I

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TURKEY RAISING

BY

HARRY M. LAMON

SENIOR POULTRYMAN, BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY, UNITED
STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

AND

ROB R. SLOCUM

POULTRYMAN, BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY, UNITED STATES
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

Authors of
'The Mating and Breeding of Poultry"

ILLUSTRATED

NEW YORK
ORANGE JUDD PUBLISHING COMPANY

LONDON
KEGAN PAUL, TRENCH, TRUBNER & CO., LIMITED

1922

COPYRIGHT, 1922, BY

ORANGE JUDD PUBLISHING COMPANY

All Rights Reserved

PRINTED IN U. S. A.

DEDICATED TO

THE AMERICAN TURKEY
KING OF DOMESTIC FOWLS

PREFACE

For the past twenty years there has been a general and
more or less steady decrease in turkey production. And
this in spite of the fact that no other branch of livestock
returns as great a profit for the money invested and the
equipment required. Recently, however, there has been
a considerable awakening of interest in turkey raising
and a growing demand for detailed information regard-
ing this industry.

It has been the purpose of the authors to provide in
this publication the latest and most thoroughly reliable
information on the subject for the use both of the raiser
of market turkeys and of the producer of breeding or
exhibition stock. In presenting this information it has
been the authors' aim to deal with the subject thoroughly
and in great detail and at the same time to keep the work
so concise, simple and clear that it is of the greatest
practical value either to the beginner or to one more
experienced in turkey raising.

Recognizing the high value of good illustrations in
emphasizing the information given in the text, all phases
of this book have been thoroughly illustrated. It is
the confident belief of the authors that considered either
from the standpoint of the completeness with which all
phases of the subject are covered or of the excellence
of the illustrations themselves, no equal set of photo-
graphs on the subjects treated has ever before been
gathered together.

vi PREFACE

The authors take pleasure in acknowledging their in-
debtedness to the following persons for the valuable aid
which they have given in the preparation of this book —

Prof. J. E. Dougherty

Mrs. Elia Fowler *

James Glasgow

John C. Kriner

Charles McClave

Courtland H. Smith

Further and more particular acknowledgment is due
Andrew S. Weiant who was formerly the turkey and
guinea specialist of the Bureau of Animal Industry,
United States Department of Agriculture, and upon
whose work and studies, both in the form of his pub-
lished Farmers' Bulletins and otherwise, the authors have
drawn heavily. Special acknowledgment is likewise due
J. W. Kinghorne, Junior Poultryman, Bureau of Animal
Industry, United States Department of Agriculture, for
the thorough and painstaking manner in which he has
indexed the book.

For the period of the past ten years the authors have
been privileged to work together in the closest relationship
for the interests of the poultry industry of the United
States. It is to them a matter of deep pride that during
this time their first thought has always been to render
a service to the poultrymen and women of their country.
And it is with this same idea of service that they offer
the present book to the poultry public.

HARRY M. LAMON,
WASHINGTON, D. C., 1922. ROB R. SLOCUM.

CONTENTS

CHAPTER I

PAGE

HISTORY, EXTENT OF THE INDUSTRY AND OPPORTUNITIES . I
A native American — The Wild turkey — The Hon-
duras or Ocellated turkey — Origin of the name, tur-
key— Extent of the industry — Reasons for decreased
production — Opportunities for turkey raising — Tur-
key raising as a business for the farm woman —
Turkeys as insect destroyers — Raising turkeys in con-
finement— Prices — Prices of breeding stock.

CHAPTER II

VARIETIES, MATING AND SHOWING 17

Size — Popularity of varieties — General considera-
tions in making the mating — Making the mating — The
Wild turkey — The Bronze turkey — The Narragan-
sett turkey— The White Holland turkey— The Black
turkey— The Slate turkey— The Bourbon Red turkey
— Preparing turkeys for the show — Catching and
handling turkeys — Shipping show birds and breeding
stock — Packing and shipping hatching eggs — Judging
turkeys.

CHAPTER III

MANAGEMENT OF THE BREEDING STOCK 41

Making a start — Selection of the breeding stock —
Should turkeys be inbred? — Age of breeding stock —
Preventing injury to hens in breeding — Selecting and
purchasing breeders — Number of hens to a male —
Breeding yards — Feeding the breeding stock — Winter
shelter for the breeders — The breeding and laying
season — Locating stolen nests — Care of eggs for
hatching.

vii

viii CONTENTS

CHAPTER IV

FACE

INCUBATION OF TURKEY EGGS 67

Period of incubation — Methods of hatching — Num-
ber of eggs to set — Nest for sitting hen — Setting the
hen — Management of sitting hen — Dusting the sitting
hen for lice — Hatching with chicken hens — Hatching
with an incubator.

CHAPTER V

BROODING AND REARING THE YOUNG STOCK 78

Protection for the poults — Rearing poults by arti-
ficial means — Feeding the poults — Lice on poults —
Marking and pedigreeing turkeys — Feathering of
poults — Shooting or throwing the red — Distinguish-
ing the sexes — Management of growing turkeys.

CHAPTER VI
MARKETING 102

Time of marketing — Size of young turkeys — Princi-
pal markets and market demands — Fattening turkeys
— Caponizing — Selling turkeys alive— Killing and
dressing — Packing — Turkey feathers — Dressing on
the farm — Shipping turkeys alive — Market prices.

CHAPTER VII

INSECT PESTS, DISEASES AND PREDATORY ANIMALS . . . 124
Lice — Stick tight fleas or chiggers — Diseases —
General disease preventive measures — Blackhead —
Chicken pox or sore head — Roup — Limberneck —
Crop bound — Worms — Gapes — Bumblef oot — Diar-
rhoea or bowel trouble — Predatory animals.

INDEX 147

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

FIGURE FACING PAGE

Frontispiece— Turkey Tom Strutting.

1. Wild Turkeys 4

2. Flock of Turkeys Gleaning Shelled and Spilled Grain 5

3. Turkeys Clearing Cotton Fields of Insects and Weeds 10

4. Wild Turkey, Male n

5. Bronze Turkey, Male 24

6. Bronze Turkey, Female 25

7. Wing of Bronze Turkey Tom 26

8. Feathers from a Bronze Turkey Hen 27

9. Narragansett Turkey, Male 28

10. Wing of Narragansett Cockerel 29

n. White Holland Turkey, Male 3°

12. Black Turkey, Male 31

13. Black Turkey, Female 32

14. Slate Turkey, Male 33

15. Bourbon Red Turkey, Male 34

16. Defective Feathers from a Bourbon Red Turkey . . 35

17. Wing of Bourbon Red Cockerel 3^

1 8. Proper Method of Holding and Carrying a Turkey . 37

19. Method of Packing Turkey Eggs for Shipment . . 3&

20. Breeding Flock of Bronze Turkeys on Free Range . 39

21. Showing How the Shingle or Paddle is Attached to a

Turkey to Prevent It from Flying 52

22. A Barrel Nest for Turkey Hens 53

23. Comparison of the Size of Turkey, Guinea and Hen

Eggs 76

24. Enclosed Run for Turkey Poults ....... 77

x LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

FIGURE FACING PAGE

25. Turkey Hen Confined to a Coop 82

26. Turkey Shed Used to Shelter Hens and Their Broods

During Rain Storms 83

27. Turkey Roost Constructed in the Trees .... 98

28. Flock of Turkeys Gone to Roost 99

29. Pens Used to Confine the Turkeys During the Morn-

ing 100

30. Turkey Hens With Their Broods on Free Range . 101

31. Turkey Capon at Six Months of Age 108

32. Turkey Drive on the Way 109

33. Woman Dry Picking a Turkey no

34. Interior of Turkey Killing Establishment . . . . in

35. Dressed Turkeys Ready for the Cooling Room . . 112

36. Dressed Turkeys Packed in Barrels 113

37. Dressed Turkeys Packed in Boxes 114

38. Farmer Selling His Turkeys to the Highest Bidder . 115

39. Live Poultry Transportation Car Loaded with Turkeys 120

40. Weighing Up Live Turkeys as They are Unloaded . 121

TURKEY RAISING,

CHAPTER I
History, Extent of the Industry and Opportunities

A Native American. — With its size, its majestic ap-
pearance, its marvelous beauty of plumage and the most
savory character of its flesh, the turkey may justly be
termed the king of domesticated fowls. Moreover, on
account of its place of origin and because it is the only
native fowl of this country which has taken an impor-
tant place among domesticated poultry, it is a bird in
which Americans can feel a special pride and pleasure.
The different varieties of domesticated turkeys as they
now exist in the United States are undoubtedly a de-
velopment from the native wild turkey of North America.
Formerly the wild turkey occurred in considerable num-
bers in the wooded portions of a range extending from
Maine southward to Florida and from thence Southwest
across Texas, New Mexico and Arizona into Mexico.
As the country became more and more settled, the number
of wild turkeys grew steadily less, until at the present
time they are found in the wild state only in the more
remote portions of their former range.

*- TURKEY RAISING
The Wild Turkey

The species of wild turkey which occurred in this range
is divided into four varieties. These varieties consist of
the common or Eastern wild turkey, the Florida wild tur-
key, the Rio Grande wild turkey and the Mexican or Mer-
riam's turkey. The common or Eastern wild turkey ex-
tended over the eastern part of the United States from
Maine to Florida and in the large swamps of the gulf
states to Louisiana. The Florida wild turkey is found
in southern Florida. The Rio Grande wild turkey has a
range extending over southern Texas and northwestern
Mexico, while the Mexican or Merriam's turkey is found
in the mountains of Arizona, western New Mexico and
southern Colorado, south into Mexico.

The common or Eastern wild turkey, the Rio Grande
wild turkey and the Florida wild turkey are all quite simi-
lar in color in that they have a brilliant bronze plumage
and that the tips tc the tail coverts and main tail feathers
run from a yellowish to a deeper yellowish brown or cof-
fee color. In the Mexican wild turkey or Merriam's tur-
key, the plumage is of a much darker bronze which is
shaded with black, while the tips of the main tail feathers
and of the tail coverts are white instead of yellow or
brown. In respect to the white tips and to the general
darker cast of plumage, the Mexican wild turkey corre-
sponds more closely than does the common wild turkey
to our domesticated Bronze variety and gives support to

HISTORY, EXTENT OF THE INDUSTRY

the belief that our domesticated varieties have arisen from
the Mexican wild turkey rather than from any of the
other varieties.

It appears that the Spaniards on conquering Mexico
found the Mexican wild turkey in more or less of a state
of domestication among the Aztec inhabitants and that
they sent specimens of this bird back to Spain. From that
country it spread to other parts of Europe and was bred
to a considerable extent so that later it was brought back
by colonists to the United States and was the foundation
from which our present varieties have sprung. It must be
remembered, however, that infusions of the common or
Eastern wild turkey blood have been made in the domestic
varieties with considerable frequency.

The Honduras or Ocellated Turkey. — In addition to the
species of wild turkey with its four varieties which has a
large part of its range in the United States, there is an-
other species of wild turkey known as the Honduras or
Ocellated turkey, the range of which is confined to Cen-
tral America, extending from Yucatan to Guatemala.
This is a very beautiful and much more brilliant bird than
the wild turkey of North America but has never been
successfully domesticated and has played no part in the
making of our domestic varieties. It is a considerably
smaller bird. The neck feathers are a bronze black tipped
with green, the breast feathers greenish black tipped with
bronze, the back feathers bright green tipped with a bril-
liant copperish bronze, the fluff blue with a black band and

TURKEY RAISING

tipped with a copperish red, the tail coverts bright blue
with a black band and tipped with copperish bronze, the
tail feathers silver gray with indistinct black penciling and
with a blue eye edged with black located toward the ex-
tremity of each tail feather, while the tip of the feather is
copperish bronze. The feathers of the wing bow are
bright green tipped with black. The wing coverts are a
bright copperish red and form a beautiful band across the
wing while the wing primaries and secondaries are barred
with alternate dark and light bars similar to the same
sections in our domesticated Bronze turkey.

Origin of the Name Turkey. — In view of the fact that
the origin of the turkey traces clearly to North America,
some may wonder how this bird obtained its present name
which would suggest its origin as being Asiatic. The
most logical explanation seems to be that given by E.
Richardson. He suggests that the turkeys on being
brought to Spain from the New World were handled and
sold by the Hebrew merchants of that country. As the
turkey was quite generally confused with and called pea-
cock, it was natural therefore that these Hebrew traders
should apply to it their name for the peacock or "tukki."
More or less common use of this name followed which
easily became in the English language our present name
turkey. Such an explanation seems to be much more
probable than that the name arose as a result of an erro-
neous impression that the bird originated in or near
Turkey.

FIG. i. Wild turkeys. (Photograph front the Bureau of
Animal Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture.)

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HISTORY, EXTENT OF THE INDUSTRY
Extent of the Industry

Turkeys are now raised to a greater or less extent over
practically the entire United States. The great bulk of
these fowl, however, is found on the general farms
throughout the Middle Western and Southern states.
Formerly large numbers of turkeys were raised in New
England and the northwestern part of the United States,
but the turkeys coming from this section are now very
greatly reduced in number. For the same reasons that
the turkey production in New England has declined mark-
edly so has there been a great reduction in the number of
turkeys raised in the United States as a whole. The
census of 1900 shows that there were in this country
6,594,695 turkeys while 10 years later, the number had
been reduced to 3,688,708. The census of 1920 reports
3,627,028 turkeys or practically the same number as
in 1910. But while the number has remained practically
stationary, the value due to increased prices, has nearly
doubled or from $6,605,818 in 1910 to $12,904,989 in
1920.

As shown by the census of 1920 Texas is the leading
state in the production of turkeys. Other states fol-
lowed in this order : Missouri, Oklahoma, California,
Kentucky and Virginia. While the country as a whole
showed a slight decrease in the number of turkeys from
1910 to 1920, quite a number of individual states showed
increases, particularly the mountain states, which nearly

TURKEY RAISING

doubled their numbers, and the Pacific states, which
showed a very substantial increase.

Reasons for Decreased Production

The reasons for the decrease in turkey production are
several. Probably the principal cause is the fact that as
the population in any section of the country increases in
numbers, there is a tendency for agriculture to become
more intensive and the farms to become smaller. For this
reason the amount of range suitable for the raising of
turkeys is lessened. Then, too, where farms are close
together, the ranging habits of turkeys cause them to
work over the grain fields of adjacent farms and this is
likely to cause ill will, for damage to the growing crops
is attributed to them in a much greater measure than is
deserved and no credit is given them for the beneficial
effects of the insect destruction which they bring about.
Many farmers have therefore given up raising turkeys
rather than have this cause of trouble between themselves
and their neighbors. Disease has likewise been quite a lim-
iting factor in turkey raising. The mortality among the
young turkeys, with the usual care which is given them
on farms, runs high. Outbreaks of blackhead and of
some other diseases are frequent and serious in certain
sections of the country, and the losses resulting from
these outbreaks have discouraged the farmers from at-
tempting to raise turkeys. In some sections, also, pred-

6

HISTORY, EXTENT OF THE INDUSTRY

atory animals, such as the coyote and fox, have had a
great influence in discouraging turkey raising.

There is another factor, not so generally recognized,
but which, nevertheless, has had a decided effect in de-
creasing turkey production. It is the fact that the care
of the sitting hens and of the young poults during the
first few weeks of their lives is a very exacting occupa-
tion. If the greatest success is to be enjoyed, the raiser
must expect to be ready to give the turkeys attention at
any time of day that they may require it or in other words
must be thoroughly on the job. The turkeys cannot be
neglected during this critical period in order to make a
trip to town in the automobile. In this day of modern
living when it seems to become harder and harder to
subordinate pleasure to business, turkey raising by virtue
of the fact that it is temporarily exacting and confining,
is not increasing in popularity as an occupation. For the
person who is willing to devote the necessary time and
attention and who will give the welfare of the turkeys
precedence over his ease or pleasure, there is an excellent
opportunity to make a splendid success in raising turkeys.

Opportunities for Turkey Raising

With turkeys a national institution as a holiday dish,
particularly for Thanksgiving and Christmas and with
the constantly decreasing number produced, there is an
excellent opportunity for those who are favorably situ-

7

TURKEY RAISING

ated to raise turkeys for profit. In the main, turkeys are
produced as a small side-line upon the general farm. Even
in those sections of the country where the bulk of turkeys
is grown, it is usual to find flocks of not more than 50
or 60 turkeys on any one place. In fact, the average
flock is undoubtedly much smaller than this. In Texas,
the banner turkey state, flocks numbering as high as 100
to 150 are more or less common. In certain parts of the
Southwest and in some sections on the Pacific Coast there
are a few persons engaged in turkey raising on a larger
scale, as high as 1,000 or more turkeys being produced in
a year. Men on horseback are employed to drive these
flocks out on range and to herd them. It must be remem-
bered, however, that this is in a section where there is
unlimited range and in a climate which is well suited to
growing the young poults and where disease does not
seem to develop to so great an extent. The semi-arid or
irrigated sections of the West and Southwest because of
their natural advantages will undoubtedly continue in the
future to be the places where turkey raising in its most
specialized form will be practiced.

Grain and stock farms are particularly well suited for
turkey raising and it is on such farms that most of the
turkeys are found at present. For greatest success in
this industry plenty of range is essential, and where this
can be given, the turkeys will find large quantities of
insects such as grasshoppers, quantities of green vegeta-
tion, berries, weed seeds, waste grain, nuts and acorns of

8

HISTORY, EXTENT OF THE INDUSTRY

various kinds which they eat readily and which makes
the cost of raising them very small and the profits large.

Turkey Raising as a Business for Farm Women

Turkey raising is an agricultural activity especially
adapted to the women of the farms. Their natural moth-
erly qualities and the aptitude which they possess to at-
tend to the details of caring for the young turkeys make
them especially well fitted to raise the turkeys success-
fully. Then, too, it is easier for them to give the turkeys
the constant oversight and frequent attention which is so
necessary during the brooding season, for the hens with
their broods can be, and usually are, cooped near the
house. For the woman who is successful in raising tur-
keys, it would be difficult to find any other farm side-line
which will yield a greater return. With prices as they
have been during the last few years, a sufficiently large
flock can be reared from 15 to 20 turkey hens to bring in
$400 or $500 a year. The cost of raising turkeys is low
since they pick up such a large part of their own living.
About the only feed they need is that which is given them
while they are young and the grain required to fatten
them for the market. It is safe to say that no other kind
of live stock can be raised so cheaply on the farm as a
flock of turkeys nor is there any which brings a better
price per pound. Even with high priced grain, turkeys
given a good range can be turned off to market at a cost

TURKEY RAISING

not to exceed $i a head for feed consumed. The neces-
sary investment for raising turkeys runs low both in the
matter of breeding stock and equipment required. It is
doubtful if any other kind of live stock requires as small
an investment for the return yielded as do turkeys.

A brisk demand will be found by any one having breed-
ing stock of some pure variety for sale and this will
greatly augment the possible profit. As an example of
what may be accomplished it may be stated that a farm
woman, a breeder of Bronze turkeys of fine quality, re-
cently raised 200 turkeys in one season, and sold over
$1,500 worth of stock, being compelled to refuse more
than $500 worth of additional business. Most of her
stock was sold for breeding purposes except 17 late
hatched toms, which -were sold for slaughter on the local
market early in February at 35 cents a pound, and for
which she received a total of $109.

A Missouri farmer and wife have sold for the past four
years an average of more than $500 a year of market tur-
keys. At no time did they have more than 15 breeding
hens and sometimes not more than 12.

Turkeys as Insect Destroyers

In spite of the fact that insects, such as grasshoppers,
which the turkeys pick up in ranging over the farm,
form a considerable part of the diet of turkeys during
the summer, the great value of these birds as insect
destroyers is often overlooked. Much is said about

10

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FIG. 4. Wild turkey, male. (Photograph from the Bureau of
Animal Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture.)

HISTORY, EXTENT OF THE INDUSTRY

the damage they do to growing crops and little or noth-
ing about the good. As a matter of fact turkeys do
little damage to crops under ordinary conditions where
they can find an ample supply of the feed which they
love to glean in their own way. But the loss which
they prevent by the destruction of insects is often very
considerable. Recently attention was called to the fact
that in one farming community the only farmer who
was successful in securing a yield of clover seed was one
who had allowed a flock of turkeys to range in his clover
field. In the same locality another farmer had his oats
crop saved from grasshoppers by turning in a flock of
turkeys to prey on the grasshoppers. A brood of turkeys
when ranging through a field seeking their feed go about
their work in a very systematic manner, often advancing
in a line at distances apart just about great enough to
enable them to cover all of the ground between one an-
other as they advance. Not many grasshoppers get by
this advancing line.

Raising Turkeys in Confinement

Most efforts to raise turkeys in confinement have not
been very successful and it has generally been considered
that to hatch and rear the turkeys artificially and to keep
them under rather intensive conditions was impracticable
and unprofitable largely for the following reasons : First,
that exercise is essential to health and vigor. Second,
that brooding the young poults artificially requires too

II

TURKEY RAISING

much time and personal attention. Third, that with ordi-
nary management it is almost impossible to keep down
disease. Fourth, that an experienced feeder is required
to feed turkeys in confinement successfully. It will be
noted, however, that all but the first of these reasons can-
not be urged against the person who has had considerable
experience and who knows how to care for turkeys. In
fact, enough instances are known of where turkeys are
being raised by artificial methods and under restricted
conditions to demonstrate that with proper care and at-
tention this is possible, although it is not recommended as
a general practice where greater range is available. Fur-
ther details in regard to artificial methods will be found
on page 85.

Prices

It is interesting to note the change that has taken
place in the price received by producers of market turkeys
for the last six years. It is also of interest to note the
range in price according to the section of the country in
which the birds are raised and put on the market. In a
general way, the farther from the great consuming cen-
ters the birds are produced, the smaller is the price re-
ceived by the grower. The following table illustrates
this well.

Prices of Breeding Stock. — As might be expected prices
for breeding stock vary widely depending upon the ex-
cellence of the birds themselves and upon the reputation

12

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TURKEY RAISING

of the breeder. Breeding hens can ordinarily be pur-
chased for from $7 or $8 to $25 each, occasional birds
bringing more than this. Breeding toms can be purchased
for from $10 to $50 with some birds sold as high as $100.
Turkey eggs for hatching when they can be bought at all
sell for 50 cents to $1.50 each. Many turkey raisers,
however, prefer not to sell eggs for hatching, feeling that
they can make a greater profit by hatching a*nd rearing
the young.

16

CHAPTER II
Varieties, Mating and Showing

Where turkeys are raised in the United States, the birds
kept may be one of the standard varieties, various crosses
between the standard varieties, or, somewhat rarely, the
common or Eastern wild turkey. Standard varieties are
those which are listed and described in the American
Standard of Perfection.* The standard varieties consist
of the following: The Bronze, the Narragansett, the
White Holland, the Black, the Slate and the Bourbon
Red. In referring to individuals of any of the standard
varieties there are three separate classes of males recog-
nized and two classes of hens. The males are adult
cocks, that is, birds two years old or over ; yearling cocks,
birds one year old and less than two; and cockerels, birds
less than one year old. The female classes consist of
hens, birds one year old or over; and pullets, birds less
than one year old. Males of all classes are frequently
referred to as toms or gobblers rather than as cocks or
cockerels. The young turkeys of both sexes are gener-
ally called poults.

*The American Standard of Perfection is a book published by
the American Poultry Association describing all the breeds and
varieties of chickens, ducks, geese and turkeys recognized by that
association. This book is the guide by which all poultry shows in
the United States are judged.

17

TURKEY RAISING
Size

In size, the common wild turkey runs smaller than any
of the standard varieties of domesticated turkeys. Wild
hens usually range from 8 or 9 to 12 pounds in weight
while the males may run as heavy as 20 pounds, although
this is considered very good weight for a wild torn. It
may be said in this connection that while the pure domes-
ticated varieties are larger than the wild fowls, turkeys
as commonly kept and bred on farms where many of them
receive indifferent attention and where the variety may
not be pure, often do not run much heavier in weight than
the wild turkey. The following table gives the standard
weights in pounds of the various ages and sexes of the
domesticated standard varieties:

Adult Yearling

Variety Cock Cock Cockerel Hen Pullet

Bronze 36 33 25 20 16

Narragansett .30 25 20 18 12

White Holland. 28 24 20 18 14

Black 27 22 18 18 12

Slate 27 22 18 18 12

Bourbon Red.. 30 25 20 18 12

As a rule the demand for breeding stock is for heavy
birds, those heavier than standard seeming to be in active
demand. The fact that the larger specimens seem to find
favor over the smaller birds in the shows probably ac-

18

VARIETIES, MATING AND SHOWING

counts for this. For this reason breeders are inclined to
use their larger birds in their matings in order to be able
to supply the demand. As a matter of fact the use of
birds of extreme size cannot be generally recommended
as it is much more likely to be associated with infertility,
poor hatches and soft-shelled eggs than when more mod-
erate sized breeders are used. In general it may be said
that breeders but little if any larger than standard are the
best size to use.

Popularity of Varieties

On account of its larger size and also the fact that this
variety has, perhaps, been more carefully, more syste-
matically and more extensively bred than any of the
others, the Bronze turkey is the most commonly kept.
Turkeys are sold by weight and for this reason the larger
birds bring the greater returns. A good size bird is in
demand where a considerable number of people are to be
served as in hotels, boarding houses, etc. While there is
a more widespread demand for a medium sized turkey for
family use, the larger birds find a ready sale and in gen-
eral it may be said that the production of heavier birds
proves to be more profitable.

It is quite a commonly held opinion that the Bronze
variety is more hardy than the other domesticated varie-
ties, due perhaps to the occasional introduction of wild
blood in an effort to keep up the Bronze color. It is diffi-
cult, however, to trace any real sustained difference be-

19

TURKEY RAISING

tween the vigor and hardiness of the different varieties as
these qualities and others differ to a marked degree in dif-
ferent individuals and strains of the same variety. Proper
management and proper breeding have much to do with
the hardiness and stamina of the stock. It is claimed by
some raisers that the White Holland lay more eggs than
the other varieties and also that the White Holland and
the Bourbon Red are inclined to be somewhat more do-
mestic in their habits.

Considerations in Mating

It must be borne in mind that turkeys are kept for meat
production, not primarily for egg production. In select-
ing the breeders, therefore, it is essential that they pos-
sess a type or shape of body which is consistent with meat
carrying capacity. Select those birds which have a deep
long wide body, a broad back, especially across the shoul-
ders, and a round, deep, full breast which comes well for-
ward. A strong well-knit frame is shown by birds which
are of good bone, that is, which have thick sturdy shanks
and with the legs perfectly straight and set square under
the bird and well apart. Avoid any birds which are too
long-legged, which are too narrow-bodied or in which the
legs tend to be knock-kneed or to crook at the hock.

It must also be kept in mind that birds which are in-
clined to be short in leg, while they will often reach a
greater weight the first season, are not the birds which
will eventually develop into the largest specimens. It is

20

VARIETIES, MATING AND SHOWING

well, therefore, to avoid breeders which are especially
short in legs and to select those which are moderately
long in legs but not too long. Avoid also as breeders any
birds which are lop-sided or which have crooked breasts
or crooked backs. The head should be of good size and
length and of a clean healthy appearance. Avoid heads
which tend to be too short.

Certain differences in the head over those of the ordi-
nary domestic fowl need comment. In the first place the
turkey has no comb such as is found on the chicken, but
does have a fleshy elastic proturberance extending out
from the head above the base of the upper bill, and which
when expanded to its full length hangs down beside and
below the bill. This is referred to variously as the dew-
bill or snout. The turkey does not have two wattles as in
the chicken but has a single throat wattle extending from
the underside of the lower bill part way down the throat.
The head is devoid of feathers and both the head and
upper part of the neck are covered with rough or caruncu-
lated skin. There is some tendency for the caruncles of
the males to be too smooth, that is not heavy or distinct
enough so as to give a good masculine appearance. The
color of the head and neck is red, which at times changes
to a lighter or bluish color.

Occasionally, turkeys occur which have more or less
of a crest or tuft of feathers on the head. These are rare,
however, and there is no breed or variety which possesses
this characteristic.

The back line of the turkey beginning at the base of the

21

TURKEY RAISING

neck shows quite an even convex curve which is carried
out also in the line of the tail which, unlike that of the
ordinary domestic fowl, extends downward rather than
upward. The tail itself should not be too closely folded
but should show a fairly good spread both when closed
and when extended or spread.

Turkeys of both sexes show a tuft of coarse hair
growing from the breast called the beard. This is longer
and more prominent in the male than in the female. The
feet should be of good size with strong well formed toes.
It is necessary in this connection to avoid a duck-toed
condition, that is to say, where the rear toe turns around
to the side or toward the front. It is desirable to select
birds with good bright eyes, because these birds are as a
rule the strongest individuals in the flock. In some speci-
mens there is a tendency for the back to be straight rather
than curved, and it is necessary to avoid these straight-
backed birds in breeding. Turkeys should have good
strong wings of moderately good size in proportion to
the size of the bird. Any tendency toward wings which
are too long so that when folded the ends are carried up
on the back and tend to lap should be avoided.

In addition to the selection of birds on the basis of their
general body type or shape it is of primary importance to
make sure that the birds used for breeders are well ma-
tured, which means early hatched, and that they are strong
and vigorous individuals. It is also necessary in all of the
standard varieties to select the breeders which approach
as closely as possible to the standard or ideal in their color

22

VARIETIES, MATING AND SHOWING

and markings. Too great care cannot be exercised in
selecting the breeders, for poor results as exemplified in
eggs which will not hatch or in weak poults or in small
scrubby turkeys are often the result of carelessness in the
selection of the birds for breeders. In general it may be
said that turkeys breed quite true and that there will be
less culls from the turkey matings than there are from
most matings of chickens. This is probably due to the
fact that turkeys are not so far removed from their wild
ancestors nor have the different varieties been made as
the result of such radical crosses.

Making the Mating

The Wild Turkey. — The Wild Turkey is not a standard
variety, nor is it kept in domestication to any great ex-
tent. However, there are some breeders of the wild
variety and the wild blood is in more or less frequent
demand for the purpose of crossing with the Bronze
variety. The object of crossing is to improve the vigor
and vitality of the domesticated stock and also to improve
the color or sheen of the Bronze variety. Wild turkeys
should have a general plumage brilliance which is as
great or preferably greater than that of the best Bronze
turkeys. The wild variety, in addition to being more bril-
liant than the Bronze, differs from it principally in the
matter of the color of the edging on the tail feathers and
the tail coverts. In the wild variety, this edging varies
all the way from a deep red, cherry, chocolate or coffee

23

TURKEY RAISING

color to a lighter shade which may be yellow or creamy,
while in the Bronze variety, this edging should be a pure
white. The introduction of wild blood in the Bronze
variety can usually be detected by the fact that this edging
is not pure white.

When crossed with the Bronze, the wild turkey is more
prepotent. In fact, it is difficult, if not impossible, to tell
by the color a three- fourths wild bird from a pure wild.
However, the crossing increases the size over the wild.
Half wild gobblers are often used in introducing wild
blood into the domestic turkeys. It was hoped at one time
that crossing with the wild variety would result in greater
immunity from blackhead, but this has not proven to be
the case, and the pure wild variety seems to be about as
subject to blackhead, at least under domestication, as any
of the domesticated varieties.

To most people the meat of the wild turkey is superior
to that of the domesticated on account of its more gamey
flavor. In a general way it may be said that the wild bird
is a tighter, harder feathered bird than the domestic tur-
key, and that it has a more racy appearance of body and
is of a more restless, nervous temperament. These birds
are very quick motioned and can run very rapidly and
also fly very well. The egg of the wild turkey is smaller
and more pointed than that of the domesticated varieties.

There is quite a difference in the shade of coloring of
wild turkeys from different sections of the country. The
wild turkey from the extreme South seems to be some-
what more brilliant in color than the birds farther

24

FIG. 5- Bronze turkey, male. (Photograph from the Bureau
of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture.)

FIG. 6. Bronze turkey, female. (Photograph from the Bureau
of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture.}

VARIETIES, MATING AND SHOWING

North. In mating, therefore, it is necessary to be sure
that the birds from the same general section of the coun-
try are mated together rather than to use in the mating
birds from different sections in which the coloration
varies. Where birds from the same general section are
used, the wild turkey breeds very true in color. However,
birds must be avoided as breeders which tend to run light
or mossy on the wings.

The Bronze Turkey. — As stated under the wild turkey,
wild blood has been introduced to a greater or less extent
into the Bronze variety. This has had the effect of spoil-
ing the plumage color to some extent, especially in causing
the white band at the end of the feathers to be creamy or
yellowish brown instead of silver white. However, the
^occasional introduction of some wild blood has been neces-
sary in order to keep up the rich bronze color especially
on the back. In a general way the Bronze variety may
be said to be of a rich, brilliant, copperish bronze against
a background of black and brown and contrasted by the
clear white tips of the tail coverts and main tail feathers.
The brilliancy of the plumage is usually greatest when the
birds are two or three years old, improving in this respect
over the younger birds. The brilliancy of the plumage is
also greatest at the beginning of the breeding season. As
the breeding season progresses some of the brilliancy is
lost from the male plumage, and this is likewise true of
the hens soon after they begin to lay.

In selecting the breeders for the production of exhibi-
tion stock, breed from birds with good open bronze bar-

25

TURKEY RAISING

ring and with a good white edging of fluff. The fluff is
likely to be the weakest section, but if the bird is good in
fluff it is likely to be good elsewhere. The birds selected
as breeders should be an even bronze color extending over
the whole length of the back to the tail. Sometimes the
back runs too dark or too near on the black, lacking the
bronze. This must be avoided. The bronze bar on the
feathers should be straight and extend across the entire
width of the feathers. It should not show any tendency
to be notched at the center nor should it fail at each side
of the feather so that the bronze shows only in the center.
A width of the bronze bar of a half to i inch depending
on the section is good, but some breeders consider that the
wider this bar the better. The bronze bar should be edged
by a good black bar, and this in turn edged with a good
distinct white end or edging in those sections in which a
white end to the feather is called for. In the wings, the
flight feathers should be distinctly barred across with
alternate bars of black and white which should be equal
in width and which should run as straight as possible
across the feather.

The white bars should be as free as possible from any
black peppering. There should likewise be as distinct
and clear cut a line between the dark and white bars as
can be obtained so that the edging of the bars will not be
irregular and so that the color of the dark bar will not be
brown on the edge where the two colors join. There is
also somewhat of a tendency for the white wing barring
to be too narrow, which will cause too dark an appearance

26

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FIG. 8. Feathers from a Bronze turkey hen. (Photograph
from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of
Agriculture.}

VARIETIES, MATING AND SHOWING

of the wing. A tendency for the barring to run together
in some cases and in other cases to be zigzag in shape, that
is, not straight across the wing must be avoided.

It is desirable to have the barring of one flight feather
match or correspond with the barring of the next flight
feather so that there will be a continuous or uniform
series of bars across the flight feathers as a whole. Some-
times the barring does not carry well across the narrow
lower edge of the flight feathers and these sections tend to
be largely white or brown. This defect is very objection-
able. In some cases the tips of the flight feathers are apt
to lack the white barring entirely. This is a defect which
should be avoided. Sometimes, also, especially in males,
one or more solid black flight feathers will occur. Avoid
breeding from such birds as this is a disqualification and as
they will sometimes produce a nearly black sport. The tail
feathers likewise should show a good bronze bar followed
by a black band and with a good wide silvery white edg-
ing. A good spread of tail is also desired. There is more
or less of a tendency for the bronze bar to be wanting,
faulty, or scanty as the center of the tail is approached.
In other words, the bronze barring may often be better
on the outer tail feathers than on the center tail feathers.

What is desired is bronze barring which runs even and
uniform entirely across the tail. Below the bronze bar-
ring the tail feathers should be barred across with brown
and this brown should be arranged in as regular bars as
possible so that the feathers appear to be penciled. Not
infrequently the brown occurs as a more or less uniform

27

TURKEY RAISING

stippling over these feathers and distinct bars are not
formed. Sometimes also the main tail feathers are nearly
black in color, being almost completely lacking in brown.
Birds with such tail feathers should not be selected as
breeders. Sometimes there occur near the base of the
two center main tail feathers, and more rarely this is true
of the four center feathers, white bars or penciling. These
are a serious defect and birds possessing them should be
avoided as breeders.

In a general way it may be said that the plumage color
of the male is always more brilliant than that of the
female. Otherwise, the plumage color of the female is the
same as that of the male except that she shows a white
edging on practically all of her feathers. The more
closely the brilliance of the female's plumage approaches
that of the male the better. Young Bronze turkeys have
legs which are quite dark in color, being nearly black but
having some red in them. As the birds grow older this
color tends to get brighter and to show more red.

The Narragansett Turkey. — In general it may be said
that the Narragansett has much the same general color
scheme as the Bronze turkey. Because the feathers end in
a band or bar of white or gray this variety has a general
color which is lighter than that of the Bronze. In this
connection, however, it may be said that it is necessary
to guard against birds which are washed out or too light
in color. It is likewise necessary to guard against birds,
especially males, which run too dark in color. Such males
are likely to have solid black backs. In the wing, the pen-

28

FIG. 9. Narragansett turkey, male. (Photograph from the
Bureau of Animal Industry, U. .S. Department of Agriculture.)

VARIETIES, MATING AND SHOWING

ciling or barring of the Narragansett should be just the
same as in the Bronze. The wing bar, however, should be
white where the bar on the Bronze turkey is bronze. This
variety runs very good -with respect to the white edging
of the feathers. While young birds will occasionally
show creaminess in this edging, this almost invariably
comes good and white in the second year.

As in the Bronze variety, it is necessary to guard against
solid black primary feathers which may sometimes occur.
The Narragansett turkey should show metallic in its
black but should have no indication of bronze barring.
Sometimes Bronze birds are produced from a Narragan-
sett mating, but these should never be used for breeding.
When Bronze and Narragansett turkeys are crossed re-
gardless of the direction of the cross, part of the offspring
will be bronze in color and part Narragansett and there
does not seem to be any particular blending of the two
color schemes.

The White Holland Turkey— The White Holland
should be a pure white throughout in both sexes. In this
variety, however, both buff and black sometimes occur
and it is necessary to guard against foreign color of any
kind. Bronze and white splashed feathers sometimes
occur in the fluff and back, and buff or black may occur
on the body and occasionally in the primaries. Probably
the greatest difficulty in plumage color is black flecking.
This consists of very narrow black streaks or flecks rang-
ing from very small in size to a quarter of an inch or even
half an inch long, occurring especially in the feathers of

29

TURKEY RAISING

the thigh, back, tail coverts and breast. This black fleck-
ing corresponds to what is known as ticking in white
fowls. White turkeys sometimes occur as a sport from
the Bronze, and white turkeys also occur occasionally
in a natural state as a sport from the wild turkey. It is
undoubtedly from this sporting that the White Holland
variety has arisen. As turkeys of this variety age there
is a tendency for the pink leg color to fade and this color
also fades in the female with laying.

The Black Turkey. — In this variety a plumage color is
desired in both sexes which is a lustrous greenish black
throughout. In other words, this should show a good
clean black with a prominent green sheen. The tail
coverts often shade to a brownish cast especially in the
female, and this, of course, is undesirable. It is likewise
necessary to guard against any bronze cast over the back.
It is also necessary to guard against barred feathers or an
edging to the feathers either of bronze or white. This
white edging which occasionally occurs is especially likely
to appear in the breast, neck and tail coverts. Not in-
frequently young Black turkeys will show white tips to
the small finishing feathers under the wings until they
moult in as yearlings when this disappears. Young tur-
keys are also quite likely to show white tips to some of
the wing feathers but this disappears as the mature plu-
mage is obtained. There is likewise a tendency in young
birds for white feathers or bronze stripes to appear over
the back, but such birds usually come out as good black
birds when they get their mature plumage. When the

30

FIG. ii White Holland turkey, male. (Photograph from the
Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture.)

FIG. 12. Black turkey, male. (Photograph from the Bureau
of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture.)

VARIETIES, MATING AND SHOWING

poults hatch they are almost half white, the breast being
entirely white. When the first feathers appear they will
also show more or less white, but they should moult into
mature plumage entirely black.

The Slate Turkey. — This variety has also been called
the Blue or Lavender turkey. In this variety the birds
of both sexes should be of a slaty or ashy blue color
throughout. However, there is a decided tendency for
the plumage color to be flecked, ticked or dotted with
black, but the freer the plumage is from this black ticking
the better the birds are for breeding. There is also a
tendency for a buff edging or lacing to occur in all parts
of the body plumage which may cause a rusty appearance,
and this must be guarded against. It is likewise necessary
to guard against solid black feathers in the primaries or
tail, or black in these feathers. Frequent lacing of buff
or red, over the back and tail coverts especially, must like-
wise be selected against. There is also a tendency toward
a general washed-out appearance and birds showing this
are not desirable as breeders. There is very little ten-
dency for the plumage to show any blue lacing.

When two Slate turkeys are bred together the resulting
offspring may show quite a wide variation in color, some
of them coming blue, some black, some very much on the
Bronze and occasional birds which are nearly pure white.
Very occasionally also birds occur in which the plumage
is a bluish red or faded or dirty red over the back and
tail coverts. There are very few breeders of Slate turkeys
at the present time and no one seems to have tried breed-

31

TURKEY RAISING

ing the black and nearly white offspring from Slate mat-
ings together to see if they would produce all blue off-
spring as is the case in the Blue Andalusian chicken.
While there do not seem to be many breeders of Slate tur-
keys, more or less Slates will be found in practically any
flock gathered together for market. It is probable, how-
ever, that some of these Slates occur as the result of the
general crossing and mixing of varieties which is so often
practiced by market turkey growers.

The Bourbon Red Turkey. — In color this variety
should be a good deep red with white flights and secon-
daries and with white main tail feathers. It is rather
difficult, however, to get good depth of red color without
more or less black throughout the plumage. This black
occurs most commonly as an edging or lacing at the end
of the feathers. In the fluff and in the undercolor of
various other sections there may also occur a dim trans-
verse penciling of black or dark. More or less black fleck-
ing or ticking is likely to occur throughout the plumage.
As there is a tendency for the plumage color to run too
light in shade it is necessary to guard against a body
color which is on the buff rather than on the red. There
is quite a likelihood of more or less red occurring in the
sections of the wing and tail which should be white.

More than one-fourth red in any of these sections con-
stitutes a disqualification but it is seldom that birds are
disqualified for red in any of these sections. It is com-
paratively easy to keep the primaries white, a little more
difficult to keep the secondaries white, and still more diffi-

32

FIG. 13. Black turkey, female. (Photograph from the Bureau
of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture.)

FIG. 14. Slate turkey, male. (Photograph from the Bureau of
Animal Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture.}

VARIETIES, MATING AND SHOWING

cult to keep the tail white. If the bird has a good deep
red body color there is a greater likelihood of more or
less red or buff occurring in the white sections of the
wings and tail. Red is more likely to occur in the main
tail feathers at the outer sides of the tail while the center
tail feathers are most likely to be clear white.

i

Preparing Turkeys for the Show

There is not much that needs to be done in preparing
turkeys for exhibition. Since birds of good size and
weight are usually favored and because turkeys often
shrink as much as 2 or 3 pounds during their shipment
to the show it is necessary that they be in a good con-
dition of flesh. This does not mean that they need to
be especially fat, although turkeys are sometimes fat-
tened to quite an extent in order to have their weight
as high as possible when shown. Corn is as good a
material as any to feed in preparing turkeys for the
show so as to get them in good condition of flesh. If the
birds are used to eating any good mash feed this can be
used and will put them in condition quicker than corn.
However, if they are not used to eating mash they will
not take to it readily and will not eat it freely for some
time, with the result that they will not condition as
quickly. The birds should not be penned up in order to
fatten them or get them in good condition of flesh. This
is a mistake, as they will not eat well or do well when
confined for any length of time. In preparing turkeys

33

TURKEY RAISING

for the show it must be remembered that they are very
loose-feathered birds and that it is very easy to pull out
feathers. For this reason they should be handled as little
as possible when getting them in condition.

It is very desirable to coop the birds to some extent
before they are sent to the show. This may be accom-
plished by cooping them for several hours each day in
coops of the same size as will be found in the show for a
week or two before the show. It is best not to put them in
the coops and keep them there continuously for any great
length of time as they are almost sure to go off feed and
go down in condition with such treatment. The coop in
which they are confined for training should have a solid
top or should have some covering laid over its top. If
the top is of wire the birds will constantly jump up in an
effort to get out and will worry and work until they injure
their feathers. Where the top is covered or solid they
will not make this effort and will more quickly become
used to being cooped. About the only other treatment
which the birds require is to see that their legs, feet and
head are in a good clean condition. To accomplish this
it is best to have one person hold the bird while another
washes these parts. In the case of dark-legged birds such
as Bronze turkeys, the leg color can be helped by rubbing
with sweet oil or some similar substance. Vaseline can
be used in place of the oil, but in this case it is particularly
important that it be well rubbed in with a cloth so that it
does not leave the legs sticky and in condition to gather
the dirt. Scaly leg rarely occurs in turkeys, in fact prac-

34

FIG. 15. Bourbon Red turkey, male. (Photograph from the
Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture.}

FIG. 16. Defective feathers from a Bourbon Red turkey show-
ing black edging at the tips and also dark markings or pencilings
across the feathers. (Photograph from the Bureau of Animal
Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture.)

VARIETIES, MATING AND SHOWING

tically never, unless they are hatched and raised with
chicken hens or are allowed to roost with other poultry.

Catching and Handling Turkeys

With wild turkeys or with wild specimens of the
domesticated varieties, perhaps the most satisfactory way
to catch them is to use a net constructed of stout cord
and of suitable diameter, so that it can be cast over the
birds. Stand so that the bird to be caught has to pass
between you and the side of the building or a fence.
As the bird runs by place the net in its path so that it
will run into the net. Let the net give before the advance
of the bird rather than try to pull the net over the bird,
as the latter practice is more likely to injure its feathers.
When the turkey is in the net it cannot struggle to any
extent.

The left hand can then be inserted in the net, worked
along the turkey's back until both wings can be grasped at
their base or the point where they are attached to the
body. The right hand can then be worked under the bird
until it grasps both legs below the hocks. The left arm
can then be thrown over the bird's wings and around its
body in such a way as to support the bird and at the same
time hold down its wings. In this position the bird can be
carried under the left arm, the head facing back under the
arm, the right hand grasping both shanks. In carrying
the bird keep its legs straightened out as this will render it
less likely to struggle. If it does try to struggle tilt its

35

TURKEY RAISING

head down. In grasping the turkey about the base of the
wings it is necessary to be very careful, as a rough grasp
here is likely to strip off the feathers. If the birds are
more or less tame they can often be worked into a corner
of the house or yard and caught with the hands grasping
them by the wings close to the body, then working the
left arm around the body as described before.

It may also be necessary to catch turkeys from the roost
at night or some other time. In doing this approach
them if possible from behind and grasp a leg with each
hand, being sure that the hand is below the hock. If they
are grasped above the hock the feathers at this point are
very apt to be stripped off. As soon as the legs are
grasped swing the turkey clear of the roost so that when
it flaps its wings, they will not be bruised or broken. As
soon as it has stopped flapping its wings, throw the left
arm around the body and over the wings and carry as
described before. Where turkeys are intended for market
they are sometimes rendered incapable of struggling
either by locking the wings over the back or by tying the
legs together. Neither of these practices is advised as it
is somewhat cruel. It is better to place market turkeys
as soon as they are caught in the coops in which they are
to be shipped.

Shipping Show Birds and Breeding Stock

Ship birds which are intended for the show in single
coops. If two birds are shipped in the same coop and

36

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VARIETIES, MATING AND SHOWING

without partitions they will not arrive in as good con-
dition as if shipped single. The bird should have plenty
of room so that it can stand erect and be comfortable
but should not be given room enough so that it can turn
around in the coop. For a good sized gobbler a coop
30 inches high will be necessary. Not over 16 inches
of width should be allowed as this will keep the bird
from turning around. If the coop is 2 feet wide the
bird will be constantly turning and will injure its plum-
age in doing so. The sides of the shipping coop should
be solid. If the sides are slatted the turkey is apt
to be frightened by anything which passes by. The top
of the coop should be slatted in order to provide good
ventilation, but additional ventilation in the sides near the
top is desirable in order to allow for the possibility of
something being piled on top of the coop, thus shutting
off the ventilation from that source. Coops for smaller
gobblers or for hen turkeys can be built proportionately
smaller according to the size of the bird.

In shipping breeding stock a distance of not over 200
miles, a coop 2 feet high and 12 to 14 inches wide will be
large enough for a mature gobbler. If they are to be
shipped further than this as much room should be allowed
as would be given where the birds are shipped to the
show. For short shipments no feed or water should be
provided. If the birds are to be over two days on the
road, however, a dish for water must be fastened to the
inside of the coop and a supply of feed shipped with the
coop so that the express agent can feed the birds.

37

TURKEY RAISING

Packing and Shipping Hatching Eggs

Eggs for hatching may be shipped long distances suc-
cessfully. In many cases, however, the shipment seems to
affect the hatch, probably due to the continual jarring. It
is advisable to -set the eggs aside and allow them to rest
for about 12 hours after their receipt and before they are
placed under a hen or in the incubator in order to allow the
germ to regain its normal position.

Shipment may be made either by express or by parcel
post. In order to prevent breakage as much as possible
and also to lessen the effects of the jars to which the eggs
are subjected they must be carefully packed. A common
and one of the best methods of packing is to use an ordi-
nary market basket. Line the basket well on the bottom
and sides with excelsior. Next wrap each egg in paper
and then wrap in excelsior or place a good thickness of
excelsior between the eggs when they are packed so that
they cannot come in contact with one another. Pack the
eggs in the basket, standing them on the small end and
being sure that they are tightly packed so that they cannot
move or shift around. Place a thick covering of excelsior
on top of the eggs, using enough so that it comes above
the sides of the basket, and sew a piece of strong cotton
cloth over the top. Instead of sewing, the cloth can be
pushed up under the outside rim of the basket with a case
knife, this being quicker and equally as effective as sew-
ing. Where a larger number of eggs is to be shipped,

38

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11

VARIETIES, MATING AND SHOWING

bushel baskets may be used, the method of packing and
covering being the same as when a market basket is used.

Judging Turkeys

The turkeys should be cooped separately in the show.
If two turkeys are cooped together it is almost im-
possible to get them to stand naturally and to show
off to as good advantage as they will if cooped by them-
selves. The coops should be large enough to allow
the turkey to stand erect and to move about easily.
Smaller coops render it impossible to judge properly as
to the bird's type or shape. In judging the birds for type,
the whole class should be gone over thoroughly before any
of the birds are taken out. Once they have been caught,
taken out of the coop and handled, it is very difficult if not
impossible to get them to stand naturally again when they
are put back as they are frightened by the treatment which
they have received. In catching the cooped birds, if the
door of the coop is large enough to allow a man to insert
his body, the best way to catch them is to throw the left
arm over the body so as to hold the wings down and pre-
vent the bird from struggling while the right hand is used
to grasp both legs below the hock. In this position the
bird can be readily drawn out of the coop without injury
to its plumage.

If the door of the coop is smaller it may be necessary to
grasp the bird by the wings close to their point of attach-
ment to the body, drawing it out of the door in this man-

39

TURKEY RAISING

ner, or in some cases where the birds are especially hard
to handle it may be necessary to grasp them by the shanks
and pull them out in this way. This last practice should
not be employed if it is possible to avoid it since the bird
is sure to struggle, flap its wings and more or less injury
is done to the plumage and to the wings in dragging the
bird through the door.

If the judge understands thoroughly how to catch and
handle birds it will be better for him to insist on doing all
of this work himself rather than to let some assistant do it
who does not know how so well and who might do the
birds damage. After the birds are taken out of the coop
they should be carried to a good light where the different
sections can be examined for perfection of color and
markings. It is well for the judge to have an assistant or
two so that he can have them hold one bird while he holds
another for the purpose of comparison. Not infre-
quently broken flights will be found in turkeys. Other
things being equal these broken flights count against a
bird considerably but they are not such a serious defect
as to prevent a superior bird from winning over an in-
ferior one. A missing flight feather or a missing main
tail feather is a much more serious defect than is a broken
flight.

CHAPTER III

Management of the Breeding Stock

Making a Start. — What is the best way to make a start
in turkey raising, by the purchase of breeding stock or of
eggs for hatching? As a rule, it will be found best to
purchase breeding stock. Such a purchase will involve a
greater outlay of capital but will allow one to begin opera-
tions in earnest as soon as the laying season begins. The
purchase of breeding stock will also make it possible to
gain a better idea of the quality of the stock and -what may
be expected of the young stock raised. If one does not
wish to put as much money into the turkeys at the start,
they can purchase eggs for hatching and hatch and rear
them under an ordinary chicken hen. Where this is done,
however, it will be a year before one can begin breeding
turkeys. For the person who has had little or no experi-
ence in turkey raising, one torn and from three to five hens
will be enough to begin with and many persons will prefer
to start with a trio, that is a torn and two hens. With
good success from 7 to 10 turkeys should be raised from
each hen. In buying breeding stock for a start it is better
to purchase a torn which is unrelated to the hens.

41

TURKEY RAISING

Selection of Breeding Stock

The main considerations in selecting stock for breed-
ing purposes are vigor, size, shape of body, strength
of bone, early maturity and in the case of stock for
exhibition, color of plumage. It is always desirable
for the farmer or other turkey raiser to select pure
bred stock rather than to keep ordinary or mongrel tur-
keys. Not only will the pure bred stock possess greater
uniformity and therefore better market quality, but be-
cause they have been systematically bred for the purpose
of producing suitable carcasses, they will be found to
possess better fattening qualities as well. It is also true
that the pure bred flocks when given good care so that
they have a chance to reach their full size will develop
into much larger birds than will the average flock of
mongrels. Another consideration which should carry
weight with the turkey raiser is the fact that there is
always a brisk demand for breeding stock from pure bred
flocks both in the way of turkey hens for breeding, good
vigorous toms for the same purpose, and eggs for hatch-
ing. Such a sale adds very materially to the income which
the turkey raiser can secure from his flock of turkeys.

If the farmer or turkey raiser already has a flock of
hens which may be crossbred or mongrel and if he does
not feel that he can go to the expense of replacing these
hens with pure bred individuals, he can secure a rapid im-
provement in his flock, in fact can grade them up to the
point where for all practical purposes they are pure bred,

42

MANAGEMENT OF THE BREEDING STOCK

by the use in successive generations of a pure bred male,
being careful to use each year a male of the same variety.
In too many cases turkey raisers, in securing new
blood, buy a turkey torn for breeding purposes wherever
they can secure him and quite regardless of his variety or
even whether he is pure bred. The result of this practice
can only lead to a crossing and mixing up of the blood to
such an extent that in a short time the flock becomes one
of mongrels. Most turkey raisers recognize the fact that
it is really poor policy to mongrelize their flock in this
way, but the turkey flock is a small side-line on most
farms and many owners do not take the trouble or pains
to keep their flocks pure.

Should Turkeys be Inbred?

In a general way it may be said that it is unwise to
inbreed turkeys, particularly to continue to inbreed them
over any period of time. It is possible to use the same
male for two successive years without inbreeding to a
dangerous extent, but it is most desirable to secure from
time to time absolutely unrelated .blood if possible.
Where the breeding stock is yarded and more than two
matings are made it is possible to use a torn for two
years or more without inbreeding by mating him with
the same hens with which he was originally mated ex-
cluding his daughters from the pen. In the majority
of cases continued inbreeding will lead to a loss of vigor
and to a consequent deterioration in the flock. Instances

43

TURKEY RAISING

are by no means rare, however, where inbreeding has
been carried on with success over quite a period of time.
It is probable that the same condition holds true here as
with chickens or with other classes of live stock, namely,
that while most strains or families seem to show evil re-
sults from continued inbreeding, occasional strains will
be found which seem to be able to stand up well under
inbreeding and do not show any apparent deterioration.

Where the turkey grower has stock of exceptional
quality and is interested in maintaining this quality he
will hesitate to purchase a torn of unrelated blood for fear
that the two bloods will not nick well and the quality may
be destroyed. In this case it is usual to line breed, or in
other words, to use breeders of the same family or strain
but not closely related. The turkey grower who is line
breeding usually purchases new breeding toms from the
same source where he secured his foundation stock. Noth-
ing is to be gained by crossing. The increased vigor
which may result from such a practice can be obtained just
as well by using a male or unrelated blood of the same
variety.

Age of Breeding Stock

In selecting the breeders, attention must be given to the
age of the stock. While early hatched, well matured
pullets can safely be bred, it is true that yearling hens
produce eggs which are on the average larger and more
uniform in size and it seems to be the general opinion

44

MANAGEMENT OF THE BREEDING STOCK

that the poults hatched from such eggs are somewhat
superior to those hatched from eggs laid by pullets.
Early hatched pullets will as a rule start laying earlier
in the spring and will lay more eggs than yearling or
older hens. Late hatched pullets should never be saved
for breeders. Not only do they fail to attain as good size
as the earlier hatched birds but the stock produced from
them is not as satisfactory. As in the case of early hatched
pullets, so early hatched well matured cockerels or young
toms can be used for breeding if they show that they are
good vigorous individuals.

Late hatched toms, that is July or August hatched,
while they should not be used for breeding the first year
will often make good breeders the second year and can be
retained if desired for that purpose. These late hatched
toms seldom if ever attain as good a size as early hatched
males. While some breeders claim that they get no bad
results from breeding together well matured cockerels
and well matured pullets, most breeders prefer to mate
pullets with yearling or two-year-old toms and to mate
cockerels with yearling or older hens. In no case should
slow growing birds of either sex be saved for breeders.
A plan which is often followed by turkey breeders and
which works out to good advantage is to use about half
yearling hens and half early hatched pullets. Old hens
are not apt to be as satisfactory breeders as well matured
pullets or yearling hens. As a rule these older birds
are inclined to be too fat and for this reason to lay
fewer eggs, eggs which are less fertile and a consider-

45

TURKEY RAISING

able number of soft-shelled eggs. The large hens when
used for sitting purposes are also likely to break more
eggs. While it is a general practice and good practice
not to retain many hens beyond their second year for
breeders, if the turkey grower possesses an especially
valuable hen from a breeding point of view or one which
makes an exceptionally good mother, she should be re-
tained as a breeder just so long as she is in good breeding
condition.

Older turkeys, both males and females, tend to be less
fertile than younger birds, probably due to the fact that
they are fatter and heavier and less active. Hens are not
ordinarily profitable after they are four years old. Year-
ling toms are as a rule more clumsy than cockerels, owing
to their greater weight and this of course is still more
true of two-year-old or older toms. For this reason they
are not quite as satisfactory breeders as well matured
cockerels. It is usually possible to distinguish between
young turkeys and those which are yearlings or older by
means of the wing feathering. In all varieties the two
outer primary feathers are carried as chick feathers
until the birds moult as yearlings. These chick feathers
are pointed at the end and are easily distinguished from
the mature feathers which are rounded.

The second way to tell the age is by the wing bar which
does not mature until the second year. In the mature
female the wing bar is about as wide as three fingers and
the feathers which form it grow out to an even length,
causing its lower edge to be regular in outline. In the

MANAGEMENT OF THE BREEDING STOCK

pullet the wing bar is not more than two fingers wide and
the feathers do not grow out to an even length so as to
form a regular outline to its lower edge. In the mature
gobblers the wing bar shows a width of about four
fingers and has an even outline while in the young gobbler
the wing bar is not over three fingers wide and has an
uneven outline. See Figs. 7, 10 and 17.

Prevent Injury to Hens in Breeding

Where yearling or older toms are used they are very
likely to injure the hens in mating because of their weight
and their sharp spurs and toe nails. When they are used,
therefore, it is necessary to cut off the spurs and clip or file
down the toe nails short and blunt. Some breeders protect
their hens from injury during the breeding season by fas-
tening a cloth covering or sort of apron over their backs.
Injury to the hens during the breeding is more likely to oc-
cur where the hens are very fat as the skin of their backs
rips more easily in this condition or when the torn is very
much heavier than the hens. Care should be used to see
that there is a definite relation between the size of the hens
and the torn used. For instance, if it becomes necessary
or desirable to use a torn weighing 35 to 45 pounds, no
hen should be mated with him which weighs less than 25
pounds. The use of light weight small females with heavy
toms is very likely to result in breaking them down. With
the wild turkeys it is best to use toms which do not run
more than 2 or 3 pounds heavier than the hens used. One

47

TURKEY RAISING

8 or 10 pounds heavier is sure to injure the hens in some
cases so severely that they will die. When the skin of a
hen's back is severely torn it may sometimes be desirable
to sew up the tears, rubbing carbolated vaseline on the
wound after the sewing is completed.

Selecting and Purchasing Breeders

The best time to select the breeders is during the fall,
before the turkeys are sent to the Thanksgiving and
Christmas markets. At this time the turkey grower can
pick out from his young stock the best grown, most vig-
orous females to save as breeders. There is entirely too
great a tendency for turkey raisers to be tempted by the
holiday prices to send their best grown, largest birds to
market, with the result that after the Christmas mar-
keting, they have left only the slow growing, small,
scrubby females to retain as breeders. Such a practice
must of course result in a deterioration in the stock. In
case turkey hens or breeding males are to be purchased,
the fall is the best time to do this as there will be a larger
number of birds to select from at that time. It is also
well to have the breeders selected early and placed under
the conditions where they will be bred so that they will
become thoroughly used to their environment before
the breeding season commences.

When breeding birds are purchased they should be iso-
lated, when received, for a few days, in order to make sure
that they are thoroughly healthy before they are allowed

MANAGEMENT OF THE BREEDING STOCK

to run with the flock. At this time it is also well to ex-
amine the purchased turkeys carefully to see that they are
free from lice, and if any indication of lice is found they
should be thoroughly treated as described on page 125.
In buying turkeys for new blood it is better to purchase a
gobbler rather than to buy hens. The purchase of a male
makes it possible to inject the new blood more widely in
the flock by means of a single individual. Moreover,
there will not be much difficulty experienced from a
strange gobbler straying away as he will stay with the
hens. If strange hens are purchased they are much more
likely to wander away than are the turkey raiser's own
hens. Very frequently turkeys are bought at a certain
guaranteed weight. In this connection it must be remem-
bered either in buying or selling that the shipment is hard
on turkeys and they will often lose as much as 2 or 3
pounds while en route. A common practice in selling tur-
keys for breeding purposes is to send sample feathers
from the bird so that the prospective purchaser can form
a good estimate as to the general excellence of the bird in
question.

Number of Hens to a Male.

In the wild variety it is not desirable to mate more
than eight hens with one male. In the domesticated
varieties a good vigorous young torn can be safely mated
to as high as 15 hens. If a flock of 25 or 30 hens
is to be kept, two toms should be used. The best prac-
tice is to allow one torn to run with the hens one day

49

TURKEY RAISING

and the other the following day. If the two toms are
allowed to run with the flock at the same time they will
fight frequently and seriously and may injure each other
so that they will not be in the most vigorous breeding
condition or may even be killed. In addition to that,
the stronger torn intimidates the weaker to such an extent
that the stronger does practically all of the mating. The
presence of the weaker torn then serves only as a detri-
ment to the mating for he is not allowed to mate with any
of the hens and he attempts to interfere with the stronger
torn when mating.

A torn which struts about and spreads his tail fre-
quently is usually in good health while one which mopes
around with his tail down is not. A glossy clean condition
of the plumage is also an indication of good health.
Where a flock of 40 or 50 hens is kept, three toms can be
used, alternating them each day or perhaps what is better
practice, each half day. Whatever may be the number of
gobblers necessary in order to insure fertility from the"
flock of hens kept, it is well to select and hold over an
extra gobbler. This will insure against loss of time in
case anything happens to one of the breeding males as it
may be difficult to secure the kind of male desired on
short notice during the breeding season.

Breeding Yards

As turkeys are usually kept with only a few hens in
a flock, it is common practice to allow the breeders free

50

MANAGEMENT OF THE BREEDING STOCK

range. This is a very desirable practice if the danger
of loss of the eggs is not too great and if the number of
hens involved is not so many as to make the work of
looking after them in the nests which they steal too
burdensome. Where a larger number of hens is kept
it is best to provide a roomy enclosed pen or breeding
yard, and many raisers prefer to do this even with a
smaller number of hens on account of the time saved in
looking after the turkeys, the ease of locating the nests
and the fact that all eggs laid are thus secured.

Sometimes the breeding pens are comparatively small
in area, but it is best to allow an acre or two of ground
for this purpose even if no more than 20 or 30 hens are
kept. When a small breeding pen or yard is utilized the
practice should be to keep them shut up during the morn-
ing and about half of the afternoon. By that time prac-
tically all of the eggs will have been laid and the turkeys
can then be turned out of the pen and allowed to roam at
will during the rest of the day and to roost out where
they wish at night. Even when large breeding yards are
used this is good practice. Early in the morning they
should be driven back into the pen, which will be found to
be easy of accomplishment if the birds are fed in the en-
closure regularly each morning. An orchard makes a
very desirable breeding enclosure for the turkey hens.
Such a place enclosed with a hog-tight wire fence 3 feet
high will usually serve to hold the turkeys especially if no
board or rail is used at the top of the fence. Where such
a rail or a wooden fence is used the turkeys see a place to

51

TURKEY RAISING

alight and this leads them to fly upon the fence and then
over. With the wire fence they see no such handy alight-
ing place and will not as a rule attempt to fly over. For
the same reason steel posts in the fence offer less of an
alighting place than wooden posts, and if the latter are
used, the tops should be sharpened to a point.

If any difficulty is experienced in the hens flying out of
the enclosure provided for them, this can usually be
checked by clipping the flight feathers of one wing. It is
not as a rule necessary to clip the wing of a torn except in
the case of wild birds for he will not leave the hens. It
must be remembered that clipping the wings of hens ren-
ders them somewhat helpless against the attacks of dogs
or foxes and will also make it necessary to provide easy
means for them to get up on the roosts high enough to be
out of reach of foxes or coyotes. Clipping the wings of
hens also injures their usefulness to some extent for
brooding as they cannot hover as many poults to as good
advantage. Occasionally, also, clipping the flight feathers
may render a bird unfit for showing since the wing may
not grow out in time for the show. Turkeys can be pre-
vented from flying by tying a piece of light board across
the back over the wings. Such boards are called paddles,
or shingles. The paddle should be about 4 inches wide
and may be from 8 to 15 inches long. Two holes bored
over the base of each wing allow a strip of soft cloth or a
soft string to be passed through there and around the wing
at the base, thus securing the paddle in place. This must
not be tied so tightly as to cut off the circulation. When

52

FIG. 21. Showing how the shingle or paddle is attached to a
turkey to prevent it from flying. (Photograph from the Bureau of
Animal Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture.}

MANAGEMENT OF THE BREEDING STOCK

the paddle is thus tied in place across the shoulders the
bird is prevented from raising and spreading its wings
and cannot fly.

Where hens have stolen a nest and started to lay be-
fore they have been shut up in the enclosure they will
make every effort for a few days to get out in order to
continue laying in the nest which they have selected for
themselves. In this case the eggs should be removed from
the nest which they have stolen and their wings should
be clipped or they should be paddled so as to prevent
their flying over the fence. As a rule they will begin lay-
ing in a few days in one of the nests provided in the en-
closure.

Where wild turkeys are kept it is necessary to clip the
flight feathers of one wing in order to keep the birds
from flying over the fence. Even with one wing clipped,
a higher fence is necessary than is the case with the do-
mesticated varieties and it is best to use a fence 8 or
preferably 10 feet high. It is better to clip one wing only
rather than to clip both wings, as this tends to unbalance
the bird more when it tries to fly or climb. With both
wings clipped the birds are able to climb over quite a high
fence. In this connection, it should be stated that the
wing of the wild turkey torn should never be clipped until
after the breeding season is over. To do so makes it
difficult for the birds to balance when treading the hens
and therefore interferes with the breeding. On this ac-
count it may be necessary until after the breeding season
is over, to keep the wild turkeys in a run covered ovef

53

TURKEY RAISING

the top with wire netting to prevent the torn from escap-
ing. It is unnecessary to clip the wing of domesticated
gobblers for they will stay with the hens.

Feeding the Breeding Stock

To be in good breeding condition the birds should come
through the winter in good condition of flesh but not
fat. If they are fed too much corn throughout the winter
there is quite a likelihood of their being too fat when
the breeding season opens. Where the birds have free
range they are able to get for themselves a varied sup-
ply of feed including grass, tender shoots, young leaves,
insects and nuts and seeds of various kinds. This is
particularly true during the breeding season in the South,
and where an abundance of this kind of natural food is
available one good feed daily of grain such as oats or
wheat will suffice to keep the birds in good breeding
condition.

In the North where the winters are more severe turkey
raisers generally feed the birds twice a day. A good
feed for this purpose is one consisting of equal parts of
oats, wheat and corn together with some vegetables such
as beets, cabbages, turnips, potatoes, clover or alfalfa for
a green feed. Another good feed for breeding turkeys
consists of 3 or 4 parts of oats to i part of corn. Some
turkey raisers also like to leave bran where the turkeys
can help themselves at any time. Buckwheat is relished
by turkeys when they are used to it, but should not be
used exclusively as a grain feed. Some animal feed dur-

54

MANAGEMENT OF THE BREEDING STOCK

ing the winter is also necessary if the birds are to be kept
in the best condition, as this takes the place of the insects
which they are able to secure at other seasons. Ordinary
commercial beef scrap such as is fed to hens, or beef livers
or lungs or skim milk, either sweet or sour, is suitable for
this purpose.

Often a good laying mash such as is used for laying
hens can be fed to the breeding flock just previous to the
breeding season in order to start them laying. Unless
turkeys are used to eating a mash, however, it may be
some little time before they will eat it readily. Where
the breeding stock is confined to a breeding pen it is well
to sow some green crop such as grass, oats, rye, wheat,
barley, clover or alfalfa. It is not desirable to feed the
breeding stock on corn alone for a grain. Wheat and
oats are the best grains for the purpose. The laying hens
should also have access during the breeding season to
grit and charcoal and also to oyster shells for the pur-
pose of furnishing shell-forming material.

It is especially necessary to supply grit when the soil
does not contain much gravel. Charcoal is an excellent
aid in keeping the birds in good condition as it is a good
corrective for digestive troubles. Unless the birds have
access to a stream of water, it is necessary to provide fresh
water daily in a pan, pail or other receptacle which can be
kept clean. Stagnant water is bad for turkeys, and they
prefer to drink from a stream. Such a stream is there-
fore a valuable asset on a farm where turkeys are
raised.

55

TURKEY RAISING

Winter Shelter for the Breeders

Many turkey raisers provide no shelter whatever for
their breeding stock even during the winter, allowing
the birds to roost in trees or upon roosts especially pre-
pared for them. This is particularly true in the more
southern localities. In the North where the winters are
severe some form of shelter should be available as a
protection to the birds. This may not be used during
most of the winter but should be available so that the
birds can be driven into it during severe stormy weather
especially during sleet or ice storms.

Turkeys can stand a greater degree of cold than hens,
but like them they are more susceptible to a damp cold
than to a dry cold. During severe sleet storms the tur-
keys roosting in the open sometimes have such a coat of
ice frozen on them and become so stiffened that they may
be blown from their roosts and injured in their fall to the
ground. Any shed or barn can be utilized as a shelter for
turkeys during storms. Where turkey houses or sheds
are provided they usually take the form of a shed with
most or all of the south front open. Such sheds may be
used to shelter the breeding stock during all of the winter
season, but as soon as the weather moderates in the spring
the birds should be turned out of the house and made to
roost outside. This they will readily do and will keep in
better health as a result.

Where turkey houses are used it is necessary to keep
the interior of the house very clean, removing the drop-

56

MANAGEMENT OF THE BREEDING STOCK

pings regularly, and to provide plenty of litter if the
health of the stock is to be maintained. Where only a
few turkeys are kept they are sometimes allowed to roost
in the chicken house with the chickens. It is best, how-
ever, not to allow turkeys to roost with fowls as they will '!
do better when they are kept separate.

A satisfactory turkey house, built especially for that
purpose, is one 30 feet long and 16 feet deep. The front
wall is 9 feet high and the rear wall 6 feet, the roof being
of the single slope or shed roof type. The foundation is
concrete and the floor is board. The walls are a single
thickness and may be either of matched boards, of barn
boards with the cracks battened or of barn boards covered
with paper. The house is tight on all sides except the
front, where there is an opening 3 feet wide extending
clear across the house. This opening is placed 4 feet
from the floor and 2 feet from the roof. It is,
of course, covered with wire netting. A wide door is
provided in the middle of the front. A dropping board
runs along the rear of the house 3 feet from the floor and
roosts are j laced above this. The floor is covered with
a thick layer of straw which is changed weekly. During
the cold or stormy weather the turkeys are driven into
this house each night and if the weather is particularly
bad they can be kept there for a day or two, feeding them
inside. Ordinarily, the turkeys are fed outside the house.
A house of this size will accommodate 60 turkeys very
nicely and more can be kept in it for limited periods.

TURKEY RAISING

Breeding and Laying Season

The breeding season for turkeys usually begins in the
South in the early part of February and in the North
nearly a month later. Laying usually begins in a week
or ten days after the turkey hen has mated for the first
time. A single mating suffices to fertilize all of the eggs
in a litter but usually the hen mates several times before
she begins to lay. The greater proportion of the .mat-
ings occurs either early in the day, soon after the birds
have come down from the roosts, or later in the day, not
long before they go to roost again.

The number of eggs which a turkey hen lays will de-
pend upon several things : First of all upon her age; sec-
ondly, upon whether it is a first, second, or third litter,
and, thirdly, upon the individuality of the hen herself. The
hens do not all begin laying, of course, at the same time
and variation in this respect may be as great as six weeks
or two months from the time the first hen begins to lay
until the last starts. Pullets, as a rule, begin laying
slightly earlier than do yearling or older hens. The aver-
age number of eggs in the first litter is about 18 but in-
dividual hens may lay anywhere from 12 to 30 eggs.
The number of eggs laid in the second litter is smaller,
being about 12, while in the third litter the average num-
ber will not be much over 10.

The following table gives the individual records of lay-
ing of a number of females which were kept under close
observation. Attention is called to the fact that the num-

58

MANAGEMENT OF THE BREEDING STOCK

her of yearling hens, which is two, is too small to attach
any great significance to their average. The same may
be said of the three November-hatched pullets. It is a
matter of interest that these November-hatched pullets
began laying May i, 2 and 5.

Spring Hatched Pullets
ist litter 2nd litter 3rd litter Total

17
32

ii 35

9 39

— 25

19
i?
30
i?
33
25
29

35
10

November-Hatched Pullets

ist litter 2nd litter 3rd litter Total

No. 18 . 17 17

" 19 12 12

"20 17 17

Average 15 1/3 — — —

59

No. I

17

—

" 2

18

H

" 3

14

10

" 4

20

10

" 5

25

—

" 7

19

—

" 8

17

—

" 9

18

12

" 10

17

" 12

22

II

" 14

16

9

° 15

16

13

" 16

18

17

Average

183/13

12

TURKEY RAISING

Yearling Hens

ist litter 2nd litter 3rd litter Total
No. 6 ....... 31 15 46

"ii ....... 21 14 35

Average ...... 26

Some turkey hens, especially if they are broken up and
not required to sit, can be made to lay as many as four or
five litters, but this is not a practice to be recommended
for the reason that poults hatched after the first of July
do not have time to develop into suitable turkeys for the
market at Thanksgiving or Christmas and will not be
well enough grown to make suitable breeders the following
spring. Occasional hens lay throughout the summer with-
out becoming broody and may lay 100 or more eggs.
Most of the eggs are laid in the morning, although occa-
sional eggs will be laid in the afternoon.

When the laying first begins it progresses at the rate
of an egg every other day until two or three eggs have
been laid when the rate usually quickens to an egg each
day, although days may be skipped now and then through
the laying, particularly on the day before laying the last
egg of the litter. When the hen first begins laying she
usually leaves the nest within an hour or two after the
egg has been laid. As the laying progresses, however,
she stays longer and longer on the nest after laying until
she is really sitting by the time the last egg is laid. This
is well illustrated by the following table which shows the
time at which the eggs of a clutch were laid by a turkey

60

MANAGEMENT OF THE BREEDING STOCK

hen, and the length of time she remained on the nest after
she had laid.

A hen that begins laying in the middle of March gen-
erally finishes her first litter early in April, and when
broken up will finish her second litter late in April and
her third late in May, although, of course, this depends to
a large extent on the number of eggs she lays in each
litter and upon the promptness with which she is broken
up after she becomes broody. Oftentimes when hens are
allowed to sit and hatch out and raise their brood of
poults after they have laid their first litter of eggs they will
begin to lay again in the fall and will hatch poults at that
time if allowed to do so. This is not desirable, however,
for poults hatched at this time are not very valuable and
require entirely too much time and care to raise them
during the cold weather.

Fall hatched pullets will often begin laying the follow-
ing spring but on account of the smaller size and un-
evenness of their eggs, they do not make desirable breed-
ers. It is not a difficult matter to break a turkey hen of
broodiness. If she is confined to a slat bottom coop, she
can usually be cured of her broodiness in two to four
days. After being broken up and let out she will mate
again in a short time and often begin laying in about a
week.

Locating Stolen Nests

Where the breeders are given free range the turkey
hens generally steal off and select the nesting place where

61

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MANAGEMENT OF THE BREEDING STOCK

they will lay their eggs and hatch the poults. If a
good enclosed breeding yard is available where there is
little or no danger of loss of the eggs as the result of
predatory animals of any kind, it is not a bad practice
to allow the hens to steal their nests. This is particu-
larly true of wild turkey hens which are inclined to be
badly disturbed by having their nests moved or by be-
ing bothered too much while they are sitting. Usually
there is considerable danger of loss of the eggs either
due to their becoming chilled early in the season or else to
their being destroyed by some marauding animal such as
skunks, opossums, rats, crows, dogs, minks, coyotes,
wolves, foxes, cats and snakes. Some of these marauders
may also destroy the sitting hen herself.

It becomes desirable in most cases, therefore, to locate
stolen nests for the purpose of removing the eggs as
they are laid, although it is always necessary to leave a
nest egg or two so that the hen will come back to the nest
to do her laying. Stolen nests can be located by follow-
ing the hen when she separates from the flock for the
purpose of going to her nest to lay, but this is rather a
tedious process as she often proceeds to the nest in a very
leisurely and round about manner, feeding as she goes.
It is also necessary to make sure that the turkey hen is
not aware of the fact that she is being watched, as in that
case it is very difficult to get her to betray the location of
her nest. Sometimes a bell is hung about the necks of
turkey hens and this serves as a help in locating stolen

63

TURKEY RAISING

nests as well as helping to locate the hen with her brood
later in the season.

The best way to locate stolen nests is to confine the hens
in question in the morning after they come down from
the roosts and to keep them there until late in the after-
noon. This necessitates their holding back the egg which
they would probably have laid in the morning, and as
soon as they are let out in the afternoon they will go
straight to their nests in order to deposit the egg which
they have been holding.

Turkeys love to locate their nests in a secluded place
such as thick undergrowth or piles of brush. They also
show evidences of their wild ancestry very plainly in the
way in which they cover up their eggs with leaves when
they leave the nest. Usually the nests are so cleverly con-
cealed in this manner that a person can walk right by
without being aware that a nest exists. If attractive nest-
ing places are provided about the house or barn, turkey
hens will sometimes lay in them. This is more likely to
be the case in the North where there may be snow on the
ground when the laying first begins, as during the time the
snow stays on the ground, the turkey hens are less in-
clined to roam very far.

Suitable nests can easily be made from boxes or barrels
or by scooping out a little earth from the ground so as to
form a nest. A barrel laid on its side with a nest of hay
or straw formed in it is one of the favorite nesting places
of turkey hens. If barrels or boxes with nesting material
in them are placed in secluded but not too far distant

64

MANAGEMENT OF THE BREEDING STOCK

places the hens will often select them as a nesting place
when stealing their nests. This proves to be a great con-
venience as it will save considerable time in hunting for
stolen nests. Not infrequently two or three hens may
lay in the same nest. In this case, of course, it will be
necessary to gather the eggs as they are laid, leaving only
a nest egg or two, as too many eggs will be laid in the
nest for one hen to cover properly when hatching.

Care of Eggs for Hatching

Not infrequently the poor results which are obtained
in hatching turkey eggs may be due to carelessness in
gathering or caring for the eggs. No matter how the
eggs are to be hatched, whether under a turkey hen,
chicken hen or an incubator, it is usually best to gather
the eggs as they are laid, leaving only a nest egg or two
except in those cases where the hen has stolen her nest
in a safe location and where it is desired to let her hatch
out her brood. Gathering the eggs in this way will pre-
vent loss from crows or predatory animals and will also
prevent the chilling of eggs during the cold weather early
in the season.

If the weather is especially cold the eggs should be
gathered as promptly after laying as possible in order to
prevent chilling or freezing. As the eggs are gathered
they should be dated so that they will not be held too
long before they are set. Never hold turkey eggs over
two weeks before placing them either under a turkey hen,

65

TURKEY RAISING

a chicken hen, or in the incubator. Eggs for hatching
should be held at a temperature somewhere around 50 or
60 degrees. They should also be turned daily in order
that the yolks may not stick to the shell. In handling the
eggs be as careful with them as possible so as not to jar
them or crack the shell.

66

CHAPTER IV

Incubation of Turkey Eggs

Period of Incubation. — It requires on the average
about 28 days for turkey eggs to hatch. As with any
other class of poultry, however, this varies somewhat.
The first egg generally pips early on the 27th day and the
first poult may be hatched on that day. The hatch should
be well completed at the end of the 28th day. In some
cases, however, the hatches may be completed slightly
before this and in some cases the hatch may not be com-
plete before the end of 30 days. It is common practice
to test turkey eggs twice during incubation as in the case
of hens' eggs for the purpose of detecting and removing
infertile eggs and dead germs. This testing should be
done on the loth and 2Oth days.

Testing may be done in a dark room, proceeding ex-
actly as with hens' eggs and using a tester similar to that
which comes with an incubator. Testing may also be
done by means of a tube similar to an ordinary paste-
board mailing tube which is cut out at one end so that the
egg will fit closely against it. This tube is held up to the
eye toward the sun and the egg placed at the other end of
the tube. In this position the sunlight shines through and
the condition of the egg is easily seen. Such a tube tester

TURKEY RAISING

is more convenient for use when the eggs are set under
turkey hens and are scattered about the farm in various
places, as it enables one to do the testing at the nest.

Fertile eggs can be recognized the same as with hens'
eggs by the fact that the germ appears as a movable spot
from which blood vessels radiate out. If the germ is
dead it will usually be attached to the shell and the blood
will have settled away and formed a ring a quarter or half
an inch away from the germ. Infertile eggs will show
perfectly clear except for the shadowy outline of the
yolk. Any infertile eggs tested out should be saved and
used in feeding the young poults when they hatch.

Methods of Hatching

Turkey hens are reliable sitters, and if they are
properly managed, will undoubtedly give the best results
in hatching the eggs. This may be due to the fact that
turkey hens sit more closely on the eggs than do most
chicken hens, as this treatment seems to be favorable
for a good hatch of turkey eggs. In addition to using
turkey hens for the purpose of incubating the eggs it
sometimes becomes desirable to make use of chicken
hens or, more rarely, incubators. This is often done
to save time when a number of turkey eggs have accumu-
lated before any of the turkey hens have finished laying
their litter and are ready to sit.

It is also frequently done when it is desired to break
the turkey hens up when they become broody in order to

68

INCUBATION OF TURKEY EGGS

cause them to lay a second and third litter so that more
eggs for hatching will be available and more poults can
be raised. Some turkey growers hatch the turkey eggs in
incubators entirely, even though they use the turkey hens
to brood the poults. The idea in this case is to save the
condition of the hens by not confining them and subject-
ing them to the long period of inactivity while they are
hatching. Since it is by all means desirable to give the
poults to turkey hens to raise, it is good practice to set a
sufficient number of turkey hens about a week before the
eggs, which may be under chicken hens or in an incu-
bator, are due to hatch. These hens may be given a few
of the eggs from the incubator or the chicken hens or
they may be set on a nest egg or two. If they are allowed
to hatch a few of the eggs themselves it is an easy matter
to slip more newly hatched poults under them from the
chicken hens or from the incubator. If the turkey hens
are not allowed to hatch any of the eggs themselves but
are set on nest eggs a newly hatched poult or two can be
slipped under each turkey hen at night and in most cases
they will mother these poults and others by morning.

Number of Eggs to Set

There should be a very definite understanding as to
what constitutes the proper number of eggs to set. Never
give the turkey hen or a chicken hen more eggs than
she can cover well. Turkey hens will ordinarily cover
from 15 to 1 8 eggs to good advantage, depending on

69

TURKEY RAISING

the size of the hen, while chicken hens of the general
purpose type such as the Plymouth Rock will cover
from 8 to 10 eggs. Unfortunately, in an effort to utilize
the turkey or chicken hens to the fullest advantage, there
is a great tendency to place more eggs under them than
they can properly cover. The result of this is that one
or more of the eggs is considerably exposed to the weather
and is likely to become chilled. As the hen moves the
eggs around in the nest all or most of the eggs may in
turn be exposed to this same condition, with the result
that the hatch is entirely spoiled or very poor. It is not
infrequent for turkey raisers to try to set from 21 to
23 eggs under a medium sized turkey hen or 13 under a
chicken hen. Such a practice will not give good results.

Nest for Sitting Hen

In constructing or preparing a nest for sitting turkey
or chicken hens it is best to make it on the ground. A
little earth can be hollowed out of the ground so as to
make a depression deep enough to keep the eggs from
rolling out of the nest. Clean straw or hay can then
be used as a thin covering over this hollow to form a
nest and to prevent the eggs from being directly on the
ground. A good-sized roomy coop should be placed over
the nest and the hen to keep her from being disturbed.

Where only a few hens are kept and where there is
little danger of loss of eggs or of the hen being disturbed
by marauding animals, good results will be obtained by

70

INCUBATION OF TURKEY EGGS

letting the hens steal their nests. As a rule, however, it
will be found much more convenient and much more
satisfactory to set the hen in a nest which has been pre-
pared for her and which will, therefore, be more con-
venient and more protected. This is especially true when
a number of hens are to be set, as this will allow a row of
nests to be made on the ground next to one another but
separated with solid board partitions, and will greatly
facilitate taking care of the sitters. Where a number of
hens are set close together it is necessary to be careful
when they are let off that they go back on their own nests
and that two hens do not try to crowd on the same nest,
leaving the eggs in one nest to become chilled.

Where only a few hens are set they can be placed some
distance apart, which will prevent the occurrence of this
difficulty. Often nests are prepared for sitting hens in
boxes or barrels laid on their side and so arranged that
the opening can be shut to protect them from marauding
animals. Where nests are made in a barrel it is well to
bore holes in the bottom so that if the rain beats in and
the barrel is tight, the water will drain out and the eggs
will not lie in water. Where nests are made in boxes or
on wooden floors it is well to use if possible sod or soil in
the bottom of the nest, as this holds some moisture and
seems to give more favorable conditions for a good hatch.
Nests prepared for laying hens or for sitting hens should
be roomy enough so that the hens can go on the nest to
lay, turn around, and come off without breaking the eggs.

71

TURKEY RAISING

Setting the Hen

A turkey hen shows that she is ready to sit when she
becomes broody and stays on the nest for two or three
nights in succession. She may then be trusted with the
sitting of eggs. If, as is usually advisable, it is desired
to move the hen from the nest which she has selected
to another which has been prepared for her, she should
be moved to the new nest after dark, given a few nest
eggs and shut on the nest so that she cannot go back
to the old one. If she seems to be contented on the new
nest and sits quietly she can be allowed to come off on
the evening of the following day and the sitting of
eggs placed in the nest. In most cases on being let off
the nest she will return to the old nest. If she does so,
it is, of course, necessary to carry her back to the new
nest and confine her there. In most cases she will im-
mediately settle down on the eggs and seem to be con-
tented. It may happen, however, for two or three days
longer, that when she is let off in the evening she will
return to the old nest. Each time she does so it is neces-
sary to carry her back to the new nest but after three or
four days at most she will become used to the new nest
and will remain there.

Management of Sitting Hen

When left to themselves turkey hens frequently stay
on the nest for two or three days at a time without com-

72

INCUBATION OF TURKEY EGGS

ing off for feed or water. It is best, however, when they
are confined to a coop, to give them an opportunity to
come off of the nest each day. This will give them
an opportunity to stretch their wings and to walk
around and fly a little, and this exercise rests them and
helps to keep them in the best of condition. Sometimes
turkey hens sit so closely that they will not come off
at all of their own accord and will starve unless they
are made to come off for feed and water. Whole corn
is one of the best feeds for sitting hens and as much
of this as they desire should be given them once a day
when they are let off the nests. Fresh water should also
be provided at this time as well as a supply of grit.

Should any of the eggs in the nest become broken and
soil the others, or if they should become badly soiled in
any other way it is best to clean them by washing with a
cloth dipped in luke-warm water. The nesting material
must also be kept clean. Just before the poults are due to
hatch it is good practice to remove the old nesting ma-
terial and replace it with new clean straw or hay. If the
weather is dry it will usually be found best to sprinkle the
eggs which are set under turkey or chicken hens two or
three times during the last week of incubation with water
heated to blood temperature. It is often good policy to
remove the first poults which are hatched, taking them
into the house and wrapping them in flannel or leaving
them in a flannel lined basket near the stove. If the first
poults hatched are left with the hen she sometimes be-
comes restless before the hatch is complete. The poults

73

TURKEY RAISING

which are taken away from her can be returned readily
after the hatch is complete, putting them under her at
night.

Dusting the Sitting Hen for Lice. — In order to keep
the hen faithfully on the job it is necessary to see that
she is as free as possible from annoyance by lice. To
accomplish this and also to prevent the lice from being
troublesome to the young poults when they are hatched,
the hen should be thoroughly dusted with a good lice
powder before she is placed on the nest. Similar treat-
ment should be given to the hen and the nest once a week
during the first three weeks of the incubation period.
Do not dust her just before hatching commences as the
insect powder may prove harmful or fatal to the newly
hatched poults. An effective homemade lice powder for
use on turkey hens can be made of I part crude carbolic
acid and 3 parts gasoline, stirring in enough plaster-of-
paris to take up all the moisture and to form a dry pow-
der. In mixing this lice powder do not put the hands into
the mixture while moist as the carbolic acid may burn
them slightly. Sodium fluoride is very effective to use in
dusting the sitting hen. Directions for using this are
given on page 126.

Hatching with Chicken Hens

In hatching with chicken hens a sitting of eggs should
not be entrusted to them until they show by the fact that
they have become broody and stayed on the nest for a

74

INCUBATION OF TURKEY EGGS

couple of nights in succession that they are ready to sit.
When they have shown that they are in proper condition
they can then be removed to a nest previously prepared for
them and a couple of nest eggs placed under each hen.
This should be done in the evening, and if by morning
they are still sitting closely and seem to be contented in
their new quarters the sittings of eggs can be placed under
them. Chicken hens are best set in a house or shed and
should be confined to the nest. They should be let off once
a day, preferably toward evening, to get a supply of feed
and to drink. Whole corn is a good feed for sitting hens.
As soon as they have eaten and drunk and have exercised
a few minutes they should be put back on the nest if they
do not return of their own accord.

Hatching with an Incubator

Turkey eggs can be hatched in an incubator almost if
not quite as successfully as hens' eggs. In fact, in many
cases turkey eggs will be found to hatch better than the
average run of hens' eggs, as turkey eggs when fertile and
from good vigorous stock usually hatch very well. One
turkey grower has reported as the result of a considerable
experience in hatching with incubators that he secures
about 60% vigorous poults from the fertile eggs set. An-
other grower reports much better success than this, as is
shown by an instance where 109 poults were secured out
of 112 fertile eggs. Any of the different styles of incuba-
tors giving success with hens' eggs can be used for turkey

75

TURKEY RAISING

eggs as well. The thermometer should be so placed that
the bulb is about on a level with the top of the eggs. If
the thermometer is left in the same position as when it is
used in hatching hens' eggs the temperature should be J4
to I degree lower than that used for hatching hens' eggs.

A temperature ranging about 102 degrees for the first
week, slightly more than this for the second week and
103 degrees the third and fourth weeks seems to give good
satisfaction. If the temperature runs up to 104 or even
to 105 at hatching time, it will do no harm. If the hatch-
ing is completed earlier than with natural incubation, it
is an indication that a temperature slightly too high is
being used. Beginning with the third day and continuing
until the first egg pips, the eggs should be turned twice a
day, that is, in the morning and in the evening. During
the first week, the eggs do not need to be cooled longer
than the time required to turn them leisurely. After the
first week and until the machine is shut up for hatching,
they should be cooled until they feel cool when held
against the face.

In hatching turkey eggs in an incubator it is best to use
considerable moisture. A good practice in this respect is
to sprinkle the eggs with water warmed to about blood
temperature each day during the last week right up to
the time the eggs pip, and if the weather is warm and dry
a dish of warm water should also be placed on the bottom
of the machine under the egg trays. Poults hatched in an
incubator seem to be quite as healthy as those hatched
under turkey or chicken hens. An incubator will accom-

FIG. 24. Enclosed run for turkey poults made by using
a wagon box. (Photograph from the Bureau of Animal
Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture.)

INCUBATION OF TURKEY EGGS

modate approximately three-fourths as many turkey eggs
as it will hens' eggs.

A good idea of the size of turkey eggs can be secured
from the following weights of eggs laid by Bronze fe-
males in a well-bred flock. The medium-sized eggs
weighed 2% Ibs. per dozen, while the smaller eggs
weighed 2j^lbs. per dozen. Eggs from a good-sized
pullet weighed 2^/2 Ibs. per dozen and eggs from a 25-
pound hen, one of the largest in the flock, weighed 3 Ibs.
per dozen. As compared with this, average sized hens'
eggs weigh il/2 Ibs. per dozen.

77

CHAPTER V
Brooding and Rearing the Young Stock

Causes of Loss among Poults. — The proper brooding
and care of the newly hatched poults is perhaps the most
important factor in raising turkeys successfully. The
greatest part of the loss of young turkeys occurs when
the poults are less than a week old. Comparatively few
are lost after they have attained an age of one month
except, of course, where there is a disease epidemic. Un-
der ordinary conditions with fairly good care about 50%
of the poults hatched out will be reared. This means
about seven poults for every turkey hen that hatched out
a brood. Experienced and very careful turkey raisers
who give their young stock special care and who under-
stand the nature and the needs of the turkeys are able to
raise a higher percentage than this. The following may
be given as the principal causes of heavy losses among
young turkeys :

1 i ) Exposure to dampness and cold.

(2) Improper or over feeding.

(3) Too close confinement.

(4) Lice.

(5) Predatory animals.

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BROODING AND REARING YOUNG STOCK

(6) Inherent weakness due to carelessness in the selec-
tion of the parent stock or to careless breeding.

(7) Disease.

Protection for the Poults

When the hatch is completed and the young turkeys
begin to run about outside the nest it is time to move the
turkey hen and her brood to a suitable place which should
have been prepared for them previously. Such a coop
must provide the brood with shelter from the rain, should
have sufficient room to allow the turkey hen to stand
up and to walk about, should be so constructed that it
can be closed at night so that animals cannot get at the
turkeys, and at the same time must provide plentiful
ventilation.

Any type of coop which embodies these requisites will
be found satisfactory. One coop should be provided for
each hen and her brood, and there should never be any
attempt made to place two hens together in the same coop.
A coop 3 by 6 feet or one 4 feet square will be found a
suitable size for a hen and brood. One successful turkey
grower recommends the use of a coop which is 36 by 40
inches and only 12 inches high. This particular coop
has a galvanized iron top with slats all the way around
the outside. The idea of using a low coop is that it com-
pels the hen to squat or sit so that as long as she is con-
fined to the coop the young poults can crawl under her if
they become chilled and will not find her standing up, when

79

TURKEY RAISING

she might refuse to hover them. If it is desired to con-
fine the poults to this coop for a day or two this can be
readily done by placing 6 or 8-inch boards against the
outside of the coop.

Sometimes a pen made of 12- or 14-inch boards laid on
edge or a wire pen is used in connection with the coop
where the hen is confined. Such a yard is used to confine
the poults until they are old enough to fly over, at which
time both the poults and the hen are given their liberty.
The coops should not be placed too close together but
should preferably be scattered about over the well-drained
portions of the farm where there is an abundance of ten-
der green feed and other natural feed such as weeds and
insects, especially grasshoppers. It is likewise desirable
to locate the coops where the grass is short. This ac-
complishes the double purpose of insuring tender green
feed and also of causing less difficulty from the poults
getting chilled going through the long wet grass. Where
the grass is short it is possible to let the poults out earlier
in the morning.

It is often desirable to locate the coops where they can
be readily seen from the house and where it is easy to
attend to them. This is particularly true when the work
of caring for the turkeys falls to the lot of the housewife,
as it makes her work convenient. The coop should be so
constructed that it can be easily moved, and it should be
an unvarying practice to move the coop each day to a
fresh location so that the ground upon which it is placed
will be kept clean and sweet and there -will always be an

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BROODING AND REARING YOUNG STOCK

opportunity for the hen and her young to secure a supply
of fresh green feed inside the coop. For this reason the
coops should be without floors.

The necessity for plentiful exercise for the poults can-
not be over emphasized. For this reason they should be
allowed to run whenever possible. Of course, it is folly
to let the young run out in rainstorms if this can be
avoided, but whenever the weather is suitable they should
be allowed to run even when it is necessary to confine the
hen. If there is a long continued period of bad rainy
weather, it will be found as a rule better policy to confine
the hen but to allow the poults to run out whenever it is
not actually raining, even if they do have to range through
damp grass. Since the hen is confined the poults will not
range far and can always return to her and she will be
ready to hover them and warm them up if they become
chilled.

A well-drained location, such as a sandy or light soil, is
very desirable in order to keep the interior of the coop
perfectly dry. A location where there is some protection
from heavy winds is also desirable. If it becomes neces-
sary on account of the weather to confine the hen for a
week or more, this can be done provided she is given
proper care by being fed and -watered and that the coop
is moved to fresh ground each day. When the weather
is warm and dry, as is more likely to be the case with the
poults hatched later in the season, it is not necessary to
provide shelter for the hen and poults. In fact, they will
be likely to do better in the open. It is, however, advisa-

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TURKEY RAISING

ble to keep them for the first three or four days within a
fenced enclosure such as a garden until the poults gain
sufficient strength so that they can keep up with the hen
without any difficulty. Sometimes the turkey hen instead
of being shut in a coop is tethered out to a tree or post
for the first few days by means of a cord fastened to one
leg. For convenience in moving the hen and her brood
to fresh ground each day, the cord by which she is tied
may be fastened to a weight too heavy for her to move.
Under favorable conditions the hen and brood can be
allowed to run at liberty after the third or fourth day.
It is most desirable, however, to keep the youngsters out
of the heavy dews of the morning and to protect them
from rain during the first two or three weeks. After
they have reached this age, especially after their backs are
covered with feathers, dews or light showers followed by
warm sunshine are not serious as the poults will warm up
quickly. If a period of cold damp weather sets in even
after this age it will be necessary to provide the poults
with dry quarters and perhaps to keep them from running
at liberty part of the time. Nothing is more serious and
fatal to young poults than becoming thoroughly wet and
chilled. Occasionally young turkeys will get caught in
severe rainstorms and not be properly hovered by their
mothers so that they may become thoroughly wet and
chilled or even drowned. It is occasionally possible to
revive young turkeys that are apparently dead by wrap-
ping them in heated cloths and putting them in the house
behind the stove.

82

35 -O

BROODING AND REARING YOUNG STOCK

While chicken hens are sometimes used as mothers for
the young turkeys, and while a few persons have used
artificial methods of brooding with some success, the tur-
key hen is undoubtedly the best mother that can be pro-
vided for the young poults. She not only seems to be able
to make them understand what she wants them to do but
she is very careful in guarding them from any danger and,
moreover, while she is ranging she keeps her brood to-
gether, not allowing them to become widely separated so
that any of them are not likely to become lost. She is
especially apt also in teaching them to hunt the kind of
food such as grasshoppers and other insects which are
especially well suited for their growth and development.
Chicken hens are often valuable mothers of the earliest
turkeys as they can be confined with their broods to better
advantage during the cold, bad, wet weather so likely to
be encountered at that time.

It is often desirable in setting turkey eggs to give a sit-
ting to a turkey hen and to a chicken hen at the same time
so that they will hatch out together and all of the poults
can be given to the turkey hen since she makes a better
mother. It is best, however, not to give the turkey hen
more than 20 poults as she will raise a considerably larger
proportion of this number than if given 30 or 35.

The principal objections to the chicken hen as a mother
for turkeys are that she stays too close about the farm
buildings, that she weans the young turkeys too early and
that she is more likely to give them lice. Turkeys do best
when they do not stay too closely about the farmyard and

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TURKEY RAISING

also when they are kept separate from other fowls and
chicks. It is quite as necessary to keep turkeys and chick-
ens separate as it is to separate hogs and sheep. Some-
times a turkey hen and her brood and a chicken hen and
her brood of poults of the same age are put out in coops
near one another. This seems to work to pretty good
advantage as the turkey hen tends to take the chicken hen
and her brood farther away from the buildings while the
chicken hen tends to keep the turkey hen and her brood
from straying too far. Moreover, when the chicken hen
weans her little turkeys at an age which is too early for
their best development, the turkey hen will usually mother
and care for both broods.

Bowel trouble or diarrhea is a frequent source of diffi-
culty with the little turkeys. The causes of bowel trou-
ble are several and the effects of it on the little turkeys are
bad. Bowel trouble may result from overfeeding or from
faulty feeding such as improper feeds or sloppy feeds,
and may likewise be the result of severe chill. The feed-
ing of boiled rice is claimed by many turkey growers to
be a good corrective for diarrhea. It is seldom necessary
to keep the hen and poults confined for more than a few
days at a time. The sooner they can be given free range
the better it will be all around. The question of whether
they should be put in the coop at night after they have
ranged during the day up to the time they are ready to
roost depends both on the weather and the danger that
exists of their being killed by marauding animals. Occa-
sional gobblers may prove troublesome in killing young

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BROODING AND REARING YOUNG STOCK

turkeys or young chickens, but this is not very common.
Where a gobbler shows such a disposition, he must, of
course, be kept away from the poults until they get older
or else must be disposed of. On the other hand gobblers
will occasionally help to brood the young.

Rearing Poults by Artificial Means

When the effort is made to brood turkey poults artifi-
cially some people experience difficulty in getting the young-
sters to eat, as they seem to go about with their heads up
in the air and not to see the food on the ground or floor.
To teach these youngsters to eat, a baby chick or two is
sometimes put with them and serves by its example to
teach the turkeys where to find the feed. It is probable,
however, that in most cases where artificial methods are
employed there is too great an eagerness on the part of the
turkey raiser to get the poults to eat, as they should have
nothing until they are two days old. The yolk of the
egg which has been absorbed just before the poults
hatched furnishes all the feed they need during this period.
There is a grave tendency to over-feed poults -whether
raised by natural or artificial methods but, of course, this
is particularly true under artificial conditions where all of
the feed for the first two or three weeks at any rate is
supplied by the person looking after the youngsters.

Where the effort is made to rear turkey poults by arti-
ficial means the usual course followed is to make use of
heated brooders such as are used for little chicks. In

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TURKEY RAISING

general, the management of the poults in the brooders is
just the same as that given to chicks. It is best not to
place more than 25 or 30 poults under a hover large
enough for 50 chicks. In some cases it appears that the
hovers provided for baby chicks are not quite high enough
for turkey poults, with the result that they are inclined to
develop a leg weakness due to their backs being too close
to the source of heat. The common stove brooder with
hovers which can be raised can undoubtedly be adapted
to raising turkey poults artificially to very good advan-
tage. At first the temperature under the hover should
be about 90 to 100 degrees and is gradually reduced as
the turkeys grow older until it is down to 70 degrees in
about three weeks' time. After the poults are six to
eight weeks old they no longer need heat as a rule.

A successful example of rearing turkeys artificially is
that of the College of Agriculture of the University of
California at its farm at Davis, Cal., where turkeys are
run at the rate of about 300 or 400 per acre in yards,
Here they are hatched and reared artificially with good
success. The newly hatched poults are started upon a
moist mixture of equal parts of chick grain and chick
mash in which there has been mixed a considerable quan-
tity of very finely chopped tender greens such as onions,
etc. A power driven meat chopper or sausage cutter is
used for grinding the green stuff and the juice which is
extracted in this grinding is used to mix a crumbly mash.

At first the turkeys are fed four times a day, but after
a few weeks the feedings are reduced to three a day and

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BROODING AND REARING YOUNG STOCK

at about five weeks of age, grain is fed morning and night
with a feeding of moist mash and finely cut green stuff at
noon. This method of feeding is continued until the tur-
keys are practically full grown. During the non-breeding
season the adult stock is fed almost entirely upon two
feedings of grain a day and all of the buttermilk they can
drink. During the breeding season the birds are given a
crumbly mash at noon in addition to the grain feeds.
Plenty of green stuff, grit and shell are always provided.
No houses have been used, open air roosts 6 or 7 feet high
being erected in each yard. It is planned, however, to
erect shed roof houses to furnish shelter from the rain-
storms. In view of the fact that the turkeys are kept and
reared under confined conditions new blood has been in-
troduced into this flock each year.

Feeding the Poults

Improper feeding, especially when combined with too
close confinement, has accounted for many failures in
turkey raising. When given free range the poults are
exercising all day long in their search for food and are
therefore not so likely to be overfed. If the range
available is abundantly stocked with natural feed and if
the weather is favorable so that the poults can be al-
lowed to range all of the time perhaps the best plan
is to allow the hen and her brood to feed themselves.
Even under these conditions, however, it is best to have
the turkeys come home at night and this can be more

87

TURKEY RAISING

readily accomplished if they are driven up to a certain
place and fed lightly each night. By following this prac-
tice they soon learn to come to this point daily of their
own accord.

Judgment must be exercised in determining whether or
not the range supplies feed enough early in the season,
and it is often necessary to continue to supply some feed
until grasshoppers become plentiful. Where on account
of unfavorable weather or an unfavorable condition of the
range or any other cause it seems to be best to keep the
poults cooped more or less, great care must be exercised
in their proper feeding, remembering that for the first
two days after hatching they require no feed. During
this time clean fresh water and a little coarse sand with
perhaps a little green feed to pick at is all that they will
need, but beginning -with the third day it is necessary to
supply them with feed, the amount required varying ac-
cording to the amount of natural feed which they are able
to secure for themselves outside of the coop. The most
careful judgment of the turkey raiser must be exercised
in this particular.

The poults must be kept hungry all the time. They
should never be fed so much that their desire for ranging
in search of feed is destroyed as this will lead to a lack of
exercise with consequent digestive and other troubles. If
the amount of natural feed which they can secure is very
scarce or if it is necessary to keep the poults from ranging
outside to any extent, they should be fc*d lightly about
five times a day. If they are allowed to run outside the

BROODING AND REARING YOUNG STOCK

coop and can secure more or less natural feed through
their own efforts two or three feeds a day are usually
enough. Sloppy feed should never be given to poults.

There is a great variety of feeds used for young poults,
all of which may be successfully employed, the particular
success attending the different kinds depending to quite
an extent upon the person who is feeding. The follow-
ing common feeds used may be mentioned: (i) Hard-
boiled egg chopped fine together with corn bread crumbs
for the first few days. After this, whole wheat and hulled
oats. (2) Stale bread soaked in milk and squeezed dry.
This is used for the first few days and is then replaced
with common chick feed. (3) Clabbered milk seasoned
with salt and pepper together with corn bread crumbs.
(4) Equal parts pinhead oats, whole -wheat and cracked
corn. (5) Cracked wheat. (6) Corn meal and wheat
bran mixed in the proportion of three to one and bakecf
into a bread which should be baked fairly hard and fed
in a crumbly condition. (7) Bran or middlings one-half,
cracked Egyptian corn one-fourth, wheat and hulled oats
one- fourth.

Milk is also a most valuable feed for the poults. Usu-
ally skim milk is used for this purpose but whole milk if
available can be utilized. The milk is best fed sour as the
acid in the sour milk seems to have more or less disease
preventive properties. Sour milk can be left before the
poults during the morning for a drink, without any water
being available, and water given to them during the after-
noon. Water or milk should be given to the poults in a

TURKEY RAISING

drinking fountain or in some other manner so that they
can have ready access to it, but so that they cannot get
into it and get wet. Rolled oats and corn bread crumbs
fed in conjunction with sweet milk as a drink where the
poults can help themselves to it all the morning has been
a very successful feed, the rolled oats being fed at noon
and the corn bread crumbs at night. Corn bread seems
to be a feed of which the poults are fonder than most any
other. Clabbered milk or cottage cheese and bread soaked
in milk and then squeezed dry are also feeds which the
poults like immensely. Hard-boiled eggs rubbed up with
rolled oats makes a very good feed for young poults until
they are two or three weeks old. In conjunction with this
may be fed clabbered milk.

Another successful feed used by turkey growers con-
sists of ordinary white wheat bread cut up in slices so as
to let it dry and then rolled into crumbs. This is mois-
tened with a little sweet or sour milk and fed mixed with
hard-boiled eggs. The bread is just moistened and is not
sticky or sloppy. Any infertile eggs tested out of the sit-
tings should be saved for this purpose. It is also pos-
sible when living near a hatchery to purchase infertile
eggs which have been tested out of the incubators and
which can be used for this purpose. The wheat bread and
boiled egg can be fed for about three weeks, mixing with
it occasionally a little rolled oats. After three weeks,
rolled oats and chick feed can be gradually substituted and
after four or five weeks old they are fed grain sparingly
and only at night when they come home. In this connec-

90

BROODING AND REARING YOUNG STOCK

tion it might be well to state that where it is possible to
do so, it is well to feel of the crops of some of the turkeys
when they come in at night from the range. If the crops
are full very little feed should be given, while if the crops
are partly empty, more feed can be used to advantage.
Feeling the crop in this way is a guide to the amount of
grain which should be given.

Green feed and grit can usually be found by the poults
if they range outside of their coop. If they are not avail-
able, however, they must be supplied. Chopped onion
tops, lettuce leaves, dandelion leaves, kale, cabbage and
alfalfa make good green feed. Coarse sand furnishes a
satisfactory form of grit. Charcoal should be available
to the poults as this is an excellent preventative for di-
gestive troubles. While the hen is confined to the coop
she must be carefully fed as well as the poults. To do
this give her a feed twice a day of all of the grains such
as equal parts wheat, corn and oats, which she will eat up.
In addition to this she must be supplied with green feed,
Water and grit where she can help herself. As an aid
to keeping her in first-class condition an occasional feed
of meat scrap or fresh lean meat of some kind will be
very valuable and is greatly relished.

In feeding the hen while she is confined to the coop be
sure to feed her inside while the poults are fed outside of
the coop. If the poults are given their feed inside the
coop the hen may eat a large part of it away from them,
but if they are fed outside it is easier to gauge the amount
they are eating and to regulate it more intelligently.

TURKEY RAISING

Lice on Poults

One of the greatest causes of mortality in poults is
lice. If they are badly infested they become weaker and
weaker and finally die. Head lice are perhaps the most
serious. These are found burrowing into the skin on
the top of the head above and in front of the eyes and
under the throat. If they are discovered it is necessary
to grease these places carefully, being sure not to use
too much grease as this in itself may kill the poults.
For greasing the poults ordinary lard can be used to
good advantage or lard to which has been added a
few drops of kerosene. A drop of olive oil is also suitable
for this purpose. It is. best to grease the poults on a
warm day or during the warmth of the day. If the effort
is made to grease them when it is cold the grease does not
spread to as good advantage and one is more likely to use
too much grease.

Frequently quite large numbers of small white lice are
found in the hollows or creases between the quills of the
main wing feathers. While these are harmful to the
poults and must be gotten rid of, they are not as serious
as the head lice. A little grease or oil applied where the
lice are found will be effective in getting rid of them.
Body lice such as occur on chickens are quite common to
turkeys, but they are not usually found on the young
poults, occurring as a rule after they are half grown. For
this reason they are not as serious a thing as the head
lice. In this matter of lice on poults, as in most of the

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BROODING AND REARING YOUNG STOCK

other factors which are responsible for high mortality
among young turkeys, there is no reason why it cannot
be largely if not entirely prevented, by proper attention
at the proper time. If the hen is dusted with some good
insect powder during the time she is sitting, as has been
explained before, page 74, there should be little if any
trouble with lice on the poults when hatched. Examina-
tion of the newly hatched poults at frequent intervals for
lice, and treatment if found, must not be overlooked. See
page 126.

Marking and Pedigreeing Turkeys

It is often desirable to mark little turkeys in some dis-
tinguishing manner. The need for this may be that the
turkey raiser has two or more separate matings or blood
lines and he desires to know from which matings his
young stock came in order to guide him in making future
matings. For this purpose the young turkeys can be
marked by toe punching the web between the toes in the
same manner as in chickens. The web in turkeys is not so
large as in chickens, but by using care room enough can be
found. To make sure that the punch in the web is a per-
manent mark go over the poults about a week after the
punching is done. If any punch marks show signs of
growing shut, punch them out again, after which no
difficulty will be experienced.

Poults can also be marked, if desired, by means of
numbered open pigeon bands, such as are used in pedi-
greeing chickens, which are put around the leg of the

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TURKEY RAISING

poults when hatched and in four or five weeks transferred
to the wings. Colored bands can also be used for this
purpose, but will require changing several times to a
larger size to accommodate the growth of the legs. Per-
manent marks may also be given turkeys by clipping off
the first joint of the toe, the joint carrying the toe nail.
By clipping different toes for different matings, a record
of the breeding can be kept.

Where the flock of turkeys ranges far and may mix
with neighbors' turkeys it is desirable to mark them in
such a way that they can be told from the other turkeys.
This will prevent disputes as to ownership. The best
plan, of course, is to keep the turkeys at home by training
them to come home each night to roost. See page 98.
Toe marks as explained above, or colored or numbered
bands, will serve to identify turkeys, while some varieties,
especially whites, can be easily marked by using a dab of
colored paint or dye on the back or shoulders. It is quite
a common practice for neighbors to make a point of
keeping different varieties of turkeys so that the owner-
ship of the birds can be easily established.

Feathering of Poults

When first hatched, the poults like baby chicks are
covered with a soft down. In the Bronze variety the
poults show a brown color over the back with two paral-
lel, dark brown stripes running from the head over the
shoulders and back, the breast being of a yellowish white

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BROODING AND REARING YOUNG STOCK

color. This marking is similar to that of chicks from
partridge matings. Newly hatched black turkey poults
are only partially black, the entire breast being white.
Soon after hatching, the wing feathers begin to develop
and at two weeks old these are long enough to extend
back of the rump when folded and they cover the back,
sides and rump. At about 10 days old feathers begin
to appear at the point where the wings join the body,
and this feathering gradually extends back to the main
wing feathers in about a week. In about three weeks
the tail feathers begin to appear and should be about
an inch long at the end of the first month. At this
time the poult is feathered only on the wings and tail, but
on account of the wing feathering covering the back, the
poult appears to be feathered from the shoulders to the
tail. Occasional poults show feathers starting down the
middle of the back between the shoulders and down each
side of the breast from the neck, at one month of age.
Frequently, especially where poults are not making good
growth, the wing feathers seem to be unusually long as in
the case of chicks under similar circumstances, so that they
may touch or nearly touch the ground. This is probably
not due to an undue growth of wing feathers but to a poor
growth of body. At any rate such a condition gives the
poults a weak, sickly, discouraged appearance.

Some turkey raisers feel that it is a benefit to clip off
these wing feathers and that by so doing less of the
strength of the poult goes into the growth of the feathers.
It is a question whether there is any advantage in such a

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TURKEY RAISING

practice although the poults with clipped wings seem to
get around better and to keep cleaner.

Shooting or Throwing the Red

At four weeks of age no trace of red will be found
on the heads or necks of the poults. At five weeks the
caruncles begin to form and at six weeks of age a trace
of red can often be seen in the caruncles under the
feathery down of the neck, and the down begins to be
shed at this time from that section of the neck. At about
seven weeks of age the red on the under part of the
neck can be seen at some distance, particularly in the
males, but does not become easily visible on the females
until a week later. Too much dependence, however,
should not be placed upon being able to differentiate be-
tween the two sexes of young turkeys at this time, for
it is only by a very careful comparison that their sex
can be determined under three months of age.

The appearance of the red on the head and neck is
oftentimes termed "shooting the red" or "throwing the
red," and this in the opinion of many turkey growers is
a delicate period. At this time the young turkeys are
inclined to be somewhat less active and some poults may
be lost at this stage.

Distinguishing the Sexes

At the age of about three months there appears on
the breast of the males a small fleshy protuberance. It

BROODING AND REARING YOUNG STOCK

is from this protuberance that the hair starts to grow
about two weeks later which eventually forms the tuft
of hair on the breast known as the beard or tassel.
While the beard starts growing on the breast of the
males at about three and a half months, the females do
not begin to grow a beard until they are about one year
old. At this age the beard of the male should be from
3 to 5 inches long and grows longer with additional
age. Moreover, the beard of the torn is much coarser
than that of the hen and at any particular age is much
longer. The feathers on the neck of the male stop far
down while on the female there is usually a light growth
of feathers extending along the back of the neck to
the top of the head in a rather narrow strip.

The fleshy protuberance which grows just above the
beak and which is sometimes termed the dewbill or snout
is larger and more elastic in the male than in the female.
In toms under one year of age there is only a short blunt
knob on the inside of the shank. As the bird grows older
this develops into a stout spur. In the case of the hen,
however, there is only a rudimentary spur or small button
found. In the torn the breast bone tends to be more or
less in a straight line, -while in the hen it is as a rule curved
to a greater extent, thus forming a rounder breast. Of
course in the case of the Bronze and Bourbon Red, the
breast and body feathers of the female are tipped with
white, while the feathers of the male show n6 white tip-
ping in these sections.

97

TURKEY RAISING

Management of Growing Turkeys

As soon as the young turkeys are six weeks old they are
old enough to go to roost. Most turkey raisers allow the
birds to roost out in the open in trees or on fences. Some
turkey raisers, however, build roosts especially for them.
If high winds are prevalent it is well to build the turkey
roosts next to the barn or some shed which will afford pro-
tection from the wind. It is natural for turkeys to roost
high and it is well therefore to construct the roosts for
them set up on posts at least 5 or 6 feet from the ground.
Often they are built higher than this, sometimes as high as
8 or 10 feet. In the latter case, however, it is necessary to
provide roosts of intermediate height or cleated runways
by means of which the younger turkeys can get up to the
higher roosts. High roosts are desirable since they pro-
tect the birds from loss due to foxes or coyotes. In sec-
tions where difficulty is experienced owing to thefts of
turkeys, it is well to construct the roosts near the residence
so that any disturbance can be heard. Sometimes a
guinea chick or two is raised with the turkeys and will
remain and roost with them. If there is any disturbance
during the night the guinea will make a great uproar and
serve as an alarm.

It is possible to teach the young turkeys to roost
wherever desired. This is done by driving them up to
the place where they are to roost and feeding them there
just before dark. If they are held in this place until dusk
falls they will then go to roost on the places provided for

98

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II

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BROODING AND REARING YOUNG STOCK

them. By repeating this a few times the turkeys will
learn to come to this particular spot to be fed and will
roost on the roosts provided for them of their own
accord.

During the summer and the early part of the fall there
is a great abundance of feed suitable for turkeys which
they can get through their own efforts if they are allowed
to range. It is this fact which makes the raising of tur-
keys, after they have passed the danger point, such a
simple and such a cheap process. The feed which they
are able to secure consists of the various weed and grass
seeds, the grain which has been shelled in the field, green
vegetation and all kinds of insects, especially grasshoppers
where they are abundant. In parts of Texas, wild grapes
are plentiful and the turkeys eat these readily. More-
over, during the fall the turkeys will eat quantities of
nuts such as pecans, beech nuts and acorns if these are
available, and with a plentiful supply of this feed they will
fatten to good advantage of their own accord. Where
this natural feed is abundant, therefore, it is unnecessary
to provide the birds with any other feed except such as
may be given them each night in order to teach them to
come home to roost.

In order to prevent, insofar as possible, the trouble
which may occur due to the turkey flock ranging over the
neighbors' farms, it may in some cases be desirable to
feed more heavily than would otherwise be done in order
to reduce their desire for ranging. Even with this pre-
caution, however, there is a decided tendency for them to

99

TURKEY RAISING

range a long way. This can be prevented to some extent
and probably most effectively by driving the turkeys into
a fenced enclosure such as might be used for a breeding
pen in the spring and keeping them there until about
noon. During the warm weather the turkeys do most
of their ranging in the morning. During the heat of the
day they are inclined to stay in the shade and not range
very far. By confining them during the morning, there-
fore, they will not start ranging until late in the afternoon
and are not likely to go very far. If the practice is made
of feeding the turkeys each morning in the pen where
they are to be confined, they will go there of their own ac-
cord when they come down from the roosts and no great
trouble will ensue in shutting them up. Clipping the flight
feathers of one wing will prevent them from flying out of
the pen.

It may sometimes pay, if a considerable flock of tur-
keys is reared, to hire a boy or two to herd the birds.
This will make it possible to protect the flocks from the
attacks of any animals and will also prevent any difficulty
from the birds going on neighbors' farms without per-
mission. It also makes it possible to drive the birds and
keep them in any particular field where the insects may
be bad and where they can do the most good. With some-
one to look after the flock of turkeys and keep them
within bounds, there will often be calls from the neigh-
bors for the flock to be turned into fields where they are
having trouble with grasshoppers or other insects, and

100

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BROODING AND REARING YOUNG STOCK

this provides additional room and sources of food supply
for the flock.

It is desirable to arrange the hatching in such a way
that two or three turkey hens with broods of about the
same age can be turned out to free range at the same time.
If they are turned out together in this manner they usu-
ally remain in one flock, which makes it easier to hunt
them up and care for them than would be the case if each
brood was by itself. It is not, however, desirable to turn
more than two or three broods into one flock as there is a
tendency for the poults all to try to crowd under one or
two hens to be hovered, with the result that this is not
properly accomplished. Occasionally one or more hens
has a bell hung around its neck. This serves a useful
purpose in making it easier to locate the flock of turkeys
at night when they are to be driven home or at any other
time when it is desired to find them. The young turkeys
usually remain with their mother until October or No-
vember, when they are weaned. At this time the males
usually separate from the females and range by them-
selves.

101

CHAPTER VI

Marketing

Time of Marketing. — The two principal times of year
when turkeys are in great demand are the Thanksgiving
and Christmas holiday seasons. It is at this time that the
great majority of turkeys is shipped to market as the de-
mand for this class of poultry is especially heavy. Tur-
keys in lesser quantities are shipped to market at other
seasons, but compared with the Thanksgiving and Christ-
mas trade this casual shipment is of very minor volume
and goes principally to supply hotel and restaurant trade.
Usually there is more or less of a surplus of turkeys for
the Thanksgiving and Christmas markets accumulating
between these two dates, which is put into cold storage
and is later withdrawn as the demand occasions, largely
to supply hotel and restaurant trade.

Size of Young Turkeys. — Where some standard vari-
ety is kept and where the stock is strong and vigorous
and the youngsters have been given an opportunity to
make good growth, there should be no difficulty in getting
cockerels to weigh 15 to 20 pounds and pullets 12 to 14
pounds for the Thanksgiving market, or in other words
at an age of five to six months. Many of the ordinary
mongrel flocks will of course fail to reach these weights,

1 02

MARKETING

while occasional individuals of any of the standard varie-
ties will also prove to be small or slow growers.

Principal Markets and Market Demands

The principal markets are, of course, the large cities.
The highest priced markets are those of the large cities of
the East such as New York, Boston and Philadelphia.
There are no special demands for particular classes of tur-
keys other than the fact that a medium-sized bird is in gen-
eral in greater demand than the larger birds. As these
latter are suitable only for exceptionally large families or
for hotel or restaurant trade after the Thanksgiving and
Christmas holidays the demand for larger birds is not
nearly so good and for this reason any exceptionally large
fowls should be shipped for one or other of these occa-
sions. Occasionally there is a demand for turkey broilers,
that is, young turkeys weighing two or three pounds, but
this demand is very limited and the supply of turkeys
which will be sold at this age is also very small. It will
ordinarily pay the turkey grower better to raise his tur-
keys to a larger size than to turn them off as broilers.
Sometimes late hatched birds can be disposed of in this
manner to good advantage.

Most of the markets prefer dry picked turkeys and
while most consumers prefer a yellow carcass, still the
color of the skin and legs has little or no effect on the
market demand. In this connection it might be stated
that the Black turkey, contrary to the expectation of many

103

TURKEY RAISING

people, dresses out into a nice plump yellow carcass. Most
of the markets at the present time demand dressed tur-
keys to be picked clean, although there is a considerable
demand for birds in which the largest feathers after the
flights are pulled, that is, the flight coverts, have been left
on the last joint of the wings. This demand has grown
up from the custom of cutting off the last joint of the
wing and using it for a brush about the kitchen.

There is also a very limited demand for turkeys to be
marketed with the feathers on. This is true especially
with large toms. These birds are utilized for hanging
out in front of restaurants or retail shops. If the turkey
grower makes any effort to dress turkeys for the market
he should get in touch with the dealer through whom he
expects to market in order to learn what the preferences
are with respect to the manner of dressing.

Fattening Turkeys

The usual custom in fattening turkeys for the market
is to begin to feed them heavily about November i. The
results of this are not the best. Beginning to feed heavily
at this date without accustoming the birds gradually to
the heavy feeding is likely to cause scours or bowel
trouble with the result that the birds get out of con-
dition and do not fatten as well as expected. Another
difficulty caused by the heavy feeding at this time is
the prevalent custom of using new corn. If the birds
are gradually accustomed to new corn they can be fed

104

MARKETING

on it quite heavily without bad results, but to feed it
in considerable quantities at the start is very likely to
cause scours.

A better practice in fattening is to begin feeding for
this purpose at night and morning about October i. At
first the feeds should be light so that the birds will go
away feeling a little hungry. As they become used to
being fed the amount can be gradually increased until dur-
ing the week previous to sending them to the market they
can be given all they will eat up three times a day. Corn
is the grain which is most commonly used for this purpose
and is excellent especially during the latter part of the
feeding when the weather is cooler. Some turkey raisers
feed wheat and oats during the first part of the fattening
period and gradually change to corn with the cooler
weather. It will be found that not all turkeys are fat-
tened with equal facility and the usual practice is to pick
out the birds which have fattened and are in pretty good
shape for sending to the Thanksgiving market and to con-
tinue to feed the others in order to get them in better
shape for the Christmas market. Sometimes also it is
good policy for the turkey raisers if they have lots of
feed on hand and if their turkeys are a little late or not
in prime condition, to hold them over past the Thanks-
giving market so as to have a longer fattening period to
put them in better condition. As a rule more attention
is paid to fattening and finishing the turkeys by the rais-
ers in the North. As a result of this the southern turkeys
are inclined to run poorer in quality and it is for this

105

TURKEY RAISING

reason that the northern raised turkey is in better repute
on the market.

While the turkeys in the best condition for marketing
should be selected to send to the Thanksgiving and Christ-
mas markets, it is necessary here for the turkey raiser to
use judgment in not selecting all of the best birds of the
flock for this purpose. In other words, he should pick
out the strongest, most vigorous, best grown, early ma-
turing birds to reserve as breeders. Failure to do this and
to send all such birds to the market simply because they
are in condition will result in his having a lot of small,
less thrifty, late maturing birds left for breeders, and this
will of course lead to deterioration in his flock.

Sometimes the effort is made to fatten the turkeys by
penning them in a relatively small enclosure and feeding
them there with the idea that by preventing their ranging
they will not use up so much of their energy in this way
and more of the feed will go to flesh. While turkeys
penned in this manner usually eat well for a day or two,
after a few days they are likely to go off their feed, lose
their appetites and lose flesh rather than gain it. For
this reason it is not well as a rule to attempt to pen the
turkeys when fattening them, but they should rather be
allowed to continue on free range where they will keep
in better condition and will be eager for their feed and,
therefore, more inclined to fatten to good advantage.

Where turkeys have free range under conditions where
there are large quantities of nuts such as beech nuts, chest-
nuts, pecans and acorns, little attention need be given to

106

MARKETING

fattening the turkeys. With an abundance of material
of this sort the turkeys will fatten themselves and can be
marketed in fairly good condition.

Caponizing

As a class the young males are harder to fatten than
the females. They are especially hard to get in good
market condition by Thanksgiving time. This is due
in part to the fact that they have larger frames and that
it requires a longer feeding period to flesh them in good
shape. It is likewise due to the fact that the young
males are inclined to separate from the flock and to range
by themselves over a much wider area, and this increased
activity on their part makes them more difficult to fatten.
While caponizing has never been practiced to any great
extent on turkeys it is no more difficult an operation than
is the case with common fowls and is performed in the
same manner and with the same instruments. The result
of the operation is to render the males quieter in disposi-
tion. They do not gobble or strut. It is probable that
on account of the quieting effect it has on them that they
would not be inclined to separate from the flock, as do the
uncaponized males, and that they would not, therefore,
range so far. For this reason it would probably be some-
what easier to fatten the turkey capons, especially in time
for the Thanksgiving market. Uncaponized young toms
are as a rule in much better condition in January than
they are in November.

107

TURKEY RAISING

Selling Turkeys Alive

The majority of turkey raisers sell their birds alive.
This is true in practically all cases except for local trade,
and in some sections of the country where the areas of
production are situated fairly close to the large markets
such, for example, as New England and New York State.
The usual manner of selling is for the producer to ship
his turkeys by express if he is fairly close to a good
market and the number of birds he has to handle rela-
tively few, to sell them to a poultry produce concern or
poultry buyer in the nearby village, or to sell them to
turkey buyers who may visit his farm. The size of
coop used for shipping turkeys alive varies greatly. In
some states the law requires that the coops be not less
than 2 feet high in order to make them more comfortable
for the turkeys. Many shippers, however, use coops
which are 1 6 to 20 inches high, and if anything, the tur-
keys will go through in coops of this height with less
loss than in the higher coops, due to the fact that it
is impossible for the birds to get on top of one another.
A cheap, simply constructed coop often used is one 2
feet 4 inches wide, 3 feet 10 inches long, and 19 inches
high, constructed with a solid wooden bottom and with
a wooden frame covered with wire. This coop is divided
into two sections by means of a partition in the center.
If desired, the coop can, of course, be made higher than
this.

In the sections of the country such as the Middle West

108

FIG. 31. Turkey capon at six months of age. Notice the fem-
inine appearance and the big frame. (Photograph from the Bu-
reau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture.)

§.1

MARKETING

and Texas where the bulk of the turkeys are grown, there
are poultry packing houses which are prepared to handle
and which do handle large quantities of turkeys at the
proper season, busying themselves with chickens and eggs
during the remainder of the year. These are concentrat-
ing points for the live turkeys and here they are either
dressed, which is the usual procedure, or else shipped to
market alive in car lots. In sections like Texas, where
turkeys are plentiful, it is quite a prevalent custom for
hucksters to go out through the country buying turkeys
from the farmers, adding them to their flock and driving
the flock along the roads until they reach the killing sta-
tion or concentration point. In this way flocks of tur-
keys are often gathered together running to more than
1,000 in number.

In the season of 1912 there were gathered in this way
8,000 turkeys which were concentrated at Myersville,
Tex., and driven from this point to Cuero, Tex., a dis-
tance of 13 miles. This drive from Myersville to Cuero
was accomplished in two days with the aid of 30 men.
Smaller flocks can of course be driven more rapidly. A
flock of 700 turkeys was driven over this same distance
in 8^2 hours, five men being employed in the drive. It
is usual to make use of a team and wagon in connection
with these drives, the wagon going on in front and the
driver throwing out a little corn from time to time in
order to get the birds to follow. Such a wagon is also
useful for picking up and hauling the rest of the way
any birds which become lame or tired or which cannot

109

TURKEY RAISING

keep up on account of being very fat. Where the flocks
are driven over a period of several days it is necessary
when night comes on to pick a spot in a grove or some
similar place where there are plenty of trees for the birds
to roost. When darkness comes the turkeys will start
going to roost wherever they may be and it is necessary to
select a place where they can be kept together and easily
guarded. When the drive arrives at the killing station
the birds are weighed up and driven into pens from which
they are drawn for killing or to fill cars for shipment alive.

Killing and Dressing

Turkeys should be killed and dressed as soon after they
arrive at the killing station as possible. On account of
their free roaming nature turkeys do not stand confine-
ment well and when shut in coops under conditions to
which they are not used, they shrink in weight rapidly.
It is to avoid this shrinkage that the killing should be
done promptly.

Practically all turkeys are dry picked. This is done
partly because the market demands dry picked birds and
partly because the feathers are valuable and are saved to
sell. Scalding injures the feathers. Turkeys are loose-
feathered birds and are easier to dry pick than any other
class of fowl unless it be pheasants. In this connection
it is interesting to note that experienced pickers always
seem to choose the dark-colored turkeys in preference to
the white ones as being easier to pick, claiming that the

no

FIG. 33. Woman dry picking a turkey. Notice the blood can
and also the convenient means of hanging the turkey in position
by slipping its legs into the slots cut in the scantling. (Photo-
graph from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of
Agriculture.)

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MARKETING

feathers of the white variety do not mature or ripen so
early.

The usual procedure in a turkey killing plant is to put
15 or 20 turkeys in a cage for a picker to draw his birds
from. The picker selects a bird, takes it out of the cage,
hangs it up by the feet by means of a cord, then proceeds
to bleed and stick. Often two cords are used for hanging
up the bird, a cord being placed about each foot. Instead
of cords wire shackles are also made, having a place in
which each foot can be easily slipped. The use of such a
shackle saves time and also holds the legs in such a posi-
tion as to make picking easier. The bleeding is accom-
plished by cutting the veins in the throat just at the rear
edge of the skull. A cut properly made at this point will
result in free bleeding. The picker then sticks the bird,
that is, plunges the knife through the roof of the mouth
to a point between and a little back of the eyes, or this
same point may be reached by a stick from the outside
starting the point of the knife just under the eye. A very
good knife for this purpose is one made from a single flat
piece of steel about 1/16 inch thick, with a handle 5 inches
inches long and J4 inch wide. The blade should be 2^/2
inches long and J4 inch wide, ground to a point and
sharpened to a straight cutting edge on the inner side.
For best results this knife must be kept very sharp. When
the knife reaches the brain which is the object of the stick,
the picker usually turns it somewhat, which causes a con-
vulsion of the muscles. If the stick is good in this re-
spect the feathers will then come out easily. As soon as

III

TURKEY RAISING

the stick is made a blood can, weighted with lead or some
other heavy material, is fastened by means of a wire hook
into the lower jaw of the bird to keep the bird's head
down and to receive the drip of blood.

Turkeys are frequently killed by bleeding only, that is
to say, without following the bleeding by sticking. This
manner of killing usually results in a better bled bird but
does not make picking as easy. In some states the law
requires that if a bird is killed by bleeding only it must
first be stunned by hitting it on the back of the head with
a club. Good bleeding is necessary in order to secure a
carcass which looks well and which keeps well.

The picker first removes the main tail feathers with one
motion and next the main wing feathers. These large
feathers are put in a separate bin from the body feathers.
The next operation is to pick off the body feathers which
is accomplished very rapidly by expert pickers. In the
special turkey-dressing establishments it is common prac-
tice to have the shackle, by means of which the bird is
hung, mounted on a track. After the bird is stuck the
shackle is wheeled over a barrel or bin in which the main
tail and wing feathers are allowed to fall. It is then
moved over another bin into which the body feathers are
allowed to fall. This makes the separation of the two
classes of feathers easy. As soon as the body feathers are
removed the picker then goes over the bird carefully to
remove the pin feathers. Pickers become very expert and
can entirely finish a bird in a few minutes. In Texas a
good many negroes and Mexicans are employed for this

112

MARKETING

purpose. In other places the best pickers are white men.
Women are also employed to a large extent in picking,
especially for pinning or finishing up the birds. The price
paid for picking runs about 4 cents apiece for hen turkeys
and 5 cents for toms. After the bird is thoroughly
picked, the blood is washed from the head, and the feet
are also washed if very dirty, and it is laid on a rack with
other dressed birds.

When the rack is filled it is wheeled into a cold storage
room where the temperature is a little above freezing.
The turkeys are left in this room until the body heat is
thoroughly out of the birds. This may take from 12 to
24 hours. When the birds are thoroughly cooled they are
graded according to size and condition and are packed in
suitable containers for shipping to market.

Packing

Turkeys are put up in two ways: either in boxes or
barrels. Probably there are more barrel turkeys than
box turkeys, although boxes are used very largely on
the Pacific Coast markets and to a considerable extent in
other markets. Both barrels and boxes are lined with
clean wrapping paper or parchment paper and the heads
of the turkeys are likewise wrapped with clean paper.
White lumber such as cottonwood is the kind favored for
making the barrels and boxes. It is said that pine will
impart a flavor and odor to poultry when packed in it.
Where turkeys are packed in barrels there are as a rule

TURKEY RAISING

six layers of hen turkeys with five hens to the layer and
four or five layers of toms with four to the layer, this of
course depending on the size of the birds. On the aver-
age a barrel will hold about 250 pounds of turkey.

There are two principal sizes of boxes used for packing
turkeys, one used for hens and the other for toms. The
standard dimensions for these boxes are as follows : Tur-
key torn boxes, ends 24 x 12 x ^ inches ; sides 28 x 12 x
% ; tops and bottoms 28 x 24^ x ^ ; turkey hen boxes,
ends 20 x 1 1 x % inches ; sides 30 x 1 1 x y% inches ; tops
and bottoms, 30 x 20^4 x ^ inches.

The turkeys are packed in these boxes in two layers,
the torn boxes holding layers of six each or 12 to the box,
while the hen boxes hold layers of eight each or 16 to the
box. The boxes make a much neater package than do the
barrels and it is also possible to pack the turkeys in them
in better shape as they do not have to be doubled up as is
done when packed in barrels. It is claimed, however, that
the cost of packing in boxes is about a half cent per pound
more than packing in barrels. After the turkeys are
packed, the box or barrel should be plainly marked with
the number and kind of turkeys which it contains and
with the gross, tare and net weight.

After the turkeys are packed either in barrels or boxes
they are put into what is called the sharp freezer, that is
to say, a cold-storage room where the temperature is con-
siderably below freezing. Here they are frozen solid and
held until they are to be shipped. They are shipped in re-

114

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MARKETING

frigerator cars each of which will hold from 20,000 to
25,000 pounds of dressed poultry.

Turkey Feathers

In plucking the turkeys the wing and tail feathers are
kept separate in one bin and the soft body feathers in
another bin. The wing and tail feathers are referred
to in the trade as quills. Various other trade names are
applied to different grades of these feathers. At times,
depending upon the demand, white body feathers and
white quills are worth considerably more money than
the dark or mixed feathers and, for this reason, the
white feathers are kept separate in many establishments.

Scalded feathers are not worth as much as dry picked
feathers. Likewise, feathers which are freshly packed
and therefore damp, not having been given a chance to
dry out, are likely to arrive at their destination matted
and musty or heated. Such feathers are not worth as
much and are discounted according to their condition.

Turkey feathers have a variety of uses, the demand for
the different classes of feathers and for the various uses
depending to quite an extent upon prevailing fashions.
At certain times the white quills are in active demand for
millinery purposes while at other times, white quills are
almost a drug on the market and must be mixed with dark
quills in order to sell them to concerns which manufacture
feather dusters. Practically all dark quills are used in
the manufacture of feather dusters, these being split and

TURKEY RAISING

milled by machinery. At times, especially when feather
boas are in fashion, the white turkey body feathers are in
considerable demand for this purpose and the price runs
much higher than at other times. Dark body feathers
and also white body feathers when not in special demand
for other purposes are used mainly in making feather
beds and pillows.

The prices paid for feathers not only vary quite widely
according to their kind, color and condition, but also at
different times of the year and in different sections of the
country due to the changes in fashion in women's dress.
The quotations given herewith represent the range of
prices paid at three different points during March, 1920:

Dark turkey body feathers, full

fleece . .20 to 55 cents a pound

White turkey body feathers, full

fleece 45 to 80 cents a pound

Dark turkey quills 10 to 13 cents a pound

White turkey quills .10 to 25 cents a pound

In the case of any mixture of feathers either of class,
grade or color, the feathers as a whole will bring only the
price of the cheapest feathers in the mixture.

All turkey feathers will heat if sacked for shipment
before being thoroughly aired and dried. Even though
they are apparently dry, they will become warm and damp
again in a short time when sacked, unless the animal heat
has been thoroughly removed. To dry them spread them

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MARKETING

out on a clean floor, such as a loft above the killing and
picking room, in a layer not over 4 to 6 inches deep and
turn them each day until they are dry, giving them plenty
of air. Turkey quills, particularly tails, should also be
thoroughly aired before packing as only dry quills bring
the top price for this class of feathers. The body feath-
ers should be packed in sacks for shipment. Packed in
this way, the freight rate is one and a half times first
class. If shipped in boxes or barrels, they take double
first-class rate. Quills should be laid straight in boxes or
bags for shipment. If they are stuffed carelessly in bags
they are broken to some extent. If good sacks are used
and care is taken to lay the quills in them as straight as
possible, they can be shipped in this way fairly satisfac-
torily, although they will not go through in as good shape
as when packed in boxes. Like the body feathers, when
shipped in barrels or boxes they take a double first-class
rate, while in bags they take one and a half times first
class.

Dressing on the Farm

For local trade, or in certain sections within easy ship-
ping distance of some of the larger markets and where
considerable numbers of turkeys are raised in a small
area, it is common practice to dress the turkeys on the
farm. This is done in sections of the New England and
Middle Atlantic states where the birds are either sold
direct to the consumer, to city dealers, or to buyers who
come into the locality. In Heuvelton and Lisbon, N. Y.,

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TURKEY RAISING

for example, there is held each year shortly before
Thanksgiving, a turkey day. On the day before this
event the farmers kill and dress their turkeys, using
the same methods as are employed in the packing plants
except that the birds are allowed to cool by hanging them
out over night, provided the weather is cool enough to
reduce their temperature to about 35 degrees. If the
weather is not cool enough for this purpose they are
put into ice water and cooled in this manner.

Care must be taken in cooling turkeys by hanging them
outdoors to see that the temperature is not so severe that
the turkeys will freeze on the outside before the body
heat has left the interior of the birds, as this will cause
them to spoil rather quickly. The turkeys to be killed
should not be fed on that day or the previous night, ex-
cept the little that may be necessary to entice them into
the barn or some other building to catch them. Feeding
before slaughter causes the crop to be distended with feed
and makes an unsightly carcass. On the next day the
farmers bring their dressed turkeys into the town by
wagon. A number of turkey buyers representing differ-
ent concerns are present and they bid for and buy the tur-
keys at the street curb.

In a general way it may be said that it is hazardous for
the farmer to attempt to dress and ship his turkeys to
market, since with small lots he does not have refrigerator
facilities and since he usually makes no effort to ice his
turkeys. If the weather happens to turn warm or if the
shipment is delayed, there is a grave chance of the birds

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MARKETING

arriving at market in bad condition. If the turkey grower
desires to dress and ship turkeys it is best to pack them in
a barrel, alternating each layer of turkeys with a layer of
ice. In this condition the turkeys have a much better
chance to come through in good shape.

It is sometimes advisable for the turkey grower when
taking advantage of an opportunity to retail his birds,
not only to kill and pluck them, but to draw them as well.
Whether or not this should be done will depend entirely
upon the trade which he has and the demands which are
made on him for this work. Usually the drawing which
is done by the grower consists simply in cutting around
the anus and in drawing the intestine out through the hole
thus made until the gizzard is reached when it is broken
off. It is seldom desirable to remove the other organs or
to attempt to remove the crop unless the crop is filled with
feed and as a result is likely to turn dark in color and
spoil the appearance of the bird.

Shipping Turkeys Alive

Turkeys are shipped alive either in small lots by ex-
press, where the distance from the farm to the market
is not great, or in large lots by freight where they can
be concentrated in carloads. Because of the fact that
turkeys shrink a good deal when shipped any great
distance alive, the turkeys are for the most part killed
and dressed before shipping. However, quite a good
many carloads of live turkeys are sent through. An-

119

TURKEY RAISING

nually just before Thanksgiving and also before Christ-
mas a train known as the Turkey Special is made up at
Morristown, Tenn., and rushed direct from there to
Jersey City as quickly as possible. This train usually
consists of a number of cars of live poultry, most of
which are turkeys, together with some cars of dressed
poultry. In shipping the turkeys, both the especially con-
structed live poultry transportation company cars and
ordinary stock cars are utilized.

The live poultry transportation cars are manufactured
for the purpose of shipping live fowls. These cars con-
sist of a series of cages built up on each side of the car
with an aisle between and with a feed room in the center.
Each car contains 128 cages. Since they are built for
chickens they are about 12 inches high and do not allow
the turkeys to stand erect unless the flooring between two
cages is taken out and this is not a usual practice. Each
cage will hold from 7 to 12 turkeys according to their
size and as a rule about 1,200 live turkeys can be loaded
in a car. The minimum weight for which the shipper
must pay in using one of these cars is 18,000 pounds and
it is difficult to load this weight of turkeys in a car.
When stock cars are used, ordinary wooden shipping
cages or coops are employed and are piled one on top of
another. These wooden coops are usually deeper than
the coops in the live poultry transportation cars with the
result that not as many coops can be put in nor as many
turkeys shipped in one of these cars. However, the birds

120

>•-

MARKETING

which are so shipped are not as crowded and for that rea-
son go through in a little better shape.

In the live poultry transportation cars an attendant
accompanies each car. It is the duty of this man to feed
and water the birds, to see that the car goes through as
promptly as possible, and that the birds are weighed cor-
rectly when they are unloaded. The cars are provided
with troughs for each coop and in this is fed a sloppy
mixture of crushed corn and water. When the weather
is cool, as it usually is at this time of the year, no other
water is given to the turkeys. About 12 hours before
the train is due to arrive at Jersey City the turkeys are
given all the whole corn that they will eat with the object
of cutting down the shrinkage as much as possible. How-
ever, during the journey the turkeys are much disturbed
and do not eat very well so that their shrinkage is high.

Shrinkage on a car of live turkeys will run as a rule
from 12 to i$% as compared with the shrinkage on a car
of chickens under the same conditions which runs from
9 to 10%. A few of the turkeys die during the trip or
are accidentally killed. However, the loss from this
source is not large, probably not amounting to more than
i%. The cost of shipping live turkeys from Tennessee
to New York City will run better than 5 cents a pound.
In addition to this cost of shipment 5% commission must
be deducted for handling the turkeys on the market.

When the cars of live turkeys arrive at the railroad
terminal in Jersey City the turkeys are unloaded and
weighed as soon as possible. The commission firm to

121

TURKEY RAISING

which the turkeys are sent has a man on hand who sees
to removing the birds, cooping them, and weighing them
up, the attendant who came with the car checking the
weights for the shipper. After weighing, the coops are
ferried across the Hudson River to New York and dis-
tributed by the commission firm among retailers through-
out the city, who dress and sell them to the consumers.
Some wholesale dealers, however, buy the turkeys them-
selves, dress them and then sell to the retailer.

Market Prices

The following are wholesale quotations for the dif-
ferent grades of turkeys on the New York market as
reported by the New York Produce Review under date
of November 24 and December 22, 1920:

November 24, 1920.

Spring, dry packed, boxes : Western, dry picked, hens and toms,
selected, per lb., 54@55<; southern, 53@54P; western and southern,
fair to good, 5O@52# ; old hens and toms, 50$.

Spring, dry packed, barrels: Maryland, dry picked, hens and
toms, selected, 6o@62#; poor to good, 45@58tf; culls, 35@4<>tf; old
hens, 5O@54^; old toms, 48(0)52$; Virginia, selected, dry picked,
53@56?; scalded, 51(0)54^; poor to good, 45@5otf; culls, 35@4O^J
Western, selected, 52(0)54^; poor to good, 45(0)50^; culls, 35@4otf;
Kentucky and Tennessee, selected, 5i@52#; Texas, selected, 5i@
53^; poor to good, 45@5otf; culls, 35@4otf; western and southern
old toms and old hens, 47@49^.

Spring, iced: Western, dry picked hens and toms, selected,
50(0)52^; poor to good, 42@48#; western, old toms and old hens,
4<5@48$ ; southern, hens and toms, selected, 48^ ; poor to good, 4i@
47#; culls, 35@400; Ohio and Michigan, scalded, selected, 5i@53#;
other western, scalded, selected, 48@5i^; Virginia, Tennessee and
Kentucky, scalded, selected, 46(^48^; poor to good, 42@45#; culls»

122

MARKETING

December 22, 1920.

Spring, dry packed, boxes : Western, dry picked, hens and toms,
selected, per lb., 56@s8$ ; southern, 55@57# ; western and southern,
fair to good, 50(0)54^ ; old hens, 49@50# ; old toms, 46@48tf.

Spring, dry packed, barrels : Maryland, hens and small to
medium toms, selected, 6i@6^ ; large toms, 6o@6itf; fair to good,
55@6otf; Maryland, old hens, S°@52^'> old toms, 48(5)50^; Virginia
and West Virginia, selected, 56@s8tf ; fair to good, 5O@53# ; Western,
selected, 55@57#; fair to good, 5O@54#; poor, 44(0)48?; Kentucky
and Tennessee, selected, 52@54^; Texas, selected, 52@S4^; fair to
good, 47@5itf ; poor, 43(0)46^; culls, 3O@4O?; Western and southern,
old hens, 48@5oV ; old toms, 45@48tf.

Spring, iced: Western, dry picked hens and toms, selected,
5o@55^; poor to good, 44@48tf; Southern, hens and toms, selected,
4^@53^ ; poor to good, 42@46# ; culls,

123

CHAPTER VII
Insect Pests, Diseases and Predatory Animals

The principal difficulties experienced by turkey raisers
in maturing their stock aside from those occasioned by
faulty management are insect pests, diseases and pred-
atory animals. Of course suitable management will
also prevent or greatly reduce the losses vhich would
otherwise be occasioned from these sources.

Lice

There are four different species of lice which occur
quite commonly on turkeys in the United States. Two of
these seem to be native to the turkey itself and it seems
probable that they occur on turkeys in the wild state. The
first is the head louse which is so extremely injurious to
young poults if allowed to get a start. The second is an-
other form of turkey louse which occurs through the
feathers in various parts of the body. It is especially
likely to be prevalent on the neck and the breast. In addi-
tion to this there are two other species of lice which are
not native to the turkey but which occur where the tur-
keys are or haVe been associated with chickens. The first
of these is the common body louse of chickens, which may
occur in considerable numbers on the turkeys. Usually,

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DISEASES AND PREDATORY ANIMALS

however, the body lice are not present in sufficient num-
bers to cause any particularly injurious effect to the ma-
ture fowls but they do cause considerable irritation and
are injurious to the young turkeys. The shaft louse of
chickens has also been found on turkeys but does not
seem to be very prevalent.

Where the young poults become badly infested with
lice of any kind they usually grow weaker and weaker
until they finally die. Due to lack of attention to keeping
down lice this is one of the most important causes of
high mortality in young turkeys. Head lice are the most
serious and cause most of the trouble. If the young tur-
keys are examined, head lice if present will be found on
the top of the head above and in front of the eyes and
under the throat where they Surrow into the skin. In
addition to the head lice small white lice are frequently
found in large numbers along the wing bar in the hollows
or creases between the quills of the flight feathers. Some-
times these places will be found to be literally alive with
these lice. They are also found occasionally below the
vent.

The first principle to be observed in combating lice is
to prevent their occurrence insofar as possible. When
hen turkeys are set they should be dusted -with some good
insect powder before being put on the nest and several
times during the period of incubation. If this is thor-
oughly done they will be freed of lice and no difficulty will
be encountered with the poults on this account. If one
neglects to dust the hens during the time they are sitting

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TURKEY RAISING

or if the job is not well done, the poults must be carefully
examined soon after they are hatched and every few
days thereafter. Examine most carefully the head and
throat in the sections where the head lice are apt to occur
and if any of these pests are found, the places where they
occur must be carefully greased with lard or some similar
grease. The lard will kill the lice but care must be taken
to see that not too much is used as it might have a fatal
effect on the poults themselves. Do not be content with
greasing the poults once and expect to get rid of the head
lice in that way but examine them several times at inter-
vals of a few days so that if other lice are found they can
be greased again. Greasing the wing bar of each poult
is also frequently practiced where lice are found to occur
at that point. Do not dust young poults freely with
ordinary insect powder as it may prove harmful to them,
especially in the way of causing sore eyes. Sodium fluor-
ide applied according to the directions given below may
be safely used.

For any kind of lice which occur on turkeys, sodium
fluoride will be found to be a most effective treatment.
Where sodium fluoride is used on chickens it is recom-
mended that it be used either in the form of a powder or
else as a dip. For turkeys, however, dipping is not recom-
mended. Sodium fluoride is exceedingly poisonous to all
species of lice killing both the young and the adults and
the young which emerge from the eggs which were pres-
ent at the time of treatment. This chemical is not very
well known and is not very widely kept in drug stores.

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DISEASES AND PREDATORY ANIMALS

It can, however, be obtained from wholesale druggists in
the larger cities and other druggists can secure it on de-
mand. It comes in two forms known as the commercial
sodium fluoride and as the chemically pure sodium fluor-
ide. The commercial is recommended for use inasmuch
as it is in a more finely powdered form, is cheaper in price
and will do the work very well. Commercial sodium
fluoride should be procurable from druggists at a retail
price between 30 and 60 cents a pound. This material
keeps very well if placed in stoppered bottles or in closely
covered cans.

Where the turkeys are to be dusted small amounts of
the sodium fluoride should be placed around on different
parts of the fowls to be treated. In treating the adult
turkeys one should have an assistant to hold the bird
while the sodium fluoride is applied. It is well to place
the bird on a table where the assistant can hold it by the
legs and wings. Place a small pinch of the sodium fluor-
ide among the feathers next to the skin in the following
sections : one pinch on the head, one on the neck, two on
the back, one on the breast, one below the vent, one on the
tail, one on either thigh and one scattered on the upper
side of each wing when spread and one scattered on the
under side. The action of the chemical is comparatively
slow. If the turkeys are examined two or three days
after they have been treated it is possible that some lice
will still be found but in a few days more all of them
should have disappeared. In using the material no fear
need be felt that it will produce any bad effects on the

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TURKEY RAISING

turkeys as it does not seem to cause a skin irritation or to
injure the feathers. Sometimes after dusting, the fowls
may sneeze and breathe hard but this soon wears off.
Care should be taken to see that the sodium fluoride is not
left around where the fowls could get it in their food or
water, as it is poisonous.

Care should also be taken by the person using the
sodium fluoride to prevent it from getting and staying
on the hands or body for any length of time as it may
have an irritating or burning effect on the skin. It is for
this reason that it is better to put the fowls to be treated
on a table rather than to hold them on the lap. Sodium
fluoride may be used on young turkeys as well as on the
mature fowls without danger of bad results. In using it
on the young fowls, however, it is best that it be used in
the morning instead of just before they go to roost.
Where the mother turkey has been properly dusted it is
unnecessary to use more than a couple of pinches on each
poult, one scattered on the neck and top of the head and
throat and the other on the back and wings and below
the vent.

In addition to sodium fluoride any good commercial in-
sect powder can be used with good results. A home-made
powder of this sort which is effective is composed of 3
parts gasoline, i part crude carbolic acid, into which plas-
ter of paris is stirred until it blots up all the liquid and
forms a dry powder. The powder should be kept in a
tight can or bottle in order to preserve its strength.

It is very easy for one who is not used to looking for

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DISEASES AND PREDATORY ANIMALS

lice on young turkeys to overlook these pests even after
what they consider careful examination. For this reason
if one's turkeys are droopy and not doing well and still
the owner is convinced that there are no lice on them,
further examination for this purpose should be made.
The following experiment may be tried on little turkeys
under those conditions. Submerge the little turkey in
warm water which has been heated to about body tem-
perature. Hold the little bird there with just its bill
sticking out so that it can breathe, until the entire plumage
is thoroughly wet, then wrap it in a white cloth which has
been nicely warmed and hold the bird this way for several
minutes. Then take the cloth off and notice whether there
are any lice on it. Usually this experiment will result in
finding a large number of lice on the cloth even when the
turkey was supposed to be absolutely free from them.

Stick-Tight Fleas or Chiggers. — In addition to the lice
which trouble turkeys there is also more or less difficulty
in parts of the South from the stick-tight fleas or chiggers,
which affect both chickens and turkeys. These fleas breed
and abound in dry sandy soil, particularly in sheltered
places out of the rain under buildings. They attach
themselves to the fowl especially on the uncovered head
parts where they suck the blood and cause intense irrita-
tion. The effort should be made to keep the turkeys as
free from stick-tight fleas as possible by not allowing
them to go under buildings or other sheltered places
where the soil is not rained upon but is dry and sandy.
Not as much difficulty is likely to be experienced with

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TURKEY RAISING

stick-tight fleas on turkeys as on fowls since the turkeys
are inclined to range more and to stay away from the farm
buildings to a greater extent. Where stick tight fleas
are troublesome, however, various ointments sold for
this purpose are effective in killing them. These oint-
ments must of course be rubbed on the parts to which
the fleas are attached. Ordinary salt fat such as ham fat
or salt pork fat rubbed on the fleas is also effective in
ridding the turkeys of them.

Diseases

While turkeys do not seem to be subject to a great
number of diseases still, on account of their nature and
habits, serious difficulty may be experienced with disease
unless the fowls are given the right kind of treatment
and are allowed to range almost at will. They do not
seem to be able to withstand the more restricted condi-
tions of domestication as can the ordinary domestic fowl.
When the range is ample, however, the diseases are not
so common nor do they prove particularly troublesome
provided the stock from which the birds are bred is
strong and vigorous and the management and care given
them are correct. It may be said that while diseases, par-
ticularly blackhead, have been given credit for being the
reason for turkey raising declining to such an extent as
it has in many portions of the country, as a matter of
fact it is not the principal reason for people discontinuing
the business of turkey raising. The real reason lies

DISEASES AND PREDATORY ANIMALS

rather in the increased population of the countryside with
the result that it becomes more difficult to keep the turkeys
from ranging over the neighbors' farms. But while the
diseases to which turkeys are subject will not prevent their
being raised successfully, it is true that the losses from
disease have been serious particularly in certain sections.
Diseases are most common where turkeys have been
raised in considerable numbers for the longest period.

Getieral Disease Preventive Measures. — In raising tur-
keys as in raising any other kind of domestic poultry
the most important consideration insofar as disease is
concerned is to use every reasonable precaution to pre-
vent its occurrence. In order to do this it is necessary
that the turkey grower be a close observer and that he
watch his birds carefully in order to discover the least
sign of sickness. Often if diseases are discovered just
as they begin they are easily cured and in any case pre-
vention of their spread is a much simpler matter. When-
ever new stock is purchased it is well to isolate it for a
few days before letting it run with the home flock. This
will give an opportunity to observe the birds and see
whether or not they are in a good healthy condition. The
turkey flock should be kept separate insofar as possible
from the chickens. It is easy for turkeys to pick up
diseases from the chickens and often diseases which are
not so serious with the chickens may prove to be very
troublesome with the turkeys. For this reason it is well
to keep the fowls ranging away from the farm buildings

TURKEY RAISING

as much as possible, encouraging them during the summer
and fall to come home only at night to roost.

If any birds become seriously sick it will not as a rule
pay to attempt treatment. Not only is treatment likely
to be futile but keeping a very sick bird around is a men-
ace in that it may lead to a spread of the disease through
the flock. Even birds which are not seriously sick and
which it is desired to treat should be separated from the
main flock for this purpose. With seriously sick birds it
is, therefore, best to kill them as soon as discovered. The
bodies of such birds should be either burned or else
buried deeply so that there will be no chance of the
spread of the infection from this source.

Where turkeys are housed during the severe winter
weather in the North, it is necessary to keep the house
in a very clean sanitary condition if the turkeys are to
remain in the best of health. The droppings should be
kept well cleaned out and it is also desirable to spray the
house occasionally with some disinfectant. During the
summer also it is desirable to clean up the droppings fre-
quently from under the outdoor roosting places so that a
large accumulation of this material will not take place.
If there are any small areas of ground near the house used
by the turkeys a great deal and if there is any reason to
suspect that these places may be sources of infection to
the flock it is well to lime this ground and then turn it
over.

Precaution should be taken in feeding young turkeys
to see that the feed is thrown on clean ground or on

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DISEASES AND PREDATORY ANIMALS

clean board surfaces or other feeding places. Surplus
feed should not be allowed to lie around where it will
sour and spoil, as such material is very bad for turkeys.
It is likewise desirable both in feeding young and old
birds not to continue to feed on the same spot of ground
indefinitely but to change occasionally to fresh places.
Many turkey breeders feel that the feeding of sour milk
as a drink both to the young turkeys and to the mature
stock is a most valuable disease preventive. In case
there are indications of any disease developing it is a
good precautionary measure to place a disinfectant in the
drinking water where this is provided for the birds in
fountains or other receptacles. Potassium permanganate
is a good disinfectant to use, putting enough in the water
to give it a deep purple color.

Blackhead. — Undoubtedly, the prevalence of blackhead
throughout the New England and Middle Atlantic states
has been a great factor in reducing the number of turkeys
raised there to an almost negligible quantity, although
turkey raising in former years was quite an important
industry.

An example may be cited of the condition which oc-
curred in St. Lawrence County, N. Y., a famous turkey
producing section, during the late summer and early fall
of 1914. At this time an epidemic of blackhead broke
out here which was more serious than had ever before
been experienced in that section. How serious this was
is well shown by a comparison of the number of turkeys
hatched and the number raised from the records of sev-

133

TURKEY RAISING

eral turkey raisers in and about Heuvelton and Lisbon,
N. Y.

No. Turkeys Hatched No. Turkeys Raised

200 25

168 126

155 60

140 40

130 106

"5 25

loo 30

50 10

50 40

47 19

It will be seen that from all of these flocks there was
an average of 41.6% of the turkeys raised out of those
hatched. A careful examination of the different flock
records, however, shows that in spite of this serious epi-
demic of blackhead, certain turkey growers were able to
raise a very much larger proportion of turkeys hatched
than the average. This goes to show that with proper
management turkeys can be successfully raised even
though disease may be a serious bar to those who do not
understand the needs and nature of the fowls. In con-
nection with the epidemic cited it might be stated that
most of the turkeys died when from two to three months
old and showed the characteristic blackhead lesions when
opened up and examined. The farmers in the section did

134

DISEASES AND PREDATORY ANIMALS

not know what disease caused the turkeys to die and
called it various names such as cholera, white cholera,
yellow cholera, scours, white diarrhea and yellow diarrhea.

Of all the diseases to -which turkeys are subject, black-
head is undoubtedly the most serious and has had the
most detrimental effect on the turkey raising industry. It
is an infectious disease which occurs most commonly and
with most disastrous results through New England, the
Middle Atlantic States and parts of the Middle West. It
also occurs occasionally in parts of the South and on the
Pacific Coast. Where turkeys are permitted by virtue of
the climate and an abundance of range to have their
liberty and to forage for most of their feed from the time
they are hatched, this disease is far less frequent in oc-
currence and disastrous in effect. In the main it affects
young turkeys at any time between the ages of six weeks
and four months. It occasionally affects mature turkeys
as well but not often. Blackhead is an unfortunate name
for the disease since it leads the turkey raiser to expect
the head to turn black or dark. While this often happens
it does not always do so and even where it does, the dark
color of the head may be a symptom of some other ail-
ment instead of blackhead. The symptoms in a general
way are indicated by a steady weakening of the bird, a
refusal to eat and a considerable thirst. Death ordinarily
occurs anywhere from a few days up to two or three
weeks after the disease is first noticed. Quite often,
however, the progress of the disease is slower than this.

Diarrhea accompanies the disease and the color of the

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TURKEY RAISING

droppings is often a bright yellow but may vary from
white to brown. It is on opening up the body of a dead
turkey that one is able to find the conditions which are
characteristic of the disease. This is evidenced by one or
both of the caeca or "blind guts" being enlarged and
plugged full of a cheesy material. In addition, the liver is
likely to be more or less enlarged and to show yellowish
or yellowish green spots on its surface.

There is a considerable difference of opinion as to
what may be the cause of blackhead. In the opinion of
some turkey raisers and others who have studied this
matter it is simply the fact that the turkey is not easily
adapted to domestication and that unless the greatest care
is taken in selecting strong healthy breeding stock and
giving the birds proper management and allowing them
free range, they are likely to develop this diseased condi-
tion. Another theory lays the cause of the disease to a
parasitic protozoan called an amoeba which exists in the
digestive tract of the bird and is discharged from the body
with the excrement, in this way infecting other birds by
being taken into the body with the food or drink. A
third theory holds that the disease is caused by another
kind of protozoan organism known as flagellates. These
occur in the intestines of practically all turkeys but give
rise to the trouble which is evidenced as blackhead only
when the circumstances under which the turkeys live are
unfavorable and lead to digestive conditions in the intes-
tines such that the flagellates find conditions suitable for
their multiplication. Many of them then penetrate the

136

DISEASES AND PREDATORY ANIMALS

lining of the caeca and from there are carried to the liver,
establishing a diseased condition in both places. Regard-
less of what may be the specific cause of the disease there
seems to be quite a close agreement of opinion that prac-
tically all turkeys in the sections where the disease is
prevalent are subject to the infection and that the ques-
tion of whether or not the disease develops at all or
whether it reaches serious proportions is largely a matter
of management.

There really is no treatment for blackhead which will
give definite and satisfactory results. It will scarcely ever
pay to attempt to treat sick birds since they are always a
menace to the rest of the flock, as they are likely to cause
further spread of the disease, and if they are seriously
sick it is best to take no chances but to kill them and bury
them deeply or burn them. Precautions can also be
taken in keeping the droppings cleaned out from the
roosting place and also in spreading lime on the soil in
such places as the turkeys frequent to a great extent. It
is also well to use some form of disinfectant in the drink-
ing water such as potassium permanganate to the extent
of about as much as can be placed on a dime to each gallon
of water.

Overfeeding seems to predispose the birds to the dis-
ease and if the beginnings of any trouble are noted it will
be well to cut down the feed. Many turkey raisers feel
that the feeding of sour milk or buttermilk is advantage-
ous in keeping the turkeys in good condition and in re-
ducing the likelihood of blackhead. Another remedy

137

TURKEY RAISING

which is often used consists of sulphur 5 grains, sulphate
of iron i grain; or benzonaphthol i grain, salicylate of
bismuth i grain ; or sulphate of iron I grain, salicylate of
soda i grain. Where either of these remedies are used
they are preceded by a dose of epsom salts from 10 to 35
grains for a bird; or a dose of castor oil of from one-half
to 3 teaspoonfuls, depending on the size of the bird. One-
third teaspoonful of catechu to the gallon of drinking
water is also said to have a beneficial effect. Another
blackhead remedy advocated by a turkey grower consists
of epsom salts in the drinking water in the proportion of
one pint of saturated solution of the salts to five gallons
of water. This is given for one day and is followed on
the next day with four teaspoonfuls of muriatic acid to
each gallon of drinking water.

There has recently been announced, by Dr. H. M.
Wegeforth, San Diego, Calif., an ipecac treatment for
blackhead which is claimed to be both a preventive and
curative. For sick birds, fluid extract of ipecac is ad-
ministered in the amount of 10 drops three times a day
for 3 days for each bird. For the next three days, the
dose is 10 drops twice a day and for the next 3 days
10 drops once a day. This treatment it is claimed cured
birds with well developed cases of blackhead.

As a preventive treatment, the ipecac was administered
in powdered form mixed with a mash feed giving one
teaspoonful twice a week for each 20 turkeys, making no
difference in the dosage for size or age of the birds. This

138

DISEASES AND PREDATORY ANIMALS

treatment it is claimed will keep the turkeys from devel-
oping the disease.

At the present time the ipecac treatment of turkeys
for blackhead has not been sufficiently used and under
sufficient conditions and sections to determine its real
effectiveness. When blackhead is troublesome its use in
an experimental way is advised.

Chicken-pox or Sore Head. — Ordinary chicken-pox or
sore head, particularly in the South, not infrequently
troubles turkeys just as it does fowls. It is evidenced by
the same nodules or scabby eruptions about the head.
Where this disease appears in the flock it is likely to
spread rapidly from bird to bird. For this reason if a
bird is found to be infected it should be removed from the
flock and kept separate. The scabs which form may be
soaked off by bathing them with warm water when the
surfaces below should be washed with an antiseptic such
as a 2% solution of carbolic acid or a solution of potas-
sium permanganate, or the sore, after the scab is re-
moved, may be touched with a tincture of iodine. A
saturated solution of borax is also said to give good
results in the treatment of this disease.

Roup. — Next to blackhead roup is probably more trou-
blesome than any other disease of turkeys. It is particu-
larly likely to occur when the birds are exposed to draft
or to dampness. It begins like an ordinary cold but as it
develops into roup there will be a swelling which occurs
about the eyes, usually below, and because of which the
disease is often termed "swell head." Roup seems to be

139

TURKEY RAISING

highly contagious and for this reason affected birds should
be isolated from the flock. If the disease is very bad the
bird should be killed rather than run the risk of spread-
ing the disease, but if the bird is lightly affected the nos-
trils and mouth can be -washed out with some disinfectant
such as a solution of potassium permanganate. Where a
serious swelling is formed this should be lanced and the
puss or material which it contains squeezed out, after
which the sore should be washed out with an antiseptic.

Limberneck. — As in chickens so in turkeys limberneck
sometimes occurs. It is characterized by loss of the use
of the muscles of the neck, causing the head to hang
down. It is commonly supposed that limberneck is a
paralysis caused by intestinal poison. This may be due
to eating decayed meat or unsound food of some kind or
in some cases to digestive disturbances or intestinal
worms. The usual treatment for this difficulty consists
of giving the affected birds a tablespoon ful of castor oil.
It is also well to add 10 to 15 drops of turpentine to the
oil

Crop-bound. — In turkeys a crop-bound condition or
impaction of the crop sometimes occurs. This is usually
caused by the fowls eating feathers or some other indi-
gestible material such as straw or stiff grasses which pre-
vents the food from passing out of the crop and causes
the crop to become full and hard. As a treatment give
the bird a teaspoonful of sweet oil. After this has
reached the crop, the contents can be worked about with
the fingers until the oil is well mixed through and when

140

DISEASES AND PREDATORY ANIMALS

loosened up in this way the material in the crop can usu-
ally be forced out through the mouth by holding the bird
with its head down. In case it is not possible to clear up
the difficulty in this way, the crop can be opened by cut-
ting through the skin and through the wall of the crop
itself. In making the incision pull the outside skin to one
side so that when it is allowed to slip back to its normal
position after the cut is made, the incision in the crop
will be covered by the outside skin. The material can
then be taken out with the handle of a spoon or some
similar instrument, being sure that the obstructing sub-
stance is removed. The crop is then sewed up again, pre-
caution being taken to sew up the walls of the crop and
the skin separately.

Worms. — Turkeys are quite subject to intestinal or
round worms. They occur both in young poults and in
the adult fowls. These are slender, white, threadlike
worms which may be present at times in considerable
quantities. In order to prevent trouble from this cause
it is well to worm the breeding stock in the spring before
the ovaries begin to function and laying starts. It should
be done at this time in order not to interfere with the lay-
ing. Give each turkey a dose of sweet oil to which a few
drops of chenopodium or American wormseed oil has
been added. Nearly a half cup of this mixture can be
given as a dose for a large bird, and in this quantity there
should not be over three or four drops of wormseed oil.
The young turkeys as well as the adults are apt to be
greatly troubled by worms. In many cases it may prove

141

TURKEY RAISING

to be a valuable precaution to treat them for worms from
the start. For this purpose use a mixture composed of
two tablespoon fuls of turpentine to a pint of sweet oil.
This can be administered to the young poults with a
medicine dropper giving them three or four drops to
start with and gradually increasing the dose until a whole
medicine dropper is used as the poults grow larger.

Gapes. — Gapes are not as troublesome to turkeys as
they are to chickens. This is probably largely due to the
fact that the turkeys range away from the buildings to a
greater degree and are not so likely to pick up the infec-
tion. Occasionally, however, gapes do cause trouble and
may even be so serious as to make it difficult to raise
turkeys. The disease, gapes, is so called from the char-
acteristic gaping action of the affected chick or turkey.
The disease is due to small forked worms which attach
themselves to the lining of the windpipe, causing irrita-
tion, and if present in sufficient numbers may even make
breathing difficult and result in the weakening and even-
tual death of the young bird. Gapes are most apparent
and most seriously affect young fowls between the ages of
10 days and four weeks. As a rule the larger, stronger,
more vigorous youngsters are not seriously affected. The
young worms or the eggs from which they come are
picked up from the infested soil, and this infection will
last from one year to another. The logical and self-evi-
dent action to take in case gapes are troublesome is to
place the turkey hens with their broods far enough away
from the house so that they will be on land which has not

143

f
DISEASES AND PREDATORY ANIMALS

been previously ranged over to any extent by chickens.
If this action is taken at the start there will be little if
any trouble from gapes.

In the case of birds which are affected it is often pos-
sible to save them by treating the individuals. This is
best done by looping a horsehair, dipping it in turpentine,
and running it down the windpipe of the little turkey. Be
sure that the horsehair is introduced into the windpipe
and not down the throat itself. After the hair has been
run down the windpipe turn it about several times and
then pull it out. This action should be repeated several
times and will result in loosening the hold of many of the
worms which are attached to the walls of the windpipe.
Some of them may be drawn out by the looped hair, but
if not those which are loosened will be coughed up by the
turkey.

Bumblefoot. — Occasionally turkeys are troubled with
bumble foot, which is a swollen or corn-like condition on
the bottom of the feet. It is due to an injury to the feet
usually caused by the birds jumping down from their
roosts or other elevations to a hard floor. It may become
so bad as to cause considerable pain and lameness. The
best treatment is to lance the swelling with a sharp knife,
squeezing out the puss and the core which will be found.
The wound should then be washed thoroughly with a dis-
infectant and greased liberally with carbolated vaseline.

Diarrhea or Bowel Trouble. — Diarrhea is a common
ailment of turkeys, both young and mature. It may be
the symptom of some disease, or it may be due to over-

TURKEY RAISING

feeding or to faulty feeding. In young turkeys it is fre-
quently due to their being chilled. When diarrhea ap-
pears immediate effort should be made to ascertain its
cause and of course to correct the conditions which are
responsible. In the case of young turkeys, make sure that
they are not being chilled and that they are not overfed
or that they do not have access to sour or spoiled feed.
In mature birds, likewise, make sure that they are not get-
ting spoiled feed or feed which disagrees with them such
as too much new corn. Boiled rice fed to young turkeys
is claimed by many turkey growers to have a corrective
effect in case of diarrhea. Castor oil may be given to
older fowls in a dose of from one to three teaspoonfuls,
depending on the size of the bird.

Predatory Animals

Marauding or predatory animals frequently cause seri-
ous losses of turkey eggs from the nest where the hen
is sitting, of young turkeys and even of mature stock.
Skunks, oppossums, rats, crows and dogs are the greatest
destroyers of turkey eggs. Mink, raccoons, coyotes,
wolves, foxes, cats and certain large snakes are also egg
eaters. The best way to prevent loss from this source
is to locate all turkey nests and remove the eggs as
they are laid, leaving only a nest egg or two to encourage
the hen to keep on laying them. When the hen is set
she should be given protection from animals by being
placed under a coop so constructed as to protect her

144

DISEASES AND PREDATORY ANIMALS

properly. A little strychnine dropped in an egg and
left in a turkey nest over night will often serve to kill the
animals which come to rob the nest. Where a turkey hen
is disturbed by any of these pests she often changes her
nest to some other locality.

In addition to the losses from eggs being destroyed,
young poults are sometimes caught and killed by hawks
and by most of the animals mentioned above. Night
losses can be prevented by driving the brood into a coop
where they can be closed up for the night so that animals
cannot get at them. This must be continued until the tur-
keys are old enough to roost up out of danger. In certain
sections of the country where coyotes, wolves or foxes
are plentiful, mature stock may be lost from this source.
About the only remedy is to attempt to free the range
from the animals which cause the loss and to provide
roosts which are high enough to place the birds out of the
reach of these four-footed thieves.

145

INDEX

PAGE

Age of Breeders 44

Distinguishing 46

Alternating Males 50

American Standard of Perfection 17

Artificial Brooding 85

Incubation 75

Barrels for Packing 113

Blackhead 133

Black Turkeys 17

Breeding of 30

Blue or Lavender 31

Bourbon Red 17

Breeding of . 32

Boxes for packing turkeys 114

Breeders, Age of 44

Feeding of 54

Prices of 12

Purchasing 48

Selecting 20, 42, 106

Shipping 36

Size of 18

Breeding and Laying Season 58

Stock, Management of Turkey 41

Yards 50

Bronze Turkey 17

Breeding of 25

Brood Coop for Hen and Poults 79

Broodiness, Breaking up 61

Brooding by Artificial Means 85

Young Stock 78

Location of 80, 81

Bumblefoot 143

Caponizing 107

Catching and Handling 35

Chickenpox or Sorehead 139

Chiggers 129

147

INDEX

>~. . PAGE

Clipping wings ..................... e2

Cocks, Adult ................................... V.V.* .' 17

Yearling ............................................ ...... 17

Confinement, keeping turkeys in .................. .*. .'.*. . ' ' * '. '„ n

Fattening in ...................................... ........ 106

Coop for Shipping ............................ * ...... ..... .37, 108

Cost of Raising ................................... ........ ' 10

Crop Bound ....................................... ......... 140

Crossing ............................................ ...... .23, 24

Curing Feathers ............................................ n6

Defects in Breeding— See Variety Concerned

Description — See Variety Concerned

Diarrhea ....................................... 84, 135, 143

Diseases of Turkeys ......................................... 130

Distinguishing Sex ................................... '.'.'.'.'.'. 96

Domestic Turkey ........................ ................... jg

Dressing Turkeys ................................... * ____ '.'no, 117

Dry Picking ................................................ no

Dusting for Lice ................................. .... ....... 74

Eastern Wild Turkey .................................. 2

Egg, Size of ................................................ 77

Eggs, number in litter ...................................... 8

Car

re of, for hatching ...... ................................. 65

Incubation of ............................................. 67

Number to set ............................................ 69

Eggs for hatching— Packing and Shipping .................... 38

Enemies of Turkeys ........................ . . . . ............ 144

Extent of Industry .......................................... 5

Fattening Turkeys .............. ............................ 104

In Confinement ........................................... 106

Feathers, Turkey ........................................... 115

Prices of ................................................. 1 16

Feathering of Poults ..... . . ....................... , .......... 94

Feed for in Transit ......................................... 37

Feeding for Market ......................................... 105

the Breeders ....................................... 54

" Sitting Hens ....................................... 73

" Poults .............................................. 87

Fences ..................................................... 51

Fleas — Sticktight ...................................... L. ., ____ 129

Florida Wild Turkey ........................................ 2

Gapes ............................ .................. t.;.. ...... 142

Grading up the Flock ....................................... 42

148

INDEX

PAGE

Hatching Eggs, Care of 65

" Packing and Shipping 38

Methods of 68

with Chicken Hens 74

Head Lice 124, 126

Honduras or Ocellated Turkey 3

Houses 56, 57

Inbreeding 43

Incubation 67

Artificial 75

Period of 67

Injury — Preventing to Hens 47

Insect Destroyers, Turkeys, as 10

Judging Turkeys ., 39

Killing and Dressing no, 117

Laying Season 58

Lice 74, 124

On Poults 92

Limberneck 140

Line Breeding 44

Location of Brood Coop 80, 81

Management of Breeders 41

Management of Growing Turkeys 98

Markets and Market Demands 103

Market Prices for Turkeys 122

Market Turkeys, Size of 102

Marketing Turkeys 102

Time of 102

Marking and Pedigreeing Turkeys 93

Mating — General Considerations 20

Merriam's or Mexican Turkey 2

Mexican or Merriam's Turkey 2

Mongrels vs. Purebred 42

Narragansett Turkey 17

Breeding of 28

Natural Incubation 72

Nest for Sitting Hen 70

Nests — Locating Stolen 61

Constructing >... 64

Number of Hens to Male 49

149

INDEX

PAGE

Ocellated or Honduras Turkey ...., 3

Opportunities for Turkey Raising 7

Origin of Turkeys I

Of Name Turkey 4

Packing Dressed Turkeys 113

Paddles or Shingles 52

Pedigreeing Turkeys 93

Poults 17

Protection for 79

Preparing Turkeys for Show 33

Prices 13-15

Of Breeders 16

Production, Decrease in 6

Profit in Turkeys 9

Purchasing Breeders 41, 48

Purebred vs. Mongrels 42

Range , 87

Red — Shooting the 96

Requirements for Turkey Raising 8

Rio Grand Wild Turkey ,..., 2

Roosts 98

Roup ., 139

Selecting Breeders ....,.., 20, 41, 48

Time of 48

Selling Turkeys Alive 108

Setting the Hen 72

Sex, Distinguishing , 96

Sitting Hen, Nest for 70

Management of 72

Sheds 56, 57

Shelter for Breeders 56

Shipping Market Turkeys Alive 119

Shipping Show Birds and Breeding Stock 36

Coop T 37

Shooting the Red 96

Show — Preparing Turkeys for 33

Shipping to 36

Size 18

of Breeders 18, 45

of Eggs 77

of Market Turkeys 102

Slate Turkey 17

Breeding of 31

Sodium Fluoride for Lice 126

150

INDEX

PAGE

Sorehead r.T. ... . 139

Sports — Example of 30

Standard Varieties of 17

Standard Weights of 18

Stick Tight Fleas or Chiggers 129

Stolen Nests — Locating 61

Testing Eggs During Incubation 67

Throwing the Red 96

Toe Punching 93

Transportation Cars 120

Varieties of Wild Turkeys :., 2

Of Domestic 17

Popularity of 19

Weight of Market Turkeys 102

Weight of Turkey Eggs 77

Weights— Standard 18

Wild Turkey 18

White Holland 17

As Egg Producers 20

Breeding of 29

Wild Turkey ,...,. ... 2

Breeding 23

Wings — Clipping of 52

Woman — Turkey Raising as a Business for Farm 9

Worms 14!

Yards — Breeding 50

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