^Vn'^' \* \>J ^^N^CV^^ iiHMIiiiiiiii I ►^s^ii^f BRARY 0£^^ ^fWrORKBOTMCALOAPj.. IVol. III., eontaininy Nufnters 1. io .T/7.] THE TROPICAL AGRICULTURIST: A MONTHLY RECORD OF INFORMATION FOR PLANTEKS OF OOPPBB, TEA, CACAO, CINCHONA, RUBBERS, SUGAR, TOBACCO, CARDAMOMS, PALMS, RIOB, AND OTHER PRODUCTS SUITED FOR CDLTIVATIO.X IN THE TROPICS. [issued on or about the 1st or each month.] "Stop alter step the ladder ia ascended."— George Herbert, Jacula Pnidentvm, COMPILED BY A. M. & J. FEKCtUSON, of the "Ceylon Observer." LIBRARY NEW YORK BOTANICAL GARDEN. "It is both the duty and interest of every Owner and Cultivator of tlie Soil to study the best means of reiideiing that «oil subservient to his own and the general wants of the community ; and he who introduces, beneticially, a new and useful AVi, 355, 414, 419 445,416,451,514,846 in America ... ...319,332 in Brazil 1. 46, 69, 101, 205, 216, 236 280, 296-8, 491-4, 652, 764 in Burma ... ... 619 in Costa llica... ... 655 in Fiji ... ... 62 in Hayti ... ... 235 in India ...2S, 69, 212, 286,440, 613 in Java 46, 180, 202, 216, 228-31, 295-8 491-4, 521, 546 . ^— in Mozanibi8, 850, 936 792 461 852 427 ...529,912 162 ...490,550 [See Burma] 591 ...218,592 128, 184,218,502,610,706 ... , ... 244 308, 409, 587, 7:'5 .587 548 Boxes 14, 42, 78, 331, 422, 561, 609, 010, 881, 914, 927 , Brewing of ... ... ... 931 Bug ... ... ... 880 , Bulking of ... 144, 181, 248, 249, 428, 4-56, 472 , Ceylon 79, 183, 246, 250-7, 298, 309, 318, 331, 441, 447, 448, 477, 478, 479, 489, 513, 584 , Charges on ... 159,205,375,413,419,595,846 Companies ... ... ... 379 , Composition of ... ... ... 218 , Consumption of ... 102,653,690,915 Cultivation 13, 61, 66, 98, 99, 125, 143, 189, 204, 209, 236. 244, 250-7, 261, 273-8, 2,S0, 284, 313, 315, 320, 334, 335, 341, 353. 356, 365, 376, 377, 381. 382, 383-7. 399, 410, 446. 452, 477, 482-5, 513, 514. 627, 561, 562, 580, 5S7, 053, 690, 700, 846, 927 in America ... .. 600, 987 in Burma ... ... 619 in China 128, 208, 348, 666, 738, 793 in Fiji ... 63, 495,584, 610 in India 32, 125, 133, 172, 186, 188, 202, 221-4, 231, 230, 244, 245, 265, 268, 270, 309, 310, 345, 346, 420, 441, 536, 559, 605-7, 615, 622, 680, 704 in Japan ... 17, 78, 825-7 in Java ... 180, 521, 706 in Natal ... ... 137 in New Zealand ... ...107,738 • — ■ in the Aiulanians .. ... 536 — r- in the Caucasus ... ... 113 ixi)i:x. Page. TfP, l>i^e■:I-*«'^of ... ... .. ..514, .'>*i5 - — , Draining of ... ... ... 702 — - Driers ... ... '.v<€ Tea Machinery] Drinking ... ... .572. 594. (HI. rill, 70ti . Enemies of ;«. 4:i. ;t43. 352. 3-53: 412. 446, .591. ««•. OKI. 674. ti75. (579, t>89, 742. 7S6, b33. 857-01, (102 ..Manuring of ... ... 352. 7«», 820 Marks .. ... ... 316 — -. Notes on ... ... ... 348 Oldest, in (ejlon ... ... 39 .578 847 421 42 7P3 915 7.". ?d. 13!1, 73-!. 74(1. 902 ... 8ti.829 .5(i7 3.55 71.70. 16i), 237, 248. 2(J8 ,, 418 . Hckle.l , Piuckinp of I'reparation . Prices for . Production of .« Rollers Sales , Sap in Seed 13, 214. 348 Oil and Oil Cake , Sowing Sifters . Substitute,s for ... Supposed Sj-ndicate. Cakinta — - Trade Trees, Large . Weighing of . Wild Teak Cultivation , Substitutes for , Uses of Teneriffe, Cochineal in — , Planting in Texan Plague Plant ... ■J'extile Plants Tillage and Evaporation and Manures and Subsoiling Timber, Life of ' , Seasoning of • Trade of Chile Timbers, African , Indian , Malay . New South Wales Tin Tea Boxes Tobacco Cultivation . 1(>,.536 ... 204. 318. 3>i5. 44M, 702 17. 248. 284, 314, 36.5, 381, 38^. 40s. 413. 417. 419. 447, 478, 482-5, 48i!. -542-4. 633. 640. lisO. 735, b90 ... 40. 204. 272. 477. 479 86, 102, 4;«5, 6.53, 7:i5. 789, Mfl [S(^ Tea Machinery! 40,2x4.211,272 775 41.5, 416. 417, 420. 447, J4S. 4.50, 514, 597 596 ... 4.-,376 ... i_-Ste Tea Machinery" ...1(I9,.554 578 ...312, .1.55 267.-536,612,690 ...41(i,598 516 12.164,313 118. 364. 66<> 420 558 535 686 745 [See Fibre-yielding Plants] ...333,687 636 890 428 612 633 811 335. 422, 428, 489, -501, 609, 610 ... 933-5 in America ■ in Burma in India ■ in .Java in Natal in Sumatra , Enemies of .Juice as an Insecticide ; Manufacture Tomato as an Insecticide Pickle • — , Tree Vines for Cattle 717 78 140.412.514,624-6 ...579,694 441 604 180 122 ...641,869 615 720 ... 624-6 ...712,830 357 883 671 Tonka Bean Torres Straits. Pearl Fishery in Transplanting Trees Travaucore, Planting iu 69. 148. 212, Tree Planting in Mexico in Victoria Pruning ... ... 93. Tiees, Ageof ... ... and Water ... . Big , Digging about , Manuring . Transplanting Trincomalee, New Products at Triniilad. Ants in . Climate of . Planting in Tiopicol Ayi-icidUirixt 67, iy^^^ 126, 157. Tropics, European Plants in Turkey, Poppy ('ultivation in Turmeric. .Market Rates for 8c1. 156. 220. Twin Crops u. I'seful Hints I'va Planting in Coffee Company. Limited P.»:t, and their growth at this elevation is very much quicker. There are apparently several varieties which, although equally robust, yet shew differences on the leaves — some being "large leafed, with a deep red underneath, others with longer leaves and a yellow or red midrib. From what one can judge at this stage the bark promises to be rich. The asti'ingeflt properties are most marked on tasting. Mr. Christie says Ledgerianas lose the underleaf when they grow up, "which would imply that young Ledgerianas have always the red underleaf. I am under the belief that many ledgers shew no red whatever in the underleaf and Aet niay be very rich in quinine*; and Howard gives several distinct types not only as to leaf, but as regards tiowers. As far as a mere outsider can judge, the divergent fonns of Ledgerianas are uumbarless. At this stage, there is of course no Verde or Morada blossom to be got, or the matter might be more satisfactorily settled ; but that these plants an- of the Ledgeriana t>^e, I do not think can be doubted, and I hace a gi-eat number of aU kinds. I will forward various leaves to Dr. Trimen, who wiU no doubt be able to give a more pronounced opinion, and from what he says in his report, I incline to think be considers them, most likely to be the quite distinct from C. Ledgeriana —J. V. H. O. We trust they will not be found to have any affinity to C. micrantha. It is evident that the enor- moue C. vp.rde trees noticed by Markham were of great age. We add further extracts : — Sm, — I have raised several thousand " Calisaya Verde " plants from the seed which, I received from Mr. Chi'istie, (the first seed that came to the Island I believe) and I have no hesitation in saying that the growth of the " Verdes," both as seedlings and since being planted in the clearings, is at least double as quick as that of any other variety. I have some "Verde" plants put out in the clearing .5 months ago, and they are more than double the size of Ledgeriana put out at the same time. Perhaps yom- cor* respondent " G, " has planted them at too high an eleva- tion ? One of the great recommendations of the "Verde" is, that it is supposed to flourish at a much lower elevation than any other varietj' of,ciuchona, and if this j^roves to be the case in Ceylon, a large quantity of land hitherto found unsuitable for cultivation of this valuable variety of cinchona, and now that forest laud at a suitable elev- ation for other varieties of cinchona is so scarce it would be very important to prove that '' Calisaya Verde " will really flourish at an elevation where other vai'ieties will not. — B. FFANSH.1WE. Lunugalla, May 2nd. ' G * asks whether Calisaya Verde will grow in Cey- lon to four times or ten tiines the size of Succii'ubi-as. How can any one answer that until they have grown them ? Mr. Christie cannot tell him tlmt, or Markliam, or Holmes, or any other authority unless they are grown in Ceylon ! All we have heard is that it grows to a '• very large tree " in Bolivia. All I can say is that at this elevation, .5,200 feet, it gi'ows very quickly indeed, but as to whether it is to be four or even ten times bigger than succirubra it is impossible as yet to say. As to what ' Markliam' says, I refer ' G ' to Peru- vian Bark, chapter svii. page 191. ' Gu'onda ' was Go- vernor of Sma, a village in Caravaya, between Peru and BoUvia, to whom Hasskarl lefeiTed in his ti-avels through Peru, and with whom Markham stayed during his travels in the Caravaya country. Martinez was the Cascarillero who accompanied "Weddell, in 1846, and later on Markham in 1S60. Regarding the Morada tree, Markham mentions one he saw which had been planted in a clearing taken from a root-shoot 12 inches high, and planted in January 1859. In May, 1860, it was seven feet high, six and four-tenth inches round the ti'uuk ! I think ' G ' will gather all that is known of the.se varieties from the references here given him. Possibly if he asked Mr. Christie to refer more particularly to his agents they might tell liim more concerning the growth of Calisaya Verde in BoUvia, but until, as I said before, ve grow these trees, it cannot be said what size they will or will not grow to in Cey- lon.^r. V H. O. CINGHALESE LABOUR IN QUEENSLAND. {To the Eililor of the " Machay Standard.") Sir, ^A consider ible amount of misdirected sympathj-, both at Bundaberg and Mackay, is being extended to the Cinghalese lately imported by the "Devonshire." What that class of people hope to gain who are in- viting the Cinghalese to bi'eak their agreements it is diffimlt to say: instead of allowing them to perform their five years' aiireements as agricultural laborers on the plantations, this class of people are doius all they can to cause the agreements to be broken, and to let the Cinghalese loose in the town to compete with themselves— the very last thing one would think, which was desired by them, and which is certainly utterly opposed to the wisiies of the planters. A great deal has been said about their having been deceived in their agreements, about their re- muneration being inadequate, &c., which deserves con- sideration. In the iirat place what are their wages in their own country ? We have several Ceylon coffee planters amongst us, and they say that the highest wages paid in Ceylon is £1 per month, or 8d per d.iy, and tind themselves. In Mauritius the authorized legal wages of identured immigrants is lOs per month, wiih rations, which is equal to 4d per day, and found ; in India the i-ate is from 4d to 5d per day, and tind themselves. Now, granting that there is a difference in value of rations between this country and Ceylon, no employer has, that I am aware of, declined to make up this difference, for an ample ration for Cinghalese can be given here at the rate of from 6d to 7d per day, as the following scale will testify : — s. d. Beet 1 tb. f* diem 7 It). V week, @ IJd P lb. 1 Oi Bread IJ lb. W diem 9 tb. F week. @ 4}d V 2Ib. 1 7+ Rice i lb. f diem 3i lb. V week, @ 2Jd P lb. 8| Tea 2' oz. F week, @ 2s. I> lb. 3 Sugar 1 ft. *■ week, @ 2d. F lb. 2 Total ... 3 9i This £9 16s Id per annum deducted from the £20 per annum for which the i 'iughalese contracted to come still leaves th m £10 3s lid or equal to 8d per working day, (within a fraction), which contrasts favor- ably with their own country, SJ aday and find them- selves, * Ledgerianas with specially red leaves were not in favour with Mr. Moe.is, and we saw a field of them separately planted so that theii* value miglit be tested. — Ed. C. 0. July 2, 1883.] THE TROPICAL AGRICULTURIST. In practice, however, the planter takes upon him- self the extra cost of the rations in the country, and the Coolie gets ISs a month in cash besides his rations, while the Kanakas only get 10s a month here, and 5s a month in Fiji. With importatiou, exportation, and medical attend- ance, the total cost of each coolie fo the planter is fully £'2G per annum, or 10s. per week, the same as the Kanakas, while no one will deny the great superi- ority of the Kanakas in docility as well as in physical strength. It is the most absurd thing in the world to treat these Asiatics (who are a servile race) as deserving of sympathy ; they have ample rations and nearly double tbe piiy they get in their own country, but they are encouraged by misguided men to leave their work, loaf about the towns, subsist on charity, and do nothing ; this suits their characters down to the ground, as to have plenty to eat and nothing to do would suit many men who still have to earn their living by the sweat of their brow ; but where the Government funds are prostituted by tur-ning the immigration quarters into a deptit to harbour these idle loafers, and they are encouraged in their illegal desertion by Government officials, some protest should be made. The acts of the Immigration agent are a regular laughing stock for them, and as a Ciughalese said to me the other day — " Me gentleman now, me sit down along table witli knife and fork, white man wait on me, Governmtut ^ive me rations, by and by money, send me back along Ceylon." With such absurd treatment as this to men who are many of them well known gaol birds, is it a wonder that they should prefer leaving their employer and being supported in idleness to earning their livini; by honest work. A point in the Asiatic character, with which we are as yet unfamiliar is, their utter disregard of truth, or the obligations of an oath, and their consequent unreliability as witnesses ; it is notorious that a native advocate has only got to go into the bazaars at Colombo, and for a rupi'e each he can get as many witnesses as he wants. There is also the well known story of the Calcutta judge summing up in an im- portant case : " 54 witnesses have sworn to certain facts, while .54 have sworn diametrically opposite. I am therefore forced to discard the evidence entirely, and decide the matter upon my own judgment." Finally, unless these Cingludese are to become a perfect nuisauce hanging about thf town, begging or stealing, they should be promptly banished, and sent back to their employers, where ISs. a month and ra- tions, double the pay th^-y have been accustomed to, awaits them. Any sympathy with such men as these only en- courages them to absent themselves from work and live upon the earnings of those who are really working men, does an infinity of harm, and unsettli-s those Tamils and Cinghalese who are disposed to work. A Mackay Planter. SAND-BINDING PLANTS have been reported on by Dr. Bidie to the Madras Government as follows ; — The utilisation of indogenous plants to bind the sands of this coast was apparently first attempted in 1849 on the suggestion of Colonel Worster, R. A,, to protect the beach road from sand. Subsequently Dr. Cleghoru de- voted attention to the suliject, the immediate object then in view being to consolidati^ ttie shifting sands thrown up by the sea near Sir A. (totton's groynes, which .still exist aloi:^' the beach oppo.site the city of Madras. The chief plants employed on both these occasions were the Goats' foot creeper(y)M/(i«a pes-caprtr) and the Spiny pink-like gra,s3 {Spinifex sijHaiYu,-iu.-i). In Kurope and America the importance of conservative measures of this nature has long been recognized. On the shores of the Baltic, where numerous dunes exist, attempts to reclaim them date back several centuries, and in America the planting of sand-binding plants was enforced by law on the beaches of Long Islands as early as 1758. In France where operations to control dunes have been most ex- tensive and successful, the first important experiments were apparently made in 1870 by Mons. Bremontier, who subse- quently published au account of his method. " Jlemoire sur les Dunes," in 1796. In dealing with aggressive sands, such as those of the south-west of France, the first step towards arresting their progress is to create a barrier to the drift. This is usually done by erecting a paling of boards about 4 feet high and with the sharpened ends driven into the sand. Each board is from 5 to 6 inches wide by IJ inches thick, and a space an inch wide is left between the boards. The sand ghding along the smrface is piled up in front of the jJaling, and a portion passing, through is de- posited behind. This goes on till the boards are bmied, when they are raised by a mechanical contrivance without disturbing the consolidated sand' When the pal- ing is first erected a space on the windward side, eight times wider than its height is planted with saud-biuding plants, those used in France being ehielly Arundo arenaria, a Triticum, an ArUinisia^ Cakile marttlnia unda. yal:>uia. The Dune thus secured rises higher and higher, and the plants, as they are buried, struggle upwards and bind the drifted heap with a network of roots. The best angles for secur- ity in a dune are one of 7 ° in front and 22 ° in the rear. The increase by drift to the height of a dune in France is about 1 2 inches per annum, and the top may be crowned with Tamarisk. These particulars are mentioned here be- cause it seems probable that some such measures will be required to control the sands of some of the tracts re- ferred to in the correspondence forwarded by the Govern- ment of Inilia. At various parts along our coast the phenomenon of natru- al drifted heaps of sand may be seen, and these to a large extent owe their existence to the jiresence of saud-biuding plants. The moving sand on a beach is not lifted up like dust by the wind, hut is driven along near the surface, and thus plants in the coiuse of the drift catch less or more of it, and in course of time a sloping bank or dune is formed. The chief local plants instrumental in thus arresting and consoliilating sand are those mentiimed by Dr. Cleghorn, viz., Spinifcv stjttfin-osHs^ Iponufa pe. < cap rte ^ aiid Lfti/ntpa pin- natifda (formerly MicrorhyncMs sarinentosns), and to these may be added Ci/ents aranaria and other Ci/peritceir, and Tcidax procumheiis. The locality which these plants frequent on our shores is that of the loose shifting sands, and the names of the whole of the more common species growing there will be found in List A of appendix. Immediately behind the dunes the iiora is somewhat more extensive, the chief plants found in that zone being those enumerated in Li.st B. Here also shrubs and trees begin to appear, amongst which may be noted CarUsa Carachlas^ Eh-eiia artnaria^ Fandanus odoi'athc^iiiius^ Fluenia; fariniferaf Jjora^sii-^ JInl'eUi/ormi'i, a Ca/amus, Anacardium occidentti/e, Solanvjnjacqiiinu Fsidium ^?yr?yeri^/>i, Jasitiiuum anyusti' folium, Memect/toti tinctonum, Calatropis yigaiitea, Hoya vi- ridifloru, Tylophora asthmatica and Hemidrsmus indicus. FaiidxTuus odoratissimns is particularly useful when it is de- sirable to raise the sand drift in large heaps, and at thi same time to afford shelter from the sea-breeze. The Alex- andrian laurel {f'idophyUum hwphyllvjn) also thrives well when planted in such situations, and so does Phunii' syl\:- Ktri.i. If there is a back-water or canal 4v;cojj!i hexandra, Valhevyia jianicidata, Aciicia planifium, Acacio latronum, Fitherolohimu didce, Ficus iiidica, Ficus tsila and CasiULi'um muyicaia. THE TROPICAL AGRICULTURIST. [JttLY 2, 1883. Of the last-uamed tree, Casuariiia muricciia^ exteusive plantations exist for many miles along the coast north and south of Madras, and these liave greatly improved the ap- pearance of what was before a sun-beaten sandy waste. There can be no doubt also that the plantatious have ren- dered the fields behind them more valuable by affording shelter, and in some cases have permitted land to be brought under cultivation, which would otherwise have remained in a waste state. The Casuarina is a very hardy plant near the sea, and will grow down to high water mark, even amongst loose sand. The secret of its flourishing in such situations is due to the fact that the sub-soil water is always near the surface, and that the sand, although apparently barren, is generally largely mixed with decay ed organic matter. When the trees in a Casuarina plantation are left un- pruned, they throw out decumbent horizontal branches which develop roots and thus fix the .sand. If the trees are cut, these rooting branches, when left iutact, throw up shoots, and thus the forest is naturally renewed. In the shade of an established Casuarina plantation the ground is httered with the minute twigs shed by the trees, and this top-dressing, if left uudisturbed, shortly decays and fructifies the soil. The plants which grow in the shade of Casuarinas, when not too dense, are those which are marked with an asterisk in List B. The importance of the Casuarma in the reclamation of wa.ste sandy tracts on the coast can hardly be over- estimated. Perhaps the better way to put it as regards this Presidency would be to say, that there should be no such %vaste lands. Theh- reclamation belongs, properly speaking, to the Forest Department, and to them the task should be entrusted. ESCLOSCKE, No, 1. Appendix A. Oanavalia obtusif olia 1 Sesamum prostratum Hydophilaxmaritima | Pupalia orbiculata Launiea pinnatifida 1 Crinum sp. Tridax procumbens Cyjierus arenarius Impomasa pes-capras | Spinifex squarorosus. Polycarpa>a corymbosa * Alysicarpus vaginalis Phaseolus trilobus Desmodium gangeticum * Do. triflorum * 1 ndigofera enneaphylla Mollugo stricta * Spermacocearticularis » Hedyotis Heynei Impom;ea pes-tigrichs Ipomrea tridentata Lippia nodiiiora Asystasia coromandeliana I'cdalium murex * Leucas diffusa? * Chammissoaaspera * Jirua monsoni;u Chenopodiua Indica Enclosuee, No. 2. Appendix B. Salicornia Indica * Cyperus castaneus * Do. bulbosus * Do. distans Cj-perus t-p. * Fimbristylis ferruginca * Do. 2 sps. * Kyllingia triceps * Isolepis gracihs » Do. 2 .■ips. Trachyozus muricata Aristida setacea Elcusine ;e4,'yptiaca *■ Chloris barbata * Perotis latifolia Imperata arundinacea * Panicum 2, iijjs. Eragrostis 2, sps. Salsola Indica (Signed) G. Bidie, m.b., Brigade-Surgeon, Supt., Govt. Central Museum. Madras, 27th March 1883. [M ost of the plants mentioned are the same as our Ittoral sand-binding plants in Ceylon, the goats-foot ipomtea, the Vamicalia ohtus'folia, and Spinifex squrir- ro»ns, being the most abundant and best for binding the sands on sea-shores. These are often torn up by the waves, but take root at once and grow out towards the sea as soon as the waves allow them. I understand that several years ago attempts were made to grow casuarinas on portions of our coast near the pea'-l banks at Silavatturai and elsewhere, and if those have succeeded they should be planted every- whire in Ceylon where there is waste groimd which is required to be reclaimed and on which nothing else of value will grow. That avenue of casuarinas on Torriugton Place from the Edinburgh Crescent to the new Lunatic Asylum was planted in 1880, so that iu about 3^ years these trees have grown to a height of 25 to 30 feet In sandy soil with some cabook on the surface.— -W. F.] A Pine Teee cut in Amos Bailey's camp, Indian River, Cheboygan county, Blich., measured 22 ft. in circumference, and was sound from butt to top ; and a tree was recently cut in Hemstead county, Ala., that measured 26 ft. in circumference. It took six men, working con.stantly, Imlf- a-day to fell it. — Forestnj. North Borneo. — Mr. L. B. von Donop, in a letter of this mail, writes: — "I am just off up the Segama river to search for gold and see the country. Xhe propects of this country could not be brighter everything is swinging along right merrily." Polished Satinwood. — The cases and ornaments of the pianofortes are in many instances extremely bpautiful, in others merely curious and extravagantly expensive, in none so tasteful as the old-fashioned spinnet and harpsichord cases of polished satinwood, painted with wreaths of flowers and knots of ribbon. — From an Exhibition Report. Grodnd Nut Tk.ide.— The gi-ound nut trade in Poudi- cherry was recently a very large one, and thousands of bags were shipped from that port to France. The demand for storing space was so great, that every available dwelling house was rented by the merchants. The trade in ground nuts in Madras is pretty large. Last month the shipments to Great Britain, France, Bombay and Calcutta aggregated 15,926 cwt. valued at 63,719 rupees.^J/«(/rets Times-. Cakd.\mom Dkyino. — An Indian planter writes : — " Can you inform me whether Mr. Shand's patent tea drier will do for drying cardamoms. By doing so you will oblige me." We believe Shand's patent drier is admirably adapted for drying cardamoms, as well as cinchona bark, cocoa seeds and tea, and, being so cheap comparatively, it sh ould be a very useful article on estates. EuRTA Seerata.— This is a plant which is met with in all tea districts of India. It has considerable resem- blance to the tea leaf for which it is often mistaken, and coolies have been known often to pluck it by mistake. It is desirable, therefore, to direct attention to the matter. — Indian Tea Gazette. [\Te suppose this ia the plant called wild tea iu Ceylon. A few plants appear occasionally iu nurseries, but unless they were planted out .among.st the true tea bushes how could coolies pluck the leaves ? — E0.] New Inventions.— No. 13o of 18S'2 Robbins Thomas Cooli. , of Sylhet, Tta PJanLer, for an imjjroved method of silting tea and other produce or mitenals. >."o. 1 of 1883. — Andrew Charles Guy Thompson (Engineer), of Windsor Tta Eslate, Daijeeling, for tiring or drying tea or other substances and, when required, reducing and sorting the same into kinds or qualities while passing through the machine, or the sever.al proce-sses may be performed separately if desired, and is also applicable to withering leaf prior to manipulation. — Indian Tea Gazette. Cinchona. — The Earl of Rimberley, writing to the Madras Government, on the 15th March says :— " I have to inform you that cinchona seed was forwarded to you by the mail of the 23rd ultimo by letter post. The varieties and quantities of seed sent were as follows : — 2 lbs. of t'alisaya Verde, and Calisaya Morada seed in the husk, equal to 4 ounces of clean seed ; 1 lb. of Calisaya Verde seed in the hHsk, equal to 2 ounces of clean seed ; 1 lb. of Calisaya Morada seed iu the husk, equal to 2 ounces of olean seed ; and 2 ounces of Calisaya Zamba Morad.!, clean seed. None of the biirk samples asked for by you have been received." — Madras Mail, JvhY 2, 1883.] THE TROPICAL AGRICULTURIST. 13 To the Editor of the ''Ceylon Observe, T TEA PLANTING : PRACTICAL HINTS. 18th May 1883. Dear Sir,— In your iasueofthe 16th inst. yon mention a case where "150,000 two year old nursery tea plants wei-B put out last season." It wouldbe most interesting to know in what way the roots were treated, and if the trees were topped before pUntiug. My experience is against allowing the plants to grow to a greater height than 12 inches before planting in the field. This height tea plants will, under ordinary circumstances, arrive at in sis to eight months from the date of putting the seed in the nursery. Six inch plants I consider pieferable to those of a larger size, from the fact of the root being as a rule deeper than the height of the plant above the ground. Small plants, I find, scarcely cease growing when transplanted, whereas it is not unusual for those of more mature growth to remain in the ground for six months without making the slightest progress. Germinated seed does uncommonly well in cleared land, but not where mana grass or weeds have been grown, pooohies being frequently most destructive in the latter. o. A. [Windsor Forest was planted we believe with plants over 18 month old, but there is much in what " S. A." says about the readiness of six months' plants to grow after transplanting— that is, we suppose, pro- vided they do not come in for the burst of the mon- soon as they are put out. — Ed.] — I SILK CULTURE IN CEYLON. Hope Estate, Deltota, 23rd May 1883. Dear Sir, — Mr. C. R. White may be able to obtain eggs of mulberry-feeding worms from the Indian Go- vernment. The eggs of B. moH that I was bringing from England began to hatch out on the 7tb instant, about a week before we reached Colombo, and, though every effort was made to retard the hatching of the remainder, the young worms died soon after arrival. It is impossible to do more than experiment with Bomhyx mori at present, as there is not a eutficiency of mature mulberry trees on any estate. — Yours faith- fully, P. N. B. EXPERIENCE OF GROWING TEA FROM THE NURSERY IN CEYLON. Ardallie, Agrapatana, 24th May 1883. Dear Sir, — As there ssems to be a number of erroneous statements flying about the Windsor Forest tea, I may now try to put you right, as I put in the tea nurseries that supplied the first tea to Windsor Forest and Horagalia and Seaforth. In the first place, the tea seed was not from Assam : it came direct from Uarjeehng, and first-rate seed it was. I had some ,(J8 maunds, and on an average there, was only about 6 per cent light. It was carefully packed in one niaund boxes, mixed with charcoal, and the boxes lined with lead and inside the lead brown paper. The varieties of the tea seed were hybrid, and indigen- ous. Tlie difference in the seeds I could not make out at the time, but directly they got above ground you could easily spot them, the leaf being a much lighter green than the hybrid and much longer. I finished putting in the seed into the nursery ou the 30th Dee- ember 1874. I planted over 9 acres of it by the middle of June 1875, and also supplied Windsor Forest and Horagalia with plants in July, the following month. Plants grown down in a forcing climate like Yak- dessa I consider would not be in good condition, 18 months old, for planting ; and the great object in plant- ing tea is to catch the first rains. This gives them a splendid start and they go on growing for ever. This is Cejlon experience. — Wars faithfully, J. D. W. SHAND'S PATENT* DRIER. Colombo, 28th May 1883. Dear Sir, — I am much obliged to you for the reply you make to the "Indian Planter "'s enquiry as to whether my tea drier is also suited to drying cardamoms. I had previously written to him to repeat what I wrote to you a short time ago, viz., that by putting a soup plate on a saucepan of water kept boiling, and placing on it some green cardamoms, he could ascertain whether the principle of my drier would answer the purpose or not. I also told him that, if the shells cracked in the process of drying, it would be owing to his own mismanagement and want of in- telligence. The fact is my tea drier will not answer for any purpose whatever in the hands of persons not gifted with an average share of intelligence, or who ignore the condition upon which successful results depend. Yours truly, C. SHANd! PRODUCT OF A 17-YEAR OLD SUCCI- RUBRA TREE. Kalugala, Pussellawa, 28th May 1883. Dear Sir, — I am sending you under separate cover per today's post a sample piece of succu'nbra bark obtained from a tree which I have just uprooted on this estate, as I am well aware you take a ebbiaiia. Tos. .. -.. -4. Smithiana. Oi... ... Alhizzia stiptdata. Tiin... ... C. toona. Mango ... M. iiidica. Simmal ... B. malaharicum. Kvllu Tehsil, Kangra District. Kail... ... P. exceha. Eai... ... ^. &«i(/iia)ia (called Tos at Palampur) Tos... ■■■ A. Wihbiana (called Kai ,, „ )■ These are chiefly used, though there are several other woods wliich I have no doubt would answer the purpose, such as Alder, Ehn, Poplar (Phalse), Hill Tun and Chil. Deodar is not used for tea boxes owing to its strong smell of tui-peutine. Hoping to see the general Ust added to.— L. Gisboexe SmTH. THE NORTHERN TERRITORY AND OOOLIE LABOURERS. We have to acknowledge the receipt from the Minister of Education (Hon. J. L. Parsons) of a copy of a pamphlet just published by him upon the sugar-growing mdustry in Queensland, and thecolouredlabourquestionthereandin the Northern Territory. The facts in this little work are so concisely stated, and in themselves are so interesting and so encouraging, \iewed in relation to the prospects of our Northern Territoi-y Plantations, that the wide circul- ation of the book can hardly fail to have a good effect in dkectmg the attention of capitaUsts in various parts of the world to the rich fields which are waiting to reward their enterprise far away to the north of South Austraha proper. Although a good deal of the matter of the pamphlet has been published aheady, it has never been given in such a connected form, or in such a way that it could be so easily available for refereuce. But whilst Mr. Parsons— ever warmly enthu.siastic in his belief in the Territory's capabiUties and prospects, and untiring in his advocacy of its claims as a field for investment— has, in commending the country to the con- sideration of moneyed men and sturdy workmg pioneers, marshalled many old facts and familiar figures, he has fortified them with news of late date. This interesting information, for example, had not pre-siou-sly been gener- ally been generally cu-culated. A plantation has lately been started in the Rum Jungle District, with Adelaide capital, and it is cheering to find, on the authority of so experienced and reliable a planter as Mr. Hem-y Poett, that ''Cinchona, with care and attention, does exceedingly .(veil— better than in India. Some seed planted here only eleven months ago has given us a few plants whose growth for cmchona is splendid. I have never seen it equalled in Oeylon. On November 30 I marked these plants as 15 inches; today (February 12) they top a yard measure. This is a splendid growth for cinchonas, and I am much pleased with such success. I was verj' sanguine of their doiu" well, but they far exceed my most glowing anticip- ations Of younger cinchona plants there are fully 10,onO promising splendidly, and probably 200,000 younger still. I never .saw better prospects of the growth being successful than I now point to on this estate. Coffee. — There are from 1.50.000 to 200,000 yoimg plants just putting out theb fom-th leaves, and a prettier, more successful, or more healthy nursery I challenge any one to show anywhere. Cotton.— There arc tlmty-five plants of this, it is the South Sea Island variety, and grows most beautifully. Tobacco. — Indiarubber. — A small parcel of seeds of both the above have been received and planted with due care. The latter will do well here, and I think tobacco will also, but of this plant I have not much experience." Goiug from a direct advocacy of the Northern Territory, Mr. Parsons addresses himself to the task of pro\-ing that coolie labour will satisfy the necessities in this regard of the future plauters._ The practical fact is this. Apart from the opportunities afforded by the growth of rice, cotton, cocoa, coffee, tapioca, &c., the consumption of sugar in South Australia this year may be set down at 12,000 tons. The actual quantity imported last year was 11,373 tons. On sugar there is an import duty of £3 per ton, but when grown and manufactured in the Northern Territory it will enter free. There is room, therefore, for twenty-four mills, each producing 500 tons, or twelve mills producmg 1,000 tons per annum, upon which the planters and manufacturers in the Northern Territory will be in a position of advantage to the extent of £3 per ton over foreign growers. Ac- cording to the experience of planters in Queensland it requires an expenditure of £40 per ton on the milling capacity to produce merchantable sugar. There is room, therefore, for the investment of £480,000 in the sugar industry in the Northern Territory to supply the consumers of South Australia alone. The average total cost of all the sugar grown and manufactiu-ed in the Mackay district, laid down on the wharf at Mackay, is estimated at £14 per ton. The margm of profit, therefore, is sufficiently obvious. The percentage of profit of course will depend upon the care and skill of the planters, and the quaUty of the sugar manufaeturei These facts, in addition to the advantages offered by the Indian Immigration Bill, should stimulate those who have the capital and enterprise to prosecute sugar industry with promptitude and rigom- in the Northern Territory." When that devoutly to be wished for stimulation shall take place, as it ass-uredly will, the present Mmister for the Northern Territory may lay the flattering unction to his soul that he has contributed in no degree to so satisfactory a result. — Adelaide Obseri-er. SUGAR GROWING IN THE PAOIFIO ISLANDS. The interesting letters which have appeared in our columns from correspondents in and connected with Fiji have touched upon the important question of the sugai-- producing capacity of the Pacific Archipelagoe.s, and the importance the cultivation will as-sume in a not remote futm-e, when the Pacific slope of Canada and the United States and the Australasian Colonies are more densely populated than they are at the present time. The most northerly of the many groups of islands dotting the sur- face-of the wide Pacific, in which the sugar-cane is cult- ivated, comprises the Hawaiian kingdom, better known in Britain as the Sandwich Islands, whose cultured king visited these shores about eighteen months ago. There are eight islands in the groui), and sugar is produced in five of these. Of these five, fom- — named respectively Hawaii, Mani, Oahu, and Kanai— produce so very largely, that the whole of the Pacific Coast of North America is chiefly if not almost entirely suppUed with sugar from them. It is not yet twenty years since sugar was fii-st exported from the Sandwich Islands, although sugai--cane is a native and had been grown for food by the people from time immemoi-ial. It was found, however, that certain lands which had lieen considered desert were admirably adapted for the growth of cane, provided a means of irrig- ation could be devised; and a company was formed to construct an irrigatmg ditch that would bring a supply from a moimtain stream about foiu^ miles distant to the land fiuxed upon for the pioneer plantation. The first venture succeeded so well and the plantation gave such large returns that plantations multiplied with great rapidity. In the year 1876 a reciprocity treaty was entered into between the United States Government and the King of the Sandwich Islands, whereby the latter agreed to re- ceive all United States products duty free, provided the American Government allowed Hawaiian sugar to enter United States ports free of duty. This at once estabhshed the sugar industry of the .Sandwich Islands upon a profit- able basis. Capitalists from America crowded into the islands in quest of suitable lauds, machinery of the best July 2, 1883.] THE TROPICAL AGRICULTURIST. IS kind poured in from England and Scotland, and every one on these islands having capital was smitten with sugar fever. During the past six years the rate at which tliis industry has been extending is altogether unprecedented in sugar-cane cultivation anywhere. All the principal plantations have their fields irrigated by water led from streams distant in some cases as much as twenty miles. Very little rain falls on the leeward sides of the islands owing to the high mountains of their centres which tb-ain the clouds as they pass. On these leeward slopes, however, wherever irrigation has been established, are the best sugar lands. The style of cultivation does not ditfer from that in New South Wales or Fiji except in the matter of irrigation, which forms a large item of ex- penditure. The caue fields on the islands are generally situated on the mountain slopes more or less elevated, say from 3,000 feet down to about 200 feet above sea level, the great object being to have a fall from a mount- ain stream, and a gentle slope for irrigation purposes. The soil of the field originally was a fine snuff-Uke dust upon which grew little else than cactus and a few weed- Uke bushes. The labour of clearing was consequently very small, and the fields are mostly unfenced, as no cattle or other animals are allowed to be in the vicinity of the crops. The great item of expense was the con- struction of irrigating ditches, and that in many cases has been very great. Most of the timber has to be brought from America, which is 2,iX)0 miles distant. The e.xperience of the Sandwich Islands in sugar plant- ing under such disadvantageous circumstances, and the success of the cultivation of sugar in Fiji, to which we have recently alluded, suggest an extension of the industry in other Pacific islands. The Island of Targatabu, for instance, one of the Friendly Group, measuring fifty-two miles by fifteen, is a natural home of sugar-cane, with a splendid soil and plenty of raiu. If this fine island were armexed to the British Empire, plantations would soon cover it and prove very profitable. The other groups of islands, and New Caledonia, will also in time assuredly become great sugar lands, and will, in common with Fiji, find markets for their produce, not only in the States, but also in the ever-growing centres of population in the Australasian Colonies. At the same time, Australia itself, more particularly the Colonies of Queensland and New South Wales, and the Northern Territory of South Aus- tralia, are rapidly becoming producers, as well as con- sumars, of this important product. — Colonies aiid India. BARK AND BARK-STRIPPING. Data for ascertaining the weight of marketable bark from given quantities of timber of various sizes may be approxi- mately obtained from the following figures, which are the result of calculations and observations extending over many years: — (1) AVhen stripped out pretty closely, a well-grown and flourishing tree of large size may be calculated to yield 6 cwt. of bark for every ton of measurable timber. (2) Smaller trees averaging 10 ft. each will yield a ton of bark to 150 ft. of timber, (3) Hedgerow trees, well grown and in fairly open situations, sometimes give a ton of bark to three tons of timber. (4) In plantations, the proportions of the weight of bark to timber will vary greatly. Thickly growing trees may yield only I ton of bark to 4h tons of timber. With ample space the same yield may be obtained from 4 tous of timber. Small blackrinds are generally foimd to jneld 1 ton of bark to 5 tons of the wood. The age of the tree and the situation greatly influence the yield of bark. Short stems and spreading heads give the largest yield ; and long stems vrith slender heads the smallest. The proper time to fell and strip a tree in order to obtain the largest weight of the most valuable bark is just as the buds are bursting into leaf. Afterwards there is both loss of weight and deterioration of quality. AVhen the leaf comes fully out the loss is very great — often amounting to fully 10 per cent. The less the inner side of the bark is exposed to the sun and to the elements the better. With proper curing under good protection or in a favourable season the bark will come to stack of a bright creamy colour inside. In- juries from hammering during the stripping or from unS A FERTILIZER. The following letter appeared iu a late issue of the Jfurk-Lmie Express: — TO THE EDITOR OF THE " ADELAIDE OBSEE\'EE." Sir, — Although an admitted fact that soils devoid of potash are incapable of yielding remunerative crops, it was con- sidered, till quite recently, that very few soils were so deficient that the farmer need trouble about this substance. For several years I have conducted numerous experi- ments with kainit with no marked results. During the la.st four years I have been woi'king with muriate of potasli of SO |j(ir cent, and have obtained such very tlefinitc results tliat 1 consider them of sufficient importance to British agriculture to warrant me asking you to give them publicity. From very many experiments I will cite but thi-ee, but these have so marked a character that they cannot but be of interest, even should they not lead many farmers to exyjeriments for themselves. 1. In March, 1881, Mr. AVilhara Betts, of Flitcham, was induced, by previous year's experiments, to apply to a 40 acre field of new ley 10 stones per acre of muriate of potash, leaving unsown two strips each, of about 'SO yards in breadth across the field. The salt was applied later than was advisable, and the small rainfall of the next two months was insuflacient to wash it iu. A poor crop of hay was reaped, so little better than the portions undressed that it was not deemed worth while to determine the difference in the yield of equal dressed and undressed portions. This year the field, being in wheat, showed so plainly where the potash was missed that it was generally admitted by the many farmers who visited it that, at least, there was from a quarter to one -and -a -half quarters of corn per acre more on the dressed laud. Unfortunately this harvest time was so fickle that no time could be spared to cut out measured plots for an accurate determination of results. 2. Mr. Alfred Oldfield, of Grimston, applied iu the early spring two cwt. of muriate of potash of 86 per cent to an acre of clover ley, leaving the remamder of the field undressed. Plots of 20 rods from the di-essed and undressed portions were cut and made by themselves. "Weighed as the crop was carted to the stack, the results were as follows: — The dressed portion gave equal to 3 tons per acre; the undressed, 2 tons 2 cwt. 4 lb per acre. 3. In April last I was requested by Mr. F, J. Gooke, of Flitcham Abbey, to give an opinion respecting three acres of barley, a portion of a 40 acre field. I found the three acres in question had been sown last year with white turnips, the rest of the field with swedes. The white turnips had been clean dra^vn for enrly lamb feeding; from about one-half of the three acres both bulbs and tops were carted off, from the other only the bulbs, the tops being left in rows. At biirley sowing these three acres received per acre 2 cwt. nitrate of soda and 2^ cwt. superphosphate of lime. Yet at the time of my visit, the barley was yellow and sickly to a degree, offering a most striking contrast to the adjoining barley on the swede land, which latter crop was fed on the land by fattening hoggets, I noticed strips where the tops of the white tm-nips had rotted in the autumn looked decidedly better than the spaces between, and then about one acre where both tops and bulbs had been carted off. The idea at once suggested itself that deficiency of potash iu the soil was the cause of this un- healthiness. I advised an immediate application of from one to two cwt. of muriate of jiotash per acre. This was done on the worst acre. Rain immediately followed. At once a marked improvement took jjlace, and which was more and more pronounced as the season advanced. AVhere the potash was not applied, the barley, a good plant, struggled to develop ears, but failed totally to perfect any corn; the stems were weak, very few able to maintain an erect position. When I went in August to assist Mr. Cooke to mark out plots for careful separation and estimation of balks, he agreed it was quite irseless to mark a plot on the portion imdressed, as there was no com; a few "shapes." probably a quarter per acre, certainly no more. A ;>lot of 12 poles of the dressed plot was staked out, the ha- -y stookeil and afterwards carefully thrashed. The yield was 11 pecks or 40 qurs. 1 bush, per acre. These experiments have been accompanied and preceded by numerous others, all teaching the same lesson with vary i ng emphasis. The conclusions unmistakably forced upon me by them are — That the varying fertility of soils not only depends on the presence of availalile phosphates and nitrogeueous compounds, but in a very important degree upon the presence of available pot;Lsh. The fact has been long established by M. Georges Ville, that with potash absent, no healthy gro^vth is possible; but it is not yet generally conceded that a large proportion of our English fields have been by cultivation so robbed of potash as to be unable to yield maximum crops of clover, pulse, mangels, and even in some cases of corn, even when dressed by phosphates and nitrogen. How important this question is to agriculture in its present depressed condition it ai)pears to me impossible to over-estimate. If, as my experiments declare possible, by an outlay of 8s. to 13s. per acre hi 23otash, an increase can be obtained of throe-quarters of a ton of hay, of one quarter of corn, of three tons of potatoes, of ten tons of mangels, it needs no philosopher to show the importance of experimenting at least on the various soils of other districts. Soils themselves ought to be solicited to inform the cultiv- ator whether potash is deficient or not. If by adding this substance to plots of potatoes, grasses, peas, beans, or mangels, no increased yield is obtained, the land replies that potash exists in sufficient abundance. If, however, a marked increase results, the land replies that it requires an addition of potash to acquii-e the power of building up maximum yields of these crops. I would not advise any extensive experiment on wheat, barley, or oats, save on barley following white turnips, mangels, or vetches, where these crops have been removed from, not fed on, the land. On naturally poor land a marked result may then confidently be looked for. — I am, Sir &c., Thomas Brom'x King's Lynn. OX IMPROVEMENT IN THE PREPARATION OF JAPAN TEA. (Translated from the Keizai Zashi Correspondence.) Political economy tells us that the variations in the prices of commodities are caused by their exchange for the labour required for producing them, and that the price of the former arises from the value of the latter. The labour is therefore the greatest factor of all those which regulate the prices of commodities. Now the sum of 10,000,000 yeiiy brought by the exportation of our tea, will have mostly to be put into the pockets of those who manufacture this staple article. How great a bearing has this branch of industry upon the welfare of many of om- people ! The time being near the tea season, affords me a fair occasion to allude a little to the improvement of thf present tea manufactiu-e, although it may only be like " looking at the heavens through a reed." The recent fall in the price of tea is entirely due, it is said, to the bad manner in which this article is maimfact- ured. " The lamplight goes out because the oil is all gone," and so there must be a certain cau.se that has brought about this depreciation. In my opinion it is due to the spirit of selfishness amongst -our tea pj-oducers. Accordmg to the present system of our tea ex]iortatiou, it is delivered equally to foreigners, without any distinc- tion of good or bad, or any reference to the names of the producers. In America, as a matter of course, and even in our open ports, foreigners do not know the name of the producers, and therefore the latter have no means of making known their names by the good quality of their tea. It is therefore a natural result that they are not iuspu-ed with any wish to improve their produc- tions. Then- honesty and sldll are also entirely unkno^m amongst the foreigners. The producers are not indiscreet nor lazy workmen, yet the aforesaid condition tenuis much to induce them to engage in dishonest practi'ies in manufacturing this staple article. Moreover, a foreign gentleman well acquainted with the trade said a short time since, it is often the case that the more the capital, the less the profit, and therefore the producers dare not attempt to increase their profit by altering or improving the present system of manufacturing at the cost of their funds. Now the only means by which we can get rid of such an evil is to establish a system of using trade marks to i8 THE TROPICAL AGRICULTURIST. [July 2, 1883. distinguish the qualities' of the teas, or marking the iliiri'i-ent kinds according to the different system of pre- paring tliem for the markets. It is an easy task to prepare tea for market, inasmuch as in Yokohama, women and chiUh-en are employed for the propose, and they are quite sufficient. Moreover, tea is quite free from any deterioration or change in color or quality for many months, if it be prepared a few days after picking, and be packed in boxes lined with paper. If it were so pre- pared, we should be enabled to exclude inferior quahties, and the taint on the leaf so often e.\-perienced by foreigners, and at the same time give buyers the satisfaction of drinking a good cup of tea. It is not good policy to prepare it at the open ports, for we can have it for half the cost that the foreigners have to pay, if we prepare it in the districts in which it grows, and where firewood, coals, &c., are cheaper, and wages, lower in com- parison than those paid in Yokohama. The fact that the foreigners e.xpend much money on their tea firing estab- lishments, which number more than 50 in Yokohama and Kobe, clearly shows that they must make considerable profit. Oui- native growers expect to get a good profit out of a Uttle laboiu-. In India and China the producers go to considerable trouble in superintending the prepar- ation of their tea, and in the former country the system of packing is carefully carried out. Should our growers take the trouble to see their tea properly prepared and packed, and have a distinguishing brand for good and bad qualities, so that the purchaser could know which quahty he was bujdng. then it would be to the advantage of the producers, because it his tea was of a better quahty than that of other merchants, he woiUd, of course, sell more of it, and thus would endeavour to keep the quality always good. Therefore, if the foreigners could buy the tea fr.im our producers at a fair price and also good, there would be no occasion for them to keep up their tea-firing estab- lishments. Should this come to pass, not only would it drive away bad tea from our market, but the foreigners would have ho cause for complaint regarding the quaUty of their purchases, and the consumers of the tea woidd be perfectly satisfied. We think, therefore, that in order to do away mth inferior teas it is necessary for the producers to prepare and pack the tea themselves, and Lave each box stamp with their trade-mark. Yet, of course, these improvements m the tea trade we have just spoken about, would be discountenanced by foreigners at first, who, not understanding them, would endeavour to thwart om- objects. Such objections, however, are not to be feared, as long as we are honest enough to deliver thera as good or better tea than heretofore. By these means also, the present foreign merchants would gain the advantage of being able to ship the article immediately after pm-chasing, and would find it to so much to their interest, that they would begin to wonder why they had never found out this system before. The success of such a briUiant undertaking as the foregoing, of course, depends entirely upon the pro- ducers them.sulves. In India and China we hear there is no such sy.stem of delivering tea as is adopted in our coimtry. Even the Chinese who are such a mean, cunning people, have sufficient confidence in one another. I dare not ask the tea producers of this land, the land of the "Rising Sun," why they so mistrust each other? — Juimu Hen-aUI. [Our readers wiU be interested in seemg the views of a patriotic ".Jap" on the tea enterprise of his country. ]5ut if, as we imagine, tea is grown in J.apan as it is in China, in small patches by the peasantry, we do not see how they can afford each to prepare .and pack. — 'Ed.T.A.'] INOUBATOKS. The Chinese and Egyptians have, for thou.sands of years, had the secret of hatching eggs without the inter- vention of the hen. Indeed, it would seem almost a matter of course that the inhabitants of tropical countries should early have learned this art, from watching the method by 'which the eggs of turtles, alligators, etc., are incubated, being simply buried in the warm sand of the river's b.-ink. As early as 1750 the French scientist, De lieaunim-, perfected a process of artificial incubation, which, tlioii^'h successful, was hot practicable for ordinary purposes. During the past twenty years, however, the attention of poid- terers has been freshly dravru to this question, and now the number of ajipliances for artificial incubation bids fair to equal the patent bee-hives. " The essentials of a successful incubator are thi*ee : an equable heat of about 105 degrees ; sufficient moisture in the atmosphere to prevent an undue evaporation from the egg; and ventilation." * « # ♦ "It has been found that the mercury may rise to 110 degrees without injm-y to the eggs, prorided it does not remain at that point more than a very few minutes, or it may sink as low as 50 degrees, for a correspondingly short time; but should it remain below 100, or abovi- 106 for many hours, all the labor expended upon the lot of eggs which the incubator may then contain will have been thrown away, while, as will be seen, it reqiiii-es a very delicate instrument to quickly .appreciate the differ- ence between these degrees of heat. * *. * * " The jiractical difficulty about these machines is the extreme deUcacy of their construction, rendering them liable to get out of order in inexperienced hands, and thus to cause a great loss of eggs. Of course the manu- facturers of each machine claim that theirs is absolutely perfect, and that these objections pertain to all the others ; but the testimony of disinterested parties who have given a large number of the best machines a thorough trial, is that not one of them is always reliable, and that all are siu-e to give trouble to beginners in then- management, although one who has had experience in handling them may hatch a large proportion of eggs than is usu- ally done by the average hen. ****** it- He then gives a description of what may be termed a home-maih incubator, except the galvanized hou tank which must be procured from a tinner, or worker in galvanized non ; and this is supposed to do as good work as the more costly and patented machines. As we have not the illustrations given in the book, we have made .some verbal changes wliich refer to them. He says : — " Have a pine case made somewhat li^e a common chest, say three feet square. About a foot from the floor of this case, place brackets, and on a level with these screw a strong cleat across the back of the case inside. These are to supjiort the tank. The tank should be made of galvanized u'on, three inches deep and otherwise propor- tioned to fit exactly within the case "and rest upon the brackets and cleat. The tanlt should have a top or cover soldered on when it is made. At the top of this tank in the centre .should be a hole an inch in dianietei- with a rim two inches high, and at the bottom, towards one end, a faucet for drawing off the water. When the taidi is set in the case, fill up all the chinks and cracks between the edges of the tank and the case with iilaster of Paris to keep all fumes of the lamp from the eggs. Fill the tank at least two inches deep with boiling water. To find when the right depth is acquired, gauge the water with a small stick. Over the top of the tank spread fine gravel a qnai'tcr of an inch thigk ; over this lay a coarse cotton cloth. Place the eggs on the cloth, and set a kerosene safety-lamp under the centre of the tank. The door of the lamp-closet must have four holes for ventil- ation, otherwise the lamp wiU not biu'n. The lamp-closet is the space within the incubator under the tank. Turn the eggs carefully every morning and evening, and after tm'iiing sprinkle them with quite warm water. Two ther- mometers should be kept in the incubator, one half-way between the centre and each end ; the average heat should be one hundred and five degrees. If the eggs do not warm up well, lay a piece of coarse carpet over them. If they are too warm, take out the lamp and open the cover for a few minutes, but do not let the eggs get chilled. If they should hajipeu to get down to ninety-eight or up to one hundred and eight degrees, you need not think the eggs are spoiled. They will stand such a variation once in a while ; but. of course, a uniform temperature of one himdred and fiv*e degrees will secure more chickens, and they will be stronger and more lively. lu. just such an incubator as this one I ha\'e described, I hatched over two hundred chickens two years ago.' " Several forms of artificial niothej-s, however, have been invented — and most of them, of course, patented — of which the inventors claim that they far suiirass the natur.al mothers, in that they do not drag their chicks tlu'ough the dew, nor trample them to death, nor cover them JVtY 2, 1883.] THE TROPICAL AGRICULTURIST. 19 with, vermin ; all of which, no doubt, are positive advantages, but in practice these advantages have been offset by the lack of the instinctive care of the mother hen. The artificial mother may frequently be used to advantage, however, in supplementing that care. "The essential points of the artificial mother are a sheep- skin tanned with the wool on, or a piece of buffalo robe or similar material, fixed with the wool side down upon a frame which will hold it just high enough for the chicks to creep under, and which may be raised to suit their growth; and a system of pipes, or a water-tank similar to that used in the incubator, placed over the sheep-skin, and warmed as in the, incubator. The 'mother' should also be placed in a room warmed with a stove, for the more easy regulation of the heat. ■■ While the incubator and artificial mother are certainly not what is claimed for them by some of the more san- guine of their advocates — especially those who have a pecuniary interest in selling them — there can still be no doubt that they may be made of great service in the poultry-yard, in the hands of persons who have the time and natural adaptitude necessary to give that close and judicious attention to the details of their management which is absolutely necessary to success." — Southern Planter. ASBESTOS. ■ One of the most remarkable of all the products of Natiu-e's mineral factory is that whose title heaarties aud by om' Government respreseutatives as to whether July 2, 1883.] THE TROPICAL AGRICULTURIST. 23 the cinchona tree could not be cultivated with profit in the United States. It is possible that the proper con- ditions of latitude and altitude may exist in oiu territory, but it must be considered that it would take six years before any satisfactory exiierimcntal results could be obtained, and sis years more, even should the experiments prove satisfactory, before bark in any quantity eoidd be placed in the market. The British Government, about twenty years ago, com- menced the introduction of the cinchona tree into their colonies, where the conditions of the successful cultiv- ation have gradually been learned, and the governments of the different colonies have offered great inducements to prospective planters in the way of cheap lands, seedlings, seeds, &c. It is stated that one hunclred niiUion trees are now in different stages of growth in the Island of Ceylon alone. The consumption of quinine must, in a general sense be limited, and the question of price has a small effect on the amount consumed. There is no doubt that great territories still remain where quinine should be more used, as for example in the greater part of China and South America. At the same time there is every pro- spect that the coming sujiply of bark \vill fully equal the demand for quinine, and should any one wish to engage in the cultivation of the cinchona tree, under existing circumstances in the United States, where no encourage- ment has ever been extended to the cultivation of the cinchona, and where the manufactiu-ers of quinine have been handicapped by duties on the raw materials incid- ental to the manufacture, while the manufactured product is without compensating duty, it woiUd be much more profitable to engage in the enterprise in a British province, for instance, Jamaica, where the conditions for successful cultivation have been thoroughly investigated, where land of known desirabihty for cinchona cultivation, at a dis- tance of not over 30 miles fron jjoint of shipment, can be procirred for one pound sterling per acre, where it is pos.sible to obtain cinchona seedlings or seeds at a moder- ate cost, and where the cost of labor is about one-fourth of that in the United States. The price for sulphate of quinine for the year ending Jojie 30, 1882, has ranged as follows : — Manufacturers' quotation, January 1, 1862, was S2'50. In February the price receded to S2'40 ; then to S2'30 ; in April the price was S2'10; then, it advanced to S2-20; in June it receded to §2*00 ; then advanced in August to S2"20 ; was reduced in October to S2-1-0, then to $2-1)0 ; m November to Sl'SO; and the quotation at the beginning of the new j'ear was Sl;70. The importation of quinine for the year enduig June 30, 1882 was 794,495 ounces, against 408,851 ounces in the previous year. The yearly import of quinine for the five years preceding June 30, 1882, was as follows ; — 1882, 704,495 ounces; 1881, 408,851 ; 1880, 416,998; 1879, 228,348; 1878, 17,549. The quinine imported in 1882 was entered at an average price of S1'9G, the average paid for the four years pre- ceding being— 1881, S2-57; 1880, S2-66; 1879, 82-75; 1878, S2-9(). The year has been a remarkably uneventful one in re- gard to large operations or combinations. There have been three new factories started in Europe, which are sending their product to the American market, while one of the oldest and most respected manufacturers of quinine in America was obliged to place his affairs in the hands of his creditors, leaving but four manufacturers of quinine in the United States. What the future of the busine.ss will he in this country is most uncertain. The manufacturers have all made large investments for their different plants, and it would be a matter of great loss to attempt to di.spose of them. There is always a hope that they may receive fairer treat- ment at the hands of Congress, and by the public press, and that the claim they make that they are justly entitled to a compensating protection of 10 pc^r centum for the disiibilitifts impo.sed upon them by Congress, and the cir- cumstances of the situation, may be met by reasonable arguments and not by epithets and abuse as in the pa.st. The follomng table from June 30. 1677, to -Tune 30, 1882, have been compiled from statistics kindly furnished by Hon. Joseph Nimmo, Jr., Chief of the Bureau of Statistics at Washington. Imports of Cinchona Bark duriny the Past Sir I'ears. Average ' Value m gold value Years. Pounds. gold dollars. per lb 1877 1,760,446 443,404 252' 1878 4,826,290 1,423,502 29-5 1879 6,389,378 2,094,514 32-8 1880 6,013,877 1,679,472 279 1881..;...: 4,219,403 1,846,280 43-8 1882 .........5,010,547 1,846,375 36-8 Imports of Quinine diiring the Past Six Years. Average Value in gold value per Years. Ounces. gold dollars. ounce in bond. 1877 75,804 136,948 gl-Sl 1878 17,549 50,858 2-9C 1879 228,348 626,567 2-75 1880 416,998 1,111,254 2-66 1881 408,851 1,052,228 2-57 1882 794,495 1,554,350 196 Imports of Opium during the Past Six Years. Average Value in gold value per Years. Pounds. gold dollars. lb in bond 1877 230,102 997,692 S4-33i 1878 207w52 712,624 3-43 1879 278,554 929,894 3-34 1»S0 243,211 858,225 3-53 1881 385,060 1,791,415 4-65 1882 227,126 881,023 3-88 Imports of Opium for Smokiiu) during the Past Six Years. Average Value in gold value per Years. Poimds. gold dollars. lb in bond 1877 47,428 502,662 SlO-59 1878 54,805 617,160 11-27 1879 (>0,&48 643,774 10-62 1880 77,190 773,796 10-02 18»1 76,446 761,349 996 1882 106,221 1,038,305 9-78 ♦ THE KESOUBCES OF MADAGASC.VK : A NEW FIELD FOU ENTERPRISE. (From "Standard" Correspotident.) Tamatave, Feb. 23. The total amount of business transacted between British ports and Madagascar cannot fall short of a half-million sterUng. Of exports, the chief articles at present are bullocks to Mam-itius and Reunion; hides, iudiarul)ber beeswax, rice, fibre, spices, coffee, and sugar. There are many other articles, such as gums and dyes, but these are the principal. In imports, American cottons take the first place. American spinners turn out a kind of coarse brown sheeting, which exactly suits the Malagasy taste, and is rapidly becoming the basis of Malagasy clothing — at least so far as the poorer classes are concerned — throughout the island. Lancashire suppUes hghter goods, such as cottpn i)rints and fancy cloths. The consumption of these is steadily increasing, e.speciaUy among the Hovas of the interior; but the Enghsh spinners have failed altogether to compete with those of America in the production of the cheaper material. The fact is, there are no mills in England with machinery adapted to the weai-ing of this particular cloth, and there are apparently no spinners enterprising enough to lay in the special machinery re- quireil. Consequently, they have not succeeded in imitat- ing the samples upon which the English merchants have based their orders, aiul the trade has been lost. This is to be regretted, as the American sheeting in question is rapidly coming into favour at Zanzibar and other ports on the African coast; and the trade would be certain to pay any English mill which chose to lay itself out to obtain a share of it. Hardware goods come ahnost entirely fi-om England, and the trade in them is rapidly extending. The import trade of Madagascar, however, can only be expected to grow as the exports mcrease. At present the bulk of the population are extremely poor. They produce little more than is necessary to .sri-atify the most simple wants of Nature; consequently, notwithstanding the magni- ficent advantages with which Proridencu has blessed the 24 THE TROPICAL AGRICULTURIST. [July 2, 1883. country — its prolific soil, its teeming forests, where year by year, for lack of a gathering haud, the richest pro- ducts of the earth lie rotting ; its minerals, and in many parts its numerous navigable waterways — the Mala- gasy does not as yet possess the means wherewith to purchase the goods of other nations. And although, on the coast particularly, tlie people show mere desire to work and to better their condition, the Hova Government has stood in the way of commercial and agricultural development. This cannot last long, however ; even the Hova officials begin to realise that the change is close at hand, and that Madagascar is about to enter on a new era of her history — an era in which her advancement in the arts of civilisation promises to be as rapid and, per- haps, as astounding as has been the progress during the last thirty years of her people in the profession of Christianity. At present live buUocks from the most valuable item in the list of Madagascar exports ; but as as the only markets are Mauritius and Reunion, and occasionally Natal, the utmost limits of the trade have apparently been reached : yet there is no country in the world where live stock is .so cheap as in Madagascar, and other markets ought to be found. Fine fat bullocks can be purchased in many districts for two or three dollars each, and bullocks, too, of the best breeds. All of them carry those humps whose dainty flesh is prized so much by the epicures of other countries ; and when it is known that such cattle can be dehvered on board ship at about forty- tour shillings a head, it surely becomes a question whether the grazing grounds of Madagascar may not be rendered available for the supply of Great Britain. Mutton is now shipped to England from Australia, and Australia is dis- tant from England some si.x weeks steaming against four weeks from Madagascar ; so that the length of the voyage ought to prove no obstacle. Madaga.scar cattle weigh on an average about seven hundred aud fifty pounds, yielding five hundred pounds of mi-at. That is to say, beef can be delivered free on board in the roads of Tamatave at a shade more than a penny per pound. These are actual figures, not estimates, and I submit them for the study of those interested in the new refrigerating processes for preserving meat diu-ing voyages by sea. It is startling to think tliat from Madagascar, perhaps, good fresh beef might be laid down in England under foiu* pence per pound. Indeed, there is no good reason why the cattle themselves might not be profitably transported. A con- veniently-built steamer, properly fitted out and able to steam the distance in thu-ty days, ought to succeed. On her outward voyage she would take cargo for Zanzibar and Mauritius, as well as for Madagascar; and for her trip home, while carrying cargo in her lower hold, .she would depend upon bullocks. Cattle are cheap in Mada- gascar because there are no droughts, and because the grazing grounds are practically inexhaustible. In the interior, over vast tracks herds roam wild, and a market is alone required to induce the people to drive the herds to the coast. The trade in indiarubber has only recently sprung up ; but it is rapidly increasing, and from this port alone already amo\mts in value to over fifty thou- sand pounds. Of course, the sources of supply have as yet been barely tapped. The existing method of Govern- ment, which resembles far too closely in some respects that of China, especially as regards the reprehensible practice of "squeezing" men supposed to possess means, affords no inducement to the accumulation of riches. But, doubtless, at no very distant date a larger proportion of the population than are at present engaged in the industry will set themselves to drawing more freely from the rich stores which the mountain slopes aft'ord. Coffee, too, could be , grown in Madagascar to any extent. The vast and elevated plateaux of the interior are pecuUarly suited to the growth of this plant; and already considerable quant- ities of wild cotfee are shipped to Mauritius. The qual- ity is good, anil, although grown wild, many parcels which I have seen would, in richness of colour and in size and shape of beau, compare not unfavourably with the better sorts of Ceylon produce. Rut it is upon sugar that those who beUeve in a great commercial future for Madagascar pin their faith. In Reunion people talk constantly of the rich mines which are supposed to lie hidden in the interior of the great African island, and they anathematise copiously and in vigorous French, as they bang their dominoes on the cafe tables and drink their absinthe, the Con.servative Hova MethotUsts, who have ordained that to dig or search for gold is a crime punishable by death. But two English and two Creole firms of Mauritius have, meanwhile, dis- covered in sugar a source of wealth which, if properly tapped, will draw from the soil of JIadagascar a stream of gold that in value may rival the richest mines of the earth. Bullocks and coffee are articles the export of which to Europe may be calculated upon to grow in due time. AVith them, however, a begmnmg has as yet to be made, and pioneers willing to undertake the risk of experiment have to be found. But as regards the pro- fitable production of sugar, the experimental stage has already been passed. That there is "money in it," and lots of money, has been conclusively proved, and only a few obsolete and impracticable Hova laws have to be removed, and Ma<: lost through lack of a Uttio encouragement and support from our own Government. So soon as the legal obstacles have been removed, we may expect to see large tracts of land on this coast brought under cultivation on the sys- tem which is answering so well in Mauritius — that is, in small joint-stock concerns of from twenty to forty thou- sand pounds each. And whero returns of from twenty- five to thirty per cent ai-e to be oljtained, British capital- ists are not likely to remain long behind those of the Colony — provided that French aggression does not close Madagascar to British entei-prise altogether. — Ht^ed identical. Tlie bark alone, as noticed by Mr. Vau Gorkoni, is a suthcient distinction. " It is quite true that Mr. Howard in his magnificen work, "The Quinology of the East Indian Plantations, figured and described CaliMiya Lede/eriana, var Howard, from specimens received from Mr. Moens Mr. Howai-d, with his life-long experience of and in- vestigations into the multitudinous species and varieties of tlie cinchonas, regarded C. Ledfjeriaaa as a very rich and valuable variety, but still only one of the many varieties into which the species Calisai/a sub- divided itself. If. therefore, without overwhelming evidence of true structural and botanical differences, to justify their procedure, Mr. Moens and Dr. Trimen 28 THE TROPICAL AGRICULTURIST. [July 2, 1883. conspired to ei'ect a new species with which their names should be associated, then no one will deny the fittingness of the Jsemesis which has overtaken them. "The old man eloquent," who is quinine personified, figuratively points the finger of scorn at them and says: "You may have the honour and glory of discovering and describing a species, cert- ainly, but the species is not C. LeJijeriana, Moens aud Trimex, but a wretched grey-bark mkrantha. But, more probably, you have mistaken for Ledfjpriana the male form of a Calisaya-like mkrantha V If Mr. Howard's position is established, then Mr. Moens and \)v. Trimen will have to cry " Peccavi !" and walk softly and speak humbly, clothed in sackcloth and I ashes for a protracted season! One thing is quite { certain : that, as we remarked when we saw the plate, JJr. Trimen was unfortunate in his specimen. It iDas poor and stunted. Nevertheless it may have been true Ledgeriana, for nothing could be more stunted aud bushy, with a dozen small stems instead of one good stout trunk, than the undoubted progeny of Ledger's seed which we saw on the Nilgiris. But tlie bark of those veiy bushes sold for l'2s 8d per lb. Our inclination is strongly to believe that Dr. Ti'imen's tree had the same origin (seed from the Xilgu-is) as the magniticent trees on Yarrow estate, which Mr, Howard distinctly recognizes as true Ledgerianas. » » » ♦ » * Mr. Mclvor's initial mistake, which we and others repeated in Ceylon, was to try and grow the Ledgerianas in the highest and most exposed portions of plantations. In such situations many grew, but did not flourish as they have done between 2.000 and 4,000 feet. With good soil and shelter, however, we have no doubt Ledgerianas will grow fairly well between 4,000 and 6,000 feet altitude. That Mr. Moens should have blundered as he is represented to have done, seems to us in- credible, when we remember all his discriminating reports, and recall our own personal experience of the readiness with which, on the ground of peculi- arities not obvious to our unpractised eye, he at once distinguished the true Ledgerianas from the infei'ior species and varieties. "That," he said, as we went over the plantations together, " is <7. Schuh- ki-aft, that C. Hcmhirliana, that C. Josephiana, and that C. Javanica, all inferior kinds which (except a few specimens preserved for experiment) are to be rooted out. But here is the true Ledgeriana with its long-petioled leaf and its blossoms looking dowTi at you." If Mr. Moens does not know Ledgeriana when he sees it, we shall next doubt Mr. Proctor's knowledge of the worlds of space, formed and in course of formation. It was from Mr. Moens that Mr. Howard received the undoubted specimens which he figured and described. Did Mr. Moens lose his senses when he deceived Dr. Trimen into the belief that a niicrantha was true Ledgeriana. and did Dr. Trimen become obli\-ious to all his carefuU botanical training and indifferent to his scientific fame and moral responsibility, when the decision was arrived at to erect Ledgeriana into a distinct species, and to give as its type a male micrantha ? ! That '" some one has blundered" is evident, but "who'/" is the question. * « * * * * * Meantime, it may be well to advert to the " rojo" or i-ed-leaf peculiarity. AH the Calisayas at certain stages influenced by drought or other reasons show brilliant coats of foliage, varying from dai'k red to the brightest scarlet. We have made beautiful collections of such » All this must now be read iu the light of Mr. T. N. Christie's letter subsequently received, shewing that the plant described and figiu-ed by Dr. Trimen was an un- .loulited Ledgeriana, the bark of which gave on analysis, over 11 per cent sulphate of quinine. — Ed. leaves which have been much admired, and we caii imagine the magnificence of a Ledgeriana tree "500 years old " so (temporarily) clothed. But, besides this tendency, a large number of the Calisayas, when young, have leaves richly purple or red on the under side. We have ateady mentioned that Mr. Moens, in order to test the (doubtful) value of such trees, gi'cw them in a separate portion of a plantation. Our own impression is that although green leaves and white blossoms are, geyurally, the best indic- ations of true Ledgerianas, yet the red-leaved and pink -blossomed trees are not to be despised until their bark is tested. As a matter of fact adult Ledgeriana trees have all green foliage : at least we I'cmember no exception. For beauty, the old trees with then' small green leaves are not to be com. pared to the young plants with theii' rich, red velvety foliage. Dr. Trunen's plant, if Mr. Howard is right, is a pseudo-Lcdgrriana and a micranthoid, whicli is very dreadful ; but there is some consolation in the hope that all varieties of Calisayas may find refuge ui the bosom of Weddell's mkrocarpa. Theie is still, therefore, a locus pmnitentice for the Dutch and British sinners, if they will but confess their ei-ror. There is an abstract of Mr. Howard's paper, but we prefer to wait for the full report. Mr. Howard will be the more lenient to erring brother botanists steing that he confesses to having sent seeds of micraatha to Jamaica as those of Ledgeriana. He was dec. ived and then he was an agent of deception. With hia warning against the cultivution of the impostor niicranthas which simulate Calisaya, we quite concur ; but for reasons repeatedly given, of vigorous growth where Ledgerianas refuse to live, and of gradually improved bark under cultivation and renewal, we stand up for our old red-bark friend succitubra. He is not an aristocrat, like Ledgeriana or calisaya verde, but he is a useful member ot his family never- theless. Apart from improvement from mere age, the renewed bark seems to come nearer to that of Ledgeriana at every shaving and renewal. How long this process may go on, we cannot say os yet, but clearly, while following Mr. Howard's advice as to growing the best kinds, and especially Ledgeriana, where and when we can, let us make a distinction (as the Cardinal said with reference to the Pope's soup and its atEiiity to hot water), and let the dis- tinction be iu favour of growing what will best succeed in. our exposures, soils and climates. Mr. Christy's zeal in the cause of Calisaya virde and morada is as noticeable in its way as Howard's jealousy for the reputation of the true "rojo " Cali- saya, and we trust and hope that all the best cinchonas yet will be grown successfully in Ceylon. COFFEE PROSPECTS IN COORG. Mekc.\RA, May 20th. — As one interested, I h.ave the greatest pleasiu-e in communicating to the South Indian world the cheery and prosperous outlook tliere is before us, planters, during the ensuing season. My former letters were doubtless gloomy enough, and with reason, for the crop of 1882-83 was one o£ the most terrible failures in the annals of the cotfee industry in the country. The causes and its results I have already described. The planters who sent their coffee to be cured at Messrs. Morgan and Sons, Maugalore, speak in the highest praise of the manner it has been attended to. In some instances the turn-out was at the rate of S3 parchment bushels to the ton. Xew machinery has been lulded to their works, by means of which, the silver-skin, all-to-be desired in coffee curing is kept on, aud not broken off as in former years. This silver-skin, I may adlossom showers have been very favorable, commencing early in March ; they freely watered the majority of the coffee estates in South Coorg, bringing out the flowers m first class condition. A fourth of the blossom came out at this time iu North Coorg, which set well. In April, however, there was a second general blossoming, surpassing anything of former years with its promise of great plenty. At the time when all was m flower, every one was asking the same question, "where has all this blossom come from?" It may have been the shortness of last yeai-'e crop, the condition of the trees and the great decrease of leaf -disease, and perhaps the irrit- ation of the httle showers, not enough to do harm, which prepared in a way the coffee trees to respond at once on the first good downfall of rain. Upon the hopeful assur- ance of Government, in connection with the " Bane Land Eules" that the heavy fee of R20 per acre will not ba enforced, planters are plucking up courage and much land that had been bought two or three years ago, is being now rapitUy cleared to be ready for th.' July planting season. Labor is not over plautiful. The few Tamil coolies who venture up here from Salem and that neighboiu-hood find ready employment. They were first attracted here in 1881, and migrate in yearly increasing numbers. Several have returned from the Ceylon estat«s. — Madras Standard. THE TROPICAL LABOUR PROBLEM. The Government of South Australia have great faith in the future of tlieir Northern Territory, and, knowing the success which has attended tropical agriculture at Rlackay, they have lately sent one of their members to see for himself how this has been accomplished. Jlr. Laug- dou Parsons visited the Northern Territory last year. This year he has visited Mackay to see how tropical agriculture by coloured labour is carried out there ; and now he has reported pretty fully upon what he has seen. Such a report is valuable to us so far as it goes, inas- much as it is made by a i)erfectly impartial man, though one who went there committed to the principles of tropical agriculture so far as it is connected with the employment of coloured labour. At Port Darwnn they have certainly not solved the labour question. They have had, and they have, Chinese, Malays, Indian coolies, but up to date none of these have turned out as well as they could have wished that they should. It maybe that there are reasons for this attributable to the primitive and comparatively isolated condition of the settlement. These may be over- come, and Mr. Parsons has made it liis business to as- certain how best they may be overcome. At any rate, he visited Mackay to ascertain what has been done there. And he gives a verj' fiourishiug account of the place. He tells us certainly, nothmg which we do not know ourselves, but his narrative is conveniently summarised in pamphlet form, and it is a fair and impartial statement of the case. There are those, of course, who object to coloured labour in any form, but even these people will not gainsay, and indeed they cannot g.ainsay, the actual results of tropical agriculture. The figures are sufficient. Exports and im- ports tell their own tale. Everyone who ^asits the district is amazed at the wonderful results produced by the com- bination of capital and labour. It has all been done by islauil labour, combined with European labour of the in- telligent kind aided by machinery. The profits have been large, and the interests now involved are so extensive that it has become no longer a question of whether it is an enterprise which, as a matter of choice, we should encourage. There it is, successful, prosperous, and ex- tending. Mr. Parsons tells his story simply enough. He speaks m high terms of the island labour, but he seems to regard it as having reached its maximimi of supply. The demand for it is large, and, though the supply has been larger this year than it has ever been before, stiU the demand is no doubt so great that no supply from the islands is likely to be adequate. He admits the failure of the Cingalese importations ; the want of judg- ment shown in the selection of these iucompetent people : and he hints that it was not wise of the planters to anticipate the decision of Pai-liameut on the whole sub- ject by this attempt to supply themselves in an illicit sort of way. No doubt they had the legal right to do so, but it was a critical expeiimeut, and it was not con- ducted with j>rudence or "with ordinary foresight. Mr. Parsons exi^resses an opinion, however, in favour of the Tamil coolie under agreement, with the sanction of the Indian Govei-nment, and he states the exact position of the question politically, so far as we are concerned. The Government and Legislature of South Australia re- cognise the fact that the Northern Ten-itory needs a different class of labour to that requii-ed in the southern parts of the colony, and have passed an Act authoris- ing the introduction of coolies which does not apply to the old province, and no one at present dreams of mak- ing it appUcable. With us it is somewhat different. The island labour which has now for so many years been domesticated among us has proved of great service in tropical Queensland. It is a matter of dispute whether it is absolutely necessary in southera extra-ti'opical Queens- land. The prevailing impression is that, though it may be useful, it is not essential, and that we could siu-vive the eft'ects of its discontinuauce altogether. In tropical Queensland it is quite another thing. It would be hopeless, for instance, to think of attempting to supply the demand at Mackay or the Burdekiu, the Herbert or at Cairns, either by islanders or by European emigi-ants. It is a question of latitude and climate. We make distinctions by limiting the emiJoymeut of islanders to sugar plantations. Might we not make somewhat similar Umitaticns as to the employment of Indian cooUes ? Is the absolute prohibition of the Indian coolie to be made a matter of severe poUtical definition *r Are we to understand that the position of pai-ties is to be rioid No coolies either North or South 'i The Indian author- ities, in their coiTespondence with our Govennnent, seemed to recognise a distinction between ti'opical and exti'a-tropical Queensland — a distinct opinion was at aiiy rate expressed by them that the natives of India would be more at home, and would probably thiive better, in a ti'opical climate than in one which was only semi- tropical. Can we recognise this distinction ? or is the Indian cooUe to be regarded poUtically as such an un- clean thing that neither North or South, and not even expeiTineutally, can he be tolerated ? We tolerate Chinese. We do not permit them to increase so as to render it at all probable that they can have an injurious effect upon us. We resti-ict them, and our resti-ictiou has been effectual and completely successful. Why not restrict Indian cooUes ? All the testimony avadable from experi- ence goes to prove that, in almost every respect, they are preferable to Chinamen. We are masters of the situ- ation. We,can do exactly as we Uke. We can restrict or we can prohibit. It is pertinent to the question, there- fore, to inquire fi'om the politicians whether the party op- posed to Indian coolies are opposed to them altogether. We presume it is so. It seems to be a pity for the pai-ty. Coloured labour will certainly .'come to tropical Austraha as surely as water finds its level, and it is a pity for any party to place itself in antagonism to an inevit- able destiny. The duty of those who are desirous to maintain and to extend the character of our " institu- tions " as pei-petuated in this portion of Austraha is frankly to recognize the facts with which thej' have to deal. It is in theii' power to regulate as they please, to restrict coloured labour to certain industies, and if they think fit to ceitaiu latitudes ; but the cuixent of industiv and commerce is too sti'ong for total prohibition. The influence of the planters, the success of the sugar industiv. is so great that it will be earned on either by Asiatic or bj- island labour. It must be controlled therefore, for it cannot be prohibited. Alrea,dy it is in- digenous, and if there are those who think that it is an evil it is manifestly theii' duty to m;ister it and to keep it in order. — Qcccnalander . THE SUGAR INTJUSTRY. Certain remarks in the monthly circular of the Queens- land Mercantile and Agency Company, Limited, aueut the sugar industry, are worthy of reprnductiou : — " Tlie Government' of .South Australia, recognizing the great advantages to be derived from such an important in- dustry as sugar-production, if only it could be eatahhshed iu 3° THE TROPICAL AGRICULTURIST. [Jt7LY 2, 1883. their Northern Ten'itory, lately requested the Hon. J.L. Par- sons, Minister of Education — ana who has the Northern Territory particularly under his care — to travel to this colony, and, by personal inspection of tlie various plant- ations, get so acquainted with the occupation as to judge whether it would be possible to establish it. Mr. Parsons, having returned to South Australia, has pubhshed, through the press, his views on the subject, and they are so favour- able that ho does not hesitate to advise tifie capitalists of our neighbouring colony to embark their money in the occupation. "It is worthy of notice that so determined are the South Australians to — at any rate attempt to — ^Vl"est from us our supremacy as sugar producers that they (observing that the weak point of the Queesland planters is the uncertainty of labour) have already passed through theii' legislature a bill arranging for the introduction of coolie labom'ers fi'om India. It is to be hoped that no party of our political rulers will be so shortsighted as to drive away to the Northern T- rritory the immense amount of capital which can be invested profitably in Queesland, if only the re- liability of abundant manual laboui- is guaraaiteed." — Quecnslandcr, RESULTS OF THE ANALYSIS OF SAMPLES OF CINCHONA BAEK GROWN IN JAMAICA. {From the Pharmaceutical Journal for Map.) BY DK. B. H. PAUL. It having been considered desirable that analyses should be made of the samples of Jamaica cinchona bark, presented to the Museum of the Pharmaceutical Society by the Colonial Othce. portions of these samples were placed in my hands for that purpose, and the follo\ving table gives the results arrived at. It will be seen that there is some considerable differ- ence between these results and those referred to by Mr. D. Morris in his notes*, as having been obtained by Mr. John EUot Howard, and to some extent this is to be ac- counted for by the fact that the samples analysed by Mr. Howard two years ago were specially selected samples of the richest part of the lower trunk, while those recently presented to the Museum are a fairer average representation of the bark product for sale in Jamaica. This is especially the case as regards the sample of " othcinalis, " as I have had opportunity of ascertaining by a comparison of my results with those obtained by the analyses of a parcel lately sent over from Jamaica. Variety of Pl.TOt. .-,^ a n w strong affinity, if not identity, with the l)03t Ledgerianas. The growth of the plants, as recorded by Mi- Oweu, and the luxuriance of the le;vvea are all that could be desirod, and we are very sanguine that even Mr. Howard may yet be satis lied with the extent to which the best quinine- yielding cinchonas are grown in Ceylon. The leaves lie at our offieo for inspection.— Ed.] SEASONAL INFLUENCE AND SHORT COFFEE CROPS-MORE ESPECIALLY IN HIGH DISTRICTS IN CEYLON. June 2nd, I8S3. Dear Sir,— In the Observer of 30th May, your oeneral planting con-cspondent says that we cannot oompliin th vt the past blossoming season has been an abnormal mie and yet the crop is short. In taking up the seasonal side of the question, I am aware that I am advocating an unpopular cause ; but I am still rash enough to maintain the opinion that the season is mainly responsible for the difference between paving and non-paying crops. In the first place, the calculation was that, after euch a sea&ou of wet and low teoiperature as we had experienced from the time that the last S. W. monsoon set in till the end of the year, we should have an unusually dry blossoming season. A wet blossiming season in fact following upon a wet S. W. monsoon was an unknown experience in the memory of the oldest planter. Now the blossoming season just ended was not an' abnormal one if it had followed a season of moderate rainfall, but was nevertheless a far less favorable season than we had ;reaeori to expect after such -months of continuous rainfall as we had been favored with from the setting in of the previous S. W. monsoon. Up to the middle of February, there was no blossoming weather whatever and at that date the hopes of most planters were at zero. From that tune till the real burst of tlie present S. W. monsoon, the season was of a fairly favorable character in the middle and lower lying districts, while in the higher districts rain fell every ten days. I maintain that an unsually dry blossoming season, such as we had reason to look for, was alone capable of doing away with the ill-ell>ots of tlie previous immoderate rainfall, and that in all the years since leaf-disoase set in never was blossom formed and crop set therefrom under gVeacer difficulties. The March blossom, from which most estates expect to get such crop' as they have, was only converted from leaf into blossom by the sun which shone upon us for •I short three weeks after the February rains ceased. In the middle of February the coffee was running to leaf as fa';t as it was possilile to do so, and this leaf was pulled up short aud converted into blossom, contrary to its previous intention and much against its will. It is not to be wondered at, therefore, that a laffc proportion of it failed to set, seeing that t'le weather had once more become undecided at tlie time of its opening. From that time forward the weather never held up fine for more than a fort- uiaht continuously, and the history of the April lilossom is only too sadly present to the minds of M to need recounting. ■^r -h is a pretty true record, generally speaking. of the blossoming season of 1883, not an abnormally bad one doubtless, but still far from being a favour- able one, taking into consideration what had pre- ceded it. The reason why the ' seasonal ' view is looked upon with such disfavour is that the old planters, who are naturally referred to as the local oracles, cannot get out of their minds tho pre-leaf-diseaso era. when coffee was capable of putting on a crop :n nnfavoiirablo seasons even. No one, as far as I know, denies the ill-effects of leaf-disease, but still we have had iiaying crops during the period of its reign whenever the seasons were favourable. I hold, therefore, that coffee, though leaf-disease has made it more sensitive to the effects of uufavourablo weather than it used to be in former days, will etill give us remunerative crops in the future when the good seasons return, aud that it is the combination of adverse influences which is responsible for its present low condition. Remove one of them for a few years and it will again gather up its strength to stand as the leading cultivation of the country. — Yours faithfully, W. D. B. [We do not know that the seasonal theory is so unpopular as our correspondent supposes ; although, in respect of the older districts at a medium and low elevation, we certainly have heard it said that the blossoming season was simply " perfection. We suppose a large number hold the view that the higher districts suffer from abnormal seasons added to the effects of leaf-disease, but that had leaf- disease never appeared our coffee trees would have continued to give fair returns even in the face of unfavourable seasons. We tiust our correspondent's sanguine viewa may be speedily justified, but the good time coming has been " lang o' comin', lang o' comin'." — Ed.] LEDGERIANA FLOURISHING IN POOR SOlL. Kaloogala, 3rd June 1883. Dear Sir, — The following details are interesting as showing the comparative growth of cinchona ledger- iana and succirubra. In 1879 I planted a poor piece of patana coffee with purchased plants of cinchona succirubra. Last year only I discovered that one of the trees amongst those planted at that time was a true Ledgeriaiia. It was rising three years old before I found it out, and had received no special care, neither is it growing in the spoil of a road or drain, and has always in fact had exactly the same chance as the suoeu'ubra sur- rounding it. The measurements of the Ledger tree and the succi- rubras on each side show that the former, at this elevation aud in this climate at least, will jn'ovr as fast as succirubra, to say nothing of the bark being nearly twice as thick. The measurements of the succi- rubra show a very slow growth for the Jige, -the soil being exceedingly poor, but it is satisfactory to know that Ledger will do well in a poor soil. No holes were cut for any of the plants put out in this patch. The measurements were taken in March last and the trees were planted in November 1879. [3 years and 7 months. — Ed.] The elevation at which they are growing is about 2,800 feet. Ledgeriana Tree. Height 12 feet Girth at foot li} inches ,, at 1 foot from ground ... 9.i ,, Succirubra Ti'ee. Height ... .: ... ... 9i feet (iirth at foot 9| inches ,, at 1 foot from ground ... 7§ ,, JUtY 2, 1883.] THE TROPICAL AGRICULTURIST. 37 .. lOJ feet .. lOJ inches .9 „ Succirubra Tree. Height Gh-th at foot ,, at 1 foot from ground This goes to prove that the Ledger is the fastest growing tree and the most profitable one to cultivate. —I remain, yours faithfully, HENRY MANNER.?. [This result is interestiug and encouraging. The Boil, though poor, is no doubt free, and the subsoil may possibly be better in quality than the surface. — Ed.] DR. TRIMEN'S LEDGERIANA : ME. T. N. CHRISTIE TO THE RESCUE. St. Andrew's, Maskeliya, 7th June 1883. Dear Sir, — Were the question raised by Mr. J. E, Howard purely technical it woxild be presumption on my part to say anything in support of Dr. Trimen's dpscription and figuring of C. Leilgcriaiia but it is not so, and a statement of some facts — which are always stubborn — may help to clear aw.ay any con- fusion resulting from Mr. Howard's latest paper. The plant which Dr. Trimen figured was one of those raised from Mclvor's seed by me, and planted on Mahanilu by Mr. Agar, and its descent from Ledger's original seed is undoubted. Other plants, exactls' similar in blossom, raised from the same pinch of seed, have given over 12, 13 and 14 per cent sulphate of qliin- ine ; and the very trees which Mr. Howard called in to help him, the Yarrow Ledgers, have the same blossom, and came out of the same nursery bed as the Ledger figured by Dr. Trimen ! Before the least doubt had been thrown upon his figured type. Dr. Trimen se- lected a tree here for specimens, as being botanically a tyiiical Ledger, and his selection was well borne out, when, on the following day, the analysis of that very tree arrived from England and showed 11 '29 S. Q. The statement that the " satiny gloss and hairy margin of the leaves " was put forward as a characteristic of true Ledgerianas is almost incredible. The veriest tyro in cinchona cultivation could have told Mr. Howard that these ' ' characteristics " are common to Ledgeriana and all tlie C'alisayas when young, and that there is not a sign of either in the mature foliage. When Mr, Howard goes on to identify by these characteristics Mr. T. Christy's Bolivian calisaya seedlings as true Ledgerianas, his bases are as reliable as those by which a gipsy foretells your fortune. I have some of Mr. T. Christy's Bolivian plants, 18 months old, and I most certainly say they are not Ledgers. They seem to be Calisayas of some kind, but are as protean in ap- pearance as they have been in name. That there are several ^uichonas in cultivation in Ceylon (and I suspect in .Jamaica also) underthe name of Ledger- iana, which are not that plant, is to a great ex- tent due to Mr. Howard himself. We all remember the misunderstanding which arose about the Annfield and Emeliua Calisayas, some two years ago, due chiefly to the fact that most of these Calisayas seemed exactly similar to Mr. Howard's figured " Ledgeriana" ; and here I may quote what I wrote 9 months ago, in the Dikoya essay, long before I had any idea of this controversy arising: — "Dr. Trimen's illustr.ition of the blossom (but not of the tree itself) is part- icularly good, a contrast to that given in Howard's great work, where the figured plant is far from being a typical Ledgeriana, if indeed it is one at all." If you will refer to Kew Gardens Report for 1880, p. 12, you will find :— " Ceylon. — In 1876, some seed was received at Kew from Java, and part of this was communicated to Mr. J. E. Howard, F. R. S., who raised seedlings. He carefully selected the most promising of these, and very kindly supplied Kew with cuttings both of the figured and of another selected plant in the course of last year. Tliree of the rooted cuttings were given to ilr. 3. A. Campbell of Lindula, Ceylon, who was anxious to have a perfectly authentic strain'. " Janmica.— Three other plants propagated at Kew from the same authentic strain were sent to Jamaica. " Now, if, after having lived for years beside mature Ledgerianas, which have given the highest analyses we have yet hoard of, I may presume to think that I know a Ledgeriana wlien I see it, I say that those "authentic" cuttings, whicli I have seen in the Wal- trim clearing, are not Ledgerianas at all. Mr. Campbell himself writes to me on .5th instant :— "No one who knows a Ledgeriana tree of a pure type, according to Mr. Moens' idea of one, would think of calling the trees I have (raised from cuttings received from Mr. Howard) Ledgerianas. Two of them are very shrubby in their growth, and with hard sr.iny leaves. The other is a Oalisaya of the broad-leaved variety, very nmch like what I believe is called in Java Galimya AnrjUca. I have also another plant that Mr. Howard kindly gave me which I under- stood him to say had been r.aised from Ledgeriana seed received from Java. This is the best, so far as appearance goes, but I should not call it a Ledger- iana." Mr. Howard seems to have absolutely nothing to base liis assertions upon. He clings to "Mr. Moens' own authority" only so far as he himself wishes to believe, viz., that the first seed received at Kew was genuine ; he repudiates Moens' identification of Dr. Trimen's plant, and be asserts that otiier seed for- warded to him by Mr. Moens as true Ledgeriana turned out to be nothing of the kuid. Now, why should the iufalibility of Moens be relied on in the one case a bit more than in the other ? Those who know C. Ledijeriana, and who have read its literature, can only arrive at one conclusion, and that is tliat Dr. Trimen, who has seen the Ceylon and Indian plantations, and many mature ana- lyzed trees, knows and has figured V. Ledijeriana, and that Mr. Howard, vnth the knowledge of liot-house plants and dried specimens, does not know and lias not figured C. Ledyeriana.—Yonvs faithfully, THOS. NORTH CHRISTIE. CEYLON GAMBOGE: WHY SHOULD IT NOT BE COLLECTED?— THEFTS OF CINCHONA BARK. Dkar Sir, — A short time ago an article appeared in your paper on gamboge which set at rest some doubts 1 had as to the value of Ceylon gamboge. Several years ago my attention wos drawn to this article as a dye, when seeing the pillars and walla of the inner temple of the Maligawa (chief temple) in Kandy being repainted with fanciful flowers and animal-, &c. On referring to some works there on the subject there appeared to be a difierenoe of opinion as to the value of Ceylon gamboge, both as a pigment and as a medicine. Dr. Pereira speaks of twi. kinds discovered in Ceylon by Hermann in 1670. He (Pf-reira) describes the color of Cevlon gam- boge 83 excellent and its medicinal effect precisely the same as thiit of Siam. A Dr. Royle about tho year 1SS7 used it and described it as in every way inferior ! It seems now beyond doubt that it is not 80, and Dr. 'Rojle must have had some badly collected article to experiment with. Dr. Percira says the two kinds ari' the goraka and tho kana (Sinh. " eat- ing") goraka, .and further on that " there seems to be no difficiilty in obtaining th.' gamboge in a pure state, and if BO it miglit become an article of commerce 38 THE TROPICAL AGRICULTURIST. [JXJIY 2, 1883. from Ceylon." This was stated in 1832, and, though fifty yeara ago hare elapsed, it has not yet become aD article of commerce and never will be unless the Government initiate a practical scberae, spending a fair and liberal sura in doing so — a sum which will be insignificant compared to the ultimate gain in direct and indirect revenue the trade in this article will yield. The price in Europe varies from £5 to £13 per cwt. according to quality. As to there being two kinds of goraka, it is a mistnke. There are a3 many varieties as regards shape of leaf, color of flower and fruit, and sLiape, size and flavor of fruit, as there are of mangoes, plantains and all other fruit. The varieties hardly deserve botanical distinc- tions. The coarse gamboge sold in the baztars is not whai is collected in Ceylou but is imported from Southern India. What ia collected in the island is never sold. It is used sometimes by the Buddhist priests to dye their robes, a mixture with sapan dye, giving thus brownish-ytllow or yellowy brown which distinguishes the robes of the Amarapura sect of priests. It ia nsed also to color mats, for painting walking sticks, i=i;ears and bones, doors and w;:.IU of temples, &o. The mangosteen { Mangostana cambogia) belongs to the same or similar family, and from the riud of the green fruit particularly the gamboge flows abundantlj on mere pressure. There are some of the Ceylou gorakas yielding fruit quite as delicious for eating as the mangosccan,* The h"alf-ripe rikd of some of the Ceylon varieties is dried and sold in the bazaars for pickling fish with. It has a peculiar shurp acid flavor. There is a variety grown in fruit gardens known a^ the rata (foreign) goraka. The iruit is quite yellow when ripe and like the mango- teen round «ith a smooth surface, but the rind is soft, not leathery or rough. The seeds of this kind are like the uiangosteen and goraka covered with a pulp not white but yellow in color, and, though sweet, quite different in flavour from that of the mangosteen or goraka. The tree resembles the man- gosteen but is smaller in size. The leaves are as large but of a darker greeu and with a greater droop. Can this be the Garchiia Hanburii of Siam ? It is not a favourite fruit. When ripening it is picked and pickled in vinegar, tbe seeds being re- moved and the fruit stuffed with other pickled fruit, &c., finely chopp'^d. Ir seems that the goraka was considered of siich little value that immenae numbers have been felled from private and crown lands and supplied to th- r.iilway as fuel. Measures should be taken to stop this wasteful destruction. As regards the mode of collection, it is very doubtful if the stick gamboge is collected by bamboos being placed below incisions in the tree for the liquid to flow into. The liquid exudes very slowly and dries too soon to flow. The peculiar marks in the stick gamboge is attributed to the inner formation of the bam boo in which it is collected, but I am inclined to think it is the result of the daily additions of the semi-dried liquid put'in as soon as it is scraped otf from tbe tree. The few natives who gather it do exactly as was de- scribed by Colonel aufi Mrs. Walker in 1839. A piece of bark from the trunk, about the size of the palm of the hand, is cut off and the resin scraped off it next morning. By boiling the leaves, the rind of the green fruit, &c. , a gamboge, interior only as a coloring matter, is obtained, but with care and using the scraped and clean bark only, gamlioge as a dye-pigment ought to be obtained in this way too. The goraka tree is now scarce in the Central Province owing to their destruction when the forests were felled for coffee. But countless numhers yet remain in tbe island along the western coast from nortb to south. It would * Some of the goraka fruits nee exceedingly nice, but there is always some acid, while the mangosteeu is delici- ously sweet. — Ed. be difficult for Europeans to set about collecting the gam bilge, aa the trees are so scattered over the country. A group of 5 to 10 trees together in a plot ia rarely found. Cinchona thefts are no doubt mostly perpetrated by the thieves of other classes and instigated by a large number of the lowcountry Sinhalese and Moors who are squatters in the villages bordering estates. These men prospered when coffee was king and traded in coffee, were owners and lessors of coffee gardens or general boutique-keepers. If the trade in gamboge is opened up a large number of these men would prefer returning to their homes and earning a less profitable but a less precarious and more honest livelihood. The Government should initiate the collec- tion and open a market. If the Government Agents fancy that by merely imparting information to bead- men they will open up a new trade they are very much mistaken. They may even go further and indnce headmen to bring in samples which will find their way to museu-ms and shows, but there the matter will end. In the first place a sum should be specially voted ; intelligent and responsible persons of tbe country emp'oyetl to visit one of 4 or 5 villages as " centres" with the aid of headmen and a small gaug of village coolies set to wovk collecting gamboge, givirg practical instructions S;c. The headmen should be warned to co-operate, making them understand that their promotion depends on th ir efforts and trouble in such matttrs, aud to those whose village collects unusually large quantities, special promotion aud bonuses should be given as incentives to others. The whole body of collectors of each village shoald be requested to appear with whatever they gathered by certain dates at the Kachcheri or other appointed places. Th' produce of each individual collector should be Weighed and the value paid to him and into his hands. Halt the European market rate will enable Government to recoup themselves for tbe outlay in carrying out the scheme. If the villagers were paid as suggested, they woul return to their homes aud act like leaven, stimulated with the few rupees so earned, and the whole loivcountry would be up and doing. Sup- posing the scheme fail, the loss would not be such as to ruin the country. Have not a few thousands been spent on useless commissions, e. g. cattle murrain commission, &c. and abortive irrigation schemes ? There is no reason to doubt of success. No precari- ous cultivation is needed or loss of time. It is a mere matter of harvesting. The first twelve months' produce can be publicly sold from time to time in Colombo as the Government cinchona used to be, or exported for sale to Europe to enable European and native merchants here to aecertain its value outside and induce them to go into the trade. Ultimately the trees in the forests can be farmed by the Go- vernment and a direct revenue obtained. A small export tax can be, if needed, added. I can imagine some high officials in the revenue line wishing at once to begin with licenses. They will by doing so stamp out every chance of its becomiu); a merchant- able commodity. After a year or so, if proper meas- ures are taken to ensure success, the Government can leive the mattter to public enterprize. Agricult- ural shows all round the year, for the next fifty years, will do as much gond as a drop of water iu the ocean. Something of course, but " mighty little." What is wanted are practical schemes with a liberal outlay " an ounce of exumple is worth more than a pound of precept." The money acquired by nativ^es in produce wUl find a healthy circulation in the island and not out of it. — Yours faithfully, W. PROWETT FERDINANDS. [We differ from our correspondent about the effect of District Shows, wbich however, ought to be com- bined with model gardens — already established at Jtjlv 2, 1883.] THE TROPICAL AGRICULTURIST. 39 several points — so aa to afford the needful example. Agri-Horticultural Shows have done a great deal for the British farmer aad there is no reason why they should not do much for Sinhalese and Tamil farmers. We do not mean "Headmen's" E.thibitions such as those held spasmodically in Colombo; but much less pretentious gatherings which, if held near to every Kachcheri in the island where the farmers might really gee for themselves, could not fail to do good. — Ed.] AN ABxVORMAL BLOSSOMING SEASON AGAIN THE CAUSE OF SHORT COFFEE CROPS IN THE HIGH DISTRICTS OF CEYLON. Del Rey, Bogawantalawa, June 8th, 1883. Sir, — I can fully confirm " W. D. B." '3 remarks, in your issue of the 16th instant, so far at least as this district is concerned. I have never noticed during the 50-called "fine weather" in any previous jc'ir so great an absence of direct, hot sunshine and so much prsvalence of partially clouded or gray skies. Tiie mean shade temperature this year is again a little below that of last year, and this is especially marked in the fneaus of the maximum temperature for each mouth. While wo have not had much more rainfall than •U8u;J, the rain has been more evenly distributed, that is we have had fewer "breaks' of quite rainless weather than usual, and (as I said above) these were " breaks" of fair rather than fiiM weather. I have felt no really hot weather here until that which we have just had between the 10th and 25th May : the fine weather at the end of February was not hot enougli to dry up more than the mere surface of the soil. Under theie circumstances, with the soil sodden with tho excessive wet and cold of last year, it is little j woTiJer that t'ae treei have not been able to blos- som better than they have done. In addition to this, on most estates here rain fell heavily on the only really good blossom we had with the result that but little of it has set. On two or three estates where the blossom escaped the rain it has Bet well. In fact I cannot recall a more unfavourable season here for cofifee than that of the past twelve mouths. I agree with "W. D. B." in believing that on all good estates cofifee will again prove remunerative when the present cycle of cold and wet seasons has come to at) end. I subjoin an abstract of rainfall and thermometer results for the past 5 months, a comparison of which with the results sent you previously will confirm what I have said. — I remain, sir, yours, etc., GILES F. WALKER. Thermometer. Ib83. Meau. Mean. Mean. Alax. Min. o _ o o January 69*6 .56'1 63'S February 71-3 51-6 629 ILirch 72'7 nh-6 64-2 April 74-1 57'7 65-9 May 73-7 61-3 67-5 G. F, W. THE FIRST TEA IN DOLOSBAGE, YAKDESSA AND DIMBULA [The following letter has been found amongst our papers, and, aj we believe it was never published, we now give it as a contribution to the history of tea in Ceylon. The wr tnr, who is about to leave Ceylon, has recently published another letter on the same subect — Eu.] Beaconsfield Estate, Maskeliya, Uth July 1879. Deae Sir, — I see your luck is up about the Do- losbage tea, and no wonder, and I shall send you a, few facts that may console you, as I happen to Vlinfall. Davs Inches. i-1A lii 4-38 7 U-67 21 12-5.5 18 17-94 15 know the oldest tea in Dimbula and Yakdessa, next door to Windsor Forest. The oldest tea in Yakdessa is on old Nagastenne, and tlie oldest tea in Dimbula is on old Radella, Liudula. In both cases the busbea must be over 30 years old, and any one interested in the future of tea in Dimbuia and Dolosbage would do well to visit the districts first before jumping at conclusions.- They will then have an idea what like Dimbula and Dolosbage may be 30 years hence. The Nagastenne tea is oidy about 10 minutes' walk from Stow EiSton bungalow, aud the Kadella tea on the road- side going up to upper Radella ; in both cases growing on old abandoned lands. I must say that the Radella bush is the finest, largest, oldest and best that I have ever seen, aud the last time I went to show a gentleman interested in tea the old abandoned tea in Nagastenne iu 1874 it was still in life, and what took my fancy to it, when I first saw it in 1870, wns that it was flourishing, aud, though it had been at one time surrounded by cuffee, the coffee was nowhere to be seen, but the tea bad a sprinkling of seed on it, which I got gathered and secured, aud put Into a nursery on Horagalla, and which came up splendidly. When opening up Seaforth iu 1872, I ex- perimented on 2 acres near my hut, lines and cattle shed, with the tea plant?, and in each pit or hole I planted a tea plant and a coffee j laut. The result was that the tea plants took possessiin, and eventually killed out the coffee plants ; at the same time the plants throve most luxuriantly. In 1873 I secured as many '••lants from seed from old Nagastenne, iind plautccl up ot.'ier 5acres on Seaforth, aud, alth. ugh planted ou the worst piece of soil, the only piece of patna ou the estate, people were astonished at their growth, and ayounggeutkui.iii, who had just returned from Darjiling, who was sent there to learn the art and science of tea plant- ing, on being brought down hy my visiting agent or Periya Durai iu 1S74, to give his opinion, at the first sight pronounced my tea clearing plants hybrids of the first water. I told him that ho might change his mind after seeing the mother-plants in old Na- gastenne, and that, if ho was game for a Walk, I offered to take him and show the old tea, aud we went ; but when he saw the old bushes, he was rather disappointed, and at once put them down as a very low caste of China tea. I asked the same young gentleman how they cultivated in Dirjiling." Oh," he said, "when they can't clear the tea properly from weeds, they knock them down, now aud again." This will let you see how people may be taken in, coming from a tea district, wliere shuck cultivation might be carried ou, although their tea bushes might be of a very high caste of hybrid or indigenous.* Dolosbage is a forcing climate aud no mistake, and I shall give you an instance of the forcing growth it can produce. I put iu a nursery of over 3 acres of tea seed from Darjiling, 64 mauuds, h.vbrids and iudigenous. I finished putting in the seed ou the 29th December 1874, aud on the loth May 1875 I had over 9 acres planted with plants from the same nursery. The nursery was put in ou St. Rumbolds on the riverside, elevation about 2,300. It was a great success, although put in in a most trying time, the hottest part of the year. Another advantage planters have ou that side is this :— In 1875, when 1 was burniug off a large clear- ing on Seaforth, the fire got into old Palampittia and burnt off a portion of the old place below the road, going towards KandalOya. About 3 acres of tlie same I planted for an experiment, and when I returned from home in 1877 I went and had a look at the same. I was delighted with the appearance of the plants : they are A 1. The only thing that spoiled the look of the strip : it had not been supplied. * Not very clear. — Ed, 4° THE TROPICAL AGRICULTURIST. [July 2 1883. This will proire to you that I wa3 the first to plaut tea iu Yakdessa, and Doloshasje, with success, and prove that tea would succeed and thrive, when coffee was nowhere. I never heard the Observer run down Seaforth, or Windsor Forest tea, quite the reverse ; but from observatiom I have made, I would recommend tea planters in Dimbiila to plant their 1 w'-ler apart than those in Vakdessa or Dolosbage. J. D. W. Peopitable Cultivation.- According to Mr. D. Morris's last Jamaica report, the harvest of 2 1,000 lb of cinchona bark which realized £2,539 was chiefly taken from New Haven Garden 6 acres, Monkey Hill Garden 15 acres, both 11 yeais old in 188(1. A grosa return of over £100 an acre oaunot be considered bad. Silk Cultuke. — The action of the Chiue.se Govern- ment iu interfering with the class of industrious silkworm cultivators, taxing cocoons, stamping out local manufactures under foreigners, &c., is not un- likely to afford further reason for encouraging the silk industry in otlier places, and why not in Ceylon ? Cinchona. — In the Journal de Pharmacic. for the present mouth there is an interesting note by Messrs. Eegnauld and Villejean on an analysis of some bark from a plant of Ciiicliona succiruhra, which had been grown iu the open air iu the botanical garden of the Facultd de M^decine, Paris. Notwithstanding the unfavourable conditions, climatic and otherwise, nnder which the plant was reared, tho bark is said to have yielded 1"47 per ceut of quiuine aud I'Oa per cent of cinchonine. — Pharmuccutical Journal. Pkices of Tea. — We ought certaiuly always to remember that, in comparing prices of teas, the aoeraije only should be considei'ed. Thus, though Im- bulpitiya tea reported at last sale fetched a penny more in ont quality, the Sembawattie sale was I'eally better one. There w ere only 8 chests which fetched 2 3-^d out of an invoice of 6S, while 12 chests Semba- wattie fetciied 2s 2kl out of an invoice of 41. Then again, the prices of all the other 3 grades were better for Sembawattie than for Imbulpitiya. It ia evident therefore that the average per lb. over ths whole invoice compares in favour of Sembawattie very considerably. Probably some such advantage might be claimed for Dunedin aud some others if looked into. At any rate, it must be remembered that the average, not the maximum, is the proper test. Eucalyptds and Malaria. — A project has been prepared tor sanii'ying the malaria regions in Italy, which is of the greatest importance for the Neapolitan provinces. For this purpose a map of malaria lias been prepared, whicli shows only too plainly the desolation of the above-named provinces. The malaria regions arc divided into throe classes, namely, we.ik. serious, and most serious. Among the 13 provinces classified as having weak malaria only one belongs to llio Neapolitan provinces — that ais, Aquila. Among the 29 classified as serious, there Ire three belouging to the Neapolitan ijroviuces, uamey, Avillino, Ohieti, and Naples itself . and among the 21 classified as most dangerous, we find Bari, Catan- zaro, Uaserta, Oosonza, Foggia, Lecce, I'otenza, Et'ggio, Calaljria, and Salerno. In fact, on the Tir(mian coast from Cape Vaticano to the Gulf of Cfaeta, cxceptiug the region watered by the Volturuo, the malaria is weak ; but on the Ionian coast, from Cape Spartivento to Santa Blaria Leuca, tliat once I?aradisc of Magna Greciu, there is a country desolated by nndaria, full of stagnant, putrid swamps, with not a sigu remaining of the ancient cultiv- ation and llorid commercial life. Misery and want of well-paid and constant work obliges the population to emigrate, and death reigns over a vast region where agri- culture can find but little space for its ojieratious. The new proiect will give to the Goverimient the riglit of ex- propriating territories lying in the region of most serious malaria contiguous to the lines of r.aihvay for a distance of 200 metres on each side, unless the proprietors have them- eclvus undertaken the work of sauificatiou. For ten years from the passing of the law prizes and indem nificatious will be granted to any one in the circle of malaria who makes a plantation of Eucalyptus trees. The Government pro- vinces and communes are also authorized to grant subsidies. All proposals relative to sanitary works mil be examined by an executive committee. — Daily News. Feuits. — The fruit of one variety of the Diospyros kaki, variously known as the Chinese date plum and the Japanese persimmon, is being grown to great perfection by Mr. A. Williams, of Eight-mile Plains, anda samide of it was kindly left with us a few days ago. This variety is large, single specimens weighing over 10 oz., and measuring fully 3 in. in diameter. But size is not its only or even principal re- commendation, for iu flavour it is very rich and luscious, and when fully ripe nearly of honeyed sweetness. This variety is stoneless, and as a desert fruit can scarcely be excelled. Orchardistsand cottagers with small fruit gardens cannot afford to be without it, for it is a prolific bearer, and with good cultivation the tree quickly attains a great size. The fruit at present is a scarce commodity, as the tree is not readily propag.ated ; but, as the demand for it is sure to be brisk wheu once its excellent qualities are known, measures will be taken to meet the demand. Mr. Williams has about 100 young trees ready to send out this winter, and those who secure a specimen will do well. It is one of the fruits adapted to a very wide range of climate, and might with safety be planted largely almost anywhere in Queensland. — Quecmlander. [We should think the Per- simmon might succeed in Ceylon. If so it would be a great addition to our list of fruits. Bushes we saw iu Melbourne were Hterally loaded with fruits. — Ed.] The Rbmkdy for White Ants is thus further ex- plained : — Referring to the official correspondence recently published in our (5". M. Herald) columns between the Commissioner for Railways and the late Secretary for Public Works respecting the eilicacy of the epeoilic recommended by Mr. Lackey for destroy- ing the white ant in wooden bridges, we find that the subject has attracted general attention, and the result has been that numerous letters have been received by the Commi-sioner for railways from persons seek- ing to know the component parts of the specific and proper mode of applying it. Upon making inquiries, we have been favoured with the foUonfiug Luformation by the Commissioner ; — In all instances the sapwood must first b3 removed. Then the parts infested by the white ants should be syringed with bjiling water by means of a .syringe holding about tw> gallons. When this has been done a mixture should ba applied, consisting of lib. ot arsenic to either tliree gallons of kerosine oil or 12ib. of tallow. It should be men- tioned that in cases ot underground work it is necess- ary to dig down about 2ft., and wheu the sapw.iod is removed, char, and then apply the mixture. — QuKndamUr. .TouoRE, May 23rd. — I send you the rainfall ou Drumduau estate, Gunong Pulai, Johore, from the time it was first t.xken, aud hope it may be of some use. The Battu Pahat range of hills get far less rain than this : in 18S2 we had about 3 months drought. Things are begiuaing to look up, and Inbour is better. 1879. 1830. 1331. 1882. 1883. January 9-44 U'S? 7-23 4-81 February 6 2-61 U'lO 4-97 ■ March S'lO 10-13 762 H'OS April U-24 14-57 7-90 12-98 May 13-99 8-65 10-35 4-32* .Time ... 4-13 8-22 519 402 July ... 8-25 6-55 5-57 4-69 Au"u,st 7-66 7-55 6-01 6-51 September ... 5-58. 6-14 11-40 5-56 October ... 18-43 951 12 15 12-65 • November ... 8-17 10'63 1407 5-66 December ... 5-35 7-18 16-10 7-88 Inches... 57-57 104-55 12107 9417 38-16 * Up to and inclu'^iveof 14Ui. Iu 1882, S. W. inousoon burst on 21st April. „ N. E. „ „ ISthOclober. Inl883, S.W. „ „ 10th April. Temporature uu.ltr slmle Fahr. luax. 91 ili-g. min. 68 rloR. at an elevation of about 700 ft. This is not tlicaverage, but the highest aud lowest it hasever been. July 2, 1883.] THE TROPICAL AGRICULTURIST. 41 HARVESTING INFERIOR CINCHONA BARK IN CEYLON. It is no woniler that a cry of "halt" has arisen hi efeveiico to tho harvesting of branch hark (including twifjs and sucliei-s) from our cinchona trees. The prices offered for this description have fallen so low as to barely cover the cost of harvestin;,'. In many cases the transactions have already resulted in a loss and, therefore, shippers as well as planters must agi-ee that it is best for all concerned to stop harvostinpr under present circumstan- ces. The more of the inferior hark that is sent into the market the more are stocks increased, statistics over- burdened, and a sh't apparently created, and, althcuigh the planter gets little or no benefii from the sales, there can be no doubt that these affect the value of the better kinds of bark by the full extent of the quinine obtained from the branch and t«i^'s description sold. It is reckoned that, for eveiy 25,000 lb. of twig bark withheld at this time, the supply of quinine will bo reduced by a thousand ounces, and to make good this deficiency, 6,0001b. weight of "one per cent " bark would be required. In other words, supposing 6,0001b. of one per cent bai-k to be worth nett R2,000, gi-owers would receive this sum additional profit on theii' other bark for eveiy 25,00011'. of unprotitable twigs held liack. The duty as well as policy of cinchona planters is, there- fore,- very clear. No inferior branch bark should bo cut for market until such time as a revival of the demand with paying prices again sets in, and all pnm- ings shoidd be hm-ied rather than stripped at a cost which cannot be covered in the present state of the cinchona hark market. No doubt this state of affairs is a sad disappointment to many hardworking planters who m;iy have been looking this year for help from the product which did so much for them — even in prnn- ings, branches and t\rigs — in the tune of their necss- ity during the past two years; . but the stoppage of demand must be faced, and the hope entertained that it will only prove temporaiy, and that the majority of tlie South American bark-cutters must shortly tind "their vocation gone" owing to the contuniance of prices that cannot cover the cost of then- labour. MADAGASCAR PLANTS. The Rev. R. liaron contributed to the Anlanannrim Anmuil for 187S "a few jottings on some of the plants of Imerina, " the district in which the capital of Madagascar is situated and which (the district) is not included in the curious i-iug of forest which goes round Afadagascar. We find it stated of one of the CoMPOSiT.K, haWng yellow flowers or rather capitulaj, that the natives use the leaves for anneal- ing their water pitchers. The pitchers are made hot in the fire and tlien rubbed with the leaves. Are any loaves used for a similar purpose in Ceylon ? Of the Legumisos.k, the pigeon pea (Cysiisus caja) is grown to sitpply food for the silkworms ; of j a part- icular species, we suppose. The beans are eaten by the natives. The Malagasies convert tobacco loaves into snuff, but instead of putting the powder in their nostrils they suck it in their mouths ! Is Mr, Baron correct in saying that the berries of Solanum nUjrum., which are so poisonous in cold latitudes, lose their deleterious power in tropical countries ? We do not ■cin to have in Ceylon the scarlet bracted euphorbia 1-; described: — ^'.iinrinmii'io ( Knphnrhin iplnulem), vtith its brilli.mt •Ai-i and yidlow brajts. which may lasily be mis- l,;i(^ -11 for petals oi Si!pals, is perhaps th.' most .-it- tr.iotive plant in nH Imerina. Its beauty has gained G for it a place in many conservatories in England. Its prickly stem gives it a resemblance to the Caciacecu, but its Hower and fruit .shew that it is a true Euphorbia. There are two varieties, one having bright scarlet bructa with leaves :dl aUmg th-- stem, the other having yellow bracts and leaves which are terminal and lai'ger than those of the scarlet variety. The plauts are monoecious ;ind not, as the Malagasy suppose, unisexual. The milky juice with which the plant ab'.und.^ is sometimes used by the natives as bird-lime. Another use the plant affords is this : — the bark of the root is pounded, put in wuter, and given to calves to help them at their birth. The soiu/o- scnrjo is coM\nconly employed for hedgerows and fences. The next plant noticed seems to be that which we know in Ceylon as the " Persian lilac," although some of the properties mentioned are those of the true neem or manjosa tree : — Under Anrantiacaj may be named the vdandilaka, which I believe to be the M4ia Azederach, and not a lilac. lis strong seent is siniilur to that of the lilacs and hence, probably, it h.as been supposed to be one of them. If it is the ATelia Azederach it be- longs originally to Persia and Syria. It is a tree that iias been natuialized in various parts of the world, and was introduced from the Cape of Good Hope by missionaiies in the time of Radama I. All its parts contain bitter and purgative properties. The tree has i)ecoine exceedini;ly common in many parts of Madagascar. An Indian fig eighteen feet in circumference is noticed. The leaves of the pomegranate, the native name of which signifies " the great drum of heaven," are used in dyeing black. We quote as follows: — Kafi, or coffee, cultivated to some extent by the natives. It has probably been in'roduced by the BVenoh as the name would lead u9 to suppose. TuilcirUy. a sp cien of cinchona, is a shrub with very pretty yellow Howers hiving a bright red-be.xnlod throat. It is a very counnon plant in Ikongo,* but rare in Inuuina. The fruit of the common prickly-pear is eaten and also used as a substitute for blacking by rubbing it in the soot of a rice pan and applying to their boots, which, it is said, gives them a bright polish. Then, what is again new to us. the natives of Madagascar make ink from mango stones by scraping tlieni into water and allowing them to remain ten days. Under ZiNoiEEKACE.'E, wc hear of a great belt of Maila- gasear cardamoms (AnMnium aiiquslifoUum), the fruit of which is pleasantly acid in flavour. Added to the other uses of the tomato, too, its leaves, mixed with water and soot, make a not very endurable ink, while the fruits are used for blacking, the same as the prickly-pear. THE LEDGERIANA CONTROVEKSY. Mr. Thomas North Christie of St. Andrew's Estate, Maskeliya (who must not be confounded with Mr. Christy, the London plant and seed dealer), comes forward with a statement of facts by which the tables seem to be turned with a vengeance on Mr. Howard (seepage 37). It is he who has figured Lcdgeriana wrongly ! In any case the vindication of Dr. Trimen, and the genuineness of the specimen of Ijedgeriana which the eminent botanist figured, seem perfectly conclusive. There are the facts that the typical tree chosen by Dr. Trimen was raised from the same seed as the ^'arrow * The word Ikongo refers here to the coimtiy often c:illed by that name. Strictly spealdng, however, it applies only to the large hill to wiiich the people resort in time of war. The plant is found in Isancli'abe, one of the di- visions of Ratsiandraofana's country. — Ed. 42 THE TROPICAL AGRICULTURIST. [July 2, 1883. plints, acknowledged by Mr. Howard himself to be high class Ledgeriauas, and (most conclnsive of all) that the analysis of the bark of that particular tree, shewed 11-29 sulphate of quinine ! We erred, therefore, in saying that Dr. Triinen was unfortunate in liis specimen. The picture, certainly was poor, compared with our recollection of the splendid plates in Howard's book- but then Dr. Trimen's picture was a true present, nient of a true Ledgeriaua, while Mr. Christie throws doubt ou Mr. Howard's drawings. We have not these latter to refer to, as our copy of the Quinology of the Eist Indian Plantations is upcountry. But we can corroborate what Mr. Christie mentions respecting the Annfield Calisayas. Mr. Anderson was, naturally, anxious to ascertain if his trees were true Ledgerianas and we took the Ijook to Annfield for purposes of comparison. Leaves from Mr. Anderson's trees, placed side by side with the coloured foliage of Ledgeriana in Mr. Howard's book, were declared not only by us, but by several planters present to be counterparts of Howard s types, in every respect. The late Dr. Thwaites, U. M. G., made the same comparison and came to the same conclusion. But Mr. Moens, who sent Mr. Howard his specimens, pronounced the Ann- field calisayas not to be true Ledgerianas ! The mystery, therefore, tliickens, and it is not Dr. Trinien but Mr. Howard who now seems placed on the defensive. The great comfort for us in Ceylon is that thi^ controversy does Ijut confirm the fact, that we have Ledgerianas of the best possible types, growing in our island— on St. Andrew's, onYairow (Mr. Howard himself being witness); on Mattakelly and on many other plantations. Independently, therefore, of seed from .Java or anywhere else, the king of all the cin- chonas is here established and supplies of pure seed and good plants are available and will be increas- ingly so. WHAT IS GOOD TEA Mr. Kong Meng, the Chinese merchant, holds that all tea if pure and unadulterated is wholesome, the only difference between the clioice descriptions and the commoner sorts being that tbe former is composed of carefully selected lemes, which give an infusion of better and more _jlelicate flavour, although not necessarily of greater purity. There is, be tbinks but little tea of bid quality, or which is adulterated, made in Cbiua, the I.1W tliere being very stringent and providiug for the iiiflicti'..! of heavy penalties on offenders. There are no means by which the ordinary consumer can dis- tinguish good from inferior tea, that requiring a special training ; and it is only the expert who can determine the quality of samples placed before him. The general idea that good tea gives a strong black liquid is a mistake ; the best tea gives a liquid ol a pale sherry color. By J. 0. Moody. A good tea has always a small to moderate sized leaf, irpproved by having golden Pekoe tips ; it is uaiiallv lilack, grey, or red, or modifications of these colors ; is regular, wiry, or well twisted: is neve, irregular, open in tbe leaf, flaky, stalky, seedy, dustyr dirty, or contains any impurities. Ihe infused leaf is always bright, never dull colored or mixed with b!^ck or dark leases. The liquor is strong, full, brisk, and flavory, never dull, insipid, soft, thin, or burnt. The aroma is strong, and rich scented, never the sickly scent of artificially in;i'le teas, or dull, burnt, or mousey. <;cuuine tea is prepared by two methodi", the fer- ni.ed and underfermeuted. Botli kinds can be made from the same bush, it is simply the process of mauufaciiire that determines each ; tliey are easily distinguished by infnsiug in hot water, when tbe fermented shows a bright reddsh brown, and the underfermeuted a briglit green leaf. A third and fraudulent process of manufacture adopted by the Chinese is to make a strong decoction, and exhausted, decayed and rotten leaves and other rubbish is steeped in it and then dried, rolled and made up into tea. Tliis has deceived many people, but is easy of detection. Fermented teas are all black teas, with in the dry state grey, red, or black leaves or variations of these colors, and usually have bright red liquor. The underfermeuted vary in color from black to iiright vivid green, but these two extremes are always arti- lically colored, the natural dry leaf being a dull olive color, the liquor is pale, almost colorless. In India the fermented teas are known as Pekoes. Pekoe Souchongs, Souchongs, and Congous, and the underferniented as greens or Namoonas. In China, the black teas are all Congous and Souchongs, and the underfermeuted teas Oolongs, Pekoes, Capers, Gunpowders, Imperial Hysons, Twan- kays, etc. Underferniented teas are invariably the strongest, but the infusion is almost colorless, showing the popular fallacy of color as a guide for strength. Our American cousins are the lar^^est consumers of this class of tea, which in the writer's opinion is the worst to drink, owing to the heavy percentage of tannin it contains . The process of fermentation no donbt acts ou the juices of the tea leaf in a similar manner to the change that takes place in barley when converted into malt, and a nell fermented young leaf, with its silky, tender gossamer texture, seuii-transparency, and suc- culence, indicative of quick growth (size no guide), its rich reddish brown leaf, bright, ruddy infusion and delicate aroma, at once points out a first class tea, and one that any invalid, however delicate, can drink with safety. Nothing is easier than to tell if a tea is good. Fol- low this plan : — After a meal drain the tea-pot, then empty the leaves on a white cloth and pick them over. 1. — Take out the leaves described above ; this will indicate the tii-et quality. 2. — Then leaves hardly so bright or young, this will indicate tbe second quality. 3. — Dull looking leaves of dark brownish color will indicate age or indifferent fermentation. 4. — Black eiilor will indicate decayed, rotten or charred leaves ; tliey should not be in and condemn a tea. 5. — Tough or hard leaves indicate a perished con- dition and condemn a tea. 6. — Hard stalks or tea seed if in quantity indicate addition for the purpose of adulteration. 7. — Green leaves may be added for flavouring, but are often used to hide the faults of a port. on of the bulk. Dust and fanning! are valupd for their strong dark infusion; they are in demand in the London market, but are best avoided. The good teis of this season have been Darjeelings, Assams, Cachar=, D oars, and Rangoons fiv^ir. India; Ningchows, Kecinun^, Kutons, and Tong Ma Quami, from Hankow : Paklumn, and a few Panyongs, and Ching Woos, from Foo Chow. Probiibly as line teas have come to Melbourne this season a.s to any pare of the world but unfortunately the bulk has been very common, while in spite of our boasted Act some teas have been admitted unfit for human consumption. — Melbourne Herald. July 2, 1883.] THE TROPICAL AGRICULTURIST. 43 WEIGHT OF TEA BOXES. {From the Indigo Planters' Oazette.) Caraareah, Mirzapar, 19th May, 1883. SiK, — Mr. Tweedie is right with regard to the maugoe chests absorbing moisture. I had a striking proor of this in December. Owing to fome cause a cart-load of packed chests which had come from an out division, was weighei! about S P. M., after com - irig about 16 miles by road, there was found to be a discrepancy of from 0-1-14 to 0 0-10 chittacks in each chest — although they were carried with a sheet. The following day they were again weighed in the afternoon and had returned to their original weights or very closely so. If chests can thus absorb damp and part with it, no wonder the tares are some- times erratic. I have no doubt that thoroughly dried and seasoned clieets reweighed in the damp clim- ate of England would shew over a pound average difference. Edgar Hill. TEA MOSQUITO-BLIGHT.' So far no remedy has been found for this formidable pest, and it still continues with impunity to commit its ravages and upset the calculations of the most experienced of our planters. A couple of years ago Government at the request of some of the leading tea agencies sent up Mr. AVood-Mason to report upon the insect and suggest some remedy to reduce its ravages, but alas ! after being up for some time in the tea districts nothing new was found out, alth'"i\.'h a sensational telegram to the Chief Commissioner was sent round to the different planters in all the districts as a circular. The circular recom- mended a severe plucking or a series of pluckings as soon as the mark appeared on the bushes where the mosquito lays its egg or eggs. This remedy had been tried for many years, and was found in many instances, when the bushes were weak, to bo worse than the dis- ease, as the bushes became so debilitated that they in consequence were longer of being able to combat the in- sect, and force a clean flush through, Mr. Wood-Mason threw no light upon how the insect had come to prey upon the tea shrub, more than other jungle plants. Some of our oldest planters no doubt remember the time when the pest was almost unknown, so are we to come to the conclusion that the introduction of the tea plant also introduced the insect? This theory would hardly hold, as in many parts of Assam the plant is in- digenous to the soil, and strange to say enjoys comparat- ive immunity from blight. Some ten or twelve years ago when it first began to assume a serious form, covering over the bushes with blankets, and smoking the bushes in something like the manner bees are smoked in Eng- land was tried as an experiment, but no brilliant results attended it. Then again, some planters re- sorted to catching the insect, and in many instances thousands upon thousands were caught and killed, but without any seeming benefit, for all the slaughter. Jlany and various dodges have been tried, but as yet lurfortun- ately with no brilliant result. Perhaps one of the most successful, and yet we cannot call it success either, has been the wholesale destruction of forest jungle lying cou- tiguous to the plantations. One established fact about this insect is that it avoids exposure to the sun as much as possible, and consequently if jungle lies near the plant- ation it retreats there at sunrise and lies in wait to repeat its depredations after sunset. That every insect does not retreat^ into the jungle we are aw.^re, for at any time almost if the tea bush is shaken, where insects have been at work, one or more will be found to rise out of the bush, but what we believe is, that when the greater pro- portion of jungle is close at baud, they will retire there dm'iug the day, and consequently if jungle, be it forest, be it grass, or any other kind, is removed, it must necess- arily tend to keep away the iusect, more especially if duriiig the cold season, it is cut down and burnt, as during the cold season not an insect will be found amongst the * BdopeltU Anton a, which in Java attacks cinchona eaves as well as tea flushes. — Ed. T, A. tea bushes, all having migrated into the jungle. Some plant- • ers, we believe, advocate manure to keep it off, whilst again others will inform you that it aggravates it. Our own opinion is, that there may be truth in both. That manure will strengthen the bushes we do not suppose any one will doubt, nor that the insect always selects the young and succulent flushes just as they come out, and will not touch an old leaf, hence our opinion supports the latter theory, that the bush being more vigorous throws out more flushes, and hence seems to suffer more. But then this extra vigor given by the manure causes it to push through the blight and recover more quickly than its more sickly neighbour without the manure, thus supporting the first theory. The mosquito may be found at any time between March and November, but its ravages do not seem to become serious before June or July, and continue most severe during July, August, September, and the early part of October ; ilnring the latter part of October it begins to Ijft, .and generally disappears for good in November. Like everything else, the weather seems to have a good deal to do with it, and dull cloudy weather seems to propagate it faster than bright sunny days. Last season, 1882, it appeared very late, but came on very suddenly, and with great severity when it did come. This was naturally put down to the season, which was bright and sunny tlu-oughout, with a short raiirfall. In many gardens this accounted for the laige increase in quantity over former years, and it may be that in 1S83 those gardens will again return to their former normal yield. It is, however, quite impossible to foretell or for. cast in any way, the poss- ibihtiesof blight and although l his pest lias been increasing for many years, we are still in comparative ignorance regarding it. As we have mentioned before, the only thing that has been found of any avail up to date is a wholesale destruction of jungle in and around I he cult- ivation. "We are much afraid that many of our planting friends will say, when they read this "Ah, we knew that before : tell us someihiiitj new," and our only answer is, we wish we ceuld. If we coiUd' discover some natural enemy to the insect, and introduce it into the tea districts, we would feel we had acted the part of a benefactor, but up to date our search has been in vain. — Indigo Pltmterii' Gazette. CHAMBER OF SILK IN THE MAC0LE.SFI1 LD COJlJIERCi;. The quarterly meeting of the members of the Chamber of Commerce was held ou April Vlh. Kef use Silk from .South India.— rha directors have had submitted to them for examination a sample of refuse silk from Southern India, for the jiurpose of ascertaining whether a market could be found for the article iu this country. After careful consideration, the directors were of opinion that the waste is too worthless to be of any commercial value. The ,Silk Trade of iyons.— Lyons purchases on the aver- age £I7,70«,333 of the raw silks of France, Italy, the Levant, India, China, and Japan ; and exports £rO,».-.3,o33 OS goods manufactured therefrom, or mixed with wool and cotton, being about three-fouiths of her entire pro- duction, (jreat Britain and the United States arc the principal markets for these exports. The trade in cotton and woollen stutfs exceeds £833,33:;. The number of house.', large and small, engaged in silk manufactures, reaches t'.i nearlv auO. Besides these, there are some eighty houses engaged in the raw silk trade, aiul about 60 commission firms, whose business extends to all the countries of the globe. The manufacture of silk tulles, owing to a newly- pei-fected looin, has regained its old favour, and is largely extended. Silk handkerchiefs (foulards) are exquisitely manufactured, and command orders from every country. Trimmings (tissues of-silk, with gold and silver in part- icular) are here produced superior in iu^tistic beauty to any market in the world. Eight hundred looms arc constantly engaged in this production. Church regalia, altar cloths in silk and velvet, wrought with gold and silver and the most precious jewels, military and masonic banners, flags, emblems, and trimmings are umivalled in then beauty and production. A silk exchange has been established in New York. It f urnislies silkworms, eggs, cuttings of the trees upon which the worms feed, and piwchases -the cocoon. It also gives full directii us for the beginning ot silk cviltvae.— British Mail. 44 THE TROPICAL AGRICULTURIST. [July 2, 1883. INDIAN GOLD MINING AND ITS PROSPECTS.* QUAKTZ OUXOKOPS OF TRAVANOORE. First then, in point of time, we have the report of the committee appointed hy the Indian Government on December 14th, 1S32, to examine the gold mines in tlie Zillah ot Malabar. They allude as follows to the geological featm-es of the country:— "Nearly the whole of the pro- vince of Malabar except that p.irt immediately along the coast consists of lofty mountains covered with dense forest or thick jungle. The principal chain more immediately connected with the present subject is formed of the Koou- dah and Jloor Koorty Hills to the south-east of Cali- cut, the ISeilgiris to the east, and the Wynaad mountains to the north-east. These send off numerous lateral ranges, between whicii are deep valleys, in most places closely covered with forest. The most extensive of these is that of Nellamboor, including nearly the whole of the Ernaad Taluk, bounded on the east by the Neilgiris, on the north by AVyuaad, on the north-west by a lateral range running south from the Ghauts called the Wawoot hills, and on the south by the Koondah and Moor Koorty mountains. From these on all sides innumerable mountain streams descend, and meetmg near Nellamboor form the Beypore river of considerable magnitude, which falls into the sea about eight miles to the southward of Calicut. In the mountainous districts of Wynaad, streams in the same manner descend through every valley, and unite into larger rivers which fall into the Cauvery in the Mysore and Coimbatore countries. The whole of the mountains above mentioned seem to be of primitive formation. In the Nellaniboor valley, so far as the observations of the cona- mitteo went, the prevailing rock is gneiss, a kind of strati- fied granite. Above this in most places is a species of clay-ironstone, which from its softness enabling it to be cut into the form of brick for building purposes, received from Dr. Buchanan the name of laterite. It is what geologists call the over-lying rock of the whole country, between the Ghauts and the sea to the westward, and m.any of the smaller hills are formed of it. When first dug it is perfectly sextile, but on exposure to the heat of the sun and to the weather it becomes of considerable hardness. So far as the gold mines are concerned it may be considered to be a deposit formed in the lapse of ages, from the grad- ual disintegrations of the immense mountain masses in the neighbourhood, in which process part ot the precious ore may be supposed to have been worked over along with the earthy particles. However this may bo it is certain that gold' exists more or less abundantly in the whole of the country on the western side of the Ghauts in every stream which lakes its rise from tho Koondah, Nuilgiri, ami AVyna;ul mountains, and in the sands of the sea-shore along the whole of south Malabar it is tluoughout in the form of minute grains." Fm-ther on in the same report the committee in allud- ing to the geological formation ot the country in the neighbourhood of the Bejpure rher, near iVr.inlboot, say — " the superstratum consist ot sand and gravel, below which are hirge nodules of quartz and gneiss." BIr. Brough Wmytli, in his report on Wynaad gold Gelds, alludes to the litholugy of the gold district as follows ;— "The granatolil schists or the gneissoid rocks of the south-east Wynaad are, it is probable as will be shown hereatter, only comepletely metamorphosed sedimentary strata. The minerals observalile are felspar, (juartz, horn- blende, mica, talc, chlorite, pholerite, auol magnetic iron. The ordinary foliated rock usually massive or composed of thin impact layers of quartz and felspar or of quartz and hornblende. Blagnetic iron takes the place of one or other of these constituents or accompanies them in some places ; and at, and in the neighbourhood of Marpanmadi, North peak, magnetic u-ou is largely present iu tin; rock, the decomposed surface stone exhibitnig layers and rcni- form, and nodular masses of sesquioxide of iron. Some specimens are coDipo.scd almost entirely of quartz and magnetic iron, and iu others the iron occurs with quartz * By J. Blacdonald Cameron, Fel. lust. Chem., F. c. s., etc. (late assistant iu the Chemical Laboratories of the Royal School of Mines). and felspjir, and again there is a variety composed of translucent quartz, magnetic iron, and an asbcstiform miner- al resembling irou amphibole." Again, Mr. Oliver Pegler, in his report on the Wynaad gold fields, alludes to the geologic characteristics of tho district as follows: — "The range of mountains, on which is situated the Wynaad district, is of very ancient d.ate, belonging to the Falreozoic period, more especially to the Silurian formation. The highest peaks of the range, as iu the neighboiurhood of Otakamunde, are formed of ■ hard dense dark crystalline rocks of the metamorphic series of granites and syenites, the more fissile varieties of which are also here present, and are softer, and, having thus yielded to the disintegration .and denudation of time, have formed the valleys and dells adjacent to tho peaks. These softer rocks are of a nmch higher colour than the harder granitic crystalline formations, and give a reddish brown .appearance to m.any portions of the surface of the country. Before leaving this portion of the Nilgiris for the more auriferous districts of the Wynaad, I may observe that the whole of the formations are impregnated witli black m.agnetic oxide of iron, which after a shower appears as black s.and on surfaces where the rain runs over in streams of water, and this is very noticeable along tho roadsides." I have now, I tliink, quoted sufficient from the reports of these several authorities to show what are the geol- ogical and lithological features ot that gold zone of which in view of recent discoveries, the Wynaad may be con- siilered as forming the centre. The commission of ISS2 and Mr. Brough Smith agree that the leading rocks ot tho Wynaad ami Neilgiri districts are composed of granat- oid, schists, and gneiss rocks, and as a consequence there can be no divergence of opinion as to the mineralogical constituents and industrial products of these rock out- crops, but Mr. Pegler says the range of mountains upon which the Wynaad is situated belong to the Silurian fornuation of "the Pakeozoic period, though he admits that the highest peaks ot the r.ange are formed of hard, dense, dark crystalline rocks of the metamorphic series of gran- ites and syenites. This is somewhat conflicting, but the weight of evidence as regards tlie lithological characters of the AVynaad places it in the metamorphic .system, and hy])ozoie period. We shall now see how far the characteristics of the Wynaad district agree with those of Travancore. The Cthauts as they pass southwards through the latter country send out, as iu the Wynaad, numerous lateral spurs or side branches between which there are deep valleys or gorges covered with dense jungle, and in a regdon with such .an abnormally high rainfall there are consequently numerous stx'eams which have cut through the country rock in some places to considerable depths, laying bare its structure for the eye of the geologist, and, gathering strength from their innu- merable tributaries, every yard traversed, they form rivers of no mean dimeusious ere they lose themselves in the bosinn of the Indian Ocean. The height of these Ghauts varies from 1,500 to 5,000 ft., occasionally forming com- paratively gentle declivities, but as a rule they stanil out in bold escarpments perpendicular to tho horizon. The escarpments usually face the west and south-west, the points from whence come the annual monsoon rain-storms, 'llie most prominent are the Ibex Hills which are p:issed on the left of the ilistrict ro:id proceeding .southwards fro m Augustier estate to where the river,is crossed at the foot of Auldbar estate, and also on the opposite siile of tho same river to the left front of the superintendcnl's bungalow. A still bolder and more prominent escarpment, however, is to bo seen in the southern portion of Assam- boo ilistrict below Eetrcat bungalow. It is almost per- pendicular and several hundreds of feet in height, antl the river which now washes its base has doubtless been an iniport:int factor in giving rise, .at any rate, to a portion of it s present contour, for, here a deep gully has been for med, and the rocks on the opposite side of tho stream, which are of the same series, show evidences ot having once been part ot this precipitous mountain mass. A.S tho geology of Travancore has up to the present, 1^1, been very little studied, and, so far as I am aware, its pal.-eontolo>;y less so, few. if any, fo.ssils ha\o been found, especially iu those strata which Hauk the upjxr portions of the Ghauts, oonseqaeutlj considerable cUtbo- July 2, 1883.] THE TROPICAL AGRICULTURIST. 45 ulty presents itself in deciJiug whether many of its schists belong to tlie Paltoozoic or Hypoztiic periods. All that the geologist lias at present to gr.iJu him is the lithologic- al eharacteristics, and these, so far as I have been able to decide, place the various strata of which some of the lower ridges aud spurs are composed, and many of those that constitute the higher peaks in the metainorphic sys tcni, aud within the Hypozoic period. The Government committee of 1832 found the prevail- ing rocks of the Wynaad and surrounding districts to he gneiss aud a species of clay-ironstone called laterite. Now anyone who for such a short period of time has sojomneci in Travancore could not fau to he struck with the presence of this latter rock. Nearly all the houses aud offices of the common people, and the bungalows of even the weU-to-do natives and Europeans are built of it. It will also he seen • fi-om what I have quoted of Mr. Brough Smyth's report that he says the rocks of the Wyniuul district are "gi-anatoid schists or gneissoid rocks ;" and Mr. OKver Pegler also admits that " the more fissile varieties" of the metamoi-phic series are present, "and arc softer, and having thus yielded to the disintegration and denudation of time have foi-med valleys and dells adjacent to the peaks. These softer rocks are of a much higher colour than the harder giauite crystalline form- ations and give a reddish brown apjiearance to many portions of the surface of the country." Wlio that has seen those parts of Travancore which have been converted into coffee gardens ha.s failed to notice the soft giieis.sic rock studded with small nod- ules of quartz, varying in size from that of a pea to that of a walnut, and which, when exposed to atmo- spheric influences, have had their felspathic constituents decomposed, leaving the quartz scattered over the ground? Tins soft gneissic rock is essentially the rock to whose decomposition, thi'ough the lapse of ages, the coffee soils of Travancore are due, just as surclj' as it is the som'ce of those of the Wynaad and Nilghi districts. Wliere the rock is impregnated with a large amount of fer- ruginous compounds the resulting soil has a yellowish or reddish-yellow colour, aud where these ii'ou comjMunds are absent in the under-lying rock the colour passes to that of kaolin or potter's clay. Cliemienl and Metttllurtjicul Laboratory, Lime-street, E. C. — Minhxj Journal. — Jumlras Mail. B.\RK ExTEACr. — It is said there arc produced annually in North America 100,000 barrels of hemlock bark extract, of which a single Boston firm produces 72,000 bairels. — Forestry. Ants of many varieties are a troublesome pest in dili'erent ways in these colonies. House-wives find them a great affliction, aud would gladly welcome any effective means of getting rid of them. In gardens also they bother the operator in many ways. Some varieties take every x>oss- ihle care of scale insects, guarding them from harm, and tenduig them as assiduously as the stockowner his flocks, and are therefore fairly chargeable with a portion of the mischief and rum they occasion. The reason of this is that ants " inillc " these insects, and thus hve by them. The gardener is also very much disturbed with their uest- makiug pertinacity, in hard dry walks, and sometimes about the roots of valuable plants and trees, so that no one desires more thoroughly their extcniiinafjion than the careful gardener. Kerosene, c;u'bolic acid, and coal tar have all been tried at different times with vei-y partial results. Coal tar pom'ed hot uito their holes, and mixed with the material of the ant-hill, is more etfectual and lasting than either kerosene or carbolic acid, and is less costly. But to destroy them some method of ijoisonuig must be resorted to. M. C. Koad, of Hudson. Ohio, says that aiits may bo eltectually destroyed hy the fol- lowing application : — " Mix thoroughly one part of Paris green in four jiarts of flora-, and stu- the whole into such a quantity of molasses as will nm into t)io small holes in the gi-oimd in the ant-hills. Most of them ivill be poisoned by the fltst application, and one or two more in a few days will finish the work." Paris green and Loudon purplo are rival powdei-a for destroying the Colorado beetle, so fatid to the potato, and either of t.hos(! powilers would he likely to do good work il' they couM lie had. .Au.sti'alian aul-s would greedily devoiu- tlie materials meutioued. — QMeiisiamier. Quinine.— The Gazeta, of Campinas, Sao Paulo, of the 14th iuat., states that a counterfeit sulphate of quinine has recently made its appearance in that market. The counterfeit, according to our colleague, is put up in bottles labeled "Sulfate de quinine de la sociiti anonyme." — Rio News. RooT-PKDXiNG fruit trees to make them bear is often necessary. Its object is to diminish the vigor of the tree, which induces fruitfuluess, probably by the instiueitive endcavoiu^ of any plant when threatened with destruction to hasten the seed-forming process by which its kind is pei-petuated. — Southern Planter. Th-A Sf.ed: as to Depth of Sowing. — I have planted seeds, as an experiment, from 1 inch to 6 inches. The seed at 1 inch came to nothing; it germinated, was a weak plant, and dried up. The seed from 2i to 3 inch depth came up well, and turned out healthy plants; 4 inch depth rather weakly, and seed at 5 and 6 niches never came up at all. — Indian Tea Gazette. Buying a Hoitsn. — The Turf, Field and Farm, than which there is no better authority on the subject, says that " in buying a horse lu'st look at his head and eyes for signs of intelligence, temiwr, com-age, ami honesty. Unless a horse has brains j'ou cannot teach him to tlo anj-thing well. If bad quahties predominate in a horse, education only serves to eulai'ge and intensify them. The head is the indicator of disposition. A square muzzle, with large nos- trils, e\ndenccs an ample breathing apparatus and lung power. Next, see that he is well under the jowl, -ivith jawbones broad and wide apart imder the thiottle. Breadth and fulhiess between the ears and eyes are always desir- able. The eyes should be full and hazel in color, ears small and thin and thrown well forward. Tho horse that turns his cars back every now and then is not to be trusted. He is either a biter or a kicker, and is sure to he vicious in other respects, aud, being naturally viscious, can never be trained to anything well, so a horse with a round- ing nose, tapering forehead and a broad, full face below the eyes is always treacherous and not to be depended on. Avoid the long-legged stilted animal — always choosing one mth a short, straight back aud ramp, withers high and shoidders sloping, well set back and, with good depth of chest, fore legs short, hind legs straight, with low down hock, short pastern joints, aud a round, mulish-shaped foot. Jiy observing the above tlirections a horse may be selected that is graceful in Ids movements, good-uatm*ed and serviceable— one that will be a prize to the owner. — Prince O'eorye Enquirer. SaLK of OrOVKKNMENT ClNCJIONA IjARK AT MADRAS. — Tlie following " otiioe note" from tlic district forest officer to tho acting Oolleetor of tho Nilgirix, gives an aecouut of the sale of the Government cinchona barks at Madras : — Schonliank, Eugel ami Co. and Ur. Carrie. Two huudricl and forty bales with a total of 26,2o(i pounds were olTered for sale. Twonty bales containing 2,723 pounds liad however to be witlidrawn, as no bids wer?" nude, so thai only 22'l were add containing 2.3,513 pounds of bark. Tlio total sum realized amounted to R36,095 aud including some surplus, which sold for B 124— altogether 1!.3(>,219. The results are on tbe whole not quite so favorable as tho.-o of thelastsalc. The price for Crown bark being less, while that for rid barks is as liigli na before ; but, cou- sideriug that the price of bark at Home is just now very low and very much less than it was in Septem- ber last, we can congratulate ourselves on having disposed of our bark at very fair and remunerative rates. I hail to withdraw 20 bales of Mossed Crown o3 uo one seemed disposed to buy tli. E. Dodabetta ... Renewed Crown ... 1,101 3,710 Do ... Mossed „ ... sot 1.273 no ... Natural „ ... .3,.5;)2 6,e«« Do ... Branch „ ... 1,079 385 Nndiivatam ... Ilcuewcd Red ... «,000 10,440 Do ... Mossed „ .„ 2,000 3,U.5 Do ... Natura „ ... 7,5(W 9,101 Do ... Urauch „ .,.- l.StJO - S35 iii,513 3.095 'I'be CIcvormnent coii; Ucr the residla ol the sale to be on the whole satitiactory. 46 THE TROPICAL AGRICULTURIST. [Jttlt 2, 1883. COFFEE IN JAVA AJMI) BRAZIL. (Translated from Java netcspajjers for the "Straits Times.) " The immense yield of cofl'ee of late years iu Brazil has resulted in quotations for that article falling below the cost of producing the sorts ueually grown in Java, and undergoing very great and frequent fluctuatious from Cui.liicl.ug reports on last year's and the present year's crops in South America. Hence the Batavia Chamber of Commerce recently memorialised the Go- vernor General of Netherlands India in favour of ap- pointing a commission of e.tperts to inquire on the spot into the state and prospects of coft'ee cultivation in Brazil and report on the same, thus supplying capitalists and coffee groivers in Java with trustworthy information likely to result in steadying and im- proving the prices brought by that product. The chief secretary to Government, iu reply, assured the Chamber that the Government, for the same reasons, had already suggested to tne Home authorities to in- struct the Netherlands Consul General at Rio de Janeiro to gain every possible information regarding coffee cultivation in Brazil, and that the result of his inquiries will in due time be communicated to the Chamber of Commerce, the appoiniment of a com- mission of experts for the purpose beiug heuce eou- sidered needless. Mr. Moens on Cinchona Prcspecis. On behalf of the Society for ihe advancement of medical icience in Netherlands India, the firm of Ernst & Co., at Batavia, has just published a work in the Dutch language entitled The Cinchona Culture in Asia from 1854 to 1882, by Mr. J. C. B. Moens, which is thus noticed iu the Surabaya Courant : — "Mr. J. C. Bernelot Moens, ex-Director of Govern- ment Cinchona cultivation iu the Preanger Regencies (Java), sliortly before his departure for Europe, s.aw to the publication of his book on cinchona, upon the preparatiou of nhich he haa worked for years with unflagging energy. Having taken measures to secure his copyright, the autiior, who certainly before long, and with his permission, will be read and consulted everywhere in all languages, has brought oat a splend- id scientiBc work, which by its get up and typo- graph alone, is fully worth attention. Messrs. Ernst & Co. of Batavia have hereby shown that, in this de- partment, Java stands only a little below Europe, if at all. It is also provided that several choice photographs by C. Laug of Buitenzorg, which besides depicting the pl.antations and operations thereon at different periods, comprise distinct photograuis of the Director himselt and his personel, so distinct that different persons are easily recognizable. We quote, from the work only twoobservationa of direct interest 10 all cinchona planters, namely Mr. Moens' opinion on possiole substitutes, and on the futui-e of the culture. As to substitutes, he states that, though so often an- nounced to be found (one authority enumerates 136 of them) not one of them muld hold its ground beyond a few months. He foiesees that the now rapidlv ex- tending cinchona cult ire will not, withiu the next four years, be productive enough to affect prices materially. A fall in value after the lapse of four years will so depress the trade in that article in South America that those sources of supply which cau no longer bear the cos! of carriage will cease to flow, thereby pieveuting prices falling too mpidly. The same is to be foreseen, 12 to 15 years hence, when pioduotion in Java will have increased so consi- derably as to meet the demand of the whole world. In ca»e of over producuou, he who grows the varieties yielding the most quiumo will be the best off." USE AND ABUSE OF MANURES. The best methods of manui-ing the land %vill be found on examination to be among the most critical of all questions connected with farm management. All soils may be made productive if a sufiicieut outlay be incurred, the amount of the expenditure differing with the character of the occupatiou and the system of fai-ming. Among several noted plans for the farming of arable land, which have been brought before the public within the past twenty or thirty years, there is the Sawbridgeworth method, and there was" the Tiptiee system — sustaining the fertihty of arable occupations by purchases of artificial manures in one case, and by the use of cattle feeding stuffs mainly in the other case. It may be said at once, without fear of contradiction, that only a consummate master of tji'' art of stock feeding could have made the Tiptree system pay good interest on the capital employed; and, on the other hand, an erpenditme of £2 per acre per annum on hght manures, would hardly prove expedient in the general practice of the agricultm-e of the country. The propriety of each of these varieties of high farm- ing has been challenged ; in fact there are critics of all the systems. In regard to the Tiptree dogma — which inculcated high farming as a sort of moral duty — the most disastrous losses reported by the sub-commissioners of the recent Agricult- ural Commission occurred on highly farmed land, and tliis is a fact worth pondering in connection with the teaching both of practical and scientific men. It happens that several excellent authorities have contributed to the literature of farming recent essays ou the all-important subject of manuring, and among them Sir .John B. Lawes, ou "The Action of Manures," at the Newcastle Farmers' Club ; Mr. W. Stratton, on " The Management and Application of Manures," at the London Farmers' Club; Mr. Alfred Smet- ham, on " Natural and Artificial Manuring," to a Lanca- shire Agricultural Society ; Mr J. Coleman, on the same subject of Manures aud Manuring, at the Timbridge "Wells Farmers' Club; Professor Jamieson, on " Compensation for Manures, ' Mr. Jamieson having superintended a series of experiments on the effect of manures on various crops in Sussex; and Ur. Voelcker ou the same subject, dm-ing the discussion on the recommendations of the Agricultural Commission at the London Farmers' Club, the learned doctor having superintended the experiments at "Woburn. In considering these latest teachings ou manure, it may be well to recall the knowledge we have gained as well as the difficulties we must still encouuter. Dr. Daubeny, Professor of Chemistry at the Unirersity of Oxford," and an able exponent of the science of farming, forty years ago published a paper ou the dormant and active ingredients of the .soil, in which be stated that a ton of phosphate of Ume would supply the neces.sary phosphorus for a huudi-ed and twenty-five crops of wheat, or forty-five crops of turnips; and, those fignres being fairly accm-ate. Sir Harry T. Thompson's maxim, "phos- phorus for turnips, nitrogen for corn," seem at fu'st sight somewhat puzzliug. Sir John Lawes has again given the explanation of this apparent paradox. He has also treated at length the behaviour of nitrogen in the soil aud its pre-emiueut value as a fertiliser. It is remarkable that Dr. Daubeny does not once mention that all-important subsUmce, nitric acid, in his paper. He gives an admir- able explanation of the effects of fallowing aud tillage in admitting air, and thus dissolving inorganic substances and rendering dormant principles active; but the science of forty years ago did uot enable him to notice what is in fact the most active of all the "ingredients of the soil." We have since learned that nitrogen is the prime element in the production of wheat, and that no other constituent of plant food presents to the practical farmer anything like the same diifieulties; it is a substance which he cannot dispense with; which he may readily loose by misap- plication; and which costs lOd. or 11. per lb. The phi'ase "nitrogen for corn" emboilied the experience that soils which are rich iu minerals only requne the addition of the single constituent they are deficient in. The fortieth year's crop of wheat will be grown this year at Rotham- sted, anil the unmauured plots will no doubt yiel. IMoreover. if the seeds of such weeds rf'main in the soil it becomes subsequently impossible to ri<] tin; field altogether of them. The Cour.ic of 'Jrr"<--"- "■ '■ ' ■ ' -'1 Hurtest Time. — Opium being a si: ted from the pods or outer shells as these pods bi^comegreeu in colour ai.l ti,.ve i^aii.'l lii ir fidl growth the gre'cn hue changes to yellow. A few s ctvlled 'eougak.' If it be mped away with the finger its place remains quite visible. If at .about this time the pod be squeezed between the thumb and forefinger, it biscomes so far strcngtheniul that it eaimot be easily crushed. It is then that the juice which forms the opium must be g,atliered. " In order to gather the juice or paste, the first step is to take a knife m.ade especially for this purpo.se, being small and as sharp-pointed as the end of a pen- knife, and mth it to cut a semi-circular hue in the pod beginning from the middle and going round the edges, at the same time leaving a space of about a finger's breadth. Immediately this is done there appears a white milk-like fluid of a bitter taste, aud there forms. This fluid little by little increases iii consistency, and its colour becomes darker and darker, until in twenty-four hours it becomes cottee-coloured, aud as thick as paste. This is opium. This must be scraped off with the edge of a somewhat large and blunt knife aud put into a poppy leaf, and so on imtil as much as 20 or 30 drachms of opium have been collected on one leaf, the edges of which must be turned in so as to prevent it being spilled. If, while the opium is being collected, the film above described be mixed with it, it has a beneficial effect. "At Karahissar the work of cutting lines in the pods of the poppies is generally begun early in the afternoon and continued until nightfall. As the opium must be col- lected twenty-four hours after the above operation has been concluded, the following day also, soon after twelve o'clock, they begin ou the one hand to collect the opium from the poils which were cut the day before, and also to cut lines in other pod.s, which work occupies them imtil the evening. But shovdd they come across pods which arc not quite ripe, they leave them alone, and five or six days afterwards they again visit them, aud after cutting lines in them collect their juice. "In order that the exact season for collecting the juice may not be missed, the whole work must be gone through and finished in five or ten days. Moreover, the proper time for marking the pods must be accurately ascertained, for if the pods lie cut say ten days before or after they are quite ripe, there is no yield of opium. As an in- stance of this it mav l)e mentioned that in the plain of Broussa the experiment w.as made. Although the plants had reached their full growth, the pods were marked or cut both before 11 f ^"^^ that most of my hearers are aware of the fact -h^it these fotricts of Lower Bengal are entnrely made up of alluvial .eposit. No such thing as a natural or indigenous tone s to be picked up in any one of them. The ordinary roads made by niagistrates and engineers, are composed ,rtVn" brickf and'the very streets of Calcutta are paved ^ with ^ley stone brought as ballast from the Mauritius. The , s il ,1 the Gangetic Delta has been created by s.l tbrought ■ ov linth.. course of centuries, from a network of nvers; j and ii mav te doubted whether, in the wholeof om- Indian Enipire there exists land more productiveor more fitted I fm- the labour of the agriculturist than m Bengal Proper. Now, this land may roughly be dirided into three dif- ferent sorts, for it is scarcely necessary to remind you hat, beforJ entering on a description of *e f aple pro- ,luce of the countiy, the varpng nature of belaud ought to be considered. The ryot himself is accustomed to .lesignate the soil as, first, mattiaL from maU, the earth, which pra -tically is thick, viscous, tenacious clay. This larth in f.ie rabiy season, becomes a quagmu-e, in which carts' stick and beasts are impounded. In the dry season, from November to May inclusive, it presents a surface ataost as hard as rock, on which neither plough no. mattock can make the smaUest impression. The second Snd is kuo^vn as doas; a rich loam with an admixture of sand The third is In.h,, or pure sand, which^absorbs moisture. rapiiUy pulverises, and can be most easdy travelled C cart an 1 bullock, by palanquin or passenger, after heaw rain Or, again, the lands may be cla.ssed analogously m another wider and three-fold division. The first com- prises the vast plains which periodicaUy suffer from the Fnundation of large rivers, such as the Poddha, or Ganges Proper; the Goraifthe Kumar, the Damudaha, Eup Narayan, and others The second ihvision of this category com- prise.- these low levels or depressions which are beyond the reach of the Ganges or Hs tributaries, but, from their elavev soil, hold water Uke a cask, and never dry up tdl hf crops have been reaped and carried and the coM s^^on has (riven way to the heats of March and April. The thunt s^tTsthe high, dry. and sandy tract which is never affected by stream or river, and which rapidly absorbs or throws off any amomit of rain. The ordmary ryot makes two divisions only, and is familiar with the e:qpressions denya „,Ta dry country; or, >/« mirfi-,alow and wet country Bearing" in mmd this triple ^vision of the earth itselt, or of the plains with relation to the mnumerable rivers and ste^ams of the Delta, and also recoUectiug that the ram- fSfoTer a large portion of Bengal may be taken at 6d S 75 inches a year, we now come to the produce which s raised in the' districts aheady enumerated. I should add that the rainfall is heariest towards the eastern and Ughtest in the western districts of Bengal; and that, where- afin Tipperah and Ohittagong, it may nearly average 100 inches in Bancorah and Beertbhiun it may fall to 50 or 60 in the vear. But. for practical purposes in an ordm- arv year it could be safe, in .Jessore and Nudd«i, to put it as 65 or 70. All of you are aware that rice is the staple production of Bengal. Indeed, so prevalent is this notion, that erroneous deductions have been made as to the necess- K^ of this article of food for all Hindoos anywhere. The rhabitants of Upper India live on wheat. ,oa,-, or hap-a; ,nd thoueh in B.^liar some castes are said to mate one meal in the d»y of rice, it is in Bengal Proper that this n"t cleV m6st v,-ideW cultivated and universally cons.uned. The late Mr. Bnckfe feU into the mis-take of basing an e timate of the qualities of natives of aU India on the assumption that thev all were brought up on nee. (T& s cultivatioii there are three mam vanet.es well and wkely known over the whole of Bengal They are caUed respectively the «.«.=, the „„„,o», and the l^u terns which late famines have made familiar to a wide e T Pliilologistshave busied themselves, not improperly in deriving these terms from the Sanskrit, as follows:— .4 o»s is a contraction ivom Ashurrild, the qmck^ow- ing- Avmon means J?mo«(«, the season of cola; and Zfont is thought to be a corruption of Varuna, the Indian Neptune, or Regent of waters. I shall take the Aoos crop first. In the month of March, or April at latest, the rvot. as well as the Mahajan and the indigo planter, look anxiously for a sowing shower; for ram, in short, which, without floodmg the land, will drench and resolve it sufficiently to aUow of agricultural operations, and mil bear the next few days that sufficient amount of moisture which the Ryot is accustomed to de- signate by a term not found in the dictionaries, or Jo. The Aoos is grown on high ami sandy locahties. it it is sown iu March or April, it is usually cut in August rr September. Once or twice in my experience I saw- a crop of this kind cut as eariy as the very last day ot July; and now and them I have noted a field of Aoos uncut m the first, days of October. But, roundl/ speaking, the Aoos is sown, grown, and reaped m about 100 or 110. or UO days It does not need to have its roots in water, like other varieties; it requires a succession of showers to keep it moist; but from its mere position, it is never rmned by disastrous inundations; and though its returns are sniaUer, its stalks less than, its gram inferior to, the Aumon crop, it is a universally serviceable product, and m ordinary sea- sons a reUable crop. Less rent is invariably demanded tor lauds sown with Aoos. It comes m early m the season, to enable the cultivator to pay his landlord, or to discharge the debt due to the Mahajan, or what in Ireland would be caUed the gombeen, and, as I shall show presently, it leaves a considerable portion of land at the close ot tbe rainy season free for the cultivation of what m Bengal is known as the cold weather crop. The Aumon, or winter crop, is the next great division I must guard myself .and others against the mist.ke ot supposing that two crops of rice are grown anj-where on the same piece of land iu the same year. In aU my ex- perience and inquiries, I never knew this to occur but once, and this local exception, of course, proves the umversal rule to be the other way. I find that I saw a man cut the Aoos on the last day of July, and plant the same piece with Aumon thi-ee days afterwards. Aumon is grown in depressions, in vast plains which extend tor mil^s, which separate populous viUages, which for six months in the year are often impassable for pedestnans unless they can pick their way along the slender embankments which divide the fields, and which, from July to October, are deep in water, and are constantly traversed, rice crop and aU, by hght donmjas, or Saltis. In a general way, it may be said that the Aumon requires from five or six months to ripen for the sickle. The harvest ^vill vary according to the level of the ground, and not according to the climate. In stiff clay, but not in the lowest depressions, this crop may be sown in June, and cut towards the middle or end of November. It is, perhaps, most correct to say that the Aumon harvest sccupies the months ot December, January, and February. I have seen the reap- ers at work as Late as March— I have even known them begin by the 10th of November. In very low-lying lands —known eyery^vllere as bheels or jheels, A mjl ice, mashes —the ryot has no sooner cut his wmter crop, than he begins to think about preparmg his soil for next year. As the Aumou is much heavier, richer, more paymg than the Aoos. so it is more exposed to the fluctiuations cap- rices, and irregularities of the seasons. It is reaUy the most important crop of the year. If too much ram faUs in April or May, the ground cannot be got ready for the plough untU heavier showers come down m a ceaseless deluge, flood the low soil in Jmie, and prevent work. It Uttle or no rain faUs m these spring months, a stoppage of work equally ensues. Perhaps the best years are those 1 in which the land can be ploughed by timely rains m May the seed sown broadcast in that month, to be ted by 'c'onrinuous but not too heavy showers m June or July In very deep levels, ploughing operations can be ' sot through on the strength of the moisture left by last i year; that is to say. I have seen the winter crop cut by the villagers, iu their boats shaped out of hoUow trees, I in Februarj'. .and the same villagers ploughing the same 1 land in MaVch and April, when the surface water ot last I year had just dried oft', and left the soil m a condition July 2, 1883.J THE TROPICAL AGRICULTURIST. SI for the plough. A great deal of the Aumon is sown broadcast, and once it gets a fail- start above ground, it will run a race against inundation, and beat it. Abul Fuzl, Akbar's celebrated minister, has declared, in the " Ayin Akbari," that this rice could sprout six inches in a night. I hardly like to endorse this dictum, but I think it very Ukely that it grows a couple of inches in that short space. Inundation of long continuance ruins it, but I have known it to be twelve hours under water, and then emerge without injury; aud it is quite certain that if the water, whether rain alone or inundating river, will only rise gi-adually and not with a sudden rush, the rice plauts wiU hold their own, aud result in a magni- ficent crop. The length to which the stalks grow is surprisuig. I have pulled them fourteen feet in length, aud am assm-ed that they reach to eighteen. As the water recedes or falls this rice Ues slanting on its sur- face ; aud a crop of Aumon rice in one big sheet, towards the end of November, presents the appearance of having been beaten down flat by some \-iolent storm of wind and rain. A spectator, fresh from England, would imagine it ruined, a httle experience teaches him that the crop, flat, tangled, white for the harvest, with a foot or two of water yet below it, and the blue sky, warm sun and pure air of December above, is in that condition described in the Vii-gUian hexameter, "Votis demum respondet avari Agricolse." But the whole of the Aumon crop is not sown broadcast. A lai-ge portion is called roa (from !-(7)«)j, planting), and is planted out with the hand. A nursery is first selected near the cultivator's house, aud sometimes in his kitchen garden, where the rice is sown as thickly as the ground can hold it, or the stalks can stand together: when this nursery has attained to at least the height of ten or twelve inches, it is taken out to be planted in rows in the rj'ot's field. To this end the field has been well ploughed, scraped, and cleaned. I have watched the .same process in Oeylon. It is essential that it sliould hold from a foot to two or thi'ee inches of water, or at least of that mixture of mud and water which is popularly denominated slush. I have seen this work performed ui water two feet deep, the ryot doing it from his boat ; but usually the cultivator wades and sticks the plants in, with the utmost rapidity, in long even lines. In the first few