
resin would be necessary for this pur- 
pose, 


The following analyses have been 
kindly made for the Society by the 
Government Agricultural Chemist :— 


Analysis of a Fodder Grass (Cenci, 
biflorus) introduced by the se 
; from South India. 


a Per Cent. 
Moisture lost in sun... site eaen 
Sun-dried Sample. 
Water Ay ANY oe 2460 
Solids ae ae Sect OA, 
100°00 


On Dry Sample. 


Solids containing— Per Cent. Per Cent. 


Carbohydrates ... 34:26 ... 45-43 
*Proteids nie Mal ec OF5O 
Woody fibre per 23460: 0. 831-1] 
Oib ves O78" 2.. 8 31703 
Aish a9 aa Dries. 19:9] 


75°40 100-00 


J Per C : 
ater soluble extracts 20> Pe arch et 
+Ash analysis— 60_ ... 27°30 
Lime 
Magnesia << 
Phosphoric acid 
Potash 
Insoluble 


Carbonic acid, &e, 5 


3°40 
2°40 
4°80 
13°40 

». 80°50 
45°50 
100°00 


Analysis of Chou Meellier (a Spec; ; 
Cabbage recommended asa Hoddsrenocs 
introduced by the Secretary 
from Australia, 


Received— 1 
Leaves .., 4 eae 
Stalk ... ie peace’ 
Root. 7 >. 50 
> 
Moisture lost in sun ,., fe rae 
Analysis of the Sun-dried Sample 
Moisture at 212° F, 145 
*Organic matter 74-5 
tAsh aie 0 


11°0 


100°00 


—— 


Miscellaneous. 
Por Cent. 
*Containing nitrogen... Fotis. ANS) 
+Containing— 
Lime : 6°0 
Magnesia dy pote 5 4 Was) 
Potash ... | re wnete OED 
Phosphoric acid Bae cata re 
Edible Part, Leaves only. 
Per Cent. 
Moisture ss soe LSEO, 
Oily matter eg oye 
Proteids .. att we 243 
Carbohydrates oi we 294 
Woody fibre ce 13°4 
Ash ane 11°4 
100°00 
Nitrogen 3°8 per cent. 
Sugar Trace 


Water soluble 


Analysis of Sesbania Aculeata (a Green 
Manure and fibre plant). 


31°4 per cent. 


Per Cent. 

Moisture lost in sun Ab 69 

Sun-dried Material. 

Moisture at 100° C.... fa eeallone 
*Organic matter as we 803 
+Ash os 6:2 

100°00 
*Nitrogen... as ages Pts) 
+Containing— 
Lime ... bat set a Ole 
Magnesia oa aon = 488 
Potash... ae von, ORG 
Phosphoric acid ... 6°9 
Small Leaves. 
Nitrogen... oo re 
Moisture... ne ... 13°50 
Sunflower  Oil.—The Trincomalee 


Branch, under the belief. that the oil 
of the sunflower, if grown extensively, 
might be employed for tinning ‘“ sar- 
dines,” applied for information on the 
subject. Inquiries were made from 
various likely sources as to the methods 
employed in the sardine-tinning  in- 
dustry, and the London Board of Agri- 
culture and Fisheries gave it as its opi- 
nion that sunflower oil would not be 
suitable for the purpose for which olive 
oil is utilized. In view of the fact, how- 
ever, that the so-called olive oil is large- 
ly made up of groundnut oil (from 
Arachis hypogoca), it may be worth 
while growing this crop, for which econdi- 
tions are suitable at Trincomalee, where 
already the Voandzia groundnut is 
regularly cultivated. 


C. DRIEBERG, 


Secretary. 
Colombo, August 2, 1409. 


256 


GALLE AGRLHORTICULTURAL | 
SHOW, 1909. 


Report on Classes A.B.C.D, & E. in 
Section 1. 


Class A. (FLOWERING PLANTS IN 
Pots) was disappointing ; the exhibits 
were few and of poor quality, and in 
many cases there were no entries for the 
prizes offered. It must be admitted, 
however, that this is not a popular class 
for such a district as Galle. 


Class B. (CuT FLOWERS).—This was 
an improvement on Class A as far as 
the number of entries were concerned, 
but the arrangement left much to be 
desired. Possibly no more unsuitable 
corner of the buildings could have been 
assigned to these delicate exhibits than 
that which they occupied, and the 
Judges had the greatest difficulty in 
distinguishing between these for the 
purpose of judging. 

Class C.. (FOLIAGE PLANTS IN Pots).— 
The entries in this class were on the 
whole creditable, though - doubtless 
better specimens could have been pro- 
duced by many residents in Galle. There 
were no entries for a ‘Tastefully 
arranged group.” 


Class D. (FERNSIN Pots).—The entries 
were few, and with two or three excep- 
tions, of indifferent quality. But here 
again it was evident that the local 
Bpeidents were not induced to send their 

est. 


Class EH. (FRvuiTS).—In this class the 
display was unusually disappointing. 
With the exception of Oranges, Kama- 
rangas and Bilings the paucity of exhibits 
was remarkable, and has been explained 
as being due to the fact that this isan 
unusally poor season for fruits of all 
kinds. There was only one _ exhibit 
each (and this of poor quality) of 
Mangosteens, Durian, Sapodilla, and 
Nam-nam. It would be interesting to 
havea reliabie report on the condition 
of fruit crops this season in the Galle 
district and low-country generally, 


REPORT ON GALLE AGRI-HORTI- 
CULTURAL SHOW, 1909. 


REPORT BY G. W, STURGESS. 


Section III. Class D.—DAIRY PRODUCE. 
Exhibits fewand hardly worth mention- 
ing, except buffalo ghee and cow ghee. 
Of the former there were nineteen, and 
of the latter eleven exhibits. Several 
of each kind were clear and fresh and of 
good quality, the majority were dirty 


a Oe gh ena aia, 
| SEPTEMBER, 1909. ig 


looking and exhibited in bottles not 
properly cleaned, showing want of care 
in preparation, 


Section IV. Class B.—POULTY AND 
DOMESTIC AN IMALS. 


Entries were few and nothing calls 
for special mention. 


Cattle were pot shown owing to the 
prevalence of cattle disease. 


In Class C., Pontgs, four were shown. 
Those awarded 1st and 2nd prizes were 
quite nice ponies. It isa pity entries 
were not larger. 


REPORT BY C. DRIEBERG. 


In submitting the following notes on 
the exhibits judged by me at the Galle 
Show, I should wish to state that there 
was considerable room for improvement 
(1)in the compilation of the catalogue, 
and (2). in the arrangement of the 
exhibits. Had the draft catalogue been 
forwarded to the Secretary of the 
Ceylon Agricultural Society, as required 
by the rules for the conduct of Agri- 
cultural Shows, and application been 
made for assistance in the arrangement 
of exhibits, this would not have been the 
case. I may here mention ‘another irre- 
gularity in connection with the Galle 
and other recent Shows, viz., that appli- 
cation for the services of expert judges 
was made direct to the judges and not 
through the Society, which pays their 
expenses. 


As regards the catalogue, [ would draw 
attention to the grouping of Flowering 
and Foliage Plants under one section, and 
the omission in most cases to state the 
number or quantity of exhibits required 
to be shown. As regards arrangement 
it is essential for purposes of judging 
that all exhibits of one kind should be 
placed together in spaces previously 
marked out (as accurately as possible) 
for them, so that the exhibits may be 
put into their proper places as they 
come into the shed, In the case of 
fruits and vegetables, the exhibit of 
each exhibitor should also be kept quite 
distinct, and for this purpose it is 
advised that the common flat bamboo 
basket employed for carrying fruits and 
vegetables be used. Branch Societies 
would do well to apply for the services 
ofan Agricultural Instructor, trained to 
such work, to assist in the arrangement 
of exhibits. 


Section III. Class C. 


(A.) Vegetables. 


English vegetables made a poor show 
but native vegetables were tairly well 


38 


257 


Miscellaneous. 


represented, among the best exhibits 
being sweet potatoes, which are largely 
cultivated in the district. 


Special Prize for School Gardens. 


There were seven entries for this com- 
petition. The thiee best displays were 
from Angunakolapilessa (Hambantota 
district), Kimbiya (Galle district), and 
Mandaduwa (Tangalle district), The 
first was awarded the Ceylon Agricul- 
tural Society’s silver medal, and the two 
latter were recommended for extra 
prizes of Rs. 10 each. 


Class D, (DAIRY PRODUCE.) 


The competition was poor, but there 
were a fair number of entries under 
buffalo and cow ghee of which some very 
fine specimens were shown. 


KEGALLA SHOW, 1909. 


REPORT BY C. DRIEBERG, 


The most noticeable feature about this 
Show was the excellent arrangement on 
the grounds and in the sheds. The 
exhibits were correctly placed and 
properly exposed, and provision was 
made for necessary assistance to the 
judges. 


In the vegetable section the collection 
of chillles—garden and chena—was very 
striking, though all the exhibits (except 
English vegetables) were well repre- 
sented. 


The show of fruits was remarkable con- 
sidering the time of the year, and the 
three most important classes—mangoes, 
oranges, and pinearples—were very well 
filled, Some good ‘‘rupee” mangoes 
were shown, and there were parti- 
cular fine specimens of the ‘‘ Colombo” 
mango of Jaffna (the prototype of 
the ‘‘ Jaffna” mango of Colombo) which 
went to prove that the soil and climate 
of the North are essential for the develop- 
ment of the finest flavour of this fruit. 
The excellence of the oranges made the 
task of the judges a most difficult one. 

The special collections of ripe fruits 
were all good, and needed very careful 
judging before a decision as to the 
award could have been arrived at. 


School Garden exhibits were housed in 


a special shed and elicited interested 
enquiries from His Excellency the 
Governor. The exhibits sent in by 


Hettimulla and Weeragalla were most 
creditable. 

_**Grains and other products” (class 
XIT) were all well represented. The 
collections of paddy and fine grains were 
nicely got up, and betel leaves of pheno- 


Miscellaneous, 


menal size, together with sugar-cane and 
maize of good quality, helped to fill a 
particularly interesting little shed, 


THE RATE OF GROWTH OF 
PALMYRAS., 


(From the Indian Forester, Vol. XXXV.,; 
Nos. 6&7, June and July, 1909.) 


Sir,—I read with much concern Mr. 
. W. Lushington’s article on the 
above in the March number of the Indian 
Forester. A great portion of this dis- 
trict depends almost entirely on the 
palmyra for its timber, and if it really 
takes 300 years to grow a palmyra tree, 
Wwe are indeed in a parlous state. I, 
however, derived some consolation from 
the fact that palmyra trees, in this dis- 
trict, do not attain a height of 100 feet. 
- They probably are never allowed to do 
so, as they usually give mature timber 
when 50 to 60 feet high. Still a tree of 
60 feet would take about 200 years to 
grow, and that is more than three times 
as long as I had reckoned on. 


A short time before, when making en- 
quiries about the age of palmyra trees, 
I had been informed by one of my 
Rangers that a tree planted in his 
father’s back-yard when he was a little 
boy, is now about 40 feet high; that 
is, it had grown 40 feet in about 30 
years. According to Mr. Lushington’s 
estimate, and allowing for the formation 
of underground stem, the tree would 
not have been i0 feet high in the time. 
Of course one must take statements of 
this sort cum grano salis, but it requires 
a deal of salt to digest 30 feet of palmyra 
tree. 


I, therefore, began looking about on 
my own account. One of the first things 
that I noticed was that some trees, 20 to 
25 feet high, retained the dead sheaths 
and leaf stalks right down to the ground. 
I marvelled greatly; for the bottom- 
most of these dead stalks must be 80 to 
100 years old! Next I examined some 
leaves freshly removed froma tree by 
toddy tappers. It struck me that the 
sheath looked, uncommonly, as if it had 
completely surrounded the stem when 
first formed, and that it had split up the 
back as the stem expanded. I then ex- 
amined the “‘spiral” annulations on the 
stem, and to my great surprise I dis- 
covered that they are not spiral at all, 
but a series of separate rings, each quite 
distinct from the one above and below it, 
Now, if the tree produces twelve leaves 
during the year—there are three leave 
to each ring—why should there be a 


» 


a 


oh 


> igs) pits 2 tex ae Se mS 
[SEPTEMBER, 1909, 


gap after each set of three? One could 
understand it if the three leaves were 
produced simultaneously at intervals of 
three months, but that is not the case. . 
Mr. Lushington says that a fresh leaf is 
formed every month, and this I believe 
to be the fact. If then, three of these 
leaves form an annulation, there is no 
reason why that annulation should stop 
after the third; it must go on as a conti- 
nuous spiral, at all events, until the 
year’s growth is completed. The only 
explanation that occurs to me is that 
each separate leaf forms a separate annu- 
lation, and as there are twelve leaves 
formed in a year, twelve annulations 
correspond to a year’s growth. The ‘ 
annulations average roughly 1to1l4 inch 
each, and a tree therefore grows about 
a foot or more inthe year. This rate 
of growth corresponds to the popular 
belief that a palmyra tree matures at 


about 60 years, 
A. B. JACKSON. 


THE INTERNATIONAL AGRICUL- an 
TURAL INSTITUTE. 


(From the Journal of the Board of Agri- 
culture, Vol. XVI., No. 4, July, 1909.) 


The International Agricultural Insti- 
tute was established at Rome in 1905, 
and an account of its formation, land of 
the objects aimed at, appeared in this 
Journal in June, 1906 (p. 129). A Parlia- 
mentary Paper has now been issued 
which supplies information as to the 
steps which have since been taken in 
regard to its establishment. This publi- 
cation contains a report by Sir Thomas 
H. Elliot, K.c.B,, who was one of the 
British delegates to the General As- 
sembly of the Institute, together with 
the correspondence which has passed 
between the Board of Agriculture and 
Fisheries and the Foreign Office on the 
subject. 


By the munificence of His Majesty the 
King of Italy, a beautiful building has 
been erected for the purposes of the Insti- 
tute in the grounds of the Villa Umberto 
I., formerly the Villa Borghese. This 
building contains large rooms for meet- 
ings in the central portion, while the 
wings contain the offices, library, and 
the rooms which will be occupied by the 
foreign delegates. It was opened by His 
Majesty in person on 28rd May, 1908, 
and subsequently the Permanent Com- — 
mittee held several meetings at which 
the work of the Institute was discussed, 
and various sub-committees were ap- 
pointed. 


et en ee - 


« ER eas ee een AL. Oo fie nee ee 


EMBER, 1909.) 


= The first meeting of the General 
Assembly was held on November 27th, 


and of ninety-one delegates who had 
been appointed by their respective Gov- 
ernments, nearly all were present. His 
Excellency Signor Tittoni, the Italian 
Minister for Foreign Affairs, was elected 
President, and the Hon. Sydney Fisher, 
Canadian Minister of Agriculture, and 
His Excellency M. Yermoloff, Secretary 
of State and a Member of the Council 
of the Russian Empire, were appointed 
Vice-Presidents. The Statutes defining 
the functions of the Institute were 
settled at this meeting, and the organi- 
sation of the Institute was completed, 


M. Louis Dop, delegate for France, was 
elected Vice-President of the Permanent 
Committee, which will be divided into 
three Permanent Sub-Committees to 
deal respectively with (1) Administra- 
tion, (2) Statistics and Technical Infor- 


- mation, and (3) Co-operation and Labour. 


Atthe conclusion of the meetings of 
the Permanent Committee, Sir Thomas 
Elliot intimated thatit had been decided 
that he should retire from the Com- 
mittee, and that for the present pending 
a definitive decision as to the manner 
in which this country should be_ re- 
presented on the Committee, his place 
would be taken by Mr. Perey C. 


Wyndham, Councillor of the British 
Hmbassy at Rome. 
The following extracts from Sir 


Thomas Elliot’s report may be quoted 
as indicating generally the position now 
occupied by the Institute, and the work 
which it proposes to perform ;:—‘‘ The 
magnificent generosity of His Majesty 
the King of Italy, in the endowment of 
the Institute, coupled with the almost 
complete support which has been accord. 
ed to the project by the various Powers 
concerned, have placed the Institute in 
a position of exceptional stability, and 
the only question now is as to the 
manner in which its resources can best 
be utilised in the interests of agricul- 
turists all the world over, within the 
limits of the field of action defined by 
the Convention. 


“It may be said generally that the 
object of the Institute is to do inter- 
nationally what the Intelligence and 
Statistical Branches of the various State 
Departments of Agriculture endeavour 
with greater or less success, to do in 
their respective countries. ‘he work 
of the Institute will mainly consist in 
the collection, arrangement, co-ordina- 
tion, and publication—with the utmost 
despatch possible—of the material which 
those departments can supply. This 


259° 


Miscellaneous: 


material differs very considerably in 
value, in character, and in extent, and if 
the work of the Institute is to be 
carried out in its entirety, and with ac- 
curacy and thoroughness, it must enlist 
the active support and co-operation of 
the various Governments with regard to 
the extension, completion, and in some 
cases the modification of their existing 
machinery. The task of the Institute 
will in this respect be an exceedingly 
difficult one, but it may be hoped that 
through the exercise of the influence 
of the various delegates on the Per- 
manent Committee, obstacles may 
gradually be overcome and the necessary 
information obtained in gradually in- 
creasing value and volume. Happily for 
the immediate success of the Institute, 
well-organised Agricultural Depart- 
ments exist in a large proportion of the 
countries whose agricultural position is 
of importance, and the area from which 
accurate information as to agricultural 
matters can from time to time be 
obtained will even at the outset be con- 
siderable. 


“Jn this connection, I may mention 
that the Government of Roumania, being 
persuaded of the importance of the 
objects of the Institute, has organised a 
special Statistical Department for the 
purpose of supplying to the Institute 
all the information it requires, and that 
the Belgium, Danish, and Hungarian 
Governments have established depart- 
ments for the express purpose of further- 
ing its interests. These departments 
will place themselves in communication 
with all the various public and private 
organisations concerned, with a view to 
obtain information likely to be of service 
to the Institute. 


**T had opportunities of explaining to 
the Committee that in the opinion of 
the Board it was essential that every 
possible effort should be made to issue 
information of such a character, and at 
such times, as to be of value not only to 
the publicist, the statistician, and the 
historian, but also, and mainly, to those 
by whom agricultural operations are 
actually being carried on, and to those 
whose industry depends upon the pro- 
duct of those operations. In this con- 
nection I may say that during the three 
years which have elapsed since the Con- 
vention was signed, I have been greatly 
impressed by the interest displayed in 
the establishment of the Institute by 
the International Federation of Master 
Cotton Spinners’ and Manufacturers’ 
Association, of which Mr. C. W. Macara 
is the distinguished and trusted Presi- 
dent, and by others, for whom at first 
sight the work of the Institute would 


Miscellaneous. ° 260. 


appear to be a matter of but little con- 
cern. It has been pointed out that the 
agricultural product of one country is 
the raw material of industry elsewhere, 
and that consequently the prompt col- 
lection of complete information as to 
agricultural prospects and production 
is of great value not only to agricul- 
turists but to many other important 
classes of the community. Itis essential, 
however, that such information should 
be published in such a way and with 
sufficient rapidity as to enable business 
men—whether producers or consumers— 
to make full practical use of it. 


“The bibliographical work to be done 
by the Institute should also be of great 
service to those who are engaged in 
scientific and technical investigations 
bearing upon agriculture. A periodical 
bulletin giving information as to the 
work of this character which is carried 
on in various countries of the world 
would often economise time and labour 
and enable more satisfactory results to 
be obtained. 


“It is easy to foresee the demands 
made upon the Institution, for informa- 
tion and assistance will steadily increase, 
but its ability to respond to those 
demands will largely depend upon the 
extent to which it can command the 
services of practical and experienced 
men possessing both energy and ability 
as members of the Permanent Committee 
and as members of the staff. As regards 
the Permanent Committee which will 
practically control and direct the opera- 
tions of the Institute, it is to be noted 
that several of the adhering States, 
including the United States, France, 
Germany, Austria, Hungary, Belgium, 
Norway, and Spain have already ap- 
pointed representatives who will be per- 
manently resident in Rome, whilst 
others, principally the smaller States, 
will be represented either by the chiefs 
or other members of their respective 
Diplomatic Missions, It is certain that 
in the conduct of the affairs of the Insti- 
tute the influence of men_ possessing 
special technical qualifications taking 
part continuously in the direction of 
the work of the Institution will be very 
considerable. It was decided that meet- 
ings of the Permanent Committee should 
be held at least once a month, and that 
for the control of the work of each of 
the three sections into which it is pro- 
posed that the staff of the Institute 
should be divided, a separate sub-com- 
mittee should be constituted. If, there- 
fore, the United Kingdom is to take any 
effective part in the work, some defini- 
tive arrangement must be made for our 
yepresentation on the Committee by a 


competent expert on the questions to 
be dealt with by the Institute, willing 
and able to take up his residence in 
Rome, so as to enable him to attend and 
take part in the meetings of the Per- 
manent Committee and of the various 
sub-committees appointed in connection 
with the various branches of the work. 
The arrangements to be made for this 
purpose will require to be very carefully 
considered.” 


Among the appendices to the report 
are the Statutes of the Institute, which 
comprise the Convention of the 7th June, 
1905, and the Regulations of the Insti- 
tute; the latter define the procedure of 
the General Assembly, and deal with 
the administration of the Institute, the 
constitution of the Permanent Com- 
mittee, the appointment of Committees 
and of the Staff. 


THE EFFECT OF FORESTS ON 
RAINFALL. 


(From the Indian Forester. Vol. XXXV., 
Nos. 6 & 7, June and July, 1909). 


Sir,—In the December number of the 
Indian Forester, you published a com- 
munication from me in which an endea- 
vour was made to show that, far from 
the evaporation from a forest area being 
600 times as large as from an equal area 
of water, as had been asserted in a 
publication to which you drew attention 
in the October number, such evaporation 
was indeed considerably less. In an 
editorial note to my communication, 
you stated that you thought I had 
over-estimated the amount of the 
evaporation from a water surface ; how- 
ever, a reference to the source quoted 
and other authorities shows that such 
was not the case; a low estimate was 
puposely chosen. 

In the April number you published 
a communication from Mr. A. W. 
Lushington, Conservator of Forests, in 
which the writer gives reasons for his 
inability to accept any results. He 
stages: ‘‘ Does Mr. Bachelor mean to say 
that the huge underground stores of 
water which are found in wells and 
springs come from this 42 inches? There 
is an enormous underground perennial 
supply which the annual rainfall supple- 
ments but only to fractional extent; 
and as the roots of trees penetrate deep 
into the soil they come across this 
perennial supply as well as the annual 
supply near the surface, and can pump 
up many times more than the 42 inches 
referred to by the agency of the evapora- 


[SHPTEMBER, 1900, a 


‘SHPTEMEER, 1909.] 


tion of the leaves.” Ihave no hesitation 
in giving my opinion that, speaking 
generally, there are no underground sup- 

lies available for forest growth which 
ave not been derived from the rainfall 
of the few years immediately preceding ; 
and that such supplies are, in com- 
parison with the annual supply, small. 
I see no reason to modify the conclusion 
to which I came in my previous letter 
of the forces which change the hygros- 
copic condition of the soil, the chief are 
gravity, capillarity and friction: the 
two latter retard but do not neutralise 
the action cf the former. Water cannot 
disobey the law of gravity under, any 
more than on, the surface of the land, 
and were the rainfall to cease, the water 
underground must find its way even- 
tually to sea-level, and consequently the 
water underground above sea-level must 
have been derived from that portion of 
the rainfall which has not evaporated 
from the land, or flowed away tothe 
sea. No matter, therefore, how large the 
underground supplies may be, the land 
cannot lose more annually than it 
receives ; and hence the evaporation from 
a forest area cannot be greater than that 
portion of the rainfall which is not 
evaporated from the surface and sinks 
into the soil. 

It may be of assistance to endeavour 
to make some estimate of the under: 
ground supplies of water. The quanti- 
ties which itis generally assumed in 
India remain in the soil with a rain- 
fall of 60, 80, and 20 inches, are 30, 22 and 
163 inches respectively. It will be noted 
that the proportiun increases largely as 
the rainfall decreases. I have not been 
able to finda reliable estimate of how 
much of this is evaporated before it 
sinks into the soil, but will assume it is 
not much different from 10 inches. 
Leaving out of account the favoured 
localities immediately bordering on 
rivers and reservoirs, the area of which 
is relatively very small, the effect of a 
succession of dry years, indeed very 
frequently of two or even one dry 
year, is the drying up of even 
deep wells, and widespread destruc- 
tion to the forests, in which the 
deepest rooted species are not spared. 
This indicates that the underground 
supplies available cannot be much 
larger than the yield on the rainfall of 
at most a very few years, or, in view of 
the above figures, more than a few feet. 
Were the operation from a forest area 
many times larger than that froma 
water surface, a loss of a few inches in 
the supply to the soil would have no 
material effect. 


I have not been able to find very 
detailed information on the subject; 


261 


Miscellaneous 


but it would appear to be the case that 
generally throughout India, in those 
tracts where well irrigation is highly 
developed, and where the subsoil water- 
supply is not increased by canals, no 
matter what may be the depth and 
number of the wells, or nature of the 
soil, or nature of the crops, in no place 
where the area irrigated from wells is 
large compared with the unirrigated 
area is the average amount drawn from 
the wells equal to the average amount 
of rainfall retained in the soil. This is 
in accordance with the theory above 
given, and is indeed a deduction from 
it. One conclusion is that, as the roots 
of trees cannot draw up more than the 
wells can supply, the svaporation from 
a forest area is less than the amount of 
rainfall retained in the soil. Another 
conclusion, though one not germane to 
the present subject, is that in tracts 
where the rainfall is small, and where, 
as would be expected, the wells are in- 
variably deep, it is impossible to protect 
against famine by means of wells alone 
more than a fraction of the whole area, 
a fraction that will decrease with the 
rainfall. 


These are some of the reasons which 
confirm mein the conclusion to which I 
came in my previous letter, that over 
by far the greater pait of India, or for 
that matter of the globe, the evaporation 
from a forest area must be considerably 
less than from an equal area of water. 


HK. BACHELOR, I.c.s. 


CO-OPERATIVE CREDIT IN BENGAL, 


(From the Indian Agriculturist, Vol. 
XXXII, No. 11, November 2, 1409. ) 
In some respects the most interesting 
movement in Bengal at the present time 
is that which is gradually popularising 
the idea of co-operative credit and is 
thus preparing the way for the emanci- 
pation of the cultivator from the system 
of usury that now cripples his energies. 
The growth of Co-operative Societies in 
this Province during the twelve months 
ending the 80th June last has been most 
encouraging, and Mr. Gourlay has reason 
to feel gratified at the promising results 
of the reform to which he has devoted 
so much energy and enthusiasm. Of 
course we are still in the day of small 
things, The total share capital of the 
urban societies is only Rs. 19,000, and 
the assets even of the rural societies is 
little more than £13,000. These are 
modest figures for a Province which 
has 50 million inhabitants. But the 
significant fact at present is not the 


Miseellaneous. 262 


actual extent of the movement, but the 
evidence afforded that the principles of 
co-operation are gaining hold of the 
people. The number of rural societies has 
almost doubled in twelve months, rising 
from 165 to 326. Their membership has 
atthe same time grown from 6,903 to 
11,076, and their assets likewise have 
more than doubled, the total now being 
Rs. 1,95,409 as compared with Rs. 85,740 
with which the year began. This pro- 
gress does not, however, represent the 
potentialities of the movement. In the 
opinion of the Registrar, Mr. Buchan, 
“the number of societies could be enor- 
mously increased in a very short time.” 
Why, then, it may ke asked, does this 
increase not come about? The answer 
is one which needs to be impressed on 
the minds of the large class of men in 
Bengal who have both the means and 
the leisure for public service. The ex- 
pansion cf the Co-operative movement 
is checked mainly by the lack of suitable 
means of controlling and organising the 
Societies as they are formed. The 
machinery which the Government can 
provide for the purpose is strained to 
the utmost. The Registrar, having 
nearly 400 Societies under his charge, 
can necessarily give only a limited 
attention to each, and, while the Govern- 
ment are willing to assist by appointing 
a certain number of local inspecting 
clerks—of whom there are now ten— 
this form of help must obviously be 
restricted to areas in which the move- 
ment is making rapid progress. What 
is wanted, then, is a large number of 
competent honorary organisers. The 
number of these benefactors has risen 
from three to eight in the course of the 
past year, and it is acknowledged in 
the Government Resolution on the sub- 
ject that they have ‘rendered the 
greatest assistance.” . But their ranks 
need to be largely recruited, and we 
are loth to think that a work of such 
incalculable usefulness to their poorer 
countrymen will be left to languish for 
want of an adequate number of public- 
spirited helpers in Bengal. Would that 
half the energy expended upon the 
Boycott had been devoted to this sure 
and safe means of increasing the wealth 
and happiness of thecommunity! There 
is a stimulating lesson for the zemindars 
and other leading men of this Province 
in the career of Raiffeisen, the philan- 
thropist, whose labours lifted a large 
part of rural Germany from a condition 
of pitiable indebtedness to one of inde- 
pendence and prosperity. Raiffeisen 
was not a wealthy man. On the con- 
trary he is described as having been of 
slight estate, of very poor health, with 
no particular property, but of unbounded 


= i ed 
-_ 5 


eee, 


energy. He was forced by ill-health to 
retire from the public service in 1860. 
Though sick and nearly blind, he then 
devoted the remainder of his life to 
this work, dying in 1888 after his so- 
cieties had been thoroughly established 
on a successful basis. He had to deal 
with conditions closely resembling those 
which prevail in India. A peasantry 
struggling to keep body and soul to- 
gether was in the grip of a remorse- 
less system of usury. Confidence, 
thrift, and self-help had died out. 
From these unpromising circumstances 
Raiffeisen evolved courage, prosperity. 
and independence, by the scheme of 
popular banks that will be for all 
time associated with his name. It is 
this same scheme which is now proving 
so successful in Bengal. But Raiffeisens 
are required to foster and direct the 
working of the system in new areas; 
and the appeal for the aid of competent 
men ought not to be in vain. As an 
additional method of supplying the 
necessary contro] over the societies, it 
is proposed to combine them in local 
unions, and the experiment which is to 
be made in this direction in the coming 
cold weather should be a very interest- 
ing test of the capacity of the societies 
for mutual contro] and of their readiness 
for evolution from their present condi- 
tion of so many isolated units into one 
great and thoroughly organised co- 
operative system. The increasing con- 


fidence of the people in co-operative 


principles is shown not only by the 
actual and potential expansion of the 
movement, but by the readiness of 
investors to supply the necessary capital, 
and the willingness of the societies to 
contribute a substantial share. Forty- 
five per cent. of the capital now comes 
from investors and thirteen per cent. 
from the societies themselves. The one 
weak point in the finance of the new 
movement is that local capitalists have 


not* yet been attracted in sufficient - 


numbers by the field of investment 
which it offers. The Government take 
the view that the rate of interest offered 
is not too low; but it would be prudent, 
we think, to await Mr, Gourlay’s survey 
of the rates generally prevailing in the 
Province before a final opinion is pro- 
nouneed. The rate of interest offered 
by some of the societies, for example, 
is only 6 per cent., whereas the lowest 
rate charged by money lenders is 18} per 
cent. and the most common rate is 31}. 
It is not, of course, suggested that these 
high rates should be taken as models, 


for the very object of the Societies is to - 


avoid anything approaching to usury. 
But it will probably be found that, if 
local capital is to be secured, interest 


[SHPTEMBER, 1 0. : 


. 
. 
se 


es must be paid at rates approximating to 


‘those which prevail locally. The urgent 
need of the co-operative principle asa 


- help to the peasant is shown by the uses 
~ to which the Societies put their funds. 


They are not yet, we gather, ina position 
to lend for the purpose of enabling their 
members to buy improved implements 
or to purchase seed at wholesale rates. 
The repayment of old debts and the 
purchase of cattleare now the common 
objects of borrowing—a fact which 
throws a flood of light on the financial 
jucumbrances of the ryot. 


WATHR IN AGRICULTURE. 


(From the Lowisiana Planter and Sugar 
hanufacturer, Vol. XXXXI11., No. 16, 
April, 1909.) 


In a recent able editorial in the North- 


western Agriculturist, the use of water 


in dry agriculture was discussed, and 
incidentally such references were made 
to the use of water in agriculture as 
would interest us in this country, where 
we have so considerable a rainfall. In 
the extreme north-west parts of the 
United States summer fallowing is done 
to a considerable extent. We had been 
taught to think that summer fallowing, 
which was an old method of destroying 
weeds, would also destroy the land by 
the incidentalexposure of the bare land 
to the sun and the volatilization and loss 
of its contained ammonia. In the edi- 
torial referred to the point is brought 
out that such summer fallowing, taken 


together with the deep ploughing and the. 


absence of any growth on the land, 
results in the conservation of a consider- 
able amount of water that would other- 
wise be dissipated into the air without 
useful effect. In order that the water 
shall be conserved in the summer time 
it is held that the top of the fallow land 
must be in fine tilth, or have a dust 
blanket, as its covering, which will 
break the lines of evaporation and 


2638 Miscellaneous. 


result in the retention of the water in 
the soil. 


Next, the destruction of the weeds in 
the land would result from this process 
of fallowing, and where there is any 
scarcity of water it is held that the 
land must be kept free of weeds, as 
every weed or plant out of the place 
uses up the water that is so much needed. 
Such plants are parasites living on the 
water that should be retained in the 
land for its betterment and for the use 
of subsequent industrial crops. The 
conservation of the water demands the 
mulching of the land at the surface and 
the destroying of all weed growths. 


Here in Louisiana we trequently find 
Yall planted cane injured by the very 
considerable growth of winter weeds, or 
grasses as we ordinarily term them, and 
unless these weeds are removed in due 
season, the fall planted canes are fre- 
quently killed. We thought for some 
time that this disaster was brought 
about by the shading of the land and 
the retention in the land of an excess of 
moisture during the winter season. On 
the other hand, all plant physiologists 
admit that wherever a plant is living on 
the land it makes the land drier than it 
otherwise would be. The action of the 
sun on the leaves of the plant produces 
a constant evaporation, and the water is 
pumped out of the soil so positively and 
so continuously that it is now generally 
admitted that land covered with weeds 
is drier than the same land left bare, 
and much drier than the same land if, 
in addition to being left bare, it was care- 
fully mulched at the surface. 


We were quite struck with the use of 
the word ‘‘ parasite” as applied to weeds 
or plants out of place, in our fields, their 
parasitism consisting in their consump- 
tion of the water needed by the growing 
crop. We seem to have a good many 
things to learn concerning plant life, 
just as our most skillful doctors seem to 
have yeta good many things to learn 
concerning our human lives. 


264 


MARKET RATES FOR TROPICAL PRODUCTS. 
(From Lewis & Peat’s Monthly Prices Current, London, 18th August, 1909.) ; 


ge” 
‘ i 


a a 


ALOES, Socotrine cwt. 


Zanzibar & Hepatic ,, 
ABRROWKOOT (Natal) Ib. 
BEES’ WAX, cwt. 

Zanzibar Yellow es 
Bombay bleached _,, 

», | unbleached,, 
Madagascar * 
CAMPHOR, even > 


He ep 
CaRDAMOMS, Tuticorin 
Tellicherry 


Mangalore ,, 
lon.— Mysore , 
oon Malabar a 
seeds, E. 1, & Ceylon 
eee Ceylon Long Wild oa 
CABTUR OIL, Calcutta ,, 
CHILLIES, Zanzibar cwt, 
SINCHONA BARK.— lb. 
Ceylon 


AMON,Ceylon Ists 
Cat per |b. 2nds 


3rds 
4ths 
Chips, &c.. 
VES, Penang 
ere JAmboyna se. 
Ceylon 
Zanzibar 
Stems 
COFFEE 


Ceylon Plantation cwt. 


Native 
Liberian % 
COCOA, Ceylon Plant. 5, 


tive Estate 5 
ore and Gelehee rv 
MBO KOOT oy 
ConTON SEEDS, sift. cwt. 
CUBEBS .” of 
ER, Bengal, rough,, 
oN Calicut, Oe A,, 


Cochin Rough ,, 


Japan iy) 
@UM AMMONIACUM ,, 
ANIMI, Zanzibar 


Madagascar 


ARABIC E.1.& Aden ,, 
Turkey sorts ,, 


Ghatti ” 
Kurrachee ” 
Madras os 
ASSAFCTIDA ry 


KINO 
MYRRH, picked ewt 
Aden sorts ,, 
OLIBANUM, drop ” 
pickings ,, 
siftings ,, 
INDIA RUBBER Ib. 


Ceylon, Straits, 
Malay Straits, ete. 


Assam 


Rangoon 


Common to good 


Slightly drossy to fair 


Dark to good genuine 
Dark to good palish 


Fair average quality 
Good to fine bold 
Middling lean 

Good to fine bold 


Med brown to fair bold 
Small fair to fine plump 
«jig 4da 1s 6d 
-fls 7d a 1s 8d 


Shelly to good -/6d a 1s6d nom 


Dull to fine bright 


Good to fine quill 


Fair to fine bold 
1b.|Dull to fine bright pkd. 
ti 


‘\vair and fine’ bright 
Medium to Bold 


Good ordinary 


Special Marks 


QUOTATIONS. 


85s a 90s 


-(40s a 703 
-|2¢d a 4d 


£6 10s a £6 12s 6d 
£710s a £7 12s 6a 


£5 1s a £6 5s 
1s 64d a ls 9d 


+ 187s 6d 


1s 9d a 2s 2d 
1s 4d a ls 6d 


-|Is9d a 2s 


1s 8d als 7d 
2s a 3s 
1lstda 239 7d 


2 16-16d a 34d 


+ /35s a 40S 


33d a 7d 
2d a 6d 
17d a 4id 
3d a 53d 
lida 4d 
10d als 4a 
9d a 1s 2d 
74d a 114d 


63d a 93d 


28d a 34d 
1s ld a 1s3d 
8 


nominal 
nominal 

48s a 55s 
60s a 73s 
548 a 59s 


Ordinary to red 
Small to good red 
Middling to good 


Ord. stalky to good 
Small to fine bold 
Small and medium 


Common to fine bold 
Small and D’s 


Fair to good Daten 


” ” re 
Ordinary to good p 


Sorts to fine pale 
Reddish to good pale ...|20s a 30s in 
Dark to fine pale 
Clean fr. to gd. almonds|120s a 140s_,, 
com. stony to good block|15s a 100s it 
Fair to tine bright 
Fair to fine pale 
Middling to good 
Good to tine white 
Middling to fair 
Low to good pale 
Slightly foul to fine 
Fine Para bis. & sheets|7s 4d 


so pense 
fine ee ee 
«(88 
.. (58 1d a 5s 3d 


Crepe ordinary ¢ 


Scrap tairto fine 


38s a 548 
30s a 868 

16s a17s 6a 
30s a, 368 
80s a 90s 
30s 


60s a 85s 


52s a 60s 


388 a 423 
873 6d 
318 


Sm. blocky to fair clean|25s a 60s nom. 
Pale and amber, str. srts./£16 a £18 
little red|£13 a £15 
Pea size ditto|75s a £12 

Lair to good red sorts 
Med. & bold glassy sorts|/£7 a £9 5s 


£9 a £13 10s 


+ /£4 a£8 158 


.../£4 a £7 10s 


.../208 a 42s 6d nom. 


w(158a258 —,, 


6d add 

80s a 115s 

55s: a 703 

40s a 50s 

25s a 35s 

6s 6d a 17s 6d 
13s a 15s 


4s 10d a 58 id 


Fair I tocrd, red No. 1/48 a 43 8d 


83 2d a 492d 


£678 6da£6 12/6) Madagascar 


New Guinea 
INDIGO, E,I. Bengal 


QUALITY, QUOTATIONS, 
INDIARUBBER.(Contd.) 
Borneo Yommon to good 1s 6da 28 8d 
Java Good to fine red — --|[28 6d a 4s 4d 
Penang Low white to Boat red|l2s a 8s 3d 
Mozambique Fair to fine red Ball ,..|/8s 8d a 5s 2d 
Sausage, fair to good ..'/85 6d a 5g 

Nyassaland Fair to fine ball ... 18s8d a 4s 8d 


Fr to fine pinky & whitel2s 10d a 3s 8d 
Majunga & blK coated ../25 3d a 2s 9d 
Niggers, low to good _ ../is 6d a 38 2d 
Ordinary to fine ball ../3s2da4s 6d nom 
Shipping mid to gd violet|2s 10d a 3s 8d 
Consuming mid. to gd.|2s 6d a 2s 10d 
Ordinary to middling |2s 2d a 235d 
Oudes Middlingto fine 2s 6d a 2/8 nom. 
Mid. to good Kurpah [2s 2d a, 28 6d 


Low to ordinary ls 6d a 2s 
Mid; to fine Madras  |1s da 2s 4d 
MACE, Bombay & Penang|Pale reddish to fine j1sllda 2s 4d 
per Ib, Ordinary to fair ls 8d als 10d 
Java “s » good pale |1s 7d a 251d 
Bombay Wild 5d 
MYRABOLANES,  cwt|UG and Coconada 5s a 536d 
Bombay ,, ubblepore 4s9da 6s 9d 
‘ /Bhimlies 4s 9d 273 
Rhajpore, &e. 4s 6d a 6s 3d 
Bengal » |Calcutta 5sa 5s 6d 
NUTMEGS— Ib. |64’s to 57’s Is 8d a 1s 6d b 
Bombay & Penang ,, |110’s to 65’s 43d als 2d 
160’s to 115’s 4d a 4}d : 
NUTS, ARECA ewt./Ordinary to fair fresh [145 9 165 
NUX VOMICA, Cochin |Ordinary to good 9s alls 6d 
per cwt. Bengal ” " 63 a €s 6d 
Madras |__,, ” 6s 3d a 8s 
OIL OF ANISEED _,, /Fair merchantable 4s 5d 
CASSIA » [According to analysis [35 gda 4q 
LEMONGRASS » |Good flavour & colour 2d a 214 
NUTMEG », |Dingy to white 13d a 13d 
CINNAMON ;» |Ordinary to fair sweet Bdals , 
CITRON ELLE » |Bright & good flavour [is 0!d a ls lid : 
ye WEED—cwt * 
eyion +» |Mid. to fine not woody... 
Madagascar ss [Fair fe Gs 128 


PEPPELR— (Black) Ib. 


Alleppee & Tellicherry} 
Ceylon 
Singapore a 


Acheen & W. C. Penang! 


iam i 
Penang nD 
PLUMBAGO, lump cwt. 


chips 
dust 

SAGO, Pearl, large re 
medium .| 
small eo 


SEEDLAC ewt. 


SENNA, Tinnevelly Ib. 


egyptian cwt.| 
Bombay nny 
Mergui H 
Manilla yy 


Banda Aye 
TAMARINDS, Calcutta. | 


er cwt. Madras 
TORTOISESHELL— 
Zanzibar, & Bombay Ib. 


TURMERIC, Bengal ewt. 
Madras ,, 
Do. » 
Cochin __,, 
VANILLOES— ib. 


Madagascar ... 
Seychelles... 
VERMILLION .. 
WAX, Japan, squares 


Mauritius... } ists 


Fai 


7 oe 0 
Dull to fine * «13d a 33d 
(White) Singapore ,, /Fair to fine Of -- [43d a 8d 

Si Fair as eee  |5 
Fair Ad eee es 
Fair to fine bright bold 
Middling to good small 
Dull to fine bright as 
jOrdinary to fine bright 
Dull to fine ele o- 


2 
Ordinary to gd. soluble |50s a 653 
Good to fine bold green|5q a7d 
Fair greenish 34d a 43d 
Commonspeckyand smallljd a 2id 
Small to bold” ,. 37s a 97/6 nem. 

ry se 36s a 80s 

op » we | B7a£8 29 6d 
Fair to good --(£55saL97s6d 


Sorts oe tee 
Mid.to fine bl’k not stony 
|Stony and inferior --l49 a 58 


Small to bold 

Pickings -- |68 a 248 

Fair - 118s 

satiger fair to-tine bold|17s a 18s 6a 
Ss 


Finger 
Bulbs + {183 €d 


Gd crystallized 33 a84 in}9s a 16s. 
3, Foxy & reddish 34 a 
|Lean and inferior 


Good white hard eee [458 


r 13 
», Lo fine bold heavy .. 
3: 


9 yy 


11s 6d a 13s 6d 


25s a30s nom. 
1ls a 18s 


{12s 6d a 268 


[bright/14s a 159 


» | 88 3d a 128. 
». 833da 839d 
Fine, pure, bright . [BS 


» 


THE SUPPLEMENT TO THE 


Tropical Agriculturist and Magazine of the G. A. 8. 


CompiLtep sy A. M. & J. FERGUSON. 


No. 3,] SEPTEMBER, 1909. [Vou. V, 
THE PLANTING INDUSTRY OF Acres, 
CEYLON. Total approximate 
enh Sis extent under Tea 389,600 
CULTIVATION. do Rubber .» 179,956 
do Coffee (Arabica and 
OUR DIRECTORY RETURNS. Liberica) 950 
The printing of our ‘‘Ceylon Handbook and de See tM 
\ 3 : do Cinchona 196 
Directory ” for 1909-10 closed last week and copies 
y : do Camphor trees 1,200 
of the book are now (August 12) being made avail- f 
do Grass (cultivated) ... 3,500 


able to those who have booked orders, as fast as 
our binders can overtake the work. We have 
spared neither pains nvr expense to bring the 
information up to end of last month, as far as 
it lay in our power, although we are not un- 
consciousthat, with constant changes occurring, 
absolute accuracy is unattainable. We have 
once again to acknowledge our obligation and 
tender thanks to all the Heads of Government 
Departments and other officials, as well as to 
members of the Planting and Mercantile Com- 
munity, for the aid readily and courteously 
afforded us in the compilation—without which it 
would have been impossible for us to present the 
book with the high degree of reliability that 
wenowdo, Asusual wenow furnish our readers 
with the results of the analysis of our Estate 
Returns, showing that our Planting Industry 
in all products is in as sound a condition as 
ever. There has not been much new planting 
during the past year, although an addition of 
11,606 acres to the cultivated acreage is shown ; 
but, perhaps, much of this may be due to more 
precise rendering of estate returns, The total 
area under rubber is now returned at 184,000 
acres. A good deal of this extent is interplanted 
in tea throughout 67,056 acres, while 18,698 acres 
of cacao are also intermixed with rubber. Our 
summary for all the products is as follows :— 


Acres, 
Total area of 2,091 plantations and plan- 
ting properties 
do 1,731 plantations in culti- 
vation (with 1,661 Superintendents 
and assistants) m ; 


957,749 


625,629 


34 


Of Annatto, Coca, Kola, Ramie, Van- 
illa, Pepper, Cloves, Citronella grass, 
Divi-Divi, Croton, Castor oi), Aloes, 
Cinnamon, Tobacco, Cotton—in our 


plantations’ list Of or 7,000 
Coconuts, Arecas, Nutmegs, Fruit 

trees (on the cacao, tea or other plan- 

tations) cfd a ee | 225500 
Oi Fuel, Timber, Sapan and Kapok 

(on the tea, cacao or other plantations) 6,050 


The area of tea as given above is apart from, 
perhaps, 5,700 acres in native gardens of small 
extent—Kegalla District alone has nearly 2,000 
acres—so that the grand total under tea in 
Ceylon at end of July last must be about 395,000 
acres. But, nevertheless, we feel considerable 
allowance must be made for the enormous 
number of rubber trees now growing among 
tea in certain districts; and we would, al- 
lowing for this, consider the extent in tea 
to be the same as last year, although our 
returns show an increase of 3,000 acres. 
The acreage in cacao is apart from 5,800 
acres, say, in native gardens, thus giving a 
total of about 36,000 acres. The Ceylon Plan- 
ting Enterprise may then be summed up for 
July, 1909, as follows, and the comparison with 
last year—-middle of 1908—stands thus :— 


Acres. Acres. Increase 
Product. Middle Middle or 
1908. 1909. Decrease. 
Tea 392,000 395,000 3,000 ine. 
Cacao 35,000 36,000 1,000 inc. 
Rubber 180,000 184,000 4,000 inc. 
Coffee 873 950 77 ine, 


266 


i Acres. Acres. Increase 
Product. Middle Middle or 
1908. 1909. Decrease. 
Cardamoms 8,350 7,738 612 dec. 
Cinchona 173 196 23 inc. 
Camphor 1,200 1,200 — 
Other products on 
plantations, in- 
cluding grass & 
timber trees ... 38,641 39,500 859 ine, 
Total area 944,403 957,749 13,346 ine. 
Cultivated area 614,023 625,629 11,606 ine. 
No, of plantations 
(cultivated) 1,722 1,731 9 ine. 
No. of Superin- 
tendents and ; 
Assistants 1,600 1,661 61 inc. 


Rubber planting was represented by an esti- 
mate of 750 acres in March, 1898 ; and by May, 
1901, we estimated 2,500 acres ; while the return 
to the middle of 1904 gave an equivalent of 
11,000 acres. Planting went on very rapidly 
in subsequent years, until last year when a halt 
was made, save for a clearing here and there. 
Of the 184,000 acres at present under Rubber, 
no less than 131,800 acres are in separate clear- 
ings, the rest being intermixed with other pro- 
ducts. It must be remembered that we have 
calculated the equivalent acreage for each pro- 
duct by dividing where products are intermixed 
and by allowing 175 rubber trees asthe equiva- 
lent of an acre where only number of trees was 
returned ; the latter aggregated nearly 800,000, 


It is of interest to note the leading Rubber- 
growing Districts in Ceylon, in their order, 
according to acreage, viz:—Kelani Valley, 
Kalutara, Ratnapura, Kegalla, Galle, Kuru- 
negala, Matale East, Matale North, Matale 
West, Haputale, Monaragala, Madulsima, 
Matale South, Rakwana, Kadugannawa, Ala- 
galla, Nilambe, Ambagamuwa, Passara, Dolos- 
bage and Galagedara. Kelani. Valley returns 
30,321 acres rubber alone, beside 22,839 tea and 
rubber; Kalutara 29,902 and 12,016 respectively ; 
Ratnapura 12,963 and 2,352; Kegalla 10,000 and 
3,437 ; and Galle 7,322 and 2,327—to name only 
the first five districts. 


As regards the oldest regularly cultivated tea 
field in Ceylon, that of 19 acres (Assam-Hybrid) 
on Loolecondera, planted by Mr. James ‘laylor 
(for Messrs Harrison and Leake of Keir Dundas 
& Co.) in 1868-9, we are glad to hear it is still in 
good heart. On 9th ult. Mr. G F Deane was 
good enough to write to us as follows :— 


‘It gave 395 lb, made tea per acre last season 
It is to be pruned again shortly and I| expect to 
give a better result in 1910-11 as there is nothing 
much wrong with it. It is still without manuring 
in ary form.” For 1907 the return was 230 lb. 
per acre, owing to pruning in January to June, 

For many years our Directory recorded the won- 
derful yield of tea from the famous Mariawatte 
garden of the Ceylon Tea Plantations Co. and 
more especially from the special and oldest field 
of 1014 acres on which plucking first began in 
1880 and which was regarded as in full bearing 
in 1884 when the crop equalled 1,078 lb. made 
tea per acre, rising to 1,384 lb. in 1890 and 
1,357 lb. in 1900. But from 1901 onwards the 
yield has been as follows ;— 


The Supplement to the Tropical Agriculturist 


Per Acre. Per Acre. 
Year. lb. Year. lb. 
1901 1,092 1905 864 
1902 1,009 1906 863 
1903 868 1907 968 
1904 801 1908 789 


It will be seen that since a regular system of 
more or less up-to-date cultivation was adopted, 
as opposed to the former method of occasio- 
nally applying manure carted from Gampola, 
the vigour of the old tea has been gradually 
built up and the yield increased ; but Mr. D 
J Blyth, the present Manager, is of opinion 
that the crop in 1907 cannot fairly be ascribed 
entirely to up-to-date cultivation, but chiefly to 
pruning being delayed that year, and that this 
delay has affected the yield of 1908, The yield 
from the whole estate—458} acres—averaged 
678 |b. last year against 756 lb. in 1907 and 792 
lb. in 1906. We take it that such figures are 
without parallel in the history of Tea Culti- 
vation in India or Ceylon; and long may Maria- 
watte and our Premier Tea Company continue 
to break the record. Itis sad to contemplate 
how both coffee and cinchona have dwindled. 
Finally we give the six largest tea factories in 
Ceylon with the outturns for 1908, as supplied 
to us by the Managers direct:— 


Outturn in 1908. 
Ib 


Galaha ... 1,610,569 
Demodera. ... ... 1,500,000 
Diyagama... ... 1,283,000 
Spring Valley . 1,048,366 
Meddecombra 957,431 
Sunnycroft... 864,858 


A BARK DISEASE OF HEVEA, TEA, &C. 


TEA. 

The most serious attacks of ‘‘Corticium java- 
nicum ”’ on tea occur on an upcountry estate. The 
disease makes its appearance fairly regularly to- 
wards the end of the south-west monsoon after 
‘‘three months cold, dull, wet weather.” The 
rainfallis 100 to 105 inches per annum. It is 
said to occur only on good jat tea, China tea 
never being affected, and it does not appear until 
the tea is two-and-a-half years or more from 
pruning; these phenomena are probably depen- 
dent on the density of the bushes. The estate 
is surrounded by jungle on three sides. 


The growth of the pink fungus on the smaller 
twigs is the first sign of the disease. It spreads 
from these down to the thicker branches, but, 
in this instance, it is said that it is not 
found on the old wood. ‘The branches lose their 
leaves and die back, either over the whole bush 
or only on one side, As in most cases on Hevea, 
the fungus is at first quite superficial, hut when 
it has become established on the twigs its 
hyphz penetrate the bark and kill both bark 
and cambium. In very many cases, however, 
the fungus travels along one side of a branch 
only, usually the under-side or it may com- 
pletely encircle the branch for a length of a 
few inches, but be confined to one side else- 
where. In such cases the bark is killed only 
where the fungus grows, and the subsequent 


and Magazine of the Ceylon Agricultural Society. 


ingrowths from the surrounding living bark pro- 
duce a “canker.” Instances of such cankers 
can be found on twigs one-tenth of an inch in 
diameter; and, as far as is known at present, 
“Corticium javanicum” is the only fungus which 
produces ‘branch canker” on branches less 
than half-an-inch in diameter. The dead bark 
is not cast off; it remains within the canker, 
ragged and fibrous on the younger twigs, or 
smooth and blackened internally on the larger. 
As arule, the pink fungus tissue dies during the 
dry weather and disappears, but examination 
with a hand lens will generally reveal minute 
patches still adhering tothe dead bark. There 
is no danger of any further infection from these 
cankers when the pink tissue has disappeared ; 
the branches should be cut off and burnt when 
they are covered with the fungus. All the evi- 
dence points not toa continuous infection from 
the cankered branches, but toa re-infection from 
external sources during each monsoon. 


Examples on the older branches of tea from 
other estates show that the 


FUNGUS GROWS ON THE UPPER SURFACE 


of these and kills the bark over a comparatively 
small area. When the fungus ceases to grow, 
the ingrowth of a swollen margin from the 
surrounding healthy tissue takes place as before, 
resulting in the formation of the typical! branch 
canker of thick branches. The dead bark per- 
sists for some time within the canker, and 
often shows the superficial fungus patch, gen- 
erally bleached white. If the bush is vigorous, 
the wound may heal over completely, and ex- 
perience proves that an excess of potash in the 
mauure applied is of great assistance in pro- 
moting this recovery. But in most cases water 
lodges in the wound and induces decay, while 
fungi, otherwise harmless, grow on the dead 
bark and wood and assist in the gradual 
hollowing out of the branch. 


The commonest saprophytic fungus in such 
situations is ‘‘Hirneola polytricha,’ Mont. This 
occurs in abundance on dead wood all over the 
Island, and naturally the dead wood in the 
branch canker does not escape, It does not, as 
a rule, produce any fructification when growing 
in these cankers, but that can readily be induced 
to grow from them under suitable conditions in 
the laboratory. The fructification is circular, 
either flat or cup-shaped, sometimes on a short 
stalk, sometimes sessile; the upper surtace 
is bluish purple or violet, usually with a 
whitish bloom; the under surface and stalk 
are covered with close set white hairs; it 
differs from most of our common fungi in its 
consistency, being midway between leathery and 
gelatinous ; internally it has the samo colour as 
the upper surface, The white strands, one form 
of ‘* Thread Blight,” which are often seen issuing 
from the canker and spreading over the healthy 
tissue, are the mycelium of this fungus. The 
description of this species is inserted here merely 
as a matter of interest; the fungus does not cause 
branch canker, and its white mycelium spreading 
from the decayed tissue does no damage. There 
are, of course, other forms of ‘* Thread Blight,” 
many of which cause serious damage, but in 
Ceylon the dangerous parasitic species have 
not been found except on nutmeg and jungle 


267 


trees. The ‘‘ Thread Blight” which grows from 
a branch canker is, as faras is known at pre- 
sent, harmless. 


It must be bornein mind that the branch 
canker here described begins with the killing of 
the bark by ‘* Corticium javanicum,” and that 
when this fungus has disappeared, as it does, 
there is no danger of further infection from that 
particular wound. The subsequent decay of the 
wood is ina great measure caused by rain, &c., 
though it may be assisted by saprophytic tungi, 
It is not necessary, therefore, to cut off all 
the cankered branches, since, as a rule, they are 
not noticed until long after the cause has dis- 
appeared. In many cases badly cankered fields 
ylelda large crop (up to 1,000 !b per acre) and 
it would be absurd to sacrifice this unless there 
was grave danger of infecting other fields, It 
would be quite sufficient to tar the wounds in 
order to arrest further decay. 


The above account of branch canker is appli- 
cable tothe majority of cases on estates at 
an elevation of more than 4,000 feet. In the 
neighbourhood of Peradeniya, branch canker 
is caused by quite a different fungus, a species 
of ‘‘Physalospora”’ which kills the bark. But 
even here it appears that the fungus is only 
concerned in the initiation of the canker, and is 
not present in the hollowed stems. In other 
districts, what is known as branch canker is 
frequently the result of white ants following 
shot-hole borer, and the treatment in these cases 
must deal with the latter, 


GENERAL. 


The periodic infection of tea and rubber during 
the south-west monsoon points to an influx of 
spores of the fungus from some external source 
during that period. The fungus has been found 
in the jungle on bushes, and the fact that the 
worst aifected tea estate is surrounded by jungle 
on three sides tends to confirm the view that the 
spores are blown from there, There is no doubt 
that we are dealing with a native, not an intro- 
duced fungus. 


Mr. Ridley states that the ‘'Corticium’” so com- 
mon in the Straits on Ramie and ‘‘Strobilanthes,” 
when overcrowded and tou damp, is probably 
this species. It has been found in Ceylon on 
‘‘Hevea brasiliensis,” (tea up-country), plum (up- 
country), orange (low-country), and cinchona. 
In Java, where the disease is known as “ Dja- 
moer Oeras,” it attacks coffee, ramie, cacao, 
cinchona, nutmeg, tea, ‘‘ Hriodendron,” pepper, 
coca, cinnamon, kola, ‘‘Castilloa elastica, Hevea 
brasiliensis,” dadap, ‘‘ Bixa orellana,” mango, and 
many other trees or shrubs of minor importance. 


It has been suggested that the ‘‘ cankers ” 
previously described on Hevea and cacao, 
as wel] as the undescribed Ceylon canker on 
cinchona, are all caused by ‘‘ Corticium javya- 
nicum.” But in the original ‘ cankers” of 
Hevea, cacao, and cincona, the diseased bark 
is moist, whereas, when killed by ‘‘ Corticium,” 
the bark is dry. This difference indicates a 
totally different agent in the two cases. 


T, PeErcu, 


Government Mycologist, 
June 25, 1909, 
—R. B, Gardens Circular, 


268 The Supplement to the Tropical Agriculturist 


RUBBER IN MALAYA. 


MR. J, B. CARRUTHERS’ FINAL REPORT: 
AN EXHAUSTIVE AND INFORMING 
REVIEW, 


Although it is now some considerable time 
since Mr. J. B. Carruthers relinquished his 
duties as Director of Agriculture and Govern- 
ment Botanist, F. M. 8., to take up his present 
appointment in Trinidad, the report on Agricul- 
ture in the Eastern Colony during 1908, which has 
just been issued and is to hand today (Aug. 16), 
isfrom hisableand facile pen. The report mainly 
deals with the great young rubber industry. 
We must at once say it is the most exhaustive, 
thorough and informing statement we have 
yet seen of the progress and position of the 
plantation rubber industry in the Federated 
Malay States or any other Colony. It reveals 
in every line evidences of careful observation 
and investigation and a perusal of it cannot 
fail to intensify the regret universally felt in 
rubber-growing circles in Malaya and Ceylon 
that the services of so able and active an officer 
should be lost to the East. We publish the 
report, as far as it relates to rubber, in full, 
containing admirably compiled tables of 
statistics on acreages, outputs, labour em- 
ployed—and in fact on every conceivable sub- 
ject on which statistics may be of profit or of 
interest, It will be seen that in Malaya at the 
end of 1908 the number of rubber trees is calcu- 
lated at 374 million, the planted acreage being 
241,138. The output of dried rubber was 1,580 
tons against 1,017 tons in 1907—an increase 
of 56 per cent—and representing an export of 
over $6,000,000 in value. [he number of estates is 
417 and the planted acreage is given at 241,138 
acres, [This is different from the 168,000 for 
1908 mentioned by the Resident-General and 
alluded to in our Directory !] 60,000 acres 
planted in 1908 is surprising; we wonder 
how it is arrived at? There is still 762,408 
acres alienated from the Crown but not planted 
so that there is plenty scope for development ! 
Mr. Carruthers predicts that the present year 
will show a return of produce worth more than 
a million sterling. ‘ Yields of Dry Rubber per 
tree” is then dealt with. The average yield per 
tapped tree all over the Peninsula has risen 
from 1 lb, 2 ozs, to 1 1b. 152 oz., an increase of 
1l per cent. An interesting experiment with 
rubber trees seventeen years old round the 
Churchyard at Parit Buntar gave an average 
of 284 1b. per tree, while the average yield 
of tapped trees in Negri Sembilan is 3 Ib, 
2 og, an ‘‘ extraordinarily high figure.” Johore 
is a fraction under 2 lb. and Perak 14 lb. 
‘‘The passing of Ficus Haicw” is reluctantly 
noticed in an interesting paragraph, Planters 


in Ceylon who have Rambong (which Mr. 
Carruthers says gives a larger yield of dry 
rubber than Para) will profit by a careful 
study of the results attending Mr, Carruthers’ 
two year’s experiments in regard to the proper 
methods and instruments for tapping this 
species, ‘‘ Market prices” are referred to ; 
and then follows an exhaustive deliverance 
on ‘‘ Rubber Tapping,” dealing in a most inter- 
esting manner with many points upon which 
opinion is at present divided, and giving many 
hints which the most experienced planter cannot 
fail to find informing and helpful. Mr. Carru- 
thers thinks this whole question of tapping 
‘‘requires careful invesigation”; that there 
is a large field for ingenuity and experiment and 
that the next few years should prouce an in- 
strument which will be a marked improvement 
on the present weapons. Among the questions 
discussed under this head are ‘‘the periods which 
should be allowed to elapse between tappings in 
order togetmaximum yields” and ‘‘how far it 
is advisable to refrain from tapping rubber trees 
after a period of tapping”—two points upon 
which opinion is by no means undivided. Under 
‘*t Preparation of Rubber for Market” the fact is 
noted that there is still no agreement on the 
best form ; but practical advice is given as to 
the qualities to be aimed at. in order to secure 
the favour of the buyers. The question of sale 
of rubber seed for oil purposes is dealt with, 
and detailed estimates given which show a 
profit of $7 per acre from this source. Health 
of coolies on estates has during the year 
shown a marked improvement, while we learnt 
that there are in Malaya 80,000 coolies en- 
gaged on rubber estates, of whom 50,000 are 
Tamils, 15,000 Chinese, 7,500 Javanese, and 
4,500 Malays, Valuable hints as to the preven- 
tion of disease and pests are followed by an 
interesting paragraph on the still unsettled 
point as to what is the proper distance 
apart to plant rubber. Mr. Carruthers, as is 
well-known, has long been an advocate of the 
cultivation of cover plants on rubber estates 
as against the system of clean weeding and 
his views are being adopted and amply justi- 
fied by results in the F.M.S. What he writes 
on this point will well repay the close perusal 
of all Ceylon planters. The final paragraph 
deals with the future of rubber, from which 
we may quote as follows:—‘‘In 10 years (1919) 
presuming that 25,000 acres are planted annu- 
ally during the next five years (a very rea- 
sonable estimate, considering that over 40,000 
acres were planted during the year in both 1907 
and 1908), the rubber trees of the Federated 
Malay States should yield not less than 50,000 
tons of dry rubber, which at 3s per !b. re- 
presents a value of 144,000,000. This amount, 
should the demand for rubber increase at the 
rate it has been annually rising for the last 
nine years, will probably at that time be less 
than 25 per cent of the world’s consumption, 
. . + The fear of over-production is to some 
extent pardonable on examining the magnitude 
of the figures relating to rubber planting in 
Malaya, but a consideration of the possibilities 
of the world’s future requirements takes the 


student into figures beside which those of — 


Malaya are but small.” 


: . 


and Magazine of the Ceylon Agricultural Society. 


MR. J. B. CARRUTHERS’ REPORT. 


._FuLn StaTEMENT OF PRESENT CONDITION 
Furure AND PRosPECTS. 


The progress of rubber cultivation in the 
Malay Peninsula continues to be unique in its 
rapid progress and in the success of the areas 
already planted, and which have come into 
bearing. At the end of 1908 there were 
37,440,020 trees as compared with 27,558,369 a 
year before; 60,636 acres were planted during 
1908,an increase.of over 33 per cent. on the pre- 
vious year, giving a total of 241,138 acres of 
rubber on the 3lst December for the whole 
Peninsula. Tho output of dry rubber increased 
in 1908 by 56 per cent, : 3,539,922 lbs., or 1.580 
tons, being produced as against 2,278,870 lbs., 
or 1,017 tons, in 1907, This 1,580 tons represents 
probably about 14 per cent. of the world’s 
supply for last year. The average at which 
this was sold was not less than 4s per lb., re- 
presenting an export of over $6,000,000 in value 
or over £700,000 ; eight years ago the value of 
rubber exports was about £1,700, a large and 
profitable industry having been created within 
that time, which will next year show a return 
of produce worth more than £1,000,000 or 
$8,500,000. 


RvuBBER STATistics, MALAYA, TO 3lsr Dec. 1908. 


a. be 
fees cet x a 
PS Ocs- oO 3S a 
Sn RN 3B = = 3 
é ie S 8 3 
Pp, FB a 3 ra a 
oe ‘som 5 cz 
<] CS B a * 
a n 
No. of estates 300 a1 27 9 417 
Acreage in 
possession 455,596 158,553 127,959 20,300 762,408 
Acreage plan- ; 
ted up to 31st 
Dec., 1908 168,048 50,121 20,944 2,025 241,138 
Acreage plan- 
ted during 
1908 41,813 7,265 10,818 750 60,636 
No. of trees 
planted up 
to 31st Dec., 
1908 ~ 26,165,310 7,743,322 3,224,388 307,0.0 37,440,020 


RUBBER IN FEDERATED MALAY STATES. 


The advance of rubber planting in the Native 
States was as rapid in 1908 as in 1907: the 
drop in prices not causing the cessation in 
opening up and planting that some expected : 
41,813 acres were planted during the year as 
compared with 40,743 in 1907, an increase of 33 
per cent, one-third more than the total acreage. 
On the 3lst December, 1908, there were 168,048 
acres of rubber, containing 26,165,310 trees, 
in the Federated Malay States, as against 
126,235 acres and 19,628,957 trees on the same 
date of the previous year. Within the last ten 
years the acreage of rubber has increased 100 
times, and it has practically doubled during the 
last two years. ‘he output of dry rubber in- 
creased by 60 per cent,: 3,190,000 Ib., or 1,425 
tons, as against 1,980,000 lb., or 885 tons, in 
1907. ‘These figures of output are slightly higher 
than those given by the Commissioner of Trade 
and Customs of the amount of rubber exported ; 
this is due to the fact that rubber recorded as 
produced on the estate before the 31st December, 


269 


is exported later and comes into the export re 
turns for the following year. There is no better 
proof at the present timo of the energy and grit 
of the British planter in the tropics than the 
excellent manner in which this large acreage of 
rubber in the Federated Malay States has been 
felled, cleared and planted, and is now ina 
healthy and vigorous condition, and where old 
enough yielding handsome profits. Great credit 
is due to the managers of rubber estates and 
their assistants for carrying out their varied 
and arduous duties, under conditions frequently 
unfavourable, with so much success. 


RUBBER STATISTICS, FEDERATED Manay 
R Srares, up TO THY 31st Dec., 1903, 
Negri 


Selangor. Perak. Sembilan, Pahang. Total. 
No of estates 130 114 42 14 300 
Acreage in 
possession .. 215,509 140,675 79,625 19,787 455,596 
Acreage plan- 
ted up tothe 
31st Dec. 1908 82,246 56,706 27,305 1,791 168,018 
Acreage plan- _ é 
ted during 1908 20,694 10.539 9,649 931 41,813 
No. of trees ; 


planted up to 
the 31st Dec. 
1908 ++ 12,499,331 8.5(0,321 4,923,745 181,913 26,165,310 


Comparative tables. of rubber acreages and 
trees in Malaya, 1907 and 1908 :— 


State, Rubber acreages, Ne of trees, 

1907, 1903. 1907. 19u9, 
_, (Selangor 61,572 82,746, 9,648,(93 12,499. 3: 
®)Perak 46,167 56,708 6,688,957 8,260,301 
| Neer Sembilan 17,655 27,305 3,165,388 4,923,741 
= (Pahang 860 1,791 ‘16,590 "181913 
a Bree 36,946 41,324 6,019,910 6,556,799 
4 \Province Wellesley 5,920 8.797 "767/276 1/186'532 
Johore 0,1 6 20,914 1,142,196 3,224’ 388 
Kelantan ee 2,025 307, 09 
————_— a OR ES SES 
Total 179,227 241,138 27,258,440 37,440,020 


_ In Province Wellesley is included two estates 
inSingapore, eight estates in Penang and five 
estates in Kedah, These figures are approximate, 


YIELDS OF Dry RusBeER PER TREE. 


It is difficult to decide whether it is better 
to record yields per acre or per tree ; both 
methods are in some ways misleading, 


1 A f : The 
yields having been given in my last report 
per tree, thisseems to me to be the better 


way tocontinue. Tho average yield per ta 

treo all over the Pettinante fas pee abs 
1 lb. 12 02%, to 1 lb. 158 02., an increase of 
11 per cent, Considering that the majority 
of the trees tapped are in their first year of 
bearing, this is a most encouraging figure and 
shows that the yields estimated in looking 
forward to the future production of rubber 
trees have, as a rule, been extremely mode- 
rate if not unnecessarily small. Tho average 
yield of tapped trees, in Negri Sembilan 
amounted to 3 lb, 2} oz., which, being tho 
average of nearly one million trees, is an 
extraordinarily high figure. This Stato has 
much higher yields per tree because the pro- 
portion of trees in their first tapping period 
is much less than in the other States, but 
this high figure is interesting as pointing to 
the averages which may be looked for in trees 
after two or three years tapping, An inte- 
resting tapping experiment with eight 17-year 


270 


old trees growing round the churchyard at 
Parit Buntar, in the Krian District of Perak, 
has given after one year’s tapping every other 
day an average of 283 lb. of dry rubber 
per tree. The average girth of the trees 
was 54.87 inches at three feet from the ground, 
and they had been growing in unweeded land 
containing lalang and other grasses. 


CoMPARATIVE TARLES OF RUBBER CROPS, 
MAtaAya, 1907 anv 1908. 


Number of trees Rubber Average yield 
tapped. ields. per tree. 
State. 1907 1908 1907 1908 1907 1908 
lb. lb. Ib. ozs. 1b. ozs 


Selangora 772656 1172383 1131086 1846384 1 % 191-5 
Peraka 132556 251618 . 272804 3883073 2 1 1 8% 
Negri Sem- 

bilana 240401 306376 586864 968253 2 7 8 2% 
Pahanga at ne on ee cee da 
Malaccab 12455 56816 23490 52980 1 14 
Province 

Wellesleyb 48000 65100 82131 92600 1 11 Sia 
Johore 91159 101772 182495 201632 1 15 1 15% 
Kelantan oD 3 te an bas 

Total 1300227 1954/9) 2278876 3539922 


In Province Wellesley is included two estates in Singa- 
pore, eight estates in Penang, and tive estates in Kedah. 


a F.M.8.; 08.8. 
THE PAssina oF Ficus ELastica. 


Four years ago the question of the relative 
advantages of planting Hevea brasiliensis (Para 
rubber), or Ficus clasticw (Rambong), was con- 
sidered an open one, and the fact that the latter 
was a native tree and grew freely in Malaya 
induced some to prefer it to the Brazilian plart. 
There are various difficulties attending the 
treatment of Ficus in regard to pruning it or 
allowing it to form its aérial roots unchecked, 
in relation to tapping and prevention of entrance 
of boring insects and fungi into the wounds; 
also the direction and shape of the branches 
and stems make the collection of latex no easy 
matter. The yields of dry rubber from rambong 
are larger than from Para and market prices 
excellent. The symmetrical stem of the Para, 
the facilities for running the latex into a single 
cup at the base of the tree, regularity of its 
growth and its reaction to a wound, have 
especially commended this tree to the rubber 
grower, so that rambong is no longer con- 
sidered as an alternative on equal terms, and 
no further estates have been planted with 
the native plant. From a practical planter’s 
point of view this choice must perhaps be consi- 
dered wise; but it is to be regretted that a tree 
yielding so well and suited to local conditions 
should have been entirely abandoned. I have 
been carrying On experiments for some two years 
past in regard tothe proper methods and in- 
struments for tapping Ficus elastica (Rambong), 
and consider that a rotary pricker in which the 
pins are at such a distance apart that the latex 
which runs from the puncture joins that from 
those adjoining is amore practical way of extrac- 
ting the latex than the making of acut with a 
knife. If the rubber which flows from the various 
punctures made with the roller pricker all over 
the surface of the stem and branches is pulled 
off directly it has coagulated, it will be found 
that the flow will occur again and a second 
crepe-like film of coagulated latex can be pulled 


The Supplement to the Tropical Agriculturist 


off. The absence of wound prevents the attacks 
of borers and the tree can be again pricked after 
a short time has elapsed. When the flow from 
the puncture is too great toallow it coagulate 
and it runs down, it canbe caught at the base 
of the tree by means of rubber band or a metal 
ledge round the tree to lead the latex into a cup 
or other receptacle. If a flow of latex is pre- 
ferred to the crepe-like scrap I have described, 
then an application of water bya brush or spray 
will run the latex down to the base of the tree 
where it can be caught. 


These questions are, however, becoming of 
minor importance in the Federated Malay 
States, as the passing of Ficus elastica has 
begun, and each year sees less of this inter- 
esting and profitable tree cultivated. On some 
estates the trees are being actually cut out to 
make way for its more desired rival, Para, 


Marker PRICEs. 


The market price of rubber during 1908 
showed an extraordinary variation, dropping 
in the beginning of the year to the lowest 
price previously paid for good _ plantation 
Para—viz., 38 per lb, From that point the 
price steadily recovered, until before the end 
of the year it had reached 5s 9d per lb., an 
increase of almost 100 per cent in nine months. 
This recovery showed that that the drop in 
the price of rubber, as was stated in my last 
year’s report, was not due to any alteration in 
the ordinary ‘supply and demand,” but was 
an effect of the financial depression which ex- 
isted at that time, chiefly in America, and 
which led to a cessation of purchases by 
manufacturers of rubber in that country. The 
average price per lb. of rubber sold from the 
Malay Peninsula during 1908 was about 4s 3d, 
while the cost of production was between 1s 
and 1s 6d, so that the industry in passing 
through the worst year it has experienced, 
was at the same time exceedingly fortunate 
in a very large margin of profit. 


RuBBER TAPPING. 


The Kubber Curing House was completed 
during the year, and machinery for curing 
rubber, consisting of an oil engine, a roller and 
a hydraulic press, have been obtained. There 
are 900 trees of over nine years old, on which a 
series of experiments wili be made and all data 
recorded. Many problems of great economic 
importance await solution, The climate of 
Malaya differs so greatly from that of Ceylon 
and other rubber-growing countries that the 
results of experiments carried on there cannot 
with safety be used as giving reliable informa- 
tion tor treatment of trees in this country. The 
whole question of tapping requires careful in- 
vestigation, The results given by thin paring 
of cuts at an angle to the axis of the tree are so 
good that planters are apt to consider the matter 
solved, but it is not improbable that punctures 
instead of cuts may yet be found to give as good 
or better yields and involve less atta labour. 
All the ‘‘prickers” which have up to the present 
been exploited are instruments not for making 
a puncture but a short deep cut, and conse- 
quently damaging relatively more cells of the — 
tree than a cylindrical or sharply conical 
pricker. There is a large field for ingenuity and 


and Magazine of the Ceylon Agricultural Society. 


careful experiment; and the next few years 
should produce an instrument which will bea 
marked improvement on the present weapons. 
Excellent work with regular shavings, as thin 
even as 20-25 tothe inch, have been done with 
the gouge, the Farrier’s knife, and with more 
modern specially adapted tapping knives, It is 
important to make certain of the periods which 
should be allowed to elapse between tappings 
inorder to get maximum yields. After having 
collected figures of yields on a large number of 
estates itis difficulé to lay down an absolute 
rule as to the procedure which experience shows 
to be the best. Carefully kept data on some 
estates show thatafter a period of some three 
months alternate days’ tapping the amount of 
latex per tree decreases to an amount which is of 
less value than the cost of tapping, but after a 
rest of two months the trees again on the fourth 
or fifth tapping yield the maximum, which after 
some 40 tappings begins to rapidly decrease, 
The reverse of these observations is to be found 
on other estates where accurate figures of 
yields show that after continuous tapping for 
some two or three years, the amount obtained 
varies only slightly, never steadily decreasing. 
The variation is caused by climatic conditions, 
short periods of little or no rainfall reducing 
the yield and periods of excessive rainfall pro- 
ducing somewhat the same result. This is 


DUE TO THE RELATIVELY LESS ACTIVE FUNCTIONING 
OF THE ROOTS 


owing to drought or excess of water, 
Many planters believe in stopping tapping when 
the trees are leafless, a period of some three 
weeks each year. The experiments which have 
been continuously carried on for some 18 months 
by this department on 17-year old trees at Krian 
show a slight decrease of yield during the 
leafless period. he notion is also prevalent 
that tapping should be discontinued during the 
fruit-bearing period, The figures obtained at 
Krian show a decrease during the time the 
trees were in fruit, but no sufficient decrease to 
seriously increase the cost of tapping. The 
figures relating to these tapping experiments 
will be published in the ‘ Agricultural Bulle- 
tin.” Careful records have been kept of the 
weight and bulk of latex each day from each 
tree, and the ensuing weight of dry rubber. 
The question of 


HOW FAR ITIS ADVISABLE TO REFRAIN FROM 
TAPPING RUBBER TREES AFTER A PERIOD 


of tapping is one upon which planting 
opinion differs very greatly. On some estates, 
after a period of some weeks or months of tap- 
ping, a period of about equal length is allowed 
to elapse without tapping. On others and the 
majority of places tapping is continued without 
cessation, in some cases trees having without 
any reduction of yield been tapped for 34 to 4 
years every other day without cessation, On 
the question of daily or alternate days’ tapping 
planters are also divided, and experience of 

ields points somewhat to the advantage of the 
atter practice. There is no physiological reason 
why the tapping should cease during the leaf- 
Jess or fruit-bearing period ; the cutting of the 
small portions of the bark which tapping implies 
being in the case of a tree of 20” or more in girth 


271 


so slight an injury as to be negligible. The 
best and simplest criterion for deciding how 
long to continue tapping is found in keeping 
a record of the amount of latex from each tree 
from 1,000 trees or from a field. If these figures 
show no serious and continuous decline, there 
is no reason to stop tapping. On the other 
hand when, after a series of tappings, say 40 
or 50, the amount of latex obtained decreases in 
a marked manner and this decrease is con- 
stant, the yield being less and less, than it is 
advisable to stop for a period of a month at least, 
and not to begin again until by an experimental 
tapping it is found that the flow is again large. 
On one estate the tapping for a number of cuts 
was habitually stopped when the yicld had 
attained the maximum, and after some weeks 
tapping again produced less yield which in- 
creased till the arbitary time of ceasing. This 
method, which is adopted toa great extent from 
fear of using too much bark, is most unprofitable 
as it leads to stopping before the best yields 
have been obtained. It is naturally wise to so 
arrange tapping operations that it will not be 
necessary to retap renewed bark for some con- 
siderable period, but we do not yet know by 
experiment in the Malay States what length of 
ime is necessary for a healthy tree, carefully 
tapped, to produce new bark containing a large 
number of well-filled latex vessels. The time of 
four years has been arbitarily fixed by some plan- 
ters and their tapping schemes are arranged 
in relation to that period. That four years, 
three years, or two years are necessary for the 
formation of bark suitable for tapping cannot 
yet be definitely stated, but it is highly pro- 
bable from isolated cases where such experi- 
ments have been made that four years is 
unnecessarily long. Experimental work and 
observations on tapping and yield of rubber 
made in Ceylon are unfortunately of litule value 
tor Malaya. The climate of Ceylon rubber dis- 
tricts, with its periods of dry weather, is not 
comparable with the conditions in Malaya, 
where rubber trees are in active growth of root, 
leaf and other tissues practically every day of 
the year, and where, even when they are leafless, 
the growth of trees is not entirely stopped. On 
one estate in Perak the yield of dry rubber per 
acre was 800 lb., a little less than 4 lb. per tree, 
even though the trees were crowded together 
220 to the acre; this rubber was sold at an 
average price of some 4s per lb., thus realising 
about £160 gross profit per acre, of which more 
than 50 per cent. must have been net profit. 


PREPARATION OF RUBBER FOR THE MARKET. 


There is still no agreement as to the best 
form in which to preparerubber for the home 
market; block, crepe, sheet and biscuit are made 
by different planters for different reasons. 
One reason which makes it diflicult for the pro- 
ducer to make up his mind as to the best form 
in which to make his rubber is that it is not 
easy to find what the broker and the manufac- 
turer like best. A big price for a break of crepe 
gives the impression that this form is desired 
and will fetch a better price than block or sheet. 
Shortly after a purchase of block rubber at a 
price higher than the rest on the market seems 
to imply that this kind of rubberis wished for. 
The leading brokers, buyers and manufacturers 


272 


themselves when asked as to their opinions are 
found to differ, and sofor the present it must 
remain ai open question whether block, crepe, 
or sheet will get the best reception on the Euro- 
pean Market. 

Light colour and uniformity all through the 
sample are beginning to be considered as quali- 
ties to be aimed at, though the former character 
is probably only desired by the manufacturer 
for a class of goods which can never consume a 
very large quantity of raw rubber, and, there- 
fore, if all prepare to this standard too much 
may be supplied. All who have studied the 
matter, or who have technical knowledge and 
experience, are agreed that the most important 
quality to be arrived at in plantation rubber is 
‘“ nerve,” ‘‘ fibre,” “pull,” ‘‘strength,’’ or what- 
ever other terms may be used for the possession 
of elasticity and resilience to a high degree. if 
this character of Malayan plantation rubber is 
continued and improved, there is no reason to 
doubt that the manufacturer will in a short time 
begin to set a value on it equal and perhaps 
better than that given to the wild Para of Brazil. 
The exclusion of all latex which may contain 
too much viscine, resin, ete., since itis obtained 
from young trees, when ‘bulking” latex is 
strongly to be recommended ; there is always a 
market for poorer values of rubber by them- 
selves, and the inclusion of a small quantity of 
inferior latex may considerably reduce the value 
of the whole break, and at the same time do harm 
to the good name of the estate for sound rubber. 
Block rubber has great advantages over the 
other forms, in that it is less bulky and costly 
for storage and transport, and less liable to 
any damage by damp or heat in transit. Many 
leading manufacturers and technical experts in 
Europe consider that the block rubber possesses 
more of the desirable qualities of the Brazilian 
Para than crepe or sheet; and the only ob- 
jection which any of them make to block is 
the fact that it cannot always be examined for 
internal impurities without cutting each bluck. 
This drawback is obviated if the blocks are made 
only 1 to 14 inchs thick, when they are trans- 
parent and any opaque object included in them 
can be detected by holding them up to the light. 


RUBBER SEED. 


The question of the sale of rubber seed for 
oil purposes should be carefully considered by 
every careful planter. The crop of seed in the 
Peninsula was probably not less than 300,000, U00, 
or 1,200 tons in weight, valued in the London 
market at over $100,000. This amount of avail- 
able seed will increase annually very rapidly, 
and in five years’ time more than 30 times this 
will be produced. The following figures show 
that there is a fair profit from the collection 
and export of these seeds, evenat the rates which 
are at present offered for decorticated seed, 
and it is not improbable that when suflicient 
quantity is placed on the market a higher price 
will be obtained ;:— 


The Supplement to the Tropical Agriculturist 


Wricut oF Hk&vea BrasiLiENsis SEED, 
COTYLEDONS AND SHELL, 


Percentage of 
Number. Total Shell. Cotyle- Cotyledons to 
Weight. dons. total weight. 
Gr Gr, Gr. Per cent. 
1 3.18 1.69 1.58 5C 
2 5.14 1.84 3.28 66 
3 4.26 1.63 2.61 62 
4 4,41 1,70 2.70 6] 
5 4.19 1.33 2.56 68 
6 4.46 2.05 2.41 52 
7 8.50 1,65 1.85 53 
8 3.86 1.96 1.89 49 
9 3.14 1,41 1.73 55 
10 3.21 148 1.72 53, 
11 3,26 1.35 1.90 58 28 
12 4.65 1,89 2.49 5364 
Total 47.286 19.88 27.02 ate 
Averages 3.938 1.656 2.25 59° 7 


The following will enable an estimate to be 
made of probable profits from this source :— 
111 Para rubber seeds eql. 1 lb. 
12,432 ,, Ay 14 eql. 1 cwt. 
248,640 ,, 4 eqi, 1 ton, 

The kernel—i.e., the decorticated seed-—is 60 
per cent. of the total weight of seed, therefore 
414,400 seeds makes aton of decorticated seed. 
At 400 seeds—i.e., 133 fruits to the tree—414,400 
seeds will be the crop of 1,036 trees, which at 
193 trees to the acre—i.¢,, 15 feet apart—is the 
produce of 5.4 acres. One acre will therefore 
give 3 cwts. 791b., value £1 17s. or $15.88. 


Cost of putting on market : tf eG 


Freight, 40s. per ton (say $18) 18 00 
Collecting at 4 cents por 1,000, 

per ton 18 64 
Decorticating, per tox 2 59 
Packing, per ton 15 00 
64. 14 

Value on market £10 to £12 (say 
$93,50—i.e., £11) 93 50 
Cost of putting on market 54 14 


Total net profit per ton, $39.36—that is 5.4 
acres gives $39.36 profit—i.e. 57 per acre. 
SYNTHETIC RUBBER. 


Reports of rubber substitutes and synthetic 
1ubber during 1908, as in previous years, con- 
tinued to alarm greatly and frighten many 
faint-hearted believers in rubber cultivation ; 
but the end of the year brought us no nearer the 
production of a substance which will take the 
place of rubber at a cost less than the present 
market price. Rumours of rubber to be made 
from peat, resin-bearing woods, wheat and other 
substances arecurrent periodically; each case 
causing great alarm at the time, in a fewmonths 
is forgotten, and the fears of the timid investor 
in rubber planting are calmed until a new para- 
graph in the daily paper suggests to him that at 
Jast the much-dreaded catastrophe has come. 
Those who can best judge of the probabilities of 
rubber being manufactured synthetically atsuch 
a price as to make it a commercial success—che- 
mists and physicists—still consider it most im- 
probable. The rubber planter continually finds 
his trees giving increased yields, and with the 
cost of production becoming less and less, the 
price at which it will pay to make synthetic 
rubber gradually sets below the horizon of profit, 


HEALTA ON Estates. 


The average health of coolies on estates has. 
during 1908 shown a marked improvement, and 


and Magazine of the Ceylon Agricultural Society. 


with medicalaid and hospitals which have been 
built in all planting centres, the cooly is well 
locked after. The health of the managers and ass- 
istants did not show thesameimprovement. Mal- 
aria is in some cases constant, and the fact that 
this is somakes the excellent condition of estates 
and their labour forces the more creditable. The 
period of rapid opening ot estates in order to 
get a large area planted in the shortest possible 
time hasto some extent stopped, and this has 
led toimprovements in the working of estates 
in many details. Every practical planter rea- 
lises that for the future prosperity of his estate, 
to obtain healthy conditions for master and 
cooly is as necessary as to plant and tend care- 
fully the rubber trees; and moneys spent in 
such sanitary measures are as profitably ex- 
pended asin purely agricultural operations. 


LazBourR, 


There are about 80,000 coolies employed on 
rubber estates in the Malay Peninsula, and of 
these over 50,000 are Tamils, some 15,000 
Chinese, 7,473 Javanese and 4,416 Malays being 
employed. On estates where I have seen 
Chinese employed in tapping there has been 
every reason to be satisfied with the skill of 
their work. The supply of Chinese is unlimited, 
and if it is found that they can be used as 
labour generally on rubber estates this will 
relieve to a great extent any anxiety about 
future demandsfor labour. The Immigration 
Commission have now got into their stride, and 
it is becoming generally recognised that such a 
body, with a continuous and recognised policy, 
will be of great use inthe future. 


Estate Lapour, FepERATED MaALay 
STATES, 1908. 


Negri 
Selangor, Perak. Sembilan Pahang. Total 
Tamils 29,108 13,635 3,443 834 43,515 
Javanese 1,662 2,276 1,023 38 4,999 
Malays 627 905 260 79 1,961 
Chinese 1,121 3,12 2,208 145 6,595 
Total 29,513 20,032 6,929 596 57,070 
Estate Lasour, MALAay PENINSULA, 1908. 
Straits 
Federated Settlements 
‘ Malay States. and Kedah. Johore, Total, 
Tamils 43,515 6,476 1,418 51,409 
Javanese 4,999 1,336 1,138 7,473 
Malays 1,961 1,724 731 4,416 
Chinese 6,595 5,819 2,624 15,068 
Total 57,070 15.385 5,911 78,366 


PREVENTION OF DISEASE AND Pasts, 


The Department of Agriculture has now a 
staff of Scientific Officers who are investigatin 
the causes of disease and experimenting wit 
methods of prevention and cure. All efficient 
measures forthe preservation of health rest upon 
exact knowledge of the causes of disease and the 
effects they produce on their victims, and we 
have now an immense number of instances of 
accurate tracing by observation of the causes of 
plant diseases. These have been accompanied 
by experiment, and it needs no argument to 
convince anyone in the least acquainted with 
inductive science that experiment is as essential 
as observation. During the past twenty years, 
the discoveries in plant doctoring have made al- 
most a revolution in agriculture, though this is 


33 


273 


seen more in Europe and America than in tro- 
pical countries. The general laws of sanitation 
for plants do not differ to any great extent from 
those laid down for man and animals. They 
consist in the removal and destruction by bur- 
ning of all dead plants and dead parts of plants, 
the prevention of conditions which favour 
the progress of the disease, and the isola- 
tion by means of trenches of plants whose 
roots are diseased. These methods cannot be ad- 
opted without an intelligent watching for the 
appearence of disease. And the importance 
of a stitch in time isin nothing more evident 
than inthe fight against plant diseases, 


A case was brought to my notice of an out- 
break of acaterpillar which had taken some 
time to entirely destroy all of leaves on the 
‘“‘blukah” adjoining a rubber clearing, and. only 
when the caterpillars, which were in immense 
numbers, had been driven to eat the rubber 
was any action taken. The aid of the technical 
experts of the Department of Agriculture 
should be sought as soon as any pestis observed, 
but the destruction of as many of the cater- 
pilars, insects, larves, cocoong, etc., which 
can be found should be at once put in hand, 
Every properly equipped estate should possess 
the means of combating as early as possible all 
diseases and pests, and should possess imple- 
ments for pruning back the branches of big 
trees. For this purpose handy machines are 
made at the cost of a few dollars which easily 
cut at a height of thirty feet branches 


three or four inches in circumference, Efii- 
cient spraying machines should be found 
always in working order in every estate 


store, just as the fire apparatus in a gallery of 
valuable pictures. The cost of even the most 
expensive steam power spraying apparatus, 
capable of reaching trees of eighty feet or more 
in height, bears an infinitesimal proportion to 
the value of the trees on even a small rubber 
estate. The materials for spraying should algo 
be keptin stock, so that no delay is experienced 
when such work has to be done. My experience 
of over ten years’ eastern planting hasbeen that 
the delay caused in getting weapons to fight 
the disease has often caused the task of getting 
rid of the pesttobe much more difticult and 
expensive than it would have been had the 
estates been forearmed. 


Fifty years ago the conditions favourable to 
the rapid spread of disease caused by insect, 
fungi, or bacteria were not so great as atthe 
present day, and the presence of 35,000,000 trees 
in an area of some 26,000 square miles is in itself 
a danger; but the weapons which the planters 
of that day possessed for an intelligent fight 
against these organisms were of little use and 
yielded without confidence. In India the loss 
by wheat rust was some time ago estimated at 
£91,000,000, and in Ceylon the leaf disease of 
coffee caused the extinction of that industry a 
loss of at least £15,000,000. The work done ‘by 
sanitation and preventive medicine in preservine 
human life are now historical facts; 200 years 
ago the mortality of London was 80 per 1,000, it 
is now about 20. Untila few years ago conta- 
gious pleuro-pneumonia and foot-and-mouth dis- 
ease caused immense losses of cattlo, estimated 


274 The Supplement to the 


at 2,000,000 per annum, worth probably 
£3,000,000; they have now bern almost exter- 
minated. Plant sanitation and preventive mea- 
sures can, if invoked, do as much for the preser- 
vation of cultivated plants, and with the know- 
ledge we now possess it is improbable that any 
disease could so seriously damage a big agricul- 
tural industay as has been the case in the past. 


Distances BETWEEN TREES. 


The average number of trees per acre on 
rubber estates in Malaya in 1908 was 168, or 16 
feet by 16 feet apart; the statistics for 1907 
showed that on the 31st of that year the average 
.was 153, or 17 feet by 17 feet apart, This, for 
many reasons, is an improvement. Itis to be 
regretted that the cultivation of rubber is too 
young an industry to have suflicient experience 
of old trees planted at different distan es apart 
to judge of this important question. The 


REASONS AGAINST CLOSE PLANTING IN RUBBER 


—12 ft. by 12 ft., or 302 per acre, or closer--are: 
That it prevents the tree from growing with full 
vigour and to the greatest possible size, forcing 
it torun up to the light and giving it no room 
for lateral braches. That it increases the cost 
of collection of rubber, since a larger number of 
trees have to be tapped for the same amount of 
rubber. That if it 1s found necessary to give 
the trees more room, the cutting out of a pro- 
portion of them is fraught with much danger to 
the remainder, inasmuch as each dead rubber 
tree, root or portion of root, is a potential cen- 
tre or root disease, and may harbour white ants. 
That the spread of fungal and insect ciisease is 
helped by the crowding together of the trees. 


ADVANTAGES CLAIMED FOR CLOSE PLANTING 


are: That it gives for the first years of tapping 
a touch larger yield of rubber, There is not a 
vreat amount of evidence on this point, but such 
evidence as there is seems to point to it being 
true that a larger yield of latex and of dry rubber 
can be obtained at any rate in the first three or 
four years of tapping. It is also claimed that 
the closeness of the trees more quickly produces 
shade over the ground and so prevents the growth 
of weeds. The whole question of weeding is being 
considered at the present time ; if it is believed 
that to cover up the ground with a green manure 
is the best method of cultivation, then the fact 
that close planting reduces the cost of weeding 
is of no value. That in order to compensate for 
the casual losses of trees, which in the course of 
time must necessarily occur, more trees should 
be planted than are wanted. The answer to this 
is that where trees are planted at large distances 
30 or more feet apart, supplies come on with- 
out difficulty, and it is only in crowded estates 
that difficulty is found in replacing casualties, 
To plant more rubber trees than it is inten- 
ded to permanently keep on the estate, and 
afterwards by cutting out to reduce the num- 
ber, is a dangerous policy. No one acquainted 
with diseases in plants would deny that to leave 
the dead roots of trees of the same species in 
close proximity to the roots of living trees is 
most likely to encourage root fungus and insect 
pests, while the cost of removing the roots, 
even if the trees are cut out when quite young, 
is prohibitive. If a planter finds it necessary 


Tropical Agriculturist 


to give more growing room—i.e,, space for the 
branches and leaves of some of his trees—it is 
preferable to pollard some of the trees, and 
allow them to grow slowly underneath the bran- 
ches of the unpruned trees, rather than to leave 
the decaying roots of dead rubber trees, which 
he has cut down, dotted all over his fields. 


Cover PLANTS INSTEAD OF CLEAN WEEDING. 


The question as to the relative advantages 
of clean weeding and the use of cover plants 
(the use of which has been advocated in my 
annual reports for the last three years) is 
gradually being seriously considered by the 
practical planter, and roany thousands of acres 
of rubber, certainly not less than 15,000 are 
now cultivated with various cover plants. It 
needs but little observation of rubber clearings 
to decide that an immense amount of top soil, 
containing a large proportion of humus, has 
been washed away from sloping land to the 
detriment, both present and future, of the rub- 
ber. An examination of the water in the drains 
of flat land, which is dark-coloured when the 
clearing is first opened and gradually becomes 
clearer when many tons of water have passed 
through the soil, will show that this same pro- 
cess of exhaustion of the soil is going on very 
rapidly on clean weeded flat lands though not 
to the same extent as on the hillsides. Most 
practical planters have observed that the roots 
of plants in the tropics grow more quickly and 
vigorously when the earth where they are gro- 
wing is shaded from the sun, and for this reason 
the surface of nurseries is covered with a thatch 
of grass or other convenient covering. These 
arguments seem in themselves sufficient to in- 
duce a trial of cover plants; but the additional 
argument that the process of clean weeding is 
continuous and the most costly of all the work 
on a rubber estate before it comes into bearing 
should be a further reason for the adoption of the 
system of cover plants. Various cover plants have 
been used on acreages varying from 400 acres, 
practically in all cases with successful results. 
{t is unfortunate for the increase in the belief in 
this method of rubber cultivation that a large 
number of the planters who tried cover plants did 
so on the weediest and worst-drained parts of 
their estates. It would be as fair to test a food, 
which is recommended for supporting workirg 
men, on emaciated and abnormally weak persons, 
and when it did not produce the results hoped 
for, deeming it a failure. Another reason for 
some planters not tinding the use of cover plants 
so perfect a substitute for weeding as they hoped 
was that the cover plant (very often crotalaria) 
was sown broadcast, and it has been found by 
experience over large areas that this method of 
planting cover plants is wasteful and very much 
less effective than 


SOWING THE SEED BY DIBBLING, 


planting in furrows, or similar methods. The 
loss may be due to the exposure of the germi- 
nating seed to the sun, or to its being washed 
along when the tender rootlets are beginning 
to form, or birds may eat the seed ; but whatever 
is the cause, it is always found that the propor- 
tion of seed producing plants is very small 
indeed. On the other hand, the planting in lines, 
the seed being slightly covered, results in 80-100 


and Magazine of the Ceylon Agricultural Society. 


per cent. of the seed-producing healthy plants. 
In planting cover plants on steep land it is im- 
perative that the lines should follow the contour 
of the land; when they are made to run up and 
down the hillside the seed will be washed down 
with the loosened earth. This result in the 
seeds being massed in one place, and the young 
plants growing closely together in clumps at the 
foot of the lines. The use of cover plants in 
place of clean weeding is now, after three years’ 
constant advocacy, very generally considered 
as an economical and practical practice, which 
1 have no doubt will greatly increase when 
the benefit to the rubber and the saving in ex- 
pense have been proved on a large number of 
estates. The relative advantages of various 
plants as ‘‘cover plants” for rubber clearings is 
an important question to decide before procee- 
ding to lay down fields with one or other. Legu- 
minous plants possess the property of increas- 
ing the amount of available nitrogen in the soil 
by means of bacteria living in their roots which 
obtain nitrogen from the air, and in this respect 
should be preferred to other piants. The 


CHIEF THING TO OONSIDER IN LAYING DOWN A 
COVER PLANT 


is rapidity and cheapness in thoroughly estab- 
lishing it, andif a plant is found to yuickly 
-take possession of the soil and cover it to the 
exclusion of all others, the fact of its not being 
leguminous should not weigh against it. The 
ideal plant for the purpose of protecting 
rubber land and eliminating or reducing very 
considerably the weeding bill is a plant which 
grows not more than a foot to 18 inches high, 
is permanent or persistent for three or four 
years, producing shade over the ground, gro- 
wing so luxuriantly as to exclude weeds with- 
out forming a thick turf, is leguminous, has 
no thorns or spikes to interfere with coolies 
walking, has no leaves, fruit, or flower which 
will attract vermin or other animals. None of 
the plants at present in use, or being tried in the 
experimental plots of the Agricultural Depart- 
ment, fulfil absolutely all these requirements, 
and it is probable that a plant will yet be 
found better than any at present tried. The 
conditions on different estates in Malaya do 
not vary very greatly, but the differences are 
sufficient to make some placgs specially favour- 
able to one cover plant and other places to 
other plants. In different districts on sloping 
and flat land with different soils and some es- 
tates it is found that in some passion flower 
will thrive and rapidly cover the land where 
the sensitive plant or crotalaria do not grow 
vigorously. On other places the crotalaria or 
sensitive plant may do much better than 
passion flower, 

It is easy to decide as to the most suitable 
plant by planting one or two trial plots, The 


FOLLOWING PLANTS ALL HAVE ADVANTAGES 
IN DIFFERENT WAYS, 


and if any one of them can be made to 
entirely cover the ground ina short time, say 
four or five months, its acquisition will be a great 
gain to the estate in improving the growth of 
the rubber and in reducing the wages Bill, 


_ Abrus precatorius, a native of India, where it 
is used for coyer, is loguminous with a froo 


275 


creeping habit; it grows about one foot above 
the ground and the branches from one plant will 
spread to 15 or 20 feet from the main stem. The 
pods contain 6 or 8 seeds. The seeds are bright 
vermilion, about the size of buckshot, with a 
small black mark at one end; they are used as 
the carat or standard weight for precious stones 
and metal in India. 


Passiflora fetida (passion flower creeper), a 
creeping non-leguminous plant having purple 
flowers and yellow fruits about the size ofa 
walnut, grows very freely on nearly all soils and 
smothers many other plants of a less vigorous 
habit, This creeper never gets more than about 
nine inches to a foot high, and very quickly 
covers the ground. It has to be kept from 
twinning round young rubber plants, but as 
it is very soft this can be done at extremely 
small cost. It is a native plant and common 
all over the Peninsula. 


Crotalaria striata and other species of the 
same genus, Crotolaria incana, are leguminous 
plants, possessing usually very numerous and 
large bacterial nodules, and growing freely, 
when not cut, to 7 or 8feethigh. It has a 
yellow flower and a light green leaf, and affords 
a good cover if not allowed to grow high and 
scraggy. It should be kept cut to a height of 
about 2 feet 6 inches. The cutting is not a 
costly process as it is only necessary to slash 
over the tops, leaving the cut part to remain as 
a mulch on the soil, The seed is obtainable 
in almost any quantity as a large acreage is 
already planted. 

Tephrosia purpurea and 7, candida are both 
vetch-like leguminous plants which grow freely 
on almost any soil, and give perhaps a better 
cover than crotalaria. They must, however, be 
slashed over at a height of 2-3 feet, and not 
allowed to run up; otherwise the light, and with 
it the weeds, will gain an ,entrance, 


Mimosa pudica, the ‘‘sensitive plant,” a legu- 
minous plant with red spherical flower heads 
and spiny fruits, is in many ways the most suit- 
able plant as yet tried for cover. The chief 
reason which makes it disliked by planters is 
the presence of thorns on its stems which are 
unpleasant to coolies walking through it, 


The habit of this plant of shutting its leaves 
in heavy rain and at night isan advantage as 
no rain is lost and dew falls on the ground. 
It never grows more than about two feet high ; 
it persists and makes a dense cover over the 
ground when the leaves are not shut—i.e., when 
the sun is shining and the plant is not dis- 
turbed. Itis, though a native of S. America, 
common in all the planting districts and 
one of the first plants to take possession, and 
keep possession, of the roadsides. In addi- 
tion to these plants I have recently been 
shown a creeping leguminous plant which was 
found by Mr. H. F. Browell of Damansara 
estate. It is a species of Vigna, having dark 
green leaves and making a dense cover which 
refuses to allow any weeds to exist. I have 
seen a patch of about half-an-acre on Damansara 
estate, and there it appears to be the best plant 
for the purpose of cover that has been used in 
the Federated Malay States, 


276 


THE, FurURE oF RUBBER. 


The Federated Malay States produced about 
three-fifths of the tin supply of the world, and 
in a few years time Malaya should supply a 
very large proportion of the world’s demand 
for rubber, 
25,000 acres are planted annually during the 
next five years (a very reasonable estimate, con- 
sidering that over 40,000 acres were planted 
during the year in both 1907 and 1908), the rubber 
trees of the Federated Malay States should 
yield not less than 50,000 tons of dry rubber, 
which at 3s. per lb. represents a value of 
$144,000,000, This amount, should the demand 
for rubber increase at the rate it has been 
annually rising for the last nine years, will 
probably at that time be less than 25 per cent of 
the wor!d’s consumption. It is 70 years since the 
discovery of vulcanisation by Goodyear made 
rubber available for economic purposes. It is 
now a necessary of civilised life, and it is only 
by means of rubber that we can solve the dif_i- 
cult problems of transport and communication. 
Without it electric wire insulation for tele- 
graphy and lighting, pneumatic and cushion 
tyres, and the air brakes of railways would all 
be impracticable; and in the purposes for 
which it is used in medicine and surgery it is 
an absolute essential. The optimistic view that 
the demand will before long exceed the supply 
is not more unlikely than the more usual view 
of the pessimist that the continued planting 
of rubber will result in a supply larger than 
the demand and consequently a considerable 
drop in prices. That the market will be over- 
stocked with rubber is still a haunting fear of 
the owner of rubber property, but as each year 
brings new uses for rubber, and increases the 
amount used in directions where its value 1s 
already known, the possibility of over-production 
seems less probable. 


Many expert authorities expect the develop- 
ments in the direction of rubber street-paving, 
covering for decks of ships, etc., may be looked 
for in the near future. Some two or three years 
ago, when I was looking into the question of 
rubber pavement, I estimated that two-inch- 
thick rubber of the quality which the London 
and North-Western Railway had so successfully 
used inthe rubber pavement at the entrance of 
Huston Station if used for paving the streets of 
London, which are at present laid with wood or 
asphalt, would require about 90,000 tons of 
crude rubber. Ifthe prophecies so frequently 
made by experts as to the increase in the use of 
motor cars are fulfilled, we have another large 
and increasing demand for rubber of good qua- 
lity, and wherever the future possibilities of ex- 
pansion in the rubber market is studied it is 
found to be more than hopetul. The purposes 
for which rubber can and will be used economi- 
cally are unlimited, and we may look forward to 
a coming rubber age on which all the most suit— 
able rubber planting areas of the world, of which 
Malaya can claim to be the best, will be re- 
quired to supply a firm and increasing demand. 
Malaya possesses the finest climate in the world 
for the rapid and healthy growth of Para rub- 
ber, and, since millions of acres suitable for 
this cultivation are still available, there is 


In 10 years (1919) presuming that’ 


Lhe Supplement to the Tropical Agriculturist 


every probability that this country will be in 
the future one of the largest producers of rub- 
ber in theworld. The fear of over-production 
is to some extent pardonable on examining the 
magnitude of the figures relating to rubber 
planting in Malaya, but a consideration of the 
possibilities of the world’s future requirements 
takes the student into figures beside which 
those of Malaya are but small. 


J. B. Carruruers, 


Director of Agriculture and Government Bota- 
nist, FM.S.— 4 dministration Report. 


PARA RUBBER. 


_ BRAZIL’S FUTURE AND MALAYA 
METHODS. 
AN EXpERT’s VIEWS, 


Mr. D Sandmann, whom we mentioned in 
our Saturday’s issue as paying a visit to these 
States, has been kind enough to accord an in- 
terview to a representative of this paper during 
his brief stay in Kuala Lumpur. Mr, Sand- 
mann has been 

DEPUTED BY THE GERMAN COLONIAL OFFICE 


to make a thorough study of tropical pro- 
ducts ; but, as he pointed out, rubber has 
come so much to the fore of late that a 
large part of his time has been employed in 
investigating it. In this respect he has pre- 
viously visited Ceylon and Burma, and has also 
made a somewhat lengthy stay in Brazil, though 
he has never before been in the F.M.S. Mr, 
Sandmann says that his work is mainly that 
connected with the chemical side of the ques- 
tion. Last year, he went to Brazil to study 
the condition of the Para rubber industry along 
the Amazon and its numerous tributaries, He 
was the first to approach the matter there 
from the economic side, though there had 
been several botanists before him, One ques- 
tion especially interested him ; namely, whether 
Para rubber from Brazil could be placed on 
the market if the price fell to a fairly low 
figure; and, as the result of his investigations, 
he states that he is convinced that the pro- 
duction from that country will never be less 
jhan it is today, for, 


IF THE PRICE DROPS, THE PEOPLE WILL 
WORK HARDER. 


Now they work about six hours a day for from 
four to six months in the year, according to 
length of season of heavy tain ; this lasts six 
months ; while for the remainder of the year 
the rainfall is comparatively light. This work 
is intermittent, as they have many holi- 
days, and, besides, always rest in the after- 
noons. Au important factor in the matter 
of production is, of course, the question of 
communications, and Mr. Sandmann states 
that these are about to beimproved. For in- 
stance, Brazil is under obligation to Bolivia to 
build a railway along the route of the Rio 
Madeira to the Acre country, which Bolivia 
handed over to Brazil on condition that the 
latter carried this enterprise through. This 
territory is, Mr. Sandmann _ says, the most im~ 


and Magazine of the Ceyton Agricultural Society. 


portant of all from the point of view of rubber, 
and already produces a large quantity, even 
though so far back in the hinterland. At the 
present time, however, the burning question 
there is food supply. In the past there has been 
a large export of rice from the Amazonas, but 


THE COLLECTION OF RUBBER PROVED SO 
REMUNERATIVE 


that cultivation was abandoned. The result is 
that living has become so expensive that collec- 
tors are unable to take their families there. 
Mr. Sandmann states that he reported to the 
Brazilian authorities on this matter; he read ex- 
tracts to our representative from aletter that he 
had received from Dr. Huber, Director of Bota- 
nical Gardens at Para, in which the latter says 
his Government is now taking steps to better 
the state of affairs. The letter also mentioned 
that the Brazilian authorities intend opening 


A PERMANENT EXHIBITION OF RUBBER AT THE 
TOWN OF PARA, 


Mr Sandmann emphasized the fact that the 
price of rubber there is largely dependent upon 
the food supply, and pointed out that he had 
already written upon this matter in the German 
agricultural journal, Tropenpflanzer, last Sept- 
ember. Another sign ofthe times is that, whereas 
roprietors of stretches of rubber forest were 
forneity content to livein the towns, they were 
now proceeding to live on their property and 
overlook the work. This was especially the case 
along the Rio Madeira. One importantresult of 
this supervision was that young trees were now 
getting attention that they lacked before—an 
important factor as regards future production. 


No Taxes oN ENTERPRISE. 


Coming to the question of the procedure in- 
volved in taking uprubber country, Mr Sand- 
mann stated thatit was a very simple matter, 
since it was only necessary to make an applica- 
tion to the requisite authorities and pay a small 
sum by way ot registration fee. The applicant 
could then proceed to work, and his property 
would cost him about £1 sterling per acre for the 
cutting of the necessary paths in the dense 
forest to enable his men to have access to the 
treesto be tapped. There were no questions of 
waiting weary months for a title, of heavy quit- 
rent, of alengthy interval prior to production, or 
of a good orbad burn. There were the trees, many 
ofthem magnificent ones, merely awaiting the 
arrival of the tappers and the cutting of rough 
approaches. Of course, since the rivers at present 
are the only means of communication with the 
market, it has naturally followed that selectors 
have turned their attention to country having a 
water frontage. Questioned as to the 


POSSIBILITY OF THE EXHAUSTION OF THE FORESTS. 


Mr Sandmapn was emphatic that this cannot 
possibly occur, as apart from the vast area 
at present discovered, there are enormous 
areas that have never yet been explored at 
all, and itis only reasonable to expect that rub- 
ber exists there in at least something approa- 
ching the same abundance, Also it must not 
be forgotten that big trees can be tapped there 
for 30 years continuously—i,¢. in the season—and 
that young trees are coming on all the time, 
There they do not tap trees under, say, 10 ins, in 


277 


diameter. Most of those being tapped have a 
diameter of about 2ft., but in some cases the 
measurement reaches well over 3ft. 


While on this part of the subject, our repre- 
sentative questioned Mr Sandmann concerning 
the statement that so often appears in the Press 
that the Brazilian rubber-tappers are in the 
habit of cutting down trees to obtain the latex 
with greater speed. The reply was that there 
was absolutely no truth in this, as regards 
Brazilians and Para, but Castilloa was cut 
down because it was not so valuable. This 
was not done, however, by Brazilians, but 
by Peruvians, for the former found it more 
profitable to deal only in Para, They (the Bra- 
zilian tappers) were known as seringueros. They 
were not very careful in their methods, but it 
was not necessary for them to be so, since the 
trees were of such great size. 


F.M.S. RuBBER. 


Asked how the ¥'.M.S, industry compared 
with that in Brazil, he replied that generally 
speaking it appeared to be about the same, but 
that some of our trees seemed to have made 
greater progress than those ofa similar age in 
the gardens at Para, As regarded yield, Mr 
Sandmann considered it about the same in the 
two countries for trees of the same age. The 
average in Brazil was usually about 3 |b. of dry 
rubber per tree per annum (many of the trees 
there being very large), but in the Acre country 
the figure rose to 10]lb. One seringuero in that 
region obtained during one of the 4 to 6 month 
seasons 1,000 kilos (about a ton) of rubber! 

Questioned as to the methods in vogue here, 
Mr. Sandmann was of opinion that we were not 
careful enough in the matter of selection. It 
was very necessary, he stated emphatically, to 
choose seed not from what appeared to be the 
best trees, but from those that yielded the most 
and the best latex. This course had not been 
possible, he recognised, at the outset, but seed 
was now so abundant that the necessary selec- 
tion could well be made. He had spoken to 
several planters on the subject, and, as far as 
he had been able to gather, he found that the 
policy he advocated had. not been adopted. The 
matter was not perhaps so very pressing at the 
present moment, but it would prove to be of 
very great importance if the price of rubber fell 
considerably, and especially so if that of labour 
rose coincidently. Again, he considered that 
our planters were not careful enough in tapping 
to use the right kindof cups. The production 
of clean rubber was very essential. In his 
opinion, metal cups shouldnot be employed, as 


THE SUBSTANCE OF WHICH THE CUP IS COMPOSED 
GIVES ITS COLOUR TO THE LATEX, 


Iron and tin, Mr Sandmann said, give a bad 
colourto the rubber, while copper troubles the 
manufacturer later. He advocated the use of 
porcelain cups for tapping, and of wooden 
machinery afterwards in the factory. The por- 
celain cups should be white, finely glazed inside 
(to avoid the possibility of the latex adhering 
to the sides), and well glazed outside, to pre- 
vent the development of fungus which would 
penetrate the earthenware, If this plan were 
adopted, quite another quality of rubber 
would result, 


278 


In Brazil, matters were quite different, said 
Mr Sandmann, as they smoked their rubber, 
and that acted as a disinfectant. That system 
would, however, be impossible to work here 
with large quantities of latex. It was easy 
enough in Brazil, because each seringuero only 
hada small amount to deal with ata time. For 
this country he advocated the use of Purub, 
a preparation of hydrofluoric acid, instead of 
acetic acid. The results from this were very good 
as the preparation did not attack the rubber 
in any way, whereas acetic acid had its bad 
qualities. For instance, when it was used, fer- 
mentatien and oxidation continued after treat- 
ment, whereas with Purub such fermentation 
and oxidation were impossible. The method was 
simpler in working and produced rubber of a 
wonderful quality. He was exhibiting a speci- 
men at the Penang Show. 

Questioned further as to what other of our 
methods he considered might be improved upon, 
Mr Sandmann mentioned briefly that he had 
noticed cases here where trees had been topped 
to get more branches. This was a mistake, as 
the branches then became too heavy, and were 
liable to break during heavy weather. 

Coming to the subject of 

PESTS, 

the informtion was that in Brazil they expe- 
rienced no trouble from white ants, their 
chief enemy being the boring beetle. Tappers 
there, on noticing holes, drove in plugs, thus 
causing the insects to die of starvation, Asked 
as to whether he considered that we had much 
to fear from white ants here, Mr Sandmann re- 
plied that he thought we should have to be very 
careful, but that, if due caution were exercised, 
we ought to be able to keep these pests at bay. 
He did not anticipateany other serious trouble 
and our plantations looked very sound, ‘The 
question of distance in planting was then alluded 
to, and Mr Sandmann expressed the opinion that 
our planting was frequently tooclose. If he were 
opening an estate, he would plant not more than 
from 120 to 150 trees to the acre. 

Finally, Mr Sandmann expressed his convic- 
tion that we had a wonderful future before us. 
There was no fear, he said, of overproduction in 
this generation at least. Even if the output 
reached 200,000 tons, as compared with the pre- 
sent 70,000, rubber would still pay well, though, 
of course, at a much lower figure. 

Gurta-PERCHA. 

In the course of conversation, Mr Sandmann 
mentioned that he had been making some ex- 
periments, in conjunction with Mr Derry, at 
Singapore, in an endeavour to obtain good re- 
sults from jelutong, our wild getah, In this 
they considered that they had been successful, 
and they hoped to be able to get this product 
brought into increased use. Up to the present 
the difticulty had been that it had not been 
found possible to coagulate the matter in such 
a way as to get it clean; but now, by their pro- 
cess, the getah could be coagulated with very 
little foreign matter. The world’s supply of 
gutta-percha was very limited, said Mr Sand- 
mann, but there appeared to be plenty in 
Malacca, and astill larger supply in our new 
territory up north. Para rubber had nothing 
to fear from this, as its uses were quite different, 
-—Malay Mail, Aug, 10. 


The Supplement to the Tropical Agriculturist, 


THE EFFECT OF GREEN MANURE 
ON RUBBER. 


Mr. J. Stewart J. McCall, Director of Agri- 
culture, Nyasaland, who will be remembered as 
a recent visitor to Ceylon, has just issued an 
official circular dealing with green manuring in 
the tropics. One section of his paper deals with 
the ‘‘ Hffect of Green Manure on Rubber,” and 
from it we quote as follows :—‘‘ It has been 
proved that the flow of latex from a Rubber tree 
is affected by endosmotic pressure which practi- 
cally means the amount of water in the plant 
roots. It is the practice to tap Rubber in the 
early morning and evening, and to discontinue 
during the heat of mid-day and early after- 
noon. During the heat of day much water is 
evaporated by the leaves and latex flows slowly, 
but in early morning and evening water wishes 
to enter by the root quicker than it is evaporated 
with the result that there is an internal pres- 
sure which helps the flow of latex; therefore it is 
practical to assume that there is an intimate 
connection between the presence of water in the 
surface soil surrounding the roots, and the flow 
of latex from the Rubber tree. For half the 
year in Nyasaland there is no rain, and daily 
the sun is strong enough to evaporate water 
from the plants, and from the soil. The question 
arises where does this water come from? The an- 
swer is from the lower layers or subsoil by rising 
to the surface in the form of water vapour and 
water liquid (capillarity), In the surface soil of 
a clean weeded estate the water during day is 
principally in the form of water vapour, the 
water being vaporised to a considerable depth 
by the direct overhead rays of the tropical sun. 
In the surface soil of an estate growing a green 
manure-crop there is a large proportion of the 
water in the liquid form, as the covering of vege- 
tation reduces the temperature of the surface 
soil and prevents the direct penetration of the 
sun’s rays. Therefore when Rubber is growing 
surrounded with vegetation, its roots have ac- 
tual access to liquid water through the greater 
part of every day. If we examine the same soils 
during the dry season after the green manure 
crop is dead, we still find more moisture in the 
latter, as the dead remains of the green manure 
crop absorb and retain water more firmly than 
ordinary soil, but delivers it freely to the rubber 
roots although not as freely to the atmosphere.” 


THE F.M.S. AGRICULTURAL SHOW. 
TERMES SPECIES OF ANTS, 

Previous to their departure for Penang, we 
have been afforded an opportunity of seeing the 
exhibits of the F. M. 8. Agricultural Depart- 
ment that are to appear at the forthcoming 
Agri-Horticultural Show. One of the principal 
features will be a series of long tablets on which 
willbe arranged glass tubes containing speci- 
mens of the various kinds of the termes species 
of ants. Theking, the queen, winged indivi- 
duals (mature and immature), soldiers, workers 
and young—all will be represented, while their 
nests willbe shown apart, but adjoining. In 
addition, a brief description of each species will 
be found written at the base of the tablets, 


and Magazme of the Ceylon Agricultural Society. 


These practical illustrations will probably bo a 
revelation to many, for in the case of the lermes 
pallidus they will see that the queen is well 
over two inches in length, while the soldiers of 
the same variety are only about a quarter of au 
inch long. Again, some of the specimens of 
nests to be exhibited are of special interest. 
some of the honey-comb patterns being very 
dainty and well marked. In this conaection a 
soction of a fairly large rubber tree, riddled by 
termes gestroi (white ants) is being shown, and 
also a nest, oval in shape, and about double the 
size ofa Rugby football. This is constructed of 
mudand consolidated by mears of some sub- 
stance which, we believe, the ants exude for the 
purpose. 
TAPPING RUBBER. 

Section of rubber trees, tapped in various 
ways, are to be shown to illustrate what are the 
right and wrong methods, and as far as we can 
see, no doubt should remain after seeing them 
that the old spiral system some of the elaborated 
herring-bone ones are fit only for abandonment. 
The rubber tree needs a continuous flow of life- 
giving matter down the whole length of its 
stem, and anything inthe nature of the spiral 
system that tends to check this, must be detri- 
mental to its yield of latex. One specimen to ve 
shown will illustrate a system whereby the tree 
is tapped on one of four sides every year, thus 
ensuring complete tapping in the requisite 
period of four years, while ensuring rest to the 
outer layers during three-quarters of the period. 
This, it is believed, will be the system that will 
ultimately meet with general adoption. 


In addition to the above, the diseases that 
attack the branches of rubber trees are also to 
be dealt with, and particularly interesting 
specimens are to be shown of the right and 
wrong methods of cutting off injured members, 
the line of argument to be followed being, in 
the first place, that clean cutting is advisable to 
avoid the encouragement of fungus growth ; and 
in the second, that lopping should be dove as 
close to the stem as possible.—Mala, Mail, 
Aug. 5. 


BRAZIL RUBBER VALORISATION 
SCHEME SHELVED. 


The high prices at present ruling have indefinitely 
shelved the Brazilian rubber valorisation scheme; pro- 
ducers are too happy to bother about it, 

The above statement is the substance of 
the reply made to a representative of the 
India-Rubber Journal by a well known London 
importer of rubber who had been approached 
regarding the state of Brazilian fecling towards 
the valorisation scheme. In fact ‘‘ Brown’s dog 
is dead ; high feeding killed it.” From an eco- 
nomic point of view, the question to be asked 
is whether if the scheme had _ been adopted in 
the times of moderate rates, the price of rub- 
ber would be lower now. As we view it, the 
ideal valorisation scheme—that is the best for 
all parties, supposing interference with natural 
laws to be justified—would aim at an ap- 
proximate equalisation of prices; extremes 
would be avoided, and the effect upon prices 
of the recurring depression and _ revival 


279 


of general industry would be minimised. If 
this were the definition recognised by those 
responsible for the rubber valorisation scheme, 
it would have been their duty, supposing as we 
have said that the scheme had been adopted in 
the times of moderate prices, to have essayed 
the task of keeping the quotation within reason- 
able limits. Now, 


IN THE FACE OF INCREASING CONSUMPTION 


and stationary or (possibly) decreasing supply, it 
is extremely improbable that the partakers in 
the scheme would have had the means to do this; 
further public opinion does not at present credit 
them with the wt, Taking into consideration 
the fact that syndicates adopting the scheme are 
promised the financial assistance of the Banco 
do Brazil it is, however, just possible that the 
scheme might, in times of falling consumption 
be made to operate in favour of the producers by 
maintaining prices above the minimum. Thus if 
increase in prices cannot be checked, though de- 
crease can be tosome extentalleviated, thescheme 
fromthe standpoint of the producer exemplifies 
the time-honoured principle, ‘Heads I win,Tails 

you lose.” It is not in human nature, certainly 
notin Brazilian human nature—by which we in- 
tend no innuendo —for the seller to manipulate 
a scheme favouring the buyer. At the precise 
point where the advantage ceases to be on his 
side, he will drop it. This leadsto the conclu- 
sion evident enough to be taken as an axiom 

that arrangements mutually affecting buyer and 
seller should not be solely controlled by either. 
In other words the ideal valorisation scheme to 
be carried out properly must be under the joint 
management of the producer and the consumer 
or (better) of an outsider. For such a scheme 
we will have to wait a long time; to carry it out 
would require a commercial organisation far in 
advance of present attainments. In the mean- 
while we must struggle along with the old laws 
of supply and demand. 


A Kupper ConcREss, 


A rubber congress will be held at the town of 
Senna Madureira, on the Upper Purus, on the 
8th August. The exploitation of rubber and the 
various aspects of ‘‘valorisation’’ are to be dis- 
cussed.—India-Rubber Journal, July 26. 


PLANTATION RUBBER IN AMERICAN 
FACTORIES. 


By Dr, Paine ScHrpRowitz. 

During a recent visit to America I had the 
privilege of seeing a number of leading factories 
andaiso some of the chief Government Lnsti- 
tutions. [was much struck by the cordial and 
open manner with which I was received in the 
various works and by the ready permission 
granted to inspect practically anything that I 
wished to see... L was astonished atthe appa- 
rently very large quantity of Guayule employed 
in the American works. Most of it seems to be 
in semi-puritied loaves containing 20 to 3U per 
cent. of resin, There is also a commercial article 
purified to 2to3 per cent. of resin, but I did 
not come across much of this. It willbe of in- 
terest to people on this side to know that rubber 
manufacturers in the States are very favourably 


280 


inclined to the better qualities of clean plan- 
tation rubbers or to rubbers prepared on the 
plantation system, I came across a good deal 
of Ceylon and Malay Hevea and also some fine 
Funtumia from Uganda, which were all well 
liked, A complaint was made regarding some 
of the Eastern rubbers which I think deserves 
the attention of planting companies, and it was 
that frequently numerous bits of bark, twigs, 
etc., are found between the biscuits, crepe and 
sheet. This involves washing, which operation, 
for this class of raw material, should be quite 
unnecessary. I need scarcely say that I am not 
referring to ‘“‘bark scrap.” What is required is 
a little more care in packing. American manu- 
facturers, like their English colleagues, are very 
emphatic on the point that planters should 
mark all their goods insome simple fashion, as 
this enables the manufacturer to know exactly 
what he is buying—a matter, in view of the con- 
siderable differences between various plantation 
rubbers, of some importanceto him. Certainly 
there is avery large field inthe Statesfor the plan- 
tation product.—Indic. Rubber Journal, July 26. 


NEW GUINEA AS A RUBBER COUNTRY. 


OPINION OF SiR Rupert CLARKE. 

Sir Rupert Clarke, Bart., passed through 
Colombo recently on his wayto England. A 
short time before his departure from Australia 
Sir Rupert returned from New Guinea, where he 
is largely interested in rubber cultivation, being 
the director and the largest shareholder in the 
Papua Rubber Plantations Co., Ltd. This pri- 
vate company has already about 500 acres under 
rubber, some three-year old, and he expects in 
a few years to have 5,000 acres planted, 

‘“‘T am a great believer in the future of New 
Guinea as a rubber country” —remarked Sir Ru- 
pert (to our contemporary). ‘‘Our three-year old 
rubber, according to our manager, Mr Wallace 
Westland, excels the growth of the best trees in 
Ceylon, and we have a 

PLENTIFUL SUPPLY OF CHEAP LABOUR. 
Land is obtainable very easily and cheaply. You 
get a ninety-nine years’ lease from the Crown, 
free of rent for the first ten years, and then ata 
rental of half-a-crown per hundred acres, in- 
creasing every year at a definite rate of progres- 
sion. At the expiration of the Jease Govern- 
ment have the power to take the land back, but 
only at an independent valuation.” ‘‘ What do 
you think of the prospects of Plantation rubber ? 
Do you think the price is going to keep up ?” 
‘*I think so, but we are quite safe in any case, 
We can beat any place in the world in cheapness 
of production. If rubber goes down to a shilling, 
we can still work at a profit. Our labour is 
cheap, aud transport is remarkably easy. There 
is a net-work of fresh-water creeks all over 
our estate. There are twelve feet of water 
_right up to the bank and we can bring a 

Be oehar up to any part of the plantation. We 

use boats to take plants from the nursery to any 

_partof the estate, and boats will be used to bring 

the latex down to a central factory or factories.” 
Mr. WatLack WESTLAND. 

Sir Rupert Clarke spoke with great enthu- 
siasm of his manager, Mr Wallace Westland, 
who is so well-known in Ceylon. Those who 
have read Cutcliffe Hyne’s delightful Captain 


The Supplement to the Tropical Agriculturist 


Kettle stories, will remember how the Captain 
who was nothing if nota very orthodox Me. 
thodist, was embarrassed by the irrepressible 
inclination of the natives to makea God of him. 
In spite of stern warnings, driven home by 
exemplary punishments, he would now and 
again in the early mornings surprise some one 
in the surreptitious act of offering up a village 
fowl as a sacrifice at his door. Judging by 
what Sir Rupert said, Mr Westland appears to 
be making rapid strides in the direction of 
apotheosis, His name is a household word in 
the Papuan villages all over the interior, and is 
moreover the synonym for fair dealing and 
good treatment, with theresult that he can get 
as much labour as'he likes. Only the other day 
four or five boats had gone up the river for over 
a month without being able tosecure any labour 
but the first day a vessel arrived to recruit for 
the Papuan Co. it was filled by clamorous re- 
eruits. On the estates the labour will do any- 
thing Mr Westland wants. In addition, the 
ex-Ceylon planter is very popular with the 
white community, and is ‘consulted by Govern- 
ment on all planting questions. So well-known 
ishe, Sir Rupert added, that if anyone wishes to 
communicate with him from Ceylon ‘Westland, 
New Guinea,” is a perfectly adequate address. 


THE OUTLOOK FOR MEXICAN RUBBER 


Some favoured place in Mexico, says the 
American consul at Vera Cruz, can make a fair 
profit on their actual costs of producing rubber; 
but when rubber falls to 50 cents or less, there is 
nothing in it for the stockholders, It is stated 
on good authority that the Mexican planters get 
more rubber per tapping than the Para people 
and that the tapping cost is lower per pound of 
rubber produced, but they can tap only once a 
year, while the Para planter can tap many times 
ina year. The Mexican planter loses, because 
of his greater capital invested, more than he 
gains in lower tapping cost, and because ha 
must have ten to twenty times as many trees to 
produce the same amount of rubber as the Para 
planter, so that the odds are against him, even 
if he can produce Mexican trees for half ora 
quarter of what the Para tree costs, which is 
doubtful.—India-Rubber Journal, July 26. 


GEARA RUBBER IN SOUTH COORG. 


Pollibetta, Aug. 9.—Nothing much is being 
done in rubber clearings, except some supplyin 
up of vacancies and weeding. The bieachen Co) 
Ceara trees planted in 1906 now form almost a 
complete canopy overhead. It will be necessary 
to eliminate alternate trees by exhaustive tap- 
ping later on, Ceara is making most encouraging 
growth in these parts, except in exceptionally 
poor soil.—M. Mazi, 


ANOTHER RUBBER CROP. 


Lonpon Astatic RuBBER AND PRopuce Co. 

The managing agents cable the rubber crop 
harvested during July as 6,322 1b. dry, against 
2,354 lb. dry for the corresponding month of last 
vear. Total for first seven months of 1909 
33,200 1b. dry, against 13,704 1b. dry.—London 
Times, Aug. 5. 


and Magazine of the Ceylon Agricultural Society. 


CAMPHOR IN THE F.M.S. 


PRELIMINARY NOTES ON PREPARATION, 


[In view of the Agricultural Show at Penang 
this month, Notes on investigations carried on 
in the preparation of Camphor from the Com- 
mon Formosan or Japanese Camphor, tree to- 
gether with notes on the cultivation and growth 
of the plant in the Malay Peninsula, have been 
published, and we extract as follows from the 
August Straits Agricultural Bulletin ] 


THE FIRST EXPERIMENTS 


in camphor by the F.M.S. Agricultural De- 
partment were initiated in Batu Tiga 5 years 
ago by Mr Stanley Arden, The seeds of the 
Batu Tiga trees were obtained from the Yoko- 
hama Nursery Company and sown in May, 1904. 
They were planted out in their permanent quar- 
ters 10’ x 1U’ in December of the same year. The 
growth as a whole is very good, while the growth 
in some cases is exceptional. The average height 
of the trees is now about 18 feet, the tallest tree 
being over 26 feet. A further supply of seeds 
and young plants was received from Japan in 
May, 1907, and planted out in the Experiment 
Plantation, Kuala Lumpur, in September of the 
same year. The growth of the plants in this 
case has also been good, the trees averaging in 
one plot 5 ft. 6 inches in height and 4 feet 6 
inches in breadth ; this plot was cut over, brin- 
ging all the trees to one even height of five feet 
and leaving the sides untouched and yielded a 
crop of clippings averaging 1,226 lb. per acre; 
the actual yield of camphor from which 
amounted to 0.6 per cent. 


PREPARATION OF CAMPHOR. 
Method of distillation :— 


The first experiments were made ona very 
small scale in a small copper still of 7 litres 
( =12°3 pints) capacity and capable of holding 
only about 13 |b. of leaves or about 4 Ib. of twigs, 
using an ordinary glass Liebig condenser to con- 
dense the camphor and oil. 


Steam was generated in a separate boiler and 
passed through the leaves or twigs in the still. 


PREPARATION OF MATERIAL. 


Experiments were made with material pre- 

ared in the following manner: (1) the unbroken 
eaves, (2) leaves cut up into small pieces, (3) air 
dried leaves, (4) mouldy leaves, (5) twigs cut up 
into small pieces about an inch long. The leaves 
and twigs used in these experiments were cut 
by coolies using parangs (knives) only. 


On a commercial scale some kind of chaff cut- 
ting or other similar machine could be used for 
the purpose, to save labour, either worked by 
hand, by bullocks, or machine driven as circum: 
stances necessitate. 


PRELIMINARY EXPERIMENTS. 


11.5 kilograms = 26 |b. of prunings, consisting 
of 64.9 per cent. leaves and 35.1 per cent. twigs, 
were received for experiment from the Superin- 
tendent of Experimental Plantations (Mr J W 
Campbell)—being the part prunings from a five 

ear old tree at the Experimental Garden, Batu 
‘iga, Selangor. Asonly the small apparatus 


36 


281 


(described akove) was at the time available for 
the experiment, the distillation had to be ex- 
tended over a number of days and the results of 
each distillation were kept separate for compari- 
son and carried on under different conditions as 
described abovo, entirely for experimental pur- 
poses, in order to ascertain if these conditions 
gave different results. [The results obtained are 
then described. ] 


JONCLUSIONS,—These experiments show: (1) 
that a much larger percentage of camphor and 
oil is obtained Foti the leaves than from the 
young wood or twigs. 


(2) That air drying has no detriminal effect 
on the yield :—if air drying be resorted to how- 
ever. it should not be carried out in direct 
sunlight. 


(3) That the principal product is camphor 
with a small percentage of oil. 


(4) That a yield of at least 1 per cent of cam- 
phor with a small percentage of oil may be ex- 
pected from the prunings of trees of this ago 
viz: 5 years, and probably from trees younger 
than this. 


FurTHER EXPERIMENTS ON A LARGER SCALE. 


It was decided to erect a large still on a more 
practical scale. A plant was constructed on our 
design by the the Federated Engineering Co., 
Kuala Lumpur, and although satisfactory, ex- 
perience has shown that it can be improved in 
many ways. [The large Still and Condenser 
are then described. ] 


The following are the dimensions of the 
apparatus and the capacity of the still in terms 
of fresh camphor leaves, prunings, and wood 
(the latter cut up into small pieces) :— 


BOILER.—Length 2 feet 9 ins. ; Diameter 1 foot 9 ins. 


STILL.—Length 2 feet 6 ins ; Diameter 1 foot 9 ins; Capa- 
city in terms of camphor leaves 30lb; Capacity in terms 
of camphor wood 90 lb ; Capacity in terms of prunings 50 Ib, 


CONDENSER.—Length 2 feet; Diameter 9 ins; Length of 
copper condensing tubes 1 fuot9 ins; Diameter of copper 
condensing tubes 1 inch. 

Criticisms of apparatus : (1) The chief disad- 
vantage of a metal (iron) condenser is the dis- 
colouration of the camphor by iron rust. If the 
condenser were entirely of copper there would 
be little or no colouration. 


(2) Since practically all the camphor. con- 
denses in the condenser tubes and only the oil 
and water pass into the receiver, a tube con- 
denser has the disadvantage that the tubes 
would soon get blocked. Apart form this the 
layer of camphor on the tube would form a non- 
conducting medium and lessen the effeciency of 
the condenser. 


(3) It is difficult to clean out a tube con- 
denser, and easily remove the camphor, though 
this could easily be done by a special scraper 
fitting the condenser tubes, 


(4) The chief disadvantage of the particular 
still described is the time wasted in discharging 
and recharging, 


The discharging could be hastened by havin 
a lateral opening above the perforated plate, snd 
made air-tight by an asbestos sheet. 


(5) In a large still the weight of the leaves or 
wood, especially when wet, would tend to ereate 


282 The Supplement to the Tropical Agriculturist 


pressure inside, by blocking tho passage of 
steam. This could be remedied by using a series 
of perforated plates, a definite quantity of mate- 
rial (wood or leaves) resting on each. 


A better plan and one which would simplify 
discharging and charging would perhaps. be 
a metal cage which could be lifted bodily out. of 
the still by means of a crane or other mecha- 
nical device and easily emptied by inversion and 
replaced when discharged. This would also 
allow steam to enter the material from all sides. 


YIELDS. 


In the first experiment with this apparatus, a 
whole tree, including roots, was received from 
the Batu Tiga Experimental Plantations and 
consisted of :— 

Leaves weighing 123 lb. equal75 per cent. 

Twigs lessthan 4 inch diameter weighing 30 lb. equal 
18:2 per cent. 

Twigs and wood over} inch diameter 93 lb. equal 56°3 
per cent. 

Roots 29°5 lb, equal 18°0. 

Separate distillations were made of the leaves, 
twigs uuder 4 inch diameter, wood, and root with 
the following results :— 

1% 1b of leaves yielded 2 oz. of camphor and oil equal 
1°0 per cent 

3 lb. of small twigs yielded 1:07 oz. of camphor — 0:22 
per cent. 

93 lb. of large twigs and wood yielded 98 oz. of camphor 
= 0°66 per cent. 

293 Ib. of Roots yielded 5:7 0z. of camphor and oil = 1:2 
per cent. 

The camphor in these experiments was of a 
brownish colour, due to contamination with iron 
oxide or rust from the condenser. Most of the 
camphor scraped from the copper tubes of the 
condenser was almost white, which leads to the 
conclusion that a copper condenser would not 
discolour the product. The discoloured camphor 
can readily be rendered white by redistillation 
through a glass condenser or by sublimation. 


PERIOD OF DISTILLATION, 


In the small preliminary experiments it was 
found that all the camphor and oil distilled over 
within three hours or rather less, in fact the 
greater portion of the camphor distilled over 
within half an hour after steam commenced to 
pass through the material. In the later experi- 
ments the distillation was carried on for a 
longer period than three hours in order to ascer- 
tain whether inthe large plant, similar results 
would beobtained, In each case the camphor 
and oil from three hour distillations were col- 
lected separately. The results obtained are des- 
cribed, 


Conxo.tusions:—These experiments indicate 
that it would probably not be advisable to carry 
on the distillation for a longer period than three 
hours in the case of camphor prunings. 


CoMPARISON WiTH CEYLON INVESTIGATIONS, &C. 


The results compare favourably with the 
investigations of Messrs Willis and Bamber on 
the cultivation and preparation of camphor in 
Ceylon (Vide Circular Series I, No, 4 Royal 
Botanic Gardens, Ceylon 1901). Hooper (Vide 
Parmaceutical Journal (56) Vol. ii P. 21) also 
obtained a yield of 1 per cent of oil from leaves 
of plants grown in India... In one instance the 
oil is stated to contain only 10-15 per cent of 
camphor, while another specimen yielded 
75 per cent of camphor. Schimmel & Co. in 


Germany, one of the largest manufacturers of 
essential oils, also obtained an oil from the 
roots, which was stated to consist chiefly of 
camphor. The amount of camphor isolated from 
the oil will depend on temperature, etc., more 
camphor can be separated from the oil by 
cooling, and also by redistilling the oil alone, 
preferably under reduced pressure, or with 
steam. The camphor is a much more valuable 
commercial article than the oil, but the oil is 
also used to a considerable extent now for the 
preparation of safrol, as well as for solvent 
purposes, in cheap perfumery, soaps, etc. 


Furure ExpERIMents. 

The experiments already initiated will be 
carried on as time permits with further material 
and with younger trees, The trees in the: Ex- 
perimental Plantation, Kuala Lumpur, are only 
two years old, aud experiments will be made 
with these at intervals, to ascertain the yields 
at different stages of the plant’s growth, Ex- 
periments are also being made to find the most 
suitable planting distances and in addition the 
most suitable form of cultivation, methods of 
pruning and their effects are being investigated. 
Analyses of the solis on which these trees!/are 
being cultivated will also be made, and “the 
manurial value of the prunings estimated 
before and after extraction. 

BorNEO CAMPHOR. 

Investigations are also being carried on with 
Dryohalanops Camphora of the Natural Order 
Dipteroca peae, commonly known as the Borneo 
or Sumatra camphor tree, from which the valu- 
able so-called Borneo Camphor is obtained. This 
tree does not yield the true ‘‘ camphor” knewn 
incommerce but a closely related compound 
knowu as Borneol. The oil and “camphor” has 
not hitherto been an articie of commerce athome 
but is chiefly used by various Eastern nations 
for ritualistic purposes and for embalming, .No 
very detailed chemical examination of the oil has 
so far been carried out, owing to the scarcity of 
the oil. The oil has been obtained previously 
by distillation of the wood (age?) and by tap- 
ping the trunks, The crystals of ‘‘camphor” 
can often be seen in cavities in the wood. 
According to Watt’s ‘‘ Commercial Products of 
India,’ 1908, this camphor is valued by the 
Chinese at 40 to 80 times that of ordinary. cam- 
phor. An average tree (age?) is said to yield 
11 lb, the older trees being the most valuable, 
while ouly come 10 per cent of the trees’ des- 
troyed are really remunerative, Experiments 
are being carried on at present with the prun- 
ings fron trees nine years old cultivated in the 
Experimental Plantation, Kuala Lumpur. —J, 
W. CampBeLL, Supt., Exp. Plantation, F.M.S,; 
B. J. Eaton, Goverument Chemist, F.M:S. 


GOCONUT iN THE F.M.S. - 
Mr. J. B. Carruthers’ Report. 

The ‘‘Consols of the East” have again hada 
prosperous year. No serious outbreak of disease 
occurred, and the crops from mature palms were 
equal to the average of recent years. The rela. 
tively poor quality of the copra prepared in the 


Native States is a question which is receiving 


attention. The constant rainfall of Malaya makes 
it often impossible to properly dry the copra 


J all 


ae 


and Magazine of the Ceylon Agricultural Society. 


without artificial heat and renders it very liable 
to attacks of moulds and bacteria which damage 
its marketable value. It is possible to improve 
thé quality by putting up light roofs which can 
be quickly placed over the copra being dried 
when rainiscoming. Arrangements will be made 
for the Coconut Preservation Staff to instruct 
small-holders as to the advantages of such me- 
thodsin preparing their product forthe market. 
Another factor which in some cases reduces the 
profits which should be obtained by the coconut 
grower is the practice of taking the nuts from 
the tree before they fall. It is not easy to see 
the advantage of this method, and it has aiways 
seemed to me curious that the Malay, with 
whom dislike to unnecessary work is no less a 
trait thar in other races, should so frequently 
adopt it, [fa nutis plucked unripe the amount 
of copra it contains is less than if it is left on 
the tree ; we have no data to show that any do- 
crease in the amount of copra or the oil it con- 
tains takes place if the nut is kept a little time 
afte: it isripe. When the nut is fully ripe it 
falls from the tree and can be collected trom the 
ground with considerably Jess trouble than if it 
has ‘to be picked from the top of the tree, and 
with the additional advantage that it contains 
its maximum amount of copra. 

Further observation seems to point to the 
fact that the thorough drying of copra is more 
easily effected in the case of ripe nuts which 
have fallen from the tree than with those picked, 
many of which are not fully ripe. The argu- 
ments I have heard adduced in favour of the 
practice of climbing the trees and plucking 
the nuts are that the copra is darkened in colour, 
thatthe other nuts still unripe on the bunch 
are improved by the excision of the ripe ones 
before they fail, and that the prevention of 
theft is more difficult. None of these reasons 
seem to me to weigh seriously against the pro- 
bable increase in the crop of copra and the 
saving in labour which gathering the nuts from 
the ground ensures. The coconut planter, like 
other tropical cultivators, is conservative in his 
methods, but such aneasy method of improving 
his cuitivation should at ieast be the subject of 
careful experiment before its adoption is re- 
fused. Coconut cultivation, while not offering 
the possibilities of profit which the growing of 
rubber shows, is an extremely safe and profit- 
able industry, and many areas of accessible land, 
especially on the Coast, are much better suited 
to the coconut palm than the Para Rubber 
tree, The acreage under coconuts in the Native 
States at the end of 1908 was 118,697, an in- 
crease of over 6,000, or five per cent., since the 
same date in 1907, when there were 112,550 
acres. The value of the coconut land planted 
in the Federated Malay States cannot be less 
than some — $23,000,000.—Report of Mr. J. B. 
Carruthers, Director of Agriculture and Govern- 
ment Botanist, F. M. 8, 


MR. PETCH ON “RUBBER PADS.” 


Mr, Petch’s note on the pads sent to him for 
examination, published in last Z'ropicat Agri- 
culturist, must have gratified the sup porters of the 
Northway tapping system, which it appeared very 
largely to vindicate and relieve of responsibility 
for causing the unhealthy sub-cortaceous for- 


283 


mations. Mr. Williamson, however, has some 
very penetrating criticism to offer elsewhere in 
our columns today, on the conclusions drawn; 
and some still more searching questions to ask. 
No doubt Mr. Petch is in a difficult position, 
asked point-blank to approve or condemn the 
Northway system ; seeing that the Peradeniya 
Director, Dr, Willis, gave it general approval 
before its birth into the world ot public notice, 
But the problems Mr, Williamson submits can 
be answered independently of this, and we 
await the Mycologist’s reply at the earliest 
possible date as being of high importance to 
rubber planters, 


More Information Wanted. 
Sunnycroft, Ruanwella, Aug. 25th. 


S1z,—With reference to Mr Petch’s article on 
rubber pads copied into your paper of 20th inst., 
I would like to make the following remarks as, 
evidently, the pads, which he writes about, are 
the ones originally forwarded from this estate, 
Mr Petch givesas a reason for saying that the 
rubber pads were formed on the trees before the 
bark was pricked ; that the pads had, on the 
outside and inside, teeth marks of the pricker. 
This is true, but does not prove that the pads 
were there when the bark was pricked for the 
following reasons :— 


Ist. Itisimpossible for any one to force a 
small Northway blunt pricker through nearly 
4-an-inch of bark and also through a pad of rub- 
ber adhering to it andinto the wood as well; 
both because the force required is more than any 
man could exert, and also because the pricks on 
the small Northway pricker are not long enough 
to penetrate right through. 


2nd. When apricker is driven into the bark 
and wood of a tree deeply and a pad is formed 
afterwards, it will have marks on the inside as 
well as the outside, due tothe hollows in the 
wood filling up with latex and coagulating in 
that shape in the former, and in the latter, of 
course, the pushed-in bark will show on the close 
fitting pad, and will. correspond with the in- 
side marks, 


Mr Petch, in summing up, arrives at the 
following conclusions to account for the rubber 
pads :— 


Ist. Scraping kills the bark in patches when 
sunlight comes in contact with it. 


2nd. After death of the bark, rubber pads 
are formed before pricking, due to inflow of 
latex from surrounding parts. 


if these conclusions are correct, will Mr Petch 
inform me and my brother planters through the 
medium of your paper, why it is, although we 
scraped thousands of trees on this property, not 
asingle pad was found on any unpricked tree, 
only on some of those which had been pricked 
the most, and these trees were growing in a 
heavily shaded spot where much sunlight could 
not penetrate? [tis a pity that- Mr Petch did 
not finish his article by approving of the North- 
way System or condemning it, for thousands of 
rupees have been spent on it, and many planters 
would like to know from such a high authority, 
whether to go on with it or stop it, Destructive 


284 


criticism is all very well in its way, and Mr 
Petch seems very fond of it (vide his burial of 
prunings drticles); but what the common or 
garden planter wants isthe right road pointed 
out to him, with sign-posts along it telling him 
what to do as well as what not to do.—Yours 


faithfully, 
D. B. WILLIAMSON. 
Mr, Petco on RUBBER-PADS AND THE NorTH- 
WAY SYSTEM. 


We direct attention to the Government My- 
cologist’s elaborate and in many _ respects 
convincing reply to Mr D B Williamson’s 
criticism of his recent repurt on specimens 
of bark, with subcortaceous rubber-pads, sub- 
mitted from an estate in the above named 
planter’s charge. The dangers of the use of the 
pricker are once again made plain—at any rate 
of the earlier styles of pricker ; and it is for the 
using of this instrument that Mr Petch views 
with this disfavour the Northway System—the 
renewed bark showing non-laticiferous tissue 
under the pricker cuts, and a tendency to pro- 
duce burrs having been noticed. Have our Uva 
rubber-growing friends experimented with the 
Northway system ?—and what has been their 
experience? We should be glad to hear their 
views and some of their practical results. 


RUBBER PADS AND THE NORTHWAY 
TAPPING SYSTEM. 
Mr. Petch in reply to Mr. D. B. Williamson. 


Peradeniya, Aug. 28th. 

Sir,—My specimens of rubber pads were ac- 
companied by a label marked ‘‘I.G. 31.5. 09.” 

It is curious that in Ceylon scientific questions 
immediately become personal questions, and 
are discussed as though they were political. 
The object in discussing a scientific question 
should be merely to ascertain the truth, and 
all the evidence for or against must be stated 
fairly if the participants have any claim to 
scientific reputation; but in a political dis- 
cussion, the chief object is to gain an advantage 
for one’s own side, and the evidence, according 
to custom, may be ‘‘ modified” to fit the occa- 
sion. Mr Williamson is inclined to adopt 
political methods. He states :— 

“Ist. It is impossible for any one to force a small North- 
way blunt pricker through nearly half-an-inch of bark and 
alsuv through a pad of rubber adheripg to it and into the 
wood as well, both because the force required is more than 
any man could exert, and also 'ecause the pricks on the 
amall Northway pricker are not lovg enough to penetrate 
right through.” 

it he will read my article again, he will see 
that the bark was only three to four millimetres 
thick. It might have been five millimetres thick 
when fresh, that is one-fifth-of-an-inch. The 
total thickness of bark and pad in specimen A 
was nine millimetres, i.e, about one-third of an 
inch ; in specimen B it was 14 millimetres, i.e. 
just over half-an-inch, and I expressly state that 
owing to the thickness of the pad, the pricker cuts 
did not penetrate through B. Therefore, Mr 
Williamson’s remarks about nearly half-an- 
inch of bark and also a pad of rubber are 
quite irrelevant, and I am at a loss to know 
why they were introduced, except to score 
an entirely unjustified point. Moreover, it is 
not correct to suggest that because the teeth of 


The Suppleinent to the.Tropical Agriculturist, 


the blunt pricker are only 8 millimetres in 
length, therefore it can only penetrate to a 
depth of 8 millimetres. The body. of the wheel 
is pushed into the bark for a depth of about two 
millimetres, forming a continuous cut connecting 
the pricker marks. Users of improved prickers 
will kindly observe that these specimens were 
developed in May last. 

“2nd. When a pricker is driven into the bark and 
wood of a tree deeply and a pad is formed afterwards, 
it will have marks on the inside as well as the outside 
due to the hollows in the wood filling up with latex and 
coagulating in that shape in the former, while in the 
latter, of course, the pushed-in bark will show on the close- 
fitting pad, and will correspond with the inside marks.” 

The pushed in bark is in small fragments, and, 
if pushed in by the pricker before the formation 
of the pad, 16 would be pushed into the hollows 
in the wood: the fragments are not united to 
the main bark. If the pad were caused by 
the inflow of latex after pricking, it would 
bear projecting teeth of rubber correspon- 
ding to the marks in the wood, and also 
similar projecting teeth on the outer sur- 
face corresponding to the holes in the 
bark. Mr Williamson will admit that latex 
would issue through the pricker holes? But 
the actual examples have projecting teeth on 
the inner side and incisions on the outer! Again, 
oa Mr Williamson’s theory, the particles of bark 
would be on the ends of the inner projecting 
teeth, whereas they are actually, as I have 
stated, ‘‘within the pad,” at the base of the 
incised pricker marks, nearer the outer than the 
inner surface of the pad. It is impossible that 
they shou!d get into such a position, and that 
the pad should bear actual incisions, except by 
pricking after the formation of the pad. A 
further point against Mr Williamson’s theory is 
that there are no projecting teeth on the inner 
surface of the thicker pad; the pricker for some 
reason did not reach the wood there, though it 
did everywhere round it. The reason, of course, 
is that the pad was already in existence and 
too thick for the pricker to penetrate. 


‘Scraping kills the bark in patches when 
sunlight comes in contact with it” is what I 
might have written—if I had not preferred to 
be less positive on the matter. My statement 
was that the bark died in patches in conse- 
quence of the scraping. It would have been 
better to have written ‘‘after” the scraping. 
There is no doubt that trees have been scraped, 
if not done too deeply, without subsequent 
injury in many cases. We have yet to discover 
why the patches die in other cases. Sunlight 
was. offered as a possible cause; ‘‘ there seems 
to be no explanation, other than exposure to 
sunlight, etc.” Mr. Williamson’s \ experience 
does not negative the possibility. It may pos- 
sibly occur, not when the whole stem is exposed 
to sunlight, but when a narrow beam strikes 
asmallarea. That could be obtained through 
the foliage in a heavily-shaded spot, 


I have seen many rubber pads on trees which ~ 
have not been pricked, or tapped in any way ; 
but I have not yet found any evidence to aiter 
my conclusion that the bark must separate from 
the wood before the pad can be formed.’ M 
views on the Northway system should be well- ~ 
known, whatever their value may be; I have 
never claimed that they were based on the for- 


and Magazine of the Ceylon Agricultural Society. 


mation of pads, or black marks on the wood. 
My objection is to the character of the renewed 
bark after pricking, @e. the non-laticiferous 
tissue beneath the pricker cuts and the greater 
tendency to produce burrs. Mr. Willamson 
and others must recognise that if I had made 
this a personal question, I should have been 
tempted to join him in adducing the formation 
of rubber pads as another argument against the 
use of the pricker, 


Mr, Williamson closes with a personal note. 
It would be easy to follow his example with 
equally irrelevant sneers. I would point out 
that 1 am in Ceylon as a plant pathologist ; 
hence my criticism must be ina great measure 
destructive, dealing with possible errors in 
methods, and also in ideas, which tend to swell 
the number of pathological phenomena, though 
in some cases, é.g. pianting distances, the des- 
tructive carries the constructive with it. 1 
regret the limitation, but under the circum- 
stances it is obligatory. 

T. PETOH. 


RUBBER ON THE NILGiRIS. 


The annual report of the Scientific Depart- 
ment of the Imperial Institute in London, on 
the specimens of Nilgiri rubber submitted to it 
for examination and valuation is very encourag- 
ing. Tho specimens were of ‘* Para (Hevea 
brasiliensis’), prepared at the Government ex- 
perimental gardens at Kullar and Burliar, and 
the opinion was expressed that from both sources 
the chemical composition was very good, and 
compared favourably with similar 


SPECIMENS FROM CEYLON, 


except in the matter of strength. The Burliar 
rubber was much lighter in colour than that 
from Kullar and was, for that reason, valued 
at a higher figure than that from Kullar, the 
quotations being 5s 4d to 58 5d per pound ; 
and 5s to 5s 2d per pound respectively, 
with plantation biscuits at 5s 3d to 5s 
9d per pound. Beside Para rubber speci- 
mens, ‘‘Castilloa” rubber specimens (‘'Castilioa 
Elastica’) were also received for examination by 
the same authority, from the two localities above 
mentioned, The ‘‘Castilloa” from Kullar was 
of inferior quality on account of the large 
amount (32°5 per cent.) of resin present, Per- 
hapsas the specimens were taken from young 
trees, not more than six years old, which isthe 
age of all the experiments with rubber planting 
on the Nilgiris, the quality may improve as tho 
trees become older. The specimens from Bur- 
liar were superior in physical properties to that 
from Kullar and contained no more than 13 per 
cent, of resin. Their values were from 3s. 6d. to 
3s. 8d. per pound, compared with fine, hard, 
Paraselling at 5s. ld. per pound. The Kullar 
Castilloa was valued at 3s. 2d. to 3s. 4d. per 
pound. The ‘‘Ceara” (Manihot Glaziovii) was 
biseuit rubber from Kullar and was found of good 
quality, containing 82°5 per cont. of cacutchouc 
and exhibiting very satistactory physical proper- 
ties. It was quoted at 5s. 6d. per pound, Para 
biscuits being quoted at 5s. 3d, to 5s. 9d. per 
pound, thus showing that this rubber is of tho 
best and promises well for the planter, 


285 


THE EXPERIMENTAL GARDENS 

from which the specimens were sent are wayside 
stations on the Coonoor Ghaut road, Kullar, 
having an elevation of little more than !,200 
feet, aud Burliar of 2,400 feet. The latter was 
regarded by Mr. EB Thomas, a former Collector 
of the Coimbatore District, of which the Nilgiris 
once formed a talug, as a suitable place for 
growing and acclimatising sub-tropical fruits 
and spices, such as the mangosteen, the clove, 
nutmeg, cocoa and the vanilla, introduced from 
the Moluccas and where they are thriving 
luxuriantly. Government sanctioned the open- 
ing ofthis experimental gerden in the latter 
fifties, and continue to maintain it to the pre- 
sent day, no better soil and climate on the 
Nilgiris being found for the purpose contem- 
plated. Kullar and Burliar are extremely 
feverish, but as the Nilgiri Railway has stations 
at both places, a stay under their malarial in- 
fluences at night cau be avoided. Formerly, 
relays of bearers were kept at Kullar and Bur- 
liar for the visitor foc whom tongas and mune- 
heels were the only means of conveyance up to 
the sanitaria on the plateau. 

At one time Government was not disposed to 
continue experimental rubber cultivation as part 
of the duties of the curator of Nilgiri Parks and 
gardens, intending, as then reported, to make 
rubber a forest. product and entrust the culti- 
vation to the Conservator of Forests and his 
Assistante, Little, however, has since been 
heard of this official rumour. And the South 
Indian planter has, therefore, the whole indus- 
try im his hands, and is pursuing it, both in 
Government and native territory with commend- 
able enthusiasm and energy. 


RUBBER AT BEAUFORT, BORNEO. 


All the rubber estates here are doing very 
well, the younger trees growing with marvel- 
lous rapidity. I have visited all the estates and 
found everything satisfactory as regards the 
treatment of coolies, the fact that there are so 
few absconders where there are so many coolies 
on merely monthly contracts proves that they 
have little to complain of. Mr, Watson has 
imported a large number of Klings from Sin- 
gapore, under no contract. They were recruited 
by the Mandores who came in charge of gangs 
and, in not a few cases i believe, were got into 
the country under false pretences. A good 
number had never worked on an estate before 
but were merely sampan and dock coolies 
who state that they were told they were going 
to similar work in Sarawak. This, of course, 
in the absence of a contract—which | am told 
the Singapore authorities refuse to register for 
Klings coming to this country—is hard to prove, 
and the men came at their own risk. How- 
ever, the bulk of these men have made no 
complaints and appear contented. Javanese 
coolies have also been imported to several of 
the Estates and come almost as cheaply as local 
labour, besides being bonnd for a longer con- 
tract. Tho Protector, Mr. Penney stayed four 
days in Beaufort at the beginning of the month 
but paid official visits only to Woodford and 
Klias Estates. During the month the Planters’ 
Association held a meeting in Beaufort.—Lritish 
North Borneo Herald, Aug. 16. 


286 The Supplement to the Tropical Agriculturist 


BUBBLES IN RUBBER BISCUITS. 


We should advise ‘‘ Learner ””—who enquires 
elsewhere about bubbles in his Rubber biscuits— 
to be sure thatthe coagulating pansary c!ean, and 
the latex should be gently stirred when the 
acetic acid is poured in. The bubble marks are, 
as a rule, the result of froth ; and this ap. 
parently rises, or forms, in the pans after co- 
agulation has partly taken place. The coagu- 
lating pans should be watched and it should be 
noted if any froth forms a few hours after the 
acetic acid has been added. ‘‘ Learner” might 
try a few pans with latex mixed with clean water 
before coagulation. Perhaps, some practical 
planter, who has overcome this trouble, will 
assist our correspondent ? 


Wattegama, Aug, 31st. 

Sik,— We are tapping trees from 7—10 years 
old, growing at an elevation of about 2,000 ft. 
above sea level. ‘he milk is brought in at about 
10 a.m., strained, &c., and then turned into 
soup plates. A fewdrops of acetic acid are put 
into each plate and all froth is carefully taken 
off. The rubber is not ready for further treat- 
ment until 9 or 10 oclock next morning, when 
each biscuit is taken in turn, washed in hot 
water, rolled and left to dry. Before rolling it is 
seen that the under surface is covered with 
bubbles and, when pressure is applied, the 
bubbles burst and a mark, like a pock mark, is 
eft, the biscuit looking as if it had had a bad 
attack of small-pox. I should be much obliged 
if any reader can advise me how to get rid of 


these bubbles. 
LEARNER. 


PREPARATION AND PACKING 
OF VANILLA. 


Nellacotta Estate, Daver Shola, 8. E. Wynaad, 
Aug. 27th. 


Dear Sir,—We have a very large number of 
vanilla vines on our Beenachee estate, Sultan’s 
Battery, South Wynaad. Those vines have been 
there for number of years. Only last year they 
were fertilised and, we are glad to say, we will 
be able to gather 400 to 500 pods. We shall feel 
greatly obliged if you or any of your numerous 
readers will enlighten us as to the preparation 
and packing of the pods as also the marketable 
place and some idea about the price.—We are, 
dear Sir, yours faithfully, 


A. R. HAJEE FAKEER MOHOMED SAIB. 


[Will some vanilla-grower kindly reply, as to 
the most up-to-date methods?— HD. ] 


August 31st. 


Dear Sir,—In reply to your correspondent, 
Mr A R Hajee F Mohomed Saib of the Wynaad, 
we have pleasure in giving the following brief 
directions as to the preparation and packing of 
vanilla beans, 


Hor a month or six weeks the bean continues 
to grow and has then reached its full size; but 
ripening takes much Icnger. According to cli- 
matic and other conditions four to six months 
are required for the pods to reach the correct 
stage for gathering ; this stage is when they begin 
to turn yellow, and produce a crackling sensa- 
tion when lightly pressed by the fingers. The 
pods should be carefully gathered separately, 
by snapping offor cutting the stems. Indeed 
throughout treatment, from pollination of the 
flower to packing the cured bean, great care 
must be exercised to get the really good finished 
article. The pods must be gathered just at the 
right time, for if too ripe they split in curing, 
and if they are green and unripe they cure 
badly and have Tittle perfume, 

The beans are gathered when dry and con- 
veyed in baskets to the curing house. There 
are various ways of curing, but we will only 
mention one common method here, for, no 
doubt, your space is valuable. The ripe beans 
are plunged for about 30 seconds to one minute 
in very hot, nearly boiling water. They are 
then taken out and laid on clean mats to 
drain and dry. When dry they should be 
spread on blankets and placed in the hot 
sun, but never allowed to be wetted by 
showers. When the sun is getting low, roll 
the drying beans inside the blankets and place 
them inside the building for prefereuce in 
boxes. During the night they “sweat.” 
This must be done daily ; exposing them to 
the hottest sun and makirg them sweat in the 
hot blankets each night. This goes on for some 
days—10 days toa fortnight, or even more— 
uutil the pods become a fine brown or chocolate 
colour, and are soft and pliable to the touch when 
drawn between the fingers. The stage is now 
reached when the further drying is done in the 
shade (unless the weather is wet.) During this 
period the pods are squeezed between the 
fingers, drawing them through so as to dis- 
tribute the seeds in the pods and make 
the essential oil of the vanilla even through- 
out the bean. The bean becomes smooth and 
oily to the touch, and any beans which split 
should be tied up with fine thread, 


This second drying process takes some weeks, 
and gradually the beans dry and the finer, 
longer beans become coated with a fine “bloom” 
of white crystals These are the best and most 


valuable ‘‘frosted” vanille beans ; and will fetch — 


fine prices on a good market. 


‘The beans are thon sorted according to length — 


and size, and appearance generally. The long, 
thin, straight pods are the best. Short and 
misshapen pods, and splits, are kept separate 
The beans are then tied upin bundles of 25 or 50 
pods, tied tightly at the ends. The finest beans 


are wrapped up in silvered paper, ana the 


others sometimes in grease-proot paper. They 
are packed in wood boxes, or tins, according to 
sorted qualities; and are then ready to bo 
shipped to the market. 


Prices, of course, vary much according to the 
demand and the quality of the produce, 


— 


and Magazine of the Ceylon Agricultural Society. 


Ducing July pricas were as follows :— 


Seychelles 8 to 84 inch 13s 6d perlb 
do 5) Oto Th, 9s, to 9/9 
do .. 2nds and 3rds_ 6s. to 7/6 

Mauritius 8—9 inch 16s, 
do. et Fe 10s. 
do, a - 8s. 
do. foxy splits. ,, 8s. to 8/9 


These prices are, of course, approximate only. 

The best way to procure best prices is to sell 
in the London market or tind a special outlet. 
Trusting this will be of use to your readers in 
Wynaad.—Yours, &c. A 


INDIAN TEA IN 1908. 
INTERESTING REPORT. 

An interestiig Note on the Production of Tea 
in India in the year 1908 has been issued from 
the office of the Director-General of Commercial 
Intellizence, India, acopy of which reached us 
yesterday and from which we take the following: 

(NoTE.—The figures of area and production in these 
tables are for calendar years, and the figures for exports 
from India refer to the official years beginning on the ‘st 

- of April and ending on the 3ist of March. The figures re- 
lating to exports from China and Ceylon are for calendar 
years. Statistics for Burma are included.] 
AREA, 

The area reported in each year since 1885 
is given in Appendix I attached to this note. 

The figures given in that statement are for 
the most part those reported by planters. in 
Hastern Bengal and Assam estimates are pre- 
pared by the local officers for those gardens for 
which returns are not supplied by the owners 
and managers (36 out of 931 in 1908). In Southern 
India also, similar estimates are prepared for 
certain non-reporting plantations, Including 
the estimated area, the total area under tea in 
1907 and 1908 was divided between the different 
provinces as follows :— 

Area in Acres. 


Hastern Bengal and Assam— 1907. 1908. 
Brahmaputra Valley 208,575 210,704 
Surma Valley .. 188,757 134,938 
Jalpaiguri (including Alipur Duars) 81,338 83,3 5 
Chittagong Ne 4,279 4,°83 

Total Eastern Bengal and Assam 428,039 — 433,290 

Bengal — 

Darjeeling 51,507 61,614 
Chota Nagpur 2,292 2,201 
Total Bengal 53,799 63,¥05 

United Provinces 7,961 8,086 
Punjab 9,411 9,393 
Total x euler India 17,572 14,479 

2 epo 10,974 11,436 
Madras .. ¢ Hstimated 2684 3.190 
Travancore 25,986 27.103 
Total Southern India 39,644 41,720 

Burma 1,669 1,794 


Grand Total 540,533 54 ay, 
Out of the total area of 544,937 acres for which 
either returns or complete estimates are re- 
ceived, 515,153 acres were reported to have been 
plucked during the year. On the remaining 
29,784 acres the plants were too young to be 
lucked or were not plucked for other reasons, 
The total number of plantations was 5,839 in 
1908 as against 5,81] in 1907—a net increase of 
28 plantations, The increase igs due for the 
most part to changes in the system of man- 
agement, gardens formerly under combined 

management being separated and vice versa. 
In Eastern Bengal and Assam 931 plantations 
are reported to have a total area of 433,290 


287 


acres under tea, an average of 466 acres. In 
Yengal 298 acres is the average of 181 planta- 
tons and in Travancore 411 acres of 66 planta- 
tions. [n Madras and the United Provinces 
the average is much smaller, being about 130 
acres in the former and 108 acres in the latter. 
in the Punjab where tea cultivation is con- 
ducted on a small scale, the average area is only 
3 acres. In Burma the gardens are even smaller, 
approximately one acre each on the average, 
These figures relate only to tea-bearing areas 
and do not include the area in the occupation 
of planters, but not under tea cultivation. 

The total production in 1908 is reported as 
247,018,653 lb. divided between the different 
parts of India as follows :— 


1907. 1908, 
Assam 167,545,751 166,569,433 
Kastern Bengal 46,713,114 44,978,057 
Bengal 13,513,444 14,993,590 
Northern India 3,532,139 3,447,355 
Southern India 16,219,906 17.0 0,208 


The decrease in production reported for As- 
sam and Eastern Bengal is not confirmed by the 
export returns. Every effort has been made to 
obtain correct returns from Planters, but the 
figures reported must be regarded as doubtful, 

BURMA IS EXCLUDED FROM THESE 
calculations, as the produce of the Burra tea 
gardens is used almostentirely for the manufac- 
ture of wet pickled tea (Jetpet) which is eaten as 
a condiment, In 1908 453,644 |b. of letpet was 
manufactured and only 5,027 Ib Jeaf tea (black). 

‘fhe production per acre plucked of manu- 
factured tea (green and black) reported for 1908 
was as tollows :— 


lb. lb. 
Cachar ie 5383 Darjeeling ee 292 
Sylhet BS 551 Hazaribagh As 60 
Goalpara as 291 Ranchi BE 119 
Kamrup 5 221 Almora as 19 
Darrang one 489 Garwal ois 71 
Nowgong fic 471 Dehra Dun te 329 
Sibsagar Fe 429 Kangra : 154 
Lakhimpur ‘ 464 Nilgris “ B44 
Jalpaiguri oO 558 Malabar a 438 
Chittagong ah 373 Coimbatore ee 347 
Chittagong Hill Tracts 228 Travancore Ar 522 


PRODUCTION OF GREEN TEA, 
Reported Production. 


1907, 1908, 

; lb. Ib, 
Surma Valley 1,276,589 96 ',166 
Other parts of Assam and Bengal (733,018 995,819 

Total Assam and Bengal 2,''09,607 1,957,985 
Northern India 1,120,453 1,074,760 
Southern India 399,00: 101,720 
Total reported production 3,529,260 3,134,465 
Exports. 
Benes pba 
From Caicutta and Chittagong 83 3,287 754,186a 

By land and from Sind by sea 857,709 377,824 

From Madras by sea 79,761 = 
Total exports _. 1,770,757 1,432,010 

Bounties have been paid on the following 
quantities :— 

1907-08. 1903-09, 

lb. lb. 
Surma Valley 1,246,964 938, 272 
Other parts of Assam and Bengal 90,154 202,129 
Total Assam and Bengal 1,837, lis 11,401 

Northern India 4 ; 57,473 2,796 
Southern India fa fas 

Total 1,394,591 1,143,197 


288 The Supplement to the Tropical Agriculturist 


Almost all the bounty goes to green tea pro- 
duced in the Surma Valley (Cachar and Sylhet) 
which is shipped from Caicutta and Chmftta- 
gong. But a little green tea from these dis- 
tricts and from other districts in Assam and 
Bengal is sent across the North-Western 
Frontier. The groater part of the land trade 
in green tea, however, is supplied by the 
gardens of Northern India, particularly those 
of the Kangra Valley. 

The figures of reported production particu- 
larly for past years are not accurate. It was 
discovered in 1907 after a special inquiry that 
in past years black tea was in certain cases 
erroneously returned by planters as green tea. 

The chief foreign markets for green tea arc 
the United Kingdom and Russia for exports Ly 
sea, and Afghanistan for exports by land. 

Exports.—Table No.3 shows the quantity (in 
pounds) of Indian tea exported direct to each 
country during the last five years. The destina- 
tions given are those declared on export, and 
owing to the use ot optional bills of lading it must 
be assumed that the true quantities differed 
in some cases from those stated. The result 
is that the figures of export from India do not 
agree with the figures of import into various 
countries, e.g., the Onited Kingdom. But the 
discrepancies tend to balance one another in a 
series of years. The 
MOST STRIKING FEATURES OF THIS YEAR’S TRADE 
are as follows :—Exports by sea increased by 
6,795,572 lb. as compared with 1997-08. Direct 
shipments to the United Kingdom increased 
by nearly 7? million pounds. The proportion 
taken by the United Kingdom has also slightly 
increased (see Table 6—page 10). Direct ex- 
ports to Russia have increased by over 3 mil- 
lion lb. or some 20 per cent, and those to Ger- 
many and Austria-Hungary by some 841,000 
Ib. (128 per cent) and 122,000 lb. (185 per cent) 
respectively. Lhe exports to Denmark and Swe- 
den also increased considerably, but most 
other countries in Kurope towk less, the largest 
decreases being in the case of Belgium and Rou- 
mania, Some 600,000 lb. more were exported to 
Egypt. Canada’s imports increased by over 
2 million lb., and the United States took some 
52,000 lb. more. China decreased her imports 
by about 732,000 lb. and Ceylon by 4,600,000 lb. 
The shipments to Australia and New Zealand 
decreased by nearly 2 million lb. - 

Forzicn Tea 1n Inna. 

The imports of foreign tea into India in 
1908-09 were nearly 7°6 million Ib., just over a 
million lb. more than in 1907-08. About a sixth 
was re-exported as foreign tea chiefly from 
Bombay to Persia, Turkey in Asia, and Bahrein 
Island by sea, and by land to Afghanistan, 
leaving nearly 6 1-3 million lb. for consumption 
in India. Part of this, no doubt, was used for 
blending with Indian teas, and the blend when 
exported was perhaps treated as Indian produce 
in the Customs declarations. 

ConsuMPTION OF TEA IN INDIA. 
Net exports 


Production. to foreign Balanee. 
countries. 
Lb. Lb. Lb. 
1904=05 nO 221,565,631 209,640,079 11,925, 52 
1905-06 atc 221,712,407 211,816,620 9,895,787 
1906-17 x 241,403,510 232, 425,598 8,977,912 
1907-08 os 248,020,397 223,201,905 24,818,492 
1908-09 ab 247,477,324 228,763,984 18,713,840 


As already explained, the reported figures of 
production are far from accurate and conse- 
quently any estimate of the consumption per 
capita in India as a whole is vitiated at the 
outset. There are, however, reasons for thinking 
that internal consumption, especially in Sou- 
thern India, is increasing. 


In Burma, in addition to leaf tea, some 17 
million pounds of pickled tea (leépet), mostly 
imported from the North Shan States, are con- 
sumed annually. The consumption per head of 
population is estimated to be about 2 pounds. 


PERSONS EMPLOYED IN THE INDIAN TEA 
INDUSTRY. 


The number of persons employed in the in- 
dustry in 1908 is returned at 509,488 permanent} 
employed and 74,719 temporarily einpleyad, 
making a total of 584,207 persons or about one 
person to the acre. Compared with the return 
of the previous year there is an increase of 
27,786 permanent emyloyes and a decrease of 
3,933 in the number of temporary hands. In 
South India the work is sometimes done by 
contract, and in this case no record of the labour 
employed is available, and the figures are 
therefore not complete. 


CAPITAL EMPLOYED. 


According to the returns of the Registrars of 
Indian Joint Stock Companies and the accounts 
of the companies registered in London as re- 
ported by the Indian Tea Association, the 
capital of joint stock companies engaged in the 
production of tea amounts to nearly K24 crores 
or £16 millions, viz. :— 


Rk. 
Companies registered in India 3,36,44,146 
Do 


do London 

£13, 487,383 = -. 20,22,80,445 
Particulars are available concerning the pre- 
sent position of 75 companies registered in India 
which have an aggregate paid-up capital of 244 
lakhs. Of theso companies 65 companies de- 
clared dividends for 1907 amounting to 10.3 per 
cent on their aggregate capital of 217 lakhs and 
9 per cent on the total capital of 240 lakhs in 
1907. Fifty-eight companies have up to now 
declared dividends for 1908 amounting to 
8.8 per cent on their aggregate capital of 
191 lakhs. The total dividends so far declared 
for 1908 on the average amount to 6:9 per cent 

on the total capital of 244 lakhs in 1908, : 


__The value per R100 of joint stock capital as 
calculated on the prices of the shares of 68 com- 
panies quoted in the Calcutta market was R106 
in March, 1908 and R100 in March, 1909. 


Similarly particulars about the 67 companies 
registered in England with sterling’ capital of 
£10 millions (1,488 lakhs) are available and show 
that the total dividends declared in 1907: by 61 
companies out of them with an aggregate capital 
of £8 millions (1,199 lakhs) amounted to 7.9 per 
cent, which means 6.1 per cst on the total 
capital of £10 millions (1,473 lakhs) in that year. 
This year the dividends declared up to now by 
the 32 companies come to 6.4 on their aggregate 
capital of £4 millions (or 604 lakhs). —FREDERICK 
Noéu-Paton, Director-General of Commercial 


Intelligence, India, Aug. 12th 1909. 


a 


TROPICAL AGRICULTURIST 


AND 


MAGAZINE OF THE 


CEYLON AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY. 


Vou. XXXIII, 


COLOMBO, OCTOBER 165tx, 1909, 


No. &. 


THE AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE, 
COIMBATORE. 


Although the work of the abovenamed 
College has been in progress for more 
than a year, the formal opening cere- 
mony only took place on the 14th of 
July last. A full account of the pro- 
ceedings on this occasicn will be found 
on another page, together with a descrip- 
tion of the buildings and of the origin 


of the institution itself—both taken 
from the “Indian Patriot” for July 
15th, 1909, We have already reprinted 


in the Tropical Agriculturist for June 
an article trom the Madras Agricultural 
Calendar for 1909, in which the objects 
and work of the College are dealt with 
by the Principal, Mr. C. J. W. Shep- 
person. 


From the accounts received it is 
evident that the Agricultural Depart- 
ment of Madras proposes to deal with 
the problem of disseminating agricul- 
tural knowledge on a liberal and suffi- 
cient scale. For this purpose a farm of 
450 acres in extentis attached to the 
block of buildings said to have cost 
eight lakhs of rupees. Additions are 
being made to the staff of experts, and 
a suitable curriculum has been drawn 
up. Similar developments are taking 
place in other parts of India, and it is 
evident that Ceylon—which showed the 
way to India in the matter of plant 


sanitation and insurance against disease— 
is being temporarily left behind so far 
as Agricultural education. is concerned. 


The course of training for the Agri- 
cultural Diploma at Coimbatore Col- 
lege is to extend over three years, and 
in every subject theoretical and practi- 
cal training are combined. The first 
year’s courses are mainly confined to 
an elementary study of the different 
pure sciences upon which modern agri- 
culture is based, whilst in the second 
and third years, practical and theoreti- 
cal agriculture, entomology, agricultural 
engineering, veterinary science and 
other subjects of practical utility are 
to be taken up. 


The Coimbatore Agricultural College 
may thus shortly be expected to turn 
out twenty students annually, duly 
trained in all that appertains to modern 
scientific agriculture as applied to the 
products of Southern India. Some of 
the diplomatists will doubtless come to 
occupy inspectorships and other posts 
comprised within the general scheme of 
Government supervision, whilst others 
may employ the information they have 
acquired in farming on their own ac- 
count. Itcannot be doubted that the 
knowledge thus disseminated will have 
an important influence in promoting the 
prosperity of a purely agricultural com- 
munity. 

The Institute provides, however, not 
only for education, but also for research, 


The staff at Coimbatore will ultimately 
include a botanist, an agricultural 
chemist, a mycologist and an entomo- 
logist, in addition to the Principal who 
is also directly in charge of the experi- 
mental farm. There are few subjects 
in which research can be more _ pro- 
fitably combined with research than 
is the case with agriculture. Modern 
methods, already proved profitable in 
connection with the established cultiva- 
tions of Europe and America, require to 
be carefully tested in their application 
to the products of a different zone and 
climate; and it is particularly desirable 
that the teachers of agriculture should 


290 


at 6 


[OcTOBER, 1909. 


themselves have ample opportunities of 
carrying out such tests ; whilst it is little 
more than a truism to say that the pure 
sciences are best taught by men who are 
themselves engaged in extending the 
boundaries of knowledge. 


In the above we are concerned solely 
with the interests of education, since it 
would carry us too far if we attempted 
to deal with Coimbatore as an institu- 
tion of research, From an educational 
point of view we consider that Ceylon 
has every reason to be envious of her 
neighbour, 


R. H, L. 


GUMS, RESINS, SAPS AND EXUDATIONS. 


MANURING OF RUBBER. 


By GEORGE A. BOWIE, M.A., B.SC. 


(From the India Rubber Journal, Vol. 
XXXVIL., No. 8, April, 1909.) 


The query as to how far the low vital- 
ity and yielding power of many rubber 
plantations is due to the want of proper 
fertility can only be satisfactorily 
answered after carrying out suitable 
manuring experiments on the soils in 
question. Although this is so, there can 
be little doubt from the results of 
experiments already conducted, com- 
bined with a kowledge of the principles 
of plant nutrition, that in many eases 
the unsatisfactory state of affairs is 
exclusively due to continued neglect in 
manuring, or failure to restore to the 
soil the chief elements of plant food, 
viz., nitrogen, potash, phosphorie acid 
and lime. Itis quite true that in the 
cultivation of rubber trees compara- 
tively little in the way of these ingre- 
dients is permanently withdrawn trom 
the soil, but the small amount that is 
removed, chiefly in the latex and 
macerated bark, must be returnedif the 
plants are to maintain their normal 
vigour and prolifity. No matter how 
rich the soil may be at first, itis bound 
to become exhausted, sooner or later, by 
constant cultivation, and it should not 
be forgotten that this stage is reached 
earlier when tea or any other economic 
crop, as is frequently the case, is grown 
on the same ground. The question then 
arises—what kind of manuring should be 
adopted, or, in other words, in whac 
proportions ard forms should the above- 
mentioned ingredients be applied arti- 
ficially to the soil in order to suit the 
needs of the trees. 


In the first place it must be observed 
that a heavy application of nitrogen is 
apt to be followed by disappointing 
results. An excess of this ingredient has 
often the effect of stimulating the 
growth of the foliage to such an extent 
that the trunk becomes too weak to 
support it, and the whole tree is bent 
over by the foree of the wind. To 
prevent this and to obtain uniform 
growth, it is strongly recommended to 
restrict the quantity of nitrogen within 
moderate limits, and to supplement it 
with phosphates and specially with 
potash which, according to the results 
of numerous tests, exerts a particularly 
beneficial influence on the weod of the 
tree. 


The relation between the amounts of 
nitrogen and potash applied has, no 
doubt, a great deal to do with success in 
the manuring of rubber trees. This is. 
well brought out in an experiment on 
Hevea, conducted by Mr. R. M. Kckert, 
Vincit, Ruanwella, Ceylon. By the use 
of a manurial mixture containing 6 per 
cent. of nitrogen and & per cent. of 
potash, the foliage was developed quite 
out of proportion tothe wood, with the 
result that the trees were broken down 
by the wind. A mixture containing 
4per cent. nitrogen and 15 per cent. 
potash, produced, however, quite a 
different effect, the trees presenting a 
vigorous appearance and showing uni- 
form growth. The firm and solid struc- 
ture of their trunks was noticeable. 


The benefits accruing from the judi- 
cious manuring of rubber are further 
illustrated by the results ot a carefully 
carried out experiment at Deli-Moeda, 
East Coast of Sumatra, Commencing 
in Ostober, 1906, at which time the trees 
(Hevea) were two years ten months old, 


three plots of land were -taken and 


- OcToBER, 1909.]} 


differently treated from a manurial 
‘point of view. At the end of two years 
the circumferences of the trees on the 
different plots were measured, at one 
yard above the ground, and the average 
for each plot was calculated. The results 
are shown as follows :— 


1, Il. DT | 
Plots. No Completely Manured without 
Mannre, Manured. Potash. 
Manuring 
per tree _ 2 lb, Pea-nut cake|2 lb. Pea-nut Cake 
meal Meal 
12 oz. Double super- 
phosphate 12 02, Double Super- 
8 oz. muriate of| phosphate 
Average Potash, 
Circum- 
ference | 9 inches 14 inches 12 inches 
of Stems 


From the results of these and other 
experiments itis clear that potash may 
be made to play a very important 
part in the manuring of rubber. While 
this ingredient may be applied fairly 
abundantly with advantage, nitrogen 
may be used with a little more caution, 
in order to prevent a too luxuriant 
growth of toliage. Phosphoric acid is 
also, of course, indispensable, and 
although it may not benefit the wood to 
the same extent as potash, it serves like 
it to counteract the stimulating effect of 
nitrogen on the development of the 
foliage. 


Bearing the foregoing facts in mind, 
we may lay down manurial mixtures of 
the following compositions, as being 
suitable for application under different 
conditions. : 


The mixture is suitable for land rich 
in nitrogen and where there is a good 
leaf growth. 


Phos- wy; 
* Nitro- 
Potash. pore fen 
28 percent, muriate of potash 14 — — 
25 ,, +» superphosphate (18)— 450 — 
20 ,, >, bonemeal(28)(1) — 560 O02 
17 4, 5, Oilcake (6) _ — Mes 
OM; », sulphate of ammonia — — 1°6 
100 ,, ~,, contains eeeetOu ey, Sri 
400 to 300 lb. per acre to be applied. 


II. 

The second mixture is recommended 
for land which is in a poor condition 
with regard to its nitrogen content. 
Phos- 


! ? 
sh. phoric Nitro- 
Potash aed, gen. 
20 per cent, muriate of potash, 10 — — 
30 ,, 4, sulphate (18) — 54 — 
10 ,,  ,, bonemeal (184) — 28 O1 
24 ,,  ,, sulphate ofammonia— — 1:3 
15 ., ,, oilcake (6) ae Fe PLO) 
100,, ,, contains 19 82 860 


291 


Saps and Hxudations. 


400 to 700 lb. per acre to be applied. 


As to the form in which the different 
plant foods should be supplied, no hard 
and fast rule can be laid down. This 
will depend on the climate, condition of 
the soil and also the kinds of artificial 
manures at one’s disposal. In cases 
where the soil is deficient in organic 
matter, it will pay to employ as a source 
of nitrogen organic manures like fish 
guano, blood meal, oileake, or asin the 
above case, for the purpose of producing 
a more rapid effect, a mixture of one or 
more of these substances with the 
inorganic manure, sulphate of am- 
monia. 


Phosphoric acid can also be employed 
in various forms such as superphosphate, 
basic slag or bonemeal. While super- 
phosphate is the most active of these 
manures, basic slag owing to its high 
lime content will be found valuable for 
soils deficient in this particular con- 
stituent. For land, which is lacking in 
organic matter, the use of bones is 
specially recommended. 


Potash may be given in the form ot 
muriate or sulphate of potash, but in 
many cases muriate seems to produce 
the better results in the dry cli- 
mates. 


These artificial manures can be sprin- 
kled round the tree at a distance of 1 to 
134 feet from the stem for each year of 
the plant’s growth and then very lightly 
forked into thesoil. In order to prevent 
the manure from being washed away by 
the rain, however, a shallow trench may 
be cut round the tree, the manure 
forked therein and the surface soil then 
replaced. 


Green-manuring or the system of grow- 
ing and plough-into the land special 
leguminous crops might also be practised 
with advantage in the cultivation of 
rubber. In this way it is possible not 
only to add to thesoil a large quantity 
of nitrogen from the atmosphere, but 
also to improve greatly the physical 
condition of the soil by means of the 
organic matter. An essential condition, 
however, to the success of green-manur- 
ing is that the leguminous crop in 
question must be well manured with 
potash and phosphates in order to 
ensure a rich production of green plant 
material. While green manuring will 
be found an excellent substitute for 
farmyard manure in cases where the 
latter 1s not available in sufficient 
quantity, its adoption must be regarded 
merely as supplementary to the use of 
artificials, 


Gums, Resins, 


THE HARVESTING OF RUBBER 
IN HAWAII. 


AN OUTLINE OF A CO-OPERATIVE EXPERI- 
MENT. 


By RALPH S. HOSMER. 
(From the Hawaiian Forester and 
Agriculturist, Vol. V., No. 12, 

December, 1908). 


(Read at the Second Annual Meeting 
of the Hawaiian Rubber Growers’ 
Association, Honolulu, Hawaii, 
November 18, 1908). 


The object of this paper is briefly to 
describe the co-operative investigation 
Tecently undertaken by the Hawaii 
Experiment Station, the four rubber 
plantations at Nahiku, Maui, and the 
Division of Forestry of the Territorial 
Board of Agriculture and Forestry, to 
determine the best method of harvesting 
rubber in Hawaii. 

By way of preface it may be recalled 
that in the summer of 1906 during an 
examination of the planted forest at 
Lihue, Kauai, made by Mr. C. S. Judd, 
then an agent of the Division of For- 
estry, there was brought to public atten- 
tion the existence of two groves of Ceara 
rubber trees at Lihue and at Koloa, 
Kauai. As the trees were large enough 
be to tapped, these groves presented an 
opportunity for securing data.as to 
methods of tapping and other facts and 
figures of value to the rubber industry. 
Accordingly, arrangements were at once 
made with both the Lihue and,the Koloa 
Plantation Companies to permit syste- 
matic tapping tests to be undertaken. 
At first it was planned that the Divi- 
sion of Forestry should carry on the 
work, but as the Hawaii Experiment 
Station had a man available, which the 
Division of Forestry then did not, it was 
decided by the Board that it was best 
that the Experiment Station undertake 
the investigation. The field work was 
carried on by Mr. Q. Q. Bradford under 
the direction and supervision ot Mr, 
Jared G. Smith, then Director of the 
Station, and much valuable information 
was collected. The results of the 
investigation have been published re- 
cenly as Bulletin No. 16 of the Hawaii 
Experiment Station—an important con- 
tribution to our knowledge of rubber in 
Hawaii, 


Necessarily one investigator working 
with only limited means cannot be 
expected to answer all the questions 
that arise in so largea field as is the duty 
of a rubber production in Hawaii. At 
the beginning of this last summer it 
became apparent that further study on 


202 


[OcroBER, 1909. 


the ground was urgently required, parti- 
cularly in the way of getting together 
exact figures on the cost of tapping the 
trees and attending to the other details 
necessary in transforming the latex into 
a marketable product. 


To meet this need I proposed to Dr. E, 
V. Wilcox, tke present Director of the 
Hawaii Experiment Station, soon after 
his arrival in Hawaiiin July last, that 
such an investigation be undertaken 
jointly by his Station and by the Divi- 
sion Forestry ; the Experiment Station 
to furnish the man todo the work, the 
Division of Forestry to supply the 
necessary funds for salary and expenses. 
This plan met with Dr. Wilcox’s hearty 
approval, and later, with that of the 
representatives of the four rubber 
plantations of Nahiku. 


From the start the experiment has 
been planned with special reference to 
securing figures that shall have direct 
practical bearing on the commercial 
development of the rubber industry. 
To attain this result there was kept 
constantly in mind in planning the tap- 
ping tests the conditions that the rub- 
ber plantation manager must face daily 
in actual practice. To this end it was 
arranged that there should first be tried 
only the simplest possible methods of 
tapping, such as any labourer of ordi- 
nary intelligence could learn to do, and 
that all refinements of process be at 
the start done away with. It was fur- 
ther provided that any given tapping 
test should be made ona large enough 
number of trees to be really represen- 
tative, and that each such test should be 
continued as long as the size of the trees 
warranted. Another provision of the 
same order was that an accurate record 
be kept of the time of all labourers 
employed, in units of not less than one- 
half of an actual working day, the 
experiments being so planned as to keep 
the men busy during that time. 


The two important points on which 
the success of the rubber industry in 
Hawaii turns are first, whether the 
trees yield latex in commercial quan- 
tities, and second, whether the latex can 
be collected and prepared for market at 
a profit. Until these questions are defi- 
nitely answered the rubber industry 


must remain in the experimental stage. 


From the tappings of larger trees that 
have so far been made in Hawaii there 
is every reason to be sanguine-over the 
flow of latex. The present investigation 
should goalong way toward throwing 
light on the cost of handling the product, 
for the figures that are being collected 
refer not alone to the tapping of the 
trees but include as well the several- 


 OcroRER, 1909,] 298 


steps of collecting the rubber from the 
trees, getting it to the drying house, 
making it into a commercial product, 
and preparing it for shipment, 


Incidentally much information will be 
got on the quantity of latex found in 
young trees, and theage and size at which 
tapping should best be begun. Such data 
are all to the good, for the object of the 
experiment is not to get rubber, but to 
find out accurately what the cost of 
collecting itis to be. Hven if no rubber 
at all were obtained the data as: to the 
time needed for making the cuts, setting 
and gathering the cups, carrying the 
containers tothe drying shed and the 
rest would be distinctly worth while, 
for at present there are no figures avail- 
able on the cost of these operations. 


It perhaps should be said here that 
along with the tapping tests on the 
small trees there will alsc be made conti- 
nued tappings of some of the older trees 
to ascertain how much rubber can be 
produced, and for how long a time it 
i expedient to continue to tap a given 
ree. 


- In working out the details of the ex- 
periment the plan broadened somewhat 
in scope, so that as it now stands the work 
that it is proposed to do falls under four 
main heads, as follows :— 


First.— Experimental tappings to deter- 
mine the cost of collecting latex under 
conditions of commercial practice. 


Second.— Comparative tests of different 
methods of tapping to ascertain which 
one is best adapted to the local condi- 
tions, in view of cost, time required, 
effect on the flow of latex, and general 
influence on the tree. 


Third.—A study of the methods of 
handling latex after it has been collected, 
with special reference to control by 
chemicals or by other means, so that as 
large a percentage as possible may be 
sold as high grade rubber. The_ best 
way of handling the “scrapings” is an 
important phase of this problem. 


Fourth.—A study of methods of culti- 
vation and fertilization, to find out how 
through these means the rubber trees 
may be brought suoner to the point of 
tapping, or by increased vitality be 
made to yield larger quantities of latex 
at an earlier age or fora longer period 


of flow. 


Along with the main points enumer- 
ated much information should also be 
got on such related matters as the best 
spacing of the trees, the appropriate 
season of the year for planting, inter- 
cultural crops, and the like. 

The work under the third head— 
methods of chemical control—will be per- 


Saps and Exudations, 


formed at the laboratory of the Hawaii 
Experiment Station in Honolulu, as it is 
of a character requiring special equip- 
ment and knowledge only possessed by 
a trained chemist, There are enough 
rubber trees on the station grounds and 
in the Tamtalus forest to provide the 
necessary latex. All the rest of the 
work will be done in the field on the 
several rubber plantations, 


Of what has so far been accomplished 
in these experiments Dr. Wilcox is to 
speak this afternoon. 


The terms of the co-operative agree- 
ment as it now stands are that the 
Hawaii Experiment Station shall furnish 
the agent in charge of the field work, and 
shall undertake the chemical and other 
studies requiring laboratory equipment ; 
the. Division of Forestry pays the salary 
of the agent and the other necessary ex- 
penses. For this purpose $1,200 has been 
set apart from the appropriation of the 
Division. Hach of the four rubber plan- 
tations at Nahiku has agreed to furnish 
one labourer for each time as may be 
needed, to work under the direction of 
the agent in charge, but to be paid by 
the plantation. 


Early in September Dr. Wilcox, Mr. 
F. T. P. Waterhouse and I visited Nahiku 
and worked out on the ground, in con- 
ference with the managers of the four 
rubber plantations, the program that 
has since been put in effect. The in- 
vestigation will be continued during the 
remainder of the present fiscal period, 
that is to June 30th, 1909. At its con- 
clusion the results will be published 
either by the Experiment Station or by 
the Board of Agriculture and Forestry. 


THE RISE IN RUBBER. 


(From the Indian Trade Journal, Vol. 
XIV., No. 174, July 29, 1909.) 


In the Times Financial and Com- 
mercial Supplement of July 2nd, 1909, 
there appears an article dealing with the 
rubber market. The writer says :—In 
1906 the price for plantation rubber rose 
to 6s. 8d. and that for fine Para to 5s. 
5d.; in 1908 the price for plantation 
rubber dropped to as low a figure as 
3s. 04d. and that for fine Para to 2s. 9d. 
per lb. This year prices have risen to 
a record height, plantation reaching 7s. 
and fine Para 6s. 34d.; and at about this 
level the market remains at present. 


The advance in 1906 was primarily 
caused by the fact that the demand due 
to developments in the electrical and 
motor industries was increasing at a 
greater rate than the supplies of rubber, 


Gums, Resins 


avd by the consequent contraction in 
stocks of the commodity, but as the sub- 
sequent course of the market showed it 
was carried too far. From March 1906, 
to February, 1908, the course of the mar- 
ket wasdownwards. There were fluctu- 
ations, but from August, 1907, the fall 
was almost unabated, until in February 
of last year the low level quoted above 
was recorded. From that point the 
recovery was continuous to October, 
when plantation rubber reached 5s. 9d.; 
there was then a fall of 6d. by the end 
of last year, and since then the market 
has practically never receded. 


In the light of past experience it can 
be safely said that while prices may 
have been pushed too high in 1906, they 
would not have fallen as low as they did 
in 1908, had it not. been for the financial 
crisis in America, and its effects on trade 
in generaland upon such industries as 
require large quantities of rubber. The 
American demand last year was not so 
important a factor as it had been in the 
three preceding years, and enlarged sup- 
plies were left for absorption by other 
countries. This demand, however, has 
revived during the past nine months, 
being persistently pushed at a time 
when the season was drawing toa close 
and supplies falling away, has been a 
material factor in bringing about the 
present high prices. 


INCREASED PRODUCTION. 


The production of rubber has increased 
even when prices were low, the world’s 
output in 1908 having reached 70,000 tons 
which was au increase of 1,000 tons over 
the output of 1907, and with such high 
values as have now been reached and 
seem likely to prevail in view of the 
growing trade requirements, unusual 
efforts will probably be made to bring 
rubber to the market. Last year there 
was an increase of about 850 tons in the 
production of plantation rubber (from 
Ceylon, Malaya, etc,), bringing the total 
up to 2,100 tons from an area of about 
500,000 acres. This year a larger increase 
is expected, but it is evident that any 
material addition in the near future to 
the world’s supply of rubber must come 
from South America where the produc- 
tion is in a large degree regulated by 
the returns upon the cost of gathering. 
It is said that with fine Para marketing 
at3s a. lb. the South American supply 
could be counted upon as steady; with 
fine Para at about 6s. it is certain that 
extraordinary efforts will be made to 
extend the limits from which supplies 
are drawn, and in this connexion it is 
noteworthy that there is now a propo- 
sition before the Brazilian Government 
to order the construction of a railway 


294 |OcToBER, 1909. 


which would open up a vast extent of 
rubber country that, owing to the diffi- 
culties of navigation in the upper reaches 
of the Amazon river during part of the 
year, is now but partially utilized. It is 
difficult to say how far production may 
expand in Brazil under the stimulus of 
high prices, but an increase may safely 
be counted upon. The growth in the 
output of plantation rubber must neces- 
sarily be slow, as rubber-growing in 
Ceylon and the Malay Archipelago is a 
comparatively new industry; but the 
number of new rubber companies which 
are being floated would indicate that 
the industry will be worked for all it is 
worth. 

Meanwhile the comparative scarcity 
of rubber here and in America is unde- 
viable. Reports from America say that 
stocks there are practically exhausted, 
while the stocks in London and Liver- 
pool at the end of May were only 2,187 
tons. as against 4,644 tons at the end of 
May, 1908. In May, 1908, the market 
was slow; at the present time it is strong 
with a keen demand. 


A TWISTED HEVEA STEM. 


By T. PetcH. 

The accompanying photographs show 
the stem of a two-year old Hevea, 
two inches in diameter. Ata height of 
six inches from the ground, the stem 
makes three complete turns, and above 
these it is marked by a spiral groove for 
alengthof nine inches. It will be seen 
from the photographs, that this spiral 
groove begins near the upper edge of the 
last coil. The specimen had been broken 
before it came into my possession, and 
the fracture is shown by the line across 
the middle coil, where some of the bark 
has been broken off in the attempt to 
fit the two pieces together. The coils 
are quite free from one another, that is, 
they are in contact but not fused to- 
gether. The stem has undoubtedly been 
coiled completely round, three times; 
it is not merely grooved. 


When the stem is broken across the 
middle turn itis seen to be coiled round a 
much thinner dead stem. This is evident 


in the second photograph, which shows 


the upper part of; the stem inverted, 
From this, the explanation of the pheno- 
menon is fairly simple. When the young 
tree was planted out in the field, it was, 
as usual, ‘“‘stumped.” The stem then 
died back to the next node, and the new 
leading shoot sprang from the bud at 
that node. But instead of growing 
straight up by the side of the dead 
stem, it coiled round it three times. The 
cause of this coiling is revealed in the 


: : A TWISTED HEVEA STEM. x YZ, 


bad é ¢ Ss 


OcTORER, 1909, ; 295 


second photograph, where, still twined 
round the dead original stem, is seen part 
of some climbing weed, This climber 
grew up the stem of the young plant, 
and arrived at the bud just as the latter 
started into growth; and in twining 
further round the dead part of the stem 
it carried the young shoot round with 
it. When the two reached the top of 
the dead stem, the Hevea shoot grew 
straight upwards, and the climber then 
twisted itself round the green shoot; 


Saps and Hxudations. 


this is shown by the spiral groove on 
the upper part of the stem, which is 
caused by the pressure of the coils of 
the climber on the young stem as the 
latter expanded. It is most probable 
that the coils of the Hevea stem were 
at first wide apart, but that they have 
come into contact owing to its subse- 
quent thickening. If the tree had been 
allowed to grow, the coils would no 
doubt have become fused into a solid 
mass. 


OILS AND FATS. 


SOY BEAN. 


MEMORANDUM BY REPORTER ON 
Economic PRopwcts. 


(From the Indian Trade Journal, Vol: 
: XIV., No. 174, July 29, 1909.) 


The soy bean is called by botanists 
either Glycine hispida or Glycine Soja. 
Those who avoid the second name do so 
because Siebold and Zuccarini originally 
denoted the wild Glycine of Manchuria 
by it. But we may quite conveniently 
call this wild Glycine by another name 
which it possesses, viz., G. ussuriensis; 
and, as it has practically no literature, 
all that is written under the name of 
G. Soja belongs to the cultivated soy. 


The origin of the cultivated plant is 
certainly the extreme east of Asia. It 
is far from being improbable that it was 
evolved from the wild G. ussuriensis ; 
and, at any rate, when G. Soja degen- 
erates, it may become very like that 
species (vide Prain in the Journal of the 
Asiatic Society of Bengal, LX VI, p. 408). 
If it was developed out of G. ussuriensis, 
then Northern China isitshome. It has 
been long cultivated all over the east 
between Japan and Java. Its introduc- 
tion into India is comparatively recent; 
and, except among those tribes or 

eoples who are mostly Mongolian, it 
Fins obtained little hold. I will state in 
what parts of India it may be found. 


The Burmese grow it under the names 
of Pengapi and Pe-kyat-pyin, sowing it, 
never in great quantity, along with 
other beans ou the mud banks as the 
falling rivers leave them bare in October, 
or more sparingly still away from the 
rivers. The Kachins and other hill- 
tribes grow alittle of it on their hill- 
clearings, the Kachins calling it Lasi. 
The Khasis, the Nagas and other tribes 
between the Brahmaputra and Upper 
Assam cultivate it similarly. The Khasi 
name seems to be U-rymbaiktung and 


the Naga name An-ing-kiyo or Tzudza; 
but these three names should be sub- 
jected to scrutiny as they may be wrong. 
Inthe Brahmaputra valley it is grown, 
so far asis known, only towards Barpeta. 
Whether grown or not in the hills north 
of the Bralhmaputra I cannot prove, but 
the probability is strong thatitis. Itis 
grown by the Lepchas in Sikkim, and is 
called by them Salyang or Selliangdun, 
or by the Bhutias Botumash Bhatwas or 
Bhatmars. It is apparently grown in 
the Kingdom of Nepal, for it is found 
just under the mountains in the north of 
Qudh and again in the valleys of the 
north-western Himalayas right to the 
extreme end, and sparingly up to an 
altitude of 6,000 feet. In western Bengal 
and through the submontane districts of 
the United Provinces it is rare, passing 
chiefly under the name of Ram. Kurthi, 
or in Bengal also as Gari Kalai. Right 
upon the Nepal boundary it is known by 
the hill names, e.g.. Bhatnas or Bhatwas, 
as wellas Kajuwa. The Santals grow it 
and eall it Disom Horeec. I saw it in 
1902 sparirgly grown towards Belgaum, 


There are several races in India differ- 
ing in small points; the seeds may be 
black or whitish, the leaves may be 
larger or smaller, etc. The black seeded 
races oceur in the hills, the other colours 


of seed both in the hills and the plains. 
The Khasi hills contain both larger- 
leaved and smaller-leaved plants. Until 


comparative cultivation of these beans 
has been undertaken, no good classifica- 
tion of the races is possible. Harz has 
made a tentative one upon the shape 
and colour of the seed, but we may here 
pass it by. 
ln northern China, where great areas 
of soy bean are grown, there are known 
many races. Sir Alexander Hosie (vide 
his Manchurta, 1904, p. 181) grouped them 
thus :— 
Yellow bean or Huang-ton, 
white eyebrow (hilum) or—Pai-mei— 
gives good bean curd, 


Oils and Fats. 206 


golden yellow eyebrow or Chin-huang 
gives good bean curd, 
black belly or Hei-chi. 
Green bean or Ching-ton, 
Black bean or Wu-ton, 
large black or Ta-Wu-ton, 
small black or Hsiao-wu-ton, 
flat black or Pien-wu-ton, 


We seem to have no green beans in 
India and nothing approaching the yel- 
low Manchurian beans in shape nor the 
larger black. 


Sir Alexander Hosie in another place 
(Report on the Province of Ssuch’uan, 
1904, p, 4) states that the beans of this 
south-western province are white or red : 
their cultivation he adds (p. 48) is in- 
significant, 1ape supplying oilinstead. I 
should imagine that they are in Ssuch’uan 
grown to a degree which corresponds 
closely with that of our Indian hills. 


There have been made many analyses 
of soy beans—too numerous to be quoted 
here. Most of them may be found 
gathered together in Kénig’s Chemie der 
menschlichen Niihrungs und Genussmit- 
tel, Vol. I, pages 5%5-600 and 1484, The 
seed contains about— 


8 per cent water, 


35 ,, albuminoids. 

S455 oil. 

28 4, non-nitrogenous extratives, starch, etc, 
pagent fibre. 
Dipne ash, 


Examining all the analyses 1 find that 
the percentage on dry weight of oils in 
beans from various countriesis recorded 
to vary thus :— 


Chinese beans 17°60 to 26:18 


Japanese ,, ose 5.2. olB736iq) sseecoLDo 
Java v4 are we ISIS pee eos 
Grown in Europe ... Rein sta yen oy PSY) 
Grown in North America .. 18'42 ,, 19°52 


I reserve the Indian figures. The 
average of eight analyses trom China 
is 19°89. The average of six analyses 
from Japan is.20‘01. The average of six 
analyses from Java is 21°62. The aver- 
age of forty-two analyses from Europe 
is 18:98, being from Germany fourteen 
analyses with an average of 19°74, from 
Austria eleven, average 1y°44, from 
Hungary six, average 19°16, from Russia 
nine, average 17:93, from France two, 
average 15°40. 

Church (Food Grains of India, p. 141) 
gave the following analyses of Soja. 
presume he had Indian seed, but it is not 
possible to say what race he examined :— 


Per cent, 
Water oS ore 11 
Albuminoids ees ae 85'3 
Fat 6 res 189 
Starch and sugar... Aes 26:0 
Fibre cat he 4-2 
Ash oie Ae 4°6 


Dr. Leather in 1908 analysed the seeds 
of seven samples of soy from Japanese 
seeds cultivated at Manjri, near Poona. 
The amount of oilin them varied from 
14°92 to 23-05 per cent. being on the dry 
weight 15:97 to 24:41 per cent. with an 
average of 19:99. 


My office is now studying the composi- 
tion of the seeds of established races in 
order to see how they compare in oil 
content with such material as Man- 
churia exports, or such as Manchurian 
ceed might give in India. 


At the present time India has not 


the supply of these beans for an export | 


trade; but possibilities of a certain 
extent are evident. 


One of the first of considerations must 
be the yield that soy will give per acre 
in various parts of the country. Burma 
which, owing to its thorough Settlement 
operations, has for so many erops pro- 
vided reliable ststistics, for this bean 
provides none—a consequence of the 
way in which it is seldom grown alone. 
When the bean in 1885 was grown experi- 
mentally at Nagpur from Japanese seed 
it yielded at the rate of 180 lbs. per acre 
(see Report Experimental Farms for that 
year, p. 5) but later (vide Nagpur Experi- 
mental Farm Report 1889-90, p. 5) it 
yielded but an average of 88 lbs. per 
acre over five years. In Lahote in 1894- 
95 (vide Report on the Government Agri- 
Horticultural Garden, p. 2.) it yielded 
atan estimated rate of 349 lbs. of seed 
per acre and 349 lbs. of fodder, but on a 
very small area. Its yield was very poor 
in the next year. The estimated yield 
in 1898 in an experiment done at Madras 
was 468 lbs. per acre. It has been grown 
sparingly at Nadiad in Gujarat, and 
elsewhere in the Bombay Presidency. In 
the Experimental Farm Report, Bombay, 
for 190l a big yield was chronicled, but 
in the next year the crops at Poona and 
Surat failed. In1903 the seeds analysed 
by Dr. Leather, as already reported, 
were grown near Poona: the yield is 
not recorded. In 1904°a yield of about 


300 lbs. per acre was obtained (Experi- 


mental Farms Report, Bombay, p. 70) 
on light land. One year later nineteen 
plots were under trial, but with unpro- 
mising results, for only five yielded seed 
enough to repay for the cost of cultiva- 
tion. The yield varied from 50 to 293 


lbs. per acre, the five promisiug to be 
remunerative yielding over 200 lbs, per. 
-acre. The Manjri (Poona) Farm grew 


19 plots in 1905-06 with better results, 
probably as a consequence of better land. 
Plot No. 3 yielded at the rate of 700 lbs. 
per acre, No. 13 at the rate of 690 Ibs. per 
acre, No. 4 at the rate of 650 Ibs. per acre 


and so on. Nearly all the plots gave _ 


\ Hes 


(OcroRER, 1900, 


‘ OcToBER, 1909, | 


returns likely to be remunerative. One 
year later it was_ reported by Mr. 
Fletcher, Deputy Director of Agricul- 
ture, Bombay (Annual Report on the 
Agricultural and Botanic Stations for 
1906-07, pages 15-16), that plot No. 5 had 
yielded on the edge of black soil at the 
rate of 1,166 lbs. per acre, while plots 
numbered 6, 7, 12 and 18 gave, respec- 
tively, 518, 650, 575 and 395 lbs. per 
acre. < 


Karlier than this in the United Pro- 
vinces many experiments had been done 
at the Saharanpur Botanic Gardens (vide 
Gollan in Bulletin of the Department of 
Land Records and Agriculture, No. 21, 
1906, pages 27-28). He obtained yields at 
the rate of 1,124 Ibs. per acre and 561 lbs. 
per acre. 


These experiments have not yet affect- 
ed the ryots; the crop must be demon- 
strated very clearly as a paying one 
before it will do that. The one thing 
that we see from them is that the Agri- 
cultural Department has had the matter 
in hand. The crop as far as Manchu- 
rian seed is concerned is one for experi- 
ment only in those parts of India _ suit- 
able for wheat, but what. about the 
Javanese supply of seed? Van Gorkom 
in his Oost Indische Cultures, Supple- 
ment, 1890, in pages 283-287, gives a short 
account of the crop in Java where he 
says that it can be grown on a large scale. 
The Javan races should be tried in 
India along with those of more temper- 
ate climates. 


We may add that other articles on 
soy beans, cake and oil appeared on 
pages 8 and 17 of the Indian Trade 
Journal of the Ist instant. 


COCONUT CULTIVATION. 


(From the Queensland Agricultural 
Journal, Vol. XXIII. I,, Pt. 2, Aug. 1909.) 

Dr. D. W. May, Director of the Experi- 
ment Station of Porto Rico, Leeward 
Islands, West I{ndies, in discussing the 
eultivation of the coconut in an article 
in nae ‘‘Porto Rico Horticultural News,” 
said :— 


In planting coconuts it is important 
to select only fine, ripe seed nuts, the 
produce of healthy, well developed trees, 
of good bearing capacity. The ripe nuts 
are first set out at distances of 1 ft. from 
each other in holes 2ft, deep, and with 
about 2 in. of the surface of the nut 
exposed. Itis important that this seed 
bed should be kept moist but not wet. 
After a period of from four to six 


38 


207 


Oils and Fats, 


months, the young seedlings will have 
reached a size at which they can be 
transplanted to the ground in which the 
trees are to grow. The seedlings should 
be set out at distances of 30 ft. each way. 
It is a good plan to keep the soil around 
the young trees mulched with leaves 
and trash, as this has a helpful effect on 
the growth of the palms. 


The coconut palm responds well to 
cultivation and applications of manure. 
The practice of green manuring is fre- 
quently recommended for coconut 
groves, and itis found that by growing 
crops of beans between the trees, and 
digging the vegetation into the ground, 
growth of the palms is considerably 
hastened. 


Coconut palms bear transplanting 
well, and itis recommended that if the 
young trees do not appear to be flourish- 
ing, they may be taken up, some manure 
and trash worked into the hole, and the 
trees replanted. 


The period at which the coconut palm 
begins to bear fruit varies from five to 
ten years, depending largely upon the 
location and the care given to it. 


The fact that coconut palms are so 
commonly seen growing along coast 
lines and sea beaches indicates that the 
trees will do well in sandy soils. 
Probably, however, they flourish best of 
all on deep alluvial lands, such as those 
found near the mouths of rivers. A 
clay soil is very unsuitable for this crop. 
Since the saline surroundings of the sea 
coast is so congenial to the palms, it is 
customary in many countries, when the 
trees are planted inland, to place several 
pounds of salt in the holes in which the 
seedlings are set, with the object of 
making up for the want of saline 
constituents. 


A good coconut tree should yield an 
average of 100 nuts per year, and under 
favourable conditions 200 have been 
obtained. Taking the whole island of 
Port Rico, however, a return of 65 nuts 
per tree is probably about the average 
figure obtained, and no doubt conditions 
are very similar in the British West 
Indian Islands, This low return indicates 
the general want of care and attention 
from which the industry is suffering. 


The coconut palm will continue in 
bearing for so long as seventy or eighty 
years. During the early years of its 
growth, catch crops of various kinds, as 
provision crops, &c., may be planted 
between the trees, or, better still, 
eect: plants, as cowpeas or velvet 

eans, 


208 


FIBRES 


RECENT RESULTS IN THE CULTI- 
VATION OF COTTON AT 
BARBADOS, 


By J. R. BOVELL, 1.S.0., F.L.S., F.C.S., 


Superintendent of Agriculture, 
Barbados. 


SS eS 


(From the West Indian Bulletin, Vol. 
IX., No. 8, 1908.) 


In the paper on the cotton industry in 
Barbados which I prepared for the last 
Conference, I stated that, judging from 
the results so far obtained, the best time 
to plant cotton in Barbados in the black- 
soil districts, that is on the lower levels 
of the island, was from the middle of 
June to the beginning of August, and in 
the red-soil districts, on the higher 
levels, from about the beginning of 
August to the middle of September. 
Another year’s experience with this crop 
confirms this statement. When cotton 
is planted late in the rainy season, the 
rainfall ceases before the plants are 
sufficiently matured to bear an abundant 
crop. On the other hand, speaking 
generally, when the seed is sown suffi- 
ciently early in the rainy season for the 
plants to be benefited by the rainfall 
and they are protected from the attacks 
of the cotton worm, they are vigorous 
and healthy when bolling time arrives, 
and good crops are obtained. Occasion- 
ally, cotton crops planted out of season 
have given good results, but these are 
exceptional. 


The manurial experiments, which were 
instituted in 1902, a full description of 
which was given in the above mentioned 
paper (West Indian Bulletin, Vol. VIII., 
pp. 178-8), were carried out on two estates 
during the season 1906-7. Unfortunately, 
on one estate, owing to the fact that the 
division stakes were stolen, the overseer 
in charge of the gang picking the cotton 
allowed them to cross the boundary line 
between certain of the plots. The 
results, therefore, cannot be taken into 
consideration. On the other estate, 
owing to the unfavourable weather 
conditions which prevailed during the 
time the crop was grown, and which 
caused a number of bolls to drop, the 
results are inconclusive. I may, how- 
ever, state that the best results were 
obtained_on the plots which received 
30 Ibs. of nitrogen (N) as sulphate of 


ammonia, 60 lbs. of phosphorie acid 
(P 205) as superphosphate, and 20 lbs. of 
potash (KO) as sulphate. The value of 
the increase over the plot which received 
no manure was $7:77, and that which 
received only phosphoric acid and potash 
$13'32. It may here be stated that last 
year the plots which received the same 
quantities of manure gave the second 
best results. 


In the paper prepared for the last 
Conference, I gave the monetary results 
obtained with cotton crops grown on 
four estates, three in the parish of St. 
Philip, in which the largest area is 
planted with this crop., and onein the 
parish of Christ Church. Through the 
courtesy of the gentlemen in charge of 
these estates [am again able to give 
this year the results obtained during 
1907. As will be seen therefrom, the 
results, owing to the unfavourable 
weather conditions, have been barely 
satisfactory, and had it not been that 
the price of cotton was above the 
average, the cotton crop would probably 
in two instances have resulted in a loss. 
The following is a summary of the 
results on these estates for 1907, com- 
pared with the results obtained in 
previous years :— 


Estate No, 1. 
Three years’ (1908-6) crop. 
Average area wee DO ACLS. 
Average profit per acre 


perannum .. ».. £9 17s. 10d. 
Crop of 1907. Area ... 110 acres. 
Average profit per acre... £2 Os. 3d. 
Estate No. 2. 
Crop of 1906. Area ... 17 acres. 
Average profit per acre ... £14 3s. 6d. 
Crop of 1907. Area ... 46 acres. 
_ Average profit per acre... £2 19s. 7d. 
Estate No. 3. 
Crop of 1906. Area .- 16 acres. 


Average profit per acre #5 £9 8s. lld. 


Crop of 1907. Area ... 30 acres. 

Average profit per acre ... £2 7s. 1d. 
Estate No. 4. 

Crop of 1906. Area ... 04 acres. 

Average profit per acre ... £11 3s. 8d. 

Crop of 1907. Area . 100 acres. . 


Average profit per acre ... £7 9s, 4d. 
In spite, however, of the diminution in 
the yields of cotton for the season 1906-7, 
the area planted in cotton in Barbados 


has been increased from 5,000 to 6,985 


acres, 
The following is a table showing the 


area of cotton planted and the quantity 


— ete SE eS oe ee 


. 
a i 


—— eee 


q 


‘Ocronsn, 1909. 


oe: and value of the lint exported from Bar- 


bados from 1902-8 :— 
PJ 
i) < > 3 
oe qe wv me o 
2 eee a me oes bos 
_ ao b 5 en ee 25 3 
Year, § Se Ba S os & is 
2 a8 ie g Cae ved 
ont = Die r= 
a 3 a s ° 
ese o3 Sawa. y 
= oO > 
;, £318 
1902-3 16 5,550 13,450 - _ 31 
1903-4 800 192,061 472,510 £12,388 £1,055 13,443 
1904-5 1,647 $44,232 846,882 20,869 1,890 22,759 
1905-6 2,00) 479,418 1,179,468 30,863 2,633 «32,996 
1906-7 5,010 852,408 2,042,840 72,326 4,660 6,876 


. oo ) 16, 
1907-8 6,935 1,387,000 3,317,121* 104,025" 7,404* 111,426 


*Hstimated, 


There is one matter in connection with 
the cotton industry in Barbados, which 
although receiving some attention at the 
hands of a few of the groweis, has 
yet to be taken up by the majority 
of them, and that is the question of 
seed selection. This question is, as I 
said last year, of vital importance to the 
cotton growers in the West Indies, and 
unless growers regularly and system- 
atically select seed for planting from the 
healthiest and best plants, the quality 
and yield will rapidly deteriorate. In 
1906, the Imperial Department of Agri- 
culture, through Mr. Thomas Thornton, 
Travelling Inspector in counection with 
Cotton Investigations, carried out seed 
selection on seven estates. On the seven 
estates, 264 plants were selected, and of 
these, only 14 were finally judged to be 
entirely satisfactory. For the season 
1906-7, seed selection has been carried 
out on ten estates, and 224 plants were 
selected in the field. Of these 26 were 
ultimately selected, Itis with pleasure 
that I now report that cotton picked 
from plants grown from the seed selected 
in 1905-6 is excellent in every respect.* 


Until the planters in the West Indies 
recognize the great importance to the 
industry of careful seed selection, it will 
be impossible for the industry to make 
the advance it otherwise would. 


Before closing my paper I should like 
to say a few words touching the loss the 
cotton industry in Barbados is sustain- 
ing through the departure from the 
island of Mr, Thornton. This gentle- 
man, who has decided to withdraw from 
the Imperial Department to grow cotton 
for himself in the island of Tobago, has 
for the last three years been assisting 
the planters in Barbados and in the 


* Seven bales of cotton from No. 303 ( West Indian 


Bulletin, Vol. VIL, p. 159) haya been reported 
gupon by Messrs. Wolstenholme and Holland as 
ollows:—'‘'It is the most serviceable class of 
cotton in the West Indies, and if it gives a better 
yield per acre than the finer descriptions—as it 
Eiboply will—we think it is more suitable for 
extensive cultivyation,’’—Ep, W, I, B 


299 


Fibres. 


other colonies with the cotton industry 
and itis with much pleasure that I can 
bear testimony to the high appreciation 
in which his sercives are held by the 
planters in this island. From the 
beginning, he has endeavoured in every 
way possible to assist them and to 
advance their interests, andI am sure 
that I am only voicing.their feeling 
when I say it is with much regret that 
they have learnt of his intended de- 
parture from the island. 


INDIAN COTTON SPINNING AND 
WEAVING. 


(From the Indian. “Prade Journal, Vol. 
XIIL, No. 158, April 8, 1909.) 


In the Indian Trade Journal of April 
12th, 1906 (page 55), we made an analytic 
study of the cotton spinning industry 
from data which had for the first time 
in history become available for statis- 
tical purposes, the main object being to 
show which have been the periods of 
great success and depression in the cot- 
ton spinning trade. In the year 1905- 
1906, the cotton spinning industry did 
fairly well; the period of greatest acti- 
vity beginning in the month of April, 
1905. Since then things have not gone 
so well with the industry. It has been 
estimated, for instance, that the profits 
for 1905, including commission, amounted 
to 3°47 crores ; in 1906 there was a drop 
to 3°14 crores; in 1907 profits had further 
receded to 1°85 crores, while the estimate 
for last year was only 1:25 crores, and in 
some quarters this low figure is now re- 
garded as much too high. Last year, of 
course, this industry shared in the wave 
of trade depression that passed over the 
world’s markets, and at the present mo- 
ment it is believed that the stocks of 
yarn held up in various parts of India is 
very considerable, On the other hand, 
the Indian harvest promises to be a 
good one, and, as the purchasing power 
of the people increases, the accumu- 
lation of stocks should vanish. 


Following on the lines of the article 
published in 1906, we find that the num- 
ber of spindles in position in Indian 
mills on the 3lst March, 1908, which is the 
date of the latest returns available, was 
as follows :— 


British India _..,, ng 
Native States .., AS 257,582 
All India ne vee «5,695,380 
These and other figures which follow 
are contrasted with those of other years 
in a statement published below. The 
production of yarn in lbs, during the ten 


5,487,798 


Fibres, 300 


months from April, 1908, to January, 
1909, was :— 


British India ... .. 928,423,304 
All India i .. 546,510,101 


British India, therefore, produced in 
the ten months 96:26 lbs. per spindle, 
equal to 11551 lbs. per annum, or a 
monthly average of 9°63 lbs. The pro- 
duction of yarn in British India in the 
five months from May to September, 
1908, which was the busiest period ia 
1905, was 47°64 lbs. per spindle, which is 
equal toan annual production of 114:34 
lbs. per spindle, against 188'25 lbs, in 1905, 
or a monthly average of 9'53 lbs. against 
11'6 lbs. in 1905, which was regarded in 
the latter year as probably the normal 
maximum output. The outputin British 
India in the months of July and August, 
1908, was 8:89 lbs. and 9:47 lbs, per spindle, 
respectively. The average production 
of yarn per spindle in all India in the 
five months from May to September, 
1908, was 9°51 lbs., or equal to a yearly 
total of 114°12lbs. per spindle. The state- 
ment below shows at a glance the aver- 
age production per spindle in British 
India from the date of our last article 
on this subject :— 

Average production per spindle in 

British India. 


S43 88 ae See Eyles 
. ge Bs BE Sa. 888 Se e8- 
w 4 $4 82 e282 B50 Sa Osg 
S Ic Ee @ wSS FAS Sp, wed 
5 5.2 on Om HO; Chet Leos Bin curiae enes 
A eS ARS wo o6@ Out SS AES 
Faia gen ST 5608 w@so ud ov 
a 3°6 285 SR SSO FU ES 
= a= qc Sac Qo as 
1905-06 655,618,831 5,006,916 139'94 94°71 100 67 161'34 
19(6-07 630,553,315 5,230,020 120°56 87°2 13885 67 17296 
1907-08 613,772,076 5,437,198 112°88 91°65 126°45 61 181'°7 
(4) (a) 
1908-09 523,423,304 5,437,198 115°62 83°56 1218 57 — 


(10 mhs) 


(a) Equated to twelve months. 


It will be observed that this statement 
illustrates not only the total production 
in British India, but the total number 
of spindles, average production per 
spindle, ratio ot actual production to 
eapacity, the market value of mill 
shares, the dividend paid on the ordinary 
shares, and the percentage of value of 
the total sea-borne tradein each year, 
‘the average of the five years ending 
1894-95 being taken as 100. 

By way of contrast we may now add 
that the number of looms on June 80th, 
1908, the latest date upto which infor- 
mation is available, was as under :— 


British India A Be 63,955 
Native States ... ie 2,549 
All India Fe 66,504 


The production of woven goods in lbs. 
during the ten months from April, 1908, 
to January, 1909, was :— 


SS Se, 


British India ... «. 155,247,802 
All India ae «« 162,100,522 


British India therefore produced in 
the ten months 2,427 lbs. per‘toom, equal 
to 2,913 lbs. per annum or 243 lbs. per 
mensem. The production of woven 
goods in British India in the five months 
from May to September, 1908, was 1,162 
Ibs. per loom, which is equal to an 
annual production of 2,789 lbs. per loom, 
or a monthly average of 232 lbs. In July 
and August, 1908, the output of woven 
goods in British India was 178 lbs. and 
238 Ibs. per loom, respectively. The 
average monthly production of woven 
goods per loom in all India in the five 
months from May to September, 1908, 
was 233 lbs. or equal to a yearly total of 
2,796 lbs. per loom. 


The statement below illustrates more 
clearly the average production per loom 
in British India ;— 


Average Production per Loom in 


British India. 
..4 ) -, = 
oa hee Bg ge 
ge | ae 3 S Ohm 
Zi Sac 6| ‘ams Es S.o2 
S aos | sed om ois 
Oo a8 oer one. Be 
al San a ae S 2338 
35 eg 5 z Po°o 
4 6° bem Se 
as =e) 4° a 
1895-96 Figures in|complete. 
1896-97 81,415,058 | 34,277 2,375 79°69 
1897-98 on 88,026,427 34,047 2,585 86°74 
1898-99 ar 98,658,289 34,761 2,833 95°28 
1899-1900 .. 95,320,358 35,820 2,661 89°29 
1900-01 oto 96,844,590 36,962 2,593 87°00 
1901-02 115,966,159 38,643 3,001 100°7 
1902-03 117, 284,632 40,149 | 2,921 98°01 
1903-04 131,876,227 41,729 | 3,160 106°03 
1904-05 152,741,830 43,740 3,492 11717 
1905-96 156,600,276 | 48,550 3,226 108°25 
1906-07 159,001,465 | 54,291 | 2,929 98°28 
1907-08 a 181,269,219 | 62,251 2,912 95°71 
1908-09 (ten 155,247,802 | 63,955 | 2,913(a) 97°75 
months) | l 
(a) Equated to twelve months. 
It may be explained that in column 


5 the standard maximum capacity of a 
loom has been arrived at from the 
monthly average production of the ten 
months ending January last, which is 
2,980'2 per loom annually; but columns 
6 and 7, as in the spindle statement 
previously given above, have not been 
worked out, as 
weaving mills are included in the corres- 
ponding columns of that statement. 


CULTIVATION OF EGYPTIAN 
COTTON IN SIND. 


(From the Bulletin of the Imperial 
Institute, Vol. VI., No. 4, 1908.) 


During recent years an attempt has 
been made by the Bombay Government 
to establish the cultivation of Egyptain 
cotton in the province of Sind and the 
valley of the Indus. The climatic condi- 


both spinning and. 


[Ocworme, dae ee 


‘ 
3 
4 


4 


OcroBER, 1909,] 


tions in this region aresaid to resemble 
those of Egypt. Thesoilisa sandy loam, 
the atmosphere is clear and dry, and 
the rainfall is sufficiently limited for the 
erop, The most important point, how- 
ever, is the existence of canals which 
enables a system of irrigation to be 
carried out, similar to that practised in 


Egypt. 


The experiments were commenced in 
1904, on a plot of land onthe Hiral Wah 
canal, in the Thar and Parkar district. 
Four varieties, Abassi, Mitafifi, Yanno- 
vitch and Ashmouni, were planted. The 
experiments were very successful, aud 
the yields compared favourably with 
those usually obtained in Egypt. The 
staple showed some deterioration, which 
‘was greatest in the Mitafifi and least in 
the Yannovitch. 


In 1905 an experimental farm was 
started at Mirpurkhas, and seed was 
distributed to certain cultivators for 
trial under the supervision of the De- 
partment of Agriculture. The total area 
planted amounted to 1,000 acres, the 
whole of which was situated on the 
Jamrao Canal, in a district measuring 
2,000 square miles. The season was 
somewhat unfavourable, but a yield of 
approximately 450 bales was obtained, 
The cotton’ realised very encouraging 
prices, eleven bales being sold in Liver- 
pool at 9d. per lb,, when ‘good fair” 
Kzgyrtian was quoted at 10d. per lb. 
The greater part of the crop was 
purchased by a firm of exporters, the 
price obtained by the cultivators being 
53d. ver lb. for Mitafifi, and 73d. per lb. 
for Abassi. 

The area planted with Egyptian cot- 
ton in 1906 amounted to 5,098 acres, 
and consisted, as in former years, of 
small plots scatted over a very large 
area. The cotton was received at 
Mipurkhas and sold by auction. This 
system of collection and sale by the 
Government will be continued until the 
industry is firmly established. The 
average yield was probably less than 
160 lb. of seed-cotton per acre. This 
low yield is accounted for by lack of 
care on the part of some cultivators, and 
the ravages of the boll-worm. The cot- 
ton, when not stained by the boll-worm, 
was equal to the average quality of 
Kgyptian Abassi ; it was of good length, 
but was said to have deteriorated in 
strength. 


During 1907 about 2,000 acres were 
planted with Abassi seed obtained from 
the 1906 crop ginned in Sind, and 4,335 
acres with Mitafifi seed imported from 
Egypt. The plants were not attacked 
to any extent b 


1 the boll-worm, but in 
most cases su 


cient care was not 


301 


Fibres. 


exercised inthe cultivation, and exces- 
sive irrigation was practised. 'The total 
crop was probably about 1,800 bales of 
seed-cotton, each of 4001lb. About fifty- 
five bales of Abassi and three hundred 
bales of Mitafifi were sold by auction 
at Mirpurkhas, and realised satisfactory 
prices. The chief buyers were the 
Ahmedabad and Bombay mills, and one 
or two exporting firms. It was reported 
that samples were being purchased for 
export to Japan. 


The area planted during the present 
year is of approximately the same extent 
as that cultivated in 1907. Fifty-six 
tons of Abassi and eleven tons of Mitafifi 
seed have been distributed. 


COTTON COLTIVATION IN 


SHA ISLANDS. 
(From the Agricultural News, Vol. VIIIL., 
No. 187, June 26, 1909.) 


The Director of Agriculture of the 
Nyasaland Protectorate (Mr. J. Stewart 
McCall) some time ago paid a visit to the 
United States, in order to study the 
methods of cotton cultivation practised 
in- that country, and the information 
gathered as the result of his visit is pub- 
lished in asmall bulletin (No. 1 of 1909) re- 
cently issued by the Nyasaland Agricul- 
tural Department. The following notes 
are an abstract of the section of the pam- 
phlet which deals with the cultivation 
of fine staple cotton in the Sea Islands :— 


The amount of Sea Island cotton grown 
in the United States forms less than 1 
per cent. of the whole American cotton 
crop, but it is of great importance owing 
to its high quality. It is grown to the 
highest perfection on James and Edistow 
Islands, which lie to the west and south- 
west of Charleston, in the State of South 
Carolina, 

Sea Island cotton is most sensitive in 
regard to changes of soil and climate. It 
does best on light sand and gravel allu- 
via, not too rich in humus, with free 
drainage, anda fairly humid atmosphere. 


On the best plantations in the Sea 
Islands, about 75 per cent. of the whole 
area is known as ‘cotton land,’ and the 
uther 25 per cent. is devoted to the 
growth of truck crops. 


Cotton is not grown continuously on 
the same land, however, but only in 
alternate years. Land which has borne 
cotton in one year is either planted with 
some leguminous crop, such as cowpeas 
or velvet beans, in the following season, 
or simply left unploughed. When green 
crops are grown they are fed to animals 
on the land. 


THE 


Fibres, 


The cotton is planted in March and 
April, at distances of 22 inches from plant 
to plant, and5 feet from row to row, 
About the end of August the first pick- 
ings begin, and the harvest continues 
until December. 


Much of the finest cotton grown in 
the Sea Islands never enters the open 
market at all, being sold privately to 


French lace manufacturers at a high 
price, 
The cotton grown onthe Islands is 


much superior to the Sea Island, cotton 
produced on the mainland. The inferi- 
ority of the latter, which consists in 
shorter staple-and lack of lustre, is 
partly due to the large amount of hy- 
bridization which takes place with the 
Upland cotton grown in the neighbour- 
hood, and partly to the lack of humi- 
dity in the atmosphere. On the main- 
land the best cotton is said to be pro- 
Buced by acrop raised from island-grown 
seed. 


Cotton growers in the Sea Islands are 
firm believers in seed selection, which 
they practise regularly. Mr, McCall 
reports that each of the island planta- 
tions visited by him had its own breed- 
ing and selection plot, and there can be 
little doubt that the high quality of 
the cotton produced is to a large extent 
the result of prolonged selection. Great 
intelligence is exercised by the island 
planters in growing and harvesting their 
cotton. Manuring of the land is fre- 
quently commenced as early as Nov- 
ember, when if pen manure is available, 
it is applied at the rate of 20 tons per 
acre on the surface between the old 
ridges. Otherwise, a dressing of cotton 
seed, at the rate of about $-ton per acre 
is given early in Feburary, when the 
first ploughings are made. This seed is 
covered by splitting the old ridges with 
the plough, and the great bulk of it 
undergoes decay. Any seeds which ger- 
minate are destroyed by subsequent 
ploughings. Itis found that late appli- 
cations, ona large scale, of slow-acting 
organic manures interfere with germi- 
nation of the cotton seed, and retard the 
ripening of the crop. 


The tillage operations practised fre- 
quently include two or three plough- 
ings, of which the first is deep (12 
inches when  possible).- Subsequent 
ploughings are more shallow. The first 
ploughing provides conditions suitable 
for deep rooting, and enables the plants 
to be drought resistant. The shallow 
cultivations, which follow, result in the 
production of a fine sucface tilth, which 
is so necessary for germinationand rapid 
early growth during the weak stages 
before the plant puts on the rough leaf. 


302 


Bengal. 


[Ocrospr, 1909, 


When the land is ready to be ridged 
up for planting, a manure such as 600 Ib. 
of Peruvian guano, and 50 Ib, of potas- 
sium sulphate is applied per acre, and 
after germination 50 lb. of nitrate of - 
soda is added. = 


Cotton grown in the Sea Islands is 
marketed in bags, 73 feet long by 23 feet | 
in diameter, containing approximately E 
350 lb. of lint. This cotton is not com- | 
pressed in bales, since many of the 
planters consider the practice detri- 4 
mental to the fibre. Practically all the 
Islands’ crop is sold at Charleston, and j 
forms 35 per cent. of the cotton market- q 
ed at that port. Sea Island cotton from | 
the mainland is principally marketed 
and shipped from Savannah. 


PAPER AND PAPIER MACHE IN 
BENGAL. 


(From the Indian Agriculturist, Vol. 
XXXIV., No. 4, April, 1909.) 


The following is a summary of the 
admirable monograph on the subject by 
Mr. D. N. Mookerjee, M.a-, who was put 
on special duty by the Bengal Govern- 
ment for the work :— 


Paper consists of a compacted web or 
felting of vegetable fibres usually, as 
we know so well, in the form of a thin 
fiexible sheet. The fibres are reduced to 
a pulp by grinding, beating, ete., and are ; 
diluted with water ina vat. Pulp from : 
the vat is then dipped up in a mould . 
from which the water drains away 
leaving a felted sheet which is then | 
pressed and dried. 


Papier Mache is made of paper-pulp 
reduced to a paste and then boiled with 
a solution of gum arabic or size to give 
tenacity to the paste. Articles such as 
trays, picture-frames, jars, boxes, etc., 
are shaped by moulding, and then 
ornamented and varnished. Sometimes 
instead of paste several sheets cf paper 
Bre glued together and given the required 
shape. 


There is no papier mache industry in 


SE EES 


The chief difference between hand- 
made and machine-made paper is that 
while the former is made in separate’ 
sheets of limited sizes, machine-made 
paper, though limited in width, runs off 
from the machine in long rolls frequently 
more than a mile in length withouta 
break. Although the use of machines is 
all but universal now in Europe and 
America for ordinary papers, some of 
the more costly description—drawing 
paper, for instance—are still hand-made. 


Esparto grass, straw, and wood are 
now largely used in the fabrication of 
pulp suitable for printing paper; bag- 
ging, canvas and old rope are used for 
brown, and other coarse papers; but 
hitherto no substance has been found to 
supersede or even to satisfctorily sup- 
plant rags for the finer kinds of paper 
(writing and drawing). 

In China and Japan even to the present 
day paperis made by hand. The Japanese 
paper is chiefly made from material de- 
rived from a kind of mulberry (Toont) 
(Morus payrifera sativa) and is known as 
kadji. In China almost every province, 
if not every district, is said to have its 
own peculiar paper material. 


In ancient times various materials 
were employed in India for writing. 
Stones, bricks, wooden boards, chips 
‘of bamboo, metal plates (especially 
those of copper), and above all palm- 
leaves and birch-bark, bhurja (Baetula 
bhojpatir) were allinuse- The last is 
even called lekhana or ‘‘The writing 
material,” and written documents go by 
the name of bhurja. The art of prepar- 


_ ing the bark for use has now been lost ; 


but birch-bark manuscripts are said to 
be still common in the libraries of the 
Kashmir pundits.. They are, however, 
very rare in the Khatmundu Library in 
Nepal, where most of the ancient 
manuscripts are found written on palin- 
leaves. 


Skins of animals so common in other 
countries were not much in vogue in 
India, probably on account of their being 
ritually impure, Alburini, who visited 
India with Mahmud of Ghazni and gave 
a detailed account of the manners and 
eustoms, science and literature, arts and 
industries of the people of this country, 
expressly says, “‘ The Hindus are notin 
the habit of writing on hides like the 
Greeks in ancient times.” <A reference 
to this practice is implied in the 
reply given by Socrates when he was 
questioned as to why he did not com- 
pose books: “I don’t transfer know- 
ledge,” said he, ‘“‘from the living hearts 
of men to the dead hides of sheep.” 


The use of well-beaten cotton cloth as 
a writing material by the Hindus is 
mentioned by Nearchus who was one of 
the generals of Alexander the Great. 
The Kanarsese traders still use for their 
books of business a kind of cloth called 
kadatam, whichis covered with a paste 
of tamarind seed, afterwards blackened 
with charcoal. The letters are written 
with chalk or steatite pencils, and the 
writing is white on black (Mysore Coorg 
Gazetteer, 1877, 1, 408). 

The manufacture of paper in HKurope 
was first established by the Moors in 
Spain, In Italy also the art of paper- 


Ocropnr, 1909] 3 


a Fibres. 


making was no doubt in the first place 
established through the Arab oceupa- 
tion of Sicily. Paper, however, con- 
tinued to be made by hand till at the 
close of the 18th century Louis Robert, a 
clerk in the employment of Messrs. 
Didst, of the celebrated EKssonnes paper 
mills near Paris, invented machinery for 
making the process continuous, This 
was the greatest advance in the history 
of the industry, and modern paper- 
making may he said to date from that 
time. 

The first authentic account of paper- 
making in India dates from the time of 
the Nmperor Akbar, when the art issaid 
to have been introduced into Kashmir. 
It spread rapidly all over India and 
displaced the birch-bark and palm-leaves 
that were previously used for writing. 
The Persian word for paper, ‘ kagaj,’ 
has been adopted in most Indian langu- 
ages. Thisalso points to the Mahomedan 
introduction of the industry. The 
Sanskrit word for that which is used for 
writing upon is patra, the sameas pata 
in Bengali. 

It is probable, however, that the art 
ot paper making came from China to the 
inhabitants of HKastern Himalaya long 
anterior to the introduction of the paper 
industry into Kashmir by Akbar. 
Rajendra Lala Mitra asserts that a 
‘‘letter-writer ” by King Bhoja of Dhara 
proves its use in Malwa during the 11th 
century A. D. (Gough’s papers, 16). This 
King, it may be mentioned, reigned from 
1106 to 1142 (?) and was one of the Hindu 
Chiefs who fought Mahmud of Ghazni. 
Atany rate paper had not yet become 
common in India, unlike in Mahomedan 
countries, at this time. 


Paper manuscripts, dated Vikrama- 
Samvat 1884 and (A. D, 1394, 1827-28 and 
1337-38), the leaves of which are cut 
according to the size of palm-leaves, 
have been discovered by Peterson at 
Anhilvad Patan.~ Itis very doubtful if 
any of the ancient manuscripts from 
Kashgar which are written on a peculiar 
paper, covered witha layer of gypsum, 
are of Indian origin ; Dr. Hoenle believes 
that all of them were written in Central 
Asia. 

Duving his recent visit to Khatmundu 
Pandit Haraprasad Shastri acquired a 
Sanskrit manuscript belonging to the 
llth century A. D., written on Nepal 
paper. 

It may be interesting to mention that 
paper is made in Nepal partly from 
bamboo and partly from the bark of a 
small thorny shrub known as Mahadeva’s 
flower (Daphne cannabina). Thesurtace 
is made glossy by rubbing with a smooth 
piece of stone. The Daphne paper is 
generally very thick and is made thicker 


DM Se es 


Fibres. 304- 


and stiffer by being coated over witha 
paste made from the boiled kernel of 
tamarind seed. It is coloured yellow 
on one side, probably with. turmeric. 
Thus prepared the paper becomes very 
hard and looks almost like a piece of 
hide. But the use of the paste from 
tamarind seed makes the paper unfit for 
the transcription of sacred _ texts. As 
we shall see later on, in Bengal, and 
perhaps, elsewhere in India, a solution 
of starch made by boiling sunned rice is 
used for sizing paper. This operation is 
called ‘tulat,’ Paper which was subject- 
ed to this process was avoided by the 
old pundits for writing their ‘ pothis.’ 

Excepting in the case of correspond- 
ence with the outside world the Nepal 
Government never uses any machine- 
made foreign paper. 

The Daphne paper, though commonly 
known as Nepal paper, is really mostly 
madein Bhutan. But the Bhutias also 
use the bark of another plant locally 
known as ‘Diah’ for paper making. The 
process followed is just the same as in 
China and Japan. 

Paper-making isa dying industry in 
the province. Only a generation ago it 
was still in a flourishing condition. 
Within this short period it has com- 
pletely disappeared from many districts. 
At present the industry, such as it is, 
exists only in three districts in Bengal: in 
Hooghly, Howrah and Murshidabad. In 
in Howrah the industry is confined to a 
single village named Mainah three miles 
from Amta Railway Station in the 
Uluberia subdivision, In Murshidabad 
it is confined to two villages named 
Kristopur and Srirampur, in thana 
Samserganj in the Jangipur Subdivision. 
In the Hooghly district it is made at 
Manad and Gossainmalpara in the Polba 
police-station, at Neala in the Pandua 
police-station, at Shahbazar and other 
villages in the Dhaniakhali police-station 
and at Bali Dewanganj in the Arambagh 
Subdivision. 

It is in the hands of aclass of Maho- 
medans known as Kagijis or paper- 
makers. The sight of a kagji village is 
most melancholy. Sofar as the paper 
industry goes the crude hand tools in 
use in this country have apparently no 
chance whatever against machinery. 
At Mainah near Amta in the Uluberia 
Subdivision, Howrah district, out of 100 
families that carried on the industry 
30 or 85 years ago, only half-a-dozen 
families still desperately stick to their 
old profession, the rest having either 
turned cultivators or labourers or 
having left the village. The Kagji 
villages in the Hooghly district are, if 
possible, only in a worse plight, having 
been devastated by malaria in addition 


to the havoc caused by the competition 
of machine-made paper. Paper-making 
used to be carried on at Nasriganj in the 
Shahabad district, but the industry 
ceased to exist some years ago. The 
Collector of Cuttack reports that about 
30 years ago a small paper-making 
industry was carried on by some Maho- 
medans of Hariharpur. There are still 
seven men who can make paper, but the 
industry is dead. The paper was made 
from straw, and though rough and 
coarse was formerly used in the Collec- 
torate Record-room for fly-leaves, but 
its use has been discontinued for some 
years. 


At Shahbazar near Tarkeswar (district . 


Hooghly) in place of 70 ‘dhenkis’ (as 
the mortar-and-pestle arrangement for 
producing the pulp is called) only two 
are still in use. The large pieces of 
stone that once served as mortars for the 
‘dhenkis’ lie scattered about, sometimes 
serving only assteps for their houses. 
The people sorrowfully point to the large 
tanks their forefathers had excavated 
from the profits of paper, and which 
have now become silted up containing 
only a little dirty water. 


The only material now used by the 
Kagjis of Hooghly and Howrah for 
making paper is waste or refuse paper. 
Book-binder’s shavings are a particularly 
valued material. Formerly old sacking 
and fishing nets were also used for the 
manufacture of brown paper, but it has 
ceased to pay and is no longer used. In 
the Jangipur subdivision, Murshidabad 
district, however, jute cuttings are still 
used for making a kind of brown paper. 


But if the essence of the art of paper-— 
making be, as already mentioned, the 
minute subdivision of the raw fibrous 
material with a view to obtaining the 
pulp the small industry as still carried 
on in the province hardly deserves to be 
called paper-making atall. Itis a mere 
recasting of the old material like the 


- producion of glassware from broken 


glass. 


The paper produced is a kind of coarse 
stuff used by Indian merchants and 
zamindars for keeping their business 
accounts. The paper is almost exclusively 
used, for instance, in the office of the 
Maharajadhiraj of Burdwan. It is also 
used by astrologers for writing people’s 
horoscopes, for though coarse, it is 
believed to resist the ravages of insects 
and climate better than machine-made 
paper, Towards the close of the Bengali 
year, when tew account books are pre- 
pared for the coming year, this paper is 
a good dealin request. After this during - 
the net of the year the demand is 
small. 


[OcTOBER, 1909. 


Fea 
o 


ta* 


movement has 


It appears that the new ‘swadeshi’ 
done very little to 
stimulate interest in this industry. The 
Kagjis think that while people are to 
a large extent patronising handloom 
products in the matter of clothing, so far 
as paper goes, they content themselves 
with the products of the European 
factories in the country. 


An explanation may lie in the fact that, 
unlike clothes, a good deal of the paper 
in ordinary use is devoted only toa 


very ephemeral purpose where the 
_ quality of long endurance has no place 


to: warrant the payment of the much 
higher price demanded for hand-made 
paper. Besides, the supply of hand- 
made paper is too small at present to 
meet the demand. 


But soon the present race of work- 
men who still know the art will be gone, 
making a revival of the industry or its 
improvement impossible. 


The Kagjis declare it would be very 
easy for them to produce thicker or 
thinner paper than they now make if 
there was a demand. Paper, a little 
thicker than what is now known as 
Baleswar, would be very suitable for 
being made into post-cards and tramway 
or even railway tickets. Again, if the 
paper is left unsized, it would make 
good enough blotting paper. The mats 
upon which the wet sheets are put out 
to dry, being of very uneven surface, 
produce a corresponding unevenness in 
the sheets, but, with a slight improve- 
ment in the arrangement for drying, this 


_ could surely be most easily remedied. 


The process of manufacture is 


follows :— 


Waste paper is mixed with lime and 
steeped for a week or ten days in a 
large earthen vat. The lime used is at 
the rate of three or four seers per maund 
of waste paper. When sufficiently 
softened, the mass is pounded under a 
‘dhenki’ over a stone mortar. The 
‘dhenki’ used for this purpose is very 
much like that used for husking paddy, 
only somewhat larger and heavier and 
the head of the pestle is more strongly 
bound with iron. The stone mortar is 
only slightly grooved and consists of a 
large piece of basaltic stone, some three 
feet long, one and-a-half feet broad and 
a foot high, 

The paste produced after pounding 
with the ‘dhenki’ is next kneaded 
thoroughly in another vat by trampling 
under feet like potter’s clay. 

The paste is now washed thoroughly 
in water over a piece of cotton cloth till 
all impurities are got rid of and a soft 
pulp obtained. This. is now diluted 

39 


as 


JOTORER, 1909,) 305 


Fibres. 


with water in a large vat. The contents 
of the vat are constantly stirred witha 
rod to prevent the pulp settling down, 
and a little is dipped up ata timeina 
rectangular skeleton mould, called a 
decle, resting ona fine sieve. This sieve 
is made of very thin bamboo slips strung 
together with horse-hair. The sieve is 
known as ‘chhapri,’ measures 23 in. by 
18 in., and looks something like a piece 
of ordinary verandah ‘chik,’ only very 
much smaller and finer. The chhapri or 
sieve is stretched over a wooden trame 
and is held firmly in position by the 
decle or rectangular mould pressing on 
its four edges. On withdrawing the 
mould from the vat in a horizontal 
position the water within the decle 
drains off, leaving the chhapri covered 
with a thin film of fibres, the operator 
meanwhile shaking the mould so as to 
evenly distribute the film. 


The chhapri covered with the thin 
film of paper is now taken off from 
the frame and inverted over a slanting 
piece of stone covered with a piece of 
gunny cloth. The chhapriis now rolled 
away, leaving the film of paper on the 
stone. The process is repeated and film 
after film laid down one above another 
forming a pile. This work is generally 
done in the morning and the pile is 
left untouched for the water to drain 
away till the following day when the 
sheets still wet are taken up one by 
one and laid separately on mats to dry 
in the sun. 


After their edges have been trimmed 
the sheets are next sized or starched 
one side at a time and again dried. 
The starch is obtained by boiling sun- 
ned rice in water and is applied with 
the spongy fibrous shell of a ‘‘dhundul, 
nenual” or “vurul” (Luffa cegyptiaca) 
with the outer skinremoved. Some blue 
stone or copper sulphate is dissolved in 
the starch toimprove the lasting quality 
of the paper. The starching being light, 
work is generally done by women. 

After the sheets have been dried, they 
are exposed to the night dew to soften 
them slightly, and next morning they are 
pressed over a plank with the help of a 
piece of smooth stone or a conch shell. 
This, too, is generally done by women. 
The paper is now ready. 

The paper produced is’generally white, 
but is sometimes coloured blue or yellow. 
The blue colour is imparted with indigo 
dissolved in the pulp vat from which the 
films are dipped up with the chhapri. 
The yellow colour is given by dissolving 
turmeric in the starch. Yellow paper is 
only produced in the Hooghly district. 


The implements used, it will thus be 
seen, are of the crudest kind possible; 


Fibres. 


they consist of some earthen vats, - 
dhenki for pounding the waste paper, a 
wooden mould, a bamboo sieve (chhapri), 
a wooden frame for supporting the 
chhapri, some mats for drying the sheets, 
some dhundul fruits for applying the 
starch, and a piece of plank and a smooth 
stone for pressing the paper. The 
chhapri alone is a rather delicate thing. 
It is procured from Serampore in the 
Hooghly district where it is made. It 
costs from Re. 1-4 to Rs, 2, and each piece 
lasts from 23 to 3 months, 

The dipping up of the pulp with the 
chhapri is an operation requiring some 
skill. One man can on an average pro- 
duce 175 to 200 sheets per day (7 to 8 
quires). One woman ean size one side of 
16 or 20 quires and polish about 12 quires 
of paper per day. The workmen receive 
from Rs. 6 to Rs. 10 or Rs. 12 per month 
according to their skill and outturn of 
work. 

One maund of waste paper makes 
about 30 seers of country paper. 

Paper is made in several izes :— 

Bararukhi (the width of 12 fingers 
laid side by side) 12 quires, 
~Sola rukhi or jangri (the width of 
16 fingers laid sideby side) 4or 5 
Baira (generally used in zamindari 
sarishtas) Bas 8 or 9 
Baleswari white or blue (a thick 
paper only made at Amta, dis- 
trict of Howrah) : Da, 

In this country hand-made paper has 
apparently no chance against paper 
made by machine. Butin England the 
most expensive writing and drawing 
papers are still made by hand. Some 
60 or 70 tons of it are said to be made in 
every works in Great Britain, and on 
account of its superior strength there is 
a steady demand for it. In America, 
however, papers of great strength are 
manufactured’ by machinery and not 
much hand-made paper is produced. 


Even in the case of hand-made paper 
the pulp is always made with machine, 


bh} 


9 


DRUGS AND MEDICINAL PLANTS. 


306 © 


Pi 
{OcTOBER, 1909. 
only the finest qualities of rags being 
used for the purpose. The ‘chhapri,’ in- 
stead of being made of bamboo slips, con- 
sists of a fine wire cloth. The sheets of 
paper as they leave the mould, instead of 
being filed upin direct contact with each 
other, are separated from each other by 
felt placed between one sheet and the 
next. The sheets are dried with parti- 
cular care and the sizing is done with 
gelatine. The glazing is done by machine 
as in the case of other paper. The 
greater strength of hand-made paper 
is supposed to be due partly to the 
time allowed tc the fibres to knit to- 
gether, and partly to the fibre expansion 
permitted them during drying. 


_ But in China and Japan common paper 
1s said to be still made by hand. It 
would be interesting to ascertain 
under what conditions this has so long 
been possible, and what the prospects 
of the industry may be. It is super- 
fluous to say that there is a good deal 
in common between the industrial condi- 
tions of those countries and India, for 
instance, the low wages of labour, 
the simplicity of tools, the general ab- 
sence of the factory system, ete. Some 
of the students lately sent to Japan by 
the Society for the Industrial and Tech- 
nical Education of Indians might look 
into the problem. Government might 
also obtain a report from some authori- 
tative agent on the subject. Poor, ignor- 
ant and broken-spirited, it is hopeless 
to expect the Kajis to make any im- 
provements in their time-honoured ways 
without some help from outside. It is 
impossible to say without an inquiry 
abroad whether the industry has any 
chance of being saved at all. The few 
men who are still engaged in it will soon 
disappear, and their descendants will be 
forced to betake themselves to other 
lines of life as best as they can. And 
then it will be too late to make any 
effort to revive the industry. 


3 


NOTE ON IPECACUANHA 


CULTIVATION. 


By E. M. Hotmus, F.L.s., 


Curator of the Pharmaceutical Society’s 
Museums, 


(From _ the Agricultural Bulletin of 
the Straitsand I. M.S., Vol. VIII., No. 8 
August, 1909.) 


About a year ago I pointed out; with 
respect_ to the Ipecacuanha cultivated 
near Klang, in the protectorate of 


Selangor, that it was found by Mr. 
Pfenningwerth, the manager of the 
estate where it is cultivated, that al- 
though the fresh crop from fresh soil 
was a fairly good one, on trying to raise 
a second it invariably turned out very 
poor, although all kinds of manure had 
been tried to enrich the land, without 
apparently restoring to the soil the neces- 
sary ingredients for luxuriant growth. 
Under these circumstances, it occurred 
to me that it would be interesting to de- 
termine the mineral constituents of the 
root itself, so that if these were known 


’ 
he wel 
" T 
y 
Me 
te 
te A 
. 
3 
J 
se - 


Photo by H, F. Macmillan, 


307. 


See p. 


THE DURIAN FRUIT. 


(Durio zibethinus), 


- UctoBER, 1909,] 307 


they might indicate the mineral mauure 
that should be added to the soil. More- 
over, if these constituents were found to 
occur in similar proportion in the root 
collected in such widely distant localities 
as Matto Grosso, the United States of 
Colombia, and Selangor, it would still 
further emphasise the need of such in- 
gredients being required by the plant. 
Fortunately, [found in Mr. G. S. Blake, 
B.SC., A-R.S.M., an analytical chemist 
willing to undertake the analysis of 
Brazilian, Carthagena, and Selangor 
Ipecacuanha roots as met with in com- 
merce, and I have at length received his 
report. The details as given below seem 
to indicate that phosphate of lime and 
salts of magnesia and potash are the 
principal ingredients required by the 
plant. A certain amount of potash 
would probably be yielded by the leaf 
mould in which the plant grows, but 
lime and magnesia are not so equally 
distributed as arule, and it is pessible 
that on a siliceous soil these elements 
might be deficient. The quantity of 
calcium oxalate present in Ipecacuanha 
root in the form of raphides indicates 
that lime is used in building up the 


Drugs and Medicinal Plants. 


tissues of the plant. At all events, the 
use of these bases—the lime in the form 
of phosphate—is worthy of trial. Fortu- 
nately, Mr. Blake has now left for Matto 
Grosso in connection with a Baptist 
Missionary expedition to that province, 
to conduct scientific investigations, and 
has. kindly promised to examine the soil 
in which the Ipecacuanha plant grows, 
and the other natural conditions under 
wa the plant flourishes in the wild 
state. 


Analysis of Ipecacuanha Root. 
By M. G. S, BLAKE, B.Sc. 


Composition Brazi- Cartha- Selan- 
of Ash, lian. gena. gor. 
i i he 
Ash 2°04 2°72 1°80 
Potash Ke 0 25°53 7°42 28°55 
Soda Nae 0 2°70 2°95’ 2°06 
Lime aibess Ca 0 15°50 17°00 16°87 
Magnesia ... Mg 0O- 13°57 10°68 14°25 


Manganous Oxide Mn 0 0°30 0°58 0°45 
Phosphoric Oxide P2 05 12°70 5°16 
Sulphuric Oxide S 03. 7:40 5°05 8:57 
Silica hab Si O2 11°02 — 
Chlorine ... Cl Trace. Trace. Trace 
—Pharmaceutical Journal and Pharma 
cist, June 5th, 1909, p. 765. 


EDIBLE PRODUCTS. 


THE DURIAN FRUIT. 


By H. F. MAcMILLAN, 


(Illustrated. ) 


Durio zibethinus (N. O, Sterculiacess)— 
‘‘Durian,” sometimes called the ‘‘ Civet- 
eat fruit.”—A very large, handsome 
pyramidal tree, native of the Malayan 
Archipelago, and commonly cultivated 
in the Straits, Burma, Java, ete., for 
the sake of its celebrated fruit. The 
latter is produced on the older branches, 
varying somewhat from round to oval 
in shape, and weighing from 5 to 7 lb, or 
more. It is armed with thickly set 
formidable prickles about 4 inch long; 
when ripe it becomes slightly yellow, 
and possesses an odour which is inten- 
sively offensive to most people, espe- 
cially on first acquaintance with it. The 
ecream-coloured pulp surrounding the 
seed is the edible portion; this is most 
highly prized by Malay and _ other 
oriental people, and is also relished by 
Europeans who acquire a taste for it. 
Firminger described it as ‘‘ resembling 
blane-mange, delicious as the finest 
cream,” whilst Mr. Russel Wallace con- 
sidered that ‘‘eating Durians is a sen- 
sation worth a voyage to the East.” 
The large seeds may be roasted and 
eaten like chestnuts. Pounded into 


fiour, they are said to be sometimes 
made into a substance like ‘‘ vegetable- 
ivory.” The Durian thrives in the moist 
low-country of Ceylon up to 2,000 feet 
elevation, and luxuriates in deep allu- 
vial soil. In Peradeniya Gardens there 
are magnificent trees well over 100 feet 
in height. They flower in March or 
April, and the fruit is usually ripe in 
July or August. Durian fruits are vari- 
able in size, shape, flavour and quantity 
of pulp, according to variety. The trees 
also vary in productiveness, some varie- 
ties being almost barren. Selectioa and 
high cultivation should, therefore, be 
practised in order to obtain the best 
fruits. The tree is readily propagated 
by seed if sown fresh; the seed is ot 
short vitality, and germinates in 7 to 
8 days. 


PACKING DURIAN SEEDS FOR 
EXPORT. 


By T, W. MAIN. 
(From the Agricultural Bulletin of the 
Straits and F.M.S., Vol. VIIL., No. 3, 
March, 1909.) 


During the past year several experi- 
ments have been carried out at the 
Botanic Gardens, Singapore, in order to 


Edible Products. 


determine the best method of packing 
Durian (Durio zibethinus) seeds for 
export to other tropical Colonies. 
Hitherto it had been thought that seeds 
of this much-sought-for fruit would not 
travel any distance successfully owing 
to it germinating so quickly after be- 
coming ripe, and there would appear to 
be some grounds for this assumption ; 
in fact several attempts were made in 
years past to send seeds from this De- 
partment to Ceylon with scanty success. 
These failures must, however, have been 
due to a want cf knowledge as to the 
proper method of packing and not so 
much tothe inability of the seeds to 
retain their germinating powers for any 
lengthy period. 


Seeds of the nature of those of the 
Durian having no outside hard protect- 
ing covering or testa are, as a rule, diffi- 
cult to transport to any great distance 
partly owing to the fact that they ger- 
minate so quickly if not properly dried, 
and also to the fact that they rot very 
rapidly if there is the slightest sug- 
gestion of moisture in the packing 
material, As far as our knowledge goes, 
we have proved fairly conclusively that 
those seeds travel best which have no 
packing material, provided that they are 
thoroughly sun dried previous to being 
putin the tins. Care should also be 
taken to see that the edible pulpy matter 
which surrounds the seeds is carefully 
removed. Seeds prepared in this man- 
ner by us have travelled thousands of 
miles and arrived at their destination in 

--excellent condition. 


On the 27th of August, 1908, eight tins 
of Durian seeds were sent to the 
Superintendent, Agricultural Depart- 
ment, Onitsha, Southern Nigeria, packed 
as follows :— 


Tin No. lpacked in Barat padi husk 


», Slightly damp moss 

5, Slightly damp moss 
ss Hadno packing what- 
ever 


33 
39 


sree os ood-wool 
Rah aes », Tissue paper 
ates) », Lhoroughly dried soil 
A eet) », Thoroughly dried Moss 
dust 
6 
7 
8 


Mr. Don, in his letter of acknowledge- 


ment, reported as follows on the condi- 
tion of seeds on arrival at Onitsha 
(20-10-08) :-— 


“The seeds, with the exception of 
those in tin No. 1, arrived in fair condi- 


tion considering the long distance they - 


had to travel. 


‘The seeds in tin No.1 were completly 
spoilt. 


308 


a ee 


[Ocropmr, 1900, 


five seeds out 
of 6 were good. 


The seeds in tin No. 2- 


ss 9 3 six out of 
good, 4 germi- 
nated in the tin. 

6 A 4 three out of 7 
were good, 3 
germinated in 
the tin. 

or he 5 eight out of 10 
were good. 

us FSA 6 four out of 10 
were good, 
germinated in 
the tin. 

0 He 7 nine out of Il 
were good, 
germinated in 
the tin. 

a o 8 thirteen out of 


15 were good,” 


The seeds in tin No. 1 were packed in 
burvt padi husk, the material which we 
find most successful for packing Para 
rubber seeds, and it is interesting to note 
that inthe case of the Durian seeds it 
totally failed to preserve them. The 
packing material employed for tins No. 2 
and 5, namely, fine wood-wool and 
thoroughly dried moss dust gave the 
best result, whilst tin No. 8in which no 
packing whatever was used was the 
most satisfactory of all. 


A later consignment of several hun- 
dreds of seeds to the same Department 
in Southern Nigeria, packed in powdered 
charcoal, arrived in very bad condition. 


Our observations lead us to believe that 
the most successful method to adopt is 
to first carefully clean all pulpy matter 
from the seeds, and after thoroughly dry- 
ing them inthe sun for two or three 
days, pack them in tins sufficiently large 
to hold fifty seeds. The lids of the tins 
should not be soldered down and stout 
canvas should be used as a covering. 


The method applies to all seeds of a 
like nature, such as Mangosteen, etce., 
etc.; packing large quantites of seeds to- 
gether should be avoided as they quickly 
heat in bulk. 


THE INDIAN TEA INDUSTRY. 


TILLAGE OPERATIONS ON TEA 
GARDENS. 


(From the Indian Agriculturist, Vol. | 
XXXIV., No. 7, July, 1909.) : 


About fifty years ago an old London 
woolesorter who had been puzzled by 
many things in the Australian wool 


sS 


' 
bor 


> 


Octonur, 1909.) 309 


trade determined to go and investigate 


the matter on the spot. On his arrival 
at Sydney he made a long tour through 
sheep stations, and when he returned he 
wrote to the papers an account of his 
tour and ended by saying : 


‘One thing is certain, that the ColonistS 
know nothing upon earth about wool.’ 
As this subject of wool had been the 
only thought day and night of thousands 
of intelligent men for many years, this 
saying rather startled the people gener- 
ally and offended them. But one of the 
leading squatters asked him to come and 
see his flocks, which he did, and passed 
some thousands of sheep through his 
hands. The result was that the owner 
said ‘I begin tothink Mr.———is right 
and that we know nothing on earth 
about wool.” And certain itis that from 
that time a new era was introduced, and 
wool was brought to a degree of perfec- 
tion through the new principles laid 
down by this gentleman, that nobody 
had thought of before. 


This is exactly what was said about 
tea planting about twenty years ago by 
a then very prominent agriculturist. 
‘The whole body of thoseemployed in the 
cultivation of tea know nothing on earth 
about vegetation or the first principles 
of agriculture.” Whether there is much 
alteration, even now, after the advent of 
the agricultural experts into our midst, 
is very much a matter of opinion, If a 
youngster newly out to teais asked why 
a garden is hoed so often during a season, 
his answer will probably be that it is to 


keep the garden clear of weeds. He 
.knows little more about the matter, and 


this is not to be wondered: at, as at least 
seventy per cent. of the people engaged 
in agricultural pursuits at home would 
return you the same answer. Compared 
with all the other arts and sciences, 
agriculture is the slowest in advancing. 
It was asserted by an agricultural writer 
last year that a tea planter had very 
hazy ideas as to why light hoeing pro- 
duced leaf. He hoed because other people 
hoed, and he found if he did not hoe he 
did not get the same quantity of leaf. 
He might have very safely gone further 
by saying that it would puzzle experts 
themselves (himself included) to give a 
wholly satisfactory answer to the ques- 
tion, why repeated light hoeing should 
stimulate, again and again, the produc- 
tion of leaf, and, within certain limits 
the axiom stands good that, ‘‘the more 
hoe the more leaf,” This may be taken 
as arule of all leaf producers trom the 
homely cabbage upwards, the more cul- 
tivation—other conditions being iu uni- 
sion—the larger the amount of vegeta- 
ble matter in the shape of leaf is pro- 
duced, if the plants’ roots are not muti- 


Edible Products. 


lated in the process. Whether the 
chemical action kept going on by the 
hoe is thoroughly understood or not, the 
great majority of planters believe in the 
annual early cold-weather deep hoe. 


EVERY PLANTER THE BEST JUDGE, 


But there are still a few who, rightly 
or wrongly, donot believe in a deep hoe 
at all. Every planter ought to be the 
best judge and know his own garden 
best, and there may be cases where a 
deep hoe may be disastrous. If we may 
take a hypothetical case (although there 
are numbers to be found in every tea 
district), a garden may never have had a 
deep hoe and have a solid impermeable 
hard pan existing just below the depth 
of the usual light hoe. The tea roots 
have not a great penetrating power 
when they come into contact with such 
a hard pan. This is perhaps as much due 
to there being no inducement in the way 
of available food as anything else, No 
matter to what depth the original 
jungle soilmay be loose and friable, 
when the jungle is cleared and the soil 
regularly hoed it is bound with our heavy 
rainfall to form a hard pan just below 
the depth to which it is hoed. The 
minute particles of the soil are being 
continually worked downwards till 
arrested by the harder soil beneath, 
where, in combination with any lime 
particles there may be in the soil, it 
forms a cemented hard pan. If the 
roots have not been able to penetrate 
downwards before this hard pan forms, 
they get stunted in their endeavours to 
penetrate it, some of them running along 
its surface, turning their points upwards 
towards the cultivated surface and get- 
ting the young tips continually cut 
with the hoe. We have now an estab- 
lished surface-rooting tea garden, with 
a mass of fibrous root, underneath the 
branches, one of the most undesirable 
things in creation fora planter to have 
under his charge. Sucha garden wants 
deep cultivation in order to give the 
roots a chance of a longer range in which 
to search for food, as well as to create a 
larger supply of available food for the 
plant. But if this is done the roots 
are bound to get badly mutilated, 
and the plants, being already in a 
weakened state, will either be killed out- 
right or receive such a shock as to render 
it almost impossible for them to recover. 


TRENCHING. 


It has been found extremely difficult 
to alter the root action of any plant 
when once it reaches the age of matur- 
ity, and the tea’ plant is no exception 
to the rule. But in such a case as cited, 
which is by no means so rare as may be 
supposed, it has been found that the best 


Edible Products. 


thing to be done in the first instance is. gardenexperimented upon. But differ- 


to ‘‘trench.” Thatis to. make a narrow 
trench about two feet deep in each 
alternate row of bushes. This trench to 
be filled in for half its depth with the 
best soil or compost available—good 
bheel soil or lime manure is preferable, 
and if nothing better is to be had the 
surface soil may be used for the purpose. 
If there is anything left in the shape of 
roots at all, they will go down to this, 
and the better the quality of the buried 
material the more readily they will go 
down to it. The rows which are left 
may bedone the same way the following 
year. Inthe course of a few years the 
roots will be induced to take a deep 
action and allow of that sine qua non 
to successful plateau tea cultivation— 
the early cold weather deep hoe. 


OF course this allought to have been 
done early in the garden’s history. 
There never ought to have been a hard 
pan to cripple the root action of the 
plant, and, under intelligent up-to-date 
cultivation, such a thing never would 
have happened. But owing to scarcity 
of labour or other causes these things do 
happen and are always happening. A 
cure has been pointed out which has, 
in some cases, answered the purpose. 
But prevention is proverbially better 
than cure, and if we always treated our 
soils, bushes, and coolies on prophylactic 
principles, we should have little need for 
cures or tea garden doctors.- Every care 
should be taken during the early years 
of a garden to keep the soil from form- 
ing a hard pan. Deep cultivation is 
even more necessary during these early 
years than it is later. The roots of a 
young tea bush respond readily to in- 
ducement to take a deep-rooted action. 
When once they run into the deeper soil 
they, ina very great measure, are able 
to keep the soil free and open enough for 
the penetration of rain-water and air to 
follow on its draining away. The gist of 
all this is—early deep cultivation in order 
to get a deep-rooted plant, for if it is 
delayed till the plants root habit be 
horizontally formed, it is a most difficult 
and expensive matter to get things right 
again. 


A Lone DRAWN-OUT EXPERIMENT. 


An experiment has been suggested 
by our experts to determine the actual 
_kind of light hoeing most suitable for 
producing the maximum amount of leaf. 
As this experiment would have to he 
carried over a period of eight or ten 
years in order to get reliable data, most 
planters will be inclined to leave the 
experiment to ‘‘ the other fellow.” More- 
over, it is difficult to see where the 
advantage wouldcome in generally. It 
would prove usefulfor the particular 


$10 [{OcrogER, 1909, 


- Their services have never been men- 


a NaS 


ent gardens require more or less differ- 
ent treatment. Environment and -cir- 
cumstance are seldom, if ever, alike on 
any two gardens. In the absence ot 
such an experiment, which has every 
likelihood of remaining absent, there are 
cogent reasons for thinking that the 
depth of our light hot weather cultiva- 
tion might be advantageously varied 
upon most gardens. 


: 
« 
‘ 
We have authoritative opinion that 
a garden getting five four-inch hoes in 
the season would be much benefited by 
Hcemiddie one being increased to six ; 
inches, 


Soil exposed to the atmosphere is F 
“freshened,” as it is often termed, by 
the oxidation of the particles which 
have been reduced toa lower condition 
of oxidation during the time they had : 
been covered up. The oxides of iron are . 
examples of this action. When they - 
are exposed near the surface of the 
sun and air they become fully charged 
with oxygen. But when buried in the 
soil they give up scme portion of this 
oxygen in the several decompositions 
which take place in the soil and thereby 
become again reduced to a lower form 
oxide. In this way they are performing 
a mostimportant duty as they really . 
become “‘ oxygen carriers ” through being | 
alternately buried and exposed during 
cultivation and in some cases carry am- 
monia also. 


PROFESSOR WAyY’S INVESTIGATION. 


Over thirty years ago Professor Way 
carried out an investigation into the 
character of the silicates of alumina, 
and disclosed truths of immense import- 
ance which have not even yet been 
thorougly understood, and consequently, 
not fully taken advantage of. He 
showed the existence of a class of bodies 
which are termed double silicates. 
These were silicates of alumina in which 
part of the alumina had been replaced by 
an equivalent quantity of some other 
substance such as lime, soda, potash, or 
ammonia. ‘Thus we appear to have 
these double silicates in the soil as sili- 
eate of alumina and soda, silicate of 
alumina and lime, silicate of alumina and 
potash, and silicate of alumina and 
ammonia, which is the highest of the 
series, ‘These substances must be of 
exceeding importance, and a familiar 
acquaintance with them is most desirable. 


tioned amongst the benefits derived trom ~ 
tillage operations in tea cultivation, but 
they may be the most important of all 
in the production of leaf. They have: 
the power, as we have seen, of absorb- 
ing ammonia from the atmosphere. Or, 
perhaps, we shallbe putting it more 


Ch 4 


me ‘OcToOBER, 1909.] | B11 


plainly by stating that (according to 
Professor Way), the silicate of alumina 
and potash have a similar chemicaleaffi- 
nity for the ammonia of the atmosphere, 
as hydrate of lime has for carbonic acid. 
According to the authority already 
given above, these four double silicates 
of alumina are formed as follows: Part 
of the alumina of the simple silicate of 
alumina has been replaced by soda, lime, 
potash, or ammonia. Ammonia is more 
valuable than potash, whilst potash is 
of more value than soda. Strangely 
enough the silicate of alumina appears to 
exercise a similar order of preference. If 
a double silicate of alumina and soda 
exists inthe soil, and lime should be 
brought in contact with it, the silicate 
of alumina gives up the soda and takes 


- up the lime instead, and then we get 


silicate of alumina and lime. The 
presence of soda will not enable it to 
displace the lime as the silicate ot 
alumina has a greater affinity for the 
lime than it has for the soda. i 
however, some potash be added, the 


~ lime is given up and the potash is taken 


into combination, and then we obtain 
silicate of alumina and potash. But 
when ammonia comes within the in- 
fluence of this compound there isso much 
preference for the ammonia that even 
the potash loses its position, and then 
we get silicate of alumina and ammonia 
formed. This being the highest of the 
series is a very valuable fertiliser, and 
when turned down the ammonia is con- 
verted into nitrates, the silicate revert- 
ing to a lower form and again becoming 
hungry for ammonia. Its natural crav- 
ing will again be satisfied when exposed 
to the atmosphere by the next hoe, and 
so the never-ending process goes on. 


Since writing the above, I notice a 
member of the Luskerpur Valley Tea 
Association, in an interesting article, be- 
wails the general ignorance of planters 
of the science of Arboriculture. If I 
might venture to offer advice to the 
member of the Luskerpur Valley Tea 
Association, 1t would be, on their start- 
ing sessions (they have been in recess 
a long time now) to procure a number 
of school primers on the first princi- 
ples of agriculture. When they have 
mastered those and think themselves 
capable of passing the elementary exami- 
nation as required by the Agricultural 
Department, Science and Arts, South 
Kensington, further arrangements might 
be made for the members making them- 
selves fit to try for an “advanced.” By 
this time they will be better able to 
understand the subjects they discuss, and 
also be more able to teach their less 
fortunate brethren living in the benight- 
ed valley further east. 


Edible Products, 


RICK CULTURE ON THE ATLANTIC 
COAST. 


(From the Heninune Planter and Sugar 
Manufacturer, Vol. XLII., No. 2, 
January, 1909.) 


Elsewhere in this issue we reprint from 
the Barbados Agricultual News extracts 
from a British Consular Report upon 
Rice Culture in the United States. The 
article is quite an interesting one, but, so 
far as our knowledge of the industry 
goes, and it comes from considerable ex- 
perience in it, we believe that this article 
pertains almost exclusively to rice cul- 
ture on the Atlantic coast, where it is. 
radically different from rice culture 
along the coast of the Gulf of Mexicoin 
Louisiana and ~Texas and along the 
Mississippi River in Louisiana, where the 
bulk of the rice of the United States is 
now produced. The peculiar methods 
of stretching riee in order to force its 
growth, making it keep ahead in length 
or height by keeping water well up to 
the top of the rice and thus stretching 
the rice so that it shall get ahead of any 
opposing grasses, was practised here two 
or three decades ago, but only toa limited 
extent. Such practice is usual in South 
Carolina, but in Louisiana and Texas, 
and, in fact, along the Mississppi River 
in the central part of this state, our 
methods are generally rather ruder ones. 


This British report refers to the dry 
growth, during which time, afer the 
stretching of the plant and their gaining 
after stretching sufficient strength to 
stand up, the water is drawn off entirely 
from the land and a period of dry 
growth is established. The forty or 
fifty days that may be employed in dry 
growth in South Carolina are practi- 
cally unknown in Louisiana, and would 
result in the development of obnoxious 
grasses, which every effort is made to 
suppress. The only actual drying of 
the lands that occur in Louisiana, be- 
fore harvesting, is when the fields 
are invaded by crawfish, which at times 
come in multitudes and destroy the rice 
fields, perhaps not quite so badly, but 
somewhat similarly to the multitudes 
of locusts that attack the grain fields of 
Kansas at times. In Louisiana the 
water is generally kept on the rice field 
from the beginning of the season until 
harvest approaches, unless it is taken 
off for the purpose just given to banish 
the crawfish, Again, the carefully pre- 
pared sprout flow that is utilized in the 
Carolinas is not known here. Rice is 
planted here just as oats or wheat 
would be in the North, in what we call 
our dry culture practice, and in our wet 
culture practice the rice is sprouted in 


Edible Products. 


sacks by placing them in ditches for 
some 24 to48 hours previously to planting. 
This sprouted rice is then planted in the 
water and mud of the rice fields and re- 
quires that the field should be made dry 
until the rice is sufficiently advanced to 
take a little water. All grasses grow so 
luxuriantly in our alluvial lands that 
it seems absolutely necessary to pull 
these grasses out by hand, and * grassing 
rice” is one of the conspicuous and ex- 
pensive features of theculture in our 
alluvial lands. This British Consular 
Report may be found interesting and 
will contain some suggestive points to 
our Louisiana rice planters. 


GROUNDNUT TRIALS IN THE 
WEST INDIES. 


(From the Agricultural News, Vol. VILL, 
No. 187, June 26, 1909.) 


Recognizing that groundnuts might 
possibly become a valuable source of 
rofit to small holders and others in the 
est Indies, the Imperial Department 
of Agriculture has made several efforts 
to encourage their cultivation on a more 
extended scale in many of the islands. 
These efforts have included the introduc- 
tion and trial of a number of new 
varieties of nuts from the United States, 


in 1907-8, seed nuts of two new 
varieties, ‘ Dixie Giant’ (a nut remark- 
able for its large size), and ‘Tennessee 
Red,’ both of which appeared to be pro- 
mising for West Iudian conditions, were 
imported and trial plantirgs were made 
at the Botanic or Experiment Station 


in St. Vincent, St. Lucia, Dominica, 
Montserrat, Antigua, and St. Kitt’s- 
Nevis. Unfortunately, however, -the 


results—speaking generally—were not so 
good as were hoped for. 


In the trials made at St. Vincent in 
1907, ‘Dixie Giant’ gave a return at the 
rate of no more than5 cwt, per acre, 
although sown in rich well-manured land. 
The plants were slightly attacked 
by a rust fungus. The few seeds of 
‘Tennessee Red’ that were available 
germinated badly and died out. 


At St. Lucia, in the same year, a trial 
was made with the ‘ Dixie Giant’ ground- 
nut, and 40 pints of nuts were obtained 
from 3% pints of seed. The nuts were 
harvested in December, but many of them 
germinated before they were ripe. This 
indicates that planting should be done at 
a time to throw the ripening period into 
the dry season—between February and 
May. 

At Dominica, where large areas of soil 
suitable for the cultivation of this 
crop exist, the two varieties under trial 


312 


in 1907 gave somewhat better results 
than in some of the other islands. The 
‘Dixie Giant’ nuts, which were planted 
early in September, took seventeen 
weeks to mature, and 6 lb. of cured nuts 
from 23 lb. of seed. In the case of 
‘Tennessee Red’ 3 oz. of seed yielded 1 lb. 
3 oz of nuts. Neither variety was 
attacked by any pest or disease. 


At Montserrat, in the case of ‘ Dixie 
Giant’ only 4 lb, of nuts were obtained 
from 23 1b. of seed. Moreover, many of 
the nuts contained shrivelled kernels. 
‘Tennessee Red’ did somewhat better. 


Fair results were obtained at Antigua 
with both the imported kinds in 1907. It 
is believed, however, that the land was 
unsuitable, being too heavy for the crop. 
The foliage of the plants was much 
attacked by caterpillars. 


At St. Kitt’s, the groundnut plants 
grew well, and developed a large amount 
of foliage. Unsatisfactory weather, how- 
ever, interfered with the proper matur- 
ing of the produce. 


The experiments with groundnuts were 
continued in 1908 at the same centres. In 
addition to the ‘Dixie Giant’ and ‘ Ten- 
nessee Red,’ two other kinds, viz., 
‘Spanish’ and ‘Carolina Running,’ both 
imported from the United States, were 
included in the trials. The ‘Spanish’ 
is a very small nut, but one that in the 
United States is very popular, both 
among growers, and on the market. It 
grows well on poor soil, and takes but a 
comparatively short time to mature its 
produce. The plants are of an erect 
habit. ‘Carolina Running’ is reported 
to be a prolific bearer in the States, and 
yields nuts of a fairly large size. 


At St. Lucia the four kinds of nuts 
were planted in Occober, 1908, but the 
results proved dissappointing. ‘Carolina 
Running’ was the only variety which 
germinated well and produced a crop 
which was harvested on February 
11, 1909. The yield was at the rate of 
504 lb. per acre. 


The report on the trials made at 
Dominica states that the soil on which 
the groundnuts were grown, was 
earefully prepared beforehand. With 
the exception of the plot on which | 
the‘Dixie Giant’ nuts were planted, 
the soil was very light and fine — 
in texture, which offers the most 
favourable conditions for this crop. 
The land planted with ‘Dixie Giant’ 
nuts was of comparatively heavy nature, © 
and this, no doubt, had a detrimental 
effect upon the yield of nuts obtained. 

All the four kinds of nuts were sown 
in July. The ‘Spanish,’ ‘Carolina Run 
ning’ and ‘Tennessee Red’ varieties 


|OcTorER, 1909. = : 


were reaped towards the end of 
_ November, while the ‘ Dixie Giant’ nuts 
did not mature till about a fortnight 
‘later. The ‘Spanish’ variety did best, 
showing a yield at the rate of 1,940 lb. 
per acre. This was followed, in the 
order named, by ‘Carolina Running’ 
(1,187 lb. per acre), ‘Tennessee Red’ (459 
lb, per acre), and ‘Dixie Giant’ (835 lb. 
per acre) It is mentioned that the 
small nuts of the Spanish variety sell 
in Dominica much more readily than 
hose of larger kinds. 


At Montserrat the four kinds of nuts 
were planted on June 26 and reaped in 
the last week of October, so that only 
four months were occupied in coming to 
maturity. This was probably owing to 
the dry weather that was experienced 
during the season. The yields were 
poor, ‘Carolina Running’ giving the 
highest return, which was at the rate 
of 889 lb. per acre. ‘Tennessee Red’ 
yielded. at the rate of 400 lb., and 
‘Spanish’ at the rate of 364. lb. per acre. 

_* Dixie Giant’ failed to germinate at all. 


At Antigua, plots were planted with 
each of the four varieties. ‘ Dixie Giant’ 
gave the best return—at the rate of 960 
lb, peracre. ‘Carolina Running’ yielded 
at the rate of 640 lb., ‘Spanish’ 440 1b., 
and ‘Tennessee Red’ 440 lb. per acre. 
It is mentioned that in these experi- 
ments, the plants of the ‘Carolina 
Running’ variety covered the ground 
much better than any of the others. 


Mr. Shepherd has sent in a report on 
the groundnut trials made at St. Kitt’s 
in 1908. The same four kinds of nuts 
were planted as in the other islands to 
which reference has already been made. 
It is unfortunate, however, that the 
varieties, ‘Spanish’ and ‘Tennessee 
Red’ were severely attacked by afungus, 
and as a result only a poor crop of nuts 
was harvested, the yield being at the 
rate of about 3(0 Ib. per acre. In the 
case of ‘ Dixie Giant’ the nuts planted 
showed very poor germination, and 
rotted in the ground as if attacked by a 
fungus disease, althovgh they appeared 
to be sound at the time of planting. 
Much better results were obtained with 
the ‘Carolina Running’ variety. The 
seed nuts showed good germinating 
power, and the ground was soon well 
covered by the vines. The nuts took 
from five to six months to mature, and 
gave a yield of nearly 1,500 1b. per acre. 
A local variety of groundnut planted 
for purposes of comparison, showed a 
crop return at the rate of about 2,000 lb. 
per acre. 


Mr. Shepherd points out that in the 
experiments made at St. Kitt’s, none 
of the imported varieties have yielded 

40 


318 


Edible Products. 


a return superior to that given by the 
local nut, but adds that some of the new 
kinds evidently possess certain very 
desirable characteristics not found in 
the local variety. It is apparent that 
there is room for selection work in this 
connexion, with the object of bringing 
about increased resistance to disease. 
Further experiments are to be carried 
out at St. Kitt’s this year. 


The four kinds of groundnuts in 
question were also tried at Nevis last 
year. ‘Carolina Running’ and ‘Spanish’ 
did best, giving yields respectively of 
1,400 lb. and 810 lb. per acre. Both these 
varieties matured in slightly less than 
four months. ‘Tennessee Red’ germi- 
nated fairly well, matured early, and 
yielded a crop at the rate of 860 lb. per 
acre- The‘ Dixie Giant’ variety failed 
to do well, many of the nuts rotting 
before coming to maturity. The total 
return obtained was atthe rate of no 
more than 120 lb. per acre. A local 
variety, grown under similar conditions, 
gavea yield at the rate of 570 lb. per 
acre. 


HOW JAVA CAME BY HER PRE- 
SENT EXCELLENT SUGARCANE, 


By H. C. PRINSEN GEERLIGS. 


(From the Louisiana Planter and Sugar 
Manufacturer, Vol. XLI., No 18, 
October, 1908.) 


In the year 1892 a mysterious, up to 
that time still unheard of, disease be- 
fell the sugareane plantations in the 
most western part ot Java and gradu- 
ally spread in an eastern direction, 
crawling along every year till at the 
end of 1892 all the sugar-growing dis- 
tricts of the island were infested with 
it. The symptoms of the disease were 
chiefly a stoppage of the growth after 
a few months’ vegetation and a consider- 
able development of secondary stalks 
and rial roots. These secondary roots 
were in their turn also attacked by the 
disease and remained short too, so that 
the whole stool instead of representing 
the usual aspect of a stately group of 
long stalks, crowned with green stuffs of 
leaves, resembled the crumpled bunches 
of the citronella grass, after the Javanese 
name of which, ‘‘sereh,”’ the disease 
was called sereh-disease. ,Of the symp- 
tons mentioned, of course, that res- 
pecting the stoppage of the growth is 
the most serious one, and in fact it 
decreased the yield of a diseased field 
in such a way as to render it practically 
valueless. It is a happy circumstance 
that the disease first commenced in one 
part, and only very slowly proceeded 


, 


Edible Products, 314 [OcToRER, 1909. 


eastward, and thus allowed the planters 
to take their measures. If it had struck 
the whole of the island at the same time, 
very likely it would have destroyed our 
sugai cultivation right out, the more so, 
as at the samé time a serious crisis in 
sugar prices prevailed, which was apt 
to endanger the existence of many sugar 
estates even without the aid of the 
disease. Now it fortunately took ten 
years before the sereh disease had spread 
throughout the whole island, and the 
planters made a happy use of that res- 
pite to bethink themselves of remedies 
to combat it. 


While the western part of the land 
was infested, the middle and_ eastern 
parts still were free and could sparea 
continuous stream of sound cane tops, 
which were used for replanting the 
attacked cane fields in the western parts; 
but as the disease slowly but uninter- 
ruptedly spread eastward, the available 
amount of sound tops decreased yearly, 
while the area, wanting them, increased 
accordingly, so that everybody could 
prophesy that this way of combating 
the dreaded disease was only a palliative 
and noremedy. In that time the Java 
planters sought the aid of science, and 
established three experimental stations 
in different parts of the island, with 
the chief object of suggesting means 
to save their industry from the threaten- 
ing ruin. The scientists attached to 
the stations, chiefly botanists of al- 
ready fixed EKuropean renown, started 
work at once, and besides investigating 
into the real cause of the disease, looked 
out for practical ways to stamp it out 
or to avoid it. A great deal of cane 
varieties from every cane growing 
country were brought over to Java, 


propagated and planted in the different . 


estates, and, in fact, among the 
hundred and odd of those varieties a 
few proved in the first years after their 
introduction to be of great value; they 
were immune against sereh and pro- 
duced yields which were by no means 
inferior to those obtained with the Black 
Java or Cheribon cane. At the same 
time the planters wanted to continue 
the way of planting every year afresh 
with sound tops from parts of the land, 
where the sereh had not yet appeared, as 
they did not like to leave the variety 
which had given them every satisfaction 
up to now, and feared the new varieties 
could some day or other degenerate and 
_ become in their turn victims of the same 
or another disease. As we saw before, 
the sugar growing parts of the land be- 
came. gradually infested, so that it soon 
became impossible to procure sufficient 
seed for the estates from the tops of 
still existing sound cane fields. ‘There- 


fore, the sugar estates selected in the 
mountains and similar remote spots, 
where no sugar industry existed, fields 
where they planted cane for seed only. 
Sound tops were caretully selected, 
planted with much care in a moun- 


- tainous region, far from every infection 


by other cane and raised canes, which 
were cut six or seven months after plant- 
ing, and used for seed in the plains for 
the planting of cane fields. As it soon 
appeared that ratoons became unfailing- 
ly infected with sereh and did not yield 
even moderately good crops, where the 
plant cane had produced a good one, the 
planters were compelled to keep off from 
growing ratoons, and since the last 
fifteen years no ratoons are kept in Java, - 
and all of the sugar cane is planted every 
year again. The introduction of the 
varieties from other countries and the 
system of nurseries in remote parts to- 
gether co-operated in expelling the 
disease, but at what cost! 


The new varieties gradually fell off in 
quality and could not be relied upon, 
which always gave a feeling of uneasi- 
ness for the future, while the expense of 
the nurseries and the transport of tops 
from them were too heavy to be con- 


tinued. In many cases the expenses for 


the tops even amounted to one-fifth of 
the whole cost price of the sugar, and 
this item became so heavy that it swal- 
lowed all of the profit, while at the same 
time the danger remained that also the 
mountainous parts one day or other 
would be attacked and excluded from 
the raising of the seed. In the meantime, 
however, the scientists had continued 
their researches and raised cane from 
seeds; first in a haphazard way, but 
afterwards on a scientific and systematic 
footing. At the outset some arrows 
were cut, spread out on carefully pre- 
pared soil, and the resulting tiny cane 
plants were nursed and planted out in 
the field. Every plant was analysed, 
weighed, inspected and observed, and the 
inferior plants steadily removéd so as to 
keep only the selected good ones. This 
selection was so rigid, that from the 
thousands and thousands of plants only 
some two or three came into use. This 
terrible waste of time and work induced 
some investigators, especially Messrs. 
Moquette, Kobus and Bouricious to select 
canes of varieties which promised much 
in some direction or other and to ecross- 
fertilize their flowers, so that, not as 
formerly, fertilization with some un- 


known pollen was secured, but the ferti- _ 


lization was effected with carefully 
selected pollen of especially chosen . 
fathers. The results were brilliant, and 
Java came into possession of families of 
sugarcane which surpass in every point 


~ 


5 ~ OcroBER, 1909.] 


the old canes ofyore.. Now there is such 
a variety of good and rich cane that 
every estate owner can choose the variety 
which best suits the quality of his land, 
or his climate, and even suit the time 
when he wants to harrvest them. He can 
choose early ripening varieties for the 
beginning of his crop, and late ripening 
ones for the end, and so dispose during 
the whole course of his grinding time of 
green, fresh and sound cane at its highest 
point of sugar content and vigour. Not 
contented with the results already ob- 
tained, Mr. Kobus is steadily busy breed- 
ing new varieties in order to replace the 
existing onesif perchance these might in 
their turn degenerate or become attacked 
by some new infectious or other disease. 


315 


Edible Products, 


This brilliant success accounts a great 
deal for the excellent Java returns of 
the last few years, and we can safely say 
that the sereh disease has not only total- 
ly disappeared, but has had the _ un- 
expected advantage of providing Java 
with a supply of canes much better and 
more resistant against drought or wet 
weather, against insects and disease, 
than has any other country, and, more- 
over, has the experience in how to create 
new varieties if the existing ones fail. 


‘It is obvious that only tropical countries, 


where the cane attains its full maturity 
and flowers every year, can obtain the 
same results, and that for non-tropical 
countries the raising of new varieties 
will meet with much more difficulty. 


TIMBERS. 


TREE PLANTING AT ANTIGUA. 


(From the Agricultural News, Vol. 
VIII., No. 185, May, 1909.) 


Compared with many other of the 
West Indian islands, Antiguais singu- 
larly destitute of woodland, or even of 
small groves of trees. This lack of suit- 
able vegetation tends to give the hill- 
sides and waste places a somewhat barren 
appearance, and the lack of shelter that 
would be provided by extensive wooded 
areas increases the tendency of the 
island to suffer from drought. Tree 
planting on a large scale would not only 
improve the appearance of the landscape, 
and provide a source of timber and fuel, 
but would also be of advantage in provid- 
ing shelter belts of woodland, and have 
a certain amount of influence in modify- 
ing the dryness of the atmospheric con- 
ditions, and economising the water 
supply by reducing evaporation, 


Some efforts in this direction have been 
made by the Agricultural Department, 
and two afforestation plots have been 
started in the neighbourhood of the 
Botanic Station. One is situated to the 
north of the Station, and is about 15 
acres inextent, The second plot is to 
the east of the station, and about {-mile 
distant. It is some 2} acres in area. 


The plots were established in 1902; the 
soilis poorin both,and they are fully 
exposed to the prevailing trade winds. 
They had received very little cultivation 
at the time of planting, and are similar in 
character to the bare hillsides in the 
island, so that from the progress which 
the trees have made, some deductions 
can be drawn asto the results which 
would probably follow tree planting on 
other waste spots. 


The plot situated to the north of the 
Botanic Station has made the best 
growth, and the shelter that it at 
present affords to the Station has hada 
markedly beneficial effect. In the year 
1907-8, the growth of the trees in the plot 
to the east of the Botanic Station 
showed marked improvement. It would 
appear, however, that it is advisable, in 
planting trees on land where the soil is 
poor and the situation exposed, to give 
a greater amount of cultivation during 
the first years of their growth than was 
given to the two plots attached to the 
Botanic Station. The results so far 
attained also indicate that expenditure, 
within reasonable limits, on starting 
woodlands in bare districts of these 
islands will, in course of time, be amply 
repaid, in view of the advantages to be 
derived from their establishment. 


In 1905, two wind-breaks of forest trees 
were planted to the north-east and 
south-east of the Antigua Botanic 
Station. These have made good growth, 
and now afford considerable shelter to 
the gardens. 


The efforts that have been made on 
Arbor Day in each year to encourage an 
interest in planting out young trees, on 
the part of all classes of the community, 
have also had good effect. In this way 
large numbers of young trees have been 
planted in the Victoria Park, and at 
other spots in and around the town. 


The example which has thus been set 
would appear to have encouraged a 
considerable amount of interest in tree 
planting at Antigua, and numerous 
enquiries are received at the Botanic 
Station on the subject. Mr. Thomas 
Jackson, Curator of the Station, has 
lately sent in some interesting and 


Timbers. 


useful notes on the matter, the points of 
which are here reproduced :— : 

Itis likely that the plauting of trees 
suitable for timber purposes will receive 
more attention at Antigua in the future 
than it has done in the past. There is, 
naturally, a good local demand for 
timber, and the construction of 18 miles 
of railway, involving the utilization of 
alarge quantity of timber for sleeper 
purposes, will naturally increase this 
demand. At present the amount of 
timber grown at Antigua is very small, 
but efforts are already in progress which 
indicate that the home supply will in 
time tend to increase. 

In the West. Indies, as in other 
countries, the great drawback to any 
scheme of afforestation is the length of 
time that must elapse before any return 
can be obtained. This difficulty is inevit- 
able at the start, however, and a certain 


number of years must necessarily elapse 


before an area of newly-planted wood- 
land returns the outlay that has been 
expended upon it, and becomes self- 
supporting. 

In view of this fact, it becomes a matter 
ot chief importance, when any scheme of 
tree planting is to be carried out, to 
choose those species for planting which 
are likely to give an early return, and to 
be in good demand for special purposes. 

In his paper, Mr. Jackson enumerates 
alist of trees which might be expected 
to do well at Antigua. Special reference 
is made to the species Hucalyptus 
rostrata, or‘Red Gum. This grows 
satisfactorily even under somewhat un- 
favourable conditions. At the Botanic 
Station there is a sample of this species, 
which, although no more than seven or 
eight years old, and growing in poor, 
shallow soil, has a height of 35 feet, and 
a circumference of 3 feet 8 inches at 10 
feet from the ground. Although the 
trunk of this specimen divides into tour 
at about 12 feet from the ground, 
each stem possesses serviceable timber. 
Eucalyptus rostrata is well known asa 
particularly hardy species, and thrives 
well under a fairly wide range of con- 
ditions. It stands drought well. The 
wood of the tree is durable both in the 
air and when buried inthe soil. Pieces 
of *Rek Gum’ timber which have been 
under the soil for two years at the 
Antigua Botanic Station are still in an 
excellent state of preservation. In 
colour the wood varies from light red to 
very dark red. If rapid growth and 
good quality of timber are required, #. 
rostrata can be recommended. 

Other species of Kucalyptus, which are 
suitable for planting in parts of the 
tropics, and yield useful timber, are &. 
citriodora, EL. corymbosa, EH. teretecornis. 
E. cornuta, EL. crebra, and &. microtheca. 


316 


At the Antigua Botanic Station there 
exist, in addition to #. rostrata, speci- 
mens of HF. citriodora and #.~- cornuta. 
Both of these have an erect growth. 
The wocd of the former makes a useful 
timber; it has a close grain and splits 
readily. HH. cornuta stands drought 
well. Its wood is tough, hard, and 
elastic. 


Estate owners and others who may 
think of planting up waste lands, or at 
least of increasing the number of trees 
on their estates, may usefully make 
selections from the following list of 
timber trees :— 

Lignum-vitz (Guatiacum officinale). A 
slow-growing tree yielding wood which 
is exceedingly dense, hard, heavy, and 
tough. This is extremely useful for a 
variety of turnery purposes. 


Galba (Calophyllum Calaba). <A tall 
and somewhat quick-growing tree which 
reaches a diameter of 4 or 5 feet. The 
wood is durable, and is suitable for mill 
rollers, frames, and for shingles, ete. It 
bears exposure well. 


Mammee apple (Mammea americana). 
This tree reaches 40 to 60 feet high, and 
yields durable timber that is adapted 
for use in exposed situations. The 
mammee apple tree is not common at 
Antigua, and it is probable that it would 
not grow wellin the drier parts of the 
island. 

The ‘red mangrove’ (Rhizophora 
Mangle) and the ‘black mangrove’ 
(Avicennia nitida) both growin swamps, 
and the wood in each case is valaatle 
for piles, posts, etc. 

White cedar (Tecona leucoxylon). This 
tree is common at Antigua. The wood 
isused largely in house-building, and is 
valuable for piles, posts, and in making 
shingles. 

Logwood (Hematoxylon  compechi- 
anum). ‘Phis tree, which seldom reaches 
more than 20 feet high, is also common 
at Antigua. A veryserviceable hedge is 
formed by setting out the young plants 
closely in rows. The wood is hard and 
suitable for posts and cabinet work. It 
is also of considerable value as a dye- 
wood. 

Cashaw (Prosopis juliflora). The 
cashaw grows toas much as 380 feet in 
height, but its diameter is seldom more 
than 1 foot. The timber is very strong 
and durable, suitable fur railway sleepers, 
fence posts, etc. The pods of the cashaw, 
when dry, form a good article of fodder, 
and are greedily eaten by stock of all 
tents: The wood also makes excellent 
uel. 


Bastard mahogany, walunt or angelin 
(Andira inermis). A large and hand- 


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re / yt 
a y ; cs ly 
A a = 
; 
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3 a 
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I i 
a 
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7 = nS 
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Hi 
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"UD)WOYW A fig OJON 


‘SNVOD313S VYANYNL 


; = Ocrossr, 1909.] 


some tree, somewhat common in the 
‘southern part of Antigua. It is of erect 
growth, and witha trunk from 1 to2 
feet in diameter. The wood is strong 
and hard, lasts well in water, and is 
suitable for turnery purposes. 


Woman’s tongue (Albizzia Lebbek): 
The wood of this tree is fairly durable 
and polishes well. Itis used in making 
furniture, boat building, and for general 
purposes. 


Red cedar (Cedrela odorata). On good 
soil this tree frequently attains a height 
of from 40 to 60 feet, with a trunk 
diameter of from 3 to4 feet. It is quick- 
growing, the wood being open-grained, 
but soft and porous. Cedar. wood is in 
request for furniture making, especially 
wardrobes, shingles, interior house- 
work, ete, Thedrier parts of Antigua 
would perhaps be unsuitable for this 
tree. : 


Casuarina equisetifolia. The Casua- 
rina is a straight and quick-growing 
tree, which yields good timber, that is 
ound especially useful in making cattle 
yokes. 


317 


Timbers 


Locust (Hymenea Courbaril). This 
tree has a trunk which reaches up to 
5 feet in diameter. The wood is tough 
and somewhat resembles mahogany, but 
is harder, It is used for cabinet and 
furniture work. Itis liable to rot in the 
ground, 


White-wood (Terminalia  Buceras). 
The White-wood is a large tree that 
yields timber which is useful for a 
variety of purposes. Thisis one of the 
best woods for shingles. It is very 
durable in water. 


Other trees suitable for planting in 
Antigua, and which yield wood of value, 
are the following :— 


Mahogany (Swietenia Mahagoni), Sapo- 
dilla (Achras Sapota), Star apple (Chry- 
sophyllum Cainito). Almond (Termi- 
nalia Catappa), Torch wood (Tecoma 
stans), and the sea-side grape (Coccoloba 
uvifera), Which grows on_ indifferent 
lands near the sea-shore. 


It may also be added that the wood of 
the HiABge and acacia makes excellent 
uel, 


HORTICULTURE. | 


TURNERA ELEGANS. 


By H. F. MAcMILLAN. 


(Illustrated.) 


Among the best flowering plants for 
gardens iu the Tropics must be included 
Turnera elegans, also known as 7". trioni- 
flora, of the natural order Turneracee. 
It is a small shrubby perennial, native of 
Brazil, with thin wiry straggling 
branches, seldom exeeeding two feet in 
height. The exact date of its introduc- 
tion into Ceylon is not recorded, but the 
plant is known to have been grown at 
Peradeniya previous to 1845, 


The flowers are of a pretty creamy 
white colour, with a dark-purple ‘‘eye” 
formed by the coloured base of the 
petals. The flowers, which are sessile 
or very shortly stalked, are produced 
singly in the axils of the upper leaves, 
to the stalks of which they are adherent ; 
they open in the morning and close at 
noon, the petals assuming a twisted form. 
The plant is in flower throughout the 
greater part of the year, but more 


particularly in the dry season, and when 
grown in a mass, as at Peradeniya, is 
very attractive. The leaves when 
bruised are strongly scented, somewhat 
resembling sorrel. A peculiarity of this 
family, which is shared by the plant 
under notice, is that the flowers of some 
of the species are what is termed in 
botany dimorphic and heterostyled ; that 
is, the flowers of one plant are long- 
styled, with stamens half-way up the 
tube of the corolla and the stigma and 
its mouth; while on another plant the 
flowers are short-styled, with the stigma 
half-way up and the stamens at the 
mouth. This arrangement is a provision 
of Nature for effecting cross-fertilisa- 
tion, which in this case is brought about 
by the aid of bees or butterflies. 


The plant is propagated by division, 
cuttings, or seed. It thrives best in 
a rich free soil in partial shade, and will 
respond well toa liberal application of 
well-decomposed manure or leaf-mould, 
which may be given as a top dressing and 
forked into the soil. The plant bears 
transplanting badly, and when this oper- 
ation is undertaken the shoots should first 
be pruned well back, the plants being 
afterwards copiously watered and 
shaded, 


318 


- 


PLANT SANITATION. 


INSECTS ASSOCIATED WITH THE 
COTTON PLANT IN CEYLON. 


By KH. ERNEST GREEN, 
Government Entomologist. 


The insect enemies of the cotton plant 
in Ceylon have hitherto received little 
notice, owing to the merely spasmodic 
attempts that have been undertaken to 
cultivate this plant until the last few 
years. The recent demand for British- 
grown cotton has, however, drawn tresh 
attention to the possibilities of cotton as 
a profitable industry in the drier parts 
ot the Island. Even now the area under 
cultivation with this product is limited 
to a few hundred acres. But our very 
short and limited experience has been 
sufficient to show us that the cotton 
plant is remarkably subject to insect 
enemies of many kinds, and that—if the 
industry is to be a success—we must be 
prepared to fight these enemies from the 
very commencement. 


The rapidity with which this plant be- 
comes infested by its particular enemies 
is most remarkable. A small plot was 
opened on the Peradeniya Experiment 
Station in the preseut year for the first 
time. As far asIcan learn, no cotton had 
previously been grown in the neighbour- 
hood. But the very first crop raised 
was so badly infested by boll-worms and 
cotton-stainers as to be practically value- 
less. One of these boll-worms (Gelechia 
gossypiella) is not known to breed in 
any other plant, and is consequently de- 
peadent upon the cotton for its exis- 
tence; the other pests frequent allied 
plants, but are seldom found in such 
abundance as on the cotton. 


We have, fortunately, no such alarm- 
ing pests as are prevalent in the 
American States, where the notorious 
‘Boll-weevil’ alone has been engaging 
the attention and taxing the energies 
of the economic entomologists of the 
United States for more than ten 
years. To give some small idea of the 
importance of this pest, I will quote 
from a recent circular of the U. S. 
Department of Agriculture, which states 
that ‘a conservative estimate shows 
that since the weevil invaded this coun- 
try it has caused a loss of 2,550,000 bales of 
cotton, at a value of about % 125,000,000,” 
—asum equivalent to twenty-five million 
pounds sterling. 

But our comparative immunity from 
such overwhelming enemies is rather 
apparent than real. If we had the same 


acreage under cultivation as there isin ~ 


America, and if the greater part of that 


acreage wasas badly attacked by our ~ 


local boll-worm as was the half-acre plot 
on our Experiment Station, the total loss 
might rival, or even exceed, the figures 
just quoted. Then, with the gradual 


extension of the area under any pro- 


duct, it is the usual experience that fresh 
pests will come into prominence, attract- 
ed by a coustant and unfailing supply 
of food. 


However, the consideration of such 
figures must not be taken too seriously. 
An immense incalculable loss is always 
taking place, with every product, 
through the depredations of various 
pests; and yet enough remains to re- 
pay the cultivator. It has been esti- 
mated that, if every sparrow in England 
consumed one farthing’s worth of corn 
during the year, the annual loss through- 
out the British Islands would amoutteee 
over a million pounds. We might thus 
ile up a stupendous total of loss to the 
ritish farmers during the last century. 
But corn is still grown and will continue 
to be grown with profit. In the same 
way, if the annual loss of leaf through 
our various tea pests—shot-hole borer, 
helopeltis, tea-mites, and sundry eater- 
pillars—could be put into figures, -it 
would!probably scare a considerable num- 
ber of worthy people at home, whose 
capital is invested in this product. 


It will be sufficient to realize that the 
cultivation of cotton will not be merely 
a matter of putting in the seed and har- 
vesting the crop in due course; that 
there will be numerous enemies to be 
contended against; and that careful at- 


tention will be necessary at all stages of 


the plant. 


In the time at my disposal, it will be 
impossible to offer a treatise upon the 
particular treatment of all these enemies, 
but, to assist in the recognition of them, 
I have enumerated and briefly described 
some of the principal insects associated 
with the cotton plant that have come 
under my observation. 

The most important of these are the 
boll-worms, of which we have two 
species in Ceylon. 

1. The ‘Pink Boll-worm’ (Gelechia 
gossypiella) is a smal]l coral-pink maggot- 
like caterpillar that feeds among the 
ripening seeds of the pod. The eggs are 


‘laid singly on the leaf-like bracts at the 


base of the boll, and the young cater- 
pillar bores its way into the pod. This 
tunnel is apparently enlarged and kept 


[OctroBER, 1909. 


See a 


<r 


o2->The 


OCTOBER, 1909.] 


open toensure a supply of air. Infested 
pods can be recognized by the presence 
of this circular hole, usually situated 
near the base. The fully grown cater- 
pillar may either spinits cocoon amongst 
the lint, or it may desert the boll 
and descend to the ground, where it 
pupates amongst the loose earth. It 
finally emerges as a small dull-coloured 
grayish-brown moth with narrow wings, 
having an expanse of from 3 to? of an 
inch. Lefroy states that, in India, there 
are six broods inthe year, and that— 
in the colder districts—the caterpillar 
hibernates in the seed. Bolls that have 
been attacked by the insect usually 
open prematurely and do not ripen their 
lint, which remains in a more or less 
matted condition. The premature split- 
ting of the bolls also makes way for the 
entrance of cotton-stainers (described 
below) which complete the mischief, 


‘Hairy Boll-worm’ (Harias 
fabia). This isa rather larger caterpillar, 
very pale green, with some yellow spots 
and darker markings on each side. The 
hairs are sparsely scattered over the 
body. It tunnels not only into the 
young bolls but also into the tender 
stems of the plant. Like the ‘ pink _boll- 
worm’ it may pupate either inside its 
tunnel or on the surface of the ground. 
The moth is a very pretty little insect; 
the front wings creamy white, with a 
bright green wedge-shaped band extend- 
ing through the middle of the wing from 
the body to the outer margin. It is a 
more thick-set moth than that of the 
previous species, and has an expanse of 
£ofaninch. This species of boll-worm 
has been recognized only recently in 
Ceylon, but is a well known pest of 
cotton in India where, according to 
Lefroy, it has about eight broods in the 


year. The resulting damage is similar 
to that caused by the pink boll- 
worm, 


For remedial treatmert, these two 
species may be considered together. The 
collection and destruction of the wormy 
bolls which—after a little practice—are 
easily recognized by the presence of 
the small circular entrance to the 
tunnel, or by the premature splitting of 
the pod, will ‘greatly reduce the later 
broods and so lessen damage to subse- 
quent crops. But this will not save the 
existing crop which has already been 
damaged. The similarity of the mode of 
attack to that of the Codlin moth of the 
apple, suggests the possibility of a 
similar preventive treatment, namely, 
by spraying with Lead Arsenate as soon 
as the fruit begins to swell. The young 
caterpillars, in attempting to tunnel 
into the boll, will be poisoned by the 
superficial layer of arsenic. 


bolls. 


319 Plant Sanitation, 


As already mentioned, Mr. Lefroy 
records the hibernation of the pink boll- 
worm in the cotton seed in the colder 
parts of the plains of India. It is doubt- 
ful if any hibernation would occur in the 
warmer districts, or in Ceylon. And yet 
it is difficult to account otherwise for 
the sudden appearance of the pest in 
newly-planted and isolated fields. Mr. 
Lefroy informs me that—as a_ pre- 
caution—he recommends the fumigation 
of the seed before planting. Imported 
cotton seed is now being fumigated at 
Colombo before delivery ; but if hiber- 
nation in the seed is of more genera- 
occurrence, it would be equally advisl 
able to fumigate local seed, or to dis- 
infect it in some other manner. 


Next in importance to the ‘ boll-worms 
are the ‘cotton-stainers.’ These belong 
to the bug tribe (the Hemiptera) and are 
armed with sharp sucking proboscis. 
The cotton-stainers earn their name 
through the frequent discoloration of 
the lint either from their excreta or by 
the juices of their bodies when acci- 
dentally crushed. The following four 
species attack our cotton in Ceylon. 


3. The ‘Dusky Cotton-Stainer’ (Oxy- 
carenus leetus). This is a very small 
dingy little insect, scarcely more than 
one-eighth of an inch in length; the 
body and legs dull black; the wings 
semi-transparent and folded close across 
the back. This bug swarms in the 
cotton bolls after they have opened, 
and is, I believe, itself responsible for 
the premature opening of many of the 
It also punctures the green pods, 
causing them to dry up and split. It 
occurs in countless thousands in the cot- 
ton fields. As many asa hundred indi- 
viduals may occupy a single infested 
boll. Ihave not seen the eggs, but Mr. 
Lefory states that they are laid amongst 
the lint, close to the seed, in batches 
of six toten, He describes the eggs as 
cigar-shaped, about one-thirtieth of an 
inch long, of a bright yellow colour at 
first, but turning bright orange shortly 
before hatching. The young insects are 
miniature editions of the parent, but 
lighter in colour and wingless. 


4. The ‘Ceylonese Cotton-Stainer 
(Oxycarenus lugubris) is very similar to 
the preceding species, but may be dis- 
tinguished by its black wings, each with 
a creamy white triangular spot near its 
base. The young insect is of a brick-red 
colour, with a white band across the 
base of the abdomen. It occurs only in 
Ceylon. Its habits are similar to those 
of its ‘dusky’ relative. 

5. The ‘Banded Cotton-Stainer’ (Dys- 
dercus cingulatus). This is a larger in- 
sect, more than half an inch long. The 
general colour varies from grayish- 


Plant Sanitation. 


ochreous to bright red. The extremities 
of the wings are black, and form, when 
folded together, a conspicuous black 
diamond-shaped patch. There are also 
two black rounded spots situated just 
in front of the termina] patch. A 
narrow white transverse band forms a 
collar immediately behind the _ head. 
The under-surface of the body is con- 
spicuously banded with white. 


Lefroy records that “the eggs are laid 
in a loose mass under the surface of the 
soil, usually in a crack or depression, 
which the female covers with earth after 
depositing the eggs. Hach egg is round, 


of alight yellow colour ; between 50 or- 


60 are laid by each female. In less than 
a week the eggs hatch to small active 
red insects.” 


The ‘banded cotton-stainer’ does not 


confine its attentions to the cotton plant,, 


but is found commonly upon Hibiscus 
and numerous other plants. The insects 
congregate on the cotton bolls, sucking 
out the juice and even damaging the 
contained seeds, especially after the 
bursting of the pod. 

5. The ‘Large Cotton-Stainers’ (Seri- 
netha abdominalis and S. augur). I 
have found both of these insects sucking 
the seeds of burst cotton pods. They 
differ from the last species in their 
slightly larger size (from five-eighths to 
three-quarters of an inch long), and in 
the absence of the white collar and of 
the two black spots on the wings. They 
may be distinguished from each other by 
their colour, abdominalis being ochreous 
above and blackish beneath ; while augur 
is red above and below. They each have 
a large lozenge-shaped black patch at 
the end of the folded wings. 


The remedy for all the different cotton- 
- gtainers is to reduce their numbers by 
every possible means. This may best be 
effected by shaking the branches over a 
sheet, when the insects fall off and may 
be collected and thrown into vessels con- 
taining kerosene and water. If this is 
carried out systematically at the com- 

mencement of the crop, much trouble 
~ will beavoided lateron. If—asis usually 
the case—some of the bugs remain in the 
lint after it has been picked, they will 
quickly remove themselves -when the 
lint is spread out in the hot sun. 


Several Scale-bugs (Coccidee) occur 
with considerable frequency on cotton 
stems, and must weaken the vitality of 
the plants to a certain extent. The 
three more common species are repre- 
sentatives of the three larger families of 


scale-insects, namely, the ‘hard scales’ 
(Lecaniine), the ‘mealy-bugs’ (Dactylo- 


piinoe) and the ‘armoured scales’ (Dias- 
pidine). 


320 


6. The ‘Black Bug’ (Lecanium nigrum) 
is a small black limpet-like scale, 
with a hard shiny shell beneath which 
the countless eggs are deposited, The 
newly-hatched insects—which are almost 
invisible to the naked eye—swarm on to 
the smaller twigs and branches, where 
they attach themselves by their fine 


‘hair-like proboscides for the rest of their 


lives. They are at first very pale pinkish 
yellow; but during growth, they gradu- 
ally become darker, the pigment com- 
mencing in the form of a network of 
reddish brown lines; finally becoming 
biack or deep chestnut-brown. 


7. The ‘Filamentous Mealy-Bug’ Dacty- 
lopius virgatus) becomes conspicuous on 
the younger stalks by the masses of 
cottony or silky secretion with which it 
surrounds itself. The adult insect is 
soft and fleshy and of a pale yellowish 
or pinkish colour which, however, is 
almost completely obscured by a cover- 
ing of white mealy powder. 


8. Hemichionaspis aspidistra. It is 
difficult to find a suitable popular name 
for this insect. It might be called the 
‘Seurfy Seale,’ but that name has 
already been adopted for a different 
species that occurs in America. The 
Americans term this species the ‘Fern 
Seale,’ from the frequency with which it 
occurs on cultivated ferns in that 
country. In Ceylon, the insect appears 
to be equally abundant upon fifty or 
mire different plants of widely different — 
orders, 


It affects the stems of the plant. The 
females are very inconspicuous, being 
covered bya thin scale of a very pale 
reddish-brown colour which closely re- 
sembles the tints of the bark. But the 
males are concealed beneath a snowy- 
white tricarinate scale, and—having the 
habit of congregating together by them- 
selves—form conspicuous white scurf- 
like patches on the stems. 


It is questionable whether any effective 
remedial measures against these scale- 
insects would repay the cost. They can 
be killed by spraying with kerosene 
emulsion. But the effective life of the 
plant is comparatively so short that the 
bugs have not sufficient time to increase 
toa really dangerous extent before the 
old plants are uprooted and burnt to- 
gether with all the insects upon them. 


Of the remaining insects associated 
with the cotton plant in Ceylon, it will 
be suffizient to speak very shortly. They 
are not, at present, of sufficient im- 
portance to necessitate special remedies, 

9. Helopeltis antonnit. I have, on one 
occasion, observed a few specimens of 
thisinsect on the cottou plant, But as — 


the field wasin the immediate vicinity - 


[OcToRER, 1909. 


— OcrToBER, 1909, 824 


-ofacacao plot, itis probable that they 
had wandered from their usual habitat. 


~However, by confining them with young 
shoots of cotton, I found that they would 


_ feed readily upon this plant, causing the 


characteristic brown spots that are al- 
ways associated with the work of this 
pest. 


The insect itself is almost too well 
known to require description. It is one 
of the leaf-sucking bugs, a slender insect, 
with long antenns and legs, and popu- 
larly supposed to resemble a mosquito. 
It may be recognized by the presence of 
a knobbed spine (somewhat like a drum- 
stick) standiug up erect from between 
the bases of the wings. 


10. Callicratides rama. A pale green 
bug, with hyaline wings, allied to and 
having the same habits as the Helopeltis. 
A few examples were found upon cotton 
bushes on the Experiment Station, Pera- 
deniya. 

1l, Zeuzera coffee. The ‘ Red Borer.’ 
This boring caterpillar is gradually 
proving itself to be more or less omni- 
vorous. I have a single record of a cot- 
ton stem tunnelled by the red-borer. 


12. Syleptamultilinealis. The ‘Cotton 
Leaf-Roller.’ I'he small greenish cater- 
pillars of this moth are often present in 
some numbers on the cotton plant ; roll- 
ing up the leaves and feeding upon their 
infolded edges. The resulting moth 
is a~ pretty insect, with pale creamy 
wings upon which is an intricate net 
work of delicate brown lines. The ex- 
panded Wings measure a little over one 
inch. 

13. Hupterote geminata. The hairy 
caterpillars of this moth sometimes oc- 
cur in bunches on the branches. They 
feed at night and rest motionless during 
the day. They should be handled with 
caution as their hairs are capable of 
causing painful irritation to a delicate 
skin. The moth is of an ochreous yellow 
colour, with an inconspicuous brownish 
line extending across each wing, and 
two or three brownish spots between 
that line and the outer margin. The 
body of the moth is very furry. The 
male measures nearly two inches across 
the wings; the female, two and a half 
inches, ; 

14. Gracilaria species. <A tiny cater- 

_ pillar that feeds beneath the cuticle 
of the green stems. Specimens of this 
insect were received from the Kurune- 
galla_ district; but they died before 
completing their transformations. 

15. Psiloptera festuosa. A beautiful 
bronzy metallic-green beetle, one inch 
in length, belonging to the family Bup- 
restide. Collected on the cotton bushes 
at the Experiment Station, Mahaillup- 
palama. The larve of this family of 

41 


Plant Sanitation, 


beetles are all borers; but as no damage 
to the cotton was observed, it is probable 
that the beetles had their proper home 
in the surrounding jungle. 


16. Geocoris tricolor. A tiny stout- 
bodied bug, with broad head and promi- 
nent eyes. A number of these insects 
were captured on the cotton plot at 
Peradeniya. Bugs of this genus are 
believed to be predatory upon other in- 
sects. In this case they may have been 
doing good work amongst the swarms of 
the Dasky Cotton-Stainer. 


17. Flower Beetles. Numerous minute 
beetles, of several species, wiil usually 
be found frequenting the blossoms of 
the cotton, They congregate amongst 
the stamens and may possibly assist in 
the fertilisation of the flowers by carry- 
ing the pollen from one blossom to 
another. 


In conclusion, I should like to empha- 
sise the importance of treating the 
cotton plant strictly as anannual. The 
best way to check all the insect pests 
that attack it, is to uproot and burn 
the plants immediatly after the principal 
crop. During the intervals, not a single 
cotton plant should be permitted to re- 
main inthe ground. If this system is 
conscientiously carried out, most of the 
insects that are dependent upon the 
cotton plant for their livelihood will be 
destroyed or starved out bsfore the 
appearance of the next crop. A second 
or even third crop might perhaps be 
gathered from the same plants by 
leaving them inthe ground; but these 
later crops will be much more severely 
punished by pests of all kinds, and will 
be a source of danger to fresh crops that. 
may overlap the old. For the same 
reason, perennial (or tree) cottons should 
not be cultivated anywhere in the vici- 
nity of the annual varieties. 


As some of the cotton-stainers (and 
probably some other cotton pests) fre- 
quent the ‘Silk-Cotton’ trees (Hrio- 
dendron and Bombax) when they are in 
fruit, these trees also should be pro- 
hibited on a cotton plantation. 

Recent experiments in the United 
States have proved that itis not only 
important to destroy the old bushes, 
but that they should be destroyed 
immediately after the collection of the 
crop, to allow of the longest possible 
interval between two successive crops. 
A delay of three weeks increased the 
percentage of boll-weevils that survived 
the interval, from 8to15; seven weeks’ 
delay increased the number of survivors 
to nearly 22 per cent.; ten weeks’ delay 
brought the figure up to 28 per cent. ; and 
the retention of the old plants for three 


months resulted in a percentage of 433 _ 


survivors. 


sy. ee 
ba Se ee ag tyes i 


PRI ALTE ee Re Cree cg ee rhe: eC eee MeO oN BONY SPN y Val 


Plant Sanitation. 322 


A RIPE ROT OF MANGOKS. 


By T. PETCH, B.Sc., B.A. 

Specimens of mangoes have recently 
been sent in from the Batticaloa dis- 
trict, with the information that they 
usually developed black spots when 
ripening, and had lost the flavour which 
characterised them in previous years. 
The tree was a grafted mango, imported 
from India, the fruits being of the rupee 
mango type and above the average size, 
The grower stated that the fruits were 
gathered before they were ripe, in order 
to avoid the ravages of squirrels, and 
were kept closely packed for a few 
days until they acquired a golden 
colour. The ripening began from the 
stalk end of the fruit, that end becom- 
ing pale yellow and soft while the 
remainder of the fruit was greenish. In 
previous years the fruits had been sweet, 
but now, when apparently ripe, they 
were sour. 


Two specimens were sent. One of 
them showed a few circular black spots 
scattered over the surface, and was 
turning pale yellow round the stalk, 
the other was still green. The black 
spots didnot extend through the rind, 
some of them were superficially cracked, 
and contained a dark-brown irvegular 
mycelium in the cracks, but this had 
not spread into the fruit. At first sight, 
therefore, these spots appeared to have 
no connection with the change of flavour, 
but another explanation of them 
presented itself afterwards. On cutting 
open the fruit, the pulp below the pale 
yellow rind was found to be watery 
looking, contrasting strongly with the 
firm orange flesh under the greenish rind. 
This watery tissue extended all over the 
top of the fruit, and down on both sides 
of the stone, Microscopic examination 
proved that this part of the fruit was 
permeated by a coarse hyaline mycelium, 
spreading in all directions between the 
cells. The cells still contained a large 
number of starch grains, a fact which 
shows that ripening had not been com- 
pleted, since in the course of the ripen- 
ing process the starch grains are con- 
verted into sugars. It is quite clear, 
therefore, that the supposed ripening 
is not a ripening but a rot caused by a 
fungus, and that the acid flavour is due to 
the incomplete conversion of the starch 
grains in the immature fruits. The 
fungus enters the fruit through the 
stalk and spreads in all directions 
through that end of the fruit, and 
therefore that part appears to ripen 
first. When it reaches the top of the 
stone it travels down both sides of it 
much more rapidly than in the fleshy 


_exterior. 
on these patches ruptured and disclosed — 


[OcTOBER, 1909. 


parts; the rot of the tissue round the 
stone in this case made it possible to shell 
out the latter after the manner of a 
plum stone. This fruit was split into 
two parts longitudinally, and the 
halves were placed ip a glass dish. By 
the next morning it had developed an 
abundant covering of greyish black 
mycelium over all the watery yellow 
parts but not over the firm orange 
yellow tissue. This confirmed the result 
of microscopic examination, that the 
fungus was confined to the watery 
tissue, while the luxuriant growth 


showed what an enormous quantity of 


mycelium the tissue contained. In a 
few days it had spread all over the 
hitherto sound parts. 


From acomparison of the mycelia, it 
is evident that the restricted black spots 
scattered over the sound fruit are the 
result of ineffectual attacks of the 
fungus on the fruit, most probably when 
it was on the tree. In these cases the 
fungus could not penetrate the rind, but 
after the fruit had been gathered it 
easily entered through the stalk. The 
two effects are caused by the same 
fungus, but the rot does not, or did not 
in this case, extend inwards from the 
superficial black spots. 


As is usual in such cases, the extremely 
abundant mycelium did not develop 
any fructification. This was obtained 
from the second specimen, which was 
placed, uncut, undera bell glass. In a 
few days it turned pale yellow round 
the stalk, as in the first example, and 
then developed large, dull black, or 
blackish brown patches at that end of 
the fruit. These spots are caused by the 
fungus attacking the rind from the 
interior; those previously referred to 
were the results of its attack from the 
Subsequently, the epidermis 


dull brown masses of spores, from one- 
hundredth to one-fiftieth of an inch in 
diameter, surrounded by the upturned 
epidermis; and as the number of these 
masses increased, the whole of the black 
spots became covered with confluent 
spore masses. These masses are pinkish 
when dry. The individual spores are 
hyaline and cylindric, and measure 12 
to 19 microns in length and 4 to § microns 
in breadth. The rotten fruits were kept 
for several weeks, but no other fructi- 
fication was discovered, although that 
already described is only one stage in 
the life history of the fungus. 


The fungus is a Gleosporium, evi- 
dently Gleosporium mangae, Noack, 
which was first found on mango fruits 
in Brazil. Two other species of Glaos- 
porium have been found on mango 


pba Ati 


5 


bd 
wn 


Se 


ee eee 


AA Os - egal > ved tet 


OctopER, 1909.] 


leaves ; one of them, Glaosporium mangi- 
ferae,P. Henn., was found on the young 
leaves of a mango tree in the Berlin 
Botanical Garden, while the other, which 
rejoices inthe name Gleosporium faci- 
borskii, P. Henn., was found on young 
mango leaves inJava, These differ in the 
colour of their spore masses, and slightly 
in the size of their-spores; but since it 
is known that Glwosporium spores are 
variable, and that the colour of the 
spore mass in species of this kind may 
vary according to the substance on 
which they are grown, it is highly pro- 
bable that the fungus is the same in all 
eases, in spite of the three names. 
Investigation of the mango leaves has 
not yet been undertaken in the present 
instance ; the spots caused on them by 
these fungi are brown or blackish brown, 
becoming grey, and dry, after the 
fashion of ‘‘ Grey Blight” spots. 

If the fungus lives on the leaves, it 
would be necessary to spray the tree in 
order to get rid of it. But the specimens 
appear to show that it cannot make 
much impression onthe growing fruits, 
although it easily effects an entrance 


_ through the stalk after they have been 


gathered. In that case it would pro- 
bably be sufficient to treat the fruits, 


328 


Plant Sanitation. 


after gathering, with a weak fungicide. 
Recent experiments in Hngland and the 
West Indies have proved that the 
decay of ripe fruits can be prevented for 
some time by dipping them in a solution 
of Formalin. A three per cent. solution 
of commercial Formalin is used, %e., 
three parts of Formalin in one hundred 
parts of water, and the fruits are 
immersed in this for ten minutes, In 
the case of soft fruits, such as straw- 
berries, the whole of which is eaten, 
they are afterwards rinsed in water, 
but this is unnecessary with fruits which 
possess an inedible rind. They are then 
placed on wire netting, or a wooden 
frame, to drain and dry. This method 
should be followed in the case of 
mangoes, when the crop is attacked by 
this disease. 


It is not clear why mangoes should be 
closely packed to ripen, instead of being 
merely placed on shelves, as is done with 
apples. Where the disease occurs regu- 
larly, it would be as well to bake the 
packing material before using it. Of 
course, rotten fruits should be disposed 
of in such a way that they do not afford 
acrop of spores for further infection ; 
probably the easiest way would be to 
bury them. 


APICULTURE. 


PRACTICAL INSTRUCTIONS FOR 
BEGINNERS. 


THE CONDITIONS UNDER WHICH BEES 
BUILD STRAIGHT WORKER COMBS 
FROM STARTERS. 


By H. D. Townsenp. 


(From the Gleaningsin Bee Culture, Vol. 
XXVII., August 1, 1909, No. 15.) 


Although we use and recommend full 
sheets of foundation in wired frames, it 
may be well to consider how and when 
one can get along with starters only in 
brood-frames, as some may not want to 
use full sheets. - 


Bees build two sizesof cells in their 
comb-building. The larger size run 
about four to the inch, and are used for 
rearing drones and sometimes for storing 
honey. The smaller cells run about five 
to the inch, and are used for rearing 
workers and for storage. The bee-keeper 
should strive to get all-worker combs 


built; for, in spite of all the care that 
can be taken, more than enough drone 
comb usually appears. Of course, in 
case of an extra-fine colony that one 
desires to breed from, a solid drone comb 
can be given in order that there may be 
plenty of diones of this desirable stock 
in the yard. 


Itis a fact that bees under certain condi- 
tions build almost all worker comb; and 
it is also true that, under other con- 
ditions, a great deal of undesirable drone 
comb is built. For instance, a new 
medium-sized swarm, placed in a hive of 
a size that may be filled with combs and 
brood in about 23 days or less, ought to 
build worker comb mainly, although 
some of the last combs built may contain 
afew drone cells. The secret seems to 
bein having just the right number of 
workers and just the right amount of 
honey coming in, so that the bees will 
draw out the combs no faster than the 
queen can occupy them with brood. As 
long as this condition lasts we should 
expect the bees to build worker combs. 
From this we see that, in order to get 
good results in comb-building from a 
natural swarm, this swarm should be of 
just the right size, and there should be 


Apicultura 324 


honey flow of, say, three or four pounds 
a day. 


We willsuppose alargeswarm is hived 
during a pericd when honey is coming in 
freely. At this time there is too much 
honey coming in for the best results in 
comb-building in the brood-nest if the 
whole force of workers is comrelled 
todo all their workin the brood-nest. 
The remedy is to put most of the workers 
at work in the supers. Most beginners 
fail in doing this; but the principle is 
to make surplus receptacles more invit-~ 
ing to the workers than the brood-nest, 
and the bees will immediately go up 
into the supers on being hived. Our 
comb-honey super with extracting 
combs at the sides makes ideal arrange- 
ment for this very thing. 


It is plain to see that, if most of the 
honey being carrled in is placed in the 
sections, whereit should be, the queen 
will not be hurried to keep pace with 
the workers, consequently nearly all- 
workers comb will be built. The brood- 
nest should be filled with comb during 
the first 23 days after the swarm is hived, 
for the queen must keep up with the 
workers and lay in nearly every cell as 
fast as it is drawn out, or the bees will 
begin to store honey in the cells. When 
this condition arrives, the bees, on the 
supposition that the queen has reached 
her limit, and tkat the rest of the combs 
will be used for storing honey, begin to 
build the storage size or the drone-cells 
in the brood-nest. This is likely to occur 
in about 25 days after the swarm is 
hived; for by this time the brood is 
beginning to hatch outin that part of 
the hive where the laying began. From 
this time on the queen has nearly all she 
can doto keep the cells filled with eggs 
where the young bees are hatching. 
This means that the comb-building part 
of the hive is neglected, and that the 
bees build store or drone comb to a great 
extent until the hive is filled. 


It sometimes happens thata very late 
swarm will issue ; and since the season is 
nearing its close, it is not possible for such 
a swarn to build more than five combs 
before the honey ceases coming in, We 
hive swarms as usual, and in about two 
days five of the frames having the 
least combs built are removed and a 
division-board placed up against. the re- 
maining five frames, these five having 
been shoved over to one side of the hive. 


If a super is given such a swarm at the 


time of hiving, it must be a nearly 
finished one, as the bees will need most 
of their time to finish up the five combs 
in the brood-nest. If one has two of 
such five-comb colonies they can be unit- 


ed at the close of the season, so that — 


there will be none but full-sized colonies 
to winter, A better plan than this for 
late swarms, or for any small after- 
swarms that one may have, is to hive 
them on full sets of combs taken, possi- 
bly, from hives in which colonies died 
the previous winter. This is a very 
good way to get such combs filled with 
bees, but some swarms hived in this way 
may need feeding for winter. 


There are artificial ways of handling 
bees so that they will build good worker 
combs. I refer to the plan of shaking 
the bees into an empty hive, in the same 
way that a swarm is hived. If a colony 
is divided into nuclei of, say, two or 
three combs each, and each nucleus 
given a young queen reared the same 
year, such little colonies will build very 
nice worker combs; but the beginner 
will not be interested in this artificial 
way of making increase, for he should 
stick to the natural-swarming plan for 
his increase until such time as he has 
had experience and made a success of 
getting acrop of honey. In fact, there 
are many things to be learned before a 
begginer should take up artificial ways 
of faaking increase. 


It is just a question in my mind 
whether there is a better or more profit- 
able way of making increase in the pro- 
duction of comb honey than the natural- 
swarming method. In extracted-honey 
production, when the bees will not 
swarm enough to make up the winter 
loss, then artificial swarming must be 
resorted to. 


SomMg& CONDITIONS WHERE BEES BUILD 
MOSTLY DRONE COMB. 


Any colony found rearing drone brood- 
nest will, if comb is removed and an 
empty frame put in its place, build drone 
comb. It can be depended upon, more- 
over, that a colony of bees wintered 
over, containing a queen reared the sea- 
son before, or one older, will build drone 
comb until the time that itswarms. By 
this it can be seen thatit is necessary 
to replace any combs removed from a 
colony before it swarms in the spring or 
early summer, with an empty comb or 
with a frame containing a full sheet of 
foundation, or else drone comb will be 
the result. To be sure that a colony 
will build a large percentage of worker 
comb itis necessary to remove all the 
brood and to cause the bees of that 
colony to begin all over again, as in the 
case of natural swarming; or, aS men- 


tioned before, the colony can be broken ~ 


up into nuclei, each nucleus containing 
a young queen. 


Remus. Mich. 


(OcrozER, 1909, * 


ee ee ee ee 


re ee 


are 


325 


SCIENTIFIC AGRICULTURE. 


THE GROWTH OF LEGUMINOUS 
CROPS AND SOIL INOCULATION. 


(From the West Indian Bulletin, Vol. 
X., No. 1, 1909.) 


The fact that the growth of leguminous 
crops, as peas, beans, clover, etc., instead 
of diminishing the fertility of the land, 
often result in an increase of its crop- 
yielding capacity, was known and acted 
upon by practical workers in agriculture 
from early times, although it is only 
within comparatively recent years that 
any reason was brought forward which 
accounts satisfactorily for the matter. 


In the eighteenth, and greater part of 
the nineteenth centuries, while legum- 
inous crops were frequently included in 


farm rotations in European countries, 


opinions differed as to the actual way in 
which these plants were able to make 
such good growth—often without the 
aid of any nitrogenous manure—and at 
the same time to leave the land in such 
a condition that highly satisfactory 
returns were obtained from a succeeding 
cereal crop. By many it was thought 
that this was explained by the deep- 
rooting habit of the legumes, which 
enabled them to tap resources. of 
moisture and food in lower strata of the 
soil, untouched by other plants. Liebig, 
a welll-known agricultural chemist, 
brought forward the theory that clover 
and other broad-leaved plants were able 
to obtain considerable supplies of 
nitrogen from the air, this nitrogen being 
absorbed not in the elementary state, 
butin the form of ammonia and other 
compounds, which exist in small quantity 
in the atmosphere, 


The means by which plants obtain the 
nitrogen necessary for their growth, and 
the proportion between the quantity of 
nitrogen supplied in the manure and 
that removed in the resulting crop, were 
investigated by Boussingault, a French 
experimenter, about the middle of 
the nineteenth century. Boussingault 
weighed and analysed the crops pro- 
duced on his own farm during six separ- 
ate courses of rotation (all of which 
included a legume crop). Asa result, he 
found that, on the whole, from one-third 
to one-half more nitrogen was removed 
in the produce than was supplied in the 
manure. He further observed that the 
excess of nitrogen in the crop over that 
provided in the fertilizer was especially 


great in the case of a leguminous crop. 
This naturally pointed to the conclusion 
that the known value of clover, peas, 
and other plants of this family was due 
to a power possessed by them of enrich- 
ing the soil with nitrogen obtained from 
some outside source, most probably 
the air, 


Further experiments carried out by 
Boussingault, however, and also experi- 
mental work conducted by Lawes and 
Gilbert at Rothamsted in England, not 
only with legumes, but with plants ot 
other families as well, failed to sub- 
stantiate the growing belief that the free 
nitrogen of the atmosphere was avail- 
able as food for growing plants of any 
family. Asaresult, the matter rested 
for a time, until new investigations 
carried on in Kurope and America, re- 
opened the question, and about the year 
1883 evidence was brought forward 
which was sufficient to prove that plants 
of the legume family, under certain 
conditions, are capable of utilizing the 
free nitrogen of the air as a source of 
food supply. 


Among the many investigators of 
this question were two Germans, Messrs. 
Helliriegel and Wilfarth, to whom belong 
the credit of clearing up the whole matter 
of nitrogen assimilation by leguminous 
plants. In experiments conducted by 
these two scientists, the medium of 
cultivation employed consisted of sterile 
sand, in which were planted the seeds of 
plants belonging to different botanical 
families. The necessary plant food was 
supplied in the torm of nutrient solutions. 
Mineral plant food was given in all 
cases, butit was observed that when 
combined nitrogen was withheld, all the 
seedlings of plants belonging to orders 
other than the Leguminosz died from 
starvation as soon as the nitrogen con- 
tained in the seed was used up. By far 
the greater number of the legumes (peas) 
grown, died atthe same stage, but it 
was noted that one or two pea seedlings 
recovered and made good growth, despite 
the absence of combined nitrogen. In 
such cases, examination always showed 
that the roots of the plant were set with 
little nodules, which, it was known, are 
generally characteristic of the growth 
of Jegumes under normal corditions in 
the field. No nodules could be found on 
the roots of the plants which died. A 
further series of experiments was then 
started, in which pea plants, grown in 
sterile sand, were all fed with solutions 
of mineral plant food, but to some were 


Scientific Agriculture. 


added, in addition, just at the stage 
when the seedlings were dying of 
nitrogen hunger, small quantities of a 
watery extract of ordinary fertile soil. 
Asaresult, the young plants so treated 
recovered and grew to maturity, their 
roots in every case developing nodules 
similar to those already referred to. 


Hellriegel and Wilfarth were, there- 
fore, bound to conclude that the power 
possessed by yeas and other leguminous 
plants of appropriating free nitrogen 
from the air, and utilizing it in building 
up their own tissues, was dependent 
upon the formation of nodules upon the 
roots of these plants. The experiments 
in which the addition of watery extracts 
of fertile soil resulted in the revival and 
renewed growth of the seedlings pre- 
viously dying from nitrogen starvation, 
led further to the belief that the 
nodules themselves were due to inocu- 
lation of the soil—and_ hence of the roots 
of the plants—with some species of 
micro-organism. Other investigators, 
notably Lawes and Gilbert, confirmed 
the work of Hellriegel and Wilfarth, 
the results of which were published in 
1886. A further step in advance was 
made by Beyerinck, who demonstrated 
that the root nodules on leguminous 
plants were full of bacteria, which could 
be cultivated also on various artificial 
media. Beyerinck gave the name 
Pseudomonas radicicola to the bacteria 
in question. 

The Pseudomonas bacteria appear to 
be widely distributed in most fertile 
soils, although they naturally exist 
in much greater quantity in land on 
which legume crops are frequently 
grown. The organisms, as grown in 
artificial non-nitrogenous culture media, 
are observed to be exceedingly minute 
in size, rod-shaped, and generally in 
rapid motion. They exist free in the 
soil in this form, and enter the host plant 
through the root hairs, forming tuber- 
cles or noduleson the younger rootlets 
only. Within the nodules, however, 
the bacteria frequently undergo consi- 
derable modification, and in different 
plants they assume rather large rod- or 
Y-shaped forms. The irregular forms 
are especially numerous in the older 
tubercles. At the same time they in- 
crease enormously in number, 

The investigations carried out, as des 
cribed above, enabled a conclusion to be 
finally reached which afforded a satis- 
factory explanation of the observed 
facts, and of the contrary results which 
had at different times been obtained in 
experiments on the matter. It was 
evident that the bacteria in the root 
nodules were the agency by which legu- 
minous plants were enabled to assimilate 


326 


nitrogen from the air, and that, in the 
absence of these organisms, peas, clover, 
etc., were as dependent upon the supply 
of combined nitrogen in the soil as plants 
of other botanic families, eg., sugar- 
cane, cotton, etc, Since the relation- 
ship of the nitrogen-assimilating bac- 
teria to the legume cannot be regarded 
asin any way parasitic, but is rather a 
physiological partnership of mutual ad- 
vantage, the term symbiosis (literally 
‘living together’) has been applied to 
describe it. The plant supplies the 
necessary carbohydrate material which 
the bacteria require for their life pur- 
poses, and the micro-organism in turn 


gathers from the air nitrogen which is - 


ultimately utilized by the legume plant. 
It may here be mentioned that the 
mechanism of the actual process by 
which the plant avails itself of the nitro- 
gen compounds elaborated by the micro- 
organisms is still incompletly under- 
stood. It is possible that the host plant 
may attack and absorb the highly 
nitrogenous bacteria, or, on the other 
hand, it may avail itself of the soluble 
and diffusible substances formed within 
the bacterial cell. The latter appears 
the more probable explanation, since 
before the plant could utilize the nitro- 
genous compounds formiug the _ sub- 
stance of the bacterial organisms, it 
would be necessary that the latter be 
first broken down and dissolved. They 
would, in tact, have to be brought into 
a condition in which the plant could 
absorb them as food, by a process ana- 
logous to that in which the insoluble 
food supply in seeds is dissolved for the 
benefit of the developing embryo on the 
germination of the seed. This process 
of solution is effected by means of 
various ferments or enzymes, but, so far, 
no proteolytic ferment (7.e., one capable 
of dissolving proteid or nitrogen com- 
pounds) has been discovered in legu- 
minous plants, and therefore there is 
little basis for assuming that these plants 
secure the nitrogen collected by the 
bacteria in their root nodules by dissolv- 
ing and absorbing the latter. 


The figures which have been placed on 


record showing the actual amounts of 
nitrogen added to the soil, as the result 
of growing various leguminous crops, 
are useful as giving a clear idea of the 
value of including such crops in farm 
and estate rotations. Hven in the 
course of a single season these quantities 
of nitrogen may be quite large. Experi- 
ments with velvet beans in Alabama 
showed a gain of nitrogen amounting to 
218 lb, per acre, while with the same 
crop, gains of 172 lb. and 141 lb. per acre 
were obtained in Louisiana and Florida 
respectively, Trials with cowpeas have 


[OCTOBER, 1909. 


> 


- OCTOBER, 1909,] 327 


shown equally satisfactory results. A 
publication of the U.S, Department of 
Agriculture mentions that in a very 
large number of experiments’ with 
various legume crops carried on in 
sixteen States, a gain of 122 lb. of 
nitrogen per acre was indicated. At 
the Delaware Experimental Station, 
acrop of crimson clover was found to 
have added as much as 200 lb. of nitro- 
gen per acre to the soil in one season. 
Cowpeas are not infrequently grown in 
rotation with cotton in some of the 
cotton-growing districts of the Southern 
States of America. An instance report- 
ed by the Alabama Experiment Station 
indicates the beneficial influence of the 
legume crop on the succeeding crop of 
cotton. In this case there was noted an 
inerease of 696 1b. in the yield of seed- 
cotton to the acre, or 83 per cent., as the 
result of ploughing under a crop of cow- 
pea vines on land which had been in 
cotton in the previous season. 


The annals of the Rothamsted Experi- 
ment Station contain many illustrations 
in point. Thus an experiment is 
recorded in which a piece of. land, 
which in the previous five years had 
grown cereal crops without nitrogenous 
manure, was divided into two parts in 
1872, one being sown with barley and 
the second with clover. Barley was 
again grown on the first plot in 1873, but 
the clover was allowed to stand, three 
cuttings being made for fodder purposes 
during the season. The quantities of 
nitrogen in the crops from the two plots 
were 37°83 lb. in the barley yield, and 151°3 
in the clover. An analysis of the soil 
was made after the crops had been re- 
moved, which showed a content of 071566 
per cent, of nitrogen in the first 9 inches 


from the surface in the plot where clover 


had been grown for two seasons, as com- 
pared with a nitrogen content of 0°1416 
per cent, on the other portion. In 1874, 
barley was once more grown on both 
plots, the quantity of nitrogen removed 
in the barley following barley being 
39:1 lb., while in the barley following 
clover 69°4 lb. were removed. 


Another experiment was carried out 
on land which at the start contained 
2,657 lb. of nitrogen per acre in the first 
9inches from the surface. Barley and 
clover were grown in 1883, and clover 


-only in 1884 and 1885, It was estimated 


that 319°5 lb. of nitrogen was removed 
in the crops cut during the three years, 
but a soil analysis made at the end 
showed that nitrogen equal to 2,832 lb. 
was present in the top 9 inches, or a 
gain of 175 lb. per acre in the three 
years, making a total, with the crop 
removed, of nearly 500 lb. of nitrogen per 
acre to be accounted for. The work, 


Scientific Agriculture, 


theretore, done by this partnership be- 
tween leguminous plants and the nodule- 
producing bacteria is of the utmost im- 
portance, and must annually add to 
the wealth of the world many hundreds 
of thousands of pounds sterling. 


With the facts already enumerated 
before them, it was natural that workers 
in agricultural science should begin to 
debate the question whether the majo- 
rity of cultivated soils were sufficiently 
well stocked with nitrogen-gathering 
bacteria to give the best results when a 
leguminous crop was grown, or whether, 
by the iutroduction into soils of the 
suitable organisms, and the more extend- 
ed growth of legumes, considerable in- 
crease in crop yields could not be obtain- 
ed. A great deal of experimental work 
in relation to this subject has been done 
in the past twenty-three years. 


In work of the nature referred to, it is 
obvious that the main point is to ensure 
the presence of the assimilating bacteria 
in the soil under experiment. This can 
be done by distributing over the land, 
and slightly harrowing in, a supply of 
soil taken from a field which has just 
previously yielded a flourishing crop of 
the legume to be grown. As early as 
1887 soil inoculation experiments of this 
kind were undertaken by Salfeld at 
the Moor Culture Experiment Station, 
Bremen, Germany. The trials were made 
with such legumes as lupins, serradella, 
clover and beans, on -reclaimed peaty 
and sandy soils, on which, without 
inoculation, such crops made but little 
growth, and developed no root nodules. 
About 33 cwt. of suitable soil were dis- 
tributed per acre over the land, and 
harrowed in before sowing the seed. The 
results of Salfeld’s work were strikingly 
successful. As the season advanced, the 
effect of the inoculation was markedly 
evident in the dark-green colour and 
laxuriant growth of the plants, on the 
land which had been treated as described, 
as compared with the land where no soil 
had been scattered, which bore very 
small yellow plants that ultimately died 
of nitrogen hunger. 


Salfeld’s results were received with 
great interest, and the example thus 
set was shortly followed by a number 
of investigators working with many 
different kinds of soils. A satisfactory 
measure of success was achieved in some 
instances, but many cases were recorded 
in which the results were negative, and 
the opinions entertained as to the 
practical value of soil Inoculation were 
of a very .contradictory nature. On 
sandy heath soils, on moorland recently 
placed under cultivation, and on raw 
soils brought up from deeper layers by 
the plough, the operations had undoubt- 


Scientific Agriculture. 328 


edly been proved to be highly bene- 
ficial, but on the majority of cultivated 
soils it was not evident that inoculation 
had been attended with any benefit. 


With the extension of experiments 
similar to those of Salfeld, one or 
two disadvantages connected with this 
method of soil inoculation began to 
make themselves felt. The transport of 
large quantities of soil from one district 
to another was natutially expensive. 
Injurious fungi, together with weed 
seeds, might be introduced into the 
soil, with the desirable bacteria. These 
considerations, combined with the fact 
that the nitrogen-assimilating organisms 
could be isolated from the root nodules 
of legumes, and cultivated on various 
artificial media, led to greater attention 
being paid to the possibilities of inocu- 
lation with pure cultures of the Pseudo- 
monas bacteria, and in the past twelve 
years or so,a number of preparations, 


ali containing this organism, have been 


brought forward for soil inoculation 
purposes. 

In this connexion there arises a question 
which is obviously of considerable im- 
portance in influencing the success of 
any effort at soil inoculation, but which 
has not yet been definitely settled. This 
question relates to the identity of the 
various bacteria which are found living 
in association with different species of 
Leguminoss. Much investigation has 
been done with the object of ascertain- 
ing whether all the organisms living in 
symbiosis with various agriculturai 
leguminous crops are identical with 
Pseudomonas radicicola, first isolated by 
Beyerinck from pea plants, whether the 
different kinds are varieties of this 
species, or whether there are different 
species associated with particular plants. 
Colonies of bacteria cultivated from root 
nodules from different species of legume 
show many points of similarity, but also 
some points of difference. In early experi- 
ments carried out by Hellriegel, it was 
seen thata watery extract of soilon which 
clover and beans had been grown was 
instrumental in inducing nodule forma- 
tion on clover and bean seedlings grown 
in sterile sand, but had no effect what- 
ever on serradellaand lupin plants grow- 
ing under the same conditions. When 

-an extract from a sandy soil which had 
just previously borne the latter plants 
was added, however, the serradella and 
lupins formed nodules on their roots 
and grew apace. Hellriegel therefore 
concluded that there were essential 
differences between the bacteria from 
the various legumes. The evidence that 
has since been brought forward seems 
to point to the view that all the bacteria 
inhabiting the root tubercles of legu- 


 -y 


[OcTOBER, 1909. 


minous plants, whicn are the agency of 
nitrogen assimilation from the air, 
belong to the species Pseudomonas 
radicicola, but that if this organism is 
grown for some time continuously in 
association with one kind of plant only, 
it becomes so modified as to be specially 
adapted to give the best results with 
this species alone, and loses its efficiency 
in greater or less degree for all other 
kinds of legumes. Experiments conduct- 
ed by Nobbe and Hiltner prove that the 
best results from inoculation can only 
be expected when the crop grown is 
inoculated with bacteria from the same 
species of plant. 


As already mentioned, pure cultures of 
the root nodule bacteria had been pre- 
pared on various artificial media, and in 
1896, two Germans, Messrs. Nobbe and 
Hiltner, developed this idea ona com- 
mercial scale. Cultures of the organ- 
isms, grown on a gelatine medium, 
were started by intection from root 
tubercles from the different leguminous 
plants cultivated as field crops, and this 
preparation was placed on the market 
contained in small glass bottles, under 
the name ‘Nitragin.’ In using the 
nitragin for inoculation purposes, the 
nutrient jelly was to be dissolved 
in a quantity of lukewarm water, 
and the solution sprinkled over the 
seed, thorough distribution of the 
bacteria being ensured by this means. 
The seed was then to be dried before 
planting. 


The merits of nitragin were thoroughly 
tested at experiment stations and on 
private farms both in Europe and 
America. [t was hoped that the pre- 
paration would supply not only nitrogen- 
gathering bacteria to soils lacking 
these organisms, but bacteria of a 
high degree of efficiency. Although 
in the first two seasons a few favourable 
reports on the results obtained from the 
use of nitragin were received, by far 
the greater majority of the returns sent 
in were of a negative character, and 
briefly, it may be stated that the pre- 
paration turned out to be a distinct 
failure._ It seemed after all that the 
pure culture method of inoculation, 
from which so much had been expected, 
was less reliable than the older plan of 
introducing the nitrogen-gathering 
organisms by distributing a supply of 
fertile earth from fields that ha:! lately 
borne flourishing legume crops. 


Despite the unsatisfactory results 
which followed the first attempt to 


establish the use of pure cultures of . 


Pseudomonas radicicola as the stand- 
ard means of inoculation, the matter 
still continued to reveive a good deal 


3 
~ 
4 
{ 


ee eee Ne 


OcTOBER, 1909. | 


of attention. On further investigation 
it was concluded that the chief reason 
which accounted for the failure was 
the unsatisfactory nature of the medium 
(gelatine) upon which the bacteria had 
been grown. Gelatine differs essenti- 
ally from the media in which the 
bacteria normally live, 2.e., the soil and 
plant cell, priacipally in that it is of 
animal oirgin, and contains large quan- 
tities of nitrogen. With the provision 
of abundant nitrogen at hand, the 
bacteria are discouraged from utilizing 
the free supply of the air, deteriorate 
rapidly, and either die out altogether, 
or lose, wholly or in part, their power 
of fixing atmospheric nitrogen. 


There was another point which had 
been overlooked in designing the method 
- of inoculation described, but which later 
investigation indicated had helped to 
prevent the full success of the inocu- 
lation efforts. During the preliminary 
process of germination, seeds excrete 
certain soluble substances which have 
a detrimental effect upon the vitality 
of the assimilating bacteria, and, as a 
consequence, the organisms are unable 
properly to infect the legumes, unless 
some special steps are taken to neéutral- 
ize the poisonous effects of the excre- 
tions mentioned. It was found subse- 
quently, that the latter could be made 
harmless to the seed by adding to the 
water in which the cultures were pre- 
pared, asmall quantity of certain soluble 
salts, or of skimmed milk. 


These points being recognized, other 
culture media, notably agar jelly (which 
is prepared from a kind of sea-weed, 
and contains practically no nitrogen) 
were tried, and these efforts were attend- 
ed with a greater measure of success. 
In Bavaria, for instance, during the 
yearA903, ninety-eight inoculation experi- 
ments were carried out with Hiltner’s 
agar nitragin. Of these, eighty-one were 
favourable, nine negative, and eight 
doubtful—a remarkably good _ result, 
since in some cases, increased yields 
tollowed inoculation even on soils that 
had already borne good crops of the cor- 
responding legume. Nobbe and Hiltner 
also employed various liquid prepar- 
ations as culture media in which to grow 
the bacteria, and these were found to 
be better adapted to maintain the 
vitality of the organisms for a longer 
time than agar jelly and other solid 
media. 


Hellriegel and Wilfarth’s discoveries, 
and the results of Lawe and Gilbert’s 
work at Rothamsted excited consider- 
able attention in the United States, 
and extended investigations on the 
results of inoculation with different 
species of legume plants were started 

42 


329 


Scientific Agriculture, 


in that country. At first, the method 
employed was that of inoculation by 
means of earth from other legume 
fields. The two crops which appear- 
ed to benefit most by this practice 
were the soy bean and alfalfa. In 
the case of clover, cowpeas, field 
peas, beans, and vetches, the organisms 
responsible for nodule formation and 
assimilation of nitrogen appeared to be 
already present in most cultivated 
soils, and these crops gave good returns, 
ang did not appearently require inocu- 
ation. 


At a later stage the United States 
Department of Agriculture turned its 
attention to the subject of artificial 
cultures of Pseudomonas radicicola for 
inoculation purposes. Dr. G. T. Moore, 
of the Bureau of Plant Industry, under- 
took the work, and devised the method 
of preparing the cultures. Moore’s 
method differed somewhat from that of 
Nobbe and Hiltner. The American 
scientist first prepared an active culture 
of the nodule-bacteria in a_ liquid 
medium, the composition of which in- 
cluded little or no nitrogen, in order 
that the assimilating power. of the 
organisms might be increased, Absor- 
bent cotton was then dipped in the 
liquid culture, and subsequently dried 
rapidly ata low temperature. In this 
condition they retained a number of 
the bacteria, and formed a convenient 
medium for transmitting the organisms, 
and for starting new liquid cultures. 
With the cotton was sent out, in svery 
case, a packet containing suitable quan- 
tities of cane sugar, potassium phos- 
phate, ammonium phosphate, and mag- 
nesium sulphate, which were to be dis- 
solved in @ large bulk of water, thus 
forming a nutrient solution in which the 
bacteria multiplied rapidly under favour- 
able conditions when the cotton culture 
was added. The seed to be inoculated 
was placed in this solution for a time, 
being afterwards dried before sowing, 


Moore’s cultures were very extensively 
tried by the United States Department 
of Agriculture, in co-operation with 
working farmers all over the country 
during the year 1904, To everyone who 
made application, a free packet of 
inoculating material was supplied, with 
detailed instructions as to the method of 
using it. Inthis way about 12,500 tests 
were made under the most varied con- 
ditions, 


With the arrival of reports on the 
results of all these trials, itsoon appear- 
ed, however, that the general measure of 
success which had followed inoculation 
with Moore’s cultures was far below 
what had been anticipated. It exhibits, 


Scientific Agriculture. 330 


indeed, little superiority in its infiuence 
upon the crop yield to that shown by 
the original nitragin preparation of 
Nobbe and Hiltner. Although in a very 
considerable number of cases, small in- 
creases of crop followed inoculation, yet 
the general verdict from the American 
experiment stations, and also from 
European stations where Moore’s cul- 
tures had been tried, was that these 
preparations were inefficient. The 
advantages of inoculation by means of 
pure cultures were obvious in theory, 
but the ideal pure culture, the use of 
which would cause these advantages to 
appear in practice, had yet to be 
devised. 

Investigation carried out with the 
object of ascertaining the cause of these 
disappointing results showed that the 
method of preserving the bacteria ina 
dried form on cotton was not so satis- 
factory as had been supposed. Many of 
the organisms perish during the process 
of drying, and any considerable change 
in temperature and moisture conditions 
that may take place previous to the 
use of the culture has a detrimental 
effect upon the vitality of the bacteria 
that still remain. By Moore’s method, 
too, the actual preparation of the culture 
solutions with which the legume seed 
was to be treated before sowing, had to 
be carried out by the farmers them- 
selves, who would hardly be likely to 
work under the careful and exact con- 
ditions that would be followed in 
the laboratory. Under ordinary farm 
circumstances, the risk of contamination 
by the introduction of foreign bacteria, 
moulds, and yeasts, from the air, from 
water, or by means of the utensils em- 
ployed, was at its maximum, and many 
of the introduced organisms might be 
instrumental in preventing the growth 
and multiplication of the nitrogen- 
gathering bacteria of the cotton culture. 

Culture preparations for inoculation 
of leguminous crops are still sent out by 
the United States Department of Agri- 
culture, but as a result of the difficulties 
that have been experienced, the use of 
absorbent cotton has been abandoned, 
and the medium employed, consists of 
nitrogen-free liquid put up in _her- 
metically sealed bottles. Numbers of 
different cultures are prepared, which 
correspond to the different legume crops 
cultivated, each culture being adapted 
to give the best results with a particular 
species. Thus cowpea cultures, alfalfa 
cultures, clover cultures, ete., are all 
obtainable. The directions that accom- 
pany each bottle warn the recipient to 
utilize the material within ten days or 
two weeks, as otherwise deterioration 
may set in, which will render the culture 
useless. 


[OcrowER, 1909, = 


Nearly two years ago Professor 
Bottomley, F.R.S., of London, turned 
his attention to the subject of soil 
inoculation, and as the outcome of his 
investigations, he brought forward 
another pure culture preparation, some- 
what similar to that of Moore, to which 
the name ‘Nitro-bacterine’ was given. 
‘Nitro-bacterine’ was described by the 
originator as a ‘powder preparation of 
the bacteria.’ It was sent out in sealed 
packets containing cotton wool, as in 
the early American method, but the 
medium also contained in addition a 
number of dry, earth-like particles. 
With these packets were sent also small 
quantities of soluble nutritive sub- 
stances, to be dissolved in water, and 
che culture solution was prepared and 
utllized in a manner similar to that 


already described in the case of Mcore’s | 


cotton cultures. The importance of 
using pure water that had been boiled 
and allowed to cool, perfectly clean 
utensils, and of taking every precaution 
to protect the solution from contamina- 
tion was emphasized by Professor 
Bottomley. Those testing nitro-bacterine 
were advised that inoculation might 
also be effected by ‘watering’ the young 
legume plants with the culture solution. 
It may be added that Professor Bottomley 
did not confine his attention to legum- 
inous plants alone in this connexion. He 
also brought forward other culture pre- 


-parations which he hoped might he 


instrumental in enabling cultivated 


plants belonging to certain other natural 


orders to draw upon the stores of 
atmospheric nitrogen for food purposes. 


The results so far reported with nitro- 
bacterine have not been of such a nature 
as to indicate that this preparation is 
in any way superior as an inoculating 
material to Nobbe and Hiltner’s nitragin 
or. Moore’s cotton cultures. In the 
summer of 1908, some experiments with 


Professor Bottomley’s culture material | 


were conducted with garden peas at the 
Wisley Gardens of the Royal Horticul- 
tural Society. These are reported upon 
in detail in the Journal of the Society 
for November last (Vol. XX XIV., part 2), 
and asummary of the results was given 
in a late number of the Agricultural 
News (Vol. VIII., p. 62). These results 
were of a purely negative character, and 
the closing paragraph of the report is 
as follows: ‘It is concluded that the 
inoculation of leguminous crops with 
‘* nitro-bacterine ’in ordinary garden 
soils is not likely to prove beneficial.’ 


During the year 1908, the effect of 
inoculation on the returns given by 


various leguminous crops was tried at — 


Antigua and at Grenada, In the former 


island wherecowpeas, woolly pyrol, and 


ee ae eee eS ee ee 


Te eee eee we 


a Cnn Tt 


\ 


art CTORER, 1909.) 


alfalfa were the crops in connexion with 
which the investigations were made, 
nitro-bacterine was the inoculating 
material employed. Experiments were 
conducted atthe Experiment Station, 
and also on estates, the property of 
Messrs. Henckell, Du Buisson & Co., at 
the instance ofthe owners. At Grenada, 
cowpeas formed the crop under test, and 
a liquid culture preparation, obtained 
from the United States Department of 
Agriculture, was employed. The effect 
of inoculating sugar-cane plants with 
the material forwarded by Professor 
Bottomley for that purpose was also 
tried both at Antigua and Barbados. 


At Antigua the nitro-bacterine culture 
solutions were prepared at the Govern- 


‘ment Laboratory, and itis remarked in 


the report on the results of the experi- 
ments, that satisfactory growth of 
the culture took place in the case 
of every package. Seed of the different 
legumes under trial was also inoculated 
at the Laboratory, and portions of 
the culture solution were afterwards 
distributed to the centres where the 
experiments were to be made, for 
inoculation of growing crops, and of 
the soil. Where crop and soil inoculation 
was earried out, two inoculations were 
made, at an interval of a fortnight. 


Cowpeas were. grown under experi- 


ment at Cassada Garden and at Fitches’ 


7 


Creek, and the effects of inoculation 
both by immersion of the seed in the 
culture solution before sowing, and of 
‘watering’ the soil with the sclution 
after sowing were tried. In no instance 
did inoculation have any influence in 
increasing the crop yield, however. 
Indeed, the highest return at Cassada 
Garden was given by the plot sown with 
seed that had not been inoculated, and 
which was not watered with the culture 
solution. 


It is to be presumed (as Mr. Tempany 
states in his report,) that the soil was 
well stocked with the bacteria respon- 
sible for nodule formation on_ this 
particular crop, or that the soil was 
well supplied with available nitrogen. 
Examination of the roots of inoculated 
and untreated plants showed that 
though, on the whole, there appeared to 
be slightly more nodules on the roots 
of the inoculated plants than on those 
which had received no treatment, the 
difference was not very marked. 


Experiments with woolly pyrol were 
conducted at the Experiment Station, 
and at Hitches’ Creek, Cassada Garden, 
and Gambles estates, the experiment 
plots being 4 acre in area in every case. 
it is interesting to note that, in the case 
of one estate at least (Cassada Garden), 
the results of inoculation with this crop 


Bid | 


Scientific Agriculture. 


were more definite and satisfactory: 
From the control plot, which received 
no inoculation, 330 lb. of green bush 
were gathered. <A second plot, sown 
with uninoculated seed, but the soil of 
which later received applications of the 
culture fluid, yielded 700 lb. of bush;a 
third plot that had been sown with 
inoculated seed, but received no further 
treatment, gave a return of 970 lb. of 
green bush, while from the fourth plot— 
sown with. inoculated seed and also 
‘watered’ with the culture fluid—1,015 
lb, of bush were reaped. The results 
for two plot experiments at Gambles 
estate are also reported, and in these 
also, although to a lesser degree, the 
beneficial. effects of inoculation are 
observable. From the untreated plot, 
30 lb. of green bush were reaped, while 
50 lb. of green bush were obtained from 
the plot sown with seed that had been 
inoculated. It may be added that a 
good number of nodules were present on 
the roots of all the plants examined, but 
it is stated that no marked differences 
as to number could be observed on the 
inoculated and the uninoculated plants. 


At Fitches’ Creek and the Experiment 
Station no results were obtained, since 
the woolly pyrol plants were destroyed 
by caterpillars. A scheme of inocula- 
tion experiments with cowpeas was 
carried outin 1908 at Grenada at the 
Botanie Station and on six estates. 
These experiments were designed to 
answer two questions: (lL) whether any 
benefit is to be derived from inoculation 
of leguminous crops such as cowpeas on 
Grenada soils, and (2) whether, by inocu- 
lation, leguminous green dressings such 
as cowpeas can be grown under the 
shade produced by mature cacao trees. 
With the object of deciding the first 
question, two plots, each 4$-acre in area, 
were sown with cowpeas, at the several 
centres, one plot being planted with 
inoculated, and the other with uninocu- 
lated seed. To investigate the possi- 
bility of growing leguminous crops under 
shade, plots of one acre in extent, covered 
with full-grown cacao trees, were planted 
with inoculated cowpea seed. 


In regard to this latter question, the 
results obtained at all seven centres 
were of the same nature, and indicated 
that inoculation had no effect in encour- 
aging the growth of the cowpeas when 
planted beneath the cacao. The amount 
of shade varied from fairly light to very 
dense, but in no case did the peas do 
more than produce one or two leaves, 
and they soon died, showing all the 
symptoms of lack of sufficient light, 

Varying results were obtained on the 
cowpea plots in the open, At the 
Botanic Station, and on two of the 


Scientific Agriculture. 


estates, the returns showed no difference 
whatever in favour of inoculation, At 
two other estates the returns from the 
inoculated plots were slightly superior 
to those which had not been treated. 
Finally, at the two remaining estates, 
Dougaldston and Diamond, the reports 
state that the inoculated areas gave 
yields considerably higher than, the 
untreated plots. No actual figures as to 
the weights of produce reaped are given, 
but it is mentioned that on Diamond 
estate, the plants on the inoculated plot 
were about one-fourth as large again as 
on the uninoculated land. 


Reference has been made to Professor 


Bottomley’s culture preparation for 
inoculating sugar-cane plants. It may 
be added that a number of cane 


plants were inoculated at Antigua and 
Barbados in accordance with the direc- 
tions supplied, but that in no case could 
inoculation be observed to have any 
effect whatever. 


From the facts which have been enu- 
merated, it will be seen that the history 
of past attempts at soil inoculation by 
artificial cultures, forms a record chiefly 
of failures, although numerous instances 
have been reported in which a certain 
measure of success has resulted. The 
failures which have been recorded can- 
not be regarded as indicating that the 
operation is in itself valueless, since the 
importance of ensuring that the nitrogen- 
gathering organisms are present in the 
soil is obvious. But it is evident 
that the earlier and more enthusiastic 
advocates of the process formed an 
exaggerated idea of the advantages 
which they believed would in general 
follow soil inoculation, and later re- 
searches have enabled a truer estimate 
to be formed of the conditions and 
circumstances under which tke process 
is likely to be followed by beneficial 
results. lt was atonetime hoped and 
even claimed, that inoculation of any 
soil on which a leguminous crop was to 
be grown, would undoubtedly lead toa 
satisfactory increase in its crop-yielding 
capacity. Experimental results soon 
showed the fallacy of this belief, and 
indicated that the advantages of the 
process are not general, but may be 
expected only under certain limited 
conditions. Briefly stated, the condi- 
tions under which inoculation may be 
expected to prove distinctly advan- 
tageous are on virgin soils newly brought 
under cultivation, on reclaimed peat 
lands, and also on cultivated farm lands 
when the leguminous crop to be planted 
has not previously been grown in the 
neighbourhood, and on the _ soil in 
question. For inoculation to have its 
full effect, these soils must be properly 


330 


[OcToBER, 1909. 


drained, and contain suitable propor- 
tions of lime, phosphates, and potash. 
But in the majority of casesit would 
appear that the process is net capable 
of increasing to any appreciable extent 
the crop-yielding capacity of most 
cultivated farm and estate lands, more 
especially if ordinary leguminous crops 
have been regularly included in the 
rotations followed. This is due to the 
fact that the nitrogen-fixing bacteria 
which the culture preparations are 
designed to introduce, are already pre- 
sent in the great bulk of such soils, and 
inoculation can only prove of benefit if 
the organisms introduced are more effi- 
cient (their ‘efficiency’ being measured 
by the quantity of nitrogen fixed than 
those already present in the soil). 


Reference has been made to the 
question of the possibility of increasing 
the amount of nitrogen-fixation by culti- 
vating and introducing into the soil 
races of bacteria superior in vigour to 
those which already exist there. This 
is a phase of the subject of soil inocu- 
lation which has of late years received 
a good deal of attention. It has been 
found that the capacity of the Pseudo- 
monas organisms to assimilate nitrogen 
is not fixed and unalterable, but that 
this power varies with changed condi- 
tions of growth. Under certain condi- 
tions they are liable to lose their power 
of fixing nitrogen, while at the same 
time retaining the capacity to multiply 
atarapid rate. From this consideration 
it will be seen that the number of 
nodules on the roots of the legumes in 
association with which the bacteria 
live, does not always form a basis from 
which deductions can be made as to the 
amount of nitrogen fixed. The bacteria 
may lose their power of fixing nitrogen , 
as the result of cultivation on unsuitable 
media, such as gelatine, among other 
causes. 


A German Investigator, Suchting, 
found that the amount of nitrogen 
assimilated by legumes varied with the 
source of the bacteria, whether these 
were derived from the soil, from crushed 
nodules, or from cultures grown on 
suitable media. He reports that the 
efficiency of the last was greater than 
that of the other two, while the 
Organisms direct from the crushed 
nodules were superior to those in a 
watery extract of the soil. Similarly 
his experiments confirmed the obser- 
vation, that the most ‘efficient’ races of 


- Pseudomonas radicicola, when grown 


upon unsuitable media, rapidly lost 
their power of nitrogen-fixation, with- 
out diminishing their power of multi- 
plication. The source of the infecting 
organisms, and the manner in which 


OcropER, 1909." 


they have been propagated, are evi- 
dently, therefore, matters of consider- 
able importance, 


Future researches may result in the 
production of improved cultures of high 
nitrogen-fixing power, the bacteria of 
which are capable of maintaining them- 
selves in the soil against the kindred 
organisms already present there; but, 
as pointed out by Mr. A. D. Hall, in the 
latest edition of his book ‘The Soil,’ it 
must be borne in mind that even if such 
improved races of the nodule-forming 
bacteria can. be introduced to the plant, 
the improvement tbey can produce in 
the crop yield is likely to be something 
of the order of a 10-per cent. increase, a 
gain which is only really perceptible 
after careful and continued experiments, 
and one not to be detected by the eye of 
the ordinary farmer or planter. This 
appears to be the most that can be ex- 
pected from soil inoculation, on most 
farm and estate lands that have been 
long under cultivation. 


_ As indicated, however, there is no 
doubt that, under certain circumstances, 
inoculation forms a valuable addition to 
the means possessed by the agriculturist 
of adding to the fertility of the land, 
and the conditions which indicate that 
the process is likely to be attended with 
distinct advantage, have already been 
indicated. When land has been recently 
reclaimed from the heath or bog state, 
it usually happens that none of the 
Pseudomonas organisms are present. 
Liming is‘required in such cases, and on 
such lands it will be found that the 
effects of inoculation on the growth of 
a leguminous crop are of a very different 
order from those brought about on 
ordinary cultivated lands, It is quite 
usual to observe that the introduction 
of the appropriate organisms into the 
soil will change a stunted, sickly looking 
growth into a vigorous and profitable 
crop. The extension of the cultivation 
of a legume crop, such as alfalfa, cow- 
peas, etc. into a new district, forms 
another occasion when inoculation has 
been found to be valuable, and even 
necessary. 


_ Inthis connection, since it is a practical 
instance in point, it is worth while to 


333 


Scientific Agriculture. 


refer to the useful work that has been 
done in reclaiming and making fit for 
cultivation large tracts of barren, sandy 
land in East Prussia. The scheme for 
this work was devised and carried out 
by Dr. Schultz, of Lupitz, and the 
agency employed by him to reclaim the 
land consisted of growing lupins and 
ploughing in the green crop. Mineral 
manures, chiefly basic slag and kainit, 
were applied to the soil. The lupins 
store up nitrogen from the air, and thus 
there is gradually built up a store of 
humus which is not only a source of plant 


food, but is also of great importance 


from the physical point of view, in 
binding together the loose sand and 
making it retentive of moisture. On 
these waste lands, which in many cases 
had not carried any leguminous vegeta- 
tion whatever, soil inoculation has 
proved a most valuable aid, and the 
process was indeed necessary to the 
success of Dr. Schultz’s scheme. The 
increase in fertility of the land is indi- 
cated by the fact that the soil of a field 
growing lupins every year from 1865 was, 
in 1880, found to contain 0'987 per cent. 
of nitrogen in the surface 8 inches, as 
compared with 0027 in an adjoining 
pasture. As the result of the continu- 
ance of the scheme mentioned for eleven 
more years, the proportion of nitrogen 
had, by 1891, increased to 0°177 per cent,, 
despite the annual removal of the lupin 
crop, and the fact that the manuring 
had, been with phosphates and potash 
only, 


In regard to present views on methods 
of soil inoculation, the failure which so 
frequently attended the use of pure 
cultures in the past has caused their 
employment to be regarded with a cer- 
tain amount of distrust, and in Europe 
and America the tendency among agri- 
culturists has of late been to place more 
reliance on the original if somewhat 
cumbersome legume earth method. 
There is yet a good deal to be learned in 
regard to this matter, and the subject 
is under investigation in a number of 
laboratories. It is possible that in the 
future a _ practical and_ satisfactory 
method of inoculation by means of pure 
cultures may be evolved. 


COOKERY, 


HONEY VERSUS CANE SUGAR. 


By Mrs. B. R. WINSLOW. 


(From the Gleanings in Bee Culture, 
Vol, XXXVII., No, 14.) 
A child’s craving for sweets of some 
kind shows a real need of the system in 


that direction; but, unfortunately, the 
sweets at hand and usually given to 
supply this need are not wholesome, and 
serve no better purpose than to please 
the child’s taste. In fact, the work of 
changing the cane sugar into grape 
sugar so thatit may be assimilated is 
often too great a tax upon the child’s 
stomach, and sickness results. ‘This, 


Cookery. ; 34 


however, is not the case with honey. 
The bees have fully prepared it for im- 
mediate assimilation, and it is ready to 
be taken into the system without tax- 
ing stomach or kidneys. Doctors fre- 
quently order honey for those whose 
digestive organs are too weak to convert 
cane sugar into grape sugar properly. 
The wholesomeness of honey, however, 
is not disputed by those who know any- 
thing about the product ofthe hive. The 
principal difficulty in the way of its sub- 
stitution for the sweets usually craved 
by children is the apparent limitation 
of its use. The child has inordinate 


longing for cakes and candy, and that’ 


is not always satisfied by bread and 
honey; therefore, to take the place of 
cane sugar, honey must be prepared in 
the same manner as cane sugar. It must 
be made into cakes and candies and other 
danities dear to the children. The object 
of this article is to supply housekeepers 
who desire to substitute honey for cane 
sugar, in the diet of their children, with 
a few simple recipes obtained from 
practical experience, for making this 
wholesome sweet into a variety of 
- pleasing confections, : 


A few suggestions on the care of 
honey may be of benefit to those who 
are so situated that it ischeaper to buy 
in quantities. The worst place to store 
honey, or even to keep it for a short 
time, isin the cellar or any damp cool 
place. Honey, when extracted from the 
comb, readily absorbs moisture, becoming 
thin, and (in time) sour. The very best 
place to store honey isin the attic, up 
next to the roof, where it is hot, During 
cold weather, honey that is kept any 


length of time has a tendency to granu-- 


late, turning to a white, semi-soild 
granular condition. This is called 
“candied honey,’ and it frequently 
“‘eandies,” so solid that it must be dug 
out of the bucket witha knife. It is a 


simple matter, however, to restore it to. 


its former condition. Place it in hot 
water, never over 160°, and let it stay 
untilit has liquefied. It may take an 
hour, or it may take a whole day. 


In the following recipes quantities are 
given in pints and pounds because the 
success of honey recipes depends upon the 
right proportion of the ingredients. 
All cups are not the same size, and do 
not hold the same quantity of material, 
therefore it is best to use a standard 

_measure, 


The simplest honey cake is the honey 
ginger-snap. 


One pint of honey; {1b. butter; 2 tea- - 


spoonsfuls ginger. 


Boil together for a few minutes, and 
allow it to get nearly cool. Add enough 


[OctroBER, 1909. 


flour to make a stiff dough, and roll out 
thin; cut into round cakes and bake 
quickly. 


Another simple cake is the honey 
cookey. The reeipe is given for a large 
quantity because they will keep indefi- 
nitely, and they are nice to have in the 
house all the timefor the children to 
eat between meals. lfthey are wanted 
in smaller quantities the recipe can be 
reduced a half or even one-quarter. 


One pint honey ; one quart sour milk ; 
1 teaspoonful soda. 


_. Mix well together and add _ sufficient 
flour to make a soft dough. Roll moder- 
ately thin and cut into round cakes. 
Bake in a slow oven to. prevent 
burning. 


A richer cookey is made by the addi- 
tion of butter and eggs. One pint 
honey ; $ pound butter;4 eggs; 4 pint 
buttermilk or clabbered cream; 1 quart 
flour; 1 teaspoonful soda. _ 


Mix the honey and the butter and the 
eggs well and add the buttermilk. Sift 
in the flour and soda, and mix well. 
Mix in enough flour in addition to the 
quart to make a cookey dough that 
will roll out well without sticking ; cut 
in round cakes and bake in a slow 
oven. 


In the line of confections, some sugar 
must be used to make the honey “candy,” 
but the home-made honey caramel has 
the advantage of being pure. 


One pint honey; 1lb. sugar; scant 
gill of cream. 


Boil until it makes a soft ball when 
dropped into water. Stir ina teaspoon- 
ful of vanilla, and pour it into a shallow 
buttered pan to the depth of about half 
an inch. When cool enough to prevent 
its sticking tothe kinfe, cut into inch 
squares. If chocolate caramels are 
desired, use a teaspoonful of melted 
chocolate instead of the vanilla, stirring 
it in just before pouring into the but- 
tered pan, 


To make honey popcorn balls, boil a 
pint of honey in an iron frying-pan 
until it is quite thick, and then stir in 
pie Popped corn. When cool, mold into 

alls. 


As asubstitute for tea or coffee for 
children there is nothing better than 


honey tea—a very simple tea made by. 


adding a tablespoonful of honey to a 
cup of hot water. If not sweet enough 
to suit the taste of the child, add more 
honey. 


a Ne TN ey ee ee ee ee eee ee ee 


LM nat eT ay 


“Ocropmr, 1909.) 385 


MISCELLANEOUS. 


LITERATURE OF ECONOMIC 
BOTANY AND AGRICULTURE. 


By J. C. Witus. 


Coffee: General,— 


Coffea robusta. Tropenfl. 10. 659, 


Coffee cultivation in Brazil. Report 
V.P.A.S., India 1906, p. 164. 


Over Coffea congensis, Froehner, var, 
eee Pierre. Cultuur gids. 10. 
1 


The production of coffee in India. 
Ind. Gard. Aug, 1905, p. 541 


Cafeiers d’ Afrique. Journ. d’ Agri. 
trop. 1906, p. 268. 
-Coffee cultivation in Brazil, 
July 1906, p. 74. 
The coffee industry in Brazil. do. 
Aug. 1905, p. 154. 
Coffea congensis. Journ. 
trop., Nov. 1906, p. 338,. 
The coffee valorisation scheme. Trop. 
Lite, Feb. 1907, p. 27. 
Advies voor het winnen van Jaod 
van (Liberica eu robusta. Ind. 
Mere. 11. 6. 1907, p. 387. 


Haller. Coffee cultivation in Coorg. 
“TA.” Aug. 1907, ps 117, Sept. 07, 
p. 190. 

Note on production of comeet in India 
1906, Plant. Chron, Aug. 0 

Un nonveau caféier vain, C. malis, 
Bull. Jard. Col. 8. 1908, p. 79. 

Innocuous coffee (with no cafféin). 
“T,A,” Jan, 1908, p. 41. 

Over het vruchtbleesch van Java— 
Liberia en—robusta Koffie. Cultuur- 
gids 1908, 10. p. 68. 

Zur Kaffee Valorisation Tropenpfi. 
Dee. 1908, p, 596. 

Bounty on coffee. 
Dec, 1998, p. 308. 

Coffee in Porto Rico, Agri. 
VII, 174., Dec. 1908, p. 405, 

La production de la Cafféine et du 
Caté sans caféine en Allemange. 


oT AS 


qd Agr, 


Queens]. Agr. Jl. 


News. 


Journ. d’agr. trop. Feb. 1909, p. 59, 


Kaffee bau und Kaffeevalorisation in 
Brazilien, Tropenfl. 18, p. 175 


Note sur la Caféen Nouvelle-Caledonie 
L’ ag. pract. des payschauds, May 
1909, p. 422. 

Uber Coffea robusta und Beekoba- 
ee Der Pflanzer, Dec. 08, 
p. 32, 


Coffee : Cultivation.— 


Culture pratique du caféier. Bull. 
Jard, Col. 1906. 


Culture rationnelle du café sans abri. 
Journ. d’agr. trop. Aug. 1906, p: 227, 
May 1907, p. 181. 

Culture pratique du caféier et pre- 
paration du café. Ind. Merce. 12.5 
1908, p.840, 

Heimrich. Versuche iiber die Ver- 
wendung von Kunstdiinger in der 
Kultur des Kaffees. Tropenpfl. 
Beih. 14. 4. Aug. 1908. 

Coffee cultivation in Burma. Ind, 
Agri. Oct, 1908, p. 319. 

De Swal6fseh selectiemethode in de 
Koffiecultuur. Ind. Mere, 17. 11. 
1908,. p. 850. 


Coffee : Disease.— 

Notes sur les maladies des caféiers. 
Bull. Jard. Col. 1906, p. 228 

Die Krankheiten und Schidlinge des 
Kaffes, I. von Faber. Centr. fiir 
Bakteriol, 1908. 

Heeft Coffea robusta een grooter 
weerstandsvermogen tegen ziekten 
en plagen dau Coffea arabica en 
C. liberia. Wurth. Verslag Salatiga 
1907, p. 5d. — 

Sur l inmunité du “ Coffea congensis” 
var Choloti Pierre a I ‘‘ Hemileia 
Vastatrix,” Journ, d’ agr. trop. No. 
90, Dee, 1908. 

Hiniges iiber die Hemileia Krankheit 
a Widerstands fabigheit U.S.W, 
Tropenfl. 5. 1909, p. 235. 

Note sur resistance a d’ Hemileia 
Vastatrix du Coffee congensis. 
L’ Agric. pratique des pays chauds. 
Feb. 09, p. 158. 


Coffee : Harvesting, Preparation, etc, 


Un nouveau sechoir A café. Journ. 
d’agr. trop. Apr. 1908, p. 104. 


Coffee curing on the Malabar Coast. 
Ind. Agries. Apr, 1908, ‘“‘T.A.” July 
1908, p. 29. 


The fermentation of Coffee, Philip- 
pine Ag. Review, Sept. 1908, p. 
185, Gol PA. Mareb, 1909, p, 248. 
Commelina.— 
Commelina nudiflora. 
1909, p. 8. 
Copaiba.— 
Some adulterated drugs. Chem, and 
Drug. 15, 12. 06, p. 901. 
Copaiba. Parry in do. 28. 9. 1907, 
p. 518, 


Str. Bull. Jan. 


Miscellaneous. 836 


The optical rotation of the essential 
oil of copaiba, do. 19, 10. 1997, p. 617. 
Copernicia.— 
The Carnauba tree. 
1906, p. 814. 
Die Wachspalme. Der Pflanzeer, 81. 
_ 8. 1907, p, 191. 
‘ Carnauba wax. Agr. News, 6. 1907, 
p. 375., ‘T.A.” Mar. 1908, p. 205. 
The wax palm. “T.A.’ Feb. 1908, 
p. 111. 
rnauba wax. do. p. 1138. 
The wax palm. do. May 1908, p, 423. 
Wax-excreting palms. Agr. News 
8, 1908.. “*T.A.” Dec. 1908, p. 515. 


Coscinium.— 


Treatment of unknown vegetable 
products. Gard. Chron. Aug, 1908. 
“TA.” Dec, 1908, p. 520, 


Costus.— 
Costus speciosus. Agr. Ledger V.P. 
Ser. 94, 1906. 


NOTES AND QUERIES. 


COM Naya Hew ols 


By C. DRIEBERG. 


Coconut BEETLEH,—The Government 
Entomologist reports: ‘‘The statement 
that the grubs of the Rhinoceros beetle 
attack the roots of adjacent plants _re- 
quires corroboration. [ am inclined to 
believe that the idea has arisen from the 
similarity of the grub of the rhinoceros 
beetle to the root-eating larva of ithe 
large Cockchafer (Lepidiota pinguts).” 

A. W. J.—The output of cassava roots, 
on small areas, may be anything from 
10 to 20 tons per acre. It would be 
safe to take the lower figure as an aver- 
age for extensive plantations. The 
starch to be expected from this quan- 
tity may be reckoned as 3 to 4 tons. 
A good starch is worth in England from 
£14 to £16 per ton. 


BEEKEEPER.—No, bees do not puncture 
fruit. The structure of the bee’s mouth 
shews that it cannot do so, though they 
will suck the juice liberated by the 
puncture of the fruit fly. On the other 
hand, they aid materially in the fertili- 
sation of the flowers of fruit trees. 

CROTALARIA JUNCEA.—Mr. Chelliah, 
Agricultural Instructor, Northern Pro- 
vince, writes: ‘‘Hemp is largely culti- 
vated in the paddy-fields at Alaveddi 
and other places, after the paddy crop 
is reaped, and it is considered a restor- 
ative crop. _The pcds and leaves are 
collected and preserved as fodder for 
cattle, and the stems are sold for extract- 


| OCTOBER, 1909, 


ing fibre from. The cultivation is said 
to yield a return of about Rs. 50 per acre 
without much expense and trouble, 
while it improves the soil for the suc- 
ceeding crop.” 

G. E. S.—The screwpine belongs to the 
genus Pandanus. The material used for 
hat-making in Manila is, I think, P. wti- 
lis. In Ceylon we have a number of 
species that ought to prove suitable for 


e same purpose. ‘‘Rampeh” is P. lati- 
folia. 

P, R.—According to the Inspector- 
General of the Indian Civil Veterinary 

epartment, ‘‘fowl-cholera,” which is 
such a trouble to poultry-keepers in 
the East, is due to an organism intro- 
duced into poultry by the common fowl 
tick. As the ticks are found during 
the day in the crevices about the fowl 
house and only attack poultry at night, 
itis advised that the buildings in which 
the birds are housed should be periodi- 
cally painted over with hot coal-tar. 


S. P.—The following is recommended 
as a suitable manure for sweet pota- 
toes, in addition to the usual dressings 
of cattle dung or green manure: 90 lbs. 
each of sulphate of potash, high grade 
superphosphate of lime, and nitrate of 
soda, per acre. 


W. D.—The Queensland Agricultural 
Journal states that the following dress- 
ing is useful against ticks in dogs: Soft 
soap 4 oz., kerosine 1 tea-cup, water 1 
quart, Boil soap in water till dissolved, 
and when cool add kerosine and mix 
thoroughly in. Wash dog all over with 
this mixture, and give internally 3 to 10 
grains of iodide of potash in two table- 
spoons of water. 


T. B.—It is not generally known what 


difference, if any, there is between the - 


pumelo and the grape fruit. It would 
appear, however, that it is not much 
more than the difference between the 
banana and the plantain, According to 
Dr. Morris, the grape fruit is a good deal 
smaller in size with a thin, pale yellow, 
smooth skin. The centre is seldom 
hollow and the seeds are generally well 
developed. Thecolour of the flesh is, asa 
rule, pale yellow but sometimes red. 


The shape may be either round or pear- 


shaped. In the ordinary pumelo the 
skin is of considerable thickness, and the 
fruit large with usually red pulp. There 
is no doubt that we have both varieties 
inthe Island. In America the grape fruit 


is highly valued not only owing to its. 


flavour, sweetness, and juiciness, but for 
its supposed medicinal qualities—being 
considered a specific against malaria. 


: 
7 
¥ 
p 


fe' 7 


ee an 


“4 
. 


- OCTOBER, 1909,] 


AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE, 
COIMBATORE. 


OPENING CEREMONY. 


(From the Indian Patriot, July 15, 1909.) 


The Hon’ble Mr. Castlestuart Stuart 
opened the Agricultural and Research 
Institute on Wednesday, and his printed 
address gives a full account of the 
history and objects of the undertaking. 
For along time progress in agricultural 
teaching was not possible through want 
of funds. But in the year 1905, a favour- 
able tide setin, when the Government 
of India made a generous grant to this 
Presidency for developing agricultural 
research and education. 


THE CENTRAL FARM. 


The land selected for the Agricultural 
College, the Research Institute and the 
Central Farm is situated mainly in a 
village, three miles to the west of the 
town of Coimbatore, and was acquired 
in February, 1906, at a cost of Rs. 80,000. 
The total area of the estate is 450°88 
acres, of which 45°50 acres are wet land, 
126 acres are good black loam, and 161 
acres consist of red soil, all of which 
are under cultivation. The remainder 
of the estate is occupied by buildings, 
ete. The farm is at an elevation of 
about 1,860 ft. above sea-level and _ is 
approximately flat, there being a dif- 
ference of 37 ft. between the highest and 
lowest points which are 1,650 yards 
apart. The Farm has been worked 
during the past two years, and several 
experiments with regard to the improved 
methods of tilling, the transplanting of 
seedlings, the effect of green manure and 
the cultivation of varieties of cholum, 
cotton, ragi, sugarcane and grounduout 
were carried out under the supervision 
of Mr. C. J. Shepperson, the Principal of 
the College and the Superintendent of 
the Farm. Inthe matter of crops grow- 
ing attention is rightly paid to methods 
of cultivation rather than to obtaining 
results with a liberal application of 
manure; and with the exception of 
nitrate of soda, no artificial or rather, 
concentrated manures have been used, 
it being considered that a more useful 
impression would be made upon the 
minds of the ryotsif good results were 
obtained with ordinary means than if 
those results were obtained with sub- 
stances so costly as to be practically 
beyond their means. 


THE COLLEGE AND THR INSTITUTR. 


The foundation-stone of the handsome 
pile of buildings which constitute the 
Agricultural College and the Research 

AR am 


33 


7 Miscellaneous, 


Institute was laid by His Excellency 
Sir Arthur Lawley on the 24th September, 
1906; and in the course of a couple of 
years the Public Works Department 
have completed the construction of the 
whole block of buildings, comprising the 
College and the Research Institute 
proper, the hostel, quarters for native 
officers, quarters for menial servants, 
residences for the officers of the In- 
stitute, &e, The main building was de- 
signed by Mr. G. S. T, Harris, then 
Consulting Architect to Government, 
and is constructed in the form of the 
letter H. The building which is con- 
structed of table-moulded brick in mortar 
with moulded cut stone work, is Hindu 
Saracenic style, and has a handsome 
clock tower in the centre of the front 
block, 70 feet in height, under which is 
the main entrance. To the right of 
the main entrance are several spacious 
rooms, including the principal’s room, 
with his office, and the Botanical and 
Entomological preparation rooms, while 
to the left are the Physical Laboratory, 
the Physical Assistant’s rooms, the 
Chemical preparation room and the My- 
cological room. After passing through 
the main entrance, the open passage 
under the big library is _ reached, 
whence take off the two stair cases to 
the upper floor, where the Government 
Botanist oceupies the central room over 
the hall, or main entrance, and has his 
assistants and clerks located in adjoining 
rooms, Continuous to thisis the Ento- 
mologist’s room with another for his 
clerks. To the left of the Botanist’s 
room is the Herbarium, next to which 
are the Mycologist and his clerks and 
assistants occupying large and _ well- 
ventilated rooms. The Library forms 
the connecting link between the front 
and rear blocks. On passing through 
the main entrance to the rear block 
the students’ main entrance is reached, 
to the right of which are situated 
the nitrogen and potash rooms, a 
Lecture room, a Balance room, a room 
for the Chemical assistants, and the 
Students’ Laboratory. To the left of 
the students’ entrance are situated the 
Stores room and other rooms, while 
at the eastern end of the building there 
is the Research Laboratory. On the 
upper floor immediately over the 
entrance there is the Students’ reading 
room which is divided by a movable 
partition froma Lecture room, so that 
the two can be thrown into ‘one, making 
a wide large hall which will be 76 ft. by 
25 tt. Adjoining this is the Museum 
Preparation Room with the Museum 
beyond. Onthe western side or left of 
the Students’ Reading Room there is a 
lecture room with a partition, next to 
which are the rooms for Entomological 


Mhiscellaneous. 


and Botanical assistants, and at the 
eastern extremity of the building lies the 
Biological Laboratory. So far as the 
actual construction is concerned, the 
building operations were carried out by 
Mr. H.T. Keeling, Executive Engineer, 
under the supervision of Mr. H. H. 
O’Connell, Superintendent Engineer. 


The College was opened to the publicin 
June last year, when twenty students 
joined it. Another twenty joined the 
College in June last ; while twenty more 
will be admitted in June next year. 
There is accommodation for sixty 
students in all; and the course being 
one of three years we may expect that 
from June, 1911, twenty students will be 
turned out every year from the College 
ready to take part in and further the 
development of Agriculture. 


THE Cost ro GOVERNMENT. 


The total cost of the entire block of 
buildings approaches 8 lakhs, the main 
buildings in which the College and 
Institute are located, costing about 4$ 
lakhs. Besides this capital cost of 8 
lakhs, the Government incurs an annual 
recurring charge of over Rs. 50,000 on the 
maintenance of the necessary staff of 
experts and their assistants. The 
superior staff consists of an expert agri- 
eulturist who is also principal of the 
College and Superintendent of the 
Central Farm, the Government Botanist, 
the Agricultural Chemist and Entomo- 
logist and Mycologist. Hach expert is 
provided with assistants and demon- 
strators in his own branch, so that the 
time of the specialists may not be 
frittered away merely on the elementary 
tuition. 


THE AIM OF THE INSTITUTION. 


~The object of the College is to send , 


out in the course of years an army of 
trained agriculturists who will go amidst 
cultivating ryots and teach them by 


practical work the advantages of scien-- 


tific agriculture. The department has 
wisely resolved that the College should 
be thrown open to Matriculates and 
even to wnpassed men, so that those 
whose ambition in the direction of higher 
education is blocked may seek this 
avenue and thus try to perform a useful 
task. The educational qualifications 
thus required of candidates being 
extremely low and no fees being demand- 
ed from them there ought to be no 
practical difficulty in getting the re- 
quisite number of young men to apply 
yearly for training in the College. 
Though no actual promise of employ- 
ment is held out to them by Govern: 
ment, it is possible that for some years 
to come at any rate every one of the 
students successfully turned out of the 


338 


-availed of by groups of villages. 


- Agricultural Department. 


[OcToRER, 1909. 


College will find employment under 
Government in the various agricultural 
stations which will doubtless be estab- 
lished all over the Presidency. There are 
already seven or eight agricultural farms 
in existence, and if more agricultural 
stations have not been established, it is 
due more to the lack of trained young 
men competent to carry on agricultural 
work than to anything else. In the 
course of a few years one may therefore 
expect to see every district provided 
with at least one agricultural farm if 
not more where the ryots will be able to 
see for themselves what advances can 
be madeon their present methods of 
agriculture. On the ordinary ryot any 
amount of lectures on scientific agri- 
culture makes no impression what- 
ever, but if he could be satisfied by 
practical demonstrations as to the 
results of scientific agriculture, as 
he will doubtless be-at these agricul- 
tural stations, he will lose no time 
in assimilating improvements into his 
time-honoured methods of cultivation. 
The agricultural diplomates of the college 
will also find employment. as itinerant 
agricultural inspectors whose services are 
very much in requisition by several 
agricultural associations, and may also be 
There 
is altogether a very bright prospect 
in the agricultural output of the Presi- 
dency, and it is to be hoped that every- 
thing will be done by the officers of 
the department to second and loyally 
earry out the efforts and intention of 
Government. While no fault can be 
found with the rules laid down for the 
conduct of the College, one cannot help 
regretting that no serious efforts are 
being made to induce brilliant gradu- 
ates of our University who have passed 
in Chemistry and Biclogy to undergo 
a training at the agricultural college, 
so that in time to come they may take 
their place as agricultural leaders of 
the Province and also as officers of the 

Though the 4s 
prospects held out by the department -- 
to brilliant young men are not very 
encouraging, yet it must be admitted 
they are not altogether gloomy. There 
are a number of minor appointments 
in the Department with salaries ranging f 
from Rs. 25 to Rs. 150, and it is expected Baad) 
that in the near future a few higher x 
appointments with salaries ranging from 
Rs. 150 to Rs. 400 will be created which, b, 
at any rate, will prove to be incentive 
to young men of superior culture to take ~s 
to agriculture as a profession. : 

His Excellency Sir Arthur Lawley ar- 
rived here this morning at a quater past - 
10 by motor car from Ootacamund for . 
formally opening the Agricultural Col- 
lege and the Research Institute. After — 


a CTOBER, 1909.) 339 Miscellaneous: 


- ecellenecy not only laid 


the introductions were over, Mr, Stuart 
presented the following address on be- 
half of the Agricultural Department :— 


Your EXcELLENCINS,—It is with equal 
pride and pleasure that 1 come for- 
ward to thank you for affording me 
and all whom, for the time being, I 
am privileged to represent, this op- 
portunity of welcoming you both to 
an Institution which, under the friendly 
auspices of the Government of Madras, 
is certainly destined to play an import- 
ant part in the education of the people. 
I beg to assure Your Excellencies that 
we are deeply sensible of your kindness 
so graciously manifested by your pre- 
sence here to-day. 


In the annals of the Department of 
Agriculture of Madras two dates will 
ever be gratefully remembered and 
honourably associated, Sir, with your 
distinguished name by all who are 
interested in the improvement and deve- 
lopment of the great Agricultural In- 
dustry of this Presidency. 


On the 2lst. September, 1906, Your Ex- 
the foundation 
stone of this Agricultural College and 
Research Institute, and gave your name 
to the new road which passes through 
the Central Farm, but in the memor- 
able speech which Your Excellency deli- 
vered on that oceassion, further showed 
much generous sympathy with the 
special efforts of the Department to 
promote the welfare and _ industrial 
prospective of our rapidly increasing 
population. 


The 14th July, 1909, will be rendered no 
less remarkable by the ceremony of 
opening this College aud Institute which 
Your Excellency so readily consented 
to perform to-day, thereby making for 
all time the starting point of a new 
epoch in the history of Madras Agvi- 
culture. 


Designed by Mr. G. S. T, Harris, Con- 
sulting Architect to Government, and 
built in circumstances of considerable 
difficulty—due to the prevalence of 
cholera and plague—by Mr. D. M. Saiyid 
Abdul Rezak Sahib, the Contractor, 
under the able supervision of Mr. H. 
O'Connell, Superintending Engineer, 
under the immediate direction of Mr. 
H. T. Keeling, Executive Engineer, this 
noble building together with its appur- 
tenant land, hostels, farm buildings and 
residences for the staff will have cost 
more than eight lakhs of rupees before 
its completion—a ‘veritable monument 
to the munificence of both the Imperial 
and Provincial Governments and to the 
professional skill and indefatigable in- 
dustry of all concerned in its construc- 
tion. There is in the College and Insti- 
tute abundant accommodation for re- 


search work in Chemistry and Botany, 
and room has also been provided for the 
Mycologist and Entomologist who torm 
part of the expert staff contemplated 
in the original scheme, but whose ap- 
pointments~ have not yet been sanc- 
tioned, The class-rooms, laboratory and 
hostels have been built to hold sixty 
students, of whom twenty will be annu- 
ally admitted. The fine farm of 457 
acres of land, all in a high state of 
cultivation, which surrounds the build- 
ing, has been provided to ensure a 
sound and thorough training for the 
students in practical agriculture, and 
for experimental cultivation in con- 


nection with research. The college has 


been working in temporary buildings 
for the past year, as our need of trained 
men was so urgent that we could not 
wait till the College itself was ready for 
their reception. 


The present dignified position. of agri- 
cultural science in this presidency, com- 
pared with what wasthought sufficient 
when the first steps were taken in the 
direction of improvement, affords justi- 
fication for future encouragemet. 


It was just forty-four years ago that 
a committee of private individuals 
selected by Government was placed in 
charge of the Saidapet Farm. We are 
told in their first report that they found 
the land ‘‘covered with prickly-pear 
and jungle.” The qualifications of Mr. 
Shepperson’s predecessor in office were 
equally unpromising. The Superin- 
tendent of the farm is described as 
‘doubtless a good gardener, though hc 
has but a very superficial knowledge of 
farming,” while the ‘Overseer, who is 
a pensioned gunner,” is described as ‘‘a 
remarkably steady, trustworthy man, 
but he has no knowledge of farming nor 
can he read or write,” 


Of the soil of the farm itself Mr. Robert- 
son reported ‘‘ the proportion of sand is 
great. Grain will seldom produce grain 
when cultivated on these soils.” Born 
under those adverse conditions it is 
hardly a matter for surprise that the 
young plant of Madras Agriculture had 
a hard struggle for existence. 


In fairness, however, to the Government 
of that day it must be remembered that 
even in Kurope agricultural science was 
then in its infancy. English farmers 
were still on the full tide of prosperity, 
and English experts were apt to con- 
demn root and branch every method of 
cultivation which differed from their 
own. Again and again the Madras 
Government had shown its full apprecia: 
tion of the importance of improving the 
agriculture of this Presidency, but it 
seemed impossible to secure good techni: 


Miscellaneous, 
cal advice. Even at the present day 


such men are scarce—in 1865 they were 
non-existent. 


So far back as 1873 the Board of 
Revenue made the prophetic remark 
that “the most difficult and important 
object of study will be the way to in- 
fluence the ryot.” To this day this re- 
mains the central problem, to solve 
which these splendid buildings have been 
erected and our expert staff recruited, 
Ican best give Your Excellencies some 
idea of what we hope to do at Coimba- 
tore by briefly describing the prepar- 
ations we have made to solve this ques- 
tion. 


The first requisite for influencing the 

ryot is to ascertain by experiment and 
-research in what respects his methods 
are faulty, and in what manner they can 
be improved upon. As Your Excellency 
so truly said at the laying of the founda- 
tion-stone of this building, ‘“‘the first 
thing which we have to dois by experi- 
ment and research here to realise what 
are the proper lines upon which agri- 
culture be run,” 

The ryot is after all a professional 
farmer of long standing. His methods 
have been evolved by hundreds of 
generations taught in the hard school of 
experience, Were the world in which 
we live an unchanging one, the ryots’ 
present agricultural practice might per- 
haps suffice for his own simple needs, 
but change and development is the law 
of human existence. Population § in- 
creases ; prices rise and the struggle for 
life becomes ever more intense. Hence 
the necessity for securing a larger return 
from the land. Against the ryots’ long 
and often painful experience we have to 
pit the resources of physical science. 
But the elementary problems of plant 
nutrition in the tropics and the forma- 
tion of plant food in Indian soil are still 
awaiting investigation. Light must be 
thrown on these and similar problems 
before our advance tothe ryot can be 
based on the sure foundation of know- 
ledge. The experts of this Institute, 
however, have been generously equipped 
by Your Excellency’s Government for the 
struggle, as Your Excellency’s inspection 
of the laboratories will shortly show, 
and there need, I think, be little fear for 
the result. The secret of all progress is 
untiring and unceasing effort, and to 
use the words employed by the Madras 
Government in 1854, ‘if the effort he 
general, generous and long continued, it 
will ensure success,” 

Although of necessity, time will be 
required for reaping the fruits of re- 
search, we are to point with satisfaction 
to some substantial work already accom- 
plished. The new sugar canes intro- 


340 


[OcToBER, 1909. 


duced into the Godavari Delta by Dr. 
Barber to combat the fungus disease 
which was threatening to destroy the 
sugar industry have been a triumphant 
success. The new canes have been uni- 
versally adopted by the ryots, and it is 
now a difficult matter to find any of 
the canes which were formerly grown. 
Introduced into South Arcot, the same 
canes have in two years gained a firm 
hold of the district, while their superior 
qualities have revived the hopes that 
sugar refining from country grown canes 
will be added to the list of successful 
Swadeshi industries. 


Work on the Government farms has 
shown that much can be and has been 
done already to improve the cultivation 
of paddy and cotton, the most important 
food and industrial crops respectively 
of this Presidency. Similarly, in regard 
to ground-nut, pepper, jute, cholum, 
Indian corn and fodder-crops, much 
valuable information has been obtained. 


The manuring of paddy and the 
scientific feeding of cotton are at present 
receiving the special attention of Mr. 
Harrison, the Agricultural Chemist, and 
Dr. Barber, the Economic Botanist, at 
this Institute. I mention this specific 
instance to show Your Hxcellencies the 
practical spirit in which the experts of 
the Department are attacking their 
problems. 


But when research has done its work, 
and can point with confidence to definite 
lines of improvement, the problem of 
how to influence the ryot will have only 
been half solved. It is in order to 
provide an efficient Indian agency for 
taking up the work at this stage and 
carrying it into the villages and fields 
that the Agricultural College has been 
founded. The District Agricultural 
Associations, some of which have been 
doing excellent work, are clamouring for 
such an agency, and Your Hxcelleney is 
frequently asked to establish new Agri- 
cultural Stations which for want of 
qualified men to work them cannot for 
the present be started. While it is our 
ultimate hope that experts qualified for 
Research work will receive at all events 
part of their training here, it is primarily 
the practical expert that we hope to 
produce from the Agricultural College. 
The course of instruction will last three 
years, and embrace Chemistry, Botany, 
Physics, Veterinary Science, Agricul- 
tural Engineering and General Agri- 
culture. Twenty students, as already 
stated, will be admitted each year, 
making a total of sixty when the 
College is full. The second batch of 
students has recently entered the College. 
When the time comes forthe student 


to receive the Coimbatore Diploma in 


ols x faacataes 


- Agriculture and,I trust that it will be 


the ambition of every student to win it 
by dint of untiring industry and appli- 
cation, itis hoped that he will have a 
knowledge of the sciences on which the 
art of Agriculture is based sufficient to 
make him an “intelligent, helpful and 
friendly critic of the ryots’ ancestral 
methods. Specialattention is also being 
paid to the practical side of his training, 
so that he may understand the actual 
difficulties under which the ryot labours, 
and may, if need be, show him how to 
meet them. In order to combat success- 
fully the practical objection which the 
ryot is so fertile in raising, he must him- 
self have a thorough knowledge of all the 
details of cultivation. It is mainly to 
provide the students with the oppor- 
tunity for acquiring this absolutely 
essential practical knowledge that this 
large tract of fertile and highly cnltiva- 
ted land has been added to the College, 
embracing, as it does, wet land, irri- 
gated dry land, and purely rain-fed dry 
land, it is admirably suited for the pur- 
pose. 


The rules which have been sanctioned 
by Your Excellency’s Government for 
the admission of students to this College 
have steadily kept in view the need for 
attacting practical men rather than 
mere students. Special care has been 
taken to profit by the experience of the 
past and toavoid the danger of attract- 
ing an unsuitable type of men ready at 
the first opportunity to drift into any 
line of life rather than adopt the pro- 
fession of an up-to-date farmer. No 
scholarships are therefore granted, 
and no promise of employment in 
Government Service is held out, The 
ordinary standard of education expected 
is the Matriculation examination, but 
where the applicant can satisfy the 
Principal that he is a suitable student 
in other respects, even this standard 
is not insisted upon. Inorder to render 
the College as accessible as possible to 
the sons of the poorest ryots, no fees 
are charged for the use of the hostels. 
The students provide their own food 
and can thus regulate their expenses ac- 
cording to their individual means. The 
hostels themselves have been built in 
ten separate blocks, each accommodat- 
ing six students,so there need be no 
difficulties in the matter of caste. 


I trust this brief summary of the 
aims and objects of our Agricultural 
College and Research Institute, and this 
description of the means which have 
been adopted to secure them will have 
satisfied Your EHxcellency that the 
large sum of money expended on this 
magnificent College and Farm has been 


OcToBER, 1909,] 341 


Miscellaneouse 


well laid out. But just as walls with- 
out men do not make a College or 
centre of Research unless the men who 
work in them are inspired by the pro- 
per spirit, I have, therefore, much 
pleasure in assuring Your Excellency 
that the enthusiasm with which the 
expert staff of the Department, HKuro- 
pean and Indian alike, have entered 
upon their new duties, justifies the most 
sanguine hopes that their labours will 
be fruitful and willtend to the material 
advancement of our mutual friend and 
paymaster, the man behind the plough. 


It only remains for me to thank Your 
Excellencies for your patient attention 
to these explanatory remarks, and to 
invite you, Sir, to be so good as_ to open 
our Agricultural College and Research 
Institute by unveiling the slab, whose 
inscription will record for this and 
every succeeding generation the_inti- 
mate connection of Your Excellency 
with the establishment of an Institu- 
tion founded for the express purpose 
of improving the material condition 
and increasing the happiness of millions 
of our Indian fellow-subjects. 


His Excellency in the course of his 
lengthy reply said that it was with very 
sincere pleasure that he proceeded to 
comply with the request which had been 
made to him by the Hon’ble Mr. Castle- 
stuart Stuart, viz., that he should per- 
form the ceremony of declaring this Col- 
lege to be duly opened. It was indeed 
with great satisfaction to him to find 
himselt that day, because he took the 
very deepest interest in the welfare of 
this Institution. His Hxcellency rejoiced 
to know that his name was to be associ- 
ated with this institution from which 
students will be trained and sent out to 
carry on this useful purpose. The ad- 
dress which was read by Mr. Stuart was 
full of interest, and allusion was made to 
the fact that it was His Excellency that 
performed the ceremony of laying the 
foundation-stone of that very College 
that seemed to him to have occurred 
only the day before yesterday, and yet 
His Excellency realised that that cere- 
mony took place during the first half 
year of his career. His Excellency was 
performing that day the final ceremony 
of the opening of the College, and His 
Excellency was grieved to find that it 
was during the second half of his ad- 
ministration, and that the time had gone 
so quickly. Still he would watch the 
success of this institution even when he 
left the shores of India. He congratulat- 
ed those who were responsible for this 
object as wellas those who took part 
in the construction of this building. 
His Excellency congratulated them more 


Miscellaneous; 


because, as they heard just then, that 
success had been achieved amidst con- 
siderable difficulties. His Excellency 
hoped that nothing had been omitted 
which might be required for the training 
of students and for the experiments of 
all kinds of practical as well as scientific 
Agriculturists. 


At the same time the Government 
would not hesitate to increase the 
capacity of this Institution just as they 
pointed out in their address. The 
Government had already expended a 
large sum of six lakhs for this College. 
The Government of India in the interests 
of the ryots had been doing much in 
this direction. His Excellency then 
spoke at length about the benefit and 
advantage of the British Rule in India, 
and said that under British Government 
there was justice between man and man 
as far as possible, as the Government had 
not forgotten the interests of the ryots, 
and this work had been taken purely for 
agriculturists and ‘cultivators of this 
land. The Estates Land Act was for 
their good, and it was a matter for regret 
that the Hon’ble Mr. Forbes who did so 
much had now retired. It was in the 
interests of ryots that they found 
themselves in their midst, and Mr.Stuart 
had given a short sketch of the efforts 
that had been made in this Presidency 
to improve methods cf agriculture. It 
was only in recent years that a change 
had taken placein the matter of agri- 
cultural science. The difficulties were 
great, and they must try to surmount 
those difficulties. It seemed to him 
that Agriculturists had now taken 
not only cultivation of lands but 
also culture of those who lived on them. 
By culture, His Excellency meant the 
enlightenment of the discipline which 
is acquired by manual training, and had 
nothing to do with the mischievous 
interpretation of that phrase. It was 
universally recognised that agriculture 
to-day meant the cultivation of people 
who were init. There must be intelligent 
and proper efforts if a ryot wanted to 
succeed in manuring and increasing the 
fertility of the soil. His Excellency here 
quoted the example followed in Canada 
in this respect. It was extraordinary to 
observe what a marvellous advantage 
science had made in this country, and 
not only science has advanced but also 
the material prosperity in the research 
investigation. It was easy that any 
difficulty in this direction might be over- 
come. His Excellency hoped that young 
men in the College would be educated to 
a higher conception of the standard of 
living in this direction. It seemed to 
him that the field of research was 
practically limitless. His Hxcellency 
next spoke about the duties of professors 


342 


[OctoBER, 1909. 


who ought to train students here. The 
Government he said would like to admit 
only those students who would make 
agriculture their life work and would 
refuse admission to those who want to 
join the Government service other than 
the Agricultural Department, 


SOME INDIRECT BENEFITS OF 
IRRIGATION NOT GENERALLY 
RECOGNIZED. 


By Henry MARSH, C.1.E., M. INST.C.E.,. 
Consulting Engineer, Protective Irriga- 
tion Works, Central India. 


(From the Agricultural Journal of India, 
Vol. IV., Pt. 1, January, 1909.) 


Many people think that Irrigation 
from canals, wells, and tanks is onby of 
use asa protective agent in tracts of 
precarious or slight rainfall. They 
know, of course, that millions of acres 
have been reclaimed from desert by the 
harnessing of rivers in the Punjab, in 
Sindh, and in Egypt. But they are 
probably not aware of the many indirect 
benefits which accrue to the State and 
agriculture from the presence of unfail- 
ing irrigation even when the rainfall is 
fair to good. In this articleit is pro- 
posed to deal with the advantages which 


_are thus derived, and though not patent 


to the public, are well known to revenue 
officers in Upper India. 


2. Before going into details, it is well 
to summarise these unconsidered assets 
as follows :— 

(a) Power of substituting immediate 
sowings in case of destruction to ad- + 
vanced crops, or harvests. 

(b) Diversity of cropping, 7.e., insur- 
ance against losses. 2 

(c) Maintenance of cultivation, and 3 
demand for labour throughout the 
season. _ 

(ad) Presence of fodder, 
and water for cattle. 

(e) Improved sanitary conditions. 

(f) General increase of comfort, well- 
being, and decrease of crime. 


PowER OF SUBSTITUTING NEW SOWINGS 
IN CASE OF ACCIDENTS TO ADVANCED 
CROPS OR HARVESTS. 


3. The last two decades have afforded 
many melancholy opportunities of ob- 
serving injuries to crops, which were 
giving splendid promise of bumper 
harvests. In 1904-05 the autumn sow- 
ings had been unusually extensive, and 
the winter rains had benefited them 


pasturage, 


oa 


Sea eee Nee) 


OcroRER, 1909, - Bas 


to such an extent that prospects were 


exceptionally good. However, three 
or four days of extraordinary frost 
in the beginning of February, 1905, com- 
pletely changed these happy conditions. 
All advanced crops were utterly ruined, 
and where the peasants had no irriga- 
tion to water the fields, their plight was 
very serious. They simply had nothing 
to look forward to, until the following 
monsoon would enable them to sow 
kharif grains, In Bundlekund the rain 
did not come at all, and thus misfortune 
followed misfortune. The case was, how- 
ever, very different with the irrigating 
tenants. Ihe ruined wheat fields were 
quickly ploughed into the soil, and sown 
with “zaid” crops, 7.e., “ chehna” (Pani- 
cum miliaceum), vegetables, melons, etc. 
The cultivation of “‘chehna” proved to 
be a very sound enterprise, as it ripened 
in two months, and produced five or six 
maunds of grain to the acre. Other 
tenants got the land ready for sugar, if 
they had the necessary manure. Others 
prepared it for April sowings of maize, 
jugar, cotton, and hot weather rice. 
Maize sown at this period produced 
cobs in July, and fetched ready 
money in the local markets. Harly 
cotton plants were well advanced, when 
the monsoon arrived, and were there 
fore not liable to injury from flooding. 
This form of cultivation is largely re- 
placing the indigo of the Jumna and 
Ganges Canals, and requires every en- 
couragement. It enriches the land and 
produces a better class of fibre. Irri- 
gation was also the cause of other 
benefits. in this phenomenal frost cala- 
mity of February, 1905. Fields that had 
recently taken water escaped almost 
entirely. I was Chief Engineer of 
Irrigation at the time in the United 
Provinces, and remember well having 
to run the Canals, although the execu- 
tive staff wished to have them closed 
for urgent repairs. The water thus 
given had a most beneficial effect in 
resuscitating crops that were seemingly 
killed by the excessively low temper- 
ature. After a short pericd of, so to 
speak, hibernation, they recovered, and 
gave very fair returns. In Muzaffar- 
nagar and Saharanpore, where frost is a 
common occurrence, the cultivators are 
constantly onthe lookout for it in the 
winter months, and freely irrigate the 
young crops to prevent mischief. They 
attribute the protection to the thicker 
and stronger growth of the irrigated 
plant. This idea is similar to that 
held by cultivators of unirrigated soils. 
They rejoice exceedingly when  pro- 
pitious rains arrive before the frosty 
season. Experience proves that the 
young rabi is much strengthened by the 


Miseellaneorts. 


damp, and thus able to resist subsequent 
low temperatures. So far I have only 
dealt with the case of the calamitous 
frost in 1905, and have shown that the 
irrigating tenant was in a position to 
retrieve his losses by fresh sowings. But 
the same reasoning applies to other 
agricultural disasters; Hardly a year 
passes, in which the Gazettes do not 
record the devestating effects in some 
parts of the country from locusts, hail or 
rust. In the report on the famine of 
1895-96-97, it is recorded that the drought 
of these years merely completed -the 


agricultural ruin, caused by _ the 
excessive winter rains in 1892-98-04. 
In the last-named seasons immense 


sheets of spring crors were destroyed b 
blight. Lowlying lands were fee ei 
for cultivation. Kven where the wheat 
and barley had ripened, and had been 
cut, the unseasonable rain and storms 
damaged the grain on the _ threshing 
floors. Independent of these well-known 
calamities, cultivators of tracts near 
forests or jungles frequently find their 
fields eaten upin one night by a herd 
of Nilgai or Deer. Here, again, the 
ease of the owners is black indeed, if 
they have no means of resowing crops 
until the following monsoon. I have 
recounted all these calamities, tc show 
how many trials beset a cultivator, and 
how speculative are his chances of har- 
vest profits, unless he has the means of 
renewing his sowings without delay, 


INSURING ADVANTAGES OF IRRIGATION 
(i.e., DIVERSITY OF CROPPING), 


4. All wise agriculturists agree in the 
advantage of cultivating a variety of 
crops, 1.é-, ‘in not carrying all the eggs 
in one basket,” The Indian peasant 
follows out this idea in a rough way, 
by sowing various mixtures, which is 
not always the best form of insurance, 
as it depreciates the market price of his 
grain. Thus, rice and kodo, gram and 
wheat, peas and barley are cultivated at 
the same time, and-in the same field. 
There are many other combinations, but 
the main idea is, that dry weather will 
suit one plant, and a rainy season the 
second; hence some measure of success 
may he expected. Where irrigation 
exists, the position of the cultivator is 
much sounder. Continuous and heavy 
rain, which is disastrous to cotton, 
millets, and cold weather cereals is 
advantageous to sugarcane and rice. 
Without irrigation these valuable crops 
are rarely attempted, except in low- 
lying lands, This form of insurance is 
very sound, and is proved by the fact, 
that remissions are almost unknown 
where sugar-cane and rice are cultivated 
and irrigated. They flourish mostly in 


Miscel laneous. 


damp, cool climates, but require water 
to mature them. Contrary to general 
opinion, it isin these climates that Irri- 
gation Projects pay best. Proof may 
be given by quoting the following ex- 
tract from page 87 of the Sarda Canal 
Project of 1903. 


“Hence the annual value of a cusee 
is much higher in the moist doabs of 
the Kastern Jumna Canal than in that 
of the drier and hotter country, watered 
by the Lower Ganges Canal. For the 
last five years they stand thus :— 


VALUE OF CUSECS. 


Eastern Jumna Lower Ganges 


Canal. Canal, 

Rs. Rs. 

1898.99 ine Wea whe 571 
1899-00 etme bs toe TON 
1900-01 atts 1,029 Mee 558 
1901-02 ait 1,187 as 636 
1902-03 eis 1,232 a 705 


It is also urged that the revenue will 
not develop as rapidly as is anticipated 
on account of the slow progress of the 
Agra Canal. Here, again. it may be 
pointed out that the great dryness of 
the country watered by the latter work 
has been a bar to the cultivation of first 
class crops.” 


MAINTENANCE OF CULTIVATION, AND 
DEMAND FOR LABOUR THROUGHOUT THE 
SEASON. 

3 


5. These results of irrigation are very 
important, and are well understood by 
Collecters who have held charge of pro- 
tected and unprotected districts. In 
the former, they know that agricultural 
Operations never cease throughout the 
year; the labourers never have a slack 
time and are continually ploughing, 
sowing, weeding, reaping, or threshing. 
Crime is greatly reduced, and in seasons 
of drought, the demand for labour is 
all the greater. Examining the oper- 
ations of the year, we find that in Janu- 
ary and February the ground is being 
prepared for sugar sowings, whilst the 
matured cane is being harvested and 
the juice expressed. The rabi crop re- 
quires greatattention. Weeding, water- 
ing, fencing, and keeping off marauding 
animals occupy a number of hands, 
Harvesting of the rape or mustard is 
carried out in February; picking the 
plants and expressing the oil absorb a 
good deal of labour. In March and April 
the cutting, carrying, and threshing of 
the rabi is in full swing, and labourers 
are ata premium. Much difficulty is ex- 
perienced in finding hands to hoe and 
tend young sugar. Moreover, the fallow 
land has to be irrigated for maize, cot- 
ton, Juar, or hot weather rice. In May 
the threshing out is still often in- 
complete, and the young irrigated crops 


344 [OcTosmR, 1909, 


require much attention. In June, July, 
August and September, if the monsoon 
is good, ploughing, sowing, and weeding 
occupy many people; early crops of 
Maize and rice are cut and garnered. 
If on the other hand the monsoon is 
a failure, labour is in strong request 
to push on irrigation for sowing food 
crops, and for saving standing crops. 
October, November and December are 
absorbed in sowing the rabi, in irri- 
gating it, and in completing the kharif 
harvest. Thus itis easy to see that in 
a weli-protected country, labour is in 
demand throughout the year, peasants 
have little time to indulge in lawless- 
ness, or in following out the freebooting 
instincts of their ancestors. For 3L years 
I served on the Ganges and Jumna Canal 
system; and though many famines 
and scarcities visited Upper India 
during that long period, I never saw a 
famine, and never saw famine labourers 
at work. Indeed, my great difficulty 
was to find hands to carry out the 


many sanctioned projects for new canal | 


branches and drainage works. But 
during the short period in which I toured 
in Central India, I was brought face to 
face with grim starvation, and aimless 
wandering in two seasons out of three, 
This is strong testimony to the policy of 
pushing on protective works. It is sure- 
ly better to spend money in constructing 
canals, tanks and wells, even though 
a productive return is not expected 
than to await famine, distress, epidemics, 
ete., and spend large uneconomic sums 
in relieving them. In the latter case the 
outlay is often greater, the country is 
pauperized, officials are over-worked, 
and seldom do we find any permanent 
result. arising from all the harassing 
trouble and strain on State resources. 


PRESENCE OF FODDER, PASTURAGR, 
AND WATER FOR CATTLE, 


6. Those who have experienced a 
severe drought can hardly have for- 
gotten the terrible mortality amongst 
cattle. I have seen thousands of the 
weary emaciated beasts, driven along 
the Bombay road towards Malwa in 
1905 and 1906. Rain seldom fails in that 
country, and hence it has earned a great 
reputation asa place of refuge in times 
of famine. Similarly, in 1899-1900 I have 
seen large herds driven from Rajpu- 
tana and the Punjab to the Ganges 
khadir, and the Kumaun Terai. In all 
these disastrous trekkings, many losses 
were incurred, and bones of the wretched 
animals, lying along the roads, were 
silent witnesses to the fact. Independent 
of these casualties, wholesale butchering 
was practised in some localities. At 
Kunch in Jalaun, thousands were dis- 


_-_ 


—OcroRER, 1909.) - 


posed of inthis way. The owners sold 
them for a trifle, and the contractors 
made some profit from the skins and 
bones. The loss to the country must 
have been immense, and Government 
was obliged toadvance large sums to 
the cultivators. Without this assist- 
ance, ploughing in the ~ succeeding 
monsoon would have been seriously 
affected. 

Where irrigation exists, all this horror 
is avoided. Water is of course plentitul, 
and so is the straw of all the cereal crops 
raised by the canals. The banks of the 
channels afford a certain amount of 
grazing, whilst spring level rises high 
in low lands, and causes a plentiful 
growth of herbage. This latter point is 
very important. In the valleys below 
tanks the grass is permanent and of 
great value. For miles below _ the 
embankments useful streams trickle 
along, and are a blessing to man and 


beast. The rise of spring level isalso of 
immense use in rendering well-water 
accessible. This matter is, however, 


seldom realized until a tank embank- 
ment falls into disrepair, and the com- 
manded wells become useless. 

IMPROVED SANITARY CONDITIONS. 

7. Years ago it was thought that 
canal irrigation must be the cause of 
many forms of disease, to which natives 
and Europeans are liable, in a tropical 
climate. The belief bore good fruit in 
one way, as Government sanctioned 
large sums of money for the execution 
of drainage works. Remedial measures 
in the way of reduction of excessive 
watering were also carried out. More 
branches, and more distributaries were 
constructed, and this wise policy acted 
as an effectual safeguard against useless 
irrigationand water-logging. Cultivators 
who were accustomed to deluge their 
fields weekly are now fortunate if their 
turn comes once a fortnight, or once a 
month in times of low volume. This is 
all good for the land and for them- 
selves. Still, one famous’ Sanitary 
Commissioner was rabid on the subject, 
and pressed the Local Government of 
the North-Western Provinces not only 
to close up some canals, but to desist 
from further extensions. When the 
ease was referred: to the Secretary 
and Chief Engineer for irrigation, he 
pleaded that canal-irrigated villages 
would show a better return of health 
than those of unirrigated villages in the 
same latitude. Heconsidered this would 
be the case, as the inhabitants of the 
former were better clothed and better 
fed. Investigation proved that the 
Chief Engineer was right, and the 
matter was allowed todrop. Very little 
argument is required to show that 
though fever may be caused by irriga- 

44 ; 


345 


Miscellaneous. 


tion, the sanitary advantages tar out- 
weigh the disadvantages. Natives live 
largely on dairy products, and it is 
therefore necessary that milch cattle 
should have good drinking-water. With- 
out canals, streams, or large tanks this 
essential does not exist. The conditions 
in which some beasts have to quench 
their thirst in offensive village ponds 
are no doubt a danger to the public. 
Milch cattle have power to pass off 
poisonous ingredients in their milk, and 
thus itiseasy to conclude why many 
outbreaks of disease take place in 
drought-stricken tracts. A well-known 
case of this kind occurred in Gloucester- 
shire some thirty years ago, when a 
number of people were invalided, by 
consuming the milk from a certain 
dairy farm. Subsequent investigation 
proved that the bullocks and heifers on 
the land were sick, and dying, whilst 
the cows which produced the deleteri- 
ous milk were thriving. This fact gave 
the clue, and it was then discovered, 
that for the sake of salt, the beasts had 
been licking a keg of poisonous paint 
which had been left in the meadows. 
The cows did not suffer, as they passed 
off the.poison in the milk; the other 
beasts sickened and died. Very possibly 
similar reasons produced the terrible 
scourges of cholera which used to rage 
in the Meerut and Agra Divisions before 
canal irrigation was introduced. The 
memorial stones on the camping 
grounds, giving lists of officers and 
soldiers who died from the disease forty 
and fifty years ago are strong proofs of 
this conclusion. Such epidemics seem 
to have quitted this highly irrigated 
part of the country, and it may be 
claimed that the immunity is dus to 
the presence of the flowing water in 
the canals. Nothing is so deadly as a 
scarcity of potable water in a tropical 
country. It has been very truly said 
that more lives are lost in India from 
want of water than from want of food. 
There is another great advantage inthe 
introduction of canal water from the 
large rivers. Wells in Muttra and Agra 
Districts, that used to be brackish, have 
now become sweet. Thisis a great joy 
to the people, who used tostruggle for 
vessels of potable water at the few wells 
which were not bitter. 


GENERAL IMPROVEMENT OF THE PEOPLE 
AND COUNTRY. 

8. In this paragraph an attempt will 
be made to indicate the general benefits 
which arise from the improved condi- 
tions alyeady explained. The cultivators 
who are well placed, as regards irri- 
gation, gradually reach a stage of assured 
financial stability. Though they may 
not obtain heavy harvests in years of 


Miscellaneous. 846 


drought, and though some crops may be 
lost by reason of various calamities, yet 
a portion of sowings will cometo matu- 
rity, and splendid prices will be realized. 
In this way, the tenant clears off all 
debts, builds a better house for himself, 
keeps better cattle, and finds no trouble 
in marrying off his children. Altogether 
a better state of well-being is arrived at. 
Rents come in regularly, and instead of 
the headmen felling the mango groves, 
new plantations are laid out, and 
new wellsare sunk. The population in- 
creases, the waste lands are reclaimed 
and brought under the plough. In 
time, villages comprising a few huts will 
become quite large towns connected with 
centres of trade by roads or railways. 
The advantages derived by Government 
are most important. The land revenue 
becomes stable, and advances are not 
required to tide the tenants over bad 
seasons. The people who are dacoits 
and cattle lifters become respectable, 
law-abiding members of society. In- 
stead of spending large sums in main- 
taining peace, the State has to consider 
schemes for roads, hospitals and schools. 
The increased wealth of the people 
leads them to make long pilgrimages, 
and the facilities of travelling must 
exercise a strong educative effect. It 
has been said with considerable truth 
that after all a railway engineis the 
best school master. Railways them- 
selves benefit enormously by the pros- 
perity of the cultivators. The exports 
of produce increase by leaps and bounds, 
and returns do not fall off in irri- 
gated tracts, as they doin unprotected 
countries. India is mainly an agri- 
cultural country ; nothing is so necessary 
to her as the development of irrigation 
facilities, and prevention of the waste- 
ful escape of river water to the seas. 
Not only do these protective works 
afford food and occupation for millions, 
but the climate itself is modified bene- 
ficially. Intense aridity is checked, and 
healthful dews are created, which assist 
in the growth of herbage and trees. 
The Monsoon rains descend on levelled 
fields covered with young crops, and the 
latter act as powerful agents in prevent- 
ing denudation, and limiting excessive 
floods in the mainrivers. Mr. Buchanan, 
Under-Secretary of State for India, has 
evidently grasped the advantages of 
developing irrigation works, and has 
impressed them on the House of Com- 
mons in his recent Budget Speech. He 
said: ‘There isno sphere of work in 
which the Indian Government has been 
engaged, which is more satisfactory to 
contemplate than that of the railway 
and irrigation work.” ..... ““T have 
given notice of a bill for renewing our 
power of borrowing money for railway, 


[OcropmR, 1909. 


irrigation, and other general purposes, 
but I have not yet had the opportu- 
nity of introducing it. It is a measure, 
however, that will generally commend 
itself to the approbation of the House, 
and from it we may expect very excellent 
results will ensue. Every one _ will 
regognize also, that there is no part 
of our work which reflects more credit 
on us than the admirable irrigation 
work, large and small, which has been 
carried out in recent years. It has 
been a help to our revenue, tending also 
to mitigate the condition of the poorest 
people in their distress. We intend to 
go on inthe future in pursuit of that 
policy.” 


GREEN MANURING. 


(From the Supplement to The Nyasaland 
Government Gazette of 30th June, 1909.) 


This is one of the most discussed Agri- 
cultural problems of the present day, 
and has its foundation in Hellriegel’s 
discovery of 1886, when he declared and 
proved that plants belonging to the 
Natural Order Leguminose were cap- 
able of utilising atmospheric nitrogen. 

This special power of assimilating 
nitrogen from the atmosphere ot the 
soil surrounding the roots is the result 
of asymbiotic relationship between legu- 
minous plants and the bacteria known 
as Bacillus radicicola. 

If one examines the roots of a legu- 
minous plant, such as a bean or a pea, 
it will be noticed that the rootlets are 
covered with swellings, those swellings 
or nodules are the result of the irritation 
set up by the Bacillus radicicola which 
inhabit them. 

The bacteria enter the young rootlets 
from the soil, and receive from the plant 
the starchy food necessary for their 
lives, and in return give the plant their 
excreta and dead bodies which are rich 
in nitrogen. 

If the bacteria received from the plaut 
all their food they would be parasites, 
but as they have the power of using 
atmospheric nitrogen for building their 
own bodies they are not parasites. The 
relationship between the two is sym- 
biotic, as each benefits the other ; 
the plant supplies to the bacteria the 
starchy food which they could not make, 
and in return the bacteria gives to the 
plant a complex form of nitrogenous 
matter made from atmospheric nitrogen 
which the plant could not otherwise 
utilise. 

Now that the relationship is explained, 
it is possible to consider the problem 
from a practical point of view. All 
plants, no matter whether Cotton, Coffee 
or Rubber, absorb from the soil nitrates, 


3 
7 
‘ 
4 
5 
’ 
‘ 
, 


ae 


October, 1909.) 


et i ee ae 


- an 


sulphates and phosphates of calcium 
(lime), magnesium, potash and iron, but 
they absorb them in different proportions 
depending on the family or order to 
which the plant belongs. 

One point must be borne in mind, that 
if one of those constituents is absent no 
plant can grow; they are all necessary 
for the building up of plant tissues, and 
one constituent cannot displace another 
in this work. 

Under normal conditions they are all 
present in the soil, but sometimes there 
is a deficiency of one or more of them, 
and those deficient are usually the 
nitrates, the phosphates, the potash or 
the lime, hence in manures those form 
the principal constituents, 

In all questions relating to manuring 
it is imperative to remember that the 
size of any crop is determined by the 
constituent of plant food present in 
least amount. For example, if an acre 
of ground contain a surplus of all the 
above constituents and less nitrogen 
than that required for a maximum crop, 
the return would be in proportion to the 
nitrogen present, as the plants could 
not utilise the surplus of other con- 
stituents when it had no nitrogen to 
combine with them. 

In Great Britain, as every one knows, 
crops are grown in rotation, and as 
different crops use different proportions 
of the essential plant-food constituents 
in the soil, there is little fear of soil 
exhaustion. Under those conditions the 
land is producing a crop, and at the 
same time recuperating in the consti- 
tuents required for the following crop 
by the ratural agencies of soil decay. 

This may be explained by making a 
comparison of the amounts in pounds of 
nitrogen, phosphoric acid and potash 
removed by crops of Cotton, Corn, and 
Wheat :— 


¢ . Phos- 
\ Nityro- SEA|® Letomshcl| me Moya 
Crop, gen. Bozic tash, | tals, 
Cotton— el 
190 Ibs, Lint so *65'|'- *19 ‘$7 
414 lbs. Seed s+ L295") 5226 4-84 
Total .,.) 13°57 | 5°45) 5°71] 24°73 
Corn— a 
29°4 bus, Grain ..| 82°14] 12°36 | 7°06 
Stalks  ..| 41°60 | 11°60 | 56°00 
Total ...| 73°74 | 23°96 | 63°06 |160°76 
Wheat — 
13°95 bus, Grain .../ 19°55 | 744] 5°10 
Straw. ...| 18°57 | 2°76} 11°73 
Total .. | 33°12 | 10:20 | 16°83 | 60:35 


347 Miscellaneous. 


From the above it is seen that Wheat 
requires more than twice and Corn 
nearly seven times as much plant food 
as Cotton. 

It will be noticed in all three crops 
that nitrogen is absorbed in the largest 
quantities. Green manuring is the 
least expensive manner in which to 
restore this nitrogen to the soil. 


In Nyasaland Maize and Millets are the 
most extensively cultivated of all the 
crops, and it is seen that this class of 
crop is especially exhaustive of nitrogen. 

On the rich lands adjoining the 
Shiré, those crops can be grown for 
many years on the same soil, but in 
the Highlands, the crop soon degener- 
ates in yield, and every few years the 
native requires to clear new land. 

It isa known fact that no soil when 
subjected to heavy washing will retain - 
soluble nitrogen if there is drainage 
the low river lands are not washed by 
percolating water to the same extent 
as the highlands, where every shower 
washes the soil to the valleys, especially 
in the case of light gravelor Fckee soil. 

There is only one way of fixing nitro- 
gen on sloping soils, and that is by 
covering the soil with vegetation; dur- 
ing life this vegetation absorbs the 
soluble nitrogen, and on death forms a 
covering of vegetable debris which 
decomposes slowly, and prevents soil 
washing, by acting as an absorbing 
and evaporating layer on the surface. 

In the tropics it is imposible to grow 
crops in rotation, as the cost of trans- 
port and freight makes it prohibitive 
to cultivate many of the short-lived 
crops; and the more valuable crops, 
such as Coffee, Rubber, Tea and Coco- 
nuts, require several years before reach- 
ing maturity. 

For many years it has been the 
practice to clean-weed all those plants, 
irrespective ot the situations and clima- 
tie conditions under which they are 
growing. Every planter knowsthat if 
weeds are allowed to grow, returns are 
small and quality poor with all crops. 
It is not the intention of this article to 
advise the complete abandoning of 
clean weeding, as with many crops, 
such as Cotton, clean weeding is an 
absolute necessity, but with other tropi- 
a crops green manuring is more profit- 
able. 


REASONS FOR GREEN MANURING. 

On sloping elevated ground it is 
always noticeable that plants growing 
at the bottom of the hills are stronger 
than those at the top, and is accounted 
for by the nitrogen from the top of 
the ae being washed to the lowest 
evel, 


Miscellaneous. 


When new land is opened there is 
always a large amount of organic matter 
in the surface soil, the accumulated vege- 
tation of many years; under tillage 
and clean weeding this vegetation dis- 
appears, decaying and returning to the 
soil. Most of the nitrogen in a _ soil is 
contained in this form, and at the end 
of three years’ cultivation, practically 
no leaves or sticks are to be found, the 
greater part of the nitrogen in this 
organic matter has become available 
and absorbed. Of the remainder the 
most of it has been washed deep into the 
soil, or into the drains and lost from the 
plantation. 


It is frequently seen in practice that a 
first year’s crop on newly-cleaned land is 
poor, the reason is usually excess of 
acidity produced by the decay of vege- 
tation in absence of air, but after a 
year’s tillage this disappears. 


It would not be advisable to sow 
green manure plants among a crop 
planted on newly-cleared land, but it 
would be very profitable and advisable 
to sow green manure crops among 
Coffee, Tea or Rubber which was grow- 
ing on anitrogen-poverty, rain-washed 
soil, having been submitted to heavy 
tropical rain during half the year and 
drought during the ocher half, for five 


or six years; receiving nothing but {ars 


hoeing to promote the rapid decay of 
the few leaves which fall from the 
trees occupying the land. 


One of the great advantages of having 
organic matter (pieces of plarts, ete.,) 
in the soil is that the organic matter 
enables the soil to retain soluble nitro- 
gen and moisture and acts like a 


sponge increasing the power of imbi- 


bition. 

Take for example the Coffee crop, it is 
generally accepted that the most critical 
time is the time of flowering (end of 
October and early November). If the 
rains are late, much of the flourish is 
cast and the result is a small crop. 
This was the case in Nyasaland last 
rains, and ona well-known estate I saw 
fully 100 acres with scarcely a berry. 
If that soil had been green manured in 
the previous year, it is very probable 
that the amount of water retained in it 
by the organic matter (dead leaves 
branches, ete.,) from a green manure 
erop, would have 
enable the Coffee Plants to retain their 
flourish until the advent of the rains. 


Another point noticeable in the Coffee 
eropis the damping off or blackening 
of the primaries. Thisis usually worst 
in old trees, aud is undoubtedly closely 
connected with the vitality of the plants. 
It is generally attributed to thrips, but 


348 


been sufficient to — 


[OcToBER, 1909. 


this is wrong; thrips may cause defoli- 
ation, but not the blackening so visible 
on most plantations in the present year. 
This blackening off is usually worst on 
heavy soil, and probably is due to lack 
of aeration at the roots. Green manur- 
ing also helps to aerate the soil, and this 
is one of the mechanical effects of Pe, 
of organic matter in the soil. : 


The blackening of the primaries, and 
severity of thrips, have much to do 
with the condition of the plant when 
attacked; and if the plants are half 
starved for lack of nitrogen, or suffo- 
cated for lack of air at their roots, they 
succumb much more rapidly. 


EFFECT OF GREEN MANURE ON RUBBER. 


It is a general idea throughout Nyasa- 
land that Ceara Rubber is the crop to 
grow on all exhausted Coffee planta- 
tions, but this is a great mistake. 


The reason why the public have 
arrived at this decision is the rapid 
growth of the Ceara plant, but in the 
writer’s opinion the more rapid the 
growth of a crop the greater the neces- 
sity of having a responsive soil, rich in 
soluble and available plant-food consti- 
tuents. 


A soil for a quick-growing crop Aticealet 
contain a high percentage of nitrogen, 
as nitrogen stimulates growth more 
ae any other constituents of a plant’s 

ood, 


Ina cloudy temperate country there 
is danger in having large quantities of 
nitrogen, as the growing season is short, 
and nitrogen retards ripening, but with 
the sun and dry weather of the tropics, 
nitrogen in large quantities is always 
beneficial, as it promotes growth aad 
makes the plants more independent of 
drought 


In no other country has the writer 
noticed Ceara Rubber. branching so 
near the ground as in Nyasaland, and 
this is much more noticeable in Rubber 
planted in exhausted Coffee estates - 
than in Rubber planted on the river. 
It seems to the writer that the plants 
are suffering from lack of sufficient 
nitrogen and soil drought; principally 
through deficient organic matter in the 
soil, and that they are developing this 
undesirable habit of low branching in 
order to shade their roots with their — 


-own branches. 


On some cf the highland Rubber 
estates the Ceara in the first year shoots 
high and spindly into the air in the wet 
season, in the month of March flowers, 
and bears fruit in the first year ; when 
the dry season comes the plant’s energy 
is expended, with the result that it dies 


back several feet; at the advent of eee ” E 


-OcropER, 1909.) 349 


next rains the trees send out side 
branches and produce irregular-shaped 
trees which never develop a six feet 
trunk suitable for two or three years’ 
economical tapping. 


It has been proved that the flow of 
latex from a rubber tree is effected by 
endosmotic pressure which practically 
means the amount of water in the plant 
roots. 

It is the practice to tap Rubber in the 
early morning and evening, and to dis- 
continue during the heat of mid-day and 
early afternoon. 


During the heat of day much water is 
evaporated by the leaves and latex flows 
slowly, but in early morning and evening 
water wishes to enter by the root 
quicker than itis evaporated, with the 
result that there is an internal pressure 
which helps the flow of latex, therefore 
it is practical to assume that there is 
an intimate connection between the 
presence of water in the surface soil 
surrounding the roots, and the flow of 
latex from the Rubber tree. 


For half the year in Nyasaland there 
is no rain, and daily the sun is strong 
enough to evaporate water from the 
plants and from the soil. The ques- 
tion arises, where does this water come 
from? and the answer is from the lower 
layers or subsoil by rising to the sur- 


.face in the form of water vapour and 


, 


water liquid (capillarity). 

In the surface soil of a clean weeded 
estate the water during day is princi- 
pally in the form of water vapour, the 
water being vaporised to a considerable 
depth by the direct overhead rays of 
the tropical sun. 


In the surface soil of an estate grow- 


ing a green manure crop there is a 


large portion of the water in the liquid 
form, as the covering of vegetation re- 
duces the temperature of the surface 
soil and prevents tke direct penetra- 
tion of the sun’s rays. Theretore, when 
Rubber is growing surrounded with 
vegetation, its roots have actual access 
to liquid water through the greater 
part of every day. 


If we examine the same soil during 
the dry season after the green manure 
crop is dead, we still find more mois- 
ture in the latter, asthe dead remains 
of the green manure crop absorb and 
retain water more firmly than ordinary 
soil, but delivers it freely to the rubber 
roots although not as freely to the 
atmosphere. 


PLANTS FOR GREEN MANURING. 
Any plant belonging to the Natural 


“Order Leguminose increases the nitro- 


gen in the soil, but the amount of in- 


Miscellaneous. 


crease depends on the luxuriance of the 
crop, and whether it is harvested or 
turned into the soil. Any of the 
following crops are suitable for this 
purpose in Nyasaland:—Native Beans, 
Karth Nuts, Soy Beans, Cowpeas, 
Lucerne, Egyptian Clover, Crotolaria. 


With a green manure crop plenty of 
seed should be used, and it should be 
turned under when the crop has reached 
its maximum luxuriance which is usually 
at the time of flowering, a small portion 
of the estate being left to produce seed 
for the next season. The advantage of 
turning under before ripening is that 
the crop decomposes more rapidly as 
the tissues always lignify (turn to wood) 
after the flowering stage has been 
reached. 

The most desirable characters in a 
greeh manure crop is abundance of 
bulky nitrogenous vegetation contained 
in soft and easily decomposable tissues. 
All the above crops except Crotolaria 
are useful cattle foods, and some of them 
are exportable, but, of course, if the 
seed is exported the manuring benefit is 
reduced. 


_ Crotolaria striata is the green manut- 
ing plant most highly favoured in 
Ceylon and the Federated Malay States 
for Rubber; an experiment in Ceylon 
showed that 14,000 lbs. of organic matter 
per acre was produced and was estimated 
equal to 700 lbs. of nitrate of soda, Ni- 
trate of soda costs 10s. per 100 ewt. in 
Kngland, and the seed costs 84d. per lb. 
in Ceylon, 5 lbs, per acre being sown; 
there must be profit when we also consi- 
der that the cost of weeding was re- 
duced to a minimum. 


Egyptian Clover or Bersim (Trifolium 
A lexadrin um).—This is the green manure 
crop of Egypt, where it is grown twice 
in a three-year rotation with Cotton. 


It is rightly held by most authorities 
that the high yield of Cotton in the 
Delta is the result of using this highly 
valuable nitrogenous Clover as a manu- 
rial basis for the cultivation of Cotton 
crop. 

The amount of green forage per acre 
produced is as much as 7 tons per cut- 
ting, and frequently four cuttings are ob- 
tained in six months, and fed to cattle 
on the land, the manure and urine 
being returned to the soil, 


Earth-Nuts.—Itis very questionable if 
much benefit is obtaired from this crop 
when the nuts are gathered and export- 
ed, but if the crop is turned in at 
fiowering stage, there are few better 
crops for green manuring. 


It is not advisable to leave it till ripe as 
the high percentage of oil in the nae 


Miscetlaneous. 


makes it decompose very slowly. and 
oil itself has no manurial value, not 
being absorbed by plants. 


PRECAUTION. 


Before sowing a crop like Cotton, 
green manures must be turned down at 
least two mouths, or they will interfere 
with the germination of the seed. 

The same applies to the opening up 
of new land, and it is nearly always ad- 
visable to turn under all surface growth 
at least two months before planting. 
Some plants can stand this fermentation 
better than others, it does not seem to 
influence Maize to any extent, and it 
is generally better to grow Maize for 
the first year on new land rather than 
Cotton, 

SUMMARY. 

1, Green manuring conserves moisture 
in the surface soil, and makes plants 
drought-resistant. 

2. Additions are made to the nitro- 
gen of the soil, a constituent usually 
deficient in Tropical soils. 

8. Soil washing and loss of soluble 
nitrogen is reduced to a minimum. 

4, Plants are stronger and more able 
to resist fungoid diseases and insect 
attacks. 

5. Growthis healthier, and crops give 
better retuns. 

6. The life of the plant is longer, and 
the soil is more capable of supporting it. 

7. Weeding is reduced to a minimum, 
and hence cost of production. 


REPORT ON A VISIT TO INDIA 
AND CEYLON. 


By H. POWELL. 


(From the Agricultural Journal of 
British East Africa, Vol, IL, Pt. I, 
April, 1909.) 


The visit to India and Ceylon was 
undertaken on the recommendation of 
the Honourable the Director of Agri- 
eulture with the approval of His 
Excellency the Governor and _ His 
Majesty’s Secretary of State for the 
Colonies. 


The object was to enquire into the 
methods of agriculture carried on in 
those countries, more especially as 
regards rubber, cacao, tea, rice and such 
other tropical and sub-tropical products 
as might be likely to succeed in this 
Protectorate, and to obtain plants and 
seeds of economic importance for trial 
at the Government Experimental Farms. 


350 


[OctopER, 1909. 


I arrived at Bombay from England on 
January Ist, 1909, and left the same port 
on the return journey to Mombasa on 
February 18th. The actual time spent 
in India and Ceylon was only forty-eight 
days, but owing to the extremely favour- 
able railway and other travelling faci- 
lities provided, I was able to undertake 
the greater part of the journeys by night, 
thus leaving the days freefor observation 
and study. 


The centres visited in India were :— 
Bombay, Poona, Nagpur, Calcutta, Pusa, 
Darjeeling, Madras, Bangalore, Tuti- 
corin ; and in Ceylon :—Colombo, Hena- 
ratgoda, Peradeniya, Kandy, Matale, 
Hatton, and Nanuoya. Under the head- , 
ing of most of these centres will be 
found remarks regarding agriculture, 
horticulture or botanical subjects which, 
itis hoped, will prove of interest and 
use. Every facility for obtaining in-- 
formation was afforded me by the 
officials of the Governments of India and 
Ceylon as well as by the proprietors and 
managers of the various plantations, 
etc., inspected, and by private persons, 
all of whose kind help was _ highly 
appreciated. 


Ceylon is a veritable tropical planter’s 
delight, and I regretted that time did 
not admit of my seeing more of the agri- 
culture of the Island. 3 


The vegetation is of a luxuriant rank 
nature, and the intensive cultivation as ; 
seen inthe case of tea, rubber, cacao, 
etc., can perhaps scarcely be surpassed ; 
the agriculture generally being of a very 
high order. 


In India it is very apparent that a 
great forward movement in agriculture 
and its kindred branches is now going 
on. The work being done by scientific 
and technical experts at the great cen- 
tres is doing much to encourage better 
methods of cultivation and preparation 
of produce among the small holders in 
the outlying districts. 


A special feature in connection with 
Indian Agriculture is the ‘* Water 
Buffalo.” Asa draught animal and for 
general field work this beast appeared 
to be indispensable, and was seen in 
considerable numbers almost every- 
where. 

Lists of seeds and plants obtained in 
India and Ceylon are submitted with 
this report. 

As will be seen from these lists the_ 
collection of plants and seeds is of an 
extensive and comprehensive nature, and 
will be the means of adding many 
tropical and sub-tropical species of 
economic importance and beauty to 
East Africa, 


OCTOBER, 1909,] 


VICTORIA GARDENS, BOMBAY.—These 
fine gardens are animmense attraction to 
the residents of the great city of Bombay, 
and deservedly so, for the grounds, 
which cover several acres, are very 
suitably laid out and contain a great 
variety of tropical trees, shrubs and 
plants. The plant houses are stocked 
with ferns, choice foliage and other 
plants, and the whole institution evi- 
dences great care in its general upkeep. 

A large assortment of economic and 
general plantsis kept in the nurseries 
for purchase or exchange. By the latter 
methods two eases of plants were 
secured for Mazeras, through the kinc- 
ness of the Superintendent. 


The nearness of Bombay to Mombasa, 
as well as the means of communication 
between the two ports, renders the 
importation of plants to East Africaa 
matter of little difficulty and to those 
desirous of importing tropical plants, 
the Bombay Gardens are recommended 
asareliable source. A catalogue show- 
ing what plants and seeds are available, 
with prices attached, is issued there. 


Poona.—A visit was made to the 
Ganeshkhind Botanic Gardens, Kirkee, 
near Poona, where special attention was 
being given to the preparation of various 
fibves by means of retting, with good 
Results, though the process is somewhat 
slow. — 


In this district large numbers of 
Agave Cantula, similar in appearance to 
the Sisal Hemp, were seen to be “‘ poling,” 
and millions of bulbils were available. 


The plant is said to produce what is 
known as ‘‘Bombay Aloe Fibre,” which 
is considered inferior to Sisal Hemp. 

Much useful work of a general nature 
is being carried on at the Ganeshkhind 
Experimental Station. 


The Empress Garden at Poona was 
also visited. 


For extreme neatness and the great 
variety of pot plants, no prettier garden 
was seen anywhere, but nothing in the 
way of experimental work is attempted. 


From Bombay to Poona the railway 
passes over the celebrated ‘‘Ghauts,” 
acknowledged to-be a marvel of engi- 
neering, and in places the traveller looks 
down over precipices of hundreds of feet 
joto the valleys and plains below. 


Rice is grown in places on the plains, 
otherwise the country in the neighbour- 
hood of the ‘‘ Ghauts” is of little use for 
agricultural purposes. 


NaaGpur (Central Provinces).—My visit 
here coincided with the holding of an 
Agricultural and Industrial Exhibition 
on a large scale. 


dol 


Miscellaneous. 


The exhibits were of a very compre- 
hensive nature, and included agricultural 
and other implements of various types 
as well as manufacturing plant. Work- 
ing trials of the implements and 
machines were made at stated times, in 
which the natives and others took a 
keen interest. 


A small sugar ‘ plant” including a 
centrifuge for separating the molasses 
from the sugar was in frequent use and 
specially interested the natives; many 
of whom were anxious to obtain a 
duplicate. The makers are Thomas 
Broadbent, Huddersfield, England, 


To those ordering the “plant” the 
advice was tendered that the pattern 
should be that supplied to Mohammed 
Hadi, Assistant Director of Agriculture, 
United Provinces, as this contained 
important improvements especially as 
regards the centrifuge. 


The collection of unginned cotton, oil- 
seeds, rice, wheat, pulses, etc., were 
representative of the various districts, 
and were of special merit. 


Another instructive set of exhibits 
contained different types of soil with 
the chemical analyses of the same, and 
the porosity of each soil was illustrated 
by means of large glass tubes. 


Mr. Hemingway, the Director of Agri- 
culture, took much interest in assisting 
me to inspect and obtain information at 
the exhibition and other places under 
his control. 


A visit was made to the Government 
Experimental Farm at Nagpur, where 
special attention is being paid to wheat, 
cotton, forage and other crops. An 
improved type of ‘‘Georgian” Upland 
Cotton was found to do extra well at 
Nagpur, and it is likely to further 
encourage cotton growing in the Central 
Provinces, 


By permission of the Management I 
went over the Empress Cotton Mill at 
Nagpur with Mr. Hemingway. This is 
the largest Cotton Mill in India, employ- 
ing about 6,000 hands and paying high 
dividends, Here the whole process of 
spinning and weaving can be seen in a 
short space of time. 

The mill uses a large amount of 
American cotton for mixing with the 
short staple Indian cotton. 

_A collection of the pulses, rice, and 
oil seeds grown in the Central Provinces 
was kindly promised me by Mr. Hem- 
ingway. 

CALCUTTA RoyaL BOTANIC GARDENS, 
SLBPUR.—These splendid gardens are 


one of the great delights of visitors to 
Calcutta, 


Miscellaneous 852 


Situated some three or four miles 
down the Hooghly River they are not 
so easy of access as one could wish, 
though recently the facilities for reach- 
ing them have been much improved. 


The grounds are large and studded with 
beautiful and varied botanical treasures 
from many tropical lands. Both the 
nursery and plant houses abound with 
useful and decorative plants, and an 
herbarium of first-class botanical import- 
ance is at the disposal of botanists for 
purposes of study and research. 


An object of much interest is the 
large Banyan Tree in the gardens, on 
which is the following label :— 


‘““RICUS BENGALENSIS” (BANYAN), NA- 
TIVE OF INDIA.—‘' This tree is about 
139 years old. Its circumference 53} feet 
from the ground is 51 feet. Circum- 
ference of crown 997 feet. Height 85 
feet. Ithas 562 cerial roots naturally 
rooted inthe ground.” 


The Director, Dr. Gage, kindly sup- 
plied me with a large coliection of seeds, 
and later,a case or two of various plants 
desired will be obtained from the same 
source, 


The tastefully laid out and well-kept 
pleasure grounds around the Viceroy’s 
residence and various muncipal gardens 
in Caleutta were inspected in company 
of the Superintendent in charge. 


The Zoclogical Gardens in Calcutta 
are wellstocked with beasts and plants, 
and attract mavy visitors. 


AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH COLLEGE, 
Pusa.—On no account should anycne 
interested in agriculture and general 
research work omit to see Pusa during 
a visit to India. 


The extensive establishment is well 
equipped with laboratories and general 
research facilities, and is conducted on 
the most up-to-date principals. 


I was courteously accompanied through 
the various scientific sections by the 
Director, Mr. Bernard Coventry, and 
was afforded much information on 
several interesting subjects. 


I also had the pleasure of meeting Mr. 
Maxwell Lefroy (Government Hntomo- 
logist) and Mr. Albert Howard (Economic 
Botanist) two of my former colleagues 
in the Imperial Department of Agri- 
culture, West Indies. 


Much valuable work is being done in 
the experimental grounds. Many wheats 
are under trial and form a striking 
feature of the place. 

The fruit trial grounds are also of 
much interest, and include peach, plum, 
loquat, litchi, orange, fig, ete. 


‘(OcTOBER, 1909. — 


Various methods of treatment are 
carried out, and much of the success of 
the good bearing qualities of the several 
trees issecured by a judicious exposure 
of the roots, careful pruning and manur- 
ing. A complete system of irrigation 
extends over the whole of the experi- 
mental grounds. 


Seed of several economic plants was 
secured with the promise of further 
additions. 


Mr. Maxwell Lefroy showed me his 
simple device for ridding rooms of mos- 
quitoes. It consists of an ordinary box 
about 18 inches high by a foot in breadth 
and width, The inside is lined with adark 
coloured material and the box is made 
practically airtight by means of a close- 
fitting door. When required for use it 
is placed in the darkest corner of the 
room, and every night and morning a 
small quantity of benzine is placed inside 
the box, the lid closed and the mosquitoes 
which have settled therein are killed. 
In this way Mr. Maxwell Lefroy captured 
upwards of 2,000 in a single month. 


Pusa and the country for many miles 
around was the centre of the thriving 
Indigo industry until the manufacture 
of artificial dyes made indigo growing 
unprofitable ; planters have difficulty in 
finding a suitable alternative industry. 


Tobacco does exceedingly well, many 
fine fields of carefully tended plants 
being seen. 


Pulses in general do well, also several 
kinds of oil-seeds. Fibre cultivation is 
being considered and is likely to be 
largely taken up. 


DARJEELING,—This proved to be one 
of the most interesting journeys of my 
tour. The scenery is of the grandest 
and is constantly changing as the tiny 
train gradually winds its way by curves 
and loops up the slopes of the Hima- 
layas, where many tea plantations are 
established. 


’ At the time of my visit, which was 
about the height of the cold season, 
ee was mostly wet, foggy and 
cold. 


Judging fromthe climatic conditions 
and the appearance of the country as 
well as the condition of the tea bushes 
I am led to believe that tea growing 
should prove successful on parts of the 
Molo and surrounding country of the 
Protectorate. 


The well-kept and interesting garden 
known as ‘‘Lloyd’s Botanic Gardens” 
at Darjeeling was visited and many 
plants new to me were seen. 

MADRAS.—On arvival here I called on 
Dr. C. A. Barber, Government Botanist 
in charge of the experimental farms. 


ay 


4 
z 
3 
é 
: 
2 
3 
3 
: 
; 


5 
5 


 OcroneR, 1909.] 


Dr. Barber has given much attention 
to the cultivation. and selection of 
groundnuts, with the result that he 
has secured a form of the Mauritius 
groundnut possessing extra» good. bear- 
ing qualities. About 120 lbs. of this seed 
were supplied me for trial at Mazeras, 


Sugar canes of several selected kinds 
are under cultivation at the experi- 
mental farms and are said to have 
special merit as sugar producers. 


Sugar canes of inferior merit are 
grown in several parts of Hast Africa 
where there is a considerable opening 
for sugar making to supply local wants, 


From the Customs return it is ascer- 
tained that for the eleven months ending 
February 28th of the financial year 
1908-9 the quantity of sugar or other 
similar sweetening matter imported into 
the Protectorate was 36,466 cwts, of 
the value of Rs. 395,894. 


Through the goodness of the Superin- 
tendent of the Madras Horticultural 
Gardens a case of plants and several 
packets of seeds were obtained as well 
as a large parcel of seed of the excel- 
lent hedge plant ‘‘Inga dulcis,” 


Guindy, the residence of the Governor 
at Madras, is the source of the small 
fine flavoured banana of that name. 
Some years ago suckers of the “Guindy” 
banana were imported to Hast Africa 
from the West Indies, and are estab- 
lished at Mazeras on a small scale, A 
dozen suckers were obtained on the 
occasion of my visit to Guindy. 


BANGALORE.—The Botanic Gardens 
(Lal Bagh) are well known and holda 
high place in India. Numerous hand- 
some trees and shrubs are established 


‘in the gardens, and large plant struc- 


tures are filled with well grown pot 
plants, — 
Through the generosity of the Superin- 


tendent I brought away a case of choice 
plants and numerous packets of seed. 


-I was also shown over the beautiful 


garden attached to the palace of His 
Highness the Maharajah of Mysore, at 
Bangalore. The various coloured Bou- 
gainvillea, of which the gardens have 
a fine collection, are objects of special 
beauty. 


RIcE GROWING.—The visitor to India 
cannot fail to be surprised at the enor- 
mous amount of land placed under 
cultivation of rice in varicus parts of 
the country. Not only is the plant 
extensively grown where water is plenti- 
ful either naturally or by means ot 
irrigation, but huge areas of what 
appears to be practically waste land 
are used for the purpose, 


45 


853 Miscetlaneous. 


The flat land is formed into sections 
generally in the shape of a square of + to 
l acre or more in extent. A bank of 
a foot or so highis raised around each 
plot so as to conserve the rain-water, 
and at the proper time the seed is sown 
in the ordinary way. 


After seeing India it is easy to realise 
the enormous possibilities for rice grow- 
ing in the warmer parts of Kast Africa. 

According to the Blue Book the im- 
ports of rice into the Protectorate during 
1907-8 amounted to 101,164 cwts. from 
India and Burmah, and 9,058 ewts. from 
German Kast Africa, of a total value of 
Rs. 57,960. 


HENARATGODA (CEYLON).—By the kind 
permission of the proper authorities the 
conductor of the Government Experi- 
mental Gardens at Henaratgoda afforded 
me much practical information in the. 
tapping of Para rubber trees and after- 
treatment of the latex and the pre- 
paration of ‘‘ biscuit” rubber. 


The Para rubber trees first planted at 
Henaratgoda are upwards of forty years 
old. One large plot thirty years old is 
planted at 12 feet square, but the dis- 
tance is considered too close. <A tree 
selected for measurement in this plot 
had a circumference, at 3 feet from the 
ground, of 6 feet 6 inches, anda height 
of from 60 to 70 feet. As a contrast an 
adjoining tree of the same age had a 
girth of only 20 inches and a height of 
about 50 feet, The method of tapping 
witnessed was that known as the ‘‘ three- 
cut herring bone.” Experiments con- 
ducted at Henaratgoda have proved 
that, taken year by year, as much latex 
is secured by the ‘three-cut herring 
bone” system as is the case when a 
much larger number of cuts is made, 


The method of tapping known as the 
“full-spiral” and “ half-spiral” are not 
in favour at Henaratgoda, though both 
have been given a good trial there. 


The ‘‘three-cut herring bone” system 
is carried out as follows :—On fairly old 
trees the rough bark is lightly removed 
with a draw knife such as is used by 
carpenters, but on young trees this is 
not necessary. The circumference of 
the tree is then taken with a tape and the 
trunk divided into two equal parts toa 
height of about 5 feet from the ground. 
At each half section a perpendicular line 
is marked off with a piece of chalk, and 
on either side of this line three oblique 
lines are similarly marked off, a foot 
apart, connecting at their base of this 
line three oblique lines are similarly 
marked off, a foot apart, connecting 
at their base with the perpendicular 
line, To enable the oblique line to 
be accurately laid off, a triangular- 


Miscellaneous. 354 [OcToBER, 1909, 


shaped implement of pliable _hoop- 
iron is used, which much facilitates 
the work. The central line is first eut 
and then the oblique ones commencing 
from the top downwards. 


A special marking knife is usually used 
for these lines though the ordinary 
tapping knife is employed by some. 


Great care is taken not to expose the 
‘Cambium Layer” which would result 
in serious injury to the tree. A tin 
spout is pressed into the bark at the 
base of the perpendicular cut, and a cup 
to hold the latex is placed on the ground 
or suspended from the tree under the 
tin spout. 


A little ammonia is placed in the cup 
to prevent coagulation of the latex, and 
the tapping knives are also occasionally 
smeared with ammonia to keep them 
clean and workable. After the cuts 
have been made to the required depth a 
revolving ‘“‘ pricker” is pressed into the 
cambium forthe whole length of the 
cuts, and immediately the latex ooses 
‘out and trickles down the sectional cuts 
into the perpendicular channel, and 
thence by means of the spout is conveyed 
to the cup. 


Subsequent tapping operations consist 
of removing a thin slice of the bark side- 
ways so as to expose a new surface, when 
by the use of the picker the latex is again 
induced to flow. Except during the dry 
months each tree is tapped daily. Usu- 
ally eight to ten months are needed to 


complete the tapping ot each half of the 


trees and then the other half is similarly 
treated. 


Under judicious tapping new bark 
soon forms so that the surface originally 
tapped can be again dealt with, 


COAGULATION OF PARA LATEX.—The 
latex is strained through pieces of muslin 
to remove impurities and then emptied 
into shallow enamelled trays. Three 
times as much water is added to the 
lutex—water three parts, latex 1 part— 
and to the whole acetic acid is added 
and mixed together. At Henaratgoda 
it was understood that pure commercial 
acetic acid is diluted with water to 10% 
of its original strength, and 388 c.c. of 
diluted acid is used to 100 e.c. of latex. 
Coagulation is completed in from 6 to 12 
hours from the application of the acid, 
but by using a stronger solution the 
process is hastened. 


PREPARATION OF PARA RUBBER BIs- 
cuits.—After coagulation the plastic 
rubber, which has assumed the shape of 
the tray, is placed on a damp board 
or table and rolled out with an ordinary 
rolling pin, care being taken to keep the 
biscuit as rcund as possible. 


About 200 c.c. of raw latex make one 
biscuit, and at Henaratgoda about eight 
of such biscuits go to the pound of dry 
rubber. After rolling, the wet biscuits 
are placed on cloth-covered slanting 
frames to partially dry under cover, 
after which drying is completed by 


‘hanging them on bamboo rods in the 


dry houses. The latex from the older 
trees is said to give clearer rubber than 
that fron: young trees. 


Early morning is the best time for 
tapping, and one man can tap about sixty 
separate trees, from which 4 to ?lb. of 
latex is obtained. 

PaRA RUBBER IN HAST AFRICA.—Ex- 
cept in hot, wet, humid districts such 
as those adjoining the Ramisi, Mwachi 
and other rivers in the coast belt, there 
is little prospect of Para rubber succeed- 
ing in Kast Africa; and even in the 
districts named there is, as yet, no data 
to guide planters. 

At Kusitawi on the Mwachi river a 
young plantation of Para rubber has 
been recently planted, but the growth 
of the trees is not as satisfactory as was 
hoped for. 

(To be continued.) 


A SQUARE DEAL FOR THE SOIL. 
(From the Louisiana Planter and Sugar 
Manufacturer, Vol. XLII., No. 10, 
March 10, 1909.) 


What is the biggest business problem 
this nation is facing to-day? One man 
will speak up quickly and say: ‘The 
question of -an elastic currency, of 
course:” his neighbour will declare that 
the attitude of the administation toward 
corporations overtops everything else in 
importance to the people of this country. 
A little later we are likely to be told 
that the readjustment of the tariff is the 
overshadowing question, 


But all the timea problem bigger than 
any of these is being overlooked by the 
politicians of all parties, by the press of 
the entire country, by the political 
economists and by most of the people 
themselves. Only afew men recognize 
the existence and the bigness of this 
question, and they are of the kind that 
make very little noise in the world, 
However, if they are not listened to and 
their words taken to heart by the men 
who make up the greatest industrial 
class in the United States. we, as a 
nation, will suddenly wake up to the 
fact that we have been committing in- 
dustrial suicide. 

The reckless and wholesale depletion of 
the fertility of the soil, in this good land 
of ours, is beyond all question the 


ee ee ae ee a ae 


| 


OctopER, 1909] - 


biggest and the most serious question 
now confronting the American people— 
anditis bound to remain the big prob. 
lem for many years to come. I am so 
sure of this, and feel so deeply on this 
matter, that Ihave determined to devote 
the remaining years of my life to doing 
all 1 can to arouse the farmers of this 
country to the fact that, if they goon 
taking everything they can out of the 
soiland putting next to nothing back, 
they are inthe position of deliberately 
aud knowingly creating a hopeless run 
on the greatest and richest bank in 
the world—the marvellous soil of the 
United States—a run which can result 
only in wreck and disaster as wide as 
the country. 


This is the dark side of the picture, 
the thing which will surely happen if 
we do not wake upand give the soil a 
square deal. There is another side to 
the problem as bright as this one is 
dark—a reward for well doing just as 
great in proportion as the punishment 
for wrong-doing. If only twenty-five 
per cent. of the farmers of this country 
would wake up to the situation and do 
their level best in giving the soil a 
square deal, they would not only save 
the absolute loss of millions of dollars, 
but they would make millions more—and 
make themselves rich in the bargain. 


Unless there is a general and widespread 


reform in this matter of the mistreat- 
ment of our soil weare going literally 
to put millions of acres of good land out 
of business. All we have todo, to cut 
out of our national wealth land enough 
to make a dozen European kingdoms, is 
to keep right on doing what we are 
doing, and what we have been doing 
ever since the first reaper and binder 
was put into the field. In the matter of 
soil depletion the farmers of this country 
have been going the pace that kills—that 
kills land and robs the nation of a yearly 
power to produce a volume of wealth 
almost beyond the power of the average 
man to understand. 


This problem is not a theory with me; 
IT haven’t come at it from the theoretical 
side. To the contrary. I have bumped 
against it from the practical, the active 
side. I did not leave the farm untill 
was twenty-six years old, and there 
hasn’t been a year of my life since when 
I haven’t been in some kind of business 
which was close to the soil. And for 
many years I have owned and operated 
several thousands of acres of farm land— 
anddoso now. AndI may add that I 
have not a single farm which I have not 
made to pay a good and satisfactory 
percentage on the investment year after 
year. I say this simply because the 


$55 Miscellaneous. 


farmers do not take kindly to advice 
from mere theorists; they naturally 
wish to know that advice comes from a 
practical and successful farmer before 
they attach enough importance to it to 
act upon it. Thisis right and natural, 
and it is because I am so anxious to have 
them give to my plea the weight which 
it deserves that I say to them: I am 
entitled to talk about farming because 
I was brought up on a tarm, and operated 
several thousand acres of farm land, 
divided into farms of 160 acres each, in a 
way which makes them pay mea hand- 
some profit. 


BUILDING UP THE LAND. 


Right from the start I made up my 
mind to buy good farms and keep them 
and run them for profit. This meant 
that I looked at them as a long-time 
investment, not as something on which 
to speculate or make a quick turn. In 
other words, the task before me was 
that of building up and making the 
farms better each year, stronger in their 
ability to produce profitable crops. How 
many farmers treat their land in this 
way ? Fewer, by far, than you would sup- 
pose ! Of course, most of them intend to 
do this—but there is a wide gap between 
their intentions and their practice. It 
is no exaggeration to say that the majo- 
rity of farmers in this country are living 
on their ‘‘principal” instead of their 
“interest,” so faras their treatment of 
their soil is concerned: they are raisin 
fair to excellent crops, putting up ist 
buildings and making, perhaps, a fine 
showing on the profit side of the ledger, 
but in doing this they are literally bank- 
rupting the soil—robbing it of the capa- 
city to keep up the pace of production 
in the future. 


In any state of the Union, from the 
richest to the poorest, the casual observer 
can see for himself how the soil is being 
bankrupted by heavy cropping and poor 
fertilization. Vhere are large tracts in 
Virginia, for example, where farm after 
farm can be bought at an almost absurd 
price. Not very long ago these same 
acres were the pride of the Old Dominion 
state and produced fortunes to their 
owners in their unfailing tobaeco crops, 
Now they are next door to useless as 
tillable land and about all their value is 
in the way of fine scenery. They have 
been depleted by taking from them the 
elements required to grow crops, while 
comparatively nothing has been put 
back into them to prevent bankruptcy. 
The same thing can beseen in Southern 
Illinois, where there are large districts 
which produce scant crops and where 
farms can be bought at one-third—even 
a fourth—of the price of good farm lands 


Miscellaneous, 


in the middle and northern part of the 
state. Ordinarily these Southern Illinois 
farms were nearly, if not fully, as pro- 
ductive as any in the state. They have 
been under the give-nothing-and-take- 
everything system of cultivation, and 
the result is that the land has been put 
out of business because of mistreatment. 
And so you will find it in every state 
where the land has been worked on this 
plan for any considerable number of 
years. 

But we are not left to size up ina 
general way the results of this suicidal 
method of land cultivation ; the scientists 
who are working in the field of agri- 
culture have produced some very exact 
information which tells the story in a 
pointed and a precise way. A careful 
reading of these authorities points to 
the fact that the grain crops are reducing 
the productiveness of the soil, under 
present methods of cultivation, at the 
rate of two per cent.a year. Few men 
in America have gone into the subject 
more deeply than Professor Hopkins, of 
the University of Illinois, and he does 
not hesitate to declare his conviction 
that, if we keep on farming as we are 
now doing it in Illinois, the State will be 
an unproductive desert within a century. 
He has not come to this conclusion by 
guess work, but by a most careful system 
of actual experiments. 


On one piece of ground under his 
charge corn has been raised for twenty- 
eight consecutive years—raised according 
to methods common throughout the 
state. The productiveness of that piece 
has steadily declined, and it is certain 
that, in a very few years, it will not 
have enough power left to produce 
either corn or clover. Our grain farmers 
seem to feel that crop rotation consists 


in alternating corn and oats on their. 


land. How does this work out? Pro- 
fessor Hopkins has put this to the test, 
The land on which he has tried this 
system wasas good, originally, as any 
in Illinois, and yet it produces only 
thirty bushels of corn and thirty bushels 
of oats to the acre. Now what does the 
other side of this scientific work show? 
Practically alongside the strips of land 
on which these experiments have been 
conducted are strips nota whit better 
or richer, naturally. They have been 
handled on a different system of culti- 
vation. The plots which have been 
subjected to true crop rotation—clover, 


corn and oats—and have been intelli-— 


gently fertilized have produced ninety 
bushels to the acre. As showing what 
real crop rotation will do without the use 
of fertilizer I cite the fact that he gets 
sixty bushels to the acre on land planted 
to successive crops of clover, corn and 


856 


[OcrormR, 1909. 


oats. My own experience is that I can 
raise seventy-five bushels of corn to the 
acre on land subjected to right crop 
rotation and right fertilization as against 
thirty bushels per acre raised by my 
immediate neighbours working by the 
old methods on land naturally as good 
as my own. This I have done right 
along and on a large scale, too. What 
is more, my land under proper treat- 
ment is growing better year by year, 
while theirs is steadily going down in 
productiveness—and consequently in 
price. If they stick to their methods 
their land will, in a few years, reach a 
grade of unproductiveness at which it 
will not pay for cultivation. 


As nearly asI can arrive at it, about 
seventy per cent. of the farm land in 
Illinois, for example, has been cultivated 
for thirty years under a ‘‘crop rotation ” 
consisting of alternating corn and wheat, 
with almost nothing save the stubble 
put back into the soil. This is one im- 
portant reason why Eastern States— 
Maine, New Hampshire, Connecticut 
and others—get a very much higher 


~ average yield of corn tc the acre than 


the great corn states of the Middle West. 
In the East they practice crop rotation 
and intelligent fertilization. 


Before leaving this question of how 
our soil is depleted, let me empha- 
size the fact that the United States 
—the newest and greatest of all 
agricultural countries—is admitted by 
soil scientists to stand first in the list in 
the rapidity of its soil exhaustion, and 
that we are rapidly adding to our area 
of abandoned agricultural lands. 


- And it may be well to add to whatI 
have said of the experiments under 
Protessor Hopkins a suggestion of what 
has been done in the same line of de- 
monstration in England, where they 
have had more time in which to try out 
things. At the famous Rothamsted 
Station they have grown wheat on the 
same piece of ground for fifty years— 
with the result that ‘‘the phosphorus 
actually removed from one of the best 


yielding plots in fifty years is equivalent 


to forty per cent.of the total phosphorus 
originally contained in the soil to a 
depth of seven inches.” 


ROTHAMSTED EXPERIMENTS IN CONTINUOUS 
WHEAT FOR FIFTY-ONE YEARS. 


Average yield 
Bushels per acre, 

No fertilizer ... Fa BS e cogil pil 
Farm manure—14 tons per acre... ... 35°7 
Commercial fertilizer : ' 

Acid phosphate 392 Ibs. per acre 

Sulphate of potash 200 lbs. per scr. } 37'1 

Sulphate of ammonia 600 lbs. per acre) _ 


The manure used on an acre contained 


. nearly double the plant food contained 


in the commerical fertilizer used on 
same-sized plant. 


Again, it comes to a question of the 
use of fertilizer. Here are the figures 
from the famous experiments of Lawes 
and Gilbert :-. 


AVERAGE YIELD OF WHEAT PER ACRE, 


Bushels, 
Nomanure for 40 years... sea: 
Minerals alone for 32 years ... sean sy. 
Nitrogen alone for 32 years... wae DOR 
' Farmyard manure for 32 years ian hous 
Minerals and nitrogen for 32 years ... 364 
Minerals and nitrogen for 32 years ... 327 


1°86 pounds of nitrogen as sodium nitrate. 
2°86 pounds of nitrogen as ammonium salts. 


Now, to get nearer Lome, let me tell 
the experience of a farmer in Northern 
Indiana who woke up to the fact that 
he must give his soila square deal if he 
would get the same from it in return. 
He first found out what elements his 
soil most needed and then he fertilized 
accordingly. This cost him $1 to $1°40 
an acre, and he kept close tab on the 
results. In a word, his fertilization 
cost has been thirty-five cents for the 
production of twenty bushels of corn, 
and he has had five hundred per cent. left 
for investment. This matter of treating 
the soil is much like a bank account. If 
you keep drawing out and put little or 
nothing in, time will sooner or later 
write “nofunds” across the face of the 
draft which you attempt to make 
against it. 


A farmer does not need to have an 
elaborate scientific education to under- 
stand the really necessary things about 
the elements which go into the making 
of a crop. The main ones are phos- 
phorus, nitrogen and potash.  Phos- 
phorus is the element which makes 
things mature and go to seed—which 
makes the ears of corn and heads 
of wheat fill plump and ripe kernels. 
Nitrogen gives size to the plant and 
potash contributes the element of health 
or stamina. hen your crop is yellow 
and does not grow to size it lacks 
nitrogen; when it grows rank and dark 
green and keeps on growing but doesn’t 
mature and- produce grain it lacks 
phosphorus; if, in addition, it is inclined 
to lodge and the stalk or straw is soft 
and lacks polish you know your land is 
short on potash, ~ 


Speaking roughly, a clay soil is gener- 
ally deficient in nitogen and phosphorus, 
but contains potash. The tendency is 
for clay soil to bake and get hard, and 
the addition of a little lime is calculated 
to correct this, Then the addition of 
nitrogen, either in the form of plant 


OcToER, 1909,] 357 


Miscellaneous. 


legume—as clover, for instance—or in 
commercial phosphorus (or phosphate) 
will balance up the soil. 


Black soils are commonly strong in 
nitrogen and short of phosphorus and 
potash and have atendency to become 
sour. Drainage, together with a supply 
of the lacking elements and an addition 
of a little lime, is the remedy needed. 


THE LIFE AND DEATH OF SEEDS. 


(From the Gardeners’ Chronicle, 
Vol. XLVI., No. 1, 177, July, 1909.) 


To. all who have to do with plants, 
either economically or scientifically, the 
longevity of seeds is a question of inter- 
est and significance. In the literature of 
the subject is rccorded a long series of 
more or less credible accounts of natural 
cases in which great longevity is attri- 
buted to seeds, even up to thousands 
of years. Only within the last two 
years, however, have we obtained unim- 

eachable data upon this subject. Prof, 

ecquerel in Paris and Prof. Ewart in 
Melbourne have lately published germi- 
nation tests made upon the old seeds 
stored in museums since known dates. 
Of seeds older than 25 years, about 10 
per cent. of the spices gave positive 
results. The records are held by Hovea 
linearis, 105 years (Ewart), Cassia bicap- 
sularis, 87 years old, and Cytisus biflorus, 
84 years old (Becquerel). In each case 
two or three seeds germinated out of 
ten that were tested. 


Both observers notice that the species 
of greatest longevity belong mostly to 
the Leguminosew, and have ‘ hard 
seeds,” that isseeds in which the testa is 
provided witiua thick, continuous cuticle. 
Such seeds only admit water and swell 
up atter they have been pricked or filed 
or stripped of their cuticle by strong 
sulphuric acid. The fact that seeds 
thus closely sealed up show the greatest 
longevity suggests that protection from 
some external influence is a factor in 
the preservation of viability. 


Becquerel has established the further 
interesting point that not only are these 
“hard” integuments impervious to air, 
but that the dry seed-coat (testa) vf an 
ordinary Pea or Bean is also quite air- 
proof ; he found that no air was .sucked 
through the seed-coat even in two 
years by a vacuum; the mycropyle also 
is naturally hermetically sealed in some 
way andallows noairto pass. But if the 
air in contact with the testa is satur- 
ated with water vapour, then the testa 
slowly absorbs water and presently be- 
gins to allow air to pass by diffusion. 
As these phenomena hold with uncuti- 
culised seed-coats it is concluded that 


Mhiscellaneous: 


pure cellulose walls are impervious to 
air when completely dried. 


These dry integuments are also quite 
impervious to other gases, and to ether, 
chloroform and alcohol; the germ in the 
seeds is thus hermetically sealed beyond 
the reach of poisons, and this explains 
why seeds are not killed when kept for 
monthsin ammonia, sulphuretted hydro- 
gen, alcoholic corrosive sublimate and 
other noxious substances. Such results 
in the past have been held to prove 
that the dormant protoplasm of the 
seed was in some special resistant, in- 
sensitive condition. Now we know that 
the protoplasm of the germ is not 
reached unless the testa be perforated ; 
if this be done, then the seeds never 
survive contact with such poisons. 


A philosophical question of great signi- 
ficance for our conception of the nature 
of life underlies these enquiries into the 
longevity and vitality of seeds, namely, 
the question whether itis possible for 
vital changes to be absolutely arrested 
without death—irrevocable death—re- 
sulting. 


Some observers have held that the 
resting seed is ina condition of retard- 
ed vital activity; others, that all vital 
activity is completely arrested. It is 
clear, even on the former view, that 
any vital changes in the seed are very 
slight and slow, so that experimen- 
tally it becomes very difficult to de- 
cide between these views: between no 
change and a just perceptible change. 
If it could be established that the living 
seed passes, on drying, into a state of 
complete rest, a state of “static equili- 
brium” as opposed to the dynamic equili- 
burium of the ever-changing living cell, 
then this important, fundamental ques- 
tion would be finally answered. 


The resistance of resting seeds to ex- 
treme cold- and to extreme desiccation 
supports the view that the protoplasm is 
herein a state of static equilibrium quite 
analogous with the condition of a charge 
of explosive before it is started into 
action by spark or blow. 


Prof. Becquerel’s work shows that it 
is impossible for a seed perfectly devoid 
of moisture to conduct the gaseous ex- 
change involved in the process of res- 
piration. Some observers have stated 
that resting dry seeds continuously 
produce carbon dioxide, while others 
have failed to confirm this. It now 
turns out to be chiefly a question of 
whether the seed contains enough of 
water for its integuments to be per- 
meable to gases. Jn this connection it 
must be remembered that so-called dry 
seeds of commerce contain 5 to 15 per 
cent. of water, and that it takes months 
to dry off all this water from them 


308 


[OCTOBER, 1909. 


It seems quite clear that if the seed is 
completely dried no detectable amount 
of respiration takes place within long 
periods of time. 


As regards cold, all observers are 
agreed that the vitality of ordinary dry 
seeds is quite unaffected by exposure 
to the extreme cold of liquid hydrogen— 
250°C. It is generally held that all 
chemical change is in abeyance at such 
a temperature, and that, therefore, the 
seed cannot bein any other than a state 
of static equilibrium. This would seem 
to be true of such chemical changes as 
are essential parts of vitality, though, 
of course, a few violent chemical re- 
actions do.occur at this low temper- 
ature. 


According to the modern conception 
of the relation between temperature 
and chemical change, with falling tem- 
perature every reaction will go slower 
and slower, but however low the tem- 
perature change will be only retarded, 
not absolutely stopped, The resistance 
to cold cannot, therefore, finally settle 
this question. 


Weare, indeed, forced to conclude that 
the resistance of dry seeds to temper- 
atures as high as 100°C. or even 120°C. 
favours the view of static equilibrium. 
If the protoplasm of resting seeds is en- 
tirely at rest in static equilibrium, then 
the viability of the seeds should endure 
indéfinitely,; like the explosibility of a 
properly stored charge of powder. It is, 
however, notorious that ina sample of 
stored seeds the percentage of germina- 
tion steadily decreases. To what can 
we attribute this loss of viability ? Itis 
suggested that just asthe proper work- 
ing of a charge of powder may be des- 
troyed by accidents of storage such as 
dampness, so in the case of stored seeds — 
the falling off is due to changes wrought 
in them by oxidation or hydration. 


Seeds are very hygroscopic aud absorb 
water in direct proportion to the humi- 
dity of the air. Jodin has recorded the 
varying weight of seeds in different 
meteorological conditions, and one of 
the few, changing factors in an ordinary 
resting seed stored in air must be this 
alternate taking up and giving off of 
water. Possibly the ceaseless, slight 
molecular changes involved in this pro- 
cess slowly disorganise the viable proto- 
plasm and in time cause the death of the 
seed. From such changes a“ hard” seed 
would be exempt. It is therefore pro- 
bable that complete desiccation and 
preservation ina dry environment are — 
necessary conditions for testing the 
maximum longevity for any plant whose 
seeds are among the majority in which 
the testa is not impermeable to water. 


OCTOBER, 1909.] 


Another change that goeson slowly 
but progressively is oxidation, oxida- 
tion of a purely chemical, non-vital 
character. Such chemical oxidation of 
the substances in the cells of the resting 
embryo might, in time, destroy the 
organisation needed to maintain viabi- 
lity, even if the organisation were, as 
regards vital changes, in a state of static 
equilibrium all along. If there is this 
risk, analogous to the rusting of machi- 
nery, then critical experiments upcn the 
longevity of seeds must be carried out 
in the absence of oxygenas well as of 
moisture. 


That stored seeds should in time die 
seems to us a natural thing, but it 
must not be forgotten that the death of 
seeds is biologically on quite a different 
plant from the death of individual 
plants. The natural death of the bodies 
of plants isan advantageous condition 
for the race that arose in the course of 
evolution and has become fixed. The 
death of seeds is not natural in this 


309 


Miscellaneous. 


sense, not the outcome of internal pro- 
cesses, but it is accidental in the strict 
sense, brought on from without. 


In order to test the longevity of seeds 
under conditions which prevent either of 
these slow changes, Prof. Becquerel has 
carefully dried seeds (by keeping them, 
after perforating the testa, at 45°C. in 
contact with strong desiccating agents 
for months), and has then sealed them 
up in glass bulbs in perfect vacua. These 
experimental seeds have been_formally 
deposited with the Bureau of Standards 
in Paris, and their vitality is to be tested 
every tenyears. Should they show no 
mortality, it is suggested that in this 
way standard plants may be handed 
down to remote posterity for compari- 
son with the forms that evolution has 
produced in many generations of des- 
cendants. Only by such organised ex- 
periments as these, planned to endure 
beyond the life of an individual invesi- 
gator, can these important questions 
be finally solved. 


Correspondence, 


PAPER PULP FROM BAMBOOS. 


21-35, NAKAMURA, 
YOKOHAMA, July 21, 1909. 


DeEaR S1r,—I am interested in the arti- 
cle by Mr. Wm. Raitt on bamboo pulp, 
which appeared in a recent number of 
your Magazine. The suggestion is no 
doubt quite practicable, and the in- 
dustry should be fostered by all means 
where supply of the material is plenti- 
ful. Mr. Wm. Raitt will be interested to 
know what is being done in the very same 
line in Formosa> If has been reported 
in the press that Mitsubishi Co. have 
started a paper mill there with invest- 
ment of a million Yen. Bamboo forests 
will be utilized as the source of material 
and paper will be placed on the market 
before long. The bamboo paper in- 
dustry of hand-making process has been 
conducted in the Island to the extent of 
Yen 200,000 annually, according to the 
report of American Consul Mr. James 
W. Davison in 1902. The present under- 
taking is nothing more than a shifting 


from hand process to machinery on a 
larger scale. A similar project is under 
contemplation in sub-tropical region of 
America where bamboos rank beyond 
human control.—Yours faithfully, 


S. IIDA. 


[Note.--Japan is peculiarly interested 
in this question, as at present she imports 
the bulk of her paper-making material 
from Europe. The development of the 
effort, reported by our correspondent, 
to produces this material within her own 
territory, will therefore be watched with 
keen and sympathetic interest. It has 
also been announced recently that a 
French Company intends making a simi- 
lar effort in French Indo-China. Hand- 
made paper from bamboo is a very 
ancient industry, not only in Formosa 
but also in Siam and Burma. It is 
scarcely a paper in the modern use of 
the term—rather a tablet or slate,— but 
its successful manufacture and use, like 
all paper, depends on the fibrous 
(cellulose) contents of the raw mate- 
rial.—W. RAITT. 


ALOES, Socotrine cwt. 
Zanzibar & Hepatic ,, 
ARROWKOOT (Nata]) lb. 
LEES’ WAX, cwt. 

Zanzibar Yellow Fs 
Bombay bleached _,, 
7 unbleached,, 
Madagascar 
CAMPHOR, Japan 
D 


China 
CARDAMOMS, Tuticor 


” 
” 
” 


in 
Tellicherry 


Mangalore ,, 
N ysore 
Malabar 
Seeds, E. I, & Ceylon 
Ceylon Long Wild 


Ceylon. 


” 


” 
” 


QUALITY. 


Fair to fine 
Common to good 
Fair to fine ns 
Slightly drossy to fair ... 
Feir to gocd 

Dark to good genuine .. 
lark to geod palish 
Retined 

iair average quality 
Gccd to fire bold 
Middlivg lean 

Good to fire bold 
Brownish Be 
Med brown to fair bold 
Sm: }] fair to fine plump 
Fair to good 
Fair to good 
Shelly to good 


~ on ee ee 


360 


MARKET RATES FOR TROPICAL PRODUCTS. 


(From Lewis & Peats Monthly Prices Current, London, 15th September, 1909.) 
nn SSS Se senogesoeemnee een 


QUOTATIONS. 


‘85s a 90s 
“140s a 703 


2gd add 


£6 7s €d a £6 1(s 
£710s a £7 12s 62 
£51l(sa £6 5s 
£678 6da £6 12/6 
is 6$dals €d 
13s 

1s 10d a 2s 2d 
Is¢da ls 8d 

Is 9d a2s 

1s 8d als 7d 

Is 1(d a 2s &d 
1Isfda 2s 11d 

is 4da Is¢d 

1s 7d 


--/6d a Is@d nom, 


s1OK OIL, Calcutta ,, |Good2nds Bol ete! 
CHILLIES, Zanzibar cwt.|Dull to tive bright .. [85s a 4Cs 
SINCHONA BARK.- Ib. 
Ceylon Crown, Renewed 32d a 7d 
Org. Stem |2d a éd 
Red Org. Stem /ijd a 4jid 
Renewed 3d a 5jd 
Rect ljda4d 
CINNAMON,Ceylon Iste|Good to tine quill ld als 4d 
per Ib, 2nds < = 9d a 1s 2a 
ards sy as 74d a 114d 
4ths i 1 63d a 93d 
Chips, &c..|Fair to fine bold 22d a 34d 
CLOVFS, Penang 1b.|Dull to tine bright pkd.|1s a 1s3d 
Amboyna --|Dull to tine 8da 8d 
Ceylon Ab < ?da cd 
Zanzibar Fair and fine bright 4id a 43d 
Stems -|Pair - lid 
>OFFEE : 

Se cerIOn Plantation cwt.|Medium to Bold nominal 
Native Good ordinary nominal 
Liberian ae Fair Ho Bolts ab a Soe, 

, Ceylon Plant. ., |Special Marks isa 74s 

EOCOs 5 Red to good 54s a 59s 
Native Estate », Ordinary to red 38sa 54s 6d 
Java and Celebes ,, [Small to good red 30s a 85s 

COLUMbY bOU'L », |Middling to good lisal7s 6d 

CKOTON SH} DS,s:ft. cwt.)Dull to fair 3Ls a 85s 

CUBEBS ” » |Ord. stalky to good 80s a 90s 

GINGHKH, Bengal, rough,, |Fair 30s 

Calicut, Cut A ,, |Small to fine bold CUS a 853 
B »» [Small and medium 52s a €0s 
Cochin Kough ,, |Common to fine bold |383 a 42s 
Small and D’s 373° 6dj 
Japan »5 |Unsplit 36s 
GUM AMMONIACUM ,, |Sm. blocky to fair clean]?5sa €0s nom. 
ANIMI, Zanzibar Pale and amber, str. sits.|£16 a £18 
” ” little red/£13 a £15 
Bean and Pea size ditto]75s.a £12 
Vair to g:odred sorts |£9a £131(s 
Med. & bold glassy sorts|£7 a £9 Es 
Madagascar w |Fair to good palish .../£4a£8 15s 
..|£4 a £7 Os 


ARABIC F.1.& Aden 
Turkey sorts 
Ghatti 
Kurracbee 
Madras 

ASSAF(hI1] 4 


KINO 
M\RRH,, icked ewt 
Aden sorts ,, 
OLIBAN UM, drop 5 
pickings 
siftings 

INDIA RU) Bik 


Ib.’ 
Ceylon, Straits, 
Malay Straits, etc. 


»» nna re : 
Oidinary to good pale 


Sorts to fine pale iis 
Reddish to good pale ... 
Dark to fine pale a 
Clean fr. to gd. almends 
com. stony to go d block 
Fair to tine bright 

Fair to fine pale 
Middling to good 

Good to tine white 
Middling to fair 

Low to good pale 
Slightly foul to fine 


», Ceara ; 
Crepe ordinary t 
bine Block 


Assam 


Rangoon 


71.1 1433 to fine 
Plo... tron 


’ ” 
oO fine.. 


25s a 3¥s 6d nom. 
27s da 47s 6d 
20s a 42s 6d nom. 
20s a 30s 
1és a 25s 
120s a 14Cs 
15s a 100s 
6d aed 
80s a 115s 
55s a 70s 
40s a £08 
25s a 35s = 
f(s €d alvs €d 
13s a 15s 


— ty) 
” 
ye 
” 


Fine Para bis. & sheets|7s 4d 


7s 4d , 
6s 6d a 7s 6d 
ts 


8 
5s 1da5s 3d 
4s 10a a 5sid 


Fair 11 tc crd, red No, 1/48 a 4s 8d 


” ” 


8s 2d a 4s2d 


INDI 
Borneo 
Java 
Penang 
Mozambique 


Nyassaland 
Me dagascar 


New Guinea 
INDIGO, KI. Bengal 


MACE, Bombay & Penang, 


ARUBBER.(Contd.) 


QUALITY. 


Ccmmon to good 
Good to fine red 3 
Low white to prime red 
Fair to fine red Ball ,,. 
Sausage, fair to good .. 
Fair to fine ball i 
Fr to fine pinky & white 
Majunga & blK coated .. 
Niggers, low to good 

Ordinary to fine ball .. 
Shipping mid to gd violet 
Consuming mid. to gd, 


Oudes Middling to fine 
Mid. to good Kurpah 
Low to ordinary 

Mid.to fine Madras 
Pale reddish to fine 


QUOTATIONS 


Is 6da 2s 8d 


-|28 6da 4s 4d 


2s a 8s 3d. 


3s 8d a 5s 2d 
3s 6d a 5s 


888d a 4s 8d 

2s 10d a 8s 8d 
2s 3d a 2s 9d 
Is 6d a 2s 2a 


332d a 1s 6d nom 
28 10d a 3s 8d 

\ _to gd.]2s 6d a 2s 10d 
Ordinary to middling |2s 2d a 235d 

2s 6d a 2/8 nom. 
2s 2d a 2s 6d 


per Ib. Ordinary to fair 1s 8d als 10d 
Java One », 00d pale |1s 7d a 281d 
Bombay Wild 4d a 5di 
MYRABOULANES, — cwt|UG and Coconada 5s a, 586d 
Bombay ,, Jubblepore 4s 9d a 6s 9d 
[Bhimlies 4s 9d a 78 
|Rhajpore, &c. 4s 6da 6s 3d 
Bengal » (Calcutta 5sa5s 6d 
NUTMEGS— Ib. |64’s to 57’s 's 8d a 1s 6d 
Bombay & Penang ,, |110’s to 65’s 43d als 2d 
. 160’s to 115’s 4d a 43d 
NUTS, ARECA ewt. Ordinary to fair fresh [145 a 165 
NUX VOMICA, Cochin |Ordinary to good 9s alls 6d 
per cwt, Bengal ” " 6s a @s éd 
Madras 0» ” 6s 3d a 8s 
OIL OF ANISEED ,, Fair merchantable 4s 5d 
CASSIA 1, According to analysis |gs gq a 4g 
LEMONGRASS », |Good flavour & colour jog g 92 
NUTMEG », |Dingy to white 13d a Lid 
CINNAMON »» |Ordinary to fair sweet 91d a 1s 
CITRON ELLE » |Bright & good flavour lis9 da 1s lid 
ORCHELLA WEED—cwt G 
Ceylon » |Mid. to fine not woody.../9s a lls 
Madagascar » |Fair (98 
PEPPER- (Black) Ib. 
Alleppee & Tellicherry Fair +» (BEA 
Ceylon », Lo fine bold heavy ..!33d a3ia 
Singapore oryil Wien ese . ee /34d 
Acheen & W. C. Penang|Dull to fine ae /BLA a 82d 
(White) Singapore ,, |Fair to fine Oty -- 54d a 8d 
Siam » |Fair as ous » |5ad 
Penang », |Fair or mae - (5d 
PLUMBAGO, lump cwt.|Fair_ to fine bright bold) — 
. Middling to good small} — 
chips Dull to tine bright Bal 
dust Ordinary to fine bright} — 
SAGO, Fearl, large ».(Dull to fine .. - |15sal6s 6d 
n ednm Onl ah ” 14s a 15s 
sma ooo] 99 1298 a1 
SEEDLAC ewt, Ordinary to ga. seluble |sog a pete 
SENNA, Tinnevelly 1b |Good to fine bold green|5q a 7q 
|Bair greenish Bid a 43d 
Commonspeckyand smal] lid a 23d 
SHELLS, M. o' PEARL— 
Egyptiancwt.Smallto bold .. 358 a 115s nom. 
Bombay 69 ” “ ‘21s a 116s 
Mergui ” ” oe «-|£2a L8 15s 
Manilla _,, Fair to good +-/£512/6a£1010s 
Banda », sorts on +1258 4230S nom, 
TAMARINDS, Calcutta, |Mid.to fine bl’k not stony|i}s a 13s < 
per cwt. Madras (Stony and inferior -- lds a 6S " 
TORLOISESHELL— 
Zanzibar, & Bombay lb, Small to bold + {88a 31s 
|Pickings -. [3s a 18s 6d a 
TURMERIC, Bengal cwt, |Fair - 1183 eS. 
= Madras _,, |Finger fair to fine bold|j7s a 18s wy 
Do. __,, |Bulbs [bright/14s a 153 E 
Cochin », |Finger . |L5s : 
Bulbs « {13g €d a. 
VANILLOES— Ib, 3 
‘Mauritius... Ists Gd crystallized 3} a8hinjgsa1lés 
Madagascar ... + 2nds|Foxy & reddish 33a ,,/8s3dal128 
Seychelles .. érds)/ Lean and inferior « 883d a 839d 
VERMILLION .. Fine, pure, bright . 23 10d : 
WAX, Jayan, squares Good white hard _4..'458 a 


THE SUPPLEMENT TO THE 


Tropical Agricutturist and Magazine of the 6. A. 8. 


Comeitep By A. M. & J. FERGUSON. 


No. 4,] 


OCTOBER, 1909. 


[Von. V, 


RUBBER OUTPUT ESTIMATES. 


UP TO 1913: A MALAYA VIEW. 


In the present rubber boom time, when prac- 
tically every day a new flotation is announced, 
the thoughts of the cautious naturally turn to 
the possibility of over-production. It may be 
interesting, therefore, and instructive to collect 
the data at our disposal and to estimate what 
the output of plantation rubber may reasonably 
be expected to be during the next few years— 
say, upto 1913, the year in which all the trees 
planted up to the end of 1908 will be tappable. 
For the purposes of this enquiry, from which, 
of course, only approximate conclusions can be 
drawn, it will be necessary to assume that con- 
ditions in the rubber producing countries, 
such as the number of trees to the acre, the 
growth of the trees, freedom from pest, and the 
amount and quality of rubber obtainable at a 
given age, are identical. The countries to be 
taken seriously into consideration are, in addition 
to the F.M.S. and 8.8., Ceylon, Java, Sumatra 
and Borneo, From theannual report we find the 
planted acreage in the F.M.S. at the end of last 
year was 168,000, and in the S. 8. 73,000. The two 
Ceylon papers—the ‘‘ Times” and the Observer 
—are substantially in agreement as to the 
acreage under rubber in Ceylon, which they 
estimate roughly at 180,000 acres, Java and 
Sumatra possess about 40,000 acres planted and 
Borneo about 10,000. So that we have 


F.M.S. and SS. 240,000 
Ceylon 180,000 
Java and Sumatra 40,000 
Borneo 10,000 

Total 470,000 


Now it is held by those whose opinion carries 
weight that an acreage tapped in one year will 
yield about one-fifth more in the next. To esti- 
mate, therefore, a year’s crop, it is necessary to 
take the previous year’s crop, plus 20 per cent., 


46 


and add the estimated crop from the new 


acreage which comes into bearing. A glance 
at the statistics given in the Director of Agri- 
culture’s report of the acreage planted and 
the number of trees shows that the average is, 
roughly, 150 trees to the acre, During last 
year the average yield per tapped tree all 
over this Peninsula was 1lb. 15%0zs. To be 
on the safe side, we may estimate the yield at 
14 1b. per tree, which gives a yield per acre of 
225 lb, and, allowing for wastage, we arrive ata 
minimum yield per acre of 200 lb. Now the F.M. 
S. in 1908 exported 3,155,600 lb, or 1,413 tons, 
Hight thousand acres, planted in 1904, come into 
bearing this year, so that, adding 20 per cent. to 
last year’s total, and estimating the output of the 
new average at 8,000 x 200, we arrive at an esti- 
mate of 5,398,720 lb, or 2,400 tons, for this year. 
The export has already reached 3,000,0001b, 
so it fairly certain that the estimate is a conser- 
vative one, In 1910 24,000 more acres come into 
bearing, and by the same method the total out- 
put will exceed 11,000,000 lb, or, say 5,000 tons. 
In 1911 the acreage is increased by 42,000, 
and our estimate places the output at nearly 
22,000,000 Ib, or 9,600 tons. Forty thousand 
acres more come in in 1912, and the estimated 
output is 34,000,000 lb, or 15,000 tons, Finally 
IN 1913 
the whole of the area planted at the end of 
1908 will be in bearing and the estimate is just 
on 50,000,000 lb of rubber, or 
22,000 TONS. 

By taking the number of trees planted at the 
end of 1908—26,000,000—and estimating 2 lb. 
yield from each tree, less wastage, we 
arrive at much the same total, Now if we 
assume for the sake of argument that the 
other producing countries are doing exactly 
what we are doing, a computation of the total 
output from all the countries named, possessing 
a total acreage of 470,000, is merely a question 
of arithmetic, and works out at about 


362 


61,500 TONS OF PLANTATION RUBBER. 


The world’s annual consumption stands now at 
about 70,000 tons. Now our estimates of pro- 
bable outputs have been very conservative, and 
we have taken no account of additional acreage 
which might be tappable in 1913, but itis clearly 
very improbable that the total output of plan- 
tation rubber in 1913 will do more than equal 
the present world’s consumption of rubber. 
That consumption, in the natural course of 
events, may be expected to increase by 1813, 
and then, of course, there is the question of 
the price. Noone in his senses supposes that 
the present price of rubber will be maintained 
for ever. We have seen various estimates of the 
probable average prices of rubber during 
the next few years, in technical journals, in 
prospectuses and elsewhere. We think we 
are perfectly safe in estimating that the ave- 
rage price for plantation in 1913 will not 
be less than three shillings, or two shillings 
per pound profit on a well-managed estate. At 
three shillings per lb. any number of new uses for 
rubber would be found practicable, and experts 
are agreed that a heavy drop in price would be 
followed by a largely increased consumption. 
We have, of course, only dealt with the question 
generally, and all estimates must necessarily be 
somewhat vague, but we think we have produced 
enough facts to show that the question of over- 
production is not one which need be considered 
for some years to come.—Malay Mail, Aug. 25. 


PROCESS FOR PROGUCING 
PURE RUBBER. 


A NEW 


A London chemist, Mr. U Aubrey Klias, 
F.C.S., of 123, Waller Street, New Cross, 
claims to have discovered a new process for pro- 
ducing pure rubber. He has given to a Press As- 
sociation representative some interesting parti. 
culars concerning his discovery, which, he says, 


WILL REVOLUTIONISE THE METHOD OF RUBBER 
PROPUCTION, 


His invention relates to a new _ process 
for instantaneously coagulating Para rubber 
latex, while it incidentally retards fermen- 
tative changes, which are attributed to the 
presence of sugars, proteids and other impuri- 
ties that are by this method apparently removed 
or rendered inert in the finished product. The 
process produces a superfine rubber and tends 
to convert all ‘‘ Para fine”’ latex into a uniform 
standard and staple quality. This m-thod uti- 
lises all the latex, and abstracts a considerable 
portion of moisture from the caoutchouc, thus 
greatly feelliting the process of drying. The 
mother liquid is left quite clear and transparent, 
and may be usedagain with advantage for coagu- 
lating a turther supply of the rubber milk. A 
single grain of this substance, ifusedin the pure 
or concentrated form, will almost instantane- 
ously coagulate several hundred times its own 
weight of Para rubber milk. 


Mr Ettas explained that several rubber pro- 
ducing countries, such as Amazona and Ceylon, 
have recently devoted a great deal of attention 
to obtaining rubber in the pure form, The diffi- 


The Supplement to the Tropical Agriculturist, 


culty in this respect is due to the fact that co- 
agulation of the milk or latex from the trees 
takes place slowly and the rubber retains a cer- 
tain amount of albuminous matter and other im- 
purities. This proteid matter is responsible for 
the development of micro-organisms, causing 
‘“‘ tackiness ” or ‘‘heating” of the raw rubber. 
Fresh latex contains from 1'9 to 2°7 per cent of 
albuminous matter, or approximately 3 to 4 per 
cent of the dried coagulated product. The un- 
desirable conditions have been overcome by the 
new method, which is inexpensive and economi- 
cal, saving much time and labour by doing 
in a few minutes what hitherto took about 
24 hours to accomplish satisfactorily. 


IMMEDIATE COAGULATION OF THE RUBBER CAN 
NOW BE EFFECTED, 


and the coagulum may be at once pressed free 
from moisture, and dried without further treat- 
ment. The caoutchouc, he states, does not un- 
dergoany deterioration, and the quality is much 
improved both in appearance and elasticity, 
elements of considerable importance to the 
factors when selecting the raw material in the 
market for manufacturing into articles which 
are now almost indispensable to mankind. 


At present the rubber is produced mainly by 
two methods, by drying the milk in thin layers 
in the presence of the antiseptic vapour of bur- 
ning palm, or by the use of acetic acid. Both 
processes are faulty. In the case of the first, 
rubber, which is obviously dark in appearance, 
is obtained, while in addition the operation, 
which is tedious, is exceedingly detrimental to 
the health of the native producers, about 3 per 
cent of whom die from phthisis or other dis- 
eases which are the result cf the conditions 
under which they labour. In regard to the 
second process, the fact that theamount of pure 
acetic acid necessary for the coagulation is so 
difficult to gauge forms a most serious drawback, 
apart altogether frem the troubles which often 
arise in connection with the transit and use of 
the acid. Mr Elias declares the new method 


HAS NONE OF THE DRAWBACKS OF THE OLD 
PROCESSES, 


although it will not be more costly. The rubber 
produced is better, and consequently fetches a 
ee figure. The market price of best Para 
rubber ranges from 7s 6d to 8s per |b., and rub- 
ber produced by the new process has realised 4d 
per lb. more. Analyses of two samples show that 
they contained no proteids, and the analyst, in 
his report states: ‘‘These rubbers should have 


@high market value, particularly as they con- 


tain no undesirable albuminous matter, and are 
not likely to decompose or become ‘tacky.’” 
The fact that decomposition will not set in is 
due to the absence of proteid matter, rubber 
produced under the new method thus being 
superior to that obtained under the old in this 
respect, and also because any analins colour can 
be added tu the milk. Consequently, it is not 
surprising that 15 per cent more should be offered 
for rubber produced by means of the new 
method. Questioned as to the general effect of 
this invention, Mr. Hlias remarked that it would 
revolutionise the process of rubber production, 
and he expressed the opinion that in course of 


and Magazine of the Ceylon Agricultural Society. 


time his system would be universally adopted. 
By means of it, he claimed, translucent and ex- 
tremely elastic rubber of a light amber colour is 
produced. In this form itis much more suitable 
for practical purposes than the rubber at pre- 
sent obtained. Thereis nothing objectionable 
in the new process, it is quite as cheap as the 
old ones, and the rubber produced is much 
superior, while the buyer will be able to ascer- 
tain easily the actual amount of caoutchouc to 
which he is entitled.—A. & C. Mail, Aug. 20. 


RUBBER IN GERMAN NEW GUINEA. 


The prospects of the production of rubber 
and guttapercha in German New Guinea are 
discussed in the ‘' Frankfurter Zeitung” by 
a correspondent, who states that the question 
as to whether success will be met concerns 
all interests, and that this depends upon 
whether in course of time the millions of marks 
expended for this purpose will yield the hoped- 
for results, or whether they are to be con- 
sidered as lost capital. During the past six 
or seven years the planting of rubber trees 
in New Guinea has proceeded on a large scale, 
and there areat present about 500,000 trees, 
covering a surface’ of approximately 3,000 
acres. The progress of the plants has hitherto 
shown that the climate promises well for 
the trees which include Castilloa  elastica, 
Ficus elastica and Hevea brasiliensis. A 
large number have not yet reached the age 
for tapping, although about three tons were 
harvested on the Stephansort plantation alone 
in 1908, and the result of the tests is awaited 
before proceeding with further extension of 
the plantations. The quality of the rubber has 
hitherto been regarded favourably. It is sug- 
gested that a testing institution such as exists 
inthe Cameroons and German East Africa 
should be established in New Guinea. The cul- 
tivation of gutta-percha in New Guinea has so 
far not been undertaken on a noteworthy scale, 
but the existence of wild-growing plants has 
been determined by Dr. R Schlecter, although 
it isimprobable that they are of much im- 
portance, as the trees are often situated miles 
apart. As most of the trees are in the moun- 
tainous districts it would scarcely be possible to 
induce the natives to win and deal with the 
product, and the work under European super- 
vision would not be remunerative.—India- 
Rubber Journal, Aug. 23. 


ASSAM RUBBER. 

The rubber of Ficus elastica is known to vary 
in composition according to the age of the trees 
from which it is collected: young trees affording 
rubber with 20 to 30 per cent of resin and older 
trees affording rubber with less than 10 per cent. 
The comparatively large amount of resin in 
Assam rubber depreciates it in the market, and 
any means of improving the product, whether in 
collecting it only from mature trees or special 
treatment of the latex, would be welcomed by 
the trade. An interesting series of rubbers from 
Ficus elastica collectedin Assam and adjacent 
provinces has been presented to the Museum by 


363 


Mr, A T Wernigg. These being representative 
samples from different districts and from trees 
of different ages, their analyses are important. 
The first three samples were from the Govern- 
ment Plantationat Charduar, from trees 33 years 
of age, the fourth was from the Lushai Hills 
from trees of70 years of age, the sixth was from 
the Mishmi Hills from old trees of 100 to 150 
years of age :— 


Water Caoutchouc Resins Proteids Ash. 
Charduar 0'6 83 0 15'1 1°0 *4 
i 14 gil 115 12 “8 
hs 2.8 80°4 13°4 1'4 20 
Lushai “4 891 88 4 10 
Bhutan 1:0 83°1 14°2 oa, 1°0 
Mishmi 13 79°4 16°6 1°2 15 
Average 1:2 83-4 13°3 1:0 11 


The average analysis of the above six samples 
may therefore be taken as typical of commercial 
Assam rubber. The crude rubbers would suffer 
a slight loss of woody particles in washing, 
and making allowance for this, the Caoutchouc 
content may be taken as not less than 80 per 
cent, Other samples ofrubber are brought into 
Assam from neighbouring districts. These are 
collected in the forest by Native agency, and it 
was presumed that they are from Ficus elastica, 
but their composition is so good that probably 
they are derived from some other botanical 
source. Onesample frm Bhutan and two from 
the Akha Hills were axamined, and they were 
found to yield 90-9, 89°9 and 92°8 per cent. of 
caoutchoue and 4:9, 6'°5 and 4°9 per cent. of 
resins, Such samples as these are of great 
value, and it would be an advantage if their 
supply could be carefully controlled.—Mr. D. 
Hoorver, F.C.8., in Calcutta Museum Report, 
1903 9, Industrial Section. 


PALO AMARILLO RUBBER. 


A Poor Latex PRODUCER, 


The Palo Amarillo tree was discovered afew 
years ago on the slopes of the Sierra Madre, 
and upon investigation it was found to be a 
botanically unknown species, [t is known in 
Mexico under a number of common names, such 
as palo amarillo, palo colorado, papeillo and 
cucuracho, the first mentioned name being 
generally used. It occurs in the dry semi- 
tropic zone on the slopes of Sierra Madre, at 
an elevation of 900 to 4,800 feet generally being 
found above the oak zone, and frequently reach- 
ing as high as the pine zone of the mountains. 
It extends southwards from Durango to the 
southern part of Oaxaca, along the Pacific coast, 
growing on rather poor, rocky or sandy volcanic 
soil, ard it often forms a part of the xero- 
phytic plant formations that have established 
themselves on the dry mountain sides. The tree 
grows to a height of between 20 and 34 feet, with 
a trunk diameter of from 7 to 12 inches. In the 
inner bark of the stem and its branches occur 
numerous latex-bearing vessels, containg a semi- 
liquid fluid of milky whiteness, which solidifies 
on contact with the air. Chemical examination 
of this latex shows that it 

CONTAINS FROM 7°3 To 15'7 PER CENT OF 
RUBBER, 
and from 19 per cent upwards of resins. The 
United States Consul at the city of Mexico 


364 


says that he has personally analysed seven- 
teen latex samples from different parts of the 
tree, and from trees growing in different 
soils. The latex from the lower parts of the 
trunk contains the higher percentage of rubber, 
as is the case with all rubber-producing 
trees. The branches carry a latex containing 
mainly resins, the rubber being about 3 to 6 
per cent, and occurring in a form which makes 
it very difficult to be separated from impu- 
rities, The coagulation of the latex is not 
easy, although it can be accomplished. The 
resulting rubber is of inferior quality and 
would commercially be classed with Guayule 
rubber, which, it is stated, has commended 
prige of about one shilling and three-pence, 
where the price of first-class wild para rubber 
was three shillings and ninepeuce per pound 
during the last year when rubber prices were 
low. It may be noted that rubber made accor- 
ding to modern methods from the ordinary Mex- 
ican rubber tree— Castilla elastica—has reached 
the highest standard of Para rubber and has 
realised the same price. The product of the 
palo amarillo tree being new, 
THE TEST OF TIME, 

which after all is the most important one, has 
not yet been applied; but taking into considera- 
tion the low tensile strength, the large per- 
centage of resins, and the rapid deterioration of 
the latex through enzymes, it is not very likely 
that palo amarillo rubber will show a better 
result than the rubber obtained from the guayule 
shrub. The rubber is easy to vulcanise by the 
ordinary methods. The exploitation of the latex 
of palo amarillo is beset with considerable diffi- 
culties. The Consul states that he has tapped 
these trees in all the different manners generally 
employed in tapping Hevea, Manihot, Castilla, 
Funtumia, Ficus, or Sapium trees, and he has 
used over twenty of the different tools and im- 
plements, patented and employed in the rubber 
fields in Brazil, Central America and Africa, 
and he says that 

THE PROPER METHOD OF TAPPING, 
palo amarillo is not easy to determine. It is 
claimed that the palo amarillo tree is very easily 
propagated. A young branch cut from a grow- 
ing tree and planted in the ground will grow. 
Commercially this does not mean much as the 
exploitable age of a palo amarillo tree must be 
at least ten or eleven years. <A tree of this age 
does not: give a very large amount of latex. The 
ordinary Mexican rubber tree, Castilla elastica, 
can be exploited when eight years old, and it 
then gives a larger yield of latex perannum than 
a ten-year old palo amarillo tree. Considering 
that the latex of the former contains from 25 to 
47 per cent of pure rubber, against about eight 
per cent in the palo amarillo latex, it is difficult 
to see the advantages of the latter under culti- 
vation.—Society of Arts Journal, August 27, 


RUBBER ACREAGE FOR GERMAN 
COLONIES. 


Anp Cacao Consumprion IN GERMANY. 
Weare much indebted to Herr Ludwig W. Wed- 
dige, of Wattegodde, Matale, for the official data 
he gives us regarding the acreage of cultivated rub- 
ber inthe German Coloniesfor 1909, The totalin 


The Supplement to the Tropical Agriculturist 


rubber in German Colonies, 18,525 acres, is cer- 
tainly rather higher than we estimated—as also 
is the consumption of Cacao in Germany (nearly 
double—if our correspondent be correct.) We 
would like to know how much of the rubber is 
in bearing. 


Watagodde, Matale, Aug. 31st. 
Dear Sir,—I take the liberty to give you 
below some data regarding the acreage of 
cultivated rubber in the German Colonies for 
1909, which may be of use for you for your 
next year’s Directory, 


I find in this year’s edition p. xxxix, foot- 
note 2, the acreage under rubber in German 
Hast Africa given as 1,500 acres and the total 
New Guinea, New Caledonia, etc., as 3,000 acres. 


The German Colonial Committee, the best 
authority on this subject, states the acreage 
under rubber for 1909 as follows :— 


German East Africa (1) 7,410 acres, 


Togo and Cameroons (2) 4,940 ,, 
New Guinea (3) DylOOm es 
Samoa (3) 2470 varus 


Total German Colonies... 18,525 ,, 


(1) Mostly Ceara, lately Manicoba and in 
some places Hevea. 

(2) Togo: Ceara and Manicoba. Cameroons : 
Ficus, Castilloa, but lately Hevea has been 
planted on a big scale, 


(3) Mostly Hevea. 


I find further you state the consumption 
of cacao (p. xl.) for Germany and North 
Europe together as 340,000 cewt, 


According to official statistics the consump- 
tion of cacao in Germany was over 35,000,000 kg. 
= 77,161,000 lb. = 676,800 cwt. in 1906, and 
is without doubt greater today, the annual 
average increase being 2,400,000 lb.—-I am, 
yours faithfully, 

LUDWIG W. WEDDIGE. 


ON THE AROMA OF BLACK TEA. 


By T. KATAYAMA, 


It is of great importance for the manufacture 
of black tea, to know by what agencies its agree- 
able aroma is produced. The so-called fermenta- 
tion of tea is attributed by some authors to 
microbes; by others, however, to the enzymes of 
the leaves. Bamber(a) denies the existence of a 
genuine fermentation, having been unable to 
observe any microbe. Newton(b) supposes that 
the flavour of black tea is dependent upon 
the action of an oxidizing enzymein the tea 
leaf but Crole(c) and other authors ascribe the 
fermentation at least partly to the action of 
certain micro-organisms (d.) 


(a.) Agricultural and chemistry of tea. (6.) 
On tea, a publication from India. (c.) Tea, 
its cultivation and manufacture. (d.) Aso has 
observed that the black colour of tea is caused 
by the action of the oxidase of the leaves upon 
the tannin present (Bul, College of Agriculture, 
Tokyo Imp, Univ., Vol, [V., No, 4.) 


and Magazine of the Ceylon Agricultural Society. 


Since I had observed frequently bacilli on the 
rolled tea leaves undergoing the fermenting pro- 
cess, I was led to suppose that some relations 
between these bacilli and chemical changes in 
the tea leaf might exist. Hence I tried to kill 
the ordinary microbes adhering to the leaves 
and to infect the leaves with bacilli taken from 
fermenting leaves. 


Fresh tea leaves were left in either for 4 
hours, rolled and dried as usua!. The green 
colour of these leaves not only gradually changed 
to brownish but also the characteristic aroma 
of black tea was observed after 10 hours, in 
spite of the odour of adhering traces of ether. 


This experiment shows that the aroma is not 
caused by any micro-organisms. The same result 
was obtained when the ether was substituted by 
alcohol and chloroform, Also powerful antisep- 
ticsas cresol,mercuric chloride were tried. Fresh 
tea leaves were soaked in a4 per cent cresol solu- 
tion for 24 hours washed once with distilled 
water, dried in the sun and then rolledand kept 
compactly in a flask. The tea leaves changed 
gradually in colour to brownish black and after 
15 hours produced a distinct aroma, modified 
however by the odour of traces of cresol remai- 
ning. Fresh tea leaves were left in al per cent 
HegCi(a) solution for 20 hours, whereby the leaves 
assumed a pale appearance, and washed with 
distilled water. When keptin a flask, the char- 
acteristic aroma of black tea was also hore ob- 
served after some time, but the blackening of 
the leaves was here not observed. When the 
so-called fermentation process is allowed to 
go on for too long a time before drying or 
firing, the normal aroma produced gradually 
disappears andasour smell developes. Finally 
white mould appears on the leaves. However, 
if the leaf is treated with antiseptics as 
above-mentioned, the sour smellis not ob- 
served. These tests render it very probable 
that the development of aroma is due to the 
action of certain enzymes originally present 
in the leaves which produce the specific volatile 
oil of tea from certain compounds. Thisis in 
analogy tothe flavour of tobacco which is also 
produced by the action of enzymes (oxidases). 


I have further observed that after treating 
tea leaves with cyanogen gas for 5 hours the 
aroma fails to appear. When tea leaves are 
repeatedly treated with ether or alcohol, the 
aroma fails to develop which shows that those 
substances which yield the aroma have been 
extracted by ether and alcohol, which agrees 
with observations of Kozai(b.) Since Kozai, 
Bamber and other authors observed that black 
tea cannot be manufactured from steamed 
tea leaves, I have tried the influence of var- 
ious lower temperature. The tea leaves were 
kept at these temperatures for an hour and after 
having gone through the usual process the 
results were as follows :— 


good aroma 
50 ,, Bo do 


60 ,, only a very weak aroma 

85 sd no aroma, only a raw grassy smell 
ae G) oO 

100 3 ae do do 


(a.) On tea, a publication from India. (d.) 
Bulletin College of Agriculture, Tokyo Imp. 
Unvi, Vol. I., No. 7, 


365 


This result supports my opinion, that the pro- 
duction of aroma is caused by a certain enzyme. 
As to oxidising enzymes their presence can 
easily be demonstrated. When tea leaves are 
treated with strong alcohol until the tannin is 
entirely removed, and then treated with distilled 
water, the aqueous extract thus obtained be: 
haves as follows :— 


Guaiac tincture, Guaiac plus H202 


40 (aroma) blue deep blue 
50 ¢ do ) do do 

60 (very weak) do do 

65 (no aroma) do do 
Ondo ) no coloration no coloration 


100 ( do ) do do 
Since the leaves kept at 65° developed no aroma 
but gave still the reactions for oxidase, and 
peroxidase, it appears that other enzymes than 
these are concerned in the production of aroma. 


Post ScRIPTUM. 


As Mr Katayama having had to break off his 
studies on account of his departure for India 
and Europe, Prof, Sawamura made a further 
experiment upon which he reports as follows :— 

‘*T extracted 156 g of fresh tea leaves with 900 
c. c, of absolute alcohol and 147 g with 1 litre 
of 20 percent alcohol. The former extract was 
evaporated to dryness and the residue dissolved 
in water (A). The latter extract was precipitated 
with ether-alcohol (B). By adding the preci- 
pitate B containing the enzymes to the solution 
(A), an agreeable aroma characteristic for the 
prepared tea was produced.” 


This result is a further confirmation of the 
view, that the tea aroma is caused by the original 
enzymes of the leaves. But the true nature of 
the enzymatic process requires further study. 
The most probable supposition is, however, that 
a peculiar enzyme splits a certain glycoside 
present in small quantities and that one consti- 
tuent thus liberated yields by taking up oxygen 
the aroma of tea. Y. Kozat., 
—Bulletin of the Imperial Central Agricultural 
Experiment Station, Japan, Vol, I, No. 2, 
Oct. 1907. 


A NEW COTTON FROM THE SOLO- 
MON ESLANDS. 


‘* MAMARA”: MORE PROLIFIC THAN 
CARAVONICA. 


We have this week received from Messrs. 
Sturmfels, Limited, wool and produce broker, 
of Brisbane, a sample of a new cotton grown in 
the Solomon Islands, which promises to be a 
rivai of Caravonica in its prolific yields and ease 
of cultivation. We have examined the sample 
in question and find it is, as reported, a fines 
white silky cotton, and one which certainly 
ought to command the high price at which it is 
valued. It is a pity, however, that the cotton 
has not been sent to us just as it was gathered— 
in the boll—-so that the quantity of lint, per boll 
and in comparison with the bulk of seed, might 
be judged. The staple is a good average one 
—about an inch in length, This ‘‘ Mamara” 
Cotton will be found duly advertised in the 
September issue of the Tropical Agriculturist. 


366 The Supplement to the Tropical Agriculturist 


Meanwhile we publish further particulars of it 
in the report forwarded to us, from Messrs. 
Svensen & D’Oliveyra, who have been growing 
it so successfully in the Solomon Islands, as 
follows :— 


Guadaleanar, Solomon Islands, 10th June 19)9. 
Messrs. Sturmfels Ltd., Greek St.. Brisbane, 
Queensland. 


GENTLEMEN :—Herewith please find samples 
of our new hybrid perennial Cotton ‘‘ Mamara’”’ 
which has been grown by us here with great 
success. It yields a fine silky fibre similar to 
Caravonica No. 2 valued in Europe at Is. per lb. 
We have grown it principally as a catch crop 
between coconuts without cultivation, other 
than weeding, and we have obtained a return 
of 300 lb. of lint per acre. This variety of cotton 
only grows to an average height of about 6 feet 
whereas the ‘‘Caravonica’’ reaches from 15 to 
20 feet. We have grown the ‘‘ Mamara” and 
‘‘Caravonica”’ alongside each other and find 
that the former invariably produces the heavier 
crop. Our rainfall is about 80 inches per annum, 
half of which falls during, January, February 
and March. A small crop of ‘‘ Mamara” is 
secured six months after planting and in January 
the bushes should be heavily pruned back. 
We feel assured that by trying the Mamara” 
variety in suitable localities proprietors of 
plantations will secure a very valuabe cotton ; 
and if the seed is returned in the shape of 
manure, very little is taken from the soil, We shall 
always be pleased to give any information re- 
quired, to intending growers.— Yours faithfully. 


(Signed.) Svensen & D’Otiveyra. 


After this satisfactory report we would like to 
see the Peradeniya Department and enthusiastic 
growers of cotton in our midst, like Dr. H. M. 
Fernando and others, making a trial with the 
new hybrid species in Ceylon. 


NEW RAMIE DEGUMMING PROCESS. 


Ramie fibre is one of the best in the world. 
It produces cloth of a texture that can scarcely 
be told from silk and stronger than linen. The 
chief drawback in connection with its produc- 
tion is the difficulty of cleaning the fibre from 
the gum which is contained in the plant. Years 
of study, and hundreds of thousands of dollars 
have been spent in the effort to produce an ade- 
quate ‘‘degumming process.” Some twenty- 
five years ago about $40,000 was expended on a 
ramie plantaion situated near the present site of 
the Olaa Mill, the cleaning machinery being 
located in Hilo. The ramie grew well and the 
fibre was of first-class quality, but the degum- 
ming process was not successful, resulting in 
total failure, Thata successful degummer will 
some day be discovered is a moral certainty, in 
which case there is no reason why ramie should 
not become astaple and profitable product in 
Hawaii. It may be that even now the long 
looked for process may have been found. U.S. 
Consul Charles Denby, of Shanghai, China, 
thinks it has, and has so reported to the State 
Department. He says that the operation is 
simple and lasts only ten minutes. The ramie 
is first placed in a vessel containing boiling wear 


to which is added a secret composition. After 
boiling four and one-half minutes it is washed, 
bleached, and thoroughly degummed. A de- 
corticating machine has also been invented by a 
Mr. Smith which, it is claimed, will do the whole 
of the work now done in the fields by hand, ex- 
cept cutting and carting. A fibre Company has 
been organised at Shanghai to manufacture 
ramie goods. We suggest that this is a proper 
subject for investigation by the Hawaii Experi- 
ment Station. Doubtless, Mr. Denby would, 
upon request, furnish detail information con- 
cerning cost and methods, and give names and 
addresses of inventors.—Hawaii Planters 
Monthly, May 15. 


‘‘FERTILISERS AND MANURES.’’’ 


By A. D. Hatt, M.a., .R.8., DrrecToR OF THE 
ROTHAMSTED EXPERIMENTAL STATION, &C, 
[RevisewED By JoHN HuGHES, F.C.S., 
AGRICULTURAL ANALYST. ] 


This book, which is gracefully dedicated to 
Sir Charles Lawes-Wittewronge, Baronet, ‘‘who 
has shown in other fields the distinction and 
imagination which markéd his father’s work 
for agriculture,” the only son of the late Sir 
John Lawes, Bart., is intended by the author 
to be a companion to his previous work, ‘* The 
Soil.” Though published primarily for farmers 
and the senior Students aud ‘’eachers in our 
agricultural schools, the book is written in such 
a clear, simple style and treats the principles of 
manuring in such a useful practical manner that 
it should be equally appreciated by Colonial 
planters of Tea, Coffee, Sugar, Rubber, Cotton, 
Cacao and other semi-tropical crops. Jt pos- 
sesses the special advantage of making use of 
the valuable experimental researches that have 
been carried on, on a thoroughly systematic 
method, at Rotharmstead for so many years. Mr. 
Hall endeavours to help men to a greater skill 
in the selection of the fertilisers and manures 
best adapted for particular soils and crops, 
and employs the results of the Rothamstead 
experiments by way of illustrating his views. 
There are, in fact, 103 separate tables of experi- 
mental results, and the illustrations of the 
growth of crops and plants in pots, though not 
many, are very interesting. 

The first chapter is taken up with a review 
of the early history of Manures, the theories 
of plant nutrition, the introduction of artificial or 
prepared fertilisers, and the assimilation of plant 
food from the air and from the soil; and at- 
tention is directed to the statement made by 
Liebig to the British Association in 1840 that 
the carbon compounds, which constitute fully 
95 per cent. of the dry matter of the plant, were 
obtained from the atmosphere by the plant and 
that only about 2 per cent, in the form of 
mineral constituents was obtained through the 
roots from the soil. The author next proceeds 
to consider the three essential ingredients of all 
Maunures under their respective headings and 
in the order of their agricultural importance, 
namely: Nitrogen, Phosphates and Potash, to 


each of which separate chapters are allotted. Na-. 


turally, the soluble and quick-acting fertilisers, 
* Jon Mugray, 1909—5s nett. 


— ) 


and Magazine of the Ceylon Agricultural Society. 


such as Sulphate of Ammonia and Nitrate of 
Soda, are very fully considered, their respective 
advantages for certain crops and certain soils are 
clearly pointed out. Thus the former, being the 
more soluble, is best adapted for districts with 
a small rainfall and where immediate effect is 
desired as in the case of the top dressing of 
cereal crops. The continuous application of 
Nitrate of Soda on soils inclined to clay has a 
bad mechanical effect owing to deflocculation. 
Sulphate of Ammonia, though most useful as an 
ingredient of compound manures if applied 
alone continuously on soils deficient in lime, 
causes a distinct acidity which in time renders 
the land positively barren. 


The various waste products, such as Soot, 
Shoddy, Hoofs and Horns, are severally treated 
of. In regard to Shoddy, Mr Hall states that 
Hop and Fruit growers regard it as the best 
substitute for farmyard manure; indeed for fruit 
he writes that it is often regarded as prefer- 
able to ordinary dung. Probably, if obtainable, 
Shoddy would be an excellent manure for Tea 
and Coffee as it would supply a steady and con- 
tinuous supply of Nitrogen. The chapter on 
Phosphates is of particular interest as the spe- 
cial advantages of Bone Meal, steamed Bones 
and Bones treated with Sulphuric Acid are fully 
enlarged upon. The author considers ordinary 
Bone Meal —that is, the whole bones crushed 
into meal—is rather over-valued; whereas 
steamed bone-flour hardly gets justice done to it. 
Planters, who have used Leechman’s steamed 
Bones as formerly prepared in Ceylon, will 
probably fully agree with this statement. 
Refereuce is made to Lawes, who, in his proof of 
evidence in connection with his Patent for the 
manufacture of Superphosphate in 1842, stated 
that he found no good effect from the use of a 
considerable dressing of Bone dust to his Turnips 
on his particular soil, but that he found most 
remarkable results from the application of his 
own manure Superphosphate. 


In considering the action of the various phos- 
phatic manures, Mr Hall very wisely states that 
the most important factor to be taken into 
account is the character and compesition of the 
soil. The choice between Superphosphate, Basic 
Slag or Bone Meal must be determined by the 
proportion of carbonate of lime in the particular 
soil and the relative wetness or dryness of such 
soil. Before applying Phosphates in the form 
of Superphospate it is necessary to ascertain 
that the soil contains a sufficient supply of 
Carbonate of lime in order to ensure the precipi- 
tation of the water soluble Mono-calcic phos- 
phate into the condition of di-calcic phosphate, 
resulting from contact with Carbonate of lime. 
Mr Hall further states that on acid soils, on 
some clays, and on many sands and gravels, in 
which there is such a deficiency of Carbonate of 
lime, the soluble phosphoric acid becomes pre- 
cipitated as iron or alumina phosphates which 
possess a much lower solubility in the soil water, 
and are, therefore, less available to the plant. 


The properties of Basic Slag are naturally fully 
described and its usefulness for damp heavy 
clays or sour wet soils deficient in lime is speci- 
ally pointed out; but Mr Hall admits that in 
Kugland there is a prejudice against the use of 


367 


Basic Slag on the lighter soils, the sands and 
gravels, which are deficient both in lime and 
vegetable matter. On such land, he points 
out, there is a very general preference for 
phosphatic guano, steamed bone flour and 
the new Manure Basic Superphosphate. As 
regards Potash, its use onthe lighter soils, the 
sands and gravels is generally recommended ; 
but on stronger soils its application is scarcely 
likely to be remunerative, and the use of Nitrate 
of Soda asa source of Nitrogen will liberate 
enough of the locked-up Potash in the soil for 
the needs of ordinary cereal crops. 


Fermyard Manure, its composition, pro- 
perties, the loss of Nitrogen during fermen- 
tation, its fertilising value and physical effects 
upon the soil, the long duration of its fertilising 
action are fully described, and particulars of 
the cost of its production are given, namely, 
from 9s 4d to 11s 8d per ton: figures which may 
be interesting to those with cattle establish- 
ments in Ceylon, but are certainly far above 
what is usually considered a fair price tobe paid 
by the in-coming tenant on taking a farm. 


Chapter 9, which deals with the use of lime, 
marl, chalk, gypsum, ground lime and ground 
limestone will afford most interesting reading 
to allthose who cultivate soils which are natu- 
rally deficient in lime; and it is important to 
note, the author states, that in such casos the 
particular form in which lime should bo ap- 
plied can only be decided after an analysis of 
the soil. The system of Manuring Crops forms 
the subject of a separate chapter and the 
reader will derive interesting and useful in- 
formation by learning, first, what ingredients 
the various crops remove from the soil and how 
the ingredients essential to such crops can be 
most economically supplied. 


Particulars are given of the unit method of 
valuing fertilising materials which cannot fail 
to be useful to those making large purchases of 
special fertilisers. Mr. Hall has also some use- 
ful remarks in reference to semi-tropical crops, 
such as Tobacco, Sugar Cane, Tea and Cotton ; 
but he candidly admits thatit is very difficult 
to lay down any general rules for the manuring 
of such crops because the conditions of soil and 
climate are subject to extreme variations, so that 
entirely different methods of treatment have to 
be pursued in different countries. 


The book is provided with an excellent index, 
which is alwaysa great advantage when seeking 
information; it may be confidently predicted 
that every farmer or planter who obtains a copy 
will be greatly edified by a careful perusal, and 
will cortainly not regret its purchase, 


COTTON IN UGANDA. 


The cultivation of cotton in this Colony is 
spreading rapidly and will, it is expected, 
soon become a magnificent industry. This 
was the view of Mr. Dawe, of the Agricul- 
tural-Botanic Department, who was recently 
here, and is endorsed in the report of H. E. 
the Governor Sir H. Heskett Bell. The great 
want. would appear to be means of com- 
munication. According to the Governor every 


368 


peasant is willing to grow cotton on condition 
that heis not obliged to carry his crop on his 
head for more than a 2-days’ journey. Con- 
siderable crops of cotton are said to be left to 
rot owing to the difficulty of conveying them. 
H. E. tooks forward to the time when the dis- 
tressing system of human porterage will become 
a thing of the past and the natives of Uganda, 
ceasing to act as beasts of burden, will be ina 
position to turn their attention to the cultiva- 
ion of the soil. 


PRESERVING COPRA FROM MOULD. 


In answer toa query in the Journal of the 
Royal Society of Arts the following reply appears 
in the August 13th number :— 

Copra.—‘' Malay ” will be interested to hear 
that M Bybowski, Director of the Paris Colonial 
Gardens, has been conducting experiments in 
the preservation of copra from mould by means 
of sulphurous acid. Some samples so treated in 
1905 still show no signs of deterioration. In 
June last he made a further trial ona consign- 
ment of 3,000 coconuts imported from the 
Malay Archipelago. The nuts, after being cut 
in two, were exposed to the action of the sul. 
phurous gases by means of the Marot apparatus. 
The operation has been repeated on successive 
batches, and itnow seems to be proved that under 
the sterilising influence of this gas the original 
condition of thecopra is maintained.—H.M. 


GRASS AND FRUIT TREES:—ROUND 
GOCONUT PALMS, &c. 


We are indebted to Mr. John Hughes for the 
following useful reminder and information :— 
‘‘ The enclosed cutting is from a recent issue of 
the Field and may be useful for the Supplement 
to the Tropical Agriculturist. You remember 
asking me some years ago what my opinion was 
in reference to grass being allowed to grow 
between coconut trees, and I remember writing 
you that I considered grass had a bad influence 
as it seemed to smother the young rootlets of 
newly-planted trees. Since your query I have 
paid a visit to Homburg and the Rhine districts 
and noticed that orchards in Germany are not 
In grass a8 SO common in this country, but 
are always kept under cultivatiou—frequently 
potatoes being raised, at other times gooseberry 
or currant trees between the apple trees. The 
important point is to keep the ground under 
cultivation rather than allow grass to spring up 
and smother the roots of the fruit trees,” The 
extract from the Field is as follows :— 

HFFECTS OF GRASS ON Fruit TREES.—Notwith- 
standing all that has been said and written in 
condemnation of the practice of allowing grass 
to cover the soil right up to the stem of fruit 
trees, it has had very little effect, the number of 
young trees that are to be seen in all parts of 
the country fighting for very existence against 
grass being disheartening to those who would 
bring about a better state of things. Last week 
we saw a large orchard planted about eighteen 
months ago with standard fruit trees, every one 
of which not only bore evidences of semi-starva- 
tion, but looked sick almost beyond recovery. 
It did not need actual demonstration by experi- 


ment at Harpenden and Woburn to satisfy any» 


observant cultivator that grass was bad as a root 


The Supplement to the Tropical Agriculturist 


covering for young trees, Itis not a question of 
water at the root, for there has been more than 
enough rain this month to keep the soil satu- 
rated ; yet those trees that are grass covered are 
suffering where those in open soil are fat and 
well. We advise all who have fruit trees in grass 
to keep the surface of the soil for at least a yard 
from the stem quite free of grass and weeds. The 
turf should be removed at once, and if it is sliced 
off with a spade taking care that in doing it the 
stem is not bruised, the tree will certainly be 
benefited, When once the soil has been bared 
a boy with a hoe once a month or so will be able 
to keep grass and weeds from again getting pos- 
session. Not only is there a difference in the 
growth of the trees, but the fruit is better in 
quality and about 100 per cent more in quantity 
from trees that are on open soil compared with 
those on grass. 


TOBACCO-GROWINGIN TRINCOMALEE 
DISTRICT: APROMISING EXPERIMENT 


Weare glad to hear of asuccessful--or at any rate 
ver'y promising—tobacco experimentat Mr. G. N. 
Molesworth’sestate (Uppar) near Trincomalee. 
We under stand this planter, who with the late 
Col. Molesworth was fortunate in the land he sel- 
ected aud has added to good fortune enterprise 
of various kinds, has been growing tobacco 
experimentally over 20 acres during the past 
two or three years and has turned out excellent 
cigars. Specimens seen are of fine flavour— ap- 
proximating to good Indian—and enly require to 
be made of even colour, and a little less tightly 
rolled, to command a good market. We hear, 
however, that already an offer of 18 shillings per 
100 (provided at least 25,000 such cigars were 
supplied) has been made from home. We do 
not know that any contract was made ; but we 
understand Mr. Molesworth has leaf stored now 
of two or three years’ growth, and extension of 
the area under tobacco—on the banks of the 
Mahaweliganga—will depend upon results. 


CULTIVATION IN SOUTH COORG. 


In recommending the growing of leguminous 
weeds in coffee, Mr Anstead, the new Scientific 
Officer, is reiterating the advice of other experts 
in the past. To Mr B Nelson, of Shencottah, 
belongs the credit of having introduced, Eryth- 
ring lithosperma, and having successfully grown 
coffee under it, the practice followed being to 
mulch the land with the loppings of the trees. 
Dr. Watt condemned this owing to the plant 
having in some localities favoured the multipli- 
cation of white mealy bug, and advocated the 
growing of Albizzia stipulata instead. Professor 
Herbert Wright, of rubber fame, favoured Mr 
Nelson’s practice. ‘‘Green manuring” has 
been carried out in a small way inthe District 
and has been found especially beneficial in rai- 
sing supplies in bare places. : 

Though black bug occurs infrequently in 
these parts, it is matter for congratulation that 
the Pulney scale insect has not yet mate an 
incursion into the district. Black bug usually 
attacks shade trees and subsequently the coffee 
under them. As the bug usually recurs on the 
same tree, season after season, the best policy 
would seem to be to cut it down and destroy it 
with fire.—M. Mail, Aug. 31. 


and Magazine of the Ceylon Agricultural Society. 


SWAMP CULTIVATION. 


SOME EXPERIMENTS IN 8S. INDIA. 


The marshes or deltas of the Irawadi in Bur- 
ma, of the Brahmaputra and Ganges in Bengal, 
of the Godavery and Kistna and Cauvery on the 
Hast Coast of India, and of the small and large 
streams on the West Coast, give employment 
and food to mauy millions of the inhabitants of 
India, and they also bring great wealth to the 
country, because the riceand jute and other pro- 
ducts of the marshes are exported. [tis no exag- 
geration to say that the cultivation of swamps is 
the most important and the most remunerative 
work in the country. Iam afraid, however, that 
other lands have realised this fact better than 
India. Scientific cultivation of swamp lands is 
still in its infancy in this great country. Egypt 
has been for thousands of years one of the 
world’s great granaries,. because from an early 
stage of her history thefellaheen or ryots of the 
country have used the waters of the Nile for their 
protected fields and have thus turned swamps 
into gardens. What has been done in Egypt can 
be done in India by co-operative effort. 


Perhaps nowhere else in the world have such 
wonderful results in the cultivation of swamp 
lands been achieved as in the deltas and adjoi- 
ning lands cf the Elbe, the Weser and the Rhine, 
orin Schleswig- Holstein, Frisia and Holland. ... 
India has not such high tides to contend with as 
the residents of German marshes, Yet, so far 
as I am aware, there is 


NOT ONE SINGLE SLUICE CONTROLLING 
DRAINAGE WATERS 


of the many marshes of India. By the way a 
scientist gave me some unique information about 
the massive Holstein cattle, among which there 
are the best milching cows in the world, some 
cows yielding 65 to 70 quarts of milk a day. 
Holstein cattle have large black patches, vary- 
ing with white spots all over their satinlike 
skin. I asked my scientific friend whence these 
beautiful white spots are derived. He replied 
that ages ago some herdsmen from India sought 
to improve their stock. After years of wandering, 
they reached Holland and Holstein. The black 
herds that they saw there pleased them, and so 
by interbreeding the white cattle of India with 
the black Holstein cattle a new breed of cattle 
was produced—the Holstein breed. Indian cat- 
tle even now are sent to other lands for breeding 
urposes. Why may not the same thing have 
een done ages ago ? 


THE 


Missionaries, asa rule, are very keen on im- 
proving the condition of the people among whom 
they live. A book might be written on the mate- 
rial benefits conferred on India by them. I need 
only allude to the great industries of the Basel 
Mission. Ever since I first came to India, nearly 
twenty-eight years ago, I have tried to do some- 
thing to improve the condition of the poor and 
needy. Whilea Missionary in Kurnool, more 
than fitteen ree ago, I introduced there the 
weaving of a finer and _ more artistic pattern of 
the Kurnool rugs. By this. means the poor 
weavers could earn better wages, and that in- 
dustry continues to this day. Up inthe Kistna, 


47 


369 


Guntur and part of the Nellore Districts mil- 
lions of palmyra palms grow. The people always 
used the old leaf-stalks. for fuel, and were not 
aware that they were virtually burning money. 
By the kind help of a German businessman of 
Madras, I was enabled to introduce 


THE PALMYRA FIBRE INDUSTRY 


into these districts, and the poor people in 
their villages on the sand dunes along the coast 
have earned lakhs of rupees during the past 
eight years, and the fibre industry has became 
an established industry in this part of India, 
with headquarters at Coconada, 


Some four or five yearsago, when Nir James 
Thomson was Acting Governor of Madras, Lord 
Ampthill being the Acting Viceroy, it was my 
privilege to visit Sir James and talk with him 
about the present Guntur District. I had 
known Sir James when he was a popular Sub- 
Collector in Guntur in 1882. During our cone 
versation I told him about the 


RICH EXTENSIVE BAPATLA SWAMP, 


nearly twenty miles long and from two to 
five miles wide. I asked him why Govern- 
ment did not make that swamp _ product- 
ive. His Excellency replied that India could 
not spend so many millions on agricul- 
tural, improvement as America does. Then 
he asked me how I would improve the swamp. 
I said that the way of success lies in proper 
drainage works and in diking. This conver- 
sation led His Excellency to propose to me that 
I should try, on a small scale, what can be done 
in swamp cultivation. I agreed to make 


AN EXPERIMENT ON A FIVE-ACRE PLOT. 


One of the lowest spots of the swamp was 
chosen for the experiment by the D, P. W. 
Engineer. I diked the same, Government 
paying the cost, which was less than R300. 
Many prophesied that I would fail, for they 
said:—‘‘You have only turned the five acres 
into a tank and youcan never raise acrop.” I 
felt sure that the experiment would succeed. 
After planting the plot, heavy rains in the 
uplands brought floods of water into the swamp, 
and the same was turned into a large lake. The 
growing crops on thousands of acres were badly 
damaged or wholly destroyed, while my dikes 
kept out the waters and my crop was saved. 
Later in the year the conditions were reversed. 
There was a drought. The water in the Kistna 
River was insufficient to fill the canals and 
many crops were in a poor state and all were 
badly damaged for lack of water. We had 
plenty of water stored in the ditches around 
our field, and, by lifting this water into our 
field, we always had enough water for the 
growing crop. It will be tiresome to enumerate 
all the experiences of that year. Suttice it to 
say that we reaped the best rice crop grown that 
year near Bapatla. Drought had so injured the 
crops on even the best of fields that the straw 
of those fields was stunted in growth, while mine 
was long and the heads were full of fine grain. 
Everybody wondered that it was possible to 
do such successful farming under such adverse 
circumstances, 


Success made me venturesome, and I now 
asked to be permitted to try the experiment 


370 


ON A LARGE SCALE. 


Fifty acres were again set apart for the experi- 
ment, but unfortunately I fell ill and had to go 
on leave. Yet my Jlcoum tenens cultivated 
the land. We found that by protective works 
of a primitive kind we could get double the 
harvest that other ryots reaped. Our experi- 
ment was keenly watched by the ryots, and now 
there are thousands of applications for lands in 
the Kutcherry, and the question is how are 
Government going to satisfy all the thousands 
who are anxious to get swamp land for cultiva- 
tion. Village officials tell me that since I began 
my experiment the 


INCREASE IN REVENUE PAID TO GOVERNMENT 


in three villages alone is about R12,000 a year. 
There is no reason in the world why the increase 
in revenue from this swamp should not be over 
Rl lakh when the D.P.W, finish the protective 
and drainage works that are all ready now to be 
taken in hand. But even when these public 
works are finished, yet it will be 


WISE FOR THE RYOTS TO DIKE THEIR LANDS, 
for the following reasons :— 


(a) Dikes are the best foncesin the swamp, and 
on the dikes much can be grown that will be 
valuable. Unless the lands are protected the cows 
and buffaloes, but especially the sheep, will be 
driven on to the lands and eat away any green 
shoot they find, I have had more than one 
crop thus destroyed. Dikes will enable the 
ryot to reap at least two crops from his field 
every year, while without dikes he will find it 
very difficult to get even one good crop ; 


(b) then the ditches solve the question of drain- 
age ofthe field. Inswamps there is great danger 
of zoudu, or salt, destroying the soil, because 
this dangerous salt rises to. the surface where 
there is stagnant water on the fields. The 
ditches also contain enough water to supple- 
ment the supply from the irrigation channels 
in time of drought. 


THE LESSONS LEARNED 


by my experiments so far in swamp cultivation 
have been first that swampscan be successfully 
cultivated if dikes are built, and any ryot can 
dig these dikes because the costis not prohibi- 
tive. Then the ditches offer the only solution of 
successful drainage, even if Government should 
dig large drainage channels. ‘Thirdly, the water 
inthe swamp oughtto be kept inthe ditches as 
much as possible, for water is too valuable to 
waste on this land. Onlysurplus flood water 
ought to be permitted to flow away Sluices 
ought, therefore, to be placed in the drainage 
channels. Again, the ryots need object les- 
sons in cultivation more than anything else. 
When it is demonstrated to them, in their own 
fields, that one can grow two blades of grass 
where now, with difficulty, only one blade grows, 
he sees how advantageous scientific cultivation 
of the soil is, and he will imitate the teacher who 
has given him a practical lesson in agriculture, 
The ryot is not so conservative that he is not 
willing tolearn. He is only too willing to go 
ahead, only he first of all wants to be sure that 
he is right. 


The Supplement to the Tropical Agriculturist 


My experiments in swamp cultivation could 
never have been so successful; in spite of many 
failures, if I had nothad the sympathetic help of 
Governme ''t.... India today is ripe for arev lution 
in agriculture....... This revolution has changed 
farming in Germany, Australia, and especially 
in America, The revolution so much to be de- 
sired in India is co-operation in agriculture. At 
present Iam only waiting for Government to 
approveof my plans. Then I shall form the 
Bapatla Co-operative Agriculture Association, 
a co-operative Association that will demonstrate 
that by the cordial co operation of brain and 
brawn wealth can be produced. 


Gro. N THoMsSEN, - 
—M, Mail, Aug. 20. 


THE OTHER NEW RUBBER 
COAGULANT. 


Discovery oF GREAT COMMERCIAL INTEREST. 


The publicity given to the discovery made 
by Mr O Aubrey Elias, F.c.s., of a chemical 
re-agent which will quickly and effectually 
coagulate rubber milk without imparting any 
deleterious effect to the finished product, has 
aroused considerable interest in scientific circles. 


Mr C T Gardner, dispenser at the Miller 
General Hospital, Greenwich, who has given to 
the public the result of his analysis of speci- 
mens of rubber treated under the new process 
said the standard of rubber qualities was fine 
Para hard cured, which consisted principally 
of caoutchouc, a substance bearing the chemical 
empirical formula (C10 H16)n, with about 1°3 
per cent of resin, a little water—say, about 0°75 
per cent—from 3 to 4 per cent of proteid, and 
yielding from 0:2 to 1 per cent ofash. There 
was also colouring matter present and some- 
times foreign impurities. Inferior rubbers 
might contain as Jow as50 percent of caoutchouc. 
The presence of proteid matter in the latex 
might be shown by a very pretty test known as 
the xanthoproteic reaction. In this test nitric 
acid was added to the latex, and the liquid was 
boiled, when it turned yellow, the change in 
colour being due to the formation of xantho- 
proteic acid. Ammonia added to the fluid 
caused it to become arich orange. Rubber con- 
taining proteid, when diffused in chloroform, 
left an insoluble coagulum, varying in amount 
according to the quantity present; in other 
words the proteids were non-diffusible. Those 
proteids were highly complex bodies, which in 
the tree were built up from the simple chemical 
compounds acting as nutritive material to the 
tree. The particular kind of proteid in the 
latices of rubber-producing plants was an 
albumen coagulable by heat at 70 degrees. The 
coagulant invented by Mr Elias seemed to prac- 
tically, if not altogether, eliminate the un- 
desirable proteid. ‘‘ For this reason,” added 
Mr Gardner, ‘‘I believe this coagulant will 
produce a revolutionary effect on the rubber 


_world.”—Financial Times, Sept. 3, 


and Magazine uf the Ceylon Agricultural Society. 


PLANTING NOTES FROM PORTU- 
GUESE WEST AFRICA. 


By Ligvr.-Coz, J..A. WYLLIE, F.R.G.S. 


I. 
Cacao, &c, In ST. THOME AND PRINCIPE. 
St. Thomé, Portuguese West Africa, July 22, 


Drak Srr,—When passing through Colombo 
two or three months ago, I promised to send 
you some notes on the Rubber Exhibition at 
Para, whither I wasthen bound. But as that 
Exhibition has not yet opened, and may not 
open for some months to come, perhaps it may 
interest you and your readers to have instead a 
few particulars of these comparatively unknown 
islands, where I am passing tho time until I 
can receive from Para definite information as 
to the opening of the Rubber Show there, 

. Since Sir Richard Burton, many years ago, 
ublished his ‘“‘Glimpses of Feverland’, very 
Tittle has appeared in English about the Portu- 
guese and Spanish island colonies in the Gulf of 
Guinea. Recent events, however, in which I 
regret to say certain Britons (or Americans?) 
have played apart where hysteria usurps the 
functions on sane judgment, have drawn atten- 
tion to the unsuspected existence and the re- 
markable prosperity of a colony which is not a 
British but a Portuguese possession. This dis- 
covery indicated something irregular, improper, 
contrary to the order of Nature, something that 
required looking-into ; to account for it there 
must bea screw loose somewhere ! Accordingly 
the busybodies whose self-imposed task it is 
to pry intoother people’s affairs—desfacedores 
de entuertos, as good old Cervantes called them 
in their great prototype Don Quixote, soon 
furnished the enquiring British public (who 
had not as a matter of fact troubled to enquire 
at all) with a cut-and-dried solution. : 

Apparently, judging from questions asked in 
Parliament and out of it, the humanitarian 
creed seems to assume that Great Britain has 
not merely a right to censure a foreign power in 
respect of arrangements concerning her internal 
colonial administration alone, but a duty to en- 
force upon her the ill-thought-out ideas of this 
noisy school of faddists. Up to this stage, it is 
the Portuguese islands of St. Thome and Prin- 
cipe which have been 

SINGLED OUT FOR HOSTILE CRITICISM, 
their carefully organised system of inden- 
tured labour being denounced as a Modern 
Slavery, Tho Spanish colony of Fernando Po, 
forming one of the same group of islands, and 
furnishing likewise its quota of cacao to the 
world’s markets, has for the present escaped 
attention. Its turn may come; but so far no 
marked inclination to tackle the German Em- 
pire on the subject of labour in the adjacent 
colony of Kamerun, also a cacao-producing 
area, has been displayed. And, still more re- 
markable, the really justifiable outburst of in- 
dignation against the methods of the Belgian 
Congo has evaporated, leaving matters much as 
they were. Poor little Portugal alone has to 
stand up as an Aunt Sally to furnish a mark for 
the missiles being heaved at her, All this 
might be amusing enough, to those not directly 


371 


interested in the case; but in point of fact it 
does concern Ceylon and Malaya, for this year 
or next their turn may come, and their labour 
system, which has many features of resem- 
blance to that of the Portuguese island colo- 
nies, may be cited to justify its existence 
BEFORE THE HUMANITABIAN TRIBUNALS. 

A glance at the map will show the posi- 
tion of the islands. The equator passes be- 
tween the southern most of the group, the 
Ilha das Rolas, so-called from the numbers 
of wild pigeons on it, and the principal 
island—St. Thome itself—an island contai- 
ning an area of about 612 square miles, its 
greatest length from North to South being 33 
miles, and its breadth 21. Seventy-five miles 
to the North of St, Thome lies Principe, less 
than half the size, and about as far again to the 
North the Spanish possession of Fernando Po, 
half-way from Principe to the mouth of the 
Niger. To the East, on the nearest mainland, 
lies the German colony of Kamarun. 

The scenery of the islands is of singular 
beauty, the almost land-locked bay of Saé Ant- 
onio de Principe, the first port reached on the 
southward-bound voyage after leaving Cape 
Verde, remiuding one strikingly of many points 
inthe Mergui Archipelago or of the anchorage 
at Port Blair in the Andamans. Forest vege- 
tation to the water’s edge, the steep hill-sides 
covered with cacao plantations interspersed 
with the naked trunks of huge primeval trees 
known locally as 

AMOREIRA AND AZEITONA 
(fanciful names given to- giant growths very dis- 
tantly resembling the little European trees to 
which these designations by right belong), with 
here and there the familiar forms of the jak, man- 
go, tamarind, and bread-fruit tree, grown partly 
as shade for the cacao, partly for food for the 
labourers. On the little spurs and underfeatures 
of the hills stand forth the houses of the roceiros 
or planters, artistically coloured pink, or blue 
picked out in white, so as to recall memories of 
Lisbon to their residents in exile, for every true 
Portuguese colonist, as Sir Richard Burton re- 
marks, all the world over tries to make his new 
abode resemble Lisbon, The rooting of these 
chalets, however, is almost invariably composed 
of the pattern of tiling kaown to us in India as 
Mangalore tile, and forthe moment creates the 
illusion that one has never left India after all. 

Nothing could be more striking than the 
contrast between these islands and those of the 
Cape Verde group, at two or three of which the 
steamers of the Empreza Nacional de Nave- 
gacdo touch on their way south. This line, | 
inay mention in passing, is practically the only 
one (thanks to a misguided ultra-protective 
tariff—of which it is to be hoped Portugal will 
repent before she kills off the sickliest of her 
colonies and cripples the stronger ones) which 
carries passengers and freight to these ports. 
Travelling by it, one has facilities for noting the 
great diversity of character of the various colo- 
nies not only in aspect but aiso 'as regards soil, 
vegetation, and population. 

ST, VINCENT, FOR INSTANCE, IS A BARE DESERT 

ISLAND, 
owing its sole importance tu its position as a coal- 
ing station and a centre of junction for the vari- 


372 


ous submarine cables, its European inhabitants 
being largely English in consequence. A mostun- 
inviting spot, and would be worse were it not 
for a few artesian wells which have enabled oases 
of market gardening to be created here and 
there to give a touch of colour to the pervading 
brownness of the place. The very drinking water 
has to be brought by steamer from the neigh- 
bouring 
ISLAND OF 8T. ANTON 

an island which some day or other will become a 
formidable rival to Madeira, possessing asit does a 
marvellous climate and afertile soil, with bound- 
less possibilities in the making ofa health and 
pleasure resort. S. Thiago, a night’s journey 
further south, has a more fertile soil, and a very 
similar climate. In fact, one of the things that 
strikes a new arrival from India is the extreme 
temperateness of the sun’s rays, although the 
latitude of these islands is somewhat the same 
as that of Goa. Even in St. Thome and Principe 
it is hard to realise, as far as sensations go, that 
one isin the tropics at all. Praia, the chief 
town of St. Thiago, stands high on a ridge with 
precipitous sides, falling down to valleys low 
and irrigated, rich in tropical cultivation. These 
valleys, however, are comparatively limited 
in extent, and as the phenomenon of ‘the 
marvellous fecundity of the half-starved” is 
painfully evident here, the foodstuffs produced 
are not sufficient for the mouths that have to be 
fed. The main export of the island is the 
purgeira, the weedy hedge-plant we have in 
India and Burma—jatropia curcas is its botani- 
cal name. Its seeds have a certain market 
vaiue, but I should fancy a low one. The town 
of Praia is well-paved, and regularly laid out. 
It is clean on the whole, but though windswept 
and cool, it has an unenviable reputation for 
bilious remittent fever. Famines are of frequent 
occurrence, the rainfall being uncertain. The 
dress both of the men and the women is semi- 
Eu opean, likewise their housing and mode of 
living onthe Portuguese model. But they do 
not iook as if they got enough to eat, and those 
who know them best tell me this is exactly so. 

This suggests a digression which will bring 
me round presently to the story of 

ST, THOME AND ITS LABOUR SUPPLY, 

On my arrival at Lisbon from Burma I was infor- 
med by frien:is connected with St. Thomé that the 
Great-British Humanitarian was again on the war 
path, scalping knifein hand. A copy or extract 
of a letter from the Lisbon correspondert of the 
Times, pudlished some time early in June, was 
shown me. Its tone was fair and moderate 
throughout, but it closed with the somewhat 
ominous remark that Mr. W. H. Nevinson 
meant to stick to his guns ; and in the Times of 
June 5th had renewed his charges of slavery 
against Portugal. I could do nothing in Lisbon, 
but agree to go to St. Thomé and see what could 
be done there, 1 havenot yet obtained a copy 
of the issue referred to, but that does not now 
matter, for the Lisbon Novidades of June 7th, 
received soon after my arrival here, has a para- 
graph quoted from the Zimes of the 5th idem, 
to the effect that a gang of ‘‘slaves” had 
just beon landed at. St. Thomé in chains 
and sold by public auction to the highest bid- 
der! his evidently was the substance of Mr 
Neyinson’s accusation, To anyone acquainted 


The Supplement to the Tropical Agriculturist 


with the indentured labour system, the impos- 
sibility of the sale by ‘auction; at least,’ was 
patent. As to the landing of the men in chains, 
it was not absolutely ineredible, for they might 
have been an unruly lot on board, but it certainly 
did not tally with my own experience of the 
methods of the emigration agents nor of the 
Empreza Nacional. JI had travelled all the way 
from Lisbon with a consignment of prisoners 
on board—men sentenced to transportaticn and 
being conveyed to St. Paul de Loanda to un- 
dergo their sentences. I am told these men 
were brought on board manacled at Lisbon (and 
rightly so); but. when they first attracted my 
attention, they were absolutely free, and were 
entertaining themselves, dancing to the music 
of a guitar which one of their number was 
playing. Moreover, at Praia de St. Thiago I 
made ita point to visit the emigration agency 
and (with permission freely accorded me) to 
inspect the contract-deeds and _ subsidiary 
vouchers of 
A GANG OF MEN AND WOMEN 


just then being engaged for work on Principe—a 
much worse island, by the way, than St. Thome 
itself, being badly stricken with sleeping sick- 
ness, from which St. Thome is free, the glos- 
sina palpalis being abundant in the former and 
absent from the latter island, 


A CHOICE BETWEEN DYING OF STARVATION AND 
LIVING IN A BAD CLIMATE. 


Not only were the papers ofthese peoplé in 
perfect order according to the Portuguese Code, 
which isan admirable one in all details, but the 
people themselves were quite accessible. They 
travelled by the same ship as I did, and when 
next morning one of their number, taking me 
for the ship’s Doctor, stepped on deck leading 
a young negress by the hand and asked me 
to. prescribe for her as she had a bad pain in 
her inside, I passed her on the surgeon and 
engaged the man and several others of the 
gang who had crowded round in conversation 
about their agreement. They fully grasped 
the situation. Asked if they were aware than 
probably not more than half of them would 
ever return to Cape Verde, they asked by way 
of reply what would happen to them if they 
stayed at home and did not go to Principe, 
It was a choice between dying there of star- 
vation, and living a few years in a bad climate, 
but well paid, well fed and well treated, with a 
fair chance of return after all. Needless to say, 
when that party went ashore, they did so as 
free men, and in good spirits.as any one could 
well be. I landed there too, but found that 
the Governor was too ill to receive visitors, and 
as the place was dismal and uninviting—a half- 
ruined town built on a swampy site the solid 
crust of which was so thin that the land-crabs 
breaking through it on the roadsides threw up 
small volcanoes of watery mud from a depth of 
perhaps six inches at the outside—a shower of 
the chin watery rain the islanders in their cur- 
ious hybrid dialect of Spanish-French founded 
ov Portuguese call leche de voador (flying fish milk 
—the resemblance being to the spray dropped 
from the fish as it takes its first fight from 
the water) decided me to return to the ship'as 
soon a8 I had exhausted my supply of films for 
my Kodak, | ; 


and Magazine of the Ceylon Agricullural Society. 


MR, NEVINSON’S ACCUSATION. 

Shortly after my arrival at 'St.'Thomé I called 
on the Governor of the Colony, Senhor Vieyra 
de Fonseca, a naval officer of long service on 
the African coast, with a’ distinguished record 
of civil work in addition. We discussed the 
paragraph containing Mr. Nevinson’s | accusa- 
tion, and he gave me full permission, when 
writing to The Times on the subject, to contra- 
dict the story on his ‘authority, using his name. 
Never in modern times had any indentured 
labourer been landed in irons at this port, nor 
had anything resembling a sale of slaves by auc- 
tion taken place. Outside Government House I 
made further enquiries, but the nearest approach 
to a clue [ got was’ from one of the principal 
shipping agents in the town, who told me that a 
Scotch fienginebi=ausily identifiable, but whose 
name he could not then give me—employed on 
board a vessel recently in harbour, had been 
boasting that, to “draw” ‘his friend Nevinson 
and test the limits of hiscredulity, he had com- 
posed the story out.of his:own head and posted 
it from St. Thomé. The story contained much 
more harrowing details, earscut off and a variety 
of mutilations, but these .seem to have been 
rejected as a bit too strong for the public to 
accept. Let us hope that this is the explanation, 
and that jokes of this kind will not be repea- 
ted, for they do a lot of harm before they can 
be exposed. 

‘“A MODERN SLAVERY.” 

I only know Mr Nevinson through his writings 
and his speeches to the seditionists of India, 
made during his tour in that country a couple 
of years ago. These in themselves write him 
down a luminary of that school of thought (or 
rather of thoughtlessness) that for want of a 
better name one might style the Neo-Anarchist 
school, a sect comprising our Keir Hardies, our 
Rutherfords, and several more of the same 
kidney whom I need not mention. Kind- 
hearted mild-mannered men in private life, 
who neither handle high explosives themselves, 
nor actually counsel others to do so, but who 
expound a doctrine —the practical expression of 
which is the bomb and the revolver, ‘* Anar- 
chist,” in fact, is what Mr Nevinson in his 
interesting but somewhat misguided and too 
often malicious book ‘'A Modern Slavery” 
claims himself to be ;so he can hardly quarrel 
with the designation. Should he challenge it, 
here are a few samples of his creed :— 

“‘Kingland can no longer be regarded as the champion 
ot liberty or justice among mankind ...1If she spoke of 
liberty, the nations would listen with a polished smile 
(Modern Slavery, 1906, p. 208).” 

“Rebellion is always good. It always implies an un- 
endurable wrong Itisthe only shock that ever stirs the 
self-complaceiucy of officials (Op. Cit., p. 115).” 

“‘ Chis” (apropos the Spanish Government sending back 
Some servicaes to Principe from Fernando Po) “is one of 
the eninge which makes us all anarchists ”. .‘‘ wherever 
you touch Government, you seem to touch: the devil (p.201).’ 

“Slavery is not a matter of discomfort or ill-treatment, 
hut of loss of liberty. .it might be better for mankind that 


the islands should pet back to wilderness than that a single 
‘slave ’should toil there ” (p,210), 


Teachings of this order simply 
REDUCE HUMANENESS TO AN ABSURDITY, 

The so-called ‘‘slave,” te. the indentured 
labourer, works for a wage and is paid in 
food and clothing as well as—gets, in fact, 
better terms in St. Thomé and Principe than 
—he does in Ceylon and Burma; and the 


373 


planter has a right to look to Government 
or to the tribunals to support him in his claim 
that the labourer: shall fulfil his part of the 
contract as faithfully as the planter does his, 
In India or Burma, and I presume in Ceylon 
as well, though I have: not here access to any 
Ceylon legislation, a labourer under an advance 
who runs away without working it out can be 
by law, and constantly is, captured on a warrant 
and given the option of going to jail or returning 
to his master to work under him till the con- 
tract is up. J know that in Ceylon at least this 
provision extends to the case: of even domestic 
servants, for I noted a case of the kind when 
passing through Colombo this year, Now if to 
please the neo-anarchist, arrangements that 
have been legal and useful in operation for fully 
fifty years (Act XIII of 1859 is the Indian law 
on the subject) are to be upset and the planter 
left to the caprices of beings in a rudimentary 
state of civilisation, it is about time tosound a 
note of alarm, so thatall who bear the white 
man’s burden may rally to the common cause ; 
for anarchism is of no single nation. 

I have dwelt, I fear, too long on the political 
aspect of the ee and have thus left myself 
no space for discussing the various interesting 


PROBLEMS CONNECTED WITH THE AGRICULTURE, 


of the islands. In another letter I hope to give 
you some particulars as to the staple product, 
cacao, and the prospects of various subsidiary 
cultures such as rubber, fibre, coffee, &c., all 
of which are being tried on a minor but fairly 
effective scale ; and to add a few notes on the 
climate and soil as well as the life, Huropean 
and native, on the immense properties known as 
rocas—each roca comprising an area equal to 
half-a-dozen or more ordinary rubber planta- 
tions in your part of the world. 


TI. 

St. Thome, Portuguese West Africa, July 28. 

Dear Sir,—In my last letter I promised you 
some further notes upon the products, actual 
and possible, of this rich little colony, along 
with a few impressions of the life upon the 
rogas or plantations, and in the towns. But the 
field turns out wider than anticipated, so much 
so that a single letter cannot describe the whole 
ground, With your permission, however, I willtry 
to dispose of it in two or three letters, to follow. 

MaLARrIovus COLONIES. 

Both islands of the colony are highly mala- 
rious, at least on their seaboard and among the 
foothills of the fantastic pile of mountains for- 
ming the core of each. Ten or fifteen years ago 
the city of St. Thomé, a litter of packing cases 
and corrugated iron dumped down in a swamp, 
enjoyed the reputation, according to its own 
Health Officer, of being the deadliest town of its 
size in the world. Things have improved since 
then, but itis still true that neither here nor in 
S. Antonio de Principe can any white child born 
and bred in their town hope to reach the age of 
puberty. The West African Telegraph Co., whose 
cable station, a comfortable two storied bunga- 
low, standing on a wind-swept dune well away 
from the town of St. Thomé, is inhabited bya 
staff of three or four Englishmen (the only Bri- 
tishers in the island) find it, so [ am told, their 
sickliest post in'Western Africa, The stroets of 


374 The Supplement to the Tropical Agriculturist 


S. Thomé are now well-paved, and clean-swept 
daily, and an excellent pipe-water main has 
superseded the poisonous surface wells of former 
days; but though there is a fairly large European 
population, and many substantial houses of the 
Lisbon type, the tin shanty style of architecture 
still prevails—neat and regular everywhere, but 
quite inadequate to the needs of the white resi- 
dent in the tropics. The reason for it is to be 
found in the excessive 

DEARNESS OF LIVING AND THE DIFFIOULTY OF 

GETTING LABOUR 

for work such as the European cannot himself do. 

As one goes inland, one finds the climate 
improve, and the higher elevations are quite 
healthy—they would be positively bracing were 
it not for the atmospheric saturation due to 
forest growth plus the oceanic influences of wind 
and tide. At Trinidade, a small hillside town 
only 7 kilometres from the coast, I found a Eu- 
ropean priest, fresh and ruddy as if he had never 
left Portugal, who had been resident there for 
30 years without a change, and meant to end 
his days on the little property he had acquired, 
close by. The upper peaks of the inland cordil- 
lera are seldom visible from below, their cap of 
dense mist rarely lifting. Cultivation goes far 
up them, but cacao being the staple product of 
the islands, the rogas for the most part occupy 
the lower (and, therefore, sicklier) levels, the 
regions above 1,£00 feet ceasing to yield the bean 
in paying quantities. Here coffee takes its place, 
and a remarkably fine type of coffee it is, too. 
Portugal and its African colonies practically con- 
sume the whole output. Hevea and Castilloa, 
also Ficus Elastica (the latter with marvel-, 
lous vigour) grow throughout this zone. Higher 
up, coffee gives way to cinchona, and cinchona 
in its turn to 066 or primeval forest, a labyrinth 
of timber trees, laden with epiphytes and densely 
interwoven with creepers, the most notable of 
which are a stem-clasping Ficus known as lemba- 
lemba ard a Landolphia—the L. Dawei, yielding 
caoutchouc. Vestiges of this forest are to be 
found throughout the plantations below, the 
giant ocd (Eriodendron anfractuosum) and the 
equally colossal amoreira (chlorophora excelsa) 
being conspicuous in the cultivated area, 
the former by its huge buttressed trunk, 
naked and grey, with triple or quadruple 
crown tormed by horizontal tier upon tier 
of branches, the latter by its brownish cylin- 
drical column, towering some 80 or 90 feet in 
the air before throwing out a single branch. 
Beneath these, the 

CACAO, MANGO, AND BANANA 

plantations appear dwarfed to the proportions 
of an insignificant scrub jungle. The virgin 
forest runs up to the very tops of the mountains, 
except where these culminate, as they often do, 
in conical peaks or cliffs of basalt affording a 
foothold to patches of herbaceous vegetation 
alone. These basaltic monoliths are indeed a 
feature of the islands, Cown to the coast, one of 
them, known as (Cao Grande (‘‘ Big Dog”) rising 
sheer up to a height of 1,000 feet from its base ; 
asingle stone obelisk, higher than the Hiffel 
Tower ! Its pedestal alone stands nearly 1,000 feet 
from sea level. Thus the islands are rich both 
in quarrying stone and in timber, some of their 
woods being extremely valuable, while there is 
no lack of fuel, thanks in part to Nature, and 


also to the management of the upper forests by 
the proprietors, so far conserving unchanged, 
despite the claims of cultivation, the charact- 
eristics of the island soil and climate. 

Cacao-growing in these islands, complicated 
as the question is with that of labour (the coffee 
plantations, being mostly older, have their per- 
maner.t labour establishments of negroes born 
and bred on the estate, and being replenished 
by the children of these, they are independent 
of importations from the African Continent), 
would require a volume to itself, and I hope 
ere long to be in possession of sufficient data to 
do this aspect of it the justice it demands. For 
the present suffice it to say that the campaign 
against the Portuguese product, initiated or 
rather resuscitated by the sect of whose im- 
practicable doctrines Messrs Nevinson and 
Burt are the leading exponents, is reported to 
have had at least one unexpected and amusing 
effect. A prejudice against 


‘* SLAVE Cocoa” 


—a question-begging term extended later on to 
the chocolate confectionery of Messrs Cadbury as 
known buyers of 8. Thomé cacao—having been 
created, or alleged to exist, in the British 
public mind, that irm, for their own good name 
quite as much as for the protection of their 
industry, found themselves compelled to pass 
on to the planters of §. Thomé and Principe 
the pressure with which they were menaced. 
The Great British public, to quote George 
Eliot from memory, reserves to itself the 
utmost right of private haziness; and in all 
probability few of the good folk who caught up 
the cry of ‘‘a slave cocoa” could say where S. 
Thomé was, to whom it belonged, or what were 
the provisions of law said to sanction this 
‘* modern slavery.” But, slavery or no slavery, 
a healthy appetite can generally be trusted to 
hold its own against a sickly sentiment. The 
Great British palate had acquired a liking for 
the grateful and comforting beverage and the 
dainty sweet, into the composition of which the 
Portuguese bean so largely entered. No new 
cacao could quite give the accustomed flavour. 
So, Britain’s need being, as it ever was, Ger- 
many’s opportunity, our Teutonic cousins set to 
workto buy up the stock, and now the good 
old ‘‘ slave cocoa” goes to Hamburg, whence, 
labelled ‘‘madeiu Germany,” it is unloaded on 
the British market for the consumption of the 
conscientious objector. 

Be this as it may (I haveitfrom a Hamburg 
merchant now in 8. Thomé who presumably 
knows what he is talking about), the story is a 
digression from what I was about to tell you of 
cacao cultivation. To resume: 


THE VARIETY 
most commonly grown in the islands is that 
known locally as crioullo de S. Thomé--not to be 
confounded with the criollo of Trinidad and 
Venezuela, which has also been introduced, along 
with the purple and yellow forms of the forustera 
group. According to Aug. Chevalier, an- 
eminent French botanist whose monograph on 
West. African cacao is a standard work, the 
erioullo cacao of 8. Thomé exhibits capsules of 
both colours. The 8, Thomé planters, how- 
ever, say he is wrong on this point ; the original 
crioullo type of these islands, a fixed type, being 


and Magazine of the Ceylon Agricultural Society. 


The point is an interesting one, 
both botanically and etymologically. The 
Spanish term criollo, of which criou/lo and 
ereole are the Portuguesy and French-English 
variants, in the strict sense denotes an indivi- 
dual of pure white race—not mixed—born and 
bred in a tropical country, as distinguished 
on the one hand from the coloured man, 
and on the other from the non-domiciled 
foreigner—the forastero—of the same race. 
By extension to the vegetable kingdom, with 
application, in the special case in hand, to the 
cacao plant, criollo and forastero (and their cog- 
nate forms in Portuguese) serve to designate 
fully acclimatised and newly introduced vari- 
eties respectively. Butasacclimatisation, both 
in the animal and the vegetable kingdom, brings 
with it an assimilation to the indigenous type 
or at least to that already modified and ad- 
apted to its environment, the term forasétere in 
the course of a generation or two ceases to 
indicate more than a historical distinction. And 
this is specially true of cacao cultivation in S. 
Thomé. The history of its early introduction is 
a matter of dispute. It is quite certain that 
in 1822 a stock of cacao imported from Bahia, 
Brazil being then a Portuguese colony, was 
successfully raised on the Agua-Izé estates— 
to this day the most important property in the 
islands. Also that the crioullo de S. Thomé is 
the type universal onthe Gold Coast, in the 
French Congoand the German colony of Kame- 
run. It is equally certain that a consignment 
of forastero (in which term must be included 
the foreign criollo varieties of Trinidad and 
Venezuela) was received in this island in 1882— 
sixty years later than the first supply. Its 
succeeded perfectly, but is still undergoing the 
modification imposed by the law ofadaptation 
to environment. Chevalier, however, while ad- 
mitting all this, doubts the 1822 importation 
having been the source of the staple crioublo 
of the islands. He sets it much further back, 
and inclines to the belief that the plant was 
imported from the Spanish main in the 16th or 
17th century, acclimatised in Fernaudo Pé, and 
distributed thence to St. Thomé and Principe 
on the one hand, and to the African coast 
settlements aroundthe Gulf of Guiuea on the 
other. As to the so-called crioullo de S. Thomé, 
he not only maintains that it exists in the purple- 
capsuled variety as well as the yellow, but that 
the former isthe more resistent, the latter only 
forming 1-5th of the total visible on the trees 
planted atthe higher levels (about 700 metres 
above sea-level.) The planters’ reply to this 
is that M, Ohevalier has misinterpreted the 
phenomenon he describes. What he has seen 
is nota purple crioullo, but a purple forastero 
(which at those elevations is more resistent) 
in process of modification—at a stage when the 
shape of the capsule, but not yet its colour, 
has assimilated itself to that of the crioullo. 
Had he pursued this line of investigation at 
the lower elevations, he could hardly have 
failed to note the further process of adapt- 
ation to environment, as presented by trees 
bearing on the same stem fruits of all shades 
intermediate between purple and yellow, the 
tendency being to the extinction, more rapidly 
at lower (and more suitable) elevations, lessso at 


yellow alone. 


375 


higher, of the purple variety ; this being the 
final stage in the general assimilation of the 
more recent importations to the ostablished type. 


Peculiar to 8. Thomé and Principe, distinct 
both from the original criouwllo and the more 
recent fovastéros, is a cacao of unknown origin, 
which Chevalier, failing to discover any link 
between them and it, has raised to the rank of a 
species under the title 


THEOBROMA SPHAEROCARPA. 


This tree is very prolific, bearing a fruit of the 
shape colour and size of a Malta orange, but 
ribbed Jike any other. Popular name, cacao 
laranja. 1t does not seem to have been described 
elsewhere, The planters remember it as abundant 
for more than a quarter of a ceutury, but do not 
agree as to its value, some condemning it as 
likely to lower the standard of the island cacao, 
its bean being small and bitter. Senhor de 
Mendonea, proprietor of Boa Entrada, one of 
the larger estates in St. Thomé, tells me that all 
the trees he has of this species have sprung from 
the seeds of a single capsule, brought from 
Principe eighteen years ago; and the better he 
treated the seedlings the worse they repaid him, 
so that practically only those planted out in 
the jungle from the first and left entirely to 
nature gave any satisfactory results. Chevalier 
on the other hand notes with approval the 
opinion of those planters who hold that in good 
soil and with due care the crop can be vastly 
improved. But after an exhaustive examination 
of the bean, he concludes that though with 
pulp attached 1¢ accounts for from 23 per cent to 
27 per cent of the total weight of the capsule, 
its abundance does not make up for its smallness 
in size. He accordingly classifies it as a second 
grade cacao. 


Whatever the variety selected for reproduc- 
tion, the seeds are chosen with the utmost care, 
it being usual to set apart the most promising 
pods and to limit the heans for sowing to fifteen 
or twenty taken from the centre of the pod 
These are at once sown in rich soil previously 
prepared, generally in baskets in a nursery, 
but sometimes directly in the pits in situ. 
In either case the pits in the plantation have 
been dug months beforehand to a depth length 
and breadth of acubic metre at least, all pos- 
sible stones being removed, and the hole half 
filled with dead leaves and rotted capsules, 
to be covered later on with earth up to the 
level of the ground. Ifthe sowing is direct, 
as many as ten seeds may be placed in the 
same pit, or three seedlings if. the planting out 
is done from the nursery. The two or three 
best seedlings of the lot are, as a rule, left 
to spring up together, forming clumps the in- 
dividual trees of which are noted by Chevalier 
to be fully as vigorousas if planted out singly. 
The season of year selected for sowing is 
generally the beginning of the rains—October 
or November—but it has been proposed to 
gain a year in the growth by putting out the 
seedlings in dry weather, when the labourers 
are not so liable to be hustled by the heavy 
showers, andthe European supervisors to mala- 
rious influences, most prevalent at the com- 
mencement of the wet weather, 


376 


i DISTANCE FOR PLANTING. 

Theoretically, the trees are supposed to be 
planted at 3 or 4 metres apart, but practi- 
cally, even in the best European plantations, 
no serious attempt is made at alignment, 
while in the native plantations as many as five 
or six trees may be found standing on a single 
square metre. Thereason is obvious. The soil 
is full of boulders of all sizes aud where there 
are so large as to require explosives for their 
removal it is cheaper to let them remain and 
dig the pits in the nearest soft soil, Such 
stones as can be removed by hand are taken 
out and piled up elsewhere for use in road- 
making or as ballast for the lines of Decau- 
ville railway with which most plantations are 
provided. The Negro has even less concep- 
tion of a straight line or a right angle than 
the Tamil cooly, and even were it to be marked 
out for him, the mortality among the young 
plants and the undesirability of replanting on 
the exact site of a dead iree would in the 
course of two or three years destroy any sym- 
metry given tothe plantation at the outset. So 
things are left to rule of thumb in this respect. 


WEEDING. 

The weeding of the plantations is, how- 
ever, too important a matter to be left 
to Negro caprice. In the drier portions of the 
islands (for, small as they are, climatic vari- 
ations exist), all undergrowth is carefully 
cleaned up twice a year, and elsewhere not less 
than thrice. Apart from its value as a cultural 
operation, it is interesting to note how the 
Portuguese in the island of Principe have turned 
these repeated weedings to account in their 
defensive warfare against an insect pest much 
more formidable tothe planting community. 
European and African alike, than even its con- 
gener the pseudo-humanitarian microbe; to wit, 
the glossina palpalis or tse-tse fly—the agency 
by which the microbe of 

SLEEPING SICKNESS 
is transmitted to the human subject. This fly is 
unknown in S. Thomé, but has existed. in 
Principe longer than the memory of the oldest 
inhabitant—not, however, to the appalling ex- 
tent recorded in the African interior. Senhor 
Maldonado, managing director of one of the 
large properties in that island, havirg noticed 
that the Negroesattacked by the fly were almost 
invariably stung in the back and shoulders, the 
portions of the.body most exposed while stoo- 
ping to weed under the trees, set himself to 
study the case and puzzle out a remedy. He 
noticed that the fly madea practice of sheltering 
itself under the leaves of the cacao or banana, 
also that it showed a decided preference for 
dark-coloured objects, avoiding the white cloth- 
ing of the European as it avoided direct sun- 
light. Putting these facts together, Mr Mal- 
donado issued black cotton coats tohis men, and 
made them smear them outside with the sticky 
latex of various jungle creepers abundant in the 
island before putting them on. He ordered 
these garments to be worn throughout all ope- 
rations entailing the stooping attitude. The 
experiment was perfectly successful, large num- 
bers of the fly being thus destroyed.. When 
reported to the Board in Lisbon, its: value was 
at once recognised, and arrangements made for 


The Supplement to the Tropical Agriculturist 


its working on a large scale; record being made 
of the results. By the end of the year Mr 
Maldonado was able toreport 28.692 glossinas 
trapped and destroyed on his estate alone, while 
the neighbouring estates accounted for no less 
than 133,778 in the same period, The practice 
is now general throughout the islaud, and the 
Medical Commission of three specialis's at 
present engaged in the further study of the 
disease are able to record substantial progress 
in the prevention if notin the cure of this 
terrible malady. 

This note has, I regret to find, exceeded the 
limits I had set it, the enemies of the planter 
having overflowed into the space I had hoped 
to reserve for the enemies of the plant. My 
next must occupy itself with these, and then 
with the processes of harvesting and preparation 
for the market. 

(To be Concluded.) 


RUBBER LAND IN B.N. BORNEO. 


The Chief Government Surveyor in the course 
of a report on a visit to the West Coast in search 
of land suitable for rubber planting writes :— 

I also examined land directly behind Jesselton 
at a distance of say 2 miles, the greater part of 
which. distance has already a good road; this 
land is of a very open nature, being rough grass 
and scrub with very little real jungle, but is ex- 
cellentand, though somewhat cut up with swampy 
valleys, mostly drainable, would I think make 
a very excellent rubber estate of about 1,500 
acres ; its nearnessto Jesselton should ke a very 
great inducement to any small company to at 
once start operations.—B. N. B. Herald, Sept. 1. 


JAPANESE CAMPHOR EXPORTS. 


On Japanese Camphor Exports some interes- 
ting details are given by Paul Martell in Chem. 
Ind, (Berlin), from which it would appear that 
Germany, in consequence of her large celluloid 
industry, is the largest purchaser of this stear- 
optene. Thus, whereas the total exports of cam- 
phor from Formosa and Kobe in 1904 were 55,442 
piculs, Germany took 10,134 metric centners, 
value M.4,560,000; in 1905 were 45,277 piculs, 
Germany took 8,902 metric centners, value 
M. 5,786,000 ; in 1906 were 48,339 piculs, Germany 
took 8,829 metric centners, value M.7,206,000. 
After Germany follow, in. order of importance, 
the United States, India, England,. France. 
Japan’s production of celluloid (which product 
was formerly derived chiefly from Germany) has 
grown in importance since the founding of the 
Aboshi works by a syndicate of English, German 
and Japanese capitalists, and this will naturally 
influence the camphor market. In order to pro- 
tect the camphor monopoly, which had suffered 
from the fact that high prices of recent years 
had stimulated the development in synthetic 
processes, the Japanese Government has deter- 
mined to increase their productive capacity to 
the fullest extent. With this object in view they 
have had no fewer than 64 million camphor 
trees planted in Formosa and Shikoku. It must 
be remembered, however, that the trees have to 
reach the age of about 100 years before their 
camphor production becomes . important,—Bri- 
tish and Colonial Druggist, Sept. 3. 


and Magazine of the Ceylon Agricultural Society. 


NEW DISEASES OF RUBBER. 
ADDRESS BY THE GOVERNMENT MyYcoLoaist ; 
BEFORE THE KELANI VALLEY PLANTERS’ 
ASSOCIATION. 


The CHainMAN:—Gentlemen, [ have nowthe 
greatest pleasure in introducing MrPetch, who has 
kindly consented to come down and give a lecture 
on diseases of rubber trees. (Loud applause.) 

After a short interval for refreshments, Mr 
Petch began his lecture, during which quitea 
number of specimens of stem and root diseases 
were exhibited.and the liseases explained. 

Mr T Petcun—addressing the meeting, said : 
—Mr Chairman, and gentlemen,—I think the 
’ Secretary has sent round a circular, the latest 
one, on Hevea disease, *‘ pink disease,” of which 
you have got so many specimens in this room. It 
is distinguished by a pink coating on the outside 
of the bark. Whenitisthere it killsthe bark and 
ruins your tree. It becomes yellowish when 
old. That disease was called the “writing fungus” 
in the Straits because it breaks up into fragments 
like Sanskrit or something of that sort, If itis wet, 
it may be whiter than this ; it is fairly pink here, 
but it is nearly white on this side, (Specimen 
shown.) If you have any doubt when you see 
what you think is the fungus on your tree cut 
out the bark and send it for report. 

Mr Scorr :—Does it kill the tree ? 

Mr Percu :—It kills the bark of the tree; but 
if it rings the tree far enough, 

YHEN THE TREE DIES. 

If it comes on one side, it will not kill the tree, 
There is another case here (specimen shown) 
where it developed on one side of the branch. 
The other lateral branch is not dead, but above 
it it has died off. You will find the ‘ pink dis- 
ease” here below. Here is another specimen. 
It usually starts near the top of the tree so that 
if you cut off the diseased top the tree will go on 
growing. But in this case the disease has been 
allowed to come down the tree. This part below 
is quite sound, So thatif you cut off there, you 
will save the rest of the tree which will sprout 
from below. 

Mr, Bontor :—Is that the same disease you 
referred to before? 

Mr. PetcH:—Yes, The easiest name to re- 
member it by is ‘‘pink disease,” because there is 
a pink colour outside. The only additional fact 
beyond what has appeared in the circular is that 

THE DISEASE WILL GROW ON CROTALARIA, 

If you plant up Crotalaria in Rubber and let it 
grow for a year, or a year-and-a-half, you will 
then get more of the pink disease on the Crot- 
alaria than you would get it on your Rubber. 
In fact, your Crotalaria will serve as a source of 
disease for your Rubber. They are finding that 
out in South India, where they planted their 
plantations with Crotalaria and let it grow for 
nine months before it flowered and gota fairly 
good stem like this (shown.) The whole of the 
stem gets attacked in the South West Monsoon 
with this disease and from that Crotalaria it 
spreads to the rubber. In some places in South 
India they have Rubber two years old in the 
field and as soon as it is of that age it is attacked 
by the ‘‘ pink disease,” In some of their fields 
at present they cannot get a stem more than 
two years old, 


48 


Mr Duncan :—Do you get it from the jungle ? 

Mr Percy :—You will find most of the spores 
blown out of the jungle. ‘The disease flourishes 
most in wet weather, and during that time the 
spores are blown out from the jungle and infect 
your trees. Now we will leave that disease and 
goon to the next, about which nothing has 
been written yet—the chief disease which is 
awaiting a circular, which we hope to get out 
in a week or two, and that is what is known as 


THE ‘‘ DIE BACK” DISEASE. 


The trees usually attacked are about two years 
old but this year itis found on trees from four 
to nine years of age. The name supplies you 
with the nature of the disease—the branches 
attacked ‘-die back” from the top shoot and 
the disease works itself down to the base, Un- 
fortunately that does not distinguish it from 
anything else. Your leading shoot may die back 
from many causes apart from the disease, as 
for instance, wind, damage by rain, shade, or 
over-tapping. If you get the root disease, too, the 
tree dies back. The chief feature in the ‘‘die 
back” disease is that the top shoot dies back while 
the rest of the tree is green. In the case of 
root disease generally the tree dies back all 
through atthe same time, Then in the case of 
leaf disease generally the leaves fall all over the 
tree; but in the case of the “die back” disease 
you get it from the top shoot which gradually 
dies off—and if it is not cut off, and the disease 
checked, the dying off process continues and the 
section just below succumbs next. If you cut it 
off below, the rest of the tree will flourish, but 
if you neglect to do so the tree will further die 
back till the disease reaches the base and the 
tree is killed out-right. (Position demonstrated 
on black-board.) You have practically to watch 
it going on, Of course 


YOU CAN CUT IT OFF 


if you see the top shoot attacked. Here we have 
an example (shown) where the tree has died 
back to a certain stage below which you get 
fresh shoots. flere is another case where the 
disease has gone right down the stem to the 
base, while three branches at the top are green. 
The disease may come straight down the stem 
and leave some branches near the top green. In 
this caseitis dead low, Youcan get the whole tree 
killed ina month. (Laughter and cries of “Oh oh,”’) 
You may confuseit with root disease or general leaf 
fall, but in those cases the tree will not be green, 
while in the case of the pink disease referred to, it 
will show itself in colour, Itisa simple thing to 
determine. Remove the earth from the base of the 
tree and you will see, if the top dies and you 
are not sure, whether it is the root disease. I[f 
any fresh shoots ariseit is ‘‘die back” disease, but 
if they do not, if is root disease. If you lop 
off the trees that die back they will thrive with- 
out any ill effect. This is the first stage, the 
beginning of the ‘die back ” (specimen shown). 
The shoot turns brown and soft; and here, a 
later stage, it becomes hard and grey. ‘Lhe fun- 
gus, however, does not attack the stem in 
which the wood is already formed. Butafterthe 
death of the leading shoot another fungus 
secures a footing and carries on the destruction 
right to the base of the tree, and the tree is 
killed off. The 


378 The Supplement to the Tropical Agriculturist 


CHIEF OF THESE SECONDARY FUNGI 


forms black patches on the bark of Hevea. If 
you cut down a tree and leave it for a week or 
so, it gets covered with this fungus. In the case 
of the branch killed by ‘‘ die back” this black 
fungus (Diplodia) settles down and kills the rest 
of thetree. That makes it difficult to tell when 
you send us the top ofa tree, all the way to 
Peradeniya, whether it had died of ‘‘ die back” 
or root disease, as it gets affected with this 
secondary growth of fungi. Ifyoudo not send 
the whole tree, it is practically impossible to tell 
what disease has affected any particular portion 
because by the time the branch or section gets 
to Peradeniya it has got a host of Diplodia. You 
will find that between the bark and wood is 
black as coal. If you scrape the bark a little, 
you will find black spots which are full of 
spores. The best way to deal with ‘‘die back” 
is to cut off the branch before the tree is killed 
right off to the base. ‘The dead top and green 
lower branches are absolutely distinctive. There 
has been rather an outcry in other districts, not 
much in the Kelani Valley, that all the trees are 
dying back. In August-September they all 
wondered, in the Kalutara and other districts, 
at the 


LEAVES COMING OFF THE TREES, 


Mr. Duncan:—You mean, to say that the 
trees get bare ? 


Mr. PrrcuH:—In some cases they get abso- 
lutely bare. In some cases the leaves have 
dropped from the South-West side; and in 
other cases there has been a general thinning 
out. In the Kalutara district there are as 
many leaves on the ground as in the Wintering 
season, This is not ‘‘die back.” It is easily 
distinguishable from the other “because it 
occurs all over the tree—both top and 
lower branches cast their leaves at the 
same time. People send dead branches out of 
such trees to Peradeniya, and when we look into 
them we find that those dead branches were not 
killed by disease. These dead branches must 
have been there for years: they had been killed 
by shade. As soon as the dry weather sets in 
these leafless branches break out into leaf. I 
went through that leaf fall and could not find 
any fungi. The last attack was in 1903 and 
1909 (August.) If you study the rainfall of 
1903 and 1909, you will find that the conditions 
were the same in the two years. You had rainfall 
in August, 1903, just about equal to the rainfall of 
August, 1909. lf you had any general leaf fall 
in your trees, it would be rather interesting to 
look at your rainfall and see whether that works 
out correctly, that is if you were working at 
your Rubber from 1903 to 1909. Many trees 
shed their leaves abnormally in wet weather, 
thatis, in periods wetter than they are accus- 
tomed to. Some of them will shed their leaves 
when you have a hard pan, 


A SUBSTRATUM OF ROCK ; 


others when they are grown on too sodden 
ground. There is much in the case of Hevea that 
we do not know. 

MrG H MaseriEtp :—Will that rocky pan 
account for a portion of the trees shedding their 
leaves on a plantation ? 


Mr PercH :—That is a matter which upsets 
the idea that shedding is due to rainfall. Your 
trees may defoliate in groups. 


Mr Baines :—It has a good deal to do with 
want of rain. 


Mr Petcu :—It hasa good deal to do with 
rain becausethe worst places are both windy 
and rainy. The worst places I have seen were 
in the South-West wind with 180 inches of rain 
this year. I mention all this because a good 
many people have got frightened about leaf 
fall, and a paragraph in a paper told us about 
anew disease of rubber appearing in vari- 
ous districts. That is chiefly what happened. 
It was entirely due to wet weather, and as far 
as we can find out no fungus whatever was 
associated with the falling leaves. The next 
thing which has been brought out by the wet 
weather this year but not in this district—we 
had some of it last year too but it was not 
noticed—is the 


OLD CANKER DISEASE OF 1903—04 


which was supposed to have vanished. In fact, 
last year, I wrote that I could not find a case of 
canker when I wanted toseeit. But this year 
there is a lot of it but not in the same form as 
in 1903. In 1903 it was found usually onthe un- 
tapped bark ; and if you read the Peradeniya 
circular of 1904, you will find that the disease 
was distinguished by the bark becoming a sort 
of dirty claret colour underneath, where it 
went right into the wood. This year it started 
on the renewed bark (specimen shown). The 
first thing observed is a series of small vertical 
lines on the renewed surface. In most cases 
the bark seems to sink round these lines so 
that you geta sunken patch vertically. If you 
cut that out, you will find the bark dead and the 
cambium blackened. If you go on cutting 
where you do not see the black lines, you will find 
spots on the cambium. As a rule it works up- 
wards, but does not go very far downwards. It 


;8 rather peculiar that you can go on 


TAPPING THE WHOLE TIME WITH THE DISEASE ON. 


If you go on tapping as you do, once in two 
days, you can go on with the tapping work faster 
than the canker works. It does not kill the trees. 


WHEN THE DRY WEATHER COMES, IT STOPS; 


and there is no more infection in such weather. 
This specimen (shown) had one renewed surface 
in dry weather and another in wet weather. 
This renewal is perfect ; but the renewal in the 
wet period is all canker. It does not spread far, 
at any rate in this specimen it has not, Ko all you 
have to show for the canker period is this one 
strip of dead bark which is renewing already 
underneath from the healthy bark. As far as 
the tree is concerned, it is healthy in effect and 
the crop is not affected, but the difficulty comes 
here--the bark over these cankered parts will 
be rough. [nstead of the renewal coming up 
regularly under the bark it is coming round 
Helos where the canker is there. This (specimen 
shown) has not got far enough in renewal, but 
in some of the Kalutara places where they are 
tapping on a 3 months’ system—3 months 
here and3 onthe other side—you can trace it 
back to eighteen months wet and dry weather 


and Magazine of the Ceylon Agricultural Society, 


periods. The dry weather period is smooth and 
in the wet weather the tapping is rough. The 
bark is up and down. It has been injured by the 
canker. This renewal of bark over the diseased 
portion 


WILL SPOIL YOUR ESTIMATES, 


. Are you going to restrict your tapping to the 
dry weather period in order to providea smooth 
renewed bark ? ‘ 

Mr Martin:—-Is any permanent injury done? 

Mr Petcu :—The permanent injury done is 
that the renewed surface is rough. 

Mr Bamrortu;—Is that all ? 

Mr Percu;—That is the biggest all laughter). 
That is the biggest question with regard to the 
Rubber Industry at the present time. You get 
trees tapped, say, the first round in four years. 
Some of them will have smooth bark, but some, 
especially if canker is present, will be rough, 
and you cannot tap that with an ordinary knife, 
You may doit with another system. 

Mr Barnes:—You can tap it with the present 
knife ? 

Mr Percu:—You cannot; and this will make a 
big difference in the estimates, where you have 
a hundred trees or so rough barked. When you 
go to tap your treesthe second time you will find 
you cannot do it with the ordinary system; and 
probably where you came back the third time 
you would find a few more trees rough-barked. 
The number is ever increasing; and how long can 
you goon? 

Mr MaserieLp:—Has this particular kind of 
canker appeared in the Matale-Kurunegala 
districts. 

Mr Percu :—I have not had any canker from 
tapping from Matale. But it is all over the low- 
country districts. The time will come ultimately 
when you will have 50 per cent. of your. trees 
rough barked; then you 


WILL HAVE TO ADOPT ANOTHER SYSTEM OF TAPPING, 


The obvious thing is to make your first bark 
last as long as possible. 

Mr MrrcHELL:—Otherwise do not tap in wet 
weather. 

Mr Petcu :—No ; that won’t meet the diffi- 
culty. 

Mr WItLiAMson :—You have a new system ? 

Mr Petcu :—When I have a 


NEW SYSTEM I WILL SELL IT, 


(Laughter.) The rough bark is in a small 
percentage, but it is actually happening. There 
are a good many rough barked trees in your 
second tapping, but yourcan hack and collect the 
scrap. 

Mr Kynaston :—Though the bark is rough, 

‘you can tap. 

Mr Perceu :—That is a question for you to 
decide. It has been suggested that this can- 
ker, as it comes on only nm wet weather, is due 
to rain lodging in cuts. The things we get out 
of it in the laboratory are just the same as 
we got out from the canker of 1903. If you take 
a section of a tree and examine it in the proper 
way you will first 


GET A LARGE QUANTITY OF BACTERIA, 


and the second organism will be the nectria fun- 
gus. I have bacteria grown in beef tea and other 
media aud got the nectria spores to germinate 


379 


and grow in solutions and made _ inocu- 
lations of trees at Peradeniya with pure cultures 
of the bacteria and the nectria. This was done 
three weeks ago and up to the present there 
have been no signs whether they are going to 
have canker. So we cannot say yet whether it 

“is due to the rain getting in—whether that is 
the most likely cause—or the organisms getting 
in. I think 1it is due to the bacteria getting in. 
Of course, the old advice to deal with the canker 
isto cut out all the dead bark. You will probably 
get a smoother renewal if you cut out your 
decayed bark than if you leave the old bark 
to renew itself. [here is no need to stop tapping 
because of the canker, as you can get the latex 
with the disease present. You can go on tapping 
the wholetime. I am inclined to say: cut out 
the diseased bark, and 


STERILISE ALL YOUR TAPPING TOOLS, 


As tar as we can see—on some estates I have been 
to—you carry the infection from one tree to 
another by the tapping knife. If you only 
get one cankered tree or two, the best thing 
to do is to leave those treesalone. But when 
you have 50 per cent of the trees affected, 
it is impossible to leave them alone.  Steri- 
lising the tapping knife is easily done 
by dipping it in one part to 1,000 of cor- 
rosive sublimate and leaving it there 5 minutes, 
which is ample. That will kill any bacteria on 
the knives, but it will only be effective where you 
start tapping on a new clearing. If you sterilise 
your knives and go on to infected trees next day 
your sterilising will be of no avail. On the whole 
it israther difficult to know what to advise in a 
case of canker. Certainly I will not advise to 
stop tapping. (Laughter.) 

Mr MaseEriELD :—With regard to the treat- 
ment of canker will you put tar on or leave it 
alone? 

Mr Prrcu :—No; do not; leave it alone. 

Mr MaseriexLp :—Will you cut it out? 

Mr Percy :—If you cut out you must remove 
everything that is black. The specimen here 
(shown) shows black round the cambium, I 
would not cut into the wood. There is 


NO NEED TO HACK INTO THE WOOD, 


It is a question of judgment as to what you 
would cut out and what you would leave alone. 

Mr BamrortH :—Is there any danger of the 
canker spreading ? It is better to leave the tree 
alone or cut it out ! 

Mr Percu :—Certainly leave the tree alone, but 
it all depends on the number of trees you have 
got. (Laughter.) If you have two or three 
cankered trees, you should leave them 


OU OF THE TAPPING ROUND, 


You could cut out the diseased bark and 
leave the trees out of the tapping round. 
Even if you do not cut out the diseased 
bark, I do not think you will spread the 
iufection if the trees are left alone. I 
am pretty certain that infection is carried, 
say from, one cankered tree you have, by the 
cooly who taps that and goes on to the next, 
You find the cankered trees spreading gradually 
down the line from thefirst diseased tree. 

Mr Martin ;—Will it cease to spread if you 
stop tapping on that side 7 


380 


Mr Petch :—Certainly, Only before I started on 
the other side I would sterilise every tapping knife 

Mr MasgrieLp :—When you cut out this 
diseased section, you do notrecommend tarring 
or treatingit in any other way ? 


Mr Percx :—I would not tar the surface in’a 
case like this. I would always tar where you 
cut off the branch of a tree. If you simply 
take off the bark, there is no need to tar because 
the spread of the bark is more vigorous. 

Mr Cantiay :—Can you suggest anything 
else instead of tar ? 

Mr Petcu :—Tar prevents the decay of wood; 
and it is a splendid waterproof protection. 
Fungi cannot get through it. I do not think 
you can look to anything better than coal tar 
to apply to a cut. 

Mr Woop :—The disease does not pass from 
tree to tree unlessit is carried by the tapping 
knife which is not sterilised. 

Mr Percu :—It 


CAN BLOW OFF, 
but it is chiefly spread by means of the knife. 
Mr Witiiamson :—You think itis a mistake 
to lop big trees on the estate to save your tea? 


Mr Prtcu :—ltis a mistake unless you tar 
the ends of the branches lopped off. Loppin 
and taking off the leaves will also rather spoi 
the feeding capacity of the tree. As long as 
you tar the lopped ends you are safe. Coal tar, 
of course. We had a very good example in 1904. 
In that year two of the Government plantations 
were treated for canker. [n a large number of 
cases the trees were stumped, and in some cases 
they were cut off ata fork. Fungi have now 
attacked the cut surface. The heart wood of any 
tree is just as good as dead, and where it has 
been exposed, fungi have entered the trees and 
they have snapped off. 

Mr. Duncan :—Cutting of branches is not an 
ordinary matter. 

Mr. Pretcu :-~Why not? 

Mr. Duncan:--The plants are too old. 

Mr. Prercu:—lf they are more than 2 inches 
in diameter I will always tar. There is another 
example we had of 


STUMPING TREES 


about twelve years old which were in the way of 
a road which was to be made through a planta- 
tion. The Superintendent took off the trees, 
cut off the tops and transplanted them. In one 
case out of five of the branches forking from the 
main stem only four were tarred at the lopped ends 
for some reason or other, and the fifth left untar- 
red. The four tarred branches were all right, but 
the fifth untarred one commenced to die back one 
foot within a year; and if that is not cut, and the 
surface tarred, it will die back until it enters 
right into the tree and the whole will collapse. 


Mr. Bamrortu :—Lopping does not stop the 
- flow of latex? 

Mr. Prrcu :—I do not think so, unless you 
lose the latex you would have got from the 
lopped-off branch. Lopping will stop the growth 
of the tree to some extent. ' The tree will not 
grow as rapidly as before and therefore you will 
get a smaller quantity of latex. 

Mr. CANTLAY :—What about fuogi spreading 
from the dead tree to the living ones ? 


The Supplement to the Tropical Agriculturist 


Mr. Percy :—The fungi could not get in at the 
end of the tarred branch. 


Mr. Woop :—If you leave a 
FALLEN TREE LYING ON THE GROUND, 


what will happen ? 

Mr. Percu :—You will first of all hatch 
out the ‘‘die back” fungus and secondly root 
disease. So much has been written about the 
root disease that there is no necessity to go into 
itnow. This is the well-known ‘* Brown Root 
Disease ” which is easily identified by its habit 
of cementing sand, soil, and stones to the roots 
of the trees attacked. 

Mr. Bamrorts :—After cutting off, you must 
burn the cuttings? 

Mr. Perc :—If you cut off the “ die back” 
or ‘‘pink disease,” you must burn the portions 
cut of, instead of leaving them on the ground. 

Mr. MASEFIELD :—As regards Stockholm tar, 
will it notanswer in the case of treating the cut 
off surfaces ? 

Mr.PrrcH :—Stockholm tar is a vegetable tar, 
and I do not know if it will answer for canker. 

Mr. MaseFrretp :—It is a mistaken idea among 
planters that Stockholm tar has to be used. 

Mr, Petcu :—Coal tar, of course, is the tar to 
be used. The difficulty comes in the case of tea. 
What was found suitable in the case of tea was 
sought to be made applicable in all cases. If you 
tar the growing bark of tea with coal tar it will 
kill that bark ; if you tar cut ends, it will not kill. 
Some 15 or 20 years ago somebody 


SCATTERED COAL TAR ALL OVER HIS TEA 


bush and found it was bad for it, and that idea 
continues to the present day. (Laughter.) There 
isno reason why you should not use coal tar, 
which is very much better than Stockholm tar. 

Mr. Cant ay :—In this case (specimen shown) 
the canker came on after you resumed tapping 
in the wet weather? 
- Mr. Pevcu:—You can have canker on the un- 
tapped. In the present year it is coming on 
more in the tapped area. 

The CuarrmMan:—Mr. Petch has finished his 
address and we have now to return him a hearty 
vote of thanks. 


PRICKING AND TAPPING. 


Mr Duncan—with the permission of the Chair- 
man—asked another question or two. Mr Petch 
had written a rather interesting paper on tap- 
ping; he wished for information with regard 
to the use of the pricker and the tapping knife. 

Mr Perca—said that he could only tell Mr 

Duncan to go on experimenting with the sys- 
tems. He instanced the case of a gentleman in 
Ceylon who was very strong on the use of the 
pricker, but he had not used the pricker, after 
trying it, on the estate in his charge the last two 
years. (Laughter.) 
_ Mr Duncan—remarked that Mr Petch’s state- 
ment had been that renewed bark under the 
pricker did not carry latex cells, that, given 
plenty of pricking, it would stop the development 
of latex entirely. 

Mr Petcu :—There is a qualification to that. 
We have examined renewed bark under the 
pricker marks up to an age of six months, 
and from what we have gathered in the first six 
months your conclusion is practically correct— 


and Magazine of the Ceylon Agricultural Society. 


that is, if you go on pricking you will come to a 
time of no latex. But’the tree may go back to 
its old habit again probably in 14. years. You 
have impressed upon it with the pricker a pro- 
duction of bark which is not laticiferous. 

Mr. Duncan :—It will be only four years. 

Mr, Percu :—It will turn your four years into 
five-and-a-half years. You mention four years 
because you are going back to your renewed 
bark in four years. If it takes one.and-a-half 
years for the bark to revert to its original habit, 
you have five-and-ahalf years. 


Axsout BARREN TREES. 

Mr Baines :—Have you met any barren trees 
lately ? (Laughter.) . 

Mr Prrca :—Lately, no, I have never meta 
tree which has never given latex. 

Mr Baines :—I have a tree which gave latex 
and then went back. 

Mr Wittramson :—Struck by lightning, [ sup- 
pose. (Laughter.) 


Mr Baines :—The tree was perfectly all right 
with the bark thick and strong ; but I could not 
get anything out of it. 

Mr BaMrortH :—We have to thank Mr Petch 
very much indeed for his interesting remarks, 
(Loud applause.) 


This brought the proceedings to a close. 


RUBBER NOTES, &c. FROM NATAL. 


(By a Ceylon resident in Durban.) 
THE ONLY INDIGENOUS RUBBER-PRODUCING 
SPECIES } 


of South Africa at present of any concern 
is Landolphia Kirkit. It is a Kane growing in 
the northern countries of Zululand, 7.¢., Mapu- 
taland and Amatongaland. Although it may 
be met with rarely, it is said not to be found 
further south, but extends northwards into 
EK. and W. Tropical Africa. I believe this 
plant, with perhaps one or two of its congeners, 
yields most, if not all, the rubber at present ex- 
ported from these regions, L. Kirkii is com- 
monly known. as the Rubber Vine, About six 
years ago the Natal Government had an oflicer 
in Maputaland reporting on the possibilities 
of exploiting the Rubber Vine on an industrial 
basis. Samples of Landolphia rubber were 
sent to England and favourably reported upon. 
This was followed later by the leasing of a 
large area in Maputaland to a Natal Syndi- 
cate. I know that some shipments were made, 
but since then there has apparently been no 
development, and I suspect the venture has 
come toa standstill. Although the quality of 
the rubber has been declared good, Maputa- 
land has a deadly climate and labour is scarce 
and expensive. The Directors of the Syndi- 
cate approached me with a proposal to sever 
my connection with Government and accept 
service under them: but the disadvantages 
were so obvious that I did not even discuss 
the matter with them, and from what I have 
since learnt from private sources I have reason 
to, believe that my decision was a’ wise one, 


381 


That is all there has been done with rubber 
as a commercial speculation in South Africa. I 
think, however, when we have tided over our 

resent depression and capital is available, that 
interest in the subject will be resumed in 
Natal and Zululand. At present there is a 


PLANTATION OF THE RUBBER VINE IN THE 
GOVERNMENT EXPERIMENT STATION AT EMPANGENI 


in Zululand ; the experiment is being watched. 
AB a PE ein AAS is difficult to manage 
under cultivation, and we shall probably have 
to turn our attention to exotics and with the 
selection of a species suitable to our compara- 
tively dry climate the problem might be solved. 
There are fine specimens of the India rubber or 
Assam rubber (Ficus Elastica) growing in Dur- 
ban and extending inland as far as Maritzburg 
and I am told southward, even to Capetown. 
But I much suspect that the climate is too dry 
to induce a sufficient flow of latex. For the same 
reason Para rubber, though it grows in Durban, 
would also fail on a large scale. The most 
likely species to succeed is, I think, the 
CEARA 
rubbers—Manihots, which are fast growers and 
are amenable to dry conditions. Plants of C. 
Glaziovii do well in Durban and seed freely. 
Will you please furnish me with the names of 
the new varieties of Ceara which, [ understand, 
you are adopting for the dry districts of Ceylon. 
Naturally they are of great interest to us, I 
am sending you an illustrated souvenir of Durban 
whiclywill give you a fairly comprehensive idea 
of what the largest, 
FAIREST AND HEALTHIEST TOWN 

in Natal is like, especially during the winter gala 
season. The winter here is, however, not like 
what it is in England, since Durban has a sub- 
tropical climate. The heat is trying in summer, 
but in winter the weather is as nice as you can 
wish it to be. As you drive round the city in 
aecar you will be surprised to find old Ceylon 
friends like Bougainviilea, Aleurites triloba, Poin- 
ciana regia, Hibiscus tiliaceus luxuriating here. 

There is only one Agricultural College in 
Natal at the Central 

EXPERIMENT STATION AT CEDARA 

near Maritzburg. When I first joined th 
Department I was there for five months on 
the Forestry Staff. Beside the central station 
at Cedara, there are branch experiment stations 
distributed about the colony ; and students from 
Cedara are drafted out during the course of their 
learning to one or more of these stations for a 
brief period. While agriculture, including stock 
farming, dairying, etc., is what is principally 
taught the students, a brief course in Forestry 
—or strictly speaking, in the formation and ten- 
pee of plantations of exotics—forms an incident 
in the currictflum. The object is to 

ENABLE THE PRIVATE FARMER ‘TO 

INTELLIGENTLY CO-OPERATE 

with the Governmentin increasing the percentage 
of forest-clad land—a consummation devoutly to 
be wished for more reasons than one. 

The policy inthe College is to givethe students 
nothing but technical instruction and there is 
no chance of their qualifying to be anything but 
farmers. They ultimately take up their own 
lands or manage or work upon a farm. The in- 
struction is almost entirely practical. The stu- 


382 


dents have to use their hands and work hard. A 
great deal of their time is spent in the field 
where they learn the handling of implements, 
livestock, &c. The fees paid are nog high, but 
this is compensated for by the actual work put 
in by the students. 

There is a Government institution here known 
as the 
LAND BANK FOR PROVIDING LOANS TO FARMERS, 
for the improvement oftheir farms. I believe it 
originated in the time of Sir Henry McCallum, 
but am not sure. I wish your Governor's 
schemes for agricultural education, &c., all 
success, | hope the native cultivator has of late 
imbibed some progressive ideas since I knew 
him. Otherwise it will be hard and slow work. 


THE NEW RUBBER COAGULANT. 


Or Mr. Avusrey Extras. 

In our issue of August 20 we published some 
particulars of a chemical reagent which will, 
according to the claim made by the discoverer 
of the process, Mr O Aubrey Elias, F.C.S., 
quickly and effectually coagulate rubber milk 
without imparting any deleterious effect to the 
finished product. In support of Mr _ Elias’s 
claim, Mr C T Gardner, dispenser at the Miller 
General Hospital, Greenwich, has given to the 
public the result of his analysis of specimens of 
rubber treated under the new process, Mr 
Gardner has also given particulars to a repre- 
sentative of the Press Association, and these 
were recently set forth in the Financial Times. 
It is the 


SCIENTIFIC ASPECT OF THE DISCOVERY 
which most appeals to Mr Gardner, and in 
dealing with the invention from that point of 
view he said the standard of rubber qualities 
was fine Para hard cured, which consisted 
principally of caoutchouc, a substance bearing 
the chemical empirical formula (C10 H16)n, 
with about 1°3 per cent. of resin, a little water 
—say, about 075 per cent.—from 3. to 
4 per cent. of proteid, and yielding from 
02 to 1 per cent. of ash. There was also 
colouring matter present and sometimes 
foreign impurities. Inferior rubbers might 
contain as low as 50 per cent. of caoutchouc. 
The presence of proteid matter in the latex 
‘might be shown by a very pretty test known as 
the xanthoproteic reaction. In this test nitric 
acid was added to the latex and the liquid was 
boiled, when it turned yellow, the change in co- 
lour being due to the formation of xanthoproteic 
acid. Ammonia added_to the fluid caused it to 
become a rich orange. Rubber containing pro- 
teid, when diffused in chloroform, left an in- 
soluble coagulum varying in amount with the 
quantity present ;in other words, the proteids 
were nondiffusable. Those proteids were highly 
complex bodies which in the tree were built up 
from the simple chemical compounds acting as 
nutritive material to the tree. The particular 
kind of proteid in the latices of rubber-pro- 
ducing plants was an albumen coagulable by 
heat at 70 degrees. The coagulant invented 
by Mr Elias seemed to practically, if not 
altogether, eliminate the undesirable pro- 
teid. ‘For this reason,” added Mr Gard- 
ner, ‘I believe this coagulant will produce 


- dried before it can be fit for shipping w 


The Supplement to the Tropical Agriculturist 


A REVOLUTIONARY EFFECT ON THE RUBBER 
WORLD.” 


The processes of coagulation could not be 
regarded as strictly scientific, Mr Gardner says, 
and, indeed, a great deal of waste often took 
place, with the frequent. result that rubber was 
produced lacking the resiliency or even, at times, 
avoidable impurity. One advantage of the new 
coagulant was that no technical skill was re- 
quired to use it. Its use, he believed, would 
result in an enormous saving of time and mate- 
rial. Its ready facility of transport would render 
it of great commercial value. Acetic acid and 
other forms of coagulants at present in use were 
very inconvenient to transfer across country in 
comparison with the new method, which was in 
powder form, and could be carried ina glass 
tube. Another point was that of a little of the 
powder or coagulant, added to the milk, effected 
complete coagulation in the space of a few 
minutes, and in bulk the action was almost as 
quick, At present acetic acid took from eight 
to twenty-four hours to produce the same result. 
With this latter process, too, there was the 
danger that the use of insufficient acid would 
produce incomplete coagulation, and if too much 
were employed it would redissolve the proteids 
and retain them in the substance. The new 
method would also prove of value from the point 
of view of health saving. It was impossible to 
remove the latex any distance for even shaking 
in such climates would cause it to partially 
coagulate. The process, in any event, therefore, 
had to be conducted on the spot, and there was 
serious impairment to health among the native 
labourers who, at present, were obliged to re- 
main in unhealthy marshy districts, whilst 
awaiting coagulation. The Elias coagulant, he 
believed, would be found to decrease the quan- 
tity of resin in the rubber, if it were care- 
fully used, with the result that it would 
vuleanise much better; it would also tend to 
act a8 a preservative. Some of the powder 
had already been sent to Peru, the Congo, 
and other rubber-producing countries, and the 
samples he analysed were sent to him by a 
South American company which had adopted 
the new process.—H.& C, Mail, Sept. 10. 


A NEW METHOD OF COAGULATING 
RUBBER LATEX. 


A PRACTICAL DEMONSTRATION WITH 
“ PURUB.” 
Invention of a German Expert. 


Simplicity in the preparation of the latex 
of the rubber tree into rubber itself for 
manufacturing purposes is a matter of the 
greatest importance to rubber planters and 
manufacturers. In Ceylon at present, as in 
most other parts of the world where rubber 


is grown, the most commonly used chem- 
ical for coagulating the latex is acetic 
acid. It is most important in treating 


latex that the natural moisture in it should be 
preserved and the one great disadvantage of 
using acetic acid is that after the latex has 
coagulated the rubber must be ey 

ich 


and Magazine of the Ceylon Agricultural Society. 


2 


detracts from its ‘‘ nerve ” and_ elasticity 
and consequently lowers its value in the 
market. A chemical has now been dis- 
covered to take the place of acetic acid. 
The discoverer of the new process is Mr D Sand- 
mann, of Berlin, a Judge of the Arbitration 
Court in that city and a member of the Munici- 
pal Council and Chamberof Commerce of Berlin. 
Mr. Sandmann is at present in Ceylon on his 
way to Germany after a lengthy tour, and this 
morning (September 21st) he gave 


A DEMONSTRATION OF HIS METHODS 


of coagulating latex at the Henaratgoda Gardens. 
The demonstration was made in the presence of 
Mr. M. Kelway Bamber (Government Analyst), 
Mr. M. Hohl (Manager of the Manure Depart- 
ment of Messrs. Freudenberg & Co.), and two 
representatives of the press. Mr, Sandmann 
calls his mvention ‘* Purub,” a curtailment of 
the words ‘‘pure rubber.” According to him 
it is a preparation of fluor, a well enough known 
chemical. The preparation itself is of course the 
secret of Mr Sandmann and the Company to which 
he has sold his patent rights. The demonstration 
was held in the little laboratory in the Gardens 
and was conducted after the following manner:— 
Half a litre of latex (1/9th of a gallon) extracted 
from trees in the Gardens were poured into three 
chemical basins, the exact proportions being 
440 C. C, latex and 1,320 C. C. water. Into one 
of these was added the usual quantity of acetic 
acid, 36 C. C. diluted in water—1 in 80. Into the 
other two were added4a gramme of ‘Purub.’ 
The basins were covered and after an interval 
when the covers were taken off the latex treated 
with ‘Purub’ was found to have nicely coagu- 
lated, while the latex treated with the acetic 
acid had, ot course, not completed the coagu- 
lation stage.Mr Sandmann claims for ‘Purub’ 
that it stops the decomposition of the rubber 
from the moment it comes in contact with the 
latex and that it preserves its moisture, en- 
abling it to be shipped with 9 to 10 per 
cent of moisture; whereas when acetic acid 
is used, the rubber only retains about 1 per 
cent of moisture by the time it is dry enough 
for shipping and if it is shipped before it is 
quite dry it gets mouldy and tacky. in any 
case the almost total absence of moisture 


REDUCES THE VALUE OF RUBBER 


considerably from the manufacturer’s point of 
view, while the presence of it to the amount of 
9 to 10 per cent rendered possible, according 
to Mr Sandmann, by the use of  Purub,” in- 
creases the commercial value of the rubber 
correspondingly. The great advantage of 
“Purub” over acetic acid, says the inventor, 


is that it immediately stops putrefaction 
which sets in as soon as the latex leaves 
the trees. When acetic acid is used, the 


putrefaction continues until the rubber has 
been thoroughly dried by which procees the 
rubber loses its elasticity and a great deal of 
its commercial value, By using ‘‘Purub” the 
rubber can be shipped when it is only partially 
dry and with a percentage of moisture in it 
that keeps it in splendid marketable condition. 
A small quantity is sufficient to coagulate a 
large quantity of latex, the proper proportion 
being two grammes toa litreof latex. It will 


383 


be found a little more expensive than acetic 
acid, but according to Mr Sandmann, its use is 
bound to result profitably to the grower. To his 
own knowledge rubber treated with ‘‘Purub” and 
exported from Hast Africa fetched 20 per cent 
better prices in the London market than rubber 
treated without it. The use of ‘‘ Purub” was 
as beneficial in the case of castilloa and ceara as 
in that of para. The demonstration concluded 
about 12-30. The latex treated with “ Purub ” 
had coagulated in an hour and the biscuits 
were taken out of the basin to dry. It will be 
treated in the ordinary way and will then be 
tested with a view to finding out the real effects 
of the ‘‘ Purub” treatment. 


Mr. Bamper’s OP1NIon. 


Mr Bamber, asked by our representative for 
his opinion on the morning’s demonstration, 
said the latex coagulated quickly, but nothing 
else could be said until the rubber became dry 
and was vulcanised. They themselves (meaning 
the Government Scientilic Department) were 
carrying on heaps of experiments, but they 
could not yet express an opinion on any one of 
them. He was personally of opinion that 
rubber should retain 9 or 10 per cent of mois- 
ture, but whether it would increaso the com- 
mercial value of it depended on the manu- 
facturers. Would they pay anything more for 
it ? A large quantity of such rubber remained 
uusold in London. 


THe TREATMENT oF LATEX. 


After the experiments were set in train and 
while waiting for the first definite results, Mr 
Bamber took Mr Sandmann and party to a 
section of old rubber where the Sinhalese tap- 
pers were tapping some of the trees. What 
attracted Mr Sandmann most was the bamboo 
stand for holding the cup, but he could not 
understand why it was that a piece of metal 
wasused for running the latex from the bark into 
the cup and nota piece of bamboo or wood. He 
is against the use of metal in any connection 
with the receiving of the latex from the bark and 
its treatment afterwards. The cups, he thinks, 
should always be of porcelain or glass and the ves- 
sels of enamel. It was also of great importance 
that the latex should ve kept cool when being 
conveyed from the tree to the store. The sun’‘s 
rays had the effect of quickening the process of 
decomposition of the latex. A wet cloth over 
the vessel carrying it would prevent this and 
also keep it cool, It was also of the greatest 
importance that all the utensils used for the 
preparation of the rubber should be kept ab- 
solutely clean and to help towards this he 
strongly recommended that only wooden uten- 
sils, well-smoothed, should be used. With 
regard to sieves, in his opinion the best are 
those made with horse hair. They should be of 
two sizes, large and small, the former to be 
placed on top and the latter below. Another 
point was that the hand should not be brought in 
contact with the latex which becomes acidulated 
by such contact. 


THE Ruspser TREEs 1N THE GARDENS, 
There are some hoary old giants among the 
rubber trees in the Gardens, planted years and 
years ago. In the early days the evils of close 
planting were not realised. Some of the trees 


384 


were measured by Messrs Bamber and Sand- 
mann. Two trees of the same age measured 93 
and 133 inches in girth respectively, the 
difference being accounted for by the fact that 
the former was one of two closely planted 
trees, ‘Mr Sandmann took several snapshots of 
the tappers at work. 


The party returned to Colombo by the train 
leaving Henaratgoda at 1-55 p.m. Mr Sand- 
mann leaves for Germany on the 25th inst. 

\ 


CACAO IN JAMAICA. 


It is conceded that not even with the excep- 
tion of bananas and sugar, cocoa can be our 
most steadily profitable crop in suitable soils 
and climates here. As with other things, how- 
ever, it seems that where cocoa grows most 
readily of itself it has been allowed to do so, and 
the owners have gone on the principle of taking 
what they got. There are some bighly cutli- 
vated and well-regulated cultivations not in the 
best situations for cocoa growing, where good 
results are obtained, as well as the splendid 
results in typical good locations where care and 
thought and labour are expended on the plan- 
tation. Even in these places, however, the 
owers have many troubles with their trees, so 
that the same constant care and attention and 
never-ending watchfulness have to be kept up. 
What then must be the result where cocoa trees 
having grown strong and rampant for many 
years without any attention, without pruning to 
let light and air in, without drainage to carry 
off surplus moisture in wet weather, without the 
soil ever being broken, without rotten branches 
and diseased pods ever being cleared out of the 
way, until, the trees themselves are covered with 
moss and the soil is stiff and sour There are 
many places where this applies,—in S. Thomas- 
in-the-East and Portland, and Upper 8. Andrew 
and S. Mary especially. Surely it would be a 


GOOD POLICY TO CONCENTRATE ATTENTION IN 
GETTING ALL COCOA TREES HEALTHY 


and brought into full bearing rather than get- 
ting the same owners to plant more cocoa in 
other parts of the same land. Of course if the 
owners of trees are hopeless, and do not see 
what is to their advantage, and there are other 
men who have not planted cocoa at all yet who 
wish to do so, and have a suitable location, it is 
good to encourage them, but with hotbeds of 
disease close by unattended to, the other planta- 
tions despite great care (which they will not 
always receive), will be attacked by and by when 
the trees begin to cover the ground, probably 
just when they are coming into full bearing. 


A REGULAR CAMPAIGN AGAINST COCOA AND 
COCONUT DISEASES IS NECESSARY. 


Amongst small settlers it is a rare thing to see 
cocoa trees that are bearing to anything like the 
full extent they are capable of. It is even more 
necessary than manuring, this question of get- 
ting the cocoa trees healthy first, but in S. 
Thomas-in-the-East and Portland, very little 
manuring requires to be done, it is aération that 
is wanted most in the cocoa field.—Journal o7 
the Jamaica Agricultural Society for July. 


The Supplement to the Tropical Agriculturist 


TO DESTROY WHITE ANTS. 


A GERMAN APPARATUS. 

We have received the following from a Ger- 
man firm which may interest some readers who 
have been complaining about damage done by 
white ants. In figuring with the fact that many 
agricultural undertakings suffer more or less 
from termites, so-called ‘‘ white ants,” I take 
the liberty of recommending my apparatus and 
preparation for their destruction: Firstly, I have 
constructed an apparatus the ‘‘ termite finder,” 
which makes it possible to locate the insects’ ' 
nests. The ‘‘ termite finder” is a steel pipe, at 
the top end of which is placed a microphone. 
This is further connected with a telephone by a 
cord. If the pipe is put in the earth, one will 
hear plainly the noise made by the so-called 
white ants in their subterranean habitations, 
even at great depths. If one wishes to seek 
termites near trees, all that is necessary is to 
put the end of the pipe against the tree. If one 
wants to locate a certain district, the best way 
is to have two labourers each with 

A ‘TERMITE-FINDER ’ 

at distances of 5-6 metres. In this way, all 
the nesting places of the ants will be located. 
To smoke out the nest, the sarne must be bored 
with asimple ‘‘earth-borer ” (a crow ?), 34 feet 
long and 4 inches in diameter. Generally several 
nests are together and are connected by walks. 
In the hole bored one places a miniature oven 
“¢ Pandora-box.” The top of this oven must be 
just visible. Into this, air must be pumped to 
keep alive the cumbustion of a specially pre- 
pared mass contained therein and which gene- 
rates smoke. Slowly and carefully a hand pump 
is to be used so that the oxygen reaches the fire 
and the poisonous gases from the mass are 
forced below through the air pressure, The pre- 
paration manufactured by mecalled ‘‘Smoke- 
snake,” generates sulphuric acid. The prepared 
stuff is about one metre long and as thick asa 
finger, is rolled up, and fits into the *‘ Pandora- 
box” after taking off two tops (coils). In this 
way they are carried easily even by domestic 
lacour. The same manipulation is necessary for 
trees which have been attacked by termites and 
rendered hollow hy them. The insects by brea- 
thing the poisonous gases die very soon. The 
holes naturally, which have been made on the 
living trees, would have to be stopped up, with 
cement or clay. It is to be recommended that 
the above way of exterminating the termite is 
to be done frequently, regularly and systemati- 
cally. The cost is not great comparing it with 
the damage done by the termites.—FRIEDRICH 
Suck, Hamburg, 15 (Sachsenhof),—Journal of 
the Jamaica Agricultural Society, for July. 


GROWTH OF PARA RUBBER IN 
SUMATRA. 


A well grown Para rubber tree on Bandar 
Pinang Estate (owned by the Bandar Sumatra 
Rubber Co,), Sumatra, was planted in 1904 and 
at the time the photograph was taken (June 
1909), it had attained a circumference of 38} 
inches. The rubber, it will be seen, is inter- 

lanted with coffee, —-India-RubSer Journal, 

ept. 6, 


. 


. 


. have now been 


TROPICAL AGRICULTURIST 


AND 


MAGAZINE OF THE 


CEYLON AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY. 


Vou. XXXIII, 


COLOMBO, NOVEMBER 157x, 1909, 


No. 5. 


Manihot Dichotoma. 


Owing to the interest now beginning 
to be taken in the new species of rubber, 
it seems desirable to add a few remarks 
to those made at the Meeting of the 
Board of Agriculture on April 7tb of 
the present year. 


Three acres of the abovenamed species 
planted out at the 
Peradeniya Experiment Station. On 
October 8th the first of these acre plots 
was exactly two years old from the date 
of planting. The plot contains 98 trees 
planted 20'x20' feet apart, and the 
average circumference at three feet 
from the ground isjust nine inches at 
the time of writing. This average girth in- 
cludes that of every tree. Those in the 
outer rows have made very poor growth, 
probably owing to the proximity of 
neighbouring dadaps and other trees; 
a few supplies are included; and several 
stumps broken off by wind at some 
distance above the ground, but now 
beginning to sprout again, were also 
measured. As a precaution against 
further damage by wind the majority 
of the larger trees were pruned three 
months ago, a good many branches 
being removed in the process, and it 
may be supposed that this process has 
retarded growth to some slight extent, 
Nevertheless the fourteen largest trees 
show an average circumference of 14 


inches, and have more than doubled in 
girth during the past year. 

The second plot at Peradeniya con- 
sists of trees planted 12’ x 12’ in November, - 
1908 ; so that these plants are row just a 
year old. The land upon which these 
trees are growing was ploughed before 
planting and has been kept cultivated 
by means of a disc harrow ever since, 
The result of this treatment seems to be 
obvious in the growth of the plants, 
which average quite 6 inches in girth 
over the whole area and are already 
producing seed in considerable quantity. 

The third acre has been planted up 
during the current year. On half the 
plot the plants’ stand 8x8’ (planted 
from cuttings) and on the other half 
6’x6’ (seedlings) in order to test the 
effect of close planting. 

A marked characteristic of Manihot 
dichotoma, which is particularly well 
seen in the acre of year-old trees, is the 
extraordinary variability of the species 
in vegetative characters, This is speci- 
ally noticeable in the shape of the leaves 
and fruit capsules. In some eases the 
leaves might almost be mistaken for 
those of the ordinary Ceara rubber 
(Manihot Glaziovii), whilst on other 
trees the leaf lobes are much longer and 
narrower and deeply wavy in outline. 
On some trees, again, the seed capsules 
are nearly smooth (like those of M. 
Glaziovii, though larger), whilst on 


386 


others the capsules bear high crinkled 
ridges or wings. Curiously enough, those 
trees which resemble the Ceara rubber 
in the shape of the leaves usually differ 
widely in the capsules and vice versa, 
and when the whole aspect of the tree is 
taken into consideration, there is never 
any possibility of confusing one with 
the other. 

The extraordinary variability in vege- 
tative characters is of special interest as 
indicating the likelihood of a similar 
diversity between the yields of latex 
produced by different tress. Of such a 
variability, which is known to occur in 
almost all rubber-yielding plants, we 
have already some indications. 


In the case of a plant which is reputed 
to afford a very appreciable yield of 
rubber within three or four years of 
planting, there can be no doubt of the 
advisability of selecting the best yield- 
ing trees for future propagation whether 
from seed or by cuttings. Definite ex- 
periments in this direction are in con- 
templation at Peradeniya, but the experi- 
ment is one which every planter can and 
should carry out for himself. 

If propagation is by cuttings the pro- 
duction from parents giving a good 
yield of latex of offspring similarly 
characterised is practically assured. 
We have therefore every reason for 
satisfaction in the result of experiments 
already carried out by this method, for 
we have found that cuttings up to two 
inches in diameter will readily take root 
and grow into healthy plants. <A single 
well-grown two-year-old tree will furnish 
upwards of 200 cuttings. 


The chief defect which we have so 
far noticed in this plant is its brittle- 
ness, the tops being very liable to 
damage by wind. In this way large 
branches may be torn off, or the whole 
tree broken down or uprooted. Some- 
times it seems as if the mere weight 
of the crown were too much for the 
strength of the supporting structures, 
the point of weakness being the place 


where the first whorl of branches joins. 


the upright trunk. 

The twelve largest two-year-old trees 
were tapped on alternate days from 
October 7th until the end of the month. 
Six of the trees were tapped to the wood 
with the knife only, the remaining six 
were tapped with the Northway knife 
and pricker. The following amounts of 
rubber (in grammes) were obtained in 
ten days’ tapping :— 

548; 1:91; 3:46; 8°05; 1:78; 8-41; 
‘77; 5°63; 3:19; 4:60; 3:00; 4:06; 
or 47°34 grammes of dry rubber from 
twelve treesin ten days, in addition to 


25:35 grammes of scrap, or 72:69 grammes 
of dry rubber altogether, which is equi- 
valent to 2'6 ounces. 

Supposing that one cooly at 35 cents 
can tap 120 trees in a day, the cost of 
tappiug works out at Rs. 2-20 per lb. 

As wasjonly to be expected, the yield of 
rubber actually obtained is very small. 
There is no reason, however, for sup- 
posing that any other variety of rubber 
would have given a larger yield at two 
years old. 

In spite of the small number of trees 
examined, the variations in yield are 
well marked, more than ten times as 
much rubber being yielded by the best 
as by the poorest yielder. 

The only conclusion which can be 
drawn from the above results is that a 
commercial yield of rubber cannot be 
expected in two years from planting, 
and itis quite impossible to say what 
the result after three, four or five years 
may be. It seems probable, however, 
that it will be possible to distinguish 
good and bad yielding trees by experi- 
ment within three years from planting. 
Those who intend to give this species a 
trial would therefore do well to plant up 
a small area of 1 to5 acres at once with 
a view to further planting in two or 
three years time. Then, if experiments 
carried out on the trees at Peradeniya 
indicate that Manihot dichotoma is 
likely to turn outa commercial success 
in Ceylon, the intending planter will be 
ina position to cover a further area 
with the offspring of plants selected for 
their good bearing quality, using seed or 
cuttings according to the result of our 
further investigations. It should be 
understood that this advice is given 
without any promise that Manihot 
dichotoma will prove a success in Ceylon 
as a source of rubber; but, if the species 
does prove profitable, careful attention 
to the selection of seed parents will 
undoubtedly enhance the ultimate pro- 
fits very materially. 

The following list of recent references 
to Manihot dichotoma in the Tropieal 
Agriculturist may be of use to readers :— 


March 1908 ... New species of Manihot and 

their Importance, p. 198. 

April ,, ... Jequie Manicobar Rubber, 

p: ; 
May », ». Jequie Manicobar and its 
allies, p. 412 - 

June 5) +«-- Ceara or Manicobar rubber, 
Oy IS 

October ,, ... Remarks on tke cultiva- 

tion, preparation and 


YS yield of Manicobar, p. 3817. 
April 1909 ... The New Manihots, p. 319. 


May ,, 
R. Ho. Le 


Pb ea. 
[NOVEMBER, 1909. 


.. The New Rubbers. p. 411. 


NOVEMBER, 1909. | 387 


GUMS, RESINS, SAPS AND EXUDATIONS. 


Extracts from the Report of the Direc- 
tor of Agriculture for the Federated 
: Malay States. 
(From the Agricultural Bulletin of 
the Straits and F. M. S., Vol. VIII, 
No. 9, September, 1909.) 


RUBBER TAPPING. 


The Rubber Curing House was com- 
pleted during the year, and machinery 
for curing rubber, consisting of an oil 
engine, a roller and a hydraulic press 
have been obtained. 


There are 900 trees of over nine years 
old, on which a series of experiments 
will be made and all data recorded. 
Many problems of great economic im- 
portance await solution. The climate of 
Malaya differs so greatly from that of 
Ceylon and other rubber-growing count- 
ries, that the results of experiments 
earried on there cannot with safety be 
used as giving reliable information for 
treatment of trees in this.country. 


The whole question of tapping re- 
quires careful investigation. The re- 
sults given by thin paring of cuts at an 
angle to the axis of the tree are so good 
that planters are apt to consider the 
matter solved, butit is not improbale 
that punctures instead of cuts may yet 
be found to give as good or better yields 
and involve less skilled labour. All the 
‘‘prickers ” which have up to the present 
been exploited are instruments not for 
making a puncture but a short deep cut, 
and consequently damaging relatively 
more cells of the tree than a cylindrical 
or sharply conical pricker. There is a 
large field for ingenuity and careful ex- 
periment ; and the next few years should 
produce an instrument which will be 
a marked improvement on the present 
weapons. 


Excellent work with regular shavings, 
as thin even as 20-25 to the inch, have 
been done with the gouge, the Farrier’s 
knife, and with more modern specially 
adapted tapping knives. 


It is important to make certain of the 
periods which should be allowed to 
elapse between tappings in order to get 
maximum yields. After having collected 
figures of yields on a large number of 
estates, it is difficult to lay down an ab- 
solute rule as to the procedure which 
experience shows to be the best. 


Carefully kept data on some estates 
show that after a period of some three 


‘months alternate days’ tapping the 


amount of latex per tree decreases to an 
49 


amount which is of less value than the 
cost of tapping, but after a rest of two 
months the tree again on the fourth or 
fifth tapping yields the maximum, which 
after some torty tappings begins to 
rapidly decrease. 

I'he reverse of these observations is 
to be found on other estates where accu- 
rate figures of yields show that after 
continuous tapping for some two or 
three years, the amount obtained varies 
only slightly, never steadily decreasing. 
The variation is caused by climatic 
conditions, short periods of little or no 
rainfall reducing the yield, and periods 
of excessive rainfall producing scme- 
what the same result. Thisis due tothe 
relatively less active functioning of the 
roots owing to drought or excess of 
water. 


Many planters believe in stopping 
when the trees are leafless, a period of 
some three weeks each year. The ex- 
periments which have been continuously 
carried on for some eighteen months by 
this department on 17-year old trees at 
Krian show a slight decrease of yield 
during the leafless period. 


The notion is also prevalent that 
tapping should be discontinued during 
the fruit-bearing period. The figures 
obtained at Krian show a_ decrease 
during the time the trees were in fruit, 
but no sufficient decrease to seriously 
increase the cost of tapping. The figures 
relating to these tapping experiments 
will be published in the ‘‘ Agricultural 
Bulletin.” 


Careful records have been kept of the 
weight and bulk of latex each day from 
each tree, and the ensuing weight of 
dry rubber. 


The question of how far it is advisable 
to refrain from tapping rubber trees 
after a period of tapping is one upon 
which planting opinion differs very 
greatly. On some estates, after a period 
of some weeks or months of tapping, a 
period of about equal length is allowed 
to elapse without tapping. On others 
and the majority of places tapping is 
continued without cessation, in some 
cases trees having without any reduction 
of yield been tapped for 34 to4 years 
every other day without cessation. On 
the question of daily or alternate days’ 
tapping planters arealso divided, and 
experience of yields points somewhat to 
the advantage of the latter practice. 


There is no physiological reason why 
the tapping should cease during the leaf- 
less or fruit-bearing period; the cutting 


RO Pn Stet eee aS 


tee Lycee ey Ans Oe beeen nS 


ee ere 


A ee ee ae Le ee 


4. : ‘ 
POPE et eA Cyaan Oe 


t fis 2p 


ies ta MA tt 


Gums, Resins, 388 


of the small portions of the bark which 
tapping implies being in the case ofa 
tree of 20” or more in girth so slight an 
injury as to be negligible. 

The best and simplest criterion for 
deciding how long to continue tapping 
is found in keeping a record of the 
amount of latex from each tree from 
1,000 trees or from a field. If these 
figures show no serious and continuous 
decline there is no reason to stop tapping. 
On the other hand when, after a series 
of tappings, say 40 or 50, the amount of 
latex obtained decreases in a marked 
manner, and this decrease is constant, 
the yields being less and less, then it is 
advisable to stop for a period of a month 
at least, and not to begin again until by 
an experimental tapping it is found that 
the flow is again large. 


On one estate the tapping fora number 
of cuts was habitually stopped when 
the yield had attained the maximum, 
and after some weeks’ tapping again 
produced less yield which increased till 
the arbitrary time of ceasing. The 
method, which is adopted to a great 
extent from fear of using too much bark, 
is most unprofitable as it leads to 
stopping before the best yields have 
been obtained. 


It is naturally wise to so arrange 
tapping operations that it will not be 
necessary to retap renewed bark for 
some considerable period, but we do not 
yet know by experiment in the Malaya 
States, what length of time is necessary 
fora healthy tree, carefully tapped, to 
produce new bark containing a large 
number of well-filled latex vessels. The 
time of four years has been arbitrarily 
fixed by some planters, and their tapping 
schemes are arranged in relation to that 
period. That four years, thiee years, 
or two years are necessary for the 
formation of bark suitable for tapping 
cannot yet be definitely stated, but it is 
highly probable from isolated cases 
where such experiments have been made 
that four years is unnecessarily long. 


Experimental work and observations 
on tapping and yield of rubber made in 
Ceylou are unfortunately of little value 
for Malaya. The climate of Ceylon 
rubber districts, with its periods of dry 
weather, is not comparable with the 
conditions in Malaya, where rubber trees 
are in active growth of root, leaf and 
other tissues practically every day of 
the year, and where, even when they 
are leafiess, the growth of trees is not 
entirely stopped. 

On one estate in Perak the yield of 
dry rubber per acre was 800 lbs., a little 
less than 4 lbs, per tree, even though the 


NOVEMBER, 1909.1 


trees were crowded together 220 to the 
acre ; this rubber was sold at an average 
price of some 4s. per lb., thus realising 
about £160 gross profit per acre, of which 
more than 50 per cent. must have been 
net profit. 


PREPARATION OF RUBBER FOR THE 
MARKET. 


There is still no agreement as to the 
best form in which to prepare rubber 
for the home market; block, crépe, 
sheet and biscuit are made by different 
planters for different reasons. 


One reason which makes it difficult tor 
the producer to make up his mind as to 
the best form in which to make his 
rubber is that it is not easy to find what 
the broker and the manufacturer like 
best. A big price fora break of crepe 
gives the impression that this form is 
desired, and will fetch a better price 
than block or sheet. Shortly after a pur- 
chase of block. rubber at a price higher 
than the rest on the market seems to 
imply, that this kind of rubber is wished 

or. 


The leading brokers, buyers, and manu- 
facturers themselves when asked as to 
their opinions are found to differ, and so 
for the present it must remain an open 
question whether block, crepe, or sheet 
will get the best reception of the Euro- 
pean market. 


Light colour and uniformity all 
through the sample are beginning to be 
considered as qualities to be aimed at, 
though the former character is proba- 
bly only desired by the manufacturer 
for a class of goods which can never 
consume a very large quantity of raw 
rubber, and, therefore, if all prepare to 
this standard too much may be supplied. 


All who have studied the matter, or 
who have technical knowledge and ex- 
perience, are agreed that the most im- 
portant quality to be arrived at in plant- 
ation rubber is ‘“‘ nerve,” ‘‘fibre,” * pull,” 
“strength,” or whatever other terms may 
be used for the possessions of elasticity 
and resilience toa high degree. If this 
character of Malayan plantation rubber 
is continued and improved, there is no 
reason to doubt that the manutacturer 
will ina short time begin to seta value 
on it equal to, and perhaps better than, 
that given tothe Para of Brazil. 


The exclusion of all latex which may 
contain too much viscine, resin, ete., 
since itis obtained from young trees, 
‘bulking ” latex is strongly to be recom- 
mended; there is always a market for 
poorer values of rubber by themselves, 
and the inclusion of a small quantity 
of inferior latex may considerably 


———— 


NoveMBER, 1909.] 


reduce the value of the whole break, and 
at the same] time doharm tothe good 
name of the estate for sound rubber. 


Block rubber has great advantages 
over the other forms, in that it is less 
bulky and costly for storage and trans- 
port, less liable to any damage by damp 
or heat in transit. Many leading manu- 
facturers and technical experts in 
Europe consider that the block rubber 
possesses more of the desirable qualities 
of the Brazilian Para than crepe or 
sheet; and the only objection which 
any of them make to block is the fact 
that it cannot always be examined for 
internal impurities without cutting each 
block. This drawback is obviated if the 
blocks are made only 1 to 1% inches 
thick when they are tzansparent, and 
any opaque object included in them can 
re detected by holding them up to the 
ight. 


DISTANCES BETWEEN TREES. 


The average number of trees per acre 
on rubber estates in Malaya in 1908 was 
168, or 16 feet by 16 feet apart; the statis- 
tics for 1907 showed that on the 38lst of 
that year the average was 153, or 17 feet 
by 17 feet apart. 


This, for many reasons, is an improve- 
ment. Itis to be regretted that the 
cultivation of rubber is too young an 
industry to have sufficient experience of 
old trees planted at different distances 
apart to judge of this important question. 


The reasons against close planting in 
rubber—i.e., 12 feet by 12 feet, or 802 per 
acre, or closer—are :— 


That it prevents the tree from growing 
with full vigour and to the greatest 
possible size, forcing it to run up to the 
light and giving it no room for lateral 
branches. 


That it increases the cost of collection 
of rubber, since a larger number of trees 
have to be tapped for the same amount 
of rubber. Thatif it is found necessary 
to give the trees more room, the cutting 
out of a portion of them is fraught with 
much danger to the remainder, inasmuch 
as each dead rubber tree, root or portion 
of root, is a potential centre of root 
disease, and may harbour white ants. 


That the spread of fungal and insect 
disease is helped by the crowding to- 
gether of the trees. 

The advantages claimed for close plant: 
ing are :— 

That it gives for the first years of 
tapping as much larger yield of rubber. 
There is nota great amount of evidence 
on this point, but such evidence as there 
is seems to point to it being true that a 
larger yield of latex and of dry rubber 


389 


Saps and Exudations. 


can be obtained at any rate in the first 
three or four years of tapping. It is also 
claimed that the closeness of the trees 
more quickly produces shade over the 
ground and so prevents the growth of 
weeds. The whole question of weeding 
is being considered at the present time, 
and if it is believed that to cover up the 
ground witha green manure is the best 
method of cultivation, then the fact that 
close planting reduces the cost of weed- 
ing is of no value. 


That in order to compensate for the 
casual losses of trees, whichin the course 
of time must necessarily occur, more 
trees should be planted than are wanted. 
The answer to thisis that where trees 
are planted at large distances, 30 or 
more feet apart, supplies come on with- 
out difficulty, and itis only in crowded 
estates that difficulty is found in re- 
placing casualties. 


To plant more rubber trees than it is 
intended to permanently keepon the 
estate, and afterwards by cutting out to 
reduce the number, is a dangerous 
policy. No one acquainted with diseases 
in plants would deny that to leave the 
dead roots of trees of the same species 
in close proximity to the roots of living 
trees is most likely to encourage root 
fungus and insect pests, while the cost of 
removing the roots, even if the trees are 
cut out when quite young, is prohibitive, 
Ifa planter finds it necessary to give 
more growing room—+i.e., space for the 
branches and leaves of some of his 
trees—it is preferable to pollard some of 
the trees, and allow them to grow slowly 
underneath the branches of the un- 
pruned trees, rather than to leave the 
decaying roots of dead rubber trees, 
which he has cut down, dotted all over 
his fields. i 


COVER PLANTS INSTEAD OF CLEAN 
WEEDING, 


The question as to the relative advan- 
tages of clean weeding and the use 
of cover plants (the use of which 
has been advocated in my annual 
reports for the last three years) is gradu- 
ally being seriously considered by the 
practical planter, and many thousands of 
acres of rubber, certainly notless than 
15,000, are now cultivated with various 
cover plants. 


It needs but little observation of rub- 
ber clearings to decide that an immense 
amount of top soil, containing a large 
proportion of humus, has been washed 
away from sloping land to the detri- 
ment, both present and future, of the 
rubber. Anexamination of the water 
in the drains of flat land, which is dark- 
coloured when the clearing is first opened 


Gums, Resins, 


and gradually becomes clearer when 
many tons of water have passed through 
the soil, will show that this same process 
of exhaustion of the soil is going on 
very rapidly on clean weeded flat Jands 
though not to the same extent as on 
the hillsides. 


Most practical planters have observed 
that the roots of plants in the tropics 
grow more quickly and vigorously when 
the earth where they are growing is 
shaded from the sun, and for this reason 
the surface of nurseries is covered with 
a thatch of grass or other convenient 
covering. 

These arguments seem in themselves 
sufficient to induce a trial of cover 
plants; but the additional argument 
that the process of clean weeding is 
continuous and the most costly of all 
the work on a rubber estate before it 
comes into bearing should be afurther 
reason for the adoption of the system 
of cover plants. ‘ 


Various cover plants have been used 
on acreages varying from 400 acres, and 
practically in all cases with successful 
results. 


Itis unfortunate for the increase in 
the belief in this method of rubber cul- 
tivation that a large number of the 
planters who tried cover plants did so 
On the weediest and worst-drained 
parts of their estates. It would be as 
fair to test a food, whichis recommend- 
ed for supporting working men, on 
emaciated and abnormally weak persons, 
and when it didnot produce the results 
hoped for, deeming ita failure. 


Another reason for some planters not 
finding the use of cover plants so perfect 
a substitute for weeding as they hoped 
was that cover plant (very often crota- 
laria) was sown broadcast, and it has 
been found by experience over large 
areas that this method of planting 
cover plants is wasteful and very much 
less effective than sowing the seed by 
dibbling, planting in furrows, or similar 
methods. The lossmay be due to the 
exposure of the germinating seed to the 
sun, or toits being washed along when 
the tender rootlets are beginning to form, 
or birds may eat the seed, but what- 
ever is the cause it is always found that 
the proportion of the seed-producing 
plants is very small indeed, 

On the other hand, the planting in 
lines, the seed being slightly covered, 
results in 80-100 per cent. of the seed pro- 
ducing healthy plants. 

In planticrg cover plant on steep land 
it is imperative that the lines should 
follow the contour of the land; when 
they are made to runup and down the 


390 


-it is probable that a plant wi 


[NOVEMBER, 1909. 


hillside the seed will be washed down 
with the loosened earth. This results 
in the seed being massed in one place, 
and the young plants growing closely 
ieeEner in clumps at the foot ot the 
ines, ‘ 


The use of cover plants in place of 
clean weeding is now, after three years’ 
constant advocacy, very generally con- 
sidered as an economical and practical 
practice, which I[ have no doubt will 
greatly increase when the benefit to the 
rubber and the saving in expense have 
been proved on a large number of estates. 


The 1elative advantages of various 
plants as cover plants for rubber clear- 
ings isan important question to decide 
before proceeding to lay down fields - 
with one or other. Leguminous plants 
possess the property of increasing the 
amount of available nitrogen in the soil 
by means of bacteria living in their roots 
which obtain nitrogen from the air, and 
in this respect should be preferred to 
other plants, 


The chief thing to consider in laying 
down a cover plant is rapidity and 
cheapnesss in thoroughly establishing it, 
and if a plant is found to quickly take 
possession of the soil and cover it to the 
exclusion of all others, the fact of its 
not being leguminous should not weigh 
against it. 


The ideal plant for the purpose of 
protecting rubber land and eliminating 
or reducing very considerably the weed- 
ing bill, is a plant which grows not more 
than a foot to 18 inches high, is perma- 
nent or persistent for three or four 
years, producing shade over the ground, 
growing so luxuriantly as to exclude 
weeds without forming a thick turf, is 


~leguminous, has no thorns or spikes to — 


interfere with coolies working, has no 
leaves, fruit, or flower which will attract 
vermin or other animals. 


None of the plants at present in use, 
or being tried in the experimental plots 
of the Agricultural Department, fulfil 
absolutely all these requirene aes and 

l yet be 
found better than any at present tried. 

The condition on differenc estates in 
Malaya do not vary very greatly, but 
the differences are sufficient to make 
some places specially favourable to 
ove cover plant and other places to 
other plants. ae : 


In different districts on sloping and 
flat land with different soils and some 
estates it is found that in some passion 
flower will thrive and rapidly cover the 
land where the sensitive plant or crota- 
Jaria do not grow vigorously. On other 


tS eae oe 
eH: Sg 


 Novemper, 1909.] 


places the crotolaria or sensitive plant 
may do much better than passion flower. 


It is easy to decide as to the most 
suitable plant by planting one or two 
trial plots, The following plants all 
have advantages in different ways, and 
if any one of them can be made to 
entirely cover the ground in a short 
time, say four or five months, its acqui- 
sition will be a great gain to the estate 
in improving the growth of the rubber 
and in reducing the wages bill. 


Abrus precatorius, a native of India’ 
where it is used for cover, is leguminous 
with a free creeping habit; it grows 
about one foot above the ground, and 
the branches from one will spread to 15 
or 20 feet from the main stem. The pods 
contain six or eight seeds. The seeds are 
bright vermillion, about the size of 
buckshot, with a small black mark at 
one end; they are used as the karat 
or standard weight for precious stones 
and metal in India. 


Passiflora. fotida (passion flower 
creeper), a creeping non-leguminous plant 
having purple white flowers and yellow 
fruits about the size of a walnut, grows 
very freely on nearly all soils and 
smothers many other plants of a less 
vigorous habit. This creeper never gets 
more than about nine inches to a foot 
high, and very quickly covers the 
ground. It has to be kept from twining 
round young rubber plants, but as it is 
‘very soft this can be done at extremely 
small cost. It is a native plant and com- 
mon all over the Peninsula. 


Crotalaria striata and another species 
of the same genus, Crotalaria incana, 
are leguminous plants, possessing usu- 
ally very numerous and large bacterial 
nodules, and growing freely, when not 
cut, to 7 or8 feet high. It(C. striata) has 
a yellow flower and a light green leaf, 
and affords a good cover if not allowed 
to grow high and scraggy. It should 
be cut to a height of about 2 feet 6 
inches. The cutting is not a costly pro- 
cess, as it is only necessary to slash over 
the tops, leaviug the eut part to remain as 
a mulch on the soil. The seed is obtain- 
able in almost any quantity asa large 
acreage is already planted. 


Tephrosia purpurea and T. candida 
are both vetch-like leguminous plants 
which grow freely on almost any soil, 
and give perhaps a better cover than 
crotalaria. They must, however, be 
slashed over ata height of 2-3 feet, and 
not allowed to run up, otherwise the 
light, and with it the weeds, will gain 
an entrance. 


Mimosa pudica, the “sensitive plant,” 
a leguminous plant with red spherical 


391 Saps and Exudations. 


fiower heads and spiny fruits, is in many 
ways the most suitable plant as yet 
tried for cover. The chief reason which 
makes it disliked by planters is the pre- 
sence of thorns on its stems which are 
unpleasant to coolies walking through it. 


The habit of this plant of shutting its 
leaves in heavy rain and at night is an 
advantage as no rain is lost and dew falls 
on the ground, It never grows more 


_than about two feet high; it persists 


and makes a dense cover over the ground 
when the leaves are not shut, 7.e., when 
the sun is shining and the plant is not 
disturbed. It is, though a native of 
S. America, common in all the planting 
districts and one of the first plants to 
take possession, and keep possession, of 
the roadsides. 


In addition to these plants I have 
recently been shown a creeping legu- 
minous. plant which was found by 
Mr. H. F. Browell of Damansara Estate. 
It is a species of Vigna, having dark 
green leaves and making a dense cover 
which refuses to allow any weeds to 
exist. I have seen a patch of about half 
an acre on Damansara Estate, and there 
itappears to be the best plant for the 
purpose of cover that has been used in 
the Federated Malay States. 


THE FUTURE OF RUBBER. 


The Federated Malay States produce 
about three-fifths of the tin supply ot 
the world, and in a few years’ time 
Malaya should supply a very large pro- 
portion of the world’s demand for rubber. 


In ten years (1919) presuming that 25,000 
acres are planted annually during the 
next five years(a very reasonable esti- 
mate, considering that over 40,000 acres 
were planted during the year in both 
1907 and 1908), the rubber trees of the 
Federated Malay States should yield not 
less than 50,000 tons of dry rubber, 
which at 8s. per lb. represent a value of 
$144,000,000. This amount, should the 
demand for rubber increase at the rate 
it has been annually rising for the last 
nine years, will probably at that time be 
less than 25 per cent. of the world’s 
consumption. 


It is seventy years since the discovery 
of vulcanisation by Goodyear made 
rubber available for economic purposes. 
It is now a necessity of civilised life, and 
it isonly by means of rubber that we can 
solve the difficult problems of transport 
and communication. Without it electric 
wire insulation for telegraphy and light- 
ing, pneumatic and cushion tyres, and 
the air brakes of railways would all be 
impracticable; and in the purposes for 
which it is used in medicine and surgery 


COR EAP Rede et KAT AS AR Yin? ote te yt) 


Pd bees, 


See PL 


at) ED Ot EL OF alee sith ios See ee Ue 


Gums,2Resins; 392 


itis an absolute essential. The opti- 
mistic view that the demand will before 
long exceed the supply is not_more_ un- 
likely than the more usual view of the 
pessimist that the continued planting of 
rubber will result in a supply larger 
than the demand, aid consequently a 
considerable drop in prices. 


That the market will be overstocked 
with rubber is still a haunting fear of 
the owner of rubber property, but as 
each year brings new uses for rubber, 
and increases the amount used in direc- 
tions whereits value is already known, 
the possibility of over-production seems 
less probable. 


Many expert authorities expect that 
developments in the direction of rubber 
street-paving, covering for decks of 
ships, etc., may be looked for in the 
near future. Some two or three years 
ago, when I was looking into the question 
of rubber pavement, I estimated that 
two-ineh-thick rubber of the quality 
which the London and North-Western 
Railway had so successfully used in the 
rubber pavement at the entrance of 
Euston Station if used for paving the 
streets of London, which are at present 
laid with wood or asphalt, would require 
about 90,000 tons of crude rubber. 


If the prophecies so frequently made 
by experts as to the increase in the use 
of motor cars are fulfilled, we have 
another large and increasing demand 
for rubber of good quality, and wherever 
the future possibilities of expansion in 
the rubber market is studied it is found 
to be more than hopeful. The purposes 
for which rubber can and will be used 
economically are unlimited, and we may 
look forward to a coming rubber age on 
which all the most’ suitable rubber 
planting areas of the world, of which 
Malaya can claim to be the best, will be 
required to supply a firm and increasing 
demand, 


Malaya possesses the finest climate in 
the world for the rapid and healthy 
growth of Para rubber, and, since 
millions of acres suitable for this culti- 
vation are still available, there is every 
probability that this country will be in 
the future one of the largest producers 
of rubber in the world. 


The fear of over-production is to some 
extent pardonable on examining the 
magnitude of the figures relating to 
rubber planting in Malaya, but a con- 
sideration of the possibilities of the 
world’s future requirements takes the 
student into figures besides which those 
of Malaya are but small. 


(NOVEMBER, 1909. 
THE BRITISH RUBBER FEVER. 


(From the India Rubber World, Vol. 
XL., No. 6, September, 1909.) 


O furor do plantio en Ceylaocontinua na 
Sua febre ascensional. (The plantation 
frenzy in Ceylon continues with growing 
intensity.)—A Manaos neswspaper. 


The American word ‘‘ boom” accur- 
ately describes the activity of European 
—and especially British—investors in 
subscribing to the capital of planting 
companies in the Far East since rubber 
reached the unprecedented $2 mark. 
The India Rubber World already has 
chronicled the payment of dividends of 
rubber planting companies, in figures as 
high as 80 per cent. With ‘“‘ consols” at 
only 23 per cent., itis not surprising that 
company promoters should take advant- 
age of the recent successes of some 
planting companies to part the British 
fool from his money with rubber asa 
lure. But every ‘‘ boom” is followed by 
a ‘‘fizzle,” and it is to be feared that the 
latter term must be applied ere long to 
some of the recently floated undertakings 
in rubber planting. 


The India Rubber Worid has a list of 
rubber culture companies registered in 
London during the month of July, which, 
while not complete, embraces twenty- 
four corporations, with an aggregate 
nominal capitalization of £1,317,04C 
(=$6,409,375). Now this is a great 
deal of money, and there is reason 
to believe that a large part of it 
actually has been paid over. The 
new enterprises referred to are planned 
to do business in nine different countries 
and colonies; it appears immaterial 
to the investors where a new com- 
pany proposes to operate, so long as 
rubber is mentioned in its prospectus. 
At the same time, so-called rubber 
planting companies have been brought 
out in several other European countries, 
and in Malaysia, Ceylon, and so on. 


Now the large dividends of certain 
well-established rubber plantation com- 
panies in the Far Hast undoubtedly 
have been honestly earned. Most of the 
dividends reported up to date were 
declared and paid before the late extra- 
ordinary rise in the price of rubber; the 
latter, in fact, not only must be regarded 
as temporary, but it had nothing to do 
with the dividends of 50 to 80 per cent. 
already referred to. Butit is a mistake 
to suppose that, because certain planta- 
tions have been successful in producing 
rubber, every plantation—without re- 
gard to soil, altitude or sun exposure— 
will yield equally good results. There 


_ Novemser, 1909.) 


must be much land planted to rubber 
to-day which ultimately will be cleared 
off for another crop to which it is better 
adapted. 


The chief reson for warning, however, 
relates to the question of profits. Take 
the Vallambrosa Rubber Company, Ltd., 
for example. Thereisacompany formed 
without the agency of the promoter. 
The owners of three plantations already 
in existence five years ago ‘ pooled” 
their interests and formed a limited 
company, dividing among themselves a 
certain number of shares, and admitting 
a few personal friends, witha view to 
gaining a little needed additional work- 
ing capital. The total share issue to 
date is £50,000 (=$243,325). The Vallam- 
brosa company were ablein their first 
year to market rubber, and during four 
years they have sold 694,074 pounds, for 
enough to return to the owners £95,000 
in dividends, besides which they hav; 
the plantation. Being organized solely 
as a rubber-planting company, all their 
energies have been devoted to this one 
object, and each year has shown progress 
in the direction of economy in the pro- 
duction of rubber, as well as an improve- 
ment in its quality. 


A dividend of 80 per cent. sounds 
large; no doubt this year still -larger 
dividends will be recorded. But it must 
be kept in mind that the only 80 per 
cent. company to date is practically a 
private company, capitalized by its 
actual owners on a conservative valu- 
ation of their properties before their 
yielding capacity was known or sus- 
pected. In other words, the ‘“ Vallam- 
brosa ” enterprise was capitalised practi- 
cally at cost, by cautious Scotch business 
men dealing with their own property. 
How about the newest companies? 
Have the twenty-four July corpor- 
ations, with an averaged capitalization of 
£54,877, any basic properties comparable 
with those which were at the bottom 
of the Vallambrosa enterprise? Some 
of them even have no rubber planted 
yet. Suppose that, some day, they 
should be equally successful in growing 
rubber, what assurance have the public— 
the owners of the new companies—of 
80 per cent. dividends, or 10 per cent., or 
any dividends at all ? 


Account must be taken, in this connec- 
tion, of the promoters—a class of gentile- 
men whodo not appear to have figured 
in the Vallambrosa organization, but 
who must, wherever they do appear, be 
compensated before the public gets a 
sight of the profits. The Amazon news- 
paper we quote is right in describing 
the English attitude toward rubber just 


393 


Saps and Haxudations. 


now as a‘fever.” The same view 
evidently is taken by the London 
Financial News, which, while warmly 
commending rubber culturein general, 
says in a recent issue that if rubber were 
to have a sharp fall, many of those who 
have been so eager to invest in planting 
companies ‘‘ would madly rush into the 
market and sell their shares,” without 
stopping to find out whether they were 
really worth holding. 


YIELD OF RUBBER. 
(Krom the India Rubber Journal, Vol. 
XXXVII., No. 4, February, 1909.) 


We have been asked to give publicity 
to our opinions on the probable yields of 
rubberfrom Para trees planted in the 
East, in order to enable our readers to 
gain an insight into the differences in 
ultimate profits from estates in the 
Indo-Malayan region. Such a request is 
easy to make, but the satisfaction of 
same necessitates the publication of 
many details, The yield of rubber not’ 
only varies according to fertility of soil 
and climatic factors, but is also to be 
atributed, in part, to the system of 
weeding and tapping adopted, to the 
age of the trees, and the age and thick- 
ness of the primary and subsequently 
formed bark. 


Para trees may generally be expected 
to give larger yields as they grow older, 
but this is obviously not always the 
case if one may take the records of some 
planting companies during the last 
three years as correct. In one or two 
instances the decline in yield per tree 
per annum is due to trees having been 
excessively tapped on a bad system in 
the first year; in other cases the roots 
of the trees have undergone decay in 
consequence of their being always in 
contact with brackish water; in others 
we know that on permanently closely- 
planted estates the roots of the trees 
after the seventh or eighth year have 
not been able to obtain adequate food 
supplies, owing to the superficial soil 
being already packed with roots, and 
that below the first foot being poor in 
avilable plant food. 


Many estates which have shown a 
conspicuous rise in annual output during 
the last three years are known. In 
these instances there has been a gradual 
increase in size of the trees, the vitality 
of the plants hasshown no appreciable 
decline, the soil conditions have been 
improved, there are indications that, 
with still further economies in manage- 
ment and improvement in collecting and 
preparation, the yields of the past will 


Gums, Resins, 


be exceeded with less cash expenditure 
and a reduction in the amount of 
bark used up in tapping. Judging from 
the good results obtained during 1908 
there seems every likelhood of our fore- 
casted yield of ‘‘ one ton per ten acres ” 
being well maintained after the eighth 
year on most of the well-managed 
plantations. 


ToTAL ANNUAL YIELDS, 


The simplest way to deal with this 
subject is to tabulate the total yields 
obtained on well-known estates. A few 
statistics have already been published, 
and as additional information has now 
been gleaned, the following statement 
will be of value :— 


1907. 1908. 
1b. Ib 

Anglo-Malay Rubber Co. .. 224,150 349,450 
Damanasara (Selangore) Rub- : 

ber Co. dey .. 57,376 124,710 
Ceylon Tea Plantations Co, ... 13,426 24,000 
Vallambrosa Rubber Co. .. 222,459 ¥62,459 
Lingii Plantations, Ltd. ....110,740 271,500 
Bukit Rajah (10 months end- 

ing January)... ee. 129,100 157,042 
Inch Kennet Rubber Estates — 14,7693 
Pataling ... 58,064 80,922 

(wet) (wet) 

Consolidated Malay Estates... 63,615 111,585 
Rosehaugh Tea & Rubber Co. 153,358 223,470 
Selangore Rubber Co. ... 120,524 184,176 
Yatiyantota Ceylon Tea Co... 5,840 7,500 
Panawatte Tea and Rubber ... 67 1,100 
Mabira Forest (about) -. 9,600 . 43,942 
Ceylon Rubber Planters 45,724 66,597 
P. P. K. Ceylon Rubber .» 14,800 129,000 
Lanadron Rubber sn. 88,953 181,156 
Perak Rubber Plants(9 months) 27,427 46,994 
Malacca Plantations 9,000 46,584 
Sumatra Para .. 43,852 64,080 
Highlands and Lowlands _... 193,505 210,852 
Kepitigala (9 months) «. 28,040 26,120 
Golden Hope .- . 90,0912 115,660 
Amalgamated Tea Estates Co., 

Limited. dee na T8208 6,000 
Anglo-A merica Direct Tea Trad- ‘ 

ng is .. 23,994 29,600 
Bata Caves Rubber Co. 4,312 15,010 
Consolidated Tea and Lands 

Co. sees ra OSONS 6,100 
General Ceylon Rubber & Tea 19,815 25,800 


YIELD PER ACRE. 


The above list is useful in so far that 


it shows the progress, in yielding capa- 
city, of the properties owned by different 
companies. It is, however, not so use- 
ful as it might be since it does not 
afford any definite information of the 
yield from previously tapped areas, or 
the actual acreage operated upon, On 


394 


[| NOVEMBER, 1909, 


past occasions most companies have, in 
their annual reports, given information 
of the number of trees tapped and 
therefore of the yield per tree ; the Kuala 
Selangore, Malay States Coffee, Rubber 
Growers, Selangore Rubber, and Seram- 
ban Estate Rubber Companies have on 
previous occasions given the yield per 
acre. In order to show the crops ob- 
tained from parts of estates planted 
at different distances, the Vallambrosa 
Rubber Co. and Highlands and Low- 
lands Estates have similarly detailed 
the yield per acre on small areas. In- 
formation of this character is of the 
utmost value, as it enables investors and 
buyers to more accurately determine 
the real position of affairs. We trust 
that the directors of companies who have 
bearing estates in their charge will 
make a point of giving the yield per acre- 
in their annual reports now in course 
of preparation. The figures may not 
always appear very attractive when 
they relate to the yields obtained during 
the first crop, but they will ultimately 
be very serviceable, especially whea the 
maximum yield has been attained. 


At the present time we are not in 
possession of reliable information which 
would enable us to say when a given 
acreage is yielding the minimum, medium 
or maximum crop, though this know- 
ledge is, for obvious reasors, desirable. 
The differences in recorded yields appear 


“enormous, because the number of trees 


instead of acreages have been usually 
quoted, the trees being scattered over 
very large areas. In some cases a yield 
of 1lb. per tree has been obtained from 
trees four years old, but only those fami- 
liar with details know that such trees 
form only a small percentage per acre. 
It should not be difficult to compile a 
statement showing the yield and per- 
centage number of trees tapped per 
acre, each year, until all the trees ona 
given acreage attain the tappable size, 
after that period there is no other course 
open than to record the yield per acre 
per annum for fields of known age. 

is already apparent that some parts of 
Malaya are probably more favourable 
for rubber cultivation than others, but 
information of the annual yielding 
capacity of mature acreage since the 
year they were first tapped would reveal 
the superiority of -one district over 
another, and thus serve a very useful 


purpose in the event of future exten- 


sions being contemplated. This sounds 
very much like scientific land selection 
when it is too late; but to those who 
take that view we would say that 
actual results would form the best basis 
to work upon. 


NOVEMBER, 1909. 
RUBBER. 


(From the Report on the Work of the Im- 
perial Institute, 1908, July, 1909.) 


COUNTRIES OF ORIGIN.—India, Gambia, 
Sierra Leone, Gold Coast, Southern 
Nigeria, British Hast Africa, Zanzibar, 
Nyasaland, Rhodesia, Transvaal, Cape 
Colony, Seychelles, West Indies, British 
Guiana, Portuguese Hast Africa. 


Number of rubbers received in 1908 weed 
Number of rubbers reported on in 1908 ... 94 


The attention which has been devoted 
to rubber and its cultivation during 
recent years in nearly all the tropical 
Colonies and Protectorates shows no 
sign of diminution, and the number of 
specimens reported on by the Imperial 
Institute during 1908 slightly exceeded 
the figures for 1907. In addition to the 
examination of samples of rubber much 
information and advice have _ been 
supplied to Colonial Governments, 
planters, and enquirers in this country 
on points connected with the cultivation 
of rubber-yielding plants or with the 
collection and preparation of rubber. 


Inp1a.—Specimens of Para, Castilloa, 
Ceara, and Ficus rubbers prepared in 
India were reported on during 1908. 


Para rubber (Hevea brasiliensis).—The 
specimens submitted for examination 
were prepared at the Government Ex- 
perimental Gardens at Kullar and Bur- 
liar, in the Nigiri Hills. The rubber 
from both sources was very satisfactory 
in chemical composition, comparing 
favourably in this resepct with plan- 
tation Para rubber from Ceylon, but 
it was rather deficient in strength, 
The specimen from Burliar was much 
lighter in colour than that from Kullar, 
and was consequently valued at a higher 
price, the quotations being 5s. 4d. to 
5s. 5d. per lb,, and 5s, to 5s. 2d. per lb. 
’ yespectively, with plantation Para bis- 
cuits at 5s. 3d, to 5s. 9d. per lb 


Castilloa rubber (Castilloa elastica),.— 
Specimens of this rubber were also re- 
ceived from Kullar and Burliar. The 
rubber from Kullar was of inferior 
quality on account of the large amount 
~ (825 per cent.) of resin present. The 
trees from which the rubber was ob- 
tained were, however, only six years 
old, and it is probable that the quality 
of the rubber will improve as they 
become older. The specimen from Bur- 
liar contained much less resin than that 
from Kullar (about 18 per cent.) and 
was greatly superior in physical pro- 
perties. It was valued at 3s. 6d. tods, 
8d. per lb, in London with fine hard 


50 


395 


Saps and Haxudations. 


Para at 5s. ld. per lb., whilst 3s. 2d. 
to 38s. 4d. per lb, was quoted for the 
specimen from Kullar. 


Ceara rubber (Manthot Glaziovii).—A 
specimen of Ceara biscuit from Kullar 
was of good quality, containing 82°5 per 
cent. of caoutchouc and exhibiting very 
satisfactory physical properties. It was 
valued at 5s. 6d. per lb., with Para 
biscuit quoted at 5s. 3d. to 5s, 9d. per 
lb. A sample of Ceara rubber from 
South Arcot was much inferior in com- 
position to the preceding specimen, con- 
taining only 73°7 per cent. of caoutchouc 
and a high percentage of proteid. It 
was valued at 2s. 5d. per lb., when fine 
hard Para.stood at 3s. 53d. per lb. 


Ficus elastica Rubber,—Two speci- 
mens of this rubber, one in biscuit form 
and the other in scrap, were forwarded 
from Mukkie in the Kanoth Range, 
North Malabar. Both samples contained 
a large amount of resin and were some- 
what deficient in elasticity and tena- 
city. The biscuit rubber, which was 
almost black, was valued at 2s. 6d, per 
lb,, and the reddish scrap rubber at 
2s. 1ld. per lb., with fine hard Para at 
3s. 54d, per Ib. 


GAMBIA.—Ths investigation of the rub- 
ber of Ficus Vegelit from the Gambia 
has been continued, and during 1908 a 
small consignment was received for 
technical trial. The rubber was of re- 
sinous nature, containing from 30 to 35 
per cent, of resin, butas the result of 
trials by manufacturers it was found 
to be suitable for certain technical pur- 
poses. The washed rubber was valued 
at from ls. 7d. to Is, Ild. per Ib., 
with fine hard Para quoted at 2s, 9d. 
per lb. 


SIERRA LEONE.—Ten specimens of 
rubber from Sierra Leone were reported 
on during 1908; they included samples 
of Funtumia, lLandolphia and Ficus 
rubbers. The Funtumia rubber was of 
good quality, the dry product containing 
7 per cent. of caoutchouc, but the 
biscuits were of rather rough appear- 
ance. It was valued at 3s. perlb., with 
fine hard Para at 8s. 53d. per lb. 


A number of samples of Landolphia 
rubber was examined. The well-pre- 
pared rubber was found to be of good 
quality, containing nearly 90 per cent. 
of caoutchouc in the dry material, and 
it was valued at the same price as the 
preceding specimen of Funtumia rubber. 


A specimen of rubber obtained from a 
species of Ficus was found to contain 
37 per cent. of resin, and was therefore 
of inferior quality. It was very similar 


Gums, Resins, 396 


in composition to the Ficus . Vogeliv 
rubber from the Gambia, and would 
realise about the same price. 


GoLp Coast.—A number of specimens 
of Funtumia and Landolphia rubbers 
from the Gold Coast were reported on 
during 1908. 

Asample of Funtumia elastica rubber, 
coagulated by means of an infusion of 
the leaves of Bauhinia reticulata, was 
received from Ashanti. It was of good 
quality, containing 88°5 per cent. of 
caoutchouc, but the sheets were of 
rather rough appearance and _ not 
thoroughly dried. It was valued at 2s. 
8d. to 2s. 10d. per lb., with fine hard 
Para quoted at 3s: 53d. per lb. 


Three other specimens of Funtumia 
rubber from Ashanti had been prepared 
by ‘‘creaming” the latex. They were 
of very good quality so faras chemical 
composition is concerned, containing 
from 88°5 to 89 per cent. of caoutchouc 
and low percentages of resin and proteid. 
The commercial value of the samples 
was however reduced by the facts that 
the cakes had been made too thick and 
contained a considerable amount. of 
moisture ; they were also of rather rough 
appearance. The specimens were valued 
at from 2s. 7d. to 2s. 10d. perlb., with fine 
hard Para quoted at 4s. 6d. per Ib. 


A fifth sample of Funtumia rubber 
from Ashanti had been prepared in 
biscuits by the spontaneous coagulation 
of the latex. 1t was much less satis- 
factory in chemical composition than 
the preceding specimens, containing 
only 71:5 per cent. of caoutchouc and 
large amounts of resin and proteid. It 
was, however, much superior in appear- 
ance, and was valued at 3s. 6d. to 38s. 8d. 
per lb, with fine hard Para quoted at 
4s. 6d. per lb. 


A specimen of “ Pempeneh” rubber, 
derived from Landolphia owariensis 
growing in the Northern Territories, 
was found to be of very good quality, 
containing 90°6 per cent. of caoutchoue, 
6 per cent. of resin, and less than | per 
cent. of proteid. It was valued at 3s, to 
3s. 8d. per lb,, with fine hard Para at 
3s. 53d. per Ib. 


Six specimens of latex and two samples 
of Ficus rubber received from an estate 
near Axim were examined. The Ficus 
rubbers contained 22 and 27 per cent. 
of resin, and were, therefore, of inferior 
quality. Samples of Ficus latex which 
were stated to correspond to the speci- 
mens of prepared rubber were found to 
yield products of similar character. A 
specimen of Landolphia latex, probably 
from ZL. owariensis, yielded rubber of 


“ 


good quality, but the other latices, 
stated to be derived from species of 
Landolphia, Tabernaemontana and An- 
thostema, and from Funtumia africana 
furnished resinous products of no com- 
mercial value. 


A substance resembling gutta percha, 
derived from the rhizomes of a plant 
occurring in the Colony, wasalso investi- 
gated. 


SourHERN NIGERIA.—A number of 
specimens of Funtumia elastica rubber 
prepared in biscuits or sheets have been 
received for examination and valuation 
in comparison with the ordinary lump 
rubber as prepared by the natives. One 
sample, described as ‘“‘Anyo” rubber, 
was in the form of dark-coloured 
biscuits which had been imperfectly 
dried, and consequently arrived in a 
mouldy condition. The rubber was of 


good quality, containing 86°5 per cent, © 


of caoutchouc, and was valued at 2s. 6d. 
to 2s, 8d. per lb., with fine hard Para 
quoted at 8s. 54d, per lb. Samples of 


‘Benin lump rubber sent at the same 


time were vaiued at from ls. 6d. to ls. 
11d. per lb. 


Three further samples of Funtumia 
rubber in biscuit form were forwarded 
from Benin City. They were of satis- 
factory composition, containing from 
87'9 to 89:8 per cent. of caoutchoue, but 
were of very rough appearance. They 
were valued at from 2s. 8d. to3s. 4d. per 
lb., with fine hard Para at 4s. 6d. per lb., 
and Benin lump at 2s. per Ib. 


A specimen of ‘ Ubabikpan” rubber 
derived from Clitandra elastica was 
found to beof very good quality, con- 
taining 904 per cent. of caoutchoue, 
whilst the percentages of resin and 
proteid were low. It was valued at 
2s. 8d. to 2s. 10d. per lb., with fine hard 
Para at 38s. 6d. per lb. 


Asample of rubber derived from the 
Marodi vine consisted of a thick rough 
biscuit of brown rubber, dry and well 
prepared. It contained over 80 per cent. 
of caoutchouc, but a rather large 
amount of proteid. It was valued at 
2s. 6d. per lb., with fine hard Para at 
8s. 1d. per lb. 


A specimen of rubber believed to have 
been prepared from Ficus elastica was 
fouud to be very satisfactory in chemical 
composition, but deficient in physical 
properties. On the latter account its 
commercial value was only low. 


East AFRICA PROTECTORATE.—The ex: 


amination of a small ball of Ceara rubber 
from the Kibos district showed that the 
percentages of resin, proteids and in- 


[NoVEMBER, 1909. 


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soluble matter were all rather excessive. 
It was valued at about 8s. per lb., with 
fine hard Para at 4s, 383d. per lb. 


ZANZIBAR.—Small samples of Para and 
Castiiloa rubbers experimentally pre- 
pared in Zanzibar were received for 
examination. 


The Para rubber was of very good 
quality but contained a fair amount of 
vegetable impurity and a little more 
resin than usual. 


The Castilloa rubber was of very re- 
sinous nature containing only 77 per cent. 
of caoutchouce and 20°5 per cent. of resin. 
No information was available as to the 
age of the trees from which the specimen 
was obtained. The samples were too 
small for valuation. 


CAPE CoLony.—A specimen of coagulat- 
ed latex received from Cape Colony was 
found to contain 64 per cent. of resin, and 
would, therefore, have very little, if any, 
commercial value. It was_ probably 
derived from a species of Euphorbia. 


RuopEsiA.—A sample of Ceara rubber 
from North Hastern Rhodesia proved to 
be of inferior quality on account of the 
large percentage of sand which it con- 
tained ; otherwise it was of normal com- 
position. It was valued at 1s. 8d. per Ib., 
with fine hard Para at 3s. 54d. per lb. 


A specimen of so-called rubber was 
also received from Southern Rhodesia. 
It proved to be a resinous product, 
resembling the material obtained from 
species of Euphorbia in South Africa. 


SEYCHELLES.—Specimens of Para and 
Vahea rubber were received from 
Seychelles for examination. 


The three samples of Para rubber were 
obtained from a small number of trees 
under five years old, but of considerable 
size. Thexrubber was very satisfactory 
in composition, comparing favourably 
in this respect with Para rubber from 
Ceylon and the Federated Malay States, 
but was deficient in strength. The 
latter defect. was probably chiefly due 

-to the fact that the rubber had been 
obtained from young trees. From the 
results of the chemical examination, 
however, there appears to be every 
likelihood that the Para trees in 
Seychelles will yield excellent rubber as 
they become older. 


The Vahea rubber, derived from a 
climbing plant introduced from Mada- 
gascar was of good quality, the best 
specimen containing ¥1 per cent. of 
caoutchouc, but the cost of preparing 
the rubber in aclean form is practically 
prohibitive. 


897 Saps and Exudations. 


JAMAICA.—A. sample of the rubber of 
Forsteronia floribunda, a clinbing plant 
occurring in Jamaica, was found to be of 
good quality, containing 88'8 per cent. 
of cnoutchoue. It was valued at 2s, 4d. 
per lb., with fine hard Para at 3s. 54d. 
per lb, 


BRITISH GUIANA.—The rubber obtained 
from Sapium Jenmani in British Guiana 
has been carefully investigated in order 
to determine its composition and 
value. A number of specimens, in 
the form of biscuits, scrap block, and 
ball, bave been analysed, and_ the 
results show that the rubber is of 
very good quality so far as chemical 
composition is concerned, The percent- 
age of caoutchouc recorded range from 
87 to 92 per cent., and of resin from 2:0 to 
4°2 per cent.; the best specimen contain- 
ed 92°4 per cent. of caoutchoue, to 2 per 
cent. of resin and 2°8 per cent. of proteid. 
The following valuations were obtained : 
Serap block from 2s. 4d. to 8s. per lb.; 
balls 2s. 6d. per lb.; and the _ best 
biscuits 3s. 6d. per lb., with fine hard 
Para at 38s. 53d. perlb. There is, there- 
fore, no longer any doubt that the rub- 
ber yielded by this tree is of excellent 
quality if carefully prepared. 


A sample of Balata from British 
Guiana was of very good quality, con- 
taining 50°7 per cent. of gutta and 44'8 
per cent. cf resin. The percentage of 
gutta is higher than that usually re- 
corded for Balata. The specimen was 
valued at 2s. 24d. perlb. The latex of 
the Bastard Bullet tree was found to 
yield a product containing 70°6 per cent. 
of resin, therefore differing widely in 
composition from true balata, 


PORTUGUESE HAST AFRICA.—Specimens 
of Ceara, Landolphia, and Mascaren- 
hasia rubber from Portuguese Hast 
Africa proved to be of good quality, 
whilst the products obtained from 
Ficus sp., Landolphia florida and Dijlor- 
rhynchus mossambicensis were of re- 
sinous nature and of little or no value. 


An examination has also been made 
of Bitinga tubers (Raphionacme utilis) 
and the rubber they furnish. The 
partly dried tubers as received con- 
tained from 1'10 to1°‘5 per cent. of rubber, 
corresponding to a yield of 9°3 to 11°6 
per cent. from the dry material. The 
sample of prepared rubber was of very 
fair quality, but was rather sticky and 
contained a considerable amount of 
vegetable and mineral impurity. Trials 
are being made to ascertain whether 
the tubers of this plant, which is stated 
to flourish on poor soils not adapted to 
other rubber plants, can be profitably 
utilised as a source of rubber. 


Gums, Resins 398 


THE ADVANCE IN RUBBER. 


(From the Chemist and Druggist, Vol. 
LXXV., No. 1, 548, August 21, 1909.) 


In view of the remarkable advance 
in the price of raw rubber, we have 
made inquiries as to what effect this 
is having upon the prices of the finished 
products handled by chemists and drug- 
gists. The extracts from manufac- 
turers’ and dealers’ letters, which we 
print-on another page, show how the 
matter stands. It will be seen that the 
advance in most instances varies from 
5 per cent. tol5 per cent., according to 
the class of goods, and if the market 
for rubber should further advance, it 
is quite likely that prices will have to 
be again adjusted. Up to the present 
buyers are still at an advantage, as 
the advance in raw rubber is not yet 
fully reflected in the finished article ; 
but when makers’ stocks on hand have 
been worked off, and if the advance 
on raw rubber is maintained, further 
increases may be looked for. Judging 
from the tenor of the letters we have 
received, it would appear that there is 
an unsettled time ahead for the makers 


of rubber goods, who are compelled to. 


face an enormous advance in raw rubber 
without a compensating advance on 
finished products. In 1903 and 1904 there 
were three advances each of 10 per cent. 
on the part of manufacturers, but on 
the present occasion the advance is 
phenomenal and more pronounced. This 
may be judged from the fact that in 
February, 1908, fine hard Para rubber 
was selling at 2s. 9d. per lb. on the 
spot, whereas to-day it is worth 8s. 3d. 
July was an exciting month, prices 
commencing at 6s, 6d. and closing at 
8s, 4d. They dropped to 8s. early this 
month, -but this was merely temporary; 
and the market has again advanced to 
8s. 8d. rate. How long these high prices 
are expected to rule it is impossible 
to state. In certain quarters the opinion 
is held that they must rule for many 
months to come, some brokers believ- 
ing that 10s. will be reached. As it 
is, forward business for 1910 is being 
done at about ls. per lb. below current 


eae ae 
: 7 


(NOVEMBER, 1909, 


rates; on the other hand, the opinion 
is expressed that a decline of 2s. to 3s. 
per lb. may take place shortly, but 
even well-informed brokers are not ina 
position to judge. Meanwhile, there has 
been a remarkable boom in the flotation 
of new rubber companies, July alone 
establishing a record with twenty-three 
companies, involving capital of over 
£1,860,000. These concerns are getting 
to work as quickly as possible, and 
future supplies, say, within the next 
four or five years, are bound to be 
materially increased, judging by the 
acreage devoted to rubber in the Hast, 


where it is estimated there are 600,000 © 


acres now under cultivation. 


Such a high figure as at present pre- 
vails for rubber is undoubtedly detri- 
mental to the best interests of makers, 
whose trade in the present famine tends 
to disorganisation, as naturally retail- 
ers do not care to stock high-priced 
goods which are liable to violent fluctu- 
ations. The publicalso object to pay 
the higher prices; but it should ke 
explained to them that the present rise 
is unprecedented, and that when reduced 
prices again prevail for rubber, they 
will have the benefit. In the present 
market conditions chemists would be 
well advised to cover their winter re- 
quirements early. It need hardly be 
said that the development in the motor- 
ing and cycling industries is responsible 
for the greatly increased demand for 
rubber, and these large users are the 
first to feel the pinch. Some of them 
maintain that the abnormal advance 
is not due to natural fluctuations of 
supply and demand, but to internal and 
artificial manipulation of the market. 
Consequently they deprecate this in- 
terference with the flow of raw mate- 
rials, resulting in loss and inconvenience 
to themselves and customers. The same 
remarks apply also to rubber druggists’ 
sundries makers, who no doubt would 
like to see prices at round about 4s. 
per lb. We understand that German 
rubber manufacturers have raised their 
prices from 10 per cent. to 15 per cent. 
on surgical articles of soft rubber in 
order to avoid making any alteration 
in. quality. 


Mitts se ill i 


ail 


flora, from 


NoveEMBER, 1909.] 


399 


OILS AND FATS. 


OILS AND OIL-SEEDS. 
(Report on the Work of the Imperial 
Institute, 1908, No. 601, July, 1909.) 


COUNTRIES OF ORIGIN.—Sudan, British 
Hast Africa, Uganda, Rhodesia, Trans- 
vaal, Sierra Leone, Gold Coast, Southern 
Nigeria, Northern Nigeria, India, Feder- 
ated Malay States, West Indies, British 
Guiana, Australia, Fiji, Portuguese Hast 
Africa, Mexico, 

No. of oils and oil-seeds received in 1908 ... 66 
No. of oils and oil-seeds reported on in 1908... 53 

FRUITS AND SEEDS OF BALANITES 
AEGYPTIACA.—A sample of ‘ Heglig” 
(Balanites cegyptiaca) fruits was re- 
ceived from the Sudan. The oil from 
the seed-kernels was regarded by ex- 
perts as equal in value to refined cotton- 
seed oil, but the commercial prospects 
of the fruits were not considered to be 
very favourable, owing to the difficulty 
of extracting the kernels. The latter 
would probably be worth about £4 or 
£6 per ton, Samples of the oil and seed 
from Northern Nigeria were also ex- 
amined. As the oil of Balanites egypti- 
aca is reputed by the natives of Uganda 
to be of value as a remedy for sleeping 
sickness, specimens of the fruits and 
oil were submitted to pharmacological 
tests, which, however, gave negative 
results. 


FRUITS, SEEDS, AND OIL OF BASSIA 
spP.—Samples of the fruits, seeds, and 
fat of Bassia latifolia and B. longifolia, 
and of the seeds and fat of B. butyracea 
from India were examined, and results 
were obtained which were fairly in ac- 
cord with those of previous observers, 
and showed that the fats would be of 
value for edible use or for soap-making, 


BEESWAX.—Samples of beeswax from 
the Sudan and the Gold Coast were ex- 
amined and found to be of good quality, 


SEEDS OF CARAPA spp.—Seeds of 
Carapa procera from Sierra Leone were 
found to yield an oil which was valued 
at £20 10s. per ton, whilst the seed- 
kernels were regarded as worth about 
£10 per ton. 


A sample of the seed of Carapa grandi- 
Uganda, furnished an oil 
valued at £24 to £26 per ton. The seed- 
kernels were considered to be worth £5 


_to £6 per ton, assuming that the cake 


could be sold at £2 per ton, 


CAsToR OIL SEEDS,—Castor oil seeds 
from North-Western Rhodesia were of 


. good quality, and were regarded by 


manufacturers as worth 5s, per ton 


more than East Indian castor seed. At 
the end of the year, three samples from 
Fiji were under investigation, 

Dixa Nuts.—Five samples of Dika nuts 
were received from Southern Nigeria. 
Experts reported that the fat obtainable 
from these seeds possesed a value equal 
to that of palm-kernel oil (£27 5s. per 
ton), and stated that Dika kernels would 
be readily saleable. Unfortunately, 
however, the nuts do not appear to be 
obtainable in large quantities at a low 
cost. 

LopHirA ALATA SEEDS.—Three con- 
signments of the seeds of Lophira alata 
were received from Sierra Leone. The 
oil was valued by experts at £1 or £2 
per ton in advance of cotton-seed oil. 


MAFOUREIRA SEEDS (Trichilia emeti- 
ca).—Samples of Mafoureira seeds were 
received from the Transvaal and Portu- 
guese Hast Africa. The seeds were sub- 
mitted to experts for technical trial. 
The fat, however, proved to be dark 
coloured and difficult to bleach, and 
was therefore unsuitable for the better 
qualities of soap, and would only real- 
ise the price of a ‘‘soft, off-coloured 
tallow.” The cake is unsuitable for 
feeding purposes, as it is bitter, and 
probably emetic. A price of £9 5s. 
per ton has been offered for the seeds in 
this country. 


OmPpHALEA MBGACARPA SEEDS.—The 
seeds of Omphalea megacarpa were 
found to yield a pale yellow, faintly bit- 
ter oil, which is less viscous than castor 
oil and differs to some extent in its chemi- 
cal constants. The pharmacological acti- 
vity of the oil has been studied by 
Professor Cash, F.R.S., who regards it as 
a valuable, non-irritant cathartic, 


PaRA RUBBER-SEED OIL (Hevea brasi- 
liensis)—Samples of Para rubber seeds 
and oil were received from the Feder- 
ated Malay States. The _ results 
of their examination confirmed the 
opinion that the oil could be used for 
the same purposes as linseed oil. <A ton 
of oil, or five tons undecorticated seeds, 
was requested for technical trials on a 
manufacturing scale. 


PYCNANTHUS SEEDS AND ‘ MAcnk.”— 
Samples of the nuts and mace of Pycnan- 
thus Schweinfurthii were received from 
Uganda. The seed-kernels yielded a 
dark brown, solid fat, which would 
need to be refined before it could be 
used for soap-making, A firm of soap 
manufacturers reported that probably 
the nuts could not be utilised com- 
mercially unless they are obtainable in 


Oils and Fats. 


very large quanitities at a low cost. 
The “mace” furnished a dark orange- 
red oil, which can only be decolorised 
by means of alkali, involving the re- 
moval of the large amount of free acids 
present, and it therefore seems unlikely 
that the mace could be used commer- 
cially as a source of oil. 

RICINODENDRON HEUDELOTIT SEEDS.— 
These seeds from Southern Nigeria were 
found to furnish a rapidly drying oil. A 
consignment was submitted to a firm of 
varnish makers, who made careful 
technical trials with the oil, and arrived 
at the conclusion that its propeities are 
intermediate between those of T’ung oil 
and linseed oil, and that it would be 
suitable as a substitute for the former. 
Jt appears somewhat doubtful, how- 
ever, whether the collection and expor- 
tation of the seeds would prove remuner- 
ative. 

Among other products examined, may 
be mentioned Shea butter-nuts from 
Sudan, seeds of Croton macrostachys 
from Uganda,sesame seed from Khodesia, 
seeds and fat of Pentadesma butyracea 
from Sierra Leone, ‘‘Ikpan” seeds and 
the berries and oil of a Sapindaceous 
plant from Southern Nigeria, groudnut 
oil from Northern Nigeria, Amvoora Rohi- 
tuka oil from India, vegetable waxes 
from South Africa and Mexico, and 
“M’Fucuta” seeds from Portuguese 
East Africa. j 

Summaries of reports of the investiga- 
tions of various African oils and_ oil- 
seeds have been published in the ‘‘ Bul- 
letin of the Imperial Institute,” 1908, 
VI., 248, 353. 

The following investigations were in 
progress at theend of the year :—The 
examination of twenty samples of palm 
fruits and oil of different varieties from 
the Gold Coast; specimens of ‘‘ ben” oil 
seeds from Northern Nigeria; and seeds 
of Pentaclethra macrophylla from 
Sierra Leone and Southern Nigeria. A 


study wasalso being made of the fro-. 


duction of stearin from Indian cotton- 
seed oil, and, in connection therewith, a 
comparative examination of Indian 
“ ohi” from butfaloes’ and cows’ milk 
was being carried out. 


VOLATILE OILS. 

COUNTRIES OF ORIGIN.—Cyprus, U gan- 
da, Gold Coast, Seychelles, Ceylon, India, 
Fiji, Bermuda. 

No. of volatile oils received in 1908 Benen W5t8) 
,, of volatile oils reported onin 1908 ... 10 

The volatile oils received during the 
year consisted mainly of ‘‘grass oils,” 
such as ‘“‘ lemon grass” and “‘ citronella,” 
Eure nua oils, origanum and majoram 
oils, 


400 


_excellent quality, 


‘ Ca * 
J Bie = 


SE 
¥- 4 


[Novempmr, 1909. _ 


LEMONGRASS OILS.—These were receiv- 
ed from Uganda, Ceylon, Fiji, and Ber- 
muda. Boththe Bermuda and Uganda 
oils were somewhat low in citral, the 
principal odoriferous constituent of 
lemongrass vil, and were, consequently, 
of small value. Unfortunately, the 
market for lemongrass oil was for the 
greater part of the year so overstocked 
that this oil was practically unsaleable. 


CITRONELLA OILs.—A sample of this 
was received from the Gold Coast. It 
was of rather abnormal character, and 
information as to its botanical origin is 
being sought. 

A very complete series ot ‘‘ grass oils” 
has been received from Ceylon and is at 
present under investigation. 

OILS FROM ORIGANUM SP.—These were 
received from Cyprus. They included 
two samples of origanum oil, portions 
of consignments offered for sale in 
London by the Government of Cyprus. 
The samples were cf the usual good 
quality, and contained about 80 per cent. 
of carvacrol. It has been ascertained 
that better prices might be obtained for 
this origanum oil in commerce if it were 
rectified so as to remain colourless when 
kept, A process of rectification was 
devised during the year, and this will 
be tried on a large scale in Cyprus in the 
coming season, and tor this’ purpose a 
modern rectifying stillis being specially 
constructed in London. 

The preparation of pure carvacrol, on 
a commercial scale, from this oil has also 
been suggested to the Government of 
Cyprus, and a small trial consignment 
of this carvacrol has been sold recently 
to a London firm. Cyprus marjoram oil 
is being completely investigated witha 
view to ascertaining whether it is iden- 


tical with the sweet marjoram oil of — 


commerce. The exact botanical origin 
of each of these oils has not yet been 
settled, and this point is being investi- 
gated at the Royal Gardens, Kew. 
TURPENTINE O1Ls.—These were re- 
ceived from India. A full investigation 
is being made of these oils in comparison 
with American, French, and Russian 


turpentine oils. : 


VARIOUS OILS.—These included laurel 
oil from Cyprus, which proved to be of 
i t and bay oils from 
Fiji, which are still under investigation. 
Among products yielding aromatic oils 
on distillation, were cloveleaves from 
Seychelles, which furnished 4'5 per cent. 
by weight of the clove-leaf oil referred 
toin the Report on the work of the 
Imperial Institute in 1906 and 1907 (p.61), 
and Chlorocodon roots from Uganda 


from which a new aromatic isomeride of. 


vanillin was isolated. 


a 
"% 


= 


ty Fs i "_ 


amounted to 246,608 tons, 


SOY BEAN TRADE IN CHINA. 


(From the Indian Trade Journal, 
Vol. XIV., No. 170, July 1, 1909.) 


Attention is called by the United 
States Consul at Newchwang to the 
exports of Chinese beans to the United 
Kingdom, which are expected to develop 
into a considerable trade and which are 
competing seriously with Indian linseed 
and cotton seed in home markets. Since 
the closing of the river to navigation, 
he says, large numbers of carts have 
been entering the town with inland 
produce, and great quantities of beans 
have been stored for export in the 
spring. Itis difficult to obtain reliable 
figures concerning the quantity brought 
by rail, but it is estimated that the total 
quantity brought in by rail and carts 
during the four months December-March 
will reach 88,000 tons, against 30,000 tons 
for the same period last winter, This 
quantity, however, is small compared 
with the stocks shipped to Dalny by 
rail fromthe north, and when the thaw 
sets in putting a stop to cart traffic, 
unless there are early spring rains, there 
is very little prospect of large supplies 
coming down by river boats, as the snow 
thus far has been insufficient to give the 
requisite draft of water in the up-river 


reaches. Beans, bean cake, and bean 
oil are _ the_ principal products of 
Manchuria. The prices of these during 


the past season have been higher than 
ever before, but how much of this is due 
to the ability of Japan, a gold-standard 
cvuntry, to pay more in silver, because 
silver has been cheap, cannot be posi- 
tively stated. 

The bean cake and bean oil go chiefly 
to Japan, but shipments have gone to 
England, France, and the United States, 
during the past year. The American 
shipment was a small quantity sent from 
Newchwang merely asa sample. During 
the year the exports to Hngland amount- 
ed to about 70,000 bags. Thisis a new 
development said to have been brought 
about by English experts who have 
made a study of the beans. They have 
discovered, it is said, a means of extract- 
ing an oil therefrom, for culinary use as 
well as for lubricating purposes, the 
residue being converted into cattle feed. 
The exports of bean cake from New- 
chwang to foreign countries in 1908 
The exports 
of beans from Newchwang to foreign 


401 


Oils and Fats. 


countries and other Chinese ports during 
1908 were as follows, in tons: Black 
beans, 16,498 ; green beans, 31,873 ; white 
beans, 4,815; yellow beans, 75,996; red 
and small green’ heans, 3,634; total 
132,316 tons. 


Mr. Consul F. W. Playfair, in his 
Report on the Trade of Nagasaki for 
the year 1908, gives the following details 
about soy beans and their products :— 


The largest increase under any heading 
is that of the import of oil cakes for 
manure, which is £83,485, an advance 
over 1907 or more than 60 per cent, The 
reasons for this increase are (1) the 
extremely Jow price of bean cake in 
China, and (2) the increase in the area 
under cultivation. The bean cakes come 
from Newchwang and Dalny ; rape-seed 
cake from Shanghai, the collecting centre 
for Yangtsze River ports. Theimport of 
rape-seed cake during 1908 was very con- 
siderable. It is used principally for 
tobacco plantations. 


In a report to his Government the 
Japanese Consul-General in Mukden 
says:—‘'The season for the export of 
beans and oil cake, the principal staples 
of Manchuria, opens in November and 
closes in March or April, and the des- 
tinations are chiefly Japan and other 
parts of China (Central and South). 
Lately beans_have begun to be exported 
to Kurope. During November last 21,804 
piculs(=183} lbs.) were shipped to Liver- 
pool, where they are chiefly used as an 
ingredient in the manufacture of soap. 
The cake remaining after the oil is 
squeezed out is used to feed cattle. In 
December last 152,357 piculs were export- 
ed_to Kurope, half the quantity being 
shipped for England and the other half 
to Belgium and the Netherlands, it being 
used in the manufacture of soap as in 
the case of Liverpool. The export of 
a to Kurope has an excellent out- 
ook. 


Owing to this increased export to 
Kurope the price of beans is being forced 
up; nevertheless, it is expected that 
even larger quantities will be shipped 
during the present year. 


Mr. Consul Pitzipios, in his Report on 
the Trade of Chinkiang for the year 
1908, states that the exports of bean 
cake in that yearamounted to 588,123 
cewts. He adds that this cake is produced 
very cheaply and goes principally to 
Japan. 


402 


[NOVEMBER, 1909, 


DYES AND TANS. 


TANNING MATERIALS. 
(From the Report on the Work of the 
Imperial Institute, 1908, No. 601, 
July, 1909.) 


COUNTRIES OF ORIGIN.—British East 
Africa, Natal, Northern Nigeria, Gold 
Coast, Gambia, India Portuguese Kast 
Africa. 


No. of tanning materials received in 1908 ... 16 
reported on in 1908 ... 18 


34 99 99 


The tanning materials examined during 
the year belong to three groups :— 


1. MANGROVE PRopucTS.—Three man- 
grove barks, from Portuguese East 
Africa, were found to contain 23:3, 28°38, 
and 41'76 per cent. of tannin. The 
samples were of special interest, because 
No, 2, on further examination, was found 
to contain 39°8 per cent. of tannin in the 
inner bark, and only 897 per cent. in 
the outer bark, clearly illustrating the 
desirability of scraping the outer layers 
off mangrove bark before shipment. A 
mangrove bark from the Gambia was of 
exceptional interest in yielding a very 


light-coloured leather, but unfortunately, 


it contained only 25'7 per cent. of tannin. 


The enquiry on the manufacture of 
Indian mangrove extracts, referred to in 
the Report for 1906-7 (p. 67), was com- 
pleted during the year. Mangrove 
leaves from British East Africa were 
also examined, but proved to contain 
too little tannin and too much salt to 
be of value as a tannin agent. 


2. WATTLE BARKS.—A number of 
enquiries have been received relating to 
this product during the year, and infor- 
mation has been furnished to the Govern- 
ment of Natal respecting machinery and 
processes for making wattle extract, 
and also regarding the competition ot 
other tanning materials with wattle 
bark in the United Kingdom, Six 
samples of wattle bark were examined 
for the Natal Government, mainly with 
a view to ascertaining the influence of 
the situation of a wattle plantation on 
the bark produced. These results are 


summarised inter alia in articles in the 


“Bulletin of Imperial Institute,” 1908, 
VL, 157, and 417. 


CAESALPINIA Pops.—‘‘ Divi-divi” pods 
from the Gold Coast proved to be not 
well prepared and deficient in tannin. 
Further supplies of ‘‘ teri” pods were 
received from India during the year, 
and were submitted to commercial firms 
for trial and valuation, 


Acacia Pops.—Acacia arabica pods 
from Northern Nigeria were found to 
contain 26°6 per cent. of tannin. 


Full particulars regarding most of 
these tannin materials and of others 
investigated at the Imperial Institute 
in recent years are given in reports and 
articles published in the ‘Bulletin of 
the Imperial Institute,” 1907, V., 348, 
1908; V1., 121, 167, 175, and 417. : 


NATURAL DYESTOFES. 
(From the Report on the Work of the 
Imperial Institute, 1908, No. 601, 
July, 1909.) 


COUNTRIES OF ORIGIN.—Northern Ni- 
geria, Scuthern Nigeria, Sierra Leone, 
India, Jamaica. 

Number of dyestuffs received in 1908 ..._ 17 

é reported on in 1908 ... 15 


Natural dyestuffs are now of so little 
importance in commerce that their in- 
vestigation is generally of more purely 
scientific than practical importance. 
There are, however, still a few natural 
dyestuffs which for certain purposes 
have not been entirely supplanted by 
aniline and other artificial dyes. Among 
the most important of these arelogwood, 
camwood, annatto, quercitron bark and 
natural indigo, and enquiries relating 
to, or samples of, all these products have 
been dealt with in the course of the year. 
There has been some revival of interest 
in Indian indigo, chiefly on account of 
the planting experiments with Natal- 
Java indigo, which have been carried on 
during the last few years in India. This 
species furnishes a superior yield of 
indigo, and a number of enquiries on the 
subject were dealt with. Owing to a 
failure in demand for Jamaica logwood, 
enquiries were received from that island 
as to the markets and prospects for this 
wood in Europe, and a memorandum on 
the subject was prepared, and enquiries 
were placed in a position to negotiate 
directly with consumers in this country. 


Other enquiries dealt with the method 
of formation of the red-colouring matter 
in camwood, the preparation and value 
of quercitron bark, and the identifica- 
tion of samples of saffron. 

An interesting series of materials used 
in tanning and dyeing the native leather 
of West Africa was received during the 
year, and a full account of these, with 
details of the method of using them, 
was published in the ‘‘ Bulletin of the 
Imperial Institute,” 1908, VI,, 175. 


NOVEMBER, 1909, | 


408 


FIBRES. 


REPORT ON PROGRESS OF COTTON 
GROWING AT THE COAST. 


By T. H. ROBERTSON. 


(From the Agricultural Journal of Brit- 
ish Fast Africa, Vol. I1., Part L, 
April, 1909.) 


To describe in detail what has been 
accomplished in the direction of the 
development of Cotton Growing in 
East Africa would entail an enormous 
amount of labour, and serve no purpose, 
and it is therefore intended to deal with 
only the main facts. 


It is felt that asensible stimulus has 
been given to the Cotton Growing indus- 
try, and in this connection the coast belt 
has risen to the occasion in a very 
marked manner. 


The Planters (Europeans) have been 
urged not to be misguided by the pros- 
pects of large profits, but in the words 
of Sir Alfred Jones they have been 
advised to work economically, work per- 
fectly, and with close and careful study 
of the plant and success is sure to 
follow. 


It isa matter of regret that the climatic 
conditions of 1907 were so unfavourable, 
the rainfall was very short, and the 
harsh cutting wiuds of October and Nov- 
ember did an immense amount of damage 
to the then maturing bolls, and as 
these conditions prevailed right up to 
Christmas and eveninto January and 
February, the second pickings were 
practically nil. 


During the fruiting periods short 
heavy rains injured the bolls causing 
many to fall to the ground. 


There seems no doubt, however, that 
should the planters and natives show 
the same enterprise and courage in the 
future asthey have done in the past, 
eotton cultivation will become estab- 
lished on the coast on the only possible 
permavent basis—a remunerative busi- 
ness to all cultivators. 


Early Difficulties—The early difficul- 
ties were very numerous and large sums 
of money for educational work had 
to be expended. 


A system of cultivation and other de- 
tails gave much trouble, but the ex- 
periments of the Department of Agri- 
culture from the earliest days parti- 
cularly fostered the industry and ren- 
dered assistance in various ways. 


51 


First Experiments.—The first experi- 
ments with Cotton by the British Hast 
Africa Corporation were carried out 
last year. 


Several kinds were tried, including 
varieties of Egyptian as well as one 
variety of American. 


_ Samples of these cotton were submitted 

for examination, and the following 
reports show with what promise of 
success :— 


No. 1. ABASSsI.—Grown on the British 
Kast Africa Corporation’s Experimental 
Farm at Malindi, from seed imported 
direct from Kgypt. 


Area one acre, seed sown 24th April, 
crop harvested up to 28th Febuary, 1908, 
yield per acre 497 lbs. 


On ginning the sample yielded 32 per 
cent. of clean cotton. 


The commercial experts reported that 
the lint possessed all the characteristics 
of abassi, was clean and good quality 
but of somewhat short staple. 


No. 2. AFIFI.—Seed sown 26th April, 
1907, crop harvested up to 28th February, 
1908, yield per acre 580 lbs. 


On ginning thesample yielded 32 per 
cent. of clean cotton. 


The commercial experts reported that 
the cotton possessed the character of 
brown Egy ptain, slightly stained, staple 
fair ea and fine and soft to the 
touch, 


No. 8. AMERICAN RICHMOND.—Seed 
sown 8th May, 1907, crop harvested up to 
28th February, 1908. Yield per acre 486 


lbs. 


On ginning out the sample yielded 28 
per cent. clean cotton. 


Colour white, moderate staple, clean 
and free from stain. 


No. 4. SHEA ISLAND.—Grown close to 
Mombasa about 12 miles from the sea 
and about 400 feet above the sea level. 


The British Cotton Growing Associ- 
ation in writing stated that Sea Island 
Cotton should not be grown on the 
mainland away from the sea, and they 
further reported that sample submitted 
was deeply stained, staple soft, and to 
a large extent perished. Nouse for Sea 
Island purposes. Seed appears to be 
perished. 


A further experiment was tried by 
Mr, Davis of Malindi, on an isolated 
patch of a variety named Payata, and 
the following is the report of brokers ;— 


Fibres. 


Dull, semi-rough, suitable as substitute 
for Peruvian, staple irregular 1 to 14, 
sample too small for close valuation. 


Probably worth cultivating if fair 
yield results. 


In aconsignment of twenty bales of 
Afifi clean cotton, grown at Mombrui by 
natives, the following has been submit- 
ted for report :—‘‘ Afifi character, clean 
and free from stain, staple fair length, 
and strong. Itisa fair regular brown.” 


These experiments therefore show that 
Egyptian cotton gives most promise of 
success. 


Development.—The history of the in- 
dustry on the coast is one of steady, 
continuous progress, as the table showing 
the cotton export indicates. 


In the present year (1908) it comes well 
to the front as the staple crop on the 
districts of Malindi and Mombrui, and 
promises to remain so if insect pests 
can be kept in check, 


Important developments by Europeans 
have occurred, and the progress recorded 
in 1906 has been surpassed in 1907. 


Large areas of cotton have been grown, 
and the industry is now established on 
& permanent basis. 


The progress made in this country is 
interesting, and the statistics of the 
value of cotton and seed exported from 
the Colony during the past three years 
will show this, 


Native Cultivations.—So far as native 
growing is concerned, the conclusion 
forced on any practical observer is 
that before the cultivation of Egyp- 
tian cotton is put on a sound firm basis 
and is extended, the standard of culti- 
vation must be vastly improved and also 
the causes which underlie this want of 
system must be remedied. 


Apart from constant European super- 
vision on the native shambas, it is con- 
sidered that the publication of leaflets 
in the vernacular and the establishing 
of local shows would tend to remedy 
the defects. 


So far as the work of the British East 
Africa Corporation is concerned, it is 
too well known to make it more than 
necessary to merely mention it here. 


_ Almost every shamba holder in the 
coast has been visited, and his land in- 
spected and practical advise given on the 
spot. 

On the Tana river special efforts have 
been made to develop the industry, and 
a hearty response has been given by 
the natives, although the output this 
year will not be large. 


404 


similar arsenical insecticide, 


-much mitigated 


[NoVEMBER, 1909. : 


Further efforts in this direction are 
being made, and as the administration 
extends its control, and consolidates 
its influence, the natives will come to ~ 
understand Europeans and their methods 
better and better, and thus help to ex- 
tend development. 


In the district of Lamu there are at 
present about 1,000 natives growing cot- 
ton to about thirty last year, and the per- 
centage in the Malindi district is much 
larger. 


The question will naturally be ask- 
ed—‘‘Is Cotton Growing a source of 
profit to the native,”—and the answer is 
unhesitatingly and emphatically in the 
affirmative. From keen personal obser- 
vation the writer has proved, crops, 
such as Sim Sim, Matama, ete,, do not 
leave anything like the profit to the 
native on the coast that cotton does, and 
as improved methods of cultivation 
take place and under favourable wea- 
ther conditions, the native will produce 
his cotton with greater economy and 
probably with more profit than pre- 
viously. 

At present, unless in the event of 
total failure, the native stands on velvet. 


He is guaranteed a market and a 
minimum price for his output, he is 
helped financially and practical advice 


_ given free of charge, and he is therefore 


quite independent of what the fluctu- 
ations of the home market may be—and 
these have not been pleasant reading 
recently. 


In April last the writer had the 
honour of conducting His Excellency the 
Governor over the British East Africa 
Corporation’s Malindi Ginning Factory, 
and he then expressed his astonishment 
and admiration at the development and 
the work being carried on. 


Insect Pests.—Large quantities of 
Paris Green were distributed in all 
directions, free, with beneficial results. 

The cotton work can be readily held 
in check by the use of Paris Green or 
and leat 
blister mite can be controlled by timely 
hand picking of diseased leaves and 
application of Sulphur and Lime to 
affected plants, 


There is no doubt when cotton growers . 
become accustomed to the use of these 
remedies and are favoured with more 
propitious weather, attacks would be 
if not entirely sup- 
pressed. 

Preparations have been made to hold 
large supplies of sprayers, insecticides 
and fungicides, in order to combat 
disease in its initial stages. ’ 


Pee en” Pe a v~ Ge oe 


NovEMBER, 1909.] 


Rotation of Crops.—One of the chief 
defects of East African cultivation is 
the want of system of rotation of crops 
to maintain and restore the fertility of 
the soil. ; 


At present we have practically no 
supplementary crops to use in rotation 
with cotton, if we except groundnuts. 


Every endeavour is being made to 
induce growers to adopt a system of 
rotation, and groundnuts especially 
would answer the purpose, and have 
been recommended. - 


The leafy material should be buried as 
soon as convenient after the crop has 
been gathered. Treated in this way it 
soon decomposes and greatly benefits 
the soil. 


Without such assistance the land_ is 
like a whip toa willing horse, becoming 
weaker through overwork. 


Practices doubtless vary in different 
parts of the Colony, although they are 
mainly conducted on the exhaustion 
principle. 

In Egypt Bersim or Egyptian Clover 
is the great leguminous forage crop, and 
what that country would do without it, 
it is difficult to conjecture. 


The Cotton of Egypt is famous for its 
quality and yield, but toa large extent 
to the excellent physical and chemical 
condition of the soil, produced and 
maintained by the extensive cultivation 
of Bersim. 


Labour.—There is practically no skilled 
labour, but with the crude system of 
cultivation in force it meets require- 
ments. 


At certain times of the year it is 
difficult to find sufficient labour—the 
commercial development of East Africa 
and the numerous improvements which 
are being effected attracted a consider- 
able amount of labour which would 
otherwise be employed in Agriculture, 
and a risein price of labour has taken 
_ place during the past two years, which 
is likely to continue in the future. 


Seed Selection and Seed for Planting.— 
Specially selected imported seed has 
been for past two seasons placed at the 
disposal of planters and natives without 
charge, but this system cannot continue 
indefinitely. 


The British East Africa Corporation 
have expended large sums in importing 
seed from Egypt, but now every endea- 
vour must be made to enable us to be- 
come self-supporting. 

The selection of good seed for sowing 
_isasit were the very starting point in 
the successful raising of crops. 


405 


Pibres. 


No farm practice is attended with 
more beneficial results, and this is even 
more true in the case of the cotton plant. 


That selection is one of the most im- 
portant factors in the improvement of 
any plant is undoubted. * 


Much of this work in England is 
carried on by the Seed Merchant class, 
which is entirely wanting in East Africa. 


These merchants are specially qualified 
by profession to meet the requirements 
of land-owners, by supplying them with 
pure strains of any variety of farm seeds, 
and thus cultivators, if not satisfied 
with the strain of their own produce 
can_ purchase from such merchants the 
seed they require. 


These merchants are in fact experts, 
who devote the whole of their energies 
to the production of suitable varieties 
of seeds, and carry ona work which is 
beyond the scope of the ordinary 
cultivator. 


As far as Cotton seed is concerned in 
East Africa; we are now entirely depend- 
ent onthe owners of ginning establish- 
ments, and to obtain absolutely pure 
seed is an impossibility at present, what- 
ever price one may be prepared to pay 
for it. 

The remedy is the establishment of 
seed selection farms on the alluvial soils 
of the Coast, and to aim at, (1) longer 
staple, (2) uniformity in length of fibre, 
(3) strength of fibre, (4) a greater yield in 
lint and seed. 

It may be noted casually that hardly 
a century ago English farmers were most 
ignorant of what science could do for 
them. During the period of some twenty 
years, early in the 19th century, great 
progress was made and has_ been 
continued. 


Wemay possibly look in time fora 
similar record of progress in Hast Africa 
in seed growing and in other agri- 
cultural improvements. 


Ginners.—Starting in 1906 with one 
Ginnery of six gins, generously placed 
at the disposal of the Agricultural 
Department by the British Cotton 
Growing Association, the British East 
Africa Corporation have now three 
Ginneries established and working 
twenty-five gins, and further develop- 
ment in this direction is contemplated. 


It may be mentioned here that by 
order of the Directors of the British 
East Africa Corporation the writer was 
deputed to proceed to Egypt with 
a view of collecting information, which 
would prove beneficial to East African 
cotton growers, and the trip was in 
every way asuccessful though costly one, 


Fibres; (406 


The following statistics should prove 
interesting :— 

The samples referred to are at present 
in the hands of the Uganda Government 
for purpose of exhibiticn at the Kampala 
Agricultural Show, but they are at the 
service of the Kast Africa Government 
if so desired. 

“At the present time the varieties 
that are chiefly grownin Egypt are :— 

‘* Ashmouni in Upper Egypt. 
‘« Abassi in Lower Egypt. 

‘* Mit Afifi in Lower Egypt. 

‘* Jannovitch in Lower Egypt. 


“The Mit Afifi, in acreage, and the 
total value of its product, far exceeds 
all the other varieties, 


“At least 70 per cent. of the total 
Egyptian acreage in Cottonis of this 
variety. 

‘¢Tn 1006, 75°5 per cent. of the total crop 
was Mit Afifi, 15 per cent. Ashmouni, 
5°5 per cent. Jannovitch, and 2°7 per cent. 

bassi. f 

* Asa rule 8b per cent. of the total crop 
is harvested at the first picking, 45 
per cent. at the second, and 20 per cent. 
at the third, but these proportions 
vary considerably from year to year. 


“The first picking is generally the- 


best, and that from the third picking 
being the poorest samples. 

‘No. 1. NuBARI.—Named after Bojhos 
Pacha Nubar, is a fine long staple 
cotton; but of brownish colour. Itisin 
many cases difficult to distiuguish from 
Afifi except by the feel and length of 
staple, the colour and appearance being 
very similar, 

“The growth is being largely ex- 
tended.” 

“No, 2. ABASSI.—Much resembles the 
American Sea Island varieties. Observe 
staple.” 

“No. 3. AFiIFI.—Is the quality gener- 
ally grown throughout the Delta upon 
which all transactions are based. 


‘‘1t is brown colour, and as regards the 
length of staple and fineness of quality 
this varies much according to the dis- 
tricts in which it is grown. 

‘“*The value also varies according to 
the fineness of the quality, and there 
is a large difference in price between 
the fine grades and the lower qualities 
grown on poor lands.” 


“No. 4. ToOKAR (SOUDAN) AFIFI.— 
This cotton was formerly merely locally 
consumed by the growers, but recent 
shipments have turned out so _ satis- 
factory, that this established growth is 
now recognised and the bulk of the 
crop is shipped to England and the 
Continent. 


ae 


(N OVEMBER, 1909, 


‘This quality is grown from ordinary 
Afifi seed, and although not so perfect 
as the Delta growth, it possesses a fairly 
long and moderate staple.” 


‘No. 5. JANNOVITCH.—This quality 
named after the originator, Mr. Janno- 
vitch, who found this special growth, 
is of a creamy colour, silky touch, with a 
long fine and very strong staple, it is the 
most expensive Cotton grown in Egypt: 


‘“‘Before concluding this report it is 
desired to record sincere acknowledg- 
ments for information and help very 
liberally given orally and otherwise, in 
some cases at no small sacrifice of time 
and trouble to Government officials, 
the Agricultural Department, and more 

articularly to Assistant Liwali, Ali 

in Salim. 


“Itisto their help and co-operation 
that much of the success of Cotton 
growing by the British East Africa Cor- 
poration in Hast Africa is due.” 


IMPROVING MADRAS COTTON. 


(From the Tadic Agricultupiat Vol. 
XXXIV., No. 7, July 1, 1909.) 


The last number of the Memoirs of 
the Agricultural Department of India is 
of more than common interest to workers 
in South India. It raises the whole 
question as to the possibility of improv- 
ing the cotton crop of this Presidency 
by the application of Mendelian princi- 
ples in cross-breeding. Mr. P. F. Fyson, 
Professor of Botany, Presidency College, 
Madras, the writer of the paper, is opti- 
mistic, and, having convinced himself 
of fruitful results from work in this 
direction, he very rightly throws down 
the gauge and boldly states his views. 
It remains to be seen whether the local 
Department of Agriculture will accept 
his challenge. He has grown cotton 
plants in various places in and around 
Madras during the pase four or five years, 
has crossed the flowers and observed 
the characters of the offspirng.’ His 
attention has been mainly concentrated 
on three characters, the shape of the 
leat, the colour of the flower and the 
fuzz on the seed, selecting parents differ- 
ing markedly in these respects. The 
first two of these he has demonstrated 
to be characters which behave according 
to Mendel’s laws, but the third seems 
to be complicated by other factors, 
and does not yield to so simple a 
solution. Professor Fyson is to be 
congratulated on breaking ground on 
a crop so important to Indian agri- 
culture, and the main feature of his 


work is that he has been able to study — 


———— ee 


we ee ee 


‘ 
Fy ee 


Novemser, 1909,] 


the plants through a longer series of 
generations than has hitherto been done. 


The shape of the leaf and the colour 
of the flower are easy to observe, and 
in the plants selected differ very mark- 
edly. The fineness and length of the lint 
is another character which Professor 
Fyson shows some reason for supposing to 
be capable of manipulating by crossing. 
But it is just here that the difficulties of 
the case commence. The experiments 
with hairs on the seeds were inconclu- 
sive and indicate that climate has to be 
considered ; and this factor of environ- 
ment, which is of no importance to the 
colour of the flower and the shape of the 
leaf, makes itself felt the moment we 
approach the really useful properties of 
field crops, early flowering, length of 
life, productiveness, soil requirements, 
resistance to drought, and soon. Fur- 
thermore, in place of dealing with plants 
with marked differences, we have, in 
examining the cotton crop of any tract, 
whether Northerns, Salems, Westerns or 
Coconadas, to deal with an immense 
eutaglement of allied forms, very closely 
similar in visible characters but differing 
greatly in the value of their produce. 
The problem with Tinnies is simpler, and 
good work is being accomplished by 
Mr. H. U, Sampson, Deputy Director of 
Agriculture, at the Koilpatti Farm. In 
some respects the separate problems in 
the Madras cotton tracts appear to be 
even more arduous than that so skillfully 
attacked by Mr. Balls in Egypt, and 
the soil and climate of South India 
appear likely to prove very harassing 
impediments in any efforts to improve 
the staple. We do not, therefore, feel 
quite so optimistic as Professor Fyson 
when he says :—‘‘The practical outcome 
of these observations appears to be 
that the cross-breeding of these varieties 
could be carried on with almost mathe- 
matical precision, and if, as seem likely, 
these principles apply to other charac- 
ters, one might expect to obtain any 
desired type in a very few years.” Most 
heartily do we wish that this may he 
so, and we trust that Professor Fyson 
may be ‘able to continue the work he 
has commenced. The paper is full of 
interest, and the references show that 
the author has spent considerable time 
in reading up the voluminous literature 
on cotton varieties and the study of 
characters according to Mendel’s laws. 
It isto be noted that the experiments 
were conducted under very consider- 
able difficulties, and great credit is due 
to Professor Fyson for having persisted 
and carried through his work to a suc- 
cessful issue, 


407 


Fibres. 
LANCASHIRE COTTON INDUSTRY. 


(From the Indian Trade Journal, Vol. 
XIII., No. 158, April 8, 1909.) 


UNPROFITABLE BUSINESS. 


For more than a year the cotton 
industry has been depressed, says a 
writer inthe Times Financial and Com- 
mercial Supplement, and there seems to 
be no prospect of an immediate revival 
in the demand for cotton piece goods 
and yarn. The production is large, 
larger than at any previous. period 
in the history of spinning and weaving ; 
for the extraordinary ‘‘ boom” which 
began at the end of 1904.and lasted practi- 
cally three years led toa great expansion 
of spindles and looms. Joint stock 
companies were formed to erect mills 
to the extent, in round figures, of 
10,000,000 spindles, and a large proportion 
of these are now working and producing 
yarn. The increased output at first was 
absorbed by a heavy export demand, 
and by extensions in the weaving 
branch. There are, however, 4,000,000 
spindles now in course of erection, and 
these are gradually bringing yarn 
upon the market. In 1903 we had in 
this country 44,000,000 spindles; to-day 
the figure may be put down at 54,000,000. 
The weaving looms extensions during 
the last few years amount to about 
120,000 looms; in 1903, the total number 
was 647,000 looms. and to-day there are 
760,000. This brief summary will give 
some idea of the expansion which has 
recently taken place in the Lancashire 
cotton trade. 


CONDITIONS IN FOREIGN MARKETs. 


Dealing now somewhat in detail with 
the conditions, it may be said that the 
larger production of piece goods and 
the consequent increased shipments 
have led to an accumulation of stocks 
overseas. The exports this year so far 
show a great falling off on the same 
period in 1908. The weaving trade just 
now is being carried on ata loss to the 
manufacturer, though he is able to secure 
yarn to make cloth at comparatively 
low rates. India, which takes on an 
average about 40 per cent. of our total 
exports of cotton cloth, is operating and 
placing orders for distant delivery very 
cautiously. Stocksin Bombay and Cal- 
cutta are not very heavy, but, in conse- 
quence of the great decline in values 
during the past 12 months, dealers there 
have, it is said, suffered financial loss, 
and this week Calcatta advices are of 
a rather disturbing character; until 
stocks get fully liquidated in our De- 
pendency, it is hardly possible to expect 
much buying. China has been for some 


Pibres. 


time disturbed by fianancial affairs, and 
things are not much better to-day, 
failures having occurred in Shanghai 
which have adversely affected the mar- 
ket, and the decline and fluctuations in 
silver have been disturbing factors. 
Turkey, which is an important market 
for Lancashire, has been uncertain in 
her purchases; and in the Levant gener- 
ally, owing to the unrest in Servia, trade 
has been poor. Egypt fcr some time 
has been affected by over-shipments 
and monetary troubles of some years’ 
standing. Altogether, therefore, our 
various outlets have recently done badly 
for us, though the crops in most coun- 
tries have not been unfavourable. It 
has been a question of a dislocation of 
credit and over-supply. Lancashire 
manufacturers are finding business very 
difficult to obtain at anything like pay- 
ing prices, and itis feared that serious 
losses will be reported at the end of 
this month for the past quarter. There 
has been some discussion as to general 
short time in weaving, | T 
action is almost impossible, owing to 
the varied conditions of individual 
employers, though individual cases of 
short time are increasing in Blackburn, 
Preston, and Burnley. The home trade 
in cotton goods has been a little better 
during the past month. More contracts 
have been placed with makers, reports 
from the south rather than the north 
of Great Britain being of a more en- 
couraging character. 
EXPoRTs OF YARN. 

Spinners of yarn of American descrip- 
tions made big profits in 1905, and in 1907 
the gain was the largest ever experi- 
enced in the history of the trade. The 
large shipments of yarn helped the mar- 
ket very much during those years. 

Exports of yarn during the last six 
years were as follows :— 


lbs. 

1903 150,000,000 

1904 164,000,000 

1905 205,000,000 

1906 207,000, 000 

1907 a 241,000,000 

1908 ent ae 215,000,000 
This year it seems as if exports of 
yarn will be of very small weight. 


Shipments to the Continent have been 
reduced considerably, and at the present 
moment spinners who usually send yarn 
to the Continent have very light con- 
tracts. The reduced imports of Germany 
-have been very marked during the past 
several months, and this state of affairs 
has been felt severely by the spinning 
department. To-day the production is 
for the most part at full stretch, but 
the consumption is of a dragging char- 


408 


but concerted 


‘ees ee 


Seni 
;NOVEMBER, 1909, 


acter, and is not nearly equal to what 
is being pat upon the market; the 
result is that the margin between the 
raw material and the finished yarn is 
so narrow that on every pound of yarn P 
spun there is, without exaggeration, a 

loss of 3d. per lb. How long this will . 
continue remains to be seen, but the 
Master Spinners’ Federation will shortly 
hold a meeting and consider whether 
they should not arrange to work only 
four days a week. The losses declared 
this year so far are equal to 18 per cent. 
per annum on the share capital, and 
on share and loan capital combined, 
after allowing interest on loan, the loss 
works out at 10 per cent. per annum. 


SUPPLIES OF RAW MATERIAL, 


-The raw cotton supply this season in 
American qualities is likely to be a 
large one, or the season ended last 
August the American crop was 11,582,000 
bales; in the previous year the yield was 
18,551,000 bales; and in 1905 there was an 
output of 18,557,000 bales, The estimate 
for the current season hovers about 
13,600,000 bales, while some authorities pin 
their faith to a crop of nearly 14,000,000 
bales. If the figures next August should 
prove to be even 13,500,000 bales, there 
will be plenty to go round for the re- 
quirements of the world. American 
cotton prices on spot in Liverpool vary 
a good deal from year to year. The 
lowest ever known was in 1898, when the 
average rate was 3;,d.; in 1904 it- was 
6:60d. ; and in 1907, 6:55d.; last year the 
rate was 5'72d,; though the crop was 
less by 2,000,000 bales than in 1907. 
To-day there is an enormous stock of 
American cotton in Liverpool—namely, 
about 1,350,000 bales, against 1,150,000 
bales a-year ago. The supply of 
Egyptian cotton, it is feared, will be 
less this season than last year, and this 
is regarded as a blow to the fine-spin- 
ning trade in Lancashire, as the ten- 
dency is for us to produce much finer 
counts of yarn. Itis certainly fortun- 
ate that in this year of depressed trade 
we shall have an ample supply of coton 
at low values. If we had had only a short 
crop in view, it is highly probable that 
trade would be in a much worse con- 
dition than it is to-day. 


ee ee aT eT ee ay 


TEXTILE MACHINERY. 


Our exports of textile machinery con- 
tinue to be very large, In 1906 the value 
was £6,710,000, in the following year it 
was £8,039,000, and in 1908, £8,832,000. 
India is our largest customer, then come 
Germany and Japan. Our shipments 
in January of this year amounted to 
£782,000, as compared with £778,000 in 


the same month of last: year, India is 
continuing to take freely and so are 
Japan and Germany. 


Tus PROBLEM OF OVER-PRODUCTION, 


In considering the outlook for the in- 
dustry, the main factor is over-produc- 
tion. New spinning machinery is still 
starting in South Lancashire. Probably, 
unremunerative trade will stop the fill- 
ing of factories with machinery to a 
certain extent. Then it is almost certain 
that short time will be forced upon the 
masters in one way or another. If, as 
is likely, short time is generally adopted, 
the lessened cotton consumption will 
tend to depress the raw material. Low 
values for cloth should attract buyers 
abroad, and this may lead to greater 
activity in the placing of orders for 
distant delivery, but a good deal de- 
pends on the clearing out of old stocks 
bought at higher rates than to-day’s 
selling prices. 


THE SUPPLY AND MANUFACTURE 
OF WOOD PULP. 


(From the Indian. Trade Journal, Vol, 
XIII. No. 157, April, 1, 1909.) 


An Engineering correspondent writes 
as follows to the Times Engineering 
Supplement of March 10th :— 


The continually increasing demand for 
cheap paper-making materials during 
the last twenty yearshas resulted ina 
most remarkable expansion of the wood 
pulp industry. The general adoption of 
this material as a substitute for rags and 
Esparto grass in the manufacture of the 
cheaper classes of papers is very clearly 
shown by the Board of Trade returns, 
which furnish an accurate index of the 
growth of the trade. 


In 1887, the imports of wood pulp into 
this country were for the first time 
separately classified, and in that year 
they amounted to 79,548 tons, valued at 
£511,450. In 1905 these figures had risen 
to 578,012 tons and £2,759,627 respec- 
tively ; while during 1908 the shipments 
were no less than 748,419 tons, with a 
value ot £3,625,803, or a total increase in 


‘tonnage during the period under review 


of nearly tenfold. The rapidity with 
which the Scandinavian pulp-makers 
have increased the capacity of their 
mills, in order to meet the demand, has, 
of course, had the effect of keeping down 
rices somewhat, but it will be seen 
rom the above figures that the total 
value of the imports into this country 
during last year was about seven times 
that of the shipments for 1887, 


NOVEMBER, 1909.) 409 


Fibres. 


The best qualities of cellulose for 
paper-making are still obtained from 
rags and Hsparto grass, and it is worthy 
of note, as an additional indication of 
the development of the British paper 
trade, that although the consumption of 
wood pulp as a raw material, or, rather, 
as a “‘half-struff,” has increased in such 
a remarkable degree, the consumption 
of rags and Esparto has not appreciably 
decreased, although the market value 
has inevitably fallen, as the result of 
competition with the cheaper substi- 
tutes. 


The various qualities of wood pulp 
which are now available for paper- 
making purposes are divided into two 
distinct classes, ‘‘ mechanical” pulp and 
‘*echemical” pulp. In the production of 
mechanical pulp no chemical treatment 
is involved; the operations, as will be 
indicated presently, are entirely of a 
mechanical nature, and hence the name 
under which the material is dealt with 
in commerce. On the other hand, 
‘chemical pulp” is a very much purer 
form of cellulose, obtained by the treat- 
ment of the wood with various chemicals, 
this latter fact accounting for its tech- 
nical description, 


MECHANICAL PULP. 


In the manufacture of this material, of 
which 482,478 tons were imported into 
this country during 1908, the process is 
very simple. Large blocks of wood are 
fed into the grinders which consist 
merely of revolving grindstones, with 
feeding arrangements, which press the 
blocks against the face of the stone, 
the fibres being thus torn from the 
bloeks. As the wood is ground off, it 
is washed away by flowing water, 
passed through scieens, formed into 
thick sheets from which a part of the 
water is extracted by pressing, packed 
into bales, and shipped as ‘‘ mechanical 
pulp.” The grinding action to which 
the wood is subjected destroys the 
“felting power” of the fibres, and in 
consequence machanical wood pulp is 
not used without admixture with other 
superior forms of celluolse in the manu- 
facture of paper. For making what are 
known as paper boards it can be used 
without any addition, but if mixed with 
a very small proportion of ‘‘ chemical 
pulp,” which is longer in fibre, it forms 
the material from which almost all 
‘‘news” and other inferior printing 
papers are produced. The “felting 
power” of mechanical pulp is improved 
if the wood is steamed for about ten 
hours before grinding, but even the best 
qualities of the “ hot-ground” product 


Fibres. 410 


are unsuitable for the manufacture of 
any but the lowest classes of printing 
paper. 

Mechanical pulp is placed on the 
market in two forms; as “‘ wet mechani- 
cal” and “dry mechanical.” The bulk 
of the mechanical pulp imported into 
this country is shipped in the wet 
condition ; of this quality the imports in 
1908 were 422,957 tons. In the same 
period, only 51,757 tons of the dry pulp 
were returned. During recent years 
very large shipments of mechanical pulp 
have been received from Canada, which 
is now an important source of supply. 


CHEMICAL PULP. 


The manufacture of chemical pulp is a 
much more complicated operation. The 
wood which forms the raw material 
consists of about two-thirds pure 
cellulose, with one-third non-cellulose 
compounds. By removing the latter 
bodies, a practically pure collulose fibre 
is obtained, inferior only to that derived 
from rags and Esparto grass. Toattain 
this object, various processes of chemical 
treatment are in use, and the particular 
reagent used gives its name to the 
resultant product; hence we have in 
commerce soda pulp, sulphate pulp, and 
sulphite pulp. Im each of these pro- 
cesses the wood undergoes the same 
preliminary treatment. The trees are 
sawn into small logs, and the bark is 
removed. The logs are then passed 
through a. sloting machine, which turns 
them into small boards; the knots axe 
bored out, and the boards are passed 
through a breaker, which resolves them 
into chips, after which the chips are 
screened to remove the dirt and dust. 


Tbe soda process consists in digesting 
the chips for about twelve hours, with a 
strong solutiou of caustic soda. The 
high temperature and pressure involved 
in this process affect the cellulose in- 
juriously, the yield and quality of the 
fibre being inferior to those obtained in 
the sulphite process. In the sulphate 
process, the digesting solution is a 
mixture of sodium sulphate, sodium 
sulphide, and caustic soda. The pulp 
produced although uniform in strength 
is also inferior to that obtained from 
the sulphite process; it contains more 
of the outer substance of the wood, 
and consequently is darker in colour, 
and must be employed for the _pro- 
duction of inferior goods. It finds an 
outlet in the manufacture of wrapping 
papers, and forthe production of these 
it is wellsuited. Sulphate pulp is largely 
used by Scandinavian paper-makers, 
‘whose “Kraft” wrapping papers have a 
high reputation in the trade. The 
sulphate process is extensively adopted 


(NOVEMBER, 1909. 


in the United States for the production 
of pulp from poplar wood, and sulphate 
pulp is also employed by British paper- 
makers for maxing with Esparto grass, 
which latter material it is now supplant- 
ing to some extent. Its use asa sub- 
stitute for Esparto, however, calls for 
special care in the washing operation. 


The disadvantages of the two preced- 
ing methods of treatment are overcome 
in the sulphite process for the manu- 
facture of chemical pulp. In this case a 
solution of a bisulphite of lime or mag- 
nesia is employed in the digesting oper- 
ation. The Eckman process consists in 
digesting the wood in a Jead-lined revolv- 
ing digester. In preparing the solution, 
sulphurous acid gasis passed through a 
tower containing the magnesia, the sul- 
phurous acid and magnesia being kept 
in the necessary proportions to form a 
double sulphite, the resulting solution 
containing about 14 per cent. of magnesia 
and 43 per cent. of sulphurous acid. The 
digesting process occupies about 11 
hours, and the pressure employed is 
about 90 lb. tothe square inch. In the 
Partington process, the sulphurous acid 
gas is absorbed in milk of lime, and the 
bisulphite solution is at once obtained ; 
in this process the wood is digested for 
about 18 hours. In the Mitscherlich 
process a weaker solution is employed, 
with a lower pressure, and the boiling 
is continued for amuch longer period, a 
higher percentage yield of pulp being 
obtained. 

In 1908, 315,941 tons of chemical pulp 
were imported; of this amourt 268,655 
tons were shipped in the ‘‘dry” con- 
dition, that is, containing 90 per cent. 
of absolutely dry pulp and 10 per cent. 
of moisture. Of “wet” chemical pulp, 
only 27,286 tons were taken by British 
paper-makers. The Scandinavian mills 
supply about one-half of the output of 
chemical pulp. 


In view of the fact that wood pulp is 
brought into the market in what is 
known as the ‘“‘wet” condition, the 
exact amount of moisture which it 
should contain has been the subject of 
much controversy. In order to preserve 
the nature of the fibre, it is essential 
that chemical pulp shall not be com- 
pletely dried; while in the case of 
mechanical pulp, the cost of drying 
would be greater than the additional 
cost of carriage involved by shipping it 
in the wet condition. Accordingly, 
certain percentages of moisture are re- 
cognized in the trade, and the pulp is 
brought on this basis. In practice, 
however, it very frequently happens 
that the specified limits are considerably 
excecded, and therefore a careful system 


se) a oe 


NOVEMBER, 1909,] 


of testing after its arrival in the paper 
mil] is necessary. t will readily be 
understood that the presence of 2 or3 
per cent. of excess moisture constitutes 
a serious ground for complaint, as this 
means that the consumer would be 
paying for water at the same rate as for 
a costly raw material. 


During the last ten years repeated 
efforts have been made by the Paper 
Makers’ Association of Great Britain, 
by the British Wood Pulp Association, 
and by the Scandinavian pulp manu- 
facturers’ associations to put the sampl- 
ing and testing of wood pulp on a 
scientific basis, but the task has proved 
to be an extremely difficult one. The 
variable nature of the material and the 
influence of atmospheric conditions 
during transit and storage render the 
task of sampling and testing the pulp 
supplies a somewhat delicate process, 
which can only be satisfactorily under- 
taken by chemists possessing an intimate 
knowledge of this branch of analytical 
work. Elaborate rules for the guidance 
of those concerned have been formulated 
by the associations mentioned above, 
and in conclusion it may be observed 
that the necessity for establishing exact 
control over his raw materials has in 
some measure convinced the British 
paper-maker of the advantages to be 
derived from the application of exact 
chemical science to the operations of an 
important industry. 


A FIBRE PLANT. 


(From the Agricultural Gazette of New 
South Wales, Vol. XX., Part 9, Sep- 
tember, 1909.) 

The fibre plant, Uganda hemp (Ascle- 
pias scmilunata), has been tested at the 
Experiment Farms. 


At the Hawkesbury Agricultural Col- 
lege Farm, seed was sown 28th Septem- 
ber, 1908, and germinated extremely 
well. The plants proved to be very 
drought-resistant, and during the dry 
summer experienced a growth of 5 feet 
was attained. 


Where the plants grew thickly, the 
growth was tall and straight, with 
searcely any branches; but where the 
plants stood far apart, a large number 
of branches were formed. 

Seed pods formed in February, and 
ripe seed was available in April. 

At Wollongbar Experiment Farm the 
crop was irregular, and the growth was 
only 3 to 4 feet at the end of six months. 

At Grafton Experiment Farm, the 
plants from seed, sown broadcast, 7th 

52 


4\1 


Fibres. 


September, 1908, grew very slowly, and 

by 2nd March, 1909, when seed was avail- 

ree had reached a height of barely 
feet. 


The Manager of the farm says that in 
comparison with other fibre plants, such 
as Ramie, this hemp does not compare 
favourably, and he is of opinion that it 
is not of much commercial value. 


At Moree Farm, the Manager formed 
the opinion that irrigation was essential 
for a profitable crop. Without irriga- 
tion the plants attained a height of from 
2to 8 feet only; but where irrigated 
they made a growth 5 feet 4 inches in 
six months. Fromits free seeding 
habits it might become a pest in loamy 
soils in moist climates. 

At the Wagga Experiment Farm 
the hemp made fairly good growth. 
Mr. McKeown considers that this plant 
is very similar to that which, in the 
neighbourhood of Sydney, we used to 
know as Wild Cotton. 


PREPARATION OF FIBRE. 


Concerning the preparation of the fibre 
of Uganda hemp, Mr. R. G. May, Act- 
ing-Hxperimentalist, Hawkesbury Agri- 
cultural College, reports:—The stems 
were dried for ten days, this long 
period being necessary owing to the 
prevalence of damp weather and fogs. 
When dry, the stems were retted for 
eight days, when they were again well 
dried. Difficulty was experienced in 
removing the bark from the wood, both 
adhering closely one to the other. The 
bark was ultimately removed by being 
stripped off with a knife—a slow, labo- 
rious, and uncommercia] method. 


In separating the fibre from the vege- 
table matter difficulty was again ex- 
perienced, The approved method of 
pounding the bark was unworkable, a 
sample of the product of such a method 
being seen in sample No. 2. Resort 
was made to pulling out single fibres 
aud stripping offany vegetable matter 
that adhered to them, so as to 
secure a general sample of the fibreas 
should be obtained if it lent itself to 
approved commercial methods; such as is 
to be seen in sample No, 1. The fibre 
is glossy, and will probably lend itself 
readily to dyeing processes. Itis tender 
and will not stand much tension. Twist- 
ed into a thread, it breaks easily and does 
not compare with cotton for strength. 
An attempt was made to secure a sample 
by treating the fibre with acid and caustic 
solutions, The process seems to have 
rendered it much weaker, though it 
produces material that would probably 
pass through the commercial opeartions 
necessary in manufacture, 


412 
DRUGS. 


WORK AT THE IMPERIAL 
INSTITUTE. 


(From the Chemist. and Druggist, 
No. 1,542, Vol. LXXV., August 14, 1909.) 


The annual report of the Imperial 
Institute for 1908, which has just been 
issued, contains brief allusions to some 
of the more important work which has 
been undertaken by the Scientific and 
Technical Department during the year. 
No fewer than 875 investigations and 
inquiries were requested by the Colonies 
and India, the number of the reports 
furnished being 393, while 141 investi- 
gations were in progress at the close 
of the year. Cotton, tobacco, minerals, 
and rubber were the chief articles in- 
vestigated. In view of the great 
Kuropean demand for West African 
palm oil, an investigation has commenced 
at the Imperial Institute in co-operation 
with the Agricultural Departments of 
the Colonies, with a view to finding a 
suitable method for the better prepar- 
ation of the oil from the fruits, the 
natives who manufacture palm oil 
still employing primitive and wasteful 
methods. In recent years there has been 
an_increased demand for vegetable oils 
and fats suitable for the manufacture 
of butter-substitutes, and this has led 
the Institute to investigate a large num- 
ber of new and little-known oil-seeds, 
which were afterwards submitted to 
technical trials by manufacturers, An 
investigation is also being conducted for 
the Indian Government in connection 
with the utilization of cotton seed oil 
for similar purposes. The economic re- 
sources of the Seychelles have continued 
- to receive considerable attention, especi- 
ally in connection with vanilla, essential 


_ oils, and tanning-materials, a summary ~ 


of which has been given from time to 
time in these columns. Much work has 
been accomplished in minerals, including 
an examination of Ceylon ‘‘concen- 
trates ” containing thorianite and mona- 
zite; while from Newfoundland certain 
kinds of help were found to be unusally 
rich in potassium salts and iodine. Fur- 
ther consignments have been asked for, 
with aview to ascertaining its commer- 
cial possibilities. In Drug department six- 
teen samples were received and investi- 
gated, but none appeared to be of im- 
portant commercial interest. Two sam- 
ples of ‘‘Muziga” from the East Africa 
Protectorate, identified at Kew as the 
product of Warburgia ugandesis were 
received, and found to contain manitol 
(about 8 per cent.) tannin and a pungent 


er 


[NoVEMBER, 1909, 


resin soluble in ether. From Sierra Leone 
Ageratum conizoides ( ‘‘Craw-craw” ) 
was examined and found to contain a 
minute quantity of a crystalline alkal- 
oid, to which the physiological acti- 
vity of the drug is thought to be due. 
Samples of the stem, leaves, and decoc- 
tion of the ‘‘Kiki” plants from the 
Straits Settlements, which has been re- 
commended as an anti-opium remedy, 
were examined, but nothing was detect- 
ed which was likely to be physiologi- 
cally active. During the year consider- 
able progress was made with the investi- 
gation of Indian species of Aconitum, 
Hyoscyamus, Datura, and Strychonos, 
but these inquiries are not yet completed, 
and among other drugs and poisonous 
lants under investigation are included 
haaea bark and root from Fiji, wild 
kola from Southern Nigeria, and various 
native drugs from the West African 
Colonies. Among the resins examined 
were several samples of copol, elimi, 
dammar, and colophony, numbering six- 
teen altogether. A copal from a new 
district in the Gold Coast proved to be 
of very good quality, and, after cleaning 
and grading, was valued at 7Cs. per cwt. 
Samples of elmilike resins received from 
Nigeria and Uganda proved to be similar 
to Manila in composition, but were not 
so clean or well-prepared. India and 
Fiji dammar was tried by a firm of 
erépe manufacturers as a_ substitute 
for shellac, but proved unsuitable. In 
addition to the foregoing, thirteen sam- 
ples of ‘‘gums” were received, but of 
those obtained from British Colonies 
only one from Northern Nigeria and 
two from the Gold Coast were of a 
saleable type. The Nigerian gum was 
from Acacia Caffra and was very similar 
to Senegal gum. Investigations in re- 
gard to spices mainly related to vanilla, 
cinnamon-bark, and ginger. In regard 
to cinnamon investigations show that 
although the baik is roughly prepared 
and only suitable for manutacturing 
purposes, it gives a fairly satisfactory 
yield of cinnamon oil of good quality, 
and suggestions for the better prepar- 
ation of the bark have been made. It 
may be recollected that a small parcel 
of Seychelles cinnamon oil was offered 
at the London drug-auction some months 
ago, when Ils. 6d. per oz. was wanted 
for it. During the year assistance has 
been continuously afforded to producers 
of Sierra Leone ginger in valuing 
and disposing of their produce in Lon- 
don. It is interesting to note that a 
very complete series of ‘ grass oils” has 


ae 
foe 
rm 


Tee 


Photo by H, BF. Macmillan, 


NEPHELIUM LITCHI. 
“DLircne’? orn ‘LICHKE,” 


been received from Ceylon and is at 
present under investigation, and among 
the samples of lemon grass oil were 
some from Uganda and Bermuda, the 
citral-content of which was extremely 
low and the oil almost useless for com- 
mercial purposes. Origanum oil (con- 
taining 80 per cent. carvacrol) is being 
sold on the London market by the 
Cyprus Government, and it has been as- 
certained that better prices would be 
obtained if it were rectified so as to re- 
main colourless. For this purpose a 
modern rectifying-still is being specially 


413 Drugs. 


constructed in London for shipment to 
Cyprus. Pure carvacrol is also likely to 
be manufactured on a commercial scale 
by the Cyprus Government, they having 
already sold a small trial consignment 
toa London house. Other essential oils 
under investigation include Cyprus 
laurel oil of excellent quality and Fijian 
bay oil. The foregoing investigations 
may be said to represent some of the 
least important work of the Imperial 
Institute, that devoted to staples like 
cotton, rubber and tobacco being of 
much greater value and importance. 


EDIBLE PRODUCTS. 


THE LITCHI, OR LITCHEE FRUIT. 


By H. F. MAcMILLAN. 


(Illustrated.) 


 Nephelium Litchi (N, O. Sapotacez),— 
**Litchi,” or ‘‘Litechee.”—A small bushy 
tree with handsome dense foliage, native 
of China. It blossoms in the dry season 
(about February), producing sprays of 
pale-green flowers, and ripens its fruit 
about June. The fruit is of the size and 
form of a large plum, with a rough, 
thin, scale-like rind, which becomes of 
a beautiful red-tinge, gradually turn- 
ing toadark brown colour before it is 
quite ripe. The jelly-like pulp or aril 
which covers the seed is of a translucent 
whiteness, and of anagreeable refreshing 
flavour. This fruit, represented by dif- 


_ ferent varieties of varying quality, is 


grown to great perfection about Cal- 
cutta and elsewhere in India, and is 
commonly sold in the bazaars when in 
season. Cameron says it thrives up to 
38,000 feet in South India, giving at 
Bangalore two crops of fruit a year (in 
May and December). Itis grown success- 
fully in Mauritius, but, curiously enough, 
it is scarcely ever met with in Ceylon. 
The tree flourishes and produces fruit at 
Peradeniya, but the variety here grown 
is obviously au indifferent one. There 
are several varieties in cultivation, dis- 
tinguished by sizeand shape of fruit, 
quality of pulp, and sizeof seed. Litchi 
fruit are dried in China and Cochin 
China, from whence they are exported to 
England and the United States. Dried 
litchis are not unlike raisins, both in 
appearance and taste, The tree may 
be increased by seed, but budding or 
grafting should be adopted to propagate 
the best varieties, 


TEA INDUSTRY OF EASTERN 
BENGAL AND ASSAM, 


(From the Indian Trade Journal, Vol. 
XIV. No. 179, September 2, 1909,) 
NUMBER OF HSTATES. 

A Report on Tea Culture in Eastern 
Bengal and Assam for the year 1908, 
compiled by Mr. Strong, Officiating 
Director of Agriculture, Hastern Bengal 
and Assam, is published in the supple- 
ment of the Government Gazette of that 
Province dated August 18th. Mr. Strong 
states that there were 927 tea gardens 
in Hastern Bengal and Assam in the 
province at the close of 1907. During 
last year six new gardens were opened, 
two in the Jalpaiguri subdivision, one 
in Alipur Duars, one in Karimganj sub- 
division of Sylhet, and two iu Dibrugarh 
subdivision of Lakhimpur district. There 
was also a reduction of two gardens, 
of which one was in the Sadar and the 
other in the Jorhat subdivision of the 
Sibsagar district. The latter was amal- 
gamated with another garden: The 
number of tea estates at the close of 1908 
was thus 931. An area of 9,212 acres of 
new extension was added to the area 
under teaat the end of 1907, and an area 
of 3,971 acres of old tea was abandoned 
during the year. Of the 483,290 acres of 
tea remaining, 409,879 acres or 94 per 
cent. was actually plucked. The largest 
amount of new planting was done in the 
Jalpaiguri district, and the largest area 
of old tea abandoned was in Cachar, 
There was a slight increase of 79 acres 
on the area plucked during the year, 
as compared with 1907. The total area 
under tea also shows an increase of 1 
per cent, in comparison with the figures 
of the previous year. 


Edible Products. 


The total area of land comprised with- 
ip tea estates increased during the year 
by 3°6 per cent. from 1,357,269 to 1,406,607 
acres, of which 38 per cent, is actually 
under tea. 


LABOUR EMPLOYED. 

Owing to asuccessful recruiting season, 
there has been an increase of 5 per cent. 
in the number of labourers employed 
during the year, against a falling off 
as noticed in the report for 1907. The 
number of permanent labourers rose in 
all parts ofthe province, expect Kam- 
rup. Although temporary labourers in- 
dicate a decline for most tea districts, 
the total for the province shows an 
increase. Twocauses operated to bring 
in this altered condition, viz. (1) the 
orders issued by the Government of 
India in February, 1908, on the recom- 
mendations of the Committee, which was 
appointed in 1906 to enquire into certain 
matters connected with the supply of 
labour for the tea gardens of Assam. 
It was urged by the Committee that 
greater freedom should be given to the 
labourers, and that the conditions of tea 
garden life should be rendered more 
attractive. (2) The second cause was 
the existence of famine or scarcity in 
some of the recruiting areas, specially 
in the United Provinces, as noticed in 
the previous year’s report. 


The proportion of temporary to per- 
manent labourers varied considerably, 
asin past years. Inthe Surma Valley 
temporary labourers formed only 6 per 
cent. of total force, in the Assam Valley 
7 per cent., in Chittagong 18 per cent., 
and in Jalpaiguri 25 per cent. 


SCIENTIFIC ENQUIRY. 


The usual Government grant of Rs. 
10,000 was made to the Scientific Depart- 
ment of the Tea Association during the 
year under review. The Association is 
doing valuable work by its efforts to 
add to our knowledge of the constitu- 
tion of tea soils, the best manurial 
treatment for tea and the preventive 
and remedial measures which can most 
usefully be employed against the more 
common insect pests and blights, to 
which the tea plant is subject. Two 
useful pamphlets published during the 
year were ‘‘ Mosquito Blight of Tea ” by 
Mr. C. B. Antram, F.E.S,, and ‘ Hee- 
leaka Experimental Station” by Mr. 
C. M. Hutchinson, B.A. Mr. Macrae from 
Pusa made enquiries into disease at 
Darjeeling, the results of which are not 
yet available. 


The weather was generally dry during 
the early months, which resulted in 
a late start of the tea season, which 


414 


= = 7 "Foy eee, 


(NovemBmr, 1909. 


also closed early in some tea districts. 
The rainfall in all tea districts, except 
Dibrugarh, was below the average of 
the previous five years. On the whole 
the season was not very favourable for 
the growth of tea. Some gardens in 
Jalpaiguri distiict suffered severely 
from hailstorms. Red spider prevailed 
in some gardens in Lakhimpur, and 
greenfly also injuriously affected the 
outturn of the district. In Cachar the 
effects of the drought in the earlier part 
of the season were a late start of the 
season, a deficient yield, and an unusual 
variety of tea-blights of exceptional 
severity. On the rainfall assuming nor- 
mal conditions; the garden flushed freely 
in the middle of the plucking season, 
and, but for an attack of mosquito- 
blight of severe nature, the outturn 
would have equalled that of 1907. 


OUTTURN. 


The year’s crop amounted to 210,472,150 
lbs. of black and 1,075,340 lbs. of green 
tea, as against 209,370,934 and 1,536,507 
lbs. repectively, of 1907. The combined 
total of 1908 comes to 211,547,490 lbs., 
showing an increase of 640,049 lbs., or ‘3 
per cent. over that of 1907. 


The season was not very favourable 
for tea, and the outturn in most districts 
fell off. The increase in the total out- 
put must, therefore, be attributed 
partly to the increase in the area under 
the crop, and partly to the larger labour 
force employed during the year under 
report. The general quality of the crop 
must be characterised as somewhat dis- 
appointing, and although ideas are 
usually at variance on a question of 
this nature, there can he little doubt 
that the past season’s manufacture has 
been below the general standard of 
recent years. Cachar and Syhlet were, 
perhaps, more unfortunate than other 
districts in this respect, and the result 
was largely reflected in the produce of 
these centres; coarse and stalky teas 
were more in evidence than formerly, 
and this was not compensated for by 
any increase in yield, 


The tea produced by the Assam gar- 
dens in the first part of the season was 
also below the average, and subsequent 
improvement following the rainfall 
hardly produced a compensating re- 
covery. 


TEA-SEED. 


Under orders of the Government of 
India, tea-seed does not separately ap- 
pear among the articles of trade to be 
shown in the trade returns. Hence 
accurate information about imports and 
exports of this commodity is not avail- 
able. Only 354 maunds of the seed has 


Novemser, 1909.1 


been shown as exported from the Upper 
Assam block to Chittagong Port during 
the year under review. 


PRICES, 


The average prices of tea obtained in 
Caleutta and London, and the statistics 
of production, as furnished by the 
Secretary tothe India Tea Association 
for the year under report, compared 
with the figures of the previous year, 
are given in the following statement :— 


Brahmaputra 
} Valley. Surma Valley. 
Lee Number] Price |Number| Price 
of pack-| per jof pack-) per 
ages, lb. | ages. Ib. 
1 2 3 4 5 


LONDON SALES. 
From 1st April, 1907, to 


31st March, 1908 ...{ 698,601 | 879d. | 271,860 | 23d, 
From 1st April, 1908, to : ed 
31st March, 1909 w.{ 720,692 | 883d. | 275,971 | 672°C. 


CALCUTTA SALES. 
..| 181,464 | 7a. 6p. 
.»| 184,161 


From 1st April, 1907, to 
3ist March, 1908 

From 1st April, 1908, to 
31st March, 1909 


278,196 | 6a. 3p. 
6a. 7kp.| 254,095 | 4a, Llp. 


Jalpaiguri. Chittagong. 


Number] Price |Number| Price 


of pack-| per |jof pack-| per 
ages, lb. ages. lb. 
6 7 8 9 


LONDON SALES. 
From 1st April, 1907, to 


31st March, 1908 ..| 201,094 | 7°40d, 6,057 | 7°26. 
From 1st April, 1908, to | 
31st March, 1909 ».| 181,902 | 6°91d. 5,549 | 6°05c0, 


; CALCUTTA SALES, 
From 1st April, 1997, to 


31st March, 1908 ..{ 180,795 |6c. 10p.] 8,787 |6a, 3p. 
From Ist April, 1908, to | 
31st March, 1909 «»| 185,766 |6a, Op-| 7,878 |4ce. Lp. 


It is understood that the figures in 
the above statement relate to teas manu- 
factured in calender years, as practi- 
cally no tea is manufactured between the 
Ist January and the 3lst March in any 
year, the amount manufactured during 
that period being in any case so small 
thatit may be neglected. 


Except for London sales of the Braha- 
maputra Valley teas, which fetched ‘04d. 
more per lb., the prices of tea grown in 
all parts of the province fell off both in 
London and Calcutta in comparison with 
the previous year. The decline in values 
was no doubt dueto shrinkage in demand 
for low grade teas, the price of which 
was considerably forced up during the 
closing months of 1907 and at the 


415 


Edible Products. 


beginning of 1908, owing to exceptional 
demand from all markets of the world. 


CONDITION OF INDUSTRY. 


The beneficial results of the increased 
labour force are apparent this year. 
Despite a season which was far from 
favourable in the beginning, and the 
increased expenditure involved by re- 
cruiting, there has been a substantial 
increase in acreage under the crop, and 
in the number of new gardens opened. 


Prices at the close of the year com- 
pare favourably with last year’s, al- 
though the quality of leaf generally was 
rather inferior. But over the whole 
year the prices are reported to have 
declined. The cause is no doubt partly 
shrinkage in demand for lower grades, 
but also is partly due to depreciation in 
quality, especially for the Assam dis- 
tricts due to unfavourable conditions. 
These are temporary, while it is hoped 
that the improvement in labour condi- 
tions is permanent, and future prospects 
are certainly brighter for the tea in- 
dustry. 


RICE GROWING. 

(From the Queensland Agricultural 
Journal, Vol. XXIII., Pt, 3, 
September, 1909.) 

We have lately had several inquiries 
from farmers concerning the possibilities 
of rice-growing in Queensland. Most of 
our correspondents are possessed with 
the idea that rice can only be grown in 
tropical swamps, under conditions which 
could not lead to the establishment of 
the production of this cereal in a com- 
muuity of Huropean farmers. This isa 
too common error. Many portions of 
this State are eminently adapted to rice 
culture, and very paying returns have 
been received, especially in the Southern 
coast districts, by those who have 
cultivated what is generally known as 
mountain rice, The swamp rice of 
Japan, Java, and other tropical countries 
has never been attempted in Queens- 
land, and would, certainly, prove a 
disastrous speculation to any one who 
tried it. The following exhaustive article 
on the cultivation-of this cereal was 
written in 1901, by Mr. KF. W. Peek, of 
Loganholme, at a time when rice was 
largely grown at Pimpama, at Cairns, 
and in some other localities. There is no 
more trouble in growing rice than in 
growing wheat. Swamps and irrigation 
canals are not needed. The land can be 
ploughed and prepared as for wheat, 
and the crop harvested in the same 
manner, Wereprint Mr, Peek’s paper, 


(Ni OVEMBER, 1909, 


Edible Products, 416 


in the hope that rice-growing may once 
more figure in the settled industries of 
the State :— 


RICE-GROWING IN THE LOGAN DISTRICT, 
AND ITS PREPARATION FOR MARKET, 


By Frep. WM, PEEK, Loganholme. 


INTRODUCTION AND HARLY CULTIVATION. 


In writing up this article (by special 
request), I will endeavour to make the 
information contained as intelligible as 
possible to the ordinary farmer and 
agriculturist. Of the value of rice there 
can be no two expressions of opinion, as 
this cereal forms the chief food supply 
of over one-half of the entire human 
race, and certainly there is not another 
product or cereal that, commercially or 
economically, obtains the same value 
as rice. 


The varieties of rice to be obtained 
from the various countries where rice 
forms one of the staple crops for food 
supply, are innumerable, running into 
several hundred varieties, particularly 
where it is grown largely, as_in India, 
China, Japan, Siam, West Indies, and in 
other parts of the world, and it has been 
found that local names have been given 
to rice of the same variety and quality. 
For general purposes and _ distinction, 
rice has been classified into three distinct 
varieties or classes. These are known 
to us as the * Aus,” or upland rice; the 
“Aman,” or swamp rice; and the 
‘‘ Boro,” another swamp rice, or a variety 
requiring inundation, warm climate, and 
vapid growth, and producing a_ large 
coarse grain, but which, so far as I have 
been able to ascertain, has not been 
tried or cultivated in Queensland up 
to the present. The portion of the 
Logan district where rice is now being 
extensively cutivated is known as 
Pimpama Island, which is situated in the 
south-eastern portion of the State, in 
158 degrees east longitude and between 
27 and 28 degrees south latitude, and is 
approached from Brisbane by means of 
the South Coast Railway as far as 
Beenleigh, thence by well-formed roads 
for a distance of twelve miles crossing 
the Albert River and skirting round the 
base of Mount Stapylton or what is 
known locally as Yellowwood Mountain, 
which presents to the visitor’s gaze one 
of the prettiest views in the Logan dis- 
trict, dotted from base to summit with its 
settlers’ homes and splendidly laid out 
farms. The dark-green patches of sugar- 
cane, bananas, maize, and other crops, 
strongly contrasting with the rich red 
yoleanic soil visible here and there, make 


-a picture of agricultural industry both 


pleasing and effective, and one of which 
the district is justly proud. 


_ What is known as “ Pimpama Island” 
is the land lying between the Logan, 
Albert, and Pimpama Rivers, which are 
connected by a series of creeks and 
swamps with a long frontage to the 
Pacific Ocean or Moreton Bay, contain- 
ing several thousand acres of rich coastal 
land, interspersed with large areas of 
ti-tree swamps, the water of which is 
brackish and undrinkable. The soil 
cultivated, and which has proved itself 
best adapted to the growth of rice, is of 
asandy, loamy nature in yee ae acta 
but containing ina remarkable degree 
the constituents most suited to the 
nature and requirements of the plant, 
being easy of working, although slightly 
tenacious in wet or showery weather, 
but of very shallow depth in some places. 
Layers of decomposed marine shells are 
found in rather large quantities, pointing 
out that the lands were once ocean- 
washed, and the receding water have 
left valuable deposits of lime and other 
constituents in the soil, which, together 
with the rich humus formed by the 
decaying foliage of scrub vines, palms, 
ferns, &c,, of rank tropical growth, have 
left these patches of soil of varying area 
between the swamps most suitable for 
rice culture. 


The value of the land averages from 
£210s, to £6 per acre without improve- 
ment, and very little, if any, remains 
unalienated, it being so close to Bris- 
bane, and the Logan district being one 
of the first settled districts of the 
colony.- All the bestlands were early 
availed of for cultivation. Who first 
introduced the rice seed of commercial 
value to Queensland appears to be un- 
decided; but our State Botanist, Mr. 
F. M. Bailey, has described a species of 
wild rice (Oryza sativa), a native plant 
of North Queensland, growing in the 
swampy lands there, as being indigenous ~ 
to this State; also, the Chinese have 
grown rice rather extensively on the 
North Queensland river banks, parti- 
cularly near Cairns, in patches for many 
years past, and which has met with a 
ready sale when placed on the market. 


But itis to Mr. A. J. Boyd, the present 
editor of the *‘ Queensland Agricultural 
Journal,” that the creditis due of the 
introduction, in 1869, of rice-growing in 
the Logan district—he having procured 
the seed and planted it as an experi- 
mental crop at his sugar plantation, 
Ormeau, which he then had at Pimpama. 
The seed was one of the Japan varieties,. 
with which he met fair success as re- 
gards the growch and result. Since 


/ 


Be ans 


Cdn eee 


a 


Sree ee eee. | eee ee Oe pe AT ey Rey Ne 


1 


Hey” 
a 
l'-. 


~ Novemenr, 1909.] . 417 


that time, from the seed Mr. Boyd raised 


and distributed, other settlers have 
taken up the matter of rice-growing at 
various times and in a fitful manner, the 
largest local planter some fifteen years 
ago being Claus Lahrs, an enterprising 
G.iman settler, who planted at Pimpama 
Island two or three varieties of the 
China and Japan rices, but, owing to 
the seed not being tested or acclimatised, 
he met with but indifferent success. He 
even went so far as to incur the expense 
of erecting a mill for dressing the paddy 
(as rice in husk is termed), but after a 
few years he gave it up, partly because 
of the machinery, not being of the best 
description for dressing the rice, doing 
its work imperfectly, but also because the 
rice grown was not the best variety for 
table use or suitable for the home market. 
So the industry, so far as the manu- 
facture was concerned, was allowed to 
lapse. The farmers since then have still 
kept on planting the rice, which they 
have cut and used for fodder for their 


horses and stock, using the seed saved > 


from the crop reaped for re-sowing the 
land. The consequence has naturally 
been that the crop had deteriorated with 
successive plantings, through the same 
seed being used without change. But 
three things of great importance had 
been learned. These were: Ist. The 
suitability of the soil and climate of the 
Logan district for rice culture, 2nd. 
The proper time at which to sow the 
seed to ensure success, 38rd. The best 
system of planting and after-treatment 
of the crop. The value of rice has also 
been thoroughly tested as green feed 
for horses and stock, who eat it greedily 
and keep in splendid condition when fed 
upon it. The greatest. difficulty in rice 
culture has been found in procuring the 
right seed, there being such a large 
variety of each kind, both with their 
distinctive flavour, colour, and quality, 
as well as in the facility with which 
the crop can be handled and harvested 
(as 1 will explain further on) and in the 
requirements of the merchant, who has 
his prejudices in favour of certain kinds, 
which more or less best suit tle tastes 
of the consumer. This has now to a 
cértain extent been overcome, ard our 
farmers are now prepared to carry out 
this important branch of agricultural 
industry on sound business lines and 
with up-to-date methods. 


PREPARING THE LAND. 


Rice, like every other cereal and 
vegetable, to: ensure good results, must 
have a certain amount of attention and 
care in preparing the land, although the 
question of drainage does not enter so 
largely into consideration as regards 


Hdible Products. 


rice as with other cereals, and it, of 
course, greatly depends as to which 
variety of rice you intend to cultivate, 
but stagnant water should be avoided as 
detrimental. The variety I intend this 
article to illustrate is the Aus, or upland 
rice. I have tried the Aman variety as 
an experiment, but with smali success, 
the chief fault of the latter being the 
necessity of it being submerged con- 
tinuously with not less than 2 to 3 inches 
of water, and, when the crop ripens, the 
difficulty of harvesting, owing to the 
grain being so brittle that at the least 
touch it leaves the ear with a consequent 
loss of seed, The variety of rice now 
grown most extensively in the Logan 
district is known as the ‘‘ White Java,” 
which gives a length of straw from 
4to 6 ft.. with a good flag, besides a 
grain of good length, fairly plump. and 
good cropper, and, so far, seems fairly 
free from disease or rust. Other varieties 
now being tried are the China, Kobe 
Japan, Batavia River. and_ Italian 
Upland, of which the White Java and 
the Italian Upland have been obtained 
through the medium of the Agricultural 
Department, 


In preparing the land for planting, 
ordinary methods need only be adopted— 
that is, to first. plough, leaving the soil 
to lay fora week orso, to aerate and 
sweeten; then crossplough and harrow, 
bringing the soil to as fine a tilth as 
possible. The best time in this district 
for planting (and I should think it a 
suitable time for all districts south of 
Rockhampton) is at the end of September 
or at the beginning of October, when we 
get the first rains, In cultivating for 
rice on hillsides cr sloping land with a 
natural rapid drainage, it would be 
advantageous to slightly terrace the 
land crossways to the fall of the hill, 
leaving an open catchment drain on the 
higher side, blocked at each end to 
conserve the rain water, because even 
so-called upland rice must have a certain 
amount of moisture, and by the con- 
struction of the above drain, or dam so 
to speak, the gradual percolation of the 
conserved water will have the desired 
effect ot helping to supply the necessary 
moisture, which would be about 20 to 30 
in. of rainfall spread over the period of 
growth. This rainfall has produced 
very good crops of fair yielding grain. 


SOWING THE SEED, 


In sowing the seed we have to be 
determined as to our requirements—if 
for cropping for grain or for fodder 
purposes only. Thereare three systems: 
Broadcast chiefly for fodder pui poses, 
planting in drills, and transplanting 
from nursery beds. In the first instance 


3 


id 


fy 
ree te 


oa dont 


Edible. Products. 418 


—t.€,, sowing broadcast—it will take a 
bushel (60 lb. of paddy) to the acre, the 
seed being harrowed and treated in the 
same manner as oats or wheat in the 
after cultivation. But the plan most 
generally adopted, and by far the best, 
is plarting the rice in drills 2 ft, 6in. or 
3 ft. apart, and about 10 to 12 in. between 
the plants, which may be done success- 
fully with an automatic seeder. By this 
method, about 35 to 40 lb. seed to the 
acre are required. It ensures the crop 
being more even and not so patchy as 
when sown broadcast, and allows a 
better chance of going through the crop 
with hoe or evitivator to remove any 
weeds that may have made their appear- 
ance before the rice has got fairly 
started. The system of planting in 
nursery beds and transplanting out is 
adopted chiefly in planting swamp rice 
or the Aman variety; but, as_ this 
system of planting entails a lot of labour, 
Ido not think it will ever come into 
active operation in this State. The 
mode of operations with this variety is 
briefly as follows :—Beds are prepared 
according to the area to be planted; a 
bed about 20 ft. long and 6ft. wide will 
be amply large enough to grow plants 
for a quarter of an acre, the beds being 
well made and enriched, so as to produce 
vigorous plants. Sow the seed and rake 
in carefully, watering at certain in- 
tervals. . Care must be taken to keep the 
plants growing. When the plants are 
about 6 in. high they are ready for 
transplanting to their permanent beds, 
which is done by making holes about 
10 in. to 1 ft. apart in the rows 
and 2 ft. 6in between the rows. But, as 
before pointed out, this is a most tedious 
and costly mode of planting, and the 
labour involved is a serious item for 
consideration. Youmight as well try to 
transplant a field of oats or wheat, and 
expect to get a profit. So that it will be 
easily seen the planting in drills is at 
once the most economical and systematic, 
besides being the one must generally 
adopted. 


HARVESTING THE CROP. 


This was a difficult matter to under- 
take with the rice formerly planted in 
the Logan district, the China and some 
of the Japan varieties being so brittle 
that when ripe the least touch caused 
the grains to drop off with a consequent 
loss cf seed. 
overcome to a certain extent by the 
better variety planted. Not only does 
the White Java give better facility for 
harvesting, but the straw is ofa better 
colour and quality, of a good length, 
averaging from 4 ft. to 5 ft., and in good 
land even 6 ft. is no unusual length ; and 


This has been happily 


[NOVEMBER, 1909, 


no more fairer or gratifying sight to 
the farmer’s eyes can be imagined than 
the rich appearance of a rice field ready 
for harvesting: this is whilst the stalks 
have still a bronze-green appearance, 
the heads have turned a golden brown, 
about half-way down, and appear what 
a wheat farmer or an inexperienced 
person would deem three-parts ripe. 
The heads of rice, heavy with grain, 
have a graceful, drooping appearance ; 
as many as thirty to forty heads have 
been produced from a single grain 
pliunted—the product weighing from 
10 oz. to 14 0z. By cutting some varieties 
of rice in this state. the loss is not so 
great as with over-ripe grain. The 
cutting is begun in the morning as soon 
as the dew is off, the rice being bound 
up into very small bundles, ready to be 
threshed as soon as possible (which will 
be explained later on). Rice is never 
left stocked in the field, but is treated as 
quickly as possible. 


The usual method pursued in harvest- 
ing is to cut with the ordinary sickle or 
reaping-hook, although where large 
areas are now being planted it is thought 
that the latest inventions of wheat- 
harvesting machinery could be used 
most effectively. A slight alteration in 
the reaper and binder might be required 
in the way of lighter and broader wheels 
on the rich soft rice lands, but other- 
wise I see no difficulty in the harvesting. 
At all events, itis the intention of the 
writer to induce some firm to make a 
trial at next harvesting as an experi- 
ment, and if successful a machine will 
doubtless be obtained on co-operative 
lines for the use of the district. After 
cutting with the sickle, the rice is 
gathered into bundles and carted into 
the barn or shed, or, if not sufficiently 
dry, is leftfor a day or so to ripen; but 
this is not often the case, experience 
having taught our farmers the right 
time to cut, and it is generally taken 
to the barn at once for stripping or 
threshing. 


THRESHING THE RICH. 


Where there are large quantities, this 
can be done with the ordinary flail 
on a threshing-floor, but other systems 
are in vogue where only small quan- 
tities are grown. One plan of thresh- 
ing is by driving four forks into the 
ground, about 4 or 5 ft. apart iu width 
and 10 or 12 ft. long, placing two 
long saplings lengthways and two ecross- 
ways. Over these a sheet or tarpaulin 
is placed to hang and form a sort of 
long trough. In the centre, resting 
on the cross pieces, 2 rough kind of 
ladder is placed, and the bundles of rice 


NOVEMBER, 1909. ] 


are then beaten over the bars of the 
ladder, which causes the grain to drop 
into the bag. Some farmers merely nail 
a few strips across 2 box or wooden 
trough, and beat the rice out on this by 
handfuls. After the grain is beaten 
from the straw (it is then known as 
paddy), the next operation is the winnow- 
ing, This is done in an ordinary sieve 
by letting the grain fall on toa sheet 
in a light breeze, the sieve being held up 
at a little distance; its weight causes the 
sound grain to fall on the sheet, whilst 
the light grain, bits of straw, &c., are 
wafted away to one side. The paddy is 
then carefully collected and placed in 
the sun, spread out for a few days to 
get thoroughly dry, whenit is bagged 
and stowed away ina dry barn, or else 
taken away to the miller for turning 
into the article of trade and commerce 
with which we are more familiar, and 
known as rice and not paddy. The 
straw, after the grain is threshed out, is 
spread out to dry or cure, or else it is 
fed to the stock. A great deal of nutri- 
ment remains inthe stalk at the time 
of threshing, and I believe it would 
make up into a splendid ensilage if de- 
sired to be used’ when other feed is 
searce. I should be pleased to hear the 
results if any of our enterprising 
farmers will give ita trial. 


MILLING THE RICE AND PREPARING 
THE CRoP FOR MARKET. 


This is a most interesting operation, 
and for the want of the necessary machi- 
nery the rice industry has lain dormant 
for several years in the Logan district. 
Every credit must be given to Mr. F. 
W. Peek (the writer of this article) for 
the energy and enthusiasm he has dis- 
played in reorganising the industry, and 
the farmers, through the medium of 
the Logan Farming and Industrial Asso- 
ciation, who took the matter up, believ- 
ing that a great benefit would result to 
the district if only carried out in a syste- 
matic manner. The matter was ably dis- 
cussed at their meetings. The Agricul- 
tural Department was written to for ad- 
vice, and their assistance was given as far 
as possible to facilitate the objects sought 
to be obtained. It wasfrom information 
supplied by the Department that the 
farmers were induced to co-operate in 
the purchase of a new and better variety 
of seed, a quantity of White Java— 
900 lb.—being purchased and distributed 
at first cost among the farmers; next, a 
small experimental patch was started, 
the Department supplying rice seed of 
other varieties, which are now being 
tested for their producing and milling 
qualities, the seeds from this source 
being again redistributed free of charge 


53 


419 Edible Products, 


to those willing to grow them and still 
further test the various kinds submitted. 

With the large increase of area plant- 
ed, the want of a mill began to make 
itself felt. The prices offered for Queens- 
land-grown rice were very low, princi- 
pally owing to no local mills in Southern 
Queensland being established at that 
time. Again, the Department of Agri- 
culture was appealed to, and the ad- 
dress was obtained of the latest up-to- 
date firm of manufacturers of  rice- 
milling machinery. This was the Engle- 
burg Huller Co., of Syracuse, U.S,A., 
who were promptly written to for infor- 
mation, and price-lists and catalogues 
were received from them. A meeting of 
the farmers was called, and an endea- 
vour was made to get a co-operative 
mill, but without success, the general 
opinion being that growing and manu- 
facture were two different branches of 
the business, and that milling would be 
better undertaken by a local sugar- 
miller, who would have the necessary 
engine power to work the rice-mill at 
times when the sugar season was over. 
This was eventually the plan adopted. 
Mr. Wm. Heck, who owns a sugar-mill 
on Pimpama Island, sent for and erected 
the necessary buildings and machinery 
as an adjunct to the sugar-milling in- 
dustry. A neat weatherboard structure, 
the dimensions being 28 ft. long, 18 ft. 
wide, and 22 ft. high (two story), was 
erected on stumps to keep the floors 
dry—an essential in ricemilling oper 
ations—a floor being placed about 10 ft. 
high from.the basement floor and ex- 
tending the full length of the building. 
Upon this floor is erected the Engle- 
burgh Huller and Polisher, a neat little 
machine known as the ‘ No. 4 size,” and 
capable of treating half-a-ton of dressed 
rice per day. The paddy, being run into 
the hopper of the machine, falls on toa 
cylinder which revolves at high speed 
and most effectually ‘‘hulls’”—that is, 
rubs off the cuticle or outer skin—and 
polishes the grainin one operation. The 
pollard or residuum from the rice (hul- 
ling and polishing) falls on the floor, 
whilst the grain itself descends to the 
lower or basement story of the building 
by means of a shoot which conducts it 
into a machine placed to receive it, and 
known as a grader, which is worked and 
fed automatically from the machine 
above. There are four sieves or sifters 
in this grading machine which separate 
the broken grains, and also the polished 
rice into fiirst, second, and third quality, 
the rice being caught in bags or boxes 
placed to receive it. It is then ordinarily 
ready for market, but Mr. Heck has add- 
ed another machine to his mill, known 
asan improved winnowing machine; this 


ERdible Products. 420 


machine, by a series of cogs and cranks, 
makes the rice pass through another set 
of sieves, and, at the same time, the 
wind from a rotary fan contained in the 
machine and driven at a high velocity 
clears off any impurities of husk, dust, 
&ec., that may be with the rice after 
leaving the grading machine, and com- 
pletes the milling operations by finishing 
the product in a perfectly clean and 
highly polished state. Samples of this 
rice were exhibited at the last National 
Agricultural Society’s Show in Brisbane, 
and submitted to experts, who ex- 
pressed themselves as pleased at the 
improved samples displayed, which were 
equal to any imported rice of the same 
variety and very little different from 
the best Japan. 


THE Rick CRoPp—WILL IT Pay? 


This is the question invariably put to 
the writer whenever advocating the 
growing of rice as. one of the crops to be 
successfully undertaken in the coastal 
districts of this State. 


In the first place, take the cropping. 
In ordinary situations, with only fair 
cultivation, from 30 to 40 bushels of 
60 lb. of paddy can be obtained per acre, 
which is double the wheat yield, the 
average crop of wheat being from 15 to 
20 bushels per acre. I know in some 
instances these quantities have been 
exceeded in both crops, but I give a fair 
average for comparison. The value of 
wheat per bushel ranges from 3s. to 3s. 
6d., whilst the value of rice sold to the 
local mill averages from 4s. to 5s. per 
bushel delivered at the mills. Then dry 
rice chaff is of great value as a feed 
for stock and horses, and I feel sure, 
if placed on the maket and once fairly 
tested, it would command a ready sale. 
The straw is less hard, and, when well 
dried, compares favourably with oaten 
straw, aud a fairly low estimate would 
give (according to variety grown) from 
8 to 4 tons per acre, of an estimated 
value of £2 to £3 per ton, or an 
average to the grower per acre of straw 
and grain of £15 10s. per six months’ 
crop. Of course, in favoured districts 
two crops can be obtained in the 
year—that is, where frosts do not ap- 
pear. Then the above figures would have 
to be doubled as a yearly income, but, 
in the Logan district, only one crop of 
rice is taken, to be followed bya late 
crop of some other kind, such as oats, &e. 
Of course, the greatest benefit is derived 
by the grower on a large scale if he 
does his own milling. A glance at the 
prices paid for paddy and the prices now 
obtainable for the finished product will 
be worth consideration. Taking the 


4 


current prices of rice, at the time of 
writing, in the Brisbane market, duty 
paid, best- Japan is £24 per ton. The 
commonest quality of imported rice, 
‘“‘Rangoon,” fetches, duty paid, £19. 
This price gives a fair margin of profit 
to the local miller it he sells at £18 per 
ton. The samples being milled this 
season at the Pimpama Island Mill are 
of very high grade, and closely resemble 
“Patna” in shape of grain, but slightly 
darker in colour. Taking then, the local 
rice at £18 per ton market value, to 
produce which 1 ton 10 ewt. of paddy 
would be required (according to records 
taken at recent trials) to be milled, of a 
value of £12 9s. 9d.; this would leave a 
margin of £5 10s. 3d. I will. add here 
that paddy rice is bought locally like 
wheat at 2.240 lb. per ton, deducting the 
cost of milling, the average of about 
£2 per ton leaves the miller a net profit 
of £3 10s. 8d. per ton. To this must be 
added the value of the pollard, which 
also is of great value as feed for calves, 
pigs, or poultry, when steamed and then 
mixed with separator milk. Its com- 
mercial value is certainly not less than 
£2 to £3 per ton. 

The following is taken from the 
Breypre ‘OQbserver” of 29th June, 
1 *_ 

«We were to-day shown a sample of 
rice grown at Pimpama Island, Moreton 
Bay. It resembles Patna rice in shape 
of grain, but is darker in colour. 
Qualified experts who bave seen the 
sample say that it is the first really high- 
grade rice that they have seen grown 
in this State, and asit can be marketed 
at from £18 to £18 10s., should command 
a ready sale. The commonest quality of 
imported rice, Rangoon, fetches £19, duty 
paid, here just now, while for Japan 
rice £24, duty paid, is asked by the 
distributing houses.” 

The price quoted for the mill such as I 
have described, and which is so con- 
structed that it can be duplicated or 
extended at a very small cost is, for the 
No. 4 machine, witha capacity of not 
less than half-a-ton per day, together 
with grader, &c., about £130, delivered 
at Brisbane. Of course, the buildings 
are extra, and the power required to 
drive the machinery ; but worked in 
conjuction with any existing sugar-mill, 
or sawmill, &e., it would prove of great 
value to the district, and a source of 
profit on the outlay to any enterprising 
millowner. 


FutTuRE PROSPECTS oF THE RICE 
INDUSTRY. 


Like all other crops, rice has its ene- 


mies and diseases; it has a kind of rust, 


smut, &¢., and in some parts of Queens- 


* Ter 


jNoVEMBER, 1909. 


i ie 


-Novemser, 1909.) 


land grubs will take the roots, but up to 
the present the grub has not caused any 
trouble inthe Logan district. The rust 
has yet to be dealt with, and I think 
this will be accomplished by experiment- 
ing with various kinds of rice seed till 
we meet with a rust-resisting variety. 
It is probable now, that under Feder- 
ation the importance of rice culture will 
receive the attention it is worth, A 
large sum of money is annually ex- 
pended in importing the product into 
the Commonwealth States. I would 
therefore advise all farmers to give rice 
a fair trial, especially as we are growing 
varieties that can now be classed as 
fairly successful on our coast lands, aud 
where a fair average rainfall can be 
partly depended upon. The value of 
rice grown simply as fodder to cut green 
is great for stock feed, the stalks being 
sweet, juicy, and succulent, and giving 
a good retarn per acre, and all stock will 
eat it with avidity. The. question of 
labour does not enter largely into rice 
cultivation; as I have’ pointed out, 
although a tropical product there is 
every facility for cultivation by present 
mechanical methods—that is as far as 
the Aus or upland rice is concerned ; the 
Aman or Boro varieties being swamp 
rices needing irrigation I have not yet 
heard of as being grown to any great 
extent, and they probably will not be 
for some time, if at all, owing chiefly to 
the heavy outlay required for a suitable 
water supply and an irrigation plant, 
which can be dispensed with in growing 
the beforementioned varieties of upland 
rice, which have proved most suitable 
for existing conditions and our present 
agricultural methods of cultivation and 
harvesting. Of thisI am certain, that 
the rice is one of our coming crops which, 
together with coffee, will prove of great 
benefit to this State particularly, and a 
further source of wealth to our pro- 
ducers. The market forricein Australia 
is a growing one, and it will take years 
before the supply overtakes the demand. 
Our farmers need not fear to grow the 
crop and invest in this industry, which 
willreturna fair amount of profit for 
the labour and outlay required to pro- 
duce an article which only requires care 
in selecting and planting the varieties 
tosuit the market requirements. I am 
sure the efforts or our producers will be 
crowned with success, and I shall be 
pleased with the part 1 have taken in 


_assisting the modern’ development of 


rice cultivation in Queensland. 


421 Edible Products, 


REGISTRAR-GENERAL’S STATISTICS OF 
Rick PRODUCTION AND IMPORTATIONS 
FOR THE YEAR 1900. 

Total area planted in Queensland 
» Quantity produced (paddy) ; 10 
»» average would equal of clean ice . 320,617 Ib. 

The net imports of rice for 1899 were . .9,283,933 lb, 

Of the value of 3 .» £51',099 
The above figures represent the posi- 

tion as to production and consumption, 

and would therefore be about 3°34 per 
cent. of the total requirements of this 

State only. 

[The total annual production of rice 
in the United States of America, which, 
in 1866, was 2,000,000 1lb., has now reached 
350,000,000 lb. It will take 8,000 large 
railway -cars to handle the crop this 
season. Rice lands have risen from £2 
per acre to £8 per acre; hundreds of 
miles of irrigation canals have been 
constructed. Rice has been the redemp- 
tion of the prairie lands of Texas and 
Louisiana. In ten years the worthless 
lands of these two States will produce 
the world’s demand in rice. An acre 
there produces 20 sacks, worth from 10s. 
tol6s. per sack. Where are the Queens- 
land farmers in the race ?—Hp. ‘‘Q.A,J.”] 


319 acres 
9.275 bushels 


THE PRODUCTION AND CONSUMP- 
TION OF CACAO. 


(From the Philippine Agricultural Re- 
view, Vol, Il, No. 5, May, 1909.) 


The “ Gordian” has recently published 
(July 28, 1908) some interesting statistics 
regarding the production and consump- 
tion of cacao during the past few years. 
It appears that while the production for 
1907 may be considered satisfactory, upon 
the whole it is 400,000 kilograms less 
than that of 1908 and 3,000,000 kilograms 
less than that of 1904. This deficit is 
due solely toa shortage in the produc- 
tion in Ecuador and the Dominican Re- 
public, the output of these countries 
being 8,000,000 kilograms less in 1907 
than in 1906. 

The table which we reproduce below 
gives in kilograms the exportation of 
cacao trom the principal cacao-producing 
countries for the years 1906 and 1907 :— 


PRODUCTION. 
1906,” 1907. 

Country. Kilograms. Kilograms, 
Brazil 25,135,000 24,528,000 
St. Thomas ... 94,619,560 24,193,980 
Ecuador vee 23,426,897 19,670,571 
Trinidad 12,983,467 18,611,430 
Venezuela 12,864,609 13,171,090 
English Hast Africa 9,738,964 10,471,090 
Dominican Republic ... 14,312,992 10,101,374 
Ceylon vse ~=©2,909,622 4,699,559 
New Granada(Colombia) 4,931,530 4,612,100 


"One kilogram equals 2°20462 ayoirdupois lbs, 


Edible Products, 
1906. 1907. 

Country, Kilograms. Kilograms. 
Feranado Po 1,557,864 2,438,821 
Jamaica 2,505,608 2,218,741 
German Colonies 1,367,977 1,966,236 
Haiti 2,107,905 1,850,000 
Dutch East Indies 1,849,847 1,800,153 
Cuba 3,271,969 1,689,668 
Surinam 1,480,568 1,625,274 
French Colonies 1,262,090 1,387,219 
St. Lucia 716,200 750,0 0 
Dominica 572,948 580,000 
Congo Free States 402,429 548,526 
Other Countries 1,000,000 1,000,000 


Total ... 148,618,046 148,136,537 


Regarding the exportations from Ecu- 
ador we may add that the official 
reports have confirmed, with a difference 
of several thousand kilograms, the figures 
of the ‘‘ Gordian ” (19,703,804 kilograms 
instead of 19,670,571 kilograms), The 


estimated crop for 1908 in this country. 


amounts to over 380,000,000 kilograms. 

The production of 1,387,219 kilograms 
attributed to the French Colonies is 
distributed as follows :— 


Kilograms, 

Guadalupe 6 781,511 
Martinique Poh 502,789 
Congo 74,733 
Madagascar 19,041 
Guiana 3,807 
New Caledonia 2,352 
Ivory Coast aes rib 1,993 
Reunion, Mayotte and Indo 

China ; cs 953 


Among the German Colonies Cameroon 
leads with 1,797,614 kilograms, Samoa 
follows witb 116,500 kilograms, and Togo 
with 52,122 kilograms showing an enor- 
mous increase over the preceding year. 

The record for the English Colonies of 
West Africa is as follows:—Gold Coast 
9,504,000 kilograms, and Lagos 970,745 
kilograms. 

CONSUMPTION, 


In consumption of cacao for the year 
1907 the United States leads with 
87,526,505 kilograms, then comes Germany 
with 34,515,400 kilograms, France with 
23,180,300 kilograms, England 20,159,472 
kilograms, Holland 12,219,249, Switzer- 
land 7,124,200, Spain 5,628,239, Austria 
3,471,700, Belgium 3,253,967, Russia, Italy, 
Canada, Denmark, etc., with a.total of 
7,619,809 kilograms. 


BANANA CULTIVATION. 


(From the Queensland Agricultural 
Journal, Vol. XXIII., Pt. 2, August, 1909.) 

Notwithstanding the belief still held 
by some—that the banana, the plantain, 
the fibre-producing banana of the Philli- 
pine Islands, and the wild banana, so 


422 


(NOVEMBER, 1909. 


plentiful in the scrubs of North:Queens- 
land, belong to different families—botan- 
ists are very clear on the point that 
all are members of one family. So 
closely are the banana and the plantain 
related that it is impossible to say 
where the banana ceases and the plan- 
tain begins. All varieties known to-day 
sprang originally from the native wild 
plants of the Asiatic islands known as 
Musa sapientum. The fruit of the wild 
banana contains scarcely any edible 
flesh. Its leathery skin encloses a large 
number of black seeds, adhering to a 
mid rib, and covered with a gummy sub- 
stance something like bird lime. In no 
cultivated variety can any seed be de- 
tected, although we occasionally notice 
small klack spots in the flesh in regular 
rcws. These are probably the faint 
traces of seed which have not been en- 
tirely eliminated by cultivation. Semler 
says that all cultivated bananas have 
been derived from Musa troglodytarum, 
which is a native of the Moluccas. This 
plant, unlike other wild bananas, bears 
edible fruits in bunches which stand 
upright, not hanging down like the 
cultivated fruit. 


It is supposed by some that the wild 
banana of North Queensland could be, 
by cultivation, brought to bear edible 
fruits. No doubt they could, but the ex- 
perimenter would have to live to over one 
hundred years to enjoy the fruits of his 
labour, His time will be better occupied 
in reproducing the cultivated plant. As 
the latter have no seeds, this is done 
by suckers from the roots. " 


The rank luxuriance of the growth of 
this class of fruits, their handsome 
foliage (writes Mr, H. Benson, in his 
“Fruits of Queensland”), their pro- 
ductiveness, their high economic value 
as food, and their universal distribution 
throughout the tropies, all combine to 
place them in a premier position. 


As a food, it is unequalled amongst 
fruits, as, no matter whether it is used 
green as a vegetable, ripe as a fruit, 
dried and ground into flour, or preserved 
in any other way, itis one of the most 
wholesome and nutritious of foods for 
human consumption. It is a_ staple 
article of diet in all tropical countries, 
and the stems of several varieties make 
an excellent food for all kinds of stock. 


In Queensland the culture of bananas 
is almost confined to the frostless belts 
of the eastern seaboard, as it is a plant 
that is extremely sensitive to cold, and 
is injured by the slightest frost. At the 
same time, bananas, particularly the low- 
growing kinds, thrive in the Southern 
parts of the State where frosts are of 
frequent occurrence. Good crops of 


a, 


= 


_ NovEMBER, 1909.) 


fruit have been grown year atter year 
on the Brisbane River and on Oxley 
Creek, where potatoes, pumpkins, and 
sweet potatoes have been killed by frost. 
As a rule, the taller the variety, the 
warmer and moister must be the climate. 
The banana also thrives best in the 
neighbourhood of the sea, the plant 
containing a certain amount of salt, 
which may be looked upon as necessary 
for its well-being. 


In the Southern part of the State its 
cultivation is entirely in the hands of 
white growers who have been growing 
it on suitable soil iu suitable localities 
for the past fifty years. Mr. Benson 
says he sawa plantation that was set out 
twenty years ago, and the present plants 
are still healthy and bearing good 
bunches of well-filled fruit, s0 that there 
is no question as to the suitability of 
soil or climate. Bananas do best on rich 
serub soil, and it is no detriment to their 
growth if it is more or less covered with 
stones (as may be verified by a visit to 


_the banana groves at Brookfield, near 


Brisbane), so long as there is sufficient 
soil to set the young plants. Shelter 
from heavy or cold winds is an advant- 
age, and the plants thrive better under 
these conditions than when planted in 
more exposed positions. Bananas are 
frequently the first crop planted in 
newly burnt-off scrub land,as they do not 
require any special preparation of such 
land; and the large amount of ash and 
partially burnt and decomposed vege- 
table mould provide an ample supply of 
food for the plant’s use. Bananas are 
rank feeders, so that this abundance of 
available plant food causes a rapid 
growth, and produces fine plants and 
correspondingly large bunches of fruit 
weighing as much as from 60 lb. to 80 lb. 
Though newly burnt-off scrub land is 
the best for this fruit, it can be grown 
successfully in land that has been under 
cultivation for many years, provided 
that the land is rich enough naturally, 
or its fertility is maintained by judicious 
green and other manuring. In newly 
burnt-off scrub land all that is neces- 
sary is to dig holes 15to 18 in. in diameter, 
and about 2 ft. deep, set the young 
plants in it, and partly fillin the hole 
with good top soil. The young plant, 
which consists of a sucker taken from 
an older plant, will soon take root and 
grow rapidly under favourable condi- 
tions, producing its first bunch in from 
ten to twelve months after planting. 
At the same time that it is producing its 
first bunch it will send up two or more 
suckers at the base of the parent plant, 
and these in turn will bear fruit, and 
soon, After bearing, the stalk that has 


423 Edible Products. 


produced the bunch of fruit is cut down ; 
if this is not done, it will die down, as 
its work has been completed, and other 
suckers take its place. Too many 
suckers should not be allowed to grow, 
or the plants will become too crowded, 
and be consequently stunted and pro- 
duce small bunches. All the cultivation 
that is necessary is the keeping down of 
weed growth, and this, once the plants 
occupy the whole of the land, is nota 
hard matter. <A plantation is at its best 
when about three years old, but remains 
profitable for six years or longer ; in fact, 
there are many plantations still bearing 
good fruit that have been planted from 
twelve to twenty years. Small-growing 
or dwarf kinds, such as the Cavendish 
variety, are planted at from 12 to 15 ft. 
apart each way, but large-growing bana- 
nas, such as the Sugar and Lady’s 
Finger, require from 20 to 25 ft. apart 
each way, as do the stronger-growing 
varieties of plantain. Plantains are 
not grown to any extent in Queens- 
land, and our principal varieties are 
those already mentioned, the Cavendish 
variety greatly predominating, In the 
North, the cultivation of this latter 
variety is carried out on an extensive 
seale, principally by Chinese gardeners, 
who send the bulk of their produce to 
the Southern States of the Common- 
wealth. The industry supports a large 
number of persons otber than the actual 
producers of the fruit, and forms one of 
our principal articles of export from the 
North. As many as 20,000 or more large 
bunches of bananas frequently leave by 
a single steamer for the South, and the 
bringing of this quantity to the port of 
shipment gives employment to a num- 
ber of men on train lines and small 
coastal steamers. The shipment of a 
heavy cargo of bananas presents a very 
busy scene that is not soon forgotten, 
the thousands of bunches of fruit that 
are either piled up on the wharf or that 
are being unloaded from railway trucks, 
small steamers or sometimes Chinese 
junks, forming such a mass of fruit that 
one often wonders how it is possible to 
consume it all before it becomes over- . 
ripe. Still, it is consumed, or, at any 
rate, the greater portion of it is, as it 
is the universal fruit of the less wealthy 
portion of the community, the price at 
which it can be sold being so low that 
it is within the reach of everyone. A 
banana garden in full bearing is a very 
pretty sight, the thousands of plants, 
each with their one or more bunches 
of fruit, as where there are several stems 
it is not at all uncommon to find two 
or more bunches of fruit in different 
states of development on the same plant, 
forming a mass of vegetation that must 


Edible Products. 494 


be seen to be appreciated. This is the 
case even with dwarf-growing kinds, 
but with strong-growing varieties, such 
as the Lady’s Finger, the growth is so 
excessive that the wonder is how the 
soil can support it. 


Bananas do remarkably well in Queens- 
land, and there is practically an un- 
limited area of country suitable for their 
culture, much of which is at present ina 
state of Nature. Only the more easily 
accessible lands have been worked, and 
of these only the richest. Manuring is 
unknown in most parts, and as soon as 
the plantation shows signs of deterior- 
ationitis abandoned, and a fresh one 
planted out in new land, the land pre- 
viously under crop with bananas being 
either planted in sugar-cane or allowed 
to run to grass. This is certainly a very 
wasteful method of utilising our land, 
and the time will come, sooner or later, 
when greater care will have to be given 
to it, and that once land has become im- 
poverished by banana culture it will 
have to be put under a suitable rotation 
of crops, so as to fitit for being again 
planted with bananas. The trouble is, 
asl have already stated, wehave too 
much land and too few people to work 
it; hence, so far, we are unable to use it 
to anything like the best advantage. 
During the year 1904 the production of 
bananas in Queensland was some 2,000,000 
bunches; and when it is considered that 
each bunch will average about twelve 
dozen fruit, it will be seen that already 
we are producing a very large quantity. 
There is, however, plenty of room for ex- 
tension, and any quantity of available 
country, but, before this extension can be 
profitable, steps will have to be taken to 
utilise the fruit in a manner other than 
its consumption as fresh fruit, and this 
in itself will mean the opening up of new 
industries and the employment of a 
considerable amount of labour, I have 
mentioned twelve dozenas being the 
average quantity of fruit per bunch, but 
itis frequently much more than this, 
and I have often seen bunches of twenty- 
five to thirty dozen fine fruit grown on 
strong young plantson rich new land. 
Although the industry in the North is 
now almost entirely in the hands of 
Chinese gardeners, there is no reason 
whatever why it should not be run by 
white growers, as is done in the South, 
and there is no question that our white- 
grown bananas in the South compare 
more than favourably with the Northern 
Chinese-grown article, despite the fact 
that the latter has every advantage in 
climate and an abundance of virgin soil. 
The two photos of bananas are not by 
any means typical of this industry, as 
they have been taken during the off 


[Novempmr, 1909, 


season, when the plants look ragged and 
are showing little new growth, and the 
bunches also are much smaller than 
usual. Still, the illustrations will give 
some idea of the growing and handling 
of this crop, and will show what a 
bananas plant and its bunch are like. 


HOW VANILLA IS GROWN IN 
HAWAIL. 


PROCESS OF POLLINATING THE BLOSSOMS 
AND CURING THE BEANS—PROFITABLE 
BUSINESS. 

(From the Queensland Agricultural 
Journal, Vol. ae Pt. 2, August, 


The growing of the vanilla bean of 
commerce has attained considerable 
importance in Hawaii, where a number 
of successful small plantations have been 
producing for a number of years. Jared 
G. Smith, late Director of the United 
States Agricultural Experiment Station 
in Honolulu, gives the following interest- 
ing description of the growing of vanilla 
in his book, ‘‘ Agriculture in Hawaii” :— 

“The vanilla beanis the cured and 
fermented fruit of a climbing - orchid. 
The finished pods are very dark-brown 
or black, glossy, somewhat wrinkled on 
the surtace, from 5 to 8 in. long and 
about as thick as a lead pencil. The 
vanilla extract of commerce is simply 
an alcoholic extract. 


‘“The vanilla plant is grown either on 
a trellis or is planted at the base of a 
tree, so that it can clamber up the trunk. 
Any soil is suitable provided the drain- 
age is good. It grows well in regions of 
abundant rainfall on the Kona (south or 
south-west) side of the islands. A mean 
temperature of 65 to 75 degrees gives 
good results. 

“The plants are propagated from 
cuttings, which are simply lengths of 
the vine itself, from2 to6 ft. long. The 
length of the cutting has some relation 
to flower production, the longer ones 
yielding flowers in a shorter period. 
The leaves are cut from the lower end of 
the cutting, and the stripped portion of 
the stalk is buried horizontally under 


2 or 3in. of soil and rotting leaves. The 


upper end of the cutting is fastened to 
the trunk of the supporting tree, to 
which it soon becomes tightly attached 
by its aérial roots. 


“The vanilla plant begins to flower 
during its second or third year, and 


continues flower production until seven — 


or eight years old. Cultivation consists 
in keeping down the weeds and under- 
brush in the plantation. reat 


AT Eee eae Ce (BBS hae, 
: ii usichs pian res 


2 NovEMBER, 1909. ] 


“The vanilla plant only bears pods 
when the flowers are hand pollinated. 
This is a delicate operation not difficult 
to learn. Anyone who attempts it be- 
comes quickly proficient, so that a good 
miny flowers can be pollinated in the 
course of a day. The pod matures in 
from six to eight months, becoming 
hard, thick, and greenish-yellow. They 
are gathered before ripe. 


“The curing process is a somewhat 


- complicated one. After gathering, the 


green pods are spread out and exposed 
to the air for twenty-four hours, being 
roughly assorted into grades according 
to size. After being graded, the pods 
are sweated between the folds of woollen 
blankets exposed tothe heat of direct 
sunshine. During the period of ferment- 
ation, the pods turn dark-brown, be- 
come soft and leathery, and sweat freely. 
The pods are manipulated for several 
days until the proper degrees of colour 
and aroma have developed. After the 
fermentation, they are dried iu the sun 
for a few hours and finally in cloth- 


-eovered trays in the shade with gentle 


heat. When fully dried—that is, when 
the pods no longer lose weight, but are 
still moist and pliable to the touch— 
they are packed tightly in tin boxes, 
and are again manipulated in bulk for 
one or two months. When completely 
cured, the pods are sorted to size and 
colour, tied in bundles, and these pack- 
ages packed in tin-lined boxes which are 
soldered when full. 


“The yield per acre in Hawaii has 
been estimated at about 13,000 pods, 
producing about 120 |b. of finished vanilla 
beans fully cured and ready for the 
market. 


*‘The industry is a very profitable one 
for persons having sufficient means who 
will give this industry their personal 
supervision. The price of the vanilla 
bean depends as much upon the outward 
appearance of the finished product as 
upon its actual. quality as indicated by 
aroma and flavour. Care is, therefore, 
necessary at every stagein the growth 
and fermentation of the crop. 


‘“‘Rive acres of vanilla in bearing 
should yield from 400 dollars to 500 
dollars worth of beans per acre per 
annum after the third year. There are 
vanilla plantations in the Kona district, 
on the island of Hawaii, and in the Kona 
district of Oahu, near Honolulu. Much 
land is still available which is entirely 


suitable for the cultivation of this crop.” 


495 > Edible Products. 


GINGER. 


By W. HARRIS, F.L.S. 


(From the Bulletin of the Department 
of Agriculture, Jamaica, Vol. I., No. 2.) 

GINGER. (Zingiber officinale, Rose.)— 
is a native of tropical Asia and was in- 
troduced to Jamaica during the Spanish 
occupation of the Island. 


Sir Hanas Sloane, 1687-89, states that 
the plant was then cultivated in all 
parts of the Island. It is now grown 
principally in the uplands of Clarendon, 
Manchester, St. James, Trelawny, 
Portland and St. Thomas; the total area 
under this cultivation last year being 
260 acres. According to the Collector- 
General’s Report fur the year ended 3lst 
March, 1908, the quantity of ginger ex- 
ported for the year was 15,437 cwts. 
valued at £40,048. 

The amount used locally in the manu- 
facture of ginger-beer, &c., is also con- 
siderable. — 

Soil and Climate.—The virgin soil 
of the forest produces the best ginger, 
but a well-drained, clay loam is suitable, 
and the rainfall must be abundant—80 
inches and upwards per annum, with 
a temperate climate. 


Planting.—Pieces of rhizomes, each 
containing an “eye” or bud are planted 
afew inches below the surface in holes 
or trenches in March or April. 

Harvesting.—‘‘ Plant” ginger is har- 
vested during December and January, 
but ‘‘ratoons” may be gathered from 
March to December. 

The rhizomes are ready for digging 
when the stems wither, which takes 
place soon after flowering. 


Peeling.—When the rhizomes are 
dug, they are peeled with a knife spe- 
cially made for the purpose. This oper- 
ation requires much care and experience. 
As a rule, experienced operators peel 
between the “ fingers” of the rhizomes, 
the other portions being peeled by less 
experienced workers. This work is 
always done by women and children. 
As fast as peeled the rhizomes are 
thrown into water and washed, the 
purer the water and more freely it is 
used the whiter will be the product, 
The ginger peeled during the day is 
allowed to remain in the water over 
night. 


Curing.—After washing, the rhizomes 
are spread out on barbecues or on mats 
in thesun early in the morning. They 
are turned during the day, and are 
taken under cover during cloudy or 
rainy weather and at night, as if allowed 
to get damp they become mouldy. ‘The 


Dees TS fea ae 


Edible Products. 


drying process occupies five to six days, 
and during this period the ginger loses 
about 70 per cent. of its weight. After 
drying itis bleached by washing, and 
again driedfor two days, when it is 
ready for shipping. 

Varieties.—Two varieties are dis- 
tinguished—“ yellow ” and ‘‘ blue,” also 
known as ‘‘turmeric” and ‘‘flint.” The 
rhizomes of the ‘‘blue” are hard and 
fibrous, yielding a much less proportion 
of the powder, not so pungent, and, 
therefore, less valuable commercially 
than the “ yellow,” 


Returns and Value.- The yield per 
acre varies and depends largely on the 
nature of the soil and the method of 
cultivation adopted. The average 
return per acre is about 1,200 lbs. of 
cured ginger. <A goodcrop would yield 
2,000 lbs. The value also varies accord- 
ing to quality and the demand. At 
recent sales in London Jamaica ginger 
was sold at prices varying from 54s. to 
69s. per cwt. 

About seventy yearsago ginger from 
Jamaica fetched as much as 180s. per 
ewt. in London. It was then largely 
grown by English, [rish and German 
immigrants, many of whose descendants 
still cultivate this crop. 


THE GRANADILLA. 
(From the Porto Rico Horticultural 
News, Vol. IL, No. 2, February, 1909.) 


This department aims to be of use to 
house-keepers in Puerto Rico in every 
way possible, but especially in studying 
methods of using native fruits and 
vegetables. Suggestions and_ recipes 
along this line or more general lines will 
be very gladly received from readers, 


We will also endeavor to find answers 
to questions which may be sent in. 

This month we have been experiment- 
ing with one of the native fruits little 
used by Americans, and it is surprising 
how many dishes can be made from it. 
While some do notcare for the flavour of 
the granadilla, those who like it would 
do well to try the recipes given below. 
Perhaps even those who have not been 
well impressed with the fruit could be 
persuaded to change their opinion after 
giving it a fair trial. 

The granadilla is the Spanish name for 
the Passion flower, one species of which 
is familiar in the United States where it 
is raised for its beautiful and odd flowers. 
The particular variety of Porto Rico, 
the Passiflora quadrangularis, differs 
from the northern kind, however, espe- 
cially in bearing edible fruit, This is true 


426 


[NOVEMBER, 1909, 


also of several other varieties of Passion 
flower, but none have fruit to compare 
with the gyanadilla in size. A few 
varieties are found in Asia, but on the 
whole the family is native to tropical 


' America. 


An interesting story is connected with 
the naming of the plant by the early 
Spanish explorers who discovered it, 
They saw in the flower and vine the 
instrument of our Lord’s suffering and 
death, so called it Passion flower. The 
three stigmas seemed to represent the 
nails used, two in the hands and one in 
the feet. The five anthers blood-red are 
the five wounds and the corona is the 
crown of thorns, though by some con- 
sidered halo of glory. The ten parts of 
the perianth symbolize the ten apostles 
around the cross, Peter and Judas being 
absent. The hands of the persecutors 
are seen in the digitate leaves and the 
scourges in the tendrils. The flower 
was considered a sortof miracle sent 
to the first missionaries to signify that 
the Iadians would be converted by the 
Cross, Important mention is made of it 
by several church writers of the time. 


The Passion flower vine is one of the 
easiest to grow. Ina large part of the 
Island, especially in the hilly country, it 
is found growing wild in abundance. It 
covers fences, sheds, trees, or any other 
thing handy, climbing by means of 
tendrils and making a beautiful sight 
with its graceful leaves and striking 
purple flowers. No diseases appear to 
have attacked it, and no animal pests 
except the rats who are very fond of the 
fruit. They have been known to jump 
in mid-air two feet to a hanging fruit. 


The root is said to possess powerfal 
narcotic properties, and in some places is 
used as medicine. 

The edible parts of the fruit are two, 
of quite distinct taste. The seed and 
the attached coverings are excellent 
eaten with sugar. They have a pleasing 
tart taste in contrast to the sweetness of 
the surrounding fiesh. 


A contributed recipe for preparing the 
seeds is as follows :— 


Cut aslice off one end of the fruit and © 
pour in half a cup of sugar and a cup of 
cherry. Allow to ripen for an hour and 
serve ice-cold, scooping out the seeds 
into dishes. —N. B. B. 


The same person gives the method of 
making: 

Granadilla Fritters,—Choose a firm 
fruit and cut the flesh into small slices. 
Sprinkle each with a little sugar anda 
few drops of lemon juice, Make batter 
by stirring a teaspoonful of melted 


= cig 
aes 


ee 


Edible Products. 


butter into two tablespoonfuls of flour, 
add a pinch of salt and enough milk to 
makea thin batter. Add the beaten 
yolks of two eggs, beat well and then 
stirin gently the beaten whites. Put 
the fruit into the batter. Fry the pieces 
in deep very hot lard. Lay on brown 
paper to drain. Sprinkle sugar over 
them and serve hot. N. B. B. 


Granadilla Salad.—Cut the flesh of a 
firm fruit into small pieces and cover 
thoroughly with a good dressing, Serve 
ice-cold on lettuce leaves. 


Granadilla Sweet Pickles.—This is 
another fruit which can be utillized for 
pickling. Select matured but rather 
green fruit and cut flesh into cubes. 
Put on the fire in water with a pinch of 
salt and let boil very slightly. Drain and 
place in jar. Boil five minutes one pint 
of strong vinegar, two teacups of sugar, 
scant teaspoonful of whole cloves, also 
one of whole allspice, and a tablespoonful 
broken cinnamon sticks. Pour over 
fruit in jar. Pour same syrup boiling 


427 


[NOVEMBER, 1909, 


hot over the fruit the two succeeding 
days. 

Granadilla Butter.—Cut up the flesh 
and boil. Drain off water and mash. 
Press out the water of the fruit through 
a cloth, then add one cup sugar to every 
three cups of fruitand ground cinnamon 
to taste. Boil and stir till thick. 


Granadilla Pudding.—Cook tapioca 
thin enough to pour readily. Flavour 
with lemon juice. Have granadilla cut 
into dice and sugared a little. Pour the 
hot tapioca over the fruit, stir and allow 
to cool. Serve with custard sauce. 


Granadilla Sherbet.—Press out the 
juice from aripe granadilla. Add two 
cups of cold water and the juice of two 
lemons and sweeten to taste. Freeze, 
When frozen almost hard mix in the 
well-beaten whites of two eggs and finish 
freezing beating well. 


Granadilla Refresco.—Press out juice 
of ripe granadilla. Add juice of two 
lemons and a pint of water. Sweeten 
and serve ice-cold. 


TIMBERS. 


THE NEED FOR AN AFFORESTA- 
TION BRANCH OF THE FOREST 
DEPARTMENT. 


(From the Indian Forester, Vol. XXXV., 
No. 4, April, 1909.) 


In the March issue we reproduced on 
page 176 an article from Indian Engineer- 
wg drawing attention to the want of 
attention paid in this country to both 
deforestation and afforestation, which 
are rightly described as lying at the 
very heart of successful forest conser- 
vation. Thereis no getting away from 
the fact that vast areas all over India 
have been denuded of forest during the 
past half century. and the cause of this 
denudation is toa great extent due to 
the continued progress of agricultural 
and industrial pursuits under the ‘‘ Pax 
Britannica.” At the same time very 
little afforestation work has been done. 
We have repeatedly drawn attention to 
the urgency of afforesting waste lands 
in order to promote the well-being of 
agriculture which isthe most important 
industry in the Empire. We _ have 
pointed out time after time the advan- 
tageous results which would be attained 
by such afforestation, such as increase of 
rainfall, regulation of water-supply, 
prevention of floods and erosion, moder- 
ation of climate, improvement of irri- 


54 


gation, provision ofa plentiful supply 
of fuel, fodder and timber for agricul- 
tural purposes, saving of manure for the 
crops and ultimate prevention of famine. 
Even in conservative England, the ques- 
tion of afforestation has lately received 
a great deal of attention, and in this 
issue we are publishing the recommen- 
dations of the Royal Commission which 
has recently been enquiring into the 
subject. And yet in India where we 
already havea professional department 
no steps have been taken to plan and 
carry out a suitable scheme. 


It may well be that many will hold 
that the Forest Department in this 
country has not fulfilled its duty in 
these respects, and certainly there is 
much to be said for their view. We 
must point out however that the Depart- 
ment has with difficulty obtained the 
present scale of staff which is still 
markedly inadequate for the proper 
management of the lands already re- 
served as forests. Every step of progress 
in forestry has been an uphill fight, and 
with the opposition that it has met with 
atevery point it is surprising that so 
much has been attained, Fitty years 
ago all the lands which are now under 
the Forest Department were waste lands 
under the management of District 
Officers, and itis a strange fact that in 


NOVEMBER, 1909.] 


some provinces there are still thousands 
of square miles of waste lands, the 
property of Government, which are not 
yet under the control of the Department. 
So far then from adopting a regular 
scheme for checking deforestation and 
for pushing on afforestation, the Forest 
Department has not yet been allowed to 
manage all the existing forest lands, and 
the first step, we consider, should be 
that all waste lands owned by Govern- 
ment should be made over to the manage- 
ment of the Department. If it were 
desirable in any case it could be laid 
down that the areas were not to be 
managed for a profit, and that when 
necessary land should be given up for 
the extension of cultivation, but while 
the lands are waste, often witha good 
deal of forest already existing on them, 
we strongly urge their being handed 
over for management to the Department 
specially trained for the purpose. 


We have already stated that the 
Forest Department as constituted at 
present has more than enough to do in 
the management of existing forests, and 
such matters as deforestation and 
afforestation onlands outside the re- 
served forests are beyond its scope, for 
it would not be possible for the existing 
staff to do these works in addition to 
their present duties. The subjects how- 
ever appeal strongly to every keen 
Forest Officer, and we strongly advise 
the expansion of the Department in 
order to deal with them. 


Before going further, it is necessary 
to state that the work of afforestation 
is a very different branch of forestry to 
that of management of existing forests. 
Forest Officers in India have had little 
experience as yet in afforestation ona 
large scale, and though trained in the 
subject under conditions existing ina 
temperate climate, they will encounter 
much greater difficulties in this country 
on account of the extremes prevailing 
at different seasons of the year. They 
will have many problems to solve in 
India as to the cheapest, quickest and 
most successful methods of creating 
forests on waste lands. The choice of 
species to suit various soils and the 
methods necessary for successfully pro- 
pagating the individual species are 
matters which can only be learned by 
experience. Unfortunately, in the past, 
plantations have been as a rule discour- 
aged and artificial reproductive works 
have been often condemned as waste of 
money. This attitude we believe arose, 
first, from the fact that we have not 
sufficient staff to manage our existing 
forests properly; and secondly, because 


428 . Limbers. 


with the work. 


we are stillin the experimental stage as 
regards plantations, so that it often 
happens that money spent on them is 
not productive. Experience in this case, 
as usual, must be bought, and if weset 
to work systematically, it will soon be 
found out how to afforest various types 
of soils quickly and cheaply. 


We are emphatically of opinion that a 
separate Afforestation ‘Branch of the 
Forest Department is needed. We by 
no means wish to advocate that the 
Government should commit itself imme- 
diately to a vast scheme of reboisement, 
and as a beginning we think it would be 
sufficient if one Imperial Officer were 
specially appointed for this work with 
an Extra Assistant Conservator or good 
Ranger under him in each Province. It 
is probable that all Provincial Govern- 
ments would be able to put small areas 
of different classes of waste land at his 
disposal, and it would be his duty to 
direct experiments to find out how each 
class can best be afforested. 


By the time it has been discovered 
how tosuccessfully afforest the various 
classes of soils, Government will, we 
trust, be able to adopt a regular scheme 
for the gradual afforestation of waste 
lands, witha fair prospect of success, 
and then the Afforestation Branch could 
be gradually expanded in order to cope 


In the meanwhile the special Affores- 
tation Officer, in addition to directing 
such experiments, could inspect and 
tabulate the waste lands suitable for 
afforestation, so that by the time that 
Goverpvment is prepared to proceed with 
a reguler scheme, there would be useful 
data ready as to the position, quantity, 
and kind of land available. He could 
also make enquiries and work out the 
best methods of obtaining the land. 
We do not for a moment suppose that 
Government would acquire all theland. — 
It would be often possible toarange with 
owners that Government should afforest 
the areas and hand over all profits to the 
owners of the land. Similarly when 
village lands are taken up all profits 
might be divided among the community 
concerned. In other cases it might be 
possible to close areas for afforestation 
and in return grant a proportion of the 
profits, and so on. ; 


We must, however, point out that in 
order to ensure the success of any 
general scheme of afforestation, it is 
absolutely necessary to have the people 
with us, and to gain this end we recom- 
mend that a simple primer be prepared 
for use iu all schools throughout the — 


er 


country, setting forth the advantages 
of forests to agriculture from all points 
of view. 


The Afforestation Branch might also 
be required to carefully watch the ex- 
tension of deforestation on areas out- 
side the reserved forests, to report on all 
casesin which the denudation of the 
land would have disastrous, effects, and 
to submit proposals as to the action 
which ought to be taken to prevent it. 

At first all this would be done in a 
small way, but we believe that once an 
Afforestation Branch is started, it will 
gradually expand and become of more 


Timbers. 429 


(NOVEMBER, 1909. 


importance if possible to the country in 
general than the present Forest Depart- 
ment. The latter would gradually ex- 
pand also, for as areas become success- 
fully stocked and felling become neces- 
sary or possible, they would of course be 
handed over for management to the 
branch of the Department now in 
existence. 


We believe that in the adoption of 
this policy is the one key to the preven- 
tion of tamines, and the progress of 
such an Afforestation Branch would be 
watched with intense interest by all 
the world. 


PLANT SANITATION. 


MISCELLANEA: CHIEFLY PATHO- 
LOGICAL. 


By T, Pretcu. 


The publication of the circular on 
“Pink disease” (Corticium javanicum) 
has evoked a flood of specimens from 
all quarters. It seems to have _ been 
fairly prevalent during the prolonged 
rains of the last four months. An 
example on coffee adds another to the 
list of plants attacked by it in Ceylon; 
in this instance, the fungus developed its 
conspicuous pink patches along the 
fruiting branches, Two most interest- 
ing examples were sent from Southern 
India where it attacks Crotalaria inter- 
planted among Hevea, as well as the 
young Hevea. In one instance, the Cro- 
talaria was about a year old, but had 
not flowered nor been pruned; the stem 
forwarded was exceptionally woody 
and measured about three-quarters of 
an inch in diameter. The disease ap- 
pears to begin, asarule, near the base 
of the stem. One correspondent states 
‘almost the whole of the Crotalaria, I 
have noticed, that has been sown in 
these parts is covered with the same 
disease.” In such eases the densely 
grown Crotalaria acts asa reservoir of 
disease, from which it may spread to 
the Hevea; butit is scarcely possible, 
without continuous observation, to say 
whether the attacks on Crotalaria and 
Hevea are successive or simultaneous. 
The growth of Crotalaria in Southern 
India appears tobe much more vigorous 
than in Ceylon—I have never seen any 
Ceylon plants which attained the size of 
these Indian specimens before flower- 
ing,—and, in accordance with this, Corti- 
cium javanicum has not yet been re- 


corded on Crotalariain Ceylon. There 
does not appear to be any danger in 
growing Crotalaria among rubber in 
Ceylon at present, and where the growth 
is so vigorous that it forms a tall jungle, 
some smaller green manure and cover 
plant must be adopted, or it must be 
cut down earlier. From the myco- 
logical standpoint any green manure 
plant which grows tall should not ‘be 
planted in dense masses; the lower the 
plant, the [ess is the danger Of disease. 
A plant which would not exceed a foot 
in height would be ideal, and could be 
sown as thickly. as wished. There is 
a tendeney to grow manure plants too 
long. In temperate climates such a 
crop is often ploughed in at the end ofa 
month; but here the ideaalways appears 
to be to make it run as long as possible 
and to obtain some profit by selling 
seed. There is little advantage in a 
green manure plant, as such, until it is 
cut down and mulched in, but’ the 
question is of course complicated by the 
problem of weeds and wash. 


In a recent publication on Hevea 
diseases, the fungus of ‘“ pink disease” is 
referred to as Corticium Zimmermann. 
Thisis another name for Corticium java- 
nicum, founded on a series of mistakes. 
In 1899, P. Hennings named a fungus 
from Java, Aleurodiscus javanicus, and 
in 1901, Zimmermann named another 
fungus from Java, Corticium javani- 
cum. The latter is the fungus of ‘* pink 
disease,” the former being quite a differ- 
ent species, as the name indicates. Now, 
all descriptions of fungi are periodically 
collected by Saccardo and published in 
a mycological encylopeedia; and as he 
refuses to recognise the genus Aleuro- 


’ discus, he changed Henning’s name (in 


1902) to Corticitum javanicum. In this 


pie 


NovEMBER, 1909,] 


he was quite wrong. He had a perfect 
right to changethe name Alewrodiscus if 
he chose, but he was not justified in using 
the combination Corticium javanicum, 
because that combination was already 
in use for another species. When he 
reached the end of his volume, he dis- 
covered Zimmermann’s description of 
our ‘‘pink disease” fungus, and, to 
put matters right, he changed the name 
of the latter to Corticium Zimmermann. 
But it isnot permissible to correct one 
mistake by making another, and this 
renaming cannot stand. Our “ pink 
disease” fungus has first claim on the 
name Corticium javanicum, and, if it is 
desired to rename Henning’s fungus, 
some other combination must be found. 
As amatter of fact, nothing of the kind 
is needed, because Henning’s fungus had 
already been named thirty years previ- 
ously on specimens sent from Pera- 
deniya, and its correct name is Aleuro- 
discus peradenic. 

On many estates lateral branches of 
Hevea which arose from the first six 
feet or so of the stem have been cut off ; 
or when the trees forked near the 
ground level one stem has been re- 
moved. In the majority of cases, the 
branch or stem has been sawn across a 
few inches from the main stem, thus 
leaving a ‘‘stub” two or three inches 
long. This was the method recommend- 
ed years ago before the principles of 
plant physiology were applied to garden 
practice. It is now generally recognised 
that the bark will never grow over 
such a stub, and that the end always 
remains expcsed and affords a possible 
point of entry for destructive fungi. 
As a rule, the stub will die back, 
though this danger may be avoided by 
tarring it periodically. The current of 
water and food passes up and down the 
main stem, and the stub is sidetracked. 
Now, the periodic tarring would not 
be necessary if the bark would grow 
over the cut surface, and the modern 
pruner obtains this desired effect by 
cutting off the branch as close to the 
main stem as possible. The cut should 
be made parallel to the main stem and 
close to 1t; it should not be made per- 
pendicular to the branch cut off. Ac- 
cording to the old idea, the cut should 
be made so as not to injure the 
bulge at the base of the branch; the 
modern pruner cuts right through 
the bulge and endeavours to leave the 
stem as smooth as possible, 7.e., without 
any projecting remains of the branch. 
He certainly makes a bigger wound, but 
as the bark has only to grow on ina 
straight line, it heals over completely 
in a comparatively short time. 


430 


Plant Sanitation. 


Pruning off large branches should 
never be done by a single operation. 
If they are sawn off close to the stem, 
the branch falls when partly cut 
through and usually tears off part of 
the stem. The first cut should be made 
about a foot away from the stem, on the 
under side of the branch, and continued 
about half way through it. A second 
cut should then be made two or three 
inches further away from the stem, on 
the upper surface, and this should be 
continued until the branch is severed. 
Finally the stub should be sawn off flush 
with the stem. It will be necessary to 
have two or three coolies on rubber 
estates trained to remove dead branches 
and prune where it is considered neces- 
sary; they should be taught the 
difference between tree pruning and 
chopping firewood. Bailey’s Pruning 
Book should be on the shelves of all 
planters who have to deal with trees; 
it is the only book which treats the 
subject from fundamental principles. 
Its special parts deal of course with 
American orchard plants and are not so 
much required here, but the general 
parts will well repay careful study- 

The recommendation that coal tar 
should be used for covering wounds does 
not meet with the approval of Ceylon 
planters. From the mycologist’s point 
of view Stockholm tar is too evanescent. 
I am aware that it has been universally 
recommended for tea, but there do not 
appear to be any definite comparative 
experiments on the subject. One planter 
informs me that coal tar kills back the 
branches worse than Stockholm tar, 
while another assures me that the 
reverse is the case. I have certainly 
seen coal tar used in branch canker on 
tea without any injurious effect. Either 


will kill the green bark if applied to it, ~ 


and in this respect Stockholm tar is 
liable to do most damage because it is 
more fluid and therefore more likely to 
run. Stockholm tar is a poor protection 
against fungi, and in one case, in Hevea, 
fungi grew on the cut surface three 
weeks after its application. Modern 
practice favours coal tar. W. J. Bean, 
of Kew, writing on pruning in the 
Gardeners’ Chronicle, April 21, 1906, 
states :—‘‘The virtues of ordinary coal tar 
—not Stockholm tar—as a dressing for 
cut surfaces are not generally known. 
All the raw places left by removing 
branches or stumps of branches should 
be immediately covered with this anti- 
septic substance, and the coating should 
be renewed as oftenas is necessary till 
the wound is covered with new bark. 
The best armovr that a tree can have 
to protect it against fungoid enemies 


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Plant Sanitation. 431 


is that which Nature has provided it, viz., 
its bark. But when accident has pro- 
duced a flaw in the armour the most 
efficient substitute is coal tar.” Bailey, 
in his Pruning Book, describes a series 
of experiments with different sub- 
stances, in which the wound covered 
with coal tar healed quickest, but he 
points out, what is generally overlooked, 
that rapidity of healing is governed 
more by the position of the wound than 
by the preservative used; he expresses 
a preference for white lead paint, and 
many orchardists agree with him on this 
point. Watt and Mann state that 
vegetable tar, not coal tar, should be 
used, but they do not give any evidence 
in favour of their preference. It must 
be remembered that a book on Tea or 
Rubber or Cacao must be a compilation, 
and the compiler cannot be supposed to 
test every statement. He usually accepts 


the current tradition; and the tradition - 


brought out from Europe thirty years 
ago would undoubtedly have been in 
favour of Stockholm tar. It would 
seem that the recommendation is an 
extension of the old doctrine of signa- 
tures,—that Stockholm tar, being a vege- 
table tar, must therefore be most suit- 
able for plants. 


ENTOMOLOGICAL NOTES. 


By EH. ERNEST GREEN, 
Government Entomologist. 


In the July and August numbers of 
this journal, I described acase of tea 
seedlings attacked by the ‘Root Gall- 
worm” (Heterodera radicicola). The 
accompanying plate gives a good idea of 
the appearance of tea roots attacked 
by this pest. 


The ‘Red Borer’ (Zeuzera coffe) ap- 
pears to be unusually prevalent just 
now. Within the last month numerous 
specimens have been received from tea 
estates in various localities. In one case, 
the borers were found in nursery 
plants. I have also recorded an addi- 
tional food plant for this pest, which 
has occurred in young teak trees in the 
Matale district. 


Specimens of the large Cockchafer 
grub (Lepidiota pinguis) have been 
received from several localities, where 
they have been destructive in tea 
nurseries, feeding on the roots of the 
young plants. ‘Vaporite’ will be found 
an efficient remedy for this pest. If 
dibbled into the soil (between the rows 
of plants) it gives off a gas which quickly 


(NOVEMBER, 1909, 


brings the grubs to the surface, when 
they fall a prey to ants, birds, and 
numerous other natural enemies. 


‘Red Slug’—the caterpillar of the 


moth Heterusia cingala—has attracted 
attention in several tea districts. This 
is one of our ever-recurrent tea pests. 
If noticed in time—when the first brood 
is confined toa few bushes—the cater- 
pillars may be collected by hand and 
further trouble prevented. 


A limited outbreak of the ‘Small 
Tussock Caterpillar’ (Orgyia postica) 
upon tea, has been reported. 


Further information concerning the 
slug pest of Hevea rubber has been ob- 
tained, and the name of the slug has 
been determined. It proves to be 
Mariaella dussumiert, Gray. 


My correspondent writes :—‘‘ A rubber 
tree which has got to the branching 
stage does not suffer so very much from 
their depredations. It is the single- 
stemmed ‘wintering’ tree—which has 
lost its foliage—that suffers so badly. 
The slugs will not permit it to get into 
leaf again, as they nibble away every 
growing-point and—in addition to this 
—‘tap’ the green bark of the latest 
formed portions of the stems. The 
latex can be sometimes seen running 
down the stem, where these pests have 
been operating overnight. The supplies 
also cannot get a start, as the slugs eat 
off the growing-point close to the stem.” 


I have seen specimens of some of these 
afflicted trees. It is evident that the 
plants have made repeated efforts to 
throw out fresh shoots, and that each 
attempt has been promptly ‘nipped in 
the bud.’ The top of the plant shows a 
cushion of these aborted buds. 


Some of the slugs were observed to be 
feeding upon the renewing bark in a 
wound. It may be mentioned that it 
was this same species that attracted 
notice—four years ago—by lapping up 
the remains of the latex left in the 
wounds after tapping, with the result 
that little ‘scrap rubber’ was forth- 
coming. (See “T, A.” July, 1905, p, 408.) 


Several ways of circumventing this 
pest suggest themselves. Cylinders of 
freshly tarrod brown-paper might be tied 
loosely round the base of each stem. 
‘Vaporite’ strewn over the surface of 
the ground round each tree would bar 
the passage of the slugs, This would 
be more effective than lime, as its action 
would not be completely destroyed by 
rain. Fowls, and especially ducks, will 
devour the slugs with avidity; but it 
would be difficult to turn the whole of a 
rubber plantation into a fowl-run, or to 
stock it sufficiently, Sliced yams, poi- 


NOVEMBER, 1909,] 


soned with a mixture of arsenic and 
sugar, would be an attractive bait both 
for this pest and for bandicoots. 


2) That Bandicoot 
rats can be a 
serious pest, can 
be seen from. the 
accompanying 
figure, which re- 
presents the base 
of a youug Hevea 
tree that has 
been gnawed 
completely 
through by these 
animals. The 
characteristic 
marks of the chi- 
sel-like teeth are 
very clearly 
shown in the 
illustration. My 
corres pondent 
gives me the fol- 
lowing account of 
the ‘ modus oper- 
andi’ of this 
pest:—‘The 
bandicoot always 
scoops out. a hole 
at one side of the 
rubber plant and 
ghaws away the 
tender, root as 
deeply” as possi- 
ble, that is—as 
far down the root 
as he can get, and 
he invariably 
gnaws the woody 
part of the root. 
The plant then 
falls to the 
ground and he 
can get at the 
tender bark 
above.” From 
this account, it appears that the animal 
deliberately fells the tree in order to 
teed upon the tender bark that would 
otherwise be out of its reach. My corre- 
spondent informs me that a trial of 
Danysz Virus produced no appreciable 
result, and that the offer of a reward 
of 50 cts. per rat met with no response. 
He tells me that the Sinhalese plant a 
poisonous species of yam which the rats 
are said to eat with fatal results. “I 
think that baiting with artificially 
poisoned yams—as suggested above— 
would be equally if not more effective. 
The rats are most destructive where 
‘cheddy’ has been allowed to grow up 
amongst the rubber. The removal of 
this cover will do much to drive away 
the pest. 


Base of Rubber Stem Gnawed 
by Bandicoot Rats. 


482 


Piant Sanitation. 


I have recently examined a number 
of diseased branches of Albizzia moluc- 
cana which had become infested by 
various small boring beetles. A study 
of the material showed clearly that the 
death of the branches was due to a 
fungus which the Government Myco- 
logist recognizes as a species of Nectria, 
and the beetles had subsequently invaded 
the diseased wood. I extracted seven 
distinct species of Scolytide from these 
branches, and amongst them was one 
which Iam quite unable to distinguish 
from the notorious shot-hole borer of 


the tea plant (Xyleborus fornicatus). I 


have—before now—noticed attempts at 
infection of young Albizzias growing 
amongst shot-hole-infected tea; but, in 
such cases, the iusect had invariably 
failed to establish itself, owing to exu- 
dation of gum into its galleries. 
I have an interesting specimen, in my 
collection, showing one of the little 
beetles entombed in a hardened drop 
of gum, like a fly in amber. In the 
present case, the Xyleborus had—in 
every instance—attacked the branch in 
a narrow zone just at the dividing line 
between the dead and the living tissues. 
It appeared to find the conditions—at 
this spot—favourable, for the galleries 
contained insects in all stages of 
development. Curiously enough, ‘shot- 
hole borer’ has never been found in 
the tea on this estate. Under these 
circumstances, the immediate destruc- 
tion of the Albizzias was recommended. 


Many of the young sprouting stems of 
the Giant Bamboos (Dendrocalamus 
giganteus) in these Gardens spring up to 
a height of one or two feet, and then 
cease to grow. A closer examination 
shows that they are dead and decayed. 
If one of these diseased sprouts is 
broken open, it will be found to be full 
of white maggots, which eventually 
develop into a curious fly with banded 
wings. This fly, which proved to be. 
a new species, has been named by Prof. 
Froggatt Ceratitis striata. An allied spe- 
cies (Ceratitis capitata) is the notorious 
fruit fly that is so destructive to oranges 
throughout southern Kurope; and all 
other species—(at least those of which 
the life-history is known)—are_ fruit 
pests, Itis curious that our Ceylonese 
species should have adopted so different 
ahabit. It lays its eggs beneath the 
imbricating sheaths of the young bam- 
boo sprouts ; the maggots eat into the 
soft heart of the stem and set up decay 
which effectually stops all further 
growth. The adult flies may often be 
observed sunning themselves on the 
older stems of the Giant Bamboo. To 
check this pest, it will be necessary to 


’ 


ere oe 


i yk alg SPE oS ae 


Plant Sanitalion, 


destroy all the abortive sprouts as soon 
as it is ascertained that they have 
ceased growing. Asthe normal growth 
of these giant sprouts is extraordinarily 
rapid—sometimes reaching as much as 
twelve inches within the twenty-four 
hours—the stoppage of growth is not 
difficult to determine. The diseased 
sprouts should be cut off level with the 
ground and buried deeply in the soil. 
They areso full of sap that it would 
be impossible to burn them. 


The large hairy caterpillars of the 
moth (Zaragama dorsalis) have been 
defoliating ‘Dadap’ (Erythrina) trees 


‘growing amongst the Hevea on a rub- 


ber plantation. It wassuggested that— 
after exhausting the supply of food to 
be found on the Dadap—they might 
turn their attention to therubber trees. 
To test this point, I deprived some of 
the caterpillars of their accustomed 
food and supplied them with Hevea 
leaves alone. They did not appear to 
be dissatisfied with the change, but fed 


433 


{NOVEMBER, 1909. 


freely and eventually completed their 
transformations. This species must 
accordingly be looked upon as a potential 
pest of Hevea rubber, though it has not 
yet been found actually feeding on rub- 
ber in the field. The caterpiller is a 
large and fairly conspicuous one. It 
very closely resembles its still larger 
ally Suwana concolor, and should be 
handled with equal caution. (See note 
on page 186 of the August number), 


Mahogany trees, at Kandy, have been 
partially defoliated by the caterpillars 
of the ‘Green Lappet-Moth’ (Trabala 
vishnu.) 


Cucumber roots, badly infested by 
the ‘ Root Gall-worm’ (Heterodera radi- 
cicola) have been received from the 
Superintendent of School Gardens. The 
treatment for this pest consists in a heavy 
dressing of lime, after which the land 
should be left fallow, or planted with 
some crop that does not harbour the 
worm. 


SCIENTIFIC AGRICULTURE, 


ACIDITY IN SOILS. 


(From the Gardeners’ Chronicle, No. 
1,174, Vol. XLV., June 26, 1909.) 


Important as are the nitrogen-fixing. 


bacteria, they form only a small part 


of the microflora of the soil; other 


groups of organisms prepare the food of 
plants; some break down the nitro- 
genous compounds constituting manure 
or humus into simpler nitrogen com- 
pounds and finally oxidise them into 
the nitrates, in which form most plants 
obtain the nitrogen they require. Other 
bacteria are, from the point of view of 
the horticulturist, wasteful in that they 
convert the nitrogen compounds into 
free nitrogen; others, again (particu- 
larly certain microfungi), compete with 
the crop for the plant food in the soil, 
and perhaps produce substances which 
are injurious to plant life. The relative 
predominance of particular groups of 
organisms, useful or injurious, can be 
effected by the farmer or gardener, 
because the various species of micro- 
organisms are very sensitive to minute 
changes in the soil, for example, its 
acidity or alkalinity. 

Soils that are distinctly acidin their 
reaction are notinfrequently met with 
in nature; when they are in grass they 
may be recognised by the generally 


rusty aspect of the vegetation, which 
consists mainly of — shallow-rooting 
grasses growing in tufts, and by the 
absence of Clover; when they are under 
arable cultivation their acidity may be 
revealed by the presence of such weeds 
as Spurrey, Sheep’s Sorrel, and Corn 
Marigold, and by the ‘‘clubbing” of 
cruciferous crops. 


Similar acid soils have been produced 
artificially by the long-continued use of 
sulphate of ammoniaas a fertiliser. The 
best example is afforded by the con- 
tinuous Wheat and Barley plots on the 
farm of the Royal Agricultural Society at 
Woburn; where ammonium salts have 
been used as the source of nitrogen the 
land -is now almost sterile, Barley 
refuses to grow at all, and the whole 
plot becomes covered by a growth of 
Spurrey. At Rothamsted, where the 
arable land is sufficiently furnished with 
carbonats of lime, acidity has not set in, 
but on the grass plots it has become 
very marked. 


In order to determine the cause of this 
acidity experiments have been made tc 
seeifany purely chemical or physical 
interactions would take place between 
the constituents of the soil and solutions 
of ammonium salts, which would split 
off a free acid from the latter, but with 
negative results. The action was found 


NOVEMBER, 1909.] 434 


to be a biological process, the soil is rich 
in certain moulds and other microfungi 
which rapidly attack solutions of ammo- 
nium salts, and by withdrawing am- 
monia from their own nutrition, set free 


the acid. It was shown that the degree | 


of acidity thus produced was approxi- 
mately equal to the soluble acidity of 
the Rothamsted plots soon after the 
ammonium salts had been applied as 
manure. At the same time, in the soils 
there was also a very much larger 
quantity of comparatively insoluble 
humic acid, which had accumulated year 
by year asa result of the attack of the 
mineral acids split off from the ammo- 
nium salts upon the neutral humus of 
the soil. 

The first consequence of the acidity 
of the soil on these plots has been the 
cessation of the nitrification process, 
because the bacteria bringing about that 
change will only work in a neutral 
medium. Some of the falling off in the 
yield of these acid plots is thus due to the 
fact that the grass is driven to obtain its 
necessary nitrogen from ammonia instead 
of from the more usual nitrates: at the 
same time, the mass of micro-fungi with 
which the soil is permeated competes 
successfully with the grass for the 
manure, Whether these fungi also 
excrete substances more or less poisonous 
to the grass has not yet been definitely 
settled. The remedy for this acid con- 
dition of the soil lies in the use of lime, 
which, applied at the rate of 2,000 lb. per 
acre to portions of the Rothamsted 
grass plots, has effected a great im- 
provement both in the yield and the 
character of the herbage. 

Another problem of the same order— 
the secondary effects of certain ferti- 
lisers upon the soil—is afforded by the 
well-known fact that the use of large 
quantities of nitrate of soda upon heavy 
soils always makes them very wet and 
sticky after rain and causes them todry 
with a hard, intractable crust. This has 
been attributed to the attraction of 
nitrate of soda for moisture, but the 
amount of water absorbed by the few 
hundredweight per acre of nitrate of 


soda which are ever applied is insigni- « 


ficant and could not cause the effects ob- 
served. Someof the Rothamsted plots, 
which have been receiving nitrate of soda 
every year for the last half century, 
show these effects to a marked degree, 
and on examination the clay on these 
plots was found to bein its most “ de- 
flocculated”” condition. Clay consists 
essentially of excessively fine particles, 
and when a clay soil is in good tilth 
these particles are largely bound to- 
gether in loose aggregates, thus giving 
the soil asa whole a coarser texture. 


Scientific Agriculture. 


Any working of the soil when wet, or 
the ‘‘ puddling ” which a potter or brick- 
maker gives to his clay, breaks down 
these loose aggregates, and, by giving 
the clay its most finely-grained condition 
markedly increases its typical properties 
of impermeability to water, and shrink- 
age of drying. It is also found that a 
trace of any soluble alkali, such as car- 
bonate of soda, will loosen these aggre- 
gates and deflocculate the clay. 


By further experiments it has been 
shown that a growing plant fed with 
nitrate of soda gives rise to a little 
carbonate of soda, because it takes up 
more of the nitric acid than the soda 
base with which it was combined, leav- 
ing the latter in the soil combined with 
the carbonic acid excreted from the 
roots. It was found possible to extract 
free carbonate of soda from the plots 
which had long received nitrate of soda 
as a manure; one of the grass plots 
yielded as much as 175 lbs. per acre 
dcwn to adepth of 3 feet. This alkali 
then, by deflocculating the clay, is the 
source of the bad tilth resulting from 
the use of nitrate of soda. 


The bad tilth, which is a _ serious 
trouble to many market gardeners who 
manure heavily with nitrate of soda, 
cannot be rectified by use of lime, 
which, being itself an alkali, only ex- 
aggerates the trouble. The use of acid 
manures like superphosphates, and 
liberal application of soot, will improve 
matters, but the best plan is to use, 
instead of nitrate of soda alone as a 
nitrogenous fertiliser, a mixture of it 
with sulphate of ammonia. Since the 
one tends to set free acid and other 
alkali in the soil, jointly they would 
leave it unchanged, and they would 
also come into action successively as 
sources of nitrogen. 


These and other cases of the same 


character go to show that we must . 


study more closely the chemical and 
biological actions of fertilisers upon our 


_soils if we are to obtain full value from 


them, and avoid some of the disadvan- 
tages long recognised by farmers as 
attending their use. 


| 
3 
: 
3 
: 


Scientific Agriculture. 


PLANTING EXPERIMENTS AT THE 
AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENTAL 
STATION, ZIMBITI (MOZAMBIQUE). 


By W. H. JOHNSON, F.L:S. &, | 
Director of Agriculture to the Companhia 
de Mocambique. 

(From the Tropical Life, Vol. V., No. 6, 
if une, 1909.) 


The Zimbiti Station is the first of 
the three Agricultural Experimental 
Stations which the Companhia de 
Mocambique has decided to establish 
for the purpose of testing the asricul- 
tural possibilities of the three different 
zones in its territory. It is situated in 
the low country, 35 kilometres distant 
from Beira, and is adjacent to the Beira 
and Mashonaland Railway. The soil in 
this neighbourhood varies from a light, 
sandy alluvial to a rich, heavy clay. 
A stream flows through the centre of 
the site selected for the station, and the 
land in the vicinity ofthis was thickly 
eovered with large timber trees. 


The station is named after a timber 
tree which is very common in the 
neighbourhood and known to the natives 
as Zimbiti. Botanical specimens of this 
tree were forwarded for identification 
to the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, 
which resulted in eliciting the fact that 
it is new to science, and it has been 
distinguished by the Kew authorities as 
Androstachys Johnsoni, Prain. 

It was intended to clear about 20 hec- 
tares for preliminary experiments, but 
as the commencement of this work was 
delayed until November 18th, 1907, by 
which time the rainy season was well 


advanced, it was only found possible to 


prepare about half this area tor the first 
season’s cultivation. The remainder was, 
however, cleared and _ prepared for 
planting before the end of the year 
(November, 1907, to November, 1908), the 
period covered by this report, 


DEMARCATION OF LAND. 


The selected area was divided up into 
twenty square blocks, each measuring 
one hectare, and each of these was sub- 
divided into square plots containing 
1-16th of a hectare. 


The hectare blocks were numbered 
consecutively from 1 to 20, and the small 


_ plots were given a letter of the alpha- 


bet from A to P, as shown in the plan 
sent in with the report. 


This system of demarcation consider- 
ably facilitates reference to any parti- 
cular area, and will enable a correct re- 
cord to be kept of the crops grown in 
successive years on every portion of the 


5d 


435 


[NOVEMBER, 1909, 


station. Such a record is of considerable 
importance in estimating the effect of 
various crop rotations. 


STAFF AND LABOUR FORCE. 


The European staff consisted of the 
Superintendent and his assistant, and 
fifty native labourers were constantly 
employed. 

CROPS. 

The principal annual crops grown were 
cotton, maize, and tobaceo. Owing to 
the delay which occurred in commencing 
the clearing and ploughing operations, 
all of these were sown from six weeks to 
two months too late in the season. The 
yields obtained cannot, therefore, be 
accepted as a fair criterion of the pro- 
bable yields: from these crops when 
grown under more favourable conditions. 
Previous to planting, the land for each 
crop was thoroughly cleared of all roots 
and treestumps, then hoe-ploughed and 
levelled. 


The Superintendent’s records and field 
notes in regard to each crop were given 
in schedule form in the appendix to this 
report when sent in, 


Cotton.—Twenty different varieties of 
cotton were tested, and the following 
tables furnish details in regard to the 
results obtained from each. 


The Sea Island (Cherinda) plot mea- 
sured 1-25th hectare, the area of all others 
being } hectare. All the plots were 
similarly treated in regard to weeding 
and harrowing, 


All the plots were attacked by cater- 
pillars and aphis, but these were prompt- 
ly exterminated by sprayings of Paris 
green and kerosine emulsion respectively. 
Grasshoppers were troublesome to young 
plants, and stainers appeared in each 
plot as soon as the bolls matured. 
Vacancies were resown in each plot until 
a regular stand of plants was obtained. 


The yields given in the following sche- 
dule still further corroborate the opinion 
expressed by the writer in previous 
reports in regard to the advisability of 
substituting upland varieties of cotton, 
and perferably the long staple types, for 
the EKgyptian and Sea Island varieties 
formerly grown in this territory. 

Yield Yield Percent- 
of of age of 
Description of variety, seed- lint lint to 


cotton per per seed- 
hectare. hectare cotton, 


Long Staple Upland kilos. kilos. 
Allen’s Long Staple 261°04 8400 32:18 
Allen’s Hybrid 118°40 36°00 §=30°40 
Allen (Cherinda) 472°80 152°80 32°32 
Griffin U.S.A. 417°60 137°6) = 32°95 
Griffin (Cherinda) 406°00 106°00 26°1 
Cook « 284980 =88°40 31°03 
Commander we. 463°20 123°20 30°55 


NOVEMBER, 1909,] 
Yield Yield  Percent- 
of of ‘age of 
Description of variety. seed- lint lint to 
cotton per per seed- 
hectare, hectare, cotton, 
kilos. kilos. 
Southern Hepe 309°36 100°8 32'58 
Peeler 724°80 246°4 83°99 
Bailey 725°60 240°00 33°97 
Moon 483°20 160°00 33°11 
Mitafifi Egyptian . 131:°20 41°20 31°40 
Jannovitch Egyptian... 40°64 9°60 22°62 
Abassi Egyptian AILS (at: Pe 45) 630 a 10 4 
Sea Island (St. Ki ts)... Nil 
SeaIsland(Cherinda)... Nil 
Short Staple planes = 
Bates’ Big Boll .. 280°72 86:40 34°46 
Bates’ Favourite 244:80 80°00 32°67 
Champion. Cluster 532°40 168°00 31°55 
King 635-20 224°00 35°26 


As itis considered that a yield of 200 
kilos and 170 kilos of lint per hectare of 
short staple and long staple upland cot- 
ton respectively is required to ensurea 
profit in this territory, it will be 
observed that, notwithstanding the dis- 
advantages under which this cotton 
was grown, these yields were exceeded 
in three different instances. The com- 
paratively high percentage of lint to 
seed-cotton obtained from the long staple 
upland varieties isspecially noteworthy. 
These varieties rarely yield more than 
30 per cent. of lint to seed-cotton, yet 
_ this percentage was exceeded in every 
case, with one exception only. The 
length, strength and colour of the lint 
of the various upland varieties compared 
very favourably with these characteris- 
tics of the Jint produced by similar 


varieties in the Southern States of 
America. The lint of the Heyptian 


varieties was, however, decidedly in- 
ferior in each instance. 

Maize.—Eleven different varieties of 
this crop were experimented with. 
Caterpillars and grasshoppers did a 
good deal of damage. The former were 
eventually checked by spraying with 
Paris green, but this remedy was not so 
effective with the grasshoppers. A stem- 
borer was exceedingly trcublesome. As 
its attacks are principally confined to 
the interior tissues of the stem, appli- 
eations of insecticides had little effect 
in checking its depredations. 


The plots for this crop were prepared 
in a similar manner to those for cotton. 
The land in each plot was kept free of 
weeds and harrowed when necessary. 
Vacancies in each plot were resown. 


The subjoined schedule shows the 
yield of dey. grain per hectare of each 
variety ; 1-38rd hectare was sown with 
the Hickory King variety, and 1-16th 
hectare with each of the others. 


436 


Scientific Agriculture. 

Yield of grain 

per hectare. 

White Bango oe 1,968 kilos 
Chester County Mammoth 1,424 ,, 
Golden King 1,376 ,, 
lowa Silver Mine 1,040 ,, 
Hickory King see sab he A 
Harly Star Leaming ... fe 656 ,, 
Wisconsin White Dent as 576 yy 
Champion White Pearl “A 496 ,, 
Thorobred White Flint abc 241 y, 
Improved Harly Horse-tooth .. 128 ,, 
Extra Harly Horse-tooth AUP) 


(To be continued. ) 
THE VALUE OF HUMUS. 


(From the Philippine Agricultural 
Review, Vol. II., No. 8, March, 1909.) 


The most important fact in humus is 
that it is the principal source of the 
supply of nitrogeon in soils. The 
Minnesota experiment station has found 
that an increase of 0°5 per cent. of hamus 
in soils means an increase of 245 pounds 
of nitrogen to each acre. On the other 
hand, if the supply of humus is allowed 
to decrease 9°3 per cent. in four years, 
there is an annual loss of 146 pounds of 
nitrogen per acre over and above the 
amount removed in the crop. This 
shows conclusively that increasing the 
amount of humus in the soil increases 
the amount of the nitrogen in the soil; 
and the decrease of humus means a great 
loss of nitrogen, not only by being 
removed in the crop but by leaching 
away in the drainage waters and by 


escaping into the air as the humus - 


decays. 

Scientists tell us that the humus in 
soils is never devoid of nitrogen. Thisis 
especially true with the soils in arid 
sections. The humus of soils in New 
England, which had been farmed for 
years but had been kept in properly 


rotated crops was found to have from. 


4 to 5 per cent. of nitrogen. The humus 
of the arid soils of California was found 
to containas high as 16 per cent. of 
nitrogen; while in the semi-arid regions 
of Kansas, Colorado, and Texas the 
amount of nitrogen in the humus has 
been as high as 10 to 12 per cent. 

The reasou that humus contains 
nitrogen may be better understood 
when we know that the most of it in 
soils comes directly from albuminoids 
in organic matter, While it is true that 
a little of the nitrogen may be derived 
from the reduction of ammonium salts 
and nitrates, the most of it in soils comes 
from the albuminoids that at one time 
formed a part of the plants and animals 
that lived upon the soil. You cannot 
deposit upon the soil an organic sub- 
stance, whether it be from plant or 
animal life, that does not contain 


. 


\ 


= Re pei Se ae te 


- Scientific Agriculture. 437 


nitrogen in a greater or less amount. 
When the organic matter decays, the 
supply of available nitrogen in the soil 
is increased. 


We have found that nitrogen is needed . 


to promote the growth of plants; that 
if there is not a sufficient amount of 
nitrogen in the soil we cannot have 
plants. Since this is true, and since 
practically all of the nitrogen in soils 
comes from its humus content, we can 
see the absolute necessity of humus in 
soils. All plants, except legumes, obtain 
their nitrogen from the soil. Legumes 
have the power to gather this element 
from the great store in the air, if there 
is not enough in the soil to promote their 
growth. Since plants must obtain their 
nitrogen from the soil, and the soil’s 
supply is obtained principally from 
humus, we can again see the importance 
of humus, 


1. Nitrogen isthe most expensive of 


the three elements needed by all plants. 


To grow the common crops more ot it is 
needed than any of the three plant foods. 
Since itis the most expensive of plant 
foods, and so much of it is needed in the 


-production of crops, and its supply can 


be maintained without any material 
cash outlay, if we maintain the supply 
of humus, we can again see the great 
value of humus in the soil. 


2. The presence of humus in soils pro- 
motes chemical action on the mineral ele- 
ments in the soil which are not available 
at the time for the needs of the plants. 
The soil may be rich in phosphorus or 
potash, yet nearly all of these elements 
may be unavailable for the needs of the 
plant; they may not beina state to be 
utilized so that the growth of the plant 
will be very slow. If the soil is rich in 
humus, the acids contained in the humus 
together with those of the character of 
crenic and apocrenic acids will act upon 
the insoluble elements and make th3m 
available for the plant. 


8. Besides being the source of nitro- 
gen and rendering the mineral elements 
already in the soil available, the appli- 
cation of humus adds plant food to 
the soil. Not only do all organic 
materials add nitrogen, but they all 
contain a greater or less amount of the 
other plant foods needed to make soils 
rich, This is especially true of manures 
voided by animals raised on the farm, 
Horses, cattle, hogs, sheep, and poultry 
void manure rich in nitrogen, phosphoric 
acid, and potash. The degree of rich- 


‘ness, of course, will depend on the 


animal and the kind of feed and atten- 
tion received. It the manure of these 
animals is added to increase the supply 
of organic matter, the supply of all 


[NOVEMBER, 1909, 


three plant foods is increased by the 
amount applied in the manure. 


4. Another influence that humus has 
on the fertility of soils is the fact that 
it increases the number of earth worms. 
The farmer’s son who wishes to go fish- 
ing does not get bait from the clay 
bank on the hill-side; he knows that 
no fish worms can be found there. 
Instead, he goes out behind the barn, 
where the manure has been thrown for 
years, and there in the black earth, 
rich in humus, he digs down and finds 
the worms. Earth worms’ of all kinds 
make their home in soils rich in organic 
matter, Their presence greatly in- 
creases the supply of available plant 
food. And in some cases they burrow 
down into the subsoil, and on their 
return bring up alittle of the mineral 
elements to increase the supply in the 
surface layer. This may seem like a 
very insignficant matter; but, after 
all, it is the little things that count in 
tertility of soils. This is one of the 
little things. 


5. Besides being valuable by directly 
increasing the supply in the nitrogen and 
indirectly increasing the available sup- 
ply of other plant foods, humus benefits 
the mechanical condition and texture 
otf the soil. - Soils rich in humus are 
better retainers of moisture than those 
with but little humus. This property of 
soils containing humus is of special im- 
portance in arid and semi-arid countries. 
Where there is but little rainfall during 
the months when crops make their 
heaviest growth, it is important that 
the soil have the power to contain and 
retain moisture as long as possible. If 
the soil cannot contain much moisture, 
no matter how much it rains before the 
dry weather comes, the excess moisture 
will drain off, and just what the soil can 
contain is all the crop will have to draw 
from in the time of dry weather. If the 
soil can contain a considerable amount 
of moisture and has the power to retain 
it, there is a greater probablity of saving 
the crop when the dry weather arrives. 


Experiments show that soils rich in 
humus have the power to contain more 
moisture than soils deficient in it. This 
is true, because pure humus will contain 
more moisture than sand or clay, and 
the more humus there is in a soil, the 
more moisture it can contain. It has 
been found that 100 pounds of sand 
will contain only from 25 to 29 pounds 
of water. If any more than this amount 
is applied it will leach through and pass 
of in the drains. One hundred pounds 
of clay will contain from 40 to 50 pounds ; 
100 pounds of garden earth, from 85 to 90 
pounds; while 100 pounds of pure humus 


SPA cir 


NovEMBER, 1909.] ~438 


will contain as high as 190 pounds of 
water. In other words, the soil of a 
garden, rich in humus, will contain 
nearly four times as much moisture as 
sandy soil devoid of humus. 


Not only is the soil rich in humus a 
better container of moisture, but it is 
also a better retainer. Experiments 
show that 88 per cent. of the moisture 
in sandy soils will evaporate in four 
hours in hot dry weather such as is 
usually experienced in arid countries. 


In garden loam, reasonably rich in 
humus, only 21 to 25 per cent. will eva- 
porate in that time. In other words, 
the garden loam will contain almost 
four times as much moisture as the sand 
bank and retain it almost four times 
as long. Since evaporation may _ be 
hindered by establishing a dirt mulch, 
and since a dirt mulch is more easily 
established in a mellow soil, rich in 
humus, it can be seen how valuable 
organic matter is to the soil in semi-arid 
regions. 


In addition to the above, humus causes 
the water in soils to rise nearer to the 
surface. Experiments show that farm- 
yard manure will strengthen the capillary 
rise of soil moisture. King tells of an 
experiment where it was found that the 
surface foot of one acre of manured soil 
contained over one per cent, mure mois- 
ture than the same soil unmanured. This 
proves that the moisture in soils rich in 
humus rises to the surface. This experi- 

,ment showed that there were over 15 
tons more moisture in the surface foot of 
an acre of manured land than in the 
same soil unmanured, while there were 
nearly 7 tons less moisture in the fifth 
foct below the surface of the manured 
soil than the unmanured soil. The 
humus brought the moisture up where 
the crops could use it. Not only then 
does the soil rich in humus contain and 
retain more moisture, but it places the 
moisture where it will most benefit the 
crop. 


Every farmer knows that the above is 
true. He knows thatthe garden plot 
will be moist long after the clay bank 


Scientific Agriculture. 


has dried outand become so hard that it 
cannot be ploughed. The reason lies in 
the fact that the garden contains a 
greater amount of humus, and will con- 
tain more moisture and keep it longer 
than the clay bank will. Therefore, the 
farmer, who would make it possible for 
his crops to get moisture longer in a dry 
time should increase the supply of humus 
or organic matter in the soil, 


6. Then, too, organic matter makes 
the soil warmer. This may not seem 
important in southern soils, but never- 
theless itis beneficial. It is especially 
important in the germination of the 
seed of early crops. The soil that will 
warm up first in the early spring will, 
in the majority of cases, make the 
farmer a larger profit than the soil that 
is backward about becoming warm. 


Humus makes soils warmer for two 
reasons. First, it makes them dark in 
colour ; there the soil will absorb more 
heat than the _ lighter-coloured soils. 
Black, well-drained soils will warm up 
earlier in the spring than light-coloured 
soils. Second, the decay of the humus 
warms the soil. Wherever vegetable 
matter decays, there is a certain amount 
of heat generated. Consequently, those 
soils that contain a great deal of decay- 
ing humus will be warmer than the soils 
without humus. The decay of any 
substance is, after all, nothing more or 
less than slow burning. When anything 
burns it produces heat. That humus 
warms every soil the farmer is aware. 
Compare the garden plot in early spring 
with the clay bank, and you can soon 
tell that the garden plot is ready to 
germinate seed several days before the 
clay bank. 


7. Humus decreases the weight of 
soils. That is, it makes soils lighter 
and more easily cultivated. Rich garden 
soils weigh about 70 pounds per cubic 
foot; clay soils about 90 pounds. The 
lighter the soil the easier itis to culti- 
vate and less liable it is to pack. Itis 
more easily cultivated to establish the 
much-needed dirt mulch and to enable 
the plant to send its roots deep down 
into the soil. 


Cotton—General pk 


489 


[NOVEMBER, 1909, 


MISCELLANEOUS. 


LITERATURE OF ECONOMIC 
BOTANY AND AGRICULTURE. 


By J. C. WILLIs. 


Spencecotton. Ind. Agric. 1. 10, 1906, 
p. 290. 


Improvement of cotton by seed selec- 
tion. Agri. News, ll. 8 1906, p, 241. 


Indian cotton crop. Ind. Agric. Sept. 
1906, p. 267. 


The improvement of Madras cottons: 
do. p. 278 


Cotton in Burma; measures of im- 
provement. do. p. 279. 


Thornton. Improvement of cotton 
by seed selection. W. I. Bull. 7, 1906, 
p. 158. 


Die Baumwolle in Aegypten. Beih. 
zum Tropenpfl. 7, 1906, p. 151. 


Eekardt. Der Baumwollbau in Seiner 
Abhingigkeit von Klima an den 
Grenzen Seiner Anbaugebietes. do. 
p. 1. 

Conditions determining the area 
sown with cotton in the United 
Provinees. Agr. Jl. Ind., 1, p, 37. 

Cotton. Bull. 20, Dept. Agri. B. H. 
Africa, 1906. 

Gossy pium obtusifolium, Roxb. Mem. 
Dept. Agri. India, Botany, 4 

Conference of cotton growers at 
Barbados. Agri. News, 2. 6. 1906, 
p. 164, 

Anbaufliche fiir Baumwolle in den 
Vereinigten Staaten von Amerika 
are el 1906, Tropenpfl. 1906, p. 
5388. 


What the British Cotton Growing 
Association is doing. Trop] Life, 
Aug. 1905, p. 20. 


The prospects of cotton cultivation 
in Ceylon, Willis. do. Sept. 1906, 
p. 187. 

Fletcher, The improvement of the 
cotton of the Bombay Presidency. 
Agr, Jl. Ind. L, 351, 

Cotton cultivation in Delft, Ceylon. 
“TA.” Mar. 1906, p. 127. 

Willis, Rubber and Cotton in Ceylon. 
do. Oct. 1906, p. 299. 

Caravonica cotton. do. Nov. 1905, 
pp. 673, 675, 677, 

Cotton cultivation and trade in the 


Central Provinces and Berar. Agr. 
Jl. Ind. 2, p, 171, 


Cotton seed selection. Agr, News, 
Aug. 1907, p. 247. 


Caravonica Cotton. Jamaica Bull. 
1907, p. 76. ‘*T.A.” Mar. 1909, p. 231. 


Cotton Industry at Tobago. Agr. 
News, July 1907, p. 225. 


Cotton growing in St, Vincent. do. 
p. 231. 
FloridaSea Island cotton. do. p. 215. 


Cotton seed selection. ‘‘T.A.” Jan. 
1908, p. 18. 

Die Baumwolle in den Vereinigten 
Staaten von Nordamerika. Beih. 
Z. Tropenfi. 9. 1. 1908. 

Studies iv the Experimental breeding 
of the Indian cottons. Martin 
Leake. Journ. As. Soc. Bengal 1908, 
p. 18. 

The Indian Cottons. Gammie. Mem. 
Dept. Agr., India, Botany, Series 
II., 2. 1908. 

A method of breeding early cotton 
to eseape boll weevil damage. U.S. 
Dept. Agri. Farm, Bull. 314, 1908. 

Recent results in the cultivation of 
cotton at Barbados., W. Ind. Bull. 
8, 1907, p. 1738. 


Cotton Industry in the Leeward 
Islands, do. p. 179. 

Sea Island cotton cultivation at St. 
Vincent. do. p. 1838. 

Mendelian studies of Hgyptian cotton. 
Balls. Journ. Agri. Sci. II. p. 346. 
The nectaries of cotton. U.S. Dept. 

Agri. B. P. 1. Bull. 181, 1908. 

Egyptian cotton in the S. W. United 
States. do. p. 128, 1908. 

Cottonsfrom India. Imp. Inst. Bull. 
6, 1908, p. 11. 

souce growing in Central Asia, do. 
p. 60. 

Weight as a factor in seed selection, 
with special reference to cotton 
seed. do... p. 74. See B.C, G. A, 
reports and bulletins. 

Gammie. Cultivation of cotton in 
India. Ind. Agr. Jl. Apr. 1908, 
p. 164. 

do. Work done towards the im- 
provement ot cotton in the Bombay 
Presidency. do. p, 135. 

Danger in judging cotton varieties 
by lint percentages. U.S. Dept. 
Agr. B. P. I. cire. 11, 1908. 

Report on Agriculture in Asia Minor 
with special reference to cotton 
cultivation, Dunstan, Oct. 1908, 


NovEMBER, 1909] ; 440 Miscellanea, 


Anbau und Ausfukr von Baumwolle Cotton Cultivation :— 


und andren Faserstoffen in British 


Ostafrika 1907-8. Tropenpfi. Dec, 
1908, p. 588, 

Krankheiten der Baumwolle. do. 
p. 592 

Cotton in Barbados, Leeward Isles, 


St. Vincent and B. Guiana. Vol. IX, 
No. 3, W. I. Bull. 


Report on Agriculture in Asia Minor, 
with special reference to cotton 
cultivation. Dunstan. Stationery 
Office, 1908. 


Address on cotton growing at 
Antigua. Agr. News, VII, 173, Dec. 
1908, p. 390. 


La récolte du Coton en Russie pour 
1908. Journ. d’ Agr. trop. March 
1909, p. 83. 


Les files et tissus de coton. Bull. 
économique de IV Indochina. Jan.- 
Feb. 1909, p. 12. 


Nete sur la culture du Cotton Nou- 
velie Calidonie; L’ Agri. pract. 
des pays Chauds. March 1909, p. 246. 


Notes on the present position of 
cotton in the U.S. Bull. Imp. Inst. 
VI. No. 4, 1908. “T.A.” May 1909, 
p. 423. 

Deutsch-Kolonial Baumwoll—Unter- 
nehmungen Beiheft Z. Tropenpfl 
May 1909. 


Some experiments in the Hybridising 
of Indian Cottons. P. HK. Fyson, 
Mem. Dept. Agr. in India II. 6. 
Dec. 1908. 


Progress of the Sea Island cotton in- 
dustry in the West Indies. 
Bull. IX, No. 3, 1908. ‘T.A.” June 
1909, p.-528. 


The Indian Cotton Industry. Ind. 
Agric., June 1909, p. 180. 


Baumwolle in der Papierfabrikation. 
Der Pflanzer, July 1909, p. 44. 


Baumwolle in Brasilien. Tropenpfl. 
Aug. 1909, p. 353. 


Cotton. Ag. Journ. Brit. EH. Africa, 
July 1908. “T.A.” Aug. 1909, p, 118. 


Cotton in the Sea Islands. Ag. News, 
Feb, 6, 1909. ‘*T.A.” Aug. p. 11a. 


Origin and KHstablishment of the 
Barbados Co-operative Cotton Fac- 
tory. W. I. Bull. IX. No. 3, 1908. 

«TT. A.” Aug. 1909, p. 116. 


Report on progress ot cotton growing 
at the Coast. Jl. Br. Hast Africa, 
Apr. 1909, p. 435. 


American Cotton Trade. Ind. Trade 
Jl. May 1909. ‘‘T. A.” Sept, 09, p. 215. 


Cotton and rubber in Abyssinia. Agr. 


Artificial fertilisers for cotton. Clous- 


- Sea Island Cotton cultivation. Agr 


Cotton Diseases :— 


Manuring cotton. W. Ind. Bull. 7, 
1906, p. 171. 


Manuurial experiments with cotton in 
the Leeward Islands, W, I. Bull. 
7, p. 283, 


do. do. in Barbados, do. p, 291. 


Artificial fertilisers for cotton in the 
Central Provinces. Agr. Jl. Ind. 
II. p, 116. 


Cultivation of Sea Island cotton. — 
Agr. News, June 1907, p. 193. 


Manurial experiments with cotton in 
Ss. ae and in Montserrat do, 
p. p 


News, June 1907, p. 205. 


The advantage cf planting heavy 
cotton seed. Dept. Agri. 
Farmers’ Bull. 285. 


The manuring of cottonin Egypt. 
Trop. Life, Oct. 1907, p. 148. 


ton in Ind. Agri. JI. July 1908, 
p. 245. 


News, 22. 8. 1908, p. 257, “T.A.” 
Dec. 1908, p. 516. 


The horse cultivator for cotton. Agr. 
News, 17, 10.1908, p. 326. 


Leguminous crops for cotton land. . 
do. 22. 8. 1908, p. 262. “T.A.” Jan. 
1909, p. 64, 

Cultivation of Caravonica in India. 
Agr. Jl. Ind. July 1908, p. 271. 
“T.A.” Dec. 1908, p. 517. 


Cotton cultivation in the Kurune- 
galle district. Dr. H.M, Fernando, 
«T.A.” Feb. 1909, p, 131. 

Cotton cultivation. Report by J. S. J. 
McCall. Circ. & Agr. Jl. R. B. G. 
“TA.” April 1909, p. 324. 


Cotton cultivation. Review. “T.A.” 
May 1909, p. 410. 


2 wee Der Pflanzer, June 


How to make cotton growing pay in 
sandy soils. Queensl. Agri. Jl. Aug. 
1909, p. 70. 

The Introduction of Drill-Sowing 
and intercultivation. Ag. Jl, ot 

3 Tada, April 1909. “T.A. Sept. 09, 
p. 210. 


Maxwell Lefroy. The insect pests of 
cotton in India. Ind. Agr. Jl. 1. 
1906, p. 49. 


Paris green : application to cotton. 
Jamaica Bull. 1906, p. 141. 


7 fal Fo 


pes ; 
Miscellaneous. 


Old cotton and cotton pests. “‘T.A.” 
Sept. 1997, p. 180. 

Treatment of cotton pests in West 
Indies in 1907. West India Bull. 
IX. No. 3, p. 235. : 

Dicinfection of cotton seed. Agr. 
News, June 1909. ‘‘T.A.” Sept. 1909, 
p, 209. . 

Cotton Harvesting :— 

La récolte mécanique du coton. Journ. 
ad’ Agr. trop. 30. 6. 1906, p. 163. 

The use of cotton-seed and cotton 
eake meal as a feeding stuff on 
West Indian plantations. Agr. 
News, 2. 6. 1906. p. 170. 

Cotton seed oil and meal as a human 
food. ‘T,A.” Nov. 1906, p. 388. 

Cotton meal and cotton seed as ferti 
lisers. do. p. 425. 

The food value of cotton seed oil, 
Trin. Bull. Oct, 1908, p. 25. 

Cotton growing. Daniel Jones 
Queenls. Agri. Jl., March 1909, p. 
135. ‘*T.A.” July 1909, p. 14. 

Picking cotton. Queens]. Agri. Jl. 
Feb. 1909. ‘‘T.A.” Aug. 1909, p..115. 


Cotton Improvements—Selection : 
Bekahntmachung iiber Zuchtung von 
Baumwollsaat in Deutsch-Ostafrica 

Der Planzer, June 1900, p. 2. 
Cotton selection in the Leeward 
{slands. W. I. Bull. X. I. 1909, p. 79. 


CEYLON AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY, 


Minutes oF MEETING HELD ON 18TH 
OCTOBER, 1909. 


Minutes of a meeting of the Board of 
Agriculture held at the Council Chamber 
on Monday, 18th October, 1909, at 12 
noon. 


His Excellency the Governor presided, 
and there were also present :—Sir Hugh 
Clifford, K.c.M.@., Sir Solomon Dias 
Bandaranaike, Hon’ble Messrs. H. L. 
Crawford, c.M.G., P. Arunachalam, A, 
Kanagasabai, Dr. H. M. Fernando _and 
Messrs. R. H. Lock, W. D. Gibbon, E. E. 
Green, G. W. Sturgess, Tudor Rajapakse, 
Ww. A. de Silva, F. L. Daniel, J. D. 
Vanderstraaten, C. Drieberg (Secretary). 
As visitors :—Dr. Grenier and Mr. Alfred 
Drieberg. 


Minutes of the meeting held on August 
2nd, 1909, were read and confirmed. 


Progress Report No. 46 was adopted. 


Statements of expenditure for August 
and September, 1909, were tabled, 


441 (NOVEMBER, 1909. 


The Hon’ble Mr, Kanagasabai moved.— 
“That itis desirable to open Experi- 
mental Gardens in suitable localities in 
each province, and that as an encourage- 
ment this Society offer to pay one-half 
of the cost of upkeep up toa certain 
limit, the other half being met froma 
fund to be raised by the people of the 
district.” 

Mr. W. D. Gibbon seconded. Dr. H. M. 
Fernando spoke in support of the 
motion. The Hon. Sir Hugh Clifford 
drew attention to the financial diffi- 
culties that may arise from the adoption 
of the motion, and advised caution in 
dealing with a proposal of this kind. At 
the suggestion of the Hon’ble Mr. P. 
Arunachalam, the subject was referred 
to a Committee consisting of :—The 
Hon’ble Mr. Bernard Senior, Sir Solomon 


. Dias Bandaranaike, Dr. H. M. Fernando, 


Messrs. . H. Lock, W. D. Gibbon, 
W, A. de Silva and the Hon’ble Mr. 
Kanagasabai. 


Mr. EK. E. Green, Government Entomo- 
logist, read a paper on the Insects asso- 
ciated with the Cotton plant in Ceylon 
(illustrated by mounted specimens), and 
the Secretary read a note on Nitrifying 
Bacteria, illustrated by microscopic 
slides shown by Dr. F. Grenier. 


C. DRIEBERG. 
Secretary, C. A. S. 


CEYLON AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY. 


PROGRESS REPORT XLVI. 


Membership.—Since the meeting of 
August 2 the following members have 
joined the Society :—The Commanding 
Officer, Salvation Army, Colombo, A. 
W. Bisset, EH. M. Windus, B. S. Doole, 
R. de Roos Norman, P. A. Keiller, 
Jerome HK. Perera, J. B. Sidgwick, 
W. Stott, H. Kennedy, A. D. Hartridge, 
the Director of Agriculture, Trivandram, 
W. A. Stewart, A. T. Wernigg, A. Alers 


' Hankey, J. W. Bakewell, R. Leslie 


Melville, R. E. Dais, and L. B, Greig. 
Totrl 885. 

Official Tours.—The Secretary toured 
in Alutkuru Korale North and _ the 
Katugampola and Hinidum pattus, and 
visited the Show at Pannala. Agricul- 
tural Instructors Wickremaratne, S. 
Chelliah, and L. A. D. Silva were oc- 
cupied over the ploughing demonstra- 
tions in the Hambantota District, where 
Mr. L. A. D. Silva is now engaged in 
supervising the ploughing done by cul- 
tivators at the request of the Assistant 
Government Agent. 

Mr. S. R, Breckenridge has been visit- 
ing Vandarumulla, Sandivelly, Kiran, 
Valaichenai, Panichankirny, Vakarai, 


PA Re De pe Ne TE ae ee eT: 


Fe > 


Y ae 


pag SS Say 


ben 


NOVEMBER, 1909, } 


Kathiravelly, Kalmunai, Karavaku, 
Sammanturai, Akkaraipattu, and Kallar, 
holding ploughing demonstrations with 
the ‘‘ Meston” plough and establishing 
school gardens. 


Mr. W. Molegoda has been touring in 
the Matale District, visiting Nalanda, 
Galewela, Yatigalpotta, Talakiriyagala, 
Moragalla, Beliyakanda, Dandubendi- 
ruppa, Mamaluva, Kimbissaa, Sigiriya, 
Talkota, Dambulla, and Naula. He is 
now in Matale East, and will shortly 
be proceeding to the North-Western 
Province, where the Government Agent 
is arranging a programme for ploughing 
demonstrations. 

Branch Societies and Shows.—The 
Telijawila Show, held under’ the 
auspices of the Weligam Korale Branch, 
took place on August 25, when His 
Excellency the Acting Governor was 
present. The arrangements were excel- 
lent, and the products of the korale 
well represented. The collection sent 
from the school garden at Paraduwa is 
worthy of mention. The show was the 
fifth held in the korale, and the credit 
of inaugurating and carrying it through 
is entirely due to the enterprise of Mr. 
James Wickramaratne, the Mudaliyar, 
aud Honorary Secretary of the local 
branch. 


A school garden show, under _ the 
auspices of the Government Teachers’ 
Association, will be held at the Mirigama 
Boys’ School (close to the Railway sta- 
tion) on October 30. The show will be 
confined to produce from school gardens, 


and should prove particularly interest- ' 


ing, as indicating the progress of garden- 
ing among village school boys. 

A village show was held at Pannala 
on August 21, when the Government 
Agent, North-Western Province, the 
Secretary, Ceylon Agricultural Society, 
and Mr. N. Wickremaratue, Agricul- 
tural Inspector, were present. This was 
the fourth of the series of similar shows 
heldin the Province. A fifth takes place 
in December at Hettipola. A visit to 
one of these village shows will convince 
any one of thier value in encouraging a 
healthy competition among the actual 
growers of vegetable produce, and of 
the interest which the rural population 
find in them, while enabling the pro- 
moters to discover the possibilities and 
requirements of each district. 

It has been decided to hold a show 
in May next vear at Bandaragama in 
Rayigam korale. 

The Harispattu Branch held a meeting 
in August.. The Agricultural Instructor 
stationed in the Central Province has 
placed a light iron plough at the disposal 


442 


Miscellaneous. 


of the Society, and members can get it 
on loan on application to the Honorary 
Secretary. A supply of yams was 
secured from the Government Stock 
Garden for distribution. There is a 
likelihood of a district show being held 
next year. The Ratemahatmaya (Mr. 
P. B. Nugawela) has undertaken to 
provide a suitable site for an experi- 
mental garden to be worked by the 
Society. 


A special general meeting of the Dum- 
bara Agricultural Society has been sum- 
moned to consider the arrangements tor 
holding a show next year. 


It is likely that the show to be held 
at Ambalangoda at the end of the year 
will be postponed for early next year. i 


The catalogue of the Nuwara Eliya 
Show fixed for March, 1910, is in the press, 
and will be issued shortly. 


Eaperimental and other Gardens.—1 
paid asurprise visit to Weragoda garden 
on September 10. [tis worked under the 
auspices of the Wellaboda Pattu (Galle) 
Branch, and is 25 acres in extent, of 
which 18 are planted. Originally worked 
by asyndicate of members, itis now in 
sole charge of Mr. N. A. S. Jayasuria, a 
member of the local Society, who 
finances it and takes all risks. He has 
already expended a good deal on road- 
ing and draining, and is about to erect a 
small building. 1 believe that it is the 
intention of the Mudaliyar (who is 
Chairman of the Society) to utilize this ci 
building for holding Gansabhawa court 
as a means of bringing the garden 
directly under the notice of villagers. 
This is an excellent idea, as the garden 
is not situated on the high road from 
Ambalangoda. The land consists of two 
hillocks, which are given to fruit cul- 
ture, the intervening depression being 
utilized for growing vegetables. The 
lowland is liable to inundation during 
heavy rains, but this, I understand, 
may possibly be avoided in future by 
arrangements for regulating the flow 
of storm water. The work of the garden 
is being carried on in a systematic 
manner, and I have hopes of its de- 
veloping into a useful distributing 
centre for the spread of fruit culture 
inthe district, It is to men like Mr. 
Jayasuriya that the Society must look 
for voluntary effort in furthering its 
objects. 


Not far from the Alubomulla school 
(in the Panadure district) is an interest- 
ing garden started by the teacher, his — 
assistant, and two villagers, who have ~ 
combined in an undertaking to cultivate 
snake-gourds on a commercial scale. The 
total initial outlay was about Rs. 400. 


ae ae a 


en 


« 


Miscellaneous, 


The garden is 2} acres in extent, and at 
the time of my visit there were some 
12,000 ‘‘vines” running on _ trellises, 
There is a ready market for the produce, 
which is conveyed by cart loads to 
Colombo, 


Morape School Garden, situated in 
Kotmale, has now been set on a proper 
footing with the assistance of Mr. Mole- 
gode, Agricultural Instructor, and the 
Ratemahatmaya of Pallepone korale, 
who has kindly given an additional 
piece of land for the garden. The people 
of the district are greatly in need of 
some stimulating influence to induce 
them to adopt more systematic methods 
in the cultivation of their high lands. 


Twelve school garden sites in the 
Eastern Province have been selected, and 
will soon be ready for planting, the 
extent of each varying from }to 1 acre 
each. These are all under the Wesleyan 
Mission. A number of Church Mission- 
ary Society schools in the Kegalla and 
Kandy Districts have also been noted 
for aid. Gardening with the aid of 
school children is being carried on under 
the Roman Catholic Mission station at 
Maggona and the Christian Brothers’ 
Seminary at Mutwal. One of the Bud- 
dhist school gardens (at Walana) is quite 
amodelinitsway. These aided gardens, 
added to the regular Government school 
gardens, of which the number has now 
reached 200, will greatly add to the work 
of the Superintendent of School Gardens 
and his assistants; but it is expected 
that the additional assistant to be al- 
lowed next year will somewhat relieve 
the pressure on their time. 


The Assistant Government Agent, 
Puttalam, has made final and satis- 
factory arrangements for the experi- 
mental garden situated on the Chilaw- 
Puttalam road. The clearing and fenc- 
ing of the land has already been put in 
hand. ; 

PADDY CULTIVATION. 


As stated in the last Progress Report, 
the Society despatched three instructors; 
Messrs. S. Chelliah, N. Wickremaratne, 
and L. A. D. Silva to the Hambantota 
District, to demonstrate the working of 
light iron implements and ascertain their 
suitability for preparing paddy land for 
sowing, in view of the dearth of cattle 
for ‘“‘ puddling,” as the result of the great 
loss of stock through rinderpest. 


The Assistant Government Agent of 
Hambantota has ‘been good enough to 
furnish the following report on these 
demonstrations :— 


“T have the honour to inform you that 
I waited to report on the progress of 
56 


443 [NOVEMBER, 1909. 


the ploughing demonstrations until they 
had taken place at different centres. 


“9 There are four large irrigation 
works in this district, and I arranged the 
following programme for your instruc- 
tors :— 


Tissamaharama. —August 3 to 8, fields 
under the Kirindi-oya irrigation works. 


Ambalantota.—-August 11 to 14, fields 
under the Walawe irrigation works. 


Ranna.—August 16 to 18, fields under 
the Urubokka irrigation works, 


Tangalla.—August 19, fields irrigated 
by the Kirama-oya. 


“3, The important demonstrations were 
at Tissa and Ambalantota, where rinder- 
pest has been most severe, and where 
ploughing is twnknown. Fields under 
the Urubokka and Kirama works are 
ploughed with native ploughs. 


“4, On August 3 I attended the de- 
monstration at Tissa. There was a large 
number of proprietors and cultivators 
present. The following ploughs were 
tried : (1) Climax, (2) Meston, (3) Koeri, 
(4) Cultivator. 


‘65, Two pairs of bulls used were train- 
ed to the native plough. The others 
used were untrained. 


“6. The Koeri plough is undoubtedly 
too heavy for the Hambantota bulls. 
The Climax worked admirably, though 
it issomewhat heavy for the bulls; it 
also needs strengthening in the plough 
arm. The Meston is just the right 
weight for the Hambantota bulls, but 
the angle of the share to the pole is not 
right, the point enters the ground too 
vertically, with the result that (1) the 
share is liable to stick in the ground, (2) 
the plough cuts the earth but does not 
turn over the clods sufficiently. 


‘*7, On the whole, the demonstration 
was unexpectedly successful. I informed 
proprietors that I would get any ploughs 
they desired consigned to me at Hamban- 
tota from Messrs. Walkers, in which 
case they would probably be sent 
freight free. Twenty persons gave in 
their names at once with orders for 63 
ploughs (20 Climax and 438 Meston) and 
6 Cultivators. 


‘°8, Nearly all the landowners and culti- 
vators with whom I spoke are agree 
that ploughing at Tissa is_ possible. 
Their only fear is that the cattle are not 
strong enough for the work. Thatis the 
reason why they prefer the light Meston 
plough. The whole difficulty is undoubt- 
edly the cattle, which; of course, are 
absolutely untrained to the work. 


NOVEMBER, 1909.] 444 


“9, On the following days demon- 
strations were given on newly opened 
land. This, too, was an entire success, 
as the ploughs cut through the roots 
without difficulty. The Pony plough 
was also tried. 


“10. I was unfortunately unable to b® 
present at the Ambalantota demon- 
stration. I am afraid that this may ac- 
count for the fact that the people did 
not respond in the same way in which 
the Tissa people responded ; they require 
to be talked to and reasoned with a 
good deal before they will see the advant- 
ages of an innovation. Only one man 
agreed totry the ploughs. He is taking 
five ploughs, and will plough 40 acres. I 
afterwards sent for a Vidane Arachchi, 
and induced him to undertake to plough 
a similar extent. 


‘11. I was present at the demonstration 
at Ranna. The people here readily ad- 
mitted the good work done by the 
ploughs, but the fact that they are ac- 
customed to the native plough militates 
against a successful introduction of any 
other. Their chief objection is the strain 
upon the bulls, and the fact that the 
ploughs are right-handed. I succeeded, 
however, in persuding them to invest in 
twenty ploughs as an experiment. 


12, I wasnotable to goon to Tangalla 
for the experiments there, and I have 
not yet received a report from the 
Mudaliyar, 


“13. In conclusion, the most important 
places are the Walawe scheme and Tissa- 
maharama, as I consider that the future 
prosperity of these places depends to a 
great extent on the introduction of the 
plough, Not much can be expected this 
year from Walawe, as cultivation begins 
in the middle of September. I propose 
to concentrate my efforts on Tissa, where 
the demonstrations were almost entirely 
successful, Cultivation for maha begins 
on October 1 and lasts for two months. 
If the success is to continue, it is then 
that the most strenuous efforts will have 
to be made to prevent the cultivators 
becoming discouraged when the practi- 
eal difficulties of untrained men and 
bulls become apparent. I should find it 
of the greatest service if the Society 
could send me one of their instructors 
to remain at Tissa during the period of 
cultivation. 


14. I am afraid that this report has 
run to great length, but a detailed des- 
eription of the experiment might I 
thought be of interest to-you. 

“15. I have to thank the Society and 
their instructors for the great help 
which they have given to me. If the 
experiment is successful, it will be due 


almost entirely to the ability and 
enthusiasm of the instructors. They 
had, I am afraid, to put up with no 
little inconvenience, but they worked 
throughout with energy and cheerful- 


ness. 
L. S. Woo r, 
Assistant Government Agent.” 


“ Hambantota Kachcheri, | 
August 19/20, 1909.” 


A subsequent communication from the 
Assistant Government Agent transmits 
a letter fromthe Mudaliyar of West 
Giruwa pattu, who reports that a very 
successful demonstration was held at 
Tangalla, and a number of people induced 
to purchase improved ploughs. 


Ina letter dated August 14, from the 
Government Agent of the Eastern 
Province, the Society was asked to send 
afew ploughs of a suitable type witha 
view to showing their utility. The 
matter was said to be “very urgent, as 
the death of buffaloes from rinderpest 
up to the 81st ultimo amounted 16,948.” 


Arrangements were at once made for 
carrying out as far as possible a similar 
programme to that gone through at 
Hambantota, and Mr. Chelliah, who had 
just returned from the Southern 
Province, was deputed to proceed to 
Batticaloa and co-operate with Mr. 
Breckenridge in carrying out the demon- 
stration. 


A ** Meston” plough has also been sent 
to Mr. W.R. Bibile, Ratemahatmaya, for 
a demonstration in Uva. The Ratema- 
hatmaya refers to the gloomy prospect 
before the cultivators, as the result of 
the great 
rinderpest. 


At the request of the Government — 


Agent a series of ploughing demonstra- 
tions is being arranged to take place at 
various centres in the North-Western 
Province. Mr. Molegode, Agricultural 
Instructor, will be‘deputed for this work 
from October 1. 


On September 101 visited Mitiyagoda 
and inspected a paddy field in which 
cultivation by transplanting seedlings 
from a nursery had been done. The 
following are a few particulars gathered 
on the spot. Hight measures of seed were 
used for raising the seedlings for plant- 
ing anacre 9in. by 9 in. The field re- 
ceived a dressing of a manure mixture 
consisting chiefly of fish refuse procured 
from Ambalangoda, 
wood ashes. Owing to the absence of 
rain at the proper time for planting, 
the operation had unfortunately to be 
delayed for fifteen days; later on the 


. Miscellaneous. 


loss of buffaloes through 


bone dust, and 


: 


ae ey 


. 
4 a 


heavy unseasonable rains at the time 


the grain was setting resulted inthe 
flooding of the field and a good deal of 
damage to the crop. I estimate the loss, 
judging from the spoilt ears, at about 
383 per cent. At the time of» my visit, 
however, there was a fine crop still left, 
and the sturdy well-tillered paddy plants, 
with their full ears, standing side by 
side with the dwarfed and hence almost 
entirely damaged crop grown from 
broadcasted seed, furnished an excellent 
object-lesson for the passer-by, who does 
not fail to notice it, and will, itis to be 
hoped, profit by the ocular demonstra- 
tion afforded of the advantages of the 
transplanting system. Particulars of 
the resulting crop and the cost of raising 
it will be sent tome after the harvest. 
Vhe cost of transplanting the acre is 
said to have been just under Rs. 4:50. 
This experiment was carried out by 
Mr. Jayasuriya, to whom reference has 
already been made in my report on the 
Weragoda Experimental Garden. 


Arrangements are being made to carry 
on systematic paddy cultivation as near 
Colombo as possible for convenience of 
control, with a view to testing methods 
of sowing, tillage, and manuring, 

The following statement shows the 
results of the paddy cultivation by trans- 
planting by the teacher and boys of the 
Paraduwa Boys’ Vernacular School in 
Weligam korale :— — 

Field No. 1. 


Sowing extent .. 1 bushel . ¥ bushel 
Variety of paddy .. Wedirata-vi -. Wedirata-vi 
Manure applied .. Keppetiya leavesand Keppetiya 
citronella ash leaves and 
citronella ash 


Field No. 2, 


Amount of seed paddy 


sown innursery .. 4 measures .» 1 measure 
Date of transplant- a“ 
ation .. April 2, 3, andi .. April 6 
Results .. 19 bushels .. 6 bushels 
CorTon. 


The want of good seed has been one 
of the drawbacksin the encouragement 
of cotton cultivation, and with a view 
to meet it the Society has placed an order 
for a large quantity of both Sea Island 
and Kyyptian seed. Half a ton of 
selected Sea Island seed, from the British 
Cotton Growing Association, has been 
received. Applications for this seed 
should be made asearly as possible to 
save disappointment. They will be met 
in the order of receipt. 

The ginning plant established by a local 
firm has ceased working, but arrange- 
ments are likely to be made, as the result 
of correspondence between this Society 
and the British Cotton Growing Asso- 
ciation, for work to be resumed so that 
there may be no difficulty in the way of 
preparing cotton for shipment. 

One of the Society’s hand gins has been 
forwarded toa planter who is growing 


Miscellaneous. | 445 


[NOVEMBER, 1909, 
cotton in Wellawaya. He reports that 
the gin is working satisfactorily, though 
the outturn is notas large as he would 
wish. A large sample of ginned cotton, 
which has been valued at 72 cents per 
pound, has been sent to the Society, and 
may be inspected at the Government 
Stock Garden. 


_ Encouragaing reports on cotton grow- 
ing have been received from the Eastern 
Province. , 


With the arrival of good seed a fresh 
effort will be made to interest the 
cultivators of the north in the product. 
The conditions in the Jaffna peninsula 
appear to be particularly favourable, 
and cotton might well take a place in 
the rotation of crops. 


The fact that there are no local firms 
purchasing cotton is a decided draw- 
back. On this subject the British Cotton 
Growing Association is being addressed. 


The following letter from Messrs, 
Donald J. Ross & Co. offers tle best 
terms available :— 


‘*At present we are not purchasing 
cotton, either ginned or unginned; but 
we would be pleased to receive samples 
of ginned cotton from you for valuation. 
We have our own people in England and 
Bombay, and could get you valuations 
from both markets. Then, if agreeable 
to yourselves, we would ship, on your 
own account and risk, charging a small 
commission for our services. We do not 
gin cotton, having no machinery for 
that purpose, and as for cotton seed, it 
is of little interest unless there is some 
very good quantity. In the case of 
small quantities it would be better to 
dispose of it locally for cattle food. If 
in large quantities we have the best 
people in the United Kingdom for dis- 
posing of same.” 

FODDER CROPs. 

Congayam_ grass (Cenchrus biflorus) 
has been well established at the ,Govern- 
ment Stock Garden. Bandarawela has 
been found too high for it. Reports 
from all the districts to which seed was 
forwarded have yet tobe received. In 
one or two cases it was reported that the 
seed did not germinate. This, in view of 


_their large size and strong vitality, seems 


strange, A plot was lately dug up at 
the Stock Garden, and from its tuberous 
character it would appear that this grass 
should stand drought well, but at the 
same time it would most likely prove— 
like the tuberous Cyperus (kalandurw or 
*nut-grass”)—a troublesome weed on 
cultivated land, Clumps of the grass as 
dug up were forwarded to different 
parts of the Island, and should help to 
establish it where the seed failed, The 


OE Pee pe a are 


Teen 


NovEMBER, 1909.] 


Principal of the Coimbatore College, 
writing on August 19 last says :—‘‘ As 
this grassis grown ina very dry district, 
I donot consider that it would grow 
sufficiently well there for hay. On the 
tarm here it grew 10 inches or 12 inches 
high when in full ear, and the yield of 
hay would have been very poor. I see 
no reason, however, to doubt its capa- 
bility of being made into hay, provided 
there is a sufficiently evenly distributed 
rainfall to ensure good growth.” 


There is, of course, a vast difference 
between rainfall there (20 inches) and 
here (85). The growth of the grass at 
the Stock Garden. when cut at the 
beginning of September (after an un- 
usually wet spell), was over 2 feet, and 
made a good hay. It is intended to 
import alarge quantity of seed, since 
the grass is so well thought of as a 
fodder in South India. 


Another introduced fodder grass 
established at the Stock Garden is 
Phalaris Gayana, or ‘‘Rhodes Grass.” 


“Chou Meellier,” a member of the 
cabbage family, which came with a 
reputation as a fodder crop, is proving 
an acquisition as a vegetable. Through 
the Stock Garden the ‘‘leaf cabbage ” 
propagated by cuttings has become well 
distributed in the low-country, where 
it is much appreciated, but the ‘* Chou 
Mecellier ” should be even more popular 
owing to its swollen succulent stem, 
which boils soft and is delicate enough 
for the table. 


SEEDS AND PLANTS, 


Among seeds distributed for special 
purposes are Carolina Golden Rice, Ben- 
gal Gram (Cicer arietinum), and Buck- 
wheat (from North India and New South 
Wales). 


Mr. W.A. de Silva is carrying out a 
trial to test the value of Sesbania acu- 
leata as a green manure for rubber, 


The usual supply of imported vege- 
table seeds (approximately 4,000 packets) 
mies pecetved early in October and distri- 

uted. 


Hickory King maize seed, obtained 
from the Experiment Station, Pera- 
deniya, has been distributed, in reponse 
to applications received through the 
Agricultural Instructors in Badulla, 
Kegalla, and Matale Districts. 


A collection of seed yams from the 
Gold Coast has been received from Mr. 

. §S. D. Tudhope, who spent some 
time in the Island before going out as 
Director of Agriculture of that Colony. 
I regret to say that only a few of the 
yams are likely to grow, 


446 


Miscellaneou 8 


The grafted fruit plants imported for 
the north-east monsoon planting consist- 
ed of mango 266, orange 248, pumelo 53, 
lime 1385, citron 438, pomegranate 96, 
roseapple 69, guava 86, sapodilla 134, 
grape 107, or a total of 1,243 plants. 


On the application of Mr. L. P. 
Emerson, Irrigation Engineer, Hastern 
Province, a collection of fruit plants 
from the Stock Garden nurseries, 
consisting of orange, mandarine, Johore 
jak, pomegranate, rambutan, custard 
apple, &c., was despatched for planting 
me Rugam, Tennepitiya, and Illapadu- 
chena. 


Cuttings of the new cluster sweet 
potatoes are now available to members 
of the Society. Application should be 
made at the Government Stock Garden. 


Tubers of Solanwm commersoni have 
been received from the Transvaal Agri- 
cultural Department. 


IMPLEMENTS AND APPLIANCES. 

As the result of the ploughing demon- 
strations in the Southern Province, orders 
for over a hundred ploughs have been re- 
ceived from that quarter, the implement 
most in demand being the Indian Meston 
plough, the weight and price of which 
appeal to the small cultivator. 

The great loss of cattle through rinder- 
pest in the Batticaloa and Hambantota 
Districts has severely interfered with 
the threshing of the paddy crops in these 
localities, where, as indeed in nearly all 
parts of the Island, the threshing is 
done by cattle treading out the grain. 
The simple hand apparatus recommended 
by Mr. Bamber, which did not appeal 
to the cultivators in Batticaloa, has been 
sent to Hambantota. 

Inquiry from every likely source has 
been made regarding threshing machines 
that should prove suitable to local condi- 
tions, asit is possible that larger land- 
owners—especially of the Eastern Pro- 
vince—will be prepared to pay for a 
good machine after their recent ex- 
perience, and with the prospect of 
getting continuous, efficient, and fast 
work done, instead of the present slow, 
unsteady, and unsatisfactory threshing 
by a system that almost involves cruelty 
to animals. Information received from 
Caleutta, Nagpur, and Coimbatore re- 
garding the machines in use in_ India 
should assist materially in the selection 
of a suitable thresher for local use. 


ANALYSES AND REPORTS, 

The following is the Government Agri- 
cultural Chemist’s report, which ac- 
companied the analysis of a sample of 
tobacco soil from Hlalai, where the 
Agricultural Instructor of the Northern 
Province has been carrying out a 
series of experiments:—‘‘ The soil is 


Miscellaneous. 


in a fine stateof division. The mineral 
plant food is rich in lime, which is the 
cause of the alkalinity of the soil; 
while the magnesia and potash are 
present in fair quantity, the phosphoric 
acid is deficient in quantity and avail- 
ability. The poverty of this soil lies not 
so much in deficiency of mineral matter as 
the humus and accompanying nitrogen, 
and I do not consider that such a soil 
would grow a good leaf, as most tobacco 
soils are rich in organic matter, besides 
mineral plant food. Steps should be 
taken to plant up only those soils which 
come up to a high standard in _ these. 
An analysis of the tobacco would tell 
nothing. The quality of the leaf can only 
be dealt with by a deater accustomed 
to handling and valuing it, and, like 
other natural produce, artificial manure 
exerts an influence more on the yield 
than in improving the quality.” 

A large sample of the resinous secretion 
found on the leaf buds of Gardenia lati- 
folia has been forwarded to the Imperial 
Institute at the request of the Director. 

Specimens of Huphorbia pilulifera, the 
latex of which was reported from Mautri- 
tius to contain an organism very similar 
to that of the sleeping sickness trypano- 
some, were submitted to the Director of 
the Bacteriological laboratory, who re- 
ported that the bodies are in his 
Opinion not trypanosomes. 

GENERAL. 

Eri silk culture appears to be making 
headway in India through the interest 
which the Imperial Government Ento- 
mologist is evincing in its develop- 
ment. Mr. Lefroy has contributed an 
instructive article on the subject to 
the July Agricultural Journal of India, 
which is well worth perusal. An im- 
proved hand machine for spinning eri 
silk has just been received from India. 
Writing on September 4, Mr. Lefroy re- 
fers to another machine which he em- 
ploys for producing ‘‘ clean cocoons,” 4.e., 
raw cocoons with the caterpillar skin and 
broken crysalis removed. This cleaning 
reduces the weight by about 18 per cent, 
It would appear that various trials are 
in progress in India in order to ascertain 
the true market value of Eri silk. 

A beginning has been made with the 
collecting of grains and pulses from 
various parts of the Island, as well as 
from India, with a view to exhibiting 
those new to districts in which Agricul- 
turalShowsare held. Cases of a uniform 
pattern made from samples kindly sup- 
plied by the Director of the Royal Botanic 
Gardens, have been secured for the pur- 
pose, and the collection when complete 
will be an interesting one, and should 

rove avery instructive exhibit at our 
ocal shows. 


447 


jNOVEMBER, 1909. 


Mr. W. Molegode, Agricultural In- 
structor, is giving trial to a system of 
examinations for school boys so as to 
encourage and test their general agricul- 
tural knowledge, At his request I pre- 
pared a set of questions, which were sub- 
mitted to competitors for a prize (offered 
by the Agricultural Instructor himself) 
to the boys of Standards VI., VII., and 
VIII. in Nugawela, Alawatugoda, and 
Idamagama schools. The best paper 
was that sent in by HE. W.M. Banda of 
Idamagama school. The scheme is one 
which is worth developing, if the 
necessary funds are available for prizes. 


An interesting communication regard- 
ing the tinning of sardines has been 
received from Messrs. Rangel & Riberio, 
of Goa, in reply to inquiries made on 
behalf of the Assistant Government 
Agent of Trincomalee. The firm in 
question has been engaged in this busi- 
ness over twenty years, and gives much 
useful information, which is at the dis- 
posal of any member of the Society. The 
proposal to grow sunflowers in order to 
utilize the oil for fish preserving in Trin- 
comalee does not appear to be feasible. 


The Ratemahatmaya of Wanni hat- 
pattu (Hulugalle Adigar) reports that 
Dindigul tobacco seed sent to him made 
good growth, and that the leaves are 
thought well of by the growers. He 
complains of the poor results of curing 
as practised locally, in that very little of 
the true flavour of tobacco is developed. 


The Committee appointed by Govern- 
ment to report on a scheme for Agricul- 
tural Training in Ceylon has concluded 
its sittings, and their report was sub- 
mitted to Government early in the 
month. 

A Commission to deal with the 
question of Loans to Agiculturists has 
since been appointed, and has held 
several meetings already. 


C. DRIEBERG, 
Secretary, 
Colombo, 18th October, 1909. 


REPORT ON A VISIT TO INDIA 
AND CEYLON. 


By H. PowkE Lt, 


(From the Agricultural Journal of 
British Hast Africa, Vol II, Pt. I., 
April, 1909,) 


(Continued from p. 354.) 

Royal BOTANIC GARDENS, PERA- 
DENIYA.—To the Economic and Syste- 
matic Botanist as well as to those inter- 
ested in tropical and subtropical plants, 


NOVEMBER, 1909.] 


these world-famed gardens afford a rich 
field for observation and study, whilst to 
the tourist the Peradeniya Gardens offer 
attractions in the matter of splendid 
flowering trees and shrubs which ex- 
perienced travellers state are difficult to 
meet with inany other part of the world. 


The large number of scientists and 
others interested in botanical subjects, 
in addition to tourists, instance the use- 
fulness and popularity of the gardens, 
and present a striking example of the 
great value of such institutions in all 
tropical countries. 


The rich collection of economic and 
gorgeous flowering trees contains many 
specimens of large size and fine pro- 
portion. 


The arrangement of the gardens is 
such, that the formal parts do not mar 
the appearance of the informal sections, 
aud the visitor will find something of 
interest on all sides. 


The attractiveness of Peradeniya is 
much enhanced by the ‘‘Mahaweliganga” 
or great sand river which encircles a 
large part of the extensive grounds. 


The Director, Dr. J. C. Willis, to whom 
{ had letters of introduction, was absent 
from Peradeniya during the ten days I 
spent in the district, but every opportu- 
nity was afforded me by the Assistant 
Director, Mr. R.H. Lock, for acquiring 
the information desired as well as seeds 
and plants. 


The Acting Curator was untiring in 
his efforts to make my visit a success, 
and it was largely due to his kind 
personal co-operation that I secured 
sucha fine assortment of plants and seeds 
at Peradeniya. 


Mr. Kelway Bamber, Chemist, attached 
to the staff, personally afforded me much 
valuable information on rubber, tea, etc., 
and to other officers I was indebted for 
help on matters of agriculture and 
kindred subjects. 


To Mr. W. Austin Goodman of the 
firm of Walker & Co,, Kandy, I was 
deeply indebted during my stay in the 
neighbourhood for personal facilities 
afforded in the matter of visiting various 
rubber, tea, and cacao properties. 


Mr. Goodman had to direct the erection 
of tea, rubber and other machinery, and 
in the carrying out of his duties [ was 
invited to accompany him long distances 
in his motor car, and thus was enabled 
to see a great deal more of the country 
than I otherwise could have done in 
the time at my disposal. in addition to 
obtaining a practical insight into rubber 
and tea machinery. 


448. 


Te Se Oe ee ee 
a .. + et 

i 

Miscellaneous. 


GOVERNMENT EXPERIMENT STATION, 
PERADENIYA.—The Assistant Director 
accompanied me over this place and 
explained the several trials which were 
being conducted. 


A considerable area is under old 
established cacao, in connection with 
which the application of such manures 
as Sulphate of Ammonia and Nitrate 
of Soda are producing very beneficial 
resulis on the growth and yield of the 
rees. 


The disease known as Canker is doing 
considerable damage to the cacao trees, 
and cutting out of the affected parts is 
being constantly attended to. Lessen- 
ing of the shade trees is having good 
results on the cacao. 


An affection of the cacao pods known as 
‘‘Helopeltis” is also troublesome. It is 
said to be caused by a mosquito punctur- 
ing the soft outer part of the cacao pod. 
The insects are sought after and des- 
troyed, which proves the only practical 
method for keeping the pest under 
control. 


The cacao trees generally yield good 
crops and many are very prolific, 


A plot of one year old plants of the 
new rubber Manihot Dichotoma is 
doing well. 


Tea cultivation is a prominent feature, 


‘and manuring with artificial manures 


and green dressing is being carried out. 


Castilloa elastica, the Central American 
rubber is flourishing, A large plot of 
well-developed trees being of a tappable 
age. 


An arrangement was made whereby 
five hundred selected pods of the ‘‘For- 
astero” variety of cacao and fifty. pods of 
“Old Ceylon Red” were obtained for 
East Africa. The beans were washed and 
partially dried, and several thousands 
placed in cases to germinate on the 
voyage. In order to ascertain the best 
kind of material in which to pack cacao 
beans so as to stand a long transit with 
the least injury to their vitality, a 
portion of the balance of the seed was 
placed thickly in layers in biscuit tins, 
each layer being covered with dry 
powdered chaicoal. The lids were packed 
on the tins, which were then placed in 
an ordinary case for shipment. 


The remainder of the cacao beans were 
placed similarly in biscuit tins, but the 
packing material used was. ordinary 
‘brown soil of a gritty nature. 


On examining the seeds after arrival 
at Mazeras, five weeks after they had 
been in the tins, it was found that 
practically all the beans packed in dr 
powdered charcoal were dry and dead, 


- Miscellaneous, 


whilst many of those packed in dry 
brown gritty earth had germinated 
slightly, and 25 % of the seeds so treated 
give promise of success. 


The protracted sea voyage also had an 
harmful effect on the tender cacao seed- 
lings, which germinated in cases on the 
voyage, and a high percentage of the 
plants has been lost. 


Provided the shipment could be made 
direct from Colombo to Mombasa via 
Bombay, usually about 16 to 18 days, it 
is practically certain that fresh cacao 
beans, if packed in biscuit tins between 
layers of dry gritty earth, would reach 
their destination in good condition. 


New PERADENIYA TEA EstTaTE.—This 
place was visited with Mr. Kelway 
Bamber, F.I.C., F.C,S., ete., who, with the 
manager kindly supplied the following 
notes on tea :— 


The output of tea per annum is about 
650,000 pounds. 


Cultivation, ete.—W ell-drained shelter- 
ed land where the rainfall is not less 
than 60 inches per annum will grow tea 
in Ceylon, but the annual rainfall may 
be as high as 200 inches and upwards. 


It is considered that better tea is 
produced in the highlands than the low- 
lands. Where the land is exposed shelter 
is provided by such trees as Grevillea 
robusta (silky oak), Erythrina lithos- 
perma” (Dadap), ete, 


The tea bushes are usually planted 
about 3 ft. by 4ft., and when about three 
years old from seed, they are cut back 
toa height of 12 to 15 inches from the 
ground, which causes the bushes to 
spread laterally. When the new shoots 
are from 9 to 12 inches high they are all 
broken back to one level, leaving from 
4to 5 inches of stalk, this forms the 
plucking base, and nothing should be 
touched below it. 

After the first plucking the bushes are 
cut back to about 2 inches above the 
previous cut and all crossed branches 
removed, 

For the purposes of utility and appear- 
ance it is generally desired that the tops 
of the bushes should have a level surface. 


The young flush shoots up from the 


axils of the leaves, and when it consists * 


of three leaves and a bud itis ready for 
plucking, which usually commences from 
the fourth to the fifth year. 

Plucking consists of removing the 
young shoot containing two leaves and 
the terminal bud, the third leaf and a 
bractlike leaf known as the ‘‘fish leaf” 
being left. : 


449 NovVEMBER 1909. 


~ Pruning is severely carried out at low 

altitudes about every eighteen months, 
but in the higher lands the interval 
between pruning ranges from eighteen 
months to five years. 


In Ceylon, tea islargely grown on old 
coffee plantations and manuring has to. 
be resorted to. Farm yard manure is 
considered to be very good, but its 
application is expensive. A very com- 
mon manure is castor oil cake and bones 
applied at the rate of about half a ton to 
the acre. Basic slag is also used at the 
rate of about 23 tons per acre. 


A dusting of lime at the rate of 2 ewts. 
to the acie is occasionally given and the 
land forked toa depth of 4 to 6 inches. 


As regards encmies, that known as 
‘‘Shot-hole borer” is said to be the 
worst, and is doing much damage now 
in Ceylon, As yet no suitable remedy 
has been found for this pest. 


Red rust is fairly common during dry 
weather but disappears with the rains. 


Some bushes suffer from “ Grey blight,’ 
but no serious harm is done. 


Curing.—-The green leaves are brought 
to the factory in large baskets by the 
pickers, who again pick the leaves over, 
discarding the large coarse ones and any 
foreign matter, leaving as before stated, 
two leaves and a bud for treatment. 


' The leaves are then spread on “tats” to 


wither in the withering house, about 
one pound of green leaves occupying 
10sq, feet of surface. 


The ‘‘tats” are made of various 
materials and placed one above the 
other. 


The operation of withering is con- 
sidered an important matter, as on its 
being carried out properly depends toa 
large extent the quality of the tea. 


During the process of withering, the 
leaves lose from 40 to 45 % of water in 
18 to 24 hours, which is the time usually 
needed in the process. 


From the ‘‘ withering house” which is 
generally an upper floor of the factory, 
the leaves are fed through canvas shoots 
to the rolling machines, each machine 
receiving about 250 lbs. of withered 
leaves atatime. The operation of rolling 
takes about half an hour. 


The rolled leaves are then put into the 
roll breaker which is a form of sieve, in 
order to separate the coarser leaves from 
the finer ones, Thecoarse leaves usually 
undergo rolling three times, while the 
fine leaf obtained from the roll breaker, 
after each operation, is placed on cement 


yd ns 5 A banahes 


RR ee eT pee AD Te oes grees SB 


OTT ee CL ee 


TP, eed Re we BETS eR bali 
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NOVEMBER, 1909,] 


floors, to ferment in a cool damp place 
free from draught, and occasionally 
turned untilthe leaf obtains a coppery 
colour. 


The fermented leaf is next placed on 
travelling perforated trays in the drying 
or firing machine, at the top end, and 


atter about twenty minutes to half an - 


hour, comes out at the bottom perfectly 
dry. Itis then passed over sieves and 
graded, and finally packed in_ lead lined 
cases, holding from 90 to100 Ilbs., the 
name and mark stencilled on the package, 
which is then ready for shipment. 


The grades of tea in Ceylon are gener 
ally classified thus :— 


Broken Orange Pekoe B.O.P. 
Orange Pekoe =r wae O.P. 
Pekoe ae Ane Ps 
Pekoe Souchong ... ae P.S. 
Fannings Ae He RF. 
Dust D 


Wherever available, water is preferred 
as the motive power, though oil and 
steam engines are considered satis- 
factory: 


Visits were made to other tea estates, 
notably ‘“‘ Bandarapola,” belonging to 
the Ceylon Coy., Ltd., in the Matale 
district. Upwards of 1,0C0 acres of this 
fine plantation are under tea, the annual 
output being about 750,000 lbs. 


The yield is high, some part of the 
estate producing as much as 1,000 lbs. of 
dry tea per acre. 


In addition to tea, 1,200 acres are 
under Para Rubber and tapping is about 
to commence, and upwards of 200 acres 
under cacao. 


From Peradeniya a railway journey 
was undertaken through huge stretches 
of teain the Hattonand Nanuoya dis- 
tricts. 


TEA PROSPECTS IN Hast AFRICA.— 
With very commendable foresight and 
zeal Messrs. Caine Bros. have, for 
several years past, experimented in 
tea growing at Cainville, Limuru, where 
the success already attained as regards 
growth and healthiness of the bushes, 
as well as the flavour of the hand- 
prepared leaf, is of a distinctly encour- 
aging nature. 


Judging from my observations in the 
Darjeeling district and _ the practical 
insight into tea cultivation and manu- 
facture, in several parts of the uplands 
of Ceylon, I am strangely of opinion 
that the soil, altitude and climatic con- 
ditions of parts of the highlands of East 
Africa, particularly around Limuru and 
the Molo, are well adapted to tea grow- 
ing. 


RE ah 
ov 
*¢ As 


450 Miscellaneous. 


Much of the land suitable for tea in 
Ceylon hasbeen already planted up, 
though many of the estates, as yet, 
have not come into full bearing. 


Should the consumption of tea continue 
to increase there will be little fear of 
over-production, and in any case the 
output from Kast Africa would not be 
likely to seriously interfere with the 
market, as a large part would be needed 
for local use. 


Cheap and regular labour are the 
chief factors in tea cultivation, provided 
the situation is favourable for the plant. 


When once the plantation has been 
established, picking of the leaves must 
be regularly attended to, and for this 
pickers are paid in Ceylon, asa rule, 25 
cents for 40 lbs. of green leaves, 

KaTUGASTOTA—(KANDY DISTRICT).— 
Cacao is the major cultivation here, 
about 726 acres being under bearing 


trees. The yield of dry cacao for 1908 
was 2,500 cwts. 


Rich well-drained land in well sheltered 
humid situations is the most suitable for 
cacao growing. 

Briefiy the cultivation and curing of 
cacoa is as follows :— 

The trees are planted 10, 12 or 15 feet 
apart according to the nature of the 


soil, the larger distance being for extra 
rich land. 


Weeding and careful pruning must be 
carried out, one stem only being allowed 
to each tree. 


The first pods are produced from the 
fourth tothe fifth year, and thereafter 
rapidly increase in number, when, at 
the tenth year the trees must be said 
to be in full bearing and continue so for 
many years. 


A good average yield of dry cacao is 
33 cwts. peracre, but on some of the 
best properties in the West Indies, 10 
and even 18 cwt. per acre have been ob- 
tained under extra good treatment. 


The ripe pods are’cut from the trees ; 
taken to the factory, split open and the 
beans placed in special boxes or other 
receptacles, to ferment, for three or four 
days according to the fancy of the pro- 
prietor or other circumstances. 

After fermentation, the beans are 
thoroughly washed in tanks, abundance 
of clean water being necessary. 


Should the weather be favourable the 
beans can be dried on large trays or on 
cement or other floors in the open. 
Where the crop is large, however, a 
special ‘“‘drying house” is necessary. 


The cacao drying-house at Katugastota_ 


is extensive and most up-to-date, It 


; 


——ee see 


—— 


CC ea 


Miscellaneous. ; “ 451 


consists of three floors with a drying 
apparatus on the bottom floor. The hot 
airis provided by means of a break fur- 
nace placed outside the building, 
through the wall of which a number of 
iron pipes of adiameter-of 4 to 6 inches 
convey the hot air into the drying 
chamber. The latter is of asemi-circular 
form, of galvanized sheeting about 5 
feet wide and 3 feet or more high at the 
rounded surface. A fan is placed at the 
opposite end to the furnace so that the 
hot air circulates freely in the chamber. 

The floor immediately above the drying 
apparatus is formed of narrow boards 

laid lengthwise with joints about { to4 
an inchapart. Over this floor coconut 
matting is laid, on which the wet beans 
are spread. 

The building is well ventilated, and dur- 
ing the worst weather the drying of the 
‘beans can be successfully and most expe- 
ditiously accomplished on a large scale, 

After the beans have been sufficiently 
dried, they are removed to the top floor, 
where they are stored or placed at once 
in bags for shipment. 

As in the case of Para rubber there is 
no data regarding cacao planting in the 
Protectorate. Experiments are being 
commenced at the Government Farm, 
Mazeras, this season, and a year or two 
should furnish reliable indications in 

the matter. Rainfall and humidity are 
the only doubtful factors, the other 
essentials such as temperature and soil 
can be found at several parts of the 
coast, and the necessary shade plants 
are easily provided. 

A drying-house of the kind described 
should prove useful in Hast Africa for 
dryiug copra, ceara rubber, grain, cotton, 
fibres, ete. 

BERREDWELLA (MATALE DISTRICT).—A 
small but up-to-date Para rubber factory 
was seen working here, belonging to the 
Rosenhaugh Tea and Rubber Company. 

The latex is placed in enamelled pails 
which are about half filled. Into this 
quactity of latex, from one to two 
teaspoonfulls of stong acetic acid is 
mixed, causing coagulation. The masses 
of coagulated latex are taken out of the 
pails and placed on tables, by means of 
a large sharp knife, and cut into sections 
of about 14 inches in thickness, the coagu- 
lated rubber can also be cut into lengths 
of several feet above 14 inches thick. 

' The pieces of raw rubber are next 
passed through the washing or crepe 
machine several times until it has the 
required thinness. 

The washing machine consists of a 
pair of strong corrugated rollers, on to 
which a jet of water is continually 
spraying. The machine is very strongly 
constructed in order to withstand the 

57 


{NOVEMBER, 1909, 


great pressure exerted in passing the 
pieces of rubber through the rollers. 

The thin sheets of rubber are passed 
through a set of smooth rollers and are 
then ready for drying. 

A special ‘‘ Vacuum Dryer” by Emil 
Passburg, Berlin, is in use at this factory. 

The sheets of wet rubber are placed on 
perforated zine trays in the dryer, 
where the rubber stays for about 2% 
hours. The rubber is then taken out 
and_ sorted into clear and dark sheets. 

When thoroughly dry the rubber is 
packed is cases like tea chests for export. 

The output of dry rubber at Berrede- 
wella was about 2,200 lbs. for 1908. 

The Vacuum Dryer is not generally in 
use in Ceylon, as drying can be done 
successfully by simple: and less expen- 
sive methods, 

It was understood that the cost of 
a washing or crepe machine was about 
£40, though all particulars regarding 
tea, rubber and such like machinery can 
be obtained from Walker & Co., Colombo 
and Kandy. 

CEARA RUBBER (Manihot Glaziovit). —. 
Many old Ceara Rubber trees are seen 
in various parts of Ceylon, but syste- 
matic cultivation of the rubber has for 
some years past received little if any 
attention. Now, however, there is evi- 
dence that Ceara is again coming into 
favour due to improved methods of 
tapping, and the knowledge that the 
trees can be tapped and good rubber 
produced at a much earlier age than was 
formerly thought practicable. 

I discussed the matter of Ceara rubber 
cultivation with Sir Daniel Morris, at the 
Colonial Office, who expressed the opinion 
that the dryer climate of the coast and 
hinterland of Kast Africa, compared with 
West Indies and Ceylon, is seemingly 
very suitable to Ceara rubber. 

Mr. Kelway Bamber and others in 
Ceylon share Sir Daniel Morris’ views as 
regards the suitable conditions existing 
in Kast. Africa for Ceara rubber growing, 

Both the authorities quoted above hold 
the opinion expressed by the Government 
Experts in German East Afriza that the 
future success of Ceara rubber largely 
depends on a careful selection of seed 
for propagating purposes from such 
trees as have proved to be good rubber 
producers, : 

OIL AND OIL-CAKE FROM PARA RUBBER 
SEED.—On one of the estates forming 
the ‘‘Galphele Group ”in the Matale 
District experiments have recently been 
conducted on a small scale, in extracting 
oil from Para rubber seed by rolling, 

Several gallons of expressed oil were 
seen by me at this place, and a ease of 
ccmpressed oil cakes, which the manage, 
was shipping to England as samples, 


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NOVEMBER, 1909,] 452 


Para rubber trees produce large quanti- 
ties of seed in Ceylon. The investiga- 
tions conducted at the Imperial Institute 
have proved that this oi], which resem- 
bles linseed oil, will probably command 
the same price as the latter commodity, 
whilst the residue of the seeds from 
which the oil has been extracted may 
prove to be serviceable locally as feeding 
stuff for cattle. 

SisAL Hemp (Agave sisalana).—At 
Bangalore and several other places I had 
hoped to secure consignments of sisal 
bulbils for East Africa, but personal 
enquiries were always met with the 
same reply, that all available bulbils 
were needed for local supply, or booked 
up a considerable time in advance. 
There is now, however, no cause for 
anxiety regarding a sufficiency of sisal 
plants for establishing plantations in 
the Protectorate us apart from recent 
successful efforts made by several to 
import bulbils, the field of sisal at 
the Government Experimental Station, 
Merihini, has commenced to ‘‘pole” 
which with the plants “poling” at 
Government House Garden, Mombasa, 
and large numbers of suckers on the 
plantations of several sisal planters in 
the highlands and lowlands, will meet 
all reasonable demands during the 
currrent and early part of next year. 

In reply to an enquiry of mine as 
to whether sisal plants produce fertile 
seed, Dr. H. H. Mann of the Agricultural 
College, Kirkee, Poona, wrote :— 

“‘T have never found ripe seed develope 
‘on Agave sisalana in all my experience.” 

‘They certainly must be a great rarity 
in the districts ] know and of no com- 
mercial importance. On the other hand 
quite a number of the other Agaves do 
give fertile fruit.” 

BREADFRUIT (Artocarpus incisa).— 
For some time past the Department of 
Agriculture has been desirous of in- 
troducing the breadfruit plant, and I 
took the opportunity at Peradeniya to 
obtain about 80 plants from natives. 
About 25 of the plants stood the voyage 
well, and so far appear to be thriving at 
Mazeras. 

The tree was originally a native of the 
South Sea Islands, and grows to a good 
size, and on account of its large lobed 
leaves, is of handsome appearance. 

There are several varieties, but in most 
the fruit is roundish and of the size of a 
melon. 

In the South Sea Islands and the West 
Indies, the fruit constitutes one of the 
principal articles of diet of the natives 
and is relished by Europeans. 

The fruit is baked or roasted whole, or 
cut inco slices and boiled or made into 
soup, 


Miscellaneous. 
Plants will be propagated for distri- 


bution. 

MANGOSTEEN (Garcinia mangostana).— 
Several seedling plants were secured at 
Peradeniya, but they are not doing well. 

In good situations in Ueylon, the tree, 
which is of middling size, and consider- 
able beauty, commences to fruit at the 
8th to 10th year. 

It isa native of the Malay Islands, 
where, as in other tropical countries, the 
fruit is held in high esteem, some author- 
ities describing it as the most luscious 
of all tropical fruits, having a flavour 
of a peach and pineapple combined. 

AvocaADoO PEAR OR £MIDSHIPMAN’S 
Butter (Persea Gratissima).—Plants ot 
this well-known fruit have been intro- 
duced from India and Ceylon, and appear 
promising. 

GIANT BAmBoo (Dendrocalamus gigan- 
teus).—Native of Malay Peninsular. In- 
troduced into Ceylon in 1856. 

This is the largest bamboo known, of 
which there are several remarkably 
large clumps in the Royal Botanic 
Gardens, Peradeniya. 

Several seedlings as well as seed of the 
Giant Bamboo were brought back by me 
to Mazeras. 

The length of the rods is from 60to090 ft., 
and the diameter from 8 to 12 inches. 

The rods are used for a variety of 
purposes, and when cut into secticns, 
just below a-node or joint, form excellent 
pots for plants, water vessels, ete. 

DuRIAN (Durio zibethinus).—Opinions 
differ as to the advisability of intro- 
ducing this tree into East Africa. 

It is commonly cultivated in the Malay 
Peninsular, and very large trees are 
established at Peradeniya. At Dunga in 
Zanzibar there is alsoa well-grown tree. 

“The flavour of the Durian is said to 
be unique, and it is certain that no other 
fruit, of either tropical or temperate 


-elime, combines in itself such a delicious 


flavour with such an offensive odour-— 
an odour commonly compared with 
putrid animal matter or with rotten 
onions. It might be supposed that a 
fruit possessing such an odour could 
never become a favourite, but itis said 
that when once the repugnance has been 
overcome, the Durian is sure to find 
favour, and that HKuropeans invariably 
become fond of it.” = 

Other interesting plants introduced 
and so far doing well are:—Cannon-ball 
(Couroupita giuanensis), a large hand- 
some tree with showy 
cannon-ball like fruit. Nutmeg (dyris- 
tica fragrans), the well-known spice. 
Bougainvillea lateritis, the magnificent 
terra cotta Bougainvillea. Brownea 
grandiceps, a pretty tree with large 
handsome flowers, 


flowers and 


. ’ 
ae 


Miscellaneous. 


Of creepers or climbers, Bignonia 
venusta, Porana paniculata, Antigonon 
leptopus (white), Thunbergia laurifolia 
(white and purple) hold a high place. 

The plants referred to above and many 
others newly imported are being estab- 
lished at Mazeras, and though none, as 
yet, are available for distribution, every 
effort will be made to propagate them 
as fast as possible. 

Phctographie views illustrating the 
cultivation and preparation of Para 
Rubber, tea, cacao, and Ceylon are 
submitted with this report, 

In conclusion, I wish to place on record 
my deep appreciation of the kind assist- 
ance rendered mein India and Ceylon 
by all with whom I came in contact, and 
Lalso desire to state that it will be my 
earnest endeavour to make all the 
information gained of practical use in 
the general development of agriculture 
in the Protectorate. 


MODERN AGRICULTURE. 
(From the Louisiana Sugar Planter and 
Manufacturer, Vol. XLIIIL., No. 6, 
August 7th, 1909.) 


Modern agriculture is fast becoming, 
and, in fact, has already become, almost 
an exact science. Half a century ago 
book farmers and book farming were 
regarded with contempt by the average 
farmer, and this from the fact that at 
that time book farmers failed and book 
farming was a very deceptive guide. At 
that time book farming was taught in 
some cases conscientiously and with an 
earnest desire to be of service to the agri- 
cultural community. The trouble then 
was that some of those interested had 
some slight knowledge of the subject 
matter whereof they wrote, but still a 
very imperfect knowledge, and writing 
in degree as though they were well in- 
formed, committed some outrageous 
errors that were quickly discerned by 
the farmers andeven by those without 
any book learning. 


All this has now changed and modern 
biological studies have shown the close 
relations subsisting between all forms 
and shapes of living things. We now 
find that the life of plants shows in its 
transmission all of the phases of here- 
dity, and many reversions to earlier 
forms. Plant life and animal life are 
so closely related that the line of 
demarcation is scarcely distinguishable, 
and, in fact, is in» dispute. We have 
plants with what seemsto be a diges- 
tive apparatus, capable of the solution 
and assimilation of food, and we have 
animal life living in active movement in 
-jts early history, as the spats of oysters, 


453 


[NOVEMBER, 1909. 


and yet subsequently inert and immov- 
able as any plant growing in the soil. 

That great Missouri statesman, Wil- 
liam Hatch, for many years Chairman 
of the Committee on Agriculture of the 
House of Representatives in Washing- 
ton, builded perhaps better than he 
knew when he framed the now famous 
Hatch Bill, which provided for national 
aid to experiment stations in all the 
States and Territories of the Federal 
Union. Mr.’ Hatch recognised the 
recondite character of the actural work 
of the farmer, how difficult it was to 
determine what, or why todo things, and 
appreciated the many million of dollars 
lost annually to the farming community 
by mistakes in the work done, and, of 
course done without adequate know- 
ledge.” While itis true that in nearly 
every other direction wherein human 
effort. is exercised, conditions half a 
century ago were far behind what they 
are now, yet the teachings of half a 
century have revealed to us the fact 
that in agriculture we have the most 


abstruse of all sciences and have so 


many factors, controllable and uncon- 
trollable, to consider in carrying on 
agricultural work that as it stands to- 
day the modern agriculturalist appar- 
ently ought to bea very scentific worker 
and able to reduce waste to a minimum 
and to accomplish the greatest amount 
of work and _ to secure the very best 
results with the least outlay of human 
effort and other expenditure. 

The various Experiment Stations 
earried on throughout the Federal 
Union have done their share during the 
last twenty-five years in leading to the 
wonderful advances made in modern 
agriculture. The Louisiana Sugar Hx- 
periment Station was one of the 
pioneers in this good work, and we are 
led to believe that the sugar industry in 
this State would never have secured 
its present proportions had it not been 
for the aid of the station. All these 
things take time, and it has taken a 
quarter of a century for us in the sugar 
industry to progress from the old rule 
of thumb, then prevailing, up to the 
modern methods of intense culture and 
concentrated manufacture. 

Our rice planting industry in this 
State, which is now the largest in the 
Federal Union, and has been progress- 
ing byleaps and bounds during recent 
years, is in much the same condition as 
was the sugar cane industry twenty- 
five or thirty years ago. The experi- 
ment station work now inaugurated in 
this industry and that has been carried 
on to some extent for several years, will 
unquestionably show good results in 
the end. The hearty co-operation 


NOVEMBER, 1909.]} 


of Secretary Wilson, of the Department 
of Agriculture, is assured to us and we 
believe that good results will quickly 
follow. Among the earlier work done 
through the efforts of Mr. Wilson was 
the introduction into this country of 
some hardy varieties of rice, including 
what we now familiarly call Japan rice. 
This rice, however, does not seem to be 
as much in favour as was hoped for it 
some years back. It seemed to ripen 
more slowly and to reach the harvesting 
season at a period when there are severe 
storms inthis State, and standing rice 
would be liable to storm injury. The 
rice grains were short and round and 
looked more like barley than the hand- 
some, long grains of our present so called 
Honduras rice. There remains, however, 
very many problems to be solved‘in the 
rice industry just as there remain very 
many in the cane industry, but such 
solutions are reached by gradual advance 
movements and not at one jump as many 
would suppose. 


We have the old adage that experience 
is a dear teacher ang that fools will 
learn inno other. Itis a pity for the 
agriculturist of to-day to have to commit 
every error of his ancestors before he 
shall learn how to reach success, and 
financial conditions are so changed to-day 
that those who are sufficiently persistent 
in their personal conclusions as to 
exclude from consideration the experi- 
ence of others are quite apt to fail, as 
now practically every industry, agri- 
cultural, manufacturing, mercantile or 
otherwise, is carried on at less margins 
than formerly, and errors made in 
management have more serious results 
now than ever before. 


Agricultural life for years has been 
thought to be sufficiently remunerative 
to justify men of ability continuing in 
it. Inthe great States of the West and 
in fact everywhere in the Federal 
union we can now find men of great 
ability in agriculture, who treat their 
business as an exact science and have 
solved the problem asto how to make 
agricultural industry remunerative. The 
statement made last year that in 
Minnesota the farmers were the chief 
buyers of automobiles is said to have 
been an accurate one, and it shows the 
trend of modern agriculture. 


So many persons have left the country 
and gone to the great cities that poverty 
seems to be transporting itself to the 
cities, and those who are left in the 
country are now beginning to reap their 
reward in the high prices that are pre- 
vailing generally for the products of the 
soil. While sugar does seem an excep- 
tion to this rule, yet rice and corn, the 


« 


454 


great cereal crops, are both bringing 
remunerative prices, and the high 
prices prevailing in the markets on 
practically every agricultural product ~ 
must necessarily have their beneficial 
effect upon the welfare of the producer, 

To this wonderful advancement in 
agriculture and to this softening of the ~ 
rough edges of agricultural life by 
promoting in every direction the use of 
mechanical devices, driven by animal, 
steam or gasoline power, nothing has 
contributed more than the work of the 
experiment stations throughout the 
United States. The whole force con- 
stitutes practically an army of well 
educated men, thoroughly informed in 
the specialties in which they are engaged, 
and all interested directly and com- 
petitively by their own personal 
ambitions in bringing about the very 
best results that are possible. Such 
work as this has developed the manu- 
facturing, commercial, transportation 
and banking interests of the country, as 
wellasthe various phases of so-called 
professional lite. In other words, agri- 
culture has now come to take con- 
spicuous place among the industries of 
the country, not because it employs so 
many persons, but because those engaged 
in it are far better educated than such 
persons were a few decades ago and 
agriculture is coming to be a profession, 
as much as chemistry, medicine or law. 


Not many years ago two-thirds of the 
people of the United States were engaged 
in agriculture. The Civil War with- 
drew so many hundreds of thousands 
of persons from agriculture that those 
remaining learned how to carry on agri- 
cultural work with greatly reduced 
forees. The attractions of city life bave 
drawn hundreds of thousands from the 
pursuits of their youth, and now Mr. 
James J, Hill, the famous railroad man 
of the North-west, says that against two- 
thirds of the people earning their living 
directly from the Jand some years back, 
now not over one-third are engaged in 
so doing, and this one-third of the much 
abused class of agriculturists, abused 
years ago because of their lack of know- 
ledge, are now abused because of the 
so-called exorbitant prices that they are 
getting for their staple crops off the 
land, estimated by the Secretary of . 
Agriculture to amount to ever eight 
thousand millions of dollars for this 
year. With wheat at $1'25 a bushel and 
corn at about 80 cents, we can estimate 
what the proceeds would he of our 
expected crop of over three thousand 
millions of bushels of corn, 660 millions 
of bushels of wheat, and 114 millions 
bales of cotton. Corn is king and wheat 
end cotton come next. 


- Miscellaneous. 


These magnificent results in agricul- 
ture have been brought about by the 
wonderful foresight of Congressman 
Hatch in his persistent advocacy and 
final success with his now famous Ex- 
periment Station Hatch Bill. James 
Wilson, the Secretary of Agriculture, 
who now for so many years has been 
holding this very important post under 
so many succeeding administrations, has 
also been one of the most important 
factors in the recent development of 
agriculture in the United States. In 
this connection we believe that we 
oughtalso to mention Secretary Coburn, 
of the Kansas State Board of Agricul- 
ture, who has been devoting himself to 
the promotion and the good of agricul- 
ture with all of his great ability, energy 
and integrity until his name has become 
a household word throughout the entire 
country. Secretary Coburn declined the 
appointment by the Governor of his State 
as Senator, to represent his State in 
Washington, believing as he did that he 
could do more good to his people at 
home than he could by the advocacy 
of their interests in Washington. 

The immediate application of all this 
to our agricultural conditions in Louisi- 
ana is the fact now apparent to almost 
everyone that it is only by intense 
agriculture that we can win success 
in our life’s industrial battle. 


REPORTS ON AGRI-HORTICUL- 
TURAL SHOWS. 
KEGALLA A, H. SHOW, 


- JULY 2ND AND 3RbD, 1909. 


By R. H. Lock, 
Acting Director, R. B. G., Peradeniya. 

The writer acted as Judgein Classes L, 
VIIL, and [xX 

Class I.—PLANTS IN Pots. 

The actual number of exhibits was 
small except in Section II—Oolias, of 
which an admirable display was made. 
The individual exhibits were, however, 
on the whole distinctly good. 

The arrangement of the building which 
contained this class was admirable. 

Class VIII.—Cocoa. 

The exhibits in this class were few and 
poor as was only to be expected at this 
season of the year. 

Class IX.—RUBBER. 

For a district like Kegalla the number 
of exhibits was distinctly disappointing. 
Individual exhibits were good and the 
actual prize-winning samples in each 
section were quite creditable. The gold 
medal was awarded to a decidedly valu- 
able batch of Para biscuits. 

The Show as a whole struck me as 
excellent, and there were practically 
fine displays of fruits, vegetables and 
native produce, 

The Committee deserve the highest con- 


55 [NOVEMBER, 1909. 


gratulations upon the admirable arrange- 
ment of the exhibits in all sections. 


PANNALA VILLAGE SHOW: 
AvGaust 21st, 1909. 


By C. DRIEBERG, 

Secretary, Ceylon Agricultural Society. 

This village Show was held in the 
Pannala School rooms on the 2lst 
August, when the Government Agent 
of the North-Western Province was 
present. Jt made the fourth of a series 
of village shows held in the Province, 
previous shows having been held at 
Balalla, Pilessa, and Kuliyapitiya; still 
another is fixed for December 4th at 
Hettipola. Speaking generally the vege- 
tables were good, but fruits poor. Snake- 
gourds, bitter-gourds..sweet pumpkins, 
ash pumpkins, okras, luffas, chillies, and 
betel leaves ‘were particularly fine. 
Beans were badly represented, and good 
varieties of these will be sent for distri- 
bution in the district. Fruits were not 
in season, Dry grains and native rices 
made up a good section. School Garden 
produce was sent from Makundara, 
Pannala, Dahanakgedera and Kanka- 
niyamulla School Gardens. The best 
collection was from Makundara. ‘“‘Rodiya 
manufuctuxyes ” consisting of plaited 
work (mats, baskets, &c.) was an interest- 
ing section. Addresses were given by the 
Government Agent and myself. Agri- 
cultural Instructor Wickremaratne was 
present to assist in the arrangements 
and confer with the people. 


TELIJJAWILA A. H, SHOW. 
AvuGustT 25TH, 1909. 
By N. WICKREMARATNE, A. I, 

This Show was held on August 25th, 
when H. E. the Acting Governor was 
present. It wasthe 5th Show held under 
the auspices of the Weligam Korale 
Agricultural Society, of which Mr. 
James Wickremaratne Mudaliyar is 
the Secretary. 

The arrangements, as at previous 
Shows held in the Korale, left nothing to 
be desired. The sheds were full, but the 
quality of exhibits might have been 
better. Among vegetables, pumpkins, 
gourds, capsicums, cucumbers, brinjals, 
cassava and sweet potatoes deserve men- 
tion, while in the truit section, jak, 
breadfruit, pomeloes, oranges and limes 
attracted attention, There were also 
good exhibits of paddy and dry grains, 
coconuts and jaggery. 

Under School Garden produce, collec- 
tions were sent in by Paraduwa and 
Dampella Schools.- The exhibits of 
the former were of striking merit. The 
other sections comprised oils, articles 
made of coir, dairy produce, cattle, 
woodwork, pottery, lace, basket work, 
fishing tackle, &c., which helped to make 
a very full and interesting exhibition. 


y, 
BS 


456 


MARKET RATES FOR TROPICAL PRODUCTS, 
(From Lewis & Peat’s Monthly Prices Current, London, 13th October, 1909.) 


ne TnTia nnn nnn EnnnnnEnIn nnn EERRE REE ERE 


QUALITY. QUOTATIONS. QUALITY, QUOTATIONS 
ALOES, Socotrine cwt.|Fair to fine «(858 & 908 INDIARUBBER.(Contd.)| 
Zanzibar & Hepatic ,, |Common to good +-(40s a 703 Borneo Common to good Is 8da 3s 
ARROWHOOT (Natal) Ib./Fair to She lees a Pear Low white to priuewodbee a meee 
, , owt. ~ s0V sa 
Be uanibar Yellow ,, |Slightly drossy to fair .../e6 7s 6d a £6 10s Mozambique Fair to fine red Ball .../49 3d a a 4a 
Bombay bleached __,, |Fair to good £710s a £7 1286d Sausage, fair to good ..'4s2d a 5s 2d 
; unbleached,, |Dark to good genuine ../£510s a £6 5s Nyassaland Fair to fine ball .. (38 8d a 48 8d 
Madagascar ” |Dark to good palish |g67séda £6 12/6) Madagascar Fr to fine pinky & white/3s 2d a 4s 
OAMPHOR, Japan ,, |Retined Is 63d a ls 73d Majunga & blk coated ../2s 6d a 3s 2d 
China ,, |Eair_ average quality  .../135s z : Niggers, low to good ..|1s 6d a 3s 8d 
CARDAMOMS, Tuticorin|Good to fine bold 1s 10d a 2s 2d New Guinea Ordinary to fine ball ../3s2da 4s 6d nom 
, Middling lean Is 7d a 1s 8d INDIGO, EI. Bengal Shipping mid to gd violet/2s 10d a 3s 8d 
Tellicherry © Good fonne bold j 9 pal a 28 oH ConeaE nee ee zs eel a pat 
rownls e- {1s als 2s a 235 
Mangalore ,, |Med brown to fair bold|is 10d a 2s 8d Oudes Middling to fine 2s 6d a 2/8 nom. 
Ceylon,- Mysore —,, {Small fair to fine plump’ |isida 2s 11d Mid. to good Kurpah [2s 2d a 28 6d 
Malabar _.. |Eair to good .. |Is4da 1s 6d Low to ordinary ls 6d a 28 
Seeds, B.1,& Ceylon ,, Fair to good .. {1s 8d Mid. to fine Madras |ishda2s4d __ 
Ceylon Long Wild }, [Shelly to good ‘led a 1s6d nom, MACE, Bombay & Penang|Pale reddish to fine 1s lid a 2s 4d 
CASLOX OIL, Calcutta ,, {Good 2nds «+ (3d per Ib, Ordinary to fair ls 8d als 10d 
CHILLIES, Zanzibar cwt.|Dull to fine bright ... (85s a 40s of ANE walk », good pale 5 7d ates ld 
SINCHONA BARK.— lb. , ombay 4d a5 
Ceylon Crown, Renewed 3gda 7d MYRABOLANES, — ewt Gand Coconada 5s a 5s 6d 
Org. Stem |2d a 6d Bombay ” I himkee re 4s9d a 5s 103d 
Red Org. Stem /ijd a 44d Rhai an & 489d a 6s 3a 
Renewed  |8d.a 5} Bengal . lealeutene ee 43 6d abs 3d 
_ Root | lgd a 4d NUTMEGS— 64’s to 57’s 5sa 5s 6d 
ce feeice pets Good to fine quill pe oe Bombay & Penang ,, |110’s to 65’s Haas 
3rds ie sf 7id.a lida 160’s to 115's 4d a 43d 
4ths ” ” 6ida gtd NP ARECA cwt.|Ordinary to fair fresh |145 9, 163 
Chips, &c..|Fair to fine bold 2d a sid UX VOMICA, Cochin (Ordinary to good5J5) igs agiaga 
CLOVES, Penang Ib.]Dull to fine bright pkd.|1s a 1s 3d P R Mateas ” ” 6s a @s 6d 
anes : Dull to tine pan om. OF ANISEED ,, \Fair merchantable ba ae 83 
3 ’ j + 
Zanzibar Fair and fine bright |4#d a 54d TONE ASS ” Aecorcine to pnalvels 3s 8da 4s 
Stems +-|Bair lad NUTMEG ” [Diugy to white fifa‘ tt 7 
SOFFEE 1A ae ‘ a 
COTGeylon Plantation cwt.|Medium to Bold 65d a 100s eS »» [Ordinary to fair sweet 94d a 1s 
Native Good ordinary nominal - = » |Bright & good flavour |113d a 1s1d 
Liberian » [Fair to bold 438 a 558 CeCe? iia tae 
COCOA, Ceylon Plant. ,, Se eect pie a is Madagascar 8 wah o fine no cre Wee ee 11s 
Native Estate x, |Ordinary to red 38s a 548 6d 
Java and Celebes ,, |Small to good red 30s a 858 PEPPER— (Black) Ib. 
COLOMBO KOOT 1, |Middling to good l5sal7s 6d Alleppee & Tellicherry|Fair ld 
CROTON SEEDS,sift. cwt.|Dull to fair 30s a 35s Ceylon ,, Lo fine bold heavy ../3:d a 43d 
CUBEBS ¥ » |Ord. stalky to good 30s a 90s Singapore ren esy tee see ld 
_@INGER, Bengal, rough,, |Fair 30s Acheen & W. C. Penang|Dull to fine + a/32d a 33d 
Calicut, Cut A ,, |Small to fine bold 60s a 85s (White) Singapore ,, |Fair to fine +. --l7da 8d 
B&C,, |Small and medium 52s a 60s Siam » |Fair - vee 7d 
Cochin Rough ,, |Common to fine bold [388 a 42s Penang », |Fair ae on «64d 
Small and D’s 37s 6d PLUMBAGO, lump ewt.|Fair_to fine bright bold} “_— 
Japan »5 |Unsplit 36s F Middling to good small} — 
@UM AMMONIACUM ,, |Sm. blocky to fair clean|25s a 60s chips Dull to tine bright | ..| — 
ANIMI, Zanzibar {Pale and amber, str. srts.|£16 a £18 3 dust Ordinary to fine bright) — 
3 3 little red|/£13 a £15 SAGO, Pearl, large ..|/Dull to fine ate «l15sa16s 6d 
Bean and Pea size ditto|75s a £12 103 medium .| ,, ” 14s a lbs 
Pair to good red sorts |£9a £13 10s small a! yy a0 12s 213s 6d 
Med. & bold glassy sorts|£6 10s. a £8 10s,,SEEDLAC | ewt.|Ordinary to gd. soluble {503 a, 65s 
Madagascar .,, |Fair to good palish .,.|£4a2£8 15s SENNA, Tinnevelly Ib.|Good to fine bold green|41d a 7d 
Pr tilians.- 1 red ... [£4 a £7 LOs Fair greenish 34d a 4d 
ARABIC E.1I, & Aden ,, |Ordinary to good pale|25sa 32s 6d nom. Commonspeckyand smalllad a 23d 
prurkey, sorts ,, 29s a 47s 6d SHELLS, Me o’ PEARL— ‘ a 7 
atti » |Sorts to fine pale ...{208 a 42s 6d nom. Agyptian cwt.|Small to bo ie 9 : 
Kurrachee », |Reddish to eed pale ...|20s a 30s me, . Bombay _,, ” on Bia ree poe 
Madras », |Dark to fine pale .,.|16s a 25s 5 Mergui ” ” ” oo «-|£8a £8 15s 
ASSAFQTIDA », |Clean fr. to gd. almonds|120s a 140s _,, Manilla _,, |Fair to good «-|£5 12/6 a£10 10s 
; com. stony to good block|15s a100s_,, Banda », |Sorts . + |253 80S nomi 
KINO Fair to fine bright 6d add TAMARINDS, Calcutta,..|Mid.to fine bl’k not stony]}11s a 18s ig 
M\RRH, picked ewt|Fair to fine pale 80s a 115s per cwt. Madras |Stony and inferior -jiga 5S I 
Aden sorts ,, |Middling to good 56s a 70s TORLOISESHELL— 
OLIBANUM, drop + |Good to tine white 40s a 50s Zanzibar, & Bombay lb. |Small to bold ».|8sa8ls 
: Middling to fair 25s a 358 Pickings -- /33 a 183 6d 
pickings ,, |Low to good pale 6s6dal7s6d |LURMERIC, Bengal ewt.|Fair . {8s . 
siftings ,, \Slightly foul to fine 13s a 15s Madras _,, |Finger fair to fine boldji7s a 18s 
INDIA RUBBEK lb. (\Fine Para bis. & sheets|9s 2d Do. » |Bulbs [bright}i4s a 153 
- s, Ceara ie aees Cochin __,, |Finger » |15s 
Ceylon, Straits, Crepe ordinary to fine. .|83 6d a 983d ulbs + [182 €d - 
Malay Straits, ete. ine Block Be Ha VASE ORS Tb. 
paiep tair to fine (68 8d a6s 11d Mauritius. Ists|Gd er i i 
Assam Plantation ' 5s 6a a 6s Madagascar ... } 2nds ae ystehiede abe a ne ad ee ag 
Fair II tocrd. red No, 1/48 6d a 5s 2d Seychelles érds|Lean and inferior 2. 9sa 93 6d 
Rangoon ” a 8s 2d a 492d VERMILLION .. Fine, pure, bright . 83 ’ 
WAX, Jayan, squares |Good white hard 40/458 


a 


THE SUPPLEMENT TO THE 


Tropical Agriculturist and Magazine of the G. A. 8. 


Compitep By A. M. & J. FERGUSON. 


No. 5,] 


NOVEMBER, 1909. 


[Vor V. 


RUBBER FROM BANANA PLANTS. 


A correspondent sends us for comment from 
Georgetown, British Guana, a copy of a local 
paper containing a letter from Mr. George C. 
Benson on the above subject. Mr Benson writes: 


To dispel all doubt as to whether or not the banana, 
is a rubber-producing plant let the following simple plan 
be followed :— 


Cut one of the lower branches of a banana tree near 
the trunk, and then let the falling juice drip either into 
a@ wine-glass or into an egg-cup till it is about half 
full; then let either the wine-glass or the egg-cup stand 
for about six hours, after which moisten the fingers 
and take off the film that has formed on the top of 
the juice. If the fingers are moist or wet, the film 
can be pressed and rubbed between the fingers, and 
then a beautiful and pink-like ball of very soft rubber 
will be the result. 


One mature banana tree will give from 5 to 7 lb. of 
marketable rubber when it is properly admixed. The 
rubber is fully worth 60 cents per lb. All that the 
farmer now gets is about 20 cents per bunch for his 


plantains or bananas. 
6 lb. of rubber at 60 cents $3 60 
1 bunch of bananas ae 16 


$3 76 
Less cost of admixing 6 1b. of rubber, about 36? 


Estimate about . «. 93 40 


The idea is not entirely a new one. Some 
years ago in July, 1898, to be precise, Otto 
Zurcher, of Kingston, Jamaica, took out a 
patent (No. 15569), for an improved process 
for the extraction of India-rubber. 


According to this invention bananas and 
the fruit of other Musaez are cleaned with 
waterjet and then cut from the stems when 
about half ripe. They are then cut cross- 
wise, and the surrounding leaves, skin and 
stem, are separated. The inner portions are 
drained of liquid and afterwards extracted by 
placing them radilly in a centrifugal machine, 
or with turpentine or other solvent in a 
vacuum. The outer parts are cut and crushed 
and extracted similarly. India-rubber sepa- 
rates from the liquids produced, on standing or 
by treatment in a centrifugal machine. 


58 


India-rubber may be obtained from parts of 
other plants by the same processes. The 
patentee then points out the advantages which 
were to be expected to accrue from the pro- 
duction of rubber from cultivated plants (thus 
anticipating present developments), and claims 
that by his invention and the employment 
of his improved process, the ‘‘ entire and 
immense yearly crops of musa-plants and the 
like, and bananas in particular, can be uti- 
lised to the fullest oxtent, apart from any 
question, as to the size, weight, or ripeness 
of the said fruit.” 


From our knowledge of the anatomy of these 
plants, we do not believe the idea is worth 
going onwith. Sections through various parts 
of the banana plant, for microscopic exami- 
nation, can be seen by arrangement at the 
offices of the ‘“‘ India-Rubber Journal.” We 
think that a study of the latex chanels, as 
revealed in the sections referred to, will not lead 
to any display of enthusiasm on the part of the 
investigator.—India-Rubber Journal, Sept. 6. 


PARA RUBBER IN SOUTHERN 
NIGERIA. 


In view of the possible extension of rubber 
plantations in Southern Nigeria, Mr N C 
McLeod, the Deputy Conservator of Forests 
in the Colony, was recently deputed to visit the 
Federated Malay States and the Straits Settle— 
ments in order to study the methods there em- 
ployed for the cultivation of the Pararubber tree 
(Hevea Brasiliensis) and for the collection and 
preparation of its rubber. The report which Mr 
Mc Leod has submitted to the Southern Nigeria 
Government gives a résumé of the information 
which he collected,and also contains somo parti- 
culars regarding the suitability of Southern Nige- 
ria for the cultivation of the Para troe which 
are of general interest. 


458 


The Para tree was introduced into Lagos in 
1895, when a number of trees were raised from 
seed in the gardens at Ebute Metta. At the 
end of 1907, the average girth of six of these 
trees, taken three feet from the ground, was 
31 inches, the largest tree being 45 inches in 
circumference. In 1902 twenty-five Para trees 
were planted at the Olokemeji Gardens (Wes- 
tern Province), and their average girth at the 
end of 1907 was just over 12 inches, the largest 
tree measuring 17 inches in circumferenve. At 
the Calabar Gardens (Hastern Province) there 
are also a pumber of well-grown trees about 
six years old. 


Since 1905 a large number of Para seeds have 
been imported from the Straits Settlements for 
trial in the three provinces. In the Western 
Province the Forest Department has estab- 
lished two small experimental plantations of 
26 and 10 acres at Agege and Mamu respec- 
tively, whilst atSapele, in the Central Pro- 
vince, Messrs. Miller Brothers have a planta- 
tion of nearly 200 acres under Para. In the 
Eastern Province also a large number of Para 
plants have been raised and distributed. 


The result of these experimental trials show 
that for the first two or three years the seedlings 
suffer considerably from drought during the 
dry season. In 1907, for example, the loss from 
this cause at Sapele and Agege was about 30 
per cent, but at Mamu it was less than 10 per 
cent. After that period, however, the trees 
survive the dry season with comparative safety, 
and compare favourably in rate of growth with 
those in other countries, such as India and 
Ceylon, which have a marked dry season. 


With reference to the general suitability of 
Southern Nigeria for the cultivation of the Para 
tree it is pointed out that the colony includes 
a dry anda wet zone, the line of demarcation 
between which is approximately 6° 15’ north 
latitude. Places to the north of this line have 
a rainfall of less than 76 inches per annum. 
whilst those to the south have more than that 
amount. Thus at ten places in the dry zone 
the annual rainfall varies from 40°92 to 74°7 
inches, with an average of 53°16 inches, whilst 
at eight places in the wet zone the figures 
range from 87°08 to 251°49 inches with an aver- 
age of 128'67 inches. Inthe dry zone the aver- 
age range of temperature is normally between 
95° F. and 54° F.; in the wet zone the daily 
maximum during December to March is 88° 
F. and the minimum during May to August 
is jor. 

It is evident from these records that there 
are many places in the wet zone of Southern 
Nigeria which have an annual rainfall prac- 
tically equal to that of the Federated Malay 
States, although the distribution throughout 
the year is not so even. The range of tem- 
perature is also very similar to that of Malaya 
and the soil is quite as rich. It seems pro- 
bable, therefore, that the Para tree could be 
successfully cultivated in parts of the wet zone 
of Southern Nigeria, and Mr. McLeod suggests 
that the formation of plantations of the trees 
should be encouraged in suitable localities 
where they would not interfere with the palm- 
oil industry.--Imperial Institute Bulletin. 


The Supplement to the Tropical Agriculturist 


RUBBER ON THE IVORY COAST. 


How great a proportion of West African Rub- 
ber comes from the Ivory Coast is shown by 
the French Blue Books, which give the total 
exports of rubber from the Ivory Coast for the 
three years 1905, 1906 and 1907 as amounting to 
4,071,136 kilos (8,975,226 lb.) The Ivory Coast 
alone, therefore, during these years exported 
more than three times as much as the whole 
of Ceylon, India, Burma and Assam imported 
into England. 

Accompanying the Prospectus is a report 
of M. Greville-Réache, a very well-known ex- 
plorer, who acted as Lieutenant to Monsieur 
Boushon Brandeby, Secretary of the College of 
France, and to Col. Binger, late Administrator 
of the Ivory Coast, after whom the capital Bin- 
gerville, isnamed, M, Gerville-Réache has held 
the following appointments under the French 
Government :—Ncientific expedition to French 
Oceana (Pacific Islands), 1886; expedition to 
Senegal and the Sudan, 1889; expedition to the 
French Congo, 1892 ; and the Ivory Coast, 1894. 
He resided on the ILvory Coast for many years, 
and is thoroughly acquainted with rubber 
forests in West Africa. He spent a considerable 
time last year on the property and himself 
tapped the trees— 

From M, Gerville-Réache’s report in the Pro- 
spectus of the Ivory Coast Rubber Estates, Ltd., 
it will be seen :— 

Tirte.—1l. That the boundaries of the two 
Concessions are clearly set forth in the official 
title deeds, and that the title deeds are in order. 

Curap TRANSPoRT.—2. ‘That it is possible to 
land the rubber at Liverpool or Hamburg from 
theestate in 23 days, and although not men- 
tioned in M. Gerville- Réache’s report, it appears 
that steamers of the Elder-Dempster Line and 
the Woermann Line call at Blieron and Tabou. 

Lazpour.—3. That there is no fear of any 
scarcity of labour, which frequently happens in 
other districts, and that the natives are peaceful 
and hardworking and very anxious to get Huro- 
pean goods, which they can only get by their 
labour. 

Cost or Propuction.—In regard to cost of 
production, M. Gerville-Réache says :—‘‘ I have 
carefully calculated the cost of production on 
this property as follows :— 


Wages paid to the natives for tapping 
trees, collecting the rubber and de- £ sd 
livering of 50 kilos frs. 23.00 0 19 2 
Transport by small steamer belonging 
to the Company from the property 


to the port of Blieron >, 0.50 0 06 
Expenses of storage, packing, bags, 

&e., at Blieron Seo LOU (a(t) 
Freight to Liverpool or Hamburg >» | 2550 0 2 


6 
1 
Loss in weight, 5 percent. on selling 

price 3, 12.50 0 10 5 
Brokerage, 2 per cent. on selling price, 

5 francs per kilo in Kurope 95 0500) OP ea 
General Expenditure in Europe 35 25.00 1 010 


Total frs. 69.10 £2 17 7 
say 1 fr. 38 per kilo” (which works out at well under 8d per 
lb.). ‘“‘ This rubber is now sold in Europe at 4s 4d a pound, 
For our purpose we will take only one- 

half of this price, that is 5 frances LesaGs 
per kilo, 50 kilos by 5 francs = frs. 250.00 10 8 4 
Deduct expenses as above 99, C9 gL On w2 reg 


Profit frs. 180.90 £7 10 9 
that is to say, 3 frs, 62 profit per kilo” (which works out at 
a profit of 1s 4d per Ib,), 


and Magazine of the Ceylon Agricultural Society. 


Nomper oF TREES AND Output.—4. He noted 
on the property many kinds of well-known 
valuable rubber-producing trees and vines, in- 
cluding ‘‘Kicksia Africana,” ‘‘ Ficus Klastica,” 
and ‘‘ Landolphia,” and estimated the number 
of fully-grown trees at 240,000. 


Prorit on ‘'rapinc.—5. He states that he 
was also impressed by the opening which offers 
for trading with the natives and mentions 
places where stores could be profitably started, 
thereby providing a return cargo for the stea- 
mers carrying the Company’s rubber. 

Estimate oF Prorits.—6. M. Réache con- 
sidered very carefully the best method of wor- 
king the concessions, and calculated :— 


Tue Frrst YEAR’S PRoFIts. 


Sale of 100,000 kilos Rubber £15,083 6 8 
Profits on trading at Blieron and at 

Toke 0 7,812 10 0 

Total £22,985 16 8 

THe SECOND YEAR’S PROFITS. 

Cavally Rubber, 150,000 kilos £22,625 0 0 

Tabou Rubber, 100,000 kilos 15,083 6 8 

Sales to Natives 31,718 15 0 

= 
Total £49,427 1 8 


(Which works out at more than sufficient to 
pay 14 per cent for the first year, and 32 percent 
for the second year, taking the Rubber at only 
half its present price.) 

After further development, he calculates that 
the profits should be as follows :— 


Tuk Tuirp YEAR’S PRorits. 
Cavally Rubber, 150,000 kilos £22,625 0 O 


Tabou Rubber 150,000 ,, 22,625 0 0 
Rubber purchased 100,000 ,, 15,083 6 8 
e Sales to Natives 10,416 13 4 
Total £70,750 0 0 


Tue Fourtu YEAR’s Prorits, 


Cavally Rubber £22,625 0 0 
Tabou Rubber 22,625 0 O 
Rubber purchased 22,625 O O 
Sales to Natives 13,000 0 0 
Mahogany 6,250 0 0 
Palm Oil 7,083 6 8 
Palm-kernels 1,666 13 4 

Total £90,875 0 0 


(Which works out at more than sufficient to 
pay 47 per cent for the third year, and 60 per 
cent for the fourth year, taking the rubber at 
only half its present price). 

’Cuimate.—M. Gerville-Réache states that 

Europeans who take the ordinary precautions 
necessary in tropical countries can_ perfectly 
well stand the climate of the Ivory Coast, and 
that the Cavally district is the most healthy 
part of the Colony. Mr. Molyneux confirms 
this and states that it compares very favourably 
with other portions of the Coast, and says that 
“with ordinary care and given a fair constitution 
a man has no reason to fear ill-health,” 

Facinitigs FoR SALE or RussBeR.—The fol- 
lowing letter has been received from Messrs, A 
Jimenez & Sons, who have consented to act as 
Produce Agents for the Company :— 

65, Fenchurch-street, London, H.C., August 6, 
1909.—The Directors, The Ivory Coast Rubber 
Estates, Ltd., London, 


459 


Dear Sirs,—We have received your inquiry 
with reference to rubber coming from the Ivory 
Coast, and we are pleased fo inform you that 
such rubber is readily saleable. The present 
prices of the kinds you mention are as follows: 

Niggers Fair Red 5s to 5s 1d per lb. 
Niggers Fair White 33 10d to 4s per Ib. 
Niggers Fair Pinky 3s 4d to 3s 5d per Ib. 
Hard Cakes 3s 6d to 3s 7d per lb. 
Twists about 3s 8d per Ib, 

The “ Red Niggers” quality, which we under- 
stand you are pringipally interested in, would 
always be more saleable than the other sorts. 
The ‘ Twists” quality has been arriving 
only in small quantities. In considering the 
price of rubberyou must bear in mind that the 
rubber market is easily influenced by the 
existing shortage or surplus, and sometimes the 
prices fluctuate considerably.— We are, dear Sirs, 
Yours faithfully, (Signed) A. JIMENEZ and Sons. 


(In this prospectus the Rubber has been 
calculated at only 2s 2d per lb),—London 
Times, Sept. 2, 


RUBBER FROM SOUTHERN INDIA. 


A number of rubbers prepared from Ceara, 
Castilloa, and Para trees growing in the Gov- 
ernment Experimental Gardens at Kullar and 
Burliar in the Nilgir? Hills, have been ex- 
amined recently at the Imperial Institute, with 
the following results :— 


Ceara Rupser (Manihot Glaziovii).—This 
rubber was prepared at Kular, and bore the 
following label :— 


‘‘No. 1. Ceara rubber from trees planted 
in the Government Experimental (Garden, 
Kullar (1,300 feet), Nilgiris, in April, 1902 ; 
collected February 1908.” It weighed 9 oz., and 
consisted of six biscuts of pale amber rubber, 
clean and well prepared. The physical proper- 
ties of the rubber were very good. The results of 
the chemical examination were as follows :— 


Sample as Composition 
received of dry rubber, 
Per cent, Per cent, 
Moisture ove 2°8 -- 
Caoutchouce Se 80°2 82°5a 
Resin ae 6°2 64 
Proteid a 9°5 9°8 
Ash on 1°3 ba} 
a Soluble caoutchouc 76°5 per cent.; insoluble caout- 


choue 6°0 per cent. 

The rubber was valued at 5s 6d per Ib. in 
London. For comparison with this and the 
following valuations it may be stated that on 
the same date fine hard Para from South 
America was quoted at 58. Id. per lb., and 
plantation Para biscuits at 5s. 3d. to 5s. 9d. 
per lb. This Ceara rubber is of very good 
quality, althouzh the percentages of resin and 
proteid are rather higher. The biscuits varied 
somewhat in colour, and it would be an ad- 
vantage if they could be obtained more uni- 
form in this respect. 

CastILLoA RusBBER (Castilloa clastica).—Two 
specimens of this rubber were submitted, one 
from Kullar and the other from Burliar. The 
sample from Kullar was labelled as follows :— 
‘* No. 2, Castilloa rubber from trees planted 
in the Government Experimental Garden, 


460 


Kullar (1,300 feet), Nilgiris, in April 1902 ; 
collected June 1908.” It weighed 64 oz., and 
cousisted of arough sheet of dark brown rub- 
ber, containing a fair amount of vegetable 
impurity. The rubber was rather soft, slightly 
sticky and weak. A chemical examination gave 
the following results :— 


Sample as Composition 
received, of dry rubber. 

Per cent. Per cent. 
Moisture ts 1°5 — 
Caoutchoue st 62°7 63°6 
Resin ae 32°0 32°5 
Proteid AG 0'9 (it) 
Insoluble matter .. 2°9 3°0 
Ash a 2°29 2°4 


The rubber was valued at 3s 2d to 3s 4d 
per lb, in London. This rubber is of inferior 
quality, owing to the large percentage of resin 
present. The trees from which the sample 
was obtained were, however, ouly six years 
old, and it is probable that the quality of the 


rubber will improve as the trees become older , 


The specimens from Burliar bore the fol- 
lowing table :—‘‘ No. 3. The Castilloa rubber 
from the Government Experimental Garden. 
Burliar (2,400 feet), Nilgiris, February, 1908.” 
It weighed 5; oz., and consisted ot rough 
sheets of rubber varying in colour from light 
to dark brown, and containing traces of vege- 
table impurity. This rubber was much stronger 
than the preceding specimen from Kullar, On 
analysis it give the following figures :— 


Sample as Composition 


received, of dry rubber. 
Pes cent. Per cent, 
Moisture we 6°2 _- 
Caoutchoue Be 36'1 86.2 
Resin os 12:8 12°9 
Proteid ae 0°5 05 
Ash O'4 0°2 


per lb. in London, This sample of Castilloa 
rubber from Burliar is much superior in com- 
position and physical properties to the speci- 
men from Kullar. No information was fur- 
nished regarding the age of the trees from 
which the rubber was obtained. 

Para Rupser (Hevea brasiliensis).—Speci- 
mens of Para rubber were received from both 
Kullar and Burliar. The sample from Kullar 
was labelled as follows:—‘' No. 4. Para rub- 
ber from trees planted in the Government 
Experimental Garden, Kullar (1,300 feet), Nil- 
giris, in April, 1902; collected June 1908.” It 
weighed 7} oz, and consisted of 2 large biscuits 
of dark brown rubber containing traces of vege- 
table impurity. The rubber was rather de- 
ficient in strength. The results of the chemical 
examination are given in the following table :— 


Sample as Composition 
received. of dry rubber. 
Per cent. Per cent. 
Moisture Pic 08 _— 
Caoutchoue a 92°0 92°8a 
Resin oe 2°6 2°6 
Proteid she 3°0 3°0 
Ash 16 16 


a Soluble caoutchouc 88'8 per cent. ; insoluble caout 
chouc 4'0 per cent. 

The rubber was valued at 6s to 6s 2d per tb. 
in London. ‘This rubber is very satisfactory 
in composition, but the biscuits are dark 
coloured and contain specks of vegetable im- 


The Supplement to the Tropical Agriculturist 


purity. The value of the rubber would be 
enhanced if it were lighter in colour, The 
specimen of Para rubber from Burliar was 
labelled as follows :—‘‘ No. 5. Para rubber 
from the Government Experimental Gardens, 
Burliar (2,400 feet), Nilgiris. Trees planted 
November, 1898 ; rubber collected November, 
1907.” It weight 174 oz. and consisted of two 
biscuits and three long narrow strips of rub- 
ber, rather uneven in colour, and containing 
traces of vegetable impurity. The rubber was 
in good‘ condition and possessed fair strength. 
It had the following composition :— 


Sample as Composition 
received, of dry rubber 
Per cent. Per cent. 
Moisture ae 0 
Caoutchouc se 91'5 91°90 
Resin Na 3°9 3°9 
Proteids is 37 37 
Ash 0°65 0° 


Ati 5 
a Soluble caoutchcuc 90 per cent, ; insoluble caout- 
chouc 1°9 per cent. 


The rubber was valued at 5s 4d to 5s 5d 
per lb, The sample of Para rubber was much 
lighter in colour than the preceding speci- 
men, but lke the latter it contained minute 
vegetable fragments which should be removed 
from the latex by straining. The rubber was 


very satisfactory in composition,—-Imperial 
Institute Bulletin. 


CACAO CULTIVATION IN GERMAN 
GOLONIES. 


The rapid development of the German Colo- 
nies during the last few years is well illustrated 
by the advances made in agriculture and es- 
pecially in the cultivation of cotton, sisal hemp, 
rubber and cocoa. The cultivation of cocoa in 
the German Colonies has extended with remark- 
able ranidity. 

Inthe Cameroons, the industry is chiefly in 
the handsof European companies, Owing to 
the attacks of a bark-boring beetle, measures 
were adopted with the object of arresting the 
damage and good results were achieved. Areas 
infested with such pests were manured with 
superphosphate and potassium chloride, with 
the result that largely increased yields ot cocoa 
were obtained. 

The earlier attempts of the natives to grow 
cocoa resulted in failure owing chiefly to the 
natural aversion of the people from innovations, 
Moreover, the Cameroon negro is not so well 
qualified for agricultural work as is, for example 
the native of the Gold Coast. The consequence 
was that the plantations were abandoned and 
afterwards became choked with weeds. Some 
improvements has now been brought about by 
the efforts of the Government officials in in- 
structing the natives, distributing seed and 
young plants, and directing the operations ; par 
ticularly gratifying advances have been made in 
the Victoria district and in Bodiman. Recently 
attentionhas been directed more especially to 
the exercise of increased care in preparation in 
order to produce a cocoa vf consistently good 
quality. ! 

In 1907-8, 18,961 acres were under cocoa the 
number of trees amounting 2,768,351, of which 
those on 12,532 acres were in bearing. The 


and Magazine of the Ceylon Agricultwral Society. 


crop amounted in 1906 to 1,174 tons and the 
value of the export to £57,230. In 1907 thecrop 
increased to 1,587, tons and in 1908 was still 
larger; the exports in the latter year attained 
the value of £147,000. 


The cocoa industry has also made remarkable 
progress in Togoland,and the natives are taking 
an increased interest in it. ‘The cultivation is 
almost entirely confined tothe Misahéhe district. 
Experiments in the Atakpame district have 
shown definitely that this region is unsuited for 
cocoa growing. The Government are doing a 
great deal to foster the industry in the inte- 
rests of the natives and have distributed seed 
and young plants. There is 


ONLY ONE EUROPEAN UNDERTAKING 
990 


engaged in cocoa planting and this has 222 
acres under cultivation; the yield from this 
plantation amounted to 1,951 Ib, in 1906, aud 
6,172 lb. in 1907. The exports of cocoa have 
increased from year to year as follows :—In 1904 
209 ewts. of value £436 16s; in 1905, 258 cwts. 
of value £475 18s; in 1906, 564 ewts. of value 
£1,078 16s; and in 1907, 1,028 cwts. of value 
£2,496 9s. 

The cultivation in Samoa is extending from 
year to year and is in a very promising con- 
dition. In 1907-8, 3,508 acres were under cocoa ; 
684,032 trees were growing, of which 280,990 
wero in bearing. Although unfavourable woa- 
ther was experienced in the autumn of 1907,the 
exports nevertheless rose from 90 to 117 tons. 
The exports for1908 were expected to show a 
still further increase. The cocoa trees have 
hitherto been free from diseaso and appear 
strong and healthy. The planting companies 
consider that an average yield of 450 lb per acre 
can be obtained from the older plantations. 
Both the ‘‘Criollo” and ‘‘Forastero ” trees have 
proved satisfactory. 

Since the cocoa industry demands _ special 
agricultural work for which the natives of 
Samoa are not well fitted, it has been considered 
necessary to have recourse to imported labour ; 
in January 1908 more than 1,000 Chinese coolies 
were employed on the plantations. The Chi- 
nese work, on the whole, well aud carefully and 
are skilled in the tiner branches of agriculture 
such as are involved in cocoa cultivation. Un- 
fortunately, however, the coolies who have 
hitherto reached Samoa are not of the best type 
but itis hoped that a better class will be forth- 
coming. Owing to complaints which have ap- 
peared in the Chinese newspapers, the Chinese 
Goverment have been urged to prohibit the 
exportation and a 

CHINESE COMMISSIONER HAS BEEN SEN 
to Samoa to inquire into the labour conditions. 

In German New Guinea the cocoa industry is 
stillin its infancy. In tho year 1907-8, 404 acres 
- were under cultivation. The plantations con- 
tained 78,945 trees, of which only 2,975 were 
then in bearing. The exports in1907-8 amounted 
to 1,025 lb. Thereare many difficulties to be over- 
come, such as the occurrence and spread of the 
deep-rooted and tenacious alang-alang grass 
and the attack of insect pests. In spite ofthese 
draw-backs, however, vigorous efforts are being 
made to establish the industry securely.—Im- 
perial Institute Bulletin, 


461 
COCONUTS IN JAMAICA. 


The following report has been made to the 
Director of Agriculture, date 28th June, 19.9 :— 

[have carefully examined the coconut trees 
on the coast of Portland,and there would appear 
to be little disease in the western part of the 
parish, the disease or diseases increasing as one 
goeseast, The troubles most prevalent are 


‘““SHRIVELLED TOP,” ‘‘ BUD Rot” AND 
‘* WEEVILS,” 


These must be kept distinct from troubles 
caused by trees being planted in unsuitable land 
or situations, lack of cultivation, stifled by 
climbing weeds, etc. The situation is practically 
identical with that in the western end of Jamica 
in 1900; the remedy will have to be the same. 
The first thing is cleanliness,thesecond thing is 
cleanliness. ‘‘Shrivelled top” may be microbic or 
fungoid, but that want of air and excessive mois- 
ture helps to spread the disease there is no doubt 
whatever. There is also no doubt that the dis- 
easo spreads from one tree to another or to many 
others. and carelessness in leaving one diseased 
tree untreated, means the death of many others. 
‘* Bud rot,” too, isas yet undetermined, but the 
fact that itis a disease very liable to spread from 
one tree to another if steps are not taken to pre- 
vent it, is equally well established, The symp- 
toms of ‘' weevils ” attacking trees are so easy to 
discover that the most unobservant can easily 
note the reddish “water” running from the 
stems of the trees, and be ready to put the pre- 
ventive measures in force at ouce. The watch. 
word in dealing with all the troubles should be 
prevention. Any trees observed to be below par, 
not ‘‘cleaning,” i.¢., the dead leaves sticking on 
to the trees instead of dropping clean off, should 
be ‘ signed,” 4,¢., fire set to the ‘‘strainer ” on a 
nice, dry day, which has the effect of caus- 
ing the dead leaves to fall clean off, destroy- 
ing dead strainer and allowing the chief 
enemies of disease, sun and air, to have - 
access to the stems of the trees and do their 
share of the preventive work. Care should be 
taken to 
PREVENT CLIMBING WEEDS OF ALL KINDS 

from infesting the trees. This would appear 
to be at present the only really practical method 
of dealing with both ‘‘shrivelled top’’ 
and bud-rot. It is not advocated as a cure for 
bud-rod, but a preventive measure, In the 
early stages of ‘‘shrivelled top,” it would ap- 
pear to be a cure, as it certainly is a sure 
preventive. The great thing is not to wait for 
symptoms, but immediately there is a tree seen 
to be unthrifty to treat it with fire; many of 
these unthrifty trees drag along for years giving 
no returns, finally developing some disease which 
they spread to other and profitable trees ; clean- 
sing with fire at any rate prevents this. Clean- 
Jiness ina coconut walkis the surest preventive of 
the spread of diseases. Destruction by ‘‘weevils”’ 
has not as yet assumed serious proportions, but 
it is on the increase, and the ignorance in dealing 
with it is demonstrated in this parish, as I have 
lately observed trees being signed at the top as 
a cure for borers atthe bottom. 

On first observing signs of borers, v.¢., the 
reddish ‘‘ water” running from the stems,apply 
to the stems of the trees a good coating of tar 


462 


from the ground toa height of three or four feet 
above the highest sign of the work of the 
borers. Keep the trees under observation and 
should any sign of activity on the part of 
the borers be observed, give the tree a second 
coating of tar. This isa sure cure, usually one 
tarring is sufficient to stifle the borers, but oc- 
casionally two are required, 


A MINOR TROUBLE 


which has been observed in Portland, has 
been described in the Bulletin of the Botani- 
cal department, 1901, page 104. The nuts in 
this case are affected, developing — husk 
only and no meat. In some cases, an odd nut 
or two on @ tree is affected in this way, while 
in some cases trees produce nothing but the 
split nuts. The authorities of the New York 
Botanical Gardens reported ‘‘ that no trace of 
fungus, insect or bacterial activity:could be found 
and that the trouble was probably due to defec- 
tive fertilization,” but I have sprayed trees 
affected in this way with Bordeaux Mixture 
after which they have ceased to produce these 
worthless nuts. At Thompson Town, in Claren- 
don, a tree was treated which, I was assured, 
had never produced anything but meatless nuts 
although the tree must have been over 60 years 
old. The following year I had the pleasure of 
drinking water coconuts off that tree.—W. 
Crapwick, Instructor.—Journal of the Jamaica 
Agricuttural Society for July. 


CO-OPERATION IN AGRICULTURE. 


‘‘ Small Holders—What they must do to suc- 
ceed” is the title of new work by Edwin 
Pratt, author of the well-known work, ‘‘ Organi- 
sation in Agriculture,” and published by King 
and Son, at 2s. As Pratt has shown in his 
previous work, the principle of co-operation is 
the pivot upon which the success of mocern 
‘agricultural methods rests, and the advantages 
of the system cannot be preached too often. 
We have just now a Commission deliberating 
on a scheme for Joans to agriculturists. Itisa 
very representative body made up of adminis- 
trative officers, financial and legal advisers, 
headmen and actual cultivators, and we have 
hopes of some practical measures being evolved 
from their labours. The problem they have 
to solve is a difficult one, and particularly 
so in an Kastern country; but it has, to 
a great extent, found a solution in India, 
and there appears no reason why the same 
lines should not come to be adopted in Ceylon. 
The foundation of any scheme for agricultural 
loans is, of course, co-operative credit, which 
is one of the subjects that Pratt so ably 
deals with in his works. The two main types 
of co-operative credit banks are those named 
after the founders, the Schulze-Delitzch and 
the Raiffeisen. The latter is. without doubt 
the more far-reaching in its moral influence 
in that the individual who has not the con- 
fidence of his neighbours would have no chance 
of participating in its benefits. Another excel- 
lent rule which 1t embodies is that loans are only 
granted for reproductive purposes, which offer 
a reasonable guarantee that the position of 
the borrower will be improved and that he 


The Supplement to the Tropical Agriculturist 


will be able to repay the amount advanced to 
him, There will thus be little opportunity (as 
Dr. Willis feared) for Sinhalese villagers raising 
loans to be devoted to the expenses connected 
with weddings and funerals! The essence of 
this system of banking has been well de- 
soribed as the capitalisation of honesty, and 
we would commend the system tothe members 
of the local Commission, since it gives a market 
value to personal character. : 


It is only by organising such measures for 
ameliorating the condition of the rural popula- 
tion—rescuing them from debt and _ placing 
them on a firm financial footing, improving their 
food supply and sanitary conditions, and gene- 
rally advancing their material and moral welfare 
—that we can ever hope to bring about what 
Pratt calls the ‘‘ revival of country life,’’ and 
stem the tide that flows from the country to 
the town. 


In a paper read before the British Association 
in Dublin last year Sir Horace Plunkett deciared 
his strong conviction that the education of the 
rural classes must be modified so as to interest 
them in their surroundings and make: their 
environments more attractive tothem. Pratt, 
himself, says that what is wanted is an education 
which has a direct bearing on the future require- 
ments of those taught. The old system is cal- 
culated to tax the memory and weary the brain, 
without developing initiative and awakening ob- 
servation. This matter of the education of vil- 
lage youth is also, weare glad to say, receiving due 
attention, since a Commission appointed by H. E. 
the Governor has for some time been sitting with 
a view to elaborate a workable scheme for the 
advancement of the native agriculturist whose 
present condition is as unsatisfactory as it could 
well be, We would commend the reading of 
Pratt’s volume to all interested in the welfare 
of the rural classes, as it is full of information 
regarding the principles which should govern any 
measures calculated to improve the status of the 
small holder. 


SINGLE PLANTING OF PADDY. 


Its ADVANTAGES. 


The following note by Mr H © Sampson, 
Deputy Director of Agriculture, Southern Cir- 
cle, has been sent to us for publication by Mr 
M ECouchman, I C§, Director of Agriculture:— 

For some time the Agricultural Department 
has been advising ryots to adopt the system of 
planting paddy with single seedlings. In the 
Kistna Delta this is, and has always been, the 
ordinary practice, and few better paddy crops 
are to be seen in the Presidency. Single seed- 
ling planting has also gained a footing both in 
Tinnevelly and in the Tanjore Delta, and in 
both these Districts some thousands of acres are 
now planted in this way. 


Ten varieties of paddy, which are cultivated 
in the south of the Presidency, in the samba 
and pisamun season, were last season grown by 
planting with single seedlings. With the oxcep- 
tion of the Jeenaka samba (a very fine paddy 
which makes up for its low yield by the ex- 
cellence of its grain) all have yielded better than 


and Magazine of the Ceylon Agricultural Society. 


the local samba grown by ryots, in the ordinary 
way, but with similar manuring, yielding, on an 
average for nine varieties, half as much. again 
as was obtained by ryots in the locality. This, 
however. is not the end of single seedling plant- 
ing. Itis found that seed saved from a singly 
planted crop is much 


SUPERIOR TO SEED SAVED FROM A CROP PLANTED 
IN BUNCHES OF SEVERAL SEEDLINGS, 


The reason for this is not far to look. 
When a single plant of paddy is planted, it is 
given all the space, soil and manure which 
usually go to from 15 to 20 seedlings when 
planted in bunches; it can easily be understood 
that such a plantis more robust and therefore 
can fill the grain which it forms much better 
than any of the 15 to 20 plants which have to 
struggle for existence one against another. Not 
only is this the case, but the seedlings raised 
from seed obtained from such a plant tend to 
reproduce the peculiarities of its parent, and if 
such a parent plant tillers weil, the next gene- 
ration tends to develop an increased power of 
tillering and consequently to give «a greater 
yield. This has to some extent already been 
proved at the Palur Agricultural Station. In 
1907-08, Garudan samba, planted on 16 different 
plots, gave an average yield per acre of 1,952 |b; 
in 1908-09, the same plots, planted and manured 
in the same way, gave an average yield of 2,264 
Ib; only in this latter case seed had _ been 
specially selected from those plots which had 
been planted with single seedlings. Hence the 
increase per acre of 312 lb. can only be put down 
to the improved seed, as all other conditions 
were practically identical. 


Very few experiments have been made with 
any of the kar varieties of paddy except on the 
West Coast, where the varieties of paddy which 
were tested at first showed hardly any powers 
of tillering. These have now been tested three 
years, and the last two years the seed has been 
specially set apart from crops which had been 
transplanted with single seedlings. In the first 
year each plant had only one or, occasionally, 
two shoots. In the second year many of the 
plants had three shoots. In the third year 
nearly all the plants had three shoots and some 
as many as five. Thus at present crops planted 
with three or four of such seedlings ina bunch 
give better yields than singly planted crops but, 
as the tillering power develops, gradually the 
singly planted crops, though even now much 
superior to the ordinary locally planted crops, 
are overtaking in yield those planted with three 
to four seedlings, To plant paddy with single 
seedlings it is necessary 


NOT TO SOW TOO MUCH SEED IN THE SEED-BED, 


To plant one acre, a seed-bed of seven cents 
sown with seven Madras measures of paddy, 
is ample. If possible pullidainathu should be 
adopted in preference to sittirainalhu. The 
seed bed should also be manured with well- 
rooted cattle manure and ashes, so as to give the 
seedlings a good start. The seedjings should 
not be too-old when transplanted ; seven days 
for every month of the crop may be allowed. 
Thus, for a five month crop the seedlings should 
be not more than 35 days old, 


463 


Some difficulty may at first be experienced in 
getting the transplanting coolies to transplant 
single seedlings. Therefore, until they get into 
the way of it, close supervision 1s necessary. If, 
however, the seed-beds are grown as above de- 
scribed, the seedlings are themselves sturdy and 
are easily separated one from the other, and not 
so much difficulty will be felt. As regards the 
distance apart at which seedlings should be 
transplanted, the ryot should use his own judg- 
ment. On land which produces over 1,000 Mad- 
ras measures per acre a span apart, on land 
which produces 750 Madras measures per acre 
three-fourths of a span, and on land which pro- 
duces 500 Madras measures or less half span will 
probably be the best distances. Occasionally on 
very rich land, which may normally yield 1,500 
Madras measures of paddy, even as much as two 
span distance between the seedlings may give 
better results, while on very poor laud the cost 
of single planting may be prohibitive. Further 
than this the Department is unable to advise, as 
so much depends on the variety of paddy, the 
quality of the seedlings, and whether the seed 
has been selected from singly planted crops or 
not.—M. Mail, Sept, 27. 

(To the Editor ‘“‘Madras Mail.”) 


Sir,—In the note written by Mr H C Sampson 
on ‘Single planting of paddy,” published in 
your issue of the 27th instant, I find one or two 
words which are not clearly understood, The 
wo1d Jeenaka Samba occurring in the beginning of 
thesecond paragraph is aclerical error for Jeeraka 
Samba, In para. 4 there isa sentence as below:— 
‘Tf possible pullidai nathu should be adopted 
in preference to sithira: nathu.” The words pul- 
lidai and sithirav are not clearly understood. I 
believe that they are meant to refer respectively 
to the ‘‘dry” and ‘‘wet” system of sowing seed in 
the nursery. Ifso, the correct words would be 
puzhudinathu and setru nathu. Inthe conclu- 
ding portion of his note, Mr Sampson states that 
‘*on very poor land the cost of single planting 
may be prohibitive.” It has been understood 
that the cost of planting single seedlings is usu- 
ally less than that of planting in bunches. I 
beliéve that 1t is meant that single planting in 
very poor soils may not be profitable. [t would 
have been perhaps better if the sentence had 
been worded more carefully, because there are 
some persons who assert the cost of planting 
single seedlings is in excess of the cost of ordi- 
nary planting, while such is not actually the case. 

T, DuaRMARANGA RaJu. 
—Ibid, Sept. 29. 


EXPERIMENTAL CULTIVATION OF 
‘“CARVONICA”’’ COTTON. 


A Fainure 1n Haypr (Supan). 

With reference to the notice on p. 234 of the 
Board of Trade Jowrnal of 30th July, 1908, 
relative to experiments in the cultivation of 
‘*Caravonica” cotton in the Sudan, the Sudan 
Agent at Cairo writes that during the last 
twelve months it was decided to discontinue 
these experiments. The growth of the plants 
was not satisfactory, and the yield did not com- 
pare favourably with that from Egyptian cotton, 
—Board of Trade Journal, Sept. 16. 


464 


RUBBER AND TOBACCO IN SUMATRA. 


ENCOURAGING VIEWS oF 4 GERMAN PLANTING 
EXPErt. 

Mr. Sandmann, the German planting expert 
whose arrival in this part of the world in the 
interests of rubber-cultivation we noticed the 
other day [and who is now in Ceylon.—Ep. 
C.0.| has visited Deli where he was _ inter- 
viewed by a representative of the Sumatara 
Post. He has travelled extensively in the tropics, 
and has taken up rubber as speciality. He 
spoke highly of rubber prospects in Deli, espe- 
clally as regards the Hevean kind. The trees he 
saw there appeared to be in no way inferior to 
those of the same age which he had seon in other 
lands. As rubber has only just been taken uj) 
in Deli, nothing could be forecasted as to the 
probable yield. In his opinion, high quality 
rubber best suits the mar‘et in sheets and blocks. 

Mr. Sandmann then spoke of tobacco growing 
in Deli, and compared it with what he had seen 
in that line elsewhere. He had nothing but ad- 
miration for what planters had done in the 
Colony. In his opinion, nowhere else in the 
world is tobacco grown with such care and grasp 
of scientific principles. Planters had no need 
to be alarmed atthe efforts made in the United 
States to grow an article equal to Doli leaf, 
judging from whathe had seen of shade tobacco 
cultivation there. Experience shows that Deli 
tobacco planted elsewhere soon degenerated. 
Deli planters have besides the advantage in 
trained and cheap labour,-Straits Times, Sept. 15. 


TOBACCO IN NYASALAND: REPORT 
BY MR. STEWART McCALL. 


We learn from the above veport dated Zomba, 
Nyasaland, 31st July, to hand today, that the to- 
bacco industry is now permanently established in 
Nyasaland, and increasing in importance yearly. 
Six yearsago, little was cultivated by Kuropeans 
in the Protectorate. The establishing of the Im- 
perial Tobacco Compauy’s Factory at Limbe near 
Blantyre has given considerable incentive to 
production ; the acreage under the crop has risen 
rapidly. In 1905, 421 acres were under culti- 
vation, and this year 2,368 acres. The local prices 
range from 24d. to 9d. per lb., and the return 
varies between 400 and 600 lb. cured tobacco 
per acre. The experts attached to the Hactory 
are satisfied with the product, their chief com- 
plaint being shortage of supply. In the Shire 
Highlands there are large areas of suitable land. 
The area of tobacco which can be successfully 
cultivated by a planter is’ much less than of 
cotton or coffee, but a planter can grow cotton 
and coffee on the same estate as tobacco. 200 
ecres is a maximum with, tobacco, 600 to 1,000 
of cotton can be superintended by one planter, 
with less work. There is a splendid opening 
for energetic tobacco growers in the Pro- 
tectorate, Mr. Stewart McCall says. The re- 
port of the Director of the Imperial Insti- 
tute on tobaccos from Nyasaland says that 
five samples were received. All burnt fairly 
welland gave off a smoke of pleasant aroma, 
which, however, differs slightly from that of 
American tobaccos (of similar types, and recalls 
toa certain extent the aroma characteristic of 


. deleterious action. 


The Supplement to the Tropical Agriculturist 


South African tobaccos (so-called ‘‘ Boer ” to- 
baccos). The results show that on the whole 
these tobaccos are of satisfactory composition. 
The percentage of moisture is somewhat low, 
but this is inevitable in small samples trans- 
ported without special precautions, The per- 
centage of nicotine is in all three cases notice- 
ably smalland lower than the average found in 
American tobaccos of similar type. The total 
nitrogen is also satisfactorily low. The results 
of the ash analyses of these Nyasaland tobaccos 
show that they are all moderately high in potash 
and low in those constituents which exert a 
They seem to have been 
grown on soils deficient in nitrogen, and as 
regards Nos, 3 and 12 on soils also deficient in 
soluble mineral constituents. Samples of the 
five tobaccos were submitted to two firms of 
tobacco-manufacturers for commercial valua- 
tion. The first firm reported that the tobaccos, 
so far as appearance went, compared favourably 
with similar types of American tobaccos, but 
that the flavour was different and this would 
lower the commercial value, unless the flavour 
proved on trial to be popular. The second firm 
valued the samples: No. 1 at 9d. perlb., No, 2 
at 9d. per lb., No.3 at 7d. per lb., No. 4 at 5d. 
per lb., and No. 12 at 6d. per lb. 


WASHES FOR CACAO THRIPS. 


The annual report on the Experiment Plots, 
St. Lucia, for 1908-9, describes experiments 
with different washes for the purpose of deter- 
mining their efficiency in controlling thrips on 
cacao trees. The trials were conduced with 
those described in the West Indian Bultetin, 
Vol. LX, pp. 19-2, which are (1) resin wash, (2) 
kerosene emulsion, (3) emulsion with whale-oil 
soap, (4) resin and whale-oil soap compound. 
It is stated that each of these was more or less 
effective in destroying thrips, but that the resin 
wash appeared to do the best work, on account 
of its property of sticking firmly to any surface 
with which it may come into contact. ‘More 
of this mixture adhered to the leaves than in 
the case of the other washes, and dead thrips 
were observed in greater numbers on trees 
treated with it, Some care is necessary, how- 
ever, in applying this wash, as the trees treated 
with it dropped their leaves within a few weeks 
of being sprayed, This circumstance was 
probably due to the fact that it contains caustic 
soda.—Barbados Agricultural News, Sept. 4. 


GACAO IN LA GUAIRA. 


Cocoa (says Mr. Vice-Consul Brewer) con- 
tinues to be the principal article of commerce 
of La Guaira. When the cocoa crop fails all 
the trade of La Guaira suffers. This is only 
natural, as the exchange of commodities takes 
place entirely with the district. on the coast to 
the eastward, within a distancs of some 200 
miles, where the cocoa is priucipally grown. 
The cocoa is sent to commission agents here for 
sale, as well as for its preparation for export, 
and this traffic and the work of cleaning, sorting 
and shipping the article form a considerable 
part of the commercial activity of the port. 
—Financier, Sept. 23. 


and Magazine of the Ceylon Agricultural Society, 465 


PLANTING NOTES FROM PORTU- 
GUESE WEST AFRIGA. 


BY LIEUT.-COL. J. A. WYLLIE, r.r.«.s. 


(Concluded from page 376, October issue.) 
Portuguese W. Africa Enemies of Cacao. 


1 QL 


St. Thomé, Portuguese West Africa, Ist 
August, 1909. 
ENEMIES OF CACAO. 


Dear S1r,—My letter of the 28th ultimo will 
have given you some idea of the difficulties the 
cacao planter has to contend with. To return to 
the cacao plant, it, too, has its enemies, in §. 
Thomé as elsewhere. A goat is a goat all the 
world over, andin 8S. Thomé he is just as fond 
of the leaves and young capsules of cacao as in 
Ceylon. But being too useful to mankind to 
be dispensed with, on the plantations he is 
rigorously confined to the barrack square, 
Deere he is fed on the grass and leaves, brought 
in as fodder for the cattle and mules of the 
estate by the weeders at the close of their day’s 
work, In the centre and south of the island of 
S. Thomé, apes are so troublesome that some 
proprietors keep up a small corps of ‘‘chasseurs 
d'Afrique” to make war against them. These 
animals pluck the capsules from the trees, 
break them with their teeth, suck the pulp 
from the seeds, and throw the latter down ,on 
the ground. They do not confine themselves to 
cacao. A planter told me that, some years ago, 
when engaged in laying out 

A RUBBER PLANTATION, 


he was puzzled to account for the peculiar 
from of mischief being daily worked upon his 
seedlings, particularly those of Ceara rubber. 
Setting himself to watch, he soon discovered 
the author of the play. A monkey would deli- 
berately take stock of the seedlings planted out, 
begin upon a row, pullup a plant, examine it, 
sniff at the tuberous roots, perhaps try his 
teeth on them, then fling the plant down, with 
a grimace of disgust too comical for words, 
Sait pass on tothe next, and the next, testing 
and rejecting each in the same systematic 
fashion, That planter is now sorry he interfered 
with the monkey’s beneficent task, for the is- 
lands are overrun with Manihot as a weed, and 
itis a remarkable tact that about fifty per cent. 
of the mature trees contain little or no latex. 

Rats and mice are still more troublesome, 
especially in the fermenting floors. But as they, 
like the monkeys, content themselves with the 
pulp of the bean, a certain proportion of the 
cacao nibbled at by them is recoverable, but 
when cleaned can only be shipped separately 
from the rest as a lower-grade bean. War is 
waged against them by means of fox-terriers, a 
dog that stands the climate better than any 
other. Snakes are very rare inthe islands, and 
the planters might do worse than import a few 
pairs of the harmless Indian ratsnake to aid in 
the campaign. 

WHITE-ANTS, LOCALLY KNOWN AS sadalé, 


are found, but not in anything like the 
numbers or destructiveness of their Indian and 


59 


Malayan congeners. (ne species (termes theo- 
broma) has been classified as devoting itself to 
the bark and dead wood of the cacao tree, 
while another (a Calotermes), confines its atten- 
tion, as in the F.M.S., to the heartwood of the 
living tree ; with this curious difference, how- 
ever, that while in the latter country it works 
from the tap-root upwards, bringing the tree 
down bodily with all its leaves green and 
healthy, inS. Thomé it works from the crown 
downwards, killing the foliage branches down 
to about four or five feet from the ground, 
when the upper-half of the tree comes down 
with acrash. The planter can generally save 
the tree by sawing off the dead portion horizon- 
tally and tarring the surface of the cut, Jeaving 
the plant to re-form by means of stool shoots, 
which it readily does. This method of heavy 
pruning is also adopted to rejuvenate a tree 
shewing signs of age in the diminution of its 
crop, and is generally successful. 


A vegetable parasite attacking the fruit has, 
for some time past, been causing anxiety tothe 
more thoughtful of the proprietors—so much so . 
that the Colonial Ministry at Lisbon has 
deputed two agronomists to the islands to study 
its nature and modus operandi, It is suspected 
that more than one parasite must be held 
responsible~a phytophthora causing the soft 
black rot of the capsule and a botryodiplodia 
following it up with a kind of dry rot of the 
bean. But as the specialists have not com- 
pleted their observations, it is premature to 
speculate as to the remedy. 


A CURIOUS BUT VERY EXCEPTIONAL CONDITION, 


supposed to be due to bacterial agency, has 
been pointed out to me. The tree is normal and 
healthy in all respects except that its stem and 
branches are dotted over with buds or excres- 
cences of varying shape and size. It bears 
abundant flowers all the year round, but never 
produces a single fruit. The Portuguese call it 
cacau macho or male cacao—a misnomer, of 
course, as the flowers display the characteristics 
of both sexes—and regard it as a freak of no 
agricultural importance, interesting mainly for 
its rarity. 


In 8. Thomé as in our own Eastern posses- 
sions, cacao is capricious in its yield. Two crops 
are gathered in the year, the Christmas one 
being double or treble that of midsummer. At 
four years of age, Chevalier records that the tree 
may be reckoned upon as good for 6 capsules of 
marketable bean, the annual yield rising to 45 in 
the tenth year, 50 or 60 inthe twelfth, the tinal 
figure representing from J,200 to 1,500 kilos of 
cacao per hectare. As exceptional yields, 200, 
300, and even 400 fruits have been recorded from 
single trees ina single year, but M. Théo Masui, 
a Belgian authority on tropical agriculture, who 
visited S. Thomé in 1900, estimates the average 
annual production at from 600 to 700 kilos per 
hectare cultivated. Official 


STATISTICS OF THE AREA 


actually under cacao, and of the total annual 
crop, do not exist. Mr Monteiro de Mendonea 
has, however, placed his notes at my disposal as 
regards the latter point. These show the total 
average crop of the islands in recent years to be 


466 


about 24,500 metric tons, of which Principe con- 
tributes about 1,500 tons, S. Thomé yielding 
the rest. At £50 per metric ton, the value of the 
output would work out to £1,225,000, and at 650 
kilos per hectare, the area under cultivation 
may be approximately estimated as 796,250 hec- 
tares, or over 190,000 acres (say 300 square miles). 


THE HARVESTING 


of the crop is done as follows :—the capsules as 
gathered are broken on the spot, and the 
beans with the pulp still on them are loaded 
into wagons running on the Decauville lines 
of trolly-railway forming a net-work of com- 
munication on every property of importance, 
the husks being left in heaps to rot and furnish 
manure for fresh pits to be dug to supply blanks 
in the plantation, As the wagons get filled they 
are coupled up into trains and sent in by mule 
traction, or, if the slope permits of it, run down 
by their own velocity (restrained by a brake), to 
the nearest dependencia (a barrack yard of 
cooly lines and stores under control of a resident 
European assistant, of whom each important 
property has a staff of from 20 to 50 including 
artisans, There they are either Jeft in the wa- 
gons to ferment, or, if the season is a busy one, 
transhipped to a special train of fermentation 
bins on trollies, leaving the wagon free for 
further work. {In either case the wagons or bin 
is closed by a tight-fitting lid, care being taken 
thatthe beans are not crushed thereby. The 
FERMENTATION 


process is quicker in wet weather, slower 
in dry, varyiog from two to six days, and 
also, 1 think, regulated in duration according 
to the experience and practice of the various 
managers, Inthe smal! native properties, the 
owners of which do a minimum of cultivation 
and supplement their own scanty crop by thefts 
or illicit purchase from the hands working on 
the large estates, the beans are shot into any 
convenient receptacle, the favourite being an un- 
serviceable canoe, and covered with banana 
leaves till fermentation is complete. The Vene- 
zuelan or West Indian processes such as éerrage, 
the polishing of the bean under foot, and washing 
are uot in use, the bean after fermentation 
being simply dried in the sun upon rolling plat- 
forms so constructed as to be run under cover 
on the first warning ofashower. Naturally, this 
important operation has to be conducted under 
European control, and in the best-planned rogas 
the drying platforms are in full view of the 
administrador’s bungalow, from the upstairs 
verandah of which, when resting or cving his 
oftice work, the chief can keep an eye on his 
subordinate and see that his gang are being 
adequately supervised. In the Boa tntruda 
plantations and in those of the Marquez de 
Valle Flor adjoining them, the platforms are 
arranged in eight rows of five each, forming four 
tiers one above the other, making 160 platforms 
in all, each little train of five running on its own 
line of rails so that it can at a touch be moved 
into or out of cover independently of all the rest. 

From the time when the fermentation bins 
are first opened, to the end of the process, a 


CHARACTERISTIC VINOUS ODOUR, 


not disagreeable, pervades the house and barrack 
yards, making itself felt to a considerable dis- 


The Supplement to the Tropical Agriculturist 


tance around. It isa generally recognised experi- 
ence that a smell, be it pleasant or the reverse, is 
one of the most powerful associations in aid of 
memory. Speaking personally, were it possible for 
one knowing the place in former years to be sud- 
denly dropped from the clouds into Madras, Hy- 
derabad, Malta or Port Said, and let me now add 
S. Thomé to the list, one might almost find one’s 
bearings by the recognition of the prevailing 
odour, The fermenting bean smells not unlike 
the must of the grape spilt about on the vine- 
yards of Torres Vedras or the Douro, but with 
a quite perceptible difference. 


When the climate is too persistently damp to 
allow of complete drying in the sun (and this is 
the case in most parts of the islands) artificial 
heat is resorted to. But it is unsatisfactory, the 
machinery generally roasting the bean instead 
of drying it. It1is generally agreed that good 
BRITISH MACHINERY WOULD SOLVE THE PROBLEM. 


But it is the old story over again. The Yankee 
or German commercial travelled on the spot, or 
due to arrive at known intervals, is, as a rule, a 
genial companionable fellow, with a fluent com- 
mand of the language, ready to promise anythin 
his clients may reasonably want by way of modi- 
fication or adaptation of the standard type of 
machine (and to do him justice he takes pains 
to carry out their suggestions) ; while Great 
Britain is only represented by a catalogue or 
two, brought to the island by the German trader 
himself (for the latter’s samples are quite im- 
partial as to nationality of origin !), and printed 
as often as notin English—a language unfamiliar 
to most of the proprietors or administradors— 
with weights and measures that even an English- 
man has difficulty in using for his own purposes, 
let alone interpreting in metric tigures for his 
neighbours. I have, it must be admitted, seen 
catalogues of English engineering firms, written 
in good Portuguese, with metrical and Britannic 
figures of weights and dimensions appended 
to each diagram, and a general invitation to the 
public to regard the diagram as a type capable 
of variation to suit each case. But 


NO CATALOGUE CAN SPEAK AS A COMMERCIAL 
TRAVELLER CAN, 


and inaland wheremuch noisy talk is the soul 
of business, no Portuguese colonist will trouble 
to embark on a correspondence in a foreign Jan- 
guage so long ashe has a man to talk to who will 
sell him rnbbish and stand any amount of chaff 
as to its inferiority without losing his temper or 
assuming the “‘take it or leave it” attitude gen- 
erally ascribed to the Briton. Perhaps this class 
of business is not worth cultivating ; not being 
a wanufacturer [ cannot say; but as an outsider 
it strikes me that more intimate relations be- 
tween our large engineering houses and the 
cacao planters of these islands would be an excel- 
lent thing for both, in more directions than one. 


I pass over the final stages of preparation of 
the bean for the market, its transport by pri- 
vate rail to thejetty of the plantation, whence it 
is carried by launch to the vessel of the Em- 
preza Nacional—the rich Portuguese Shipping 
Company holding the practical monopoly of the 
colony’s carrying trade—and its subsequent 
disposal in Europe. These are matters outside 
the scope of my notes, 


and Magazine of the Ceylon Agricultural Society. 


As to the other products of the islands, 
COFFEE 


is at present the second in point of importance, 
but erelong rubber will take precedence of it. 
Before cacao proved the gold mine that for the 
past ten years or so it has been, attention was 
given to the experimental cultivation of various 
caoutchouc-yielding plants. But the colony 
unfortunately had not a Wright, a Carruthers, 
a Proudlock to advise them, and consequently 
the more or less worthless manihot was encour- 
aged to spread itself weed-like over both islands, 
to the discredit of the less aggressive species. 
Cacao then absorbed all their available energies 
until thehumanitarian campaign against that 
product, the threatened blight on the capsules, 
and the warnings of writers such as Chevalier and 
Almada Negreiros as to the dangers of a mono- 
culture, combined to stimulate ataking stock of 
their resources and position. Hence, partly, their 
invitation to me to visit 8S. Thomé and 


EXAMINE ITS RUBBER RESOURCES IN THE LIGHT 
OF RECENT RANGOON EXPERIENCES, 


What I found, and the significance of it, are na- 
turally matters primarily interesting the planters 
who invited me, but I do not think [ am giving 
away any secret by mentioning that whether 
the boycott of 8. Thomé cacao continues or 
not, a year or two hence these islands may figure 
as a regular and recognised source of planta- 
tion rubber—Rambong and Castilloa chiefly, 
Par& being quite up to Hastern standards io 
quality if not yet in quantity. The market for 
S. Thomé rubber wil! presumably be beyond 
the range of boycott, asis now the case with its 
coffee, and it will be interesting to see what 
direction, if any, the campaign will then take. 


Just a word or two as to the 
DAILY LIFE ON THE PLANTATIONS. 


The morning bell calls the servicais (negro 
labourers) to work at 6 a.m., when the Euro- 
pean manager and those of his assistants 
who reside at headquarters turn out, if they are 
not already on the ground, muster the men and 
women, set them their tasks, and start the work 
of the plantations for the day. Similarly at the 
dependencias or outposts. The muster is a curious 
sight. The men turn out in striped blankets, or 
in cast-off English uniforms. I noted several 
jackets of the Essex Regiment on one roga, and 
others of British infantry regiments not dis- 
tinguishable, but the favourite garb was a sub- 
stantial kind of black frock coat, labelled on the 
collar ‘‘Ticket Collector, M. R.”’ (presumably 
cast-off clothing of the Midland Railway.) The 
wearers were Mocambiques. who told me their 
arments had been served out to them at 
Billitzane for the voyage to 8. Thomé, and 
they still wore them on the chilly mornings 
and evenings on the plantations. The women, 
whose children are still being nursed, take them 
out with them to work, each mother placing 
her child astride behind her, its face looking 
up her spine, and bandaging it to her body by 
means of a cloth passed round the bodies of 
both and tied in front of the mother. The 
children of from one to ten or twelve years of 
age are left in the barrack square, a créche 
being provided for them and an old woman 


467 


told off to look after them. But practically 
they go where they like within the enclosure, 
scrambling over the heaps of cacao, sailing 
boats in the duck pond, and occasionally in- 
vading the administrator’s bungalow, where they 
arereceived good humouredly and given choco- 
lates (*t slave cocoa”) by the ladies of the family, 
then sent off to play outside, The 


PORTUGUESE UNDERSTAND BETTER THAN ANY 
OTHER EUROPEAN NATION HOW TO MANAGE 
BLACK PEOPLE, 


and it isan eye-opener to any European stranger, 
knowing the stand- off relations between white folk 
and coloured in other parts of the world, to visit 
a St. Thomé roca and see how the band of little 
niggers, who have never set eyes on him before, 
will come up and chatter to him, taking his 
hand in their little black. paws and leading 
him about with the perfect confidence and ease 
of, say, a well-bred French child—as free from 
shyness aS from impertinence. One can hardly 
conceive a more practical disproof of the charges 
of cruelty and brutality so recklessly brought 
against the 8. Thomé planters, and brought 
by men who have had the opportunity of seeing 
things as they are, 


The muster over and the work of the day 
begun, the mata bicho or meal corresponding 
to the Indian chota hazri is sent out to the 
workers, the Kuropeans adjourning to the bun- 
galow for theirs. I say corresponding, but with 
a difference. To an old Indian, accustomed to 
tea and toast plus bananas broughtto his bedside 
when he awakes, the long wait of anything 
from one to two-and-a-half hours in the damp 
sunless air of a West African morning is a bit 
trying at first, and the meal itself—salt cod 
wellsoused in oil, with red wine to wash it down 
—is strangely unlike what one naturally in- 
clines to. However, every roga has its own 
baker, and hot rolls and excellent coffee make 
amends for the first partof the programme. 
S. Thomé possesses a quaint fruit known assafu 
(canarium edule), eaten, boiled, with salt, which 
tastes not unlike asparagus and like the durian 
of Burma is said (once you acquire the taste 
for it) to drag you irresistibly back to the island 
wheresoever you may wander. This fruit 
generally closes the meal, with a wafer of quinine 
put on the table as a matter of course with the 
pepper and the mustard. Apropos of 


QUININE, IT IS CURIOUS HOW DOCTORS DIFFER. 


The doctor ‘of one roga where I was staying 
entertained us by denouncing the practice of 
taking a daily dose as a pernicious vice. The 
system, he said, got accustomed to the drug, 
but as five grains a day went nowhere in the 
gallons of blood in virculation, sooner or later 
the fever of the island got a footing in spite 
of it, and then the dose had to be increased 
to one dangerous to give in Africa, where an 
overdose almost invariably produced hama- 
turia. The practical planter, our host, would 
have none of this heresy. ‘t Mere doctors’ talk,” 
said he. ‘‘ Just another way of saying that you 
invite the fever to come and put up with you. 
Wait till ho comes, and then send a friendly 
message to the doctor to come and join the 
party!” What did I think ? [ could only beg to 
be excused from expressing an opinion till Thad 


468 


tried both ways. but put it to the planter who 
maintained that it was only a doctor's dodge for 
securing patients at £10 a visit (fees are high in 
S. Thome); that seeing that so much cinchona 
was grown up above there, it might be a good 
plan if the doctor and the planter could join 
hands and set up a facture for the supply of 
quinine for local consumption instead of sen- 
ding to London or Paris for it. ‘*My dear 
fellow,” said my friend, “a purely globe-trotting 
vision! [ can assure you that were it possible, 
I'd get my breakfast and dinner from Lisbon 
ready cooked, and score on the transaction 
after paying freight and duty; such is the cost 
of service here,” Anything like an industrial 
enterprise in 8. Thomé is simply impossible 
under existing conditions,” 


After the mata-bichs—literally kill-the-worm 
(a quaint Moorish idea, of which readers of the 
Bagh-6-Bahar will recall a variant in one of that 
classical series of tales) the whole forenoon is 
available for work, differing according to the 
season. The midday meal generally brings with 
it a certain number of visitors, who spend the 
day and not infrequently stay overnight. Rogas 
having a reputation for healthiness, if accessible 
from the city, are generally prepared for an in- 
vasion of week-enders, whom their hosts receive 
with the traditional Portuguese hospitality. 
One old lady whose roga stands high and airy, 
about 12 miles out, makes it her aim in life to 
seek out andinvite up to her place anyone she 
hears of as having been down with fever—to 
come up and stay indefinitely to recruit. When 
I called there, | found quite half-a-dozen con- 
valescents, all as merry as sand boys,and well on 
the way to recovery. 


In my next, which must be my last, I will tell 
you something about the life of the poorer Euro- 
peans and of the natives of the island, but space 
forbids my touching on their case today.— 


IV, 
Lisbon, August 15th, 1909. 

Deak Sir,—Considerations of time and space 
compelled me to end my last letter to you, that 
of 30th ultimo, in the middle of a description of 
life on the rogas of the islands. There is nothing 
very exceptional in the routine of the coloured 
folk’s work. It goes on according to season on 
much the same lines as in our own Sropical pos- 
sessions in Asia, the negro being just as listless 
and apathetic in his manner of doing things as 
the Tamil or Koringi cooly. To the British 
philanthropist (especially to him of the labour 
delegate type) the eleven hours’ working day on 
the plantations is a thing of horror. India has 
heard his shrieks on the subject of the Bombay 
native mill-hand and his or her working hours. 
But it is hardly necessary to remind a circle of 
tropical colonial readers that everything in 
such cases depends upon the pace. Whatever 
the Bombay cotton miller may do in the way of 
driving, no one who knows 


THE PORTUGUESE AGRICULTURIST 


will accuse him of acting on the rule that 
time is money. Festina lente might well be 
taken as the motto of the whole Iberian penin- 


The Supplement to the Tropical Agriculturist 


sula, and the planter of 8. Thomé knows the 
negro too well to hustle him, he himself having 
no inclination that way. 


If, indeed, our well-meaning compatriots must 
meddle with the colonies of Portugal to the 
neglect of their own (to the fervent gratitude of 
the latter), let them leave the pampered black 
alone and turn to the case of the poor Euro- 
pean in 8. Thomé—the immigrant employed, or 
waiting for a job, on the rogas. I have over 
and over again been asked by men of this class 
whether they had anything to hope from the 
powerful philanthropy of England. But bearing 
in mind the history of similar hard cases in 
Great Britain itseli—the Staffordshire pottery 
worker, the toiler in various sweated industries, 
and the rest, I declined to hold out any pro- 
spect of relief from that quarter. British philan- 
thropy, through much ingenious distortion of 
fact, and a radical incapacity for putting the 
saddle on the right horse, seems to have firmly 
convinced itself that the white man in 8, Thomé 
is a brutal slave-driver, deserving of no compas- 
sion. As well might the Indian civilian, assailed by 
the Indian anarchist, lay claim to the sympathy 
of Paget M.P. His skin is of the wrung colour. 
All the same, the life of the solitary European 
in charge of a dependencia, be he a peasant from 
the remoter provinces of Portugal, a clerk or 
artizan from one of the cities, or a graduate 
from Coimbra in search of a short cut to 
success, is not an enviable one. The nature 
of his duties cuts him off from the fellowship 
of his kind. 


THE administrador (MANAGING DIRECTOR), 


with the ladies of his family, and the 
numerous visitors to the roga, stay for the most 
part at the headquarters bungalow, which, 
according to the size and plan of the estate, 
may be at any distance from four to fourteen 
kilometres from his post. Communication is, 
therefore, restricted, and most business is trans- 
acted through the telephone. An occasional 
party of visitors, personally conducted by the 
Manager or a headquarters Assistant, may, once 
in a way, pass through the subordinate’s out- 
post, and may or may not stop for a five minutes’ 
chat if the subordinate is not absent at some 
remote corner of his charge. But anyone, who 
has been sirailarly circumstanced (and most of 
us tropical agriculturists have been) need not 
be told how such flashes of light serve but to 
make the outer darkness visible. Add to this, 
in certain portions of the islands at least, and 
especially in the rainy season, serious diffi- 
culties as regards food supply, public communi- 
cations being very imperfect, owing to the high 
cost of labour. 

But if the life of the employed European 
Portuguese is a hard one, that of the unem- 
ployed (including often the unemployable) 
immigrant is tenfold worse, and would be 
intolerable were it not for the generous hos- 
pitality extended to him by his countrymen, 
often but little better off themselves in the 
town of 8. Thomé. Even the hotel-keepers 
receive him on credit (raising their prices pro- 
portionately, it is said, in the case of distin- 
guished foreigners and other paying guests— 
which is just as it should be), If the aspirant 


and Magazine of the Ceylon Agricultural Society. 


gets a billet on some estate, well and good ; if 
\he fails to get one, the hotel-keeper consoles 
himself with the reflection that any day he 
himself may be in like case. One 


CANNOT ALWAYS RETURN HOSPITALITY RECEIVED, 
CUTLET FOR CUTLET ; 


but one can at least hope for the turn of the 
wheel which will convert one from a borrower 
into a contributor to the common fund of hos- 
pitality out of which each may benefit in case 
of need. But prices are high in 8. Thomé— 
where eggs cost three pence apiece and a hand- 
ful of beans in their shells 1s not to be had 
under five-pence, it is easy to understand that a 
hotel bill for a couple of months’ residence, 
regarded as a debt of honour by the newly- 
joined planter’s assistant, may prove a very 
heavy tax on his first year’s salary. The supply 
of this class of labour being so far in excess 
of the demand, proprietors rarely if ever 
covenant with assistants from Lisbon, but 
engage immigrants from a waiting list of 
candidates on the spot, whose return 
passages to Portugal in case of dismissal or 
resignation are consequently their own affair. 
The man, who is rash enough to bring a wife and 
family out with him,is, of course, severely handi- 
capped, as the 

PLANTATION HAS TO RATION EVERY EMPLOYEE, 


white or black, and a wife and children mean 
so much more food and wine out of store. 
Proprietors, as arule, are liberal in their issues, 
but there is reason in all things ; and the single 
man, who can content himself with a mulatto or 
Cabo-Verdean mistress already on the strength 
of the labour establishment, is naturally prefer- 
able to the married man with white children 
who, in that intensely malarious climate, will be 
oftener in hospital than out of it until in the end 
they go to swell the death-rate, of the roca. 


The most unpromising emigrants make their 
way out, and it is marvellous to find among the 
successful and satisfactory assistants men who 
have begun life as barbers, hotel waiters, and 
booking clerks, not to mention persons of much 
higher walks in life quite unconnected with 
agriculture, But whatever his adaptability, the 
islands are no place for the family man. [ am 
told that with good feeding and avoidance of 
overwork it is possible to put in five or six 
years’ residence at a stretch, even in_ the 
town of S. Thomé and there is a tradition 
of a European who did nine years in St. Anto- 
nio de Principe (one of the dismallest spots 
on earth) and is still alive and well. But such 
cases are exceptional, and it does not require 
much reading between tho lines to see what 
may be the case of the poor European, housed in 
some corrugated-iron shed in the town, who has 
to tramp some twenty miles a day from roga to 
roga iu search of work, or laden with a hawker’s 
pack of goods for sale, dependent on chance for 
his mid-day meal. As often as not he collapses 
with fever at the gates of the plantation and has 
to be helped up to the hospital of the estate (1 
founda poor photographer to whom this had 
happened, in one of the hospitals 1 visited), 
leaving wife and children to shiver with aguo 
and starve on chance charity in towu., The 
Government of the colony, of course, repatriates 


469 


in such cases, but there being no official curator 
for whites, the mischief may be irremediable 
before it comes tothe knowledge of competent 
authority, The difficulty, however, is not one 
peculiar to these islands; our own Australian 
and Canadian colonies, Sot to mention tho 
Unites States, have had to deal with it, and that 
in a manner more drastic than sympathetic. 


It has been suggested that the only real sla- 
very to be found in the islands1s here. But 
whether the case in hand be that of the white or 
the black, the use of the term slavery is quite 
unjustifiable. However, it has been freely used 
throughout the controversy ; and, making the 
large concession that 16 has been used in good 
faith, let us now see what exactly there is in it. 
Asarule where there is smoke it is safe to pre- 
sume the existence of some fire. The 


MAIN SOURCES OF COLOURED LABOUR FOR 
THE IRLANDS 


are at present four:—(i)the islands of Cape Verde 
to theNorth-west; (ii) the islands of S. Thomé and 
Principe themselves (as regards the moleques or 
children of imported servicaes, born on the 
islands); (iii) the province of Angola on the 
main land to the South-east; and (iv) the pro- 
vince of Mogambique on the east coast of Africa; 
all four being Portuguese possessions, I will 
begin with the first and fourth of these sources, 
reserving the second and {third for special dis- 
cussion at the close of my letter. 


CAPE VERDE ISLANDEKS. 


The Cape Verde islanders are a hardworking 
and intelligent people, more or less Kuro- 
peanised in mode of living, often with a certain 
infusion of white blood in their veins, All can 


, speak Portuguese, and many can read and white 


it as well. Men and women engage themselves 
and are repatriated if they do not re-engage for 
a further period. But they are not looked on 
as @ very desirable class cf immigrant, the men 
having a bad reputation as faguistas—too handy 
with the knife in their quarrels, or when drunk, 
unoffending negro women or children who 
happen to cross their path being as often as not 
their victims. Their women do not take very 
kindly to purely agricultural tasks, but make 
good housekeepers, in which capacity they fre- 
quently enter the households of the assistants 
at the dependencias, an arrangement approved 
by the management of the estate, and rightly 
so, for it tends to minimise regrettable inci- 
dents between white overseers and black women, 
bad alike for discipline and for the reputation 
of the white man. 


THE MOGAMBIQUE NEGRO. 


The Mogambique negro is a labourer made of 
far better stuff than the Angolan, whose case I 
am coming to. He and the moleque of the is- 
lands may be regarded as occupying an inter- 
mediate place between the other two groups. 
His recruitment dates from quite recent times, 
but so far the experiment has been a decided 
success. But there are breakers ahead in this 
quarter. Apart from the heavy cost of transit 
from the opposite coast and of special clothing 
and bedding against the rounding of the Cape 
(it is these men who get thomselves up as Royal 
Dublin Fusiliers and Midland Railway Ticket 


470 


Collectors), there is a serious risk of conflicting 
interests with a much more powerful rival than 
the West Indian cacao-planter—the Hebrew 
mine-owner on whose behalf Great Britain had 
to fight the two Bger Republics. 8S. Thome 
has quite enough cn her hands as it is, and the 
very one-sided convention rushed through lately 
between the Transvaal and Portugal opposes a 
fresh Scylla to the humanitarian Charybdis, 
THE MOLEQUE 
is the offspring of the imported  servicae, 
born and bredin the islands. He is looked 
to as the ultimate solution of the knotty problem, 
and indeed has already furnished that solution 
in the case of the older and more fully devo- 
loped properties, long independent of imported 
labour. But his case is open to criticism from 
at least one point of view, and both the planters 
and the Government have to look the facts in 
the face. To begin with, the moleque is born 
free in theory, for slavery has no legal existence 
on Portuguese soil. But by law he is subject 
(Article 64 of the Decree of 28rd April, 1908), not 
to his parents but to the owner of the plantation 
on which he is born, who is entitled to employ 
him (or her) from the age of 11 to 14 on certain 
specified tasks only, indoors and out of doors— 
without pay. And from 14 to 16 the moleque boy 
is bound to do part of the work prescribed for a 
man, certain specified tasks excepted, while the 
moleque girl has to do all the work prescribed 
for a woman. As to what happens after that age, 
the law is silent. 
IS THIS ‘‘A MODERN SLAVERY,” OR IS IT NOT? 


If we accept the Nevinsonian definition of the 
term (‘‘ slavery is not a matter of discomfort 


or ill-treatment, but of loss of liberty”), we can. 


only answer this question in the affirmative. 
But [take exception both to the definition and 
to the use of the question-begging epithet. In 
the popular sense, the term slavery connotes all 
manner of horrors, suggesting visions of labour 
in chains, the bloodhound and the lash of the 
brutal overseer, if it does not actually define 
these horrors to the exclusion of all the humaner 
elements. Thestatesman and the man of letters 
does not require to be reminded of the historic 
fact that slavery has in the past proved a valu- 
able agency inthe development of nations ; and 
recent events all the world over are forcing it 
upon us that in our relations with the coloured 
races we have been far too hasty in discarding 
that institution. ‘‘ Callit slavery if you like,” 
said a Portuguese official to Mr. Nevinson (‘A 
Modern Slavery,” p. 190). ‘‘Names and systems 
don’t matter. The sum of human happiness is 
being infinitely increased.” A refreshing appli- 
* cation of the venerable doctrine of the greatest 
good of the greatest number; though open to 
question as regards the unimportance of names 
and systems, the whole of the present trouble 
being due to a “‘ terminological inexactitude.” 
Let me freely admit that the law ip the case 
of the Moleque sanctions a restriction of liberty ; 
not only that, but that it vests the exercise of 
that restriction notin the parents of the child, 
but in the lord of the manor in loco parentis, 
But, modified by the special circumstances of 
the case, is not this the common experience of 
our own youth ? What decently educated white 


The Supplement to the Tropical Agriculturist 


has not been restrained in the exercise of his 
liberty, fir8t at school or college, then im the 
acquisition of his trade or profession ?—and that 
not by his fond parents at all, but by the school- 
master, reinforced if need be by the cane, and 
subsequently by the discipline of duty? And 
the higher the standard aimed at, the longer and 
more rigorous the training. Who is going todeny 
that the process, however disagreeable trom the 
standpoint of the schoolboy, finds ample justifi- 
cation in the end? What is true of the indi- 
vidual is true of the race, and a system proved 
sound for the white, may mutatis mutandis be 
reasonably assumed sound for the black, within 
limits of course—limits far better understood 
by the Portuguese than by ourselves, as our 
present troubles in India fully demonstrate, 


The case of the Angolan in its main features 
is not unlike that of the Moleque, or negro born 
in the islands. In his native state the Angolan 
is so absolutely an animal that the humanitarian 
scores an easy point when he derides the validity 
of a ‘bilateral contract” between 4 more zoo- 
logical specimen on the one side and an educated 
white on the other. Stripped of its incidental 
irrelevancies, this is the true issue between the 
humanitarian and the planter. The author of 
‘A Modern Slavery,” bitterly prejudiced, as is 
evident throughout his book, against the Por- 
tuguese, concedes that but little fault can be 
found with the treatment of the negro on the 
islands, though he does his best by innuendo 
and misstatement to convey the contrary im- 
pression, Does the Angolan go to the islands 
voluntarily from his native wilds, with his eyes 
open to the advantages and disadvantages of his 
bargain, as inthe case of the Cape Verde 
islander and the Mocambique negro; or is he 
taken there much as a monkey is taken to a Zoo? 


For reasons partly personal, but chiefly 
because most of the facts are too well-known to 
require futher investigation, I did not prolong 
my enquiry into the province of Angola itself. 
From the documonts in my possession, some of 
which at least are unimpeachable, others only 
open to suspicion as regards motives—the facts 
narrated being corroborated elsewhere, it would 
appear that the engagement of the Angolan 
servical more closely resembles the taking of the 
monkey to the Zoo than the taking of the Sape 
Verde islander to his work on the rogas. Similes, 
however, are apt to mislead, so let us take the 
bare facts themselves. Those who desire to 
have them in full detail may be referred to the 
pages of the ‘‘ Economist ta Portuguez” and 
the ‘‘ Voz de Angola,” two journals which have 
done yeoman’s service in bringing to light 


ATROCIOUS ABUSES PRACTISED IN THE HINTER- 
LAND OF ANGOLA 


in connection with the hitherto existing sys- 
tem. It would take too long to recount these, 
but I may mention that I have just returned 
from an interview with the Portuguese Colonial 
Minister in Lisbon, who informs me that he has 
directed the suspension of all recruiting in 
Angola until Government can get out a decree 
providing for the establishment of an entirely 
new Government agency which will take re- 
cruiting out of the hands of private individuals. 


and Magazine of the Ceylon Agricultural Society. 


Those of her critics who denounce the dilatori- 
ness of Portugal in this matter, are very unjust 
—they forget that within the eighteen months 
or two years that have elapsed since they raised 
the question in its present form, she has had no 
less than five changes of ministry, plus the series 
of crises preceding and following the assassina- 
tion of King Carlos and Prince Luiz Felippe. 


But Angola is not S Thomé—another fact 
that the boycotters of the latter’s produce have 
succeeded in completely obscuring. Putting the 
case on the lowest ground —that of simple com- 
mercial interest, the abuses practised in Angola 


CONSTITUTE A FRAUD UPON THE 8S. THOME 
PLANTERS, 


and one repeatedly complained of by them, as 
enhancing needlessly the cost of imported 
labour, apart from its inhumanity. To establish 
a boycott of the cacaoof S. Thomé by way of 
punishing, not the real culprits, but a section of 
the victims ofthese, may be humanitarian logic; 
but it fails to convince the Portuguese public of 
the bona fides of the movement—and no wonder 
So far from being to blame for the abuses, the 
S. Thomé planting community really deserve the 
thanks of the civilised world for their efforts to 
redress whatever suffering the Angolan may 
have endured at the hands of his native chiefs 
andthe emissaries of these on the African conti- 
nent. This may sound paradoxical to such of 
your readers as have obtained their views of the 
case from writers such as Nevinson and Burtt, 
butthere is another side to the story which these 
gentlemen have carefully refrained from placing 
in the prominence its merits. Let me relate 


A TYPICAL CASE, 


the particulars of which have been furnished 
me by one of. the most distinguished young 
officers in the Portuguese African army, Captain 
David da Lima, Commander of the Order of the 
Torre o Espada who permits meto cite him by 
name as personally acquainted with the facts. 


A number of prisoners-of-war were held by a 
native chieftain in the hinterland of Angola, 
beyond the realm of effective civil jurisdiction, 
where chieftains arrogate to themselves powers 
of life aad death over their tribes, A Portuguese 
recruiting agent was in the vicinity, and the 
chieftain made overtures to him for the sale of 
these prisoners, whom he looked upon as a 
serious expense to himself. The Portuguese 
Agent, however, knowing that the British hu- 
manitarian was on the warpath, too, and had 
succeeded in worrying the colonial authorities 
to the extent of making the latter eager to find 
a scapegoat, declined to deal otherwise than on 
the basis of an individual payment to each man 
engaged, and a regular hiring contract. This 
did not suit the chieftain’s book at all, so he 
summoned the Portuguese to a palaver, pro- 
duced the captives, and, finding the Portuguese 
obdurate, proceeded to cut off the heads of his 
men, one by one, remarking that they were evi- 
dently of no use to anybody. This was more 
than tho Portuguese could stand, so he yielded 
the point, took the risk, and rescued the 
remainder of the men from their sentence 
of death, It was the only thing he could do, 


471 


and an Englishman would have done the same 
in like circumstances; but the authorities 
had their eye upon him, and he was arrested, 
tried and punished, his case being cited to the 
humanitarians as evidence of the readiness of 
the authorities to suppress mal-practices. 


But whatever the circumstances of the An- 
golan’s engagement in the interior, his troubles 
are at an end with his arrival at the coast. He 
is presented to the Curador at Loanda or Ben- 
guella as the case may be to whom he makes a 

DECLARATION UF WILLINGNESS TO GO TO THE 

ISLANDS 

(he has but little choice inthe matter), fully 
believing he is going toa speedy and possibly 
a painless death. When he arrives at 8. Thomé, 
his astonishment is profound, As often as not, 
his first question at the Curadoria is ‘tam [ re- 
ally alive, or are these the regions beyond death?” 
He has not recovered from his terror at the 
sight of the sea and the sensations attendant on 
the voyage, Translated to the plantations, his 
astonishment continues, He is, of course, use- 
less for work and noneis expected of him for 
the first month or two, Everything is new and 
strange, and for his first year he is placed under 
the tutelage of anold hand of his own race, 
who teaches him how to wear his clothes, how 
to feed himself, ard many other thingsa child 
learns in infancy, but he has yet to learn. He 
has next to be taught to work, to turn out up 
to time, to obey orders and make himself gene- 
rally useful, Occasionally he rebels against 
this, but as a rule he is docile and passive if 
not actively willing. 


For my part, I confess I fail to understand 


WHY THE S, THOME PLANTER PREFERS THE 
ANGOLAN 


to any other class of negro, but such seems to 
bethe case. He is cheap—very cheap—that is 
true. But personally I would go so far as to 
say, varying Mr. Nevinson’s concluding dictum 
(‘‘ A Modern Slavery ”) that it were better for 
those islands, if not for humanity at large, that 
not another Angolan should be imported. The 
Angolan is as often as not physically feeble, due 
generally to hereditary disease so prevalent in 
the African interior—so much that his passing 
the Doctor is more or lessa scandal. (If it 
is true that the Doctor’s fees depend on the 
number he passes for embarkation, the 
system is to blame for this fraud on the 
planter.) But were I to put aside the busi- 
ness aspect of the case, and regard it as a 
purely humanitarian question, I should vote for 
the resumption of the immigration as soon as 
the hinterland abuses can be reformed out of 
existence; but I should say as little about 
repatriation as possible—this last Lregard as a 
mischievous fallacy from whatever point of 
view it be regarded. As to improving matters 
on the rogas, it might be possible to hurry the 
pace by intensive educational culture, but with 
the Sierra Leone negro, the Poona Brahman 
and the Bengali Babu before our eyes as tho 
jine fleur of British colonial culture, least said 
soonest mended. Space forbids my bringing 
into the discussion the Y 


472 


TRANSVAAL CONVENTION 
bearing the appropriate date of 1st April of this 
year, 

OUR LATEST PRACTICAL JOKE AT 
OF PORTUGAL, 
and of its provisions for the perpetuation 
of what much more deserves the label of 
‘* A Modern Slavery ’—the status of the Mocam- 
bique negro in the Rand Mines, and the 
methods by which he is recruited, under the 
British fag. But with all these deviations from 
the normal before us, the Portuguese colonist 
may well exclaim :—‘‘ Physician, heal thyself!” 


J. A. WYLLIE, F.R.64.5. 
Lieut.-Colonel, Indian Army (Retired). 


RUBBER IN PAPUA. 


Mr. A. 8. Bloomfield, who has returned to 
Melbourne after a visit to the New Australian 
Federal Territory, of Papua, is convinced that 
rubber planting will become a most successtul 
industry in the ‘‘ wet belt ” there. 

Para rubber seeds brought from Ceylon have 
in some cases attained a height of 22 ft.in 15 
months from the date of planting out. Great care 
has been taken in choosing the sites for plan- 
tations. In each case a water frontage was 
obtained. About an acre of ground was fenced 
in with pig-proof fencing, and _ thoroughly 
trenched. Seeds were then planted about 4 in. 
apart, in beds, A rough glass roof was built in 
order to protect the young plants from the 
extreme heat. Suitable positions for manager’s 
quarters and stores were then picked, and the 
work of clearing was begun. After the timber 
had been felled and burnt, the estates were 
lined and holed, and immediately the’ wet 
season commenced the young seedlings were 
transplanted into the plantation, and shaded 
with shade baskets made out of banana leaves 
and other material. 

Mr. Bloomfield states that the trees grow 
much more rapidly in certain parts of this 
territory than in other tropical countries. The 
rainfall in the ‘‘ wet belt” is 80 to 150 inches 
per annum.—IJndia Rudber Journal, Sept. 20. 


THE EXPENSE 


GERMINATION OF CEARA RUBBER 
SEEDS. 


A rapid method of germinating Ceara rubber 
seeds is in use at La Zacualpa Botanical Station, 
Mexico. It consists in placing a Jayer of fresh 
horse manure in a box, to the thickness of about 
6 inches, spreading the seeds on the surface, 
and covering with about 1 inch of the same 
material mixed with a small quantity of sand. 
The soil should be slightly packed, and the box 
covered with glass. If put ina warm place or 
inthe sun, germination will take place very 
quickly. ‘The seedlings should be planted as 
soon as they are an inch or two high, and some 
manure added to the soil. After such treat- 
ment the seedlings will grow very rapidly. In 
planting at stakes the holes should be made as 
large as possible, or at least 4 feet square. The 
soil should be well watered, and if too sour, 
some lime should be added before planting.—- 
Barbados Agricultural News, Sept 4, 


The Supplement to the Tropical Agriculturist 


EXPORTS OF RUBBER FROM PARA. 


AND Cocoa AND Brazii Nurs. 


The following particulars of the exports of 
rubber, cocoa, and Brazil nuts produced in the 
State of Para during the crop years 1906-7, 
1907-8 and 1908-9 have been furnished by H. M. 
Consul at Para (Mr G A Pogson) :— 


_— Rubber. Cocoa. Brazil Nuts. 
Met.tons. £ Met. tons. £ Hectolitres. £ 
1906-7 11,467 3,285,000 1,668 82,000 41,521 48,000 
1907-8 10,189 2,209,000 2,449 160,000 80,255 103,000 
1908-9 11,729 3,177,000 3,392 142,000 80,797 71,000 


Metric ton = 2,204 lb.; hectolitre = 2:75 Imperial 
bushels; the milreis has been converted at Is 3d.—Board of 
Trade Journal, Sept. 16. 


RUBBER IN SIAM. 


H.M. Consul at Senggora (Siam) states that 
the only fereign-owned rubber plantation in the 
Monthon of Patani is near Bangnara. It is 
owned by an Englishman and was started about 
four years ago. Reports with regard to it are 
favourable, and the Consul calls the attention of 
persons interested in rubber to the possibilities 
of Patani as a rubber- producing country. —India- 
Rubber Journal, Sept. 20. 


CINCHONA IN JAVA. 


Tea Taxkine Its PrLace. 


Amsterdam, Sept. 22.—The report of the 
Bandoeng Cinchona Manufactory mentions that 
during the preceding year 1,020,917 kilos. Cin- 
chor.a bark were worked, containing 61,582 
kilos. sulphate of quinine, or, after deduction of 
waste, 58,619 kilos. Of the quinine produced 
the Government of Netherlands India received 
18,929 kilos. The balance was sold in auctions 
at Batavia and settled with the private planters, 
The price at which the manufactory accounted 
for the delivered bark with the contracting 
undertakings was based on a payment of fl. 7.50 
for the quantity of bark required for 1 kilo. 
sulphate of quinine, so that these undertakings 
enjoyed considerably more benefit by delivering 
to the manufactory than by shipment te Europe; 
for the price of bark on the Amsterdam market 
declined to about c. 3.15 per unit. The pro- 
duction of Cinchona bark appears to exceed the 
world’s consumption, and, moreover, it is said 
that the quinine manufactories in Europe and | 
America have formed 
A COMBINATION WHICH FIXES THE PRICE AT THE 

AMSTERDAM AUCTIONS. 

This combination, it is rumoured, buys up all 
the quantities of bark offered for sale, and thus 
makes a reserve, enabling it to akstain from 
buying for along time if planters try to com- 
mand higher prices or refuse tosell on the 
present low basis. However, it is not impos- 
sible that the contrary will occur and that 
buyers will have to pay much higher prices in 
order to encourage the production. On many 
Cinchona undertakings plans are already in 
operation to cultivate tea instead of Cinchona. 
The working account exhibits a_ profit of 
fl. 104,492, out of which a sum is proposed for 
writing off, and the balance allows a dividend of 
10 per cent. to be paid to shareholders.—L. & C. 
Express. 


and Magazine uf the Ceylon Agricultural Society. 


A LECTURE ON FIBRES. 


AT THE MYSORE DUSSERAH 


INDUSTRIAL EXHIBITION. 


Mysore, Oct. 20.—Mr G H Krumbeigel, the 
President of the Committee, |who was a 
visitor to Ceylon at the Peradeniya Rubber 
Exhibition of 1906.—Ep. C.0.] set an excellent 
example this morning by delivering the first 
lecture of the series arranged in connection with 
the Exhibition this year. He said a few words 
first as to the changes which had made it possi- 
ble to provide a separate Lecture Hall, and of 
the general object with which lectures were to 
be delivered, and he then asked the Dewan of 
Mysore, Mr T Madhava Rao, to open the Hall. 
The Dewan expressed readiness to do anything 
he could, and remarked that the Hall was al- 
ready open on all sides, so that there was not 
much left for him to do. 


Mr. KRuMBEIGEL’s LECTURE ON FIBRES. 


Mr. Krumbeigel then addressed the audience 
on the subject of ‘‘Commercial Fibres.” The 
general tenor of his remarks is shown in the re- 
port appended, butI should like toadd here that 
many passing references to exhibits that were 
picked out as illustrations have had of neces- 
sity to be omitted, and that the lecture, as a 
whole, constituted an earnest appoal to enlight- 
ened men in Mysore to take practical steps to 
utilise some materials that are now thrown away 
as useless, and to devote attention to the culti- 
vation of certain fibres that appeared to him 
likely to prove successful as commercial ventures. 
The lecture was simple, practical and instructive 
and was applauded with heartiness. The follo- 
wing is an outline of what was said :— 


In the commerce of the world fibres hold a 
very high place, anda knowledge of this subject 
is of the greatestimportance. To treat the sub- 
ject anything like exhaustively would require a 
long series of lectures. My object being a 
simple introduction rather than a scientific ela- 
boration of the subject, the remarks must of 
necessity be brief and general. The uses of 
vegetable fibres are almost inexhaustible. 
Besides those very important classes employed 
in the weaving industry, in paper manufacture, 
for cordage, etc., there are a very great number 
that support other special industries, either 
direct, as in case of the incandescent mantles, or 
indirect, when they form admixtures to animal 
wool, silk, ete. 


THE CLASSIFICATION oF FispRE PLANTS. 


Apart from the classification according to 
their utility we may study fibres morphologi- 
cally according to their structural distinction ; 
that is, whether they are derived from the bark 
and stem and as in case of bast fibres, from the 
leaves, e.g., agave fibres, or are seed-hairs, such 
as cotton, etc, You mayalsostudy them bota- 
nically according totheir natural order, but this 
is oftencomplicated by the fact that one and 
the same plant may furnish different kinds of 
fibres. Notwithstanding the great variety of 
fibres and the very different kinds of plants 
yielding them, the essential clement on which 
their value depends is always the same, A fibre, 


60 


473 


to be of any value, must consist of a substance 
chemically called cellulose—the larger the per- 
centage the better, in a general sense, is the 
fibre. Cellulose may be described as the essential 
part of the framework of plants. In the young 
cells of plants the wall is found to be ofa delicate 
but firm and elastic membrane. This wall con- 
sists of cellulose, As the plant grows, many cells 
become encrusted with resins and _ other 
substances which in some parts fill the cavity 
completely ; insome tissues, however, little or 
no incrustation is formed, and though the cell 
walls thicken they consist almost wholly of cell- 
ulose, The seed-hairs forming the cotton and 
the floss of the silk cotton are almost pure 
cellulose, Though cellulose is found in all parts 
of the plants, the parts of special value for 
yielding commercial fibres are the cells which 
occupy a definite area or position in each plant. 
These are called fibre cells. But it would be 
going beyond the scope of this lecture to enter 
into the morphological details in the different 
kinds of fibre plants. In order, however, to in- 
vestigate raw fibre, a botanical study is neces- 
sary. Inthe great division of plants Dicotyle- 
dons (plants having the parts of the flowers in 
fours or fives and with leaves the veins of which 
form a network) the fibrous cells are to be found 
in the bark, the middle or lower layers. In the 
Monocotyledons (plants with parts of flowers 
usually in threes or sixes and leaves with parallel 
veins) the fibre cells are built up with vessels into 
composite structures known as fibre-vascular 
bundles, which are regularly distributed in the 
fleshy leaves and stems, and are not formed into 
@ continuous tissue as in Dicotyledons. 


THE INVESTIGATION OF FIBRES. 


Now onthe uniformity of length and diameter, 
the tenacity, flexibility and smoothness of 
the fibre, bundles (or filaments) depends the 
spinning quality, whilst the length, thickness of 
walls, tapering ends of the fibre cell are very 
material factors in the strength and durability 
of the manufactured goods. In careful investi- 
gation, such as commercial experts have to 
make, a microscopic examination would there- 
fore be necessary, as also chemical investigation 
in order to determine (a) its hygroscopic mois- 
ture—that is, the moisture taken up by a fibre 
after being dried in a high temperature ; (b) its 
mineral constituents, that is, the percentage of 
ash left after burning the fibre ; (c) its percen- 
tage yield of cellulose on the raw fibre. Commer- 
cially, fibres are generally classed according to 
their utility. (1) Textiles (cotton) flax, Rhea, jute, 
ramie, etc. (2) Rope or cordage fibres—Manilla 
—Sisal, Mauritius hemp. (3) Brush and mat 
fibre (coir, etc.) (4) Paper materials. My pur- 
pose being an introduction to the principal 
fibres exhibited, I will take them up now and 
add a few remarks on the cultivation, geographi- 
cal distribution and commercial aspect as we 
proceed. The samples that [ shall pick out from 
the large collection exhibited belong chiefly to 
the second group, because it is among these that 
we find some very promising kinds which are 
either new or not sulfiotehtly known here, while 
others pertaining to special industries such as 
the textile and brush manufacture and paper- 
making must form subjects of separate lectures, 


474 


SISAL FIBRE TAKES FIRST PLACE, 


A very large and important group are the 
agave fibres, wrongly called aloes, Every species 
of agave or Century plant contains fibre, but we 
may regard some twelve species as yielding 
commercial fibre, Foremost is, of course, the 
Sisalhemp, A. rigida var, Sisalana. It isa 
native of Yucatan and was first introduced to 
Europe in 1879. The fibre is far superior to any 
of the hemps. Cordage made from Sisal is much 
more durable, lighter, and much more pliable 
than those of hemp. It requires no tarring, and 
as it stands the alternations of dryness and 
moisture with little injury it is now largely used 
in naval cordage. Tarring considerably injures 
ropes, and on that account Sisal, which requires 
no tarring, is not only much stronger (some say 
four times), but has also a much 'onger life than 
other hemps. Sisal is of comparatively easy 
culture ; it requires but little attention once it is 
established, but not having any marginal spines 
or teeth, it should be protected from cattle when 
young. The cultivation of Sisal has now spread 
all over the tropics, and samples from British 
East Africa I<tely fetched £35 per ton. We 
have alarze number of pants that are poling, 
and I am sorry to see that so little is taken up 
in the State. While I send some 50,000 bulbils 
annually upcountry, it pays the Garden, but 
does not help the State. I should strongly ad- 
visa taking up Sisal cultivation, 


MAURITIUS AND MANILA HEMPS. 


Similar to Sisal is the Mauritius hemps 
Fourcroya Gigantea. Originally introduced to 
the Mauritius from South America, itis now a 
valuable industry in the Island. It has a better 
lustre and firmness and is used for more orna- 
mental cordage than Sisal, but is not nearly as 
strong. On the other hand, it is even more easy 
of cultivation. Another fibre allied to the class 
is the Bowstring hemp, Sanseveria. There are 
some four or five species in cultivation, and its 
fibre has been valued at £30 per ton. Cultiva- 
tion is comparatively easy and yet one does not 
often see it commercially grown. No doubt it 
has a serious competitor in the Sisal and Mauri- 
tius hemps. Manila hemp will be familiar to 
you all, as much is being imported and used 
here. Itis furnished bya plantain tree, Musa 
textilis, and, as its name implies, comes from 
the Philippines, Manila hemp is still the most 
used of white cordage fibres and rules the prices, 
as much as £50 being paid. We have now a good 
number growing inthe Lal Bagh, and as soon 
as I can find suitable spots in the districts I 
hope to send it out. In the machine shed you 
will be able toses.a hand machine such as is 
used in the Philippine Islands for extracting the 
fibre. Itis used here for extracting fibre from 
the common plantain tree. This fibre, though 
not by any means comparable with Manila 
hemp, has its uses, and I should strongly advise 
growers of plantains to invest ina machine of 
this type and extract the fibre from the stems, 
instead of throwing them away. These have 
so far all been fibres derived from the Mono- 
cotyledons. 

RAMIE OR RHEA, 


To take afew of the other section. Ramie or 
Rhea: Boehmeria nivea (a plant of the nettle 


The Supplement to the Tropical Agricultus ist 


family), There are two forms of the plant yieid- 
ing this fibre. The one furnishing the true China 
grass has leaves with a white surface beneath. 
This form grows largely in Assam and is essent- 
ially a temperate plant. The other form B. nivea 
var tenacissina, is a tropical plant and furnishes 
the Ramie fibre proper. It will be evident from 
the terms temperate and tropical that the first 
will not doin the temperatures where the true 
Ramie will do, and it is possible that in many 
places the failure of the Ramie is largely, if not 
solely, due to the fact that the two have got 
mixed up. Even in commercial circles Ramie 
has been generally mixed up with China grass, 
and it has led to disputes, sothat it is diffi- 
cult to say which is the better in quality. 
However, Indian Ramie has generally been 
considered inferior. This and the difficulties 
in extracting the fibre and freeing it from resi- 
nous admixtures caused its cultivation in India 
to decline. Subsequently, however, better 
machines were invented, and with the advent of 
the incandescent mantle came an increased 
demand for Ramie, so that as much as £50 and 
£60 has been paid or offered per ton. Ramie is 
also largely used in the manufacture of electrical 
goods, but there is now a new paper patented in 
Italy, whick, it is said, will supplant Ramie 
(so far as'these industries are concerned at least). 
On the other hand, there is increased demand 
for itin the manufacture of underwear in the 
northern countries of Hurope, and now that we 
are likely to make our holiday trips by aero- 
plane tothe North Pole, instead of to Ootaca- 
rund this, demand is bound to increase. 
Ramie requires some cultivation, but it is worth 
taking up. 
THE MADAR PLANT, 

Another fibre | must mention here, which is 
also largely used for incandescent mantles, and 
thatisthe Madar (Catotrovis gigantea). It is 
growing as a weed throughout India and has, to 
my knowledge, so far not been in cultivation. 
Its seed-hair as well as the fibre from its stem 
are very silky and [ presume are largely used as 
admixture with silk, : 


A NEW FIBRE YIELDING PLANT. 


The latest thing in fibres isa plant closely 
related to this Catotropis, and as this is likely 
to prove a great succoss [ have put it under 
extensive cultivation with a view of getting 
plenty of seed for distribution. There is hardly 
any literature on this fibre yet, but to describe 
it I will just read to you an extract of what the 
discoverer says (in the Gardeners’ Chronicle, I 
think, 1t was)—Asclepias semilunata by Chas. A 
White, F.R.H.s., etc., ‘‘ When the South African 
war broke out, I got the war fever, and pro- 
ceeding to Africa, remained there, having tra- 
velled from the Cape to the Zamboasi, Portu- 
guess Africa, and then to the Equator and Congo. 
In all these countries this particular plant was 
seen in isolated parts, but not cultivated. No- 
body knew of its value; only that the silky 
cotton could be used like kapok for stuffing 
furniture, and would not pay toexport. This 
is merely mentioned to show that it can adapt 
itself to various climates, aithough indigenous 
to the Congo, Uganda and Abyssinia. While 
at Uganda, planting rubber at the head of the 


and Magazine of the Ceylon Agricultural Society. 


Nile on the Victoria Nyanza, I wanted some 
rope fora line, and requested a native to get 
some, thinking he would get the bast of a 
banana. Much tomy surprise, the boy started 
pulling this particular plant, and drawing the 
fibre, then twisting it into rope of remarkable 
strength. I then forwarded samples of rope, 
fibre and botanical specimen to the Imperial 
Institute, London, with the result that the plant 
was identified as Asclepias semilunata and the 
fibre, if properly prepared, was valued, on the 
London market, at £35 per ton. The exami- 
nation of samples sent from Uganda has shown 
thatit is very strong and of excellent quality, 
and would doubtless be useful for cordage 
manufacture, but it has not yet been ex- 
ported in sufficient quantities for actual trials 
on a manufacturing scale. It is possible that 
the fibre might also be utilised for the manu- 
facture of explosives, but this question 
is ati present under investigation. I sent a 
sample of the fibre and a quantity of seed to 
the Hon. John Perry, M.P., to test ifit can be 
successfully grownin New South Wales. I feel 
confident that it can be profitably grown, as its 
geographical distribution is so well-known to 
me. Ihave seen it at an elevation of 7,000 ft. 
above sea-level at Johannesburg ; also at Rho- 
desia and in Australia; but have not seen it near 
the coast, though it may succeed near the sea. 
The cultivation of A.semilunata is simple: sow 
as you would wheat or oats, after the land has 
been harrowed ; seed thickly, so as to produce 
stems 5ft. to 6ft. long. It will grow on stony 
land, on the flat or hill-sides; it requires no 
irrigation, and will withstand drought with im- 
punity. With cheap freight from Sydney to 
London, let alone local market, this fibre may 
prove to be adesirable subsidiary industry. for 
New South Wales,” The writer, who is an Aus- 
tralian, thinks that the seed must at some time 
have been introduced into Australia by the late 
Baron von Mueller; otherwise it is a mystery 
how he saw it at Coolgardie. The writer trusts 
that through the columus of the Agricultural 
Gazette more will be heard from tests in New 
South Wales. 

“The sample of fibre forwarded to the Hon. the 
Minister for Agriculture was submitted to 
Messrs. Forsyth & Co., rope manufacturers, 
Sydney, who reported as follows:—‘ The fibre 
is equal to Manila, and is valued at £35 per ton, 
The length and colour are good. They would 
give £35 per ton for it, but the fibre must not be 
less than 4 ft. long. The quantity submitted was 
too small to make a test.” 

This, gentlemen, must be enough for today, 
and if the lecture will result in a closer study of 
the fibres that are exhibited, and will lead to 
wider cultivation, it will have served a good ob- 
ject.—M, Mail, Oct. 22. 


MEXICAN RUBBER. 


In an extract from the Daily Express on 
Mexican Rubber it is stated that at an altitudo 
from 400 to 600 feet there are 20,400 trees of 
from six to nine years’ growth, ready for tapping 
in two years’ time. This means that the growth 
of the tree is much slower in Mexico than either 
Ceylon, South India or the Straits. H'ancy not tap 
ping rubber trees till they are 8—11 years old | 


475 
NOTES FROM NYASALAND, B.C.A. 


TOBACCU—COTTON—LABOU R—RUB- 
BER—THA—CHILLIES. 

Mlanje, Sept., 1909.—Tobacco is now paying 
well here, owing to this product attracting the 
attention of home manufacturers. The prices 
paid in the London and Liverpool market 
ranges from 4d, to 1/3 per lb.; the same _ prices, 
plus a small profit, is obtainable from the Im- 
perial Tobacco Company at Limbi,near Blantyre; 
so there is every prospect of this industry 
making rapid progress inthe country ere long. 
It has been proved beyond a doubt that Nyasa- 
land can grow an excellent tobacco, both heavy 
dark shipping varieties and the light fashionable 
fine-cured orange leaf, as soil suitable for both 
kinds is to be found all over the Protectorate. 
Only men and money is wanted to develop 
this industry. Tobacco 

COSTS FROM 2D, To 3D. TO PRODUCE AND 
PUT ON THE MARKET, 


so that there isa good margin of profit for those 
who grow it and areable to turn out leaf of a 
good quality. To enable planters to do this the 
courteous Manager of the Imperial Tobacco 
Co., Mr Boyd, gives seed free, and his advice 
too, visiting all those who are growing the 
weed, instructing men most carefully as to the 
proper methods of curing, &e., to enable gro- 
wers to produce the most suitable quality for 
the home market, To prove how valuable this 
expert advice is, I may mertion an instance 
of Mr R-—, who had no previous jtobacco 
growing or curing experience, putting in 2v0 
acresin one year near the Railway lino and 
successfully growing, harvesting and curing 
the whole crop within the year. With an ex- 
penditure of about £1,000 he was able to secure 
£3,000 (Lam informed) of profit and left the 
country last month on a well-earned holiday, 


This gentleman, however, is one amongst 
many who are not so successful ; for he worked 
very hard indeed, night and day, watching the 
temperature of his barns—so that he was ex- 
coedingly Incky and succeeded in obtaining top 
prices for his crop. He was in consequence 
much run downin health and in need of the 
holiday inthe old country where he has gone 
to recruit. 


TOBACCO CROPS THROUGHOUT THE PROTECTORATE 


have been very good on the whole this year and 
up to 500lb. per acre has been secured on some 
estates that were well cultivated and have the 
soil best suited for the growth of the plant. 


Cotton, 


in some districts, has done very well this 
year and better results are anticipated as the 
most suitable varieties are being fonnd out with 
the advice of 
THE NEW DIRECTOR OF AGRICULTURE 

who is very sanguine of the success of this in- 
dustry, when more suitable acclimatised seed 
is used and somewhat different methods of 
planting and cultivation have been adopted 
under his guidance, 


All over the country 


476 


NATIVES ARE TAKING TO GROWING COTTON 


to be ablo to pay their 3/ annual hut tax; for 
they cannot get employment even one month 
out of the year to enable them to earn this 
small wage, owing to increase of population 
and the want of people to develop tho re- 
sources of the country. 


Nyasaland natives are not anxious to emi- 
grate any more than Asiatics are, for they are 
fond of their homes andfamily ties like other 
human beings. Government has to devise 
ways and means of being able to secure revenue, 
as the hut tax cannot be paid by a people who 
have no money, so a system of emigration has 
been again started and large numbers of 


OUR LABOURERS ARE BEING SENT TO SOUTHERN 
RHODESIA 


and elsewhere to work. The wisdom of this 
policy is disputed by all right-thinking resi- 
dents who have the interests of the country 
at heart; besides, the natives themselves object, 
but being told by Government Officials that 
they must go, of course they obey. Although 
Government men say they are not pressed, all 
those who are behind the scenes know better 
and a Commission of enquiry into our system 
of emigration would certainly expose some 
high-handed proceedings on the part of Govern- 
ment Officials who are connected with the ex- 
port of labour from Nyasaland Protectorate. 


A MUCH WISEK POLICY THAN EXPORTING - 
OUR LABOUR 


would be to educate them and encourage them 
to grow valuable economic products (which 
they know full well how to do, as they are 
born cultivators) for sale to traders who would 
export them ; for it isan expert that is needed 
to make Nyasaland go ahead. This, however, 
means some expense and a little trouble to the 
official element which does not seem to meet all 
their views sufficiently to support or enccurage; 
none 60 blind as those who will not see. 
COFFEE 

continues to form one of our largestexports, and 
some estates, where climatic influence favours 
the successful growth of the fragrant berry, con- 
tinue to give fair crops, although the cultivation 
of this product is giving way to tobacco, cotton, 
&c,, owing to the experience of the past having 
proved how unreliable and uncertain the re- 
turn from this coffee is now-a-days. 


RUBBER 


has attracted much attention of late, owing to 
big prices and the rapid growth of ceara in the 
country. Considerable extensions have been 
made all over the country ; 1t is quite common 
talk to hear of the big fortunes thatso and so 
is to makein the course of five years! ? It 1s 
certainly wonderful how the price of rubber 
keeps up, but—and there isa “but.” Wait tillthe 
trees that have been planted all over the Tropi- 
cal World come to yield; and it remains to to be 
seen whether (notwithstanding the new and 
various uses thatrubber is being put to now- 
a-days) prices will not go below paying level, 
the same as cinchona did in the ‘seventies in 
Ceylon, India and Java. May the boom long 
continue, however, as it means the spending 


The Supplement to the Tropical Agriculturist 


of a lot of money that people can afford to 
gamble with in Company shares. Some seed of 
the new varieties of rubber nearly allied to ceara 
have germinated and are growing well in differ- 
ent parts of the country anda good number of 
Para are doing well, from one to three years’ old, 
So in time we will have better latex-yielding 
varieties of rubber in the country than ceara. The 
natural rubber of Nyasaland is almost finished, 
the exports are getting less and less every year. 


TEA 


is attracting some more attention now it is 
showing amongst our exports, hitherto, most of 
the tea grown was either consumed in the 
country or sent to South Africa, but during the 
present year some 30,000 lb. have been sent to 
the London market where prices ranging from 
43d. to 73d. have been realised, which proves 
that Nyasaland will grow a marketable tea. 


The methods of curing have hitherto been 
the old-fashioned hand-rolling and firing over 
chulus with charcoa), a very risky and dirty 
method; unless carefully watched during the 
finishing off stage, the tea is liable to get burnt, 
which spoils the tea and givesan objectionable 
rank flavour, which means 2d. per lb. less value. 


Well does the writer remember the old 
charcoal days of firing tea in Geylon before any 
machinery was invented, when the trays were 
constantly requiring new cloth and the tea was 
always burnt, and all sorts of devices were re- 
sorted to to prevent the coolies burning it. Also 
how kind and willing, the late James Taylor of 
Loolecondera was, to show any new tea planter 
his careful methods of tea-curing when we 
used to send a few coolies to learn rolling, 
&c., and be present ourselves during the 
teaching. The late William Cameron, tuo, was 
the tutor who first gave early-day tea 
planters in Ceylon their lessons on hand- 
rolling and fine-curing of tea and many 
tea planters were much indebted to him for his 
careful teaching of the Indian methods, which 
he had thoroughly mastered during some 16 or 
18 years in Assam before coming to Ceylon. 
There are few planters of the present day, 
who will remember the above named gentlemen, 
who had to be thanked for their assistance to the 
pioneer tea planters ef Ceylon. 


Mlanji can now boast of having two tea 
rollers (Jacksons), one on Lauderdale and one 
on Thornwood estate, and a Sirocco (Davidson’s) 
also on the latter estate, so that a better quality 
of tea may be placed in the market from date. 

A considerable area of 


NEW LAND IS BEING CLEARED FOR NEXT 
YEAR’S PLANTING 


on the old tea gardens and two new estates are 
being opened up rapidly, 100 acres or so at a 
time, viz., Ravensby and Leechmiya. The latter 
was the Nyasaland Coffee Company’s property, 
where some £13,000 was spent in trying to make 
coffee pay and subsequently sold to a Nyasalad 
planter, very cheap indeed, so this late N. C. 
Co.’s estate may in time become a valuable tea 
property. 

The Company, during its existence, sent a 
large consignment of tea seed from Ceylon—so 
that the one product, coffee, should not be solely 


and Magazine of the Ceylon Agricultural Society. 


depended upon, but the whole lot of seed failed 
to germinate; and as no seed could be got in the 
country at that time, the attempt to turn the 
Company’s estate into tea failed and like many 
other pioneering Companies was soon afterwards 
closed down. 


In the course of time Mlanji district will be- 
come a large tea-producing division of Nyasa- 
land as the bush, when once established, has 
been proved to yield well and has no natural 
enemies to speak of, 


CHILLIES 


form a considerable item in our exportlist. They 
are easily grown and give a considerable amount 
of crop within two months of the date of plan- 
ting and last for two or three years, giving 
crop for 23 years after the date of planting. 
Good prices are got for bright cured chillies, 
from 45s to 56s per cwt.,and the natives can pluck 
about 5 Ib. each per diem which turns out 
about 1 lb. when dry, sothere is a good margin 
of profit. They make an excellent catch-crop 
and take little out of the soilas they are com- 
posed of 80 per cent. of woody fibre. 
H. B. 


RUBBER CULTIVATION ON SO- 
CALLED PEAT SOIL. 


By H. N. Ripury. 


In many parts of the Malay Peninsula 
usually in the vicinity of large tidal rivers 
we find a somewhat veculiar soil formation 
popularly known here as peat formation. It 
consists exclusively of dead timber roots 
and decayed leaves, toa depth sometimes of 
as much as twenty feet. Often no trace of 
clay, stone or other mineral matter is to be 
seen in it. The formation appears, even if deep, 
to be of comparatively modern date, geologi- 
cally speaking. Before being cleared for plan- 
ting it is seen to be covered with dense wet 
forests, in which grow a number of somewhat 
peculiar or local plants mixed with many trees 
which also occur on more ordinary soil. A 
characteristic tree is the Kempas, Cumpassia 
malaccensis ; abundant, too, is the well-known 
red-stemmed palm, Cyrtostachys laccw and the 

round is often covered with an abundance of 

ingers (Scitwmineac) and ground orchids. Wal- 
king through these woods one often sinks deeply 
into a massof wet decaying leaves, over and 
through which lie the great roots of the big 
trees. Below this great mass of decaying vege— 
‘tation is usually a greasy blue clay lying at 
various depths and apparently mainly old 
Mangrove mud and over which this forest has 
gradually grown. When felled and burnt this 
so-called peat after a period of exposure com- 
mences to shrink, the surface of the ground 
often soon falling a foot or more. The exposed 
surface wood decays and forms at last a brown 
powdery soil, mixed with fragments of sticks, 
etc. and reminding one of the surface of an old 
tan yard. The water which fillsthe drains and 
streams from this formation is dark brown, re- 
sembling the brown peaty water of a Scotch 
moor, but is by no means safe to drink though 


‘ happened to be thrown. 


477 


it has only a slight peaty flavour as itis apt to 
produce a violent diarrhoea and has been known 
to cause much sickness of this nature among the 
coolies working in such land. 

We have not seen any analysis of either water 
or soil from such ground but it is probable that 
it contains an excess of humic acid and also of 
salts of magnesia, sodium and potash. 


Not long ago I visited the 
FIBRE PLANTATIONS 


of the Peneiro estate in South Johore, recently 
floated as a Company. Here Sanseviera, Agave 
sisalana and Fourcroya gigantea were being culti- 
vated on a large scale for fibre making. I was 
much struck with the appearance of the sisal 
hemp, Agave sisalana. This plant long in culti- 
vation in the Botanic Gardens in Singapore has 
never really made good growth, though being a 
desert plant, such as is scientifically called a 
xerophyte, it had been planted in the driest cor- 
ners of the Gardens. 


In this damp mass of decaying logs and 
branches, it was growing luxuriantly. The 
plants were strong and healthy ; in fact, quite 
handsome and throwing up suckers in every 
direction—the suckers yrowing wherever they 
Fourcroya and San- 
seviera, which, however, are much easier plants 
to grow here were also doing well. One would 
not indeed have been prepared to find a 
xerophytic plant cultivated successfully in dry 
sandy places in the West Indian Islands _thri- 
ving ina strongly peaty damp locality. On ex- 
actly similar ground I have seen Para rubber 
planted ona large scale. Now Para rubber is 
a typical hygrophyte, that is to say, a plant 
adapted for growth in the wettest regions of the 
tropics, the region known as the “Tropical Rain- 
forest Region.” 


For a short time the little rubber plants 
looked all right, but only for a very short time, 
The mortality was frightful. The dead ones 
were replaced in vain. The plants all looked 
sickly and died, some from attacks of Fomes, 
others perhaps from termites, some from un- 
known fungi. The dead plants were pulled up 
were remarkable for their long tap root and for 
the fact that all the roots descended vertically 
parallel to the tap root. As every planter 
knows, the Para rubber is a high rooter thro- 
wing its roots out horizontally over a large area, 
Here the roots were descending vertically as 
if seeking to reach the clay bed which under- 
lay the peat at a considerable depth. Where the 
clay came near the surface, the plants undoub- 
tedly did better but a depth of 12 feet or even 
less of the vegetable débris was fatal to them. 


It has been shown lately by experiment that 
a wet swamp of peaty soil, that is one with 
an excess of vegetablo matter is not hygro- 
phytic but xerophytic and that the plants 
naturally found there are specially adapted for 
drought, that is to say, a shortage of water. 


The reason for this is that these peaty soils 
contain in their water an excess of humic acid. 
This acid has so deleterious an effect on the 
protoplasm of the plants not especially adapted 
for growth in such soils, that the water, which 


478 The Supplement to the Tropical Agriculturist 


should be taken up by the roots, is actually 
poisonous and cannot be used by them at all. In 

fact, it has much the same effect as sea-water. 
Nothing could be more unsuitable for the 
Hevea which requires a lot of water and re- 
quires it good. Plants in soil such as this 
become weak and very soon succumb to the 
attacks of fungus. They have no strength to 
resist any disease. In any case they could 
never make healthy trees, even if there was no 
fungus about. In ground of this nature I have 
recently heard of a mortality of 100 per cent, 
and that the area planted has had to be en- 
tirely abandoned. In many parts of the 
Peninsula there are still left considerable areas 
of similar soil to this I have described, and 
planters would do well to avoid this ground 
entirely for rubber planting. 
H. N. Riviey. 


—Straits Agricultural Bulletin, for Oct. 


RUBBER PLANTING DISTANCES. 


——— 


AND FORM, 


To the outsider desirous of taking an intelli- 
gent interest in his plantation investments, one 
of the most open questions seems to be the cor- 
rect planting distances between trees. No two 
authorities agree on this point and individual 
planters all seem to have their own ideas. Time 
will doubtless show whether room for the ulti- 
mate possible growth should be provided from 
the outset, or whether a much closer distance 
should be adopted while the trees are young. 

Apart, however, from planting distance there 
is the matter of planting form, So far as can 
be gathered from publicly issued prospectuses 
and reports, the great majority of estates are 
planted either on a true rectangular system or 
on the equivalent diagonal system ; the state- 
ment being generally that ‘‘the trees are planted 
(say) 16 x 16= (say) 170 to the acre.” The standard 
books on Para rubber contain no reference to 
any other lay out. 

Is the rectaagular system the best to adopt ? 

It allocates to each tree either a square, rec- 
tangular or a diamond-shaped plot for root and 
branch extensions, before interference or con- 
tact with adjoining roots and branches, and it 
tends to squared fields or blocks with avenues 
and roads at right angles. 

Of rectangular systems the square is obviously 
that in which the whole ground area is earliest 
covered by roots, i.e., brought under contribu- 
tion. With equal area per tree the other rec- 
tangular forms with one long and one short axis 
(e.g. 20 ft. x 10 ft) involve very early interference 
in one direction and long roots to cover all 
the ground in the other direction. 

1f it be conceded thatthe natural, unrestricted, 
root-and-branch extension is substantially equal 
in all directions round the trunk, then the area 
allocated to each tree should be concentric with 
the trunk, and a series of circles would represent 
the growth at any time prior to contact. After 
contact the circles merge into hexagons. 

It is submitted that the hexagon is the true 
form of ground area which should be given to 
each tree for the best possible results in the way 
of rapid growth and ultimate development, 


With any given minimum distance between 
trees—fixing the period of unrestricted root and 
branch extension before the first check of inter- 
ference—a block planted on the hexagonal sys- 
tem will carry 15 per cent more trees than if 
planted on the rectangular or staggered system 

us :-- 


Planting Distance. Square Lay-out. Hexagonal Lay-outs 
18 ft, 134 154 trees per acre, 


20 ft. 109 126 trees per acre, 
22 ft. 90 103 trees per acra, 
24 ft. 76 87 trees per acre, 


The hexagonal system leads to avenues in three 
directions and facilitates working a block of any 
size to a local centre if decentralisation be de- 
sired. It is particularly easy to lay out. 

It is not suggested that this discussion is 
original because the present writer knows of 
one, but only one, rubber plantation where the 
system has been adopted, 


ROBERT THOMPSON. 
25th September, 1909. 
—India- Rubber Journal, October 4. 


THE QUALITY OF CEYLON RUBBER. 


A GERMAN CHEMIsT’s OPINION. 


Mr. Wm. Pahl, chemist, Judge of Commer- 
cial Affairs, and proprietor of the Dortmund 
India-rubber Factory, Dortmund, Germany, 
selected by the German Government to visit 
rubber-producing countries in the interest of 
science, in conversation with our contem- 
porary’s representative yesterday, said he had 
visited estates at Baddegama, Alutgama, Pana- 
dure, Kalutara, had run up to Peradeniya, and 
also Kurunegala. It depended on the articles 
to be made whether manufacturers would prefer 
biscuit or sheet rubber, but, on the whole, 
they preferred sheet. The Ceylon quality was 
splendid, and the industry in the whole Hast had 
a great future beforeit. From a manufacturer’s 
point of view the quality of Ceylon rubber, 
however, is not as good as the rubber from 
Brazil. The latex is treated with acetic acid, 
but he did not think a great deal of that pro- 
cess. Probably attention ought to be given to 
manuring. There was very good soil in Ceylon. 
He had taken samples, and tests would be made 
at home. The prices would not remain at the 
present high figures when more rubber is placed 
on the market. Next year manufacturers hoped 
the price will be about 5s. Prices would be 
fixed in February or March, because at that 
time the supply from Brazil will be forward. 
It was expected that there would bela 10 per cent 
increase on the previous year’s stock, and, 
naturally, although the price two or three years 
hence may be 3s to 3s 6da lb., the market would 
depend upon the production, 


RUBBER IN BRITISH NORTH BORNEO. 


Tf Rubber trees continue to give 3 lbs, of dry 


rubber daily, as shown in an extract (in our: 


daily) from the North Borneo Herald, that is 
the country to grow rubber in! No wonder 


the Companies’ £1 shares, which, about a year > 


or two ago, were to be had for 13s and 14s, 
are now Selling for £1 5s, 


and Magazine of the Ceylon Agricultural Socrety. 


TAPPING RUBBER TREES IN BRAZIL. 

In the Magazine of Commerce for this month 
appears an article on ‘‘ The Cultivation of Para 
Rubber.” In the course of this we are 
given something of methods in Brazil. There 
the trees are tapped during the dry season, 
which varies in different districts. The rubber 
collectors, or ‘‘ seringueiros,”’ search the forests 
for suitable trees, about two feet in girth. An 
incision is made in the bark with a special tool, 
and the latex. begins to run at once. A few 
hours after the contents of all the cups are 
transferred to a larger vessel. The next step 
is to convert the still liquid latex into solid 
rubber. A fire is lighted, and on it are placed 
nuts of various species of palms. These pro- 
duce a dense smoke, containing acotic acid and 
creosote, which rapidly coagulates any latex 
exposed to it. A kind of paddle is dipped in 
the latex and held in the sroke. The rubber 
coagulates, forming a thin layer on the paddle, 
which is then dipped into the latex and again 
smoked. another layer is deposited on the 
first, and the process is continued until a suffi- 
ciently large mass of solid rubber has been 
collected onthe paddle. It is then removed 
and is ready for sale and export,—L. & C. 
Express, Oct. 15. 


PRODUCTION AND CONSUMPTION 
OF RUBBER. 


(To the Editor, ‘‘ India-Rubber Journal.”) 


Sir,—Is the present high price of rubber 
owing to speculation ?—or is it the result of de- 
mand overtaking supply? As I am interested 
in a number of plantations, I have endeavoured 
by an examination of available statistics to 
arrive at a safe conclusion upon this question. 
Your issue of September 6th contains a report 
from Mr Carruthers, in which he says that in 
Ceylon 184,000 acres have been planted, and 
estimates that there are 175 trees to the acre, or 
a tctal of 37,440,000 trees, and that in Malaya 
there are 241,138 acres planted with 37,440,000 
trees. The total number of trees is therefore 
about sixty-nine millions. On the assumption 
that sixty million trees bear one pound each of 
rubber five years from now, there will be in 1914 
about 27,000 tons of plantation rubber put upon 
the market. 

The world’s consumption in 1907 was 69,000 
tons, and itis generally believed that the de- 
mand increases at the rate of 10 per cent. per 
annum, In 1914 it would, therefore, amount to 
about 130,000 tons, though the existing high 
prices may possibly check the yearly demand. 
If the production of wild rubber remains as in 
recent years, though it may be less, the posi- 
tion in 1914 onwards may be as follows :— 


Wild. Plantation. Total. Consumption. 
1914 60,000, say, 27,000, say, 87,000 130,000 tons. 
1915 60,000 ,, 60,000 ,, 120,000 145,000 tons. 
1916 60,000, 120,000 ,, 180,000 160,000 tons. 


This ostimate of the production of plantation 
rubber includes Ceylon and Malaya only. If 
these figures be fairly correct, it would appear : 
(1) That the present high price of rubber is the 
result of demand overtaking supply, as the 
former, with a 10 per cent, yearly increase on 


479 


1907, will be over 80,000 tons in 1909, and the 
supply of wild rubber, with the present small 
production of plantation rubber, will be much 
less than this ; and (2) that until 1914 or 1915 
there will be no danger of prices falling to 3s or 
4s per lb. Carefully managed estates costing 
not more than £25, or even £30, an acre to bring 
to the producing stage, will therefore remain a 
sound and profitable investment; but the same 
cannot be said of many of the schemes now 
being introduced, though their shares may for a 
time go to a premium.—-Yours, etc., 
Wm. O’Hanton, 

Dale Street, Manchester. 

[An estimate of 300 1b. per acre for 500,000 
acres may be relied upon when present planted 
acreages are in bearing. A yearly increase of 10 
per cent, in demand is conjecture only.—Kd 
“TR. J.?)—India-Rubber Journal, Oct. 4. 


MEXICAN RUBSER PLANTERS AND 
THE STATE. 


The rubber planters of the northern part of 
the republic have held two meetings for the 
general advance of the rubber interests. In the 
last session a committee was named to approach 
the secretary of fomento and obtain government 
assistance. The association, represented by the 
committee, made several requests of the minis- 
ter. They desire that a central body be formed 
in Mexico City for the investigation of questions 
relating to the subject of rubber producing and 
that eleven experiment stations be established 
in various parts of the republic tor the purpose. 
An appropriation of $10,000 is asked for the 
maintenance of the central body and its labora- 
tory. A further appropriation of $35,000 is re- 
quested for the publication of works relating to 
the subject, giving results achieved by the ex- 
periment stations. The secretary of fomento has 
not yet taken any action with regard to these 
requests. He may, in place of authorising this 
association to pursue investigations at the ex- 
pense of the government, order greater emphasis 
on the subject inthe work of the agricultural 
stations already established.— Mexican Herald. 


THE COPRA TRADE. 


The mercantile community in Java show in- 
creasing uneasiness at the fact that the copra 
produced in that island is fast losing its good 
name. For all that, the increasing demand 
for copra-oil raises the price of the Java 
article. The heavy demand leads dealers to 
set quantity above quality with the result 
that the latter is steadily falling off. The 
native growers are only anxious to make money, 
and have no scruples about utilising young 
nuts for copra, or of slovenly handling the 
product of the market. Young nuts never yield 
good copra, and drying the latter over a fire, 
as too many natives do, deteriorates quality. 
An agitation for Government inspection of 
copra, has been set on foot, and against its 
exportation unless under official certificates. 
The European export merchants are divided 
on this point. Most of them see only harm 
in official meddling, and the cry has come to 
nothing.—Straits Times, Oct. 14. 


ab } 


480 The Supplement to the Trapical Agriculturist — 


COPRAIN BRITISH SOLOMON ISLANDS 


THE RESIDENT COMMISSIONER, B.S. I. 


IN COLOMBO. 

We had the pleasure of a visit today from 
Mr. Chas. Morris Woodford, the Resident Com- 
missioner of the British Solomon Islands, who 
is a passenger by the ‘t Otranto,” returning to 
his post after a holiday in England. Mr. Wood- 
ford’s charge consists of the southern islands 
of the group, viz., Shortland Island, Choiseul, 
Isabel, New Georgia, Guadalcanar, Malaita, 
San Christoval, Bellona, and Rennell Islands, 
together with Ongtong-Java, and other smaller 
islands in the vicinity of the main group, and 
all lying between the 74 and 13th degrees of 
south latitude, and the 150th and 163rd degrees 
of east longitude. Trade and industry are gra- 
dully developing in these out-of-the-way islands 
where many of the natives are still said to be 
Head Hunters and Cannibals. There have long 
been a few traders, mostly of British nationality, 
resident in the islands ; these have recently 
increased largely in number, and in the extent of 
their operations. Lever Bros., and more lately, 
Burn, Philps, & Co. have recently undertaken 

COCONUT PLANTING ON A LARGE SCALE, 
and have introduced many white men for the 
superintendence of labour, The principal articles 
of trade are copra, pear! shell, and tortoise 
shell. Mr. Woodford has his headquarters at 
Tulagi, a small island between Guadalcanar 
and Malaita, where there is a Customs House 
and Post Office. There isa fairly regular steam 
communication with Sydney, New South Wales. 
Mr. Woodford thinks there is a future before 
these islands especially in the Copra industry. 
Since the advent of European enterprise and 
capital, due largely to Mr. Woodford’s own 
efforts and recommendations we believe, some 
12,000 acres of coconuts have been planted and 
the work of planting continues. There are con- 
siderable areas covered with coconuts in the 


hands of natives which were not scientifically 


planted. The climate is very wet ; consequently 
SUN DRYING IS NOT FAVOURED BY THE NATIVES 
who smoke their copra, with the result that it 
frequently sweats afterwards. The Copra is 
collected by the traders who go round in small 
ships purchasing it. It is afterwards sold in 
the open market in Sydney. Tho European 
planters do things on a more up to-date scale. 
Sun drying is adopted when possible and drying 
kilns have been erected. Though Copra is the 
principal industry of these islands, and an ex- 
panding one with a bright future before it, rub- 
ber is not neglected ; and when Mr. Woodford left 
for home, some (400 acres had been already 
planted. Labour is not too plentiful, Melanesians 
mostly being employed in agricultural work, 

Mr. Woodford is a young and vigorous offi- 
cial who has already given about 

26 YEARS SERVICE TO THE CROWN IN THE 

REMOTE OUTPOSTS OF EMPIRE, 

having previously served in Fiji, as Consul 
in Samoa, and Deputy Commissioner for 
the West Pacific. We wish him a_ safe 
voyage back to his island home and trust he 
may have the satisfaction of seeing the trade 
and industry of his little Kingdom rapidly 
expand still further under his administration. 


THE WORLD’S GOCOA. 


PRODUCTION AND CONSUMPTION. 


Lhe following particulars of the production 
and consumption of cocoa in the years 1906-8 
are extracted from the ‘‘ Gordian,” the German 
paper dealing with the cocvua trade :— 


Cocoa Crop oF THE WorLD. 


Countries. 1906. 1907. 1908, 
[Kilog, =2°204 lb.] Kilogs. | Kilogs. Kilogs. 
Brazil 25,135,000 24,528,000 32,954,000 
Ecuador 23,4 26,897 19,670,571 32,119,110 
San Thomé 24,619,560 24,198,980 28,560,300 
Trinidad _ 12,983,467 18,611,430 21,737,070 
Santo Domingo 14 312,992 10,151,374 19,005,071 
Venezuela 12,864,609 13,471,090 1€, 303,196 
British West Africa 9,738, 96 + 10,451,498 14,256,634 
Grenada 4,931,530 4,612,100 5,108,245 
Hayti 2,107,905 2,350,000 3,150,000. 
Ceylon ! 2,509 622 4,699,559 2,836,215 
German Colonies 1,367,977 1,966,336 2,737,529 
Jamaica i 2,505,6 8 2,218,741 2,694,381 
Dutch East Indies 1,849,847 1,800,153 2,538. 841 
Fernando Po 1,557,864 2,438,856 2,267,159 
Surinam f 1,480,568 1,625,274 1,699, 236 
French Colonies 1,262,090 1,387,219 1,600,000 
Cuba 3,271,969 1,718,830 862,631 
Saint Lucia 716,200 750,000 700,000 
Belgian Congo 402,429 548,526 612,000 
Dominica 572,948 590,633 498,821 
Costa Rica 176,243 277,884 340,375 
Other Countries 1,000,000 1,000,000 1,0C0,000 


Total 148,794,289 149,057,054 193,482,814 


Cocoa CoNnsuMPTION OF THE Wor LD. 


Countries. ine: mee 1908, 
ne jlogs. ilogs. Kilogs, 
United States 37,948,575 37,526,505 42,615,293 
Germany | 35,260,500 34,515,400 — 34,351,900 
United Kingdom 20,132,040 20,159,472 21,051,520 
France 23,403,800 - 23,180,300 20,444,500 
Netherlands 11,224,000 12,219,249. ‘15,821,000 
Spain 5,636,821 5,628, 239 6.580,113 
Switzerland 6,466,900 7,124,200 5,820,500 
Belgium 3,861,686 3,253, $67 4,054,081 
Austria-Hungary 3,312,800 3,471,700 3,707,300 
Russia 2,670,940 2,473,380 2,588,060 
Italy 1,385,000 1,455,600 1,432,600 
Denmark 1,190,000 1,225,000 1,200,000 
Canada 1,035,182 1,115,957 1,077,034 
Sweden 1,057,218 696,455 974,000 
Australia 386,497 400,000 500,000 
Norway 680.043 624,713 466,959 
Portugal 145,604 150,000 171,572 
Finland : 86,252 108,804 85, 04 
Other Countries 1,000,090 1,°00,600 1,200,000 


eS Se es 


Total 1,56,783,858 156,223,841 164,641,986 


The stocks of cocoa remaining on hand at the 
end of the years 1906, 1907 and 1908, were 
estimated at 52,345,058 kilogs., 45,204,647 
kilogs. and 78,488,009 kilogs. respectively.— 
Board of Trade Journal, Sept, 30. 


RESIGNATION OF DR. TREUB. 


Or BurrEnzora Garpuns, JAvA. 


Amsterdam, Sept. 29.—Mr. Lovink, Director- 
General of Agriculture in Holland, has been 
appointed Director of the Department of Agri- 
culture in Netherlands India, and will retire 
from his present position Nov. Ist, Mr. Lo- 
vink will be the successor or Dr. Treub at 
Buitenzorg, whose resignation is much regretted, 
but who is fortunately replaced by a first-class 
man. The new functionary will leave in the 
middle of November by the sg. ‘*‘ Rembrandt,” 
together with the Governor-General Mr. Iden- 
burg.”—L, and C, Express, 


Photo by H, F. Macmillan. 


SALACIA RETICULATA. 
“ Himbutu-wel.” 
A Curious CEYLON CLIMBER. 


TROPICAL AGRICULTURIST 


AND 


MAGAZINE OF THE 


CEYLON AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY. 


Vou. XXXII, 


COLOMBO, DECEMBER 157a, 1909, No. 6. 


Review. 


INDIAN INSECT LIFE. 


By H. MAXWELL LEFROY, M.A., 
F.E.S., F.Z.S., 


Entomologist, Imperial Department of 
Agriculture for India, 
Calcutta : Thacker Spink & Co. 
Price Rs. 20. 

Following shortly upon the publication 
of his useful book on ‘‘Indian Insect 
Pests,” Mr. Lefroy has brought out a 
bulky volume of nearly 800 pages, dealing 
with Insect LifeinIndia. Itisa weighty 
volume—literally as well as metaphori- 
cally—for, owing to the loaded paper 
upon which it is printed, it scales ap- 
proximately eight pounds avoirdupois. 


To say that “it fills a gap” is to use 
a very trite expression, but one that 
is strictly true: for the want of such 
a work has been felt by every visitor to 
the East as soon as he begins to pay 
attention to the innumerable interesting 
insects that are such afeature of tropical 
life. We havemany (though far from 
enough) monographs upon particular 
families or groups of insects; but these 
are ‘“‘dry as dust” to all but the speci- 
alist, and most of them provide merely 
technical descriptions of the species with- 
out any account of the more interest- 


ing and equally important biological 
side of the question. I have no: wish 
to decry such technical work. It is of 
the utmost importance, and opens the 
way tothe more popular treatment of 
the subject. The popular work—in its 
turn—leads on the enquirer to the study 
and appreciation of the more technical 
works. Many atime have I been asked 
to recommend some hook that would 
give a general account of the insect 
fauna of the country—in a manner 
comprehensible to the uinitiated. I have 
hitherto been compelled to reply that 
no such book existed. This reproach 
has now been removed and, for the 
comparatively modest price of twenty 
rupees, the enquirer may possess himself 
of a single volume that will provide 
just the information that he requires, 
Not that Mr, Lefroy’s book is solely of 
a popular character. It combines, in a 
happy manner, general popular and use- 
ful information on insect life in India, 
with a foundation of more technical 
matter that will put the reader on the 
right road to the more serious study of 
the subject—should his interest carry 
him in that direction. In each section 
there are simple keys that should enable 
the veriest tyro to place any insect in 
its approximate position in the scheme 
of classification. Many of the more com- 
mon species are described, and their re- 
cognition is further assisted by numerous 


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Review. 482 


coloured plates and text figures. Where- 
ever possible, particulars of life-histories 
and habits are given ; and where no such 
information is available, the fact is not 
slurred over, but attention is pointedly 
drawn to the gaps in our kuowledge. 
This, in itself, is a valuable feature of 
the book, caleulated—as it is—to inspire 
the student to attack some of the many 
problems that still await solution. One 
of the charms of entomological work in 
the tropics is the knowledge that there 
are endless new species to be discovered 
and new facts to be garnered about the 


-species that are already known. 


After a useful general introduction, 
the different orders of insects are dis- 
cussed in detail according to a scheme 
of classification that is fully set out at 
the commencement of the work, starting 
from the lowest (wingless) insects. 


In reviewing a book of this kind, 
which depends upon hard facts, dis- 
cussion of individual statements must 
almost necessarily be of the nature of 
criticism. After having drawn atten- 
tion to the merits of the work, what 
appear to be small errors may be pointed 
out without detracting from the favour- 
able opinion of the whole. Under Phas- 
mids (p. 72), the author is not quite 
correct in his statement that the “eggs 
pre laid singly, dropped like seeds on 
the ground.” his is certainly true 
of the Leaf Insects and of some 
Stick Insects. But other Stick Insects 
attach their eggs, either singly or 
in small groups, to the leaves and 
stems of the plants upon which they 
feed. The section on Termites is dis- 
appointing. There is no proper des- 
cription of the queen, nor of the economy 
of the nests. Reference is made to 
the sponge-like fungus beds; but their 
arrangement and disposition in the 
termitarium is not explained.  Al- 
together the pages devoted to this 
interesting and extremely important 
family of insects are rather weak and 
poorly arranged. 


Under Hymenoptera, a most interest- 
ing account of the tactics of Salius in 
the capture of its prey is given on page 
216. Such original observations afford 


_ an example of what may be done by any 


patient observer in India. On page 227 
is a note on the supposed ‘‘ mimicry of a 
species of Polyrachis by the nymph of a 
Coreid bug Dulichius inflatus.” The 
apterous adult of Dulichius is almost 
exactly like the ant in question; but it 
does not appear to bea specially myrme- 
cophilous species. It is abundant, in 
Ceylon, amongst grass, quite dissociated 
from its supposed model. On page 281 
is a remarkably good reproduction of 


[DECEMBER, 1! | 
Bree 


the webbing of the large red ant_ 
Geophylla smaragdina, and an account 
of the extraordinary manner in which it 
is produced. It is also noted that the nests 
of Polyrachis are constructed in the same 
manner as those of Ccophyilla, the 
web being produced by thelarve of the 
ant. It is probable that many other 
nest-building ants employ the same 
means, as no adult ant has any spinning 
organs. 


The Coleoptera are treated very fully. 
The section renders useful assistance 
in the determination of the different 
families of this huge order of insects. 


The section of Lepidoptera naturally 
occupies considerable space, and con- 
tains some useful life histories. The 
directions (on p. 398) for recognising the 
caterpillars of the several families appear 
to be rather tvo positive. Numerous 
exceptions might be cited in nearly 
every case. It should be noted that, on 
page 495, a figure of what is really the 
larva and moth of the Pyralid Hypsi- 
pyla robusta (adapted from ‘Indian 
Museum Notes,” Vol. I., Part I, fig. 3) 
has been unaccountably labelled Cossus 
cadambe—a totally different insect— 
and tacked on to the description of this 
species. The caterpillar ot robusta is 
common in Ceylon, where it bores in 
the terminal shoots of Cedrela and 
Swietenia (Mahogany). The 
figure in the “Indian Museum Notes” 
was areproduction of a drawing by the 
writer of this review. 


Following that on the Lepidoptera 
comes a very well arranged and useful 
section on the Diptera, by F. M. Howlett. 
It is pleasing to find this much- 
neglected order so well handled and 
receiving the attention thatis so badly 
needed, 


The last section of the book presents 
the remaining order Khynchota, which 
contains many of our most trouklesome 
insect pests. Here, as with the Lepidop- 
tera and Hymenoptera, the author has 
had the advantage of the volumes of 
the “Fauna of British India” series 
which he has supplemented by many 
original observations. On page 685, 
Serinetha augur and S. abdominalis 
are accused of cannibalism. In Ceylon, 
both of these species are preyed _ upon 
by the Pyrrhocorid bug Antilochus 
nigripes which so closely mimics the 
Coreid Serinetha, There are both red 
and ochreous varieties of both the 
Serinetha and the Antilochus. Is it 

ossible that the supposed carnivorous 
Fauci of Serinetha have been mistakenly 
attributed to these species instead of to 
their mimic? Serinetha most certainly 
sucks fruits and seeds in Ceylon, and 


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sometimes swarms on the fruits of 


Schleichera trijuga as well as in the 


burst pods of the Bombax. 


A number of more or less interestirg 
“interludes” on such subjects as ‘‘Cosmo- 
politan Insects,” ‘ Attraction to Light,” 
‘* Sex,” ‘‘ Myrmecophilous Insects,” ‘ Mi- 
gration,” etcetera, are dispersed through- 
out the different sections of the book. 


A few obvious misprints are notice- 
able. The title of the text figure on 
page 58 should be Stylopygia (not ‘‘ Sty- 
loygia”). On page 160 (first line of last 
paragraph) ‘‘hemopterid” should be 
Nemopterid. On page 3822 (line 14), for 
‘* figs, 199, 200,” read 200, 201. The figures 
1,dand l,e (on Plate LXII) have been 
wrongly placed, On page 603 (line 5), 
for ‘Pl. LXIV,” read LXIII. In the 
explanation of Pl. LXV, fig. 6, ‘‘ Micros- 
don” should read Jlicrodon. On page 
653 (line 18), for ‘‘ disturbed” read distri- 
buted; and, on page 655 (line 16), the 
word parent has somehow been trans- 
formed into ‘ present.’ 


A word must be said about the Plates 
and text figures with which the volume 
isso profusely illustrated. Some few 
have been taken over from the now 
defunct “Indian Museum Notes,” but 
the majority of them are from original 
drawings prepared expressly for this 
publication. In the author’s ‘‘ Acknow- 
ledyments,” it is stated that ‘those 
marked F. H. M. have been drawn by 
Mr. Howlett. Where not otherwise 
acknowledged, all the plates and illus- 
trations are the work of the Artist Staff 
of this Institute under my or Mr. 
Howlett’s direction ; it may be pointed 
out that these artists are wholly natives 
of India, trained in Art Schools of this 
country; it is needless to emphasise 
how much the book owes to their beauti- 
ful work as also to the enterprise of the 


publishers, who have done the work of 


reproducing allthe illustrations in this 
country. I wish to specially express my 
appreciation of the work of Mr. Slater 
oF the Caleuttta Phototype Company in 
the printing of the Colour Plates.” 


The figures are not all of equal merit ; 
but, with a very few exceptions, they 


ARS Review. 


serve their DEEDES sufficiently well, and 
very many of them are quite admirable. 
Of the coloured plates, Nos. VI, IX, XTV, 
XXXVI, XLIX, LXVI, LXVII, LXXII, 
and LXXV, may be specially commended 
as beautiful examples of tricolor print- 
ing and faithful representations uf the 
objects portrayed. The upper part of 
Pl. XVI—r+ presenting the Cicindelide— 
is not up to the standard of most of 
the illustrations. The figures give no 
suggestion of the splendid metallic tints 
of these graceful beetles. The limbs— 
as shown—are too thick and clumsy, and 
have an exaggerated appearance of 
hairiness. On Pl. XXVII, figure 6 is 
represented as a typical Sphingid larva, 
This selection is unfortunate, as—with- 
out the definite statement in the explan- 
ation—it would have been difficult to 
recognise it as a Sphingid. It would 
have been easy to choose a more charac- 
teristic representative of the family. 


Amongst the black-and-white illus- 
trations, itis impossible to avoid sing- 
ling out some of Mr. Howlett’s clever 
drawings, e.g., figs. 83, 60, 76, 141 and 151, 
in which there is a happy combination 
of clearness, accuracy, and artistic feel- 
ing, Special mention, also, must be 
made of R. C, Wood’s dainty tail-piece 
at the end of the volume, in which the 
action of the swimming toad has been 
very cleverly caught. Of the other 
figures, Nos, 10, 86, 131, 154, 172, 179, 196, 
284, 285 and 380 may be cited as good 
examples in various styles of treatment. 
Reference has already been made to the 
admirable reproduction on page 231. 
Fig. 152-A. on page 267, taken over from 
a continental author, is represented in 
the ‘negative’ style adopted (for what 
reason I do not know) by certain special- 
istsin Coleoptera. The insect illustrated 
is in reality deep brown, with two 
ochreous (or reddish) patches on the 
elytra; whereas, in the figure, the 
colouration appears to be reversed. 

A useful index brings a useful volume 
to a satisfactory conclusion. Mr. Lefroy 
and his coadjutors must be heartily 
congratulated upon the result of their 


labours. 
K, ERNEST GREEN. 


484 


ae 


[DECEMBER, 1909. 


GUMS, RESINS, SAPS AND EXUDATIONS. 


THE PASSING OF FICUS ELASTICA, 


(From the India Rubber Journal, Vol. 
XXXVIII., No. 5, September, 1909.) 


Four years ago the question of the 
relative advantages of planting ‘‘ Hevea 
brasiliensis” (Para rubber), or ‘‘ Ficus 
elastica’’ (Rambong), was considered an 
open one, and the fact that the latter 
wasa native tree and grew freely in 
Malaya induced some to prefer it to the 
Brazilian plant. There are various diffi- 
culties attending the treatment of Ficus 
in regard to pruning it or allowing it to 
form its aérial roots unchecked, in rela- 
tion to tapping and prevention of en- 
trance of boring insectsand fungi into the 
wounds; also the direction and shape 
of the branches and stems make the 
collection ot latex no easy matter. The 
yields of dry rubber from rambong are 
larger than from Para and market prices 
excellent. The symmetrical stem of 
the Para, the facilities for running the 
latex into a single cup at the base of the 
tree, regularity of its growth and its 
reaction to a wound, have _ especially 
commended this tree to the rubber 
grower, so that rambong is no longer 
considered as an alternative on equal 
terms, and no further estates have been 
planted with the native plant. Froma 
practical planter’s point of view this 
choice must perhaps be considered wise ; 
but it is to be regretted that a tree yield- 
ing so well and suited to local conditions 
should have been entirely abandoned, I 
have been carrying on experiments for 
some two years past in regard to the 
proper methods and instruments for 
tapping “‘ Ficus elastica” (Rambong), and 
consider that a rotary pricker in which 
the pinsare at such a distance apart 
that the latex which runs from the 
purcture joins that from those adjoining 
isa more practical way of extracting 
the latex than the making of a cut with 
aknife. If the rubber which flows from 
the various punctures made with a roller 
pricker all over the surface of the stem 
and branches is pulled off directly it has 
coagulated, it will be found that the flow 
will occur again and a second crepe-like 
film of coagulated latex can be pulled 
off, The absence of wound prevents the 
attacks of borers and the tree can be 
again pricked after a short time has 
elapsed. When the flow from the 
puncture is too great to allow it to 
coagulate and it runs down, it can be 
caught at the base of the tree by means 
of rubber band or a metal ledge round 
the tree to lead the latex into acupor 


other receptacle. If a flow of latex is 
preferred to the crepe-like scrap I have 
described, then an application of water 
by a brush or spray will run the latex 
down to the base of the tree where it 
can be caught. 


These questions are, however, becoming 
of minor importance in the Federated 
Malay States, as the passing of ‘Ficus 
elastica” has begun, and each year sees 
less of this interesting and profitable 
tree cultivated. 


THE GUAYULE RUBBER INDUSTRY. 
(From the indian Trade Journal, Vol. 
XIV., No. 178, August 26, 1909.) e 
Mr, J. KE. Kirkwood writes y 
the Scientific American :— ae aeeerig 


The increasing demand for rubber in 
the various manufactures of the present 
time makes the business of its production 
one of the most important of modern 
enterprises. Not only is the natural 
source of the supply eagerly sought and 
carefully guarded, but eftorts for the 
cultivation of rubber-bearing plants are 
rocolyine attention in many parts of the 
world. 


The rubber of commerce is_ derived 
from a number of different plants; in 
fact, there are many plants of more or 
less importance from the standpoint of 
the quantity and quality of the rubber 
they produce. Among those less gener- 
ally known is a Mexican plant, called 
guayule. (pronounced gwyulie,) which 
is identified botanically as Parthenium 
argentatum. 


The guayule is a desert plant. It 
thrives in those regions of relatively 
little rain throughout the northern half 
of Mexico and the neighbouring areas of 
Texas. Itis a small shrub, tree-like, and 
rarely attains a height of four feet ora 
stem diameter of more than three inches. 
Its leaves are small and of a silvery 
grey colour, whence its specific name 
argentatum. The plant produces small 
yellowish-green Mower heads consisting 
of many minute florets, only five of which 
in each head are capable of producing 
seeds, and each of these only one. 


Most of the rubber of commerce j 
produced by plants having a mallee jee 
or latex as it_is called, in which the gum 
is found. The trees are tapped by 


cutting into or through the bark, and_ 


the latex is collected as it flows down. 
Inthe guayule plant no latex is pro- 


_duced, and it must be subjected to an 


entirely different process to extract the 


ot Tee’ 


DECEMBER, 1909.] 


rubber. This article occurs in the form 
of minute microscopic granules deposited 
throughout the tissues of the stem, 
branches, and roots, but especially in 
the bark of these organs, If one will 
take a very thin section of the stem or 
branch and examine it under a lens, he 
may see much of the tissue densely 
crowded with small, dark coloured 
granules. In these granuels, deposited 
within the living cell, is the source of 
the rubber, to separate which requires a 
special process. 


Methods of extraction of guayule 
rubber differ. Some obtain the rubber 
by trituration of the plant and a suh- 
sequent more or less mechanical process ; 
others by means of solvents separate 
the gum from tissues after grinding 
them. But the details of the process 
are kept secret, the public not being 
admitted to the factories, which are 
surrounded by high walls with armed 
guards at the gates. However, several 
processes are described by Dr. F. 
Altamirano in the Boletin de la Secretaria 
de Fomento of Mexico. One of the 
methods consists in first crushing the 
plants by grinding them in a machine, 
in which they are tumbled among hard 
stones until thoroughly pulverized, and 
the gummy substance collects in lumps 
with a certain amount of woody tissue. 
To isolate the gum, this material is then 
boiled over steam in aniron vessel with 
a double bottom, and the woody particles 
afterwards strained out. After this 
operation the “mass is thrown into a 
tank of cold water; again it is strained 
and boiled anew with caustic soda until 
the woody particles are fully separated, 
and the gum is precipitated by chloride 
of calcium. 


The process of extraction of guayule 
rubber involves therefore the immediate 
destruction of the plant. The natives 
employed to collect the plant uproot 
them, and take no pains to spare any 
parts. The bushes are then packed on 
the backs of burros, and carried to some 
place for baling and shipment. The 
cheapness of labour makes it feasible to 
transport the plants for considerable 
distance by pack train or wagon. Some- 
times the load is carried for as much as 
forty miles from where the plant is 
gathered to the railway station, such 
distances usually by wagon. The cheap- 
ness of labour makes such operations 
profitable, the wages of a peon being 
about thirty-seven cents a day, Mexican 
currency. 


The manufacture of rubber from 
guayule is an industry of only recent 
development. The production of gum 
from this plant has been known from 


485 Saps and Exudations, 


the middle of the eighteenth century. 
The Indians were accustomed to make 
rubber balls by chewing out the gum 
from the bark. If one takes a mouthful 
of the bark and thoroughly masticates 
it, rejecting the fibrous particles, he may 
soon obtain a small mass of rubber the 
size of apea. The rubber thus obtained 
is soft and sticky, adhering to the skin 
as itis manipulated batween the thumb 
and finger. 


For some time no effort was made to 
manufacture this rubber on a large scale. 
In 1890 a German chemist first attempted 
to extract it in commercial quantities, 
but a paying basis was not reached until 
some years later. In 1905. according to 
consular reports, the guayule rubber 
shipment from Durango amounted to 
$125,478. From Torreon in 1996 rubber 
was shipped to the value of $917,571. 
During the year ending in June, 1908, 
there was shipped from the Durango 
consular district alone, guayule rubber 
to the value of two and a _ quarter 
ywillions. Since then the business has 
increased, and is one of Mexico’s most 
important industries at the present time. 
Hxtensive tracts of land and millions of 
capital are involved in the enterprise. 
The Continental-Mexican Rubber Com- 
pany of New York, inaddition to their 
large factory at Torreon, acquired 
possession of the old Hacienda de Cedros 
in the northern part of the State of 
Zacatecas, consisting of 2,500,000 acres, 
valued especially for the growth of 
guayule which it supports. The Madero 
brothers of Barras are said to own or 
control 3,000,000 acres of guayule lands, 
and there are other large interests 
besides these. 


The rate of consumption of guayule is 

a subject of interest and importance. 
With several well-equipped factories in 
active operation working, at least « part 
of the time, both nightand day, the in- 
road upon the supply isa matter demand- 
ing consideration. Although the acreage 
~above cited seems large, the fact is 
that only parts, favoured situations, of 
these large holdings actually produce 
the plant—the foothills especially, of 
limestone formation. A single factory 
may consume 30,000 tons of guayule 
shrub in a year, or approximately 100 
tons a day. This may represent the 
growth on anywhere from 25 to 100 acres 
of land. The number of plants on an 
acre, and the weight of the individual 
plant, vary so much that no constant 
figures can be given. One may find on 
guayule lands a stand of from 1,000 to 2,000 
plants to the acre, and the plants weigh 
any where up to 15 pounds (very large); 
probably the majority of the plants 


Gums, Resins, 


taken weigh dry from 1 to 4 pounds. 
Thus on an acre we should find from 
1,000 to 8,000 pounds of the shurb. If 
we call the average yield two tons per 
acre, we may estimate the area harvest- 
ed at fifty acres for one day’s consump- 
tion atalarge tactory. 

While the fact is patent that the sup- 
ply of guayule is decreasing and must 
ultimately be exhausted, the opinions of 
experts place the date, some at ten, some 
at twenty years hence. Large factories 
running steadily at Parras, Torreon, 
Saltillo, and elsewhere, using the pro- 
duct of no less than 100 acres every 
day, the activities of the camps which 
the traveller may see in dozen places in 
a day’s journey; the bales of the shrub 
piled high by the siding awaiting ship- 
ment, all point to the speedily approach- 
ing day when the factories must shut 
down for want of material. 


This menace to the business interests 
involved has not been overlooked cr 
ignored. To provide a continuous crop 
upon which the business could depend 
is an idea that has appealed, not only 
to the members of interested corpor: 
ations, butalso to private land-holders, 
who appreciated the income prospective 
from such an enterprise. Experiments 
here and there have been tried, and 
various opinions have taken form as 
to the prospect. The most votable of 
these experiments was that conducted 
at the instance of the Continental- 
Mexican Rubber Company, who recently 
established an elaborate department of 
investigation at Cedros, Mexico, and 
spent much money in foiwarding the 
work. Although less than a year was 
allowed for this large task, the time 
sufficed to show some _ insuperable 
obstacles to the cultivation of the plant 
on any thing like an economic scale. 


In the first place, the slow production 
of seeds, and the care required in their 
planting, and the rearing of young 
plants, make the procedure unprofitable 
from an economic stand point. With a 
possible germination rate of 10 per cent. 
of the seed sown, the failure through 
one cause or another of the young seed- 
lings to pass the initial stages of develop- 
ment, the ranks of the young plants 
again depleted by pest or parasite, the 
loss by accidents or in process of trans- 
planting, anda few subsequent vicissi- 
tudes both possible and probable, make 
it doubtful whether one can count on as 
much as 1 per cent. of the seed sown to 
mature plants, even under the most 
favourable conditions. Cuttings mostly 
fail to grow except from portions of the 
roots, or stems having part of the root 
system in connection with them, and 


486 


Soe 
Pl a i 


(DEcEMBER, 1909. Bei 


only under certain conditions of irri- 
gation; even then, as in the case of 
seedlings the cost of the operation 
exceeds its value. Irrigation is quite 
essential to the starting either of seeds 
or ecnttings, and in the subsequent 
growth the rapidity of development 
depends upon the quantity of water 
supplied. 


But the rapidity of development is in 
inverse ratio to the formation of rubber 
in the tissues. Plants grown under irri- 
gation grow rapidly, and attain in four 
years a weight of six pounds or more, 
but the rubber content in such plants 
is practically nil, while in native desert- 
grown plants it is about 10 per cent, of 
the dry weight. If, however, water is 
withheld, as under desert conditions, 
the plants grow very slowly, and it is 
doubtful whether a crop could be 
matured much under twenty years. Of 
course, rubber is present in desert- 
grown plants atanage much less than 
this, but it isa questionat what age 
plants may be most profitably taken, 
though certainly not Jess than ten years. 


Reforestation by natural processes 
must be very slow, and as in the case of 
the lumber forests of the North, the 
second growth is never equal to the 
first.- A guayule seed in the desert has 
about onechance in the thousand of 
coming up, and thereafter danger from 
drought, disease, and accident make its 
hold upon life exceedingly uncertain. 
The only hope of prolonging the business 
seems to be in so harvesting the plants 
that the roots are left in the ground; 
from these new shoots will arise, and in 
a few years possibly yield another crop 
worth the taking, How long this 
process can be kept up profitably is at 
present unknown. However, the 
guayule rubber industry seems destined 
to haveits day and pass out. 


The above statements are issued only . 
after much observation and experiment, 
the details of which are soon to be 
published in a book under the joint 
authorship of the investigators. 


RUBBER PRICH CONDITIONS, 

(From the India Rubber World, Vol. 
L., No. De May, 1909.) s ‘ 

The topic of the utmost interest in the 
india-rubber industry to-day, and that 
which is most considered, is the present 
and prospective price of crude rubber. 
Whether the manufacturer be located 
at Malden, Manchester, 
Melbourne, Menin, Milan, Mjondalen, 
Montargis, Montreal, or Moscow, the 
question is ever present, as one which 


Mannheim, 


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, 
; 
hs 


a we esaee 


\ 


- every detail for the future. 


FES eR ee Ee ee ea MT ee MR ta POR oe ES Re 


DECEMBER, 1909,] 


must be taken into account in planning 
This is a 
fact which makes the whole rubber 
industry akin, forthe price of rubber 
everywhere at any moment practically 
is the same, while the same uncertainty 
‘exists as to what the price may be to- 
morrow. The producers of rubber and 
the tradersin rubber have troubles of 
theiz own in relation to the same 
subject, but here we shall treat more 
particularly of the ‘manufacturers. 
Where rubber prices are made, or how 
they are made, are questions not now 
pertinent to our purpose. The un- 
certainty of prices is the thing, and what 
the consumer of rubber can do about it. 

Low priced rubber is not so essential. 
When every consumer of a given grade 
of rubber must buy it practically from 
the same source, and it costs them all 
precisely the same figure, they are all 
on the same footing, Whether the cost 
is 50 cents or $1 a pound, or more, would 
be immaterial—if permanent prices could 
be counted upon. But they cannot, 
The average price at New York of fine 
upriver Para rubber during the year 
1902 was 76 cents; during 1905 it was 
$1283, since then it has been less, the 
figure for 1908 declining to 938i cents. 
This year, so far, the price for this 
grade has keptin the neighbourhood of 
$1:20. When it is considered that the 
difference between the highest and 
lowest year prices here quoted amounts 
to no less than $1,157'42 cents per me- 
trical ton, and that these fluctuations 
usually occur without warning, the buy- 
ing of raw rubber by consumers ap- 
proaches almost a speculative basis. 

The producers of rubber in the Amazon 
region, far from satisfied with a condi- 
tion under which they have no say in 
fixing the market price of their produce, 
have determined upon acourse of action, 
in which, with the help of the Govern- 
ment and of a great bank, they mean to 
hold their rubber whenever prices are 
not high enough to be attractive. Now 
the holding of rubber anywhere is an 
expensive practice, when storage costs 
are considered, insurance, interest on 
advances—and the inevitable shrinkage 
in weight. It is well enough to speak of 
rubber as being a modern necessity, but 
there are limits to what people will pay 
even for necessities, and manufacturers 
would have to halt somewhere in the 
matter of paying advancing rates on 
rubber, even were the Amazon region 
the world’s only source. There would 
be an inevitable check to rising prices, 
due to increased production and the 
hesitation of consumers to buy, after 
which the banks would have to unload, 
with such results as followed Vianna’s 


487 Saps and Hxudations. 


state-aided rubber “‘corner”—a fall to 
half the former prices and loss to every- 
body concerned. 

The India Rubber Worid, a dozen 
years ago, printed an article on ‘* What 
Vianna did for African Rubbers,” show- 
ing that his speculative ‘‘ bearing” of 
the market for Para rubber opened the 
way largely for the increased use of 
African grades. Nowadays, African 
rubbers having won an _ established 
position in the industry, though now 
apparently falling off in the rate of 
production, an important new source of 
supplies has been developed—the Hastern 
plantations, the product of which 
(Hevea) is better calculated than even 
the best Africans for supplanting the 
Amazon rubber in the industry. 

Without meaning to advice our friends 
on the Amazon, it would seem that their ° 
best interest lies, not in forcing up 
prices to an artificial level, but to so 
improving their business methods as to 
enable them to sell at a profit at even 
lower prices than at present. Their 
devotion to any policy gives the planters 
of Ceylon and Malaya, backed by vn- 
limited European capital, the very 
encouragement which they want and 
most need. The Eastern planters have 
it in their power to appeal strongly to 
the consuming markets in the matter of 
guaranteeing prices for longer periods 
than have ever been known in the trade 
before, and we shall be surprised if this 
does not strengthen the demand for 
their product. 


YIELDS OF DRY RUBBER 
. PER TREE. 
(From the India Rubber Journal, Vol. 
XXXVIII., No.5, September, 1909.) 


It is difficult to decide whether it is 
better to record yields per acre or per 
tree; both methods are in scme ways 
misleading. The yields having been 
given in my last report per tree, this 
seems to me to be the better way to 
continue. The average yield per tapped 
tree all over the Peninsular has risen 
from 11b.120z. to 1lb., 153 0z., an in- 
crease of ll percent. Considering that 
the majority of the trees tapped are in 
their first year of bearing, this is a most 
encouraging figure and shows that the 
yields estimated in looking forward to 
the future production of rubber trees 
have, as a rule, been extremely moderate 
if not unnecessarily small. The aver- 
age yield of tapped trees, in Negri 
Sembilan, amounted to 3 lb. 2} oz., which, 
being the average of nearly one million 
trees, is an extraordinarily high figure. 
This State has much higher yields per 
tree because the proportion of trees in 


Gums, Resins, 


their first tapping period is much less 
than in the other States, but this high 
figure is interesting as pointing to the 
averages which may be looked for in 
trees after two or three years’ tapping. 
An interesting tapping experiment with 
eight 17-year-old trees, growing round 
the churchyard at Parit Buntar, in the 
Krian district of Perak, has given after 
one year’s tapping every other day an 
average of 284 lb. of dry rubber per tree. 
The average girth of the trees was 54°87 
inches at three feet from the ground, 
and they had been growing in unweeded 
land containing lalang and other grasses. 


COMPARATIVE TABLES OF RUBBER 
Crops, MALAYA, 1907 AND 1908. 


488 


ae 
DECEMBER 1909. — 


Rubber Yields. Average yield per tree. 
1908 1907 190 


State. 8 

Ib. Ib, OZ. Ib, oz. 

Selangor a . 1,846,384 1 7% 1 91°5 
Perak « 383,073 2 1 1 83. 

Negri Sembilan a@ 963,253 2 7 3 2h 

Pahang a = Sere i 

Malacca b 52,980 1 i4 - = 

Province Welles- 

leyb 92,600 i Keeege: Fe -_- -— 

Johore ane AOI P ne 583 5 1 15% 

Kelantan ron — — + = 

Total 3,539,922 — — _ — 


In Province Wellesley is included two 
estates in Singapore, eight estates in 
Penang, and five estates in Kodah. 


Number'of trees Rubber 
tapped. yields. 
State, 1907. 1908. 1907. Ib, 
Selangor «@ wv. 772,656 ...1,172,383 ...1,131,086 
Perak a 1 132;556-... 2b1j613 t... 272,804 
Negri Sembilana 240,401 ... 306,376 ... 586,864. 
Pahang a ete tho Se 
Malacca 6 12,455 ... 56,846 ... 34,490 
Province Welles- 
ley b 48,000 ... 65,100... 82,131 
Johore ; 194,169...) WOU 772 sa, 1825495 
Kelantan — Sa 
Total .. 1,300,227 1,954,090 2,278,870 


aF.M.S. 08.8. 


OILS AND FATS. 


POSSIBILITIES OF COTTONSEED OIL. 


(From the Indian Agriculturist, Vol. 
XXXIV., No. 9, September 1, 1909.) 


In the course of an article in the 
Cottonseed Oil Magazine, U. St A, 
Mr. F. A. Southwick writes :—lt was 
stated by a speaker recently at the 
Interstate Cotton Oil Convention that 
cotton furnishes, among other things, 
a not inconsiderable portion of our daily 
food. This statement, while seeming 
mere rhetoric, contains a large grain 
of truth than would at first appear. 


It is well known that by far the larger 
part of all the salad oil sold in this 
country to-day is made from cottonseed 
oil. Cottonseed oil enters largely into 
medicinal preparations, and, in fact, 
wherever an edible oil is used it is 
pretty sure to be cottonseed oil. Cotton- 
seed oil is replacing to a remarkable 
extent the hog product for cooking and 
baking, not only in the large wholesale 
establishments, but in our homes and 
kitchens as well, Probably the most 
promising field for cottonseed oil is the 
oleomargarine industry, provided that 
industry could free itself from the 
shackles cf adverse legislation, which 
ostensibly placed on the statute books 


to protect the farmer and small dairy- 
man, in reality operates to bolster up 
the product of the ‘‘butter trust,” robs 
the farmer, cheats the government out 
of millions per year in revenue, deceives 
the people and is rapidly building up 
a large and affluent class of moon-shiners, 
who are the real pirates of the oleo- 
margarine business, 


With commendable foresightthe recent 
Interstate Convention placed itself on 
record as favouring a repeal of the pre- 
sent oleomargarine law, and it is to the 
interest of every one in any way identi- 
fied with the cotton oil industry to work 
for that end, because if the consumption 
of oleomargarine in America were allow- 
ed to equal that of foreign countries, 
where the only legislation is to prevent 
it being sold for anything except what 
it really is and under its own label, — 
it would mean a demand for cottonseed 
oil more than double the present total 
output. 


According to statistics the output for 
last year of cottonseed oil in this country 
was 1,200,000 barrels for domestic con- 
sumption. Had our consumption of 
oleomargarine been even equal to the 
little principality of Holland, which has 
a population of a little over two million 


ow 


«= 
om 


a a ee er 


ae 


a il ee lt i ee 


| DECEMBER, 1909.]} 


people, and which, I[ think, will be con- 
ceded, is a fairly intelligent country, 
it would have required on the present 
basis of formula for making oleomar- 
garine 2,370,000 barrels to take care of 
the domestic demand for oleomargarine 
alone, to say nothing of the demand 
for other purposes, which takes now 
probably about a million barrels. 


When these facts are considered it 
is easy to see why the oleomargarine 
question received such a warm recep- 
tion at the Memphis meeting, and why 
it is that cottonseed oil crushers are 
heartily in favour of a repeal of the 
present oleomargarine law, aside from 
the fact that every true American 
citizen is opposed to the law because 
it does exactly what our constitution 
says cannot be done, that is, taxes one 
class for the benefit of another, and 
with one hand uses the taxing power 
of the government to tear down one 
industry, while the other hand is building 
up what will some day be a most for- 
midable and pernicious trust, as it has 
already shown itself to possess all the 
elements to bring about that result. 


The writer was recently approached 
by a party in the East who claims to 
have discovered a process of refining 
cottonseed oils, rendering them sweet 
and palatable at what he states, is much 
lower cost than is possible with present 
methods. 1 have not had the oppor- 
tunity yet to investigate his processes 
as I shall do later, but the informa- 
tion leads me to state for the benefit 
of the cottonseed oil chemists that if 
they could produce an oil which would 
be absolutely neutral in tests and smell, 
they would find a much larger market 
for this oil than they now do. 


In the manufacture of oleomargarine, 
for instance, about 80 per cent. of cotton- 
seed oil is used, and the only reason 
why more of it isnot used is because 
of the fact that that is about all the pro- 
duct will stand without disclosing itself 
on account of the peculiar taste which 
it seems hard to get out of the oil. 
For the manufacture of oleomargarine 
a pure neutral oil is essential, and 
when this is discovered or produced it 
will find a ready sale. Another item 
which may be of value to the cotton- 
seed oil chemist is that if he could 
produce an edible oil without destroy- 
ing the crude colour, or if he could 
have that colour a red gold tint, it 
would open up an entire new market 
and would bring a good price, 


It is well known that at present the 
refining of cottonseed oil takes its colour 
out along with the objectionable taste, 


62 


489 


Oils and Fats. 


but if this taste could be removed and 
the colour left, I believe we should 
have a product which would revolu- 
tionize the industry of oleomargarine 
making, which industry is rapidly in- 
creasing and will increase still faster 
whenever it can get the proper materials 
to produce it. 


PRESERVATION OF MIXTURES OF 
SESSAMUM AND GROUNDNUT OIL. 


(From the Indian Trade Journal, Vol. 
XIV., No. 181, September 16, 1909.) 


In ‘‘Leaflet” No. 18 issued by the 
Department of Agriculture, Burma, it 
is stated that there appears to be, in 
certain parts of Burma, a belief that 
sessamum oil and groundnut oil undergo 
spontaneous decomposition or fermenta- 
tion when mixed; the idea apparently ~ 
being that one or other of these oils 
contains some active principle which, 
though harmless to the oil containing 
it, brings about decomposition in the 
admixed oil. 


This belief is not wellfounded. EHx- 
perimental tests prove conclusively that 
no rancidity, gas formation, or deposit 
of any kind occurs in a mixture of the 
two oils, provided it is kept in clean 
vessels. Tubes containing sterilised 
oil and unsterilised oil cannot be dis- 
tinguished from one another by any 
means even after they have been kept 
standing forthreemonths. In no case 
has it been found that any decomposi- 
tion has taken place. Itis clear there- 
fore that the mixed oil is not liable to 
spontaneous fermentation, and that 
where such fermentation takes place, 
it must be entirely due to the infected 
vessels in which the oil is stored. 


Doubtless oil-dealers; who have suffered 
loss through decomposition of their 
stock, have made efforts to clean their 
vessels. Itis, however, unfortunately a 
difficult matter to clean «a vessel which 
has contained oil, more especially if it 
is to be cleaned to such an extent as 
to remove bacterial infection. It would 
be quite impossible to clean an earthen 
vessel to this extent if it were not 
thoroughly glazed. <A well-glazed vessel 
may be cleaned with soda or with some 
good varieties of ‘‘sat-pyamye” follow- 
ed in either vase by a liberal use of hot 
water. It is not desirable that any 
chemical disinfectant should be added 
to preserve the oil. The experiments 
carried out have shown very distinctly 
that it will keep well inclean vessels. 

The use of a great deal of water in 
the process of expression of either 
sessamum or groundnut oil may account 


Oils and Fats. 


for its decomposition in some cases, 
because the water retained by the oil 
affords a suitable medium for bacterial 
development. Although, therefore, a 
certain amountof water may be found 


490 


Se) ee 


at oS 


2 n +. © AM bs tC 
; DECEMBER, 

wa : 
necessary for carrying out the expres- 
sion process, its use beyond the neces- 
sary Minimum should be avoided as an 
adulteration and as likely to result in 
the decomposition of the oil. 


~ 


FIBRES. 


COTTON IMPROVEMENT IN 
MADRAS. 


(From the Indian Agriculturist, Vol. 
XXXIV., No. 4, April 1, 1909.) 

The Government of Madras have 
approved of the proposals of Mr. M. E 
Couchman, Director of Agriculture, for 
the utilisation of the Budget grant of 
Rs. 5,000 for the improvement of cotton. 
These refer to work under the following 
three heads to be carried on mainly in 
the Tinnevelly District, and to a small 
-extent in Trichinopoly :—(a) Collection 
and distribution of pure “‘ Karunganni” 
seed last season; (b) growing pure seed 
of the ‘‘Karunganni” variety for distri- 
bution to the ryots next séason ; and (c) 
the introduction of the use of the seed- 
drill and bullock-hoe of the Telugu 
Districts. Mr. Couchman’s investiga- 
tions have led him to the conclusion that 
“Karunganni” cotton is much superior 
to ‘‘Uppam,” and he is doing all he can 
to promote the growth of the former 
variety by buying up pure seed and 
distributing it among the ryots. He 
obtained enough of the seed last year to 
sow about 7,000 acres, and as he could 
have sold much more had it been avail- 
able, he has decided to open seed farms 
on about 250 acres of ryots’ land. The 
total area on which seed is being grown 
for the Department this year by private 
persons is 263 acres; and as Mr. Couch- 
man says, it reflects much credit on Mr, 
Sampson, Deputy Director of Agri- 
eulture, Southern Division, that he has 
been able to overcome the suspicions of 
the ryots and induce them tv co-operate 
with the Department on such a large 
scale. 


Wehave already called attention to 
the success which has attended the 
jntroduction of the Tinnevelly ryots to 
the seed drill and connected implements 
of the Telugu country, the advantages 
of which, Mr. Couchman: says, are be- 
coming widely appreciated. Mr. Samp- 
son is also a great believer in this 
method of sowing, for he writes :— 
“The introduction of this system of 
cultivation is, I consider, the most impor- 
tant work thatis being done. In seasons 
of drought such as this the ryot has to 


depend almost entirely on his cotton 
crop for his livelihood, and if it can be 
shown that this system of cultivation 
can help the cotton crop to withstand 
the drought and to give even a fair crop 
in such seasons, it may mean all the 
difference between scarcity and famine.” 
One thousand acres have been sown 
with the drill this year, of which about 
400 acres are situated in the village in 
which the Koilpatti farm is situated. 
The points which strike the ryots are 
that, with the drill, a much larger area 
can be sown ona given time than with 
the plough, and that sowing can be 
continued for alonger period after the 
rain stops. Many fields sown in the 
time-honoured fashion are said to have 
entirely failed this year, while others 
sown with the drill have given a fair 
stand, and some again are said to be 
better than those of the Agricultural 
Station, Hitherto, trained coolies have 
been employed to show the ryots how to 
use the drill, but now not only have the 
latter themselves learned how to drive it, 
but they have also taught their women- 
kind. As regards cotton improvement 
in the rest of the Presidency, a quantity 
of good cotton seed has been distributed 
in the Bellary and Kurnool Districts, 
but the expenditure for this has been 
met from the Budgets of the Agri- 
cultural Stations in those Districts. 
The Board of Revenue also enquires ~ 
whether any portion of the grant that 
will be provided next year cannot be 
devoted to the improvement of the - 
cottons of the Ceded Districts, The 
expenditure on the operations described 
above amounted to rather over Rs. 
11,000, towards which Rs. 3,000 were 
contributed by the British Cotton- 
Growing Association.— Madras Mail. 


JUTE IN 


(From the Indian Agriculturist, Vol. 
XXXIV., No. 1, January, 1909.) 


1908, 


A DUNDEE KEVIEW OF THE YEAR. 


In a comprehensive review of the jute 
trade in 1908, the Dundee Advertiser 
remarks that to describe the year as 


critical in the industry would he strictly _ ; 


- Decemser, 1909.) i 491 


in accordance with fact, and yet from a 
financial point of view the disasters or 
failures locally have been in an excep- 
tional degree limited. This is to be 
attributed in some degree to good 
financing :— 


Certain it is that the far seeing and 
judicious or mayhap lucky, manufac- 
turer could emerge with a profit. His 
contemporary in the spinning depart- 
ment of the trade had not the same 
chance, for his trade obliges him to 
secure a portion of his jute in advance, 
and everybody knows what that signified 
in the current season. On the other 
hand, he had too often to sell his yarn 
in a glutted market, and take the best 
price he could get. It may be hinted 
without prejudice that the spinner who 
completes the year without loss has per- 
formed a greater feat than the manu- 
facturer who nets his 5 per cent. or more 
of profit. Balance-sheets, as a rule, 
must present a sorry spectacle, and those 
who have come well out of the present 
year deserve to be congratulated. 


UNITED STATES AND ARGENTINA, 


If the situation here was bad, on the 
other side it was, if possible, worse, and 
as an instance of the unparalleled state 
of the burlap stock in New York, it may 
be mentioned that the warehouse accom- 
modation was taxed to its utmost, and 
thousands of bales for which room could 
not be found had to be sent to Brooklyn. 
This will give a slight idea of the 
amount of reckless trading that had 
been in vogue. When the United States 
market, the most important for the con- 
sumption of jute goods in the world, 
failed to implement its contracts by 
asking their suspension until further 
notice, and when a considerable pro- 
portion of machinery was employed in 
the production of those goods, it is 
obvious that a crisis is arrived at. And 
the crisis was intensified by numerous 
other markets either delaying deliveries 
or cutting down their orders. 


Dealing with the position of Argentina, 
the Advertiser remarks that at certain 
periods of the year Buenos Ayres bought 
largely, and, what was more, Calcutta, 
who is our arch competitor for the busi- 
ness, pursued on occasions a line of 
policy that suited Dundee admirably, 


and saw meet to adhere toa fuller price - 


for ten-porter quality than her rival was 
quoting, and the latter most fortunately 
scooped thousands of bales. By and by 
there came a time when Calcutta began 
to realise what had been done, and took 
a rectifying step; still later news came 
of damage to the crop, and no Plate firm 
has had the hardihood to buy in bulk of 


Fibres. 


standard hessians since. It is believed 
there will be a carry-over of some ten 
thousand_ bales. Calcutta exported 
94,472 bales, so between Calcutta and 
Dundee the Place receipts cannot be far 
short of 100,000 bales—a record by a long 
way. 

It has been shown that Dundee now 
and again had the advantage in com- 
peting against our Indian triends for 
ten-porter hessians. Happily, where still 
lighter qualities are concerned, the ad- 
vantage to Dundee is yet more decided, 
and is in fact becoming perennial. The 
reason of our light hessians being so 
systematically preferred to Calcutta 
make is that usually there are too many 
holes about the Calcutta goods, and other 
evidences appear of the work being 
driven through by some of themills. As 
the outcome of this the large lots of 53 
to 8$0z, cloth placed throughout the 
season by the United States, Scandi- 
navia, South Hurope, home trade, Canada, 


‘and West Coast of South America are 


coming more and more to Dundee. 


THE QUESTION OF OVER-PRODUCTION, 


In regard to the attempts made to 
restrict production the review states 
that unanimity among the Dundee 
millowners was hopeless from the first, 
A couple of mills have been dismantled, 
the one by fire and the other by the 
hammer, and the Dundee extensions, 
except in acouple of cases, have not been 
appreciable. The burned mill is being 
restored. Continental extensions have 
been considerable, and in Calcutta they 
have been so thoroughly overdone as to 
make it questionable whether the serious 
delay in the recovery of the jute trade 
is not due more to the immense increase 
in the volume of goods being manu- 
factured in Calcutta than to the rate 
of progress in America, for, be it observ- 
ed, that New York firms complain by 
every mail of the impossibility of getting 
business into a normal state, whilst their 
markets are being deluged by Calcutta’s 
over-production. 


Appaiently, the review continues, 
there is now no doubt of the 1908-9 
harvest being ample for all needs. 


That Dundee got far more than she 
consumed last season there can be no 
manner of doubt, and that she is to 
have plenty of material in the current 
season is as unquestionable. Hven in 
early June a ls. rate was paid for ware- 
house room, and now the general figure 
is 1s. 6d, per ton per month. Every one 
who looks sees how warehouse accom- 
modation has been augmented in the 
last few years, and with it all and the 
manifold additions built this year ware- 


Fibres. 


housing isata high premium, and the 
fortunate possessor of one or more coins 
money. KHvery place is packed full, and 
no building, however out of the way, 
is allowed to stand empty. It is the 
turn of the holder of warehouse room, 
whose trading profit is to be envied at 
the end of 1908. And in the immediate 
future the rate threatens to rise. It is 
rumoured that more has been given. 
Even cattle-sheds have been requisi- 
tioned. 


BApD JUTE SHIPPED, 


In alluding to the quality of the jute 
received, the Advertiser declares that 
deterioration rather than improvement 
has to be recorded. The great bulk has 
been an honest, well-selected, well-mani- 
pulated tender, but a heavy proportion 
has been just the opposite. How balers 
will go on baling, and shippers go on 
shipping material that will bring them 
into trouble, it surpasses the wit of man 
to say. Many a severe lesson was re- 
ceived last year, and still the same 
abominable work continues. It is a pity 
this cannot be cured, as the watering 
was. Invoicing back is a pretty drastic 
remedy, but it fails to have effect. The 
loss is so serious in a season like this 
that, possibly when the determination 
of the trade to put down and stamp out 
this sort of conduct is seen, amendment 
will be made, and next year will be 
better. The estimable endeavour on the 


pert of the shippers to bind down the’ 


alers not to have more than 23 per cents 
of root was a step in the right direction, 
and the sending out to Calcutta of 
sample bales as a standard of quality 
was another; but there seems to be a 
difficulty in getting these conditions and 
standard worked to unless at a higher 
price, and the arranging of this has 
its drawbacks. 


For a time the first-mentioned stheme 
worked admirably, and jute was being 
landed here £2 per ton superior to the 
same grades baled earlier in the year. 
The improvement noticeable fell away, 
but itis to be more rigidly adhered to 
in future. The shoal of arbitrations 
this year has been dreadful, and six 
or eight of the marks, or the owners of 
them, have had the due reward of 
their misdeeds meted out. What is it 
called when a baler thrusts fibre 40s. 

er ton inferior to the mark into the 

ale he is packing! To imagine that it 
will not be detected is hopeless. Thou- 
sands of pounds have been spent in 
arbitrating, and that is not the worst 
of it, for the spinner, whose jute it is, 
finds it most inconvenient to be obliged 
to do without the jute or substitute 
another parcel for it, He often has it 


492 


[DECEMBER, 4909. 


brought home to him that the transac- 
tion was most profitable. So as to pro- 
tect themselves as far as possible con- 
sumers got much more into the habit of 
buying a reputed first mark on whose 
soundness and good quality reliance can 
be placed. 


In conclusion it is stated that the year 
was passing out amid irregularities of 
price, which indicate that an over supply 
of yarns exists. The remedy that tells 
most unobjectionably is short time 
working. An example of concerted 
action has been shown by Calcutta, but 
efforts to have it copied in Dundee have 
been frustrated. 


SISAL PLANTING IN GERMAN 
EAST AFRICA. 


By A. E. F. Fawcus, Reweru. 
(From the Agricultural Journal of 
British East Africa, Vol. II., Part 

II. Quarterly, July, 1909.) 


In view of the widespread interest 
now being shewn in this country on the 
cultivation of Sisal, and considering the 
high state of development to which the 
Germans, in their East African Colony 
have brought this industry for com- 
mercial purposes, it may he of interest 
to those in this country who have either 
sisal plantation in being, or who intend 
to start planting sisal, to hear some- 
thing about the methods in which the 
Germans have laid out and are working 
their plantations, and of the results they 
are obtaining therefrom. 


Soit.—The soil preferred by the German 
sisal planters is of a red to chocolate 
colour and a light friable nature, and I 
think that itis admitted amongst sisal 
planters that a slight admixture of lime 
in the soil is a sine qua non; and it 
would be advisable for sisal planters in 
this country who have nolime in their 
soil to mix in a small quantity around 
each plant. 


CONFIGURATION OF LAND.—The con- 
figuration of the land should be of a 
hilly nature so as to allow of easy 
drainage, as a water-logged or clayey 
soil is extremely detrimental to sisal. 


PREPARATION AND CULTIVATION OF 
LAND.—In some cases the German 
planters have only cleared and burnt the 
scrub, bush, grass, ete., on the land and 
have not hoed the soil at all before plant- - 
ing; after planting they skim the land 
lightly with a jembe. But these plant- 
ations are not to be compared with 
those which are well hoed and cleaned 
to commence with; the plants’on the 
latter grow toa much larger size in the 


¢ 


Decempsr, 1909.] 


same space of time and give a much 
greater percentage of fibre, and in 
addition to these two important factors 
the quality of the fibre is superior. The 
plants ina badly cultivated plantation 
are very small and yellow instead of 
being large and ofa bluish colour. On 
one plantation near Tanga, which was 
too large for the owner’s means, and con- 
sequently the weeds thereon had been 
allowed to run riot, I saw 4-year old 
plants which were certainly not more 
than 3’ 6” high, while on well-kept plant- 
ations, I saw 3-year cld plants 7’7” high, 
Sisal is a plant to which plenty of sun 
and fresh air are absolutely essential, 
and if shaded atall the fibre becomes 
weak and is not strong enough to keep 
the leaves rigid, and these in consequence 
collapse. The cost of clearing, hoeing 
once and planting varies from Ks. 70 
to Rs. 150 per hectare (1 hectare =23 acres 
approx.) Four to five light hoeings per 
annum are necessary to keep the land 
free from weeds. 


PLaNTSs.—Propagation of sisal takes 
place in two ways, viz,, Bulbil and 
Rhizome suckers. 


Bulbils are small plants which appear 
on the branches of the pole of the main 
plant replacing the flowers after the 
latter have withered; sometimes as 
many as 4,000 have been picked from 
one plant. 


The pole of the sisal plant only appears 
when the life of the plant is ending and 
grows toa height of about 20’ 0”. From 
a commercial point of view the bulbil is 
not as satisfactory as the sucker, because 
it takes at least six months longer to 
reach the age of maturity, but when 
long distance and expensive transport 
are necessary, the practicability of 
planting the latter in large numbers 
would hardly be possible on account of 
its bulk and weight, 


The sucker isa young plant shooting 
from the rhizomes or underground 
stems of the parent plants. Where 
there is a shortage in the supply of young 
sisal itis advisable to cut these off the 
rhizome as soon as they appear above 
ground and put themin nurseries, be- 
cause if the suckers are allowed to 
grow on until they are ready for plant- 
ing in the fields, they take up much 
of the strength of the main plant, 
which would otherwise be utilised in 
producing new _ suckers, An _inter- 
esting and useful fact to planters in 
British East Africa where the supply of 
young sisal plants is limited, is that if 
the rhizome is pulled up and cut into 
small pieces and then put into well- 
watered nurseries, nearly all those pieces 
will develop into plants. 


498 Fibres. 


The Germans generally plant out their 
suckers when they are twelve inches or 
more high; before planting, all the roots 
and small base leaves are cut off, 


PLANTING DISTANCES.—Although as 
regards planting distances, many experi- 
ments have now been made, the average 
and also the general planting distances, 
now used for sisal in German East 
Africa are 2} meters between rows and 
14 between plants which are practically 
equivalent to 8 0” x 4 0”. These dis- 
tances give approximately 1,300 plants 
to the acre. They have now entirely 
given up the practice of planting  be- 
tween the old rows atthe end of the 
third year as it hasbeen found that the 
intermediate rows do not grow at all 
well as the first series of plants exhausts 
the soiltoo much. Now, after the plants 
have poled, the land is allowed to be 
fallow for three years, while another 
part of the plantation which would then 
have reached the age of maturity is 
being worked. 


LAYING OUT PLANTATION.—Where pos- 
sible it is often economical and advan- 
tageous to have the factory near to the 
centre of the plantation, but in many 
cases this is not practicable, and in 
cases where the plantation is bordered 
on one side by ariver the balance of 
advantages weighs towards having 
the factory by the river. However, 
with regard “to this matter it is quite 
impossible to lay down any hard and 
fastrule as local conditions such as rail- 
ways, rivers, slope of land, etc., must 
be taken into consideration. 


When laying out a plantation it is 
necessary to consider very carefully the 
site for the factory and the spaces to be 
left for tram lines, these latter are an 
absolute necessity and cost approxi- 
mately £240 per mile, so both from the 
point of view of capital cost and of 
economical working it is advisable to lay 
out tram lines soas to be of as short a 
distance and to command as much area 
as possible. 


On some plantations I visited the fields 
were divided by roads into ten hectare 
(about 25 acres) blocks. This was done 
to allow greater facility in administra 
tion, but unless a remunerative plant, 
such as Ceara rubber or Coffee or Cocoa 
is grown along these divisions, it means 
a great deal of unnecessary expense in 
cultivation and weeding, and is by no 
means necessary. Of course a certain 
amount of water is required for the pre- 
paration of sisal, but quite a small quan- 
tity will suffice, although a good supply 
of about 500 gallons an hour is desirable. 

In some cases in German Hast Africa 
I believe the washing tanks are filled 


Fibres. 


during the night and the water therein 
has to suffice for the whole day, whilst 
in other cases where the water supply 
is plentiful there is quite a good_stream 
running through the factory and taking 
away the waste. 


CUTTING OF LEAVES.—The plant is ready 
to commence cutting at the end of the 
year when about 40-60 leaves can be cut, 
leaving 15 or 16 on the plant. After- 
wards the first cutting takes place 
every 8 or 9 months when 20-25 leaves 
are cut each time. 


The average number of lsaves per 
plant is 150-170,and the age of the plant 
seven years: 


The knife generally used for cutting 
the leaves is a fairly large Bushman’s 
friend, which must be kept sharp. 


One boy can cut from 1,000-1,500 leaves 
a day. 


After cutting, the labourer trims off 
the sharp point at the end of the leaf and 
runs his knife down the two sides of the 
leaf to trim off any spikes there may be, 
and also to roughen the sharp edge of 
the leaf so that they do not cut the hands 
of the boys feeding the decorticator. 


The leaves are then bound into bun- 
dles and carried to the nearest trolley 
where they are loaded up and sent off 
to the factory. 


THE Factory.—It is a very difficult 
matter to make any hard and fast rule 
as to the design of a factory as every 
planter has his own ideas and whims 
on this subject, and in no two cases did 
I see factories laid out in the same 
way. I shall therefore merely give a 
rough sketch shewing the plant of what 
is said to be the best and most up-to- 
date factory in German East Africa; 
this has only lately been completed, and 
has to deal with a plantation of 1,675 
acres of sisal, One steam engine of 75 
N.H.P. worked the whole of this plant. 


DECORTICATORS.—The three decorti- 
cating machines chiefly used in German 
Hast Africa are the Mola, the Finnigan- 
Zabraski and the Neue Corona. The 
main principle of all these machines is 
the came, there are two scutching wheels 
revolving opposite ways, and the leaves 
being fed into the machine are machani- 
cally held, whilst the first scutching wheel 
cleans half the leaf, they are then auto- 
matically passed on to the second wheel 
which scutches the other half of the leaf, 


The Neue Corona is undoubtedly the 
most popular decorticator in use in 
German East Africa at the present day. 
It will turn out 2} tons of clean fibre 
daily as against ? ton by the Finnigan- 
Zabraski and 2tons by the Mola. The 


494 


| See an 
[DECEMBER, 1909. 
{ 5 <a 


wear and tear on the latter of these is 
very great and the fibre is often very 
much damaged whilst being cleaned by 
this machine. The main objection to 
the Finnigan is the small amount of 
fibre it is capable of turning out 
per day. 


On all these machines trouble is 
caused by the chemical action of the 
chlorophyll on the iron and steel. 


There is also a machine called the 
Raspador ; this consists of one scutching 
wheel only and is hand fed. It is very 
simple, but the loss of hands and arms 
from being dragged into the machine 
is very great. Ten of these machines 
will decorticate about one ton per day, 
but the amount of labour required for 
these machines is too great to be eco- 
nomical, 


THE PROCESS OF SISAL MANUFACTURE. 
—After the sisal leaves reach the factory 
they are handed into the machine 
feeders either mechanically or by hand. 
The feeders then arrange leaves on a 
revolving belt which takes the leaves 
into the decorticator, 


After the fibre has been decorticated 
it is taken to tanks which should be 
neat to the machine to be washed. 
The waste from the leaves is either 
carried away on the land or into a 
river by a running stream, or if the 
supply of water is insufficient, by hop- 
pers on a tram line placed underneath 
the decorticator so that the waste falls 
into them. 


After the fibre has been washed it 
is hung out on strings to be dried; one 
day’s really good sunshine will do this. 


It is unwise to decorticate during the 
rains as the fibre takes a long time to 
dry and is liable to be packed damp; 
if it is packed damp the fibre blackens 
and is useless. 


When the fibre is well dried it is 
taken into the brushing room and 
thoroughly brushed in high speed re- 
volving brushing machines; by this 
means all theshort strands of fibreare 
brushed out, and they form a second 
quantity of finished sisal which realises 
about £12 or £13 per ton which is used 
for stuffing chairs, ete. The sisal is 
now ready for packing and is pressed 
by a hydraulic press into a bale, it is. 
then weighed; each bale weighs ap- 
proximately 400 lbs. 


PERCENTAGE OF FIBRE.—On a well-kept 
plantation as much as 4% or more of 
dry fibre is obtained, but on the average 
plantation I visited, in practically every 
case 3% was given as the percentage 
obtained; with this latter tigure about 


y 


, 


oy Ere Oe en ee eA ee 


t 


& 


a DECEMBER, 1909.] é 495 


Bes tons of fibre was obtained per annum 


from 3,000 plants, but in the well-kept 
plantations 24 tons per 3,000 plants was 
often realised. 


Lapour.—There is apparently a fairly 
plentiful supply of labour, most of 
which is Wanyamwezi, but the wages 
the plantation labourer receives are 
very high; for some time past the 
standard rate of pay has been Rs. 12 or 
Rs. 13 per month and no posho, but I 
understand from several of the planters 
that the present Government are now 
forcing the wage up to Rs, 15 per month. 
{In addition to this, the planter must pay 
his boys for Sundays whether they work 
on that or not, and must also pay them 
full wages for any time they are absent 
through sickness. 


Also a planter wanting a large gang 
of labourers has generally to send up- 
country for them, and is not allowed to 
take them on for longer than a six 
months’ contract, and by the time he has 
brought the gang to his plantation they 
have cost him several rupees per head. 
By forcing the rate of pay up to such 
a high figure the Government is doing 
a great deal of harm, as the planters will 


Fibres. 


now have to ‘“‘sweat” their labour, a 
thing which has not hitherto been done. 


But so pleased are the Germans with 
the results and prospects of their sisal 
plantations that, notwithstanding all 
these troubles they are now putting in 
many more sisal fields and are confident 
of their success. 


They have found that the total cost 
of production and delivery f.o.b. Ham- 
Burros one ton of sisal is a maximum 
fo) : 


‘In conclusion I would say that thee is 
no reason at all why parts of the High- 
lands of British Hast Africa should not 
become great sisal producing districts. 
We have, when it is properly organized, 
a plentiful and cheap labour supply, 
excellent soil and a very important 
factor, viz., oxen for ploughing purposes, 
we undoubtedly obtain a small percent- 
age of fibre, but we obtain a bigger plant, 
and this only means we have to carry 
more leaves from our plantations to our 
factories, and the extra expense of this 
with cheap labour is not great, although 
there are more leaves to decorticate, 
they are more pulpy and easier to clean, 
and, finally, we have a delightful and 
healthy climate to live in. 


DRUGS AND MEDICINAL PRODUCTS. 


TRANSVAAL TOBACCO SEED BEDS, 


By J. VAN LEENHOFF, 
Government Tobacco Hxpert. 


(From the Mranecaat Agricultural 
Journal, Vol. VII., July, 1909, No. 28.) 


Our tobacco planters in South Africa 
experience a number of difficulties in the 
attempt to produce first-class tobacco 
seedlings ata minimum outlay. During 
the past year or two some improvements 
have been madein this direction, but 
from observation it would appear that 
the majority of planters stiil stick to 
the old methods. 


The following description of old and 
modern methods of preparing and treat- 
ing tobacco seed beds may therefore be 
of some interest to planters, not only in 
the Transvaal, but also in the rest of 
South Africa. 


The following recommendations are 
based upon a combined knowledge of : 
(a) Applied methods in vogue in other 
tobacco-producing countries ; 
(b) The local conditions in South Africa 
in so far as climate, soil, labour, etc., 


are concerned, of which a careful 
study has been made during the past 
three years ; 


(c) The results of experiments carried 
out at Pretoria, Rustenburg, Bar- 
berton, and Zoutpansberg Tobacco 
Experiment Stations. 

OLD METHODs. 


As I stated in a previous article, in the 
Transvaal seed beds are usually made 
too early in the season. Beds made in 
April and May have to resist the cold 
months of June and July, and the seed- 
lings are unable to make good growth if 
they are not well protected, and if 
germination and growth take place in 
the winter months the young plants are 
exposed to the night frosts, from which, 
however, they could be protected by the 
so-called hotbeds. Then again, if one 
succeeds in raising seedlings under these 
conditions, they should be ready for 
transplanting, say, two months after 
sowing, and this means that the seed- 
lings are transplanted at an unsuitable 
time, first on account of having no rains 
during July, August, and September ; 
and secondly, on account of night frosts 
during these months. Flooding tobacco 


Drugs and Medicinal Products. 


beds, instead of watering, is also very 
harmful, as the required amount of 
water cannot be well controlled in the 
seed bed ; it is the principal cause of the 
loss of the plants in the seed bed, and 
even if they survive, they are more 
easily affected by disease, and later, in 
the field. 


On most farms seed beds have been 
made below the level of the surrounding 
ground, so that water was actually led 
on to the beds. Although this may 
assist germination, the final result is 
very harmful. Often it will be seen that 
in the centre of these seed beds the seed- 
lings have all died off. The plants have 
been practically drowned, and the seed 
has been sown too thickly. But on the 
edges of the bed where the seedlings 
managed to obtain sufficient space, air, 
and light, and were not affected by 
excess of water on account of the ground 
being slightly higher, they did well. 


By this system the area of available 
land is not utilised to the best advant- 
age, and much valuable seed is wasted, 
which is a serious matter, for the pro- 
duction of very good seed of selected 
plants is difficult. 


It often happens also that the whole of 
the seedlings in the beds are destroyed 
by mildew or damp-off fungus and other 
diseases or insect pests. Another dis- 
advantage is that the seedlings become 
long-stemmed and possess badly de- 
veloped root systems which cause weak 
plants unable to stand the shock of trans- 
planting and which are much more liable 
to disease than strong seedlings. 


MopDERN METHODS. 


Selecting the site-—Chocse a_ spot 
sheltered as far as possible from cold 
winds. Windsdry out the seed beds, 
making it difficult to keep the soil moist 
enough for germination and growth. If 
there are no walls or houses for protec- 
tion, itis advisable to provide hedges 
for this purpose, 


The best soil is a rich sandy loam 
containing a rather larger percentage of 
sand and humus. A well-worked garden 
soil is the most suitable, but if only new 
land is available the latter should first 
be well worked. A heavy and clayish 
soil should be avoided, for it checks the 
development of rootlets and makes it 
difficult to pull out the seedlings at the 
time of transplanting. 


On account of the great care tobacco 
seed beds need, itis advisable to choose 
a spot as near as possible to the planter’s 
house, so that due care can be given to 
them both day and night. Another 
point is that the soil must be well 


496 


{DECEMBER, 1909. 

: fai 
drained, and at the same time a supply 
of clear clean water must be handy so as 
not to lose too much time carrying water 
tothe beds. I[t is often advisable to 
have the seed beds on two different 
spots, so that in case one lot of beds is 
destroyed by disease, the other set is 
then at a safe distance from the affected 
ones. Good judgment must of course 
be used. 


Laying out the Beds.—The next thing 
to do is to lay out, or mark off, the beds. 
Experience has proved that beds of three 
feet wide (inside measurement) are the 
best to handle. The workers can then 
easily reach all parts of the bed from 
either side of it. The beds can be of 
any length desired, 


It is absolutely necessary that the 
beds should be quite level, and thisisa 
point upon which the length of the bed 
might depend. In order to economise 
space, the distance between beds should 
not be more than absolutely necessary, 
but there must be sufficient space to 
allow a passage between the beds for 
working, and it has been found that a 
distance of two feet is quite sufficient 
for this purpose. In this case the actual 
passage, after the frames have been put 
up, will be about 18 inches, and this’ 
distance will be found quite convenient. 


Preparation of Soil.—The preparation 
of the soil must next be taken in hand, 
If new ground is to be used, the first 
working of this soil ought to take place 
at least three months before sowing; 
better still about six months or even a 
year. In that case the laying out of the 
beds should be done after the soil has 
been worked up. The final preparation 
of the seed bed soil should take place 
after the beds have been laid out, or 
even after the frames have been put up. 


In districts where there is frost during 
July and August, so-called hotbeds 
should be prepared if the planter wishes 
to obtain transplanting material in 
October and the beginning of November, 
For the latter transplanting season this 
is quite unnecessary, nor is it necessary 
in the low veld wberethere is no frost. 
As the preparation of hotbeds is done 
after the frames have been put up, the 
preparation of the ordinary beds is 
discussed first. 


The soil of the beds must be thoroughly 
mixed with well-rotted stable manure, 
This stable manure should not consist 
solely of horse or mule manure, as these 
have the drawback of fermenting very 
rapidly, especially whena little fresh. 
If some cow manure is added and mixed, 
it has the advantage of decreasing the 
production of mushrooms, which other- 


+ 


— 


: ‘DECEMBER, 1909.) 


wise develop largely on beds exclusively 


- manured with horse and mule manure. 


The manure should always contain a 
sufficient quantity of straw, and atter it 
has been well mixed with the soil the 
beds should remain untouched for a 
monthormore. During the éold months, 
and from time to time (say orce a 
fortnight) it should be worked to expose 
the soil to air and sun, and so kill any 
disease germs that might be present. 


If hotbeds are necessary the top soil 
should be removed to a depth of, say, 
10 inehes and a layer of about 6 inches of 
fresh stable manure placed at the bot- 
tom. The soil taken out should be mixed 
with well-rooted stable manure, leaf 
mould, or any other well decomposed 
vegetable matter, and then be replaced 
on POP and further treated as ordinary 

eds. 


Frames.—Frames should be made so as 
to cover the beds in order to protect 
them against cold at night and sunshine 
in the day time, and to keep out flying 
insects. These frames, however, are not 
necessary in the low veld or for late 
beds at the higher altitudes, and these 
beds should only be protected against 
excess of sunshine and flying insects by 
means of grass-mats or cheese-cloth or 
muslin-cloth. 


When frames are to be used they can 
be made of tarred wooden planks of 
about 1 in, thick and 10 in. to 12 in. 
high. Corrugated iron, which is gener- 
ally present on a farm, can also be 
used for the purpose in such a way 


that the frame is about 6 in. above 


the level of the beds, and so as to receive 
the cover consisting of grass or cloth, 
which then cannot touch the young 
plants. A cheap and good way of con- 
structing these frames is to surround 
the bed with sundried or, better still, 
burnt bricks, if possible, which can be 
easily made on the farm. 


Fertilising.—Tobacco seed being very 
small (about 300,000 to the ounce) the re- 
serve material for the nourishment of 
the seedling is very soon exhausted, and 
the seedling is forced to feed itself much 
sooner from the soil than with most 
plants, Therefore seed beds must be 
made in such a way that the seedlings 
will easily find plenty of available food. 
If they should not be sufficiently rich 
in plant food, fertilisers must be added, 
in addition to the humus which has been 
previously added in some form, and 
which will keep the beds better provided 
with moisture. 


If fertilisers must be used, I recom- 
mend for potash the application of wood 


635.8 


497 Drugs and Medicinal Producls. 


ashes, containing, besides other useful 
elements, a certain percentage of potash ; 
for nitrogen, sulphate of ammonia, be- 
cause its nitrogen acts more slowly than 
in nitrate of soda, and therefore it is 
better suited for seed beds (dried blood, 
which contains about 12 per cent. nitro- 
gen, will also be excellent for seed beds), 
and superphosphates for adding phos- 
phoricacid. If the beds have not received 
any kraal manure or tobacco stems or 
stalks, a complete fertiliser, containing, 
say 10 per cent. of potash, 4 per cent, of 
nitrogen, and 10 per cent. of phosphoric 
acid, all in an available form, may be 
used. If, after the seedlings have grown 
up a doubt exist that there is not 
sufficient plant food available, a small 
amount of these fertilisers could be 
applied in a dilute solution at the time 
of watering the beds. The young plants 
often show lack of plant food by looking 
yellowish and not fresh green and 
healthy, — 


Pulverising,—The upper layer of two 
or three inches of soil must be well 
pulverised and all coarse organic matter 
should be removed. This can be done 
by sifting. If the proportion of clay 
appears to be too large, some pure sand 
may be mixed with the surface soil; the 
advantage of this will be that the beds 
are better drained, and at the same time 
they will not dry out and cake so quick- 
ly. The rootlets of the young seedlings 
will also penetrate the soil more easily. 


Sterilising.—On our Experiment Sta- 
tions at Rustenburg and Barberton, 
we had our seed beds sterilised in a way 
which gave excellent results, and can 
therefore be recommended to tobacco 
planters. This method is as follows :— 
After the soil has been properly prepared 
and is in readiness for receiving the seed, 
boil some water in old paraffin tins or 
any other utensils at hand, and pour 
the boiling water as quickly as possible 
on to the beds so as not to let the water 
cool off too much, and allow it to soak 
in toa depthof about sixinches. Repeat 
the treatment once or twice on one or 
two consecutive days. Sow the seed 
after the beds have dried up a little. 
This method of treating seed beds has 
resulted in our experiencing no trouble 
from fungus diseases or insect pests 
notwithstanding the fact on some of the 
beds fresh stable manure had been used. 
The application of boiling water on the 
beds not only seems to practically sterilise 
the surface soil, destroying disease germs 
and insects that may be present, but 
also destroys the weed—seeds present, 
which would otherwise produce weeds 
and interfere with the growth of the 
young tobacco seedlings, 


Drugs and Medicinal Products, 498 


Our method of applying water on the 
beds is a cheaper and simpler method 
than steaming the beds and far better 
than the method of burning them, 
adopted in some parts of America.* 


* In America it is the general custom to 
burn the soil of the seed-beds by burning grass 
and logs on top, previous to sowing. The ob- 
ject seems to be to destroy the weed seeds, 
which are mainly present in the upper two 
inches of the soil, and which are killed off by 
burning or heating the bed. Another advant- 
age is that by burning, certain mineral-plant- 
food, as for instance potash salts, is made more 
available for use by the plant. But the import- 
ant organic matter or humus is largely destroyed 
by burning, which liberate the nitrogen, reduc- 
ing the amount available for plant-food, and the 
destruction of the humus largely reduces the 
moisture-retaining capacity of the soil, which 
is a most important drawback with our climatic 
conditions in South Africa. Scarcity of wood 
for burning has lead to the invention of a tobacco- 
bed burner, which isa movable device especially 
designed for burning seed-beds. It is thought, 
however, that for our South African conditions 
burning is not advisable. 


Methods have also been devised te steam the 
soil of seed-beds. Mr. Ingle, late Chief Chemist 
of this Department devised and described such 
a method in a previous number of this Journal. 
Mr. A. D. Shamel of the United States Depart- 
ment of Agriculture has also devised a method 
which seems to be in practical and successful 
use in Connecticut, and which is described as 
follows:—‘‘A steam-pan is made of sheet-iron 
10 feet long, 6 feet wide and 6 inches deep. 
Attachments are made which provide for the 
introduction of steam into this pan for the 
connection of the steam hose or pipe running 
from the steam boiler to the pan. This steam 
hose should be at least 1 inch in diameter and 
50 feet long, so as to permit the supply ofan 
abundance of steam and in order that the box 
may be moved without moving the steam boiler. 
The soil of the seed-bed is fertilized and pre- 
pared in the same manner as for the sowing of 
the seed. The pan is turned over a section of 
this prepared soil, and care is taken that the 
edges of the pan sink into the loose soil, so as to 
prevent the issue of steam from beneath the 
edges of the pan. The steam is now turned into 
the pan, and being confined under the pan, 
under pressure it rapidly heats the soil to the 
‘desired depth. A strong pressure should be 
maintained on the steam boiler and a full supply 
turned into the pan. In the beginning the 
temperature of the heated soil should be raised 
to 175° F. to a depth of at least four inches, and 
this temperature should be maintained for 
about one hour, Thistreatment destroys weed, 
seeds and disease-germs in the soil, and improves 
the condition of seed-bed soil for the growth of 
tobacco seedlings. About 600 square feet of the 
bed surface can be treated in one day by this 
plan. The tobacco seed should be sowed the 
following day and lightly raked in.” 

This method appears to be quite effective, 


but it may prove too elaborate and too expensive 
for our farmers. 


[DECEMBER 1902, 


Quality and Quantity of Seed.- One 
ounce of tobacco seeds contains from 
300,000 to 400,000 seeds, but owing to 
the smallness of the seed and the fact 
that a considerable percentage of it may 
not be good, 30,000 to 40,000 is considered 
a good average yield of seedlings from 
one ounce of seed. Even on this basis 
it isthe custom of tobacco growers in 
Oversea countries to sow about three 
times the amount that will actually be 
required to plant ona given area. 


In the Transvaal most of the tobacco 
planters do not measure the quantity of 
seed to be used for a certain area and con- 
sequently sow too thickly, which causes a 
great deal of loss through disease and 
even then produces only weak seedlings. 
During our experments in our tobacco 
stations we have found that to obtain 
more good and healthy seedlings from 
one ounce of seed, at least one hundred 
square yards of beds are required. This 
is partly due, first to our only sowing 
well-matured and selected seed, of which 
the quality is far better and the germi- 
nation power much greater ; secondly, to 
our beds being well prepared. It must 
always be remembered that in order to 
raise good, strong, and healthy seedlings 
it is much better to sow too little than too 
much seed. 


Seed.—On account of the care and 
expense that have been devoted making 
and preparing the seed beds the import- 
ance of using only well-bred, thorough- 
ly cleaned seed which is tested for germi- 
nation, will beevident. For the main 
crop only seed should be used of plants 
which are grown on the farm, and these 
should be especially selected plants. 
The seed should be selected from bagged 
plants of the finest type, from the main 
terminal flower-cluster, from the largest 
and strongest capsules (seed pods) after 
having taken off the smaller and weaker 
ones, having only about sixty capsules 
to the crown stalk, and finally the 
heaviest seed must be separated and the 
light seed be discarded. A full descrip- 
tion of how to select plants for seed 
production will be found in Farmers’ 
Bulletin, No. 28, which is issued to 
tobacco planters free of cost on applica- 
tion to the Government Printer. 


If newly introduced seed is to be used 
it should only be done on a small scale; 
from these plants enough seed can be 
saved of varieties or types which prove 
successful and which produce a good 
marketable leaf, 


Seed for the main crop should have 
good vitality, a condition which can be 
easily tested by placing one hundred 
seeds between two moist blotters, keep- 
jpg them moist between two plates for 


: 


DeEcEMBER, 1909,] 


a sufficient length of time to allow the 
seed to germinate. The percentage of 
seeds that have germinated in a certain 
number of days (six to ten days)can then 
be noted. 


Separating Seed.—It is a well-known 
fact that the use of poor seed is largely 
the cause of the lack of uniformity in 
tobacco fields. Before sowing, seed 
should be separated so as to remove the 
light and immature seeds, A verysimple 
way to dcethis is to pour the required 
amount of seed into a glass of water and 
allow it to stand for a while; a part of 
it will sink to the bottom and the other 
part will remain on the surface. After 
removing the seeds from the surface, 
and having emptied the glass, the sunk 
seed on the bottom should be collected 
and spread on a piece of paper in order 
todry. 


Another method of separating the 
heavy and light seed is by means of a 
tobacco seed grader, which consists of 
a glass tube connected toa foot bellows 
by arubber tube. About one ounce of 
seed is placed in the glass tube connected 
toa foot glass tube and a current of air is 
injected by means of the foot bellows. 
The strength of this current must be 
regulated by a valve, so that only the 
dirt and light seeds will be blowu out 
of the top of the tube. It is advisable 
to screen out all the large particles of 
hulls and trash before putting the seed 
in the tube. One of these tobacco seed 
graders has been constructed in our 
office, and is gladly placed at the disposal 
of tobacco planters who wish us_ to 
separate their seed for them. In the 
near future specimens of these graders 
will be placed in different districts for 
the use of planters. 


Soaking Seed.—To provide a_ quicker 
germination it is often advisable before 
sowing to soak the seed in water for 
about tweuty-four hours. This will 
soften the seed coat and quicken germi- 
nation. 


Mixing of Seed.—If such small seed 
were simply to be sown broadcast over 
the bed, it would be impossible to obtain 
uniformity with regard to the distance 
between the seedlings; and as has been 
seen, it is most important that the 
seeds should be sown rather thinly so 
as to give each seedllng at least a square 
inch of soil for development. Itis there- 
fore recommended to take the required 
amount of seed weighed off for a given 
area of seed bed and mix it thoroughly 
with about one hundred times its weight 
of fine ashes, fine dry earth, or mealie 
meal. Mealie meal is probably the best 
on account of its white colour, as the 


499 


Drugs and Medicinal Products, 


spots where the seed has fallen can be 
better controlled; it is also useful for 
its fertilising properties, 

Sowing Seed.—The required amount 
of seed being thoroughly mixed. say one 
ounce of seed with 100 ounces of mealie 
meal, which amount is required for 100 
square yards, it would be best to divide 
this mixture of seed and mealie meal into 
ten parts, and sow one-tenth part as uni- 
formly as possible on ten square yards. 
If the whole amount has been sown at one 
time it will be found more difficult to 
obtain the required uniformity. Be 
careful to see that the bed is uniformly 
covered, thus ensuring the uniform dis- 
tribution of the seed. 


After sowing, the seed should be 
lightly pressed into the soil with a 
light roller, or by slightly pressing 
the earth down with wooden plank. 
A little pure sand should be spread 
over the beds to prevent the caking 
of the top soil and to keep moisture 
better within reach of the seed. 


Watering.--The bed shouldbe watered 
at this stage. The water must be gently 
applied with a watering can, having a 
very fine nozzle to prevent the seeds or 
young seedlings from being washed out 
of the soil. As explained before, water 
should not be led over the beds. 


If the beds are shaded, watering may 
be infrequent, but if not shaded the 
surface of the bed i1equires frequent 
slight watering to keep the tiny seeds 
from drying out before the plants are 
well rooted. The surface of the soil 
should never be allowed to become dry. 
Frequent drying will weaken or totally 
destroy either seed or plants. As the 
plants increase ix size the watering 
should become less frequent and more 
thorough, and it is then beneficial for 
the surface of the soil to become dry 
occasionally. When the plants begin 
to cover the ground a larger nozzle 
may be used, and the aim should now 
be to keep the soil moist and the plants 
dry, 1.e., when thoroughly watered the 
plants, being exposed to the sun, will 
dry off quickly and the soil being shaded 
by the plants will remain moist. Wet 
plants and an atmosphere surcharged 
with moisture induce the development 
of ‘‘damping-off” fungus and other dis- 
eases. In the Transvaal, with its dry 
and sunny weather during the growth 
of the seedlings, there is little danger 
if water is applied by means of a water- 
ing can as described, 


Shading.—The beds must be kept 
covered with grass or reed-mats at night 
so as to keep them warm, and also 
during the daytime in order to keep 


Drugs and Medicinal Products, 


the beds dark, as this will facilitate 
germination. The cover should be lifted 
at times for ventilation purposes. After 
the seed has come up the same cover- 
ing can be used at night during the 
winter months. During the daytime 
more light should be admitted, although 
care must be taken to prevent the hot 
sun burning the plants; therefore, in 
addition these grass or reed-mats, cheese 
cloth or muslin cloth must be used so 
as to cover the whole bed and to pre- 
vent flying insects depositing their eggs 
on the young plants, as was the case 
with the splitworm which last season 
destroyed a large number of beds and 
plants on the fields of neighbouring 
farms. 


Although at first the seedlings must 
be protected from the hot sun during 
the day by means of shade covers, they 
will soon become stronger and healthier ; 
they must then be allowed sufficient 
light, air, and moisture, by gradually 
taking off the shade. The shade afforded 
must be made less as the seedlings grow, 
so as to harden the plants and prevent 
their becoming weak and long-stemmed, 
and thereby less able to stand the shock 


of transplanting and to resist disease. ~ 


Remedy for Disease and Insects.—-Kven 
if the beds are sterilised it is still ad- 
visable to spray them with Bordeaux 
mixture as a preventive of fungus 
diseases. The preparation of Bordeaux 
mixture has already been described in 
Farmers’ Bulletin, No. 27. 

For seed beds the proportion should 
be at the rate of fifty gallons of water, 
three pounds copper sulphate, and two 
pounds unslaked lime, This spraying 
could take place after the seed has 
come up, say once every fortnight. 

For insect pests au application of Paris 
green mixture could be given at the 
rate of one pound of Paris green and 
two pounds of lime to two hundred 
gallons of water. To prepare this mix- 
ture, take the required amount of water 
and stir in the necessary amount of 
Paris green. Then stirin the lime, which 
has previously been slaked with water 
in another vessel. Thoroughly stir the 
whole and apply with a spray pump. 


A greater number of beds are yearly 
lost through white rust or mildew. If 
this appears in the beds it is easy to 
save the seedlings by dusting the foliage 
with sulphur mixed with one-sixth its 
quantity of quicklime, which will check 
the disease. This has been tried on 
Government tobacco farms and gave 
splendid results. 

Weeding.— When moistening the beds 
a great number of weeds are likely to 
appear; these should be pulled out as 


500 


[DECEMBER, 190% 


soon as possible so as to assure the 
young seedlings a normal development 
Weeds utilise the available plant food. 
to the detriment of the tobacco seedlings. 


_ Thinning.—lf on some parts of the 
beds the seedlings come up too thickly 
they will not get sufficient air, light, and 
space to develop, The bed must there- 
fore be thinned out. If this is not done 
there is a great danger of disease making 
its appearance, and even seedlings which 
survive will become tender and long- 
stemmed with an undevelpoed root 
system, which is very undesirable. 


Sizeof Seedlings.—The best seedlings 
for transplanting are those three to four 
inches in height, having from six to 
eight leaves. If transplanted when 
larger it would be found, as there is 
larger surface for evaporation there is. 
greater risk of dying off, for the rootlets 
will require a day or two, or sometimes 
longer, before properly taking hold of 
the soil. Dead plants can, and must of 
course, be replaced by fresh seedlings, 
but this prevents uniformity and 
maturity, and the planter must therefore 
do all in his power to avoid losing plants 
when set out in the field. At 


In order to save time and trouble after- 
wards, the best plan to adopt is to 
remove and destroy the weak and bad 
seedlings from the beds at an early date, 
4.e., those which are yellowish-looking 
and long-stemmed, also those damaged 
by insects or diease. If, however, proper. 
care is bestowed upon the seed beds 
most of the young seedlings will be found 
to be healthy, and good transplanting 
material, better able to stand the shock 
of transplanting, will be available. 


Pulling out Seedlings.—To facilitate 
the pulling of the young seedlings and 
to decrease the risk of damaging the 
leaves, and more especially the rootlets, 
the seed bed should be thoroughly 
soaked with water before this work is 
commenced. 


If the seed has been thinly and evenly 
sown it will be found that the pulling 
out can the more easily be done. Ido 
not recommend that all the earth should 
be shaken and washed off from the roots 
of the seedlings, as is sometimes advised, 
for by, the latter method the risk of 
damaging the rootlets is increased, 
whereas, by adopting the former method 
the seedlings will take root more easily 
and quickly when set out in the field. ~ 


When taking seedlings from the bed 
use a 


lant is loosened, and by _ taking the — 
atter by the tips of the top leaves it can — 


€ ointed stick, and by running © 
this under the rootlets and then giving ~ 
it a twisting motion, the soil around the — 


| 
4 
4 
4 


DECEMBER, 1909.) — 


d 

: ' 

; 

§ 

i 
3 
a 
4 


“pe lifted from the soil with most of its 


roots intact.- Do not take hold of a seed- 
ling by the growing bud, for by so doing 
you will bruise it. 

Transplanting Seedlings to field.—Pack 
the seedlings carefully in a shallow 
basket provided with a handle, and keep 
it covered so that the young plants are 
protected from the airand sun. If the 
field is close at hand do not lift too many 
atthe same time. A little loose damp 
earth, sprinkled amongst the roots of 
the plants and to slightly moisten and 
cover the tops, enable the seedlings to 
withstand the exposure entailed by a 
longer journey. If thisis done the plants 
can be transported some considerable 
distance, provided they have been pro- 
perly packed. Good results may be 
obtained, even if they are not set out 
until the following day. This is, how- 
ever, not to be recommended unless 
absolutely necessary. 


CAMPHOR. 


PRELIMINARY NOTES ON THE PREPAR- 
ATION OF CAMPHOR IN THE F, M. S, 


(From the Agricultural Bulletin of the 
Straits and F. M.S., Vol. VIII., No. 8, 
August, 1909.) 


In view of the forthcoming Agricul- 
tural Show at Penang in August, the 
following notes on investigations which 
are now being carried on in the prepar- 
ation of Camphor from the common 
Formosan or Japanese Camphor tree 
together with notes on the cultivation 
and growth of the plant in Malay Penin- 
sula have been published, since it is 
hoped that an exhibit of this product 
among others prepared by the Agricul- 
tural Department of the F. M. S. will 
be on view at the Show and may be of 
interest to planters. 

Considerable attention has been at- 
tracted to this product during recent 
years owing tothe Japanese monopoly, 
indeed, to such an extent that the 
synthetic product has already been 

laced on the market at home and in 

furope to compete with the natural 
product, and this has been due to the 
prevailing high prices of the natural 
Camphor owing to the monopoly by 
Japan. The synthetic product, however, 
has been (for the time at any rate) short 
lived, as owing to afall in the price of 
the natural product it was soon unable 
to compete successfully with natural 
camphor. It must, however, still be 
borne in mind that cheaper sources of 
raw material may eventually be found 
from which to prepare the synthetic 


501 


Drugs and Medicinal Products. 


compound, than oil of turpentine, which 
is the present raw material, and which 
on account of its great demand for other 
purposes is very costly. This monopoly 
by the Japanese Government has had 
another effect, for it has directed the 
attention of planters and tropical agri- 
culturists in the various colonies of the 
Empire and in other countries, e.g, Cey- 
lon, Hawaii, Southern India, and Cali- 
fornia to the cultivation of the plant, 
and considerable interest has been taken 
in it recently in the Malay Peninsula. 


The value of the camphor industry to 
the Japaneseis thoroughly recognised 
by their Government, and the wholesale 
destruction of camphor trees in Formosa 
and other places is now being compen- 
sated for by a vigorous planting scheme. 
It isinteresting to note that between 
1900 and 1906 some 3,000,000 trees were 
planted and arrangements have been 
made for the planting of some 750,000 in 
each successive year. 


It will thus be seen that the Japanese 
are fully alive to their interests in this 
matter, and the tropical planter must not 
look too much for that shortage of sup- 
ply, due to the destruction and non- 
renewal of the trees, which many 
thought would come sooner or later. 


SUPPLY. 


The World’s consumption of camphor 
in 1907 was estimated at 10,600,000 pounds, 
(figures for 1908 are not available), about 
70 per cent, of which was used in the 
manufacture of celluliod, 15 per cent. in 
the preparation of disinfectants; 13 per 
cent.in medicinal and pharmaceutical 
preparations, andthe remaining 2 per 
cent. in the manufacture of explosives. 


To this amount Formosa contributed 
5,088,918 lbs., the remainder came from 
other Japanese Islands and from China. 


The camphor industry is one that can 
of course never be put on the same foot- 
ing as rubber in Malaya, but considering 
the free growth of camphor trees in this 
country, it would form a very suitable 
subsidiary industry especially as a very 
fair return may be expected in the third 
year, : 


It would probably scarcely pay to 
plant less than 50 acres, while larger 
areas up to a reasonable limit would pay 
better. 

BOTANY AND HABITAT. 


The common Japarese or Formosa 


-camphor Cinnamomum Camphora, Nees, 


also known as Camphora officinalis or 
Laurus Camphora, is an evergreen 
tree belonging to the Natural Order 
Laurinece. It is found along the Hastern 
Coast of Asia from Cochin China to 


Drugs and Medicinal Products. 


Shanghai, in the Island of Hainan and 
in the Japanese Islands Kinshu and 
Shikoku, largely abounding in Formosa, 
the head quarters of the industry, The 
products, chiefly camphor and camphor 
oil, are obtained by distillation, details 
of which are given below. 


CULTIVATION IN MALAYA. 


The following notes on the cultivation 
of the plant in the Government Experi- 
mental Plantation, in Selangor, the 
preparation of the crude and purified 
camphor and camphor oil are intended 
only as a preliminary note, as it is hoped 
to prepare an article on the subject 
when the investigation is more complete. 


The first experiments in camphor by 
the F. M. S. Agricultural Department 
were initiated in Batu Tiga five years ago 
by Mr. Stanley Arden. 


The seeds of the Batu Tiga trees were 
obtained from the Yokohama Nursery 
Company and sown in May, 1904 


They were planted out in their perma- 
nent quarters 10’ x 10’ in December of the 
same year. The growth as a whole is 
very good, while the growth in some 
cases is exceptional. Theaverage height 
of the trees is now about 18 feet, the 
tallest tree being over 26 feet. 


A further supply of seeds and young 
plants was received from Japan in May, 
1907, and planted out in the Experiment 
Plantation, Kuala Lumpur, in September 
of the same year. 


The growth of the plants in this case 
has also been good, the trees averaging 
in one plot 5ft. 6inches in height and 
4 ft.6inches in breadth; this plot was 
cut over, bringing all the trees to one 
even height of 5ft., and leaving the 
sides untouched and yielded a crop of 
clippings averaging 1,226 lbs. per acre; 
the actual yield of camphor from which 
amounted to 0'6 per cent. 


PREPARATION OF CAMPHOR. 
Method of distillation :— 


The first experiments were made on a 
very small scale in a small copper still of 
7 litres (= 12°3 pints) capacity and cap- 
able of holding only about 1% lbs. of 
leaves or about 4 lbs. of twigs, using an 
ordinary glass Liebig condenser to con- 
dense the camphor and oil. 


Steam was generated in a separate 


boiler and passed through the leaves or 
twigs in the still. 


PREPARATION OF MATERIAL. 


Experiments were made with material 
prepared in the following manner (1) the 
unbroken leaves, (2) leaves cut up into 
small pieces, (8) air dried leaves, (4) 


a 


02 ; (Decemenr, 1909. 


mouldy leaves, (5) twigs cut up intosmall 
pieces about an inch long. The leaves 
and twigs used in these experiments 
were cut by coolies using parangs (knives) 
only. 


On a commercial scale some kind of 
chaff cutting or other similar machine 
could be used for the purpose, to save 
labour, either worked by hand, by 
bullocks, or machine driven as circum- 
stances necessitate. 


PRELIMINARY HXPERIMENTS. 


11'5 kilograms=2Z6 lbs, of prunings con- 
sisting of 64°9 per cent. leaves and 35'1 
per cent twigs were received for experi- 
ment from the Superintendent of Hx- 
perimental Plantations (Mr. J. W. Camp- 
bell) being the part prunings from a 
five year old tree at the Experimental 
Garden, Batu Tiga, Selangor. 


As only the small apparatus (described 
above) was at the time available for the 
experiment, the distillation had to be 
extended over a number ot days, and 
the results of each distillation were kept 
separate for comparison and carried on 
under different conditions as described 
above, entirely for experimental pur- 
poses, in order to ascertain if these 
conditions gave different results. 


The following results were obtained:— 


(1) Ist distillation. 400 grams of cut 
leaves gave 4°89 grams of camphor and 
camphor oil=1°22 per cent. 


This consisted of camphor 1'16 per cent. 
and oil 0°06 per cent. 


(2) 2nd distillation. 500 grams of 
leaves more finely cut than in (1) gave 
5°86 grams of camphor and oil=1‘17 per 
cent, 


This also consisted mainly of pure 
camphor. 


(8) 8rd distillation. 1,500 grams of 
twigs gave 675 grams of camphor and 
oil—0°45 per cent, 

This also consisted chiefly of camphor. 


(4) 4th distillation. 500 grams of leaves 
and twigs gave 6:25 grams of camphor 
and oil=1'25 per cent. 


(5) 5th distillation. 1,000 grams of 
twigs gave 0°6 grams of camphor and 
oil=0'60 per cent. 

(6) 6th distillation. 500 grams of 
leaves (mouldy) gave 6:26 grams of 
camphor and oil=1°25 per cent. 


(7) 7th distillation. 500 grams of 
leaves previously dried in the sun for 
two or three days, gave 6°27 grams, 
(weight of dried leaves=800 grams) cam- 
phor and oil=1:'25 per cent. Calculated 
on air dried leaves=2'09 per cent, 


= o ~—- 


(DECEMBER, 1909. 508 


(8) 8th distillation. 500 grams of 
leaves (mouldy) gave 7'35 grams camphor 
and oil=1'47 per cent. 


(9) 9th distillation. 750 grams of 
leaves and twigs previously air dried. 
(Final weight =4'68 grams) gave 8:27 grams 
of camphor and oil=1'10 per cent. Cal- 
culated on air dried material=1°77 per 
cent. 


(10) 10th distillation. 500 grams of 
leaves air dried, (Final weight=‘210 
grams) gave 5°83 grams camphor and 
oil=1:16 per cent. Calculated on air 
dried material=2"°4 per cent. 


(11) 11th distillation. 500 grams of 
mouldy leaves, air dried, (Final weight= 
‘270 grams) gave 7°71 grams camphor and 
oil=1'54 per cent. Calculated on air 
dried material=2'8 per cent. 

(12) 12th distillation. 500 grams of 
whole leaves air dried, (Final weight='285 
grams) gave 7°53 grams camphor and 
oil=1'50 per cent. Calculated on air 
dried material=2'6 per cent. 

(13) 18th distillation. 500 grams of 
leaves and twigs, ete., gave 7°92 grams of 


~ camphor and oil=1:58 per cens. 


Conclusions.—These experiments show 
(1) that a much larger percentage of 
camphor and oil is obtained from the 
leaves than from the young wood or 
twigs. 

(2) That airdrying has no detriminal 
effect on the yield :—if air drying be 
rescrted to. however, it should not be 
carried outin direct sunlight. 


(3) That the principal product is 
camphor with a small percentage of oil. 


(4) That a yield of at least 1 percent. 
of camphor witha small percentage of 
oil may be expected from the prunings 
of trees of this age, viz., 5 years, and 
probably from trees younger than this. 


FURTHER EXPERIMENTS ON A LARGHR 
SCALE. 


As the above preliminary experiments 
appeared to be so satisfactory it was 
decided to erect a large still ona more 
practical scale. 


A plant was constructed on our design 
by the Federated Engineering Company, 
Kuala Lumpur, and although §satis- 
factory, experience has shewn that it 
can be improved in many ways. 

Description of large Still and Con- 
denser :— 

(1) Boiler.—On many Estates where 
rubber and other produce is grown the 
question of steam has already been 
settled, and there would be no necessity 
for another boiler, For experimental 
purposes, however, a small boiler had to 


Drugs and Medicinal Products 


be erected. This consisted of a simple 
cylindrical boiler which was erected 
horizontally on a simple brick and 
cement foundation and was fired exter- 
nally by wood. The boiler is fitted with 
a water level, and safety valve, together 
with an opening for filling at the top. 


(2) Still.—A pipe from the boiler con- 
ducted the steam below a_ perforated 
plate in a plain cylindrical still, the 
leaves, wood, ete., to be distilled, being 
placed on the top of the perforated 
plate, the still being charged from the 
top. The top of the still was fixed by 
means of nuts and screws and rendered 
air tight by asbestos rings. 

(3) The Condenser.—The condenser 
was a kind of quadruple Liebig con- 
denser, consisting of a vertical cylinder 
containing four copper tubes connected 
above and below with an air space. The 
tubes were surrounded with the cooling 
water which was led in by means of a 
pipe over the bottom and flowed away 
near the top. The bottom and top of 
the condenser were fixed by means of 
nuts and screws and rendered air tight 
by asbestos and were detachable for 
cleansing purposes. A short bent copper 
tube from the bottom air space carried 
off the condensed steam, camphor, and 
oil, which was collected in glass vessels, 


The boiler, still, and the outer shell of 
the condenser were constructed of iron, 
the tubes of the condenser and upper 
and lower plates attached to these tubes 
were of copper. The following are the 
dimensions of the above apparatus and 
the capacity of the still in terms of fresh 
camphor leaves, prunings, and wood 
(the latter cut up into small pieces) :— 


Boiler. Length 2 feet 9 inches. 
Diameter 1 foot 9 inches. 
Still. Length 2 feet 6 inches. 
Diameter 1 foot 9 inches, 
Capacity in terms of cam- 
phor leaves 30 lbs. 
Capacity in terms of cam- 
phor wood 90 lbs. 
Capacity in terms of prun- 
ings 50 lbs. 
Length 2 feet. 
Diameter 9 inches. 
Length of copper condens- 
ing tubes 1 ft. 9 in, 
Diameter of copper con- 
densing tubes | inch. 
Criticisms of apparatus: (1) The chief 
disadvantage of a metal (iron) condenser 
is the discolouration of the camphor by 
iron rust. If the condenser were entirely 
of copper there would be little or no 
colouration. 


(2) Since practically all the camphor 
condenses in the condenser tubes and 


Condenser. 


Drugs and Medicinal Products. 504 


only the oil and water pass into the 
receiver, a tube condenser has the dis- 
advantage that the tubes would soon 
get blocked. Apart from this the layer 
of camphor on the tube would forma 
non-conducting medium and lessen the 
efficiency of the condenser. 


(8) Itis difficult to-clean out a tube 
condenser, and easily remove the 
camphor, though this could easily be 
done by a special scraper fitting the 
condenser tubes. 


(4) The chief disadvantage of the 
particular still described is the time 
wasted in discharging and recharging. 


The discharging could be hastened by 
having a lateral opening above the per- 
forated plate, and made air tight by an 
asbestos sheet. 


(5) Ina large still the weight of the 
leaves or wood, especialy when wet, 
would tend to create pressure inside, by 
blocking the passage of steam. This 
could be remedied by using a series of 
perforated plates, a definite quantity of 
miptenal (wood or leaves) resting on 
each. 


A better plan and one which would 
simplify discharging and charging would 
perhaps be a metal cage which could be 
lifted bodily out of the still by means of 
a crane or other mechanical device and 
easily emptied by inversion and replaced 
when discharged. This would also allow 
steam to enter the material from all 
sides. 


YIELDS. 


In the first experiment with this 
apparatus, a whole tree, including roots, 
was received from the Batu Tiga 
eaperimental Plantations and consisted 
of :— 

Leaves weighing 123 lbs.=7'5 per cent. 

Twigs less than 4 inch diameter weigh- 

ing 80 lbs,=18°2 per cent. 

Twigs and wood over 3 inch diameter 

93 lbs. =56'3 per cent. 

Roots 29°5 Ibs. =18:°0. 

Separate distillations were made of 
the leaves. twigs under 4 inch diameter, 
wood, and root with the following 
results :— 

124 lbs. of leaves yielded 2 ozs. of 

camphor and oil=1°0 per cent. 

30 lbs. of small twigs yielded 1:07 ozs. 

of camphor=0°'22 per cent. 

93 lbs. of large twigs and wood yielded 

9°8 ozs. of camphor=0'66 per cent. 


293 lbs. of Roots yielded 5°7 ozs. of 
camphor and oil=1°2 per cent. 


The camphor in these experiments was 
of a brownish colour, due to contamina- 
tion withiron oxide or rust from the 
condenser. 


Most of the camphor scraped from the 
copper tubes of the condenser was almost 
white, which leads to the conclusion 


that a copper condenser would not dis- — 


colour the product. The discoloured 
camphor can readily be rendered white 
by redistillation through a glass con- 
denser or by sublimation. 


PERIODS OF DISTILLATION. 


In the small preliminary experiments 
it was found that allthe camphor and 
oil distilled over within three hours or 
rather less, in fact the greater portion 
of the camphor distilled over within 
half an hour after steam commenced to 
pass throuuh the material. In the later 
experiments the distillation was carried 


~on for a longer period than three hours 


in order to ascertain whether in the 
larger plant, similar results would be 
obtained. In each case the camphor and 
oil from three hour distillations were 
collected separately and the following 
results obtained :— 


(1) Distillation of leaves. 


First period of three hours. Camphor 


and oil obtained=1'0 per cent. 
Second period of three hours. Trace 
only. 
Third period of three hours. Nil. 
(2). Distillation of twigs. . 


First period of three hours. Camphor 
and oil=0:20 per cent, 


Second period of three hours, Camphor 
and oil=0°'022 per cent. : 
Third period of three hours. Nil. 
(8) Distillation of wood. 
First period of three hours. Cam- 
phorand oil obtained=0'56 per cent, 
Second period of three hours. Cam- 
phor and oil=0:075. 
Third period of three hours. Camphor 
and oil=0°'022. ; 
(4) Distillation of roots. 
First period of three hours, Camphor 
and oil=1:‘0 per cent. 


Second period of three hours. Camphor 
and oil—0°2 per cent. 


Third period of three hours. Camphor 


and oil=Trace. 


Conclusions, These experiments in- 
dicate that it would probably not be 
advisable to carry on the distillation for 
a longer period than three hours in the 
case of camphor prunings. 


Pioto by H, PF. Macmillan, 


FLACOURTIA INERMIS. 
‘“ Lovr-Lovr.” 


penal 


DECEMBER, 1909. ] 


COMPARISON WITH PREVIOUS INVESTI- 
GATIONS. 


The results compare favourably with 
the investigations of Messrs. Willis and 
Bamber on the cultivation and prepar- 
ation of camphor in Ceylon (Vide Circu- 
lar Series I, No. 4, Royal Botanic Gardens, 
Ceylon, 1901). Hooper (Vide Pharmaceu- 
tical Journal (56) Vol. ii. P. 21) also ob- 
tained a yield of 1 per cent. cf oi] from 
leaves of plants = grown in India. In 
one instance the oil is stated to contain 
only 10-15 per cent. of camphor, while 
another specimen yielded 75 per cent, 
of camphor. 


Schimmel & Co,, in Germany, one of 
the largest manufacturers of essential- 
oils, also obtained an oil from the roots, 
which was stated to consist chiefly of 
camphor. The amount of camphor 
isolated from the oil will depend on 
temperature, ete., more camphor can be 
separated from the oil by cooling, and 
also by redistilling the oil alone, prefer- 
ably under reduced pressure, or with 
steam. : 


The camphor isamuch more valuable 
commercial article than the oil, but the 
cil is alsoused to a considerable extent 
now for the preparation of safrol, as 
well as for solvent purposes, in cheap 
perfumery, soaps, ete. 


FUTURE EXPERIMENTS. 


The experiments already initiated will 
be carried on as time permits with 
further material and with younger trees. 
The trees in the Experimental Planta- 
tion, Kuala Lumpur, are only two years 
old, and experiments will be made with 
these at intervals, to ascertain the yields 
at different stages ot the plant’s growth. 
Experiments are also being made to find 
the most suitable planting distances, and 
in addition, the most suitable form of 
eultivation, methods of pruning and their 
effects are being investigated. 


505. 


Drugs and Medicinal Products. 


Analyses of the soils on which these 
trees are being cultivated will also be 
made, and the manurial value of the 
prunings estimated before and after 
extraction. 


BoRNEO CAMPHOR. 


Investigations are also being carried 
on with Dryobalanops Camphora ot 
the Natural Order Dipterocarpece, com- 
monly known as the Borneo or Sumatra 
camphor tree, from which the valuable 
so called Borneo Camphor is obtained, 


This tree does not yield the true “ cam- 
phor” known in commerce, but a closely 
related compound known as Borneol. 


The oil and ‘‘camphor” hag _ not 
hitherto been an article of commerce at 
home, but is chiefly used by the various 
Eastern nations for ritualistic purposes 
and for embalming. No very detailed 
chemical examination of the oil has so far 
been carried out, owing to the scarcity 
of theoil. The oil has been obtained pre- 
viously by distillation of the wood (age?) 
and, by tapping the trunks. 


The crystals of ‘‘camphor” can often 
be seen in cavities in the wood. 


According to Watts’ ‘‘Commercial Pro- 
ducts of India,” 1908, this camphor is 
that of ordinary camphor. An average 
tree (age?) is said to yield 11 lIbs., the 
older trees being the most valuable, while 
only some 10 per cent. of the trees des- 
troyed are xyeally remunerative. - 


Experiments are being carried on at 
present with the pruniugs from trees 
nine years old cultivated in the Experi- 
mental Plantation, Kuala Lumpur. 


J. W. CAMPBELL, 
Supt., Hap. Plantation, F. M. S. 


B. J. Eaton, 
Government Chemist, F. M. S, 


EDIBLE PRODUCTS. 


THE INDIAN TEKa INDUSTRY. 
From the Indian Agriculturist, Vol. 
XXXIV., No. 4, April, 1909.) 
Recently the manuring of tea has 
taken its place, on the majority of 
gardens, in the ordinary routine work, 
and practically all estates now keep 
careful records of the quantity of manure 
applied and the outturn of the different 
plots under treatment. Still, it must be 
admitted that the manuring of the tea 
plant in India is in its infancy. But 

64 


though progress is slow there are 
indications that manuring is to be of 
great importance in the near future. 


For several years the value of soil 
analysis was greatly overrated; now 
the pendulum has taken a swing the 
other way, and at the present day there 
appears to bea tendency to underrate 
its utility. Some timeago a book was 
published in Germany assuming that by 
studying plant and soil analyses one 
would be enabled to supply different 
plants with ideal manures, but results 


Edible Products. 


in practice proved that the deficiencies 
of the soil could not be supplied by 
laboratory experiments alone. Soil 
analyses, chemical and mechanical, and 
analyses of the tea plant undoubtedly 
help in providing the planter with a 
knowledge of the bush’s requirements, 
but the only true results are to be 
_ Obtained from actual field experiments. 


All good tea soils contain a vast 
quantity of potential plant-food which 
by careful tilling can be converted into 
available plant-food. Fertilisers are 
unnecessary on newly opened out land, 
but after a few years the soil refuses to 
yield good crops by cultivation alone, so 
we are compelled, if we are to keep up 
our outturn, to supplement the store of 
available food. 


The planter, by careful cultivation, 
economises the natural store of plant- 
food, but it is also good planting practice 
to judiciously supplement the easily 
exhausted constituents of the soil. Un- 
less the bushes are kept up by artificial 
restoration, the yield must gradually 
diminish and the production sink to a 
low ebb. When the soil gets partially 
exhausted the aunual quantity of pre- 
sently assimilated food is insufficient, 
even under the best cultivation, to 
produce a maximum crop of good 
quality. 


THE DOCTRINE OF ECONOMY. 


No fertilisers should be imported until 
all available manure about the estate is 
used up, and it must always be borne 
in mind -that many manures may be 
purchased at too great a cost; therefore, 
experimeuts must be carried out and 
discretion used when introducing new 
manures, There is asad waste of cattle 
manure on many estates, through neglect 
of ordinary precautions, but the planter 
isnow beginning to realise the great 
gain through the use of roofed pits, and 
by covering manure with layers of soil 
or succulent jungle when this is procur- 
able. Serviceable pits do not cost much 
to make, and should be rooted with 
thatch or corrugated iron; old coolies, 
who are unable to perform ordinary 
tasks, are often available for the work 
of collecting. Manure should be daily 
collected and pitted to avoid waste of 
the most valuable ingredients. 


Dr. Dyer, writing on the subject of 
‘“*Manure Preservation,” says :—‘ Other 
methods of preservation described, less 
simple, but nevertheless easy to carry 
out, areto sprinkle the dung, as it is 


produced, with materials which, like © 


superphosphate and gypsum, shall act 
as fixers or absorbants‘of ammonia; or 
which, like kainit, shall act as anti- 


506 


septics, or preservers of the dung from 
speedy fermentation. The former pro- 
duces a fairly ripened manure suited to 
clay soils poor in humus or organic 
matter; while the latter are reeommend- 
ed for the preservation of dung for light 
and open land, on which it is desirable 
that it shall be applied ‘long’ or unrotted. 
If the former method of chemical treat- 
ment be adopted, a mixture should be 
made of equal parts of super pose ree 
and gypsum, and about 14 lb. or2lb.a 
day, per head of stock, should be 
sprinkled amongst the dung. If, on the | 
other hand, kainit be used as an anti- 
septic., about 2 lb. per head per day 
should be strewn on it. The immense 
superiority of manure prepared in either 
of these ways to manure heaped without 
these precautions has also been proved 
not only by analyses but by experiments 
in the field. It may beadded that unless 
proper care is taken in the making and 
preserving of dung, the sooner it goes on 
to the land the better.” 


The use of heavy dressings (over eight 
tons per acre) of cattle manure to tea 
land, unless to benefit the soil mechani- 
cally, is not to be reeommended, better 
results being obtained from the use of 
moderate dressings supplemented by- 
concentrated fertilisers. ‘ 


In otherwise good tea land, one of the 
three essentials—nitrogen, phosphoric 
acid, or potash—may be temporarily 
exhausted and thus_render the soil in- 
capable of carrying its maximum crop. 
If the planter by observation or experi- 
ment is able to recognise which form of 
plant-food is needed, he can by the use 
of the particular artificial manure force 
a good crop, provided, of course, that the 
soil is otherwise in good condition. It is 
not only necessary for the planter to ~ 
know what manures to apply, but also 
the quantities and best time of appli- 


cation. In the writer’s opinion the 
nitrogenous manures used in the 
Heeleaka experiments ought to be 


applied in smaller quantities at frequent 
intervals, but, as with our other tea 
problems, this can only be proved by-a 
series of experiments. The best results 
so far obtained in tea manuring have 
been from the use of catt,e manure, 
oileakes, and sterilised animal meal, but 
as these cannot be had in sufficient 
quantities, we shall in time be compelled 
to go in more largely for . mineral 
manures. 
MINERAL MANURES. 

Nitrate of soda and sulphate of am- 
monia are two of the most likely of the 
nitrogenous mineral manures to give 
beneficial results, but sulphate of am- 
monia is slower than nitrate of soda in 


i Sa 
rr ; 


DEcEMBER, 1909.] meee 507 


its action asit has to be converted into a 
nitrate before it is available to plants. 
It might be mentioned here that 66 
parts of sulphate of ammonia are equi- 
valent to 17 parts of ammonia and to 14 
parts of nitrogen; thisis a point worth 
remembering, as nitrogen in a manure 
analysis is often expressed as ammonia. 


Bones treated and untreated have 
been largely used on some estates, but 
the results have not been as good as one 
would anticipate from their analysis. 
Potash is a fertiliser that is seldom 
needed for heavy soils, but bhils and 
light soils are often in need of this 
constituent. Wood-ashes, some of which 
contain as much as 10 percent. of potash, 
and 38 per cent, to6 per cent. of phosphoric 
acid, are always valuable as potassic 
manures; but they must be protected 
trom rain. The cheapest potash ferti- 
liser is kainit, but, onthe whole, sul- 
phate of potash appears to give better 
results on tea soils; it usually costs more 
in proportion, but there is less bulk to 
carry and deal with. 


Artificial manures are generally used 
because, in most cases, the food they 
contain isin a readily available form. 
Curiously enough the ready availability 
of concentrated artificial fertilisers is 
sometimes used as an argument against 
them, when compared with “lasting” 
manures. Butas the plant-food in the 
manure represents so much capital, it is 
the object of the planter to realise the 
interest on his outlay as quickly as 
possible. A well chosen artificial manure 
should act decisively on the bushes and 
should show a balance on the right side. 
Success in planting in the future un- 
doubtedly lies in the application of 
scientific methods, and the planter who 
would succeed beyond hisfellows will do 
well to ascertain, by confirming facts 
for himself, by observation and experi- 
ment, 

THEA. 


RICE CULTIVATION IN LOW-LYING 
LAND IN BURMA, 


By KHAN BAHADUR MIRZA ABDUL 
HosaIn, 
Moulmein. 
(From the A greet Journal of India, 
Vol. IV., Pt. I1L., July, 1909.) 
There are extensive tracts of low land 
in Lower Burma which are lying waste 
owing to their being inundated during 
the latter portion of the rainy season in 
August and September. In some places 
the water rises four or five feet high. 
When the water subsides, sowing or 


Edible Products. 


transplanting cannot be done as the rains 
cease in the beginning of October; nor 
are these tracts fit for cold weather 
cultivation because such crops do not 
get the few necessary showers, 


It appeared to me that the method of 
cultivation in vogue amongst Burmans 
was faulty, and that by altering the 
method it might be possible to combat 
the floods successfully, 


The method practised by Burmese in 
this district is to begin ploughing after 
the rains have well set in and the land 
becomes soft. Sowing or transplanting 
is done generally in July. In August— 
the month of floods—the paddy plants 
are only about two feet high, and when 
submerged for a few days they perish. 


It occurred to me that if the ploughing 
could be doneinthe dry weather, and 
the sowing betore or immediately after 
the setting in of the rains, at least two 
months would be gained, and the plants 
might be tall enough in August to resist 
or survive the floods, But two difticulties 
Were suggested against this change. 
First, that land could not be ploughed ; 
and, secondly, if the sowing were early, 
the crops would mature correspondingly 
earlier, 7.e., before the rainy season was 
over, and that, therefore, reaping and 
threshing would be _ practically im- 
possible while the- rainy season conti- 
nued. 

It became also clear to me that the 
country ploughs cculd not plough dry 
land, but it might be possible to over- 
come this difficulty by other appliances 
or improved ploughs; besides, if the 
plants got into ear correspondingly 
earlier, the continuance of the rains 
would retard their maturity and thus 
make the grain fuller and richer. 

I accordingly decided to make an ex- 
periment. I imported a few English 
ploughs from Messrs. Ransomes, Sims, 
and Jefferies, of Ipswich, and began 
ploughing in January. Jor the first 
three or four days it was uphill work, 
and my men regarded the use of the 
ploughs as nopeless. After some per- 
severance the men learnt to handle them. 
These ploughs did good work when 
yoked each to two buffaloes. My men 
have since discarded country ploughs in 
favour of Ransomes’ English ploughs 
both for dry and wet weather ploughing. 
The kinds marked E. C. and S. R. A. W. 
in Ransomes’ catalogue are most in 
favour, though we use some of the 
smaller kinds for lighter work. 


Having finished ploughing, I began 
sowing. For broadcasting the Burman 
soaks the seed two or three days to 
sprout. The practice, though alright 
when water is standing in the fields, 


edible Products. 


appeared to: me to be open to two ob- 
jections. In the first place, if by the time 
the seed has sprouted there should bea 
break in the rains, the sprouted seed 
cannot be held back, ard if broadcasted 
would be liable to perish. In the second 
place, the sprouted seed is liable to be 
injured by handling. I therefore de- 
cided to try new methods—new at least 
to this district. The first was to broad- 
cast dry seeds on dry land and then to 
give the land light ploughing to cover 
up the seeds. 


The second was to raise the seedlings 
by irrigation before the rains com- 
menced, and to transplant them immedi- 
ately after the rains setin. Both these 
methods succeeded exceedingly well. 
By the month of August when water 
rose to five feet in the land the paddy 
plants were six feet high, and so were 
not submerged and survived the floods. 
Furthermore, the plants were reaped 
when ripe about the same timeas the 
later sowing on other fields. : 


The kinds that grew best were Yehini 
and Shangley. The qualities of both 
were as superior as those grown on 
ordinary paddy lands. These experi- 


ments have been under successful trial 


for three years. 


It has thus been demonstrated that. 


in low-lying lands, where floods do not 
permit of good paddy being grown ac- 
cording to the ordinary methods, it can 
be grown successfully if cultivated 
earlier than usual. 


Besides, there was an advantage in 
ploughing land during the dry season, 
A plot of land which in previous years 
when ploughed during the rains pro- 
duced poor crops, was looked upon as 
poor land. 


This area yielded excellent crops when 
ploughed in the dry weather. This 
proved the advantages of dry weather 
ploughing and exposing ploughed land 
to the sun. 


This method of dry weather ploughing 
is being adopted by some of my neigh- 
bours, who now see that under certain 
circumstances a departure from old 
methods is conducive to improved culti- 
vation, 


For low-lying lands there is, of course, 
the water-resisting paddy known by 


the Burmese names of Todaungbo or 


Yemanaing, which for the last two years 
has been making headway in this dis- 
trict ; but the grain does not find favour 
with the millers, 


508 


[DacemBmr, 1909. 
THE CULTIVATION OF THEOBROMA 
CACAO OR CACAO. 


By A. FAUCHERE, “ 


Assistant Inspector of Agriculture in 
Madagascar. 


(From the Philippine Agricultural 
Review, Vol, Il., No. 6, June, 1909.) 


THE HSTABLISHMENT OF THE 
PLANTATION. 


A plantation may be started in two 
ways—by planting the seeds directly or 
by using plants already started in a nur- 
sery. Hach of these methods has its 
partisans and its adversaries. It seems 
to methat these ditferences in opinion 
are due to the different conditions under 
which the observations were made. 
Thus, Guérin, in his work, ‘‘Culture du 
Cacao a la Guadaloupe, ‘utterly con- 
demns the using Of nursery stock, while 
the planters of Svrinam and Madagas- 
car usually plant trees that have been 
six or eight months in a nursery. 


It is very evident that in the cacao 
lands in Guadaloupe, usually formed of 
decomposed voleanic rock, it would be 
impossible to raise the plants with balls 
of earth about their roots, and conse- 
quently the transplanting might be very 
harmful. This difficulty is not encoun- 
tered when the soil isheavy. The young 
trees can be balled easily and donot suffer 
at all in transplanting. Furthermore, 
Guérin is quite wrong in saying that the 
taproot is the essential part of the cacao, 
and that the leastinjury to it results in 
the death of the tree. In Trinidad, when 
transplanting is done on the plantations, 
the ends of the taproots of the nursery 
trees are cut off, and they do not suffer 
in the least. 

Studies made at the Ivoloina Hxperi- 


- ment Station by my colleague, Mr. Des- 


landes, have proved that the cacao tree, ~ 


like most other vegetable species, under- 
goes transplanting and shortening of 
the taproot without any bad results. 
Be that asit may, planting directly by 
seeds is the method most employed. 
In Surinam both methods are used, but 
this one is used exclusively in Trinidad, 
Venezuela, Ecuador, Brazil and all the 
countries in which cacao planting is done 
on a large scale. 

In Madagascar, so 
are planted, but it is probable that seed 
planting willbe done in the future, even 
though the results of attempts in this 
line at the Tamatave Experiment Station 
have not yet been satisfactory. In the 
valley of Mangoro, however, there is a 
ser plantation that was started from 
seeds. 


far, nursery trees — 


~ 
*, 
~ 


DecEmBER, 1909, 


Planting by Seed.—Planting the seed. 


directly, -or as it is often called, ‘at 
stake,” has, like planting nursery stock, 
advantages. and disadvantages. By 
sowing the seed at stake, time is saved 
and the plantation can be_ established 
more quickly. It is probably this fact 
that has led to the adoption of this 
method in all the countries where cacao 
culture is carried on toa large extent, and 
where manual labour is scarce. Less 
skill is required on the part of the 
labourers to sow the seeds directly in 
the spot in which the cacao trees are to 
remain than to take the young plants 
from the nursery and transplant them 
to amore or lessdistinct place without 
breaking the cube of earth that protects 
their roots. 


It is necessary to keep close watch just 
after the seeds are planted to defend the 
young trees against adventitious plants, 
which -ordinarily grow with great 
rapidity. Insects may also cause damage 
by eating the plantlets at the time of 
germination. 


Starting the plantsin a nursery has 
the advantage, as was said above, of 
allowing the planter to make a careful 
selection, and plant only the _ well- 
formed and most vigorous specimens. 
Besides, while the trees are starting in 
the nursery—a period of from four to 
ten mouths and possibly longer—it is 
not necessary to cultivate the land. 
Trained workmen are required, however, 
for setting out the young plants. It is 
a slow process, and not the method 
usually employed in countries where 
cacao plantations are laid out on a 
large scale. But since both methods of 
installing a plantation are in use, I shall 
describe each one. Whichever method 
may be used a nursery is indispensable, 
for in plantations started from the seed 
replacing is always necessary. 

Choice of Seed._If in the country 
where the plantation is to be started 
there are a number of well-known 
varieties of cacao, of which the needs are 
also known, the first thing to be done 
is to choose the variety that will furnish 
a product of high commercial value, and 
at the same time to be best suited to the 
conditions in which it is placed. In 
Madagascar this question of choice does 
not arise as yet, for up to the present, 
except for the kinds introduced by the 
Department of Agriculture, which have 
not yet borne fruit, there is but a single 
variety in existence. 


Choosing the seed-bearing trees is 


- quite a different matter. These must 


be selected with extreme care, in fact 
it is the only way by which the yield can 
be improved. For this reason fruit for 


509 


Edible Products. 


this purpose must never be taken from 
trees that are not prolific and healthy, 
and the fruits themselves must be well 
selected, the small or imperfect ones 
being thrown out. They must be picked 
as soon as they are thoroughly ripe, 
and asshort a time as possible before 
planting. 

If for any reason it is necessary to 
delay the sowing for some little time, or 
to send the seeds away, it is a good plan 
to open the fruit pods as soon as possible 
after picking, remove the seeds and 
place them in layers, alternately with 
layers of sand or mold in a packing case 
if they are to be shipped, orina pile if 
they are to be planted near where they 
were picked. If the distance is not too 
great, itis better to keep the fruits in- 
tact until the seeds are placed in the 
ground ; however, in this case it is neces- 
sary to use the seeds very soon, or 
fermentation will begin within the fruits 
and a number of seeds be rendered 
worthless. 

When the planting is about to be done 
the fruits are broken and the seeds 
taken out, Inperfect seeds and those 
near the ends are rejected. In Madagas- 
cat it is reckoned that one fruit will 
provide not more than twenty-five seeds. 

rom this it is easy to calculate in a 
general way the number of fruits needed 
if four seeds are placed in each hole. The 
seeds being removed from the fruit the 
watery pulp that surrounds them is 
next washed off. The planters of Suri- 
nam and Trinidad do not do this as a 
rule. They roll the seeds in lime or 
ashes and then dip them in citron juice, 
to protect them from the bites of insects, 


If the hole has not been made in which 
the cacao is to be planted, it will be 
necessary to clear away the brush toa 
radius of 2 to 2°5 meters about the picket 
marking the place. The top of the soil 
is then broken over a surface 50 to 60 
centimeters in diameter, the stake mark- 
ing the centre. Then the seeds are 
placed in this space about 25 to 30 centi- 
meters apart, at the corners cf atriangle 
if three are planted, or at the corners of 
a square if four. 


The seeds should be sown at a depth 
of from 2°5 to 3 centimeters, and the soil 
spread over them lightly. In Trinidad, 
where it is not the custom to dig holes, 
the method I have just described is fol- 
lowed, and the labourer plants usually 
‘by the job,” from 70 to 100 pickets, 
according to the condition of the brush. 
The clearing around these pickets and 
the breaking of the ground are of course 
included. 


It is necessary to go over the ground 
frequently after the seeds are planted, 


Edible Products. 510 


to make sure that the weeds do not 
overrun the place. In Dutch Guiana the 
ground about the young cacao is cleared 
thirteen or fourteen times a year. In 
Trinidad, where it is drier, six or eight 
times are considered to be sufficient. 
When the plants have attained a height 
of 20 to 25 centimeters, it is well to take 
out two or three, according to whether 
three or four seeds have been planted. 
The strongest plant is left of course, and 
the others are used for replacing where 
that is necessary. In some places the 

lanters do not proceed in this manner. 

n Ecuador, for instance, itis the custom 
to leave two, three, four, and even more 
plants growing together. In the cacao 
plantations of Bahia, in Brazil, four 
plants are usually left. 


The proprietor of large cacao planta- 
tions in Belmont, Bahia, explained to me 
that he believes this method is beneficial 
to the fruiting, because the four trunks 
tend, in growing, to move away from 
one another, and incline more and more 
as they become larger. The flowers 
which grow on the outer side of the 
trunks are thus sheltered from the rain, 
which would appear to make their 
development intofruit more certain. I 
give this opinion for what it is wo1th, 
but must add that I have seen a great 
many cacaos growing alone and very 
erect, whose trunks bear fruit in an 
entirely satisfactory manner. 


The method of allowing several plants 
to grow together is out of place in regu- 
larly laid out plantations, where, I 
believe, the trees should be as regular 
as possible in form. However, since this 
method is employed in regions where 
cacao culture extends over immense 
areas, and since I have not had an oppor- 
tunity to study its advantages or dis- 
advantages, 1 am not in a position to 
either condemn or adviseit. Itis pro- 
bable, nevertheless, that itis a method 
that can be successfully applied only 
where the land is particularly fertile. 


Time for Sowing.—The time for sowing 
is necessarily determined by the.times 
for the principal harvests, which occur 
in most of the countries twice a year. 
When the climate is very warm and the 
country situated near the equator, it is 
possible usually to plant at_the time of 
one or the other harvest. When, on the 
contrary, the northern or southern limit 
of the zone for cacao culture is approach- 
ed, it seems perferable not to sow until 
the time of the harvest nearest to the 
winter season; or, on the other hand, the 
harvest nearest the warm season. Ob- 
servations made at the Ivoloina Station 
have confirmed this opinion. 


(DucemBER, 1909. 


In Madagascar cacao is harvested first 
in June and July, and again in October 
and November. Itis at this latter time 
that the planters usually plant the seeds, 
either at stake or in nurseries. 


In June and July the temperature is 
too low, and the plants growing from 
seeds planted at this time develop slowly 
and are puny. In the event of plant- 
ing the seeds in November it would 
seem best to plant bananas in April or 
May. In Madagascar this time would 
probably be the best, for in Trinidad the 
planters prefer to set out the Musa dur- 
ing the cold season. 


Sowing in the Nursery.—lIf it is desired 
to establish a plantation with plants 
already started, a nursery is evidently 
needed, but even when started directly 
from the seed, it is necessary to have a 
small nursery containing plants for re- 
placing those which are not healthy, or 
seeds which have not germinated. 


Choice of the Situation of the Nursery. 
—If a large plantation is being establish- 
ed, one nursery will not be sufficient, 
but several should be located at regular 
distances over the plantation, to reduce 
as much as possible the distance that the 
plants will have to be transported, as 
well as the expense incurred in thus 
transporting them. In Trinidad, for 
example, a nursery is installed for every 
area of about 10 hectares. 


The site upon which the nursery is to 
be placed should have as rich soil as pos- 
sible; anditis equally necessary that the 
soil should be heavy enough to permit 
easy balling of the roots when the plants 
are moved, Shelter from the wind is a 
thirdindispensable condition. 


In order to procure for the young 
cacaos the shade they demand, it is not 
desirable to plant them under the 
shade of larger trees whose roots usually 
monopolize the soil to too great an 
extent. I have seen certain Dutch 
planters in Surinam sow the cacao seeds 
even in the midst of the cacaos on a 
plantation. The plants that resulted 
were usually so puny and of such slow 
growth that this would seem to bea 
serious mistake. 


Preparation of the Soil.—The site 
having been chosen, it must be ploughed 
to a depth of 25 or 80 centimeters, work- 
ing in by this means the amount of 
manure, ashes and mold that is con- 
sidered desirable, and the stones and 
roots that are in the way can be 
removed. 

After having thus ploughed and 
levelled the surface, beds are laid out, 
about 1:2 meters square, separated by 
paths 50 centimeters wide, so that the 


“ 
’ 


DECEMBER, 1909.] 


coming and going necessary in weeding 
and watering the plants will be rendered 
as easy as possible. The beds are then 
levelled and the clods broken, after 
which six furrows 20 centimeters apart 
and 20 to 25 centimeters deep are made 
in each bed. The. seed, having been 
prepared as described under ‘ Planting 
by Seed,” are placed at the bottom of 
these furrows atintervels of about 20 to 
25 centimeters, care being taken to lay 
them with the flat side down. The 
surface of the bed is again levelled, 
covering the seeds lightly. Whether 
the surface is left bare, or is covered 
witha light layer of mold or sand to 
prevent it from baking, depends on the 
location. Sand has proven very satis- 
factory at the Ivoloina Experiment Sta- 
tion. In Trinidad, immediately after 
sowing, the ground is covered with 
banana leaves which are removed after 
germination begins. 


Immediately after the sowing, if it 
has not been done before, shelters of 
some sort must be erected over the 
nursery. Atthe Tamatave station the 
shelters are about 1'8 meters above the 
ground. ‘These provide the necessary 
shade without preventing the free circu- 
lation of theair, and are high enough so 
that the labourers can work underneath. 


Solid pickets about 2 meters long are 
planted in regular lines through the 
beds. Their tops are connected by sticks 
about 4 meters long which support a 
network of smaller sticks, stalks of 
rafia, or small palm leaves. Over the 
whole are firmly attached branches of 
heath, found commonly along the shore. 
They are fortunate in having at Ivo- 
loina plants which furnish sufficient and 
well-regulated shade. These shelters 
may be accused of being too costly, but 
in an Experiment Station permanent 
frames are necessary, because the same 
place is used year after year for new 
crops, and so far nothing more practical 
has been found. 


The planter who has no usefor such 
durable shelters may follow the planters 
of Surinam who lay palm leaves over 
frames that are about 1:5 meters from 
the ground and supported on solid poles. 
In Dutch Guiana I have seen this method 
followed with very satisfactory results. 


The leaves being simply laid over the 
frames without being attached in any 
way, the intensity of shade may be 
varied as it is found desirable, Ordi- 
narily in the plantations I have visited 
the young cacaos are not pricked, but 
this method has been put into practice 
at. the Ivoloina station, where it has 
proved a success, the remaining plants 
undergoing balling and transplanting 


511 Edible Products. 


more easily. Pricking does not appear 
to be indispensable, and it would seem 
that people who are desirous of planting 
large areas with nursery plants could 
well dispense with it. 


In Trinidad the nurseries for replacing 
trees are made in a very different 
manner. If the plantation is not a new 
one, and the shade trees are mature, 
spots in which the soil is very compact 
and which are not covered with heavy 
brush are chosen under the shelter of 
these trees. The ground is cleared of 
weeds, bunt not ploughed. Furrows 2 
to 8 centimeters deep and 25 to 30 
centimeters apart are made, and the 
seeds deposited in these furrows. The 
soil is then replaced and smoothed down, 
and banana leaves are laid above, which 
remain usually eight or ten days, or 
until the seeds begin to geiminate, after 
which they are removed. Evidently this 
very simple method of establishing a 
nursery cau be employed only where 
the cacao grows with extreme facility, 
and would be attended in such a place 
as Madagascar, for instance, with 
difficulty. 


After the germination itis necessary 
to keep the soil clean by constant 
weeding. In the heavy lands of Surinam 
the surface of the beds is stirred up by 
means of little pointed sticks two or 
three times during the five or six months 
that the plants remain in the nurseries. 
This operation, which provides a free 
circulation of air in the soil, is a good 
one and should not be neglected. If the 
season is too dry it will be well to 
irrigate, or cover with straw, if need 
arises. 


The length of time that the young 
cacaos remain in the nurseries varies 
according to the region, At Jagtlust 
(Surinam), where all the plantations are 
made by means of trees started in well- 
kept nurseries, setting out takes place 
four or five months after sowing. In 
Madagasear, from observations made at 
the Ivoloina Experiment Station, it is 
well to leave the plants in the nursery 
at leasta year. In Trinidad the plants 
are set out eighteen months after sowing 
the seed. It is the opinion there that 
they should not be set out until they 
begin to form branches. I have seen 
trees nearly three years old transplanted 
with very good results. 


The best time for setting out the young 
plants is certainly the warm and rainy 
season, but in countries where it rains 
practically the whole year it is possible 
to plant at any time, though it is 
preferable to wait until the vegetation 
takes a new start, In Tamatave setting 
out may be done from December to 


Edible Products. 


March, though December and January 
are the best months, so that the young 
plants may be well started and will not 
suffer somuch during the cool season. 
The plants should be very carefully 
raised with as large balls of earth as 
possible. If they are transported any 
great distance, it will be prudent and 
even necessary to cover the balls with 
banana leaves or green herbs to prevent 
breaking. On the contrary, if they are 
set out near the nursery it will suffice to 
place them carefully side by side ina 
case in which they can be carried to the 
location desired, and set in place at once 
by the plantation labourers. 


It is not wise to take up a large number 
of nursery plants in advance, and those 
that are taken up should be protected 
from strong sunshine. If the planter is 
compelled to set out his trees during dry 
and sunny weather the process should 
be discontinued during the heat of the 
day. Neither in Dutch Guiana nor in 
Trinidad do they strip the leaves from 
the plants. But if the weather is at all 
dry they cut off parts of the leaves in 
order to diminish evapoartion. 


In certain mountainous plantations in 
Trinidad I have seen the taproot cut off 
with a knife where it projected beyond 
the ball; and in other plantations 
situated on the lowlands, on the contrary 
the taproot is preserved in its entirety 
and placed carefully in the whole that is 
made especially deep for this purpose. 
When I asked the manager of the plant- 
ation the reason for this, he said that in 
the Arinao districts the cacaos were very 
much exposed to the winds, and the 
plants whose tap roots had been broken 
off at the time of planting offered less 
resistance to the wind than those 
which the taproots had been carefully 
preserved. 


In setting out, the plants should be 
placed deepenough so that the top of 
the ball will be covered with soil toa 
depth of 8 or 4 centimeters. Ifa dry 
period follows the setting out it will be 
necessary to irrigate the plants whose 
balls have been broken. This precaution 
should not be neglected if regularity of 
the plantation is to be maintained from 
the outset. I know that planters in the 
great cacao-growing regions will smile if 
they read this, but lam writing itfor the 
benefit of the planters in Madagascar, 
where the climate is such as to make 
necessary precautions that would be 
superfiuous elsewhere. 

There is one method of preparing the 
plants that I have not mentioned, that 
which consists in sowing the seeds in 
baskets, pots, or better in bamboos of a 
certain diameter, It is everywhere 


512 


a tos > 


employed in Government establishments _ 


whose mission itis to furnish plants to 
individuals. The method must have its 
advantages since it is used, but it has 
also numerous disadvantages, which 
would prevent its regular use by those 
who plant upon a large scale. 


CANE SEEDLINGS IN JAVA. 


By J. D. Kosts, 


(From the Louisiana Planter and 
Sugar Manufacturer, Vol. XLII, No. 18, 
-September 18, 1909.) 


It is just twenty-five years since Dr. F, 
Soltwedel began his experiments in the 
propagation of sugar cane and other 
species of Saccharum from seed. 


Though he was not at once so fortun- 
ate as to raise young sugar plants, yet 
by 1885 he got some seedlings from 
Saccharum spontaneum, and the next 
year from. another Saccharum species 
that grows wild in Java and was named 
after him Saccharum Soltwedeli. In 
1886 he found also that the pollen of the 
Louzier cane, imported by him from 
Mauritius, would germinate, and in 1887 
he succeeded in getting seedlings from 
several varieties. Most of them, how- 
ever, died when young. Only those of a 
yellow cane, known as Havaii. developed 
into vigorous cane stools, very much 
resembling the parent plants. i 


At that time Soltwedel was unaware 
that his discovery was not new, and 
that already as far back as 1860 and 
1861 canes grown from seed had been rear- 
ed in Barbados and in Java, and that in 
Barbados several acres had been planted 
with the descendants of these seedlings. 
No report, however, was found dealing 
with these facts, neither in books on 
cane culture nor in botanical treatises 
on sugar cane. The invariable state- 


ment made was that sugar canes did not — 


produce seeds and were only propagated 
by cuttings. 

At nearly the same period as Solt- 
wedel, and quite independent of him, 
Harrison and Bowell, in Barbados, suc- 
ceeded in growing cane plants from 
seed. Shortly afterward their experi- 
ments were repeated all over the world 
where sugar cane grows, and though 
there were many failures, sucecsses were 
now and then registered. 


For the first few years the discovery 
had only a scientific value, and many 


experiments had to be made and several ~ 


drawbacks to be surmounted before the 
cane growers got their share in the 
success. 


(DECEMBER, 1909. _ 


—_-_---. = 


Pa eer ee ee, 


—s 


DECEMBER, 1909,] 


As regards the other cane-growing 
eountries, there are abler pens than 
mine to express the value of their results 
with cane seedlings ; I will limit myself, 
therefore, to those obtained in Java. 


When Soltwedel made his experiments 
he prepared the small cane fruits from 
the surrounding glume, a practice that 
we did not follow in later years because 
it was too troublesome, but he learned 
thereby that in many cane varieties there 
were only very few flowers that gave 
mature seeds. In his experiments, the 
arrows of most varieties produced under 
1 per cent., and only one cane (Branche 
blanché, from Mauritius) gave 31 per 
cent. seeds. These seeds (properly 
fruits) were very small; their weight 
varied from 0°10 to 0°22 mgrms. 


One of Soltwedel’s assistants, Dr. 
Benecke, published in 1889 Soltwedel’s 
results and his own, a report that was 
chiefly remarkable for a series of draw- 
ings representing the germination of 
cane seeds and young cane plants, aged 
from some days to over a month, that 
made it easy to recognise them and to 
distinguish them from other young 
grasses. 


In 1888 I myself tried to raise cane 
seedlings, but did not succeed until 1890, 
when some varieties introduced from 
the Fiji Islands, that arrowed abundant- 
ly, gave me a lot of seedlings, of which, 
however, only fifty survived. A year 
later Moquette, one of our cleverest 
managers, discovered the reason why so 
many seedlings died when young. We 
used to sow out the cane seeds in the 
shadow in the sandy soil. Moquette 
made use of a heavy fertile soil, placed 
the boxes filled therewith in the sun and 
took care that the soil did not dry up. 


After this discovery we got better 
results. As early as 1892 Moquette had 
already a field with 5,000 seedlings; 
twelve months afterward Bouricius 
and Nash found in and near fields plant- 
ed with Fiji canes several hundred 
young plants, and in 1894 Bouricius 
succeeded in crossing the Fiji cane that 
produced large quantities of pollen, with 
our Cheribon or Black Java cane, the 
flowers of which are all female, or nearly 
so, since the pollen only rarely reaches 
its full development, 


Dr. Walker published in this year 
interesting researches on cane flowers. 
He found that flowers of different 
varieties vary very much; some have 
normal flowers, with well-developed 
pistils and stamens and good pollen; in 
others most of the pollen has dried up 
and self-fertilisation is, of course, very 


65 


513 Edible Products. 


doubtful. Again, in other varieties all 
the pollenis quite dry or else has not 
developed at all. 


Some canes that arrow freely have 
flowers that contain inside the glume, 
only anirregular tissue bearing many 
membranes and filaments resembling 
pestils. Stamensand ovaries are absent. 
One variety has its undeveloped flowers 
hidden in the sheath of the highest leaf, 
so that the inflorescences much resemble 
those of the cauliflower. Finally, we 
have several varieties in Java of which, 
till now, flowers have not been seen, 


Walker’s results elucidated many 
points that we could not understand 
before, amongst others the fact that the 
discovery of cane seedlings in Java did 
not take place at an earlier date, be- 
cause the prominent varieties were 
nearly sterile when left to self-fertili- 
sation. 


The results just mentioned induced 
several managers to start seedling ex- 
periments, but, though many of them 
succeeded in raising large quantities of 
cane seedlings, nearly all these perished 
the second year from sereh or other 
diseases, Only two varieties of all those 
bred during this period and introduced 
inco the cane fields of the factories 
succeeded in dislodging the Cheribon 
cane by their superior qualities. The 
increasing sugar production in Java is 
partially due to the introduction of 
these seedling canes, viz., No. 247, bred 
by Mr. Bouricius, a crossing from the 
Cheribon and Fiji (Canne morte) canes, 
and No, 100, got casually by Dr. Walker 
from a black Borneo cane and an un- 
known father. 


The very superior qualities of our 
black Java (Cheribon) cane, only checked 
by its liability to disease, made me cross 
it, when [ returned in 1897 to the East 
Java Experiment Station with the 
Chunnee variety, a very thin cane, 
though with a juice rich in sugar, that I 
had imported trom Bengal some years 
before, and that was entirely immune 
from sereh and the root disease, which, 
in many parts of Java, rendered impos- 
sible the cultivation of Cheribon canes 
and of several other varieties. 


The expectation that the seedlings 
would inherit the immunity of the male 
parent was quite fulfilled. Till then we 
had seen a large majority of the seed- 
lings perish in the second year from the 
sereh disease, and nearly all the other 
in the third and fourth years. Once 
from a remarkably fine set of 1,700 seed- 
lings, after four years, we had not one 
left ; all died from sereh, 


Edible Products, 


The crossing I effected in 1897 showed, 
on the contrary, after four years, not a 
single descendant affected by this 
disease, Encouraged by these results, I 
continued the crossing of these two 
varieties for several years, and only a 
very few of the descendants appeared 
liable to sereh or root disease. On the 
other hand, several of them had to be 
rejected because they were too thin, 
some canes not being thicker than one- 
fifth on an inch; again, others would 
not do because the fibre contents were 
too high, but a large proportion could 
compete with the two varieties named 
before, and, especially in the Eastern 
part of Java, many thousand acres are 
now covered with the descendants of 
of our seedlings, Nos. 36, 189, 213, 228, ete. 


In 1901 Mr. Moquette was the first 
manager who had all his cane fields 
planted with seedling canes; in 1908 
probably the majority vf our factories 
did so. While twenty-five years ago, in 
Java, probably 99 per cent. of the cane 
fields were planted with Cheribon canes, 
nowadays perhaps only 10 per cent. are 
not yet replaced by seedling varieties. 
Among these, Nos, 247 and 100 are now 
prominent, each of them covering 30-35 
per cent. of the whole surface under 
canes, while nearly 20 per cent. of the 
area is planted with our own seedlings. 
No. 247, however, is not quite immune 
against the sereh disease, though not 
affected in sucha way as the Cheribon 
cane, and No. 100 is rather difficult to 
eae having regard to the quality of the 
soil, 


We are trying now to breed new 
varieties, superior to those already culti- 
vated, and I intend to give ashort review 
of the methods by which we hope to 
arrive at our goal. 


In the first place we have to consider 
the good and bad qualties of the parent 
canes, since these are hereditary in a 
high degree. Cane varieties liable to 
disease ordinarily give seedlings that 
suffer badly therefrom; canes rich in 
sugar show this property in their pro- 
geniture ; the yellow spots on the leaves 
of the Chunnee cane are found in nearly 
all its descendants, and likewise its 
immunity against disease. 


The flowers of such varieties as we 
intend to use for breeding seedlings must 
be examined by the microscope to ascer- 
tain whether stamens and ovary are 
existent and of anormal structure, and 

- whether the pollen is tertile. This can 
be verified by iodine solution, since 
pollen without amylum are never known 
to germinate, 


514 i [Decemsme, 


pe A 


15 
~~ 
= 
1 
oad 


When we intend to cross two varieties, 
of course, only those can be made use of 
that flower at the same time, and asin 
Java the fiowering time of different cane 
varieties extends from January till July, 
it is probable that some desirable eross- 
ings cannot be effected. For crossing 
purposes, we like to take as female plants 
varieties without fertile pollen, to make 
sure that there is no doubt about the 
parentage of the seedlings. 


To prevent fertilisation by undesired 
pollens, we cover the arrows with cloth- 
covered baskets. For self-fertilisation, 
it is sufficient to cover one single arrow ; 
for cross-fertilisation, another arrow is 
tied up in the same basket. Cane flowers 
open their stamens early in the morning 
hours; most varieties at 5-6 a,m., some 
others till9a.m. After 9 o’clock, pollen 
ean rarely be found in flowers that 
opened in the morning, and are fit for 
cross-fertilisation (in some varieties the 
pollen grains stick together and are not 
spread by the wind), 


As five days elapse before all the 
flowers of an arrow have opened, we 
usually insert male arrows in the basket 
for five successive days, choosing such 
arrows of which we were surea part of 
their flowers would open the stamens 
next morning. To prevent the drying 
up of the stamens in the night, the male 
arrows are placed in a bamboo filled 
with water. The cloth-covered baskets 
that are used to breed pedigree seed- 
lings, are protected by a large hat to 
prevent the rain spoiling the pollen and 
the fertilised flowers. 


In this way we are pretty sure to get 
such crossings as we desire, though there 
are instances where flowers with well- 
developed ovaries did not give one single 
seedling, notwithstanding that they 
were crossed with very fertile pollen. 
The reason why this has not been dis- 
covered so far, a microscopical examina- 
tion showing nothing abnormal in the 
structure of the ovary. One unexpected 
drawback, however, was met with in 
later years, when we found that cane 
varieties rich in sugar only rarely have 
good pollen. 


With such crossing as have proved a 
success and that are repeated every 
year, we select the parents the year 
before by chemical selection, to have 
some certainty that not only the cane 
variety used, but also the individual 
parents arerich in sugar. During one 
year, by comparing over a thousand 
seedlings of canes poor in sugar, with 
as many seedlings of parents belonging 
to the same varieties but rich in sugar, 
we found that the latter were the best 


hee 


: 
: 
= 
2 
na 
ca 

. 


ery tee . eee he 


“DecemsBer, 1909, 


and scored 10 per cent. more in sugar 
and 20 per cent. more in weight. 


_ About three weeks after fructification 
the seeds are ripe and the arrow is divid- 
ed into small parts. The thin arrow 
branches with the adhering glume con- 
taining the seed are spread out on the 
soil, pressed on it,and well watered. As 
we have already mentioned, we prefer 
for this a heavy fertile soil, and the 
earthernware pots we use are placed in 
the tropical sun without any covering, 
except at night time, when heavy rains 
come on—that might uproot the young 
seedling canes. 


The seeds begin to germinate on the 
third day and continue to do so for a 
fortnight or more. In some sowings not 
one seed germinates, in others after three 
weeks the soil is quite covered with the 
young cane seedlings, such that on a 
square foot nearly 4,000 have been count- 
ed and the pot resembled part of a lawn. 
When the young plants are four to six 
inches high they are planted individu- 
ally in small pots with fertile soil, and 
there they are left till they have grown 
to the length of one foot or more, when 
they are planted out in the cane fields. 
After the young seedlings have been put 
into the small pots no losses of any 
extent have to be registered ; in fact, it 
not infrequently happens that all the 
transplanted seedlings will reach matu- 
rity. 

In Java this takes place within one 
year. Sometimes the seedlings grow so 
luxuriously that they weigh over fifty 
pounds, but, of course, these are excep- 
tions, and moreover, such heavy plants 
are generally poor in sugar. 


Notwithstanding that we have learn- 
ed how to avoid many of the difficulties 
met with in the breeding of cane seed- 
lings, and every year new hints are 
assimilated in the course of our experi- 
ments, the breeding of a very superior 
variety is a mere chance. To increase 
this chance we cultivate as many seed- 
lings from parents with the desired 
properties as possible ; the last five years 
we have got each year between 16,000 
and 32,000. Hasily germinating seeds 
from parents liable to disease are not 
made use of ; at least, one of the parents 
must be immune, 


Several crossings, that 
themselves as desirable, did not prove 
a success. All those, for instance, of 
the seedling variety No. 100, one of the 
best cultivated in Java, rich in sugar, 
poor in fibre, but rather delicate in re- 
gard to the quality of the soil, crossed 
with the other varieties, also rich in 
sugar and not so sensible for soil 


suggested 


515 Edible Products. 


qualities, have given till now bad re- 
sults, though no lack of experiments 
have been made. Because the properties 
of the seedlings depended on those of 
the parent canes, we have tried for a 
few years to make crossings that united 
in them the qualities of several varieties. 
Seedlings from these will, we hope, show 
such a wide range of variation that 
there is a good chance of producing a 
variety with still better qualifications 
than the ones now in cultivation. 


When the seedlings are one year old 
all those plants that are deficient in 
exterior qualities are rejected and only 
those that -look well from a cultural 

oint of view are brought to the 
aboratory. There every plant is ana- 
lysed separately, and only the cuttings 
of those that were rich in sugar are 
planted. In 1897 we chose as a limita 
calculated production of four tons of 
available sugar per acre; since that 
year the sugar production in Java has 
so increased, chiefly from the introduc- 
tion of the older seedling varieties and 
a morerational culture, that we raised 
our lowest limit to nearly seven tons 
per acre. 


Ordinarily over 90 per cent. of the 
seedlings are rejected in the field, and of 
those analysed, as an average, only 0:25 
per cent. are rich enoughin sugar to war- 
rant replanting. After one year there, 
two selections, one in the field and onein 
the laboratory, are madeagain, where- 
by the surviving seedlirgs are reduccd to 
nearly two-thirds, and as we go on in 
this way for four years selecting the 
good varieties and rejecting the bad . 
ones, only very few seedlings are left 
at the end of that period, and at the 
same time multiplied in such a way 
that we have got enough plants tomake 
it possible to try their value in our ex- 
perimental fields against the older seclec- 
tions. If they stand this trial their 
cuttings are,a year afterward, put at 
the disposal of the sugar factories. We 
never analyse samples of our canes, since 
it is impossible to make average samples 
of afew cane plants; therefore, we send 
all our canes through the mill and 
analyse the juice. 


The results of the breeding of cane 
seedlings in Java are very good, and, 
what is more, the seedlings were at the 
disposal of the factories just when they 
were the most needed, When first the 
sereh disease attacked the sugar canes 
in Java, the ruin of the sugar industry 
was prevented by theimport of cuttings 
from those parts of the island where the 
disease had not spread. This, however, 
was only possible for a few years, since 
as early as 1890 the whole island was 


infected. Thesugar planters then had 
recourse to the cultivation of young 
canes in the mountains; these were cut 
when they were only 6-8 months 
old, and could be used entirely for cut- 
tings. Atthe same time, experiments 
with foreign canes were made on a 
large scale, and for some years the 
Lousier and the Canne Morte (Fiji) 
canes had some success. Both, however, 
showed themselves after a short time 
liable to the sereh disease, and the culti- 
vation of cane cuttings in the mountains 
had to be stopped in many parts of Java 
for the same reason. 


A root-disease, that caused many 
hundreds of acres planted with canes to 
dry up entirely, made its appearance in 
the nineties, and heavily affected Cheri- 
bon, Louzier, Canne Morte, and some 
other varieties. But justat this time 
the first seedling varieties were at the 
disposal of the factories, and at once 
proved a success, some cf them doubling 
their output in one year. All the 
varieties that had been tested on the 
heavy soiis* in the experimental fields 
of our station showed good results, 
proved quiteor nearly immune against 
the sereh and root disease, so that the 
heavy losses sustained in previous years 
belonged to the past. 


Nowadays, in the eastern part of Java, 
only seedling varieties are cultivated ; 
in the western provinees, where the cli- 
mate ismore favourable for cane cul- 
ture, the best soils are still used for the 
old Cheribon cane, but here also the 
larger part of the soils is planted with 
seedling canes, and the rapid increase in 
the Java sugar-production from 2‘5 ton 
per acre in 1887 to over 4°5 tons per acre 
in 1908 is chiefly due to the cultivation 
of seedling canes.—Internatianal Sugar 
Journal. 


THRESHING GRAIN. 


WitH STonE ROLLERS. 
(From the Indian Agriculturist, Vol. 
XXXIV., No. 10, October 1, 1909.) 


The following article, written by the 
Deputy Director of Agriculture, Bellary, 
has been forwarded to us by the Honorary 
Secretaries of the Central Agricultural 
Committee, Madras :— 


* The culture and propagation of seedlings 
on heavy soil is much recommended in Java, be- 
cause those liable to disease disappear in the 
first years, while otherwise good varieties 
raised and propagated on fertile sandy soils 
may suffer very badly as well from the sereh 
as from the root disease, when introduced on 
heavy soils, 


is 


Edible Products. 516 


» 


- Roe on 


age 


A few facts relative to the method of 
threshing grain by means of stone rollers 
are here collected, in the hope that those 
interested may be induced to giveit a 
trial on their own lands. 


There are three methods of thresh- 
ing grain generally practised in this 
Presidency: treading by bullock power; 
beating with sticks, and the method of 
which we are now writing, crushing with 
aroller. The last is not suited for every 
sort of grain, as for instance in the case 
of Korra (Tenai) and -paddy, crops 
possessing soft fine straw, it has been 
found that the straw becomes felted or 
packed into masses which protect the 
ears, and thus hinder the free extraction 
of the grain. Even in the case of the 
sorghum crop, for threshing which this 
implement is most largely in actual use, 
it is not every variety that can be dealt 
with in this way: Irungu cholam, a 
variety grown in the south, must be 
beaten with sticks since it possesses 
glumes which adhere very strongly to 
the seed and other methods will merely 
cause the seed to separate with the 
glumes. It will be found, however, that if 
the directions given below are followed, 
most of the commonly grown varieties 
of sorghum as well as Sazza (Cumbu), 
gram, safflower, and no doubt other 
crops, may be more economically thresh- 
ed by this means than by any other, 


The history of the introduction of the 
stone threshing roller is given by the 
late Rao Bahadur C. K. Subba Rao as 


‘follows :— 


‘“<In the famine years of 1876-78 stone 
rollers were very much in evidence in 
connection with the opening of new and 
the repair of old roads. <A certain 
intelligent ryot of Pedda Settinapalli, 
Proddatur Taluq, Cuddapah District, 
observed that when one of the stone 
rollers accidentally moved over a heap 
of Jonna ears, the grain was well thresh- 
ed. He piled cholam ears to a height 
of about a cubit in a circular strip about 
8 ft. wide, and had the roller drawn 
by a pair of bullocks. He found that 
the roller was far more economical than 
the usual process of treading by several 
teams of bullocks.” 

The roller is thus the ordinary stone 
roller such as is used for road making, 
and will be generally about a yard “long 
and from 1} ft. to 2ft. in diameter, A 
roller of these dimensions will weigh 
from 1,000 to 1,500 lbs. The cost varies 
in different districts from Rs, 10 to Rs. 
20. Their first cost is thus somewhat 
high, but they are frequently the joint 
property of several owners who will 
borrow them in turn to thresh their 
grain 


[DecEMBER, 1909. 


‘ 


DECEMBER, 1909.] 517 


THE PRocEss DESCRIBED. 

In using this roller, the preliminary 
operations of harvesting and drying the 
grain are performed asusual. Ifa large 
quantity of grain is to be treated, the 
heads, after removal of the straw, are 
simply spread outina circle over the 
threshing floor to the depth of about 
8 inches, and the rolleris driven round 
and round over the whole mass. More 
generally, however, there is a clear 
space left in the middle, and the bullocks 
are driven in a_ regular concentrical 
manner over the circular strip until the 
grain is as thoroughly extracted as 
possible. After each passage of the 
roller, men with light wooden rakes turn 
over the heads so that a fresh surface is 
exposed each time. A little water is 
occasionally sprinkled on the ears if it is 
found that the grain is being powdered. 
The roller being cylindrical and being 
continually forced to travel in a com- 
paratively small circle, a considerable 
amount of friction is caused, and there 
isno doubt that to this rubbing the 
efficacy of the process is largely due. It 
has been suggested that a roller shaped 
as a frustrum of acone would perform 
the work more effectively and be less 
fatiguing to the bullocks, but though 
easier to pullit would probably not be 
so effective, while it would have the 
additional disadvantages of being use- 
less for anything else, and extremely 
difficult to move from place to place. 


During the process, the grain is rubbed 
and pressed free of the ears, and, being 
heavier, gradually works to the bottom 
whenceit can be readily cotlected at 
the close of the operation. The extrac- 
tion is not, however, complete, 10 to 20 
per cent, of grain being still left in the 
earheads. This will have to be extracted 
by beating with sticks, or, if the quan- 
tity is large, it may be trodden out by 
bullocks in the ordinary way. A com- 
bination of the two systems which could 
only be carried out in the case of large 
quantities of grain is as follows :—Be- 
hind the roller drawn by two pairs of 
bullocks are driven two teams, each of 
four bullocks which tread on the com- 
pacted mass of heads. This is reported 


Edible Products 


to thresh four times the amount of grain 
threshed with the roller alone. 


The relative economy of the two pro- 
cesses may he gauged by the following 
figures, which were obtained in an actual 
trial with the white sorghum. (Tella 
Jonna) of Bellary. For threshing 9,812 lbs. 
of grain completely from the heads 
by means of the roller, two and a half 
pairs of cattle, eleven men and two boys 
were engaged, at a total cost of Rs. 
3-10. For completely extracting 4,552 lbs. 
of grain by the treading method, five 
pairs of cattle, seven men, and two boys 
were employed at a total cost of Rs. 4-2. 
The cost of threshing 1,000 lbs. of grain 


- was, therefore, under the two systems— 


As. 5-ll—and As. 14-6, which is very 
nearly in the proportion of 2 to 5 in 
favour of the roller. This takes no 
account of the prime cost of the roller. 


Since its first introduction in the 
Proddatur Taluq of the Cuddapah Dis- 
trict, its use has spread slowly though 
its advantages are known and appre- 
ciated. The main obstacle to its more 
rapid adoption is the cost of the roller, 
though this difficulty is often met, as 
noted above, by joint purchase, or the 
roller can often be hired or borrowed 
from one of the bigger landlords in the 
village. It must be noted further that 
the roller though more economical in 
bullocks yet requires the services of 
more men. The small ryot who owns 
only one pair of cattle will go with 
them to his neighbour’s floor, and there 
he and three others can do the whole 
work with but little extra assistance. 
Hach one of the four will thus get his 
threshing done in turn with but little 
actual out-of-pocket expenditure, since 
there is no other work for the bullocks 
at that season, while, if the roller is to 
be used, coolies may have to be hired 
and paidfor. The practice is, however, 
spreading among the larger ryots to 
whom the first cost is less important, 
and who are more concerned with the 
economy of the process, and there is 
little reason to doubt that its introduc- 
tion would prove economical to the same 
class in other sorghum growing districts 
with benefit, also to the smaller land- 
holders who could on occasion borrow 
the roller for their own use, 


Bea nes 
518 [DEcEMBER, 1909. 
TIMBERS. - er 


UTILISATION OF WASTE WOOD. 


(From the Indian Trade Journal, Vol. 
XIV., No. 175, August, 1609.) 


Inquiries are from time to time re- 
ceived at the Imperial Institute from 
firms engaged in working forest con- 
cessions in British possessions as to the 
possibility of utilising waste wood pro- 
duce in the ordinary timber-working 
operations. It has been thought desir- 
able, therefore, to compile a short article 
on this subject with a view to affording 
general information as to the possibili- 
ties in this direction. The article in 
question is published in the Bulletin of 
the Imperial Institute, Vol. VII., No. 1, 
and from it we take the following parti- 
culars :— 

Apart from its use for structural pur- 
poses there are two main ways in which 
wood can be utilised at present, viz., in 
the manufacture of wood pulp for paper 
making, and by destructive distillation 
for the production of wood spirit, Stock- 
holm tar and wood charcoal. For these 
purposes the cheaper woods are avail- 
able, and for destructive distillation espe- 
cially the waste products of the various 
timber industries are suitable, 


Much of the wood refuse generally 
available, such as shavings, sawdust, 
chips, spent dye and tan woods, ete., is 
at present used as fuel, its value for 
this purpose being a few shillings per 
ton. In considering the disposal of such 
material it is important to ascertain 
whether local conditions will permit of 
. the disposal of distillation at a higher 
rate than would be obtained for the raw 
material as fuel. Indeed, in undevelop- 
ed communities where wood spirit, tar 
and charcoal are not saleable in large 
quantities, the destructive distillation 
of wood refuse isnot likely to be remu- 
nerative or even feasible. 


From air-dried wood about one-third 
of its weight of charcoal can, as a rule, be 
obtained, this having an average value 
of from 17s. to 22s. per ton in districts 
where coal is not readily obtainable. 
Thus, from one ton of air-dried wood 
refuse, containing from 20 to 25 per 
cent. of water, and consequently worth 
from 4s. to 5s., the value of the charcoal 
would be about 6s. In most countries 
there is little difficulty in disposing of 
the charcoal, as its uses are numerous. 
Besides being largely employed in the 
manufacture of iron and steel and in the 
extraction of other metals, such as cop- 

er and tin, it can be used insugar re- 

neries for filtration and for various 


= = Wetec Sf 


et a 


domestic purposes. Special uses for the 
“small” charcoal obtained by distilling 
wood refuse are ftoundin the manufacture 
of certain kinds of ‘‘smokeless” fuels, 
calcium carbide, and for packing cold 
storage chambers. 


Wood refuse can be carbonised more 
rapidly and at a lower final temperature 
than blocks of wood, a temperature only 
300° C. being adequate. One result of 
this is that the pyroligneous acid ob- 
tained in the distillate is of good quality, 
and fairly readily purified to yield acetic 
acid. Wood refuse is also more readily 
dried by exposure to the air, and does 
not require to be stored for a year or 
two before its content of water is 
reduced to from 20 to 25 per cent. which 
gives the best results, as is the case 
with blocks of freshly-cut wood. 


DESTRUCTIVE DISTILLATION OF Woop. 


In the destructive distillation of wood 
the blocks or refuse are heated in a 
suitable vesse! provided with a small 
aperture fitted witha pipe. In modern 
practice the carbonising vessel is general- 


ly a eyclindrical wrought-iron retort . 


built into brick-work in a horizontal 
position. The retorts are of an average 
size of 8 metres long by metre in 
diameter, and are made to hold any- 
thing up to about four tons of wood 
(a quarter of a ‘cord”). They are 
generally set upin ‘‘batteries” of two, 
and heated by the same fire from below. 
The naked flame is not allowed to im- 
pinge directly on the iron retorts, which 
are heated only by the hot furnace 
gases, this result being obtained by 
utilising iron or brick shields or arches. 
Before the application of heat all the 
orifices and connections are plugged with 
clay. The batteries of retorts are set 
up in rows, and the exit of each retort 
is connected with a warm condenser 
made of copper, and cooled externally 
by means of running water. 


When the wood to be distilled is 
sawdust or scraps of very small size, 
such as spent tanning materials, dye 
woods, ete., it is generally advisable to 
have the plant arranged in a special 


manner Owing to the necessity of having © 


the wood quite dry, This result is 
frequently obtained by building the 
retorts in such a manner that the hot 
gases from the one distillation are used 
to dry the wood refuse ready packed 
in another retort. The retorts are also 
sometimes made on a rotar 
facilitate even drying, an 


aa thus pre- 
vent unequal carbonisation. 


system to | 


DicEMBER, 1909.) 


A special form of kiln is said to be 
adopted on many of the large wood- 
distillation plants in Sweden, capable 
of treating wood ir all conditions— 
sodden forest timbers, saw-mill waste 
and ordinary air-dried logs. The general 
arrangement of the furnace is in the 
form of a long tunnel through which 
pass open steel cars, on which the 
wood is vertically stacked. The carts 
are taken through the furnace at an 
average rate of 22 per diem for per- 
fectly wet wood, and about 36 per diem 
for air-dried timber. Uncondensed gases 
from the distillation are returned to 
the furnace and burnt, thus practically 
dispensing with the addition of any 
further fuel. 

On the application of heat to the 
retort the substance of the wood is 
charred with the formation of volatile 
products, which are driven off. Those 
which are condensable are_ liquified 
again in the condensers, and collected 
in suitable receivers. 


PRODUCTS OF DISTILLATION. 


Although the process of distillation 
is practically identical whatever the 
kind of wood employed, the products 
obtained are different according to 
whether ‘“‘hard” or “soft” wood is 
used. 

Products from Hard Wood.—Most of 
the wood distilled is hard, such as 
beech, birch, maple, etz., and is practi- 
cally free from resinous constituents. 
Four chief products are obtained, viz., 
(1) an inflammable gas which escapes 
from the condenser, and should, if possi- 
ble, be returned to the fire to aid in 
heating the retorts ; (2) a watery liquid 
known as “ pyroligneous acid ”; (3) wood 
tar, which is condensed with the 
pyroligneous acid; and (4) charcoal, 
whieh remains behind in the retorts. 


The tar itself may be used as the fuel 
to create the heat necessary for distil- 
lation, and in this case it is sprayed with 
a jet of steam and used in a similar 
manner to “oilfuel.” In this manner 
the use of coalas fuel may be avoided 
completely. 

The charcoal is allowed tocool fora 
day or two either before removal or in 
specially-devised ‘cooling chambers” 
out of contact with the air, or else it is 
drenched with water immediately after 
extraction from the retorts to prevent 
its spontaneous combustion in the air 
and consequent loss. 


Purification of the Products.—The tar 
and the reddish-brown pyroligneous 
acid are run off together into large 
settling vats, where separation is effected 
by the tar. collecting at the bottom. 


519 Timbers, 


Each is then distilled separately. As 
the tar and the pyroligneous acid are to 
a certain extent mutually soluble, the 
residue from the latter contains a quan- 
tity of tar, and the distillate from the 
former is distinctly acid in character. 
If the tar is to be utilized as fuel the 
acid is removed by passing the acid tar 
downwards over “ bafflers,” where it is 
met by an upward current of steam or 
vapours from the stills to which the 
pyroligneous acid is given up. The chief 
products obtained by distilling the wood 
tar(which is itself an article of commerce) 
are light and heavy wood oils, wood creo- 
sote and the well-known product wood 
pitch, which is left behind in the stills. 


In the most modern treatment of the 
pyroligneous acid an arrangement of 
plant known as the ‘‘ three-still”’ system 
is adopted. In the first and largest still 
the crude acid is heated, whereby the 
volatile acetic acid and ‘‘ wood spirit” 
are driven off, and most of the dissolved 
tar is left behind. The outlet pipe 
carries the Vapours into the second still 
and passes them through a thin cream of 
lime and water. This absorbs the acetic 
acid with the production of calcium 
acetate, but does not affect the wood 
spirit, which passes on and is treated 
afresh in the third still in order to 
remove the last traces of acetic acid. In 
this manner the distillate eventually ob- 
tained is free from acid, and by suitable 
rectification can be made to yield pure 
methyl alcohol, commercial wood spirit 
and wood naphtha. The thin paste of 
calcium acetate remaining in the stills 


is run out and concentrated in large iron 


pans until it contains about 84 per cent. 
of ‘‘acetate of lime.” This is the pro- 
duct which comes on the markets as 
‘* orey acetate of lime.” 


Application of the Products.—The uses 
of charcoal have been enumerated above, 
Most of the acetate of lime is subjected to 
dry distillation, and is thus converted 
into acetone and calcium carbonate 
(chalk) The increasing consumption of 
acetone in chemical industries has ren- 
dered this process one of considerable 
importance. Besides being a _ useful 
solvent for varnish resins, acetone is 
largely used in the manufacture of 
smokeless explosives and celluloid arti- 
cles, and its use will very probably be 
greatly extended in the near future. 
The present price of acetone is about £60 
per tox, and it takes about 40 tons of 
wood to produce one ton of acetone. The 
by-products in the distillation, so-called 
‘*acetone oils,” are also useful as “ paint 
removers.” Their formation is due to 
the presence in the pyroligneous acid of 
organic acids higher than acetic acid. 


Jee DE eR 


eh 


K 4 
EN oy ae epee iyi 
eT ett Sir gs er CR A ae 


af 


\ 


ay SLY , ets 2 AD 
Ree or = 7a OORT WORE See 2 


Me ESE 


Pe ae el) ae > 


Timbers. 


Pure acetic acid is also prepared from 
the acetate of lime by distilling it with 
sulphuric acid. 


Wood alcohol is used very largely for 
technical purposes. It isa useful solvent, 
and is widely applied for producing 
form-aldehyde, for ‘‘ denaturing” ordi- 
nary alcohol, and in the coal-tar dye 
industry. 


Products from soft wood.—-When ‘‘soft” 
woods, 7.e€., resinous woods, such as 
those obtained from the various pines, 
are destructively distilled, the sub- 
stances obtained are as follows :— (1) in- 
flammable gas; (2) light oils; (8) pyro- 
ligneous acid; (4) tar; (5) charcoal. The 
pyroligneous acid so manufactured is 
inferior in quality to that afforded by 
hard woods. The principal fraction is 
the “light oil” which is usually collected 
in two portions, of which the lower 
boiling one is a kind of crude turpentine 
oil. This is a dark red oil of unpleasant 
odour, but after suitable treatment and 
fractionation it yields a nearly colour- 
less spirit of characteristic odour, which 
is used as a substitute for ordinary 
turpentine oil. (Compare this Bulletin, 
1906, 4.215.) The best yields of products 
in this process are obtained from the 
heart wood. 


STEAM DISTILLATION OF WOOD. 


Besides the method of destructive dis- 
tillation described above, a process of 
distillation with steam is gradually 
finding extended use for obtaining valu- 
‘able products from waste pine wood. 
This process only occasions the separ- 
ation of volatile products (turpentine oil) 
already pre-existent in the wood. 


Pine-tree stumps, saw-mill waste, and 
sometimes pine timber itself are cut into 
chips and placed. in a vertical retort 
fitted with a steam injection pipe. 

Through this pipe saturated or super- 
‘ heated steam is blown in, and turpentine 

oil, which is readily volatilised, passes 

out of the retort and collects with the 
water in a receiver, where it may be 
readily separated. 


The residual wood, after drying a 
short time in the air, is suitable for 
fuel. The crude turpentine is rectified 
from a copper still, and yields a slightly 
yellow spirit of an agreeable odour 
which is readily saleable at a price 
slightly below that of ordinary turpen- 
tine oil. 


ELECTRIC PROCESS FOR THE DISTIL- 
LATION OF Woop. 


It is stated that a new electric process 
has been evolved recently in British 
Columbia for the utilisation of waste 
wood, and that the process combines 


520 


[DECEMBER 1909. 


destructive distillation with a primary 
distillation of the free turpentine oil 
contained in the wood. An experimental 
plant has been set up at Vancouver, 
B. C., where waste firewood is obtain- 
able from local saw-mills, and the elec- 
tricity from water-power at a low cost. 


The wood is filled into oblong cans 
constructed to fit into special retorts, the 
brickwork of which is permeated with 
wrought-iron strips, through which 
passes a current of 110 volts. The 
temperature of the vessel. as measured 
by direct reading pyrometers, rises 
from 75° C, at the start to 180° C., when 
turpentine oil begins to volatilise. The 
current is then shut off. radiation from 
the brickwork sufficing to complete the 
distillation. By the time the temper- 
ature of the can has risen to 150°C, 
on the outside and 205° C. in the interior, 
the turpentine oil has been nearly all 
removed. It is collected by condensa- 
tion with cold water as in the ordinary 
process. The rosin contained in the 
wood meltsand runs down to the bottom 
of the vessel and out through perfor- 
ations, and is collected in the bottom 
of the retort. 


The can containing the wood is now 
removed from the turpentine oil retort 
into an adjoining still, where the heat- 
ing is continued, and the wood resi- 
duum is destructively distilled as pre- 
viously described. In this way the 
fresh set of products, charcoal, wood- 
tar, etc., is obtained quite separate 
from the turpentine oil and rosin of 
the first distillation. 

It is stated that by this process the 
following yields are obtained per 1,000 1b. 
of wood from British Columbia coast 


[eh 


Turpentine ... on 6'7 galls 
Rosin Res ... 168°0 Ib, 
Tar oil 5:1 galls 
Tar 68:0 lb. 
Charcoal 3238°0 1b. 


The charcoal obtained is said to be of 
good quality, tough, and suitable for 
special purposes. 

Owing to the absence of cheap supplies 
of raw materia]. wood distillation is not 
widely practised in the United Kingdom, 
but the distillation of sawdust, scrap- 
wood, spent tan and similar materials 
is carried on to a small extent. 


In many of the Colonies and Depen- 
dencies large tracts of forest exist fre- 
quently containing trees of little value — 
as timber, and these might well be used 
in this way, where the products of distil- 
lation, and es;ecially the charcoal, are 
marketable locally. In Canada, wood dis- 


3 DECEMBER, 1909.] 


tillation is creatly on the increase owing 
to developments in the consumption of 
charcoal. 


In Natal, attention has been directed 
recently to the possibility of using 
wattle timber for destructive distillation 
after the valuable tanning bark has 
been removed. At present this timber 
is used for pit props and in other ways, 
but the demand for it issaid to be 
much below the supply. 


Wood distillation has been under- 
taken recently in Victoria, Australia, 


521 Timbers. 


and a large works has been opened near 


Warburton, drawing its supplies from 
the forests of Gippsland. 


In India also there would appear to 
be a possibility of extending this indug- 
try. Owing to thereligious prejudices 
of the natives it is necessary to use only 
wood charcoal in the refining of sugar 
intended for native consumption. This 
and the common practice of covering 
““¢o-downs” with tar-impregnated felt 
opens out in Indiaa market for two of 
the chief products of wood distillation , 


PLANT SANITATION. 


MISCELLANEA: CHIEFLY PATHO- 
LOGICAL. 


By T. PETCH, B.SC., B.A. 

A disease of Tomato plants, one which 
is most probably not new to Ceylon, 
but which has never been previously 
recorded, has recently been sent in for 
examination. The plants were grown 
from English seed, and developed nor- 
mally until they reached the fruiting 
stage. Some of them then began to die 
off. Although the weather at the time 
was excessively wet, their leaves wilted 
just as they might be expected todoin a 
prolonged drought. The wilted leaves 
decayed and fell off, and finally the 
stems decayed also. There is very little 
evidence of disease in the stem when the 
leaves begin to droop, butif it is cut 
across near the base the woody part 
immediately round the pith is found to 
be brownish, and minute white or 
yellowish drops of liquid ooze out from 
this region. These drops consist of 
enormous numbers of bacteria, and if 
sections of the stem are examined under 
a microscope, they are found to issue 
from the vessels of the wood which are 
completely filled by them. The vessels 
convey the water from the roots to the 
leaves; and they are unable toperform 
this function when they are plugged by 
masses of bacteria. Hence the leaves 
wilt because they are deprived of water, 
although it may be raining heavily at 
the time. In dry weather, plants 
attacked by this disease merely dry up, 
but in wet weather they decay rapidly 
owing tothe rapid growth of various 
saprophytic fungi, etc., on the moribund 
tissues. 


The bacterium is, as far as can be 
ascertained without elaborate bacterio- 
logical investigation, Bacillus solana- 
cearum. It is well known as the cause 

66 


of wilt disease in potatoes, tomatoes, 
and egg plants in the United States, and 
has recently been recorded on potatoes 
in Mysore, where it causes “Ring 
disease.” Thereisno treatment for the 
disease, except the removal and burning 
of diseased plants as soon as they begin 
to wilt. The bacteria live in the root 
and the base of the stem, at least in the 
early stages, and, theretore, the plants 
must be dug up with the roots. They 
must be burnt; if they are thrown on 
the rubbish heap they merely spread 
the disease. As the bacterium attacks 
many species belonging to the potato 
family, it is a waste of time to plant 
tomatoes, or brinjals, or cape gooseberry 
on the same ground for the next two 
years. Tobacco and _ chillies would 
probably be attacked also. 

The root disease caused by Poria 
hypolateritia has hitherto been recorded 
only from estates above an elevation of 
4,000 feet, and hence it was considered 
purely an up-country tea root disease. 
During the last few months specimens 
have been sentin from new clearings in 
the Kandy, Matale, and Kegalle dis- 
tricts. In each case the plants attacked 
were about two yearsold. The roots of 
these plants were covered with the red 
sheet of mycelium, or were mottled, red 
and white, when the mycelium had been 
injured. The fructification is rarely 
found on old tea bushes killed by this 
disease, but on these young plants it 
was present in several instances; itisa 
thin, pinkish or reddish sheet, studded 
with minute holes, and is always found 
at the collar of the plant, sometimes 
extending over the surface of the soil. 
The full details of this disease have not 
yet been worked out, ‘the mycelium on 
the exterior of the root points to a 
spread from some jungle stump, but up 
to the present time the fungus has not 
been connected with any species of 


ee re be 


. st? A? mae 
APE rs Pee a Ae OA Se 


GRP Ree et eee ROPE os Be aS es Rey 


Plant Sanitation. 


jungle tree. It is known to occur on 
rotting logs in up-country jungles, and 
it has been found on the roots of Croton 
lacciferum (Keppitiva), but in the latter 
case it had attacked the plant in the 
same way as it attacks tea; the Croton 
cannot at present be regarded as the 
starting point of the disease. It would 
be of assistance if, when this disease has 
been identified on the estate, the planter 
would collect and forward all the fungi 
tound on the jungle stump nearest to the 
diseased bushes, as well as some of its 
decaying roots. Every effort should be 
made to get rid of this disease in the 
new clearing; it has proved extremely 
difficult to eradicate in one instance, and 
has taken an annual toll of the bushes 
for several years. 


It is well-known that the stumps of 
Grevilleas afford a starting point for 
our commonest tea root disease, caused 
by Ustulina zonata, and it is by no 
means rare to find groups of half a dozen 
dead tea bushes round a large percent- 
age of these stumps on up-country 
estates. It has now been demonstrated 
that Albizzia stumps also become centres 
of the same disease; and where large 
Albizzias are felled a similar loss of tea 
bushes may be expected. This propa- 
gation of root disease is_ practically 
inevitable, so long as large trees which 
must be afterwards felled are planted 
among tea. In this respect Albizzias are 
worse than Grevilleas, because of the 
larger area occupied by the roots and 
base of the stem. The average Grevillea 
stump can be extracted with compara- 
tively little labour, but one would 
hesitate before advising the extraction 
of Albizzia stumps. Of course, the 
decay of stumps is brought about by 
fungiin all cases, and it isa matter of 
chance whether the fungi which settle 
on any individual stump are harmless 
or injurious species. It is therefore 
quite possible to fell either Grevilleas 
or Albizzias without any subsequent 
development of root disease. But the 
risk must be borne in mind, and either 
tree should be up-rooted where practic- 
able. Some day we may arrive at the 
conelusion that it is unwise to plant, 
among tea, species which will grow into 
huge trees which must be felled later, 
or at least that it is unwise to allow 
them to grow so large, It may be noted 
that the root disease which develops 
from Grevillea and Albizzia stumps has 
not been known to attack Hevea. 


The original ‘‘canker” of Hevea has 
not been much in evidence during the 


522 


(DECEMBER, 1909, 


last three or four years, but several 
cases were notified during the prolonged 
rainy season of this year, and the subject 
is being reinvestigated. It has been 
determined that in many cases, probably 
in the majority of cases, the death of 
the bark in patches after the tree has 
been scraped before tapping is due to 
“canker,” sometimes assisted by deeper 
scraping than should be allowed. But 
the most general symptoms exhibited 
during the current year differ com- 
pletely from those previously recorded. 
The disease attacked the renewing bark 
on the surface which was being tapped. 
The bark showed numerous vertical 
black lines, and on cutting it out these 
lines were found to extend into the 
wood. These black Jines may be found 
on the cambium before they are evident 
externally. The bark round these lines 
decays, leaving a narrow vertical wound. 
Sometimes adjacsnt patches coalesce, 
and the whole of the renewing bark 
decays. In most cases the disease does ~ 
not extend downwards as rapidly as the 
bark is excised during tapping, and it 
is therefore possible to continue tapping 
although the tree is diseased. With the 
advent of drier weather the disease 
stops and the bark renews over the 
wounds, but as it has to grow in from 
the edges of the vertical wounds, the 
renewed bark is rough. Except for this 
rough bark, there is no permanent 
injury to the tree. 


The cause of Hevea canker cannot be 
said to have been determined. Four 
organisms have been found fairly re- 
gularly in the diseased tissue. Two of 
these are inall probability only sapro- 
phytic and are not being considered at 
present; the other two are a bacterium 
and' a Nectria. The evidence of the 
diseased tissue seems to point to the 
bacterium as the cause, since it is always 
found in advance of the hyphz of the 
Nectria, and the discolouration of the 
wood is identical with that in the bac- 
terical cultures. But inoculations with 
both these organisms have so far been 
unsuceessful. The bacterium has been 
isolated and grown in pure cultures, but 
an attempt to produce ‘‘canker” by 
inoculating tapped surfaces with bac- 
teria from these cultures has proved a 
failure up to the present. In the ease 
of the Nectria, the ripe spores were 
caught as they were ejected from the 
fructification, and these were proved 
capable of germination by sowing them 
in culture solutions; but no success has 
yet followed the inoculation with these 
spores. 


Se ~ 


‘DeceMBER, 1909. — 


523 


HORTICULTURE. ‘ 


HOW TO TRANSPLANT A TREE. 


By HAROLD CUZNER. 


(From the Philippine Agricultural Re- 
view, Vol. H., No. 6, June, 1909.) 


A tree should be transplanted at the 
period of its life when it is liable to 
receive the smallest possible injury. 
This, in this country, is as a general 
rule at the beginning of the rainy 
season ; except in case the transplanting 
is to be done atthe close of the rainy 
season before the soil begins to get dry. 


If the trees are very young when 
transplanted they may be dug up 
carefully, taking care not to injure 
the roots, and set out where desired. 
If the trees are of large size it will 
be found that they will stand moving 
much better if the roots are pruned 
several months before taking them up. 
In large nurseries this is done by an 
L-shaped blade cf steel attached to a 
plough beam which is run along rather 
close to the trees cutting the roots, 
but when only a small number are to 
be handled the same thing may be ac- 
complished by running a spade down 
on all sides of the young tree. After 
this has been done the trees should be 
left standing where they were growing 
and the cut surfaces will heal over and 
put out a number of new small roots 
which can be preserved when the tree 
_is dug up later on, when it will be 
found to stand the transplanting with 
much less injury than if not so treated. 


When trees are to be moved but a 
short distance, they may be taken up 
with large balls of earth adhering to 
their roots to prevent their drying out ; 
if this is caretully done the tree will 
continue to grow without any apparent 
check, 


When trees are to be shipped some 
distance, however, this becomes im- 
practicable, and in this case the roots, 
as soon as the trees are dug up, should 
be immediately ploughed into a mixture 
of clay and water about the consistency 
of thick cream. This mixture is known 
as ‘‘puddle.” It has the effect of coat- 
ing the roots with a layer of mud that 
prevents the air from drying them out 
as rapidly as they otherwise would. 
The trees should then be packed closely 
in moist sphagnum or wet straw and 
sent as quickly as possible to their 
destination, 


When the trees are received, if they 
have been shipped some distance, the 
bales should be opened at once and be 
‘healed in,” 12.e., set close together in 
a trench deep enough to take in the 
roots and part of the stem. This may 
be easily done by digging one trench 
and throwing all of the other soil on 
one side close to the trench. Then set 
in a row of trees close together and 
dig soil from the side of the trench 
opposite to that on which the soil was 
thrown to cover the roots. In this way 
a second trench will be formed parallel 
to the first which will be ready fora 
second row of trees. The trees should be 
moist and packed well around the roots, 
treading it down with the feet. If the 
trees look at all withered it would be 
well to have water thrown all over 
them. The site selected for ‘‘ healing 
in” the trees should be well drained 
and accessible to the place where the 
permanent planting is to be made, so 
that they may be pulled out and set 
as fast as possible. 


Before planting, any bruised or in- 


jured roots should be cut off with a 
sharp knife so as to leave a clean 
smooth surface that will heal over 
quickly. The cut should be made so 
that the cut surface will be facing down- 
ward rather than to the side or 
upward. 


Some trees are very sensitive to trans- 
planting and will not grow readily even 
though the above directions are followed. 
Among these is the Cassia florida, which 
often fails to grow even though the 
trees are not more than 5 feet tall, and 
are taken up with a ball of earth 18 
inches in diameter, unless great care 
is taken not to break this ball of earth; 
while others, like the rain tree, will 
stand very rough handling. 


It will be found, however, that fcr 
the great majority of trees the above 
method will give good results if the 
planting is welldone. The holes must be 
dug in accordance with the size of the 
trees to be set out, but in no case 
should the holes be so small as to cramp 
the roots of the tree, and they should 
be deep enough to allow the tree to 
be set 1 or 2 inches deeper than it 
originally grew. The soil should be 
well worked in abont the roots and 
packed firm, but not hard. However, 
the top layer of soil, to a depth of 2 
or 3 inches, should be left loose to act 
as a mulch and prevent the loss of 
water from the surtace by evaporation, 


> Es 


Horticulture. 


As a general rule. one or two years’ 
old seedlings will be found to be the 


524 


reason it is necessary or urgent to 
secure results, as the expense of hand- 


best for transplanting, and older trees ling larger trees is considerable, and = 
should be used only where for some _ the chances of success are smaller. : 


APICULTURE. 


THE COLOUR SENSE OF THE 
HONEY-BHE. 
SOME ORIGINAL WoRK SHOWING HOW 
THE BEES SEEM TO Favour BLUE. 


By JoHN H. LOVELL. 
(From the Gleanings in Bee Culture, 
Vol. XXXVIL., Ne ee September 1, 
1 4 


It has been well established by experi- 
ment that the honey-bee can distinguish 
between colours. Instead of describirg 
the experiment as performed by Lord 
Avebury (Lubbock), let me give some 
that I conducted along the same plan, 
and, Iam glad to say, with even more 
conclusive results. 


On a pleasant September morning 
I accustomed a yellow (Italian) bee to 
visit a strip of blue paper three inches 
long by one inch wide. To prevent the 
paper from blowing away or becoming 
soiled it was covered with a transpar- 
ent glass slide of the same dimensions, 
upon the centre of which a small quan- 
tity of honey was placed. These slides 
are used for mounting microscopic 
objects, and may be obtained of any 
dealer in optical instruments for a 
trifling sum. 

After the bee had made a number of 
visits to the blue paper, a red slide of 
the same dimensions, and prepared as 
described above was placed six inches 
to the right of it. An equal quantity 
of honey was also placed upon the 
centre of the slide. When the bee 
returned from the hive it alighted on 
the blue slide, which still remained in 
its original position. 

On the departure of the bee for the hive 
che slides were transposed, 7.e., the red 
put inthe place of blue, and the blue 
where the red had been. When the bee 
returned, and no longer found the blue 
paper in its usual position, it flew back 
and forth, examining both slides, paused 
for a second or two on the red, then 
resumed its flight, but finally settled on 
the blue. A little later it flew up into 
the air, but soon returned to the blue; 
then it flew across to thered, where it 
yemained for the rest of its visits. The 


change in the position of the blue, and 
the discovery of a differently coloured 
slide also bearing honey, evidently dis- < 
turbed the bee; and its frequent flights 4 
showed that it was endeavouring to . 
orient itself to these new conditions. 
As will now appear it did not find i 
necessary to repeat this course of recon- 
noitering. 

While the bee was away I transpose 
the slides for asecond time, the distance 3 
apart being as before—six inches. The 
bee returned directly to the blue. Twice 
it left the blue for a few moments, but 
each time returned to it. 


When the bee left for the hive, I again 
transposed the slides; then the bee 
returned to the blue. The bee left for 
the hive, and I transposed the slides. It 
returned to the blue. 


While the bee was away I transposed 
the slides for the fifth time. The bee 
returned tothe blue. Then it left the 
blue slide, flew across to the red, but 
at once returned to the blue, 


The bee left for the hive and 1 trans- 
Posed the slides. On its return it circled 
about as though in doubt, and presently 
disappeared from view; but a little 
later it returned and settled on the 
blue. While taking up its load of honey 
it left the blue three times, but in each 
instance returned. 


The bee left for the hive and I trans- 
posed the slides. It turned to the blue. 


The bee left for the hive and I trans- 
posed the slides for the eighth time. 
On returning the bee hovered close to 
the red, and then went to the blue. 


As soon as the bee returned to the 
hive, I transposed the slides for the y 
ninth and last time. When the bee - ~— 
came back, it alighted after a little 
besitation on the blue. It left once 
and flew across to the red, but scon 
returned to the blue. Left asecond time 
but soon returned. Then it flew into 
the room, and on being released went 
back to the hive: 

There can be no question that in this ~ 
experiment the honey-bee was able to ~ 
distinguish the blue colour from the red. 
lt repeated the experiment many times’ 
and varied it in many different ways, 


 Ducemper, 1909. : 


but the bee always showed its ability to 
distinguish between different colours. 
Only one bee should be employed, for if 
there are two or three they will conflict 
and to some extent produce confusion. 


Lubbock also endeavoured to show 
that blue isthe favourite colour of the 
honey-bee; but his results are unsatis- 
factory, and his method of exposition is 
obscure, and does not give sufficient 
details. Says Cowan in his book on the 
honey-bee, ‘The Experiments of Sir 
John Lubbock are not at all conclusive 
that bees have a preference for any 
particular colour.” On the other hand, 
Hermann Miiller, who was the greatest 
authority the world has ever produced 
on the mutual relations of insects and 
flowers, declared, after innumerable 
observations, that blue is more agreeable 
to the honey bee than any other colour. 
In his experiments he used flower-petals 
of different colours placed under grass 
slides, and he arranged the different 
colours in the following series according 
to the preference of the honey-bee: 
violet, blue, red, white, pale yellow, 
pure green, glaring red, and glaring 
yellow. Within the past ten years, 
however, Prof. Felix Plateau, of the 
University of Ghent, Belgium, has 
published many papers, in which he 
asserts that Miller was mislead by a too 
vivid imagination. 


525 A piculture. 


Now, does the honey-bee prefer blue to 
every other colour or not? Is Muller or 
Plateau right ? During the past summer, 
for the purpose of answering these 
questions, [ made many experiments with 
slips of coloured paper and with floral 
leaves, but the results were inconclusive. 
Apparently there is no doubt that 
a person dressed in black will receive a 
greater number of stings than one wear- 
ing white clothing. Do the bees see the 
black more readily than the white? or 
does black excite them in the same way 
that red enrages the bull or the turkey- 
gobbler? Strictly speaking, of course, 
neither black nor white is a colour, 


Tam now devising some new experi: 
ments to be tried another season, in the 
hope of deciding the matter one way or 
the other. I should like to ask the many 
readers of Gleaningstwo questions. 1. 
Have you ever observed any evidence to 
prove that the honey-bee prefers one 
colour (as blue) to another? 2, Can you 
suggest an experiment that will help in 
the solution of this problem? In either 
case will you kindly write and give me 
the benefit of your observations and 
suggestions ? Let us remember that, in 


the multitude of counsellors, there is - 


Wisdom. 
Waldoboro, Maine, 


SCIENTIFIC AGRICULTURE. 


THE ORGANISMS OF THE SOIL. 
By E. H. L. SCHWARZ, A.R.C.S., F.G.S., 
Rhodes University College, Grahams- 
town, South Africa. 
(From the Science Progress, No, 18, 
July, 1909.) 


To Liebig and the early investigators 
of the soil, the processes of decomposi- 
tion which obviously take place in it 
were the results of purely chemical 
action. But the more the soil was in- 
vestigated, the more this explanation 
became untenable. There was discover- 
ed init a teeming race ot animals, as 
well as of plants, cf an order different 
from those which live upon the outer sur- 
face ; a race of minute organisms distin- 
guished in essential characters from the 
larger forms which had been thought to 
be the only tenants of the globe. In 
these dwarfs the living substance of 
those which had their being in Archzean 
times is alive to-day, Brought into 
existence to destroy, to break up the 


rocks of the primitive earth, to prey 
upon everything that came within their 
reach, many of them, when the earth 
became peopled with the higher animals 
and over-grown with the plants for 
which their activities had prepared the 
way, turned upon these usurpers and 
sought their annihilation. These mi- 
croscopic beings of the underground 
world are the bacteria, moulds, fungi, 
blue-green, alge, myxomycetes and the 
host of dreaded germs which plague us, 
our cattle and our crops. 


The main work of these organisms, 
however, is not to cause disease in the 
higher animals and plants. The soil is 
not primarily a medium on which to grow 
trees and herbs, but is the dcmain in 
which bacteria and other lovely forms 
of life exert their activity, the higher 
plants exist by virtue of these, just as 
animals live by virtue of the herbage. 

The lower organisms which live in 
the soil and belong to the vegetable 
kingdom are usually divided into the 
bacteria and true fungi, moulds, yeasts 


PF PIR ROLES FO SENN GT ET We OE Te. 


Cake a ON ale | 


eek! Hae RT Ae ee ee oie MPT Ap meena aN 


Scientific Agriculture. 526 


and soon. The following estimates are 
given by Ramann of the relative pro- 
portions in the various types of soil* :— 


Bacteria Fungi 
inl grm. of _ in1 grm. of 
dry substance. dry substance. 


1. Pines with beech 


Type of soil. 


undergrowth 35,000,000 — 60,000 
2. Pines in boggy 

ground 1,647,000 343,000 
3. Beech-leaf mould 31,000,000 560,000 
4, Old leaf mould 

below No. 3 264,000 800,000 
5. Leaf mould in oak 

coppice 40,000,000 3,430,000 
6. Pine-needle mould 50,000,000 Uncountable 
7. Loamy soil 4,860,000 4,000-277,000a 
8. Sandy soil 2,500,000 66,000-566,000a 
9. Soil below humus 247,000 35,000-350,000a 


These numbers may seem enormous, 
but it must be remembered that the bac- 
teria and spores are very small: a bac- 
terium is about one-thousandth of a milli- 
metre in diameter, and the “saturation” 
point in soil is only reached when there 
are six hundred million bacteria in a 
cubic centimetre. 


The manner of estimating such germs 
is by growing cultures in nutrient gela- 
tine and agar-agar, and then counting 
the developing colonies of bacteria; the 


results are approximate only, and there 


are doubtless many that do not germi- 
nate in the particular medium employed. 
Others again are too small to be recog- 
nised under the highest powers of the 
microscope. Another factor which in- 
creases the difficulties of estimation is 
the enormous powers of multiplication 
which these organisms possess: a hac- 
terium divides into two every thirty-five 
minutes; one bacterium, therefore, at 
the end of twelve hours will have four 
million descendants, so that the numbers 
in the soil vary from moment to moment. 


Whilst actual numbers cannot be 
given definitely, the proportions are 
more or less correct. It has been found 
that bacteria are more abundant in 
the first foot of soil.t Thus Adametz 
found in one gramme at the surface 
38,000 bacteria, whilst at a depth of ten 
inches there were 460,000. In this parti- 
cular sample there were only 40 to 50 
fungus germs, of which six species were 
true moulds and four were ferments, 
including the yeasts of wine and _ beer. 
At three feet down the numbers decrease 
rapidly in proportion to the zration of 
the soil. Fraenckel, however, found 
that even in the soil beneath the pave- 
ment of Berlin there were still consider- 


~* B, Ramann, Bodekunde, Berlin, 1909, p. 120. 
+ Adametz, Inaug, Diss. Leipzig, 1876. 
aFrom one cubic centimetre, 


> i= a 


[Decumpmr, 1909. 


‘able numbers at a depth of eight to ten 


feet.* ; 


Bacteria predominate in cultivated 
lands, whilst moulds are found in open 
meadow and in fresh soil. It is a fune- 
tion of the moulds to keep the surtace 
layer open; they send their hyphxe 
between the grains of sand and parti- 
cles of clay, push them aside and make 
channels for the entrance of air. They 
may be called Nature’s tillers. In eculti- 
vated ground man ploughs and harrows 
the land, so that an artificial tilth is 
produced far in excess of that in natural 
soil, and crops grown on it aie unable 
to thrive without hindrance; whereas 
if the same seed were planted in natural 
soil, just sufficiently srated to support 
the indigenous flora, the germinating 
plants would be stifled. 


The works of the moulds in another 
direction can be seen on pine-needle 
litter or fresh leaf litter, where the 
leaves are bound together by a web 
made by the tender filaments of growing 
moulds and decomposition goes on 
rapidly. Rostrupt called this particular 
form of mould Clodosporiumhumifaciens, 
but there are doubtless many kinds at 
work, all active in breaking down the 
cellulose of plants into humus. It is 
this parasitic and saprophytic action 
of the lower organisms that has over- 
shadowed the importance of their other 
less obvious activities. Many species 
are certainly specially fitted to promote 
fermentation, putrefaction, decay in all 
its forms in vegetable and animal tissues, 
but some have other work to do. Kunze 
has shown that the higher plants have 
roots that are incapable of breaking 
down the mineral substances which they 
absorb, and Kunze attributes the assimi- 
lation of these to the work of bacteria 
and moulds,{ Nikitinsky.§ Czapek and 
Kohol| have shown that cultures of the 
moulds Aspergillus niger and Penicillium 
glacum, when fed with ammonium chlo- 
ride, set free hydrochloric acid, which 
alone or in the presence of nitrates is 
capable of dissolving most of the known 
mineral substances, It is not impossible, 
therefore, as has been assumed, that 
the precipitation of gold in the hot 
water of the Steamboat Spring of Nevada 
is brought about by the action of 

*« Fraenckel, Zeitschr; Vol, ii. 
p. 521. 

+ E, Ramann, Joc, cit. p.119, 

+ G. Kunze, Jahrbuch, wiss, Bot, Vol. xiii: 
1906, p 


f. Hygiene, 


= "r 


{ 


B Cby ir = 
§ J. Nikitinsky, Jahrbuch, wiss. Bot. Vol, xl, 


1904. p. 1. 

|| Fs Czapek and EK, Kohn, Hofmeist. Beitrage 
z. Chem. Phys. Vol. vii. 1906, p: 302; F. Czapek, 
Progressus revbotanicoc, Jena, 1907, p. 436, 


paar 


DECEMBER, 1909. 


plants much in the way in which Cohn 
has shown, calcium carbonate is depo- 


sited in the Sprudelstein of Carlsbad.* 


Bacteria have been studied principally 
from the standpoint of disease in man 
and animals, but recently the attention 
of agriculturists has been directed to 
the nitrifying organisms. The first step 
in fixation of atmospheric nitrogen is 
accomplished “by certain flagellate cells 
called Nitrosomonas, belonging probably 
to the animal kingdom; these are suc- 
ceeded by minute rod-like bacteria called 
Nitrobacteria, which oxidise the product 
of the former into nitrates. These 
latter live principally, or perhaps more 
properly should be described as having 
been detected living in the root nodules 
of clover, peas and similar leguminose, 
and have been called Rhizobium legumi- 
nosum; they are occasionally found on 
the roots of forest trees, and it is now 
recognised that bacteria with similar 
functions live free in the soil. Another 
nitrifying organism is the Azotobacter 
chroococcus, which lives on the leaves 
or trees, and causes leaf mould to be so 
rich in nitrogenous compounds.t Some 
of the bacteria and some of the ferments 
also have the power of undoing the work 
of these nitrifying bacteria; they deni- 
trify and liberate nitrogen from nitrates. 
The fact is familiar to gardeners in the 
case of fresh stable manure, where the 
action is brought about by denitrifying 
bacteria, whereas from rotted manure 
the deleterious organisms are absent. { 


Regarding the action of the blue-green 
alge in forming soil Fritsch has accumu- 
lated a large amount of information.§ 
In a large tank at Nalande in Ceylon the 
first forms to secure a foothold on the 
bare rock were found to be red-coloured 
gelatinous species of the genera Glq@o- 
capsa and Aphanocapas; then, when a 
resting-place is secured, an adhesive 
species, Phormidium laminosum, grows 
upon it, covering large portions of the 
rock surface with huge thin papery films. 
Tangled filaments of Scytonema develop 
out of the Phormidium, and tufts of 
Tolypothrix succeed these. Treub, who 
visited Krakatoa after the eruption of 


* F. Cohn, Neues Jahrab. 1863, p. 580; see 
also W. H. Weed. The formation of. Hot-Spring 
Deposits, Internat. Congr. Geol, (‘ompte, Rendu, 
5th Sess. 1898, p. 360. 

+ A. D. Hall, Recent Developments in Agri- 
cultural Science, Addresses and Papers, British 
ond South Africa Association Advancing Science. 
Johannesburg, 1905, Vol. i. p. 103. 

+ R. Burri and A. Stutzer, Centr. 7. Bakt. (2), 
Vol. i. 1895, p. 442 

§ F. E. Fritsch, The Role of the Algal Growth 
in the Colonisation of New Ground, Geogr. 
Journal, Vol. xxx. 1907, p, 531. 


By aypok . Soentific Agriculture: 


1883, found the ground covered witha 
thin, gelatinous, hygroscopic layer of 
blue-green algss of which the genera 
Tolypothrix, Anabcena, Symploca, and 
Lyngbya were the first to appear on the 
bare rock. These growing on _ the 
voleanic ash and pumice, of which the 
whole island was composed, gradually 
formed a soil on which higher plants 
could grow.* ; 


Welwitsch describes a similar growth 
of algee on the “‘ Black Rocks” of Pungo 
Andongo, in Angola. These black rocks 
owe their colour to the abundant growth 
of a sub-rial alga, Scytonema myochrous 
var. chorographicum, which generates 
and multiplies so rapidly during the 
rainy season that the upper portions 
of the mountains are covered with it in 
avery short while. Soon after the hot 
season has set in, at the end of May, the 
black plantlets begin to be discoloured 
by the intense heat. They gradually 
become dry and brittle, until they peel 
off entirely by-and-by, after which the 
rocks loose their sombre aspect and 
reappear a their natural grey-brown 
colour.t Bohlin had described four 
algseein the Azores living on the volcanic 
rocks in a similar way.t 


The blue-green algs are, however, 
semi-aquatic, and they can only live in 
moist places; when, however, they are 
joined with a fungus symbiotically to 
form a lichen, the weft of the mycelium 
of the fungus protects them sufficiently 
from desiccation, and the blue-green 
alge arerendered practically independent 
of moisture. Welwitsch describes how 
in the sandy valley of Cuanza River, in 
Angola, a Blue-green alga, Porphy- 
rostphon notarisii extends over wide 
meadows. By reason of its hyvroscopic 
nature, it absorbs the atmospheric 
moisture during the dewy nights, 
affording by this means a _ refreshing 
protection to the roots of the larger 
plants during glowing heat of the day. 
Boodle has described a more vigorous 


* M. Treub, Notice sur la nouvelle Flore de 
Krakatoa, Ann, Jard, Bot. Buitenzorg, Vol. vii. 
1888, p. 213; see also Penzig, lot ci, Vol. xviii. 
1902, p. 92. 

+ FL Welwitsch, Journ. of Travel an Nat. 
Hist. Vol. |, i. 1868; see also Apontamentos 
Phyto-Geographicos solve a flora da provincia 
de Angola, etc., Annaesdo Conselho Ultramarino, 
Parte nao off, Ser. i. Dez 1858. p, 533; also E. 
Tenzl, Bericht tiber einige der wichti Ergebnisse 
der Bereisung der Portugiesischea Kolonie von 
Angola in den Jahren 1850-1860 durch Dr. F, 
Welwitsch, Vienna, 1864. 

{¢ F. Bohlin, Etude sur la Flore algologique 
d’eau douce des Acores, Bib, K. Svenska vet. 
Ak. Handl. Vol, xxvii, Afd. iii, No. 1 p. 


poh tan ees 


ad 


ET TE ees 


Oy Gee ee 


if gins: 
Vie ene so ee oT 


PET Ss ee eRe Ogre ad 


Scientific Agrculture. : 528 


growth in the deserts of Australia, 
where the dried algss form a crust re- 
sembling elastic bitumen on the surface.* 


In all these cases the algze and lichens 
do not merely cling to the rock surface ; 
they definitely eat and digest the rocks 
on which they grow, as may be seen by 
the corrosion of the surface, and also by 
the presence of the substances in the 


i 7 in th : 
rock in the cells of the plants in the | Withublue-eroen alge, Glccocenaaeeeee 


form of crystals of oxalate of lime and 
so forth. 


The investigation of the microscopic 
animals of the soil is practically un- 
touched. Miiller found Difflugia, a large 
freshwater rhizopod, in bog humus + 
and I have mentioned the case of Nitro- 
somonas. The intestines of earthworms 
swarm with gregarines, which sesm to 
play the same part in them as bacteria 
do in the ease of plants. In tan pits the 
Fuligo varians ‘(AXthalium septicum), 
commonly known as ‘flowers of tan,” 
spreads out in colonies a*foot or more 
in diameter; the germs of this organism 
must exist in the natural bark and in 
the soil of forests. 


It is a legitimate question to ask, 
“What do the bacteria and other or- 
ganisms in the soil do when all decompo- 
sition possible has been accomplished ” ? 
We have seen what teeming myraids 
live inthe soil. We know that if the 
soil is treated with weak solutions of 
earbolic acid and mercury chloride, 
which kill bacteria, the soil is rendered 
sterile. We shall now proceed to show 
that bacteria are known to act directly 
on inorganic substances, and the in- 
ference seems to follow naturally that a 
large part of the activities of the micro- 
organisms in the soil is concerned with 
the breaking down of rock substances, 


The absorption of carbonate of lime 
by the lower organisms is well known, 
In plants the minute-coccoliths and 
rhabdolths, the blue-green alge, Chroo- 
coccus and Gloocapsa, the larger red 
or calcareous seaweeds, are examples, 
whilst among animals all the protozoa 
and some sponges absorb and secrete 
carbonate of lime as one of the functions 
of the activities of their cells. The 
action is perfectly simple: by the oxida- 
tion of the carbon in their protoplasm 
carbon dioxide is produced, which acts 
on calcium carbonate and forms a 
soluble compound. The formation of 
oolite grains is another instance: the 


* TL. A. Boodl , Bull. Miscellaneous Inf. Kew- 
No. 5, 1907, p. 145; see also W. T. Thiselton 
Dyer, Australian Caoutchouc, Journ. Bot. New 
Ser. Vol. i, 1872, p. 103. 


+P. E. Miller, Naturliche Humusformen, 
Berlin, p. 27, 


ih 
i 


2 xe ts 
Drcempne, 190 
. 3 a. 

collection of the carbonate of lime is 
supposed to be brought about by the 
thalius of an alga, which encrusts the 
central grain, depositing calcium carbon- 
ate in concentric layers as_ it grows. 
Certainly the encrusting red algsz act 
in the same way, but living organism has 
never been observed on the oolite grains, 
though nodules of carbonate of lime in 
fresh-water lakes are usually covered 


The svme process is believed to give rise 
to the pisolites which separate in pea- 
like granules as deposits from ~ hot 
springs. The blue-green algz can live 
in hot water, but the actual organisms 
on the pisolites have not been seen, 
though Cohn asserts their presence. 


On the other hand, the destruction of 


oolite grains and shells generally is _ 


accomplished by boring alge, such ag 
Hyella,* which send their microscopie 
filaments through and through the hard 
calcite similarly to the mycelia of a 
fungus penetrating rotten wood; Lind,t 
in fact, found that fungi were actualiy 
capable of sending their hyphex through 
marble. Boring sponges like Cliona 
do the same. { 


‘The separation of silica cannot beso 
easily explained. There are countless 
plants and animals which absorb and 
secrete silica, and the lower forms are 
usually closely allied to the lime-secret-* 
ing genera. Among the silicious plants 
there are the hosts of diatoms, and among 
animals the radiolavia and sponges. 


In the case of iron again, there are 
differences of opinion. The bog-iron 
which forms at the bottom of lakes and 
under the soil in marshy places, where it 
is known as moor-bed-stone, ortstein 
or oude klip, is thought to be the result 
of chemical deposition. Organie acids 
certainly dissolve the iron, and when the 
solution is oxygenated, carbon dioxide is 
given off and the iron is deposited either 
asa carbonate or as a hydrate. This is 
what happens in the laboratory; in 
Nature, however, the precipitation goes 
on inthe bottoms of lakes and in soil 
which is not properly srated, Hhrenberg 
attributed the deposition to a diatom 
which he called Gallionable ferruginea.§ 


* EK. Bornet et Flahault, Note sur duex nouveaux 
genres d’ algues perforantes, Jour. Bot. vol. ii, 1888, 
p. 161; see also J. EK. Duerden, Boring Alze, Bull. 
ANN. Mus. Nat. Hist. New York, Vol. xvi. 1902, 
p. 323. : 


+ K. Lind, Jahrbiich. Wiss. Bot Bd. xxxii, 1898, — 


p. 608. 


+ fopsent, Arch. Zool. Exner. (3), Vol, viii 
1900, p, 226, Ne 


§ C,G, Zhesnberg, Mikrogeologie, Leipzig, 1854. 


eT er eT ee oe oe 


4 
4 
a 
7 


a 


de TAS Som ~ 


_ DECEMBER, 1909. 5 


When we come to the sulphate the 


evidence is clearer. There are definite 


bacteria which feed on sulphur and 
separate in both in the form of oily 
globules of the element and as sulphur- 
reted hydrogen. The effect of feeding 
the bacteria of the soil with gypsum 
(hydrated sulphate of lime) i: most 
marked. Pichard states the fact in the 
following way: the nitrification in the 
soil by bacteria is stimulated by :— 

Magnesium carbonate 12'5 times proportionately * 


Calcium carbonate 13°32, BA 
Potassium sulphate O'S: 55 7 
Sodium sulphate CUAL laenaa 00 
Gypsum 1000 ,, ” 


In the case of the carbonates the action 
is probably simply due to the neutralisa- 
tion of acids which act deleteriously on 
bacteria; but actions of sulphates is 
certainly direct and is due to their 
forming food-stuff for the organisms. 

Though no direct evidence is as yet 
available as to the action of sulphur 
bacteria in the soil, there are the 
researches of Zelinsky and Brussilovsky 
on the bacteria in the Black Sea, which 
leave very little doubt that the reaction 
on land isa similar one to that in the sea, 
The surface waters of the Black Sea con- 
tain free oxygen and support an abund- 
ance of organic life; but the deeper and 
denser waters are charged with sulphur- 
etted hydrogen, and the only organisms 
present are the bacteria. The amount of 
sulpheretted hydrogen increases with 
depth. At 100 fathoms there are 33 
cubic centimetres in 100 litres; at 200 
fathoms, 222 c.c., and at 1185 fathoms, 655 
c.c. Severalspecies of bacteria have been 
observed, but only one, the Bucterium 
hydrosulphuricum ponticum, has been 
studied in detail. This bacterium 
possesses the power of liberating sulphur- 
etted hydrogen, not only from organic 
matter containing sulphur, but also 
directly from sulphates and sulphites. 
All authors are agreed that the su] phates 
of the sea-water are acted upon, but there 
is some divergence of views as to whether 
the changes are due solely to bacteria, or 
whether they arein part purely chemical. 
Changes of an opposite kind take place 
in the zone where water containing sul- 
phuretted hydrogen comes into contact 
with that containing oxygen. This zone 
occurs at a depth of about 200 fathoms. 
According to Yegunov and Vinogradski, 
there is at this depth a race of sulphur 
bacteria which derive the energy neces- 
sary for their existence from the sulphur 
of the sulphuretted hydrogen. This 
sulphuretted hydrogen is separated in 
their cells in the form of soft, oily 


* E, W. Hilgard, Soils in Humid and Arid 
Regions, New York, 1906, p, 147, 


67 


Scientific Agriculture. 


globules, and the oxidation of this 
sulphur gives them the necessary 
vital energy in precisely the same 
manner as the oxidation of carbon in 
other organisms supplies it. I must 
express my indebtedness to the presi- 
dential address to the Geological Society 
by Dr. Teall for the above facts, es- 
pecially as it has led to the train of 
reasoning adopted in the present article.* 

The organic substance of plants and 
animals, the protoplasm, consists essen- 
tially of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, 
nitrogen, sulphur and phosphorus. We 
have dealt with the separation of all 
these by micro-organisms except ~ the 
last. We know of no phosphorus-eating 
bacteria, but phosphorus exists plenti- 
fully in the soil, being derived from the 
mineral apatite, a calcium phosphate, 
which is an accessory mineral in all 
igneous rocks. The natural phosphates 
of lime and magnesia are readily soluble 
in all weak acids and are available 
directly to the plant roots; but if there 
is any hydrated oxide of iron present 
in the soil. there is formed a phosphate 
of iron which is totally insoluble. 
Basic slag, for instance, which contains 
large quantities of phosphorus and iron, 
lies unaltered on fields with damp soil 
showing au _ acid reaction. As pre- 
viously stated, Kunze has proved that 
in many of the higher plants the roots 
do not secrete organic acids, the only 
secretion being water containing carbon 
dioxide. Prianischnikoff found that on 
growing peas, lupines, mustard and 
buckwheat, in sand containing alumi- 
num phosphate, which, like phosphate 
of iron, is insoluble in carbonic acid, 
there was a vigorous absorption of the 
phosphates by the plants, and the con- 
clusion he arrived at was that the 
breaking down of the insoluble  sub- 
stances had been accomplished by 
bacteria.t : 


In South Africa the central parts of 
the country are dry; along the river 
courses there are magnificent stretches 
of alluvium, which, however, can only 
be occasionally watered by floods or 
artificial irrigation. The soil is usually 
rich in phosphate, but on taking samples 
of the soil after a spell of drought 
they are found to be in the insoluble 
form. When, however, the fields are 
watered and brought under cultivation, 
then on analysis the soil shows a high 
percentage of soluble phosphates. There 
may be other means of explaining this 
phenomenon, but the one which sug- 


* J.J, A. Teall, Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., Vol 
lviii. p. Ixvii, 

| D. Prianischnikoff, Bericht. deutsch, bot, 
Ges, Vol. xxii, 1904, p. 194. 


3 
4 
4 


Stientific Agriculture, 530 


gests itself to any one acquainted with 
bacteria in the soil and their life history 
is that the solubility of the phosphates 
is brought about by the action of bac- 
teria. When the soil becomes dry and 
parched the bacteria encyst or~ retire 
into minute horny capsules, and their 
activities cease; when water is supplied 
to them, the capsules absorb water and 
burst, freeing the rested organisms, 
which straightway start propagating 
at the very rapid rate observed in such 
organisms. 


This explanation ‘is founded on ana- 
logy; but then similar analogies have 
been proved to be actual facts in the cases 
of carbon, nitrogen and sulphur, and it 
is likely to prove so, judging from 
Prianischnikoff’s experiments, in the 
case of the last essential constituent to 
protoplasm. If it be so, then it is one 
of the most beautiful examples of the 
manner in which Nature preserves her 
most precious assets against the proper 
time. 


Wecome then to regard the organisms 
of the soil as the inhabitants of the 
globe persisting from a period when 
it was still impossible for the higher 
plants and animals to live upon it, 
We can imagine the earth to have been 
in such a state as Treub tound the 
island of Krakatoa in 1886, three years 
after the great eruption, when the pri- 
mitive rocks were teeming with micros- 
copic life. In Krakatoa the whole island 
had been reduced to a mass of glowing 
ash; but still, after a short interval, 
the surface became slimy with micro- 
organisms busily breaking down the sili- 
cates and forming a subsoil which the 
higher plants, later on, would take ad- 
vantage of. In the early history of the 
earth the soil became similarly formed, 
but seons of time had to pass before 
the higher plants became developed and 
were able to take advantage of the 
habitat prepared for them. Heat, which 
kills most living beings, was no hind- 
rance, forthe blue-green alg live in 
nearly boiling water to-day in the hot 
springs;* food, as we understand it, 
these organisms did not require, as they 
obtained their supplies directly from 
the rocks. We can assert that plants 
originally formed, collecting their car- 
bon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and 
phosphorous from the inorganic sub- 
stances around them and then, with 
their oily secretions forming emulsions 
with water, creating, as Butschli has 


* As faras I can discover the highest recorded 
temperature is 85° C,: A. Engler and K, Prantl, 
Die Nat. Pflauzenfam, 1, ‘Yeil, Leipzig, 1900, 
p. 63. 


‘ “toy 
(DECEMBER, 1 
suggested, the primitive animals which 
were to devour them, It is to the soil 
that we should look as the seat of the 
origin or organic life, not the sea. 


EXPERIMENTS ON THE VALUE OF 
NITRO-BACTERINE, 


By C. T. GINNINGHAM, 


Bacteriologist to the S. E, Agricultural 
College, Wye, Kent. 
(From the Gardeners’ Chronicle, Vol. 
'V., No. 1, 152, January, 1909.) 


In the spring of this yeara culture 
material known as “ Nitro-bacterine,” 
for introducing into the soil those valu- 
able bacteria which form nodules on the 
roots of leguminous plants was largely 
advertised. Its value and efficiency, at 
least with garden crops, have now been 
scientifically tested in a number of cases 
with almost uniformly unfavourable 
results, I would refer to the very com- 
plete series of experiments carried out 
on the inoculation of Peas with ‘“ Nitro- 
bacterine” by Mr. F. J. Chittenden, F.L.s., 
at the Royal Horticultural Society’s 
gardens at Wisley (J.R.H.S., Vol. 34, 
part II., November, 1908). The following 
sentences occur in his summary :— 
‘There was under no soil treatment a 
consistent increase in the cropdue to 
inoculation. The uninoculated seed gave 
acrop 14 per cent. heavier than the 
inoculated in the aggregate. Itis econ- 
cluded that the inoculation of legu- 
minous crops with ‘‘ Nitro-bacterine ” in 
ordinary garden soil is not likely to 
prove beneficial.” Dr. Voelcker also 
has given the material a trial at the 
Royal Agricultural Society’s farm at 
Woburn, with resultsin no wise favour- 
able to ‘* Nitro-bacterine,” and there is a 
mason private testimony to the same 
effect. 


In these circumstances it will perhaps 
be of interest if I briefly record the 
results of an experiment on the inocu- 
lation of Peas and Beans with ‘ Nitro- 
bacterine” at the S. E. Agricultural 
College, Wye, Kent, which add further 
confirmation to these conclusions. 


The varieties of Peas employed were 


Carter’s ‘‘ Hight Weeks,” ‘‘ Karly Morn” 
and ‘‘Yorkshire Hero.” Two sets of 
trials were carried out (1) on very poor 
soil just above the chalk, and merely 
dug over before sowing ;(2) on well- 
manured trenched ground intended for 
vegetable culture, Four rows of each 
variety—each row 21 feet long—were 
planted, and in each case arow sown 
with inoculated seed alternated with a 


ee» ~~ Can 


a 


DECEMBER, 1909.] 581 


row sown with untreated seed. The"pre- 

aration of the culture material and the 
inoculation of the seed were performed 
precisely according to the instructions 
given, and, in all details, inoculated and 
uninoculated rows were treatedin an 
identical manner. 

The following table gives the results, 
showing the total weight of pods ob- 
tained from each pair of rows, expressed 
in grams. 


Soi, MANURED AND TRENCHED. 
Seed not Seed 


Variety. Inoectfited. Inoculated. 
Grams. Grams. 
Early Morn ee 9,889 8,010 
Yorkshire Hero .. 14,780 14,295 
Broad Beans 18,142 12,091 
Poor Soi, UNMANURED. 
Lis Seed not Seed 
Variety. Inoculated. Inoculated. 
Grams. Grams. 
Hight Weeks 6,126 6,490 
Early Morn eta; 094. 5,291 
Yorkshire Hero... 11,760 11,097 
Broad Beans 10,427 9, ‘098 


The ‘Hight Weeks” Peas _ on the good 
soil were somewhat damaged by pigeons, 
and the crop was not weighed. It will 
be seen that the produce from the inocu- 
lated rows in every case but one weighed 
less than that from the corresponding 
uninoculated rows. Throughout the 
growth of the plants no difference 
between treated and untreated rows 
was distinguishable; both lots formed 
nodules on their roots to about the same 
extent, and the untreated rows came to 
maturity quite as soon as the others. 
There was no evidence of any kind to 
show that the slightest benefit had 
been obtained by the use of “ Nitro- 
bacterine ” on either type of soil. 


The experiment was on a small scale, 
but so far as it goes,-is conclusive, and 
serves to confirm many results obtained 
with ‘‘Nitro-bacterine” this summer. 
Further trials on a larger scale on a 

‘*seeds ” mixture are in progress on the 
College farm. 


By FRED J. CHITTENDEN, F.L.S., 
Director, R. H, S. Laboratory, Wisley. 


(From the Gardeners’ ( Chronicle ‘XLV., 
No, 1153, January, 1909.) ~ 


In the interesting comments in the 
Gardeners’ Chronicle of January 9 and 
16, upon the experiments carried out at 
the Royal Horticultural Society’s Garden 
at Wisley, upon the value of nitro- 
bacterine in garden soil, attention is 


Scientific Agriculture. 


particularly directed to the remarkable 
fact that, in many cases, the produce 
from the plots which had received 
inoculated seeds was less than that from 
the plots which had received uninoculat- 
ed seeds, but which had otherwise been 
similarly treated. 


It should be pointed that an error has 
crept into one of the paragraphs in the 
summary of the report bearing upon 
this point. The error makes the differ- 
ence appear materially greater than it 
actually was. The yield from the whole 
of the plots receiving inoculated seed 
was 495 lbs. (not 450 lbs.), while the total 
from the plots in which uninoculated 
seed was sown was 515 lbs. The unino- 
culated seed, therefore, gave x crop 4 
per cent, (not 14 per cent.) heavier than 


the inoculated, The weights are correct- . 


ly given in the body otf the report, but 
the error appears in the ‘‘Summary,” 
from which quotations are made. 


Perhaps the most remarkable part 
of the result, however, lies in the fact 
that 381 rows out of the 48 which were 
sown with inoculated seed gave a 
smaller crop than the corresponding 
rows sown with uninoculated seed. It 
is suggested that it would be interesting 
to see how far and in what direction the 
average yield of the plants which had 
been ineculated varied from that of the 
uninoculated. The details concerning 
this point are already in the press, and 
will appear in the Journal of the Society 
shortly to be issued, along with some 
other details bearing upon the use of 
nitro-bacterine, 


Unfortunately, the figures relating to 
the numbers of plants in the rows of 
two of the varieties were accidentally 
lost; but-we have those relating to the 
other two varieties used in 48 rows, 
the seed in. 24 of which was inoculated, 
and in 24 not. For details as to the 
number of plants in the separate rows, 
reference may be made to the forth- 
coming report, but the main results 
may here be noted. In six rows of the 
Ne Plus Ultra, in cultivated ground, 
grown from uninoculated seed, there 
were 3o8 plants which bore fruit, yield- 
ing, on an average, 98'7 grammes of pods, 
In the corresponding six rows, which 
were grown from inoculated seed, there 
were 384 plants, which yielded an aver- 
age of 89°2 grammes of pods. Thus the 
average yield of the inoculated plants 
was 10-per cent. below that of the un- 
inoculated, and four out of the six rows 
showed a decrease, In the six, un- 
inoculated rows of the variety Main- 
crop, on thesame soil, there were 266 
plants, which bore an average of 110° 
grammes, and in the corresponding, ino. 


¥ 


Bits pee eee) eet 


~~ eee 


(Tyr RPO SRR ed 


Scientific Agriculture. 


culated rows, 240 plants giving an 
average of 103°9 grammes. Here, again, 
there is a diminished average yield of 
6 per cent. from the inoculated plants, 
and four out of the six rows showed a 
decrease. On the fallow ground, six 
uninoculated rows of Ne Plus Ultra 
contained 297 plants, giving an average 
of 82°5 grames to the plant, and the six 
corresponding inoculated rows contain- 
ed 291 plants, and gave an average of 
80°38 grammes. In this case there was a 
diminished average yield of 3 per cent. 
from the inoculated plants, and four 
out of the six rows showed a lower 
average than the uninoculated. 


The six, uninoculated rows of Main- 
crop, on the same soil, contained 266 
plants, which gave an average of 52:5 
grammes; while the inoculated rows 
contained 204 plants, and gave an aver- 
age of 61°7 grammes to the plant. In 
this variety, therefore, there was an 
average increase of 17 per cent. from the 
inoculated plants, but only three out of 
the six rows showed an increase. 


In all, out of 24 rows of inoculated 
seed, only seven produced a greater 
average yield/:than the corresponding 


582 


uninoculated rows, and there was sone 
giving an equal yield. 


Like many other experiments of this na- 
ture, thishas suggested the desirability — 
of further investigation. The results 
obtained are far from showing that the 
decreased yield in these many cases is 
actually due to the inoculation with 
nitro-bacterine ; but the results given in 
the report certainly suggest the question 
whether certain races of Pseudomonas ~ 
radicicola may not induce a smaller yield 
than that obtained when the races of 
Pseudomonas native to a particular soil 
are present therein, and the results out- 
lined above emphasise this question, and, 
at the same time, give a very interesting 
corroboration of the results, upon which 
the conclusion that ‘the inoculation of 
leguminous crops with nitro-bacterine in 
ordinary garden sow, is not likely to 
prove beneficial ” was primarily based. 


Finally, it should be emphasised that 
the experiment and the conclusion refer 
only to ordinary garden soil, and do not 
in any way show what may or may not be 
the result of using nitro-bacterine on 
newly-reclaimed land when such is” 
brought under cultivation by means of 
leguminous crops. 


MISCELLANEOUS. 


PERSONAL NOTE. 


(From ‘‘ Science,” October 15, 1909.) 

On the occasion of the inauguration of 
Dr. A. Lawrence Lowell as President of 
Harvard University, honorary degrees 
were conferred on thirty delegates. 
Those on whom the degree of Doctor of 
Science were conferred and the charac- 
terizations of President Lowell were as 
follows:— 


x t * * nar * 


John Christopher Willis, also a dele- 
gate from the University of Cambridge ; 
an eminent botanist, remarkable for 
his knowledge cf tr opical vegetation ; 
Director of the Royal Botanic Gardens 
in Ceylon; who has done a great work 
in improving the varieties useful to man. 


and p. 520, 


Dr. John C. Willis, Director of the 
Royal Botanic Gardens of Ceylon, will 
give a course of four lectures on 
“Tropical Agricuiture, with special 
yeference to Hconomic 
Harvard University on~-October, 12, 14, 
16, and 19, 


Problems,” at- 


LITERATURE OF ECONOMIC 
BOTANY AND AGRICULTURE, 


By J . ©. WILLIS. 


Cowpea :— 
Cowpeas. Nielson. U. 8S. Dept. of 
Agri. Bull. B. P.1., “T.A.” Sept. 


1908, p. 249, Oct. 1908, p. 351, 
Cowpeas. Journ. Agric. Vict. 6, 1908, 

p. 652, z 
Cowpeas and Velvet Beans for Green 

Manuring. Agric. News. Nov. 1908, 


p. 375. 
Cowpeas. Lieut.-Col. J. R. Y. Gold- 
stein, ‘T.A.” Feb, 1909, p. 188, 


Crotalaria :— 


Crotalaria juncea. Agr. Ledger, In- 
dust. Series, 5, 1906. * 


Sunnhemp (Crotalaria Juncea) Dept. | 
of Agri. Madras, III. 59, 1908, 


Filets de péche en Crotalaria. Journ, — 2 
d’ Agr. trop., Feb. 1909, p. 64. : 
Culture du Crotalaria dans 1’ Inde. 


Journ. d’ Agric. Boe June 1908, Be: = 


p. 179. 


 Pecemper, 1909] 583 


_ Croton :— 


Note on™ Groton aromaticus var. 
laccifernm. Drieberg and Bamber. 
«TT. A.” July 1907, p. 21. 


Cuscuta.—The love vine. Agri. News, 
31. 10, 1908, p. 350. 
Cytisus : 
Die Kultur der Pa vdedate (C. proli- 
ferus var. palmensis). Mitth. Amani 
27. 18, 6, 1904. 
Daemonorops :— 
East Indian dragon’s blood. Kew 
Bull. 1906, p. 197. 
Note on the method of preparing. 
Str. Bull. 1906, p. 264. 
Date :— 
Date varieties and date culture in 
Tunis. Bull. B. P. I, U. S. Dept. 
of Agri., 92, 1906. 
The date palm. Agr. Ledger, V. P. 
Series 98, 1906. 
The date palm. Agr. Gaz. N.S. W., 
1907, p. 117. 
Les Dattes sansnoyau. Journ. d’ Agr, 
trop., Aug. 1909, p. 228. 
Divi-divi :— 
The culture of divi-divi. 
VI. 1907, p. 159. 
Drought-resisting Plants :— 


The trial of exotic drought-resisting 
plants in India. ‘“T.A.” Nov. 1907, 


Agr. News, 


p. 859 
Drugs :— 
The Ayapana plant. Ind. Agric. Feb. 
1906, p, 51. 
Bacon. The physiologically active 


constituents of certain Philippine 
medicinal plants. Phil. Jl. Sci. 1, 
p. 1007. 

The alkaloids of Datura alba. 
Mar. 1906, p. 188. 

Macken Ayapana, do. Neb, 1906, 
p- ° 

Etherington. Sarsaparilla, do. p, 30. 

Ayapana oil. (Schimmel & Co.) 
“TT. A.” Sept, 1907, p. 189. 

On Cucumis trigonus and colocyn- 
thin. Chem. and Drug. July 1907, 
p. 174. 

Barbados aloes. Agr. 
1907, p. 199. 

Asafoatida, 
p. 146. 

Combretum Sundaicum. Str. Bull. 
1908, p. 186. ‘*T.A,” Sept, 1908, p. 225. 

Notes on West African Drugs. Jl, 
L’ pool. I. C. R,, 1908, p. 25, 


66 TA 


News, June 


Ind, Agric. May 1908, 


Miscellaneous. 


The Mayalan anti-opium plant. Kew 
Bull. 1908. ‘‘T.A.” Aug. 1908, p. 124. 


Chemical examination of Brucea 


sumatrana. Str. Bull. 1908. «T.A.” 
do. p. 125. 
Quinine in India. “T.A, Jan. 1909, 
p. 19. 
Durian :— 


The Durian. Ind, Agric, Apr. 1908, p. 
125. “T.A.” July 1908, p. 31. 

The Durian Fruit. ‘‘T.A.” Oct, 1909, 
p- 307, 

Packing Durian Fruits for export. 
Agr. Bull. Str.and F. M.S., March 
19095 TA.” Oct. 1909, p. 307. 


Dyes :— 


Dyes and dyeing amongst the Sea ~ 


Dyaks of Sarawak. Str. Bull. 1906, 
p. 232. 

A note on Impatiens Balsamina as a 
dye plant. Burkill. Proc. As. Soe. 
Bengal, 3. 1907, p. 565. 


Edible Products (Miscellaneous) :— 


Die wichtigsten vegetabilische Nah- 
rungs und Genussmittel. Vogl. 
Bore (Urban and Schwargenberg) 


Jowitt, Notes on some of the dry 
grains cultivated in Ceylon. 
Nov. 1906, p. 391. 


EKlaeis:— 


The possibilities of the pie oil in- 
dustry. Trop. Life, July 1906, p. 107. 


Le palmier a huile au Dahomey. 
Journ d Agri. trop,, May 1906, p. 186. 


Le palimier a huile et son produit. do. 
Apr. 1906, p. 101. 


The palm oil industry of Southern 
Nigeria. ‘‘T.A,” Jan, 1906, p. 815, 


Ridley. Theoil palm. Str. Bull, 6, 
1907, p. 37. 

The African oil palm. 
1907, p. 351. 

Le palmier ahuile daus L’ Angola. 
Journ. d? Agri. trop. Nov, 1907, 
p. 329, 


Die Ausnutzung der Olpalme in un- 
seren Kolonien, Tropenfl, June 
1908, p. 280, 


Note on the cultivation of the oil 
palm, & J. L’pool J. C. R., Jan, 
1908, p.1 


The Aine oil palm. Trop. Life, 
Oct. 1907, p. 146. 


A short note on the possibilities of the 
oil palm in cultivation. Drabble in 
Q. J. L’pool J. C. R. Jan, 1908, 
p “T,A.”’ July 1908, p. 16, 


“TA,” June 


of T.A.” 


Zale : 
Shea a wy 


B 


RSet eee, ob BRE Or 


Ho 


i 


AMIN sidibaick alan ech foie Ea 


Miscellaneous. 


Die Olpalme am Kamerunberge. Tro- 
penpfl. Dec. 1908, p. 583. 


The African Oil Palm and its Pro- 
ducts. Agric. News. Nov. 1908, 
p. 3738. 


Le palmier 4 huile en Afrique occi- 


dentale frangaise. Bull. Jard. Col., 
Nov. 1908, p. 880. 


Do. do. L’ Agr. pract. despays chaud 
Oct. 1908, 

Do. do. continued, Dec. 1908, p. 466. 

Do. do. continued, Jan. 1909, p. 35. 

Do. do. continued, Feb. 1909, p. 127. 


March 1909, p. 219. May 1909, p. 398. 


The African oil palm and its products. 
Ag. News. Nov. 1908. ‘*T.A.” May 
1909, p. 418. 


Varietaten der West africanischen 


Olpalme. Tropenflanzer, July 1909, 
p- 342. 
Die Olpalme, Beihefte z. tropenflan- 
zer, 6, Oct. 1909. 
Eucalyptus :— 


Eucalyptus trees; economic uses. Ind. 
Forester, April 1908, p. 197. 


Mallet bark asa Tanning Material. 
Imp. Inst. Bull. 6, 1908, p. 318. 


THE VALUE OF INDIAN CROPS. 
(From the Indian Trade Journal, Vol. 
XIV., No. 176, August 12, 1909.) 


It isin auy country hard to ascertain 
exactly the area under the several crops 
and harder to estimate the total outturn 
to be derived from each. But a com- 
putation of the monetary value of such 
produceis a still more difficult matter. 
It may be possible in a small country, 
the division of whose cultivated areas 
is ascertainable with certainty, whose 
climatic conditions are so uniform that 
all the crops are reaped within a period 
of a few months, and in which the 
range of prices is narrow and accur- 
ately recorded. But in large tracts 
where these conditions do not exist, 
where the areas under the several crops 
are vast and uncertain, where the crops 
are reaped at widely different seasons, 
and where prices for all descriptions of 
produce are not adequately recorded 
on auniform system, the work becomes 
so conjectural as to have small value 
of an absolute kind. 


Even in the United States, where 
there isa large and intelligent body of 
private persons, farmers and others, 
who co-operate with the Department 
of Agriculture in reporting the various 
data required, and whose interests are 


584 


~ which is grown 


[Decem 


in the main concerned in their accurate 
record, the wide range of crop seasons 
and of farm values suggests doubts as 
to the intrinsic usefulness of the pub- 
lished estimates of total value of the 
agricultural produce obtained. 


In India such an estimate is not feasi- 
ble, even if it were considered that it’ 
would be instructive. It is not at all 
certain that the returns of cultivated 
areas and of the principal crops are less 
accurate in India than in other countries; 
but there are a number of minor crops 
recorded under generic headings, and 
whose varieties, though they may have 
money values substantially different, 
are not distinguished in the statistics. 
In respect of others no estimate of out- 
turn is attempted, while the mere areas 
under a further class of crops are lumped 
together. Moreover, there are at least 
two distinct harvest seasons in India: 
for monsoon crops and for cold weather 
crops respectively; and in the several 
tracts the incidence of the monsoon and 
ot the hot weather that occasions the 
ripening of winter crops varies so greatly 
in point of time that a further dfficulty 
arises. The conventional year adopted 
in India for purposes statistical and 
dependent on _ statistics runs from 
April to March. It was adopted in 
order that it should include the sea- 
sons at which the summer and winter 
crops dependent on the rains of a given 
year are reaped. But it does not do 
so altogether. In some cases the har- 
vesting of that portion of a given crop 
in Northern India is 
not begun before the end of the statis- 
tical year in which the more southerly 
portion of the same crop has been 
garnered and in part exported. All in- 
fluences tend to shipment of produce 
as soon asit becomes available; so that 
the appearance of a commodity in the 
export movement may, in the absence 
of any other index, be accepted as 
defining roughly the time when it comes 
on the market. Wheat may be cited 
as anexample. In the northern Punjab 
this crop is net cut before the end of 
April or beginning of May; but in 
Bombay and the Central Provinces 
reaping is begun in March, or even ~ 
February, and in a favourable year con- 
siderable shipments might go forward 
before the end of March. But most 
of the exports are made in the subse- 
quent statistical year. This to a much 
less extent holds good of oilseeds. In 
the case of cotton the heaviest shipments 
are made, in the end of the statistical 
year in which the crop is produced, 
although large quantities remain for ex- 
portation in later months, It is therefore 


_ DECEMBER, 1909.] 585 


- necessary, when attempting any valu- 
- ation of acrop, to decide somewhat ar- 


bitrarily, and on the merits of the parti- 
cular case, whether the valuation is to be 
based on the prices current in the year of 
harvest or on those of the following 
year, It is found on study of the statis- 
tics of exportation that, of the crops for 
which forecasts are prepared, cotton, 
jute, rice, sesamum, groundnut and tea 
are exported mainly in. the years in 
which they are produced, while wheat, 
linseed and rape and mustard are mainly 
exported inthe following year. There- 
fore any estimate of the value of crops 
in the former group should be based 
on the prices of the year of cultivation, 
while those in the latter group must be 
valued on the prices of the next year. 


But in India the mere establishment 
of the prices to be used in any one year 
is a matter of difficulty. [tis compara- 
tively easy to ascertain the average de- 
clared values of exports, But in India 
there are no export duties except on rice 
and rice flour. Where no export duties 
exist, there ‘is commonly no great strict- 
ness in ascertaining the correctness of 
declared values. These are consequ- 
ently not very reliable as a_ basis of 
valuation, Moreover, it has been re- 
eently shown in respect of wheat that 
the internal price at harvest time is 
lower than in later months—the reason 
being that cultivators are obliged to 
realise a part of their produce to meet 
the demand for rent and for payments 
in respect of loans. The export season 
terminates not so much because of the 
termination of demand for export as 
because of the gradual rise of the inter- 
nal price beyond export level as soon as 
the immediate monetary requirements 
have been satisfied. It follows that ex- 
port values are substantially lower than 
the average internal prices; and since the 
exports of wheat represent from one- 
eighth to one-seventh of the total crop, 
it would be quite unsound to value the 
residual seven-eighths or six-sevenths on 
the relatively low declared values of 
the exports. The same considerations 
apply to other forms of produce in 
varying degree; so it is clear that in 
selecting a basis of calcualation internal 
prices must be preferred to declared 
values. 


A fortnightly record of wholesale 
internal prices is available in India in 
respect of all but one of those crops for 
which forecasts are published. The 
exception is groundnuts. Therefore 
internal prices are mainly relied on in 
the following calculations, but the value 
of the groundnut crop is estimated on 
the basis of the export values. 


Miscellaneous, 


It will at once be objected that an 
export value is not admissible even in 
a single case, seeing that such value 
is commonly swelled by transport and 
trading charges, This is true; but it 
will be seen later on that there are 
sundry gaps in the data available re- 
garding Indian crops as a whole, and 
that the deductions to be drawn from 
the calculations now attempted must 
be confined to a particular point which 
will not be to any material degree 
affected by the use of export values in 
the ease of a commodity of which so 
arge a proportion is shipped. 


By any one who brings, to the exami- 
nation of the statements below, a cer- 
tain knowledge of Indian conditions it 
will also be objected that there are 
some other. crops not included, although 
returns of acreage are available in res- 
pect of them, The objection is good, 
but the absence of any annual estimates 
of outturn for these crops excludes them 
absolutely, and it is their exclusion that 
prevents any estimation of the total 
value of Indian agricultural produce. 


Since then it is impossible to arrive 
at any estimate of the total value of 
Indian produce with such accuracy as 
to serve any practical purpose. it might 
seem useless to carry out a_ partial 
valuation. So far as any single year is 
concerned it would be useless to do so; 
but when the calculation is made for 
successive years certain interesting facts 
are disclosed in comparison. 


Anything that bears upon prices in 
India has interest at the present time. 
The extent to which shortage of crops 
in recent years is responsible for the 
rise in Indian prices is indeterminate. 
But it is known that asa general rule 
shortage of crop is accompanied by a 
rise of price; and it is interesting to 
ascertain how far the rise of price com- 
pensates the producer for the reduction 
insthe outturn. It is conceivable that 
as regards some monopoly ‘crop in great 
demand the handling of a small quan- 
tity at enhanced rates might be more 
profitable than the handling of a large 
quantity at lower rates. But as a 
general rule we ‘should scarcely expect 
to find a contraction of outturn other- 
wise than injurious to the cultivator— 
altogether apart from the fact that a 
very substantial portion of his outturen 
has to go in forced sale at low rates 
for the payment of rent and interest. 


All we can hope to do, therefore, is 
to examine the facts relating to those 
crops for which stiatistics are available, 
and to ascertain how far these facts 


=, pe PATE aie 


Miscellaneous. 


point to any law of compensation prob- 
ably operative in respect of all crops. 


We append two statements showing 
the estimated outturn, the price and the 
value of each of these crops in the last 


years :— 
Statement I. 
1907—08. 
ie Total 
a . Average whole-| , 
Crop and Season.) estimated is ‘ Total value. 
F outturn. sale rate. 
Rs. Rs, 
Cotton 1907-08 | Per 10 maunds. 
Dales! 3,122,000 | 187:°91 =93°95 | 22, 33,27,510 
al per bale. 
Jute 1907 bales, 9,817,805 74°05 =37'02 36,35,04,045 
Wheat 1906-07 | per bale. 
tons} 8,491,700 | 34°29 =93°34 79,25,93,030 
| | per ton, ¥ 
Rice 1907-08 tons! 18,960,565 |  45°2 =123°03 | 2,33,28,01,738 
Linseed 1906-(7 per ton. 
tons 425,200 | 51°19 =189°34 5,92,47,' 19 
Rape & mustard per ton, S, 
1906-07 tons! 1,053,109 | 54°92 —=149°49 15,74,30,278 
Sesamum 1907-08 | | per ton. 
tons 280,300 | 76°4 —207°96 5, 82,91, 412 
“Groundnut 1907-) per ton. 
) tens) 352,500 154°7 per ton. 5,45,31,750 
Tea, 1907 Is] 248,020,398 4°67 per Ib.| —10,33,50,100 
| Total ...| 4,21,50,76,882 
* Declared value. 
Statement IT, 
1908—09. 
5 os) . ,oH 
° Oo 2 { On ® 
3 3. Be Bie lmees 
2) EE | Ee ‘S 522 
co o5 5 > So 
a oD ho rs hens 
a 33 He Se le 
5 3 Sr a 33 
5 A a Geox 
oF 
Rs. Rs. Per 
Cotton 1908-09 Per 10 maunds cent, 
bales} 3,643,000] 188°17 94°08 | 34,27,51,655] +16°8 
per bale. 
Jute 19(8 bales; 6,310,800) 53°15 26°57 | 16,77,09,510| —53'8 
Wheat 1907-08 per bale. 
tons] 6,104,200} 27°53 —102°16 | 62,35,84,684] —91°3 
Rice 1908-09 per ton. 
tons} 19,945,490} 49°22 —133°98 |2,67,22,33,722| +14°6 
Linseed 1907-08 per ton. 
tons 163,500} 52°74 ==143°'56 2,84,71,779] —60°3 
Raped mustard per ton. 
1907-08 tons 688,000) 58°53 =159°32 | 10,96,11,238] —30 4 
Sesamum 1908- per ton. — 
09 tons 492,900] 78°87 =214'68 | 10,58,17,813 $315 
*Groundnut per ton, 
1908-09 tons} 442,000] *151°6 per ton.| —6,70,07,200] +229 
Tea 198 1bs|247,476 324 *3646 per Ib.) 9,02,29,86$; —12°7 
Total ...|4,20,24,17,469] —0'3 


* Declared value. 


It will be seen that the total value 
in 1908-09 was _ Rs.4,20,24,17,469 (about 
£280,161,000) and fell short of the value 
in 1907-08 by Only 0:3 per cent. This 
by itself tells little. It is necessary to 
show how far the element of price enter- 
ed into this decline. To doso we must 
establish in each case what would have 
been the value of the reduced outturn 


at the price level of the earlier yee 


We find these values to be as follows i- 


@ Rs. 93°95 Cotton ...  81,22,59,850. 
37°02 Jute we 28,80,20, 916. 
93°34 Wheat ... _ 56,97,66,028 

12303 Rice .. 2,45,38,03,634 
139°34 Linseed a 2,27,82,090° 
149-49 Rape & mustard 10,28,49,120 — 
207996 Sesamum ... 10,25,03,484 
154°7 Groundnut ... 6,83,77,400 | 
04167 Tea ...  10,81,23,384 


8,99,91, 90,806 


This sum of Rs. 3,99,91,80,806 (£266,612,000) 
is less by Rs. 20,32,86,653 (£18,549,110-2) 
than the value of the same volume 
of commodities at the prices actually 


obtained for it as shown in State- 
ment Il. This difference represents 


about 4:84 per cent. of earlier year’s 
value, and marks the amount of decline 
that would have arisen from shrinkage 
of outturn alone if there had been no 
change of price. Bnt the actual loss of 
value was only 0'3 per cent; so, de- 
ducting this from 4‘84 per cent, it ap- 
pears that the rise in prices recouped 
the shrinkage of outturn to the extent 
of more than 4°5 per cent. 


When the reader looks more closely 
into the figures it will at once occur 
to him that the extraordinary decline in 
the price of jute in spite of a contrac- 
tion in the output was due to condi- 
tions extraneous to that crop and tends 
to vitiate the calculation. But in the. 
first place it must be remembered that 
the contraction in the demand for jute 
goods was accentuated by the shortage 
of crops in India, so that in this sense 
the decline in price is cogent to our 
enquiry. In the second place there are 
on the list several other commodities 
(e.g., rice) in which a large expansion 
in outturn was accompanied by a sub- 
stantial rise in price. And as it is 
dangerous to trim statistical problems 
by eliminating all items that in any 
way clash with the hypothesis we have 
set ourselves to illustrate, we prefer 
to leave the foregoing figures to speak 
for themselves. The point established 
by them is that in respect of those. 
Indian prices for which statistics are 
available a quantitative contraction of 
nearly tive per cent. was almost com- 
pletely recouped by the attendant rise 
in prices. 


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_-DrermBrr, 1909] 


POPULAR AGRICULTURAL 
INSTRUCTION IN THE UNITED 
STATES. | 


By E. A. CoDDINGTON. 


(From the Philippine Agricultural 
Review, Vol. Il., No. 7, July, 1909.) 


AGRICULTURAL HXHIBIT TRAINS. 


For some years past it has been a 
custom in several of the Western States 
for the leading railroad companies to 
build and equip railroad cars, and for 
the State officials or promotion organiza- 
tions to fill them with exhibits of the 
agricultural products from the different 
parts of a State to demonstrate the 
natural richness of the soils and the 
country for the purpose of inducing 
settlers and otheis to purchase lands in 
the State and develop its agricultural 
resources. These cars, with attendants, 
lecturers, and demonstrators, sometimes 
three or four of them together, having 
been thoroughly advertised in the section 
to be visited, have been sent over all 
the principal railroad lines into the 
North and South Central, the HKastern, 
and the New Hngland States, where 
they were sidetracked in the principal 
cities and exhibited their agricultural 
productions, while lectures were given 
and printed matter distributed with the 
purpose of giving the people in the more 
thickly settled sections of the United 
States an adequate idea of the wcnder- 
fnl agricultural possibilities in such 
States as Washington, Idaho, Oregon, 
Utah, and California. 


Tn some cases boats have been equipped 
with similar exhibits and sent from port 
to port where they have remained 
several days at a time exhibiting the 
products of the particular State or 
section which they represent; in like 
manner lectures and descriptions of the 
country and its possibilities were given, 
and much printed and illustrated matter 
distributed. These methods of popular 
instruction or advertising have been 
carried on for years by various Western 
States, and have given a wonderful 
stimulus to the development of agri- 
culture west of the Mississippi River and 
along the Pacific Coast. 


AGRICULTURAL AND HORTICULTURAL 
DEMONSTRATION TRAINS. 


In the March number of the Rural 
Californian we find the following notice 
ot a special agricultural and horticul- 
tural demonstration train :— 

The Southern Pacific Railway Com- 
pany will operate a special agricultural 

68 


37 Miscellaneous, 


and horticultural demonstration train. 
The University of California and the 
State Horticultural Commission, through 
scientific and practical men, will have 
delivered, at stopping points, lectures 
on methods to be pursued in increasing 
the value of agriculture, horticulture, 
live-stock raising, dairying, poultry 
raising and kindred industries. The 
equipment of the train will include two 
ears containing valuable and compre- 
hensive exhibits to be used in illustrating 
and demonstrating the points brought 
torth in the discussions. There will also 
beacoach for useas a lecture roomin 
towns where no hall is available. Every 


persou in the sections visited, who is. 


interested, is earnestly invited to attend 
these meetings. Where the place of 
meeting is elsewhere than in the train, it 
will be made known locally through the 
railway agents, newspapers, and other 
sources of information. 


The schedule and speakers are as 
follows :—Dr. Benjamin Ide ‘Wheeler, 
president of the University of California; 
Prof. KE. J. Wickson, director of the 
experiment station; Prof. W. T. Clark, 
superintendent of the department of 
university extension in agriculture; 
Prof. G. W. Shaw, of the cereal depart- 
ment; Prof. R. H. Loughridge, soils and 
fertilizers : Prof. E. W. Major, depart- 
ment of animal industry; Prof. B. 
Herms, medical entomolgy; Prof. H. M. 
Quayle, entomology; Dr. C. M. Haring, 
veterinary department; Prof. Seb: 
Babcock, department of plant pathology ; 
Mrs. M. EK. Sherman, viticulture, table 
grapes; Prof. R. E. Smith, southern Cali- 
fornia pathological laboratory, Whittier ; 
H. J. Ramsey and T.F. Hunt, citrus 
experiment station, Riverside; J. E. Neff, 
Anaheim, conductor of farmers’ institutes 
in southern California; J. W. Jefferey, 
State horticultural commissioner; E. M. 
Ehrhorn, deputy horticultural com- 
missioner ; EK. K. Carnes, superintendent 
of State insectary; Frederick Masky, 
fumigation expert. 


According to the proposed schedule, 
the train will leave Los Angelos in the 
morning of Mareh 10. The places to be 
visited and the hours at which meetings 
are to be held in those places will be 
as follows :— 


‘* Wednesday, March 10.—Pasadena, 
9-30 to 11-80 a.m.; San Marino, | to 2 p.m.; 
Arcadia, 2-10 to 3-10 p.m.; Monrovia, 3-30 
to 4-20 p.m.; Duarte 4-30 to 5-30 p.m,, 
also 7-30 to 9-30 p.m. 


Thursday, March 11.—San Gabriel, 9 to 
ll a,m.; Monte, 11-15 a.m. to 12-15 p.m,, 
also 1-15 to 2-15 p.m.; London, 3 to 5 p.m., 
also 7-30 to 9-80 p.m. 


eR EN FEY ORS, yo Le ee RECT 


at rr A ee ty 


sit a as 


Miscellaneous. 


FARMERS INSTITUTE TRAINS, 


More recently the large railroad com- 
panies have co-operated with the De- 

artment of Agriculture of the United 
States of the bureaus of agriculture in 
the different States and equipped ears, 
while the National or one of the State 
departments of agriculture furnishes 
speakers and lecturers. These cars are 
sent through the sections which are 
specially devoted to some staple crop, 
such as corn, wheat, cotton, etc., and 
lectures are given at each station on 
the best methods of growing corn, 
wheat, or cotton—the subject being the 
staple crop of the section of country 
which each car visits. 


In accordance with this plan each car 
proceeds on a well-advertised schedule, 
drawn by the trains of the railroad 
company, to the stations where it has 
been advertised and the people have 
already congregated. The .people enter 
the car, are seated, and a lecture is given 
on the particular crop in which they are 
most interested; after the lecture is 
over the car is drawn by the railroad 
company to the next station, where the 
people are in waiting, and another lec- 
ture is given on the same subject. This 
is continued from station to station 
throughout the sections in which a 
particular crop is raised, and in this 
manner much valuable information is 
disseminated and a great deal of interest 
and enthusiasm for more _ intelligent 
agricultural work is aroused. 


This plan is usually carried out_on the 
initiative of the great railroad com- 
panies for the increased profit that will 
come to them from the larger crops 
raised by the farmers along their lines 
and delivered to them for transportation. 
Usually the Government of the State or 
the United States furnishes the liter- 
ature and the necessary equipment or 
apparatus for the lectures and demon- 
strations, and the railroad company 
furnishes the car or cars and carries 
out the scheme according to their 
own convenience for the development 
of the country. : 


In the same number of the Rural 
Californian above mentioned we find 
the following notice of the Southern 
Pacific Farmers’ Institute train :— 


In a communication to the Californian 
Cultivator, Prof. Warren T. Clark says 
in discussing the trips of the demon- 
stration train now being run over the 
State: ‘‘The next trip, which will be- 
gin in the latter part of February, will 
cover a part of the southern portion of 
the State. The route taken will pro- 
bably be as follows: Bakersfield, Lan- 


538 _ [DECEMERE 


caster, Newhall,Los Angelos,San Gabriel, 
Monte, Covina, San Dimas, Lordsburg, 
Pomona, Lemon, Chino, Ontario, Bloom- 
ington, Colton, San Bernardino, Red- 
lands, Crafton, Highgrove, Riverside, 
Redlands Junction, Beaumont, Banning, 
Indio, Coachella, Thermal, Mecca, Brow- 
ley, Imperial, Hl Cantro, Heber, Calexico. 

‘“‘ During all or a part of the time that 
the train is in southern California the 
following University representatives 
will accompany it: President Benj. Ide 
Wheeler; Prof. W. T. Clark, superinten- 
dent of university extension in agri- 
culture; Mr. J. B. Neff of Anaheim, con- 
ductor of farmers’ institutes for southern 
California; Prof. F. T. Boiletti, viti- 
culture; Mr, R. E. Mansell, cover crops 
and truck gardening; Prof, C. M, Major, 
animal industry, and Prof. Ralph E. 
Smith, plant pathology. Other experts 
will be called on as the occasion may 
demand. 

This plan has seemed so novel to 
Europeans that the London Illustrated 
News for February 6, 1909, devoted a 
full-page illustration to the subject, 
entitling it ‘‘ A school-house on wheels, 
or learning farming aboard a train.” 
The following comment was made: 
“America’s encouragement of  agri- 
culture: a lecture on scientific farm- 


ing in a railroad carriage. With- 
out some scientific knowledge the 
farmer of to-day cannot expect to 
succeed. America, realising this, is 


teaching those engaged in agricultural 
pursuits how they should follow their 
business. The first of several trains that 
are to be used as moving schoolhouses is 
now on the road. Lectures on farming 
are given and stoppages are made 
wherever it is thought necessary. Each 
talk lasts forty-five minutes, and it is a 
fact worthy of notice that many women 
attend the courses.” 


NATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS, 


The National Department of Agri- 
culture.—Beside the above: means of 
popular agricultural instruction in the 
United States there are many ways more 
common to the people at large in which 
agricultural knowledge is disseminated. 
Perhaps the most prominent of these 
different means of disseminating agri- 
cultural knowledge is through the work 
of the National Department of Agri- 
culture, which includes the Weather 
Bureau, Bureaus of Animal Industry, 
Plant Industry, Chemistry, Soils, Ento- 
mology, Biological Survey, Statistics, 
the Forest Service Division of Publi- 
cations, the Office of Hxperiment Sta- 
tions, and the Office of Public Roads, 
and has through its various officials and 
employees, such as the directors of | 


PG Rola Er Es 9 


x 


‘Decemprr, 1909.) _ 


different kinds of agricultural work, 
experts, and lecturers, accomplished as 
much or more toward the progress of 
agriculture and the general improve- 
ment of the country than any other 
Bureau of the National Government, 
Mr, Roosevelt stated that he believed 
that the Department of Agriculture 
benefited the country more for the 
money invested than any other Depart- 
ment of the Government, 


Demonstration Farms.—A most in- 
teresting feature of the educational 
work organized by the United States 
Department of Agriculture is that which 
is carried on by means of the demon- 
stration farms of the Department. These 
farms were started with the object of 
showing, by numerous practical examples 
overa large area, the advantages of 
improved methods of agriculture. The 
depredations of the Mexican cotton boll 
weevil, which threatened the entire 
destruction of the cotton crop in many 
districts, was one of the chief reasons 
which led to the starting of this work. 


The term ‘‘demonstration farm” is 
used to designate a portion of land ona 
farm that is wo1ked strictly according 
to instructions. This is visited by an 
agent once a mouth to see that these 
instructions are carried out, and_ to 
give further advice if necessary. The 
farmers who co-operate and give reports 
on results also agree to cultivate their 
crops according to instructions, but are 
not visited regularly by the agents. 

State Departments of Agriculture.—In 
co-operation with the National Depart- 
ment of Agriculture are the State depart- 
ments or boards of agriculture, which 
form an important part of the Govern- 
ment of each State. Twenty-one of the 
States and Territories have commis- 
sioners of agriculture and twenty-nine 
of them have State boards of agriculture. 
In all of the States and Territories 
except Alaska, Hawaii and Porto Rico 
advantage is taken of the provisions of 
the Acts of Congress of July 2, 1862, and 
August 30, 1890, providing for »gricul- 
tural instruction. The number of these 
institutions is sixty-five. In twenty-one 
States the agricultural colleges are 
departments of the State universities. 
The total number of persons engaged in 
agricultural education and research at 
the land-grant colleges and experiment 
stations in 1907 was 6,248, and the number 
of students 66,198. The agricultural 
experiment stations are, with very few 
exceptions, departments of the agricul- 
tural colleges. 

National Commissions and Organiza- 
tions.—Some of the movements on the 
part of the National Government for the 


589 Miscellaneous. 


development of agriculture and the im- 
provement of country life have been the 
meeting of the governors of all of the 
Statesin Washington for a conference 
with the President regarding matters 
which were of most concern for the 
development and promotion of the best 
interests of the people of the different 
States, the calling of the National 
Conservation Commission and _ the 
appointment of the Commission on 
Country Life by President Roosevelt. 
Beside these newly-inaugurated move- 
ments there are many permanent or- 
ganizations such as the Association of 
American Agricultural Colleges and 
Experiments Stations, American Associa- 
tion of Farmers’ Institute Workers, 
American National Live Stock Associa- 
tion, National Wool Growers’ Associa- 
tion, National Dairy Association, 
American Breeders’ Association, forestry 
associations, schools of forestry, National 
Bee Keepers’ Association, Farmers’ 
National Congress, Patrons of Husban- 
dry, and horticultural societies. 


The Graduate School of Agriculture.-- 
Other gatherings which were of no little 
importance and should not be overlooked 
were the sessions of the Graduate School 
of Agriculture. The third session was 
held at Ithaca and Geneva, N. Y., July 
6 to 31, 1908. Dr. A. C, True, Director of 
the Agricultural Experiment Stations. 
United States Department of Agri- 
culture, served as dean and Prof. G.N. 
Lauman, of the College of Agriculture of 
Cornell University, acted as registrar. 
This school was organized through the 
standing committee on graduate study 
of the Association of American Agricul- 
tural Colleges and Experiment Stations. 
During the sessions of the Graduate 
School meetings of the following or- 
ganizations were held : American Society 
of Agronomy, Association of Dairy In- 
structors and Investigators, Interna- 
tional Conference of Poultry Instructors 
and Investigators. It is estimated that 
at least 350 persons attended the sessions 
ot the school. At the closing meeting 
Dr. True said: ‘‘ Probably never before 
has there been gathered together for 
so extended a period so large and 
enthusiastic a body of scientific men in- 
terested in agriculture.” 


Farmers’ Unions.—Besides the abovye- 
mentioned meetings and conferences, 
which were of national importance, there 
are local, Stafe, and national gatherings 
of the Patrons of Husbandry and other 
Farmers’ unions, which are organized in 
almost every State and, in fact, in 
almost every township, if not every 
town, in every county and State in the 
Union. The Patrons of Husbandry, or 


Ar ae 


ees iN RM ty te AG Ca 


Aim 
GS 


hu aE on 


Miscellaneous. 


the Grange, while it claims to be a secret 
society, is organized solely for the 
promotion of the interests of the farmer 
and the improvement of the conditions 
which surround country life. 


The Farm Press.—A very important 
factor in the line of agricultural in- 
struction and co-operation, one which 
has only been started in the Philippine 
Islands, is the work of the agricultural 
press. In almost every State there are 
papers devoted to the particular agricul- 
tural interests of the various sections of 
the State, which materially assist the 
farmers who read them, and furnish a 
medium of communication between 
farmers of different sections, enabling 
them to better cooperate with one 
another and assist each other in the 
different lines of agricultural work which 
they are carrying on. 


LocAL ORGANIZATIONS. 


Farmers’ Institutes.— Another means of 
popular agricultural instruction, which 
is voluntary or the part of the people in 
almost every large section or community, 
is the Farmers’ Institute, whichin most 
cases closely co-operates with the 
agricultural college and experiment 
stations of the State. These organiza- 
tions of farmers hold meetings at 
least once or twice yearly, at which 
farmers from the different parts of a 
section discuss questions regarding the 
best methods of raising the crops in 
which they are interested and the best 
means for promoting their general in- 
terests at home and abroad, Through 
co-operation with the State department 
of agriculture or the State agricultural 
college these meetings are usually fur- 
nished with lecturers or instructors ‘on 
those lines of agriculture in which the 
farmers of the particular section are 
most interested. On the other hard, 
through the work of the State agricul- 
tural colleges or experiment stations in 
many States, the farmers who have 
organized themselves into ~institutes, 
associations, or unions are induced to 
visit the State agricultural college and 
experiment station at least once during 
the year, at which time the lines of 
work which are being carried on at the 
college or station are explained to the 
farmers, and such questions as are of 
most importance are dealt with in 
general discussions or conferences which 
the farmers are invited to attend and 
participate in. Such excursions tend 
to bring the farmers into much closer 
sympathy and commuunication with the 
agricultural college and the experiment 
stations of their State. In many cases 
there is very close sympathy and co- 
operation on the part of the farmers with 


540 © 


; S5 : e 
(DECEMBER, 1909 
= me or 


the colleges and experiment stations, 


and many questions of importance to 


the farmers are immediately referred to 
the college or experimext station where 
they are taken up, investigated, and 
answered to the 
individual farmer. 


State and County Fairs.—Another 
source of agricultural information and 
instruction, which should not be neglect- 
ed, is what is popularly known as 
State and county fairs. At these fairs, 


1 


satisfaction of the 


OC ee ee 
© ° » 


which are often held in the smaller sec- - 


tions of the States, the products of the 


farms from the country around are exhi- 
bited and various money prizes, awards, 
medals, premiums, etc., are given for 
excellence or superiority of the different 
products. In some States almost every 
county has a county fair, and later on, 
in most States, a State fair and agri- 
cultural exposition _is held. Before 
these fairs the farmers vieo with one 
another endeavoring to raise the best 
products on their farms, and as a conse- 
quence of their desire to excel there is 
a natural demand for further inform- 
ation regarding the best means of rais- 
ing the different crops and of breeding 
the best farm animals. 
many of them are brought into com- 
munication with the State colleges and 
experiment stations which are organized 
tor the promotion of the best interests 
of the farmers and the advancement of 
life in the counrty. 


THE FARMERS’ SCHOOLS. 

The Work of the Convmon School.— 
Another source of popular agricultural 
instruction, and one which has for a 
long time been neglected, is the work of 
the schools for the farmers’ children. 


Mr. John KH. Bell, writing for The Out- 
look of April 10 last, says :— 


A little preliminary awakening is 
taking place along this line, but as a 
rule the farmers’ teacher is not fitted 


by education, understanding, or inclin- ; 


ation to teach the farmers’ school. The 
farmer should be taught his business in 
his school; but what is the standing of 
agriculture in our country schools? 
Why, the average teacher of the 
farmers’ school, it might be said, knows 
nothing about the nature of farming, 
cares nothing, dislikes the farm, and is 


teaching as a step toward getting away  _ 


trom the farm, When the teacher of 
the farmers’ boy wishes to incite him 
to study and effort, wishes to create 
ambition, he tells the boy that if he 
studies hard and learns well he may 
some day bea clerk in a store, or a book- 
keeper, and tells the girl that she may 


In this way- 


become a stesaographer and typewriter, 


‘ 


ee DECEMBER, 1909.) 


The following table is compiled from 
the United States Census for 1900, and 
the Census of the Philippine Islands 
for 1903 :— 


The total number of persons engaged 
in gainful occupations in the United 
States is placed at 29,286,000 or 36°3 per 
cent., in the Philippine Islands 3,037,880, 
or 43'5 per cent., classified as follows :— 


2 Philippine 
United States. Islands 


No. Perct. (per ct.) 
Agricultural pursuits...10,438,000 35°7 41°3 
Manufacturing and me- 
chanical pursuits ... 7,113,000 24-4 316 
Domestic and personal 


service tc «. 5,691,000 19°2 18°87 
Trade and _ transpor- 

tation wns ..» 4,778,000 1674 7:5 
Professional service ... 1,264,000 4°3 0'8 


It has been recognized for some years 
past that the course of study for the 
common schools is made up solely for 
the purpose of preparing the children 
in the schools for advanced training in 
high schools, academies, and colleges. 
Our school-books have been prepared on 
the science basis and the literary basis, 
and with scientific or academic objects 
in view, to such an extent that we have 
had science readers and stepping stones 
to literature as the substance of reading 
matter for the boys and girls in the 
country schools for more than a decade, 
While the courses of study for practi- 
eally all of our schools in the United 
States and-the Philippine Islands have 
been made upon the basis for prepar- 
ing for advanced scientific, literary, or 
classical education, it is a recognized fact 
that not exceeding 10 per cent. of the 
boys and girls are ever able to take 
advantage of such advanced training 
or education, and the remaining 90 per 
cent. who must follow agricultural, 
manufacturing, and mechanical pursuits, 
trade and transportation, domestic or 
personal service, receive no _ consider- 
ation whatever in the course of study 
or the work of the common schools. 
In short, the whole purpose and plan 
of our educational system is solely for 
the benefit of the well-to-do 10 per 
cent. of the population who may enjoy 
the opportunity of advanced training 
in high schools, academies, colleges, and 
possibly universities. 


it would seem that the teachers of our 
common schools, more particularly the 
country schools, should be prepared to 
instruct the boys and girls in those 
subjects and along those lines of learning 
which they need for their future life 
work, instead of training them along 
literary, scientific, or classical lines, as is 


541 Miscellaneous. 


the case at present both here and in the | 


Onited States, 


It would seem that, in the country 
schools at least, the farmers’ daughters 
should be taught—without books—some- 
thing of home economy, of the value 
of different foods and the best methods 
of preparing them, the elements of sew- 
ing, in short a better knowledge of 
domestic science and art than they 
obtain at home. It would seem that in 
the country school the teacher should 
be qualified to train—without books— 
the boys and girls of the country in the 
fundamentals of such subjects as the 
following :— 

q) The nature and value of different 
soils. 


(2) The selection of seed. 

(8) Methods of seed testing. 

(4) The planting of trees. 

(5) The practice and principles of 
pruning. 

(6) The practice and principles of 
grafting. 

(7) How to start home fruit gardens. 

(8) The treatment of the common 
plants, fruits, and grains for the pre- 
vention of common diseases, 

(9) The nature of common animal 
diseases and how to treat them. 

(10) The elements of drainage. 

(11) The elements of irrigation. 

(12) The making of plans for school 
gardens. 

(13) Plans tor the improvement and 
beautifying of home and school grounds. 
A better knowledge of these things by 
the boys and girls of the country means 
a higher standard of living and life for 
the country and the nation, and a higher 
Work ins efficiency of the individual 
citizen. 


Along this line many popular books 
have been produced in the United States, 
among the foremostare ‘‘ Among Coun- 
try Schools” by O. J. Kern, several 
books by Prof. L. H. Bailey, of the 
Agricultural College for Cornell Univer- 
sity; the reports of the United States 
Commissioner of Hducation and _ the 
National Educational Association. Thess 
reports contain accounts of the school 
garden movement and the move for agri- 
cultural education in country schools in 
Germany, Prussia, France, Holland, 
Sweden, and Russia. 


ScHOOL MOVEMENTS. 

While the work of our country schools 
has been solely for those who could 
afford to go to high schools, colleges, 
and universities, those yho choose the 


N ata aay aif nas tea * 
SU, SEN Hh oil Yok ee Ne Mag ej Roe eh is 


ie 
a 


wae 


Ba Pe $ Nk I eS Ss ne 


od x 


Nf, 


site alte ts Lad 


¥ 


SnD Stee Meee Ree aS, ee 


£ 


Miscellaneous. 


farms and the country for their life 
work-—those who, according to Mr. 
Roosevelt, stand for what is funda- 
mentally best and most needed in our 
American life—are left to get what they 
can from the schools, and_ statistics 
show that 90 per cent. of them drop out, 
never take this advanced training, or 
finish a. course. As Mr. Bel! has said the 
farm and the farmeris despised in the 
farmers’ school by his teacher, and 
evertually by his ownchildren. Recent- 
ly there has been ‘a tendency on the 
part of some educators to consider this 
neglected 90 per cent., the boys and girls 
of the farmer and working man, who 
pays for the school. In some States the 
course of study have been changed so 
as to train for the business of the farm 
and the country, to enhance the value of 
country life, to beautify and make farm 
homes attractive. 


Farmer Boys’ Experiment Clubs.—One 
of the more important movements in the 
schools for arousing an interest in the 
business of the farm and a desire for agri- 
cultural knowledge is the farmer boys’ 
experiment clubs, which in some cases 
number as many as 500 boys between 9 
and 21 years of age. In these clubs the 
boys test the vitality of different seeds, 
make investigations with reference to 
diseases of plants and animals raised on 
the farm, experiment with sugar beets 
and green corn, andin some cases corn- 
growing contests have been held. 


Girls’ Home Culture Clubs,—Side by 
side with the boys’ experiment clubs, 
home culture clubs are being organized 
for girls, in which the girls have general 
cooking contests, bread-making contests, 
and needlework contests. Through 
these clubs almost unbounded interest 
has been aroused in the work of the 
home and the farm, the everyday life 
of the boys and girls is made much 
more attractive, and country life takes 
on anew meaning. Beside the advant- 
age of turning the minds of our 
young men and women tothe impreove- 
ment of country life, there is not that 
discontent which comes from educating 
them to ideals they can never realize 
and leaving them untrained and unpre- 
pared for the service they must perform. 


Educational Hxcursions.—In addition 
to the organization andthe contests of 
the boys’ experiment clubs and _ the 
girls’ home culture clubs, many educa- 
tional excursions are planned and made 
by them to State argricultural colleges, 
State universities, or State capitals, 
and thus a knowledge is obtained at 
first hand of the direction and the 
results of the different lines of govern- 


542 


bie Pao. fae ter fen SR 


‘ 


ment work, of commerical and social 
conditions outside of the little commu- 
nity in which they usually live, ; 


POONA AGRICULTURAL 
CONFERENCE. 


SPEECH BY THE GOVERNOR. 
(From the Indian Agriculturist, Vol. 
XXXIV., No. 10, Oct. 1, 1909.) 


The Council Hall, Poona, was crowded 
to its utmost capacity on September 29 — 
with Chiefs, Sardaars, and a great many 
others from different parts of the Pre- 
sidency at the Agricultural Conference. 
The Conference was presided over by 
H. EK, the Governor, and Sjr John Muir 
Mackenzie, the Hon. Mr. Jenkins, H. H. 
the Gaekwar, H. H. the Maharaja of 
Kolhapur, and H. H. the Maharaja of 
Idar were on the dais with his Excellency. 


THE GOVERNOR’S SPEECH. 


His Excellency the Governor opened 
the proceedings. In doing so, he said: 
‘‘Chiefs, Sardaars, and gentlemen,—In 
India it is not easy to say anything that 
will not be disputed or criticised, but 
the two propositions which I wish to lay 
before you should command universal 
acceptance even though their import is 
imperfectly recognised. In the first place 
agriculture is. and must. remain by far 
the most important of real Indian in- 
dustries and the essential basis of 
India’s prosperity. In the second place 
Indian agriculture, allowing for climate 
vagaries, is in a distinctly backward 
position. Production is not what it 
might become, and waste in many forms 
isrampant in many places. The pro- 
vision of an adequate food supply isa 
primary condition of the existence of 
mankind and the great growth ot the 
population in India which has accom- 
panied the British Rule and which is 
still proceeding, entails more and more 
demands upon the land. I do not know 
whether the prevailing high prices 
which have been advantageous to the 
cultivators are not due, in part at least, 
to a growing disproportion between the 
population and the production of food 
stuffs, or whether they arise from other 
and temporary causes. Investigation 
may throw some light on this important 
question, but the fact remains that 290 
millions of peoplein India must be fed, 
and that the food supply will have to be — 
increased as the years goon, and thata 
point may be reached at which the 
growth of other staples will have tobe © 
checked unless the production of the 
necessities of life can be increased. 


at rab: 
so PS aa 


[Decemen 1909. aks 


ge 


Ries: 


“This may become-a problem for the 
whole world before another century has 
passed. It is doubtful whether the food- 
supply is keeping pace with the steady 
growth of population, and an unfor- 
tunate coincidence of bad crops in many 
localities would already create a serious 
shortage. Some great countries have 
ceased to be able to feed themselves. In 
the British Islands this stage was reach- 
ed many years age, and in 1907 they im- 
ported grain and flour alone to the value 
of nearly 75% millions sterling and meat 
eosting nearly 52 millions. Germany is 
becoming more and more dependent 
upon imported food. The United States, 
once great exporters, are dropping out of 


THE WHEAT MARKET 


and may have to trust in the future to 
Canada, where great fertile tracts have 
not yét felt the plough. 


‘In Eastern countries the Chinese and 
the Japanese being excellent cultivators 
probably extract nearly the full value 
from their soils, and the home demands 
of the latter are increasing. India not 
only feeds herself except in such an 
important item as sugar, but derives a 
large source of income from the produce 
of the land. Itis supremely important 
that this position should be maintained, 
and that, while continuing to feed her 
people and endeavouring to reduce the 
imports of staples that can be grown 
on her soil sheshould not lose her export 
trade. How important that trade is I 
wish to explain. You have perhaps 
been told that before the advent of the 
British Rule, India had an immense 
trade which hassince disappeared. I am 
sure you understand, however, that the 
trade of those haleyon days was a baga- 
telle in value compared with that which 
India now enjoys. Excluding Govern- 
ment stores, India exported merchandise 
to the amount of about 1153 millions 
sterling in 1907-08. This was a record 
year both for exports and imports, and 
in 1908-09 the former fell to about 99 
millions owing toa deficiency of crops. 
Now the point which I want you to 
remember is that of these 99? millions 
very nearly 73 millions were paid to 
India for the produce of the land. It 
may well be that you do not realise this 
important aspect of agriculture from 
which the Deccan does not largely profit, 
but it needs no imagination to grasp the 


fact that the realization of nearly 73. 


millions sterling in an indifferent year 
must have an immensely _ beneficial 
effect upon the economies of India asa 
whole. And this benefit is derived 
wholly from agriculture. Much has 
been written about the need for the 
promotion of industries which, it has 


DECEMBER, 1909.) - : 543 


Miscellaneous. 


been stated, Government desires to 
check. I need not tell you that such 
statements are baseless. Government is 
doing all it can to encourage industries, 
but if I have made my meaning clear 
you will understand that a sudden ex- 
pansion of manufacturing industries on 
a large scale would be disadvantageous. 
There isalready a shortage of labour in 
some localities, and the population of 
this Presidency is notat present capable 
of supplying a large additional surplus 
to work in factories without depleting 
the numbers required for the vital 
necessities of agriculture and for great 
public works. The food supply must 
be maintained and will have to be 
increased, 


THE FOREIGN TRADE 


derived from the land must not be lost. 
The density of the population in some 
parts of India is greater than with us, 
but even in these parts a rapid transfer 
of a large number of country dwellers 
to town life, such as has happened in 
industrialized countries, would be an 
evil since the restrictions and regula- 
tions to which Kuropean town dwellers 
submit would be bitterly resented by 
the people. In the United States the 
dwellers in towns numbered 3 per cent. 
of the population after the Civil War. 
Forty years later 33 per cent. were living 
in cities of over 8,000 peoole. In Hngland 
and Wales the town population increased 
from 50 per cent. to 77 percent, in fifty 
years. If far less changes than these 
took place in India the effects would be 
serious and the factory Colony outside 
the city, of which the Poona paper mills 
supply a good example, points to a way 
of avoiding the evils of overcrowding. 
Meanwhile, factory industries as a whole 
continue to develop by a process of 
natural evolution subject to the fluctu- 
ations which affect all countries. The 
cotton mills have increased from 74 in 
1883-1884 to 227 in 1907-1908, and jute mills 
from 28 to 50in the same period. Spin- 
dles have increased in a far higher pro- 
portion. Statements as to the decay of 
trade and industry are refuted by the 
smallest study of the facts. 

“In India, as in all countries, the 
character of trade and of industries has 
changed, but the Government of both is 
remarkable, and it is the steady advance, 
especially in the latter, which affects 
the social life of the people that we 
must seek to promote. A very useful 
line of manufacturing progress for this 
Presidency at the present time is to be 
sought in the encouragement of hand 
industries, such as weaving which would 
not only bring prosperity to an here- 
ditary class but might enable the earn- 


ae ee 


ah, 


PRR AE Paes Rhee rei Fo) gtr, PDT 2 pe ee ad 


fa 


Bess etch oe 


% 


» 


e, is 
“eel ha SN eel ED 


Miscellaneous. 


ings of the cultivator to be increased. 
The Government recently appointed Mr. 
Mehta to survey the handloom industry, 
and from the useful report which he has 
prepared I gather that this branch of 
work is capable of development on the 
two conditions of improved methods and 
co-operative agencies. In the production 
of eri silk also, which is being urged by 
a Government expert, there is a possible 
opening for easy and profitable labour 
for women and children. 


‘“‘T have endeavoured to show the 
vital importance of the products of the 
land in regard to the feeding of the 
people and to the export trade. If you 
turn to the import trade the one great 
item indicating a deficiency of produc- 
tion issugar. The value of the imports 
of which reached the record figure of 
74 millions sterling in 1908-1909. I have 
no doubt that this figure can be reduced. 
Goverument by its great irrigation 
works and by giving financial assistance 
to 


SUGAR CANE GROWERS 


is doing all in its power to increase the 
production of this important food staple. 
Meanwhile you, as thinking people, will 
readily understand that to boycott 
foreign sugar can only inflict hardship on 
the poor and promote a _ particularly 
despicable kind of fraud. From the 
economic point of view the step is use- 
less because the high profits of sugar 
cane growing in this Presidency suffice 
tc stimulate its development. The 
political object which has been recent- 
ly defined in a letter to the London 
Times by a high Indian authority to 
draw the attention of the British public 
to the partition of Bengal is obiviously 
futile in the case of sugar, since the 
total abolition of the imported would 
not affect the public in the slightest 
degree and would fall mainly upon the 
Asiatic cultivators of Java and Mauri- 
tius, and ina less degree upon the best 
growers of Central Europe. The old 
saying thatthe greatest of benefactors 
is the man who can make two blades of 
grass grow where one grew before, 
applies with peculiar force to India, 
and the best service which could be 
rendered the country at the present 
time is to increase agricultural pro- 
duction. For various reasons the great- 
est of Indian industries is backward. 
jin many respects. The methods are 
antiquated and inadequate, even where 
the condition of rainfall and of irriga- 
tion are favourable. Theaverage wheat 
product of England is 32 bushels per 
acre; in the Bombay Presidency it is 
21 bushels on irrigated and 8 bushels on 
unirrigated land. In parts of the 


Deccan weeds run riot in the fiel 
the cultivator may be seen sow 
crop among them. There are 


places where the land has been aban-- . 


doned to weeds which grow strongest in 


the soil, and cultivation is thus driven — 
to soil of inferior quality. Eveninayear 


of good rainfall like the present, the 
aggregate production will not approach 
what is possible. The tillage of the land 
is insufficient and the selection of seed 
is not understood. The uses of manure 
are little appreciated, and night-soil, 


which is a source of large profit to the _ 


Japanese, is unutilised. 


THE BREEDING OF STock 


is mainly left to chance with the 
necessary result of deterioration and 
waste. Healthy and diseased animals 
intermingle with consequent but pre- 
ventible loss. ‘ 

‘‘In such conditions as these improve- 
ment of the land which has been a 
marked feature in Japan is necessarily 
absent, and there is probably a growing 
infertility in many places. The Japan- 
ese who rank amongst the best natural 
cultivators of the world have the ad- 
vantages of a good rainfall. Having | 
been cut off from communication with 
the outer world for centuries, and 
possessing a soul naturally poor, they 
have been thrown on their own re- 
sources. Cattle being exceedingly few 
tie land must be worked by hand and 
the 


INCREASING PRESSURE OF A 
POPULATION 


which has risen from 27} millions in 1898 
to 47? millions in 1905, called forth ener- 
gies and the innate resourcefulness of 
the people who make the utmost out of 
a fertility which their labours have 
created and who can afford to waste 
nothing. 

‘Sir EF. Nicholson justly states in an in- 
teresting report.—‘Tillage and manure, 
strenuous spade labcur, and the utili- 
zation of all-waste are the main secrets 
of Japanese husbandry.’ In spite of 
the heavy burden of taxation which 
in the case of agricultural land was 
suddenly increased by 120 per cent. to 
meet’ the requirements of the Russian 
War, the Japanese cultivator holds his 
own, And now that the pressure of 
population continues to increase, while 
the cultivable area cannot be expanded, 
he is showing the wondertul adapta- 
bility of his race by quickly adopting the 
new methods which science can indicate’ 

“This important Conference has been 
assembled in the hope of doing some- 
thing to help the cultivator and to 
advance the general prosperity which, 


»; 


as I have tried to point out, depends 
mainly on him, The science of agri- 
culture is of modern growth, but already 
immense strides have been made under 
its auspices in Western countries. Iam 
most anxious that the benefits should 
be extended to India which stands in 
the greatest need of them. It is natu- 
ral and right that you should accept 
help and guidance from Government in 
these matters, and the Agricultural De- 
artment, which owes so much to my 
Roasurabls colleague Sir J. Muir Macken- 
zie, is a proof that we recognize our 
responsibilities. Itisa new department, 
and itis a baby incomparison with the 
giant organization maintained in the 
United States, but if you read the 
annual report, as [ trust you all will do, 
you will see that valuable work—edu- 
eational, experimental, and demon- 
strational—is already in progress. I hope 
that the members of this Conference 
will take the opportunity of visiting 
the College farms and gardens in the 
neighbourhood, and will see for them- 
selves what Government is trying to 
accomplish for the good of the people, 
We want you to give and to receive 
advice, and our officers are ready now 
and always to discussagricultural mat- 
ters and to 


DISTRIBUTE THE SPECIAL KNOWLEDGE 


that they have acquired in the science 
of agriculture. A general solution of 
the many problems is rarely possible. 
Each may require a solution depending 
upon local conditions, local customs, and 
even local prejudices. The success of a 
process or of a plantin other countries 
does not guarantee success here, where it 
may be necessary to change the process 
or to produce a special plant in order to 
suit the conditions of climate, soil, and 
requirement. The needs of the Deccan 
differ in matiy respects from those of 
Gujarat and of Sind. You will, there- 
fore, sce the importance of experiments 
scientifically carried out by a central 
body, and you may be able to give 
valuable assistance by communicating. 
with the Department. I am glad to 
know that some of the Chiefs and Sar- 
dars in the Presidency are actively in- 
teresting themselves in the improve- 
ment of agriculture, and 1 am sure they 
will co-operate with us for the general 
good. The main requirements are capi- 
tal, labour and knowledge, but above 
all knowledge without which capital 
and labour would be wasted. Only a 
century ago there were large tracts 
_ which lay waste for years as the result 
of the devastation of armies and of de- 
population. These tracts have been 
brought under cultivation, but the 


69 


Te te ge eo ep Ste we pte FC "det Mee Pes iat a. os 


Ihe ane ~ 7 


545 Miscellaneous, 


IMPROVING PROCESS 


‘é 


which in England and other countries _ 


has been brought about by a combin- 
ation of labour and capital, and in Japan 
mainly by highly intelligent labour 
alone, has been absent. While, there- 
fore, there are many good and industri- 
ous cultivators, production has been 
disappointing, and there has been a 
series of indifferent years which might 
have caused despair among people less 
sturdy and less hopeful than the 
Mahrattas. Losses due to bad seasons 
lie beyond our power to prevent. All 
that Government can do is to extend 
irrigation, and you may be sure that 
we shall spare no effort and no argu- 
ment to obtain sanction for the great 
Deccan projects now being elaborated. 
I allude especially to the Gokak and the 
Nira right bank schemes which will com- 
mand respectively 490,000 and 700,000 
acres, while the latter will safeguard the 
most famire-stricken districts of the 
Deccan. If these great works did not 
immediately earn the prescribed rate 
of interest, asI believe they would, the 
indirect benefits would be so immense 
as to demand their construction. Apart, 
however, from the extension of large 
irrigation works, there is much that 
could be done to reduce loss in bad 
seasons and to ensure a great increase of 
production when the rainfall is favour- 
able. Our jagirdars, inamdars, land- 
lords, and substantial cultivators will 
find that it will pay to apply capital to 
the improvement of their lands. Level- 
ling and bunding the erection of tals to 


_prevent wash, fencing to protect the 


fields from the cattle and the cattle 
from the fields, the digging of wells 
to utilise subsoil water, the harnessing 
of nalas to catch surface water, the in- 
stallation. of pumping plant on river 
banks, these are some of the require- 
ments, and if they are approached with 
knowledge, they will prove safe and 
profitableinvestments. Similarly in the 
use of manures, in the 


SELECTION OF SEEDS 


in sowing, where there is now much 
waste, and in improved tillage there is 
ample scope for progress. The last 
annual report of the Agricultural De- 
partment points out that if jowari seed 
is treated with sulphate of copper, cost- 
ing one anna an acre, there will often 
be ‘a profit of a hundred-fold and more.’ 
Here is a way in which the investment 
of capital on an insignificant scale wil 
prove remunerative. As to investment 
on the larger scale, such as the purchase 
of iron ploughs and of pumping or cane 
crushing plant, you will find some use- 
ful information in the report. Even in 


a va a a oe 


Miscellaneous. 


dry years sources of sorely needed 
water are wasted for the want of power 
pumps. The practical questions which 
confront us are ‘how can we bring 
the knowledge already available and 
certain to be increased year by year 
to bear upon the people, and how can 
the poor cultivators be helped in the 
matter of capital.’ I earnestly hope 
that the members of this Conference 
will be able to give us valuable help and 
advice in solving these important ques- 
tions. 


AGRICULTURAL ASSOCIATIONS. 


** We are anxious to increase the num- 
ber of agricultural associations, and I 
am glad to note that ten such bodies 
were inaugurated during the past year, 
and that many Indian gentlemen are 
rendering great assistance. HKach such 
association can be the centre from which 
practical information, such as is con- 
tained in the series of very useful publi- 
cations edited by Dr. Mann, can be dis- 
seminated, but more is wanted, and we 
require the active agency of local 
leaders who will supply the initiative 
in agricultural matters, and will show 
the people how they can improve their 
position. Smilarly we have an increas- 
ing number of 


CO-OPERATIVE SOCIETIES 


by means of which with the aid of banks 
we hope that the benefits of financial 
combination and of the industrial or- 
ganisation which has worked wonders 
in other countries may be made mani- 
fest in helping such bodies as_ these. 
There is a wide field of practical use- 
fulness for the true patriots of the 
Presidency who must realize that the 
uplifting of the cultivators is the great- 
ot boon that could be conferred upon 
India. 


“In this connection I venture to make 
a strong appeal to the conductors of the 
Press who could do much to help the 
people by spreading the knowledge that 
Government is anxious to provide. It 
is sad to note that in some quarters 
vague denunciations which cannot effect 
any practical good and may do some 
harm seem to be mistaken for politics 
which have a far nobler meaning. 
Criticism based on facts, I welcome, 
but if our friends the critics would 
devote some of their energies to the 
diffiusion of knowledge of which the 
people stand in dire need, I am inclined 
to think that their criticism would be 
more effective and that the 


PROGRESS OF INDIA 


towards nationhood would be more 
rapid, I am afraid that I have detained 


4 


546 


you too long, and I will only 
conclusion that I hope that these Co 
ferences will be annval, and © 


they will help in solving one of our — 


greatest problems, the promotion of the 
welfare of the patient cultivators upon 


whom, now and even more in the future, 
the prosperity and progress of India 


’ 


must depend. 


COUNTRY LIFE COMMISSION. 


(From the Philippine A gricultural Re- 


view,, Vol. I1., No. 5, May, 1909.) 


Our purpose in presenting these articles 
from the pens of President Roosevelt 
and the Editor of the Outlook is not for 
their intrinsic value to citizens of the 
United States, but for their suggest- 
iveness to those of us who are responsible 
for, and must solve, the problem of 
country life in the Philippines. Life in 
the country in these Islands is the 
foundation of all of the national aspi- 
rations and of the future greatness of the 
Filipino people. 1t is the country life 
in the Philippines more than anything 
else that needs to be awakened and 
quickened, 


The politician isin the very centre of 
the stage of the popular life of the 
people atthe present time. The Filipino 
Government official is everything. The 
country seems to be dormant, and the 
people in the country depend upon the 
office holders and politicians for all 
remedies of present evils and for the 
improvement of conditions. 
of the average country resident the 
situation is entirely in the hands of the 
lawmakers, and they, the people in the 
country, are doing little or nothing, 
resting in the conviction that everything 
that is necessary to bring about the 
much-needed changes for the progress of 
the country, can be accomplished by 
their officials and lawmakers. Nothing 
could be further from the truth, There 
is no such thing as independent national 
or state government without resources, 


and laws are primarily for the regulation | 


of the conduct of the people. Laws 


cannot make the people industrious, nor — 


can they fundamentally create resources. 
Abundant resources and wealth are the 
foundation of national life, as well as of 


the life of a business corporation. The — 


country, the farmer, and the rural 
population are the resources and the 
fundamental producers of wealth—the 
foundation of national existence—and 
through them only can national existence 
be made possible. 


The recent protest of the sugar planters 
is much like a protest against the build-. 


‘ing of a house without a foundation ~ 


Inthe mind — 


¥ 


‘Decumpmr, 1909.) 


" This is the first voice which has been 


heard from the land, from the country 
people. They are the very people that 
need to be encouraged to speak for them- 
selves, and life in the country needs to 
be stimulated and given every possible 
support and encouragement. In fact, it 
should be made the centre of attention 
both of the people and the Government. 
The eyes of the public should be turned 
to the farmers and the country people, 
and they should be placed in the centre 
of the stage of action. Fora time, at 
least, the politician can well be forgotten 
and left to work out his problems, not 
so much in the public forum, but rather 
in conference with the people who are 
the real producers of weaith. 


For the past eight years we have been 
facing the condition of importing 
annually an average of £13,758,890 worth 
of rice, £154,570 worth of cotfee, £368.114 
worth of cacao and chocolate, £237,248 
worth of sugar, £552,108 worth of eggs, 
£14,216,288 worth of cotton goods. The 
United States might as reasonably 
import her wheat, milk, butter, meat 
and potatoes. Such a national founda- 
tion ts as frail as straw and as unstable 
as water, such a condition is a condition 
of dependence and not independence. A 
eountry in which the people will not 
produce the food staples necessary for 
their own subsistence and right living, 
when the land naturally produces such 
products, can be nothing more thana 
dependency no matter how brilliant its 
statesmen and professional men, 


The editor knows of no better expres- 
sion or statement of the needs of the 
people and the government of this 
country--in order that the Filipinos 
may attain to the ends most desired by 
them—than the following by a pro- 
minent Filipino :— 


We should earn sufficient money to 
live in such a manner as to produces 
healthy and vigorous children, and 
educate them so that their earning capa- 
city will be still greater. In which case, 
I swear upon my honour that our grand- 
ehildren with their health, education, 
and money will be independent in spite 
of everything. * * * America freed 
herself from Hngland because she had 
men, money, and true patriots. 

In his message President Roosevelt 
points out the various agencies for the 
improvement of country life, namely :— 

(1) The National Department of Agri- 
culture, 

(2) The State Departments of Agri- 
culture. 


(3) The Stats Colleges of Agriculture 


547 A ea Miscellaneous, 


(4). University and Agricultural Ex- 
tension Work. 


(5) Agricultural Experiment Stations. 


(6) Farmers’ Union, 
(7) The Grange, and 
(8) The Agricultural Press. 


In the Philippines we have but few of 
these agencies in either the Insular, 
provincial, and municipal government 
organisations or among the people. Act 
No, 1829 provides tor cvivico-educational 
instruction, yet the need of agents or 
officials charged with the responsibility 
for improving the existing conditions of 
country lite is manifest and decidedly 
emphatic to anyone who fairly considers 
the situation, 

The President emphasizes the import- 
ance of organization on the part of the 
farmers themselves, and states that the 
country people must organize to protect 
their interests as well as any other class 
of industrial workers. The Government 
can point out the way, but as indicated 
the country people must co-operate and 
must give dignity and attractiveness, as 
well as better results from the farms, if 
country life is made all thatit can and 
should be. In the Philippines we not 
only need better farming, which the 
Bureau of Agriculture is endeavouring 
to stimulate and encourage, but we most 
emphatically need better business and 
better living on the farms. President 
Roosevelt states that the farmers’ prob- 
lems are the whole country’s problems. 
The President further asserts that 
neglect of this subject has held back 
country life and lowered the efficiency 
of the whole nation. Perhaps no other 
subjects received so little attention 
during the period in which the Philip- 
pine Islands were governed by the 
Spaniards as the education and elevation 
of the people inthe country, and work 
for the improvement and development 
of those things which were for the best 
interests of the country people. The 
President declares that the strengthen- 
ing of country life is the strengthening 
of the nation, that while the growing 
of crops is an essential foundation, it is 
only a part of the life of the people in an 
intelligent and progressive country, 
that itis literally vital that the farmer, 
his wife, and his children shall lead the 
right kind of life. He believes that 
the National Department of Agriculture 
should become a department of country 
life, fitted todeal not only with crops, 
but with questions pertaining to ail of 
the larger aspects of life in the open 
country. 

President Roosevelt points out threw 
great needs of country life, namely ;— 


F . : 
‘ 5 : ‘ 7 ’ ny ¥ : Spat Peer 
. EEG eer nee ET AS / q Sept Te Te SAE ile Se Stace 
Yea ae he BT, xia BN Sp 2 “ vt ‘ . et g " i . tres 
Va Ae ee e a hae § : 


ras bea 
ete eee Ste 


Miscellaneous. 


I. Effective co-operation among farm- 
ers to put them on a level with the 
organized unterests with which they do 
business. 


II. A new kind of schools in the 
country which shall teach the children 
as much outdoors as indoors and per- 
haps more, so that they will prepare for 
country life and not, as at present, 
mainly for life in town. 


III. Better means of communication, 
including good roads and a parcels post. 


In addition to these he suggests a 
fourth, viz :— 


Better sanitation, Inasmuch as many 
easily preventable diseases hold millions 
of country people in the slavery of con- 
tinuous ill-heatth. 


In conclusion, President Roosevelt 
warns our countrymen that the great 
recent progress in city lifeis nota full 
measure of our civilization, for our civili- 
zation rests at bottom on the whole- 
someness, the attractiveness, and the 
completeness, as well as the prosperity 
of life in the country. The men and 
women in the farm stand for what is 
fundamentally best and- most needed 
in our American life, 


Some time ago President Roosevelt 
appointed Prof. L. H. Bailey, Director of 
the Agricultural College and Experi- 
ment Station for Cornell University, 
Mr. Gifford Pinchot, Chief of the United 
States Forestry Service, Washington 
D.C., Mr. Walter H. Page, Editor of 
‘Country Life in America,” President 
Kenyon L, Butterfield, of the Massa- 
chusetts Agricultural College, and Mr. 
Henry Wallace, editor of the ‘‘ Wallace 
Farmer,” in Iowa, as a Commission to 
investigate the conditions of life on the 
farms of the country, and to make recom- 
mendations as to the best ways and 
means by which farm life can be made 
more remunerative and attractive. 


The Commissoners held thirty public 
hearings among the people from forty 
different States and Territories, and 
have 120,000 answers to printed ques- 
tions. The members of the Commission 
lave received nothing for their work on 
the Commission, and their service is an 
expression of public spirit which is a 
credit, and, perhaps, one of the best 
resources any nation could have. 


PRESIDENT ROOSEVELT’S MESSAGE. 


On February 9, last, President Roose- 
velt submitted the report of the Commis- 
sion to Congress. The President’s mes- 
sage commenting on the work of the 
Commission is as follows :<— 


548 


I transmit herewith the report of the 


Commission on Country Life. At the out- — 


set I desire to point out that not a dollar 
of the public money has been paid to 
any Commissioner for his work on the 
Commission. : ; 
The report shows the general condi- 
tion of farming life in the open country, 
and points out its larger problems. It 
indicates ways in which the Government, 
National and State, may show the 
people how to solve some of these prob- 
lems, and it suggests continuance of the 
work which the Commission began. 


METHODS OF THE COMMISSION. 

Judging by thirty public hearings, to 
which farmers and farmers’ wives from 
forty States and Territories came, 
and from 120,000 answers to printed 
questions sent out by the Department 
of Agriculture, the Commission finds 
that the general level of country life is 
high compared with any preceding time 
or with any other land, If it has in 
recent years slipped down in some 
places, it has risen in more places. Its 
progress has been general if not uni- 
form. : 

Yet farming does not yield either the 
profit or the satisfaction that it ought 
to yield aud may be made to yield. 
There is discontent in the country and 
in places discouragement. Farmers as 
a class do not magnify their calling, and 
the movement to the towns though, I 
am happy to say, less than formerly, is 
still strong. 


How FARMERS CAN HELP THEMSELVES. 


Under our system it is helpful to pro- 
mote discussion of ways in which the 
peopls can help themselves. There are 
three main directions in which the 
farmers can help themselves, namely ; 
I, Better farming; II, better business: 
II, better living on the farms. 


The National Department of Agricul- 
ture, which has rendered services equall- 
ed by no other similar departmentin any 
other time or place; the State Deparé- 
ments of Agriculture, the State Colleges 
of Agriculture and the Mechanic Arts, 
especially through their extension work; 
the State Agricultural Experiment Sta- 
tions, the Farmers’ Unmon, the Grange, 
the Agricultural Press and other similar 
agencies have all combined to place with- 
in the reach of the American farmer an 
amount and quality of agricultural 


information which, if applied, would en- 
able him over large areas to double the — 


production of the farm, 

The Object.—The object of the Commis- 
sion on Country Life, therefore, is not 
to help the farmer raise better crops, but 


/ 


DECEMBER, 1909.) 


to call his attention to the opportuni- 
ties for better business and better living 
on the farm. It country life is to be- 
come what itshould be, and what I 
believe it ultimately will be—one of 
the most dignified, desirable and sought- 
after ways of earning a living—the far- 
mer must take advantage not only of 
the agricultural knowledge which is at 
his disposal, but of the methods which 
have raised and continue to raise the 
standards of living and of intelligence in 
other callings. 

Organisation.—Those engaged in all 
other industrial and commercial callings 
have found it necessary under modern 
economic conditions to organize them- 
selves for mutual advantage and for 
the protection of their own particular 
interests in relation to other interests. 


The farmers of every progressive 
European country have realised this 
essential fact. and have found in the 
co-operative system exactly the form 
of business combination they need. 


Now, whatever the State may do 
toward improving the practice of agri- 
culture, it is not within the sphere 
of any Government to recognize the 
farmers business or reconstruct the 
social life of farming communities, It 
is, however, quite within its power to 
use its influence and the machinery of 
publicity which it can control for calling 
public attention to the needs and the 
facts. For example, it is the obvious 
duty of the Government to call the atten- 
tion of farmers to the growing monopoli- 
zation of water power. The farmers, 
above all, should have that power, on 
reasonable terms, for cheap transport- 
ation, for lighting their homes, and 
for innumerable uses in the daily tasks 
on the farm. 


FARMERS’ OWN CO-OPERATION AND 
WORK NEEDED. 


It would be idle to assert that life 
on the farm occupies as good a position 
in dignity, desirability, and business 
results as the farmers might easily give 
it if they chose. One of the chief diffi- 
culties is the failure of country life as 
it exists at present to satisfy the higher 
social and intellectual aspirations of 
country people. Whether the constant 
draining away of so much of the best 
elements in the rural population into 
the towns is due chiefly to this cause 
or to the superior business opportunities 
of city life may be open to question. 
But no oneat allfamilar with farm life 
throughout the United States can fail 
to recognize the necessity for building 
up the life of the farm upon its social 
as wellas upon its productive side. 


549 


It is true that country life has im- 
proved greatly in attractiveness, health, 
and comfort, and that the farmer’s earn- 
ings are higher than they were. But city 
life is advancing even more rapidly be- 
cause of the greater attention which is 
being given by the citizens of the towns 


to their own betterment. For just this 


reason the introduction of effective 
agricultural co-operation throughout the 
United States is of the first importance. 
Where farmers are organized co-opera- 
tively they not only avail themselves 
much more readily of business oppor- 
tunities and improved methods, but it is 
found that the organiszations which 
bring them together in the work of their 
lives are used also for social and intel- 
lectual advancement. 


The Co-operative Plan.—This #is the 
best plan of organization wherever 
men have the right spirit to carry it 
out. Under this plan any business 
undertaking is managed by a committee. 
Every man has one vote, and every one 
gets profits according to what he sells 
or buys or supplies. It develops indi- 
vidual responsibility and has a moral 
as well as a financial value over any 
other plan, 


Tame FARMERS’ PROBLEMS THE WHOLE 
COUNTRY’S PROBLEMS. 


I desire only to take counsel with the 
farmers as fellow-citizens. It is not the 
problem of the farmers alone that 1 am 
discussing with them, but a problem 
which affects every city as well as every 
farm in the country. It isa problem 
which the working farmers will have to 
solve for themselves, but it is a problem 
which also affects in only less degree all 
the rest of us, and therefore if we can 
render any help towards its solution it 
ie not only our duty but our interest to 

O SO. 


The foregoing will, I hope, make it 
clear why I appointed a Commission to 
consider problems of farm life which 
have hitherto had far too little attention, 
and the neglect of which has not only 
held back life in the country, but also 
lowered the efficiency of the whole 
nation. The welfare of the farmer is of 
vital consequence to the welfare of the 
whole community. The strengthening 
of country life, therefore, is the streng- 
thening of the whole nation. 


The Commission has tried to help the 
farmers to see clearly their own problem 
and to seeitas a whole, to distinguish 
clearly between what the government 
can do and what the farmers must do 
for themselves, and it wishes to bring 
not only the farmers, but the nation as 
a whole, to realize that the growing of 


Miscellaneous, — 


os 


. tion. 


Miscellaneous, 550 


crops, though an essential part, is only a 
part of country life. Crop growing is 
the essential foundation, but it is no 
less essential that the farmer should get 
an adequate return for what he grows, 


andit is no less essential—indeed, itis_ 


literally vital—that he and his wife and 
his children shall lead the right kind 
of life. 

For this reason itis of the first im- 
portance that the United States Depart- 
mentof Agriculture, through which as 
prime agent the ideas the Commission 
stands for must reach the people, should 
become without delay, in fact, a depart- 
mei.t of country life, fitted to deal not 
only with crops, but also with all larger 
aspects of life in the open country. 

THREE NEEDS OF COUNTRY LIFE. 

From all that has been done and 
learned three great general and imme- 
diate needs of country life stand out: 

Virst.—Kffective co-operation wmnong farm- 


‘ers to put them on a level with the organized 


interests with which they do business. 

Second.—A new kind of schools in the 
country which shall teach the children as 
much outdoors as indoors and perhaps more, 
so that they may prepare for country life 
and not,as at present, mainly for life in 
town. 

Third.—Betler means of communication, 
including gocd roads and a parcels post, 
which the country people are everywhere, and 
rightly, wnanimous in demanding. 

To these may well be added better sanita- 
tion, for easily preventable diseases hold 
several millions of country people in the 
slavery of continuous ill-health. 

ORGANIZATION NECESSARY. 

The Commission points out—and I 
concur in the conclusion—that the most 
important help that the Government, 
whether National or State, can give is 
to show the people how to go about 
these tasks of organization, education 
and communication with the best and 
quickest results. This can be done by 
the collection and spread of informa- 
One community can thus be in- 
formed of what other communities have 
done, and one country of what other 
countries have done. Such help by the 
people’s government would lead to a 
comprehensive plan of organization, 
education, and communication, and make 
the farming country better to live in, 
for intellectual and social reasons as 
wellas for purely agricultural reasons. 

The Government through the Depart- 
ment of Agriculture does not cultivate 
any man’s farm for him, butit does put 
at his service useful knowledge that 
he would not otherwise get. In the 
same way the National and State govern- 
ments might put into the people’s hands 


MONEY FOR EXPENSES ASKED. 


The only recommendation I submit is 


that an appropriation of $25,000 be pro- 
vided to enable the Commission to digest 
the material it has collected and to 


collect and to digest much more that is — 


within its reach and thus complete its 
work. This would enable the Com- 
mission to gather in the harvest of 
suggestion which is resulting from the 
discussion it has stirred up. The Com- 
missioners have served without compen- 
sation, and I do not recommend any 
appropriation for their services, but 
only for the expenses that will be 
required to finish the task that they 
have begun. 

Toimprove our system cf agriculture 
seems to me the most uryent of the tasks 
which lie before us. But it cannot, in 
my judgment, be effected by measures 
which touch only the material and 
technical side of the subject. The whole 
business and life of the farmer must also 
be taken into account. Such consider- 
ation led me to appoint the Commission 
on country life. Our object should be to 
help develop in the country community, 
the great ideals of community life as 
well as of personal character. One of 
the most important adjuncts to this end 
must be the country Church, and I invite 
your attention to what the Commission 
says of the country church and of the 
need of an extension of such work as 
that of the Young Men’s Christian 
Association in country _communities. 
Let me lay special emphasis upon what 
the Commission says atthe very end of 
its report on personal ideals and local 
leadership. Everything resolves itself 
in the end into the question of person- 
ality. Neither society nor government 
can do much for country life unless there 
is a voluntary response in the personal 
ideals of the men and women who live 
in the country. 

PLEA FOR FARMERS’ WIVES. 

In the development of character the 
home should be more important than the 
school or than society at large. When 
once the basic material needs have been 
met, high ideals may be quite inde- 
pendent of income, but they cannot be 
realized without sufficient income to 
provide adequate foundation, and where 
the community at large is not financially 
prosperous itis impossible to develop a 


high average personal and community — 
In short, the fundamental facts 


ideal. 
of human nature apply to men and 
wonen who live in the country just as 


DECEMBER, 1909.) 


they apply to men and women who live 
in the towns. Given a sufficient founda- 
tion of material well being, the influence 
of the farmers and farmers’ wives on 
their children becomes the factor of first 
importance in determining the attitude 
of the next generation toward farm life. 
The farmer should realize that the 
person who most needs consideration on 
the farm is his wife. I do not in the 
least mean that.she should purchase 
ease at the expense of duty. Neither 
man nor woman is really happy or 
really useful save on condition of doing 
his or her duty. If the woman shirks 
her duty as housewife, as home keeper, 
as the mother whose prime function is 
to bear and rear a sufficient number of 
healthy children, then she is not entitled 
to our regard. But if she does her duty 
she is more entitled to our regard even 
than the man who does his duty and the 
man should show special consideration 
for her needs. 

I warn my cowntrymen that the great 
progress made in city life is nol a full 
measure of our civilization, for our civiliza- 
tion rests at bottom on the wholesomeness, 
the attractiveness and the completeness as 
well as prosperity of life in the cowntry. 
The men and women on the farm stand for 
what is fundamentally best and most need- 
ed in owr American life. Upon the deve- 
lopment of country life rests ultimately 
cur ability, by methods of farming re- 
quiring the highest intelligence, to 
continue to feed and clothe the hungry 
nations, to supply the city with fresh 
blood, clean bodies and clear brains 
that can endure the terrific strain 
of modern life. We need the devolop- 
ment of men inthe open country, who 
will be in the future, as in the past, the 
stay and strength of the nation in time 
of war andits guiding and controlling 
spirit in time of peace. 

SPECIAL RECOMMENDATIONS OF THE 
CoMMISSION. 


The Commission enumerates eleven 
specific suggestions for Congressional 
action that have beensent to it, such as the 
encouragement of land surveys, the establish- 
ment of highway engineering service to be 
at the call of the States, and the enlarge- 
ment of the Bureau of Education ; it also 
glOups remedies under the general term 
of an educative compuign iv spread in- 
formation onthe whole subject of life, 
to quicken the sense of responsidility for 
diversifying farming so as to perserve 
coil fertility and improve rural society, 
to make more widespread the belief in the 
necessity of organisation, to make more 
general the farmers sense of responsibility 
for the welfare of the farm labourer, and to 
awaken among the people generally con- 
science in the protecting and developing 
natural scenery and the attractiveness of the 
open country, There are, however, three 
great movements which the Commission 


SAMS 1 eer, OEE en eree en a Nr CANES an a wy eR, Mie ei 


ow 


Miscelianeous. 


ealls fundamental. These are worthy 
of quotation in full :— 


I, Zaking stock of country life. —There 
should be organized as explained in the 
main report, under the Government 
leadership, a comprehensive plan for an. 
exhaustive study or survey of all the 
conditions that surround the business 
of farming and the people who live in 
the country, in order to take stock of our 
resources and to supply the farmer with 
local knowledge. Federal and State 
governments, agricultural colleges and 
other educational agencies, organization 
of various types, and individual students 
of the problem, should be brought into 
co-operation for this great work of 
investigating with minute care all agri- 
cultural and country life conditions, 


II. Nationalized Extension Work.—EKach 
State college of agriculture should be 
empowered to organize as soon as practi- 
cable a complete department of college 
extension, so managed as to reach every 
person on the land in its State with both 
information and inspiration. The work 
should include such forms of extension 
teaching as lectures, bulletins, reading 
courses, correspondence courses, demon- 
stration, and other means of reaching 
the people at home and their farms, 
It should be designed to forward not 


only the business of agriculture, but ~ 


sanitation, education, home-making, and 
all interests of country life. 


Ill. A Campaign for rural progress,— 
We wrge the holding of local, State, and even 
national conferences on rural progress, 
designed to unite the interests of edu- 
cation, organization and religion into 
one forward movement for the rebuild- 
ing of country life. Ruwral_ teachers, 
librarians, clergymen, editors, physicians, 
and others may well wnite with farmers 
in studying and discussing the rural ques- 
tion in all its aspects. We must in some 
way unite all institutions, all organiza- 
tions, all individuals having any interest 
in country life into one great campaign 
for rural progress. 


The Commission recognizes the great 
value of existing organizations such as 
libraries, agricultural societies, the 
Young Men’s Christian Association, and, 
above all, the rural churches; and it 
urges the development of greater co- 
operation among them. It adds that 
there isa great call for leaders among 
farmers, rural teachers and the rural 
clergy. The report and the message 
ought to have the widest circulation, 
not only among the dwellers in the 
country, but even more especially among 
the people of the cities. It is the urban 
citizen whois in the greatest need of 
information on the subject; and he is 
in fact as much concerned with proper 
rural conditions as the man on the farm. 


al 


: ; a Tas Beetle ee 3 


MARKET RATES FOR TROPICAL PRODUCTS. ee, 
(From Lewis & Peat’s Monthly Prices Current, London, 10th November, 1909.) ie ae 5 
pe 
QUALITY. QUOTATIONS. QUALITY. QUOTATIONS 
rae, ree ig hee Bar ee ~~~ | INDIARUBBER.(Contd. 
otrine cwt.|air to fine ++/858 a 908 INDIABD EES ) Common to good 1s 8da 36 
ALOES, Soc 2 C n to good 40s a 708 Borneo 
Zanzibar & Hepatic ,, coma fine & aaa ha Java Good to finered _ +3 2s é6da4s 
BN ee owt |: eae Tairtofne red ball lds 8d a bs 2d 
J Nee Yellow 9 d Slightly snoey. to fair ... £6 7s 6d ae us Moran Diae Sausage, fair to good ..'4s2da5s 1d 
Bombay blesched , ” [park to good genuine, 651s 60.68, | Nyasaland oie tans einky. de whites ate 
f unbleached ,, Pia | cs Madagascar z 
Madagascar ” piesa geod palish Be eae ak Majunga, d: biceoated Be es a 28 a : 
CAMPHOR, cia) (air average quality —..|135s a ines Ordinary to fine ball |.(8s2de 4a6d nom 
Ching. ticorin|Good to fine bold Is 10d a 28 2d New Guinea Ordinary to ine pa eee 
CARDAMOM SS Niue’ = jMidaling Jean istda.issd INDIGO, EL. Bengal /(O UE ine mid. to gd,.2s 6d a 25 10d 
ZOMWnS ‘ alae Oudes Middlingto fine |2s6d a 2/8 nom. 
Mangalore ,, Med brown to fair boldiis 10d a 2s 8d : Mid. to good Kurpah 2s 2d a 2s 6d. 
Ceylon. Mysere os togood Se ieada T9 6d Lor fo reiiearas eae baaa 
Malabar... {Hair & 3 , id. to 
i 2 lon ,, |Fair to good + fis 8d ais9d 3 Pale reddish to fine {1s lida 2s 4d 
pete Bal: € oeswild [Shelly $0 good é, 6d a 1s6d nom,|MACE, Bomay serena Ordinary tater Dae ae 
CABLOK OLL, Calcutta ,, Roane bright 11.1358 a 408 Java ryt n Bond male bogs PE: 
CHILLIES, Zanzibar ewt ; | Bombay wale 5 Cocodaele a ar 
-GINCHONA BARK.~ Ib. im ie saan IMYRABOLANES,  cwt|UG and Coconads 58 a 5s 6d 
Ceylon Crown, e oe ate a on si us fone Bombay re a appa ; 4s ad a bs toka 
Rea Org. Stem |1jd a 43d | Bhajpore, &c. 4s 6d abs 3d 
Renewed 3d a 53d Bengal »» (Calcutta, 5325s 6d 
_ Root | lida 4d INUTMEGS— Ib. (64 s to 57's 1s 3d a Is 60 
CINNAMON, Ceylon ioe Good to fine quill 10a Ia | Bombay & Penang ,, pags te eh ad a le 2a 
y lb, 2ndt ” ” ie a is | | s i os 4d a 
Lae 8rds a, 7 Tada ligd NUTS, ARECA cwt./Ordinary to fair fresh |14s a 16s 
4ths ” ” 62d a 95d NUX VOMICA, Cochin |Ordinary to good 9s alls 6d 
Chips, &c..|Fair to fine bold 22d a 3ad per cwt. Bengal i iH 6s a €s 6d 
CLOVES, Penang \b,|Dull to fine bright pkd.|1ld a 1s 2d Madras |__,, 6a 63 3d a 8s 
Amboyna .-|Dull_ to fine eran OIL OF ANSEED eS gett marcha 26 as cn nA 
Gahaibax si Fair and fine’ bright ban a 54d LEMONGR ASS - (Good favour Ee md 
e+ |Ho 2 | yi yi 9 a 
-OFFRE sreme ae b UE oe oh Ordinary to fair sweet |2}da a 
co Geylon Plantation cwt.|Medium to Bold 65d a, 100s CITRON ELLE * \piight & good flavour |113da 191d 
Native Good ordinary nore! ORCHELLAWEED—cwt) et 
Liberian aes Bpinite pols BC ie eee . ie: to tine not woody... pepaae 
COCOA, Ceylon Plant. », Red to Bed : bas Ay es e adag' oy [Me a 
Native Estate » |Ordinary to re 38s a PEPPER~ (Black) Philos 
Java and Celebes ,, |Small to good aan as aoe re fae: & Tellicherry|Fair 183d a 4d 
COLOMBU KOOT Sree £00 dea ace Ceylon ,, tofine bold heavy ..|3#d aad 
CROTON SEEDS, sift. cwhe use ; ; Singapore Reales es ve one 4d 
CUBEBS eed sec O20s Sealy eo mood, (cl Ere 32908 Acheen & W. C.Penang|Dull to fine .. +» BEd a 83a 
GINGER, Bengal, Oe oma 1d 60s a 858 (White) Singapore ,, |Fair to fine ++ «7d a 8d 
Calicut, Cut A ,, one to ane ue Posiatane Siam ” Pair ne area 
Cochin hough #4 Ganmont to fne bold 38s a 42s |e oa pidoeo v4 Pare to file bright boll 63d 
Small and D's 37s Get bee » imp ¢W".\Middling to good small|. — 
Japan ” aeons Hae PO oe a a chips Dull to fine baees ee 
@UM AMMONIACUM ,, Sm. blocky to ta m/26s a 60s dust Ordinary to fine bright) — 
ANIMI, Zanzibar |Pale Gaia Aa en ae oe bs SAGO, Pearl, large {Dull to fine. - |15sa 16s 6d 
a Poatcs Prien toned medium ..| 5) ” 14s a 15s 
Cee ren ait pie a3 ied small as). Yo od. soluble 12s a. 13s 6d 
Med. & bold glassy sorts|£6 10s a £8 10s |SEEDLAC ewt.|Ordinary to gd. soluble \50s a 65s . 
aa aapalishane ‘ss. =S« (SENNA, Tinnevelly 1b. Good to fine bold g 41d a7a 
Madagascar ,, |Fair to good palish ...)£4a£8 15s Fair greenish gid a 4d 
» oy Fed... 124 a £7 10s Commonspeckyand smalljoq a 98d 
ABABIC E.J.& Aden ,, |Ordinary to good pale 258 a 328 6d nom. SHELLS, M. o'PEARL— 
Turkey sorts +, | | pee) Ie 5 ’ “‘Bgyptian ewt./Small to bold .. 25S a 115s nom. 
Ghatti » [Sorts to fine pale +..[208 a 42s 6d nom. Bombay Ke 4: 218 allbs 
Kurrachee ,, [Reddish to good pale ...|20s a 808 55 Merent 4 : Rane ie eh . 188.9, £8 15s 
Madras- », |Dark to fine pale ...|15sa 258 Manilla 7” (Fair to good .-|85 12/6 a£10 10s 
ASSAFQTIDA »» [Clean re vo ed: almonds res ” Banda * |sorts “* senot stones a30s noms 
Hair to fine bri os a 1008» |TAMARINDS, Caleuttz...|Mid. to fine bl’k not stouy}11s a12s , 
KINO Fair to fine bright 6d ad nerewt. | Madras Stony and inferior —-. 4g. a bs 
M\RRH, }icked ewt |Fair to fine pale 80s a 115s TORT OISESHELL— | 
Aden sorts ,, |Middling to good 55s a 65s Taeibareemeoribay 1b lsmall to bold .Bsagie ee Z 
OLIBANUM, drop ” Deanae nae rite ee 2 os anzibar, . ‘Pickings "leg a, 188 Gd) 
pec’ e , owt, |Fair - |183 
pickings ,, |Low to good pale —_[iséd alfsGd |TURMERIC, Hensal cwt. rer fair to tine boldli7s a 18s a 
siftings ,, |Slightly foul to fine {13s a 15s Do. ” [Bulbs bright|14s a 15s 
INDIA RU] Bik lb. (|Fine Para bis, & sheets|8s 11d Cochin » |Pinger Bale 
cr Scanian ‘to fine 33 1a a 9s ” Bulbs [las ed ve 
Ceylon, Straits, He ner Bolte 7 LLOES— Vb. é 3 
Malay Straits, ete, Fae es Fa eeiis 1. Iste|Gd crystallized 34 a8} in|i1a 6da1es . 
y fi 6s 4d a6s 8d Ma y 
Serap fair te ne 3 Madagascar ... } 2nds|Foxy & reddish 34a ,,|10s6da 14s SS 
Assam ED ded ae ae BC Seychelles .. J srds|Lean and inferior « 163 6d a lis 
Tair JI tc «rd. re 0.1 a od ae VERMILLION .. Fine, pure, bright "35 3d 
Rangoon ‘i 3 WAX, Jagan, squares (Good white hard _...|44s 


THE SUPPLEMENT TO THE 


Tropical Agricu 


turist and Magazine of the G. A. 8. 


Compitep By A. M. & J. FERGUSON. 


No. 6,] 


DECEMBER, 1909. 


[Vor. V. 


RUBBER IN THE BRITISH EMPIRE. 
Countrizs oF Oricin.—India, Gambia, Sierra 
Laone, Gold Coast, Southern Nigeria, British 
East Africa, Zanzibar, Nyasaland, Rhodesia, 
Transvaal, Cape Colony, Seychelles, West Indies, 
British Guiana, Portuguese East Africa. 
Number of rubbers received in 1908 ... 40 
Number of rubbers reported on in 1908... 94 


The attention which has been devoted to rub- 
ber and its cultivation during recent years in 
nearly all the tropical Colonies and Protectorates 
shows no sign of diminution, and the number of 
specimens reported on by the Imperial Institute 
during 1908 slightly exceeded the figures for 
1907. In addition to the examination of samples 
of rubber much information and advice have 
been supplied to Colonial Governments, plan- 
ters, and enquirers in this country on points 
connected with the cultivation of rubber-yield- 
ing plants or with the collection and preparation 
of rubber. 

Inp1a.—Specimens of Para, Castilloa, Ceara, 
and Ficus rubbers prepared in India were re- 
ported on during 1908. 


Para rubber (Hevea brasiliensis). The speci- 
mens submitted for examination were prepared 
at the Government experimental gardens at 

KULLAR AND BURLIAR, IN THE NILGIRI HILLS. 
The rubber from both sources was very satisfac- 
tory in chemical composition, comparing favour- 
ably in this respect with plantation Para rubber 
from Ceylon, but it was rather deficient in 
strength. The specimen from Burliar was much 
lighter in colour than that from Kullar and was 
consequently valued at a higher price, the quota- 
tions being 5s 4d to 5s 5d per lb, and 5s to 5s 2d 
per lb. respectively, with plantation Para bis- 
cuits at 58 3d to 5s 9d per lb. 

Castilloa rubber (Castitloa elastica). Speci- 
mens of this rubber were also received from 
Kullar and Burliar. The rubber from Kullar 
was of inferior quality on account of the large 


70 


_caoutchouc 


amount (32°5 per cent) of resin present. The 
trees from which the rubber was obtained were, 
however, only six years old, and it is probable 
that the quality of the rubber will improve as 
they become older, The specimen from Burliar 
contained much less resin than that from Kullar 
(about 13 per cent) and was greatly superior in 
physical properties. It was valued at 3s 6d to 
3s 8d per lb in London with fine hard Para at 5s 
1d perlb, whilst 3s 2d to 3s 4d per lb was quoted 
for the specimen from Kullar, 

Ceara rubber (Manihot Glaziovii). A speci- 
men of Ceara biscuit rubber from Kullar was 
of good quality, containing 82°5 per cent of 
and exhibiting very satisfactory 
physical properties. It was valued at 5s 6d per 
ib., with Para biscuits quoted at 5s. 3d, 
to 5s 9d per lb. A sample of Ceara rubber from 
South Arcot was much inferior in composition 
to the preceding specimen, containing only 73°7 
per cent of caoutchouc and a high porcentage of 
proteid. l(t was valued at 2s 5d per |b when fine 
hard Para stood at 3s 54d per lb. 

Ficus elastica rubber. Two specimens of this 
rubber, one in biscuit form and the other in 
scrap, were forwarded from Mukkie in the 

KANOTH RANGE, NORTH MALABAR, 
Both samples contained a large amount of resin 
and were somewhat deficient in elasticity and 
tenacity. The biscuit rubber, which was almost 
black, was valued at 2s 6d per lb and the 
reddish scrap rubber at 2s 1ld perlb with fine 
hard Para at 3s 54d per Ib. 


GAMBIA.-—The investigation of the rubber of 
Ficus Vogelii from the Gambia has been con- 
tinued, and during 1908 a smal! consignment was 
received for technical trial, The rubber was of 
resinous nature, containing from 30 to 35 per 


cent of resin, but as the result of trials by manu- 


facturers it was found to be suitable for certain 
technical purposes. The washed rubber was 
valued at from Is. 7d. to I's. 11d. per |b., with fine 
hard Para quoted at 2s, 9d. per lb. 


554 - 


SizrrA Leone,—Ten specimens of rubber from 
Sierra Leone were reported on during 1908 ; they 
included samples of Funtumia, Landolphia and 
Ficus rubbers. The Funtumia rubber was of 
good quality, the dry product containing 87 per 
cent. of caoutchouc, but the biscuits were of 
rather rough appearance. It was valued at 3s. 
per lb., with fine hard Para at 3s. 53d. per lb. 


A number of samples of Landolphia rubber 
were examined. The well-prepared rubber was 
found to be of good quality, containing nearly 
90 per cent. of caoutchouc in the dry material, 
and it was valued at the same price as the pre- 
ceding specimen of Funtumia rubber. 


A specimen of rubber obtained from a species 
of Ficus was found to contain 37 per cent. of 
resin, and was therefore of inferior quality. It 
was very similar in composition to the Ficus 
Vogelit rubber from the Gambia, and would rea- 
lise about the same price, 


Gotp Coast.—A number of specimens of Fun- 
tumia and Landolphia rubbers from the Gold 
Coast were reported on during 1908. 


A sainple of Funtumia ejastica rubber, coagu- 
lated by means of an infusion of the leaves of 
Bauhinia reticulata, was received from Ashanti. 
It was of good quality, containing 88°5 per cent 
of caoutchouc, but the sheets were of rather 
rough appearance and not thoroughly dried. It 
was valued at 2s 8d to 28 10d per Ib, with fine 
hard Para quoted at 3s 53d per lb. 


Three other specimens of Funtumia rubber 
from Ashanti had been prepared by ‘‘creaming ” 
the latex. They were of very good quality so 
far as chemical composition 1s concerned, con- 
taining from 88°5 to 89 per cent of caoutchouc 
and low percentages of resin and proteid. The 
commercial value of the samples was, however, re- 
duced by the facts that the cakes had been made 
too thick and contained aconsiderable amount of 
moisture; they were also of rather rough ap- 
pearance. The specimens were valued at from 
2s 7d to 2s 10d per lb with fine hard Para at 48 
6d perlb. A fifth sample of Funtumia 


RUBBER FROM ASHANTI 


had been prepared in biscuits by the spon- 
taneous coagulation of the latex. It was 
much less satisfactory in chemical composition 
than the preceding specimens, containing only 
71°5 per cent of caoutchouc and large amounts 
of resin and proteid. It was however much 
superior in appearance, and was valued at 3s 6d 
to 3s 8d per lb with fine hard Para quoted at 4s 
6d_ per lb. 

A specimen of ‘‘Pempeneh” rubber, derived 
from Landolphia owariensis growing in the. Nor- 
thern Territories, was found to be of very good 
quality, containing 90°6 per cent of caoutchouc, 
6 per cent of resin, and less than 1 per cent of 
proteid. It was valued at 3s to 3s 3d per lb with 
fine hard Para at 3s 54d per lb. 


Six specimens of latex and two samples of 
Ficus rubber received from.an estate near Axim 
were examined. The Ficus rubbers contained 
22 and 27 per cent. of resin, and were there- 
fore of inferior quality. Samples of Ficus latex 
which were stated to correspond to the speci- 
mens of prepared rubber were found to yield 


The Supplement to the Tropical Agriculturist 


products of similar character, A specimen of 
Landolphia latex, probably from L. owariensis, 
yielded rubber of good quality, but the other 
latices, stated to be derived from species of 
Landolphia, Tabernzemontana, and Anthostema, 
and from Funtumia africana, furnished resi- 
nous products of no commercial value. 

A substance resembling gutta percha, de- 
rived from the rhizomes of a plant occurring 
in the Colony, was also investigated. 

SourHeRN Niceria.—A number of specimens 
of Funtumia elastica rubber prepared in bis- 
cuits or sheets have been received for exami- 
nation and valuation in comparison with 
the ordinary lump rubber as prepared by the 
natives. One sample, described as 


‘* ANYO ” RUBBER, 


was in the form of dark-coloured biscuits 
which had been imperfectly dried, and con- 
sequently arrived ina mouldy condition, The 
rubber was of good quality, containing 86°5 
per cent of caoutchouc, and was valued 
at 28 6d to 2s 8d per lb., with fine hard 
Para quoted at 3s 53d per lb. Samples of 
Benin lump rubber sent at the same time 
were valued at from 1s 6d to 1s 11d per lb. 

Three further sainples of Funtumia rubber in 
biscuit form were forwarded from Benin City, 
They were of satisfactory composition, contain- 
ing from 87°9 to 89°8 per cent of caoutchouc, but 
were of very rough appearance. They were 
valued at from 2s 8d to 3s 4d per 1b, with fine 
hard Para at4s 6d per lb., and ‘ 


BENIN LUMP AT 28 PER LB, 


A specimen of ‘‘ Ubabikpan ” rubber derived 
from Clitandra elastica was found to be of very 
good quality, containing 90 4 per cent of caout- 
chouc whilst the percentages of resin and proteid 
were low. Lt was valued at 2s 8d to 2s 10d per 
lb, with fine hard Para at 3s 54d per Ib. 

A sample of rubber derived from the Marodi 
vineconsisted of a thick rough biscuit of brown 
rubber, dry and well prepared. It contained 
over 80 per cent. of caontchouc, but a rather large 
amount of proteid. It was valued at 2s 6d per 
lk., with fine hard Para at 3s 1d per lb. 

A specimen of rubber believed to have been 
prepared from Ficus Elastica was found to be 
very satisfactory in chemical composition, but 
deficient in physical properties. On the later 
account its commercial value was only law. 

East ArricaA PROTECTORATE.—The exami- 
nation of a small ball of Ceara rubber from the 
Kibos district showed that the percentages of 
resin, proteids and insoluble matter were all 
rather excessive. It was valued at about 3s per 
lb., with fine hard Para at 4s 34d per lb. 

ZANZIBAR.—Small samples of Para and Castil- 
loa rubbers experimentally prepared in Zanzibar 
were received for exawination. 

The Para rubber was of very good quality 
but contained a fair amount of vegetable im- 
purity and a little more resin than usual. 

The Castilloa rubber was of very resinous 
nature containing only 77 per cent. of caout- 
chouc and 20°5 per cent. of resin. No infor- 
mation was available as to the age of the trees 
from which the specimen was obtained. Th 
samples were too small for valuation, 


and Magazine of the Ceylon Agricultural Society, 


Care Conony.—A specimen of coagulated 
latex received from Cape Colony was found to 
contain 64 per cent of resin, and would there- 
fore have very little, if any, commercial value. 
It was probably derived from a species of 
Euphorbia. 


RuovEs1a.—A sample of Ceara rubber from 
North Eastern Rhodesia proved to be of in- 
ferior quality on account of the large percen- 
tage of sand which it contained ; otherwise it 
was of normal composition. It was valued at 1s 
8d per lb., with fine hard Para at 3s 53d per Ib. 


A specimen of so-called rubber was also 
received from Southern Rhodesia. It proved to 
bea resinous product, resembling the material 
obtained from species of Huphorbia in South 
Africa. 


SEYCHELLES.—Specimens of Para and Vahea 
rubber were received from Seychelles for 
examination. 


The three samples of Para rubber were ob- 
tained from a small number of trees under five 
years old, but of considerable size. The rubber 
was very satisfactory in composition, comparing 
favourably in this respect with Para rubber 
from Ceylon and the Federated Malay States, 
but was deficient in strength. The latter defect 
was probably chiefly due to the fact that the 
rubber had been obtained from young trees, 
From the results of the chemical examination 
however there appears to be every likelihood 
that the Para trees in Seychelles will yield ex- 
cellent rubver as they become older. 


‘the Vahea rubber, derived from a climbing 
plant introduced from Madagascar, was of good 
quality, the best specimen containing 91 per cent 
of caoutchouc, but the cost of preparing the 
rubber in aclean form is practically prohibitive. 


JamMaica.—A sample of the rubber of Forste- 
ronia floribunda, a climbing plant occurring in 
Jamaica, was found to be of good quality, con- 
taining 88°8 percent. of caoutchouc. It was 
valued at 2s 4d per lb., with fine hard Para at 
38 54d per |b. 


British GotAna.—The rubber obtained from 
Sapium Jenmani in British Guiana has been 
carefully investigated in order to determine its 
composition and value. A number of specimens 
in the form of biscuits, scrap block, and ball, 
have been analysed, and the results show that 
the rubber is of very good quality so far as 
chemical composition 1s concerned. The percen- 
tages of caoutchouc recorded range from 87 to 92 
per cont and of resin from 2°0 to 4°2 per cent ; 
the best specimen contained 924 per cent of 
caoutchouc, 2 per cent of resin and 2°8 per cent 
of proteid. The following valuations were ob- 
tained: scrap block from 2s 4d to 3s per lb ; 
balls 2s 6d per lb.; and the best biscuits 
3s 6d per |b, with fine hard Para at 3s 54d 
per lb. There is therefore no longer any 
doubt that therubber yielded by this tree is of 
excellent quality if carefully prepared. 


A sample of Balata from British Guiana was of 
very good quality, containing 50°7 per cent of 
putta and 44°S per cent of resin. The percentage 
of gutta is higher than that usually recorded for 
alata; The specimen was valued at 2s 24d per 


555 


Ib. The latex of the Bastard Bullet tree was 
found to yield a product containing 70°6 per cent’ 
of resin, therefore differing widely in composi- 
tion from true balata. 


PoxtucugesE East Arrica.—Specimens of 
Ceara, Landolphia, and Mascarenhasia rubber 
from Portuguese East Africa proved to be of good 
quality, whilst the products obtained from Ficus 
sp., Landolphia florida and Diplorrhynchus 
mossambicensis were of resinous nature and of 
little or no value 


An examination has also been made of Bitinga 
tubers (Raphionacme wtilis) and the rubber they 
furnish. The partly dried tubers as received con- 
tained from 1:0 to 1'5 per cent of rubber, cor- 
responding to a yield of 9°3 to 11'6 per cent from 
the dry material. The sample of prepared rub- 
ber was of very fair quality, but was rather 
sticky and contained a considerable amount of 
vegetable and mineral impurity. Trialsare being 
made to ascertain whether the tubers of this 
plant, which is stated to flourish on poor soils ~ 
not adapted to other rubber plants, can be pro- 
fitably utilised asa source of rubber.—Jmperial 
Institute Report for 1908. 


ECANDA RUBBER. 


(Raphionacme utilis, Brown & Stapf.) 


In the Kew Bulletin, 1908, pp. 209-215, and 
pp. 305-307, an account has been given of Ra- 
phionacme utilis, Brown & Stapf, and of the 
rubber prepared from its tubers. Since these 
accounts were published Mr. John T. Norman, 
of the City Central Laboratory, London, E. C., 
has sent 

A FURTHER CONSIGNMENT OF THE TUBERS 


of the Ecanda rubber plant, which were brought 
over from Angola by hisclient, Mr. J. Neale May. 


Mr. May holds a large concession of land near 
Bihe, Angola, where Raphionacme utilis grows in 
abundance, and he has kindly furnished parti- 
culars as to the mode of growth of the plants 
under natural conditions and of the country in 
which they are to be found, From this infor- 
mation the following account has been written. 


The tubers of Ecanda rubber recently received 
at the Royal Botanic Gardens came from a pla- 
teau near Bihe, in about 17° E. long. and 12°5- 
13° 8. lat., 


AT AN ELEVATION OF 5,000 FEET ABOVE SEA LEVEL, 


This plateau, which forms the concession, oc- 
cupies an area of some 25 sq. miles, an slopes 
away fairly steeply towards the east and west, 
forming the divide between two river systems. 
The plant though found in considerable quan- 
tity in the region generally, does not appear to 
flourish in other places so well as on the plateau, 


The plateau is crossed by the main route from 
Benguella to Lake Tanganyika and is distant 
from the port of Benguella some 420 miles by 
wagon road. The distance across country to the 
port by bush paths is much shorter and occupies 
about twenty days, as the wagon road makes a 
considerable détour to the south in order to 
cross certain mines. In fine weather the journey 
by wagon road can be made in abou 30 days, 


596, 


The climate is fairly damp and rain falls during 
five or six months of the year. The rainy season 
commences about January ; heavy rains are not 
frequent, but the rains are*more like those of 
England, and there is a considerable amount of 
damp mist. During the dry season no rain ever 
falls, but mists and heavy dews prevail at night- 
time. In the wet season the rivers rise about 20 
ft, and fall some 2-3 ft. below their normal level 
in the dry season. The soil of the plateau is 


A DEEP AND VERY SANDY LOAM. 


sandy loam of finely divided, clean black earth 
four or more feet in depth. This soil retains 
moisture readily though it never cakes or runs 
together ; it 1s always very warm beneath the 
surface, giving the impression that fermentation 
1s proceeding. It is possible to dig a hole with a 
stick to a depth of three or four Foot as in sand. 


The plateau is covered with a very fine grass, 
growing to a height of not more than 2 ft., and 
the Raphionacme plants are found growing 
plentifully among the grass. Off the concession 
(plateau) the growth of the grass is very rank 
and coarse, some 6 to 7 ft. high, and is almost 
impossible to penetrate, 


The plants grow with the leaves closely pressed 
to the surface of the ground, forming a kind of 
rosette after the manner of plantains on a lawn. 
The tubers usually occur buried just below the 
surface of the soil, and may be shaped either 
like a turnip or peg-top, or may be very broadly 
napiform to discoid. They produce from 1 to 
3 leafy shoots, each bearing 4 to 6 pairs of leaves, 
and as arule only one of the shoots produces 
an inflorescence. The shoots are quite short but 
in old plants the inflorescence may be born on a 
longer stalk about 2 ins. in length. Unless 
burnt by bush fires it appears that the leaves 
remain green, and the tubers continue to grow 
throughout the year. Of the tubers sent to 
Kew by Mr Norman, the discoid ones were the 
larger, aud one of the specimens weighed 2 lb. 
50z. Mr May, however, states that a large 
number of the 


TUBERS WEIGH FROM 4—5 LBS. 


and he has found a specimen weighing as much 
a8 151b. It seems probable that there may be 
more than one species of Raphionacme growing 
on the plateau, but whether the tubers of 
different shapes belong to different species 
cannot yet be determined. An inflorescence 
borne by one of the discoid tubers proves this 
plant to be Raphionacme utilis, though in the 
general shape and colour of the leaves it differed 
somewhat from the plant already described 
(K. B., 1908, p. 215, and Bol. Mag. tab. 8221). 
Mr May is inclined to believe that there are 
probably five or six different kinds of rubber- 
yielding tubers. One kind in particular bears 
a much larger tuber than the true Ecanda 
plant, and has finely cut leaves ‘“‘like a tuft ot 
grass.” Inthis plant the skin or rind of the 
tuber is coarse like the bark of a tree, and the 


LATEX OCCURS ONLY IN THE RIND. 
In shape and size the tubers resemble a rugby 
football. 1n the Eceanda plants the veins of the 


leaves may or may not be purple on the under. 
side. 


The Supplement to the Tropical Agriculturist 


The floweis of R. utilishave already been des 
cribed. but those of Mr May’s plant were of a deep 
claret colour and borne in a terminal cluster. 


The plants usually flower on the plateau in 
November and early December, the driest time 
of the year, and the seed is ripened at about 
the end of December, just before the com- 
mencement of the rainy season. Seed is pro- 
duced in quantity but it tends to be destroyed 
in great part asthe natives burn off the grass 
among which the plants are growing] ust 
before the rainy season sets in. 


THE COLLECTION OF THE SEED 


is dificult and to trade costs in goods the 
equivalent of about ; 
£4 PER OZ. 

The tubers are collected by the natives on the 
plateau in the following manner. The fine grass 
and general vegetation covering the country is 
set on fire and the tubers, which can then be 
easily seen, are hoed up and brought to head- 
quarters in baskets. Large and small tubers are 
gathered indiscriminately, but the contents of 
the baskets are weighed and sorted, and only 
those of large size are kept for the production of 
the rubber. The two illustrations from photo- 
graphs, taken by Mr May on the concession 
plateau, shew a quantity of the Ecanda tubers 
brought in by the natives for the extraction of 
the rubber. The smaller ones are thrown aside, 
and as they are not materially damaged by the 
burning of the grass, they are replanted and 
commence to grow again quite readily. : 


No attemptat the cultivation or clearing of 
the ground has been attempted, nor have any 
experiments been made with the sowing of seed. 
In replanting the smaller tubers a hole is simply 
dug in the earth amongst the grass with a native 
hoe and the tuber is planted and 


LEFT TO GROW UNTENDED. 


As to the rate of growth of the tubers, it is un- 
fortunate that at present we have no reliable in- 
formation. According to Professor Geraldes 
(K.B., 1908, p. 214) the plants are biennial (?), and 
one-year old plants are stated to be about 3-4 ins, 
in diameter, and to weigh from 7-103 ozs. Mr 
May has not made auy careful observation but 
is of the opinion, however, that a three-year 
old root would weigh about 6 ozs. As the na- 
tives always burn the long grass once a year in 
order to obtain fresh herbage, he thinks that 
these fires may possibly check the growth of any 
tubers over which they pass. We have been in- 
formed that the yield of tubers, on an experi- 
mental plantation in a neighbouring region, at 
a minimum estimate is likely to be 8 tons, and 
that there is every prospect that a yield of about 
12 tons per acre will be realised. 


SEEDLINGS OF RAPHIONACME UTILIS. 


In connection with the question of the rate of 
growth of the Ecanda plane the behaviour of 
some seedlings raised in the Royal Botanic Gar- 
dens, Kew, isofsome interest. At the end of Dec.- 
1908, a parcel of Ecanda seed was received from 
the Anglo-Angolese Trading Co., Benguella, 9, 
Billiter Street, London, E.C., with the follow- 
ing note; ‘‘ Seeds of the Ecanda tuber, called 
also ‘ Vitinga’ or ‘B’tinga’ plant by the Angolese 


and Magazine of the Ceylon Agricultural Society. 


from the district of M’ Bongo, Serra Andrade 
Corvo, South Angola between 12° 50’ and 14° 8. 
lat, and 14° 40’and 15° 2u’ E. long. ; altitude 
given as between 1,200 and 1,500 m.” Some of 
these seeds were distributed to various suitable 
Botanic Gardens and some were sown at Kew, 
onthe 2nd January of this year. The seeds 
germinated quickly and developed two cotyle 
dons with petioles nearly lcm. in Jongth; the 
laminz aro obJong-obovate obtuse, glabrous and 
slightly fleshy. 

The plumule usually develops with an elon- 
gated first internode, about 1 cm. in length, the 
subsequent internodes being short, The inter- 
nodes are delicately hairy with short glandular 
hairs. The plumular leaves, which shew a de- 
cussate arrangement, are more or less ovate, 
glandular, and have a well-marked mid rib. In 
the course of two months the young shoot has 
reached the stage shewn in Wig. 1, and at the 
end of seven months the seedlings have grown 
to the size shewn in Figs. 2 and 8. 


At the end of two months the -tap root had 
swollen to form an elongated fusiform tuber 
lem. long by about 2 mm. in diameter, and 
during this time it is pulled deeper into the soil 
by the action of root shortening. The tuberous 
root in the largest example, Fig. 3, is some 4-5 
cm, in length and 9 mm, in diameter. 

Some seeds were also received at Kew from 
the Botanic Gardens, Dah!em, Berlin, under the 
name of Nitinga rosea in August, 1908, which 
germinated, andit is now possible to recognize 
that the young plants are probably seedlings of 
Raphionacme utilis, the name Nitunga being 
apparently a corruption of the native name 
B'tinga or Vitinga. 

These latter plants, now a year old, have a 
single shoot which has grown continuously and 
is about 3cm. long with five pairs of leaves 
crowded towards the shoot apex. The tuber 
which is becoming more globular measures 1°5 
cm. in diameter. Although Mr. May is of the 
opinion that the Ecanda plants grow more 
quickly in Angola than they do at Kewit 
appears clear that the Raphionacme is not a 
biennial plant as was at first suggested, 


In the Bulletin of the Imperial Institute, vol. 
vi., 1908, pp. 390-393, a short account of the 
analysis of the tubers of the Bitinga rubber 
plant is given, derived from specimens received 
from the Mozambique Company.—Kew Bulletin, 
Nov 8, 1908. 


RUBBER IN SOUTH COORG. 


Pollibetta, Oct. 16.—Mr. Alexander, who for 
many years was a planter in this District, but 
who has lately been in England, has come out 
to open up land and plant Para rubber below 
the Sampagi Ghaut, on the way to Mangalore, 
at an elevation of 800 ft. above sea-level, for 
Messrs. Chisholm and Morris, the former of 
South Coorg and the latter of Chamrajnagar, 
Mysore. It has been arranged to plant up 250 
acres next season. At this low elevation, with 
an assured heavy rainfall, itis probable that 
Para will prove a success. Tho land to be opened 
lies inside the Coorg border.—%. Muil, 


557 
RUBBER IN BRAZIL. 


Mr. Cheetham (Secretary to the British Lega- 
tion at Rio de Janeiro), in his report on the 
trade of Brazil for the year 1908, contributes 
a valuable and interesting statement on the 
rubber industry in that country. He says the 
rubber trade of the Amazon Valley isin many 
respects one of the most remarkable commercial 
movements in existence. If the value of the 
product put on the world’s markets be com- 
pared with the trifling expenditure of human 
energy involved in its collection the contrast 
is an extraordinary one. The whole of this 
valuable trade, in the first place, is 


GATHERED BY A HANDFUL OF ILLITERATE, 
UNTRAINED MEN, 


who taking their lives in their hands, enter the 
vast uncultivated wilderness of the Upper Amazon 
forests and, on behalf of distant aviadores and 
nominal forest owners, tap the trees and smoke 
the rubber that later on figures as the second 
asset in Brazilian commercial and financial 
prosperity. Deprived of her rubber output 
Brazil would lose one-third of her purchasing 
capacity. Yet, Mr. Cheetham states, although 
the source of so large a part of her national 
income, Brazil as a whole does nothing for her 
rubber producers, and these, in equal disregard 
of great responsibilities, do little or nothing 
for their rubber trees. The whole cf the vast 
wealth of the Amazon rubber output is drawn 
from the virgin wealth of uncultivated forest 
products, the product being obtained by the 
crudest methods from the natural wilderness of 
rubber-giving trees, 


Were the rubber industry of the Amazon 
Valley, Mr Cheetham adds, established ou orga- 
nised lines of cultivation and scientific develop- 
ment, the number of persons actively employed 
in rubber production (now officially and inaccu- 
rately given as 5,337) would be one of many 
hundredsof thousands. But’ 


THE METHODS OF PRODUCTION 


have shown no advance during a period 
of 12 years, while the cost of production must 
have greatly increased, That Para rubber, he 
continues, as it is today exploited can continue 
successfully to compete when once the East 
India plantations have attained a large area of 
development seems highly improbable, The 
cost of the bare necessities of life, to say 
nothing of the comforts of existence, has greatly 
increased, and the absence of these things 
renders the weary lot of the Amazon rubber ex- 
tractor one of the most depressing in existence, 
Half submerged in a swampy forest, he has few 
or no companions and no social life at all. 
A stranger from far away, he makes no home, 
but squats where he can best tap the surroun- 
ding trees. The owner of the estate neither 
resides on it nor pays an absentee tax. His 
ownership restricts itself to taking out papers 
of registration before someone else has obtained 
them, and then leasing the right to find and 
tap what rubber trees the undefined vagueness 
of this ‘“‘ estate” may afford the hardy Ceara 
or Maranhao explorer who acts as his tenant. 


There is little likelihood of Amazon rubber 


558 


being exhausted. The area is so vast, the sup- 
ly of trees so constantly self-renewing, that 
it is most improbable that while demand con- 
tinues and profitable prices are obtained the 
supply from this region will fall off. The 


REAL DANGER TO THE AMAZON INDUSIRY LIES 
IN THE COMPETITION OF CULTIVATED RUBBER. 


If this can be shortly produced on a large scale, 
and the demand does not keep equal pace, prices 
must fall. 

The Amazon forest on the present lines of 
Brazilian taxation and expenditure 


CAN ONLY BE WORKED IF THE PRICE OF RUBBER 
REMAINS HIGH, 


The expenses are so great, the taxes imposed 
so onerous, that any permanent fall in the 
price of rubber would mean not alone the 
cessation of Amazon rubber production, but a 
very serious financial problem for the whole of 
Brazil to meet. Rubber cultivation in Ceylon, 
the Malay Peninsula, and, no doubt, elsewhere, 
can be profitably carried out, and by annually 
improving the methods, at a rate of expenditure 
that would be wholly insufficient to tap the 
wild forest trees of the Amazon basin. Con- 
siderations such as these, while they should 
stimulate rubber production within the British 
Empire, should not be lost sight of (Mr. 
Cheetham points out) by those who may be 
disposed to invest money in the purchase and 
exploitation of so called rubber estates on the 
Amazon. The excessive import duties and the 
heavy export taxes must never be lost sight ot ; 
for they affect every aspect of commercial, 
industrial and individual life in Brazil. While 
it may be held as unquestionable that Amazon 
rubber is a wild product obtained by the least 
expenditure of labour necessary to its crude 
production, and _ with no resort to cultivation, 
there is a growing export from other parts of 
Brazil of inferior kinds of rubber which may 
in the near future attain large proportions. 
This rubber, moreover, is to some extent the 
product of cultivation. 


THE FOUR VARIETIES OF AMAZON, OR WILD, RUBBER 


are known by the trade designations of Seringa 
fina, Seringa entre-fina, Seringa Sernamby, and 
Seringa Caucho. These, the overwhelming bulk 
as they are of the more valuable varieties of 
Brazilian rubber, are all found only in the 
Amazon regions. In five years the quantity of 
these inferior kinds of rubber shipped from 
Brazil has more than doubled, and itis pro- 
bable that with the largely increased demand 
and higher prices which have ruled throughout 
the last six or seven months the export of these 
lower grades of rubber will show a considerable 
development in the course of the present year. 

The improvement in price that began to affect 
the rubber trade in the closing months of 1908 
has continued its upward tendency, as Mr 
Cheetham mentions, during the first months of 
1909, and the returns for the first four months of 
the present year show a very marked gain in 
price and alsoan increase of bulk shipped. From 
January to April, 1908, the total shipments of 
all kinds of Brazilian rubber were as follow :— 


» January to April— tons, Met, £ 
1903 nee vent 18,265 4,279,699 
1909 te ec «27,179 = 6, 902,248 


The Supplement to the Tropical Agriculturist 


These figures will probably show a still more 
remarkable development in favour of the current 
year on the completed six months up to June 30, 
1909, the quantity shipped in May having 
amounted to 2,698 tons, according to a mode- 
rate local estimate. The figures for June were : 


Met, tons. Zz 
1908 ate bin 3,297 843,438 
1909 u% are 3,883 1,550,070 


Compared with coffee, the principle article of 
Brazilian export trade, rubber now comes ina 
fairly close second. For the few months Jan. 
to April, 1908, coffee was exported to the value 
of £8,413,763. Itis possible that on the first 
half-year’s trade rubber may present an export 
value equal to that of the leading article of Bra- 
zilian external commerce and the returns for the 
whole year 1909, if the present high pricesshould 
continue, may even put rubber in the first place 
of all Brazilian exports. 


In the year 1908 the export of rubber from the 
Amazon Valley diminished, but this was due to 
fall in prices during that year, and not to fallin 
bulk.—H, and C. Mail, Oct. 15. 


A RUBBER SHRUB IN CHILE. 
The United States consul at Valparaiso reports 
concerning the Euphorbia tuctiflua, a rubber 
shrub discovered by the botanical section of the © 
national museum of Chile : 


‘“A very good quality of rubber can, it is 
claimed, be easily made from this shrub, which 
is found onthe mountains and table lands of that 
portion of theinterior of Chile extending from 
Taltal south to Caldera, a distance of about 75 
miles. Itissaidto beofno other use than for 
rubber and wood pulp. Itisclaimed that ex- 
tracting the sap just does not injure ;the plant, 
dustry if attention be given to its cultivation. 
It is badly scattered and in many cases difficult 
of access, butit isclaimed that it could easily 
be cultivated. A company has been organised 
to develop the industry, and is seeking a con- 
cession,’ —IJndia Rubber World, Oct. 1. 


GUAYULE RUBBER. 


Anp THE U. 8, A. $30,000,000 ComBINE. 


Reuter’s telegram, published in our issue 
of Saturday last, reporting the amalgamation 
of two great American Rubber Companies— 
the Continental and the Inter-Continental—is 
interesting. Mr, William H. Stayton, the Pre- 
sident of the Continental Rubber Company 
(which has a capital of $30,000,000), resigned re- 
cently, after being with the Company for a long 
time, as he is organising a new Rubber Com- 
pany in Texas to take over certain very large 
concessions of guayule rubber lands in various 
countries of Texas. Mr. Stayton has declined 
to make public any statement beyond the fact 
that his new concern will be known as 

THE BIG BEND RUBBER COMPANY ; 
but the severance of his connection with the Con- 
tinental and the knowledge of his future plans 
have revived interest in fae rubber, the out- 
put of which is expected to be largely increased . 
as a consequence of the above gentleman’s 


« and Magazine of the Ceylon Agricultural Society. 


work in its behalf. The record prices prevai- 
ling for rubber have stimulated the demand 
for guayule, whichis used by manufacturers of 
mechanical rubber goods, such as matting, tiling, 
etc. In present circumstances manufacturers 
want a cheaper ingredient than Para, and 
they appear to favour guayule, which costs, say, 
2s. 1d. per lb, when Para prices are in the neigh- 
bourhood of 9s. 


Guayule, as many of our readers are aware, is 
a shrub. It grows on the sides of the otherwise 
bare hills of Texas and Mexico and from it, by a 
mechanical process, there is extracted about 12 
per cent. of guayulerubber, Already, the imports 
from Mexico into the United States amount to 
above 15,000,000 1b, in the year. It has been as- 
serted that the Texas shrub will not yield.as 
large a percentage of caoutchouc as the Mexican, 
but Mr Stayton has no doubt made careful esti- 
mates as to the prospect of reaping advantage 
from his new enterprise. One difficulty is that in 
the production of the rubber the shrub is de- 
stroyed, and the question of reproduction is one 
about which conflicting opinions are held, Some 
men claim that the shrubs they are now using 
are fifty years old, and that this time will be 
necessary for reproduction ; others even question 
if the plant will reproduce itself ; yet others 
hold that under cultivation guayule would yield 
a very much lower percentage of rubber than is 
obtained from the wild shrub. Perhaps, Mr. 
Stayton will be ina position later on to throw 
light on these points.—%/. Mail, Nov. 8. 


A NEW RUBBER PLANT. 


“ ASCLEPIAS STELLIFERA,” SCHLECHT. 


Towards the latter end of last year herbarium 
specimens of a plant, with a small sample of 
rubber extracted from it by maceration, were 
received from Mr. J Burtt Davy, Department of 
Agriculture, Transvaal. The sample of rubber 
was prepared by Mr. J Ivens Ferraz, Official 
Translator to the High Commissioner of the 
Transvaal, but was too small to admit of a com- 
mercial valuation being placed upon it; the 
herbarium material, however, was sufliciently 
complete to allow of its botanical origin being 
satisfactorily determined. 


Asclepias stellifera is a native of South Africa, 
growing from 3 to 10 ins, high, and, according 
to Flora Capensis, is found in the coast region 
at an altitude of 3,500 to 4,000 ft., in the 
Kalahari region at 4,000 to 6,000 ft., and in the 
Eastern region at 8,500 to 4,500 ft. 


The rubber is yielded by lhe root, which is 
stated to be very long and perennial. The plant 
has been found in hard ground on the veld, 
struggling with all sorts of weeds, but thriving 
better where no other plants existed. 

Upon comparing the specimens of the plant 
sent with material in the Herbarium, Mr. N E 
Brown found that in the tissues of a root-stock 
of adried specimen collected 46 years ago, the 
rubber contained in them was quite as elastic 
as in the recently-collected material. Mr. Brown 
also points out that as there are several other 
species of Asclepias with much the same habit 
as the plant in question, it is just possible that 


e 


559 


some of them may also contain rubber, but in 
raost cases the root-stocks are wanting in the 
herbarium specimens. Subsequently nine larger 
samples of the rubber were received from the 
same source, and though few details bearing 
upon the varied methods adopted to bring about 
coagulation accompanied the samples, they were 
submitted for opinion to Messrs. Hecht Levis 
& Kahn, the well-known rubber experts, who 
found only one sample, which had been obtained 
from incisions without further treatment, to be 
worthy of serious consideration. This sample 
was found to be rubber of good quality and 
would probably have realised at the time (14.4.09) 
about 4s. 6d. per lb.—J,M.H.—Kew Bulletin, 
No, 8, 1909. 


RUBBER FROM THE BANANA. 


If what Mr Geo. C Benson, of Georgetown, 


‘Demerara, says proves correct, there is avery 


good time before the fortunate owners of Banana 
plantations, but some practical demonstration 
will probably be required before it will be gene- 
rally conceded that one Banana tree will yield 
from 5 to 7lb. of marketable rubber. By the 
way, good rubber is worth from 7/- to 8/- a 
pound in London today. Writing to.the Deme- 
rara Chronicle, on 6th Aug., Mr Benson says :— 
“To dispel all doubt as to whether or not the banana is a 
rubber-producing plant let the following ample plan be 
followed: Cut one of the lower branches of a banana tree 
near the trunk, andthen let the falling juice drip either 
into a wine-glass or into an egg-cup till itis about half full; 
then let either the wine-glass or the egg-cup stand for about 
six hours, after which moisten the fingers and take off 
the film that has formed on the top of the juice. If the 
fingers are moist or wet, the film can be pressed and rubbed 
between the fingers, and then a beautiful and pink-like ball 
of very soft rubber will be the result,”- LT am, Sir, ete., 
GEORGE C. BENSON. 
Lot 102, Carmichael Street, Georgetown, Aug. 6th, 1909. 
Mr Benson sends the Chronicle the following: 
“One mature banana tree will give from 5to7lb. of 
marketable rubber when itis properly admixed. The rubber 
is fully worth 60cts. perlb. All that the former now gets is 
about 20cts. per bunch for his plantains or bananas.” 


$ 
6 lb. of rubber at 60 cts. Sop ) 
1 Bunch of bananas CeO 
3°76 
Less cost of admixing 6lb. of rubber 
about "36? 
Estimates about 3°40 


It would be interesting to hear what MrJ B 
Carruthers has to say with regard to this.— 
Proceedings of the Agriculiural Society of Trint- 
dad and Tobago, Sept., 1909. 


RUBBER IN PATANI, SIAM. 

Mr Vice-Consul Wood, in his report for 1908, 
says: Patani is now the only purely Malay 
State remaining under Siamese rule. The Bri- 
tish subjects probably number about 300, mostly 
natives of India. The only foreign-owned rub- 
ber plantation in Patani is near Bangnara. It 
is owned by an Englishman, and was started 
about four yearsago. Reports with regard to it 
are favourable. I venture to call the attention 
of persons interested in rubber to the possibili- 
ties of Patani as a rubber-producing country. 
—L. & C. Express, Sept, 24. 


560 


PARA SEED AND BAMBOO POTS. 


The following is a letter, dated 7th May, 1909, 
from Mr, Ridley, Director of the Botanic Gar- 
dens, Sirgapore, to Mr. Craig :— 

“ Tam sorry you had so poor a result from the 
rubber seeds. The season is over now, and no 
more will be procurable for some months, but 
when they are we can send yousome to make 
up. Are you sure ycu planted them right, 
soaked in water for a day, and not planted 
beneath ground? Do not use bamboo pots in 
future. It is never satisfactory and very rarely 
indeed requisite. { know it is often done, but 
I have seen very bad results from it. Plant in 
a bed, and move the young plants out when 
ready, you cannot properly water seeds in a 
bamboo pot. We never use them at all for 
anything.”—Journal of the Jamica Agricultural 
Society, Sept., 1909. 


COCONUT DISEASE IN JAMAICA. 

While he was in the west end, Mr Cradwick 
carried through some experiments in spraying 
coconut trees with Bordeaux Mixture, and he is 
still following up the disease in the east end. 
Because we have bud rot disease here, people 
must not run away with the idea that all coconut 
trees that. die, apparently from the top, have 
died from bud rot disease. Many coconut trees 
die through unsuitable soil conditions, not only 
through lack of drainage, but sometimes through 
poverty of soil; and when the roots become ais- 
eased, as the coconut grows from the cabbage or 


bud, the growing point becomes unhealthy 
also. The lowest leaves then yellow and droop, 
and decay, the bud or cabbage becomes 


more diseased, more and more leaves decay, 
until only one or two of the latest leaves 
are left green and then soon follow the others. 
The yellowing of the leaves, however, is not 
alwaysa sign of disease; continued drought 
might cause the leaves to yellow, a poor or un- 
drained soil might have the same effect. It is 
always a safe plan, if there is no continued 
drought, andthe young leaves are seen to be 
withering more than would happen ordinarily 
to send a boy up to examine the cabbage. If 
this part is diseased it tells in the smell. If 
taken in time the cabbage may be treated with 
Bordeaux Mixture, which is made of sulphate 
of copper and lime. The usual way, and an 
effective way of treating all diseases that affect 
the top of a coconut tree is to burn the trash 
and so scorch the top. This, curiously enough, 
does not kill the tree, though if the burn is too 
severe it does—but of course it may take a year 
or so for the tree to recover and begin bearing 
again. But the burning cures the bud rot. 

The true bud rot disease is now supposed to 
be a bacterial disease, and the spores are 
carried by the wind, but we think the same 
rule applies as with all other plants and ani- 
mals, too, that the disease does not readily 
attack perfectly healthy trees, because 
then all coconut trees would be liable to 
be attacked and die. The bacteria is pro- 
bably only able to take effect on trees that 
are already unhealthy, through some un- 
favourable conditions. So that while trees 
may not die out entirely through lack of drai- 
nage or poverty of soil, these. drawbacks may 


€ 


The Supplement to the Tropical Agriculturist 


cause in them such weakness as to lay them 
open to the action of the bacteria of bud rot. 
The first item to look at by those who have 
coconut trees is that the drainage is good, and 
that any trees that are standing in poor soil get 
A DOSE OF GOOD MANURE TO STIMULATE THEM; 
We have in mind a number of coconut trees, 
everyone was apparently about to die out; 
the leaves yellowed and dropped so much that 
there was only a tuft leftat thetop. As the soil 
was gravelly and the drought was severe, it was 
evident that there was no lack of drainage. The 
cabbage too had not gone wrong. As the trees 
were worth saving, the grass was clean weeded 
around them and cows tethered to each tree as 
the most convenient way of conserving manure 
and moisture. Of course all the trees were not 
done at onetime, and this method could not be 
so easily carried through ona very large estate. 
The cattle were hand-fed, and after being a 
week at each tree the ground was loosened up 
and mulched. The effects were marvellous — 
there was soon no sign of disease about the 
trees, they put out fresh leaves and soon bore 
and bore well every time. Even though the 
cabbage may rot, the trouble may not always be 
the bud rot disease. The true bud rot isa very 
serious trouble, and one prominent coconut 
grower thought so seriously of it, that he asked 
the Society to recommend to the Government 
the compulsory burning of all dead coconut 
trees. All coconut growers in their own in- 
terests, should never allow a dead coconut tree 
to stand rotting, as these trees soon become the 
home of pests of various kinds.—Journat of 
the Jamaica Agricultural Society, for September, 


GOCONUT DISEASE IN SOUTHERN SEA 


Following the appearance of an_ inter- 
view in our issue of March 23rd last, 
with Mr Geo, Compére, the West Australian 
Entomologist, in which he mentioned a new 
Coconut Pest in ‘‘New Guinea,” the Secretary, 
Ceylon Agricultural Society, corresponded on 
the subject with the Director of Agriculture in 
the British territory and eventually (after some 


reference back) received the following reply :— 
Territory of Papua, Department of Agriculture, Port 
Moresby, 13th September, 1909. ; ; 
The Secretary, Ceylon Agricultural Society, Colombo. 
Sir,—I have the honour to acknowledge the receipt of 
your letter No. 1757 of the 19th July last, enclosing a news- 
paper cutting containing the remarks of Mr Compere re- 
zaiding an alleged plant-louse disease which he had heard 
was killing the coconut trees on ‘ one of the New Guinea 
Islands.” Sofarasthe British portion of New Guinea is 
concerned I have no hesitation in saying that the statement 
is devoid of all foundation. We have an estimated area 
of 355,000 acres of native-owned and plantation: coconut 
trees, and I have never seen or heard of a single tree inthe 
territory having been killed by disease. Enquiries from 
planters and others have failed to reveal the slightest 
trace of the disease mentioned by Mr Compere.—I have 
the honour to be, Sir, your obedient servant, (S¢d.) 
STANIFORTH SMITH, Director of Agriculture. 
The following was the reference to the matter 


in our interview with Mr Compere :— 

When he was in the East, Mr Compere heard from a 
large copra merchant that in one of the New Guinea 
Islands the coconut plantations were being gradually 
destroyed by a plant louse which attacked the tree and 
killed it. Mr Compere did not personally see the devasta- 
tions, but he had no reason_to hesitate in accepting what 
his informant told him. However, he simply gave the 
information on hearsay, but he thought that as Ceylon 
was a coconut-producing country, those interested might 
make enquiries and be prepared in case the danger ever 
appears in’ Ceylon. 


and Magazine of the Ceylon Agricultural Society. 


CACAO INDUSTRY OF ECUADOR. 

Consul-General Herman R Dietrich, of Guaya- 
quil, reports that 41,747,587 pounds of cocoa 
were received at that port during the six months 
ended June 30, 1909, being 6,619,176 pounds 
more than the receipts during the first six 
months of 1908. The average price of the 1909 
receipts was 104 cents a pound, making the half 
year’s crop worth $4,383,497, which must have 
been very satisfactory to the producers.—Tea & 
Coffee Trade Journal for Oct., 1909. 


“THE GRAFTING OF CACAQ.’’ 


[Review By J. H. Harz, F.L.S8.] 


Such is the title of a charming little pamphlet 
issued under the auspices of the Imperial De- 
partment of Agriculture and written by the Cu- 
rator of the Botanic Station, Dominica, Itis No. 
61 of the series, and dated July 13th 1909. 
There can, in the writer’s opinion, be no doubt 
whatever that there ‘are important possib- 
ilities placed in the way of the cacao planter by 
grafting, since it has been shown that the cacao 
tree can be propagated with ease by means of 
the ordinary forms of vegetative reproduction. It 
was placed on record some years ago in Trinidad 
that the Cacao tree could be grafted by 
approach with considerable ease, and speci- 
mens were put on exhibition (it is believed for 
the first time) at one of the meetings of the 
Agricultural Society of Trinidad, a fact re- 
ferred to at p. 20fthe pamphlet. Dr Wattsidraws 
attention to the point that trees which arise 
from the grafting process ‘‘ always develop into 
a low spreading form,” which he considers is an 
advantage, as the crop can be more easily 
gathered, and they do not suffer so much from 
wind. This is to be expected, as it is a well- 


known feature among plants that when portions . 


of the side branches of a tree are taken, as the 
scion or graft, that the tendency of their growth 
is not so erect as when taken from the leading 
or upright branches. If the latter were taken 
for grafts, there would be no complaint of low 
growth as they would grow as tall as the parent 
from which they are taken. This is a point long 
made use of in fruit orchards all over the world. 


The method of conducting the operation is 
carefully laid down by Mr Jones, but the illus- 
trations of the grafted parts are unfortunately 
on rather too small ascale to inform the unins- 
tructed. Kxcellent points are made of the 
prolificness which occurs after grafting and also 
of the feature of early bearing which has oc- 
curred. Mr Jones appears to be of opinion that 
under shade, the growth would become “ drawn 
or attenuated” in the same way as seedling 
Oacao. Ifsome of the trees noted in Brown's 
Table published in Botanical Bulletin of Trini- 
dad, April, 1908, were selected and grafted, 
and fields of a single kind planted there is 
strong evidence in Mr. Jones’ pamphlet that the 
response would be a field of surprising pro- 
portions, The last paragraph of the pamphlet 
should be carefully followed by all readers; es- 
pecially should they note the words ‘“‘only plants 
possessing really desirable qualities should be 
used to supply scions for the grafting of cacao,” 


71 


561 


In.connection with this subject, article, Now336 
on Cacao Improvement published in Trinidad 
Bulletin, October, 1906, might be consulted as 
it gives detailed instructions of the procedure 
which should be followed in starting Cacao cul-' 
tivation on the selection and grafting system. © 
The success. which has followed Mr Jones’s. 
operationsin grafting Theobroma pentagoma. is. 

highly encouraging, his photos of grafted trees 

clearly prove. The figures of crops of Alligatorand. 
Forastero cacao are also instructive, and what 

will please planters best, his estimate of the cost 

of production (probably somewhat lower than is 

possible in Trinidad) will be an encouragement 

to Trinidad planters ‘‘to go and do likewise,” 

— Proceedings of the Agricultural Society of Tri- 

nidad and Tobago, Sext,, 1909. 


CHINESE CAMPHOR, 


The Hankau market has become ina short 
time a great export centre for camphor. A 
Chinese of the name of Liu, resident in Amoy, 
who knows the camphor industry well, ac- 
quired early this year, says the ‘‘ Chemische 

ndustrie,” the monopoly for the production 
of camphor in the provinces of Hupch and’ 
Honan for a period of fifteen years.’ Hitherto | 
camphor had simply passed thtough Hankau 
from the province of Czechuan, and the Chinese 
population . of. Hankau. is. quite. ignorant of 
camphor production. Besides, the transit trade 
in the article was very small., The figures, for 
last. year were 213 pikuls,. value 11,408 taels, : 
compared with 1,300 pikuls, value 78,300 taels 
in 1907. Itis now said that Liu has discovered. 
great camphor forests in the province of Honan. 
He has imported skilled labour from Formosa; 
and the natives are said to. be apt learners.— 
Financier, Oct. 20. 


FRUIT-GROWING IN ZANZIBAR. 


According to an official report forwarded by 
Mr Basil S Cave, ¢.8., H.M. Agent and Consul- 
General,’ Zanzibar, possesses facilities for the 
cultivation of fruit which are not équalled by 
any country on this side of Africa. \' Mangoes, 
oranges, tangerinés, limes, bananas, pineapples, 
figs, and many other tropical spécies all grow 
freely, and: in ‘some cases profusely, and the 
country might “undoubtedly, if the necessary 
transport facilities were available, conduct a 
remunerative trade’ with Egypt and ‘as far south 
as Delagoa Bay. Tf fruit of the right kind could 
be produced in sufficient quantities it is perhaps 
possible that the transport difficulties might 
adjust themselves, and as an experiment in this 
direction considerable attention is now being 
devoted to the Kew pine, which, acclimatised 
in Zanzibar, is one of the finest specimens of its 
kind in the world. Until, however, the result 
of this experiment is seen, Mr Cave does not 
think it would be worth while to invest any 
large sum of money in the production of a'com- 
modity for which no market might be found; 
or which, if one did present itself, they might 
be unable to place upon it, —Field, Sept. 18. 


562 
LIME AND PHOSPHATES IN SOILS. 


Experiments that have been conducted for 
several years in Russia appear to demonstrate 
that, in soils containing a small amount of lime, 
the absorbtion of phosphoric acid by the plant 
takes place to such an extent as to interfere 
with its growth, because of the presence of an 
excessive amount of theacid. As the amount of 
calcium carbonate is increased in the soil by 
appreniton of lime, the absorbtion of phos- 
phoric acid decreases, and eventually the stage 
is reached at which this takes place to so small 
an extent as to cause the plants growing in such 
a soil to exhibit all the symptoms of a lack 
of phosphorous, even in the presence of a good 
supply of that element,—West Indian Agricul- 
turat News, October 2. 


KOLA. 

The quantity and value of kola, which grows 
most plentifully in the forests of Ashanti and 
Akim, have steadily increased in the last six 
years, and the output in 1908 surpassed all pre- 
vious records. It is exported chiefly by 
Mohammedans to Southern Nigeria for con- 
veyance to the upper reaches of the Niger. 
European planters have now commenced to 
cultivate it, and the Agricultural Department 
has established plantations at Aburi and Tarkwa. 
—British and Colonial Druggist, Oct. 29. 


TEA CULTURE IN RUSSIA. 


[Many of the so-called Russian teas with which the 
trade is familiar are grades of China tea which may or 
may not have been blended or packed in Russia. The 
only tea that grows in Russia, is that grown on the tea 
garden of the Imperial Domain ‘estate at Tchakra, near 
Batoum, and other smaller gardens around it. Lhe tea 
on this estate is of the Kangra Valley variety, and the seed 
was brought to Russia from India.] 


There are any number of Russian teas on the 
American market, but perhaps it is not gene- 
rally known that Russia grows little or no tea, 
and that most of these so-called Russian teas 
are really teas grown in China, India and Ceylon, 
and shipped to Russia for blending and packing. 

There is one tea estate in Russia, however, 
and ‘*‘ The Tea and Coffee Trade Journal ” has 
been fortunate in having taken especially for it 
some good photographs of this garden. This is 
theonly tea estate of any consequence in Russia, 
and is known as the tea garden of the Imperial 
Domain Estate. 

A Four-HunpDrep-AORE Estate. 

The garden is located at Tchakra, 13 versts 
(two-thirds of a mile) from Batoum, The ac- 
companying illustrations show views on this tea 
estate during the plucking season. There is 
also a picture showing a view of the tea factory. 
The tea on the Imperial Domain estate is 
gathered yearly, and the average annual pro- 
duction is a trifle over 100,000 pounds. The 
permanent workmen employed on the estate 
number about 100 but when the plucking season 
comes on there are some 300 labourers hired 
for extra work. 

The area of the tea gardens is about 400 acres. 
The manager of the plantation is a Chinaman, 
who is thoroughly versed in tea culture. 

About five years ago Mr Popoff, the well- 
known tea merchant, started in to cultivate tea 


The Supplement to the Tropical Agriculturist 


around the Imperial Domain at Tchakra, ‘and 
also in other places nearer to Batoum. A con- 
servative estimate credits Mr Popoff with haying 
spent over 1,U00,00) roubles on theenterprise, but 
owing to the social and economic conditions at 
present obtaining in Russia, he was forced to 
suspend. It is thought likely that something 
further may be done in regard to extending tea 
culture in this section at a later date. 
TEA CULTURE AND PREPARATION. 

The quality of the tea grown on the estates of 
the Imperial Domains is principally Kangra 
Valley. The crop is gathered on the Ceylon 
system, an interval being allowed between each 
plucking. The bushes are gone over twice at 
each plucking. The machinery employed in the 
factory of the Imperial Domains was erected by 
the Sirocco Works of Belfast. 

The Messrs Popofi’s estates are situated at 
three different points near Batoum. The area 
under cultivation on the three estates is 312 
acres, of which about 100 acres have been under 
tea for about ten years. The crops .on these 
estates are gathered on the Chinese system. 
The tea produced is stronger than the Chinese 
tea, none’ of it being wasted. There are four 
qualities ; the first is cold at 90 cents, the second 
at 70 cents per pound, the third at 58 cents per 
pound, and the fourth ‘dust) is made into tab-~ 
loids and sold for the use of soldiers at 12 cents 
per pound (about 6d per English pound). 

Both firms engaged in the cultivation of tea 
have spared neither money nor pains in their 
endeavours to render their respective enter- 
prises a success. Tea planting in the Caucasus 
may at some remote period become sufficiently 
advantageous to warrant its being generally 
adopted, but for the present the industry has 
not assumed any commercial significance.—Tea 
and Coffee Trade Journal., October. 


‘‘PASPALUM DILATATUM”’ GRASS. 


The Peradeniya Curator’s letter Lelow is of 
considerable interest. Certaimly Trimen does 
not make mention of the Australian grass in 
question ; while the ‘‘ Treasury of Botany” only 
states that it belongs to tropical and sub- 
tropical regions. Is anyone growing it on a 
large scale in Ceylon ? 

Peradeniya, Nov. 16th. 

Dear Sir,—With reference to the paragraph 
in your issue of 12th inst. on the above subject, 
it would -be interesting to know how this grass 
first became known asa native of Ceylon... It 
was first introduced here (from Australia).a few 
years ago as avaluable fodder grass, being at 
the time boomed in Australia as ‘‘a wonderful 
grass of Ceylon”! The reason for this may 
have originated with the intention of gaining 
an advantage from Ceylon’s reputation’ for valu- 
able products. The grass is really a/ native of 
Brazil, so that its introduction into Georgia is 
not quite such a far cry as Mr, Dallis apparently 
thought, It thrives to perfection atthe higher 
elevations in Ceylon, and is a valuable acqui- 
sition as fodder and for binding railway banks, 
&c. I see that the name “ Dallis grass’, hais 
been givenit in America, while in Australia. it 
has been christened ‘‘ The Golden Crown.” — 
Yours faithfully, H. F.,.MACMLLLAN. 


and Magazine of the Ceylon Agricultural Society. 


PRACTICAL AGRICULTURE AT PUSA. 


SHORT COURSES. 

Mr. J Moliison, Inspector-General of agricul- 
ture in India, has issued the following note :— 

The function of the Pusa College in the 
general scheme of Agricultural Hducation in 
India has been defined as that of a Higher 
teaching Institution and Research Station for 
post-graduate. agricultural students and for ad- 
vanced science students, particulary from Indian 
Universities. At the present stage of develop- 
ment of the Provincial Agricultural Colleges it 
also seems necessary for the Pusa Institute and 
Estate to assist Provinces and Native States by 
instituting short courses of instruction in 
‘special branches of agriculture or in simple in- 
dustries connected with the agriculture. There 
are now facilities at Pusa for thorough instruc- 
tion in the subjects referred to. Such instruce- 
tion cannot well be given in other parts of 
India for at least some years ; therefore I hope 
that.a hearty response will be given to the pro- 
posals which I note below. The short courses 
which I propose are broadly defined in a 
Syllabus for each subject which is appended 
hereto. I attach the greatest importance to 
the value of these courses. There is an un- 
doubted demand for them, but it is impossible 
to get at present elsewhere in India such 
simple technical instruction except as a part 
of much longer course. The instruction will 
be essentially practical in character and will 
require no scientific training and not even a 
knowledge of English. It would, however, be 
an advantage if the men had all a fair general 
education. Men who have not the instincts of the 
professions which they are following or propose 
to follow will not be accepted. I desire to admit 
in ‘particular to Pusa for these courses men, 
who are bona fide agriculturists or malis by 
caste. The courses will be suitable for men of 
the subordinate staff of all the Agricultural 
Departments, and will be open to private indi- 
viduals who are engaged or propose to engage 
in the special branchesof agriculture and allied 
subjects dealt with. It is not possible at first 
to take more than nine students in each subject 
at one time, but several subjects can be simul- 
taneously taken up by the same students. A 
recommendation by a Director of Agriculture 
or any other authorised authority will be ac- 
cepted in regard to any application for admis- 
sion, if the applicant is, certified to be of good 
character and in robust health. Free quarters 
of a very simple but sufficient character will be 
provided. Students will have to pay all travel- 
ling and personal expenses. The latter at Pusa 
need not exceed R15 per mensem and might 
easily be less. No books will be required. It 
is proposed to start classes as soon as possible ; 
so applications should be addressed to the Dir- 
ector and Principal, Agricultural Research Insti- 
tute, Pusa, Bengal, at as early a date as possible, 

SECTION OF AGRICULTURE. 

CATTLE BREEDING AND MANAGEMEN?T.—The course will 
occupy three months. It will deal with the general 
management of breeding herds and of milch and draught 
cattle and will include simple instruction in the recogni- 
tion, treatment and prevention of the more common 
diseases. The second Imperial Entomologist will deal 
with the principal insect-pests of cattle, the part which 
they play as disease carriers and methods of treatment, 
Courses will commence in October and January, 


563 


POULTRY MANAGEMENT.—This will be a three months’ 
courseand will include instruction from the second Im- 
perial Entomologist in the treatment of the insect-pests 
of poultry. Courses will commence in Oct. and January. 

DAIRYING.—This is intended to be a complete course 
extending over six months, in up-to-date dairying. 

TILLAGE IMPLEMENTS AND AGRICULTURAL MACHINERY, 
—Training will be given in the principles of construction 
and in the handling of the common Indian and European 
tillage implements and agricultural machinery, including 
ploughs, drills. cultivators, water-lifts, steam-engine, oil- 
engine, etc. Arrangements have been made fora complete 
collection at Pusa of all useful indigenous agricultural 
machinery, implements and tools. The course will occupy 
three months and willcommence in October or January. 


SEcTIoN oF Economic. BoTANY. 


FRUIT GROWING.—The course will be an eight month’s 
one and will deal with— 

(a) The general management ofa fruit garden including 
choice of site, laying out, draining and planting, the choice 
of varieties, irrigation, cultivation and manuring. (b) 
Special processes, such as budding, grafting, layering, pru- 
ning and root pruning, weathering. (c) Disposal of fruit, 
including picking, grading, packing and marketing. (d) 
Evaporating, drying and preserving. 

The course will begin each year on the 1st of October 
and will last till the end of May, © 


., SECTION oF ENTOMOLOGY. 


ERI-SILK AS A COTTAGE INDUSTRY,—The course will 
occupy about three months and will commence in October 
and January. Itincludes rearing and spinning, If dyein 
and weaving are to be learnt, three months more vould 
be required. 

Lac CULTIVATION AS AN ADJUNCT TO ORDINARY 
AGRICULTURE.—The training can be piven only from 
the 15th May to the 15th June or the 20th Sep- 
tember to the 20th October. These dates vary a little 
according to the season as lac does not always come 
out regularly. The training includes pruning and hands 
ling of trees, inoculation of lac, harvesting scraping and 
washing. It covers the whole industry to the production 
of seed lac and is exclusive of the production of shellac, 

MULBERRY SILK CULTURE.—The course would include 
rearing, selection of disease-free eggs, reeling and the 
utilisation of waste cocoons. Instruction would also be 
siven in the varieties of silk worm. Silk twisting (spinning) 
and dyeing with the simpler forms of weaving could be 
taught. The course would occupy six months if it ended at 
the reeling, nine months if it included twisting, dyeing and 
Weaving of simpler fabrics. The training would cover only 
the ordinary existing methods, not improved methods or 
reeling of the more complex forms of weaving. The course 
will commence on the 15th June each year.—M. Mail, Nov. 13. 


LECTURE ON AN ARECA PALM 
DISEASE. 
By tHE Mysore Mycotoaist. 


Mysore, Oct. 31.—After some postponetients 
the lecture promised by Dr. Leslie Coleman 
was delivered at the Lecture Hall in the Exhi- 
bition grounds at 8-30 a.m., yesterday. The 
Dewan of Mysore, Mr. T Ananda Rao, said a 
few words by way of introduction, though, as he 
said, it was really unnecessary to introduce the 
State Mycologist, who was well-known to most, 
if not all, of those assembled in the Hall. 


Dr. Coleman spoke to the following effect, 
exhibiting specimens here and there, and making 
a few sketches to show the forms of some of 
the spores, ete., of the fungus which was the 
cause of the plant disease he had selected as his 
subject, viz., koleroga, a disease that affects the 
supart or areca, more especially in the Malnad 
tracts of the State of Mysore:— 

Koleroga of supari is a disease produced by a. definit 
parasite. ‘The koleroga fungus is an areontan nich 
simpler and more insignificant in appearance ; it never 
forms any such body as the shelf fungus or mushrooms 
we so woll know. It is because of this smallness of 
size and of the fact thatits real structure can be made 
out only under the ,Microscope that it so readily escapes 
attention ; in fact, it is known largely only by the effects it 
produces and these effects are certainly serious enough, 


564 


THE FIRST APPEARANCE. 


Shortly after the monsoon breaks, usually anywhere 
from, the beginning to the middle of July, we hear that 
koleroga has broken out in the Malnad parts of Shimoga 
and Kadur Districts. If we visit one of these gardens 
we find that the nuts are beginning to drop down from 
the bunches, If we look at one of these fallen nuts we shall 
almost certainly find that it has more or less fully lost its 
beautiful clear green colour and that a certain part of the 
surface is covered by a whitish or grayish growth some- 
what like cotton wool which has been soaked in water. 
This is the white koleroga- (Of the black or water koleroga, 
which is a quite distinct thing, and which causes com- 
paratively little loss, I shall say nothing today.) If we 
scrape off some of the surface material and examine it 
under the microscope, we shall find here again amass of 
interwoventhreads. But we must not think that this is all 
of the fungus. Before this material has appeared on the 
surface at all, the fungus has been growing inside the nut 
and nut shell, spreading out. among its tissues and taking 
up from it its nutriment and even its liviag substance, But 
how didit getinside? In order to understand this we must 
study the life-history of the fungus more carefully. As in 
the case of higher plants, soin the case of the fungi, the 
life of the individual may be divided, not very scientifically 
itis true, into various stages. These are the stages of 
germination or sprouting, the stage of growth and the 
stage of fruit or seed building. These, of course, cannot be 
separated by asharp line. For instance, growth continues 
very commonly after seed formation has begun, and in the 
case of treesit, of course, continues for many years. 


[Its life history, and known remedies, are de- 
scribed and Dr. Coleman proceeds :] 


1 


REMEDIES, 


In the: light of all these facts I thought it wise to attempt 
_ the solution of the difficulty in another direction. The me- 
thod consists in spraying on to the nuts as a fine mista 
solution of a substance which as long as it remains on the 
surface of the nuts absolutely prevents the growth of any 
of the spores of this fungus, that may fallon it. This ma- 
terial, commonly known, as ‘* Bordeaux mixture,” from the 
part of France where it was first used, is now used all over 
the worlds as a means of combating fungus diseases. It 
consists of a mixture of blue vitriol (copper sulphate) and 
unslaked lime in water prepared in definite proportions 
and ina definite way. To thisI have added a solution of 
resinandsoda with a view to make the mixture stick well 
tothe nuts through the heavy rains of the monsoon. The 
experiments this year were rather upset by the very late 
arrival of sprayersfrom Kurope and the very early break 
of the Monsoon. The resultis that most of the work was 
done under about the most unfavourable circumstances 
possible., My purpose was to have practically all my spray- 
ing done before the Monsoon broke, but this I was unable to 
do for the two reasons. mentioned above, 


Altogether over a thousand trees were treated, and, con- 
sidering the adverse circumstances, with very gratifying 
results. Itis, ofcourse, essential for the success of such 
an operation that the material used ‘should not be washed 
off by the rains. In order that this may be managed, it 
should first be able to dry on to the nuts. This, I may say, 
was by no means possible in all cases with our experi- 
ments. In ,every garden but one (that at Seetoor) some 
rain fell during the operations or so soon afterwards that I 
had my serious doubts whether most of the solution would 
not be washed’ off. The results are,;as T say, not yet all 
known, but.as faras I myself have seen and as far as has 
been reported by my staff, with ,a single exception, where 
‘the spraying had clearly been most carelessly and badly 
done, where' nuts have become diseased on sprayed 
bunches only a very few have been affected, so few in fact 
as to be practically negligible and be readily accounted for 
by the material having been washed off before it was dry 
or by the spray having not been evenly put on 


In conclusion, let me emphasize a few points in con- 
nection with the wholesubject. The removal and burning 
of all old, diseased parts, bunches, nuts, tree-tops is the 
very first step in the combatingjof this disease. The system 
of tying ‘covers is more or less efficient but can hardly 
allow of itself being carried out so thoroughly, nor is it so 
efficient, as to give the very best results possible. The 
system of spraying the Bordeaux mixture, although but in 
jts experimental stage, seems almost certain to be the 
best method of controlling the disease. It has one great 
advantage over kotte-tying not mentioned above, viz., that 
even where a bunchhas already some nuts attacked, the 
disease can be checked, whereas kottes would favour rather 
than hinder the growth of the fungus under such circum- 
stances. Ln addition, it gives the nuts their normal amount 


The Supplement to the Tropical Agriculturist 


of light and air, which the fottes do not allow of. Its 
application inno way injures the nuts us far as our ex- 
perience goes. Any combative measure to meet with the 
best success must be undertaken before the disease has 
appeared ;itmust be in the nature of insurance against 
attack. This appears especially to be so in the case of 
kotte-tying. andin every case is a thing which I wish to 
emphasize most strongly.—M. Mail, Nov. 2. 


TRAVANCORE AGRICULTURAL 
DEPARTMENT. 


A YEAR’s WoRK. 


The report on the working of the Agricultural 
Department for the past Malabar year, ending 
with the 16th August, 1909, submitted to Gov- 
ernment by Dr. N. Kunjan Pillay, the Director 
of Agriculture, is an interesting document. The 
Department, as reorganised during the year, 
consists at present of a Director of Agriculture, 
one Senior Agricultural [uspector, two Agricul- 
tural Inspectors—all Diplomaed Agriculturists 
of the Agricultural College at Saidapet—two 
Agricultural Sub-Inspectors—local and Madras 
trained men—and a Laboratory Assistant. 


The work in the Government Harms was 
changed from demonstration to experiment. 
The Director says thatthe value of demonstra- 
tion in stimulating interesti among the ryots in 
improved methods of agriculture is not under- 
rated, and that before an improved method is 
recoramended to the ryots, its suitability to 
local conditions must be tested ; and hence in 
the natural course of things, demonstration 
ought to succeed experiment. There is an Ex- 
perimeatal Farm at Kottarakara (Central Tra- 
vancore) and the Farm at Quilon is retained 
purely for purposes of demonstration. There 
is also a Cattle Farm opened at Trevandrum 
and an Agricultural Laboratory. The Demons- 
tration Farm here has been changed into an Ex- 
perimental Farm. Its total area is 334 acres, of 
which only about 25 acres are available for 
cultivation. The soilisa sandy loam, consist- 
ing chefly of alluvial deposit brought down 
from the adjacent compounds and paddy fields 
and by the floods in the Karamanai river close 
by. Being very near the river, the farm is sub- 
ject to inundations. 


The Coconut Palm Disease. 


Next in importance to paddy is the coco- 
nut. In view of the prevailing disease attack- 
ing the coconut palm, a Special Officer, in 
the person of Mr. B: 8. Narayanaswamy Iyer, 
has been making enquiries into the pest, The 
necessary experiments are being conducted at 
fixed centres in Central Travancore by the 
Special Officers, and it is premature to form 
any definite conclusions, as the earliest ex- 
periment is only nine months old. It is, how- 
ever, satisfactory to note that the letting value 
of the compounds taken up for experiments 
has increased since the starting of the ex- 
periments—a testimony to the practical nature 
of the remedial measures adopted by the 
Special Officer. It will be remembered, that 
one of the suggestions made by Dr. EJ Butler, 
the Imperial Mycologist, who investigated the 
disease here, was to destroy all attacked trees. 
In the opinion of Dr. N Kunjan Pillai, “‘ the 
destruction of attacked trees is impossible in 


and Magazine of the Ceylon Agricultural Society. 


the face of the objections that may be raised 
by the ryots, and it is impracticable on 
account of the heavy expenditure it would 
entail. It cannot, therefore, be undertaken 
on a large scale, as has been done inthe case 
of the palmyra palm disease in the Godavery 
District.” The coconut palm manures now 
distributed are caster-cake, coconut-mixture, 
etc., and itis not intended to recommend any 
costly experiments to the ryots before the Agri- 
cultural Officers are in a position to form cefi- 
nite conclusions as results of the experimental 
measures now being adopted. Mycological in- 
vestigations of the disease will be taken up when 
the sanctioned Laboratory is fitted up. 


Croprs AND FERTILISERS. 


Under this head, there is an exhaustive ac: 
count of the work done in connection with the 
cultivation of paddy, the most important crop 
in the State, Experiments with different kinds 
of manures were conducted at Parvathipuram, 
South fravancore, Trevandrum and Qwilon and 
Kayankulam in Central Travancore. The ex- 
periments were conducted in lands belonging to 
ryots, and the arrangement was that the ryots 
should do all the cultivation, the manures 
alone being supplied by the Department, the 
ryots getting the whole produce; the object in 
such an arrangement wasto create an interest 
among the ryotsand also to advertise, the re- 
sults of the experiments. The application of 
nitre has given the best result, the yield being 
234 fold on the quantity of seeds sown. The 
next best yield was from the application of 
superphosphate and nitre. Cattle-manure comes 
next in rank, while ashes and Parry and Co.'s 
paddy fertiliser give equal yield, the last being 
considered as not better than country ashes. 
The financial aspect of the matter may be noted. 
In the case of nitrethe gain per acre was about 
R27, and in the case of cattle manure the gain 
was R13 nearly, straw not being calculated in 
the two cases. It is, however, to be noted that 
the experiment made was on a small area of 
33 cents. The figures given above as general 
conclusions have, therefore, to be taken with 
caution, The results of the experiments car- 
ried on at Trevandrum are more or less similar 
to those conducted in South Travancore and 
summarised above. The results of the experi- 
ments carried on under different methods of 
sowing show that dibbling gives a better yield 
than broad casting, but it is more costly. 
Here also the same remark has to be made in 
regard to the general conclusions drawn, viz., 
that the plot under experimental cultivation 
was 10 cents. With a view to study the char- 
acteristics of different varieties, in order ulti- 
mately to select the best that are suited to 
different conditions, more than 150 local varie- 
ties of paddy were collected, sown in nursery 
and were afterwards transplanted singly in 
small plots. The seedlings are all reported 
to be coming up well. Small quantities of 
Banku, Badshabog, Ambamore and a Poona 
variety were got from outside the State and 
cultivated in the Trevandrum Farm, The 
crops have not been harvested. But they 
are reported to have grown well, It is 
proposed to collect the seeds from these 
yarieties and distribute them among the 


565 


ryots. An interesting variety called Taung- 
daik-pan, which is said to have great capa- 
city to resist drought, has been proccured from 
Burma and has been sown in the nursery. 
TaPIocA, SUGAR AND GROUND-NUTS, 

Another staple crop is tapioca. During the 
past year applications for tapioca stalks were re- 
ceived from the Director of Agriculture, Punjab, 
and from Mr. Gustav Haller, Coorg. At the re- 
quest of the former, an Agricultural subordinate 
was sent to Lahore to demonstrate cultivation 
of tapioca. He was there nine days, and gave 
satisfaction to Mr Milne, Hconomic Botanist. 

The manufacture of sugar is beginning to en- 
gage the attention of the people and several en- 
quiries were made and a young Travancorean 
has had his training at the Sugar School at 
Bareilly, United Provinces.” During the year 
four varieties—Red and white Mauritius, one 
Bombay,and one local variety— were planted, the 
object being to study the characteristics of these 
varieties, with a view to select the best of them 
for distribution among the ryots. 

Of the exotic crops, ground-nut, which was in- 
troduced when the Trevandrum Demonstration 
Farm was opened in 1895 by Mr BS Narayana- 
swamy Lyer, has become acclimatised to the soil, 
and is being slowly introduced into the mofussil 
too, where the ryots are taking to the crop and 
have begun to cultivate it. Other exotics, which 
are being successfully grown, are sunn-hemp, 
jute and maize.—M, Mail, Nov. 18. 


EXPERIMENTS WITH CAMPHOR 
IN JAMAICA. 


An account of experiments with camphor, 
which were carried out at the Government 
Laboratory, Jamaica, is given in the Report. of 
the Department of Agriculture for that island 
for the year 1908. Weighed quantities of dif- 
ferent parts of the stem, which were obtained 
from trees growing at Knockalva Pen, were 
subjected to steam distillation, and the distillate 
suitably treated in order to separate oil and 
camphor, the latter then being heated over 
quicklime for the purpose of getting the pure 
sublimate. The highest yield of camphor was 
obtained from the tips of the shoots, The 
amounts of camphor-oil and camphor that were 
obtained on an average, from the whole stem 
were respectively 0:23 per cont and 0°28 per cent, 
making a total of 0°51 per cent. The West Indian 
Bullen, Vol. 1X, pp. 275-6, gives an account of 
somewhat similar experiments that have been 
carried out at the Government Laboratory and 
Botanic Station in Antigua. In these, oil only 
was obtained, and it was found that the wood 
gave 0°4 per cent of this, while the amount that 
was obtained from the leaves and twigs was 1°2 
per cent. Thus in both cases the observation was 
made that the younger parts of the plant give the 
largest yields.—W.J. Agricultural News, Oct. 16. 


BANANAS GROWN IN KENT. 


A hothouse at Tunbridge Wells contains two 
large banana bushes, each heavily laden. with 
ripe, excellently flavoured fruit. Each bunch 
contains about 200 bananas. A constant. tempe- 
rature of 100 dogrees has to be maintained,— 
Ltoyd’s News, October 10, 


566 
THE RUBBER INDUSTRY. 


(To the Editor, ‘‘ Aberdeen Free Press,’’) 


Sir,—The Brazilian Legation in London are 
credited (in your leading srticle today) with pre- 
dicting the downfall of the rubber industry in 
the East, as it is now grown under natural con- 
ditions—i.e., unweeded and in jungle? Actual 
experience has proved this to be the reverse of 
the truth, and it may interest your readers to 
know that, though over 30 years old, trees on 
Ardoden estate, (? Culloden) Ceylon, recently 
gave crops of 18 lb. per tree, the last four years 
in succession, and look like continuing to give 
good crops for many years to come. If any of 
your readers want to invest in rubber shares 
they will be wise to invest in the shares of those 
estates which have been properly weeded and 
kept free from jungle growth from the first. 
I speak from bitter experience.—I am, etc., 


L. Davipson. 
York House, Cullen, Oct. 28th, 1909, 


RUBBER PROSPECTS IN PAPUA. 


Much interest is being aroused in Papua (for- 
merly British New Guinea) by the promise of the 
new rubber plantations. None of these are in full 
bearing, but the progress of the trees has been 
so remarkable that the Haevia Brasiliensis is 
expected to be ready for tapping a full year 
sooner than in Ceylon or the Malay States. ft 
has also been found that various kinds of rubher- 
bearing plants which in other countries produce 
“latex ” of small tensile strength and low value 
in Papua will yield a good marketable rubber. 
The best known of the wild rubber trees of 
Papua, the ‘‘ Ficus Rigo,” is now being largely 
cultivated. There areanumber of wild rubber 
vines, from which the natives procure rubber 
said by experts to be actually superior to the 
best Para. Everything, in short, seems to pcint 
to a remarkable future for Papua as a rubber- 
producing country.—London Times, Nov. 3. 


CEARA RUBBER TAPPING. 


(To THE Epiror, ‘‘InpiA RuBBer JOURNAL,”) 


Sir, We have now been growing Ceara rubber 
for three years, and have trees ready to tap, but 
we find everywhere a lack of information as to 
the best methods of tapping and comparative 
yields of these trees. The method of tapping 
hitherto observed has been that of picking the 
bark with, horizontal stabs of a broad-pointed 
knife after rubbing the stem with dilute acid, 

By this means the rubber which exudes in 
drops and coagulates on the stem is collected in 
balls, but it is obvious that the cleanest way of 
collecting it, especially from a number of small 
plantations, is to collect it in the liquid form 
and treat it in a central preparing house, so 
as to obtain a regular and clean sample of 
sheet or block rubber. 

Now I believe that in German East Africa 
where they have been experimenting and collec- 
ting information for years, they have recently 
evolved new and better systems. They are, in 
fact, farin advance of our own colonies as re- 
gards the Ceara rubber. 


: The Supplement to the Tropical Agricutiurist 


What I particularly want to find out is :— 

(a) The best method of tapping Ceara, in 
order to collect the latex in liquid form, and the 
best knife for the purpose. . 

(b) What machinery, if any, and treatment is 
best for this kind of rubber. 

(c) What may be taken as an average yield 
ovor large plantations as those in G E Africa, in 
which up-to-date methods have been observed. 

If you can help me in any of these, you will 
receive the gratitude of many new planters in 
British Kast Africa.—I am, Sir, yours faithfully, 


CEARA. 


{We have replied to this correspondent direct, 
but any aid which readers may proffer will be 
acceptable,--Ep., I.R.J.J—India Rubber Jour- 
nal, November lst. 


LONDON FORWARD SALES OF 
RUBBER. 


(Vo the Editor, ‘‘ India Bubber Journat,”) 


Sir,—The present high price of rubber has 
occasioned a good deal of comment recently, 
and doubts are expressed in some quarters as to 
the prospects of its continuance. We may say 
that we have recently arranged a number of 
contracts for estate crepe and sheet for 1910, 
and are still open for similar business, For 
instance, 25,000 to 30,000 lb. to be delivered in 
about equal quantities monthly, or possibly bi- 
monthly, at following rates :— 

No. I. Crepe or sheet at about 7s. 6d. to 
7s. 8d., according to quality. 

o. [1. Brown crepe (scrap) at about 6s. 9d. 
to 6s. 11d., according to quality. 

Any quantity which owners would sell we 
could, no doubt, get through. —Yours, etc., 


BROKER. 


20th October, 1909. 


[The above letter emanates from a well known 
Mincing Lane house, and indicates that there is 
animportant section of the trade which looks 
for the continuance of high levels throughout 
1910. We have heard privately cf anumber of 
such bargains, and a further number have been 
announced publicly. For obvious reasons we do 
not publish the name of our correspondent.— 
Ep. I. Rk. J.]—India-Rubber Journat, Nov. 1. 


RUBBER DISCOVERIES IN MEXICO. 


Mexico has long been known as the home of 
the castilloa elastica, from which some 5,000 
tons of rubber are annually extracted. Many 
capitalists, including the Standard Oil Com- 
pany, are now engaged in exploiting a shrub 
called guayule, and the output from this source 
alone is considerable. 

Some years ago the Mexican Government en- 
gaged Professor Pehr Olsson Seffer, an eminent 
botanist, to examine for them the flora ‘of 
Mexico, with a view to the discovery of new 
economic plants. He has been engaged in this 
work for the past five years. The net result of 
his researches has been the discovery of many 
entirely unknown trees and shrubs which bear 
latex containing rubber. They are not all 
equally valuable, but of many it may be said 
that they offer a better reward to the capitalist 


and Magazine of the Ceylon Agricultural Society. 


than the guayule. Mexicc is the home of the 
euphorbia, and one variety, known locally as 
palo amarillo, occurs in large quantities. It 
yields.a rubber of inferior quality, is diflicult to 
tap, and only produces about. an ounce of rubber 
from each tree per annum. Dr ‘Seffer has paid 
great attention to the varieties of plumeria. 
These: plumerias occur over considerable areas 
in many parts of Central and southern Mexico. 
The latex is white and creamy, and flows plenti- 
fully in November, December, and January. 
The amount of rubber in the latex varies, but 
runs as high as 24 per cent., and as much as IIb. 
3 oz. of rubber has been obtained from a single 
tree by the ordinary method of tapping. 


Another rubber-bearing plant, a euphorbia: 
called locally Vara Leche, contains latex of a 
rubbery nature; but it is doubtful whether itis 
of any commercial value. The shrub known as 
chupire, a species of euphorbia, also produces a 
very white latex, which flows freely and contains 
about 21 per cent. of rubber, Another rubber 
plant found on the hillsides of Mexico, called 
the jatropha urens, has the local name of Mala 
Mujer, As its name (the ‘‘ bad woman”) sug- 
gests, it is a particularly disagreeable shrub 
The young branches are, however, full of latex, 
and chemists who have analysed the product are 
of opinion that it is a pseudo rubber, having 
many points of resemblance with rubber and 
gutta or balata. The shrub is found in great 
quantities over large portions of Southern Mex- 
ico. It is socommon that it is possible it may 
one day assume some commercial importance. 


Dr. Olsson Seffer also discovered a new jatro— 
pha of the curcas group, which gives a latex 
containing a good grade of rubber. Two more 
species, one called *‘cordoban ” and the othera 
plumeria, were also found to be rubber-bearing, 
but they are probably of small commercial value. 


The researches made by Dr. Seffer are interes- - 


ting, as they show that we are in no danger of 
exhausting our rubber supplies, but that, on the 
contrary, each year brings forth some new 
cource of supply.—H. & C. Mail, Nov. 5. 


NEW ROOT RUBBER. 


We publish in our daily and 7. A. particulars 
from the Kew Bulletin of Eeanda rubber, a com- 
paratively new sourceof production of raw rubber 
found in Angola at an elevation of 5,000 feet. A 
concession has already been given for the whole 
plateau where it grows, and we do not oxject that 
it is to be found 1n many parts of Africa, Nor do 
we anticipate that 1ts cultivation will be taken up 
in other parts of the tropical world, more 
especially as the seed is so hard to get, the cost 
of collection amounting in fact to £4 sterling 
per ounce. There is a certain amount of vare 
shown by the natives and conservation of what 
was grown, ouly the large tubers weighing from 
four to five pounds being retained to get the 
rubber from, and the smaller ones being re- 
planted. The particulars are of interest, though, 
as we have said, we clo not expect any practical 
extension of the cultivation to take place, 


567 
‘‘MANIHOT DICHOTOMA”’ RUBBER. 


We see that enquiry has been made as to why 
Manihot Dichotoma seeds, though quite fresh, fail 
to germinate. Onelot got out from London gave 
only 3 per cent,, and another lot obtained locally— 
though tested and found to be quite fresh before 
planting—gave no more than 10 per cent. The 
Yatiyantota planter who received them dug out 
some from the beds of the second lot (laid down 
three weeks ago) and on examination found 
most to be fresh, but noticed a sort of white 
fungus developed round the radical end of the 
seed. Heasks a contemporary if this has any- 
thing to do with the bad results obtained. We 
Jearn on enquiry, on good authority, that the 
conditions for .germination may be at fault.. It 
would be advisable to have all the seeds, which 
show no sign of germirating, removed from the 
soil, and soaked in hot (almost boiling) water for 
afew hours. They should then be sown in light 
sandy soil that is free from manure and rotting 
mould, this being kept moist and shaded. Mani- 
hot dichotoma seeds become hardened with age, 
when, like those of Ceara-rubber, they should be 
filed at one or both ends before being’ sown. 
Otherwise their germination may be consider- 
ably retarded. When these seeds are fresh, and 
their vitality is unimpaired, they should germi- 
nate within three weeks from date of sowing. 


BANANA RUBBER. |. 


(To the Editor, India Rubber Journal.) 


Srr,--With regard to the remarks on banana 
rubber which appeared in your journal of the 
6th September, it is necessary to point out that 
it isan admixable rubber, and that when com- 
pounded with another rubber adds to the weight 
of that rubber, without deteriorating. This 
appears from our many experiments to be the 
effect and as this fact when known may benefit 
the farmers of the West Indies as well as other 
localities, it is certainly worth publicity in your 
journal, The quantity of rubber ‘from each 
banana tree, after the bunch of bananas is 
gathered, is generally highly satisfactory.—I 
am, Sir, yours respectfully, 


Grorer C. BENSON. 


5), Main St., Georgetown, Demerara, W.I. 
—India Rubber Journal, Nov. 1. 


RUBBER TAPPING. 


A Niw Inpbustry CREATED. 


Now that so many estates are either in bea- 
ring or coming into bearing, the demand for 
tapping cups is increasing very rapidly, and new 
varieties are being put on the market. Earthen- 
ware cups have for some time been coming into 
favour, and now there is a considerable demand 
for glass and porcelain vessels.: The earthen- 
ware cups have hitherto been ‘mostly of local 
make, but are now being exported in consider- 
able numbers from England, where they are 
manufactured with a finer finish than in Malaya 
The porcelain cups come from England and 
Austria, while those made of glass are manu- 


568 


factured in England and Belgium. The terne 
plate cups, often erroneously called ‘‘tin’” cups, 
which are, of course, still very largely used, are 
exported from England. Large as the demand 
now is, itis not difficult to foresee that it is 
nothing to what it will soon become; while even 
in five or six years’ time, when the present vast 
planted areas are in bearing and supplied, the 
opening up of new land and the need of repla- 
cing existing stock will guarantee a _ steady 
market for tapping cups as long as rubber re- 
mains a profit-earning product. In these cir- 
cumstances it is interesting to notice that the 
Home manufacturers appear to be awake to 
the possibilities which this trade holds out, and 
are pushing their goods in an enterprising 
manner.—Malay Mail, Nov. 16. 


BOMBAY MANURE FOR CEYON 
ESTATES, 


A NEW DEVELOPMENT. 

We received at the beginning of this month 
a letter from the Executive Engineer of the 
Bombay Municipality, asking if there would be 
any demand for artificial manure manufactured 
out of the refuse of animals destroyed under 
Municipal supervision there. Particulars were 
given of the contents of such a product and a 
rough estimate of the cost; it was also stated 
that there was practically no smell. Informa- 
tion was asked for as to the demand for such 
manure for.estates in Ceylon ; and, with a view 
to obtaining the information required, we ap- 
proached the Colombo firms interested and 
forwarded their replies, as well as other expert 
opinion, to the Bombay official who wrote to us. 
In the course of these enquiries we learnt that 
no doubt was felt here that such refuse had a 
considerable manurial value; there was no 
reason to suppose that it would not make a 
satisfactory ingredient for tea and sugar-cane 
manure from this point of view alone. ‘To com- 
mand a sale in Ceylon, it would have to compete 
successfully with fish manure, at present a 
cheap source of Organic Nitrogen and Pho- 
aphoric Acid, There is no dividence to show 
that meat meals possess any advantage over fish 
refuse, and many other forms of waste organic 
matter, as regards the availability of their 
manurial constituents ; and they fall consider- 
ably short of the true Guanos in this respect. 
Any caleulation of the value of meat meal for 
sale in Ceylon, therefore, must be based on the 
value of fish manure here, and on that basis a 
material with the analysis quoted from Bombay 
would be valued by Ceylon manure merchants 
at about R70 per ton, making allowance for the 
fact that it would probably be more finely 
ground and more free from fatty matter than the 
fish received here usually is. Our correspondent 
stated that the material will be free from 
offensive smell. This is an important. point, 
but experience with Kuropean and American 
meat meals created doubt as to the possibility 
of this—the smell from these being such as 
practically to prohibit their use. The point 
emphasized by the experts consulted was the 
necessity for freedom from. offensive. smell. 
One opinion stated that it must not only be free 
from offensive smell, but olso from any large 


The Supplement to the Tropical A griculturist 


propertion of fat ; also in a fine mechanical state 
so as to be easily used. Another point was that 
the flesh must not become decomposed: before 
the manure was prepared or exception would 
be taken to it for use on fields above any water 
supply. The composition as described to us is 
judged to be good, and at the relative price of 
best fish manure enabling mixtures to be cheap- 
ened somewhat, but the composition would have 
to be uniform and the supply constant, One of 
the questions asked us here was would such a 
manure be available in regular quantities ?— 
great inconvenience arising when a demand was 
created for a material and the supply of it can- 
not be depended upon. 1t must, we were told, 
be als» at least as cheap as fish manure per units 
of nitrogen and phosphoric acid; the amount of 
potash mentioned was too small to be of conse- 
quence in tea manuring. 

Today we have had an acknowledgment of our 
letters and enclosures, and the Executive Engi- 
neer of Bombay refers to the fact that the supply 
of the manure in question would be constant 
and, being of the quality indicated, he thought 
it would be of some service in this island. The 
supply expected will be equal in bulk to 10 
bullocks and 30 goats or sheep per day. As 
vegards smell, the Bombay official examined 
some of the composition when in England in 
June last. He found nothing offensive in it and 
could handle it freely without discovering objec- 
tionable properties. 1ts mechanical condition 
was such that it flowed through his hands like 
coarse oatmeal]. 

We learn, finally, that the Bombay Munici- 
pality have decided to adopt his proposals during 
the next financial year, and fuller particulars 
will be forwarded as soon as available. All that 
remains to be done is to submit samples of their 
manure to the Ceylcn Government to be passed 
by the Port Medical authorities, any such 
product coming from a plague centre like Bom- 
bay being open to suspicion until the Plague 
Committee here are fully satisfied as to the 
conditions under which it is produced and the 
strictness. with which such. regulations are 
maintained. 


TAXI-GABS AND THE DEMAND 
FOR RUBBER. 


As regards the users of rubber, reports have 
been received indicating an enormously in- 
creased denfand for tyres, and huge contracts 
are reported to have been placed by a syndicate 
interested in the taxi-cab business. Great ex- 
tensions of the taxi-cab industry are anticipated 
and with these extensions a great increase 
in the consumption of raw rubber for tyre 
manufacture. A number of manufacturers 
who have fixed up contracts for manufactured 
goods have apparently covered themselves b 
buying forward supplies. On the other hand, 
contracts usually given out at this time have 
been postponed, and the trade in this country 
must be suffering severely from the consumer's 
very natural dislike to buying at prices so much 
above the usual level, Investors in rubber grow- 
ing companies have persuaded themselves that 
it will be some time before the supply of rubber 
overtakes the demand.—JdZ. ¢& C. Mail, Nov. 12. 


and Magazine of the Ceyton Agricultural Society. 


LICENSES TO SELL RUBBER. 


In the first number of the F.M7.S. Government 
Gazette is published the draft of ‘An Enactment 
to provide for the Control of Dealings in Culti- 
vated Rubber,’ which will be submitted to the 
first meeting of the new Federal Council. After 
stating that the words ‘cultivated rubber’ include 
any product from a plant or tree on alienated 
land yielding rubber or gutta percha, and that the 
Licensing Officer is the District Officer, or such 
person as the Resident may have appointed to 
take his place, the draft Enactment goes on to 
say that, unless duly licensed, no one shall pur- 
chase any cultivated rubber; nor shall anyone 
keep any factory for the purpose of treating 
rubber, or keep a house for storing rubber not 
grown on land in his occupation. It is laid down 
that a license to purchase rubber will include 
the right to keep a place for its purchase and 
storage, while a license to treat rubber will in- 
clude the rights conveyed by a license to pur- 
chase. The cost of a license will be $25, but no 
license wili be issued till the applicant has made 
a deposit of $200. The deposit will be returned 
at the expiration of one month from the date on 
which the license expires or is ortherwise deter- 
mined, but no return will be made while legal 
proceedings under the Enactment are pending 
against the licensee, and the moneys deposited 
shall be liable to be applied in satisfaction or 
part satisfaction of fines inflicted under the 
Enactment. The interest ona deposit shall be 
payable to the depositor. The licenses will ex- 
pire on Dec. 31st on the year of issue and are not 
transferable. 


POWERS oF THE LICENSING OFFICER. 


The Licensing Officer will have power to 
refuse to grant or refuse to renew a license, but 
if required by the applicant or licensee, he 
must state, in writing, his reasons for his 
refusal, He may also, with the approval of the 
Resident-General, refuse a license to any person 
‘‘ who is the agent of or is under any obligation 
or agreement to act for any individual, corpora- 
tion or combination which he is satisfied is 
attempting, or about to attempt, to secure 
control of the output of, or the market for, any 
cultivated rubber.” 


The Licensing Officer will also be empowered 
to cancel a license, if the licensee applies for the 
return of his deposit or upon the licensee’s 
conviction for any offence under the Enactment 
or on any charge involving fradulent dealing. 

It is also laid down that the Licensing officer 
shall, upon the receipt of an order trom the 
Resident General, cancel the license of any 
licensee who inthe opinion of the Resident- 
General is acting with a view to control the 
output or the market of rubber, either on his 
own behalf, or on behalf of some other person 
or corporation. Such a cancellation, however, 
will be subject to the approval of the High 
Commissioner. 

Doriks or THE LICENSEE. 

The draft Enactment Poe that the licensee 
must always keep his license posted in a cons- 
picuous place, and he must at all times allow his 
premises to be inspected by the proper autho. 


72 


569 


rities, He will also be required not to purchase 
rubber except on the place where his license is 

osted. Further he must keep books and enter 
in them, from day to day, particulars concerning 
his dealings in cultivated rubber. These parti- 
culars comprise: the date of the transaction, 
the name and address of the person dealt with, 
the weight and description of the rubber, the 
price for which it was bought or sold, and the 
number and description of the title of the land 
on which it was grown. The books must be pro- 
duced when required, and must be preserved 
for a year following the date of last entry. 


A licensee may purchase, and a forwarding 
agent may receive, no rubber except upon the 
delivery to him of a written authority from the 
vendor or consignor for the sale or despatch of 
the rubber, and this authority must bear the 
signature or ‘‘chop” of the person in occupation 
of the land on which the rubber was grown, or 
of his agent, 


PENALTIES, 


Any person committing an offence against, 
or failing to comply with, the provisions of the 
Enactment will be liable on conviction to a fine 
not exceeding $1,000. A further provision lays 
down that the Resident may, with the approval 
of the Resident-General, make rules under the 
Enactment, and anyone infringing these rules 
will be liable to a fine of not more than $500, 
and, if he. continues to commit a breach of the 
rules, he will be liable toa fine of $50 a day as 
long as the breach continues. A Magistrate’s 
Court of the first class will have power to try 
all offences under the Enactment, and the Court 
may direct that a sum of money, not exceeding 
the fine levied, be paid to anyone upon whose 
information a conviction is obtained. Appeals 
from the decision of the Magistrate’s Court 
must be made to the Resident within 30 days, 
and the decision of the Resident will be final, 
When the refusal or cancellation of a license 
has been made by the District Ofticer upon in- 
structions from, or under the advice of the 
Resident, the rule regarding appeals will not 
apply. The rules under which an action can be 
brought to recover damages for anything done 
by Government offices under the Enactment are 
the same as those usual in such cases,—Malay 
Mail, Nov. 23. 


(To the Editor, “ Malay Muail,”) 


Sir,—In connection with your review of the 
draft Enactment ‘to provide for the control of 
dealings in cultivated rubber,’ there is one 
point which [ think should be cleared up in the 
interests of the numerous Malay holders of 
small plots of land which in the agpregate already 
produce a considerable amount of rubber, 


Clause 3 renders it unlawful for any person 
unless duly licensed in that behalf :— 


i. To purchase any cultivated rubber. ii, To 
keep any factory or placo for the purpose of 
treating cultivated rubber. iii, To keep any 
house, store, shop, or place for the purpose of 
purchasing or storing therein any cultivated 
rubber other than such as has been grown or 
produced on land in his own occupation, 


Ee 


570 


This last sub-section safeguards the right of 
the occupier to keep a house, store, etc., for 
the purpose of storing therein any rubber grown 
on his own land without the necessity of obtain- 
ing a license. It does not seem to have occurred 
to the learned framers of the Enactment that 
a similar exception should be added to sub- 
section 2, or else the owner of an acre of land 
with (say) twenty tappable trees thereon, who 
‘treats’ his latex himself will have to take out 
a license, for he will be ‘keeping a place for the 
purpose of treating cultivated rubber.’ 


Yhe casual reader may remark ‘Well why 
shouldn’t he?’ But the answer to this is to be 
found in section 4 which requires payment of a 
fee of $25 for a license, which ‘shall not be 
issued until the applicant therefor shall have 
made a deposit of $200.’ So that before the 
small holder can treat his own latex, as many of 
them do, he has got to deposit $200 and pay $25. 
After this one is really surprised to read that 
‘interest allowed by the Bank’ (what bank ?) 
‘on the amount referred to shall be payable to 
the depositor’ and that the deposit itself will 
actually be returned ‘after the expiration of one 
month from the date on which it expired.’ 


It may be necessary, it no doubt is necessary, 
to pass an enactment to control the dealers in 
cultivated rubber, but it is, I submit, an un- 
heard of thing that many small Malay cultivators 
should be prevented from treating their own 
rubber and be compelled, as they must be by 
this Enactment, to sell or lease their trees to 
those who have sufficient capital to put down 
$225. We hear a great deal from time to time of 
Gubernatorial and Governmental anxiety to 
benefit the Malays, but I can hardly think that 
the learned framers of this extraordinary law 
can have reflected on the fact that if it passes 
unamended probably nine out of ten of the 
Malay smallholders cultivating rubber will be 
deprived of a large part of their legitimate pro- 
fits which will in future go to swell the profits 
of the Chinese and European capitalist. 


Yours, etc., 


Davip FREEMAN. 
--Ibid, Nov. 24. 


RUBBER IN B. N. BORNEO. 


Tambunan District.—Kxperiments are being 
made with rubber stumps and seeds, 100 stumps 
and almost 1,000 seeds having been planted, At 
the time of writing no seeds had come up. 


Kudat.—The manager of the Pitas, Ranau and 
Bandau estates is shipping by this boata small 
sample of Para rubber, about 100 lb., from the 
400 trees he is tapping. Round the manager’s 
house had been planted several trees of the 
Ficus Elastica. Mr Metelerkamp as an experi- 
ment tried mixing a small portion of the latex 
of these trees with the same quantity of Para 
rubber latex. The two or three sheets I saw 
appear to be of a blood red colour when drying, 
but do not appear to be as flexible as the true 
para. I am informed that samples of this 
rubber unmixed with para will also shortly be 
sent home for report,—W H Hastings, Resident. 


The Supplement to the Tropical Agriculturist 


Beaufort.—1l found on my return that an estate 
cooly under sentence had escaped and, making 
his way to Padas Valley estate, had been badly 
speared by a string trap set by the Manager’s 
orders to kill deer and pig. I found that large 
numbers of these traps had been set and accor- 
dingly fined the manager $75. He was lucky in 
escaping a far more serious charge as the man 
nad a narrow escape from being killed.—P C 
Brackenbury, District Officer. 

Kaningau.—I received 210 rubber seeds from 
Tenom on this day and these are now coming up 
well. On the 15th 100 stumps arrived for me, 
100 being sent on to Tambunan the same day. 
These I planted out at once. On the 16th, 17th 
and 18th I was out on the bridlepath for the 
greater part of each day supervising the bridges. 
The Muruts are slow at this kicd of work and 
need a lot of help. On Sunday the 19th I re- 
ceived a further consignment of 290 rubber 
seeds, this makes atotal of 500 that have been 
supplied by the Resident. Up to the time of 
writing 200 have already come up and there are 
signs of a great many more which I hope willshew 
up in a few days time.— H L W Stock, Assistant 
District Officer.—B. N. B. Herald, Nov. 16. 


TEA AND RUBBER IN NYASALAND. 


The report by Governor Sharpe on the Nyasa- 
land Protectorate for 1908-9 states that the tea 
crop is chiefly confined to the Mlanje district, 
598 acres being under cultivation. There is an 
experimental plot of three acres in the West 
Shire district. A considerable quantity is con- 
sumed locally,and during the year 23,948 lb, 
were exported. ‘Tea will alwaysbe aminor item 
in the productsof Nyasaland owing to the re- 
stricted areas suitable for its cultivation. With 
the exception of South Hast Mlanje, West Nyasa 
is the mostideal district from aclimatic point of 
view. Rubber cultivation promises to become an 
important feature in Nyasaland, and there 
should be a considerable export of cultivated 
rubber within the next two or three years, 
During 1908-9 over 1,000 acres were planted, 
and 3,523 acres are now under cultivation. The 
climate, on the whole, is too dry for Para and 
Castilloa, but Ceara grows extremely well on 
suitable soils. A number of seeds of the new 
Manihots—M. Dichotoma and M, piauhuyensis 
—have been imported, the percentage germi- 
nating proving very low. The growth of both 
species is, however, promising and it is hoped 
thatthe reported astonishing yields of rubber 
obtained in their natural habitat will be main- 
tained under cultivation. Para (Hevea Bra- 
siliensis) is grown in the West Nyasa district 
where the rainfall is copious and well distri- 
buted throughout the year. Plants which have 
been established about three years are full of 
promise, being over 20 feet high. Castilloa 
elastica is also making excellent growth in this 
particular district. Kxperimental plots of Fun- 
tumia elastica are established in various parts 
of the Protectorate, but the rate of growth is 
so far disappointing. During the year 1908-9 
15,415 Ib. of rubber was exported, valued at 
£3,083, of which 1,514 lb. was cultivated rubber, 
13,901 lb. being collected from indigenous vines, 
—H, & C,,Mail,.Nov. 19, 


and Magazine of the Ceylon Agricultural Society. 


BRAZILLIAN RUBBER. 


Some Interesting Information Regarding 
Amazon Production. 


{The writer of the following article decided to per- 
sonally investigate the position and possible prospects 
of Brazilian rubber (i.e., ‘‘ wild”) on the spot in 1902-3. 
It was not, however, until 1906 he was able to put his 
intention into effect, but in the last-mentioned year he 
was able to proceed to South America, and in the fol- 
lowing article, which we print without assuming responsi- 
bility for his views and comments, he Igives the result 
(in petto) of his investigations.—Ep. F. & B.) 


Arriving in Para, Lt found that it would 
be useless to try and depend on any second- 
hand particulars I might receive, and, going 
on to Manaos, had little better success, Few, 
if any, of the rubber growers keep a set of 
books that any accountant could make head 
or tail of, although their gross turnover might 
be £50,000 a year. The brokers, merchants, 
and importers and shippers did not appear 
to be the men who would assist a Company 
representative in any serious investigations, 
seeing that they are concerned in upholding 
the present system, which is by far the best way 
of doing business they are aware of. Beyond 
that, the knowledge they possess of a working 
rubber estate would not be of great value, 
being only concerned with the produce after 
the arrival at either Para or Manaos. 


How Rusper ts HAanpDLep. 


The system of working or gathering rubber 
and handling seemed to be the most difficult to 
understand, aud everyone interested had dif- 
ferent views on the matter. Having travelled up 
to and through some big working properties on 
the Upper Amazon, I had little further trouble 
in getting at the exact position of both rubber 
grower or owner or labourer. Taking first an 
estate producing 150 tons per annum and em- 
ploying 450 men, the owner would have his own 
river steamer of about 70 or 80 tons burden 
carrying his own goods up river, returning with 
rubber in the season from July to January very 
little fine rubber being collected during the 
earlier months (caucho only is gathered in wet 
season on uplands). The grower usually makes 
all arrangements for a year’s supply of merch- 
andise in the months of April to June; if his 
credit is very good, his advances will cost him 1 
per cent a month; if only average, from 14 per 
cent to 24 per cent per month; and the cost of 
his goods, after being landed in merchant’s ware- 
house duty paid, etc., and the other costs will be 
18 per cent to 25 per cent wholesale and about 
45 per cent retail higher. Therefore, the sup- 
plies for 450 men would be about £30,000, under 
most favourable terms, on arrival of goods at 
seringal (or estate) on any of the lower part of 
Purus, Jurua, or Jutaby rivers, The head- 
men (or chiefs), I may mention, receive the 
stuff trom the owner, paying him (in rubber, 
when it is gathered), in addition to insurance 
(2 per cent to 3 per cent) and costs of hand- 
ling, freight charges, etc., a commission of 10 
per cent. The headman or chief may have 
trom six to thirty men under him, and will mark 
the goods received from the grower at an ad- 
yance of 25 per cent ta 50 per cent, The labourers 


571 


are supposed to be responsible to the chiefs, and 
they in turn to owners, for goods advanced. Each 
ordinary labourer works to estradas or “lg- Zag 
roads which wind around through the jungle 
until they connect up 100 to 150 trees each road, 
and the number of trees will, without any dam- 
age or injury give from 300 to 400 kilogrammes 
in a season orup to 880 lb. The labourer lands 
this on the river banks, and pays 10 per cent 
through the chief or the owner as royalty, The 
price ie receives for rubberis from 1,500 to 2,000 
reis per kilogramme below market price, The 
rubber is not weighed or cased in Manaos, and 
any impurities caused by the labourer are 
charged up to him. The cost of bothis paid by 
the grower, if he prefers to cut or classify his 
own rubber, as most of them do. 


‘he price on which duty is paid, called pauta 
[?] is arranged every Sunday, and is based on the 
kind—Manaos or Para, as the case may be— 
value ruling during the previous week, and 
whether rubber goes up or down, it remains the 
same. This price with rubber is at 5s per lb, 
for fine hard Para in London would work out 
at 3s 6d per lb. in Manaos. The costs that 
have to come out of the 1s 6d difference would 
be cartage to harbour dues, export dues (224 per 
cent.), dispatch and stamp, insurance, fire and 
marine dues, and freight to Liverpool (about £3 
5s per ton), 


Of course, rubber shipped direct after being 
brought down river would, on arrival in Europe, 
have reduced in weight from 3 to 4 per cent., 
but it all depends on where it’ has come from. 
To arrive at the actual cost of preducing rubber 
and landing it in Europe it is necessary to con- 
sider the actual price then ruling, as everythin 
ison a sliding scale and varies weekly if the 
market price does. I propose to take the price 
at 5s perlb. (London) and exchange at 154d. 
Under these conditions the cost to place of con- 
signment in cases on Manaos market would be 
2s 3d to 28 6d per Ib. To this one may add the 
export dues and freight to Liverpool, which will 
fetch the cost up to about 3s 4d per Ib. landing 
inthis country. This gives the profits that 
would be made by an ordinary property wor- 
king under the general custom ‘and subject to 
all charges, being of course, able to send pro- 
duce to Europe. This some of the growers can 
do, but I am showing this as an example. The 
only growers who also are exporters are men 
who, being merchants, have acquired properties 
through making advances on merchandise and 
take less interest in the working of their estates 
than the original owners.—Financier, Nov. 15, 


RUBBER IN COCHIN-CHINA. 


Papors laid before the Colonial Council at 
Saigon show that rubber cuiltivation has gained 
a firm foothold in Cochin-China, The area 
under Hevea had risen from 30 hectares (73 acres) 
in 1906 to 564 hectares in December, 1908. The 
estates are mostly in the hands of the companies 
which command plonty of capital. Only one of 
them, the Xatrach Co., deals exclusively in 
rubber ; the others grow different catch-crops, 
—Straits paper, 


572 
A NEW RUBBER SUBSTITUTE. 


Russian CuHEmMist’s REMARKABLE IMITATION, 


It has been left to a Russian chemist of the 
nameof Plinatus, to make what certainly isa 
“real” imitation rubber. After three years of 
persistent experimenting and inventing, and 
what is perhaps more important, the discovery 
of entirely new chemical re-actions, an imitation 
rubber has been produced which to the eye is 
as realas the purest rubber. This 


PLINATUS RUBBER HAS BEEN PATENTED IN 
GERMANY, 


and patents have been applied for in all foreign 
countries. In Paris one of its many uses has 
been the introduction of Plinatus,rubber for both 
pneumatic and solid rubber tyres. This may 
seem contradictory, but the explanation is sim- 
ple: for outer tyres Plinatus cannot be used, 
but for the filling of the inner tubes, it replaces 
air inthe pneumatic tyres, and it replaces real 
rubber inthe solid tyres. Cab proprietors in 
Paris have experimer.ted with it for 18 months, 
and so satisfactory are the results that the Ger- 
man Company which bought the German rights 
and started a factory on the Ist instant, have 
contracted with the patentees to establish a 
branch factory in Paris on or before the Ist 
December next, and in the meantime the 
German Company are filling the wheels for 
Paris cabs. Speaking of the substance itself, 
we might point out that Plinatus rubber is 


TOUGH, FIRM, EXCEPTIONALLY PLIABLE, HIGHLY 
ELASTIC AND OF THE SAME CONSISTENCY AS 
REAL RUBBER, 


'To the touch it is identical with rubber, and 

in appearance difficult to distinguish; it can be 
made soft, hard or leatherlike according to 
requirements. The specific weight varies from 
0'6 to 1°18 the tensile strength by the soft rubber 
is 20 to 25 per cent, less than that of real rubber. 
It withstands pressure to almost a higher degree 
than rubber itself. The artificially introduced 
air bubbles give it an exceptionally strong 
expanding power. Prepared as soft rubber it 
withstands a pressure of about 10 lb. per qem. 
The hand rubber up to 40 lb. per qem. Light 
bas no influence upon it ; further it 1s absolutely 
insoluble in benzine, ether, turpentine, petro- 
leum, tetrachlor acid, etc., and entirely indif- 
ferent to all mineral and vegetable oils. It is 
the only rubber real or imitation that will with- 
stand these oils, and at the same time not swell. 
The prime cost of production is from 3d. to 8d. 
per lb, depending upon the uses for which itis 
intended. Coming back to one of its main 
uses, cab and other vehicle tyres, Plinatus rubber 
promises to cause a revolution in the trade. 
The inner tubes are filled with Plinatus rubber 
and produces a tyre of exceptional strength 
and durability. The drivers of Plinatus rubber 
tyres do not know the meaning of puncture 
or bursted tyres and drive with the same pertect 
ease and comfort as the best pneumatic tyre. Com- 
pared with solid tyres it has the enormous ad- 
vantage in cost and further in durability and 
ir elasticity, etc., hitherto only connected with 
pneumatic tyres. At the present time 


The Supplement to the Tropical Agricultunst 


ARRANGEMENTS ARE IN PROGRESS TO 
1,000 CABS IN PARIS 


with tyres filled with Plinatus rubber. So 
many imitation rubbers have been placed before 
the trade, that it is small wonder that people 
get sceptical, but we understand that the paten- 
tee is willing to receive through his represen- 
tatives in Berlin or London four wheels of a 
cab or brougham, which he at his own ex- 
pense will fill with Plinatus rubber and return, 
that the owner thereof may convince himself 
as to the merits of ‘‘Plinatus” rubber. ‘‘Pli- 
natus” rubber, it should be stated, does not 
get hard or brittle, and time does not rob it 
of its elasticity. Itis long past the experimental 
stage, and arrangements are pending for the 
sale of the British rights. Another feature of 
no little importance is the fact that a very 
small sum suftices for the starting of a factory 
on a small and yet absolutely paying scale. The 
British patent rights are in the hands of Mr. 
Friedrich Lehfeldt, of Berlin, 8S. W. 68, or his 
London agent, Mr. A M Lehfeldt, 50, Bucking- 
ham Palace Road, 8. W. Either of these gentle- 
men will be pleased to give interested parties 
the requisite information or to take them over 
the factory at Krefeld.— Financial World, Nov 13. 


SUPPLY 


PROPORTION OF SCRAP TO FINE 
RUBBER. 


Our correspondent ‘‘C W H ” elsewhere raises 
an interesting question when he asks what 
proportion planters regard as a fair average 
for the amount of Scrap, collected in course 
of tapping any particular area, to bear to the 
whole crop collected at any one time. He 
mentions cases of 5 and 40 per cent, and also 
of planters who say they never have any Scrap. 
The average doubtless lies between the two first, 
while the last group must be simply converting 
their Scrap into something else. We would like 
to hear the opinions of leading rubber planters 
on this interesting point. 


November 29th. 


Dear §iR,—During the operation of tapping 
rubber trees more or less latex is spilled over 
the adjacent bark; and when the ‘‘spillings” are 
sufliciently set, they are collected and brought 
to the factory as ‘‘ scrap.” Scrap being more or 
less mixed with impurities, its value is naturally 
less than the product of pure latex ; but where 
appliances are at hand, it is possible to clean and 
convert scrap into dark-coloured crepe, which is 
well appreciated by the trade and commands a 
very fair price ; and in such cases none of the 
produce is sent to market as scrap. When this 
is the case, if the question is asked, ‘‘ What pro- 
portion does your scrap bear to your No. 1.,” the 
answer sometimes is: ‘‘ Oh! we have no scrap ”; 
but I think that answer rather evades the ques- 
tion. I believe it is pretty well established that 
weather conditions greatly influence the amount 
of spill in the process of tapping ; but what I 
should like to find out is—what is the consensus 
of planting opinion as to the proportion which 
scrap should bear to the whole crop on a well- 
managed place with fairly expert tappers, %¢,, 


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PROPORTION OF SCRAP TO FINE 
RUBBER. 


[The following letter should have appeared at 
the beginning of page 573] :— 

November 30th. 

Sir,—The subject your correspondent has 
brought up is an interesting one, but a great 
deal depends on the method of tapping and the 
method employed in collecting the scrap. I don’t 
go in for pricking, and I believe the use of the 
pricker induces a greater percentage of scrap. 
With the use of a drip tin and plenty of water 
in the channel, the quantity of scrap is very 
little; and this avoids labour spent in collec- 
ting scrap and keeps the channelsi quite clear. 
There is also the question of time of tapping, and 
the effect of sun on the trees. The earlier the 
tapping is completed, the better. But I know 
of tapping with the use of the drip tin which 
resulted in almost no scrap in the channel. 
There is, of course, the difficulty ot latex run- 
ning out of the channel and over the trunk, 
specially in wet weather and when the flow of 
milk is very free. This generally forms a very 
thin layer of rubber on the trunk which escapes 
attention and is difficult to remove. This is 
really wasted, and the action of the sun and air 
soon causes oxidation and the rubber turns black, 
causing the whole trunk to have that blackened, 
burnt appearance so common in the Kelani 
Valley, &c. 

The scrap in the channels if collected early, 
before oxidation sets in, and at once run through 
the washing machine will turn out excellent 
crepe. But the bark shavings, if collected and 
then passed through the washer, will give a 
small, but paying, quantity of fair rubber, which 
as ‘‘creped scrap” 1s really scrap. : 

“¢Scrap rubber” in the trade at home is old and 
refuse tyres, rubber shoes, hose, rubber mats, 
&c., &c., which is purchased by the “reclaimed 
rubber” workers, and after the rubber is got back 
and reworked itis offered for sale as ‘‘recovered” 
or “reclaimed” rubber. It is a paying busi- 
ness at present high prices of raw rubber. 

If your correspondent looks well after his tap- 
ping, and insists on good work by the coolies, 
and uses drip tins, he will get hardly any scrap. 

H. V. A. 


and Magazine of the Ceylon Agricultural Society. 


the average proportion for the year, if all the 
scrap is duly collected? I have figures before 
me, giving in one case 5 per cent and in 
another 40 per cent; but I feel sure that these 
are both extreme. Can any of your correspon- 
dents indicate what should be looked on as a fair 
standard of proportion. 


Colombo, Dec. 3rd. 


Dear Sir,—I am very much obliged to your 
correspondent ‘‘H. V. A.” for the interesting 
particulars in his letter. 


I note well the pregnance of his closing para 
but the question is still that which I pro- 
pounded in my first letter, viz: What does 
‘¢hardly any scrap” in his case amount to—as 
a percentage on the whole crop?—Yours faith- 


fully, C. W. H. 


THE TEA INDUSTRY AND LABOUR- 
SAVING MACHINERY. 


Now that crops have proved a full success and 
there is a promise of fat years to come, food 
~must become cheaper. The recruiting of coolies 
will become more difficult. Fewer coolies will be 
recruited and these not of the best. It behoves 
the Tea Industry, therefore, to look round 
and see in which way labour can be saved, by 
the use of machinery. Railways are slowly 
opening out the best coolie recruiting districts, 
Chota Nagpur and the Central Provinces. The 
aboriginal coolie is finding employment in 
other directions than tea. Coal and other mines, 
though not liked as much as the tea garden, 
are taking away numbers of coolies, being 
closer to their homes and offering better pay. 
If measures are not adopted to employ machi- 
nery in field work, there is disaster awaiting a 
number of gardens which are bound to go out 
of cultivation. The poor China gardens will 
sufter first and then the poor Hybrid and poor 
soil gardens, Although machinery is used in 
all processes of manufacture, and every year 
sees new improved machinery for use in the 
factory, planters still rely on the hoe for cul- 
tivation and fingers for plucking. No effort has 
been made to bring the tield works into line 
with the modern factory. We still go on in 
the garden in the styleof Noah. Engineering 
genius has made marvellous strides in the 
factory, but has given the field work no 
thought, though there is an enormous and 
profitable field to work on, in the tea field. 
Let us turn to agricultural machinery and see 
in what way tea can use the machinery now ex- 
istent. If you were to ask a planter why plough- 
ing was not suitable for tea, he would tell you it 
tears up the roots and smashes the bushes, but 
if you point out that coolie hoeing cuts up the 
roots also, he says no ; but the coolie if watched 
does cut up roots, quickly buries them and leaves 
no trace. With ploughing it is different ; the 
plough does tear up feeder-roots and the man in 
charge has no means ofcovering them up. As 
regards knocking about bushes it is due to badly 
trained cattle, A well-trained pair of bullocks 
can cultivate Indian corn or jute planted one 


598 


foot apart; why not tea planted 3 to 6 feet apart? 
Leaving the question of ploughing with bullocks 
and turning to machinery, there is no reason 
why steam traction, oil or motor engines with 
the drum and coil of rope should not be used in 


PLOUGHING TEA, 


as they are used in other countries. Of 
course the ploughs would have to be adapted 
to the work, probably a middle breaker 
with right and leit hand ploughs on each side 
could easily plough a row of teas, doing three to 
four feet furrows, Then again the middle brea- 
ker with a subsoil plough could dotrench hoeing, 
and even drawing could be done by drawing 
ploughs. This would cover the heavy hoeing work 
performed now by men, who year by year as 
the call for labour is getting louder are getting 
scarcer and are going off to lighter jobs when the 
season for deep hoeing comes. Again for light 
hoeing there are the cultivators’ tools that can 
both till up and take away the earth from a plant 
as wanted. Of course, those would have shields 
adjusted to them to protect the bushes. This 
could easily be done. Ploughs of this sort could 
not be drawn by bullock traction and would, of 
course, have to be worked by powerful engines 
of at least 30 break horse power, while even 50 
to 60 b h p would not come amiss at times. [n- 
stead of manuring by hand a manure spreader 
could be employed, or a drill could be used be- 
hind the cultivator or ploughs for the more con- 
centrated manures. It has been the want of 
these powerful engines that has made the 
ploughing of tea seem impossible. The ‘no 
innovation,” old style planter will, of course, 
say these ploughs could not be worked in old 
tea, as they would rip up any bushes that were 
not planted in the straight. This may be so, 
but 1t would be better to knock out the few 
bushes not in the straight than to allow the 
whole lot to suffer for the want of cultivation. 
Of course, using these ploughs does not mean 
that we would be able to get rid of all manual 
labour; ferns and jungle inthe bushes would 
have to be taken out by hand, This can be done 
even by children in most cases and would only 
need men where a garden had beed shamefully 
neglected. Turning to pruning, this is a more 
difficult operation; but there is 


NO REASON WHY TOP LIGHT PRUNING SHOULD 
NOT BE DONE BY SOME REAPING OR HOEING 
MACHINE, 


Collar pruning, of course, could be worked 
by horizontal saws with a light motor engine, 
This, no doubt, would be neater and cheaper 
than the present tackling of the work with 
big pruning knives, dows, kookriesetc, Pluc- 
king could also be performed by some such 
contrivance as a reaping or mowing machine, 
Such a machine,of course, would rip everything 
off the bush, and arrangements would have to 
be made in the factory to separate the coarse 
from the fine or the garden would go in for a 
coarse grade of cheap tea. In many cases it would 
be more profitable to rip everything off the 
bush, than to allow, as is now very often the 
case, the bush to overgrow itself in the height 
of the season when there 1s more growth than 
the labour force can tackle, and then quickly 
shut up at the end of the season, 


BYE: 


Cutting jungle in the tea might also be effec- 
ted by any of the reaping machines and in many 
gardens a catch crop of hay could be gathered 
were these binders and pressers to do the work. 

Beside these routine works there are others 
such as spraying for blight. This could be done 
systematically and in sufficient quantity daily to 
eradicate mosquitoes, red spiders and various 
other blights. Again, stump pulling, and the 
pulling up of old tea, could all be carried out by 
traction machinery, at a considerabie saving and 
more eflicaciously than at present by hand. In 
several gardens where the cattle die off year by 
year traction engines could easily take out the 
tea to railway stations and bring in the stores. 
There are many occasional jobs on an estate that 
could be done by these machines and it would 
ease the labour question very considerably if 
machinery were introduced into the field work. 


ANTI-SKEETER. 
—Statesman, Dec. 1. 


IMPORTATION OF INDIAN TEA SEED 
AND BLISTER BLIGHT. 


Kandy, Nov. 22nd. 


Sir,—I shall be much obliged if you will 
kindly publish correspondence forwarded here- 
with tor the information of importers of Indian 
Tea-seed.—Y ours, &c., 


ALEX. WARDROP, 
Secretary, P.A. of Ceylon. 


(Correspondence referred to.) 
Colonial Secretary’s Office, Colombo, 
13th October, 1909. 


Sir,—I am directed to transmit for your infor- 
mation the enclosed copy of a letter received 
from the Acting Director of the Royal Botanic 
Gardens together with a copy of its enclosure 
calling attention to the danger of the introduc- 
tion into Ceylon of the leaf disease in tea known 
as ‘* Blister Blight ” by the importation of tea 
seed from India, and to state that it is proposed 
to issue a notification under ‘‘The Insect Pest 
and Quarantine Ordinance 1901 ” as advised by 
the Director.—I am, Sir, your obedient servant, 
(Sgd.) E. B. Denuam, for Colonial Secretary. 


The Chairman, Planters’ Association of 
Ceylon, Kandy. 
Royal Botanic Gardens, Peradeniya, 
21st September, 1909. 
Sir,—I have the honour to forward to you a 


copy of a letter addressed to me by the Govern- 
ment Mycologist and to request that steps may 


be taken to prohibit the importation of tea seed’ 


from India unless accompanied by a statement 
from a responsible Scientific Officer to the effect 
that the seed in question does not come from a 
district infected with the “Blister Blight” 
(‘“‘Exobasidium vexans.”)--I am, Sir, &c. (Sgd.) 
BR H Lock, Acting Director, R. B. G. 

The Hon. The Colonial Secretary. 


From Government - Mycologist 


; To Acting 
Director, Royal Botanic Gardens, 


The Supplement to the T'ropical Agriculturist 


September 21st, 1909, 

Sir,—I have the honour to direct your atten- 
tion to the necessity for some regulation of the 
present importation of tea seed. 

2 Large acreages will shortly be opened up in 
Tea in Ceylon, and quantities of seed are being 
or will be imported from India, 

3 Tea in North India is at present suffering 
severely from a leaf disease known as ‘Blister 
Blight,’ caused by afungus, ‘Hxobasidium veaans,’ 

4 This disease does not occur in Ceylon, and 
there is grave danger of importing it with the 
seed. I would suggest that Government be 
asked to forbid the importation of tea seed from 
India, unless accompanied by a certificate that 
it does not come from a district infected by 
Blster Blight. A certificate from a scientific 
officer of the Indian Tea Association might be 
accepted,—I am, Sir, &c, (Sgd.) T Percu, 

The Hon, The Colonial Secretary, Colombo. 
Kandy, 15th October, 1909. 


Srr,—Referring to your letter of 13th instant, 
with enclosures, on above subject, I am directed 
to state, that whilst my . Association fuily 
approve of measures being taken to prevent the 
importation of ‘Blister Blight” into Ceylon, 
they would wish to be informed if this object 
cannot be equally attained by the compulsory 
disinfection of Indian Tea seed (unaccompanied 
by a certificate) at Colombo,’ asby prohibiting 
its importation?—I am, Sir, your obedient 
servant, (Sgd.) ALEx. Warprop, Secretary, 
Planters’ Association of Ceylon. 

The Hon, The Colonial Secretary, Colombo. 


Kandy, 16th November, 1909. 


Sir,—Referring to my letter of 15th October on 
above subject, I have the honour to enguire if 
the suggestion made in it as to the disinfection 
of Indian Tea Seed at Colombo has been ap- 
proved by the Government advisers; and if so, 
what steps are proposed to be taken to 
give effect to the recommendation P—I am, Sir, 
your obedient servant, (Sgd.) ALEx. WaRDRopP, 
Secretary, Planters’ Association of Ceylon, 
Colonial Secretary’s Office, Colombo. 


November 19th 1909, 


Sir,—With reference to your letter of the 
15th October, 1909, relative to proposed 
measures for preventing the importation of 
‘‘ Blister Blight” into Ceylon, I am directed 
to forward to you the enclosed copy ofa report 
thereon by the Director, Royal Botanic Gardens, 
and to inform you that the proposals contained 
therein have been approved by the Governor in 
Executive Council and that regulations will 
shortly be issued accordingly.—I am, Sir, your 
obedient servant, (Sgd.) E. B. DenHAm. for 
Colonial Secretary. The ‘Secretary, Planters’ 
Association of Ceylon, Kandy. 


Royal Botanic Gardens, Peradeniya, 
19th October, 1909, 
The Hon. the Colonial Secretary, 

Sir,—The Government Mycologist reports as 
follows :— 

‘Tea seed could be disinfected in Colombo by 
immersion in a1 per cent Corrosive Sublimate. 
This will not be possible if the seed has germi- 
nated before arrival, and it is only practicable if 


and Magazine of the Ceylon Agricultural Society. 


the seed is consigned in bags. If the seed is con- 
signed in chests, it would have to be unpacked 
for .treatment ; and this would entail a large 
amount of labour, and additional apparatus for 
handling the seed. It is, of course, understood 
that the operation would be carried out at 
owner’s risk. I would suggest that the impor- 
tation of Indian Tea seed be allowed: 


(a) if accompanied by a certificate, 

(b) if imported in bags, so as to readily admit 
of treatment.” 

If the recommendations are approved, steps 
ought to be taken immediately; otherwise the 

recautions may come too late to prevent the 
importation of the disease.—(Sgd.) RK H Lock., 
Acting Director, R BG. 


JUGRA ISLAND: A YEAR’S PROGRESS. 
Jugra Island came into prominence some 
three years ago when a company with the title 
of Jugra Land and Rubber Ustates, Ltd., was 
successfully floated at Home. Work was 
speedily commenced under the management of 
Mr F A Callaway, and since then remarkably 
rapid progress has been made in bringing under 
cultivation what pessimists in their ignorance of 
local conditions described as the impossible. 


About a year ago we showed how this island, 
formerly given over toa tribe of Sea Sakeis and 
rotan-cutters, had been opened up to a very con- 
siderable extent in the interests of the com- 
pany mentioned above, explaining how, through 
the adoption of an intelligent system of drain- 
age, land that had been regarded as swamp had 
been made to carry rubber, and _ how it was pro- 
posed to deal with and extend the property in 
the future. The results may be best summarised 
by giving the figures, though it is only fair to 
add that the soil and climate alike have proved 
themselves so favourable to the growth of vege- 
tation that development has been considerably 
retarded ky the necessity for keeping down un- 
desirable growth in the shape of weeds. But 
this is now so well in hand that no serious 
trouble in the future should be anticipated. 


On Oct, 31st, 1908, the position was as follows : 
Land drained, 3,630 acres ; felled, 2,7374 acres ; 
burnt off, 300 acres; cleared, 185 acres ; planted 
with Para rubber, 1,721. acres; planted with 
coconuts, 70 acres; coconuts and bananas, 2 
acres ; fruit trees, 10 acres. 

On Oct. 31st of this year the situation was :— 
Drained, 4,150 acres ; felled, 4,030 acres; burnt 
off, 525 acres; cleared up, 365 acres ; planted 
with Para, 2,233 acres ; with coconuts, 332 acres; 
coconuts and bananas, 15 acres; frit trees, 10 
acres ; bananas, 10 acres, 

The position is that the company is 


PLEDGED TO PLANT OUT 4,150 ACRES IN FIVE YEAR 


from the pate of the grant, May, 1906, and in 
spite of adverse conditions in the shape of ex- 
ceptional rainfall and the consequent rapid 
growth of weeds, there does not appear to be 
any doubt that the required acreage will be 
achieved within the time-limit. 

Apart from the figures given above showing 
the acreage development, the improvement in 
the company’s property during the past year 


515 


has been considerable. To begin with,a broad 
main road, three miles in length and _ perfectly 
straight, has been constructed through the heart 
of the property ;the drains have been deepened 
and flood-gates erected ;four bungalows have 
been built for the manager and his assistants, 
besides two new sets of coolie-lines, with 
another in course of construction, and the hos- 
pital has been completed. ‘I'he result is that, 
at the present moment, there is one vast clear- 
ing from the landing-place from Port Swetten- 
ham right across the island to the shore oppo- 
site Jugra, measuring some three miles inthe 
other direction ; and nearly the whole of this 
large area has been already planted up. 


There is at present a force of nearly 2,000 
coolies on the island, mostly Tamils, with the 
remainder Javauese and Banjerese, and it is 
striking testimony to the healthiness of the 
locality that last month there were no cases of 
serious sickness, apart from two deaths, one 
due to old age, and the other to shall-fish poi- 
soning. Even in the hottest portion of the day 
there is a refreshing breeze, and the coolies, 
speaking generally, are as healthy a looking lot 
as one would find anywhere in the peninsula, 
And, moreover—a significant fact—they have all 
the appearance of being well satisfied with their 
position. 

Of old, of course, the island was not devoid of 
its romantic side, and a trace of this may be 
found today in the herd of elephants—it ele- 
phants can by any stretch of the imagination be 
made to weave their way into romance—which 
still inhabits it. As the island has been cut in 
two by the vast clearing mentioned above, this 
herd has been confined to the southern portion, 
though not without a struggle. Signs of this 
may still be seen upon the southernmost drain 
of the cleared portion, where comparatively re- 
cently they attempted a crossing. Foiled at 
first, owing to the fact that the drain in ques- 
tion was deep and of sufficient width to prevent 
their stepping across, they endeavoured to send 
the youngsters over, but without appreciable 
success. ‘They then attempted to build a bridge 
across by placing timber over the drain, but 
either their patience gave out or they were inter- 
rupted. At all events they were foiled, and since 
then they have not attempted to recapture 
their former territory. The result is interesting, 
for it proves that a drain constructed of exactly 
the right size—a barrier that would offer no 
obstacle to the meaner animals of creation— 
is sufficient to hold in check these mammoths 
of the jungle. Itis a simple solution of the 
problem, and one, moreover, that cannot but 
excite wonder when it is seen what havoc 
they have wroughtin the jungle on their own 
side of the drain in question, for it is 
SO THINNED OUT AS ALMOST TO RESEMBLE A 

CLEARING, 

Steps have been taken to link the island up 
with the mainland by the introduction of the 
telephone, and after a rentis had been cut 
through to the north opposite Pendamaran, the 
line was laid, and afortnight ago the bungalows 
on various parts of the large cleared area were 
linked up, the local exchange being in the 
manager’s house. Satisfactory communi- 
cation was established at the first attempt. At 


576 


this period the cable under the river from 
Pendamaran had been laid, so that the 
somewhat peculiar position of the island having 
its own internal 


TELEPHONIC COMMUNICATION, 


though debarred from that with the world out- 
side, was established by means of a storage 
battery at the estate headquarters. This was 
a great boon, but the position was improved 
considerably yesterday when through communi- 
cation was established with Kuala Lumpur, 


The installation of this telephone system has 
been no light task, as any one who has been over 
the track could testify, andthe achievement is 
one upon which the authorities concerned may 
well be congratulated. 


The Jugra Land and Rubber Estates, Limited, 
has parted with 5,000 acres of its property on the 
island to the recently floated 


Carey Unitep Rupper Hsratss, 


which absorbs Paradise Estate, near Kajang. 
With the sale of this large acreage and the old 
guit rent of only 50 cents per acre, the original 
Company should have no difficulty in reaching 
the tapping stage with comfort. 

Mr. E. V. Carey 


the Managing Director of the Company, is ex- 

ected here at the end of this month, and he 
will then relieve Mr Callaway of the manage- 
ment for the time being. The latter is pro- 
ceeding home for a long holiday after a lengthy 
period of more arduous work than usually falls 
to the Jot of the planter, even in the tropics.— 
Malay Mail, Nov. 18. 


GOCONUT MILK. 


(To the Editor, ‘Madras Mait.”) 


Srr—In one of the recent issue of the Madras 
Mail“C. K.” speaks of tapiocaasa cheap digestible 
food and mentions a vareity which is poisonous. 
The poisonis due tothe presence of prussic acid. 
Togetrid of prussic acid, all that is necessary 
is to peel and boil the tuber properly. An- 
other precaution which the people on this coast 
take is to eat the boiled tuber with coconut. 
Coconut, it is well known here, takes away the 
deleterious effect of prussic acid. Whether coco- 
nut milk is an antidote to poison or not, it is any 
rate certain that it neutralises the harmful effect 
of opium and nicotine, Some three years ago a 
man who had taken a majaméi pill (a mixture of 
opium and ganja) was found to be rolling on the 
floor of his house and appeared to suffering 
much from the effect of the drug. Coconut milk 
was given to him with the result that he re- 
covered within two hours. If cocoatine can be a 
substitute for butter, I see no reason why coco- 
nut milk cannot be a substitute for cow’s milk. 
As cow’s milk is considered by medical autho- 
rities to be a means of conveyance of enteric 
fever, the substitute will go far in preventing 
such fever, Coconut milk can be used in flavou- 
ring coffee. And when enteric prevails1t would 
be advisable to usecoconut milk instead of cow’s 
milk, especially in barracks. 

Calicut. 

—M. Mail, Dec. 6th. 


F.R. 


The Supplement to the Tropical Agriculturist 


THE BLACK HEVEA FUNGUS 
IN THE F.M.S. 


Another sample of the black fungus described 
in the July number of the Bulletin, page 310, 
has been received at the Botanic Gardens, Singa- 
pore, from Selangor. In this case the fungus had 
attacked stumps about 3 inches in girth. No 
less than 80 per cent of the stumps were found 
to be killed by this pest. In this case the 
fructification of the fungus had appeared in 
abundance at a height of 2 feet and all down 
the tap root. This shows that the fungus does 
not confine itself to the upper branches of trees, 
but, apparently, it can attack almost any young 
part of the plant. Dangerous and troublesome 
as this pest is likely to prove to young plants 
in nurseries, it would be more so if it attacked 
adult trees or trees in bearing, not only on ac- 
count of the greater loss, but also because it 
would be much more diflicult to deal with. 

In any case this seems likely to prove as dan- 
gerous a plantas the Yomes, if not worse and its 
history and the best means of combating, it 
should at once be carefully investigated.-- Ep, 
—Straits Agricultural Bulletin, for November. 


SOYA (OR SOY) BEAN. 


The Soya beans about which we have been 
receiving enquiries, is an annual plant, growing 
to a height of 15 to 18 inches, of an erect habit, 
with large hairy trifoliate leaves and stout hairy 
3 to 5 seeded pods, There are black and white- 
seeded varieties, the latter apparently being the 
more geuerally cultivated. In general appear- 
ance the plant is not unlike the common dwarf 
Kidney or'¥rench bean. The Soyo Bean thrives 
at Peradeniya and appears to be well suited to 
the climate and soil. Here the seeds germinate 
in 3 to 5 days, the plants flower when a month 
old: a fortnight later the pods are fit for pick- 
ing, andthe harvesting is complete in abouc two 
months from thetime of sowing. A full account 
of the Soya Bean by Mr, H. F. Macmillan had 
appeared in the ‘Tropical Agriculturist and 
Magazine of the Ceylon Agriculture” | four 
years ago. Inthe London Times of November 
13th we read the following :— 

The annual report of the Hull Chamber of 
Commerce and Shipping just issued states that 
the Seed Crushers’ Committee report that ‘ the 
mills have been fairly well employed, and for 
the first time in the history of the trade soya 
beans have been crushed in quantity.” The 
Hull Seed, Oil, and Cake Association report that 
‘*the outstanding feature of the year has been 
the advent of the soya bean from Manchuria, 
which marks an epoch in the crushing trade of 
the United Kingdom. About 400,000 tons have 
been shipped to the United Kingdom in 1909, of 
which 153,000 tons have arrived in Hull since 
March last. Without this large addition to the 
available raw material for the mills, crushing 
must have been a lean business during the 12 
months, whereas this addition, combined with 
rising markets helping manufacturers, wh» anti- 
cipated their requirements, has on the whole 
proved to be fairly remunerative in 1909. There 
is reason to hope that the soya bean will bea 
regular article of import,” 


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