TROPICAL AGRICULTURE , } { ae ( Wat 3 ’ } ‘ ' i is , ; j ae if. i ¥ e Ti he ¥ } i j i I | : f ) : m » i i ) ; : a i t i i Vik 4 Ne * 1 } \ by s } ! : v i x yall} i { feu ‘: d, : ihe i iy i f ‘ 2 i ¥ ‘ (! % cS EI i ' R es \ ik i i 4 ‘ ea 0 ye f | fi r. F ty i Os ‘ : ‘ ; f t i i ! ‘ : € . | ¢ " t \ I : ‘ . BE cr I tt f i H :} ‘3 . " i 4 } | i ) { ; ; i i ey f For the most part the general character of tropical forests is very different from that of forests in cold climates. One becomes accustomed to forests made up of one or two pre- dominating species of trees with only an occasional bush or tree of another species scattered here and there through the otherwise almost pure stand. Some of the familiar combina- tions of trees are oak and chestnut, beech and maple, pine and hemlock, etc. Besides these mixed stands of only two pre- dominant species we have the immense areas of white pine, fir, spruce, and other soft woods in which almost no other species of tree occurs. Tropical forests present a very different ap- pearance. Most of these forests consist of a mixture of many species of trees. In some cases the forest is composed of several hundred species of trees, with no one species covering any part of the forest exclusively. The mixed nature of tropical forests has offered a considerable economic disadvan- tage to lumbermen in that they can not harvest areas con- tinuously but must seek here and there for specimens of the particular kind of tree which they desire. Not all tropical forests, however, are of such a mixed nature. There are quite pure stands in large areas of teak, eucalyptus, Albizzia, wattle, candlenut, algaroba, oil palm, quebracho, ohia, etc. So much has been written of the extremely hard and heavy woods which occur in tropical countries that a misconception as to the relative importance of heavy woods in the Tropics has taken root. It is quite absurd to suppose that all of the important tropical timbers are heavier than water, although 290070) TIMBERS AND WOODS 291 several of them will sink in water even after cured and many more are heavier than water in a green condition. To assume, however, that mahogany, ebony, and lignum vite are the really important timbers of the Tropics would be as ridiculous as to assert that black walnut, quartered oak, and curly maple are the most important timbers of the United States. Trop- ical timbers and woods are of great variety and of great im- portance. The few species which are imported to Europe and the United States give only the faintest idea of the extent and variety of tropical timbers. At the outset it may be well to state that in the Tropics, just as in northern climates, soft woods are of vastly wider extent and importance than hard woods. The family Dipterocarpacee furnishes the most important timbers, especially in the Oriental Tropics. It is a large fam- ily with numerous species of trees which are universally used in tropical countries for general construction purposes. The sal tree (Shorea robusta) occurs in immense areas of almost pure stand in India. This tree is called guijo in the Philip- pines. It furnishes a hard and moderately heavy wood, used in ship building, houses, planks, carriages, and for numerous miscellaneous purposes. The eng tree (Dipterocarpus grandi- florus) of the Philippines, Borneo, and Malaya Peninsula, and called apitong in the Philippines, furnishes a fairly hard and heavy wood, used in heavy structural work, planks, railroad ties, and many other purposes. The sal and eng are only two examples chosen from the important trees of this family. There are more than 100 species of Dipterocarpaceze which are used commercially in the Oriental Tropics. The legume family is next in importance as a source of tim- ber and wood and stands first in the production of woods for furniture and ornamental purposes. These woods are often highly colored and of good grain, and many of them are widely used for building purposes and for structural work. For example, Acacia catechu, besides yielding a cutch from 292 TROPICAL AGRICULTURE the wood, is also used in farm implements and for railroad ties. Various species of Albizzia furnish excellent wood for houses, boat building, furniture, tea boxes, farm implements, bridges, etc. Golden shower (Cassia fistula), a smooth-bark tree, with drooping racemes of beautiful yellow flowers, fur- nishes a hard, heavy wood, gray or red in color, and brittle, but more durable in the soil than even teak. It is extensively used for fence posts, boat spars, carts, etc. Rosewood (Dalbergia latifolia) is one of the famous legu- minous trees of India. The wood is extremely hard and heavy. The heartwood is of a purple color with black streaks and with a rose-like odor. This tree furnishes the Indian rosewood or blackwood. Among the other Indian trees which produce rosewood, mention may be made of D. sissoo and Pterocarpus indicus. The Seychelles rosewood comes from Thespesia populnea, which is called “milo” in Hawaii. Brazil supplies a large part of the rosewood of commerce from the tree D. nigra. The grades of rosewood known as violet wood and king wood come from other related species of trees in South America and Madagascar. In fact, the rosewood of commerce is derived from more than 25 species of trees, of which D. latifolia is the best Indian species for cabinet and furniture purposes. Andaman redwood, named from its origin in the Andaman Islands, is derived from Pterocarpus dalbergioides. This tree produces a red heartwood streaked with black and brown. The wood is extensively employed in the manufacture of fur- niture, door frames, balustrades, finishings of Pullman cars, and for other purposes. The family Ebenacez is chiefly noted for furnishing the ebony of commerce. There are about 30 species in this fam- ily which produce ebony, the best grade coming from species of Diospyros, to which our common persimmon belongs. Eb- ony is very heavy, extremely hard, and of a black or dark greenish color streaked with black. Coramandel wood is a TIMBERS AND WOODS 293 rare, variegated sort of ebony obtained from the tree D. quesita. Ebony is used for canes, inlaying, fine cabinets and furniture, piano keys, violin keyboards, rulers, and other sim- ilar purposes. The wood is very fine-grained and does not warp. The ebony of commerce comes largely from India, Ceylon, Malaya, Java, the Philippines, Africa, and Mauritius. Lignum vitz (Guaiacum officinale) is a tree native to South America and the West Indies. This tree furnishes perhaps the heaviest of all woods. The fibers are much twisted and the color of the wood is dark brown with black streaks. It is extremely tough and is therefore used in the manufacture of bowling balls, rollers, propeller bushing, and for similar purposes. Lignum vite is becoming scarce and substitutes for it are much sought. Perhaps the best substitute for this wood is mancono (Xanthostemon verdugonianus) of the Phil- ippines. Mancono wood is of about the same specific gravity and toughness as lignum vite and is even harder. Many other woods are also used as substitutes for lignum vite, espe- cially Calophyllum mophyllum and Dodonea viscosa. Mahogany (Switetenia mahogant) is a tree native to Central America and South America. The tree was first brought to Europe by Spanish explorers. This and related species have been introduced into India and the Philippines, where they are cultivated to some extent. Mahogany is becoming so scarce that about 25 substitutes are in use to replace it. Mahogany is the most highly prized of cabinet woods. It is used for fine cabinet purposes, furniture, and piano cases, now mostly as a veneer. In the Philippines Pterocarpus indicus yields a wood which is called Philippine mahogany. This wood varies from straw color to blood red. The trees reach such size that planks 25 feet long and 6 feet wide have been obtained. It takes a high polish. Philippine mahogany is used extensively for cigar boxes. Kauri pine (Agathis robusta), of New Zealand and Queens- land, is a stately conifer 150 feet high, often with a fine bole 294 TROPICAL AGRICULTURE 100 feet long. The tree is peculiarly free from defects of any kind. The kauri pine is the most important timber tree in New Zealand. The tree often reaches a diameter of 15 feet at the base. The lumber is extensively exported to Europe and is used for all kinds of building purposes, flooring, siding, paneling, doors, etc. Karri (Eucalyptus versicolor) and jarrah (E. marginata), both native of Western Australia, attain such great size that huge planks of unusual width can be obtained from them. The wood is dark red, heavy, and hard. It is resistant to teredo and hence has been much used as piling. Karri and jarrah woods are also employed for paving blocks and heavy struc- tural work. The Australian Government made a large exhibit of these woods at the Portland Exposition for the purpose of calling attention to their value and usefulness for various pur- poses. Eucalyptus has been extensively planted in California where it was introduced in 1856. These trees are native of Australia, about 150 species being known. Of this number 75 species or more have been grown in California, but 90 per cent. of the eucalyptus in that State is blue gum (Eucalyptus globulus). Eucalyptus wood is used in California for fuel, piling, poles, railroad crossties, mine timbers, paving blocks, furniture, coop- erage, tool handles, and for many other purposes. The strength and durability of the wood are quite satisfactory. The chief disadvantage of eucalyptus wood is that it warps and checks badly in the seasoning. Sandalwood is obtained from Santalum album of India and Malaya and from related species which occur in Fiji, Hawaii, and elsewhere. These trees furnish the yellow or white san- dalwood of commerce. In the early days of the Hawaiian Monarchy, the demand for this wood was so great that the tree was practically exterminated in the Territory. The san- dalwood now has to be obtained from other sources in India and Malaya. It is used in inlaid work and for boxes, chests, TIMBERS AND WOODS 295 fans, and for various other ornamental purposes. Sandalwood chests are greatly prized on account of their reputed immunity to insect attacks, and also on account of their aromatic and agreeable odor. Sandalwood is also used as a source of san- dalwood oil (which is discussed under oils) and is burned for incense. For this purpose it is ground and mixed in a paste- like material used by the Chinese in the form of fumigating sticks. Various species of trees have been used as substitutes for the sandalwood, particularly Exocarpus latifolia in the Philippines, Erythroxylon monogymnum in India, and Xime- nia americana in South America. Koa (Acacia koa), of Hawaii, is a tall leguminous tree with spreading crown and irregular, frequently conical trunk. The trunk of the koa tree is often 6 to 8 feet in diameter at the base but may taper rapidly to a relatively small diameter at the height of 20 feet. Koa is much sought for use in making furniture, cabinet cases, house finishing, canes, fancy boxes, and calabashes. It is exported to some extent to England and the United States but the trees are becoming scarce and the supply will hereafter be greatly limited unless efforts are made to cultivate the tree. Satinwood (Chloroxylon swietenia) is a tree native to India and Ceylon, which furnishes a hard, very heavy, and durable wood of a pale yellow color, and with a decided sheen when smoothed. Satinwood is much used for general construction work and even for railroad ties in India. In Europe and the United States, however, satinwood is much sought for inlay- ing, borders, scrolls, backs of brushes, veneer in fine furniture and railway cars, and for similar uses. Another form of sat- inwood is obtained in the West Indies from species of Xanthoxylum. West Indian cedar (Cedrela odorata), of the West Indies and South America, is a tall, handsome tree of the family Meliacez, with pinnate, opposite leaves and greenish-white flowers. The wood is of a brick red, blood red, or purple- 296 TROPICAL AGRICULTURE red color. It is quite immune to attacks from insects. West Indian cedar is soft, fragrant, and easily worked. It is most extensively used for making cigar boxes, canoes, and panel- ing. Ohia (Metrosideros polymorpha), of Hawaii, is a tall tree which occurs in pure stands on the mountain slopes of Hawaii. The trunks are angular and twisted, furnishing much dif- ficulty in the saw mill and occasioning a large amount of waste in sawing up the logs for lumber. Ohia forests are particularly abundant in the Puna district of Hawaii and on the windward side of Maui. A serious disease of unknown origin caused the destruction of several thousand acres of ohia on Maui. On the Island of Hawaii large areas of ohia have been cut for the manufacture of flooring, paving blocks, and railroad ties. Experiments by one of the western rail- roads indicated that ohia ties were very satisfactory and 2,000,000 railroad ties were ordered on the strength of this experiment. Teak wood is obtained from the well known tree Tectona grandis, native of Malabar, Java, Burma, Siam, the Philip- pines, and neighboring regions. This tree belongs to the verbena family. It bears large, ovate leaves and racemes of small white flowers. The heartwood is of a golden yellow color, turning brown, and finally black with age. Teak is the world’s standard of ship-building timber. It is moderately hard and extremely useful for all kinds of purposes. Teak is the chief export of Burma and India, being used chiefly for decks of steamers, backing of armor plates, house building, and general carpentry work. The best teak is obtained from Malabar, that obtained from Java, Burma, and Siam being slightly inferior and lighter in color and weight. Teak wood is of medium hardness and possesses a characteristic scent which depends upon an oil in the wood. On account of the enormous demand from all parts of the world for teak wood, it has been found profitable to cultivate this tree as a forest TIMBERS AND WOODS 297 crop. It adapts itself readily to cultivation and makes an excellent growth even on relatively poor soils. Several species of trees yield a soft wood of peculiar phys- ical properties resembling cork. Chief among these trees is kapok, Bombax malabarica, Alstonia scholaris, Erythrina indica, and species of Anona, Hibiscus, and Dyera. Cork ob- tained from the pith of so-called corkwood trees should be dis- tinguished from true cork, as the term is ordinarily used, which is derived from the bark of the cork oak (Quercus su- ber). This tree occurs in largest areas in Portugal, Spain, and France. Various other tropical trees possess a bark which is suitable for use as cork. The world’s cork production amounts to 2,500,000 pounds annually. Practically all of this material comes from Portugal, Spain, France, Italy, Tunis, Algeria, and Morocco. The commercial demand for cork is increasing. An immense and rapidly increasing industry is developing in the utilization of vegetable ivory in manufacturing buttons. In discussing tropical agriculture we may therefore refer to the button crop as one of great importance. Vegetable ivory is obtained from a considerable number of palms, particularly the tagua palm (Phytelaphus macrocarpa) and about 20 other species belonging to the same genus. In addition to this group of tagua palms, a number of other species furnish a vegetable ivory of considerable value. Among these species is Metroxry- lon vitiense, a palm native to Fiji. The nuts from this tree furnish a vegetable ivory which comes on the market under the name Australian corozo. About 500,000 pounds of these nuts go to Europe annually. The nuts of M. amicarum are also used for the same purpose. Another palm, known as Hyphena thebaica, yields Abyssinian corozo. This palm abounds in Nubia, Abyssinia, and desert parts of Africa and Asia Minor. It is sometimes called the king of the desert. The tree bears nuts 2 inches long and I inch broad from which good buttons are prepared, but the material is not so hard as the nuts of the other species mentioned above. In addition to 298 TROPICAL AGRICULTURE these palms we may mention Borassus flabelliformis, Raphia vinifera, Attalea funifera, and Corypha umbraculifera as sources of vegetable ivory suitable for use in making buttons. The use of the nuts of the tagua, or vegetable ivory palm, for the manufacture of buttons, dates back about 50 years, when this material first came into notice from nuts shipped out of Ecuador. After a few experiments with the hard kernel of these nuts, vegetable ivory sprang into great favor as a but- ton material. The industry has rapidly increased in Ecuador until at present about 20,000 tons of vegetable ivory nuts are exported annually from Ecuador alone. Constantly increas- ing quantities are also being shipped from Colombia, Panama, and Central America. The tagua palm occurs chiefly near the sea coast from Panama to Peru, but is also found at elevations as high as 2,500 feet. The palm grows slowly, finally attain- ing a height of 10 to 20 feet or rarely 30 feet. The leaves resemble somewhat those of the coconut palm. The first flow- ers appear at the age of 3 or 4 years, the male and female in- florescence differing greatly in appearance. The male flowers appear in a cylindrical spike about 4 feet long, while the fe- male flowers are grouped in a shorter cluster. The tagua palm bears the year round, flowers, immature, and mature fruits occurring on the plant at the same time. The fruit re- sulting from the female inflorescence is in the form of a large, spiny, spherical mass, containing 60 to 90 nuts in clusters of 5 or 6. The spiny burr-like covering of the fruit opens at the bottom when mature, allowing the nuts to fall out. The kernel of the nut does not reach its maximum of hard- ness until the nut is completely mature. As a rule, therefore, the nuts are gathered from the ground, since, if the whole fruit were removed, some of the nuts would be found to be imma- ture. The vegetable ivory palm begins bearing at 6 years of age and continues to bear merchantable nuts for 50 to 100 years. The ordinary price paid to the laborer who gathers the nuts is 50 cents per 100 pounds. TIMBERS AND WOODS 999 The United States occupies an important place in the manu- facture of buttons from vegetable ivory. Of the 50,000,000 pounds of vegetable ivory nuts exported from South Amer- ica annually, more than 27,000,000 pounds come to the United States. There are reported to be 23 button factories using this material in this country, the chief centers being Rochester, Brooklyn, Newark, and Springfield, Massachusetts. The vegetable ivory nuts are somewhat flattened and about 2 inches in the longest diameter. The vegetable ivory nut contains a small cavity and the tissue immediately surrounding the cavity is softer and more likely to show defects than the outer portion of the nut. A chip to be used for making but- tons is sawed from either side of the nut and the rest of the material becomes waste. From vegetable ivory nuts, but- tons are prepared varying in size from 4% to 1% inches in diameter. The process of sawing, shaping, polishing and dye- ing vegetable ivory buttons has been carefully developed in the button factories of the United States and the industry is con- stantly growing. In the technical utilization of vegetable ivory for button manufacture it has been found that there is a shrinkage of 650 pounds per ton in drying the nuts and removing the shells. In sawing out the chips for use in button manufacture there is a waste from sawdust and cores of another 400 pounds. A ton of nuts, therefore, yields approximately 950 pounds of material available for making buttons. Recently efforts have been made to find a use for this waste material. Vegetable ivory sawdust has been used in Germany as an adulterant of coffee along with ground date seeds and other material. An analysis of vegetable ivory sawdust shows that it contains 10.6 per cent. of water, 1.95 per cent. ash, 0.96 per cent. fat, 3.28 per cent. protein, and 83.21 per cent. fiber and nitrogen-free extract. A test of this material as cattle feed at the Mas- sachusetts Experiment Station indicated that it is fairly di- gestible and possesses some value as a feed. 300 TROPICAL AGRICULTURE This brief discussion of tropical timbers and woods has taken account merely of a few of the most important and interesting ones, particularly from the viewpoint of their utili- zation in the United States. As already indicated, the Tropics produce a very large number of trees of commercial impor- tance. The Philippine forests alone contain more than 2,500 species of trees, of which at least 400 are used for economic purposes in Manila and elsewhere in the islands. Only 6 or 8 of these species, however, are really of great importance as commercial sources of timber and wood. The timber resources of our other tropical possessions are of much less importance. In Hawaii, practically the only export timber is obtained from ohia and koa, the sandalwood tree being practically extermi- nated. CHAPTER XX LEGUMES AND OTHER FORAGE PLANTS LEGUMES occupy as important a place in the ration of the inhabitants and live stock of the Tropics and in the fertility of the tropical soils as is filled by these plants in northern climates. Many of the familiar legumes of the United States are found growing to some extent in most tropical countries, but the list of leading legumes in the Tropics is quite differ- ent from that of the United States. In tropical countries there is much greater predominance of leguminous trees and shrubs. Many of the large forest and ornamental trees are leguminous. One need only mention tamarind, Poinciana, algaroba, and the numerous species of Acacia, Cassia, Albiz- zia, and Pterocarpus, as well as the numerous shrubby and half-shrubby legumes of lesser economic importance. A great variety of native grasses are used for various economic purposes in the Tropics. There are certain species of grasses, however, which have become of almost world-wide distribution, at least in tropical countries, and attention is given in this chapter chiefly to these important species of _ almost universal distribution rather than to the innumerable native species of grass which are locally utilized for grazing or forage purposes. There is also a rather large list of miscellaneous forage plants and products which merit some attention. In the Ori- ental Tropics nothing is wasted. The American farmer has little conception of the painstaking economy of the Oriental. The strictest economy practiced by the most up-to-date Ameri- can farmer would appear to the Oriental to be little less than 301 302 TROPICAL AGRICULTURE sheer wanton wastefulness. No part or portion of any for- age plant is allowed to go to waste in the Oriental Tropics. All this material is utilized either for human food, as feed for stock, or for some technical purpose, and ultimately every scrap of the by-product is returned to the soil as a source of fertility. All kinds of oil cakes, particularly those obtained from oil palm, coconut, peanut, soy bean, Para rubber, etc., are utilized for feed and for other purposes to the fullest extent. Moreover, such unpromising materials as sisal waste, obtained in the decortication of sisal fibers add to the list of forage materials. Then, too, there is the wide use of ti leaves, banana trunks and leaves, fern trunks, and even the trunks of the papaya tree. All of these materials furnish more or less valuable additions to the list of forage products, LEGUMES Of the various leguminous trees which have been utilized for commercial purposes in the Tropics, the algaroba is per- haps the most important. This tree, in the form in which it occurs in Hawaii, is commonly referred by botanists to Proso- pis juliflora. Much difference in opinion prevails, however, as to the correct botanical name for the tree, and until this point is settled it may as well be known by the scientific name just mentioned. Algaroba is native to Central America and South America, and related forms are of wide occurrence in Arizona, New Mexico, and Texas, where at least two species are known under the common names mesquite and screw bean. It is in Hawaii, however, that the representative tree of this group, known as algaroba, has attained its greatest sig- nificance. The tree reaches a height of 15 to 50 feet and a trunk diameter up to 30 inches. The cream-colored or pale yellow flowers are borne in slender axillary spikes or catkins. The leaves are bi-pinnate and the pods are linear or curved, 4 to 9 inches long, somewhat flattened but thick, and slightly LEGUMES AND OTHER FORAGE PLANTS 303 constricted between the seeds. Both spiny and spineless forms of this tree occur and some indication has been obtained in Hawaii that the spineless condition is to a large extent heredi- tary. Some idea of the ease with which this tree may be dis- tributed may be gained by a brief consideration of its history in Hawaii. The tree was first brought to Hawaii in 1828 and the original tree still stands in the city of Honolulu. It has been propagated almost entirely by seed and for the most part without any attention to artificial distribution. The pods are a favorite food of all kinds of live stock and the seeds have been for the most part distributed through the agency of live stock. The pods possess a firm, fibrous covering which in- closes a sugary pulp of molasses-like consistency in the cen- ter of which is embedded a row of seeds, each seed being inclosed in an extremely hard case. These seed cases are not digested by live stock but are merely softened somewhat by the digestive juices. The seeds, therefore, pass through cattle, horses, and pigs in excellent condition for germination. In fact, it has been found that the best method of planting al- garoba seed consists in feeding the whole pods to cattle or horses and then planting the manure of these animals in places where it is desired to extend the distribution of the tree. In Hawaii, this tree shows by its distribution how effec- tive a method of planting trees may be found in the natural wandering of live stock upon the range. The tree thrives best at sea level in dry regions. Thus far it has not borne crops at altitudes above 2,000 feet. More- over, the algaroba does not do well on the windward or rainy sides of the Pacific Islands. It will endure unusual droughts of long extent. It is not uncommon to see prickly pears and other drought-resistant plants wilt under the stress of severe drought, while algaroba maintains its foliage in good condi- tion and appears not to be greatly affected. Most of the roots of this tree are shallow but a few of them run to great 304 TROPICAL AGRICULTURE depths, sometimes 40 or 50 feet. The tree has been quite widely distributed in Australia, India, and the Philippines, but it has nowhere been so keenly appreciated as in Hawaii. For many years difficulties were experienced in grinding the al- garoba pods. All kinds of special mills and drug mills were tested for this purpose without success. The sugary pulp surrounding the seeds sooner or later causes the accumulation of a hard gum upon the machinery and renders the operation of the machine impossible. The Hawaii Experiment Station gave considerable attention to this matter in the hope of find- ing a way by which the seed could be ground and thus make available the chief source of protein in the pods. Finally a very simple solution of the problem was found. If the pods be kiln-dried they can be readily ground by the ordinary alfalfa meal machine. If, on the other hand, a very fine spray of water is allowed to play upon the rollers during the opera- tion of the machine, the algaroba beans can be readily ground without gumming the machinery. In the natural condition the molasses-like pulp is extremely sticky. When slightly moist- ened, however, or partly dried, the material offers little diffi- culty in grinding. In Hawaii the algaroba occupies an area of 50,000 acres or more, occurring on all the islands of the Territory. As soon as methods for grinding the beans were devised a large industry sprang up in preparing this feed. The industry now amounts to about $400,000 annually. The two companies which are preparing algaroba feed offer about $10 a ton for the algaroba beans in the pod, picked and delivered by the roadside. This makes a considerable source of revenue to men, women, and children of the poorer classes. The ground algaroba feed gives excellent results in rations for cows, horses, mules, pigs, or chickens. Recently some experiments have been carried on in using the ground material as a substitute for coffee. When the algaroba bean (and this term always means the whole pod, LEGUMES AND OTHER FORAGE PLANTS 305 including the bean) is ground and roasted, the sugary pulp is caramelized and the material makes a fine and readily soluble substance of good flavor which can be used as a sub- stitute for coffee. A company has recently been organized to put this material on the market. Carob bean (Ceratonia siliqua) is another leguminous tree of much importance in tropical countries. It is a native of the Mediterranean region. Ordinarily it does not attain as great a size as the algaroba. The tree bears leathery pods 4 to 9 inches long and 1 inch wide. The dark green leaves are simply pinnate. The tree is extremely long-lived. From the age of 20 to 60 years each tree may be expected to bear 200 to 300 pounds of pods annually. The pulp of the pod contains 50 to 60 per cent. of sugar and this material is much used as a stock feed by the Arabs. It has long been imported into England under the name locust bean or St. John’s bread. _The pulp has also been used from the earliest antiquity as a human food and to some extent is made into a jam like tama- rind. The carob bean has been introduced into California, where it appears to thrive well. The pigeon pea, also sometimes elted Porto Rican pea, on account of its wide use as human food among the Porto Ricans, is an erect and much branched legume which, if allowed to grow for several years, becomes semi-shrubby. Its botanical name is Cajanus indicus and the plant is native of India. It is now extensively cultivated throughout the Tropics. The green peas are used as human food in place of garden peas and in India the ripe peas are also used as human food. The ripe peas are favorite feed for chickens. For this pur- pose it is merely necessary to plant the chicken yard to this crop. The plants live as perennials and bear pods the year round which shed their peas so as to make an almost constant supply of feed for chickens. The plant is also useful at the same time as shade for poultry. Pigeon pea is also extensively used as a windbreak and as a green manure. The plant has 306 TROPICAL AGRICULTURE been quite widely grown in Hawaii for the past 12 years. Exceptionally, it is allowed to grow for 8 to Io years. It may attain a diameter of 8 inches, becoming almost a small tree. If not pruned back the plants readily reach a height of 10 feet within 2 years. It yields its first crop about 7 or 8 months from the time of planting. The pods are 2 or 3 inches long and % inch wide and contain 4 to 6 seeds. Many varie- ties of pigeon peas are known, varying in color from light yellow to black and many of them variously speckled. As a low hedge plant the pigeon pea is extremely valuable in tropi- cal countries. When planted about gardens and pruned, it develops into a dense hedge somewhat resembling the privet hedge in general appearance. In this form it is useful chiefly in protecting young seedlings and delicate plants from the effects of the constant trade winds. It is possible to obtain a dense pigeon-pea hedge 2 or 3 feet in thickness and 3 to 6 feet in height. As a green manure plant it gives excellent results. For this purpose it is perhaps best planted broadcast or by drill, using about 2 bushels of seed per acre. The plants are readily plowed under after they attain a height of 2 or 3 feet and the vegetable substance promptly decays into a form available as plant food. The pigeon pea is fairly free from serious insect pests except the small blue butterfly, the caterpillars of which live in the pods. Chick pea (Cicer arietinum), also native of India, is much more widely cultivated in the Tropics than in northern cli- mates. It is commonly called garbanzo by the Porto Ricans and Mexicans who are particularly fond of the peas. In India, the chick pea is cultivated in large areas, especially for its seed, which is used as a stock feed and to some extent for adulterating coffee. The chick pea is an annual, attaining the height of 12 to 18 inches. The fuzzy pods contain only I or 2 peas. The soy bean (Glycine hispida), a legume native to China and Japan, is a familiar crop in most of the Southern and Cen- LEGUMES AND OTHER FORAGE PLANTS 3807 tral States. The soy bean shows a great variety of form and habit of growth. Some varieties are raised exclusively for the bean, and these forms shed the most of their foliage before the beans are mature. Some of these dwarf forms do not stand higher than 8 to 1o inches. Other varieties are better adapted as forage plants and attain a height of 2 or 3 feet, some of them showing a trailing habit. In tropical countries the soy bean is raised chiefly for the production of soy-bean oil and soya sauce. The crop is widely cultivated by the Japanese in Hawaii, but the great local demand for soy beans by the soya sauce factories makes it necessary to import an additional 2,500,000 pounds of the beans annually. The dwarf early-maturing varieties produce from 600 to 1,000 pounds of beans per acre and the yield of the late, tall varieties is nearly twice as great. The velvet bean is one of the favorite leguminous crops ‘of the Tropics, several varieties being used particularly as a green manure crop. The velvet bean is now referred to the genus Stizolobium. In Hawaii a number of varieties.of the velvet bean have proved to be satisfactory, particularly the Florida velvet bean, the Mauritius or Bengal bean, and the Lyon velvet bean. The last named variety comes from the Philippines, where the beans are much used as human food. They resemble Lima beans in appearance and flavor. As a green manuring crop the Lyon velvet bean has given perhaps the best results. It matures in about 165 days from planting and yields an immense crop of green material for plowing under. The crop is also used as a green feed or hay for cattle. It is little affected by serious insect pests. In tropical countries, as in northern climates, alfalfa is one of the most important herbaceous legumes. It occupies a peculiarly important place in agriculture in the Tropics for the reason that the ordinary clovers, such as white, red, and alsike clovers, do not thrive well in tropical countries except at high altitudes. All the well known varieties of alfalfa 308 TROPICAL AGRICULTURE have been grown in the Tropics. In general, Turkestan and Arabian alfalfa have given better results in point of yield and in quick growth after cutting than the common alfalfa. Alfalfa may be depended upon in tropical climates to yield a crop each month the year round. It is therefore not so necessary to cure the crop for hay as in cold climates, since it is possible to secure a continuous supply of green feed from a plantation of alfalfa. Under favorable conditions 13 crops have been obtained in 12 months. It is particularly desirable in planting alfalfa in the Trop- ics to avoid infestation with dodder as far as possible. _Dod- der, like the alfalfa, of course, grows the year round and spreads with sufficient rapidity to be a very serious pest if once introduced into a field of alfalfa. While it is customary to harvest 10 to 13 crops of alfalfa per year in tropical cli- mates, the total annual acre yield is not higher than is obtained in favorable localities in Arizona, New Mexico, and California. If it were not for the unusually serious attacks of plant lice, to which cowpeas seem to be particularly susceptible, this crop would be perhaps the most valuable leguminous crop for forage and green manuring in most tropical countries. In some localities, however, the planting of cowpeas is a hazard on account of the frightful scourge of plant lice. A fine crop of cowpeas may be entirely destroyed in the course of 10 days. In some instances, the whole surface of the plants, stems, and leaves are completely covered with plant lice. Lady birds and parasitic insects multiply with great rapidity, but these natural enemies of the plant lice seldom succeed in destroying them before the cowpea crop is ruined. In general, it has been found that the drier and warmer regions and seasons are best adapted to this crop and it should preferably be grown without irrigation. The largest yields of seed and forage are obtained when the crop is drilled in rows and well cultivated between the rows. LEGUMES AND OTHER FORAGE PLANTS 309 Jack bean (Canavalia ensiformis) is an annual, bushy legume, native to the West Indies and attaining a height of 2 to 5 feet. It bears handsome, purple flowers and sword- like pods 9 to 15 inches long and an inch or more wide, with about 12 large pure white beans in each pod. The beans bear a brown hilum. The jack bean is cultivated in the West In- dies, southern United States, Java, Hawaii, and quite gen- erally throughout the Tropics, chiefly as a green manuring crop. The jack bean is particularly well favored for growth in tropical countries on account of its hardiness and relative immunity to insect attacks. Plant lice seldom appear in in- jurious numbers on the jack bean. The plant yields from 16 to 20 tons of green forage per acre and about 1,200 pounds of seed. Usually only one crop is obtained from a single planting. In fact, the plant is considered an annual. Occa- sionally, however, a good rattoon crop has been obtained, particularly if the first cutting is made before the plants are mature. Jack bean is particularly valuable as a green manure crop for planting between rows of sugar cane, coffee, rubber, and sisal, where it can be plowed under as a source of plant food. The plant is quite strongly resistant to drought but is not equal to velvet beans in this regard. Perhaps the largest yields are obtained by planting the beans in rows 18 inches apart and 6 to 10 inches apart in the individual row. The sword bean (C. gladiata) has often been grouped to- gether with the jack bean, which it closely resembles. This plant is widely cultivated in tropical Asia, Africa, Hawaii, and generally in the Tropics. The plant closely resembles the jack bean, but the pods are somewhat shorter and wider and the beans are either red, gray, or white. The sword bean is somewhat used as a vegetable, the young, green pods and beans being employed for this purpose, especially in In- dia, Ceylon, Burma, Japan, and Mauritius. Otherwise, the sword bean is chiefly used as a cover crop and as forage for 310 TROPICAL AGRICULTURE cattle. For the latter purpose it is superior to the jack bean, which often possesses a bitter flavor. Crotalaria, under various specific forms, occurs everywhere in the Tropics. One of these species is sunn hemp (C. juncea), which is discussed under fiber plants but is also much used as a cover crop. This is a slender, erect species, with conspicuous yellow flowers. One of the most important forms of Crotalaria for use as a green manure in Hawaii is C. sal- tiana, which has in recent years given a good account of itself for this purpose. This form of Crotalaria is unusually hardy. It thrives either in wet or dry districts. It will make a fairly good crop under a rainfall of 20 inches and thrives abundantly under a rainfall of 200 inches. The seed will germinate promptly without attention after scattering broad- cast upon the soil. This Crotalaria is not useful for feed but is an exceptionally good green manuring crop.. It is not at- tacked by insects, except the blue butterfly, which merely reduces the number of pods. The seed of the plant can be readily obtained by offering children 10 cents a pound for it. This species of Crotalaria has been recently used with pro- nounced success as a green manuring crop in Hawaii and elsewhere. The kudzu bean (Pueraria thunbergiana) of Japan and China is quite hardy outside of the Tropics. It is a perennial legume with large starchy roots. The plants grow only a few feet during the first season, but may reach a length of 40 to 75 feet during the second year. It is propagated in Florida by cuttings or seed and is used as a cattle pasture and as an arbor vine. Moreover, in Japan a fine grade of starch is extracted from the roots for special use in con- fectionery. Kudzu bean yields a heavy crop of hay which contains about 17 per cent. of protein and 30 per cent. of carbohydrates. The adzuki bean (Phaseolus angularis) of southeastern Asia is widely grown for human food in China, Japan, and LEGUMES AND OTHER FORAGE PLANTS 311 India. It is often cultivated in rotation between crops of tice. The adzuki bean is an erect, bushy legume 1 to 3 feet high. The yield averages 30 to 40 bushels of beans per acre. Guar (Cyamopsis tetragonoloba) of the East Indies is an erect, single-stemmed or branching annual legume. It is used in India chiefly as a green feed for cattle, but the dry beans are also used in fattening cattle and the green beans as human food, especially in curries. Guar is extremely resistant to drought. It grows 3 to 6 feet high. This plant is cultivated to some extent in Oklahoma, Texas, California, and other Southern States. Bonavist bean, also called lablab bean (Dolichos lablab), of India, is a vigorous, perennial, woody, climbing legume, with white, purple, or red flowers, flat pods, and white or black beans with a conspicuous hilum. The pods, together with the beans, are consumed as human food by the Orientals, especially during the young and tender stages. Lablab bean gives some promise as a hay and forage crop in Texas, Florida, and Cuba. Kulthi (D. biflorus) of India is an annual running vine cultivated in India chiefly as human food and also for cattle. The dried beans are used as human food, while the hay is fed to cattle. As a forage crop this plant has given good results in Texas. In Hawaii the yield averages about 1,400 pounds of seed per acre. Moth bean (Phaseolus aconitifolius) of India is an annual, densely branching legume about 18 inches tall, with a spread of 2 or 3 feet. The moth bean is grown in India for the dried beans which are used as human food. In the Pan- handle district of Texas, this bean yields 2 tons of hay per acre, which, in most respects, has proved to be superior to cowpea hay. The winged bean (Psophocarpus tetragonolobus) of Malaya is a vigorous, perennial climber with showy blue flowers and curious square pods 4 to 9 inches long. The green pods and 312 TROPICAL AGRICULTURE beans are highly relished as human food in India. The plant is also cultivated in Burma for its large starchy roots. Mungo bean (Phaseolus mungo) is a small, herbaceous legume native to India. It is now quite generally cultivated in tropical countries. There are many varieties of mungo, the seeds varying in color from red to yellow or green. The seeds are extremely small and are borne in slender pods. The plant is erect or semi-erect in habit, attaining a height of 1 to 2 feet. Mungo beans are used in rotation between rice crops in Japan, where the seeds are also used in preparing a fondant for fine confectionery. The bean is also exten- sively used as human food in India. Moreover, in Hawaii, the mungo bean appears to be a promising crop. A closely related species (P. semierectus) is coming into use in Hawaii as a green manure. This plant is a much branched creeper, bearing handsome dark purple flowers and _ long, slender, terete pods containing minute beans. Under favor- able conditions it produces a large amount of vegetable sub- stance and seems to have much value as a green manure crop. GRASSES Among the numerous grasses cultivated in tropical coun- tries, a prominent place must be given to Para grass (Panicum barbinode), a native of South America. This species is com- monly called Panicum grass in Hawaii, where it was intro- duced from Fiji in 1902, after which it became rapidly distributed over the Territory. Para grass is a coarse, long- stemmed grass which readily roots at the joints. It is widely cultivated throughout the Tropics as a forage grass and for this purpose is extremely valuable. After a planting has once been established it requires little or no attention, except to cut a crop at frequent intervals. It is not drought re- sistant, and therefore does not yield heavily in dry regions unless irrigation water is applied. The Para grass does not LEGUMES AND OTHER FORAGE PLANTS 313 seed profusely and in many localities the seed seems to be sterile. For this reason it is almost universally propagated by sections of the long, jointed stems which strike root read- ily when planted in the soil. Para grass is not only valuable for green forage and hay but has recently been employed in Hawaii as a green manure crop. The pineapple growers have found that if segments of the stems of Para grass are scattered broadcast over a field of pineapples after the second rattoon crop of fruit has been removed, it is possible to cut up the pineapple leaves and plant the Para grass simultaneously by running over the field with a disk harrow heavily loaded. For forage purposes Para grass is commonly propagated by planting the sections of the stem a few inches apart in rows I to 2 feet apart. The Guinea grass (P. maximum) is a related species, na- tive to Africa, but of quite different habit of growth. This grass has become widely distributed throughout the West Indies and various other parts of the Tropics. It is readily propagated by seed or by division of the roots. The Guinea grass has an upright habit of growth and sometimes attains a height of 6 to 10 feet. Such coarse growth is run through a feed cutter before being used as a forage for cattle or horses. From 4 to 8 cuttings annually may be obtained. In propagat- ing this grass by other methods than by seed it is customary to plant root divisions in rows 5 feet apart and about 2 feet apart in the row. The Guinea grass has the habit of a bunch grass. Rhodes grass (Chloris gayana), of South Africa, is,an ex- tremely valuable hay grass in tropical and semi-tropical re- gions. For this purpose it is largely used not only in Africa but also in Australia, Hawaii, and various other tropical re- gions. A planting of Rhodes grass will yield satisfactory crops of hay for a period of 7 to 10 years, after which the planting must be renewed. Rhodes grass is extremely re- sistant to drought, It has an upright habit of growth, reaching 314 TROPICAL AGRICULTURE a height of 2 to 5 feet. In newly planted fields the plants put out horizontal runners which may extend 6 to 8 feet from the parent plants. These runners root at the joints and thus aid the rapid extension of the plant. The stems of Rhodes grass are fine and the quality of hay appears to be excellent. The seed may be sown broadcast or preferably by drill. About 2 pounds of seed are required for an acre. Natal red-top (Tricholana rosea) is an erect, perennial grass with graceful, rose-pink, flowering panicles. When in full flowering it is one of the most beautiful of grass crops. Natal red-top is primarily a hay grass and does not with- stand overgrazing. The grass will reach a height of 2 feet about 3 months from the time of seeding. The young growth is tender but old stems become tough and wiry. Unless the season is unusually dry, from 4 to 6 crops may be expected annually. On the Island of Kauai, Natal red-top has been found to be a very valuable grass when planted together with water grass. Water grass (Paspalum dilatatum), a native of tropical America, is one of the most valuable and important grasses in tropical countries. It was introduced from Australia into Hawaii about 30 years ago, where it has become a favorite grazing grass on the cattle ranches. At sea level, especially on the leeward coasts of the islands in the trade-wind belt, water grass makes a good growth only during and following the rainy season. The best results are obtained from this grass in regions where the rainfall ranges from 60 to 120 inches annually. As a grazing grass it has given an excel- lent account of itself wherever it has been used. On the Island of Kauai, it has been found that water grass, planted at distances of 6 to 10 feet apart both ways in dense areas of the worthless Hilo grass (P. conjugatum), will crowd out and entirely displace the Hilo grass within 2 or 3 years. The seed of the water grass is often of poor quality. In some tests only 25 per cent. or even less is capable of germina- LEGUMES AND OTHER FORAGE PLANTS 315 tion. For this reason it is necessary to use 6 to 10 pounds in seeding an acre. Moreover, a reasonable amount of moisture is necessary for the successful germination of the seed. Bermuda grass is an extremely hardy, vigorous, and useful grass in tropical countries. In Hawaii, it was introduced in 1835 and now covers a larger area in the Territory than any other single species of grass. In Hawaii, the Bermuda grass is commonly known as manienie, from the Spaniard Marin, who is supposed to have introduced it. It is not valuable as a hay grass. In fact, it seldom reaches a height suitable for cutting. Thousands of acres of grazing land, however, would be practically barren if it were not for the Bermuda grass. Moreover, Bermuda grass is the only grass which has proved satisfactory for lawn purposes. It remains green the year round and is extremely sturdy in contesting the ground with weeds. On the Island of Lanai, 5,000 acres of wind-eroded soil was saved by planting Bermuda grass. This experiment was interesting as showing the great resistance of Bermuda grass to drought. The 5,000 acres of land had been eroded to a depth of several feet by the action of the fierce trade winds which continuously blow through the channel between Maui and Molokai. As a last resort, Bermuda grass was tried as a possible means of preventing further erosion. Sec- tions of the stem of this grass were planted at distances of 8 feet apart both ways over the whole area. The rainfall in this region is extremely low and for a period of 2 years it was still doubtful whether the grass would grow. The whole area, however, is now completely covered with a dense mat of Bermuda grass serving as good grazing ground for cattle and sheep. A large form of Bermuda grass which has been called giant Bermuda grass was recently found in Mississippi, and has been distributed from there to various tropical and subtropical countries. It is propagated in the same way as the ordinary 316 TROPICAL AGRICULTURE form of Bermula grass, namely, by stem cuttings. Some stems of the giant Bermuda grass were received by the Hawaii Sta- tion and planted in a dry locality on the station grounds. The plant made an astonishingly rapid growth, throwing out run- ners 10 feet long within a period of 2 months. From this plat material was sent to several ranchers, who revorted good results in both dry and wet districts. Sudan grass during the past few years has become familiar to all readers of agricultural literature on account of the great promise which it has given, especially in the Southern States. This grass, as is generally known, is essentially a variety of Johnson grass but without its underground root- stock. It is native of Africa. The grass was made the subject of experiment at the Hawaii Experiment Station, where it grew to a height of 5 feet and began flowering within 55 days from seeding. The seed has been distributed to all of the islands and favorable reports have been received re- garding it from all localities except those at considerable alti- tudes. Neither the Sudan grass nor the closely related Tunis grass appear to thrive well at high altitudes. The Sudan grass rattoons readily provided a reasonable amount of moisture is furnished. One of the difficulties of growing the grass for seed in the Tropics is the extreme fondness which birds show for this seed. Sudan grass grows to a height of 6 to 11 feet, but even the coarse stems of the rankest forms of the grass appear to be highly palatable to horses and cat- tle. The Tunis grass is a closely related variety, very similar to the Sudan grass, but it has a long narrow panicle. MISCELLANEOUS FORAGE PLANTS Mention has already been made at the beginning of this chapter of some of the miscellaneous plants and materials used for forage purposes in tropical countries. It might be well to give details regarding a few of these miscellaneous LEGUMES AND OTHER FORAGE PLANTS 317 plants which are of special significance in certain tropical regions. The prickly pear is familiar to all persons who have trav- eled in the southwestern part of the United States. The ordi- nary prickly form of this plant is not considered satisfactory as a cattle food until the spines have been burned off. Vari- ous methods have been devised in Arizona and elsewhere for economically burning off the spines. Several species of Opun- tia, or prickly pear, occur in large areas in tropical countries. In parts of Australia the plant has become a veritable scourge and large rewards have been offered for a satisfactory means of eradicating it. In Hawaii the prickly pear bears two forms of fruit— red and white. These fruit are of a rather agreeable flavor and are somewhat used as human food. It requires extreme care in preparing them for use, however, on account of the danger of getting the minute spines mixed with the fruit. The prickly pear is one of the important forage crops on some of the cattle ranches in Hawaii. There are about 3,000 acres of this plant on the Island of Maui, and 10,000 acres or more on the leeward side of Hawaii. Cattle and horses eat this cactus chiefly during the dry season when other feed is want- ing. It is considered an emergency feed, but during the past 15 years two or three droughts have occurred in which cattle were maintained for several months almost exclusively on the prickly pear. All tender parts of the plants within reach of the cattle were eaten by them and it became necessary for the cowboys to cut off higher branches in order to save the cat- tle. The prickly pear in Hawaii is extremely spiny, but cattle and horses have learned to eat the plants apparently without harm. Recently attention has been given to a smaller and almost spineless prickly pear which was introduced into Hawaii by Marin. This species attains a height of 6 to 8 feet and is densely branched. The slabs commonly have a length of 8 to 318 TROPICAL AGRICULTURE 10 inches and a width of 3 to 4 inches. The species appears to be more resistant than the common spiny form of prickly pear. In a comparative test of Marin cactus, ordinary spiny prickly pear, and various varieties of Burbank spineless cac- tus on the Island of Kahoolawe, the Marin cactus was the only one which successfully established itself. Moreover, the Marin cactus, under ordinary conditions, grows 3 or 4 times as fast as the common forms of spineless cactus. Honohono is the Hawaiian name for Commelina nudiflora, a succulent plant closely related to the common Tradescantia or wandering-jew. It grows as a weed in practically all of the rainy districts of the Territory. In fact, on some of the sugar plantations it has been found impossible to control or eradi- cate it by any other method than the use of a spray of ar- senite of soda. Honohono has been found to be an extremely valuable feed for dairy cows. For this purpose it is perhaps most extensively utilized in the region about Glenwood on the Island of Hawaii. There are several thousand acres covered with honohono in that region. It has been found that the plant rattoons very promptly after cutting and that the yield is readily maintained, particularly if a light dressing of manure is applied immediately after cutting. In some experiments recently conducted in that section, it was found that 12 crops per year could be obtained, totaling a yield of 200 tons of green material per acre. Judged by its chemical composition, hono- hono is not particularly nutritious since it contains about 90 per cent. of water. It is an extremely valuable forage plant, however, in the section where it is used chiefly as a dairy feed, for the reason that most grasses, except perhaps Para grass, do not thrive well in the heavy rainfall of that district. The average rainfall of the district in question is about 250 inches per year. C. benghalensis is much used for the same purposes in Ceylon. Rainy districts in the Tropics are noted for the immense and graceful tree ferns which develop under such conditions. LEGUMES AND OTHER FORAGE PLANTS 319 These ferns reach a height of 6 to 20 feet or more, rarely 50 feet, and a trunk diameter of 6 to 12 inches. These immense trunks are filled with a soft starchy pulp. An analysis of the common tree fern of Hawaii (Cibotiwm chamissot) shows that the trunk contains 69.38 per cent. moisture, 1.12 per cent. protein, 4.23 per cent. sugar, and 20.9 per cent. starch. In the region about the volcano Kilauea large forests of these tree ferns occur and in this region a rather novel use has been made of the trunks, particularly in feeding pigs. It was well known that the trunks were not particularly palatable in an uncooked condition. Large cooking vats were con- structed and put in use for preparing this material as a hog feed. For a distance of 3 or 4 miles about the living crater of the volcano there are numerous cracks from which live steam issues constantly. It was soon found that by preparing a grill and placing it across one of these cracks the immense fern trunks could be placed upon the grill and allowed to remain until they were thoroughly cooked in live steam. The value of fern roots as a pig feed is well understood in Oregon and Washington, where pigs are pastured on the large areas of cut-over lands in which the bracken fern grows profusely. In all sugar-cane districts, cane tops or cane trash are an important source of forage. When the sticks of cane are cut and cleaned for the mill, the leaves and tips of the stems are cut off. This material contains 74.47 per cent. of water, 1.54 per cent. of protein, 0.42 per cent. of fat, 14.71 per cent. of nitrogen-free extract, 7.31 per cent. of fiber, and 1.55 per cent. of ash. The ratio of the weight of cane tops and cane trash to the weight of the sticks of cane has never been very accurately determined, and under different conditions varies considerably. It may be fairly estimated, however, that with a yield of 50 tons of cane per acre there are from 10 to 25 tons of cane tops and leaves. This indicates at once the enormous amount of forage material which is available in the neighborhood of sugar-cane plantations. 320 TROPICAL AGRICULTURE As already indicated in the chapter on sugar cane, all this material has been burned on many plantations, particularly in Hawaii. It is only recently that the frightful wastefulness of this practice has been realized. Cane tops and trash are now largely plowed under, but a vast amount of material is still available as stock feed. Cane tops or even the whole plant may be ensiled as easily as corn or any other common silage material. No difficulty is experienced in fermentation or spoiling if the material is handled properly in satisfactory silos. Cane silage develops no higher percentage of acid than corn silage. The material when properly fermented has a sweet-acid, and very agreeable flavor. The odor is not so unpleasant as that of corn silage. Cane tops or the whole cane may be made into silage by itself, or mixed with Para grass or other available materials. In Florida considerable attention has been given to this matter, and particularly with Japanese cane, a variety grown in Florida almost exclusively for forage purposes. Japanese cane is well adapted for use as a forage crop in all of the Gulf States. It has been found to furnish also satisfactory pasturage if stock are not allowed to remain in the field too late in the spring. In Florida, Japa- nese cane has proved to be one of the cheapest sources of silage. It may also be harvested and cured like corn fodder. It is most nutritious if allowed to stand until the danger of frost appears. The yield of Japanese cane in Florida has varied from 5 to 27 tons per acre. Silos did not come into much use in the Tropics until quite recently. Their importance, however, is gradually increasing. In Hawaii, for example, many silos have been built the past 5 years. These silos are of various types, some of them being constructed of reénforced concrete, while others are in the form of pit silos. A great variety of material has been used for silage, including alfalfa, cowpeas, sorghum, corn, sweet potato vines, Para grass, various other grasses, and even prickly pear. On the Island of Lanai some success has been LEGUMES AND OTHER FORAGE PLANTS 321 had in making a mixed silage composed of prickly pear and wild grasses. The slabs of the prickly pear furnished moisture and obviated the necessity of using water which would have been required if wild grasses had been used alone. During the process of fermentation it was found that the spines on the prickly pear softened and became flexible and leathery. CHAPTER XXI LIVE STOCK AND ANIMAL PRODUCTS IN THE TROPICS THE live-stock industry of tropical countries differs in many respects from the same industry In cold climates. In general, live stock is of less commercial importance in tropical coun- tries as compared with the values of plant products. While nearly all tropical countries abound in animals which are suit- able for various domestic purposes, there has never been, until recently, any great organized effort to develop the various phases of live stock along commercial lines. Travelers who are familiar with the various improved breeds of live stock are ordinarily impressed rather unfavorably with the appear- ance of the domestic animals which they find in the Tropics. Many newcomers from cold climates believe that a great re- form should be started in this matter and that this reform should at once involve the importation of superior sires of our improved breeds of stock for the improvement and breed- ing up of tropical live stock. Enthusiasm of this form, how- ever, should not be allowed to carry one away to extreme measures, for the reason that the breeds of live stock now found in the Tropics have come about as a natural adjust- ment to tropical climates and are likely to withstand the cli- mate and give a better account of themselves than would the improved breeds imported from cold climates. Numer- ous blunders have been made in the attempt at the wholesale and sudden reformation of the live stock industry of the Tropics. These blunders have invariably been expensive and discouraging. The common breeds of live stock when trans- ported to tropical climates fall a prey to various diseases to 322 LIVE STOCK AND ANIMAL PRODUCTS 3823 which they are highly susceptible, or are unable to thrive and yield a profit to the owners under the conditions of feed and pasturage which prevail in most tropical countries. In the improvement of animal industry in the Tropics, therefore, it is perhaps wise to proceed very slowly and to admit that perhaps one important reason for the existence of the present tropical breeds of cattle is their superior adaptability to the conditions under which they must live. DAIRYING It may be well to take Hawaii as an example of the con- ditions which must be met in carrying on the dairy industry in tropical climates. There are certain obvious advantages in such climates over cold climates. Green feed, for example, can be grown the year round. Alfalfa will mature a crop every month, and in unusually favorable years 13 crops may be grown per year. This furnishes, of course, an abundance of excellent green material for milk production. Alfalfa is by no means the only crop which may be grown for green feeding to dairy cows. Sorghums, Para grass, corn, and a great variety of forage grasses may be grown as soiling crops for dairy cows. In many localities it appears not to be neces- sary to produce hay in order to get fairly satisfactory results in milk yield. In the neighborhood of sugar plantations, endless quanti- ties of cane tops are available for green feed at the cut- ting season. At higher altitudes some of the smaller va- rieties of sugar cane, particularly the Japanese cane, may be grown specifically as a cattle feed. Sugar cane may be read- ily used as a silage crop and makes an excellent and palatable silage. In the matter, therefore, of green fodder the advantage lies all with the Tropics as compared with cold climates. In al- most every other respect, however, the Tropics are at a dis- O24 TROPICAL AGRICULTURE advantage in the matter.of milk production. Cows give less milk in tropical climates. It is rare that cows of the best breeding give more than 5,000 pounds of milk per year in a tropical climate. The yield is more likely to be from 4 to 7 quarts per day. Moreover, all grains are higher in price than in cold climates and cultivation of the soil and the pro- duction of green crops are more expensive than is the case in any of the well known dairy districts of the United States. The prevalence of insect pests, particularly the horn fly, is another large disadvantage of the Tropics. The horn fly pre- vails in many tropical countries in numbers unheard of in the dairy sections of the mainland, and the constant annoy- ance of these pests helps to reduce the condition and the milk yields of dairy cows. In consequence of these various disad- vantages, the cost of producing milk in the Tropics is con- siderably higher than in cold climates. The same tendency may be observed on the mainland of the United States, milk costing more and more as one proceeds from the North to the South. In Honolulu, for example, it is questionable whether the dairyman can make a reasonable profit on sani- tary milk delivered to the consumer at a lower price than 15 cents per quart. It must be remembered, however, that tropical countries do not depend for their milk upon the dairy breeds of cattle with which we are familiar. In fact, most of the milk used by the inhabitants of the Tropics does not come from the ordinary humpless, taurine cattle with which we are familiar. In India, Asia Minor, and Africa, milk is obtained from the zebu, the water buffalo, sheep, goat, and mare. The water buffalo, or carabao, as it is known in the Philippines, gives a large yield of milk of a fairly high fat content. In a num- ber of localities, some effort has been made to improve the milking qualities of the buffalo by the ordinary methods of selective breeding. Considerable success has been achieved in this work. In Poona, India, for example, a strain of buffalo LIVE STOCK AND ANIMAL PRODUCTS 325 was obtained which yielded 40 quarts of milk per day of high fat content. Even with this enormous milk yield, however, the animals were not considered economic for commercial dairy purposes. Their feeding capacity was found to be far greater than their milk-yielding capacity and the cost of maintaining the animals on rations which would allow the continued production of high milk yield proved to be pro- hibitive. The zebu yield, for the most part, 2 to 10 quarts of milk daily with a fat content of about 4.5 per cent. Hybrids be- tween the zebu and taurine cattle sometimes give even less milk. In Egypt and quite generally in tropical Africa, the zebu is used as a work and draft animal and the milk which may be obtained is only a secondary consideration. Under such conditions, it would be unreasonable to expect any high milk yield. Little or no effort has ever been made to improve - the milk-yielding capacity of the zebu for the reason, as just indicated, that this animal is everywhere considered of prime importance as a work animal. Throughout Egypt and tropical Africa also, goats’ milk is widely used. Under tropical con- ditions, the milch goat yields from 3 to 5 quarts of milk per day. Goat milk is also extensively used in Cuba, Porto Rico, Central America, South America, Malta, Cyprus, southern Europe, Asia Minor, and quite generally throughout the Trop- ics. As is well known also, these animals are driven along the streets of the towns and milked before the door of the customer. The customer is thus assured of a perfectly fresh milk supply, but this method of delivering milk does not lend itself to the development of any large commercial dairy in- dustry. In fact, there seems to be no such insistent demand for commercial dairying in the Tropics as in the colder cli- mates ; the per capita consumption of milk is less, and the mod- ern extensive development of the condensed milk industry offers a fairly satisfactory milk supply at prices with which the dairymen in the Tropics could not compete. 326 TROPICAL AGRICULTURE BEEF CATTLE The term cattle has been rather widely and loosely used by various writers in referring to the development of animal industry in the Tropics. The term is here used to mean the collective group of familiar breeds of beef cattle which form the basis of the commercial beef industry in the great beef- producing countries of America and Europe. The term cattle, as used in India, refers, of course, to the zebu or Brahmin cattle. The almost universal presence of the zebu and buffalo in the Tropics and their great resistance to tropical diseases has made it seem unnecessary in many of the tropical countries to experiment with the breeds of humpless cattle with which we are familiar. Nevertheless, certain tropical countries have offered unusually favorable conditions for the commercial de- velopment of a beef cattle industry based upon the common beef breeds, such as Hereford, Shorthorn, Angus, Devon, etc. The cattle industry of Hawaii, for example, is fairly well de- veloped. The largest ranch in the Territory is devoted chiefly to the production of Herefords, the manager of which has be- come a rather noted breeder. Another ranch has found great- est profit in raising Devons and has gradually built up a herd of pure-bred Devons of somewhat unusual merit. One or two other ranches have preferred to devote their energies to Shorthorns and have succeeded excellently well with this breed. According to the most recent statistics, the number of cattle in Brazil is about 9,000,000; in Mexico, 5,000,000; and in Uruguay, 8,000,000. Neither the zebu nor hybrid zebus have ever acquired any great importance in the cattle industry of South America. Fairly good representatives of the ordi- nary beef breeds of cattle are to be found throughout Cen- tral America, South America, and the West Indies. In the West Indies, however, most cattle contain some trace of zebu blood. From India, the zebu spread eastward through Siam LIVE STOCK AND ANIMAL PRODUCTS 327 and Cochin China to southern China and the Malay States and neighboring islands. It was also carried westward through Persia, Arabia, and all of tropical Africa. There are, therefore, very few taurine or humpless cattle in any of these countries. Apparent mixtures of the zebu and taurine cattle are found throughout tropical countries and these hy- brid strains are probably of great antiquity. There have been frequent importations of taurine cattle also, particularly in re- cent years, into all parts of the Tropics and these animals have been used to some extent in crossing with the native races of zebus or hybrid zebus. In the Belgian Congo, satisfactory results have recently been obtained from the introduction of Belgian and Brittany cattle. These animals were used for crossing on the native cattle and the hybrids show not only a remarkable degree of resistance to tropical diseases but a rather better form and -milk-yielding capacity than those of the native cattle. Simi- lar importations are being made into nearly all tropical coun- tries in the attempt to improve the native strains of cattle. It should be remembered in connection with any discussion of the cattle industry of the Tropics that the inhabitants of the Tropics look upon cattle as work animals more than as a source of meat or milk. For this reason the demand for beef and milk in the tropical countries is immeasurably lower in proportion to the number of inhabitants than in cold cli- mates. The Buddhist and Brahmin population are almost strictly vegetarian and consider their cattle as sacred. In In- dia, therefore, aside from the British or other temporary resi- dents, the Mohammedans are the chief meat eaters and they eat zebu, buffalo, camel, and other food animals. ZEBU (Bos Indicus) The zebu is readily distinguished from taurine cattle by the possession of a hump on the withers, usually drooping 328 TROPICAL AGRICULTURE ears, and commonly a white ring around the fetlock. The zebu is also called Indian cattle, Indian ox, Brahmin cattle, sacred cattle of India, and by other names. The color of the zebu may be white, brindle, tawny, spotted with brown or black, dark with a bluish tinge, and of numerous other shades. There are all possible horn variations, even the condition of hornlessness. The zebu weighs up to 1,500 pounds. The milk yield in all cases is low. The zebu is readily crossed with taurine cattle and the hybrids are fertile. The zebu and even hybrids, with no more than an eighth of zebu blood, have commonly been found to be immune to Texas fever. The hide is thick, the hair rather sparse, and cattle ticks do not readily attach themselves. For this reason im- portations of Brahmin cattle have been made in Texas, Flor- ida, and elsewhere in the United States for the purpose of developing a strain of cattle immune to Texas fever. The zebu probably does not occur anywhere as a wild species. It has spread, however, throughout the Tropics in a bewildering variety of races—small, large, with large hump, almost with- out hump, and in almost endless color patterns. Many of these forms, as already indicated, are probably hybrids be- tween the zebu and taurine cattle. The immense importance of the zebu in British India may be gathered from the fact that according to admittedly imperfect census returns there are at least 95,000,000 of these cattle in that country. A pure strain of zebu was recently introduced into the Bel- gian Congo, where it was acclimatized without difficulty. In Persia, most “cattle’ are zebus, although there are a few European cattle and hybrids to be seen occasionally. Arabian cattle are all zebus. In a strain of zebu near Aden, an un- usually high milk yield has been developed. In India, there are very few cattle without humps. The zebus or Brahmin cattle are used for oxen in teams, as pack and riding animals, and for milk. In Ceylon, the zebu is used on freight wagons and farm implements. The zebu is also commonly used for LIVE STOCK AND ANIMAL PRODUCTS 329 the same purpose in Burma, Sumatra, and Java. In Porto Rico, nearly all cattle have some zebu blood and the same should be said for Central America and West Indies, including Cuba. Throughout tropical Africa, from the Cape to Cairo, the zebu prevails in a great variety of forms but is largely re- placed by European cattle in Cape Colony. Some of these forms are practically without hump, particularly the Egyp- tian cattle. In Madagascar, there are at least two well recog- nized races of zebu. In the French colonies of West Africa, there are about 1,500,000 zebus and this animal is considered of fundamental importance as a source of power for agricul- tural development. As a work animal the zebu has every- where shown his superiority over taurine cattle, at least in tropical countries. This is due not only to his greater resist- ance to tropical diseases but to a generally more perfect adap- tation to tropical conditions. The zebu ox will keep in good condition where the taurine ox will be miserably poor. The zebu appears to be less nervous and stronger and more.endur- ing, at least under tropical conditions. In Cuba, for example, a special effort is being made at present to improve the size and excellence of the work oxen of the country. Practi- cally all heavy hauling, plowing, and other farm operations are done by oxen. ‘These oxen are crosses between the zebu and Jerseys or other breeds of cattle. Their ability to do hard work under varying tropical conditions is sufficiently attested by the fact that practically every ox team in Cuba is in ex- cellent physical condition. Likewise in Porto Rico a determined effort has been made to improve the native cattle by crossing with zebu blood. The purpose of this work, as with similar work in Cuba, is to in- crease the working efficiency of the draft ox. Pure-bred zebu sires were crossed upon Shorthorn, Hereford, and Brahmin cows. The Shorthorn and Hereford blood appears to broaden the frame of the hybrid somewhat and give more 330 TROPICAL AGRICULTURE depth of body. The Porto Rico Experiment Station has already obtained 300 head of progeny in these crossing experiments and has had opportunity to observe the habits and char- acters of the hybrid animals. In all cases the zebu appears to add constitutional vigor, active movement, strong bone, straight legs, and hard hoofs. The hybrids have been found to be almost completely immune to tick infestation and show a remarkable natural adaptation to tropical heat and short pasturage. BUFFALO (Bos Bubalus) The buffalo of India and the Oriental Tropics is now an important domesticated animal in Spain, Italy, southeastern Europe, Africa, India, Burma, the Philippine Islands, China, Formosa, Hawaii, and various Pacific Islands. The buffalo is a large powerful animal, weighing up to 2,000 pounds or more and standing about six feet high at the withers. The spread of the horns is often as much as six feet. The horns are flattened and curve upward and backward. The body 1s nearly hairless and of a bluish-black color. The buffalo, or carabao as they are called in the Philippines, are strong, slow, lazy, and willful. They do not endure cold weather or dry climate and must be maintained in the neighborhood of streams or standing water in which they may wallow. The buffalo is intimately associated with the rice industry. Horses and mules do not endure working in the mud as well as do the buffalo. In fact, the buffalo not only endures this sort of work, but appears to prefer working in the water and mud rather than on dry land. The buffalo serves as a powerful work animal up to the age of 20 to 30 years. Outside of the Buddhist and Brahmin communities, the buf- falo meat is eaten, and while the meat of all buffalo oxen is reasonably tough, the flavor is not particularly unpleasant. The milk yield of the buffalo is larger than that of the zebu or other cattle under tropical conditions. The fat content LIVE STOCK AND ANIMAL PRODUCTS 331 of the milk is about 714 per cent. and the casein nearly 6 per cent. According to the most recent available statistics there are about 17,000,000 domesticated buffalo in British India. Many breeds have been developed in various localities, but none of these breeds varies in any pronounced manner from the wild form of the buffalo or from the general run of the domesti- cated forms. The buffalo was introduced from Italy into the Belgian Congo in 1911, but this importation was unfortunate on account of the prevalence of barbone, which disease car- ried off nearly all of the buffalo. In the Philippines and else- where, tremendous losses have been suffered from time to time from rinderpest. In 1902, for example, about 492,000 carabao died of rinderpest in the Philippine Islands. When it is remembered that this animal serves in the Philippines as the main source of power, meat, and milk, it may readily be understood that this outbreak of rinderpest was little less than a calamity. The African buffalo (Bos caffer) has never been domesti- cated. The Indian buffalo, however, has been widely imported into Africa and has become a familiar work animal in that country. The gayal (Bos frontalis), a native of upland India and Indo-China, has been domesticated in the northeastern portions of India, Assam, and China. This animal is char- acterized by its short limbs, short horns, which stand almost straight out laterally, and extremely wide forehead between the horns. The milk yield is low but rich in fat. The milk has never been used very extensively but the meat is eaten, es- pecially in Indo-China. The gayal is readily domesticated and makes a powerful ox but has not been widely used for work purposes. The color is usually brown but occasionally white. Crosses between the gayal and ordinary cattle are fertile. The gaur (Bos gaurus), a native of India, is perhaps the largest of all wild cattle. It is closely related to the gayal, which it somewhat resembles in appearance, but has never been domes- 332 TROPICAL AGRICULTURE ticated. The banteng (Bos sondaicus) is a common work animal of Burma, Malaya, Borneo, Java, Sunda Islands, and neighboring countries. This ox is much like the gayal, but its horns are slenderer and rounder and are curved upward and back. The banteng is domesticated in largest numbers in Java, where it is extensively crossed with the zebu and other cattle. The banteng is an inferior draft animal but the meat is considered to be good. HORSES AND MULES The horse and mule industry has never in any tropical coun- try attained the importance which it holds in temperate cli- mates. This is due partly to the fact that horses and mules have been unable to resist some of the tropical diseases or the peculiar conditions of the tropical climate. On the other hand, in many parts of the Tropics, horses and mules are practically replaced for certain purposes by buffalo, zebu, camel, elephant, and more recently by the wide use of power machinery. In those parts of the Tropics, like Hawaii, where tropical animal diseases do not prevail, horses and mules may be reared and used under conditions practically identical with those which prevail on the mainland of the United States. On many of the sugar plantations, horse and mule power is extensively used where steam and gasoline power are not economically applied. The importance of the horse in the Tropics everywhere increases with the increasing control of the Tropics by the white man. In the Belgian Congo, experiments with Senegal ponies indicate that this breed is well adapted for use in the Congo. The so-called Sandalwood pony of Java has also given a good account of itself in the Congo. Belgian horses have been used in the Belgian Congo for the production of mules but are considered too heavy for draft purposes. Russian horses, in- troduced into the Congo, have proved of great superiority for LIVE STOCK AND ANIMAL PRODUCTS 333 saddle purposes. In mule-breeding experiments in the Bel- gian Congo, it has been found that the Senegal jack is readily acclimatized, while with the Poitou and Italian jack, trouble was frequently experienced. In the French colonies of western Africa, the horse is the most important animal for riding and driving. Arabian and Barb breeds are preferred. Horses are extensively bred throughout these French colonies, and a large percentage even of the natives in Senegal, Sudan, and Guinea are the proud owners of saddle horses. In Dahomey, on the other hand, the horse is not a common driving or riding animal. In the French West Africa colonies, the government has established studs and breeding stations at a number of convenient loca- tions for the purpose of giving help and encouragement in the improvement of horses throughout the territory. Among the Sudanese, the ass is a symbol of captivity. The chiefs of these natives, therefore, never own jacks but many breeds of jacks are used by the common natives. Mules are generally popular and widely employed for work purposes throughout French Africa. The thoroughbred horse originally came from the Ara- bian or Libyan native horse of northern Africa, and a similar type of horse prevails throughout Arabia, Turkey, Persia, and neighboring states. Not much success has been had with horses in southern India. In the native states further north, horses are a common sight, but are mostly of pony size and with Arabian blood. Ponies are extremely numerous in Ben- gal, the Federated Malay States, and Java. In Java, the favor- ite pony is the so-called Sandalwood pony. The horses of Borneo and the Philippine Islands are much like those in Java. In Madagascar, the horse apparently does not thrive well and the natives use oxen for the most part. In Mexico and Cen- tral America, the saddle type of horse is the one in greatest demand. In various parts of tropical South America, the horse is becoming a more and more important animal for work 334 TROPICAL AGRICULTURE and pleasure uses, and in Brazil there is a quite unusual inter- est in horse breeding. The African ass, the source of the domestic ass, still roams wild in various parts of Africa and quite generally in tropical countries it escapes and “goes wild’ again. Mules are gen- erally used in tropical America for work purposes but to a less extent in the African and Oriental Tropics. In the ex- perience which has been had in the Tropics with mules, no reason has been developed for considering the mule more im- mune to diseases than is the horse. Zebras have been tamed and bred in captivity and main- tained as work animals in a number of tropical countries. Zebras are not susceptible to tsetse-fly disease and therefore give some promise of becoming work animals where the horse and mule are exterminated by tropical diseases. Zebroids, or the crosses between zebra stallions and mares, have been pro- duced in a number of localities and have given good accounts of themselves. In making these crosses draft breeds of mares are used to produce work zebroids, and thoroughbred mares in the production of driving and riding zebroids. Thus far the most important breeding work in the production of ze- broids has been done by Ewart in England and Baron de Parana in Brazil. The consensus of opinion of those who have had practical experience with zebroids is that these ani- mals are very tractable, graceful, and of great endurance. SWINE Like the other familiar domestic animals of Europe and northern America, the hog in the Tropics shows an extremely irregular distribution, due to local conditions and customs. Throughout the Pacific and South Sea Islands, including Ha- waii, and particularly in southern China and Brazil, the hog industry is an important one and pork constitutes a large feature of the diet. Elsewhere in the Tropics, the pig is a less LIVE STOCK AND ANIMAL PRODUCTS 335 familiar and less important animal. In Hawaii, the hog in- dustry has been fairly well developed, particularly in the hands of the Chinese and Japanese who are extremely fond of pork. The breeds in most common use there are Berkshire, Duroc- Jersey, and Hampshire. Wild hogs are found in the islands and bring approximately as high a price as improved breeds. These wild hogs are, of course, merely the descendants of do- mesticated hogs which escaped and are taking care of them- selves in the mountains. Pigs of Spanish breeds are found throughout French West Africa, but all hogs are, of course, taboo to all Semitic and Islamitic races in Africa or wherever they may occur. The Chinese are constant pork eaters and the swine indus- try in China has been widely developed for ages. Certain breeds peculiar to China have been developed there, particu- larly in southern China, where a breed of white color is pre- ferred. The hog industry has been extensively developed in the Island of Hainan, and Chinese pigs are also raised on a large scale in Sumatra, Java, and the Philippines. In Egypt, Tunis, and Algeria pigs are raised only by Europeans. In eastern Africa there is little development of the pig industry, except in Mozambique. SHEEP The sheep industry is far more important in some of the strictly tropical countries than is perhaps commonly supposed. In Hawaii, there are a number of ranches devoted chiefly to sheep, the most important breeds being Shropshire, Merino, and Tunis. On the Island of Molokai, considerable attention has been given to Tunis sheep on account of their adaptability to the local conditions and their somewhat unusual merit as mutton producers. On the Island of Lanai cne or two types of Australian Merino have been tried with satisfactory results. The most serious disease from which sheep suffer in Ha- wali is scab, and this is, of course, readily controlled by dip- 336 TROPICAL AGRICULTURE ping. Horn flies and flesh flies give considerable trouble from their attacks upon wounds which sheep may receive. The sheep industry of Brazil is an important part of the animal husbandry of that great country. There are now nearly 2,000,000 sheep in Brazil. The fat-rumped sheep are widely raised in the warmer parts of Asia Minor. In Tur- kestan and neighboring countries the broad-tailed sheep is a favorite breed. The caracul sheep is a race of broad-tailed sheep which is recently becoming popular in the United States for its mutton and for its fleece which resembles Persian lamb or Astrakhan wool. Mutton is the favorite meat of the Hindus and throughout India sheep are extensively raised. Most of them are small and resemble goats in appearance. Sheep are not important domestic animals in Indo-China, Ma- laya, Formosa, or the Philippines. In Egypt, on the other hand, the sheep industry is well developed. It has been found in Egypt that sheep furnish much help in keeping down weeds and grass along irrigation ditches, and in many localities they are raised primarily for this purpose and secondarily for their meat. Maned and broad-tailed sheep are quite commonly raised in Abyssinia and East Africa, while the Mauritanian and Macina breeds are found in considerable abundance in the French African colonies. In Central America and the West Indies, sheep are yielding their position to cattle and the sheep industry is therefore on the wane. GOATS Man has made use of goats since the dawn of history. They have constituted an important source of meat, milk, and hair for the production of certain fabrics in both tropical and sub- tropical countries. Hawaiian experiments with goats have been unfortunate. On account of their eminent ability to care for themselves in tropical countries they have escaped from domestication and run wild on most of the islands of the LIVE STOCK AND ANIMAL PRODUCTS 337 Hawaiian group. On some of these islands, particularly La- nai and Kahoolawe, they have increased to such numbers as to become a veritable pest, destroying grass and brush, and greatly interfering with the growth of forests at higher alti- tudes. The destruction of vegetation by goats on these islands has led to the development of semi-desert conditions under which wind erosion takes place to an enormous extent. At frequent intervals goat drives are organized by hunters for the purpose of exterminating these wild goats. Some of the drives have resulted in the capture and destruction of thou- sands of goats. In the Philippines, there are but few goats and these are raised for their milk. The goat is an important domestic animal in almost all parts of Africa. Throughout Egypt the goat is raised for both milk and fleece. The Angora goat thrives excellently well in Algeria. The dwarf goat occurs in _ the Sudan, and throughout Guinea, the Congo, Angola, and East Africa the goat is a familiar domestic animal. The goat is also an important animal in certain parts of Mexico where it is raised both for milk and for fleece. In tropical South America, the goat is of minor importance, except in Brazil. Experiments with milch goats in the Belgian Congo have thus far been rather unsatisfactory. They do not appear to become acclimatized readily or to endure the heat of that country. CAMEL The dromedary, one-humped, or Arabian camel is referred by zoologists to Camelus dromedarius and the’ Bactrian or two-humped camel to | C. bactrianus. The two forms, how- ever, have repeatedly crossed and some authorities consider them races of a single species. The camel will readily find a living on brush, leaves, spiny salt bushes, and other coarse plants of little use to other domestic animals. The camel does not well endure a humid atmosphere but will endure excel- 338 TROPICAL AGRICULTURE lently well both extreme heat and the cold nights of the des- ert. As is well known, camels are chiefly used for riding and packing, the two-humped camel being used mostly for pack- ing. A good riding camel will make a speed of five or six miles an hour with a reasonable rest at mid-day and will travel 16 out of the 24 hours, thus making 80 miles a day. In Egypt, it is customary to begin working the camel at the age of three years. He reaches full strength, however, only at six years when he may have attained a weight of 900 to 1,400 pounds. A mature camel will carry a pack of 200 to 400 pounds or even more. The color of the Egyptian breeds of camel is brown, black, black and brown, or white. In the Cairo abattoir, camels are slaughtered in large numbers for human food. In the ex- perience of this abattoir, it has been found that the dressed weight of camels is about 55 per cent. of the live weight. In Syria, the packload of camels is commonly 500 to 650 pounds. The ability of camels to go without water has been somewhat exaggerated. It has been found best to water them once a day and not to keep them continuously at hard work in hot weather for more than 48 hours at a stretch. In Arabia, camels are said to travel sometimes for five days with- out water. The Bactrian camel is not used in Arabia, Syria, Palestine, or North Africa. In these countries, the dromedary or Ara- bian camel is the only breed to be seen. Statistics regarding the number of camels used for economic purposes are rather meager and incomplete. There are said to be about 2,000,000 camels in Somaliland. The camel is used extensively as a pack animal in the Island of Malta and in West Australia. In British India there are about 450,000 camels used for riding and packing. An experiment was begun in 1856 in the use of camels in Texas and elsewhere in the southwestern part.of the United States. The results were in every respect satisfactory but LIVE STOCK AND ANIMAL PRODUCTS 339 during the Civil War the camels were neglected and the ex- periment was allowed to lapse. LLAMA AND ALPACA These interesting cameloid ruminants of South America are commonly supposed to be domesticated races of the wild gua- naco and vicufia. The alpaca is of more compact build and has a heavier coat of hair. The alpaca is mostly black in color, while the llama is commonly white with brown or black mark- ings. The alpaca is considered decidedly of the more value and its long, fine, silky wool of metallic luster is much prized for use in certain fabrics. In 1914, the United States imported about 1,000,000 pounds of alpaca wool. The alpaca extends from the Equator to Cape Horn and the total production of alpaca hair amounts to several million pounds annually. Thus far all attempts to acclimatize the alpaca in Europe or Australia have failed. This animal is also used to some extent for meat. The llama is the only native work animal of South America. The males are used as pack animals and are commonly made to carry from 80 to 90 pounds in the pack. The females are shorn for their wool which is decidedly inferior to that of the alpaca. Like the latter the llama is also used as a food animal. ELEPHANT Zodlogists distinguish between the African and Asiatic ele- phant. The male African elephant stands about 10 feet high at the withers at maturity and weighs 4 or 5 tons. The female is smaller than in the Asiatic species. The male Asiatic ele- phant is about 8 or 9 feet in height at the withers and weighs 2 or 3 tons. The elephant becomes fully mature at about 25 years of age and lives to be 125 to 150 years old. He may be bred in cap- tivity without great difficulty but most domesticated elephants 340 TROPICAL AGRICULTURE have been caught young and tamed and trained. They have been used since the earliest times in war, in state processions, and for all kinds of labor. The elephant is an exceedingly clever and tractable work animal and his great strength makes him a very valuable source of power in lumbering and heavy freight operations. The African elephant formerly existed in immense numbers but is now much reduced, largely for the reason that both males and females possess tusks and are killed for their ivory. In the Belgian Congo an elephant training station has been established at Api. The African elephant appears to be as easy to train as the Asiatic species. In domestication the Af- rican elephant stands about 7% feet at the withers at the age of 15 years. No trouble has been experienced in the Congo in training them and they have proved eminently satisfactory for all kinds of work. In the Congo, elephants have been extensively used for carrying bunches of fruit of the oil palm to oil mills and for miscellaneous work. The exportation of ivory from the Ivory Coast, Sudan, Senegal, Guinea, and else- where is still of considerable proportions. Statistics on the number of elephants used for economic purposes are ex- tremely fragmentary, but in Siam there are reported to be more than 3,000 elephants in domestication. POULTRY The jungle fowl, the wild ancestor of our chickens, occurs abundantly throughout India, Burma, Malaya, Indo-China, Java, the Philippine Islands, and neighboring tropical coun- tries. Some or all of the various kinds of domestic poultry are raised in all tropical countries and most of the different kinds of poultry thrive fairly well in tropical climates. In Hawaii, no unusual difficulties have been met with in raising chickens, ducks, geese, turkeys, guinea fowls, pea fowls, and pigeons. All of these kinds of poultry may and do escape LIVE STOCK AND ANIMAL PRODUCTS 341 from domestication into the woods. In this wild condition, they readily maintain themselves in considerable numbers and thus furnish sport in hunting. Wild turkeys, wild chickens, and wild pea fowls are quite commonly met with at the higher elevations on the Hawaiian Islands. The so-called native breeds of chickens are small in most tropical countries, weighing up to about three pounds. More- over, they are commonly of poor flavor, and the white settlers have everywhere carried with them into the Tropics improved breeds of poultry and with considerable success. All domestic ducks seem to have descended from the wild Mallard and musk ducks and are now found everywhere in the Tropics. Domestic geese came from the wild graylag goose of Europe and the Asiatic goose, and descendants of these two types are found in domestication in all parts of the Tropics. Apparent hybrids between these two types have been met with in India and Africa. The guinea fowl is a native of Africa and readily makes itself at home in any part of the Tropics. The pea fowl is a native of Eastern Asia, particularly India, China, and the ad- jacent islands. It readily adapts itself to tropical conditions in all parts of the world and occurs in both a wild and domestic form in nearly all tropical countries. The turkey is a native of the United States, Mexico, and Central America, but has now been quite generally introduced into tropical countries, where it thrives excellently well. OSTRICHES There are at least three common species of ostriches in Africa, one characteristic of North Africa, a second of South Africa, and a third of Somaliland. The ostrich reaches a height of 6 to 7% feet. In the wild state the female lays about 24 eggs. The ostrich industry is now carried on in the Trans- vaal, Cape Colony, Natal, Southwest Africa, Algeria, Tunis, 342 TROPICAL AGRICULTURE Egypt, Sudan, Madagascar, Australia, New Zealand, South America, and the United States. Commercial ostrich farming began in Oudtshoorn, South Africa, in 1860. From this date on the industry increased rather rapidly, and at present Cape Colony has over 1,000,000 ostriches, Australia, 2,000, and the United States about 10,000 ostriches. The industry is important in the various other countries named above, but statistics on their numbers are wanting or unreliable. South Africa in 1913 exported 1,023,000 pounds of ostrich feathers at a value of $14,000,000. In England, a campaign was started against ostrich farming on the ground that the plucking of the feathers was an act of cruelty. Ultimately, an antiplumage bill was passed in 1913 and at about the same time ostrich feathers began to go out of style in the United States. This country imported $6,250,coo worth of ostrich feathers in 1913, while the importation fell to the value of only $3,900,000 in 1914. In the United States ostrich eggs are hatched almost en- tirely by artificial incubation, the incubation period being six weeks. About 95 per cent. of the eggs are fertile. In South Africa, the eggs are hatched chiefly by the parent birds, but also by incubators. The domestic habits of an ostrich family are quite interesting. Sometimes the hen ostrich sits on the eggs by day and the cock by night, while occasionally the cock does nearly all of the incubating. The cock ostrich is extremely pugnacious, even dangerously so, during the hatch- ing season. Ostriches begin breeding at the age of three or four years and continue to the age of 20 years or more. In Oudtshoorn, the common practice is to pull the first feathers at the age of 8 or 9 months. Six months later the primary feathers are cut off and two months later the quills of the cut feathers are pulled, thus giving three plumages in about 6 months and about one pound of feathers per bird. LIVE STOCK AND ANIMAL PRODUCTS 343 Ostriches live to an age of 50 to 60 years. A great amount of breeding and selection work has been done with ostriches, especially in Cape Colony where fine breeding birds have brought as high as $4,000 a pair. An investigation of factors which influence quality of plumage has been carried on for many years in South Africa and a similar study is now under way in Arizona. Alfalfa pasture or alfalfa hay has everywhere proved to be the best form of roughage for ostriches. A good ostrich ra- tion contains about three pounds of alfalfa hay and five pounds of corn or barley per day. As is commonly known also, os- triches will eat all kinds of waste material. The egg yield under domestication varies from 30 to 100 eggs per year and the eggs weigh from 2% to 4 pounds apiece. In South Africa, caponiz- ing of ostriches has been practiced to some extent with the idea that capons would fight less and would thus not be so likely to injure their feathers. The meat of ostrich capons is frequently eaten and is said to be somewhat of a delicacy. Incidentally in connection with the study of domesticated ostriches, some of them have been trained for riding or driv- ing, hitched to a sulky. The South American ostrich, also called nandu or rhea, was at one time killed in large numbers and its feathers sent to the United States. Recently a beginning has been made in do- mesticating this bird as a source of valuable feathers. Among the other tropical birds which furnish articles of commerce, mention should be made of the marabou stork and the aigret heron, both of which may be readily domesticated but which for the most part have been hunted in the wild condition. In parts of western Africa, the aigret heron was hunted almost to extermination, while no effort was being put forth to raise them in domestication. The French are beginning to protect the aigret in their African colonies with the result that the numbers of these birds are rapidly increasing. 344 . TROPICAL AGRICULTURE SILK Among the useful insects which occur in tropical countries it may be worth while briefly to consider the silkworm, bees, the lac insect, and the cochineal insect. According to Chinese records, the silk industry originated in China about 2600 B. C. From China it passed over to Korea, Japan, Constantinople (550 A. D.), and then throughout the countries where silk- worms are now raised. Both Chinese and Japanese use enor- mous quantities of silk and statistics on total production are not very reliable. In 1908, China produced 29,000,000 pounds of silk, Japan 25,000,000, India 10,000,000, the Levant, 5,- 600,000, and Indo-China 2,400,000. The total world produc- tion for that year was about 77,000,000 pounds. The total exports of silk from the producing countries is now about 60,000,000 pounds, of which Japan exports 26,- 000,000, China 19,000,000, Italy 7,800,000, the Levant 5,000,- 000, British India 220,000 and Indo-China, 33,000. The United States imports about 25,000,000 pounds of silk annually. There is no likelihood, however, of the establish- ment of a commercial silk industry in the United States for the reason that hand labor is too expensive. The immense amount of hand work in silk culture makes cheap labor a neces- sity. Commercial silk production must therefore apparently be confined to regions where cheap labor is available, particularly China, Japan, Italy, and the Levant. The silk moth lays 300 to 700 eggs and the life cycle occu- pies about 65 days for each generation. About 2,200 pounds of mulberry leaves are required for the growth of the worms which hatch from one ounce of eggs. This of itself indicates the enormous amount of hand work connected with the in- dustry. Silk cocoons are gathered about 7 to 10 days after the beginning of the spinning. The length of the silk thread in a cocoon varies from 900 to 1,600 yards and cocoons com- monly weigh at the rate of 155 to 320 to the pound. The LIVE STOCK AND ANIMAL PRODUCTS 345 French, Belgians and Italians are introducing silk culture into their tropical colonies in a serious manner, and it is to be ex- pected that the production of raw silk will be greatly increased as the result of their efforts. BEES The Giant East Indian bee (Apis dorsata) occurs generally on the continent of Asia and the adjacent tropical islands, in- cluding the Philippines. This bee builds huge combs often four feet thick and six feet long attached to ledges of rocks or to the branches of trees. Perhaps the smallest species of honey bee is A. florea, a native of the East Indies. This spe- cies builds a comb only three or four inches across. The common bee of southern Asia is A. indica. It is kept for commercial purposes in crude hives in various parts of the East Indies. The brood comb of this species is much smaller than is that of our familiar honey bee. ' The common honey bee, A. mellifica, including the common German, Italian, Cyprian, Egyptian, Carniolan, Tunisian, and other breeds, is found everywhere in the Tropics and escapes by swarming to form nests in trees in other locations. The honey produced in tropical countries is largely used locally, while the wax goes into the world’s commerce. Beeswax is an important industry in many parts of the Tropics, as is ap- parent from the fact that French Guinea and Senegal exports about 200,000 pounds of beeswax annually. The United States imports about 1,500,000 pounds of beeswax per year. In Hawaii, a considerable development of the bee industry has taken place in recent years. The most important honey plant of the Territory is the algaroba which furnishes two crops of flowers annually. In all of the large forests of algaroba apiaries have been established at intervals so as to utilize the flowers most effectively. From Hawaii about 1,000. tons of honey are exported annually and also an excellent, very 346 TROPICAL AGRICULTURE light colored beeswax in constantly increasing amounts. A similar development in apiculture has taken place in Porto Rico, where the industry began in 1900 and increased to such an extent that the exportation of beeswax was 18,000 pounds in 1914, while honey was exported to the value of $70,000. SHELLAC Shellac is a resinous secretion of scale insects (Tachardia lacca and related species), and is formed as a continuous in- crustation on twigs infested with these insects. The material comes into commerce under a number of trade names. The term stick-lac is used in referring to the incrusted twigs re- moved from the tree without disturbing the incrustation of lac. Seed-lac is the term used for the granular lac scraped off from the twigs, while the term shellac is reserved for the pure lac melted and poured out on a cool surface in sheets. The best lac is obtained from lac insects when living on Schleichera trijuga or on Butea frondosa. The latter tree is so familiarly known in this connection that in India it is called the lac tree. The demand for lac is rapidly increasing. India produces about 15,000 tons annually, of which the United States uses about 6,000 tons. Shellac is used for a multitude of pur- poses, including electric insulation, gramophone records, seal- ing wax, polish for wood and metal, stiffening for hats, litho- graphic ink, in connection with the manufacture of painted pottery, and in innumerable other ways, especially in India. The industry is still largely in the hands of the natives of India and rights are sold to collect lac in government forests. The lac trees mentioned above are not the only ones upon which lac insects live. There is, in fact, a great variety of other trees upon which lac insects may produce a good quality of lac. The Department of Agriculture of India now gives instruction in the cultivation of lac, including the planting of LIVE STOCK AND ANIMAL PRODUCTS 347 special trees, the establishment of insect colonies on them, methods of pruning and scraping the lac, and other operations connected with the industry. At present there is a tendency, therefore, to make shellac production an agricultural industry rather than the mere haphazard collection of a wild by-prod- uct. The total output of shellac from India has an annual value of about $3,500,000 and a small shellac industry has been established in Ceylon. The average yield is about four to six pounds of stick-lac per tree. COCHINEAL The trade term cochineal signifies the bodies of a female scale insect known as Pseudococcus cacti which feeds on cer- tain species of cactus. These insects were originally culti- vated or cared for by the Indians of Mexico and Central ‘America and were later introduced into the Canary Islands, Algeria, Java, Australia, and elsewhere. About 70,000 cochi- neal insects are required to make a pound of crude cochineal which yields 10 per cent. of pure dye. A few years ago the annual importation of cochineal into England from the Canary Islands amounted to 260,000 pounds, and in the eighties the United States imported 500,000 pounds of cochineal annually. The natural cochineal industry, however, like that of madder and indigo has been practically destroyed by the cheap aniline dyes manufactured in Germany. There is still quite an in- dustry in cochineal, however, in Oaxaca, Mexico, among the Indians who maintain plantations of the Nopal cactus for this purpose. These Indians carefully preserve colonies of the cochineal insect and distribute them upon the cactus. In Teneriffe the insects are cultivated on Opuntia ficus- indica. In harvesting this product the insects are scraped off, killed by plunging into hot water, and then dried. Cochineal is used not only as a pure dye but in the preparation of extremely valu- 348 TROPICAL AGRICULTURE able pigments other than the pure cochineal. For example, cochineal mixed with gelatinous alumina forms the pigment known as lake. Carmine is a brilliant scarlet pigment precipi- tated from cochineal decoction by acids or animal gelatin. APPENDIX BOOKS AND PERIODICALS DEALING WITH TROPICAL AGRICULTURE TueEreE is a large mass of literature dealing with the general field of tropical agriculture or with special phases of this subject. It is perhaps desirable to give a brief list containing some of the more important of these books, particularly for reference purposes on the general subjects, or on particular countries or special phases of tropical agriculture. As will appear in consulting the lists of books and periodicals given below, the English, French, and Dutch have contributed most largely to this subject. REFERENCE BOOKS RELATING TO TROPICAL AGRICULTURE Adams, F. U.— Conquest of the Tropics. Under this title the author has pre- sented a general treatise on the banana industry, with espe- cial reference to the part which the United Fruit Company has played in the development of the banana business. (New York: Doubleday, Page & Co., 1914.) Belfort, R., and Hoyer, A. J.— All about Coconuts. The authors have presented perhaps the best general account of the coconut, with particular refer- ence to the increasing and new industrial uses of coconuts. (London: St. Catherine Press, 1914.) Boery, P.— Les plantes oléagineuses. The author gives an account of the oils obtained from coconut, olive, palm, peanut, castor bean, sesame, poppy, and other oil plants, particularly from the viewpoint of the technical utilization of these products. (Paris: Petite bibliotheque scientifique, 1888.) Brannt, W. T.— India Rubber, Gutta-percha, and Balata. The volume is es- sentially a treatise on the botany, cultivation, and impor- tance of these products, and deals with their industrial 349 350 TROPICAL AGRICULTURE treatment and uses. (Philadelphia: Henry, Carey, Baird & Co., 1900.) Brown, E., and Hunter, H. H.— Planting in Uganda. On the basis of practical experience and study of agricultural conditions in Uganda, the authors give general advice to planters in this region and discuss par- ticularly rubber, coffee, and cacao. (London: Longmans, Green & Co., 1913.) Brown, H.— Rubber: Its Sources, Cultivation, and Preparation. The va- rious trees and other plants which yield rubber are thor- oughly discussed in much detail. Particular attention is also given to an account of rubber latex and of the technical utilization of rubber. (London: J. Murray, 1914.) Cameron, J.— Firminger’s Manual of Gardening for India. This volume contains much practical information on methods, especially adapted for gardening and fruit raising in India. (Cal- cutta: Thacker, Spink & Co., 1904.) Capus, G., and Bois, D.— Les produits coloniaux. The volume treats in particular de- tail of timbers, rubber, dyes, fibers, perfumes, drugs, and animal industry, especially ivory and feathers. (Paris: A. Colin, 1912.) Chevalier, J. B. A— Les Vegétaux utiles de Afrique tropicale francaise; études scientifiques et agronomiques. A volume published in sec- tions as material was accumulated by the researches of the author. It deals quite exhaustively with all the important vegetable products of the French tropical colonies. (Paris: Author, 1905-1913.) Christy, C.— African Rubber Industry. This is the best available discus- sion of the importance of the African rubber tree Funtumia elastica. The volume contains a thorough account of the botany, cultivation, yield, and uses of this tree. (London: J. Bale Sons and Danielson, 1911.) Dudgeon, G. C.— The Agricultural and Forest Products of British West Africa. This volume is arranged on a regional plan and contains summary accounts of agricultural conditions and important APPENDIX 351 crops, such as cotton, other fiber plants, rubber, oil plants, etc., in the various regions of British West Africa. (Lon- don: J. Murray, 1911.) Dybowski, J.— Traité pratique de cultures tropicales. In this volume special emphasis is laid on tropical climate and methods of propa- gation of vegetables and fruits. Many details of particular use to tropical planters are included. (Paris: A. Challamel, 1902.) Fawcett, W.— The Banana: Its Cultivation, Distribution, and Commercial Uses. This book contains the most complete and authori- tative account of the banana in all of its relations. It is particularly useful to the student in a study of the botany of the banana in its various forms and species. (London: Duckworth & Co., 1913.) Foaden, G. P., and Fletcher, F.— Text-book of Egyptian Agriculture. This two-volume trea- tise contains an account of the essential features of the agriculture of Egypt, with particular reference to soils, irrigation, cotton, and animal industry. (Cairo: National Printing Department, 1908-1910.) Freeman, W. G., and Chandler, S. E— The World’s Commercial Products. As indicated by the title, the authors have chosen to discuss in this form some of the chief products which enter into international commerce, including tropical products. Particular attention is given to sugar, coffee, tobacco, and oil plants. (Boston: Ginn & Co., 1907.) Van Gorkom, K. W.— Oost-Indische Cultures—edited by H. C. Prinsen-Geerligs. This is a large two-volume treatise on the important eco- nomic plants of Java and Sumatra. It is perhaps the most exhaustive and satisfactory account of the agricultural products of these islands. (Amsterdam: J. H. de Bussy, 1913.) Haldane, R. C.— Subtropical Cultivations and Climates. The author has brought together in this volume much information on tropi- cal climate, starch foods, vegetable oils, fibers, drugs, tans, and dyes. These subjects are treated from the economic 352 TROPICAL AGRICULTURE viewpoint of the utilization of the different products. (Edinburgh: W. Blackwood & Sons, 1886.) Hanausek, E.— Erdmann-Koenig’s Grundriss der allgemeinen Warenkunde. This large volume deals in an encyclopedic manner with the chief agricultural products which have especial impor- tance from an industrial viewpoint. (Leipzig: J. A. Barth, 1906. ) Heuze, G.— Les plantes alimentaires des pays chauds. This is a small handy volume dealing largely with the essentials concerned in the production of cereals, legumes, fruits, and starchy foods in tropical countries. It is written chiefly from the viewpoint of the general reader. (Paris: Maison rustique, 1899. ) Johnson, W. H.— The Cultivation and Preparation of Para Rubber. The author has presented a thorough and authoritative general account of the Para rubber tree, giving a detailed discussion of its distribution, method of planting, cultivation, and of methods of tapping and preparing the rubber. (London: C. Lock- wood & Son, 1904.) Jumelle, H— Les cultures coloniales. The author presents in this volume a rather elaborate account of starch foods, fruits, legumes, beverages, and spices, with particular reference to the extent of the cultivation of these crops in the French tropical colonies. (Paris: J. B. Bailliére & Sons, 1913- 1915.) Kenny, J.— Intensive Farming in India. In this book particular atten- tion is devoted to fertilizers and the cultivation of rice, cotton, wheat, sugar cane, tobacco, tea, coffee, and coco- nuts. A discussion of agricultural associations is also given. (Madras: Higginbotham & Co., 1912.) Lecomte, H.— Le Vanillier. All the matters concerned with the cultivation, harvesting, fermentation, and sale of vanilla are here dis- cussed in a thorough and authoritative manner with ref- erence to the needs of both the planter and buyer. (Paris: C. Naud, 1902.) APPENDIX 353 Macmillan, H. F.— A Handbook of Tropical Gardening and Planting. A general account of soils, climate, insect pests, fungous diseases, methods of propagation and cultivation in Indian agri- culture, particularly fruits, vegetables, windbreaks, cover crops and ornamentals. (Colombo: Cave & Co., 1914.) Mukerji, N. G— Handbook of Indian Agriculture. The author has brought together a large mass of information, especially useful for the native planter and farmer in the cultivation, marketing, and economic utilization of all important crops in India. (Calcutta: Thacker, Spink & Co., 1907.) - Nicholls, H. A. A.— A Text-book of Tropical Agriculture. This is a small volume dealing in a general way with the more important tropical crops of international commerce. (London: Macmillan & Co., 1892.) Olsson-Seffer, P.— La agricoliura en varios paises tropicales y subtropicales. A two-volume treatise containing rather extensive accounts of important tropical crops with special reference to Mexico and Central America. (Mexico: Secretaria de Fomento, 1910.) Reid, W. M.— The Culture and Manufacture of Indigo. A thorough gen- eral account of the culture and utilization of indigo written at the time when this industry was of much greater impor- tance than at present. (Calcutta: Thacker, Spink & Co., 1887.) Ridley, H. N.— Spices. In this volume the author has given the best avail- able account of all the important tropical spices, including their botanical relationships, nature, culture, uses, and com- mercial importance. (London: Macmillan & Co., {912.) Riviére, C., and Lecq, H.— Traité pratique dagriculture pour le Nord de Afrique. The volume is devoted to the agriculture of northern Africa. It deals most exhaustively with soil, farm organization, forage plants, timbers, grapes, fibers, olives, and animal industry. The material is presented largely from the point of view of the tropical farmer. (Paris: A. Challamel, 1914.) 354 TROPICAL AGRICULTURE Sagot, P.— Manuel pratique de cultures tropicales. In this volume the author has chosen for special emphasis a discussion of starch plants, cereals, forage plants, fruits, and animal in- dustry, particularly camels and elephants. (Paris: A. Challamel, 1893-1897.) Savariau, N.— L’ Agriculture au Dahomey. The volume treats particularly of starch foods, fruits, oil palm, fibers, and animal indus- try in Dahomey, particularly from the viewpoint of the prospective settler. (Paris: A. Challamel, 1906.) Semler, H.— Die tropische Agrikultur. A four-volume cyclopedia of tropi- cal agriculture, dealing in a general way with the crops of all tropical countries. (Wismar: Hinstorff Hofbuch- handlung, 1886, 4 volumes.) Simmonds, P. L.— Tropical Agriculture. A general descriptive account of the culture, pteparation and use, and the commerce in more important tropical crops. The volume is written largely from the viewpoint of the general reader. (London: Spon, 1880. ) Torrey, J., and Manders, A. Staines — The Rubber Industry. This book contains the most impor- tant literary contributions to the rubber industry made at the London International Rubber Exhibition in 1911. Particu- lar stress is laid upon the chemistry and utilization of rub- ber and upon rubber planting and the organization of plan- tations. (London: International Rubber Exhibition, 1911.) Trabut, L., and Marés, R— L’Algerie Agricole en 1906. In this book the authors have discussed rather elaborately the cultivation and statistics of tobacco, fiber plants, garden crops, fruits, ornamentals, and animal industry in Algeria, particularly from the view- point of the prospective buyer of tropical products. (AI- giers: Imprimerie algerienne, 1906.) Wallace, R.— Indian Agriculture. The author considered chiefly animal industry, native farm methods, rice, millets, forestry, and incidentally other less important agricultural crops. (Edin- burgh: Oliver and Boyd, 1888.) APPENDIX 355 Watt, G.— Dictionary of the Economic Plants of India. An encyclopedic storehouse of information on the botany, importance, culti- vation, and technical uses of all kinds of agricultural crops in India. (Calcutta: Govt. Printing Office, 1889-1896. ) The Commercial Products of India. A condensed and revised form in one volume of the material contained in the dic- tionary of economic plants of India. (London: John Mur- ray, 1908.) de Wildeman, E.— Les plantes tropicales de grande culture. The author se- lected for thorough discussion coffee, cacao, kola nuts, vanilla, and bananas, giving in each case an account of cultural methods and an indication of the economic impor- tance of the crop. (Brussels: A. Cartaigne, 1908.) Willis, J. C— Agriculture in the Tropics. This is a small handbook deal- ing chiefly with the peculiar agricultural conditions of India and the method of organizing agricultural operations on a large scale, with brief notes on some of the more important crops. (Cambridge: University Press, 1914.) Woodrow, G. M— Gardening in the Tropics. In this volume the garden crops, fruits, ornamentals, and incidentally other economic crops are treated from the viewpoint of the tropical farmer. The first edition considered only the conditions in India, but the revised edition is broadened in its point of view. (Paisley: A. Gardner, Ig10.) PERIODICALS RELATING TO TROPICAL AGRICULTURE As will appear from the following list of periodicals, which deal for the most part exclusively with tropical agriculture, the number of such publications is quite large. It should be remem- bered that this list contains by no means all of such periodicals, but only those which may be of particular interest to students of the general subject. In addition to the periodicals listed below, one must remember that there are large numbers of journals in which tropical products are discussed along with other farm products. Such journals would include periodicals on paints, oils, perfumes, drugs, tans, dyes, fibers, etc. 356 TROPICAL AGRICULTURE Agricultural Bulletin of the Federated Malay States. Singapore. Monthly. L’Agricoltura Coloniale. Florence, Italy. Bi-monthly. Agricultural Journal of British East Africa. Nairobi and Mom- basa. Quarterly. Agricultural Journal of Egypt. Cairo. Irregular. Agricultural Journal of India. Calcutta. Quarterly. Agricultural Journal of the Companhia de Mocambique. Beira, Mozambique. Quarterly. Agricultural Ledger. Calcutta. Irregular. Agricultural News. Barbados. Semi-monthly. L’Agriculture Pratique des Pays Chauds. Paris. Bi-monthly. Agricultural Research Institute, Pusa, Bulletin. Calcutta. Ir- regular. Agricultural Society of Trinidad and Tobago. Society paper. Irregular. Agronomia. Boletin de la Estacion Agronomica de Puerto Ber- toni. Puerto Bertoni, Paraguay. Monthly. Annales du Jardin Botanique de Buitenzorg. Batavia and Leide, Java. Irregular. Annual Report of the Agricultural Department. Sierra Leone. Annual Report upon the Agricultural Department. Southern Nigeria. Annual Report of the Agricultural Experimental Stations in Assam. Shillong. Annual Report of Agricultural Stations in Charge of the Deputy Director of Agriculture, Bengal. Calcutta. Annual Report on the Botanical, Forestry and Scientific Depart- ment, Uganda Protectorate. Entebbe. Annual Report of the Camel Specialist (Punjab). Lahore, India. Annual Report of the Cuban National Horticultural Society. Havana. Annual Report of the Department of Agriculture, Bombay Presi- dency. Bombay. Annual Report of the Department of Agriculture. Kingston, Jamaica. Annual Report of the Department of Agriculture, Colony of Mauritius. Annual Report of the Department of Agriculture, Uganda Pro- tectorate. Entebbe. APPENDIX 357 Annual Report of the Director of Forestry of the Philippine Islands. Manila. Annual Report on the Experimental Farms in the Bombay Presi- dency. Bombay. Annual Progress Report on Forest Administration of the Lower Provinces of Bengal. Calcutta. Annual Report of the Imperial Department of Agriculture (India). Calcutta. Annual Report of the Superintendent of the Royal Botanic Gar- dens. ‘Trinidad. Annuaire Statistique de lEgypte. Cairo. Archief voor de Suiker-Industrie in Nederlandsch-Indié. Ir- regular. Barbados Department of Agriculture. Report of the Sugar-Cane Experiments. Barbados. Irregular. Board of Commissioners of Agriculture and Forestry, Territory of Hawai. Biennial Report. Honolulu. Boletin de Agricultura. San Salvador. Irregular. Boletim da Agricultura. Sao Paulo, Brazil. Irregular. ~Boletim da Directoria da Agricultura, Viacao, Industria e Obras Publicas do Estado da Bahia. Bahia, Brazil. Monthly. Boletin de la Direccion Fomento. Lima, Peru. Irregular. : Boletin de la Direccion General de Agricultura. Mexico City. Monthly. Boletim do Instituto Agronomico. Sao Paulo. Irregular. Boletin del Ministerio de Fomento. Caracas, Venezuela. Ir- regular. Boletin Oficial de la Secretaria de Agricultura, Industria y Co- mercio. UHabana, Cuba. Monthly. Bulletin Agricole de Algérie, Tunisie, Maroc. Algiers. Semi- monthly. Bulletin de ? Association Cotonniére Coloniale. Paris. Irregular. Bulletin of the Department of Agriculture. Kingston, Jamaica. Irregular. Bulletin of the Department of Agriculture, Trinidad. ‘Trinidad. Irregular. Bulletin Economique de I’Indochine. UHa-Noi, Indo-China. Ir- regular. Bulletin of the Imperial Institute (at South Kensington). Lon- don. Quarterly. 358 TROPICAL AGRICULTURE Bulletin de VInstitut Botanique de Buitenzorg. ’S Lands Plan- tentuin. Buitenzorg, Java. Irregular. Bulletin van het Kolonial Museum te Haarlem. Amsterdam. Ir- regular. Bulletin de lV Office Colonial. Melun, France. Monthly. Bulletin Officiel de [Etat Independant du Congo. Brussels. Ir- regular. Bulletin of the Pan-American Union. Washington, D. C. Monthly. Bulletin de la Société d’ Horticulture de Tunisie. Tunis. Monthly. Bulletin de la Station de Recherches Forestiéres du Nord de Afrique. Algiers. Irregular. Cairo Scientific Journal. Alexandria. Monthly. Cuba Agricola. Revista Mensual Organo de los Agricultores. Habana. Monthly. The Cuba Magazine. Habana. Monthly. Cuba Review. New York City. Monthly. Cyprus Journal. Nicosia, Cyprus. Monthly. Department of Agriculture, Bengal. Quarterly Journal. Department of Agriculture, Bombay. Annual Reports. Department of Agriculture, British East Africa. Annual Report. London. Department of Agriculture. Federated Malay States Bulletin. Kuala Lumpur, F.M.S. Irregular. Department of Agriculture, Fiji. Bulletin, Suva. Irregular. Department of Agriculture in India. Bulletin. Bombay. Ir- regular. Department of Agriculture. Mysore State Bulletin. Bangalore. Irregular. Department of Agriculture, Punjab. Bulletin. Lahore. Irregular. Department of Agriculture, Trinidad. Bulletin. Port-of-Spain. Irregular. Estacion Experimental Agronémica de Cuba. Boletin. Habana. Irregular. Florida Agriculturist. DeLand, Fla. Weekly. Florida Grower. Tampa, Fla. Weekly. La Hacienda. Buffalo, N. Y. Monthly. Hawaii Experiment Station Bulletin. Honolulu. Irregular. Hawaiian Sugar Planters’ Station. Bulletins. Honolulu. Ir- regular. Imperial Department of Agriculture in India, Bulletin. Cal- cutta. Irregular, APPENDIX 359 Imperial Department of Agriculture for the West Indies. Re- ports. Barbados. India Rubber World. New York City. Monthly. Indian Forest Memoirs. Calcutta. Irregular. Indian Tea Association. Pamphlets. Calcutta. Irregular. Jaarboek van het Departement van Landbouw, Nijverheid en Handel in Nederlandsch-Indié, Batavia. Irregular. Jaarverslag van het Proefstation voor de Java-Suikerindustrie. Soerabaia. Irregular. Journal d’ Agriculture Tropicale. Paris. Monthly. Journal of the Board of Agriculture of British Guiana, Demerara. Quarterly. Journal of the Jamaica Agricultural Society. Kingston, Jamaica. Monthly. Journal of the Khedivial Agricultural Society and the School of Agriculture. Cairo, Egypt. Bi-monthly. Liverpool University. Institute of Commercial Research in the Tropics. Quarterly Journal. Liverpool and London. Louisiana Planter and Sugar Manufacturer. New Orleans, La. Weekly. Mededeelingen uitgaande van het Departement van Landbouw. Batavia, Java. Irregular. Mededeelingen van het Proefstation voor de Java-Suikerindustrie. Surabaya. Irregular. Memoirs of the Department of Agriculture in India. Calcutta. Irregular. Mémoirs Scientifique publiés par le Service de V Agriculture du Ministére des Colonies. Royaume de Belgique. Brussels. Irregular. Memoria presentada por el Director de Fomento. Lima, Peru. Irregular. Mogambique Department of Agriculture, Lourenco Marques, Mo- cambique. Bulletin. Lourengo Marques. Irregular. Nyasaland Department of Agriculture, Annual Report. Zomba. Perfumery and Essential Oil Record. London. Monthly. Philippine Agriculturist and Forester. Los Banos, P. I. Monthly. Philippine Bureau of Agriculture. Bulletin. Department of the Interior. Manila. Irregular. Philippine Journal of Science. Manila. Irregular. Planting Opinion. Bangalore, India. Weekly. Porto Rico Experiment Station Bulletin. Mayaguez. Irregular. 360 TROPICAL AGRICULTURE Porto Rico Progress. San Juan, P. R. Weekly. Rapport Annual Station Agronomique, Mauritius. Mauritius. Rapport Géneral de la Commission du Coton. Cairo, Egypt. Ir- regular. Revista de Agricultura. Santo Domingo, W. I. Monthly. Revista Industrial y Agricola de Tucumén. Tucuman, Argentina. Monthly. Revue des Cultures Coloniales. Paris. Semi-monthly. Rice Industry. Houston, Tex. Monthly. Report of the Agricultural Department, Assam. Shillong. Report of the Agricultural Department, Bengal. Calcutta. Report of the Agricultural Work, Barbados. Barbados. Report on the Aligarh Agricultural Station of the United Prov- inces of Agra and Oudh. Allahabad. Report on the Cawnpore Agricultural Station in the United Prov- inces. Allahabad, India. Report on the Experimental Work of the Sugar Experiment Sta- tion. Jamaica Board of Agriculture. Kingston, Jamaica. Report of the Forest Surveys in India. Calcutta. Spice Mill. New York City. Monthly. Sugar Journal and Tropical Cultivator. Mackay, Queensland. Monthly. Le Tabac. Paris. Monthly. Tea and Coffee Trade Journal. New York City. Monthly. Der Tropenpflanzer. Berlin. Monthly. Tropical Agriculturist. Ceylon. Monthly. Tropical Life. London. Monthly. West Indian Bulletin. Barbados. Quarterly. INDEX Abaca, 173 Annatto, 236 Abroma augusta, 184 Anona cherimolia, 128 Abutilon incanum, 181 muricata, 128 Acacia catechu, 223, 229 reticulata, 128 decurrens, 230 squamosa, 128 farnesiana, 257 Apiculture, 345 koa, 295 Arabic gum, 211 senegal, 211 Arack from coconuts, 62 Achras sapota, 136, 207 Aralia cordata, 154 Adansonia digitata, 189 Areca nut, 225 Adzuki bean, 310 Argemone oil, 270 Zigle marmelos, 137 ; Arrow poison, 227 African rubber tree, 199 Arrowroot, I51I -Agathis loranthifolia, 211 Arsenite of soda for weeds, 27 Agathophyllum aromaticum, 251 Artocarpus incisa, 157 Agave, 169 integrifolia, 158 Agricultural methods in Tropics, nobilis, 158 24-28 Asclepias curassavica, 178 Albizzia trees, 292 Ashantee pepper, 247 Aleurites, 264-268 Ass, African, 334 Alfalfa, 307 Assam rubber tree, 201 Algaroba, 302 Astragalus gummifer, 212 Alligator pear, 112-114 Attalea cohune, 283 Allspice, 240 funtfera, 182 Almond, 138 Averrhoa bilimbi, 137 Almond oil, 279 carambola, 136 Alocasia, 155 Avocado, 112-114 Aloes, 222 Awa, 225 Alpaca, 339 Alpinia, 252 Amatungula, 133 Bael fruit, 137 Amomum melegueta, 247 Bagasse, 53 Anacardium occidentale, 140 Balata, 206 Andaman redwood, 292 Balsamodendron myrrha, 258 Andropogon, 284 Balsams, 221 Animals, affected by climate, 10, 11 | Bamboo, 192 domestic, 322-343 Bambusa arundinacea, 192 361 362 INDEX Banana fiber, 175 Bos bubalus, 330 Banana figs, 91 indicus, 327 Banana flour, 91 Boswellia serrata, 256 Bananas, 84-94 Bowstring hemp, 179 composition of, 90 Brazil nut, 139 profits from, 41 Brazilwood, 233 statistics about, 88, 89 Breadfruit, 157 varieties of, 87 Bromelia, 184 Bankul oil, 266 Broussonetia papyrifera, 189 Banteng, 332 Brucine, 219 Baobab, 189 Buffalo, African, 331 Baphia nitida, 234 Indian, 330 Barwood, 234 Bull’s heart, 128 Bassia, 283 Bulnesia sarmienti, 260 Bay oil, 289 Bursera, 289 Bear grass, 190 Bursera tomentosa, 212 Beef cattle, 326 Buttons, vegetable ivory, 207 Bees, 345 Butyrospermum parku, 282 Belgaum oil, 266 Ben oil, 279 Cacao, 73-79 Benzoin, 258 beans, fermentation of, 77 Bergamot, 103 culture and varieties of, 74, 75 Bergamot oil, 259 statistics about, 79 Beri-beri and rice diet, 146 Cesalpinia, 233 Bermuda grass, 315 Cesalpinia cortaria, 231 Bertholletia excelsa, 139 Cajun fiber, 172 Betel nut, 225 Cajuput oil, 289 Beverages, 64-81 Calabar bean, 222 Bibliography of tropical agricul- | Calabacillo cacao, 75 ture, 349-355 Calabash nutmeg, 251 Bilimbi, 137 Calamus rotang, 192 Bingo-i mat rush, 187 Calathea allouya, 153 Bird pepper, 244 Calisaya bark, 215 Bixa orellana, 236 Calophyllum inophyllum, 212 Black sand, 17 Calotropis gigantea, 178 Black tea, 71 Camel, 337 Blackwood, 292 Camellia thea, 70 Blumea balsamifera, 208 Camphor, 208 Boehmeria nivea, 176 Camphor oil, 288 Bombax malabaricum, 178 Camwood, 234 Bonavist bean, 311 Cananga odorata, 255 Books on tropical agriculture, 349- | Canari oil, 279 355 Canarium commune, 140 Borassus flabellifer, 182 Canavalia, 309 Borneo camphor, 208 Candellia wax, 213 Candlenut oil, 266 Cane sugar, manufacture of, 51 tops, burning of, 21, 22 Canna edulis, 153 Cannabis sativa, 220 Caoutchouc, 194 Cape gooseberry, 131 Caper, 245 Capri fig, 111 Capsicum peppers, 243 Capparis spinosa, 245 Carabao, 330 Caraguata fiber, 184 Carambola, 136 Carapa oil, 282 Caravonica cotton, 167 Cardamom oil, 288 Cardamoms, 241 Carica candamarcensis, 119 erythrocarpa, 119 _ papaya, 118 peltata, 118 quercifolia, 118 Carissa grandiflora, 133 Carludovica palmata, 191 Carmine from cochineal, 348 Carnauba wax, 213 Carob bean, 305 Carthamus tinctorius, 237 Caryota ureus, 182 Cascarilla oil, 288 Cashew nut, 140 Cassaree, 150 Cassava, 149 Cassia, 224 Cassia bark, 241 Cassie, 257 Castilloa elastica, 200 Castor oil, 277 Catechu, 223, 229 Cattle, 326 Cayenne pepper, 244 Ceara rubber, 198. Cedrelaodorata, 295 INDEX Centrifugals, 52 Ceratonia siliqua, 305 Ceriman, 135 Ceylon crépe rubber, 197 Chamerops humilis, 190 Champaca oil, 260 Chaulmoogra oil, 281 Chayote, 158 Chenopodium quinoa, 148 Cherimoyer, 128 Chewing gum, 207 Chick pea, 306 Chicle, 207 Chilies, 243 China grass (see Ramie) Chinawood oil, 264 Chinese cassia bark, 242 Chinese mat rush, 186 Chinese pigs, 335 Chinese vegetable tallow, 281 Chlorosis of pineapples, 19 Chocolate, 78, 79 Chrysophyllum cainito, 134 Cibotium, 192, 319 Cinnamomum camphora, 208 Cinnamon, 242 Cinnamon oil, 286 Cinchona, 214 Citron, 103 Citronella grass oil, 284 Citrus aurantifolia, 102 aurantium, 103 bergamia, 103 grandis, 102 japonica, 103 limonia, 102 medica, 103 nobilis, 104 sinensis, 102 trifoliata, 103 Citrus fruit, sweating of, 106 Citrus fruits, 101-106 Clarification of cane juice, 52 Clausena lansium, 133 Central American rubber tree, 200 | Climate, affected by forests, 5 o 363 364 Climate, tropical, 1-15 effect of, on animals, 10, II on man, II-I5 on plants, 7-10 Clitandra, 201 Clove nutmeg, 251 Clove oil, 287 Cloves, 248 Cocaine, 216 Cochineal production, 347 Cocoa, 78, 79 Cocoa butter, 78, 281 Coconut butter, 60 Coconut desiccated and shredded, 61 Coconut oil, 60 Coconuts, 56-63 fertilizers for, 59 planting of, 58 statistics about, 63 varieties of, 57 world’s production of, 57 Cocos nucifera, 56 Codeine, 218 Coffea arabica, 64 excelsa, 69 liberica, 64 robusta, 64 stenophylla, 69 Coffee, 64-69 culture of, 66 leaf blight of, 65 roasting of, 67 Cohune oil, 283 Coir, 61 Coix lachryma, 147 Cola acuminata, 80 Cold storage, for avocado, 114 of tropical fruits, 30 Colocasia, 155 Commelina nudiflora, 318 Commerce in tropical products, 20-34 Cooking bananas, 91 Cooperative associations, 39 INDEX Copaiba balsam, 220 Copal resin, 211 Copernicia cerifera, 213 Copra, 60 Coral sand soils, 19 Corchorus, 169 Cordyline terminalis, 159 Coriander, 245 Cork, 297 Corkwood, 297 Corozo, 297 Cotton, 167-169 Cottonseed oil, 271 Cowpeas, 308 Criollo cacao, 75 Crocus sativus, 238 Crops affected by climate, 7-10 Crotalaria as cover crop, 26 Crotalana juncea, 182 saltiana, 310 Croton eleutheria, 288 Croton oil, 227 Cryptostegia grandiflora, 178, 201 Cuba bast, 181 Cubeb oil, 288 Cubebs, 219 Cultivation of tropical soils, 24-28 Cummin, 245 Cummin oil, 288 Curcuma, 251, 252 Curry powder, 245 Custard apples, 128 Cutch, 229 Cycas circinalis, 149 Cyperus papyrus, 186 tegetiformis, 186 Dairying, 323 Dammar resin, 211 Dammara australis, 211 Dasheens, 155 Date palm, 109-111 Deccan hemp, 180 Devil’s cotton, 184 Dioscorea alata, 153 INDEX Dioscorea globosa, 153 sativa, 153 Diospyros kaki, 138 Dipterocarpacex, 291 Dipterocarpus turbinatus, 286 Dipteryx odorata, 256 Diseases of plants, 28 in Tropics, II, 12 Divi-divi pods, 231 Domestic animals, 322-343 Drainage in Tropics, 20 Dromedary, 337 Drugs, 214-227 Drying oils, 264 Dryobalanops aromatica, 208 Ducks, 341 Durian, 134 Dyera costulata, 206 Dyes and tans, 228-238 Dyestuffs, artificial, 228 Dynamite, use in loosening soils, 20 Eboc oil, 266 Ebony, 292 Economic conditions in Tropics, 35-42 Edgeworthia papyrifera, 188 Egyptian cotton, 167 Eleis guineensis, 280 Elephants, 339 Elettaria cardamomum, 241 Eleusine caracana, 147 Enfleurage, 258 Eng tree, 291 Eriobotrya japonica, 129 Eriodendron anfractuosum, 177 Erosion by wind, 6 Erythroxylon coca, 216 Eserine, 222 Esparto grass, 185 Essential oils, 284-289 Eucalyptus as windbreak, 26 Eucalyptus oil, 285 Eucalyptus wood, 294 365 Eugenia caryophyllata, 248 jambos, 131 malaccensis, 130 micheli, 13% Euphorbia antisyphilitica, 213 calyculata, 227 lorifolia, 208 p Evaporation of cane juice, 52 Exercise in Tropics, 13, 14 Exogonium purga, 223 Fats, vegetable, 280 Fatsia papyrifera, 188 Feijoa, 122 Ferns as forage, 318 Fertilizers for bananas, 87 for coconuts, 59 for rice, 145 for sugar cane, 47 Fiber plants, 166-192 Ficus carica, tit elastica, 201 Fig, 111, 112 Flavorings, 239-254 Flax, New Zealand, 179 Floss, 177 Foods in Tropics, 15 Forage plants, 301-321 Forastero cacao, 75 Forests and rainfall, 6 Fowls, 340 Frangipani, 259 Frankincense, 256 Fruits, 82-138 commercial importance of, 29 temperate in Tropics, 83, 84 tropical, cold storage for, 30 _ Funtumia elastica, 199 Furcreea, 172 Fustic wood, 232 Galangal, 252 Gambier, 229 Gamboge, 232 Ganpi, 188 366 Garcinia cambogia, 232 mangostana, 127 Gaur, 331 Gayal, 331 Geranium oil, 260 Ginger, 249 Ginger oil, 287 Goat milk, 325 Goats, 336 Golden shower tree, 225 Goose production, 341 Gossypium, 167 Grains of paradise, 247 Granadilla, 132 Grapefruit, 102 Grasses, 312-316 Grazing, effect on forests, 6 Green tea, 71 Grevillea robusta, 24 Grinding sugar cane, 5I Guaiacum resin, 212 Guar, 311 Guarana, 81 Guava, 121 Guayule, 202 Guinea fowl, 341 Guinea grass, 313 Guizotia oleifera, 270 Gum arabic, 211 chewing, 207 Gum tragacanth, 212 Gums and resins, 211 Gur, 55 Gurjun balsam, 286 Gutta-percha, 205 Gynocardia oil, 269 Habana, healthfulness of, 12 Half-breeds in Tropics, 38 Hashish, 220 Hematoxylon campechianum, 231 Hemp, bowstring, 179 Deccan, 180 Indian, 220 Manila, 173 INDEX Hemp, Mauritius, 172 sunn, 182 Hemp-seed oil, 269 Henequen, 169 Henna, 235 Hevea brasiliensis, 197 Hibiscus fibers, 180 sabdariffa, 125 Hogs, 334 Homesteads in Hawaii, 37 Honohono, 318 Horses, 332 Humidity in Tropics, 2 Humus in tropical soils, 21, 22 Hydnocarpus oil, 281 Hygiene in Tropics, 11-15 Hymenea courbaril, 211 Ilex paraguayensis, 80 Tllictum verum, 289 Ilipe oil, 284 Imports, tropical in United States, 32 Indian hemp, 220 Indigo, 234 Insects in Tropics, 27 Ipecac plant, 219 Iron content in soils, 17 Ironwood as windbreak, 26 Istle fiber, 172 Ivory, vegetable, 2097 Jaborandi, 227 Jack bean, 309 Jackfruit, 158 Jaggery, 55 Jaggery from coconuts, 62 Jalap, 223 Jamaica ginger, 249 Japan wax, 283 Japanese wood oil tree, 265 Jatropha curcas, 227 Jelutong, 206 Jippa-jappa hats, 191 Job’s tears, 147 INDEX Journals of tropical agriculture, 355-300 Jujube, 135 Juncus effusus, 187 Jute, 169 Kahoolawe Island, 5 Kapok, 177 Kapok oil, 274 Karri, 204 Kauri copal, 211 Kauri pine, 293 Kava-kava, 225 Kekune oil, 266 King wood, 292 Klu, 257 Koa, 295 Kokune butter, 283 Kola nuts, 80 Kona winds, 3 -Kudzu bean, 310 Kukui oil, 267 Kulthi, 311 Kumquat, 103 Lablab bean, 311 Labor in Tropics, 36 Lace bark tree, 191 Lagetta lintearia, 191 Lanai Island, 5 Landlordism in Tropics, 35 Landolphia, 201 Laterite soils, 17 Latex, coagulation of, 195 properties of, 195 systems of, 194 Lauhala mats, 190 Lava, changes in, 22 Lava soils, 16 Lawsonia alba, 235 Leaching of soils, 16 Legumes, 301-312 Lemon, 102 Lemon grass oil, 284 Lemon oil, 287 367 Leopoldinia piassaba, 182 Lignaloe oil, 289 Lignum vite, 293 Lime, 102 Lime oil, 287 Limus, 159 Litchi, 124 Literature of tropical agriculture, 349-360 Live stock in Tropics, 322-343 Llama, 339 Lleren, 153 Logwood, 231 Long pepper, 247 Longan, 125 Loquat, 129 Lotus, 158 Loxopterygium lorentzu, 230 Luffa egyptiaca, 192 Lunar rainbows, 7 Macadamia ternifolia, 141 Mace, 250 Mace butter, 282 Maclura tinctoria, 232 Madder, 236 Maguey fiber, 172 Majagua as windbreak, 25 Majagua fiber, 181 Mahoe fiber, 181 Mahogany, 293 Malay apple, 130 Mamara cotton, 167 Mammee apple, 132 Man affected by tropical climate, II-15 Mancono wood, 293 Mandarin oranges, 103 Manganese, effect on pineapples, 19 in soils, 18 Mangifera indica, 114 Mango, 114-118 Mango anthracnose, 117 Mangosteen, 127 368 Mangosteen oil, 283 Mangrove, 229 Manicoba rubber, 198 Manihot aipi, 150 glaziovii, 198 Manihot oil, 270 Manihot rubber, 198 Manihot utilissima, 150 Manila hemp, 173 Manioc, 149 Maranta arundinacea, 15¥ Massecuite, 52 Mastic resin, 212 Mat rush, Chinese, 186 Maté, 80 Mauritius hemp, 172 Melaleuca cajuputi, 289 Mesquite, 302 Metrosideros polymorpha, 296 Metroxylon rumphiu, 149 Michelia champaca, 260 Milk from buffaloes, 324 from zebu, 325 production of, in Tropics, I1 yield of, from cows, 324 Milkweed fibers, 178 Millets, 147 Mimusops balata, 206 Mitsumata, 188 Molasses, 52 Monodora myristica, 251 Monsoons, 3 Monstera deliciosa, 135 Moringa pterygosperma, 279 Morphine, 218 Moth bean, 311 Mowra fat, 283 Mules, 332 Mungo bean, 312 Murraya keningit, 245 Musa (see Bananas) basjoo, 175 textilis, 173 Musk mallow fiber, 180 Myristica fragrans, 250 INDEX Myroxylon peretre, 221 Myrrh, 258 Nandu feathers, 343 Natal plum, 133 Natal red-top grass, 314 Nelumbium speciosum, 158 Nephelium lappaceum, 125 litcht, 124 longana, 125 Neroli oil, 258 New Zealand flax, 179 Ngai camphor, 208 Nicotiana rustica, 164 tabacum, 164 Niger seed oil, 270 Nipa palm, 190 Non-drying oils, 276 Nut butter, 60 Nutmeg, 250 Nutmeg butter, 282 Nuts, 138-141 Nux vomica, 218 Ocotea caudata, 289 Ohelo berry, 137 Ohia wood, 296 Oil, bergamot, 259 castor, 277 champaca, 260 champaca wood, 260 China wood, 264 clove, 287 coconut, 60 cottonseed, 271 croton, 227 geranium, 260 Gynocardia, 269 hemp-seed, 269 kekune, 266 kukui, 267 Manihot, 270 of neroli, 258 olive, 276 palm, 280 Oil, palmarosa, 260 peanut, 278 Perilla, 268 petit-grain, 259 poppy-seed, 270 safflower, 269 sesame, 275 soy bean, 272 Stillingia, 268 tung, 264 Oils, 263-289 Okra fiber, 181 Olea europea, 107 Olibanum, 256 Olive, 106-109 pickling of, 108 Olive oil, 276 Olona fiber, 184 Opium, 217 Opportunities in Tropics, 35-42 Orange, Chinese, 103 sour, 103 sweet, 102 Orange oil, 287 Osage orange, 233 Ostrich farming, 341 Otaheite apple, 138 Otto of rose, 261 Palaquium gutta, 205 Palm oil, 280 Palmarosa oil, 260 Palmetto palm, 190 Palmyra palm, 182 Panama hat plant, 191 Pandanus, 189 Papain, 120 Papaver somniferum, 217 Papaya, 118-121 Paper mulberry, 189 Papyrus, 186 Para grass, 312 Para rubber, 197 Para seed oil, 270 INDEX 369 Paraguay tea, 80 Parasites for control of insect pests, 28 Parchment of coffee, 67 Parthenium argentatum, 202 Paspalum conjugatum, 314 dilatatum, 314 Passiflora edulis, 132 laurifolia, 132 quadrangularis, 132 Passion fruit, 132 Patchouli oil, 288 Paullinia sorbilis, 81 Pea berry coffee, 68 Peanut oil, 278 Pelargonium capitatum, 260 Pepper, black and white, 246 capsicum, 243 Perfumes, 255-262 Perilla oil, 268 Periodicals of tropical agriculture, 355-360 Pernambuco wood, 234 Persea gratissima, 112 Persimmon, Japanese, 138 Peru balsam, 221 Petit-grain oil, 259 Phaseolus semierectus, 312 Phenix dactylifera, to9 Phormum tenax, 179 Physalis peruviana, 131 Physic nut, 227 Physostigma venenosum, 222 Phytelaphus macrocarpa, 297 Piassava fiber, 182 Picrasma excelsa, 226 Pigeon pea, 305 Pigs, 334 Pili nut, 140 Pilocarpin, 227 Pilocarpus jaborandi, 227 Pifia cloth, 183 Pineapple fiber, 183 Pineapples, 94-101 black rot of. 99 370 INDEX Pineapples, canning of, 100 cultivation of, 95 in cold storage, 98 juice of, 100 profits from, 41 ripening of, 97 shipment of, 98 Piper cubeba, 219 clusii, 247 longum, 247 methysticum, 225 nigrum, 246 Pimenta acris, 289 Pimento, 240 Pimento oil, 288 Pipturus gaudichaudianus, 189 Pistacia lentiscus, 212 vera, I4I Pistachio nut, 141 Pita fiber, 172 Plantain (see Bananas) Plant diseases in Tropics, 28 Plantation rubber, 197 Plants affected by climate, 7-10 Plowing heavy soils, 21 Plumeria, 259 Pogostemon patchouli, 288 Poha, 132 Pomegranate, 123 Pomelo, 102 Pongam oil, 282 Poppy-seed oil, 270 Porto Rican pea, 305 Potash in molasses, 52 in volcanic cinder, 17 Potatoes, sweet, 152 Poultry, 340 Precipitation in Tropics, 4 Prickly pear, 317 Profits in tropical agriculture, 40 Prosopis juliflora, 302 Prunus amygdalus, 139 Psidium cattleianum, 122 guajava, 121 Psychotria ipecacuanha, 219 Pulu, ror Punica granatum, 123 Quassia, 226 Quebracho, 230 Queensland arrowroot, 153 Queensland nut, 141 Quinin, 214 Quinoa, 148 Races in Tropics, 35-42 Raffia, 185 Ragi, 147 Rainbows, 7 Rainfall in Tropics, 4, 5 Rainy seasons, 4 Rambutan, 127 Ramie, 176 Rape-seed oil, 276 Raphia ruffia, 185 Raphionacme utilis, 201 Rattan, 192 Rattoons, 46 Ravensara nuts, 251 Red pepper, 244 Refrigeration of tropical fruits, 30 Resins and gums, 211 Rhea feathers, 343 Rhizophora, 229 Rhodes grass, 313 Rhus cotinus, 233 succedanea, 283 Rice, 143-147 Rice oil, 278 Rice paper plant, 188 Rice straw, 188 Root rubbers, 201 Rose, otto of, 261 Rose apple, 131 Roselle, 125 Roselle fiber, 181 Rosewood, 2092 Rubber, 193-204 artificial, 196 _ Rubber vines, 201 INDEX Rubia tinctorum, 236 Rushes for matting, 186, 187 Saccharum officinarum, 43 Sachet powder, 258 Safflower, 237 Safflower oil, 269 Saffron, 238 Sago, 149 Sal tree, 291 Sandalwood, 286, 294 Sandalwood oil, 285 Sandalwood pony, 332 Sanitation in Tropics, 11-15 Sansevieria, 179 Sapodilla, 136 Sappanwood, 234 Sarsaparilla, 223 Satinwood, 295 Schleichera trijuga, 346 Screw pine, 189 Sea Island cotton, 167 Seaweed, 159 Sechium edule, 158 Semi-drying oils, 271 Senna, 224 Sesame oil, 275 Settlers, opportunities in Tropics, 36 Shaddock, 102 Shade crops, 24 Shading young plants, 24 Shea butter, 282 Sheep, 335 Shellac production, 346 Shorea robusta, 291 Silk cotton, 177 Silk grass, 184 Silk production, 344 Silky oak, 24 Silos in Tropics, 320 Silver skin of coffee, 67 Sisal, 169-173 Smilax, 223 Smoke tree, 233 371 Smyrna fig, III Social conditions in Tropics, 35-42 Soils, importance of texture, 23 in Tropics, 16-23 Sour sop, 128 Soy bean, 306 Soy meal, 273 Soy milk, 273 Soy oil, 272 Soya sauce, 274 Spices, 239-254 Spondias dulcis, 138 Sponge cucumber, 192 Spraying to kill weeds, 27 Squill, 224 Star anise oil, 289 Star apple, 134 Starch from cassava, I5I Starchy foods, 142 Steam plows, 22, 23 Sterculia oil, 279 Stillingia oil, 268 Stillingia sebifera, 281 Stipa tenacissima, 185 Strophanthus, 227 Strychnin, 219 Strychnos, 218 Styrax benzoin, 258 Sudan grass, 316 Sugar cane, 43-55 burning of, 21, 22 composition of, 45 fertilizers for, 47 for silage, 320 harvesting of, 50 manufacture of, 51 mills for, 51 payment for, 54 planting of, 49 plowing for, 49 profit from, 40 statistics about, 53, 54 trash as feed, 319 varieties of, 43 water requirements for, 46 872 INDEX Sunn hemp, 182 Trade winds, 3 Surinam cherry, 131 Tragacanth, gum, 212 Sweet potatoes, 152 Tree ferns, 318 Sweet sop, 128 Tricholena rosea, 314 Swietenia mahogani, 293 Tronadora fiber, 181 Swine, 334 Tropical climate, 1-15 Sword bean, 309 Tropical foods, 15 Tropical imports in United States, Tacamahaca resin, 212 _ 32 Tacca, 152 Tropical policy for United States, Tachardia lacca, 346 42 Tamarind, 124 Tropical products, importance of, Tampico fiber, 172 20-34 Tangerines, 104 Tropical soils, 16-23 Taniers, 155 Tropics and white farmers, 37 Tans and dyes, 228-238 area of, 33 Tapa, 189 areas of, in crops, 34 Tapioca, 151 defined, 2 Tapping rubber trees, 196 development of, 33 Taraktogenos kursti, 281 economic conditions in, 35-42 Taro, 155 need for agricultural experts in, Tea, 70-73 39 fermentation of, 71 opportunities in, 35-42 grades and trade names of, 71, social conditions in, 35-42 72 Tung oil, 264 statistics about, 70, 71 Tunis grass, 316 Tea oil, 279 Turkeys, 341 Teakwood, 296 Turmeric, 251 Temperature of Tropics, 2, 3 Terra Japonica, 229 Theobroma cacao, 74 pentagona, 75 Thespesia populnia, 181 Thunderstorms in Tropics, 4 Udo, 154 Uncaria gambir, 223, 229 Urginia scilla, 224 Ti as a food plant, 159 Vaccinium reticulatum, 137 Timbers, 290-300 Vacuum pans, 52 Titanium in soils, 19 Vanilla, 252-254 Tobacco, 160-165 Vanillin, artificial, 254 - curing of, 162 Vanillon, 254 grading of, 165 Vegetable ivory, 207 Toddy from coconuts, 62 Vegetaline, 60 Tolu balsam, 221 Velvet bean, 307 Tonka bean, 256 Vetiver, 261 Touchardia latifolia, 184 Violet wood, 292 Trade in tropical products, 29-34 | Volcanic cinder, 17 INDEX Volcanic soils, 16 Vulcanization of rubber, 193 Wampi, 133 Water grass, 314 Water lemon, 132 Wattle bark, 230 Wax, 213 Weeds, destruction of, by chemi- cals, 27 West Indian cedar, 295 White man as tropical farmer, 37 Wi apple, 138 Wikstremia canescens, 188 Windbreaks, 25 Wind erosion, 6 Winds in Tropics, 3 Wine palm, 182 Winged bean, 311 373 Wood oil tree, 264 Woods, 290-300 Xanthosoma, 155 Xanthostemon, 293 Yam, 153 Yautias, £55 Ylang-ylang, 255 Yucca filamentosa, 190 Zapupe, 172 Zebra, 334 Zebroids, 334 Zebu, 327 Zedoary, 252 Zingiber officinale, 249 Zizyphus jujuba, 135 vulgaris, 136 i ay Ry i 4 , AT hil Hell i Ng Mahe AY: N i 4 \ A DN Op hy ake) OPN y if DMT MA Leis ent ais , SEL aa aa ian a Wan , ; if HN EI i aT i BUN "0 i 4 tal ie a He ONE Hig Fay ele RACH MEG Mid i NOE UWA ii Biv! yh i Winey oa i ih Sy } ay elf Cah Vath Me ‘ \ IGE Ba A A MN eae ita i He NH ALA lt CIN Wats nA , SRW NY Ae 1 rising Hs i AN Gee muti RNAI ay ea Day Auth 4 Ah Raa “ } NIE RAY te Nyy NaHS IS | aa | a “ee oN 0 AMS) NY Al Ni SH ANY PUG le ihe WeALy ti SBN): Wii Heil GROMEGON Ha ; iN Vivi Y i) BAG AUN | ANNAN Mbe iy LE i YN Mia Han) Hata van RAN Ai Ne Natt iA hye wh PAR) AlN ay Ht) AUR a i A VATA NY ANIL WA ‘ Nive AW by i} BSE Dh tent RAYS (Sk i shah} MAY PN i ARAMA G AN ANAARENIS WR Danii ; : a ANN i i ? 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